<= b 7 Se a im £7 a) Aas Ads ce A ) ’ ie Vig vw y J 4 ee ea % ies ¢ ge ayy) teu swe } ‘i A t pA) HNN nated Ki AN if iy Mi ‘Ch eval Nat! eutey i iy TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. ee — oo VOLUME IIII., 1891-92. — SS TS OO TORONTO: PRINTED FOR THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, BY THE COPP, CLARK COMPANY, LTD., COLBORNE ST. 1893. i) 7 r ¥ Pyke i ONY. Academy — (Of Sciences OFFICERS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE 1091-1892. President : Bice-President : ARTHUR HARVEY, Esa. JAMES H. PEARCE, Esq Secretary — -— -— - - ALAN MACDOUGALL, M. Inst. C.E., F.R.S.E. Uteasurer — = —= — — ° JAMES BAIN, Jr., Eso. aibtaaae 9 = = = — 9 DR. KEYS, aes Curator St) ee DAVID BOVE Pr Bs Editor = Se es GHORGE KENNEDYOMsA:. LID: HMembers of Council : : A. B. MACALLMM, M.B., Ph.D. W. H. ELLIS, M.A., M.B. B. E. WALKER, Esq. C. CARPMAEL, M A., F.R.S.C. WILLIAM BRODIE. Esa. CHARLES W. ARMSTRONG, Es@., Secretary of the Biological Section. W. H. MERRITT, F.G.S., Chairman of the Geological and Mining Section. J. C. HAMILTON, LL.B., Chairman of the Historical Section. Assistant Secretary and Dibrarian : R. W. YOUNG, M.A. G6476 CONTENTS. PAGE. CORTCE TS ol SOLED eee eeu Parner eae re eit dat's “scotehe: Weve seit stege ef vial Miele alos oh woke 'e ia ill ppocwl Gonoral, Meobing ci yo ett.le sfeiede: e's hal he esp RAP I a TRANSACTIONS THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, SESSION 1891-92. SPECIAL GENERAL MEETING. Special General Meeting, 19th June, 1891, the President in the chair, to consider plans for the enlargement of the building, or the acquisition of a new site and other proposals connected with the extension or change of the buildings and work of the Institute. After discussion of various proposals the following resolution was car- ried :—That it be an instruction to refer the question of the alterations, or the selection of another site, to the Council to report to the Institute at a future meeting. SUMMER SESSION AT PENETANGUISHENE. First Meeting, 25th September, 1891, at 15.30 o’clock, in the Pavilion of “The Penetanguishene,” E. A. Meredith, LL.D., in the chair. Mr. A. F. Hunter, B.A., read a paper on “ Military and Naval Exploits on the Nottawasaga during the War of 1812.” Towards the end of the year 1813 the Americans began to make preparations for the re-capture of Michilimackinac, which had been taken from them the year before. A relief expedition left Kingston in Febru- ary, 1814, for that northern post, and halted on the Nottawasaga River. -lere they constructed batteaux for their transportation across Georgian Bay, and a few weeks later a blockhouse was erected near the mouth of the river. This blockhouse was attacked by American boats on August 14th, 1814, and destroyed, as well as the Northwest Company’s schooner Nancy, which was lying in the river at that place Some extracts from books, now become rare, were given to throw light upon the incidents of that skirmish, besides two accounts from pioneers of the county. It was stated in answer to enquiries that ‘‘ Michilimackinac’”’ meant “Great Turtle” and was shortened to “ Mackinac ” by the French, that 2 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. TT: Gloucester Bay was on the other side of Tiny peninsula from Matchedash Bay, that the whole bay was called Gloucester Bay by Governor Simcoe in 1793, and that the route to Drummond Island was used till 1841. Mr. A. C. Osborne read a paper on “ The Land of the Wyandots.” Mr. O. A. Howland said the reader referred to the Indians offering tobacco to the Chaudiere Falls. It was probably as a propitiation to some presiding spirit, offered to secure a successful journey on the Great River. He had heard from the Indians on the North Shore of Lake Michigan a similar tradition about the cliff called the “ Lover’s Leap” on Mackinaw Island. The cliff overlooks the Straits of Mackinaw. The island is about midway in what must have seemed to canoemen a “grand traverse.” According to the tradition given him, which he believed to be the true one, the Indians used to land and lay their offerings on this natural altar to the good or evil spirit presiding over the spot as thanks for a safe voyage so far and propitiation against the dangers of the remainder of the passage. Rev. Father Laboureau said the offering of tobacco is not out of date. A practice still exists among many Indians of throwing a bit of tobacco to the “old woman.” Mr. Alan Macdougall read a paper on “The Indians of the Pacific Coast, an Attempt to Define their Artistic Work.” Second Meeting, 25th September, 1891, at 20 o’clock, in the Town Hall, the Mayor in the chair. The Mayor delivered an address of welcome, to which a reply was made by Dr. Meredith. Mr. David Boyle read a paper on “ The Indian as a Mechanic’ Rev. Father Laboureau read a paper on “The Early History of the the Mission of St. Anne’s, Penetanguishene.” There was, he said, a naval and military station in Drummond Island at the time of its cession to the United States, and also a considerable number of traders, mer- chants, and their servants, mostly French Canadians, half-breeds, and Indians. The military and naval post was removed in the fall of 1827 to Penetanguishene. The civilians followed in the spring of the follow- ing year, landing at what is now the Reformatory Point. Barracks were then erected, and the civilians, after a year and a half, removed to the present town. The Indians were scattered around at Waubaushene, Coldwater, Beausoleil, Manitoulin, some staying at Penetanguishene. In February, 1832, Bishop Macdonnell, of Kingston, made his first pastoral 1891-92]. SUMMER SESSION, 3 visit, accompanied by Father Crevier, the resident missionary on Sand- wich Island, in Detroit River. Then clergymen came occasionally until the arrival of a resident priest. The absence of a regular clergyman was made up for partially by the devoted zeal of a Frenchman named D. Revol, who assembled the people for prayer on every Sunday and Church holidays, instructed them in their faith, and was especially successful with the Indians. He spent his time, money, and all that was best in him in their service. A log church was built in 1835 where the town hall now is. It became too small for the increasing congregation, and a new one was erected and blessed in 1861 by Archdeacon (now Archbishop) Walsh Then in 1871 was commenced the memorial church in memory of the martyred Jesuits, De Breboeuf and his companions. The basement has been used for service since 1890. It is still unfinished. In 1835 the Rev. J. Baptiste Proulx came as resident missionary. He was specially inter- ested in the Indians, and, having obtained another priest in 1837, Father Amable Charest, to reside in Penetang, he went with them to Manitoulin Island. In 1845 he transferred the care of them to the Jesuits, who have had remarkable success with them. Father Laboureau then gave an account of the different missionaries who have since laboured among whites and Indians in Penetang and neighbouring districts. Mr. A. F. Hunter, B.A., read a paper on “ National Characteristics and Migrations of the Hurons, as indicated by their remains in North Simcoe.” The Indian name of Lake Simcoe was Ouentaron, meaning “beautiful lake.’ It was called Lac aux Claies or the lake of the hurdles by the french, which became corrupted into Lac /a Cle, and so called for 150 years after the Huron-French period. It is altogether likely that the hurdles referred to in the name were those found at the Narrows..... The Huron-Indian village of Cahiagua, mentioned by Champlain, was situated three leagues (nine miles) from the Narrows, and not at Orillia as claimed by some writers on the subject. Remains of a Huron village are still to be seen at a place in the Township of North Orillia, corresponding closely with the position of Cahiagua as indicated by Champlain. Mr. D. B. Read, Q.C., read a paper on “ Macbeth, Historical and Dramatic.” Mr. A. C. Osborne presented to the Institute a stone knife and a stake from the “ Narrows” at Orillia. Third Meeting, 26th September, 1891, at 15 o'clock, in the Indian Council House on Christian Island, Dr. Meredith in the chair. 4 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. alae John Monague addressed the meeting in Indian, which was translated by John Lake, as follows :.— “TI was born on the banks of the Nottawa River. The first thing I can remember was seeing ships anchored at the mouth, but I am not positive whether they were sunk there or not. (This statement, uttered incidentally, corroborates that of Mr. Hunter.) I did not travel much when young, only round about my home. I once went up to Sault Ste. Marie. Then I made a trip to Toronto, where I saw people marching round with drums, and wondered what it all meant. The Indians there told me that there was a war or rebellion. When I was in Toronto the Government sent men to tell the Indians that everyone over 21 years was to turn out and help find Mackenzie. A reward of $1,000 was offered to the person who brought in Mackenzie’s head. Four or five of us then started out to hunt for him, but we did not know him, and could not have taken him. The Indians told us he had gone over the Big falls 5 that he had walked to the front in woman’s dress, and so we missed him. The Indians were then told to go to a house beyond Holland Landing, towards Barrie, in which there were plenty of weapons left by the cavalry. When we got there the house had been burned down. Afterwards I and my tribe settled in Coldwater and remained there about twenty years. We then went to Beausoleil Island and stayed there about fifteen years. Captain Anderson was the agent then. He told me that he would try to lease a mill we had on the Island to George Copeland for twenty years and that we should go to another island. We then moved to Christian Island and Manitoulin, the greater number went to the latter place. When we were moving Chief Assance was drowned, and he was succeeded by his son, who has been chief ever since. After Anderson, Jarvis came. He always came ina big canoe. After business was over he made us have canoe races, men in one canoe, women in another. He used to steer for the women, who always won. On these occasions his hat would be beautifully decorated with ribbons. Jarvis gave blankets as prizes. I do not know whether they belonged to Jarvis or to the Government. I used to go with Jarvis to Manitoulin as his pilot.” Mr. A. C. Osborne read a paper on “The Flight of the Hurons from Ste. Marie to Christian Island.” The following resolution was carried on motion by Mr. Boyle, seconded by Dr. Ellis :— “That in the opinion of the Canadian Institute it is desirable that steps should be taken to preserve as far as possible the ruins of the old forts on the Wye and Christian Island, and that with this object in view it would seem proper that the Institute should address the Provincial Government, 1891-92]. SECOND MEETING. 5 the Councils of Simcoe County, Midland City and Penetanguishene, the Grand Trunk Railway Company and the Indians of Christian Island, asking those bodies to unite for this purpose.” Votes of thanks were passed to the Mayor and Council, to Chief Assance, John Monague, Father Laboureau, and Mr. Walter J. Keating for their efforts in promoting the success of the meetings. FIRST MEETING. First Meeting, 7th November, 1891, the President in the chair. The President delivered his inaugural address: “A Critical Review of the Enterprise of Christopher Columbus.” Previous discoveries by the Cabots were sketched, the disastrous and murderous government of the Spaniards in America alluded to, and the motives attributed to Columbus, not altogether unselfish, dealt with. After the address, a photograph in colors of the solar spectrum, thought to be the first ever exhibited in America, was shown. SECOND MEETING. Second Meeting, 14th November, 1891, Mr. J. Davies Barnett in the chair. Donations since the Annual Meeting 68, Exchanges 1731. A report of the summer work of the Biological Section was read. The following were elected members :—Alfred Boyd, V. B. Wadsworth, William Ker, M. B. Aylsworth, Henry Wade, T. C. Jackson, Milner Hart, Daniel Clark, M.D., Henry E. Caxton, Thomas M’Crosson, W. J. Keating, A. C. Osborne, A. P. Coleman, Hon. J. B. Robinson. Mr. W. J. Smith read a paper on “ The Formation of Niagara River.” He opened his reading with recounting the theories held by Sir Charles Lyell, Mr. Blackwell, Prof. Gilbert, Prof. Scovel, and others, all varying in statement of method, but all agreeing on the one point that the “ Gorge,” from Lewiston to the Falls, has been due to the action of the waters eroding the rocks backwards. Mr. Smith contends that facts do not substantiate the theory so held in any one particular, and he first takes the ground that Niagara river should not be the only instance in the world where waters in similar positions have eroded their rock bed. In support of his non-erosion theory, he recites parallel instances in a num- ber of well-known falls within the Dominion—coeval in point of time 6 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. INE with the Niagara. He instances falls on the European and African con- tinents, particularly one described by Livingstone on the Zambesi. The waters of that immense river have fallen into a rock crevice about 60 feet wide, and the full span of the river, over 3,000 feet. For untold ages the waters have beaten the wall rock of that fissure, and erosion has not taken place ; yet under such an erosion theory as set up by the scientists the waters should have increased the opening, even under a recession rate of three inches per annum, at least 7,000 feet ; in other words it should have formed a similar gorge to the Niagara of that extent. The rock was “ Basaltic,” therefore much more friable and easier to erode than the limestone rock forming the bed of Niagara river and its gorge. This river was certainly coeval with the Niagara, and, at a recession of one foot per annum, it should have presented a gorge far in excess of the length of the Niagara. He claims the instances in our own country should have presented corroborative evidence of erosion, yet they do not. Speaking of the recent report of the engineers of the New York State Geological Survey of the cliff of the Falls, and its recession, Mr. Smith places it in many peculiar ways. For instance: The report states that the total superficial area of rock which has disappeared between 1842 and 1890 is, at the American Falls, 32,900 feet, or 755-1,000 of an acre, and at the Horseshoe Falls 275,400 superficial feet 6 32-1,000 acres. If, then, such was the case, as the superficial area must be multiplied by the rock, depth or fall of water, 164 feet, and divided by the number of days in the 48 years, there should be a daily loss of rock equal to 190 tons, yet, as he puts it, the vertical face of the rock at the Falls, as well as the rock forming the cascades, presents the same old moss-grown face which it has done cach and every day during all time. If the rock eroded, how could the vegetable growth exist on any part thereof ? Mr. Smith argues further that Goat island “ presents a vertical face of 1,500 feet in length and 100 high on the line of the falls. It is similar in appearance to the rock surrounding and lining the “gorge.” Evidently, then, that island was at one time produced across the chasm, and more than likely joined the main rock on the Canadian side. Now let these scientists take either horn of the dilemma. If that island joined the main rock, how did the waters get over the 100 feet high rock barrier to enable the formation of its present appearance? The American falls were open, therefore all waters must have flowed over at that time, the rock island could not have then been eroded. Extend the island even part of the way, and its appearance demands the production, therefore the waters would have flowed around to the west and over our Canadian park, mak- ing connection further down the “gorge.” In no way could the island be eroded. Mr. Smith describes the formation as due to fracture. He 1891-92]. THIRD MEETING. i enters into many particulars as to the method, treating it on well-known geological lines. He supports his theory by existing evidence. He admits the startling nature of his thesis, in the face of the statements of so many scientists, but he says the evidence of facts will always displace that of theory. The facts in this case are so many that, when studied from his standpoint, conviction must follow. He denies emphatically that there was an “ancient river bed,” and brings proof to bear, stating that such an outflow could not be restrained by any gravel and clayey bed as the old course is said to have been. Noihing but a rock barrier could have confined the waters. The theory he said was so radical a change from that which we have been led through so many years to believe as to confound us for the time being. But the question was deserving, from a scientific point of view, of the most careful investigation. THIRD MEETING. Third Meeting, 21st November, 1891, the President in the chair. The President, Secretary, and Dr. Meredith were appointed to repre- sent the Institute at the Prison Reform Conference to be held on the 27th November. Donations and Exchanges since last meeting, 54. Daniel Rose, R. A. Donald, Ernest Lefroy, and Dr. G. B. Smith were clected members. Dr. Kennedy read a paper by the Rev. A. G. Morice on “ Déné Roots,” the principal portion of which is a vocabulary, showing the equivalents in about 20 dialects of 370 English words and phrases. The object of making this vocabulary is to enable students in other parts of the world, and especially in Eastern Asia, to compare their words with correspond- ing words in the languages of other tribes, and thus lead to important conclusions as to the affinity of widely separated nations. In a brief introduction the Rev. Father shows the supreme importance of compara- tive philology in discussing the affinities of races, and outlines some of the characteristics of the languages he is dealing with. Mr. Macdougall referred to a former paper by Father Morice, in which it was stated that almost all the customs in the book of Leviticus were found among the Indians. From the striking resemblance of the Indians to the Mongolians, it was natural to conclude that the west coast of America had been settled from the eastward. A Japanese man of war had put into the harbor of Esquimalt. The sailors dressed up some of 8 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. SUB the Indians in their own clothing, and it was difficult to distinguish the Indians from the Japanese. Dr. W. R. Shaw read a paper on the disease called “ Peach Yellows.” After sketching a history of the disease in the United States and Canada he went on to detail the signs which characterize the disease. He enumerated the preliminary results which he has obtained during the past season in the bacteriological investigation of the disease, and demonstrated that a particular germ has been found which is the probable cause of it. He stated that he would lay before the Institute at some future date the results of inoculations, etc., into healthy vines to find out if the diseases be actually due to the bacillus which he has found. Dr. Shaw’s paper was illustrated by the microscope and culture tubes. Prof. Macallum said that it had been stated to him that probably in six or seven years there would be no peach orchards in Niagara. He hoped that Dr. Shaw would continue to pay attention to the subject, as the results were such as would reward him for his investigations. He suggested that the Biological Section should take up the matter. The Institute should also take action. They should urge the importance of the subject on the legislature, and in view of the great annual loss sustained of about $100,000, should obtain aid in carrying on the investi: gation. As the whole Dominion was interested in this matter of diseased peaches it should also be brought to the attention of the Dominion Government and stringent measures adopted. A resolution was passed referring the paper to the Council of the Institute to take necessary steps to bring the subject before the Govern- ment and people of the Province and Dominion. FOURTH MEETING. Fourth Meeting, 28th November, 1891, the President in the chair. Donations and Exchanges since last meeting, 44. Prof. J. G. Hume, and Henry Duggan were elected members. A paper by Dr. MacNish on “St. Columba or Colum Cille,” was read. The paper gives some facts as to the geography and history of the island of Iona, sketches rapidly the life and work of St. Columba, gives some account of his writings, and concludes by a comparison of a number of words and phrases in the Irish and Scottish dialects of the Gaelic language. 1891-92 |. FIFTH MEETING. 9 The following resolution was passed on motion by Mr. Clark, seconded by Mr. Morrison :— That the Secretary be requested to obtain from the City Council the results of the observations taken on lake currents, with a view to consideration thereof and report by the Committee. FIFTH MEETING. Fifth Meeting, 5th December, 1891, the President in the chair. Donations and Exchanges since last meeting, 73. Mr. F. E. P. Pepler was elected a member. A resolution was adopted requesting the Vice-President and Secretary to attend the meeting of the Ontario Society of Artists in regard to obtaining the old Upper Canada College buildings from the Ontario Government for art and science purposes. A paper was read by W. A. Sherwood, A.R.C.A., on “The Spirit of National Art.” He lamented the fact that there was so little of this spirit in Canada, and that national art was almost unknown. He made reference to the life labor of Sir Joshua Reynolds, who strove to build up a national art in England. The results of his work may now be seen in the magnificent art in England to-day, which compares favorably with that of any other country. In this democratic country there is no patronage, and all that can be looked for is a broad sympathy with every department of art. This broad sympathy was a more powerful factor in building up a national art than any individual patronage, and he looked forward to the time when it would be heartily extended. The art of any country should reflect the individuality, the customs and the philosophy of the people. The spirit of national art has a patriotic tendency, and the state should assist in fostering it to the utmost. Its object and aim is to develop to the furthest every fortion of the com- munity to a higher appreciation of created things, to bring the mind in closer communion with nature, viewing with reverence all created forms and all conditions of social and domestic life. Like its sisters, music and poetry, it strives to touch with a delicate hand the finer sensibilities of nature: like its sterner sister science, to wield no uncertain wand over the grosser prostitution of sacred things; a priestess in the temple of nature truly zealous of her sacred duties, keeping the lights ever burning upon the golden minarets of the altar. The homogeneous condition of the Canadian commonwealth would in time produce an art peculiarly national and superior to that of any other country. In it would be 10 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. III. combined all the beautiful characteristics of the English, the French, the German and the Italian schools, and it would also have the refining influence of the Japanese art. He looked to the French in Quebec to produce a great Canadian painter. Speaking of the spirit of art in the United States, Mr. Sherwood remarked that there was but little of it there. The wealthier class practically despise American painters and search in the art centres of the old world for the adornments of their homes. Whistler, for instance, is now looked upon as a very eminent painter in England. In Baltimore, his home, where he worked for years, he was neither appreciated nor recognized. Canada, with its lakes, its forests, its glorious scenery, its clear sky and its noble people, should produce a school of art superior to any in the world. He laid great stress on the sacredness of art, and in its refining and elevating influences he placed it on an equal footing with the pulpit and the professor’s chair. Mr. Pursey thought that the best pictures were not exact representa- tions of nature. The artist took the outline from nature and filled it up with the ideal. ; Mr. Macdougall referred to pictures that were defective from a lack of scientific knowledge on the part of the artist or a want of accurate observation of nature. Some were defective in their cloud effect, owing to the neglect of the study of meteorology. Ina picture of sheepshear- ing the shearer was represented as shearing with his left hand. A countryman who saw it and had more accurate knowledge of nature than the artist, said the picture was wrong, as the man could not shear the sheep with his left hand. Mr. Fairclough referred to a painting of Turner’s in which the Thames was represented flowing the wrong way. The President remarked as to religious art that there was none in the world at the present day; the earlier productions of the European painters were inspired by their strong faith. As this faith gradually died out, there was a corresponding decline in religious art. He thought that historical art was not to be looked for in Canada. In paintings of scenery the Canadian artists had done very well. They had produced some charming pictures that were fully equal to those on the other side. He thought that their works were very fairly appreciated, and brought good prices. He held that the present time was not one in which art could attain a high level. It was too practical. It was a photographic age. People required an actual representation of nature. It was not always desirable to have an actual representation of nature. As to the pictures placed before children in the schools he gave reasons why 1891-92]. SEVENTH MEETING. 11 perfect pictures should not be placed before them. He thought that they could not comprehend a finished and perfect picture and that it would be better to give them something simple. SIXTH. MEETING Sixth Meeting, 12th December, 1891, the President in the chair. Donations and exchanges since last meeting, 117. Mr. J. A. Fowler was elected a member. A committee was appointed to co-operate with the committee of the Ontario Society of Artists in their endeavours to obtain some portion of the Upper Canada College buildings for art and science purposes. The Committeé on Lake Currents appointed last session was con- tinued, with power to add to their number. Mr. A. F. Chamberlain, M.A., late of Toronto, now of Clark Univer- sity, Worcester, Mass., was appointed to represent the Canadian Institute at the meeting of the American Folk-Lore Society, which will be held at Washington on the 29th and 30th December inst. Mr. W. A. Douglass, B.A., read a paper on “The Finances of the American Civil War.” SEVENTH MEETING. Seventh Meeting, 19th December, 1891, the President in the chair. Donations and exchanges since last meeting, 50. Messrs. Samuel McAllister, C. C. James, and H. R. Cockin were elected members. The following resolution, sent up by the Historical section :—“ That the members of this section consider that the setting apart and proper maintenance of a portion of the public domain as a national park would much conduce to the fostering of patriotic feeling as well as be a means of increasing interest in Canada abroad, and therefore resolve that the Institute be requested to memorialize the Dominion and Local Govern- ments to the end that such action may be taken as will result in this object,’ was referred to the Council. Mr. Levi J. Clark read a paper on “ Testing the New Water Pipe,” in which he briefly described the construction and laying of the pipe, and its history since it came into use. The method of ascertaining the amount 12 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. (Vion. ET: of the leakage was minutely described, and the conclusion drawn by him was that from 84 to 140 gallons per minute of bay water was finding its way into our water supply. The quantity varies with the location, being greater the nearer the pumping station is approached. He illustrated his paper by drawings on the blackboard, and referred to several scientific truths relating to the flow of water in pipes, which were exemplified in the course of the investigations. He thinks that the only leak of any consequence has now been discovered at the crib at Hanlan’s Point, and that there will be no difficulty in stopping it, when the long-standing charge of our city water being polluted by bay water or sewage may be wiped from the slate. EIGHTH MEETING. Eighth Meeting, 9th January, 1892, the President in the chair. Donations and exchanges since last meeting, 289. The Rev. Philip Tocque, A.M., read a paper on “ The Aborigines or Beeothicks of Baccalaos.” The report of Mr. A. F. Chamberlain, delegate from the Canadian Institute to the annual meeting of the American Folk-Lore Society, held in the city of Washington, December 29th and 30th, 1891, was read. It stated that the meeting was very successfu], each day’s attendance being large and appreciative. The Society ended its third annual gathering with the confidence that the study of folk-lore in America was now being carried on in true scientific spirit, and the fields of investigation, hitherto almost untouched, bid fair before long to yield rich harvests. Seventeen papers were read, dealing largely with the lore of the aborigines, although the study of the folk-lore of the European immigrants was duly repre- sented. Due recognition of the Canadian members of the society was made in the election of Horatio Hale, of Clinton, Ont.,and James Deans, of Victoria, B.C., as members of the Council. It was gratifying to know that not only at the meeting of the Folk-Lore Society, but also at those of the Modern Language Association of America, the American Dialect Society, the American Historical Society, and the Society of Church His- tory, all of which met in Washington contemporaneously, the programmes show that Canada was well represented in the papers which were read. NINTH MEETING Ninth Meeting, 16th January, 1892, the President in the chair. Donations and Exchanges since last meeting, 50. 1891-92]. TENTH MEETING. i On a communication from Dr. Rosebrugh the following resolution was adopted :— “ That we heartily approve of the ten resolutions adopted by the Provin- cial Prison Reform Conference held in Toronto, November 27th, 1891; that the same are commended to the favourable consideration of our legislators, both Dominion and Provincial, and that copies of this resolu- tion be forwarded to the Hon. Sir John Thompson, Minister of Justice, and to the I1on. Oliver Mowat, Attorney-General, Province of Ontario, and to the Press for publication.” Mr. George E. Atkinson was elected a member. Mr. William Houston, M.A., read a paper on “ Economic Science for Canadian Students.” Mr. Harvey had listened to Mr. Houston, as he always had done, with the greatest pleasure. On nearly all the points he agreed with him. There were a few, however, on which he differed. He did not think that economic science was one of locality. In his opinion economic science did not belong to a small community, but to the brotherhood of mankind at large. But was there such a science as political economy? There was no more a science of political economy than there was of literature. There could be no exact science of either. Behind all this was the ques- tion, What was truth? ‘The idea of what was truth was continually changing except in the mathematics. When you come to enquire what was perfectly just between man and man, there was constant change. As to the method of investigation, the inductive method had been the most successful for the past 300 years. He did not think that we should neglect the deductive method. The former was the best when we were young, the latter when we were old. TENTH MEETING. Tenth Meeting, 23rd January, 1892, the President in the chair. Donations and Exchanges since last meeting, 66. A paper by Mr. Edward Jack on “The Abenakis of the St. John River,” was read by Mr. Macdougall. The paper deals with the history and legends of the tribe, gathered during many years of intercourse with them. They originally inhabited what is now Maine, New Hampshire, New Brunswick, and even a portion of Nova Scotia ; and were subdivided into several divisions. The principal ones took their characteristic names from the districts they lived in ; such as Kanibesinnoaks, “ those 14 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. Wes who lived near the lakes”; Sokowakiakio, “men of the south” ; Nur- hantsuaks, “those who travel by water.” The remains of the tribes called “ Muskrats” and “ Etemankiaks,” now called Malecites, occupy the greater part of New Brunswick. The early connection of the tribe with the English is found in their word for king, which is Kinzames, evidently intended for King James of England. A somewhat similar name is used for our Queen. The Abenakis say they came from the West, and originally worshipped the sun and moon. The first mission- aries to visit them were the Jesuits, who came among them in I6II. Numerous legends are given, which are similar to some of those of our Western Indian. On relating the story of the beaver, muskrat, and squirrel to a Chippewah in Wisconsin, the latter knew it well. The story is that the muskrat lent the beaver his tail, which the latter refused to return ; the Chippewah added to this, yes, and he has been whining for it ever since. The President read some notes in which he gave further particulars respecting the Abenakis. In 1641 we first get the name of the Abna- quiois. In 1643 we find in the “ Relations des Jesuites”” that the Abna- quiois had no dealings with any but the English. 1644-1646, some Abna- quiois came to Quebec and were baptized by Father Dreuilletes. 1647. There is a whole chapter in “Les Relations” respecting them. Father Dreuilletes studied their language, and said it had no little similarity to the Algonquin. ELEVENTH MEETING: Eleventh Meeting, 30th January, 1892, the President in the chair. Donations and exchanges since last meeting, 53. Mr. Alexander MacInnes was elected a member. Messrs. Bain and Macdougall were appointed delegates to the Indus- trial Exhibition Association. Communications were read from the Manchester Geographical Society announcing the death of the President, the Duke of Devonshire; from the Royal Society of Canada respecting their meeting in May; and from the Committee appointed by the Spanish Government on the celebration of the fourth centenary of the Discovery of America inviting the co-oper- ation of the Institute. The President laid on the table his paper on “The Position of the French Race in Canada,” read by him at the Congress of Roman Philo- 1891-92]. ELEVENTH MEETING. 15 logy held in Montpelier, and published in La Revue des Langues Romanes with a note by Dr. Bourinot on French Canadian Biography. Mr. Henry Spencer Howell read a paper on “ The Volcano of Kilauea and the Hawaiian Islands.” The Hawaiian Islands are situated in the North Pacific ocean, lying between the 18th and 23rd parallels of north latitude, and from 155° to 161° west longitude ; and are, therefore, just within the tropics. There are eight principal islands, Hawaii, with an area of 4,210 square miles ; Maui, 760; Oahu, 600; Kauai, 590; Molokai, 270; Lanai, 150; Niihau, 97 ; and Kahoolawe, 63. The last named is uninhabited ; and there are four small islets, one of which (Molokini) is an extinct volcano with one side of the crater open to the sea—showing either subsidence or denuda- tion. No finer climate can be found in any part of the world; it is as salubrious as that of Madeira, and its evenness is the delight of those who come here for pleasure or to benefit health. The tropical heat is so tem- pered by the sea breezes—the soft trade winds of the north—that the greatest degree of heat at Honolulu during the past twelve years was 90° in the shade, while the lowest was 54°; the average being 75°. The daily range of the thermometer is 12°. Of course it is hot in the sun at noon ; but the mornings and the evenings are delightful. Sugar is the chief pro- duct ; and rice, tobacco, coffee, bananas, and pineapples are grown in great quantities ; all sorts of citrous fruits abound, and the cocoa palm grows to perfection. Most people are under the impression that these islands were discovered by Captain Cook, and many books chronicle the error— for an error it is ; they were discovered by Gaetano, an early Spanish navigator, in the year 1542, and the chart drawn by Mendana in 1567 gives a very nearly accurate position of the group—absolutely correct in regard to Kauai. There is a tradition among the natives that two vessels from Spain were wrecked on the large island about 1527, in the reign of Kealiiokaloa, a king of Hawaii. Captain Cook, on his second visit, landed at Kealakekua Bay: on his former visit Cook was looked upon as a god—the long-lost “Lono” of the Hawaiian Trinity—and he was treated with the greatest respect ; the natives say that he allowed himself to be worshipped, and accepted sacrifices as a deity ; but in their last visit, February, 1779, the Englishmen seem to have acted like pirates, for they over-ran the heiaus (sacred temples), broke the tabus (religious laws), demanded the best of everything in the way of fresh meat and fruits, and the sailors of the Resolution and Discovery took the greatest liberties with the natives. Then began a series of petty quarrels between the ships’ officers and the chiefs, ending in the death of several native chiefs and the luckless circumnavigator, whose name is revered in England and 16 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. IU the colonies, but not in these islands, for overweening confidence, care- lessness, and vanity are not considered by the Hawaiians as attributes of acommander. The early history of the people of Hawaii and the other islands is unknown ; the place whence they originally came, the date of their first appearance here, and the primary source of their religion, are mysteries that will likely remain unsolved forever. Taken into consider- ation that their traditions have been handed down verbally from father to son and from chief to chief—or chiefess—it is remarkable that they have preserved so much of the history of their ancestors ; from the year 1095 (approximate) to the present day there has been an unbroken line of sovereigns of Hawaii. During the three centuries preceding the “Con- federation” the history of these islands is one long story of romance, warfare, and religion ; a story of a noble race, of brave men, and gentle, loving women—a nation-story much the same as it is, was, and ever will be, all the world over; with men of all creeds and colours, two great factors influence their lives for better or for worse—ambition and affec- tion. Although the Hawaiians never practised the horrible habit, canni- balism was common among a band of savages who came from one of the South Sea Islands and established themselves for a time in the mountain districts of Kauai and on the northern shore of Oahu. But they were not permitted to stay long there, for the natives, finding out that they were man-eaters, made war upon them and drove the foreigners from island to island; till finally the “consumers of home production” were forced to set sail for the place from which they came—the unknown land. Thus came and went the last of the cannibals. The religion of the Hawaiians was a system of idolatry based upon certain meles, or song stories, which had been handed down from generation to generation, and preserved with integrity by the priests, who met at the heiaus and recited —the older to the younger—the “articles of belief,’ the traditions of Church and State. But, says a recent writer, “How did the Hawaiian priesthood become possessed of the story of the Hebrew Genesis?” In 1794 Kamehameha, chief of Hawaii, succeeded in conquering the entire archipelago, and it has been a “kingdom” ever since. The present queen, Liliuokalani, is the elder sister of the late king, Kalakaua, and the heir to the throne is the Princess Kaiulani-Lunalilo-Kalaninuiahilapalapa. The population at the time of Cook’s visit was about 400,000; now it is only 95,000. The Hawaiian Islands are of volcanic origin; on every island are vestiges of these phenomena, and extinct craters are scattered over the surface, differing in size from the giant “ Haleakala””—the Palace of the Sun—on the island of Maui, to the “ Punch-bowl”’ in the city of Honolulu. Of extinct craters Haleakala is doubtless the largest in the world ; it is 10,032 feet high, 23 miles in diameter, and nearly eighty miles 1891-92}. ELEVENTH MEETING. ile in circumference! This monster volcano has not been active within the memory of man. The summit is crowned with immense walls of scoria- ceous lava and basalt, and there are two discharge ways, a mile anda half wide, which pass between rock walls over 2,000 feet in height. The interior is a large cinder field, containing cones 400 to 900 feet high. Mauna Kea (the “White Mountain’), on the island of Hawaii, is the highest point of land in the group; it is 13,805 feet above the sea. This has been an extinct volcano for centuries, but its ignipotent sister Mauna Loa (the “Long Mountain”), 20 miles to the south, has been very active within the last few years. Mauna Loa is 13,650 feet in height; and on a “shoulder,” 20 miles to the east, is the active crater of Hale- mau-mau (the “ House of Everlasting Fire”), or, as it is usually called, the volcano of Kilauea. There have been many eruptions of Mauna Loa from 1832 to 1887, but perhaps the most-destructive was in 1868—the famous “mud-flow.” The earthquake destroyed nearly all the villages in the district ; the tidal wave, 20 feet high, washed along the shore, doing immense damage, and the flow from the mountain carried away cattle, horses, sheep, and human beings ; 81 lives were lost. In 1881 there was another great eruption, and the fiery lava travelled for 30 miles (in nine months), and stopped within three-quarters of a mile of the town of Hilo, ‘a place of about 6,000 inhabitants! Property was very cheap there at that time. During the eruptions of January, 1887, “618 earthquake shocks were counted” in two days. Prof. Dana, in his “ Characteristics of Volcanoes,” tells us that “the origin of Volcanic heat, the source of lava columns beneath the volcano, the cause of the ascensive force in the lava column, are subjects on which science has various opinions and no positive knowledge.” Volcanoes may be “explosive,” either when water gains access to the interior (z.e., liquid lava) and generates enormous pro- jectile force, or they may be subordinate or “lateral,” coming from the side of a mountain; there may be earthquakes in connection with the eruptions or the vibrations may scarcely be felt. Volcanoes eject lava (melted rock) ; projectile discharges which become cinders, ashes, and, if very large, they are called “lava bombs”; and gaseous discharges. But the pictures which show flames issuing from a crater are misrepresenta- tions ; the fiery glow is the reflection on the vapour from the liquid lava within the crater. Around the Hawaiian volcanoes are large deposits of sulphur ; the natives place carved boxes, trays, etc., beside the fissures until they become encrusted a bright yellow. After giving numerous quotations from authorities on the subject of volcanic phenomena, Mr. Howell described his visit to the crater of Kilauea, and his descent into the crater of Hale-mau-mau, in October of 2 18 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vo1. ILI. last year. The latter crater is very active ; it is half a mile in diameter, and 250 feet deep from the “floor” of Kilauea, and in this awful fiery chasm the waves of liquid lava are continually moving—irresistibly drawn to the centre, the seething whirlpool, where masses of lava are fused like blocks of sealing wax, and where great fountains of brilliant lava are hurled high up in the air! Kilauea is 300 miles from Honolulu, and the volcano is 4,000 feet above the sea-level. It took the travellers over an hour to climb the lava field of Kilauea, and nearly two hours were occu- pied in descending and returning within the crater of Hale-mau-mau. TWELFTH MEETING. Twelfth Meeting, 6th February, 1892, the President in the chair. Donations and Exchanges since last meeting, 42. The President laid on the table a list of contributions to Geology and Mineralogy, published in the Journal and Proceedings of the Canadian Institute, and prepared for the Committee on the Bibliography of Geo- logy appointed by the International Congress of Geologists. The following resolution was passed, on motion by Professor Macallum seconded by Dr. Shaw :— “Whereas the attention of the Institute has been directed to the great danger threatening the orchards, and peach orchards in particular, in this province from the disease known as the ‘ yellows,’ which has in former periods within the last century devastated large tracts of orchard lands in the neighbouring portions of the United States ; “ And whereas scientific investigation has been partially made, and is now being carried on by some learned members of the said Institute into the causes of the said disease, with a view to find out some remedy and the best means of applying the same; “ And whereas the Legislature of the Province of Ontario passed an Act in 1881, which was amended in 1884, the special sections of which are :— “Revised Statutes of Ontario, 1887—under noxious weeds and diseases affecting fruit trees :— “ Sect. 2, div. 3—To cut down and burn any peach, nectarine or other trees on the land infected with the disease known as the ‘ yellows,’ and to destroy all the fruit of the trees so affected. “ Sect. 3, div. 2.—Such council may and upon a petition of 50 or more ratepayers shall appoint at least one inspector to enforce the provisions 1891-92]. TWELFTH MEETING. 19 of this Act in the municipality and fix the amount of remuneration, fees or charges he is to receive for the performance of his duties ; and in case a vacancy shall occur in the office of inspector it shall be the duty of the council to fill the vacancy forthwith. “ Sect. 8.—If written complaint be made to the inspector that yellows or black-knot exist within the municipality, in any locality described in such complaint, with reasonable certainty, he shall proceed to examine the fruit trees in such locality and if satisfied of the presence of either disease he shall immediately give notice in writing to the owner or occu- pant of the land whereon the affected trees are growing, requiring him within five days from the receipt of the notice to deal with such trees in the manner provided by Sect. 2 of this Act. “ Sect. 10.—Deals with the penalties, which are not under $5 nor more than $20 for not removing such trees, and for selling fruit so affected also same penalty. it is the opinion of the Institute that the said Legislation is more per- missive than compulsory and not sufficiently stringent to effectually stamp out the disease. Therefore, be it “ Resolved, that the attention of the Government of the Province be drawn to this important question, and that it be respectfully requested to give its most favourable consideration to the introduction of such more stringent legislation as shall enforce the destruction of infected trees, prevent the sale of diseased fruit, and regulate the appointment and duties of inspectors in such manner and with such powers as shall enable them to enter all orchards in their district at all times to enforce in full the provisions of the said legislation, and that copies of this resolution be sent to the Hon. the Attorney-General, and’to the Hon. Minister of Agriculture.” Mr. J. C. Hamilton, LL.B., read a paper on “The Great Centre—an Astronomical Study.” Mr. Lumsden thought that if there was a star that, on account of its size, would be likely to be the centre of the universe that star would be Arcturus. It was stated to be the largest star we have any knowledge of. Its diameter would reach from the sun to the earth. The President said the theory of a central star was very fascinating, but he had never read or heard of anything in Astronomy to confirm the ‘idea. THIRTEENTH MEETING. Thirteenth Meeting, 13th February, 1892, the President in the chair. Donations and Exchanges since last meeting, 54. 20 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vou IIT. The death of Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, the eminent chemist and geologist, and author of several valuable works, was announced. Dr. Hunt had been for a long time connected with the Canadian Institute as a life member, and a copy of his recent work on “Systematic Mineralogy based on a Natural classification” had just been received from him as a present to the Institute. Dr. George Kennedy read a paper by Prof. Campbell, Montreal, on “Siberian Inscriptions.” It was not only a review of the volume of in- scriptions from the Yenesei published by the Arehzological Society of Finland, but an actual attempt to decipher these hitherto unread relics of ancient literature by means of more accurate copies obtained by the writer from St. Petersburgh. The language they yield is Japanese, and it is the contention of Prof. Campbell that the authors of the inscriptions, mounds, and other remains of old civilization found throughout Southern Siberia were the Japanese in north-eastward migration from India, whence some of their own historians have derived them. The samples of inscriptions contained in the paper, which was illustrated by fac-simile drawings of the documents, plainly betray their origin as the work of Buddhist priests, and are dated from the time of Gautama’s death. The oldest so far belongs to the fifth century, A.D., and is the memorial of Sekata, the Sagoteno of Japanese, and the Shekingtang, or Sheketang, of Chinese historians. The inscriptions submitted are but specimens of a large number to be published, along with Indian, Buddhist, and Ame- rican mound-builder relics, in Prof. Campbell’s forthcoming work, “ The Eastern Track of the Hittites.” Should his readings stand the test of criticism the light they will shed upon the history of the Khitan dynasty of China and of the peopling of north-eastern Asia and the western coast of America will open up a record of novel and absorbing interest. Mr. Harvey said that the true opinion according to the best authorities was that the Etruscan people were subject to the Kabyle race. The Kabyles had ruled over Etruria for a couple of centuries. The language of the Etruscan inscriptions was taken from the Kabyle country. Prof. Campbell would have to reckon with these authorities. The Accadians were Mongols and had attained a very high civilization. FOURTEENTH MEEMING, Fourteenth Meeting, 20th February, 1892, the President in the chair. Donations and Exchanges since last meeting, 92. The following resolution was adopted :— 1891-92]. FOURTEENTH MEETING. 21 “ The Canadian Institute has received the intimation of the death of Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, F.R.S. &c., a life member of the Institute, with pro- found regret. In the long period in which Dr. Hunt was connected with the Institute, he contributed many valuable original contributions to its publications. The Institute, in common with all other scientific corpora- tions, recognises the immense advantages derived from the assiduous labors and investigations in the fields of geology and mineralogy, which have rendered the name of Dr. Hunt famous in both hemispheres, and the Institute tenders to his sorrowing relatives the most respectful expression of sympathy in their present bereavement.” It was resolved on motion by Mr. Macdougall, seconded by Prof: Macallum :— “That a circular be printed and sent to the societies exchanging pro- ceedings with us, mentioning the volumes of their publications we require to complete our sets, and requesting them to aid us by supplying missing numbers ; also asking them who thus favor us to state which of our publications they may not have in their libraries, and promising to send them as far as we are able ; that the Librarian be asked to report to the Council a list of those societies to whom this circular should be ad- dressed, and the numbers of their proceedings wanting on our shelves.” Mr. Boyle presented the Annual Archeological Report. Dr. Sandford Fleming read a paper on “ Electoral Representation and the Rectification of Parliament.” At the close of the paper the President read the following :— “A friend of the Institute, deeply impressed with the great national importance of the subject dealt with in Mr. Fleming’s communication, has offered (without wishing his name to be known) to place at the disposal of the council the sum of $1,000 to aid in obtaining a satis- factory solution of the problem referred to. The willing donor suggests that the sum (in whole or in part) may be awarded by the Institute for the best workable measure which, if made law, would give the whole Canadian people equal representation in Parliament, and each elector due weight in the Government through Parliament.” Prof. Ashley made various objections to the plan proposed by Dr. Fleming. With all its defects party government does furnish a tolerably fair basis for government. Under any other system it would be difficult to secure the adherence of sufficient numbers to carry out measures of . importance. The plan of minority representation proposed by Hare was altogether a curiosity and was outside the range of practical politics 22 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTI'1UTE. | Vou. aie He was present at a meeting in Oxford when the matter was taken up. It was universally pronounced chimerical. Mr. Douglass, while'aware of many difficulties in the carrying out of a system of minority representation was strongly in sympathy with the paper to-night. He wished for further information on the subject. Mr. Meek urged the advantages of Party Government. With all its faults and shortcomings it is after all (taking into consideration the true objects of all governments), the best system of government the world has had any experience of. Party government is not an invention or creation. It is a natural growth, a natural development. ‘Theorists may propound theories of government which appear more symmetrical, but not having sprung spontaneously from the people, they lack vitality. A tree may be constructed which will appear more artistic in form, and more beautiful in outline than a living tree, but the one is dead, and the other has life. We should not seek to destroy representative party government as it now exists, but to improve it, and remove its real defects. Wherever we find free institutions, wherever we find political liberty, there we find party government in some form. Wherever we find despotism, wherever political liberty is suppressed, party government does not exist. They have no political parties in Russia or Turkey. There is no political life in those countries. Our present methods of representatative government are modern, but party government existed in the cities of ancient Greece. The moment a city acquired free insti- tutions, party government naturally and necessarily came into existence As soon as free institutions were done away with, party government ceased. The same thing happened in Rome. While Rome retained a real republican government, different parties contended with each other for the supreme power, and Rome was aggressive, and progressive. When imperial military authority became established, party government ceased, party strife ceased, and progress and civilization became stagnant. Our aim should be to improve, not to destroy. The contention of party leaders is not so much energy and talent wasted. Their struggles prevent political stagnation. They educate the people. They are the life of free institutions. Minorities are not without representation, they are represented by the opposition. All parties necessarily and naturally consolidate into two, representing the ins and outs. Party government and representative government, as we now have them, have many defects which can be reformed and corrected. Our senate might be recon- structed. Our voters’ lists might be simplified. The limits of the constituencies might be settled or adjusted so as to prevent any political party from altering them to suit its own purposes. But, the greatest of 1891-92]. FOURTEENTH MEETING. 23 all improvements must be brought about by educating the voters to cast their ballots, not blindly in favour of the political party to which they may have become attached, but rather in favour of the best men, and the best measures. In other words intelligence and patriotism should be cultivated. Then as to the offer of “a friend of the Institute, to place at the disposal of the council the sum of $1,000, to be awarded by the Institute for the best workable measure to give equal representation in parliament to the whole Canadian people, and each elector due weight in the government through parliament,” I would say it seems to me that ‘equal representation of the whole Canadian people in parliament” is not the most important thing to be attained. Equal representation means that the most ignorant, prejudiced, superstitious and vicious in the community would have the same voice and an equal right in choosing representatives that the most educated, intelligent, enlightened and moral person would possess. The object of government should be rather to prevent the ignorant, the superstitious, the vicious, the prejudiced and the immoral elements from having equal weight and equal influence. All classes, all persons, all societies, all beliefs and all interests should not be represented. The objects of government are to give the greatest power and influence to the most intelligent, the most progressive, the most industrious, the most enterprising and the best elements in the community. A good government is one which not only preserves order in the community but which develops, promotes and stimulates in- dustry, invention, progress, intelligence—in short, a higher civilization. What would or might call for useful essays and treatises would be a prize offered, say for the best essay or treatise on “improvements in representative parliamentary government,” or, suggesting “ practical im- provements in our present system of party government,” or, “treaties showing the defects and imperfections in our present systems of repre- sentative parliamentary party government,” and, “suggesting remedies for the evils pointed out, and such amendments and improvements as the system is capable of.” The following resolution was then adopted by the meeting :— “ That the best thanks of the Institute be tendered to the friend, who does not wish his name to be known for his generous offer, in con- tributing the sum of $1,000 to aid in obtaining a satisfactory solution of the problem referred to in Dr. Sandford Fleming’s paper; that the Institute accepts the offer and empowers the council to take the neces- sary steps to obtain essays or treatises, and award the premium to the best workable measure which, if made law, would give the whole Cana- dian people equal representation in the Government through Parliament, and each elector due weight in the Government through Parliament.” 24 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. IN 0 PATENT MEE TING: Fifteenth Meeting, 27th February, 1892, the President in the chair. Donations and Exchanges since last meeting, 53. H. H. Langton, B.A., and Alexander Primrose, M.B., were elected members. A communication was read from the secretary of the Lincoln’s Far- mers’ Institute, enclosing a copy of a resolution adopted by that body at its meeting in Niagara on the 23rd instant, respecting diseases of fruit trees. After referring to a resolution adopted by the Canadian Institute on the subject of the inefficiency of the present law regarding the diseases of fruit trees, and stating that the general principle of such resolution appears to be in accord with the views of the meeting, it was resolved that a committee of three fruit-growers of the County of Lincoln be appointed to co-operate with a committee of the Canadian Institute for the purpose of drafting such amendments as will make the working of the present law more effective, and in urging the Legislature to take action in this matter at its present session. The committe is composed of James Sheppard, of Queenston ; Lucas Woolverton, of Grimsby, and Roland W. Gregory, of St. Catharines. Capt. Ernest Cruikshank read a paper on “ Early Traders and Trade Routes in Ontario and the West.” The paper began by a reference to the fact that from 1763 to 1816 the trade not only of Western Canada but of the entire American North-West, including the present States of Illinois, lowa, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, was conducted by British mer- chants from Montreal. The French trading posts were enumerated, and the extent of their commerce with the Indians was briefly sketched as it existed about the year 1754, just previous to the outbreak of the war which terminated in the conquest of Canada by the English. The old canoe routes from Montreal to the upper lakes, from Lake Erie to the Ohio and the Wabash, from Lake Michigan to the Illinois and Missis- sippi, and from Lake Superior to the’Canadian North-West were next described, as well as the distribution and numbers of the Indian tribes living in the vicinity of those rivers, and the condition of French settle- ments in the West at the date of the conquest. The beginning of British commerce was traced. Alexander Henry was selected as a type of these early traders. A summary was given of his travels from 1761 to 1776, and of an unsuccessful attempt to work the copper mines of Lake Superior in 1770 and 1771. Notice was taken of the explorations of Carver, Rogers, and others in the direction of the Mississippi, and of the success of the Frobishers and their associates in penetrating from Lake 1891-92]. SIXTEENTH MEETING. 25 Superior to Lake Winnipeg and the Saskatchewan valley, and discover- ing trading stations unknown to the French. The trade of Mackinac, Detroit, and Niagara, and other stations at the beginning of the Ameri- can revolution, the character of the traders and their relations with the Indians, were next considered in the light of unpublished documents, from which copious quotations were made. The effects of the war were instanced, and a general review taken of the state of the Western trade during this period. Some account was then given of the variety of goods required for the business and the value of the returns, and in conclusion the writer advocated the preparation of a historical map of Ontario and the Canadian North-West. SIXTEENTH MEETING. Sixteenth Meeting, 5th March, 1892, the President in the chair. Donations and Exchanges since last meeting, 62. Prof. Macallum, J. B. Williams, and J. G. Ridout were named to meet the Minister of Agriculture with the deputation from Lincoln and Niagara on the diseases of fruit trees. A communication was read from the Imperial Russian Society of Geography announcing the death of the President His Imperial Highness the Grand Duke Constantine. eae Horetzky was elected a member. Mr. W. D. Stark read a paper on “The History of Greenland and Iceland,” giving a short description of the coasts of Greenland and Ice- land, noting some facts concerning the antiquity of the islanders. Their manners, habits, and modes of livelihood were touched upon, including some account of the animals useful to the inhabitants of those desolate regions. The President, Mr. Arthur Harvey, then read “ Rutherford’s Narrative —An Episode in the Pontiac War, 1763—an unpublished manuscript with introductory notes by Mr. Harvey.” This graphic and interesting narrative of the capture and ensJavement of Lieut. Rutherford, an officer of the “ Black Watch,” by the Indians of Detroit in 1763 was presented by the narrator’s grandson, Colonel T. W. Rutherford, of the Madras Staff Corps, late commandant at Delhi, India, to Mr. Thomas Hodgins, to be used as he saw fit. Mr. Hodgins presented it to the Institute, for which a vote of thanks was tendered to him. 26 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ VoL. IMU: SEVENTEENTH MEEPING: Seventeenth Meeting, 12th March, 1892, the President in the chair. D? Donations and Exchanges since last meeting, 53. The following were elected members :—Prof. Ashley, R. W. Spence, Lancelot Middleton, C.E., and James T. Locke. The President gave a report of the interview of the deputation on “Peach Yellows” with the Minister of Agriculture. The following resolution was adopted :— “1. That special investigations into the cause of the disease known as ‘Peach Yellows’ have been made by Dr. W. R. Shaw, a member of this Institute. “2, That a committee of the Institute has waited upon the Provincial Government, with whom appeared also representatives of the Lincoln Farmers’ Institute, the Niagara District Fruit Growers’ Association, and of the Ontario Fruit Growers’ Association. “3. That this deputation asked for amendments in the existing laws on the subject, and had a very favorable reception. “4, But that one cause of infection appears to be the introduction of young trees from the United States, grown from ‘pips’ from infected fruit, and that such young trees, if they come to maturity so as to bear fruit for a year or two, must in the end succumb to the disease and be the means of contagion to other orchards. “s. That the Institute therefore prays for the enactment of a law to prevent, under proper regulations (to be made by the Governor-General in Council), the importation of any peach trees or other young fruit trees unless a clean bill of health accompany, to certify that no disease exists in the districts from which such young trees come, with a proper guaran- tee that no disease is inherent in such young stock, in the same way as enacted by the State of California and other places interested in main- taining the integrity of their orchards. “6, That the Secretary be instructed to send a copy of this resolution to the Department of Agriculture at Ottawa, with copies of Dr. Shaw’s paper.’ Mr. H. Rushton Fairclough, M.A., read a paper on “ Lieut.-Col. Coffin and his private correspondence during the rebellion of 1837.” He pointed out that the subject of his paper (Wm. Foster Coffin) was the son of a major in H. M. 15th Regiment of Infantry, and grandson of a distinguished U. E. Loyalist, to whom General Sir Guy Carleton attributed much of 1891-92]. SEVENTEENTH MEETING. 27 the credit of saving Quebec when assaulted by Arnold and Montgomery. After giving a short account of the Colonel’s movements until 1873, when the Department of the Interior was organized, and he (the Colonel) was promoted to the position of Commissioner of Ordnance and Admiralty Lands, which he held up to the time of his death, in 1878, the paper enumerated the important special offices to which he had been appointed. The correspondence to which Mr. Fairclough called attention covers a period of over six years (1834-40). The letters, twenty-six in all, were written to Colonel Coffin’s cousin, Mrs. Grant, afterwards Baroness de Longueuil, and her daughter, now Mrs. J. A. Allen, of Alvington, Kings- ton, for some years the residence of the Governors-General of Canada. Besides the family and social gossip given in the letters, there is a great deal that must be interesting to Canadians in general, and it is chiefly the writer’s free-spoken comments on the exciting political events of the day that Mr. Fairclough brought before the Institute. The first letter in the packet gives a most vivid description of the burning of the Chateau de St. Louis at Quebec on January 23rd, 1834. This castle had been used as the residence of the Governors of Canada for upwards of 150 years. It was never rebuilt. The characteristics of the commissioners appointed in 1835 by Lord Melbourne are humourously described. The Ear! of Gosford, Sir Charles Grey, and Sir George Gibbs were known as the three G.’s, gander, goose, and gosling. The conflict in Upper Canada between “ His Jockeyship” Sir F. B. Head and the Assembly, the dead- lock in 1836 in Lower Canadian politics, the party dissensions of the day, and the racial character of the strife in Quebec, are dwelt upon at length by Colonel Coffin. The earlier incidents of the civil war—the repulse of the troops at St. Denis, Wetherell’s victory at St. Charles, and the brutal murder of Lieutenant Weir are all recorded, but what is most worthy of publication is the remarkably vivid description given by the writer as an eye-witness of the battle of St. Eustache. Colonel Coffin characterizes, in a most pointed and vigorous manner, the aristocratic Whig lord, the Earl of Durham, who, in May, 1839, arrived in Canada as “ Her Majesty’s High Commissioner for the adjustment of certain important affairs affect- ing the provinces of Upper and Lower Canada.” A high eulogy is passed upon this distinguished man, who in the short space of five months investigated and determined the causes of dissension in these provinces, and whose report is one of the most valuable documents ever written upon colonial affairs. Many a tribute of affection and respect is paid to the honest soldier Sir John Colborne. Though these letters add but few historical facts to those already recorded, still nothing could better enable Canadians to realize vividly the state of their country in 28 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vo. Lis those critical years, 1834-40, than a perusal of this interesting corres- pondence. Mr. Bain referred to the series of papers on Lower Canada published last year in the Montreal Szar, and urged the importance of collecting and preserving historical documents such as that read this evening, as the principal characters were fast passing away. EIGHTEENTH MEETING. Eighteenth Meeting, 19th March, 1892, the President in the chair. Donations and Exchanges since last meeting, 59. Messrs. Howland and Macdougall were appointed to attend a meeting of the Ontario Artists’ Association with the Government and the Uni- versity authorities respecting the preservation of the old U. C. College buildings and grounds for art, science and literature. Messrs. Clark and Ridout were named auditors for the year. It was decided to call a special general meeting for the 9th April next to consider certain amendments to the regulations proposed by the Council. A vote of thanks was passed to Drs. Susanna Boyle and Letitia K. Meade for their services in the work of craniometry for publication in the last archeological report. Mr. J. W. L. Forster read a paper on “ Nineteenth Century Sacred Art.” After quoting authority to show that no such art exists in this age, he made a review of the rise of the art in the middle ages and the causes that led to it. Turning to the spirit of this age and its effect upon art, he said that the art of to-day exhibited less of the adornment and precision of the conventicle, and more of the pathos of the soul that has learned for itself the meaning of suffering, right down in the throb- bing populations of the world. Mr. Harvey had made the statement at the reading of a former paper that sacred art has become impossible. Mr. Forster does not meet this question in the spirit the statement was made. He evades the question by introducing a new definition which was not the common one. He questioned very much whether religion was at all artistic. It seemed to him that the tendency in religion was to consider moral and religious questions without the aid of art, and it was better so to consider them. Mr. Forster had made the remark that art flourished more when the people were illiterate. It was the object of the art of the middle ages to educate 1891-92]. NINETEENTH MEETING. 29 the people, hence sacred subjects were placed on the stage. He con- sidered the pictures of to-day simply figure pictures; they were not meant for incitements to faith. A paper on “ The Southwold Earthwork and Country of the Neutrals,” by Mr. Coyne, was read by Mr. David Boyle. The paper dealt very fully with accounts of the almost forgotton race of Neutrals, described the country where they lived, their manners, habits, and race. They formed part of the great Huron-Iroquois family, and their territory embraced the whole of South-Western Ontario from Lake Huron to the Niagara river. The paper also gave an account of the work of the missionaries with the Neutrals, and in fact nearly all the knowledge obtained regarding them came through the missionaries. NINETEENTH MEETING. Nineteenth Meeting, 26th March, 1892, the President in the chair. Donations and Exchanges since last meeting, 58. Walter M. Rutherford and George E. Musson were elected members The Council was instructed to take all necessary proceedings to have the Institute properly represented at the meetings to commemorate the centenary of the first parliament of Upper Canada. Dr. George Kennedy read a paper by Mr. G. S. Wilgress, B.A., on the “Game Laws of Ontario.” The writer stated that since he volunteered some four months ago to read a paper on the subject of “The Game Laws of Ontario,” much had been done towards State protection of the animals known as game, as is seen in the bills now before the Ontario House of Assembly to amend the Act for the Protection of Game and Fur-bearing Animals, and to amend the Act to Encourage the Destruction of Wolves, which doubtless embody the changes recommended in the excellent report of the Fish and Game Commission recently issued. The Forest park which it is proposed to establish in the district of Nipissing will also prove a valuable means of preserving game. The writer then dwelt at some length on the deer, the different methods of hunting them, and their enemies, which he classified as men, dogs, and wolves, the latter being by far the most destructive. The paper closed with an account of the moose or elk. Considering not only the value of the hide, but also that of the head and meat, he thought that the penalty imposed at present of from $10 to $50 was certainly not large enough to deter pot-hunters trom killing the animal, as they would 30 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. ITT. lose nothing after paying the fine, provided they could succeed in smuggling the carcase away so as to be able to sell it to advantage. After the reading of the paper, the sale of last year’s periodicals took place. TWENTIETH MEETING. Twentieth Meeting, 2nd April, 1892, the President in the chair. Donations and Exchanges since last meeting, 72. Rev. Philip Tocque read a paper on “The Phocas of Terreneuve,” a description of the seal fisheries of Newfoundland. A paper on “An Animated Molecule and its Nearest Relatives,’ by Dr. Daniel Clark, was read by Dr. George Kennedy. TWENTY-FIRST MEETING. Twenty-first Meeting, 9th April, 1892, the President in the chair. Donations and Exchanges since last meeting, 71. Mr. D. W. Beadle read a paper on ‘‘ Canadian Wild Flowers.” _ Mr. Macdougall wished that a copy of the paper could be placed in the hands of every one of the school children of the city. It would excite an interest in the study of our wild flowers. Mr. Noble thought that the subject that had been taken up was of interest to everybody, not as some of the papers read before the Institute, that were of interest only to some particular persons. In regard to High Park, he was glad that he had been one of those who had taken an interest in the preservation of its wild flowers and shrubs. Their efforts were successful so far as to prevent the wholesale laying waste of the wild flowers. In regard to the burning of High Park, he was very sorry to say that they had not been successful. Some plants that strike their roots deeper than others were not injured. He hoped that the practice would be discontinued. Mr. L. J. Clark had no doubt that the School Board would be to the expense of placing a copy of the paper read in the hands of every teacher. Mr. Armstrong spoke of the extensive destruction of the wild flowers. Every season we saw people digging them up and carrying them away, which was utter destruction; they may as well have been burned. Some beautiful flowers had entirely disappeared. With regard to High 1891-92]. TWENTY-FIRST MEETING. aL Park he did not expect any improvement till an intelligent gardener was placed at the head of affairs. The meeting was pursuant to notice constituted a Special General Meeting to consider certain amendments to the regulations proposed by the Council. The amendments were considered, and the regulations as amended were consolidated and adopted as follows, to come into force on Ist July, 1892 :— REGULATIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. (Consolidated and amended, 1892.) SECTION I. OF MEMBERSHIP, ELECTIONS, AND FEES. 1. The Canadian Institute, established under Royal Charter, November 4th, 1851, shall consist of Ordinary, Honorary, Corresponding, Life, Junior, and Associate members. All persons who are desirous of forwarding the objects of the Institute are eligible to membership. 2. Persons wishing to be admitted as Ordinary members must be proposed at _ least one week before election, in accordance with a form of application given in Form A, to be obtained from the Secretary. The election shall be by ballot, and the proportion of votes requisite for admission not less than three fourths of the votes cast. Provided that during the recess, 7.e., between May lst and November Ist, the Council (as hereinafter constituted) shall have power to elect members by the unanimous vote of those present at any meeting. 3. Persons under the age of 21 years may become Junior members. They shall not be subjected to election as above, but must be recommended by two members, in writing, according to Form B., and such recommendations shall be delivered to the Secretary, and transmitted to the Council for approval or rejection. On approval, the recommendation shall be signed by the Chairman, and the candidates shall be admitted. On their attaining the age of 21, they may apply to the Council for transfer to such other class of membership as they may desire. 4, Honorary members shall be persons eminent for their services to science and literature, and their number shall be limited to twenty-five, of whom not more than ten shall be residents of Ontario. They must be recommended by at least three members, who shall state the reasons for their recommendation, in writing, such recommendation to be transmitted through the Secretary to the Council. If approved, it shall be signed by the Chairman, and read at the next ordinary meeting, previous to the ballot being taken. 5. Corresponding members shall be persons who have shown interest in the 32 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, [ Vou. IIT. work of the Institute, or who have made or are likely to make contributions to the Proceedings or donations to the library, museums, etc. They shall be elected in the same way as Honorary Members for a term not exceeding five years. The number from the Province of Ontario shall not exceed ten. 6. Associate Members shall be those who wish to take special interest in portions only of the work of the Institute. They shall be admitted in the same way as Ordinary Members. 7. Associates and Junior members shall have all the privileges of member- ship, except the right of voting, holding office, taking part in the business management of the Institute, and receiving copies of its publications. 8. Honorary and Corresponding members shall have every privilege of Ordinary membership except that of holding office. 9. The annual fee or subscription shall be :—For Ordinary membership $5.00. For Junior membership $1.00. For Associate membership $2.00. Provided that no change shall be made in the subscriptions of members elected prior to Ist July, 1892. Every Ordinary, Junior or Associate Member shall be liable to continued pay- ment of the annual subscription until he has signified, in writing to the Secre- tary, his withdrawal, and paid all his dues to that date, when his liability shall cease. But any Ordinary Member not in arrears may compound for future subscriptions, and become a Life member on payment of $50.00. The Secretary shall inform each candidate of his election by sending Form C. (appended), and if he fail to pay the proper fee within one month, the election shall become null, and no renomination shall be made unless accompanied with the said fee. Until the payment of the fees no person shall enter into the privileges of membership. Any person elected after the 31st of March in any year shall be called upon to pay only a pro rata fee until December 31st next ensuing, but if such election be after the 30th September, he shall pay the subscription for the next year at the same time as the pro rata amount for the current year. All subscriptions shall be due for renewal on the first day of January (in advance). Ordinary members who reside more than ten miles from the General Post Office in the City of Toronto shall be called upon to pay only $3.00 as their annual fee. Any member whose annual subscription shall be six months in arrear shall be reported to Council on the first Monday of July, and unless the Council shall otherwise decide, shall be suspended from membership, and shall be notified of such suspension ; but such member may be re-instated within the year upon payment of arrears. 1891-92]. TWENTY-FIRST MEETING. 313° At least fourteen days previous to the annual election in each year, the Secretary and Treasurer shall prepare and sign a roll of the names and addresses of members who have paid their subscriptions, and are in good standing. Such roll, which shall be subject to correction by the Council only, shall be hung up in the Reading Room, and only those whose names appear on it shall be entitled to vote or hold office. The Council shall have power to remit the annual subscription or arrears thereof in case of a member who, from ill health, advanced age, or other sufti- cient cause, is unable to pay the same, or to accept from him in lieu thereof any manuscripts, books, drawings, models, or specimens which are in their opinion valuable to the Institute. But each case must be considered and reported on by a committee of Council appointed for such purpose. 10. If any complaint is brought against a member, the charge shall be in writing, signed by the complainant, and shall be considered by the Council, and opportunity given for a reply. If the Council deem it desirable, they may then call a special general meeting for the consideration of the matter at issue, of which not less than a week’s notice shall be given, and if two-thirds of the members present at that meeting are of opinion that such member should be expelled, the officer presiding thereat shall pronounce his expulsion, and the fee paid by the member for the current year shall be refunded to him. 11. For the study of special branches of Literature, Science, and Art, mem- bers may group themselves into such Sections as the Council may from time to time approve, subject to the ratification of the Institute at any of its ordinary meetings. Each Section shall form its own regulations and by-laws, but subject to the sanction of the Council, to whom they shall be transmitted for that purpose. Associate members who join any Section may vote and hold any office therein, except that of Chairman, and take part in all its proceedings. SECTION II. OF THE OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, AND THE MODE OF THEIR ELECTION. 1. At the annual general meeting, which shall be held on the first Saturday in May (unless that day falls upon a holiday, and then on the following Satur- day), there shall be elected a President, two Vice-Presidents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, an Editor, a Librarian, a Curator, and six other members to form the Council. 2. The election shall be confined to those nominated for such positions at the last ordinary meeting in April, but any one nominated to an office, and not elected thereto, shall be eligible as a Councillor without office. 3. Election shall be by ballot, and the Chairman shall appoint two Scrutineers to receive and examine the votes, and report them to him for a declaration of the result. 3 34 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, [ Vot. IT. 4, The officers above named shall first be balloted for by separate ballots, in the order mentioned, and one ballot shall thereafter be taken for members of the Council without office. If in any case the votes are equal, the decision shall be by ballot. 5. Each Section shall elect its officers at the meeting of the Section last pre- ceding the annual meeting of the Institute above referred to. If there are ten members of the Section present thereat, or if during the session the Section shall have held three meetings, each attended by ten members, the Chairman elected at such meetings shall be thereby held to be nominated as a member of the Council, in terms of Clause 1 of this Section, but not otherwise. The new Council shall enter upon their duties on the Saturday following their election. SECTION III. OF THE AUDITORS. Two Auditors shall be appointed at the last'ordinary meeting in March of each year; one by the members, the other by the Chairman at that meeting. They shall audit the accounts of the Institute for the year, and present their report to the Council at least one week before the annual general meeting. SECTION IV. OF THE COUNCIL. 1. The Council shall meet at least once a month during the session, or oftener if necessary. 2. Any two members of the Council may, by letter to the Secretary, require a special meeting to be called, and two days’ notice of such meeting must be given to each member of the Council. 3. At any meeting of the Council five members thereof shall constitute a quorum. 4. The Council shall have power to appoint committees for special purposes, and such committees shall report to the Council. 5. The Council shall present at the annual general meeting a report on the state of the Institute, in which shall be given an abstract of all the proceedings, and of the receipts and expenditures, during the year ending March 31st next before such meeting. 6. In the event of any office becoming vacant before the annual general meeting, by death or otherwise, the Council shall have power to fill the vacancy ; and in the event of any officer being unable to perform his duties, the Council shall have power to relieve him from their performance, and appoint another to act in his stead. 1891-92]. TWENTY-FIRST MEETING. 35 SECTION V. OF THE DUTIES OF OFFICERS. 1. The President shall have the general direction of the affairs of the Institute subject to the Regulations, preside at all meetings of the Institute or the Coun- cil at which he is present, and regulate and keep order in the proceedings. 2. The Vice-Presidents shall (in the order of their precedence) discharge these duties in the absence of the President. 3. In the absence from any meetings of the President and Vice-Presidents, the members present may elect one of their number to take the chair. 4. The Treasurer shall receive for or on account of the Institute all moneys payable to it, keep an account thereof, and deposit them forthwith in one of the Banks in the city of Toronto to the account of and for the use-of the Institute, unless otherwise ordered by the Council. No money shall be paid out except by order of the Council. 5. The Secretary shall keep the seal of the Institute and send out the notices provided for in these Rules. He shall take minutes of all the proceedings of the Institute and of the Council, enter them in proper books, and read at each meeting the minutes of the previous meeting. Subject to the direction of the Chairman he shall bring before the meeting all business matters according to the order established in. these regulations and conduct the correspondence of the Institute. 6. The Secretaries of Sections shall perform the like duties for their respective Sections, and shall, on or before the 20th day of April of each year, present to the Council a report on the work done by their Sections and the list of their members during the past year. If no such report be made, or if a Section have not held at least two meetings during the year, it shall, ipso facto, cease to exist. 7. An assistant Secretary may be appointed by the Council, who shall hold office during their pleasure. They shall define his duties and fix his remunera- tion. 8. The Editor shall have vwharge of the publication of the Transactions of the Institute in conjunction with an Editing Committee to be nominated by the Council from among its members at the first meeting thereof after the Annual meeting. All papers or abstracts of papers read before the Institute and intended for publication shall be handed to the Editor at the close of the meet- ings at which they are read, or as soon as possible thereafter, and the decision as to publishing any paper shall rest with the Editing Committee. Every report of any Section, Committee or officer of the Institute shall be made to the Council and approved by them before publication. 9. The Librarian shall have the care of all books, documents, plans, drawings, 36 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. 1 Oe and the general superintendence of the same, under the direction of the Council. He shall keep a list of all donations to the library, and report them to the Council. 10. The Curator shall have charge of the museums and of all models and specimens deposited therein, and the general superintendence of the same, under the direction of the Council. He shall keep a list of all contributions and con- tributors to the museums, and report them to the Council at the next meeting. Assistant Curators may be appointed by the Sections, and shall assist the Curator in the care of the museums and the specimens contained in them so far as relates to their own departments. SECTION VI. OF MEETINGS. 1. The ordinary meetings of the Institute shall be held at such times as the Council shall direct, but may be changed by resolution of the Institute at any general meeting, after one month’s notice. Until otherwise ordered, they shall be held at 20 o’clock on each Saturday from 1st November to lst of May. 2. The ordinary meetings of Sections shall take place at the times agreed upon by those sections, with the approval of the Council. 3. Special meetings of the Institute may be called :— (a) By the Council, giving six days’ notice in writing, and sending - the same by messenger or by mail to the last known address of every member. (b) By the President, or, in his absence, a Vice-President, on being required so to do by at least twelve members. Such requisition must be in writing, specifying its object. The same notice should be given as in the preceding clause provided. At such special meetings, twelve members shall constitute a quorum, and no motion shall be deemed carried unless there be such quorum present at the vote, and a majority vote in its favor. 4. Special meetings of Sections may be called by their Chairmen in any way authorised by their rules. 5. At the ordinary meetings of the Institute, the following order of business shall be observed as closely as circumstances will admit :— («) The minutes of the previous meeting shall be read, and after cor- rection (if necessary) and approval, shall be confirmed by the signature of the Chairman, and no entry shall be valid unless this is done. (6) Nominations of candidates for admission. (c) Business arising out of the minutes. (¢@) Communications and donations received since the last meeting. 1891-92]. TWENTY-FIRST MEETING. 37 (e) Communications from Council and from Sections. Reports from Librarian and Curator. (7) Notices of motion. (g) New business. (4) Election of candidates. One ballot shall be taken for all the candidates proposed on the same day, but if negative votes appear, each candidate shall be separately balloted for under Section I., clause 2. (t) The reading of papers. (j) Discussion thereof and remarks thereon. (&) Announcements. SECTION VII. OF BRANCH SOCIETIES. On the petition of ten or more persons, members of the Institute, or desirous of becoming members, and resident in any city or town in Canada, other than Toronto, the Council may make arrangements (subject to confirmation by the Institute at a special meeting) for the establishment at such places of branches of the Institute, to be governed as sections are. SECTION VIII. OF THE PROPERTY OF THE INSTITUTE. 1. The control of the property and effects of the Institute shall be vested in the Council. 2. No papers, plans, maps, or other property belonging to the Institute, shall be taken out of the rooms thereof, excepting under the rules to that end made and provided, but every member shall have a right to inspect the same at such hours as the Council may appoint. 3. Every person desirous of bequeathing to the Institute any manuscripts, books, maps, plans, drawings, instruments, geological, botanical, or other speci- mens, natural curiosities, works of art or manufacture, real estate or personal property, is requested to make use of the following form in his will, viz. :—‘‘I give and bequeath to the CanapiAn Institute, incorporated by Royal Charter, November 4th, 1851 (here enwmerate and particularize the effects or property intended to be bequeathed ), and I hereby declare that the receipt of the Treasurer of the said Institute for the time being shall be an effectual discharge to my executors for the said legacy.” SECTION IX. OF VISITORS. Members may introduce their friends or strangers visiting the city to the meetings of the Institute or to the reading rooms and museums under such regulations as the Council may from time to time make, and the Institute approve. 38 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vot. IDL SECTION X. AGREEMENT WITH THE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. Nothing in these Resolutions shall interfere with rights enjoyed under a special agreement heretofore made with the Natural History Society of Toronto. SECTION - XI. va OF ALTERING THE REGULATIONS. These Regulations shall come into force on the first day of July, 1892. A motion to alter them may be made at the annual general meeting, or at a special general meeting called for the purpose, and not otherwise ; and notice of the proposed alteration shall be given at two consecutive ordinary meet- ings prior thereto. APPLICATION FOR MEMBERSHIP. [Form A.] To The Canadian Institute : J, the undersigned, proposing to become a of the Canadian Institute, do hereby promise that I will be governed by the Royal Charter and -by the Regulations and By-laws of the said Institute, and I promise to promote its objects as far as shall be in my power, and to attend the meetings thereof as often as I conveniently can. Witness my hand, this day of 189 ee We, the undersigned, consider the applicant a fit and proper person to belong to the Canadian Institute. Witness our hands. ee eww eee eee ees eee e reese esse eee eeeeeeeeeeseessesesee tease } Members of the Institute. [Form B.] We, the undersigned, consider a fit and proper person to be a junior member of the Institute. He is years of age. Witness our hands. 1891-92}. TWENTY-FIRST MEETING. 39 [Form C.] CANADIAN INSTITUTE, Sir,— I have the honor to inform you that you were duly elected (a member) or (Associate) of the Canadian Institute, on the day of and I beg to enclose a copy of the regulations. The subscription for the current year, you will observe, is payable within a month of the date of your election. On your remitting the amount to the treasurer, all publications or notices to which you are entitled will be forwarded according to your directions. I have, &c., &c., Secretary. [Form D.] CANADIAN INSTITUTE, a I have to call your attention to Rule 9, Section 1, which provides that as your subscription was not paid prior to July Ist, inst., you are suspended from membership, but on payment of the same you will be re-instated. I have, &e., &e., Secretary. REGULATIONS OF THE LIBRARY AND READING ROOM. Adopted at meeting of Council, February 1st, 1892. 1. Any member may obtain the loan of any periodical from the Reading- Room, not to exceed two numbers at any one time, for a period not longer than one week, 2. Periodicals shall not be loaned until they have been on the table one month in the case of monthlies and quarterlies, and one week in the case of weeklies. 3. Any member may obtain the loan of any exchange from the Reading- Room after it has been 14 days on the table, not to exceed two numbers at any one time, for a period not longer than 14 days, which may be renewed for further periods on presentation of the volume at the Institute, if in the mean- time, no request for the same has been made by any other member. 4. Any member may obtain the loan of any book from the Library, not reserved under rule No. 11, not to exceed three volumes at one time, for a period 40 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vox IIT. not longer than one month, which may be renewed for a further period of one month on presentation of the volume at the Institute, if in the meantime, no request for the same has been made by any other member. 5. Non-resident members may obtain the loan of periodicals, exchanges or books, by paying the postage both ways. 6. If any member retain a periodical or exchange from the Reading-Room or a book from the Library longer than the time specified, he shall be notified by the Librarian and shall return it at once. Any member failing to comply with this regulation shall forfeit his right to receive the Transactions of the Insti- tute. 7. In case any book or periodical is injured or lost while in the possession of a member, it must be replaced by a perfect copy or an equivalent in money. 8. No book or periodical shall be removed from the Library or Reading- Room without the permission of the Librarian, and the presentation of a ticket signed by the applicant, who shall be responsible for the books, &e., taken out until such ticket is cancelled. 9. Any Member may introduce a friend, not resident in Toronto or vicin- ity, to the privilege of reading in the Library or Reading-Room for a period not exceeding one month, on entering his own name with that of the person intro- duced by him in a visitors’ book to be kept for that purpose, such privilege not to be renewed until a period of six months shall have elapsed. 10. Any person not a member of the Institute engaged in any special scientific enquiry or research, may be allowed to consult the exchanges and books under such rules and regulations as the Council shall from time to time determime. 11. The Librarian shall reserve from public circulation such periodicals, books, engravings, drawings, plans and other documents for reference purposes, as the Council may from time to time determine. TWENTY-SECOND MEETING. Twenty-second Meeting, 16th April, 1892, the President in the chair. Donations and Exchanges since last meeting, 43. George W. Grote was elected a member. A paper by Rev. Dr. MacNish on “Celtic Prosody” was read by Dr. George Kennedy. The paper, after alluding to the important place held in Celtic literature by poetry, dwells upon the contrast between Greek and Latin verse and Celtic verse, the scansion of the one depend- ing on quantity, that of the other on accent. Celtic poetry is founded up- 189 1-92]. TWENTY-THIRD MEETING. 41 on the agreement of sounds, hence arise rhyme, alliteration, and concord not always depending on the coincidence of final words, but also on some radical vowel in corresponding words, and these not terminal alone, but recurring in several places throughout the verse, Numerous illustrations were given of the various kinds of correspondence and concord, examples being taken from Gaelic, Irish, Armorican and Welsh poems, both ancient and modern, among the modern being Evan MacColl. The hope is ex- pressed that some one with sufficient leisure will prepare a Celtic classical dictionary to do for Celtic scholars what Lempriere and Smith have done for Greek and Latin students, and that some Hermann or Bentley will soon appear with a full and lucid treatise on Celtic prosody, acting, until his task has been happily completed, on the advice of one of the acknow- ledged masters of Latin verse: “ Nocturna versate manu, versate diurna.” TWENTY-THIRD MEETING. Twenty-third meeting, 23rd April, 1892, the President in the chair. Donations and Exchanges since last meeting, 61. A. Gilchrist and T. A. Patrick, M.D., were elected members. A communication was read from the Royal Society of Turin, announc- ing the conditions of the Bressa Prize. The following resolution was passed, on motion by Mr, Bain, seconded by Mr. Hunter :— “The Canadian Institute is called upon to mourn the loss of one of its honorary members, the late Abbé Provancher, who during his lifetime was an ardent and zealous naturalist, working in the fields of Botany and Zoology. He furthered, by his indefatigable labors as editor of Le Naturaliste Canadien during twenty years, the expansion of these branches of science, and gave to the world the results of his diligent and thorough research. The Institute places on record its appreciation of his services to science, and joins with the rest of the Dominion in mourning for the loss the scientific world has suffered in his death.” Mr. L. J. Clark read a paper on “ Lake Currents.’ He explained the nature of the investigations carried on by the City Engineering Depart- ment last summer, for the purpose of ascertaining if sewage could be safely discharged into the lake, and, if so, the most favourable place. Operations were carried on from 35 to 40 days during the months of July, August, September, and October, under the supervision of Mr. C. Rust, Assistant Engineer. The Provincial Board of Health made an 42 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. | VoL. TLL. analysis, both bacteriological and chemical, of a large number of samples of water, taken from the bay and from other points. The general ten- dency of the currents seemed to be controlled by the direction of the wind, although in some cases the undercurrent was found to be contrary to the wind and to the surface current. They mostly flow parallel to the coast line, that is north-east and south-west ; and he is of the opinion that if the sewage were discharged well out into the lake, to the east of the intake pipe, there would be no danger of contaminating the water supply of the city. The intake pipe is considered to be in the best possible location, as it is the nearest point where deep water can be reached: and the main thing is to carry the sewage beyond the range of the mouth of the pipe. Mr. Alan Macdougall read a paper on “ The Indian as an Artist.” He acknowledged the indefatigable labors of Mr. David Boyle in the cause of archxology and the generous liberality of the Provincial Government in aiding this branch of science by its annual grants. Referring to the Indians of this Province, he regretted the absence of any early writings from which one could learn anything of the technique of the Indians when the Jesuits laboured among them. Judging them by their pottery, there was reason to believe they must have had some alliance, ethno- logical or commercial, in early days with that interesting nation the Mound Builders. By numerous illustrations of their work, he pointed - out the beauty of form in their flint arrow heads, the stone chipped celts, and other implements, all of which contain the special angles which form the graceful lines of the Gothic arch and other proportions which grace many architectural designs. Passing on to the Pacific coast, a rapid review was given of the work of the Queen Charlotte Island Indians, for whom he claimed an Egyptian origin, as the basis of their art. Filtered through many vicissitudes of wanderings and comminglings with other nations, the origin of their art was lost ; but a hereditary instinct seemed to be left to them which gave them the skill requisite to produce the beautiful slate carvings which are undoubtedly entitled to rank as works of art. Assuming this to be the characteristic of the tribes, there seems to be sufficient authority to advance the theory that years ago, by trade if by no other means, the British Columbia Indians came under the influence of East Indian, and perhaps Japanese, art. Even in their grotesque carvings there are evidences of these influences. Referring to the famous totem poles, he illustrated through numerous photographs his belief that they were heraldic symbols, and expressed his belief that the Indians of this conti- nent are the remains of a civilization which has been the foster mother of Greek and Roman and all other art. 1891-9 2]. TWENTY-FOURTH MEETING. 43 TWENTY-FOURTH MEETING. Twenty-fourth Meeting, 30th April, 1892, the President in the chair. Donations and Exchanges since last meeting, 45. Thomas McCraken and D. W. Beadle were elected members. Nominations were made for officers and members of Council for the ensuing year. The President read a translation from the Italian of the conditions of the Bressa Prize. A paper by Mr. Richard Nettle on “The Artificial Propagation ot Salmon and Trout in Canada,” was presented by the Secretary. The first ovarium was constructed in Mr. Nettle’s office in Quebec in 1857. He appears to have been very successful in his efforts. In 1862, an enthusi- astic fly-fisher told him the River Moisie had increased its output in four years from 300 to 800 barrels. Reports from other rivers were equally favourable. He mentions an interesting case of gold fish leaping out of their division of an aquarium into that of the young salmon and devouring them; and another in which ova taken from a trout had vivified and hatched out in large numbers. A. F. Chamberlain, M.A., Ph.D., read a paper on “Colour Comparisons in the Low German Poets.” He discussed the use of colour compari- sons by Meyer, Groth, Boysen, Babst, Bornemann, Weber, Ahrens, Ernst, Heyse, and other Plattdeutsch poets, paying special attention to those who wrote in the Ditmarsch dialect. By “colour comparisons” are meant such compounds and similes as correspond to the English :— Snow-white, pitch-dark, sky-blue, blood-red, bottle-green, green as grass red as a lobster, black as a crow, etc. Individual writers sometimes, prefer special forms, such as “rose-red,” “white as chalk.” The users of dialect often show their keener insight into nature by the comparisons which they employ. Thus we have “green as a beech tree in May,” ‘eyes blue as the forget-me-nots,” “yellow as the dandelion,” “eyes black as currants,’ “white as a birch,’ etc. The presence of certain things favours the general use of some one form of comparison more than all others. Thus in some districts ‘‘white as a sea-mew,” “white as chalk,” “green as grass,” may attain such general acceptance. He also referred to and discussed some curious figurative uses of the words for colour in the Plattdeutsch languages, such paradoxical forms as rot black (“red ink,” literally, “red black”), groen black (“green ink”) occur not infrequently. In one dialect witt lachen (“to laugh white”) signifies to laugh in a kind or agreeable manner, and in another, gel snacken (“to 44 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. IIT. talk yellow”) means to talk High German, which the Plattdeutsch peasant pleases to term “nonsense.” In another part of the Low German linguistic territory an imperfectly known or uncertain colour is called blitzblau und dunnergrau (“lightning blue and thunder grey”) though it may be neither blue nor gray. Prof. A. B. Macallum, B.A., M.B., Ph.D., read a paper on “ The Struc- ture of Cell Protoplasm.” It treated of the question of the structure of living protoplasm as known from studies on the dead cell, and from observations on the living elements. The various views were com- mented upon, and it was pointed out that all of these were the result of observations in limited fields of cystological research; that while, for example, the reticular structure is present in some cellular ele- ments, the vesicular forms in others, and the fibrillar in others again, neither of these types of structure may be present in the living cell, and that, therefore, students must look to some other view which will cover, more fully than those at present at their disposal, all the phenomena of cell structure already observed and at the same time explain the rela- tions of the nucleus to the cell and to life. A view was advanced that the cell protoplasm is an intermediary organ between the living element proper—the nucleus—and the outer world, and that the protoplasm is largely, if not wholly, derived from the nucleus elements, and therefore, as life advances, in accordance with Prof. Minot’s view, the nuclear substance diminishes while the cell protoplasm is increased so much that the physical conditions imposed by so relatively large an intermediary organ bring the life of the element to an end. This view was applied to the elucidation of some of the phenomena connected with secretion, excretion, movement, etc. Its connection also with the present views as to what life is was also discussed. FORTY-THIRD ANNUAL MEETING. The Forty-Third Annual Meeting was held on 7th May, 1892, the President in the chair. Donations since last meeting, 80, including 77 back numbers of The Canadian Journal, presented by the executors of S. B. Harman; Ex- changes, 51. A letter was read from the P. O. Dept., Ottawa, stating that the Post- master General had received authority from the Executive Council to relieve the Institute of the expense of prepaying postage on their reports issued from time to time, and to either frank them or place the necessary stamps upon them. The Secretary was instructed to return thanks to the Post Master General. 1891-92]. FORTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT. 45 The election of officers and members of Council for the ensuing year resulted as follows :— President—Arthur Harvey, Esq. Vice-Prestdent—Prof. A. B. Macallum, Ph.D. Secretary—Alan Macdougall, M. Inst. C.E. Treasurer—James Bain, Jr., Esq. Librartan—D. R. Keys, M.A. Curator—David Boyle, Esq. Editor—George Kennedy, M.A., LL.D. Members of Council—O. A. Howland, Esq. L. J. Clark, Esq. AY Blue. Esq: James vit. Mearee, Esq. John Maughan, Ch. Biolog. Sec. J. B. Williams, Sec’y Biolog. Sec. JC) Hamiton, dL LB.) (Cho Mist Sect. B. E. Walker, Ch. Geol. and M. Sec. The 43rd Annual Report was read and adopted. The following resolutions were passed :-— That the thanks of the Institute be tendered to the Press for their courtesy in reporting so fully the meetings of the Institute. That the Council be requested to consider the propriety of apply- ing to the Dominion Government for a supplementary charter to add History, Literature and Art to the objects the Institute may study and promote, and to make clear the mode of election of the members of the Council. FORTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT. The Council of the Canadian Institute has the honor to lay before its members its Forty-third Annual Report. It is once more an agreeable task to record the progress of the Institute. The meetings have all been well attended. An ample supply of papers, with a range as wide and varied as in any previous session, has created much interest and elicited spirited discussions at the ordinary meetings. During the present session the regulations and by-laws have been remodelled and adopted at a special general meeting held for that pur- pose on the oth of April. Considerable changes have been made; two new classes of members have been introduced—corresponding members 46 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. ie and associate. The former is an old class revived, on lines likely to promote interest in the Institute. The latter is a new class, which has very wide limits, created for the purpose of enlisting the co-operation of many who, not sufficiently advanced in science to be interested in all the work of the Institute, are earnest workers in such subjects as history, archeology, geology, botany, political and economic science. The small fee of $2 per annum will enable many to join, and take advantage of the liberal privileges extended to this class. The rules of the library and reading room have also been amended. The new rules came into force on the Ist of February and have since that date been carried out to the advantage of the members. The interest in the work of the sections increases. The Biological or Natural History Section has held 15 meetings, at which 15 papers were read. The field days have been as successful as formerly, and the work of the sub-sections has been vigorously carried on. The Historical Section has increased its membership from 27 to 45. Six meetings were held during the session ; all were well attended ; six papers were read. The Section makes special note of the increasing interest in historical matters, both in the Institute and by the general public, and expresses satisfaction at the steps taken by the government towards the establishment of a natioual park. The Mining and Geological Section held three meetings at which a like number of papers were read. The membership has not increased, though they look for an increase in the immediate future. Early in the summer of last year, a movement was inaugurated to con- sider the most advantageous scheme for enlarging the scope of the Insti- tute, and the advisability of removing to a more central and readily accessible situation. Iwo plans were presented: one embraced the enlargement of the present building by adding a museum on the vacant portion of our lot, and remodelling the present reading room and library ; the other contemplated the removal of the Institute from the present site to one in a more northern or up-town district. After several meetings had been held, at which the projects were fully discussed, the members at a special General Meeting called for the purpose on the 19th June, 1891, vetoed all the proposals laid before them. The adoption of cosmic time, in relation to the use of the 24-hour notation, has been greatly advanced by the labors of a special committee of the American Society of Civil Engineers, the chairman of which was our distinguished honorary member, Sandford Fleming, LL.D., C.M.G. 1891-92]. FORTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT. 47 The Committee recommended in their final report which was presented on the 20th January, 1892, the adoption of the new notation of time on all railways in America “on the 12th October, 1892; that date being suggested in compliment to the fatherland of Columbus.” The report states that “From the latest information received, it is evident that Europe is now making the first great step in time reform which America made in 1883, in introducing Standard Time into general use. In the second important step, the adoption of the 24-hour notation, this country issomewhat anticipated by India, and we need not be greatly astonished to hear of a rapid development of .the reform in Europe, when once the first step is fully taken.” The Council noted with much pleasure the formation of a Royal Com- mission to enquire into the protection of fish and game. A Royal Commission has been issued to enquire into and report upon the preservation of the forests and the formation of a National Park. A paper of very great interest to the fruit-growing industry was pre- sented by Dr. W. R. Shaw, the subject being the disease known as “Peach Yellows.” This paper created a deep interest in the great peach-growing district, the Niagara peninsula. Resolutions were passed by the Lincoln Farmers’ Institute, and the Fruit Growers’ Association, the Council of the Township of Niagara, and other bodies, requesting the Institute to bring the subject under the notice of the Local Legisla- ture during its last session. An influential deputation from the bodies named, accompanied by a Committee from the Institute, waited on the Government, by whom they were courteously received. Owing to the late period of the session it was not practicable to introduce the legisla- tion asked for; there is no doubt, however, that at the next session important legislation will be obtained intended to prevent the spread of peach yellows, black knot, and other dreaded diseases among our orchards, and that this valuable and extensive industry will have proper protection accorded to it. A paper on Electoral Representation and the Rectification of Parlia- ment, by Dr. Sandford Fleming, has created great interest. A friend of the Institute, who has declined to make known his name, has generously placed at the disposal of the Council the sum of $1,000, to be awarded in whole or in part, for the best measure which if made law would give to the whole Canadian people equal representation in Parlia- ment and each elector due weight in the Government through Parliament. The conditions of the competition have received the most careful atten- tion of the Council, and will be made public in a few days. 48 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. | Von. ITI. The invitation to hold a summer convention in the town of Penetan- guishene led to a very pleasant and interesting visit to soil rendered historical by the establishment there at a very early epoch of a fort tor the protection of the Jesuit Fathers and the French interests at large. The convention was held on the 25th and 26th September, the meetings were well attended, and the papers read by the resident historians were of much interest. An Excursion was made to Christian Island on the 26th. A meeting was held in the Council chamber of the Indian village of St. Joseph, at which Chief Samuel Assance, Thomas Skye, a veteran of 97 years of age, and John Monague spoke. The latter, an old man of 80, gave an interesting account of how he and others were taken to Toronto, in 1837, and sent to look out and intercept Mr. W. Lyon Mackenzie. He added naively that as he and his party did not know Mr. Mackenzie, they did not see how they could intercept him. Fort Ste. Marie was thoroughly explored. Another excursion was made to Fort Ste. Marie, on the River Wye, near the town of Midland, on the 28th ; the ruins examined, the site traced out, the water gate readily recognized and the channel of the canal, which had been used by the Jesuits for approaching the fort, identified. A proposal to secure this extremely interesting historical site for future preservation as a public memorial has received encouragement, and an advantageous offer for the purchase of the land on which the fort stands has been made to the Institute. The Council takes pleasure in again acknowledging the generosity of the Government in continuing the Archeological grant. The Archeological Report of the curator published in advance of this, again deals with a wide field of interest. In the chapter on craniometry, 48 skulls are figured and described ; the Institute is indebted to Drs. S. K. Boyle and L. K. Meade for their kind labors in this matter. The* demand for this report has been so great that the edition is already exhausted. Additions by purchase and presentation have been made to the museum of specimens from all parts of the Dominion, the greater num- ber being naturally from friends in our own province. A full list of the names of donors to the museum is published in the report. An agreement was entered into with the Public Library Board for the transfer of the custody of our Archzological collection to that Board, to be placed in their proposed museum. The arrangement has un- fortunately been interfered with by adverse action of the City Council, but there is still a prospect of arrangements being arrived at which will carry out in part this plan, thereby relieving the overcrowding of the 1891-92 ih FORTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT. 49 museum and library and placing considerable space at the disposal of the sections for the extension of their special work. The approaching centennial celebration of the formation of the Prov- ince of Upper Canada, and the institution of parliamentary government which gave us self-governing powers, is to be celebrated with fitting cere- monies at Niagara on the 16th July, and in Toronto on the 17th September. The Council impresses on the members the value of the occasion to urge on the government and the public generally, the great importance of preserving historical documents deserving the attention of the administrations of all the provinces in the Dominion, as well as the preservation of historical spots, such as the numerous forts scattered over the provinces, which have played important parts in our early history. The accommodation in the reading room is inadequate, and the com- fort of the members in consequence much impaired ; it is intended to relieve this as soon as the museum can be moved to the public library building. The Treasurer’s accounts have been audited and found correct. They will be found in Appendix IT. The state of the membership will be found in Appendix I. When the new rules and regulations come into force on the Ist of July of this year, the present associates will be termed juniors. An entirely new class has been formed who will be known as associates. During the past year the Institute has lost by death one honorary member, the Abbé Provancher ; two life members, Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, and Mr. John Page, and one ordinary member, Mr. Chas. Levey. The thanks of the Institute are due and are tendered to the Press for full reports of our meetings. The reports of the Sections are given in full in the appendices, The Council again acknowledges with pleasure the services rendered to the Institute by the Assistant Secretary, Mr. R. W. Young, M.A. All of which 1s respectfully submitted. ARTHUR HARVEY, Prestdent. ALAN. MACDOUGALE: TORONTO, 29th April, 1892. Secretary. 4 50 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSFITUTE, [ Vou. ne APPENDIX I. MEMBERSHIP. flenoraryViemibeng iwc 16). otis ike. 4 oe eet 6 le JMVCiMD SRE mm eW ee a biel d sa Beart Ua AME wane 9 Ordinary Members, May '1,/LSOIei. a... 278 ND SUS ie ae ae rant ct 4" «bok bea etite Ata I Resionations is.) .2 35. Pe Ae aor sae 12 SUSPENSE. ey ered iy Ma. |) AEN enna I Inefah CaVSS RCS ie Sera Ih BAe En By aah ead Cao eg 16 243 Wembers eleesedwiSOl-G2 4) 7 iy weir on: 40 —— 283 Total membership, 1 May, 1892..... 298 eNSSOCIates ase Way lr, TOOl acum gala LZ, EN CSIGMA TIONS Messe ss) cl sof oo Sten veneer 2 Nae Ss eraseee ge kes seus i Ae benuen ae (oere I Wransiemed tolmembers../ ace cam < 2 ape te: DotaleN ay Heer se2 tec okey Lok 12 AE INC ET. FINANCIAL STATEMENT. James Bain, Jr., Treasurer, in account with the Canadian Institute for the year ending March 3iIst, 1892. DR. To Balance in) Inuperial Bank - seiner ect = 5 00 RP RVCELN @niarGes =) de ste zich enh. oars ue 3 60 PMPLTIECHES Ue Fz. hha gah. en taka Nae. <8 AN, sot 200 OO “ Balance in Bank to Building Fund... . 700 OO ¥ : ES Ordinary Account 80 rel Seats Br ees F200 |e Neen OBR “aR Re 9 4I _ $2,731 61 Examined and found correct. OHN G. RIDOUT (Signed) J © April 25th, 1892. ASSETS AND eLEABLEL ULES, ASSETS. Building and) Grounds. «sleet. vs is 2% $18,000 00 LUT S08 alee ee eR ea eae, ag 5,000 OO SOC CIMEN Se Was sites 2 eRe Ss 6,000 00 etspilal. P roperby... =o. comets Ss 3 8 ss 1,000 00 Building Futid; Cash in Bank, 8. .2..... 700 0O JY CREAR Auditors. 51 52 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. III. LIABILITIES. Motigage due n8@on fae) ene $ 4,000 00 Balance in favour of the Institute...... 26,700 OO $30,700 00 Audited as an approximate estimate. (Signed) JOHN G. RIDOUT, Ava L. |) CLARK: } Te April 25th, 1892. ARCHAEOLOGICAL FUND. James Bain, Jr., in account with the Archeological grant to the Canadian Institute, 1891-92. 1891. May tt. Loebalaace in Hands 70). $ 180 05 qule.2 2: ih andal Ghatit. geyser «cer 1,000 00 Balance due Treasurer...... Gatoy _ $1,187 68 189). By Travelling Expenses and Postage .... $ 188 45 © JPurchase-of Specimens/ane wa se ses 388-85 ©) CUEAtOLS SAlaGy. sj saa meraaee 5 oto econ 400 OO S@aSeS. oat chica saa eeapne tee ge Ne Mn 80 00 “pan Dratt (sree avn cee meee aki, 38 $1,187 68 Audited and found correct as per vouchers. (Signed) teen \ Auditors. April 25th, 1892. We the undersigned Auditors beg leave to report that we have checked the cash account with the vouchers, and have examined the bank book and find the various items and balances correct; and have also examined and compared with vouchers the various items relating to the Archeological grant, and find the same, as well as the balance due the Treasurer, correct. Respectfully submitted. (Signed) tt Cee peal Toronto, April 25th, 1892. 1891-92]. “é FORTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT, 53 APPENDIX III. PAPERS READ DURING THE SESSION (891-92. Vie 20. a7. “A Critical Review of the Enterprise of Christopher Columbus,’—Inaugural Address by the President, A. Harvey. “The Formation of Niagara River,’—W. J. Smith. “Déné Roots,’—Rev. A. G. Morice, O.M.I. “Peach Yellows,”—W. R. Shaw, M.D. “St. Columba, or Colum Cille,’-—Rev. Neil MacNish, 1 ba BY “ The Spirit of National Art,’—W. A. Sherwood. “The Finances of the American Civil War,”’—W. A. Douglass, B.A. “ Testing the New Water-pipe,’—Levi J. Clark. “The Aborigines, or Boeothicks of Baccalaos,’—Rev. Philip Tocque, A.M. “Economic Science for Canadian Students,’—W. Houston, M.A. “The Abenakis of the Saint John River,’—Edward Jack, Fredericton, N.B. “The Volcano of Kilauea and the Hawaiian Islands,’— H. Spencer Howell, Galt, Ont. “The Great Centre: An Astronomical Study,’—J. C. Hamilton, LL.B. “Siberian Inscriptions,’-—Rev. Prof. Campbell, LL.D. “Electoral Representation, and the Rectification of Parliament,’—Sandford Fleming, LL.D., C.M.G. “Early Traders and Trade Routes in Ontario and the West,”—Captain Ernest Cruikshank. “History of Greenland and Iceland,’—W. D. Stark. “Rutherford’s Narrative: An Episode in the Pontiac War, 1763: An unpublished MS., with introductory notes,’—Arthur Harvey. é “Lieut.-Col. Coffin and his Private Correspondence during the Rebellion of 1837,’—H. R. Fairclough, M.A. “Gleanings from European Art Fields; II. Paper: (Nineteenth Century Sacred Art),”—J. W. L. Forster. “The Southwold Earthwork, and the Country ofthe Neutrals,’—James H. Coyne, B.A. D4 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. UE 1892. Mar. 26. “ Apribe 2. ce 9. ie 16. 123: ce 30 “ The Ontario Game Laws,’—G. S. Wilgress, B.A., Bar- rister, Huntsville. “The Phocas of Terre-Neuve,’—Rev. Philip Tocque, A.M. “An Animated Molecule and its Nearest Relatives,’— Daniel Clark, M.D. “Canadian Wild Flowers,’—Delos W. Beadle. “Celtic Prosody,’—Rev. Neil MacNish, LL.D. “ Lake Currents,’”——-Levi J. Clark. “The Indian as an Artist,’—Alan Macdougall, M. last, CP. “Colour Comparisons in the Low German Poets,’—A. F. Chamberlain, Ph. D. “The Structure of Cell) Protoplasm,’—-Prof.> Als: Macallum, Ph. D. “On the Artificial Propagation of Salmon and Trout in Canada,’—Richard Nettle. Total number of papers read at the ordinary meetings of the Institute during the session 1891-92, 31, which may be classified as follows :— Archeology Astronomy . Biology ... Botany =. ..7\: Engineering Ethnology PinegAtts): Geography Geology .. eh oe eg oh ee T STORY. G25. Sh 2 Hees Ane ee Ahi fe a ee ane MW ethera tune es ceis 2 ot eee Sep sae Abts | ogee SP ATlOlOg ye. ue Noi: 524).en eee De eye an ae ee WiMeisciculturens y..% ae ae eA e Sa en 2 Political Science’... <1... amare SA ei ae: ZV LOOLRY.\ Any tee el eee AN etme Eg fa! OH BMiscellancous, S220 seen oe — OC ena ee x Baya cst sme I READ AT MEETINGS OF SECTIONS. Biologicals Section! 7 hae i? kn ses aye ee ee es ee 15 Geological and Mining Section) 23) aaa ace 3 FMistonicaliSectionjiet cease Vee Re) Senn One 6 C0 2) a A SCR a gee oath eee Roy, ome a Aas Ae 24 Total readvdurine the’ Session ye e-nee ease s. oe 55 1891-92]. REPORT OF THE LIBRARIAN. 55 REPOR DP OF; DEE. LIBRARIAN. TORONTO, May 6th, 1892. To the Council and Members of the Canadian Institute :— GENTLEMEN,—In presenting his annual report your librarian has first to record the establishment of a new set of rules intended to facilitate and increase the use of books and periodicals by making it possible for a larger number of members to avail themselves of the privileges of the library and the reading room. The experience of the few weeks during which the rules have been in operation gives evidence that they have had the effect intended, and have been appreciated by the members whose earnest co-operation in carrying them out will add greatly to the educa- tive value of this important branch of the work of the Institute. The cataloguing of the library has been deferred owing to the state of the treasury, which has rendered it impossible to obtain even the smallest appropriation for such a purpose. Your librarian would urge upon the Council and members the importance of a catalogue and the insecurity that results from the lack of one in the present state of the library, The plan for a bibliographical catalogue of the contents of the Insti- tute’s periodicals and exchanges has made better progress. This scheme requires men rather than money, and it is a pleasing proof of the scien- tific ardor of the members of the Institute that a number of gentlemen have undertaken this laborious but not uncongenial task. In connection therewith the President has suggested the preparation of a bibliography of the Transactions of the Institute to which he himself has already made an important contribution, and which it is proposed to complete in the course of the coming session. In conclusion your librarian begs to report the library statistics as follows :— LIBRARY STATISTICS—1891-92. PeriodicdispsUNSeri Ded fOr. e fhe. 4. anh st .coe 34 Separate numbers received from April 1, 1891, Lor Or tS PaO 2:7 saat) Go! sate tas 835 Number of books and periodicals taken out... 2,013 Number of societies, individuals and periodicals to which the publications of the Institute ANE e SelM ie ee poet, «> (or Sea MAS eo Te slate 2 ele 525 56 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vor. IIT. DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES. (From April, 1891, to, April 1892.) IDOnatiOns Ae eet ee ses. ce Sets, 2 ap eee wate enced 176 Exchanges received from— Gti ate eee ee NG: ass sas Bechet gt apnea tage 247 Unitedi Statesty 2 ss csi bea aes iene QOII Mexico, West Indies and South America...... 59 Great britaswand wnelatid: >: es he eke atest 484 Aiastriaa Hiammmary yh) 62) 2 ke hale ole Sede 157 BLOT Gin ye epee s chee Leaeae oe Pa aRIM El aeA, 18 WTO G01 tan, atonle, tafi-gran (C.)=RR.: t-n 224 Summer (first or early)...... cin (C. and L.), cine (H.), sine (M.)=RR.: c-n 225 Ursa major (constellation) ..yeta, yita (D.R.), yéc-ta (M.), yéh-tai (Ch.)=RR.: y-t-. Ursa minor is rendered by the same words followed by the diminutives tsél, tsal : yaz, etc. ADJECTIVES.* 220 NGOOK:? NICE, len. eee ne-zufi, ne-zin, ne-zoh (R.M.), ni-zjin (L.), n-zu (C.)=RR.: Zu Zap faa LOT ge IAG Cees tL A CaN el-nez, ne-nez ne-naz (Ch.), nin-djiw (L.); en-tew*=RR.: -z. The C. say n-yiz. BESISHOLEY To son shee once atone e-tue, ifi-tue, nan-ti (Ch.), n-tuk (C.)=RR.: t- P2OMMOAVV sien inn aia ae oe ne-taz, non-taz (Ch.), n-taz {(C.), nen-ta (B.L.), ni-tije (L.) SSlRUPL STi BO MNO MG series tome etre oar .....nan-tzai (Ch.), ni-tzik (L.), n-tzak (L.C.), n-tza (C.), ne-zare (M.)=RR.: tz- SOT HICK ayes eis eos ie ls cetarereets des-thi, de-thi, to-thai, tidi-thii.—RR.: th- Zea EL OGH age SERCO eae IBIS t’sa’tan, t’se’tafine, t’se’tale (M.); if’tofine, RR.: ’tan from a’tan ‘‘ leaf.” 2230 Plat) (cepaters))) ociaes anraene de-kraj, ta-kray, inde-krale (H.), déy-kay (L.)=RR.: kraj 23 UIE WOTOMG tynic jc. nna «shove betets ne-tca, ifi-tco (R.M.), efi-tcai (V.M.), nan-tca (Ch.), nifi- tcyé (L.), n-tcé (C.)=RR.: te. ZACMOM Alltec cleo Ah erect nan-tsul (Ch.), n-tsul (C.), n-tsol (L.C.), tsula (M.), otséle (M.), ifi-tséle (H.), kwen-tsél (L.)=RR.: ts- and a labial. 220 NVaLMate cee va ee ne-zal, ne-zéli (M.), ni-zu (L.), fwe-wele (H.)=RR.: z-] and commutables with z. 237 ZOOL Ge aie ole eer oe ...nin-’kraz, ni-’kraz, nez-’kraz, we-’kra (H.), zey-’kraz (L.) ; ellu (M.), we-klu (H.), elluze (H.), eklu (L.)=RR.: ‘krazy: =a BEM Wieblis knee teen ea teeee .sal-tsél, ol-tsél, nil-tséli, we-tsél, nal-tsa (L.)=RR.: tsél *See Introduction, remark 6, 1891-92]. DEN ROOTS. 161 220) Moist)....--..-.-.-.-=-..) nal-zor, te-zo, éll-zjo (L.)=RR.: zo AOMEUB CL eras. ce erie on Sisk Nevalete kone de-tele (H.), tél-tel (Ch.) ; di-t’si, di-t’sig (L.) ; tal-’kon (C.) =RR:: tél, “blood”; t’si, ‘vermillion”; kron, ** fire.” BRUMUS LOY > oc nic.cis's ons ogee al cigs tal-pa, del-paye, kote-pa (H.), teco-péze=RR.: pa PROVEITOY, (hair). es eae vce eon dél-kray (M.), tal-krey (C.), de-kay (H.), da-kay (L.), de- krali (S.)=RR.: kray PARMVICULOW?..s:0 calf ags 54 ven an dél-tsor, tal-tso, de-kfwoy (H.), za-tsow (L.) RR-: tso Sa LON OT eeiae ees aoe ez-tsoy, re-tsor (S.), ye-kfrwo (H.), za-tsow (L.), RR.: tso 24S fg hd 4h Sn ee een E ele dé-t’sé, say-t’si (C.), tenin-t’sa (H.), tinin-t’sik (L.), sa[-t’sik (L-C.)=RR.: t’si. 240) Precious; dear.....5...:.: tiz-thi, der-thi, de-thi.=RR.: thi. Hence tane-thi, mutih- thi, ‘* man- Teer ” old-man ; “‘ chief-precious,” big chief. The C. of 100 years ago said than instead of thi. PATE MUGGY (water)... s2000-. dzan, dzin, dzoi.—=RR.: dz-n ZASMINGLIMNELOUS << 351 Reduplication, mark of ..na in all the dialects and N., except in L. and B., ne. RR. == S52 eRVECIDLOCIEY «eee iat & je 1G) Dh SS wal (ULASSINIRG 2 Fp Saal 2CSMRGHECUION cccioesrye- mae nt ede, ada, eta, ata= RR: -t- BoAMReJECHION. cis oe ec lee ‘on, ‘an, ‘onne=RR.: ° with a nasal sound. 355 Relation to water ........ tha in all the dialects except in L.: thé. =RR.: th- 96. 356 Relation to the fire....... tsé, tsiye, tcl, kfwi.=RR.: ts-and 357 Relation to the soil. ..... ni, ne=RR. 70. 358 Amplificative ....-....... tco, tea, teor, tcore, tsteyé—=RR.: same as No. 234. 359 Diminutive.......... ... yaz, yaze, aze ; tsol, tsél, tséle. —=RR.: same as No. 9 and No. 235. ; NUMERALS. 260 One (thing |S. -.2 2 esses se. = injare (M.), injagé (H.), injeg (L.), ito (C.), itti (Ch.), Pkre (E>) RRS |= Baie Abney (Wannes Aconooobaan ae nakhe (M.), nankhe (C.), nakrén (L.), nankho (L.C.), onkhe (H.), néak (Bab.)=RR.: na, ‘‘again”’ and khe “feet.” soci hree.(things) 92.46 : 1891-92.] THE MIGRATION OF THE EVENING GROSBEAK IN 1890. 185 These Pine Grosbeaks visited Toronto in great numbers while the Evening Grosbeaks were here. They were also very numerous six years ago, in February and March, 1884. Professor Newton of England thinks that the Sand Grouse migrations to Europe were caused by great increase in numbers, and a consequent difficulty in procuring the means of existence. The evening Grosbeaks, probably, breed in uninhabited districts, where they have no human and, perhaps, very few natural enemies. They may have so increased in numbers that their usual winter supply of food was inadequate for them, and hence the unusual extent of their migration. But whatever was the cause, they all seem to have returned to their usual haunts for the breeding season. THEIR FOOD. Their food was very various. In Ontario they fed on the berries of the Cedar and Mountain Ash, on apple seeds, choke cherries, haw-stones, and on the sprouted seeds of the Maple and White Ash. They were very tame while in Toronto, often allowing themselves to be approached within a few feet, and many of them were caught alive, and kept for some time in cages. One female belonging to Mr. G. E. Atkinson is still living. I have a mounted specimen of a male bird on the table, kindly lent by Mr. Blackburn, which shows very distinctly the whitish spot on the inner web of the two outer feathers on each side of the tail. Only a few of the males show this marking, the tail feathers being, generally, entirely black. The specimen exhibited, was taken in Toronto during the second week in February, 1890. 186 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. IIE. THE BRESSA PRIZE. (Translated from the Italian, and read 3rd April, 1892.) In the year 1836, Cesare Alessandro Bressa, Doctor of Medicine, died at Mortara, Italy, leaving to the Royal Academy of Science of Turin, the means for awarding biennial prizes as follows :— The net income of the first two years is given as a reward to that Scientist of any nation, who during the past four years has made the most remarkable and useful discovery, or produced the most celebrated work in connection with Physical and Experimental Science, Natural History, Pure and Applied Mathematics, Chemistry, Physiology and Pathology, not excluding Geology, History, Geography or Statistics. The net income of the second two year period is given for the same services, but competition is confined to Italian Scientists. As the principal is over 100,000 francs, the biennial prize amounts to about $2,500. The prize for 1891-92 must be given to Italians only. That for 1893-94 will be open to the world, and the Canadian Institute will give to any of its members, all particulars which have been or may be from time to time communicated. For their information a summary is given of a document recently received from the Academy of above mentioned learned body. The works for which the prize is claimed, are in the first instance considered by a committee of the Academy, and at the end of 1890 the following works were by that primary judicial committee referred toa second committee for a report: 1. Bertrand. Calculation of Probabilities. 2. Heckel, Treatise on Radiolaria, Syphonifera and Deep Sea Cornaceous Sponges. 3. Hertz. Notes on the Transmission of Electrical Impulses. 4. Lie. Theory of Transformation Groups. As to the first, though of the highest value, the committee did not think it fulfilled the conditions of the bequest. The report on the others s as follows :— 1891-92. ] THE BRESSA PRIZE. 187 ‘‘E. Heeckel’s work contains descriptions of the radiolaria, siphonifera and deep sea cornacuspongiz, collected by the “Challenger” in her voyages from 1873-1876. The naturalists on the “ Challenger” made large and valuable collections of the organisms living in the depths of the Ocean, and the British Government entrusted to Heckel the study of the above groups mentioned. In 160 he had already made known to science a number of radiolaria, and in his monograph on calcareous sponges and meduse, had laid the basis of a new branch of biological study—-comparative morphology—and had indicated the fundamental properties of protoplasm. From 1860 to 1888 he continued his studies on radiolaria. To this epoch belong his writings on the considerations which induced him to establish the kingdom of the Profista—intermediate between the animal and vegetable kingdoms. “Tn the first treatise offered for this competition, Haeckel increased the known species of radiolaria from 810 to 4,318, but beyond its importance to systematic zoology, we must consider the very great value of the anatomical and physiological portion of the work. The second relates to siphonifera. The delicate structure and the fragility of these animals, their life in colonies and the many instances of their polymorphism, render their study extremely difficult, and Heeckel’s notes have great value, not only on account of the new forms described, but also for the general theory of their organisation, embryogeny and philogeny—and the concerted work of the individuals and the colony. In the third treatise Haeckel describes systematically the corneous sponges of the deep seas, studies them histologically, and treats generally of the position of this group, and the proper classification of the porifera. In this memorandum are described the most important phenomena of the structure of hydroids and sponges. The three treatises form a work of 2,300 pages, with 200 illustrations, drawn in great part by the author. They are undoubtedly the greatest work of the four years 1887-90, in respect of zoology, and acquire still more value as being part of a vast book through which the author, studying the fundamental phenomena of life, and the development and relations of organisms, has acquired the reputation of one of the greatest naturalists who ever lived, and has inscribed his name by the side of those of Linnzeus, Lamarck, Cuvier and Darwin. ““We now pass to the works of Hertz. These are to the number of nine, and on account of their volume, but an imperfect account of them can be given. “¢ Although the number of electrical phenomena known and studied in all their par- ticulars is very great, our knowledge of the nature of electricity and the internal mechanism of these phenomena is very limited. The influence of a body, electrified — either by a shock or a current, is exercised upon distant bodies without our knowing how this influence is transmitted across the intervening space. Faraday was par- ticularly interested in this subject, and used certain devices for representing the condition in which electrical magnetic influence might in such a case be exercised. Maxwell, availing himself of the powerful aid of mathematics, carried the study of the theory of the causes of electrical phenomena a step farther, and proved that the luminiferous ether was the means for transmitting electrical influence, and, invading the field of hypothesis, founded the electro-magnetic theory of light, according to which all the phenomena of light are thought to be electro-magnetic in their nature. Some proofs were found to favor this theory, but they were indirect and incomplete. Hertz proposed to study experimentally the propagation of electric impulses, and availed himself of the extremely rapid oscillations which occur when an electric dis- charge takes place in certain circumstances. Suppose, for example, a conducting body 188 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vo. TAL electrified and put in connection with another not electrified, by a wire—when the wire fulfils certain conditions, the electricity, instead of distributing itself over the two bodies, and suddenly readjusting the equilibrium, rapidly oscillates from one to the other body, and does not equilibrate till after a great many such oscillations. By in- genious experimental arrangements, Hertz succeeded in shewing that electrical impulses, to which these oscillations give rise in surrounding space, propagate them- selves with a definite velocity, and this was the first direct confirmation of the ideas of Faraday and Maxwell, that electrical activity could be transmitted between two bodies without interposing a third. He showed that the propagation of these impulses on wires and through air took place in the same way as that of light and sound. He measured the velocity of that transmission, and found in air an equal velocity to that of light. He studied the reflection of electrical vibrations on metallic reflectors, and found in this respect again, complete analogy with that of light. He showed that in wires and in the air we could have continuous waves formed by electrical vibration, as in the case of sound. He made a great prism of insulating material, and demonstrated that a ray of electrical vibration made to fall upon one of its sides, was refracted like a ray of light. He found that the index of refraction of that substance was about the same for light and electrical vibrations. All these experiments came in wonderfully to confirm the electro-magnetic theory of light, and every one perceived the great impor- tance of the labors of Hertz, in correlating and referring to the same cause two such important parts of physics—two such large classes of phenomena. Besides this principal consequence of the experiments mentioned, Hertz has arrived at other con- clusions, among which may be mentioned the proof that electrical movements, occurring within insulating bodies, produce on external bodies electro-dynamic effects, and that the ultra-violet radiations determine the discharge from two bodies of different potential, when the difference of potential without the influence of these radiations is insufficient therefor. “The theory of transformation groups, by Prof. Sophus Lie, of the University of Leipzig, is a work of capital importance, in which are gathered together the original researches which science owes to Ze, into the internal structure of groups of transfor- mation in general, and especially those of contact. The results of such researches apply to analysis and differential equations in mechanics, as well as to various geometrical problems. The richness and value of the theories of Zze have been widely recognised. Illustrious French mathematicians, such as Darboux, Poincaré, Picard, Goursat, have published works based upon them, and refer to him with the greatest admiration. “In preceding competitions, the committee entrusted with the final investigations, have placed the names of the authors in order of merit, yet, without having wished to dictate thereby how the Academy might be pleased to vote. In the present case the committee does not feel enabled to act in that manner—they have examined three eminent works, relating to different sciences, and present the three without any distinction of their merits. Your vote will determine which best answers the desires of the founder of the prize.” ' 1891-92. | THE GREAT CENTRE; AN ASTRONOMICAL STUDY. 189 THE GREAT CENTRE; AN ASTRONOMICAL STUDY. BY jC) HAMILTON, LL.B. (Read 6th February, 1892.) The paper opened with a short review of the history of astronomy. With reference to the special branch of the subject, it summed up the teachings of Pythagoras, as to harmony in the movement of the spheres, and the central fire of Philolaus, around which thé heavenly bodies were supposed to perform a circling dance. Farthest off were the fixed stars, then in order the five planets the moon and the earth. The beautiful theory of the harmony of the spheres was not lost sight of by our great poet, as is seen in the famous dialogue between Lorenzo and Jessica, (Merchant of Venice, Act 5, Sc. I.) Reference was made to the theory of the Great Centre by other poets, such as Edgar A. Poe, in “Eureka”; and Addison, calling it the “Heaven of Heavens,” in No. 580 of the Spectator; Tennyson’s last verse of “In Memoriam”; and Dryden’s lines: “This place ; the highest mansion of the sky I’ll call the Palace of the Deity.” The “Mystery of the Seven Stars” was then discussed. As satellites revolve around planets and planets around suns, so the solar system moves around a grand centre. This holds good in regard to the constellations and known systems of the universe in an inconceivably magnificent extent. What that centre is may be asked. It was shown that strange reference to the Pleiades was made by Job; that the priests of Belus noted their rising and setting two thousand years before Christ, and astronomers point to this region as one of amazing majesty. The Greeks called them Pleiades and said they were the seven daughters of Atlas and Pleidne, of whom all but one, Meropé, were united to immortal gods and placed in heaven after death. Their names are Alcyoné, Meropé, Maia, Electra, Taygeta, Steropé and Celeno. The Greek name for the group has its origin ascribed sometimes to the word signifying to sail, as their rising was looked for by the sailors of the Mediterranean; but another derivation makes them the heavenly doves. Our Mohawks have a legend as to the seven stars in which seven brothers who unfortunately fell in love with the same fair squaw, were translated to heaven on her untimely death. The Chippewas of Lake 190 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vou ITT. Superior, with less romance, called the Pleiades Madodisson or the sweat- ing stones, referring to the hot stones arranged in a group in their vapour baths. Only six Pleiades are usually seen, though as many as sixteen have been made out by keen observers without artificial aid (Mr. A. M. Clarke’s article on The Pletades, in Nature, April 15, 1886, Vol. 33, p. 561.) Hipparchus mentions the possibility of discovering a seventh member of the group, Ovid too, “Quae septem dici, sex tamen esse solent.” The story of the “ Lost Pleiad” is immeasurably antique and cosmo- politan as a myth or a tradition. The Pleiades are included in the great constellation of the Bull. They are with us a winter constellation. Their position is best found by following with the eye the line made by the belt of Orion northward past Aldebaran and the Hyades. Alcyoné is of the third magnitude, but was not 1750 years ago the lucida of the collection. The leading place was first assigned to Alcyoné by Tycho Brahe in the sixteenth century. Galileo detected nearly fifty stars in the Pleiades. M. C. Wolf, in 1875, at Paris, made a chart which included stars to the fourteenth magnitude to the number of six hundred and twenty-five, contained in a rectangle 135’x90, in which Alcyoné occupies a nearly central position. By the photographic object glass, stars of the Pleiades down to the seventeenth magnitude have been deciphered, and more than one thousand four hundred have been placed on the photographic retina. The Pleiades are immensely far off. None of them has any sensible parallax, nor are we informed of their intrinsic lustre, mutual distance or gravitating mass. Recent investigations of the structure of the Pleiades group shew a surprising miniature sidereal system, the richness and variety of which bewilder theoretical conceptions, and recall as anomalous the accumulated wonders of the Magellanic clouds. Groups are collected within the main groups, systems revolve apart, the subordination of which to the laws of a general federative union, leaves their internal liberty of movement unshackled. The furthest of the suns forming the group are seventy-one times as. distant from us as from the centre of their own system ; consequently Alcyoné blazes upon them with five thousand times the brilliancy of Sirius. “It would seem,” says Mr. Clark, “a star rather than a sun.” A learned Canadian, of eminent name and lineage, Mr. R. G. Halibur- a 4a RE eer 7 8 1891-92. | THE GREAT CENTRE; AN ASTRONOMICAL STUDY. 191 ton, Q.C., F.R.G.S., now residing abroad, has made a study of primitive traditions as to the Pleiades. He has discovered a yearly calendar regulated by these stars. He has become known in connection with the so-called “ Pleiades Year.” A work published on the Continent “ Die Pleiaden,” has been dedicated to him as the pioneer in this interesting field of research, and Mr. Piazzi Smith, late Astronomer Royal of Scot- land, borrowed largely from Mr. Haliburton in his book on the Great Pyramid. Mr. Haliburton has long been promising to embody the result of his investigations in book shape. Failing this, 1 am, through correspondence and reference to his published essays, able to give some of the facts and observations. And so, without too much anticipating the promised story, which we will hail with pleasure, I will cull from the rich supply he lays before us. In his pamphlet entitled “New Materials for the History of Man, 1863,” Mr. Haliburton shows that the Festival of the Dead was, in ancient times, regulated by the Pleiades. The memory of the Deluge was by the Mexicans, the Egyptians and the Jews associated with the same time: of the year—the middle of October. Among the Aztecs, as well as the Egyptians, the Deluge was commemorated at the beginning of the year of the Pleiades, that is when that constellation culminated at midnight. The Deluge and time were considered synonymous by the ancients. In Europe the last day of October and first and second of November are designated as the festivals of A// Hallowe'en, All Souls and AM Saints. They are connected with the commemorations known amongst all nations. as the Festival of the Dead or the Feast of Ancestors, and this reminds us of the Voyage of Ulysses to the Gardens of Alkinoos, the abodes of the dead. . . . The Pleiades long retained their name Hesperides, Stars of the Evening, even when they had ceased to regulate the year, when their pleasant influences had been forgotten. They were also by the Latins called Vergiliz or harbingers of the spring; and by the Hebrews Chzmah, or the Cluster or group of Stars. The Pleiades gain twenty-eight days on the tropical year in every two thousand years.. Hence the Pleiades that now culminate at midnight on 17th November, did so in October two thousand years ago. The Bull constellation in- cluding the Alcyonic group, bore the name Tar, Ataur and Attyr in Egypt. Hence the Latin Zaurus. The year of the Tar and stars of Attaur, have left their impress on the very mountains of Great Britain. Many a hill is known as a Tor. Our ancestors raised the “Seven Altars” on these hills to the stars of the Tar, and to this day the pleasant influence of the Pleiades, commemorated by Job and celebrated by 192 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vou. IIT. Australian savages, is still lingering in Britain under the popular tradi- tions as to the good King Arthur. It is worthy of note that the name of this king meant in Egypt a hill, (Bunsen’s Egypt, L, 465.) The era when the Pleiades left their impress on the calendars and traditions of nations, must, says Haliburton, in Mature, Vol. 25. 100, be very remote, so much so that such researches are like investigations into the fossils that tell of organisms that lived in a world and breathed an atmosphere different from our own. He found a tradition on the African Gold Coast, that the Pleiades are young women, six of whom are very beautiful, but the seventh is so plain that she conceals herself from sight. Some tribes of the Australians dance in honour of the Pleiades, because “they are good to the black fellows.” The negroes too, say “these stars are good to the darkies.” The natives of both North and South America regard the Pleiades as beneficent stars, and dance in their honour. M. Madler, of Dorpat, in 1846 developed the theory that Alcyoné, the lucida of the cluster, is the centre of gravity of the solar system, the luminous hinge around which our sun and the planets move through space. The theory had been mooted by Wright in 1750, and Lucretius had some fanciful notion as to our system revolving around a common centre: Lib. 1, de rerum Natura. “The theory of Madler, that Alcyoné, the brightest of the group is the central sun of the universe is most interesting,” says Haliburton, on account of the fact that such was the actual belief of early ages. “The ancients in very remote ages undoubtedly believed that it was the centre of the universe, and that Paradise the primeval home of our race and the abode of the Deity, and of the spirits of the dead, was in the Pleiades, traces of which ideas we even find among savages.” With the Pleiades two sacred birds were connected. In Samoa there is a sacred bird called Manu-lii, the bird of the Pleiades. The Hindoos believed that Brahma came from an egg. The Greeks had similar traditions ; Castor and Pollux sprang from an egg. So also Semiramis, and she was brooded over by a peliad or dove. From Britain to Japan these stars are popularly known as the “ Hen and Her Chickens,” and the “Hen-Coop.” In Mexico the Kingfisher was a sacred bird ; so with the Greeks it was called the Halcyon, the bird of Alcyoné or Paradise; and the Halcyon days were the summer days at the end of autumn, which we should now render heavenly days. Mr. Haliburton found that among the Brahmins of Tyroloc, the name of November was Kartica, the month of the Pleiades. In Polynesia there was a year regulated by the rising of the Pleiades at the sunset, and their 0 1891-92.] THE GREAT CENTRE; AN ASTRONOMICAL STUDY. 193. being visible all night long. He also found a three days’ feast observed in Australia in honour of the Pleiades, and traces of the primitive ' Pleiades calendar he has discovered existing all over the world. These stars are apparently six in number; yet among civilized and savage races in Europe, in India, China, Japan, Africa and America this diminutive group is not merely regarded as seven stars, but what is more surprising, as “ The Seven Stars,” though the far brighter stars of the Great Bear might seem to deserve the title. In the Feast of Tabernacles, the Berber tribes build their temporary tents with a hole at the top, in order that the young men being instructed, may see the Pleiades passing overhead. The Jews were found to have the same custom. “ We can now under- stand,” says Haliburton, “the vestiges in Egypt of a popular belief that the Pleiades are in some way connected with the Great Pyramid, the existence of which was observed with feelings of surprise by Prof. Piazzi Smith.” Colonel Vyse is credited with noticing this phenomenon when making researches in Egypt some years since. Six of the pyramids at Gizeh have openings facing north, leading to straight passages which descend at inclinations of from 26° to 28°, the direction being parallel to the meridian. A person standing at the bottom and looking up, would have seen the Pleiades passing overhead when the Great Pyramid was built in 2170 B.C. Prof. P. Smith suggests that its seven chambers commemo- rated the seven Pleiades. The Berbers of Morocco had a name for Alcyoné which was given because they said Paradise is there, and the Pleiades are the centre of all things. In Sahara are ancient mosques and temples where the year is still regulated thus, there being a tube from the top of the building, small above and larger below, through which the southing of these stars is observed. “T am persuaded,” says Haliburton, “that the day is coming when the learned will admit that these stars are the ‘Central Sun’ of the religious calendars, myths, traditions and symbolism of early ages, an era however so marvellously remote that investigations respecting it bear the same relation to the study of anthropology and to the science of religion, that paleontology does to natural history.” The essayist said in concluding: We have now reached as far in our en- quiry as time will permit. It is admitted that it is still one of theory and speculation in advance of demonstrative and practical astronomy. Among objections to the selection of Alcyoné as Stellar Queen, may be that she is not of first astronomical rank, but of the third magnitude, while all the 194 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vo. ITI. others of the group are of lesser apparent proportions. Some may suggest the great Aldebaran or Sirius the immense central sun, or perhaps Arcturus, with a diameter exceeding ninety millions of miles. Could he be placed between our orb and the sun, he would fill nearly all the intervening space. Yet as we have seen, the old Chaldeans, the Egypt- ians, the Berbers of Morocco, savage myths and folk lore, Job and the poets point to the same great centre. The inference is boldly drawn that a spot so comparatively small and insignificant as our planet, or even the solar system compressed into one great mass, cannot with reason be regarded as the future place of bliss. If in that are to be gathered the mighty intelligences and the innumerable redeemed of all ages, the argument is advanced that Alcyoné, the great lucida of the group, the physical centre of the universe, may be also its spiritual and divine centre. This, as we have seen, has some weight with men of science, but is mainly found as yet in poetic musings. Such may be included in the Laureate’s conception of “One far off divine event, To which the whole creation moves.” N, 1891-92.] THE ABENAKIS OF SAINT JOHN RIVER, 195 THE ABENAKIS OF SAINT JOHN RIVER. By EDWARD JACK. (Read 23rd Fanuary, 1892.) When Champlain landed at the mouth of the St. John River in the year 1604, he found a number of Indians living there. In answer to his inquiries as to what they called this river, he received this reply, Ouigoudi; now the name of St. John River in Abenaki as well as in Micmac is Wallostook, the word Ouigoudi meaning camping ground. Singularly enough this error has been continued down to our day, and one of the ferry boats which cross the harbor of St. John is called the Ouangondy, a corruption of the word Ouigoudi, arising from a misprint in a history of Nova Scotia in which the word was thus printed. Had the parties who thus misnamed this steamboat asked the Aborigines who were camped near the city, what they called the St. John, they would have received a correct answer. Lescarbot in his “Histoire de la Nouvelle France” says, that when in 1606 he came to the River St. John, “being in the town of Ouigoudi, for thus I can properly call an enclosed place full of people, he saw in a great thicket about eighty savages.” Just opposite the city of Fredericton also, there is a collection of mean huts in which some of the Abenakis of the St. John reside, this they to- day call Ouigoudi. At the time of Champlain’s arrival, the banks of the St. John were inhabited by the Abenakis, a branch of the great Algon- quin family; their descendants tell me that their ancestors came from the west, and that before the white men arrived among them they worshipped the sun and moon. The Great Spirit was called by them Ketsi Niouaskoo, and the Evil Spirit Matsi Niouaskoo. One of my Indian friends said to me he had read about the latter in his catechism, and that he is the devil. It is stated in the relations of the Jesuits that in the year 1642 some Algonquins who were attending a religious celebration at Montreal, having ascended the mountain, one of them pointing to the hills situated to the south and east;said to the French, that the Hurons who then were their enemies, had driven their ancestors from this country, some of whom had fled to the country where the Abenakis now live. The first 196 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. IIT. missionary to visit the St. John was Pierre Biard, of the Society of Jesus, who was sent to Acadia in 1610-11, through the exertions of the Duchess of Guercheville and other ladies of the French Court. Biard in a letter to Claude Aquavia says: “I beseech you by the merits of Jesus Christ to remember us and these most solitary countries, assuredly we are sowing in great poverty and tears, may the Lord deign some day to grant us a harvest of joy.’ In another: “Our days and nights flow sadly along, what consoles us is the hope that God who reanimates the downcast heart will shortly come in his mercy and assist us in our wretchedness.” In 1611 Biard ascended the St. John in company with Biancourt, and celebrated Mass on an island six leagues from its mouth. This island is probably one of those which are situated not far from what is now called Oak Point. According to Abbe J. A. Maurault, the Abenakis (men of the east) formerly inhabited what are now Maine, New Hampshire and New Brunswick, extending even as far as the shores of Nova Scotia. This tribe formerly consisted, according to him, of several divisions. He enumerates the following as being the chief: Ist. The Kanibesinnoaks, those who live near the lakes; these were called Canibas by the French. 2nd. The Patsuikets, those of the Land of Fraud, because there were among them many New England savages, who according to the Aben- _akis had established themselves by fraud on the Merrimac River, and extended themselves as far as the Connecticut; they were only one division of the Sokokis. 3rd. The Sokowakiakis, men of the south; these resided in the south- west part of Maine and in New Hampshire; the French called them Sokokis. 4th. The Nurhantsuaks, those who travel by water, because they resided on the upper part of the Kennebec, and on the shores of the lakes. sth. The Pentagoets, who were also called Penaouabskets, those of the stony country ; these resided on the Penobscot, where the shores were in many places covered by stone. 6th. The Etemankiaks, those of the country of snow-shoe hides; these resided on the River St. Croix and on the St. John. The Abenakis called this territory Etemandi, because there were here great quantities of moose and caribou, from whose hides excellent snowshoes were made. 1891-92. | THE ABENAKIS OF SAINT JOHN RIVER. 197 7th. The Oualastegouiaks, these resided on the River St. John; later they were called the Mouskouasoaks, Muskrats, because they lived like these animals on the banks of the river. The remains of this tribe and those of the Etchemins are now called Melecites. These Indians now occupy the greater part of New Brunswick, and it is with them that the writer has to do at present. Abbe Maurault gives the meaning of the word Malouidit as being those of Malo, which he says was the name given to the Metis among them, because the greater part of their fathers came from St. Malo. He also says that the Abenakis called the grain which was introduced among them by the French, Maloumenal, Malo grain. The early connection of the Abenakis with the English is shown by their word for king which is Kinzames, this evidently comes from that of King James, who ruled England from 1603-1625. This or a similar word is used for the name of Queen Victoria, as any one may learn by going into one of the Abenakis school houses, and asking the dusky little scholars who are very tractable and who excel much in writing. The chief settlement of the Abenakis on the St. John was at Augh-Pa-Hac, head of tide six miles above Fredericton, at the point where the still water meets the rapid. John Gyles, who was a prisoner among the’Abenakis from 1689 to 1608, was taken to this place. About the first of July 1881, the writer being desirous of visiting the vicinity of Augh-Pa-Hac, all traces of which have completely disappeared, engaged one of the most intelligent of the Abenakis to pole him to the place in his bark canoe. Noticing a good chance to land and have our dinner, we went ashore near a cold spring ; when the meal was finished, the Abenaki took out his pipe and enjoyed a good smoke. This made him more communicative than usual, for they are not a people who are fond of much talking. He said that “when the first white man came to St. Anne’s Point just above Fredericton, he found an Indian sitting on a bench in front of his wigwam ; the Indian motioned to the white man to be seated, and as the latter was taking his place on the bench the former out of respect moved a little away, then the white man moved nearer, until the poor Indian was pushed entirely from off the seat.” I asked him why his people liked the French better than the English; in reply he said that “ When the English took Quebec they promised to treat us Indians as well as the French did, but they never have and never will; the French lived among us, learned ovr language and gave us religion, they were just like ourselves ; this is why we thought so much of them.” After ascending the river for a mile or two more we came opposite the foot of what is now called Hart’s Island ; this the Abenaki said was formerly called Old Town by the Indians. 14 198 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. IGT Here it was that the Abenakis lived in summer; their wigwams placed around the island formed a sort of stockade, the centre being reserved as a place for dancing. The Mohawks, he said, had often attempted the destruction of the Indians of the St. John, and once in particular they would have been successful but for an aged squaw, who was so wise that all the tribe listened to her opinions with respect. ‘“ One evening long before the whites had come among us,” said my Indian whose words I give as nearly as possible, “this woman with her grey hair falling down over her shoulders, rushed into the centre of the encampment calling out “there is trouble, there is trouble;” she was soon surrounded by the anxious braves who wanted to know what she meant. Look at Wi-Jo-Sis, (Curry’s Mountain) a hill on the opposite side of the St. John, back: of it a great party of Mohawks are hidden, and they are only waiting for night to attack and kill you all, if you are not ready to meet them; a council was at once called and a course of action determined upon. Some old ‘Indians call this mountain We-Jo-Sis Po-Te-Wis, or Little Council Mountain, because in old times the Mohawk braves always went there first to hold a council before attempting to attack the Abenakis on Nkarne-Odan (Hart’s Island), they would stop on this mountain for days watching the Abenakis. In order to deceive the Mohawks, the Melicites concluded to have a big dance; while this was going on the braves one by one slipped out, leaving none but the old men and women to keep it up. Before leaving however, they had agreed upon a particular sign by which they could distinguish each other in the dark as they were crawling through the long grass, or among the thick bushes which surrrounded the island, and he who did not respond to this sign was to be dispatched immediately and his bleeding head to be thrown among the dancers. The Mohawks, as night advanced, stole along noiselessly to the Melicite village, but wile had been met with wile, and before day dawned many a Mohawk’s head had been thrown among the dancers, with the whispered command, dance harder, dance harder. All of the Mohawk braves were slain, the others were killed as easily as you would cut a chicken’s head off, or knock down a lamb. Some three or four had been reserved how- ever, whose noses and ears were cut off and they were allowed to return home in order to show the Mohawks how they would be treated should they try the like again.” As my friend had again thrown off all reserve and become talkative, I seized upon the occasion to note down what he said. I had been speaking about the food of the Aborigines. ‘‘ You want to know what vegetables we used before the white man came among us ; we will go over to the island, and I will show you the Indian potatoe ; when I was a little papoose I remember coming here with my mother for them, I picked them up as she dug them with a hoe. We will find the 1891-92. ] THE ABENAKIS OF SAINT JOHN RIVER. 199 Indian potatoes here,” said my friend, as he pushed his canoe ashore, landing at a spot shaded by alders, where he began to dig with his hands, and soon brought to light what seemed to be a lot of very small potatoes strung together at equal distances ; we wanted to see the plant of which they were the roots. After a good deal of looking among the tops of the alders, the Melicite brought us some leaves of the common bind weed, which had climbed up among them; it is of the same family I believe as the sweet potatoe. “There is another root,” said the Melicite, “\vhich our fathers used, we call it Indian rice, I often use it, it is very white and nice and is excellent in soup.” From the description which he gave of the plant it must have been the yellow lily, which grows in rich damp ground on the shores of the St. John. “ We use, in medicine, among other plants the root of the sweet flag (said the Indian). Long ago a great sickness fell upon the Abenakis, and many of their women and children died. One night there appeared to one of the braves a strange figure, as of a man all covered with joints and bars, I am, said he, Ke-Whis-Wask, muskrat root, (the Indian name for the sweet flag), and can heal you all; dig me up, steep me in water and drink me, and I will cure you. After saying this he disappeared, and the next morning, the brave doing as he was told, all of the sick on drinking it, recovered.” Leaving the island where we were shown the Indian potatoe, as the Melicite poled his canoe towards Savage Island, the water became quicker, there, said he, pointing to the west side of the St. John River, is Augh-Pa-Hack, and here once stood our church and village, the English destroyed them long ago. Pointing towards Savage Island he continued, “There was in former times on this island a race course, which extended all around it; here after ball playing the young Indians tried their speed, I have seen when a boy, marks of this race course in the sod. In old times the young Indians were carefully trained, they were kept by themselves and everything was done to make them strong and supple. The Indian boys were every day practised in the use of the bow, by some old man whose duty it was, so that at fifteen years of age they became good hunters, the old teacher having taught them how to make traps and catch game of various kinds. The young Abenaki was not allowed to choose his own wife, the parents did this; when they saw a young squaw who was considered a suitable match for their son, they sent bracelets and a piece of wampum to the girl. Her relatives then met and consulted over the matter, and if the match was approved of the presents were kept, if not, they were returned.” (The old Abenaki who gave me this information, said to the writer), ““My old woman and I never spoke to each other before we were married, my father and step-mother made the 200 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vor. IIT. bargain. I think young people are getting too saucy now, for they must do a great deal of talking before they can get married.” “Indian corn,” said my Abenaki friend, “was once grown to a great extent on Savage Island ; when the grain was ripe the corn on the cob was hung up to dry in the wigwams, and when dry enough was removed from the cob and placed in baskets, which were set away for winter use; when used it was sometimes boiled whole, and at others cracked by hand between two stones, after it had been cracked it was put in a pot and boiled with sturgeon or salmon roes until it was very soft, this food was eaten out of wooden bowls with wooden spoons. After the corn was cracked it was called Nsabon. Before making this boiled food, the hulls had been removed by boiling the corn in lye, after which it was washed in pure water. The boiled food was called Qunosk-ke-te-ga-ne Nsabon, in English, boiled corn pudding. Augh-Pa-Hac was a famous place for salmon and sturgeon in old times, they were caught in July, the roes were saved and hung up in the sun to dry, they were afterwards smoked. When dry enough they were rubbed by hand so that the eggs separated, the product was then put in birch bark boxes and hung up in the wig- wam.” Cadillac, the founder of Detroit, mentions that when ascending the St. John, he found the Abenakis of Medoctet, or Meductic, cultivating pumpkins, corn and beans. Medoctet was a famous Indian encampment, it was situated on the west side of the St. John ona rich flat, a short distance above the mouth of Eel River, and it was this river that the Abenakis ascended when they made their raids on Massachusetts. There was another Abenaki village on the Saint John River, just below Edmundston, the northern terminus of the eastern division of the Canadian Pacific Railway. The Recollets had a mission at Augh-Pa- Hac in 1620, and in 1696, Father Simon, the missionary at that place, sent down forty of his Neophytes to aid De Villebon in his defence of Fort Naxoat, situated at the mouth of the River Nashwaak, and nearly opposite Fredericton, at the time when that fort was attacked by the New Englanders, who were always ready to harry and annoy either French or Indians. This disposition was no doubt the cause of the Abenaki emigration to the province of Quebec. The first that we hear of them in that province was in the year 1637, when some of them came to Quebec to buy beaver skins. Evincing an intention of ascending the St. Lawrence still further, they were forbidden by a Montagnais chief, but notwithstanding this they went as far as Three Rivers, in order to trade with the Algonquins. The Montagnais chief complained against them to the governor M. De Montmagny, representing to him that these Indians had come to Canada in order to buy beaver skins to carry to the English. The wigwams of the Abenakis were visited, and the articles 1891-92. ] THE ABENAKIS OF SAINT JOHN RIVER. 9201 which they had received in exchange for their wampum were confiscated, and they were enjoined immediately to return to their country. In 1640 an Englishman accompanied by twenty Abenakis arrived in Canada ; the Governor on being informed of this, forbade him from visiting Quebec. As the rivers by which he had ascended to the St. Lawrence were too low to return, he was taken to Tadousac, and put on board of a vessel which was about sailing for Europe. Some time after the Abenakis were returned to their own country. At this time they were looked upon as strangers, and the favour of residing in Canada was granted only toa few who remained at Sillery, in order to attend religious services there. Charlevoix, in his History of New France, says that the French could not have maintained themselves in Canada without the assistance of the Abenakis, that in Acadia they formed their principal bulwark, and con- stituted an impassable barrier between New England and the French Colony, and that they were at length placed in Canada on the Rivers St. Francis and Becancourt, in order to create a barrier against the Iroquois, and to avert their irruptions. The chief immigration of Abenakis to the St. Lawrence took place not far from 1680; no doubt the causes were various. In the first place they and the French were co-religionists, and the latter were very glad to have their assistance as warriors. We hear of them in 1695 capturing a party of Iroquois on an island in Lake Champlain. After the victory they named this island Atepsec, the island of the head, because the Iroquois when surprised by them, had been gorging themselves on a bull’s head, which they had roasted. Though firm friends of the French, the Abenakis could speak plainly to them when they deemed it necessary. Thus we find that in 1717 when an embassy was sent by some of them in Acadia to wait on the Marquis De Vaudreuil in order to ascertain whether he would help them against the English in case of a rupture, “ What assistance will you give us, father,” they asked; “my children,” said Vaudreuil, “I will send you secretly some hatchets, and some powder and lead.” “Is this the way then,” the Indians retorted, “that a father aids his children, and was it thus that we assisted you? A father,” they added, “ when he sees his son engaged with an enemy stronger than he is, comes forward, extri- cates him, and tells the enemy that it is with him that he has to do.” “Well, replied De Vaudreuil,” “I will engage the other Indian tribes to furnish you with aid;” at these words the Abenakis retorted with an ironical laugh, and said, “ know that we who inhabit this vast Continent will whensoever we please, so long as we exist, unite to expel all for- eigners from it, be they who they may.” This declamation surprised the Governor, who to pacify them said, that rather than abandon them to the English, he would march at their head. 202 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vou I1T. THE TRADITIONS OF THE ABENAKIS. The Indians of the St. Joh nRiver have a vast number of traditions . some of these agree exactly with those which I have heard from the Chippeways on the head of Lake Superior, and a comparison between those common to the two tribes would form a most interesting study. Among uneducated people oral traditions form their history and litera- ture, and hence it is that one hardly meets with an old Abenaki who has not a vast number of stories of various kinds relative to his people, as to those mysterious and shadowy beings which his ancestors taught him were to be found in the forests or around the lakes; a favorite situation for the dwelling place of these spirits was the top of some lofty mountain, the more inaccessible the better it suited the purpose. The Indian who in former years wandered solitary through the vast forests among which the St. John winds in its course to the sea, was forced to commune with his own mind ; if the deep voiced thunder bellowed or the lightnings flashed, the more easily impressed among them heard in this the voice of the Great Spirit. He may have said on his return from his hunt that the Great Spirit had spoken to him, adding to what he had heard the creations of his own heated imagination ; the story being retold by the listener was added to by him, and thus by a series of increments these traditions have been built up to a perfect story, just as the larger crystal is built up on and around its primitive molecule. In a short and imper- fect sketch such as the present one is, I give only a few of these traditions, and they are given in a very ‘disconnected manner, but as nearly as I can in the language of the narrators as taken down from their own lips. The most prominent character in all the traditions of the Abenakis of the St. John is Glooscap. They tell me that the traditions respecting Glooscap they received from the Micmacs, and that the language which the Turtle, Glooscap’s uncle, spoke was Mic-mac. Glooscap was a twin, his brother burst his way out of his mother’s side, after they had grown up his brother became jealous of Glooscap and determined to kill him. In conversation with him one day, Glooscap’s brother casually asked him what would kill him? Glooscap, knowing his brother’s evil thoughts, did not tell him the truth, but said to him that a blow from the down which forms the head of the bullrush would do it ; and “what would kill you?” said he to his brother. “A bird’s down,” was the reply. As soon as the younger brother could get a bullrush he picked off some of the down and threw a handful at Glooscap’s head, it knocked him over and he remained stunned for a long time. When he came to himself and knowing that his brother was very dangerous and wanted to do all the evil he could, he determined to get rid of him, which he did by =. =~ ; ‘1891-92.] THE ABENAKIS OF SAINT JOHN RIVER. 203 striking him with some bird’s feathers. One of the most intelligent of the Melicites in conversation with me said, “there must be something in Glooscap, for have I not seen his pack where he left it, which is now turned to stone? Thisis on the seashore below St. John. I have seen too the entrails of the moose which he killed near Machias; these are all twisted and are of white rock ; then there is his head on the banks of the St. John.” One evening I asked this man to tell me all about the famous Glooscap, and committed his words to writing, they were as follows :— “Glooscap is a spirit, he does not grow old, he lives at the south end of the world, the wild geese were his watchers, and the loon and wolf his dogs, there were seven Indians who once went to see him in order to get their wishes granted; they found him living with his grandmother, whose youth he had renewed four times. When these seven men came to where Glooscap was, and it had taken them seven years to reach him, one of them said to him, I want long life; telling him to come out of the wigwam, Glooscap took him to a spot near by, saying, stand there, you will get your wish, and then turned him into a cedar tree, all limbs and fit for'no use,so that no one would ever cut him down. Gicoscap is con- stantly making arrow heads preparing for a general war, he always looks young ; where he is there is a medicine man who is blind, he lies on one side for seven years, he is then turned over and where he lay, herbs, good for medicine, were found growing. The benefits of these were explained by him. Glooscap asked this medicine man what he would do in case of a general war, he said that when all were dead he would open his eyes. When Glooscap’s visitors were ready to leave, he pointed to the remainder of them a way of return which led them home in four days. Glooscap was very good, anything which was big and dangerous he reduced in size. One day he met the squirrel then an animal of great size, and asked him what he would do if he met a man; there was a stump close by, at this the squirrel rushed and tore it down with his teeth and claws, then Glooscap put his hand on the squirrel’s back three times, and reduced him to his present size. In former years Glooscap had a camp as large as a big city, in this were all kinds of animals, even to the toad, and such power had he over them that he made them believe that they were human beings. The eagle (kulloo) was there, whose wife was the caribou, he had a son and daughter by the caribou, this daughter married the Turtle, who was Glooscap’s uncle. Soon after this, Glooscap told his uncle to make a feast ; “how can I doit?” said the Turtle. “ You ought to be old enough to know yourself” said Glooscap, telling him at the same time to go down to a long point which ran out into the sea and wait until a whale came along, this he was to catch and carry to his father-in-law’s house ; soon one came swimming by, this he caught and towed ashore, putting it on 204 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [| Vou. INO, his back he carried it to the place named, but thinking that he could carry it further, had only advanced a little when he found the weight of the whale pressing so heavily upon him that he could not move. The other animals in terror came to Glooscap and told him what had happened, he said to them not to mind but to cut up the whale, this they did. Then the Turtle came out stretching his legs and saying that he was tired and sleepy, the great load which he had carried made the Turtle very proud, so that he began to hold councils on his own account with the other animals; at one of these he proposed that Glooscap should be killed and he become their ruler. All the animals even to the toad took part in these councils. Glooscap in order to defeat the tricks of the Turtle turned himself into an old squaw and made his way to the council house, At the door he found another squaw in the shape of a porcupine, she was sitting on one side while a toad sat on the other. Glooscap said to the porcupine what does all this mean? it is none of your business was the reply, so Glooscap took the porcupine’s nose off between his fingers, and turning in a rage to the toad and making the same inquiry and receiving the same reply treated it in the same manner. As soon as Glooscap was gone the porcupine said to the toad, where is your nose? at this the toad looking at the porcupine said, where is yours? they were then satisfied that it was Glooscap who had been talking with them. After the council was over the Turtle said in a friendly manner to Glooscap, we will sleep together to night. After they had gone to bed and when the Turtle thought that Glooscap was asleep he attempted to stab him, but only wounded himself. At this Glooscap jumped up saying, let me have a cut at him, and wounded the Turtle badly; after this the animals all got fighting with one another, the Turtle quarreling with them all. One of them at last said to Glooscap, the Turtle will kill us all; then help your- selves by giving him a kick in the breast whenever he becomes trouble- some. They did so and he appeared as one stunned. After this Glooscap called all the animals to him and transformed them to men and women. The wolf ran off and the loon flew away, both sorry enough to leave their master. When the Turtle came to his senses, seeing no one, he said I will return to my natural life, and retreating to the water he has remained there ever since.” The Melicites have many legends regarding Glooscap. There is a place about half a mile below what is known on the St. John River as Boar's Head; here they point out what appears to them to be the form of a man’s head: this they say is Glooscap’s image in the rocks, and they note this as the place where he first came to the St. John on his way down to kill the great beaver who had built a dam at the falls close to the city of St. John, where the suspension bridge now a 1891-92. ] THE ABENAKIS OF SAINT JOHN RIVER. 205 crosses the river. They say that after breaking down this dam, Glooscap drove the great beaver which had constructed it, far up the river. The Tobique Indians point out some ledges which are known as the Tobique rocks, as being part of the stones which Glooscap pelted this beaver with ; they also say that he subsequently took refuge in Temiscouata Lake, and that the high hill on its shores opposite the mouth of the Cabano is the house which he built after having been driven up the river from the mouth of the St. John. The Abenakis call the rocks between which the river passes into the harbor of St. John, Gtchi-quaabeet-a-wi-cup-a-hegan> which means, great beavers dam. Within the memory of the writer, the Abenakis when passing Glooscap’s Head, before mentioned, on their way out to sea, would throw figs of tobacco from their canoes into the river as votive offerings to Glooscap, in order that he might vouchsafe to them a pleasant voyage and grant them a safe return. Denny, who held extensive rights in Acadia about the middle of the 17th century, mentions a remarkable tree which was floating around below the falls at the mouth of the Saint John, and which had been there for a very long time; this he says, “the Abenakis called the Manitou, that is to say the devil, the homage which they formerly rendered to it was one or two beaver or other skins, which they fastened to it with an arrow head, made of moose bones, which they sharpened by means of stones. Afterward, when they were passing through this place and their Manitou did not make his appear- ance, they held it as an evil omen, saying that he was angry with them. Since the French have been in these parts and have furnished them with iron arrow heads they use no others, and the poor Manitou has his head so covered with them that one can hardly stick a pin in it. I have seen it,and M. De La Tour’s men who were with him, and afterwards with me, have assured me that they once fastened ropes to this tree, and that with a ten oared boat rowing with all of their strength and with the current, they could not drag it out of the hole.” There are many other traditions among these people, respecting “Lox,” “ Micumwes,” “Kulloo,” and many other creatures of their im- aginations, which may form the subject of a future article. 206 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. POE. CELE hROSODY: By NEIL. MACNISH, BID. EL. D. (Read April 16th, 1592.) Though Celtic grammarians, such as O’Donovan in his excellent Irish Grammar, have devoted a section or chapter to the versification of the language with which they are dealing, it is very much to be regretted that, so far as I know, no separate or convenient or exhaustive book or treatise on Celtic Prosody has hitherto appeared. The Celts are serzus docté in more respects than one. As so much praiseworthy attention has been directed in recent years to Celtic Literature, and as several Celtic Chairs have been founded, it is to be hoped that some Celtic professor, who can command sufficient leisure, will prepare, for the benefit of all lovers of Celtic lore, a Celtic Classical Dictionary, wherein will be lucidly arranged and detailed all that can be gathered from the ancient poetry of Scotland and Ireland and Man, and from the annals of Wales and Cornwall and Armorica, respecting those heroes whose names occur in the more ancient Celtic poems as well as respecting the places and customs of which frequent mention is made in those poems. It is to be fondly hoped that among our Celtic scholars there will soon appear a Lempriere, or a William Smith, who will prepare a Classical Dictionary of Celtic Biography, Mythology and Geography; and also that a Hermann, ora Bentley, ora Ramsay, will speedily appear who will prepare, for the benefit of Celtic scholars and.all lovers of Celtic poetry, a full and lucid treatise on Celtic prosody. To the construction of Celtic poetry Zeuss has devoted a Caput Alterum, in which he exhibits his well-known learning and thorough acquaintance with even the oldest and most obscure fragments of Celtic poetry. He writes strongly in praise of Celtic prosody, for he thus terminates his examination of it: “By the oldest as well as the most recent examples that have been adduced, it appears that the form of Celtic poetry is more adorned than the poetic form of any nation, and that the ornamentation is greater in the older poems themselves than in the more recent. In consequence of that greater adornment it has doubt- less come to pass, that even from those times at which the Roman Empire was rushing to destruction, the Celtic form, at first in its entirety, and subsequently in part, was taken over not only into the Latin poems but also into the poems of other languages and remained in them.” Matthew Arnold whose fame as a literary critic is great, has these warm ‘ EE 1891-92. ] CELTIC PROSODY. 207 words in praise of Celtic poetry: “The Celt’s quick feeling for what is noble and distinguished gives his poetry style, his indomitable person- ality gave it pride and passion, his sensibility and nervous exultation gave it a better gift still, the gift of rendering with wonderful felicity the magical influence of nature. Rhyme itself, all the weighty evidence tends to show, comes into our poetry from the Celts.” The Rev. Thomas Price, whose bardic name was Carnhuanawe, says of Aneurin one of the poets of his own country—Wales, “that English pcetry was greatly indebted to him.” Mr. Price further asserts not only that the admirers of poetry are under obligation to the ancient British bards, but that much of the refinement of civilized life is more intimately connected with the traditions and history preserved by them than may at first be apparent.”* It is certainly very gratifying to have the commendations of scholars of the erudition and critical ability of Zeuss, Arnold and Price, in favour of the value which attaches to Celtic versification in itself and in the peculiar characteristics of it, apart altogether from the claims which it has on the attentive study of the Celtic scholar. It is a mere truism to state that unlike Greek and Latin poetry where scansion depends upon the quantity of the syllable or syllables that form a word, scansion is regulated in the Celtic language by accent and not by quantity, by the stress of the voice and not by the length or shortness of the syllable or word. Such feet as the Iambic, and Trochee and Dactyl are common to Greek and Latin and to the Celtic languages. There must be some correspond- ence between those feet and the natural manner in which the human heart expresses its thoughts and feelings. Grote contends that “great: as the power of thought afterwards became among the Greeks, their power of expression was still greater. In the former, other nations have built upon their foundations and surpassed them, in the latter, they still remain unrivalled.” Horace expressed the truth very distinctly, when in reference to the influence which Greek poetry and Greek versification had on the poetry of his own nation, he wrote: Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit et artes Intulit agresti Latio. In his 7veatzse on Poetry, Aristotle says that the Iambic metre was so named, because it was the measure in which people used to satirize each other. The Iambic is of all metres, he contends, the most colloquial as appears from the fact that our common conversation frequently falls into Iambic verse. Miiller in his Literature of Greece thus writes (vol. I., p. 181): “The Iambic by proceeding from the short to the long syllable * Price’s Literary Remains, Vol. 1, p. 107. 208 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. LI. acquires a tone of strength and appears peculiarly adapted to impetuous diction and bold invectives, while the Trochee which falls from the long to the short has a feeble character. Its light tripping movement appears veculiarly suited to dancing songs, and hence besides the name of Trochaeus, the runner, it also obtained the name of Chorezus, the dancer.” Zeuss correctly observes, that from the Greek and Latin nations whose poems are contained in a metre either by a settled calculation or by an order of long or short syllables, other nations belonging to the Indo- European family such as the Germans and Celts differ, inasmuch as al] their poetry is founded on the agreement of sounds as well in the first as in the last syllable of words. Some races belonging to the Indo-Euro- pean family, employ alliteration, and have two and three words in the same verse—words that begin with the same consonant or vowel. Other races have followed the agreement of sounds not only in the beginning but also in the middle and end of words. ‘These peculiarities obtain in the case of the ancient Celtic poems. Daviesin his Hxamznation of the Claims of Osstan (p. 199) avers, that if we may judge of their verse by the oldest specimens which can be produced by their descendants in Ireland, Scotland, Wales and Cornwall, the Celts carried their art no farther than to adjust the number and cadence of syllables in each line, to add the embellishment of strong and impressive alliteration and to connect their verses with final rhymes which were sometimes continued without varia- tion for several lines together. Davies goes on to say, that to assist the memory nothing could have been more conducive than the strong allit- erations and long continued rhymes which we find in the Old Welsh Bards. The very sound of one word suggested the succeeding, and one line gave the echo of another. It must have been for the same purpose of assisting the memory, that these Bards frequently began several periods with the same phrase, and several successive lines with the same letter. Upon the whole it appears that the mechanical correspondence of articu- late sounds, however differently understood, is the great principle of Celtic verse in general, and that the obvious correspondence of sounds naturally similar was attended to, before the Bards thought of that which is more complex and artificial.” In his Introduction to his Beautzes of Gaelic Poetry, Mackenzie correctly contends “that though much of Gaelic poetry might be scanned, a great deal of it cannot be properly subjected to the classical test by the most ingenious, and yet a Celtic ear will tell that it is good. The rules for scanning by which Latin verses are governed, are alien to the Gaelic, which certainly does not owe the art of poetry to the Romans. The concord does not always depend on the coincidence of final words, but rests on some radical vowel in cor- responding words ; and these not terminal alone, but recurring in several 1891-92. ] CELTIC PROSODY. 209 places throughout the verse.” Stephen, in his Literature of the Kymry (p. 480) properly observes “ that the works of the Cambrian Bards should not be judged by the critical principles which now prevail. Those Bards, according to an old authority, preferred, beyond all rhetorical ornaments, the use of alliteration and that kind more especially which repeats the first letters or syllables of words. They made so much of this orna- ment in every finished discourse that they thought nothing elegantly spoken without it.” Alliteration, therefore, is one of the peculiarities of Celtic poetry. The writer of an article on AJ//teration, in the Encyclo- peedia Britannica, remarks “that as Milton defines rhyme to be the jingling sound of like endings, so alliteration is the jingle of like beginnings.” Churchill describes himself as one who often, but without success, had prayed “For apt alliteration’s artful aid.” Coleridge furnishes a good example of alliteration when he says, “The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew, The furrows followed free, We were the first that ever burst Into that silent sea.” The Welsh poet Llywarch ab Llywelyn furnishes many beautiful ex- amples of alliteration, ¢,¢.: Teyrnllu, teyrnet teyrnllaw teyrnllin Teyrnllyw teyrnas ternyse torment. The incitement to valour which Ullin gives to Gaul in the fourth Book of Fingal, affords a good illustration of the manner in which Ossian practised alliteration, e.g.: Lamh threun ’s gach cas cridh ’ard nach geill, Mar thorunn biodh do lamh, a laoich, Do dhearg—shuil mar chaoir a’ d’ cheann, Mar charragh cruaidh do chridh a’ d’ thaobh. In Duncan Ban Mac Intyre’s Beinn Dorain, alliteration appears to fine advantage, 42.: Gu stobanach, stacanach, Slocanach, laganach, Cnoéanach, crapanach, Caiteanach, romach, Pasganach, badanach Bachlagach, boidheach. 210 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vot. II. al In his Oran Ghlinn-Urchaidh this excellent specimen of alliteration occurs: Cinnidh arbhar craobhach ann Cho caoin gheal ris a’ ghruth, Gu reachdmhor biadhmhor, brioghmhor, Trom, torrach, liontach, tiugh. In the first verse of that extract cennzdh and craobhach begin with the same letter, c; avbhar and ann begin with the same vowel, a. In the second verse the initial ¢ of czwnzdh and craobhach in the first verse occurs in cho and caoin; gheal and ghruth begin with the same letter or letters gh, inthe third verse the two last words begin with 4, and the three last words end in the same syllable shor. In the last verse trom, torrach, tiugh begin with the same letter. Ac forms the termination of forrach and /iontach. \n a section which he has entitled Consonantia Latzna, Zeuss shows how the peculiarities of Celtic poetry found their way into Latin poetry, and influenced it to an extent of which many Celts have no adequate knowledge. St. Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, composed hymns in Iambics into which he introduced the concord or correspondence (consonantia) which obtains in the ancient Celtic poetry. A variety of vowels that agree among themselves is allowable. The demands of cor- respondence are satisfied by such terminations as ws, zs, es, as, and zm, am, em. Lucan in the opening of his Pharsalia has alliteration, and concord, é.g.- Bella per Emathios plus quam civilia campos Iusque datum sceleri canimus populumque potentem. In the first verse which has been cited, the last two words begin with ¢, and the third, fourth and last words have correspondence, while the same thing obtains in the case of Bella and civilia. In the second verse, the first two letters in populum and potentem are identical. There is a correspon- dence between the gue of /usque, the z of scelert, and the gue of populum- gue, and between the wm of datum and em in potentem. St. Ambrose composed his hymns in Iambic Tetrameters. While he is faithful to the classical requirements of his metre, he introduces the correspondence which he found in Celtic poetry, e. g.- Somno refectis artubus spreto cubili surgimus Nobis pater canentibus adesse te deposcimus. Not only is alliteration present in these verses, the two last syllables of both verses terminate in the same manner, and there is a correspondence between the last syllable of the first Hemistich in each verse, z. e., between _ _——— - tee See 1891-9 2.] CELTIC PROSODY. By ws in artubus and us in canentebus. Many scholars who are conversant with the writings of St. Augustine and with the very important contribu- tion which he made to Patristic Theology, are in all likelihood not aware that he virtually effected a revolution in Latin poetry. Of his Psalmus Abecedarius, Zeuss affirms that, as if it were to open a new country and to announce a new age, it presents a novel form of poetry, inasmuch as in it metre and every calculation of tune are neglected and attention is paid to nothing save the settled number of syllables along with corres- pondence. Such are the circumstances which constitute the form of Celtic poetry, ¢.g.: i Bonos in vasa miserunt, reliquos malos in mare, Here there is a manifest departure from the laws of Latin scansion, while the peculiarites of Celtic poetry are easily discernible. J7/eserunt malos mare begin with the same consonant, donxos reliquos matlos,end in os. The last syllable of the Psalmus Abecedarius invariably ends in e. Secundinus, a relative of St. Patrick, adopted the model which was fur- nished by the Psalm of Augustine, and SSuMIE DE 38 very many Latin verses in the same manner, ¢. ¢.- Benchuir, bona, regula, recta atque divina, Stricta, sancta, sedula, summa, justa ac mira. In the first verse that has been cited, the first two words begin with the same letter ; the third and fourth words also begin with the same letter, and the second, third, fourth and sixth words terminate in a. The first four words of the second verse begin with s. Those words, along with justa and mzra,end ina. The last two syllables of the first Hemis- tich in each verse terminate in za (regula sedula); there is a correspon- dence between the last syllable of each verse, and a¢gue in the first verse and ac in the second verse begin with a. Davies thus writes (p. 215), “ The structure of ancient British and Irish being one and the same, I cannot persuade myself that the Bards of either country deserted their own established mode to imitate that of the other. On the contrary I infer that they had equally retained the same mode from some remote age in which their ancestors had been better connected.” As the result of his laborious investigation of the oldest specimens of Celtic poetry that are extant, Zeuss avers that the universal construction of poetic discourse was the same among the two divisions which he makes of the Celtic race. Apud Hibernos vetustos et Cambros. The first Irish Grammar that was printed was that of the Rev. Francis O’Molloy. It was written in Latin and was published in 1677. Lhuyd 212 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. III. transferred into his Archzologia Britannica a large portion of O’Molloy’s Grammar, and especially that part of it which deals with Irish prosody. There is thus accessible to the Celtic student a somewhat full and cer- tainly a very interesting account of the laws that govern the formation of Irish poetry in its older forms. O’Donovan has appended to his valu- able Irish Grammar a chapter on versification, in which he apparently has expressed in more intelligible language the rules and explanations that are contained in O’Molloy’s Grammar. To understand the regulations by which Irish verse is affected, it is necessary to know the classification that the Irish poets were led to make of the consonants in their alphabet. I. S was called the queen of consonants. : Three soft consonants: p, c, t. pee uhnee hard -soroecds 4. Three rough: 4; ch; th. 5 i) -ebive strone: lm, nn, ne, ir, 6. Seven light: bh, dh, gh, mh, ]})n, r: There are three kinds of verse in Irish, Dan Dzreach, Oglachas and Bruilingeacht. That the Irish poets must have possessed a large measure of ingenuity and intelligence in the composition of their poems may be inferred from the remarks of O’ Molloy, who contends that the Dan Direach is the most difficult of all the metres that are found under the sun (quae sub sole reperiuntur.) O’Donovan thus expresses the seven requisites of the Dan Dereach. 1. A certain number of syllables in each line. 2. Four lines in each quatrain. Concord. Correspondence. Termination. OY So Union. Ge, lebertal Quartan is the term which O’Molloy uses to express one verse 2. é. one verse of the four verses that go to form a Quatrain, or Rann Iomlan as it is called by the Irish. The first couplet of the Rann Iomlan is called Seoladh or the leading. . The second is called Comhad or the closing. Concord or alliteration 1891-92. ] CELTIC PROSODY. 913 {Uaim) requires two words (of which neither can be a preposition nor a particle), in each line to begin with a vowel or with the same consonant. A proper concord or zor Uatm obtains where the last two words of a line begin with a vowel in the same consonant, e. g.- Triall tar Bearbha na sreabh sean. An improper concord obtains when the words in question are zoZ the last two in the line or verse. Correspondence (Comharda) is of two kinds, perfect and imperfect. Perfect correspondence is an agreement of two words in number of syllables, quantity of vowels and consonants of the same class. An imperfect correspondence obtains when two words agree in the number of syllables, in vowels and in quantity, without any regard to an agreement of consonants. Termination or Rzzu requires that the last word in the second and - fourth lines of a quatrain should exceed that of the first and third by one syllable, If, therefore, the first line end in a word of one syllable, the second must end in a word of two and if the third line should end in a word of two syllables, the fourth must be of three syllables. The first is called Rinn or the Minor Termination, the second Ajirdrinn or the Major Termination. Union, or Uatthne, is the same as correspondence with the exception that the same vowels are not required in each place, and that in poly- syllables it is only necessary that they agree in class. A Chief, or Head, or Ceann, is a monosyllable which concludes the second and fourth lines of a quatrain in that sort of verse called a seadna. An Amus is much the same with an imperfect correspondence, from which it differs only in that it requires an equality in the number of syllables. O’Molloy states that the initial word of the first quartan of a semi- metre is called an Urlann, which may indifferently correspond with its subsequent or not. He further states that the chiefest sorts of Dan Direach are five: Detbhidhe, Seadna, Rannaigheacht mhor, Rannaigheacht bheag and Casbhairn. To each sort whereof, the number of quartans, number of syllables, concord and correspondence, are indispensably requisite. In the Dezbhidhe the major and minor termination are also necessary, as is likewise Union in Rannaigheacht mor and Casbhairn, and Chief or Ceann in the Rannaigheacht bheag and Seadna. 15 214 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. bel Be Oglachas or the servile metre is made in imitation of all kinds of Dan Direach which have been mentioned. An Ogdachas is only a verse in imitation of those metres, and is confined neither to correpondence, con- cord, union nor to true termination. Dvrotghneach consists either of nine syllables in a quartan, or more, as far as thirteen, each quartan ending in a word of three syllables, and every final word must make a union with another word in the beginning or middle of the next line or couplet. There must also be a correspondence between the final words. Brutlingeacht is composed very much after the same manner as the Oglachas. It requires correspondence (at least improper correspondence) and also a kind of concord, unzon and head. The imperfect sketch which has now been given almost in the words of O’Molloy and O’Donovan, of the principal Irish metres, and the laws that govern them, may suffice to show, that the ancient Irish poets were care- ful students of the genius of their language ; and that they were led uncon- sciously it may be, to adopt that method of versification and to frame those rules of prosody, that suited the natural tendency of their own thoughts. and the possibilities of the language, by means of which their thoughts and feelings found expression in verse. Nor can it be otherwise than a pleasant and a profitable occupation to the Celtic student, to examine and witness for himself how the Irish poets carried out the laws of Irish versi- fication, and how they exhibited great ability and ingenuity in moulding their verse, according to the requirements of the various metres. The commendation is altogether too faint which Davies bestows upon the laws of Irish prosody. Puerile as some of those laws may appear, they were evidently the invention of a people who applied themselves closely to the study of letters. Nothing can be clearer than that the system of Irish versification is entirely different from the system of the Greek and Latin poets, and that a faithful adherence to the laws of their own versification demanded from the Irish poets no less ability and pains and musical culture than Sophocles and Euripides and Virgil and Horace displayed in the composition of their poems. Shaw, whose Gaelic Grammar was published in 1778 thus writes, (p. 132) “The measure of Ossian’s poetry is irregular and various. Generally he has couplets of eight, though they do not rhyme, and seven and sometimes nine syllables. These feet are most commonly trochee and dactyl. The trochee occupies the first, the dactyl the second, and third, and a long syllable ends the line.” Davies was led to believe that Ossian and his poems belong to the Irish Gaels, and in accordance with his theory observed, (p. 196) “that f 1891-92. | CELTIC PROSODY. 215 the measures of Ossian’s poems are essentially the same as those which are found in the works of the Irish Bards ; that these measures arise from principles which are developed in the grammars of the Irish as deduced from the practice of their national poets; that the application of these principles demands such a variety of punctilious grammatical observation as to render it evident that they were the invention of a people who studied the grammar of their own language ; whereas the Highlanders, the only people who use the same language with the Irish, never reduced their native dialect to any grammatical rules before the year 1778. It follows that the measures employed in Ossian’s poems are undoubtedly the invention of the Irish.” The conclusion at which Davies thus arrives, in spite of his critical acuteness and learning, is untenable. Apart from the fact, that we are in possession of evidence as well internal as external to prove that Ossian and his poems belong to the Scottish Gaels, his poems do not fulfil the regulations of Irish metre to which reference has already been made. It was indeed to be expected that there would be, and that there is, very much in common between the versification of the Irish and Scottish Gaels, because the same language was spoken by them. The Gaelic poems of the Ossianic era are not written in quatrains, and cannot be made to assume that division without doing violence to the narrative and interrupting its natural consecutiveness. Smith’s Sean Dana, the Gaelic originals of the poems which were translated by MacPherson, and MacCallum’s collection of the poems of Ossian, may fairly be regarded as strictly Ossianic in their age and character and versification. The rigid laws of ancient Irish poetry cannot apply to those collections, though alliteration and correspondence and other features of Irish poetry are frequently to be found in them. The authority of Price is of great value in connection with the nation- _ality of Ossian. He thus writes, (vol. I., p. 168): “ The Scottish Ossian is a totally distinct creation from the Irish Ossian, though the Celtic original is the common parent of both. When MacPherson published his poems of Ossian, the Irish immediately cried out these poems are our property, they are Irish, and we are in possession of the original manuscripts and will convince the world of the fact by publishing them. They did accordingly publish portions of their Ossian together with English translations; but their Ossian was no more like the Ossian of MacPher- son, than the Nibelungen is like the Iliad or Paradise Lost like the Shah Nameh. It is true the names were identical, and many of the incidents, but the spirit was totally and irreconcilably distinct. The Irish Ossian excited no feelings but such as the world had long been familiar with, but the same work as interpreted by MacPherson called forth sentiments which till then had never been felt.” 216 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vor. ITT. In Campbell’s Leabhar na Feinne, there are many Gaelic poems which are arranged in Quatrains or in stanzas containing four lines or verses. Such poems, however, are manifestly of later date than the poems of Ossian. I am disposed to find an additional argument in favour of the Scottish nationality of Ossian and his poems, in the different com- plexion of his versification and in the absence from his poems of those rigid regulations which seem to lie at the very foundation of Irish poetry. The opening verses of /om-Chetst Ghuill in Smith’s Sean Dana, for example, contain several of the peculiarities of Celtic poetry. ’S am bheileam fein am aonar, Am measg nan ceuda colg; Gun lann liomhaidh leam *S a chath dhorcha. Here we have very fair examples of concord and correspondence. A similar remark has to be made concerning the first verses of Dzarmad in the same collection: Cia tiamhaidh thu nochd, a Ghleann Caothan! Gun ghuth gaothar thu ’s gun cheol: Tha suinn na seilg’ an suain gun eiridh, ’S na filidh aoibhinn gun aon diubh beo. Iarmbearla is a term which old Irish grammarians were wont to em- ploy, to show that the article, possesstve pronoun, adverb, preposition or con- junction coming between any two words, neither forms nor hinders a concord. Even when the most careful compliance with that regulation is given, it will appear that in the verses which have been cited, an improper concord obtains between ghuth and gaothar, between suznn, sedlg and suain, and as some grammarians would contend, between Gh/eann and Caothan. A striking peculiarity appears in those verses ; for the last word of the first verse corresponds with the middle word of the second verse, 2. €., Caothan corresponds with gaothar, and ezridh the last word of the third verse corresponds with aozbhinn, the middle word of the last verse- In Caomh-mhala, one of the poems of Ossian which MacPherson trans- lated into English, these verses occur, exhibiting, as they do, some of the peculiar characteristics of Celtic poetry: Taom, a Charuinn taom do shruth; An aoibhneas an diugh siubhal sios; Theich coigrich a b’ airde guth. Cha-n fhaicear an steud-each ’san t-sliabh, Tha sgaoileadh an sgiath an tir thall. oe a aad a —_ 1891-92. ] CELTIC PROSODY. 217 Here a proper concord obtains between szzbhal and szos, and between tty and ¢thall, An improper concord prevails between ¢aom and taom; Shaicear and each, steud and sliabh, sgaoileadh and sgiath. There is like- wise a correspondence between shruth, diugh and guth, and between Sliabh and sgiath. The Iambus is the foot that enters most frequently into the poems of Ossian. It has to be frankly admitted that in scanning the poems of the Bard of Selma, a rigid adherence to the laws by which the poems of Greece and Rome are scanned, is simply impossible. Sometimes, by omitting the first syllable of a verse, as German scholars are wont to do in scanning the choruses of the Greek tragedians; or by omitting the the first two syllables as is the wont at times of the same scholars, it is possible to find purely Iambic feet in the other syllables of an Ossianic verse. With the aid, therefore, of an azacruszs or a base, the poetry of Ossian can be scanned as Iambics in very many instances. Trochees obtrude themselves occasionally in the middle of a verse, and even Dactyls make their appearance in the middle of a verse; so that to describe the verse as purely Iambic or Trochaic is out of the question. Though the poems of Ossian, having peculiarities of their own so far as prosody and scansion are concerned, refuse to obey the laws by which Greek and Latin poetry is scanned, the rhythm is of such a character that the cultivated Celtic ear can readily detect whether a verse or poem is Ossianic in its structure or not. Miann @ Blaird Aosda, a poem of exquisite beauty, which, though the author and the date of its composition are unknown, must belong to a re- mote age, presents one of the best examples in the whole range of Gaelic poetry, of Iambic feet. The metre is lambic Dimeter Acatalectic, eg.: O caraibh mi ri taobh nan allt, A shiubhlas mall le ceumaibh ciuin, Fo sgail a’ bharraich leag mo cheann, ’S bi thus’ a ghrian, ro-chairdeil rium. Rishop Carswell’s translation into Gaelic of John Knox’s Liturgy was published in 1567, and was the first Gaelic book that was ever printed. In a brief Gaelic hymn or poem which he composed to the Gaelic book that he was sending forth among his Scottish and Irish fellow-Gaels, he shows an accurate familiarity with the peculiar features of Celtic verse. Gluas romhad, a leabhrain bhig Go hua ndiubhne rig ad reim. There is here a correspondence between d/zg and rzg and an improper concord between vzg and rezm. 218 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vo. III. Gach seancha, gan seanchas, saobh. Gach fear dano nar aomh breg, Cumand eadar agus iad, A leabhrain bhig biadh go heg. Those verses furnish other examples of alliteration and correspon-_ dence in Carswell’s hymn. Lhuyd’s Arch@ologia Britannica, was published in 1707. There are appended to the preface several Gaelic poems in praise of Lhuyd himself and of his great work on Celtic philology. These verses composed, as they were, by the Priest of Kildalton have several of the beauties and peculiarities of Celtic prosody. “Tuigseach saoibhir do theagasg, Soilleir tarbhach seimh do ghloir, Lionmhur brioghmhur do shean fhocail, Sgiamhach, taitnambhach, ciallach mor.” Regarding Cambrian or Welsh poetry, Zeuss asserts that the old poems of the Welsh are almost of the same structure as the old Irish poems. There is this difference, however, that the final consonant which is almost a monosyllable and is always full, is continued through several verses according to the pleasure of the Cambrian poet, and that even in separate parts of poems greater freedom obtains in the continuation of verses. The contraposition or antithesis of Hemistichs does not exist as is the. case with Irish poetry. In his literature of the Cymry, (p. 475-476), ‘Stephen writes “that the bards by fixing an artificial standard of versi- fied perfection, concentrated attention upon the words and neglected the spirit of their poems. The merits of their poems are rather historical than poetical. Bardism was on the whole unfavourable to extraordinary merit and true poetic excellence. The regulations of the bards have acted as dead weights upon imagination, and the metaphors and images of many of the Kymric poets display either a want of taste or of origin- ality.” He further writes (p. 486), “I have another quarrel with the bards, for not only do they display affectation in the ‘beginnings’ of their lines but they also display it in their ‘endings, the effect of both practices being the depreciation of the poetry and filling up of the lines with unmeaning . words.” Price, than whom there is no better authority on all matters affecting Welsh poetry states (vol. I, p. 209) “that the Welsh Bards rejoice in the Lyric, and when by chance they deviate but for a moment into the narrative, or Ballad, the style seems uncongenial with their spirit and they instantly quit it and return to their favorite strain.” (p. 313) After 300 years of Roman Dominion upon the departure of that people, —_ 1891-92] CELTIC PROSODY. 219 Welsh poetry had not the slightest resemblance to that of Rome. The essentials of Roman metrical composition consist in quantity, those of the Welsh are Rhyme and Alliteration. The Latin classic prosody does not recognize the two last named requisites, nor does the Welsh know anything of classic quantity, neither is there any resemblance in the structure of the poems of the two races, further than what is the result of mere coincidence in all metrical compositions.” Alliteration, proper and improper concord, is of continual occurrence in Welsh poetry. In Aneurin’s famous poem Gododin, there is a variety of metres’ “It is strictly a Lyric composition, a succession of comparatively uncon- nected strophes.” Ardyledawce cann cyman o fri Twrf tan a tharan a rhyuerthi Gwrhyt arderchawe marchawc mysgi, Rudd fedel rhyfel a eidduni. In these verses cann and cyman form an improper concord ; twrf, tan, tharan also form an improper concord; marchawce mysgt, form a proper concord ; Rudd and rhyfel form another improper concord. Alliteration is thus largely present in those verses, each of which ends in the same vowel, 2. A Triad, which is said to have been composed by Arthur, is faithful to the peculiarities of Celtic verse, Sed ynt fy nhri chadfarchawg Mael hir a Llyr Lluyddawg A cholofon Cymru caradawg. Two examples of proper concord occur here. Alliteration obtains be- tween three of the last words in the last verse. The verses terminate in the same syllable; seven syllables frequently form one verse, a number which, whatever the explanation of its prevalence in Celtic poetry may be, is of common occurrence. Stephens mentions no less than twenty- four metres whieh were in use prior to the times of Meilir, one of the Welsh bards. He states that “the miserable affection of writing verses in all the metres has now been abandoned, and the poet is very properly allowed to use such of the metres as suits his taste.” Zeuss maintains, that if the older Cornish and Armorican poems were extant, they would doubtless exhibit a structure similar to that of the ancient Cambrian poems. Alliteration is wanting in the more modern Cornish and Armorican poems. The ancient Cornish drama containing 220 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. Lo: as it does the most important portion of Cornish literature that is extant,. was published along with an English translation on the opposite page, by Edward Norris in 1859. The Beginning of the World, the Passion of our Lord Jesus Christ, and the Resurrection of our Lord Jesus Christ : Such are the names of the poems that constitute the Cornish Drama, The general division of it is into stanzas of six verses. Seven syllables. commonly form one verse. There is an agreement in sound between the last syllable of the first and second verses, of the fourth and fifth verses» of the third and sixth verses, e. ¢., Mester genough yn gylwyr Hagh arluth heuna yv guyr Ytho mar kruge golhy, Agos treys h’ aga seghe Golheus pup treys y gyle Ahanough Kepar ha my. In the introduction to his edition of Kelly’s Manx Grammar, the late Mr. Gill inserted a Manx poem on which he bestowed great praise. The poem is written in Iambics and deserves the praise which the famous. Manx scholar bestowed upon it. As Cre ta gloyr, ach aaliad ennym vie, Ennym! ta myr y ghall ta sheidey shaghey, Shoh moylleyn pobble, my she moylley shen. The famous Manx Song, Na Kirree fo Sniaghtey, or “The sheep under the snow,” is written in Anapaests, e. g. Lurg geurey dy niaghtey as arragh dy roi. Va ny shenn chirree marroo’s n’ eagin veggey bio, Oh! irree shiu guillyn as gowshin dyn clieu Ta ny Kirree fo-sniaghtey shen va nyn draid reeve. Vannin veg veen has all the raciness of Celtic verse. O vannin veg veen Tayns mean y cheayn Aynjee ta lane eeasteyryn, Tra ta ’n oarn cuirt, As ny praasyn soit, Goll roue dy cherragh ny baatyn. The translation of Paradise Lost into Manx by Christian is in Iambics, é.g., Pargis Caillit. CE CS ye YO ee 1891-92. ] CELTIC PROSODY. 22h Yn Chiarn Iee skeayl magh reeriaght vooar da hene, Liauyr fegooish Kione, as fegooish cagliagh lhean : Niau jir mayd ree; cheer dy vaynrys vooar Lane jeh dagh mie, jeh berchys, ooashley’s gloyr. Specimens of Pindaric impetuousness and originality of metre are to. be found among the Celtic bards. Mary MacLeod or Mairi Nighean Alasdair ruaidh, furnishes many examples of such rapidity of thought and versification, ¢. 2, Tigh mor macnasach meaghrach, Nam macaibh ’s nam maighdean, Far ’m bu tartarach gleadhraich nan corn. Duncan Ban MacIntyre is one of the most remarkable poets in the whole range of Celtic poetry. He could neither read nor write, and yet some of his poems are acknowledged to be the best of their kind in Celtic literature. “I shall be surprised,” writes Professor Blackie, “to learn that there exists in any language, ancient or modern, a more original poem of the genus which we call venatorial than the Ben Dorain of Duncan Ban. What Landseer, in a sister art, has done for animals in general, that MacIntyre in this singular work has done for the deer and the roe.” Blackie has translated Ben Dorain into forcible English verse. Prin- cipal Shairp has conferred a similar honour on Ben Dorain. Mackenzie in his introduction to The Beauties of Gaelic Poetry, (p. 51) thus writes, “In that admirable poem called Beinn Dorain, Duncan Ban MacIntyre has adapted the verse to the piobaireachd notes. Commencing with the urlar the ground-work or air, the second part is the Szubhal or quick- ening, arranged in a different measure, to which succeeds the Crun-luath swifter running music to which a suitable measure is likewise adapted. It is a curious effort, and his model seems to have been an older piece which accompanied J/oladh Mhairi the praise of Mary, otherwise the MacLachlan’s salute.” Trochaics of a rapid character, Iambics. of longer and shorter metres, alliteration, correspondence, etc., are to be found in Ben Dorain. Moladh Morazg is the name of a poem which Alexander MacDonald composed after the same model. I have in my possession a poem after the model of Ben Dorain, by the Rev. Dr. Blair,, of Nova Scotia. The talented author designates his poem Ruagadh nan sionnach, or Hunting the foxes, and indicates a masterly command of the Gaelic language as well as a rare aptitude for framing tuneful cadences. In his Cozre cheathaich, Duncan Ban reproduces some of the peculi- arities of Celtic verse, ¢. g.: bo bo bo TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. III. ’Se Coire cheathaich nan aighean siubhlach An Coire runach a’s urar fonn, Gu lurach, miad-fheurach, min-gheal sughar, Gach lusan fluar bu chubhraidh leam. In addition to concord, and to the recurrence of the same sounds, there is in those verses what Zeuss designates Consonantia Contraposita, or a correspondence between the last words of the Hemistichs. In his poem in praise of the Caledonian Society of Toronto, Evan MacColl furnishes beautiful examples of the same correspondence. The stanza which he has adopted is the same as that of Cozre-cheathaich. We had added, however, one metre or two feet to each verse. The poem is throughout very able, and reflects great honour on the author. The correspondence between the Hemistichs in such verses as these is very beautiful, e. g:: Cha-n eol domh toil-inntinn is mo na bhi’ cluinntinn, Piob mhor nan dos cnaimh-gheal is fonnmhoire fuaim; Nuair theid i gu comhradh air faiche no’n seomar, B’e’n Ceol thar gach Ceol leam a torman’ nam chluais. Though the Greek tragedians made frequent use of Anapaestic metre, no metre of that kind was employed by the Latin poets of the Augustan age. Venient annis saecula seris Quibus Oceanus vincula rerum Laxet, et ingens pateat tellus Tethysque novos delegat orbes Nec sit terris ultima Thule. These verses which occur in the Medea of Seneca and which have been regarded as prophetic of the discovery of America, furnish one of the best examples that can be adduced of the adaptation to Latin verse of the Anapaestic Dimeter Acatalectic. Lochzel’s Warning by Campbell, and The Destruction of Sennacherib by Byron are excellent specimens of the application of the same metre to English verse. Having the same form of scansion by accent, as English verse and the Gaelic adaptations of Ana- paestic verse have, it was beforehand to be expected that Gaelic Ana- paests would not be and ought not to be inferior to English Anapaests in musical rhythm and faithfulness. The English and Gaelic version of his Ealatdh Ghaoil by the celebrated Gaelic scholar, Ewen MacLachlan, must command the admiration of every student of poetry : so faultless is the accuracy and so harmonious in both languages are the numbers of teal a — ee ee ee ee ; | 1891-92. ] CELTIC PROSODY. 223 the talented author. Mrs. Mary MacKellar is a poetess whose ability in the composing of Gaelic Anapaests is very remarkable, indeed, and whose mellifluous metres would do credit to a Greek tragedian. Several of Mrs. MacKellar’s poems are written in Anapaests. She appears to fine advantage in praise of a meeting which was held in Edinburgh and of which the late Lord Colonsay—himself a Gael of the Gaels—was chair- man, for the purpose of taking steps to establish a Chair of Celtic Liter- ature in the University of that city. I shall give two’stanzas merely of the poem in question. O lionaibh dhomh corn ’us gu’n ol mi le fonn Deoch-slainte nan uaislean sliochd uaibhreach nan sonn, ’S air tus cuiream failt air an t sar ’bh’air an ceann, Am morair bho Cholonsa nan gorm ghleann ’s nam beann. A chanain mo mhathar, a chanain mo ghaoil, Bidh tu fas ann an sgiamh gus’m bi crioch air an t-saogh’l, ’S ged bha thu gu tinn, gheabhar cinnteach dhuit leigh, ’S bidh tu luinneagach binn feadh gach linn’ thig nar deigh.” Mrs. MacKellar is equally at home in various forms of Gaelic verse, as her touching elegy in connection with the death of Prince Leopold clear- ly shows. O buailidh mi ’n teud orbhuidh, Fann bhuailidh mi ’n teud ’S mi’ sileadh nan deur, O’n chuala mi’ n sgeul bronach. Campbell of Ledag has composed Gaelic Trochaics and Iambics that are worthy of great praise. Neil MacLeod with an elegance of diction that would do honour to Tennyson with his pure Anglo-Saxon, has shown that he is a master of Gaelic verse, and that his native language can be fashioned by him into very musical combinations. The Irish poems that appear in the Gaelic Journal of Dublin, and in the ‘(Gaodhal of Brooklyn; the Gaelic poems that appear either in a per- manent form or that have an ephemeral existence in newspapers and magazines, indicate that Celtic versification is keeping pace with the greater refinement and concinnity of modern poetry ; and that the Celtic languages, if justice is done to them, have intrinsic strength and powers of adaptation which can gain for them, and ought to gain for them, as long and as glorious a future as is in store for even the most popular forms of German and English verse. 224 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. TL The domain of Celtic prosody is wide and fertile ; and, although several tillers of the soil have ploughed many a deep and fruitful furrow in it, very much yet remains to be done. There is need of a Eugene O’Curry, who, intensely in love with the language and the poetry of his Celtic fore- fathers and brethren, will apply rare powers of mind and diligence to the thorough elucidation, for the benefit of his fellow Celts and of the literary world at large, of Celtic prosody, acting until his task has been happily completed, on thé advice of one of the acknowledged masters of Latin verse ; “Nocturna versate manu, versate diurna.” MAP SHOWING THE POSITION OF THE HURONS WHEN THE IROQUOIS ATTACKS BEGAN. bo bo OU 1891-92. | CHARACTERISTICS AND MIGRATIONS OF THE HURONS. NATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS AND MIGRATIONS OF THE HURONS: ASS TNDICATED' BY sTHEIR REMAINS IN NORTH SIMCOE. By A. F. HUNTER, M.A. (Read 25th September, 1891). The tract of land lying between Lake Simcoe and Georgian Bay is commonly known as the abode of the Huron Indians during the first half of the seventeenth century. But, to describe their location more definitely, it was on the high ground of the interior of this tract that they chiefly dwelt, as appears from their remains found at the present day ; in the low parts of the wide valley of the Nottawasaga River, between them and the Tobacco Nation, very few traces of aboriginal occupation are found. It will be proper to lay special emphasis on the fact that the Hurons occupied high ground, because in this respect they contrast in a striking manner with the later Algonquins, who subse- quently occupied the same district but preferred to haunt the waterways during the greater part of the year, and were naturally an aquatic people. Corresponding with this difference between the Hurons and Algonquins in the choice of locality, there was a similar contrast between their places of burial—so marked indeed that it is still impossible to confuse them. The Hurons selected places for burial purposes near their villages, almost always in dry and sandy soil, and remote from water. Of all their ossuaries brought to light in this century, only a few have been found where the soil is clay. But the Algonquins buried their dead near the river banks and lake shores, in places which they could easily reach in canoes. The almost complete annihilation of the Hurons at their own villages in 1649, has been the most notable event in connection with the history of their race. It is possible to see at the present day the very spots where the massacres took place ; these are indicated by large numbers of iron tomahawks strewing the ground, besides other marks of strife which are still visible. In Indian warfare, tomahawks were often hurled at the enemy—a practice that has been noted by Catlin [Zz/e Among the Indians, chap. 2.] and other writers. Henee we now find patches of ground where they are found in abundance. On the accompanying map of North Simcoe there is defined the district in which these patches 226 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. it occur, and which may therefore be regarded as the scene of the attacks. by the Iroquois. The southerly limit of this afflicted territory is sharply defined. Two small lakes, joined by a stream which passes through a large swamp several miles in length as well as breadth, formed a natural protection to the Hurons on their exposed southwestern frontier ; and thus, on the south eastern boundary only, were they exposed to the Iroquois invasions. Such was the position they occupied just before the final attacks were made upon them. The small district thus bounded contained all the villages in which the Jesuits labored, and included even Teanaustaye (St. Joseph) which Dr. Parkman, following Dr. Taché’s notes, places much farther to the south. There is a fringe of villages lying outside the southern and eastern boundaries of this district where but few tomahawks or signs of conflict are to be seen amongst the remains. Other features of the small district in question, besides the patches of tomahawks, are : the abundance of small ossuaries, indicating hasty burial ; artificial holes in the ground, sometimes in rows and occasionally in crossrows ; caches and isolated graves in great numbers. All these features are usually associated together, and indicate the village sites where massacres took place. Compared with that portion of New York state once occupied by the Iroquois, the Huron territory contains fewer earthwork enclosures ; Squier [Axtiguzties of the State of New York] records no less than 15 of these earthwork enclosures in* Jefferson Co., N. Y., alone. Compared ~ also with the counties west of Lake Ontario and along the north shore of Lake Erie,—the district once occupied by the Neuters,—there is a similar contrast ; Mr. Boyle, in his Annual Archaeological Reports of the Canadian Institute, has described several in that section of the country. In North Simcoe, however, whatever earthworks there are to be found are few and unimportant; only in a few cases does earth or debris appear to have been thrown up to any extent, except the ashpiles at the * Since the above was written, a valuable article by Rev. W. M. Beauchamp, of Baldwins- ville, N.Y., on the “‘Indian Occupation of New York,” appeared in Sczence (Feb. 5, 1892). Mr. Beauchamp gave therein the numbers of earthworks, stockades, mounds and ossuaries of each county in New York State, recorded up to date, the earthworks in Jefferson Co. being placed at 33, and the ossuaries at 6, A paper on ‘ Early Indian Forts in New York ” was read by the same writer at the Rochester meeting of the American Association in August, 1892. The paper is summarized in the Pro- ceedings of that body as follows: ‘‘ The form and construction of earthworks varied, and these generally preceded stockades, which were of four kinds: single, double, triple, and quadruple. The ditch was less defensive than incidental, and in stockades post-holes were not always used. Many examples of both modes of defence still remain, and Squier’s estimate of their number was a fair one. According to the catalogue of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington) defensive works belong mainly to the northern U.S., especially near the great lakes.” - 1891-92. ] CHARACTERISTICS AND MIGRATIONS OF THE HURONS. 227 villages, and the pits made during the conflicts mentioned in the last paragraph. There is a deficiency in regard to ossuaries in the Iroquois and Neuter territories in comparison with the Huron district. Squier,in his exam- ination of the Iroquois country of Central New York in the volume already referred to, records but two in Jefferson County, and in Erie County but four or five. In three townships of North Simcoe—Tiny, Tay and Medonte—the three which include the afflicted district described above, more than sixty to our knowledge have been found. The location of sites upon high peninsular points of land, especially along the brows of lake terraces, sand ridges, or bluffs, seems to have been extensively followed by all three nations. Since the year 1820, when Simcoe County first began to receive Euro- pean settlers, discoveries of Huron ossuaries have been constantly taking place. In order to preserve a record of Huron occupation, we have catalogued 140 of these ossuaries ; and from the scanty facilities enjoyed. in the accomplishment of this task, it is clear that many more still re- main unrecorded in our list. In these 140 ossuaries there was buried a population that from a careful estimate may be set down approximately as 25,000. The ossuary of average size, in the district, contains about 200 skeletons. From these figures it will be seen that the Jesuits’ estimates of the Huron population were by no means exaggerated. The proportion of ossuaries to village sites is much greater in the Huron district than seems to be the case in other parts of the province. It is not an unnatural inference from this fact, that those who occupied the other parts to the south and east, perished in North Simcoe and were buried there. In other words, it became the cemetery of Central Ontario at that period. It is not difficult to understand the cause of this, viz., the persecution of the Hurons by the Iroquois and the conse- quent retreat of the former toward the north. Two or three additional facts may also be stated in support of the view just given. The most southerly towns of the Huron district were the largest, indicating a migration from the south. Champlain’s map shows that in 1615 the Hurons extended southward to Lake Ontario as well as into the counties east of Lake Simcoe, and were not confined to North Simcoe alone as they became at a later date. This has been con- firmed by the finding in South Simcoe, and in York, Ontario, Victoria, Peterborough, Durham and other counties, of many village sites and ossuaries of Huron origin. Ina valuable paper by Mr. George E. Laidlaw, published in Mr. Boyle’s Fourth Annual Report (1890), he suggests that ‘228 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Von. Ifl. the aboriginal remains in Victoria County were the work of Hurons. Further evidence of their migration is yielded by the frequency of French relics in North Simcoe and their scarcity in the southern and eastern counties, indicating that the former was chiefly occupied by the Hurons after the year 1615 when the French first came amongst them. This has already been shown at some length in a paper by the writer entitled “French Relics from Village Sites of the Hurons,” which was read before the Institute and published in the Third Archaeological Report (1889). It is often stated that a “ Feast of the Dead” was held in each of the five tribes of the Nation once in ten or twelve years. But from the large number of ossuaries which contain French relics, and which accordingly must have been interred between the years 1615 and 1649, it is evident that the ceremony took place much oftener. There can scarcely be a possibility that an agricultural nation, such as the Hurons were, could have had its beginnings in this province, where the prevalence of forests would prevent any development in an agri- cultural direction, but where, on the contrary, the conditions would produce hunters and fisher-men like the Algonquins. It may be reason- ably inferred that they originally came from a region where there were few trees to interfere with agricultural operations, such as the western plains ; at any rate a northern or eastern origin of this people in the Laurentian rock region appears unlikely. Much investigation, however, is still required before these questions can be settled and the origin of the Huron race determined. bo bo © 1891-92. | AN EPISODE IN THE PONTIAC WAR. RUTHERFORD’S NARRATIVE—AN EPISODE IN THE PONTIAC WAR, 1763—AN UNPUBLISHED. MANU- SCRIPIZBY LIBUTSEUEHERFORD OF THE ‘BUACK AVA TCH.” PRESENTED TO THE INSTITUTE BY THOMAS HODGINS, Esq., M.A. (Read 5th March, 1892) Major Gladwin of the 80th Regiment, commanding officer of Detroit, being anxious to know whether the lakes and rivers between that place and Michellemakainac were navigable for vessels of a greater burthen than the small batteaux then made use of, ordered Captain Charles Robson of the 77th Regiment, who had the command of the king’s ship upon Lake Erie, with a party of six soldiers and two sailors, with a large batteaux with the necessary implements, to sound the lakes. Sir Robert Davies, who had passed that winter at Detroit, having a curiosity to see further into the country, (which in fact was the motive which had induced him to come so far as Detroit,) accompanied Captain Robson, and both of these gentlemen inviting me to join them, I joyfully accepted the invitation, as it had then all the appearance of a pleasure jaunt. We promised ourselves excellent sport in shooting water fowl, with which that country abounds, not in the smallest degree dreading any inter- ference from the savages around us, who but a little before in full council renewed their profession of friendship for the English, and received from them presents to a considerable amount. We accordingly set out on May 2nd, 1763. Captain Robson, myself, and the party were in the batteaux. Sir Robert Davies and a Pawnee or Indian slave were ina little wooden canoe, being better than a batteaux for going in shallow water after the game, and so easily navigated that he and his boy were sufficient to cross the lakes and go up the creeks among the Indian villages. We passed several native villages, but there appeared to be very few Indians in them. We supposed that they were out ona hunting party, but afterwards found they were on an expedition of a very different nature ; being, in fact, collected at the place where we were afterwards attacked by them. May 6th.—In the morning we arrived at Pinuree, where were some Canadians building a saw mill, for whom we brought (at the desire of a 16 230 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ VoL. PPR: French gentleman) a few barrels of flour, for which they returned us thanks, and told us with all the rhetoric they were masters of, that all the Indians around were in league to take up the hatchet against the Eng- lish; that they knew we were coming that way, and were waiting six miles up the river to seize and destroy us; and that if we proceeded any further we should certainly be cut to pieces. They begged us with tears in their eyes for God’s sake to return, and by reason of the winds and the strong current of the river we might gain the fort before they could per- ceive we had discovered their intentions. This was friendly advice given by people who showed in their countenances that they had our safety at heart; and had we followed their counsel many would have saved their lives on this occasion, and others avoided a long and dangerous captivity. Captain Robson partly doubted the truth of what the Canadians had told us, partly through mistaken confidence that they would not dare to: attack us until cover of the night ; and it being then noon, thought that he might go on six miles further and sound about the mouth of the river Huron; which done his work would be finished, and then return to the fort. He therefore ordered the rowers to ply their oars, and without seeming to suspect any danger, proceeded until we came within six miles. of the above river, where there was a small Indian village, the very place the Canadians told us we would be attacked by the savages. Then it was, though alas! too late, that Captain Robson discovered the truth of the information we had got, for the whole bank of the river was covered with Indians, to the amount of three or four hundred men. Sir Robert Davies was at this time considerably before in his canoe, on shore, and. smoked a pipe of friendship (as they called it) with some of their chiefs till we came up. He advised us to row on and pass him, and not to seem to suspect that they had a design upon us. Here I must observe that the river turned narrow, and was so rapid that we were obliged to keep the boat close to the shore, and even then the Indians could walk faster than we could row. To have attempted to return would have been inevitable destruction to us all. Besides that they had all their canoes ready to pursue us. This we were sensible of, so we kept rowing on and humoured them as much as possible. They crowded round us, men, women, and children, giving us the friendly appellation of brothers, told us they were glad to see us, and begged that we should come on shore and we would have whatever was good; the squaws or Indian women showing us maple sugar, fish, etc., to induce us to land. We did not, how- ever, choose to accept of their invitation or presents. They asked for some bread and tobacco, which we gave them. This was only to take up our attention, for all the while they were filing off by degrees, till at last there was not an Indian to be seen. The squaws were collected so a ane Ee 1891-92. ] AN EPISODE IN THE PONTIAC WAR. 231 closely on the bank of the river, endeavouring to divert our attention by ridiculous stories, that it was impossible to see what was going on behind, or what the men were about. The warriors, however, were then busy posting themselves behind a rising ground a little before, so that when we came opposite that place—the squaws as it had been preconcerted ran as fast as they could out of the way—the warriors commenced firing upon us at the distance of sixty yards. Captain Robson was immediately wounded on the left side, which showing me, he called to the men to sheer up, but alas! he had just spoken the words when another shot through his body killed him. I then took the helm and endeavoured to bring round the boat, but two of the soldiers being now killed, the remaining five could not navigate the boat, and as they had neither their arms ready nor loaded, they thought only of screening themselves as best they could from the enemy’s fire; but it was all in vain, for the Indians, seeing Captain Robson our chief killed, and the confusion that prevailed, rushed upon us and easily boarded us, raising at the same time and in accordance to their custom on such occasions, the most dreadful cries and yellings, which they called the “ Death Gralloo.” They had changed their appearance from what it was when they called us brothers, having at that time their blanket and ornaments on, but now they were painted black and red, making a very frightful appearance. Every one of us was now seized by his future master, for by their custom whoever lays hold of a captive by the hair of his head, to him he belongs, and none may take him from him. I was laid hold of by one whose hideous aspect was enough to banish every hope of receiving quarter, but indeed before this I had given up any hope of being saved, and became ina manner resigned for the worst. They immediately scalped Captain Rob- son and the other two soldiers who were shot. My master (for such I was now to acknowledge him) dragged me out of the boat by the hair of the head into the water, which took me up to the neck, endangering my drowning; however, he brought me safe on shore, and with a rope adorned with trinkets (which they always carry about with them to bind their prisoners of war) bound me and delivered me over in charge of his squaw, returning himself to plunder the boat. All this time, Sir Robert Davies, as I was afterwards informed by his Indian boy, seeing the savages attack us, endeavoured to escape in his light canoe to the opposite side of the river, while the Indians called to him repeatedly to come on shore and deliver himself up, promising not to hurt a hair of his head. He paid no regard to their words, which so exasperated them that two of them levelled their pieces at him and brought him instantly down. His body fell over into the water, and having picked it up, they cut off the head and buried the trunk; the head they afterwards interred, after 232 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ VoL. ie having scalped it. My master returned with his share of the booty from the boat, which he laid upon my back, and marching through the village came to the hut where he lived. We had not been long there when a great many Indians came in, and got drunk upon spirit which they had plundered, and as I knew in their cups they often killed one another, I again considered myself in as much danger as ever. One of them dressed in Captain Robson’s clothes came in very drunk, and seeing me lie in the corner with my hands tied, set up a shout, calling me an English dog, and madea stroke at me with his tomahawk, which must have killed me, had not another Indian more sober, and whom I afterwards found to be the best of them, seized his arm and prevented him, and then turned him out of the hut. My master’s wife seeing the danger to which I was exposed, and knowing that he or some other Indian might return, made me lie down behind her, and covered me over with skins and furs ; soon after the same Indian did return and demanded me of my master, saying that “No English dog should be left alive,” upon which he was turned out a second time and well kicked. Not long after this a party of them came and determined to have me, and my master was obliged in order to save me, to tell them that I was carried to another hut, which satisfied them. The whole night they kept drinking what liquor we had brought with us,and making a most hideous yelling, dancing and singing, while they were feeding on poor Captain Robson’s body. ‘This shocking piece of barbarity was practised only by some of the Indian tribes to the northward. The Six Nations, who used their prisoners when alive much worse than those whose captives we were, yet never eat human flesh. They of course do not devour it for want of food, but as a religious ceremony, or rather from a superstitious idea that it makes them prosperous in war. They teach their children to be fond of it even from infancy. The next day my master’s son brought some pieces of the body into the hut, and roasted them upon a stick, and endeavoured at the same time to prevail on me to eat it, after assuring me that English- man’s blood was very good to eat. My master desired of me to taste it, telling me that I was never going back to the English, so that I ought to conform to the manner of the Indians. I told him that I would obey him in every thing he ordered me, and even that if he insisted upon it ; but that it was very disagreeable for me, and that was the only command I would feel any hesitation in performing, and begged that he would not absolutely insist upon it. Thus by assuming readiness to acquiesce, I avoided eating the remains of my friend, and I believe by showing a desire to please him I rather gained upon his affections. My hands were still bound behind my back, this day being the second of my captivity, Never having seen or heard any thing of the poor soldiers, I concluded j 4 | : : 1891-92.) AN EPISODE IN THE PONTIAC WAR. 233 that they had shared the unhappy fate of their captain, which added the more to my uneasiness, fearing that I would not be more favourably dealt with. However, towards the evening of that day, I saw Sir Robert’s Indian boy, who told me of some of the soldiers being alive. This boy having lived long with the English, in speaking their language made me think that he would desire to get free from the Indians who used him much worse than the English. I therefore thought I might confide in him, so laid myself open to him and told him of a scheme I had formed of our escape together, which was, that we should both get out of our respective beds at night when all were asleep, meet at a certain place agreed upon and then untie each other, and as he understood travelling in the woods, he would pilot us to Fort Detroit, which was not above eighty English miles distant, each of us bringing with him as much fish as would be necessary to subsist on during the journey. He agreed to this proposal, went off with an intention as I supposed of meeting me at the place appointed ; however, towards the end of the evening, I was surprised to see my master come into the hut, looking very angrily at me, having a wooden post and an axe in his hand. Without saying a word he put one end of the post into the ground, and told me in an angry tone something I did not understand, with signs to me to lie down on my back ; then taking my leg a little below the ankle, put it into the notch against which he tied another piece of string, so close that I could not move to turn myself on my side, but lay on my back with my hands bound, while my master, drawing the ends of the rope under his body lay down next me with his squaw ona bearskin. I passed the night like a criminal just before execution, with this difference, I had nothing to reproach myself, no offence committed against my God or the laws of my country ; this treatment gave me good cause to suspect treachery on the part of the Indian boy, who I found afterwards had, in order to get his pardon, which he did, discovered my intentions of escape. Next morning my master loosed my leg, and by means of an Indian who spoke English, informed me that he had discovered my intention of escaping, and that had I done so or even attempted it, death would have been the inevitable consequence, showing me the situation of Fort Detroit, surrounded with four Indian nations, viz.: Chippewahs, (the nation I was with) Otterwahs, Ponteuatheimies, Wiandots, who so blockaded the place that nobody could come in or go out, and that in a few days there would not be an Englishman left in it alive; whereupon I found it absolutely necessary for my safety to affect to relish their savage manners, and put on an air of perfect contentment, which I had often heard was the way to gain the affections of the Indians, whereas showing discontented con- duct irritates them and creates worse treatment, and even draws down 234 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. II. death itself on the captive who is so unfortunate as not to be able to accommodate himself to his situation. I therefore assured him I should no more think of leaving him, which so pleased him that he took me out to walk and pointed out to me the spot where Sir Robert Davies was buried and what remained of Captain Robson's body, showing me like- wise how impossible it was for us to have escaped in our boats. He then led me to where the bodies of the poor soldiers lay who fell in the attack, and were become food for the dogs, which were devouring them; he then loosened my hand, and with the string bound up a heavy bundle of sticks which he placed upon my back, telling me that I was always to do that or whatever his wife desired me. When delivered of my burden he again tied up my hands, and fastened the rope to the rafters of the hut, but he did not put my feet in the stocks as the night before. Yet it was equally impossible for me to effect an escape, and indeed by this time I had given up all hopes of it, unless a more favourable opportunity occurred. Next morning my master went off in his canoe to join the rest of the warriors encamped at Detroit, leaving me to the care of his father, who seemed fond of me, and wished that I should become a savage as soon as possible. Soon after my master’s departure he fairly stripped me of my clothes, and told me I should wear them no more, but dress like an Indian ; he accordingly gave me a blanket, then shaved my head leaving only a small tuft of hair on the crown, and two small locks which he plated, with several silver brooches interwoven, making them hang over my face, which was painted a variety of colours; he likewise presented me with a tobacco pouch and pipes, telling me I should smoke, which I did, and afterwards became very fond of it. The hunting season being now passed, the Indians lived on fish, without bread, butter or salt. This did not agree with me. I became so very weak as to be rendered incapable of walking for seven or eight days, during which time my master’s father informed me that I should not be eaten if I died. Ten days after this my master returned with the rest of his family, and after much talk of the success of their arms against the English, how many prisoners they had taken, etc., he looked at me, turning me round, appar- ently surprised at seeing me attired “en sauvage.” He asked for my hair, which, the old man giving him, he carefully put by. Still my hands continued tied, and whenever I had occasion to go out, an Indian boy laid hold of the end of the rope, which he fastened to the rafters of the hut when I returned again. It was not long after this before my hands were at last unbound, my master often impressing upon me the impossi- bility of making my escape. I told him I had no design and feigned a satisfaction in their mode of life and a particular fondness for my new uniform, by which means I secured his good will. He thought he was ahi 1891-92. ] AN EPISODE IN THE PONTIAC WAR. 23 S sure of me from my being so young, and that I would on that account sooner take to the novelty of their ways of life and more easily forget my country and my friends; certain it is that with this behaviour I fared better in many respects than those prisoners who appeared always sullen and subdued, some of whom indeed suffered death on that account. I now frequently saw two of the soldiers who were taken with myself, and the meetings at intervals were very satisfactory. It gives inexpressible pleasure to meet a countryman of one’s own even in a civilized foreign land. Judge then how much more so when in a state of captivity with a nation of savages of a colour so different from our own. Happy was I to meet with those poor fellows whom but a short time before I would not have suffered to speak to me without the usual marks of respect from an inferior to a superior. Now there was no distinction, we being glad to find those people of the same colour with one another. We used often to compare notes of different treatment we met with from our masters. One of them told me he was obliged to eat of Captain Robson’s body. We would form fifty different schemes for making our escape, but reject them all afterwards as perfectly impracticable. About the middle of May we were in great distress from want of pro- visions, owing to the indolence of the savages, who never stir out of their huts to fish or hunt until necessity drives them, which was our case at this time. During four days the wind continued so high that no fish could be caught, as they durst not venture upon the lakes in their little bark canoes. These are generally navigated by two men, or by a man and a boy, the former standing in the bow or fore part, where there is a pole fixed having a light fixed at the end of it which attracts the fish— it being on the darkest side they are most successful. The man in the bow marks the fish approaching, and directs the boy to steer the canoe so that he may best strike the fish with his harpoon. In this way I have seen as much as two men could carry of cat-fish, perch, and pike taken in two hours’ time, independent of the satisfaction of procuring so neces- sary a part of their daily sustenance. It is a great amusement and really a pleasant scene to witness fifty of the lights moving on the smooth lake in every direction, while the silence is only disturbed by the varied cries of wild beasts from surrounding forests. I have observed before that the stormy weather had reduced us to the last extremity of want, having recourse to picking up acorns in the woods, and boiling them in ashes or water, changing them frequently to take off the bitter taste ; and this was our food until the fifth day, when the winds abating we obtained plenty of fish. The Indians themselves are so accustomed to be reduced to this shift that they think nothing of it, and are always sure to make up their loss by future stuffing and sloth. While they have 236 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. JUOL victuals of any sort in their huts they do nothing but smoke, eat or sleep. It is on these occasions that the beaux and belles make their mutual conquests and dress in their best attire. They amuse themselves at times with a diversion something similar to the game of shinty which is in use among our boys, in which females play against the males, and often come off victors. My master used to deck me out in the richest manner, putting on me all the ornaments of the family, and taking me out to the plain, where he made me strut about to exhibit myself in the presence of the whole village, calling out to the people to look at the little white man. All this time I was made a show of without being allowed to join in the game. Towards the end of May we began to make preparations for our voyage to join the rest of the warriors encamped within a few miles of Detroit, for which purpose my master deemed it necessary to build a canoe, and which he and I accomplished in two days. It was of a sufficient size to carry all the family for many thousand miles. The evening before our departure I was surprised to see the master seize one of the dogs, of which animals he had several in the hut, and they were constantly poking their noses into our victuals, an. operation easily performed as the floor was our only table, and neither chairs nor tables stood in the hut. This dog was killed, which I was not sorry for, and given over to the squaw, who scraped him as we doa hog in hot water. My master then invited all his neighbours, sending me round with a number of painted sticks, which were left with each one invited. Upon entering the hut where the feast is held, every one pro- duces his stick and lays it upon the platter for the purpose. Each of the guests gets a double portion, eating one and carrying home the other in a dish which they bring with them to receive it. I sat in a corner of the hut, a silent spectator of my master’s feast, being looked upon as a slave and unworthy to partake of so fine a repast. After killing or rather drowning another dog for the purpose of appeasing the evil spirit, as they gave me to understand, we set out next morning in our canoe, making short day voyages, always landing before sunset, putting up at that time our cabin and cooking our fish, which culinary office fell to my lot, as well as that of cutting firewood. The cabin or hut is soon made, it con- sists of about twenty trees put up in the shape of a sugar loaf, and covered all over with a sort of matting, excepting the hole at the top to let the smoke out. Every one carries his or her bed clothes upon his back, which are either the skins of a wild beast or a coarse blanket. All lie down promiscuously, men, women and children with their feet to the fire, which is in the centre. The second day of our voyage we came to an island where was an Indian burial ground. Here we halted ronnd a particular grave, which my master afterwards told me was the grave of 1891-92. | AN EPISODE IN THE PONTIAC WAR. 237 his son. He made us all plant a few grains of corn, which we did, and re-embarking, proceeded on our voyage, which we ended in four days, arriving at a Frenchman’s house in the neighbourhood of Detroit. This man being my master’s , we took up our residence close to his house, rather than join the rest of the warriors, who were encamped five miles nearer the fort. We immediately set about building a large bark house, more convenient than those they carry about with them. The fireplace belonging to it was situated out of doors, where I was condemned to broil two hours every day, boiling their kettle, with a little fish or Indian corn. This new house occupied about four days in finishing, several parts of the work falling to my share, such as carrying home the wood and bark; here I must observe that I suffered inexpressible pain from not having any clothes on—not so much as a shirt to protect me from the scorching rays of the sun which burnt my back and shoulders so much that I was one mass of blisters, the palms of my hands being in the same state from the continued working of the oar. The next piece of fatigue I was put to was assisting my mistress in planting a large field of corn or maize or other vegetables. This being finished, my master carried me to the grand encampment about five miles from Detroit. Here I had the pleasure of seeing Captain Campbell and Lieutenant MacDougall of the 60th Regiment, who came out of the fort at the commencement of the blockade, with proposals of peace to the Indians. To this however, they would not listen; but on the contrary, detained those two officers prisoners at a Frenchman’s house. Upon my observing to Captain Campbell that I thought we might escape, being so near as within sight of the fort, he advised me by no means to think of it, as he was well assured that if any one escaped, the Indians were determined to sacrifice those that remained. I frequently made visits to those gentlemen who were prisoners with the Ottawahs. Every day there were captures and scalps brought into the camp. The scalp is not, as commonly believed, the whole skin of the head, but only the uppermost part of the crown, and must have in it that swirl in the hair which every one has there, before it can be approved of asa just trophy of the warrior’s achieve- ments. They at this time brought in Ensign Pauli (60th Regiment) who commanded a small fort on Lake Erie. The Indians entered this fort as friends, and while some of them were smoking a pipe as a token of their pretended friendship, the rest were butchering their small garri- son till not one was left alive. This gentleman made a very good Indian, being of a dark complexion. He was much liked by his master, who soon adopted him into his family, by which he was exempted from all drudgery. So great an assembly of Indians being gathered together in a French settlement, reduced the inhabitants to great distress ; they had. m4 238 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vox. LIT. their cattle, sheep and poultry killed, and when these failed we were almost being starved, having frequently nothing but a handful of corn for a day’s sustenance, and that we parched in the ashes and ate it with a spoonful of bear’s grease. I frequently used to beg for a morsel of bread at the French people’s houses, from whose doors I was often turned away. In this distressed situation, my master prudently resolved to quit the camp, and moved accordingly back to the place where I was first taken prisoner. Here we had fish as formerly, and sometimes a little venison. On our return to the village, we halted at the burying place before mentioned, and while my mistress and I were busy erecting our hut, my master went out and killed a bear, which was eaten up heartily. After finishing our repast, I was ordered to put the kettle on the fire again, which circumstance surprised me a little,as we were in the habit of going to sleep immediately after eating. I was induced to ask the meaning, but was given to understand by looks and gestures that the mystery would be revealed on the following morning. My master then cut some of the choicest bits of the bear and put them in the kettle, which being hung over a slow fire, we went to rest. Next morning by day break we were called up, and in a formal and solemn manner walked up to the grave, where a small fire was kindled, round which we seated ourselves, and then my master arose and made a long speech, during which he often pointed to me and the grave alternately, while at every pause we all joined in a sort of chorus or amen, by way of acquiescence or approval of what he said. When he ended his oration, he divided the broth and meat among us, and after saying a few words over the grave, he puta piece of the fat of the bear into the fire, directing each of us to do the same. This I was informed was to appease the spirit of his son, who might be offended at my being adopted in his place. Such was his design, as he then told me, that I was as much his son, telling me at the same time to look upon the boys as my brothers; that my name should no longer be “ Sagarast” or Englishman, but “ Addick,’ which signifies a white elk; but notwithstanding this I was generally called by my master’s name, which was “ Perwash.”” My master, or rather my father now, took me out frequently with him hunting, an amusement of which I was very fond. Though this was not the season for killing deer, we were under the necessity of killing some for the family to subsist on when we returned to the camp near Detroit. As soon therefore,as we had cured a few carcases of venison, (which we did by smoking them without salt) we again set out to join the rest of the warriors. In crossing Lake St. Clair it happened to blow very hard, so that our little frigate was in danger of going to the bottom with Perwash and all his family. To appease the evil spirit he chewed some handfuls of tobacco and threw it 1891-92. ] AN EPISODE IN THE PONTIAC WAR. 239 into the lake, at the same time pronouncing a long harangue. We con- trived eventually to get safe to land, but whether owing to the tobacco I shall not pretend to say. The rain having drenched our clothes and blankets, we hung them upon trees till they dried. I may mention that the Indians likewise make use of the tobacco plant in thunder storms, by throwing a quantity of it into the fire, and while it is burning a squaw drums with a piece of iron on the bottom of a kettle, which they pre- tend prevents any mischief being done to the family by lightning. By the time our corn was grown up about a foot high, it became necessary to have it hoed and weeded, which was a severe task to my mother and me for six days. I flattered myself that my being adopted into the family would have exempted me from this kind of drudgery, but Per- wash, having a particular regard for his wife, chose that I should still assist her on many occasions, and she being fond of her ease laid the most of it on my shoulders. She frequently made me pound or bruise corn in a large mortar, till there was scarcely any skin on my hands, and when I showed them to her she only laughed, and told me I would soon be better used to it, and that in time my hands would soon become hard like hers, which in truth were none of the softest. The men think it beneath them to do anything more than fish and hunt for the support of their families, and in this they take no more trouble than is absolutely necessary, for they frequently leave the game where killed, and send their squaws to bring it home, directing them where they would find it by breaking off branches and marking the trees for miles where they have hunted and left their game; this when their squaws have found, she brings home the choicest pieces and dresses them for her lord and master who generally sleeps till called to eat. When his repast is finished he regales himself with his pipe of tobacco, mixed with the leaves of the “Shumah shrub” ; in the meantime the rest of the family are busy roasting fish or broiling steaks, each one for himself. The steaks are done upon the end of a stick, as we toast bread, and in my opinion that is the most delicious way of eating roast meat. Sometimes my “mother” roasted a large piece for the family, who never wait till it is thoroughly done, but as the outside becomes a little brown, everyone with his knife falls upon it and slices away as fast as it is roasted, by which means the pleasure of eating (their chief gratification) is ~prolonged. When soup is made, or rather when they boil their meat or fish, they hang up the kettle out of the reach of the dog, and every one drinks out of it when inclined. They use no salt and the absence of this at first made me think every thing tasteless; but hunger and habit prevailed over prejudice, and I soon came to eat as heartily as Perwash himself. About the 8th of June, Lieutenant MacDougall, with a Dutch trader escaped into the fort, which 240 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. III. caused them to look more strictly after us who were left, particularly Captain Campbell, who was shut up in a garret in a Frenchman’s house. I frequently visited him, accompanied by Perwash. One morning he told me he felt ill and was prepossessed with the idea he would die very soon. I endeavoured to persuade him from indulging in such forebodings, which only tended to make him more melancholy ; but to my grief and sorrow, the first thing I heard next morning was that he was killed by the savages. That morning Captain Hopkins of the Rangers had made a sortie from the fort, attacked a party of Indians and killed one of the chiefs of the nation to which I belong. The chief’s friends were resolved to take the life of an Englishman of the rank of Captain. This they found convenient to accomplish by murdering poor Campbell who belonged to the Ottaway nation. The nation in their turn were enraged with the Chippewahs for slaying a prisoner who was their property, and of whom they were very fond. They therefore determined to have satisfac- tion for the outrage, and which they thought could not be more effectually obtained than by sacrificing a prisoner belonging to the Chippewahs of the rank equal to that of Captain Campbell. Accordingly to compensate this loss they pitched upon Ensign Pauli, but he being informed of the danger by a handsome squaw who fell in love with him, assisted by her he made his escape from the house of the Frenchman, whence with much difficulty he escaped to the fort, after being several times fired at by the sentries who took him to be a real Indian. The Ottawahs being dis- appointed in their design upon Pauli, determined next to take my life, being as they thought next rank to an officer and superior to any of the private prisoners among them. Perwash having heard that they were in search of me took me to a Frenchman’s barn, where he covered me up with straw. In this situation I remained for the space of three hours» expecting every moment to feel the tomahawk in my skull, till a party of Indians with Perwash at their head came and conducted me away. Notwithstanding their reiterated assurance that I was not to suffer death, I could not help being alarmed and doubtful of my safety. They marched me in custody for four miles till we reached the grand encamp- ment, which was in the midst of the French settlements. On the road lay a dead body mangled and scalped, which the dogs were eating. I was made to stop a considerable time while my guards viewed it with seeming satisfaction, telling me at the same time in exulting tones that there lay our grand chief Captain Campbell. I could not have indeed recognized in that mangled corpse the remains of my good friend whom they had murdered. It was a shocking spectacle—the head scalped, the nose, arms, ears and legs with other parts of the body cut off, yet how- ever disagreeable to me, 1 was forced to behold it. They led me toa 1891-92. ] AN EPISODE IN THE PONTIAC WAR. 941 great hall in a Frenchman’s house, in the courtyard of which were about two hundred Indians of different nations. There was placed in the middle of the hall a small table and four chairs. A fifth chair was reserved for myself, though at that time I would gladly have dispensed with the honour. They then produced some English letters,and Pondiac the leading man of the four nations, told me by a French interpreter, that as I could speak French and read English, that they had pitched upon me to explain the meaning of these letters, which he ordered me to perform without concealing any part of them, threatening me with death if I did not translate the whole verbatim just as they were. Here one of the prisoners, a native of Virginia, who fond of an indolent life, had married and determined to stay among them, told me he could read English also, and would overlook the papers to detect any attempts at concealment, or misconstruction of the sense, adding that the conse- quences would be my being scalped on the spot. I accordingly set to work and read the letters in French, toa Frenchman who explained them to the chief. They were merely old letters which Captain Campbell had in his pocket when killed, and a few to him from his friends at Detroit during his imprisonment, which had been committed to the charge of a Frenchman, who instead of delivering them kept them. There were several French gentlemen in the room, who were as eager to read them as the Indians. What both French and English wanted to know in particular, was whether peace had been declared with France or not. It had been publicly declared at Detroit by Major Gladwin long before that time ; but the Canadians could never bring themselves to believe that the “Grand Monarque” could ever cede their country to Great Britain, and still flattered themselves that if they could excite the Indians to maintain the war against us for a little while, that a reinforce- ment would arrive from France and they would drive the English out of the country. They had therefore always assured the Indians that Major Gladwin had declared there was peace only to prevent them from attacking him. The epistle contained, however, nothing that I thought could favour their wishes or designs, nevertheless they thought fit to con- strue them differently, or at least to doubt the truth and sincerity of Major Gladwin’s proclamation of peace. When I had done with the interpretation, they all thanked me and appeared satisfied with my pro- ceedings, permitting me to return home with Perwash who said he was happy in having got me off so well. The most memorable circumstance which happened during my captivity was my being sold to Mr. Quilleim, with whom I was well acquainted before I was taken, and had since frequently visited with Perwash in order to procure a little bread and salt. In these 242 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. INGE visits I proposed to Mr. Quilleim to purchase me from my master, whom I knew to be covetous and fond of riches, according to the Indian estimation of wealth, and which consists of being possessed with a profusion of trinkets, much wampum, beads, silver bracelets and gorgets. This gentleman, on account of Mr. Sterling with whom he was intimate, and whose daughter he afterwards married, was much my friend ; he made several offers to Perwash for my purchase, first bringing him a horse and a cow, thinking that would prevail upon him, as he had often expressed a liking to the comforts that white people enjoyed, but he had a greater liking for me than to part with me at that price. He however, agreed to let me go for certain merchandise to the value of £40, upon condition that I was always to live with Mr. Quilleim, and not be allowed to go back to the English. This we both promised, although of course we only intended to keep it so long as it would not be attended with risk to the benefactor, for rather than he should be a sufferer I resolved to live with him, though at the hazard of being again seized by the savages. My “mother” and “brother” took an affectionate leave of me, and I went home laden with the things they had given me, and overjoyed with the change in my situation. I immediately cast away my greasy painted shirt which I had worn for two months without ever having had it washed. I scrubbed myself for two hours with soap and warm water to get the grease and paint off, then dressing myself in the costume of the Canadians, with a clean French shirt and long ruffles, and a mantle exactly like a bed gown, with a pair of new leggings, I began to feel pretty comfortable. The Frenchman with whom I was, being brother to the former commandant, and a great favourite with the Indians, (the latter had been rather civil to him in not killing all the stock, such as the cattle, poultry, etc.,) I got a good supper from him, genteelly served up, while a comfortable bed was provided for me in which I slept better than I had done for a long while before. I awoke next morning happy in the thought of being out of the hands of the savages, and once more returned to freedom, (as I imagined) never doubting that now I should have an opportunity of returning to my friends in the fort, or at least be quartered with so good a family till the war was over. With these pleasing reflections I consoled myself under the circumstances, but how fleeting are the hopes and joys of this life, and how uncertain are we weak mortals of what it may please the Almighty to make us suffer in this state of trial and probation! I was happy at this moment beyond expression, and in the next I was doomed to be miserable, Before sunset, as I was enjoying the company of the amicable Mademoiselle Quilleim, lamenting together the pitiable situa- tion of many poor captives that were still in the hands of the Indians, 1891-92. ] AN EPISODE IN THE PONTIAC WAR. 243 and were contriving methods for their deliverance, a party of armed Indians entered the house, all of them Ottawahs, and unknown to me, without saying a word to any one they seized me in a rude manner and hurried me down stairs. Then, indeed, my situation wore a very gloomy aspect. I was torn away from that excellent family without having time to say farewell, while on their part they were as much amazed and con- founded as myself, nor durst they make any efforts on my behalf or any attempt to save me. The Jadies of the family burst into tears, crossing themselves several times, and I believe fervently prayed for my deliver- ance. All that Mr. Quilleim could say or do was to encourage me to keep up my spirits and place my trust in “Le bon Dieu.” As we pass along the Frenchman’s houses the inhabitants all expressed a compas- sion for me, saying what asad thing it was to behold so young a lad come to so cruel and untimely an end; while others advised me to keep up my spirits as there still might be hope. As for myself I own I was much shocked at first, but by degrees became more resigned, and began seriously to think my time was come at last, and that the many dangers and escapes that I had had were so many warnings to me to prepare for that change which we must all sooner or later undergo. They carried me to Pondiac’s hut, the chief of the Ottawah tribe, and after being left there in a state of suspense for some hours, a Frenchman was procured to act as interpreter, who informed me on the part of the chief that the reason why I was taken from Monsieur Quilleim, was because several Dutch traders had got Frenchmen to buy or rather ransom prisoners like me, and that if he suffered that trade to be carried on, they would soon have no captives left. He therefore was resolved either to retain us all or have our scalps, in pursuance of which resolve he had ordered all those that had been so bought to be brought back again, and that he had intended to keep me himself. This sveech relieved me in some degree from the disagreeable apprehension I was under, and gave me cause to consider that my last hour was not so near as I had expected, but I could not but wish that I was still with Perwash. However, I remained this night with Pondiac, but early next morning the Chippewahs, the nation to whom I formerly belonged, despatched a party to take me from the Ottawahs. Their chief, Pondiac, had however, taken a great fancy to me, owing I believe, to my youth, (I being then only seventeen years of age), as they seldom grow fond of elderly people, from a notion that they will never be reconciled to their Indian manners, and he therefore positively refused to give me up, the consequences of which refusal had well nigh been a war between the two nations. This was prevented by King Owasser, the chief of the Chippewah nation, having prevailed upon Pondiac to give me up. The latter, had after a good deal of altercation i 244 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. (Vou. III. come to this step, in order to avoid engaging in a war with a nation superior to his own, which, besides the possibility of destroying his own, would have infallibly ruined the common cause for which they had assembled. I was immediately carried off by King Owasser to his hut. He was very kind to me, and gave me plenty of food to eat, telling me at the same time that he had plenty of girls to do the work, and that I should never be desired to do anything, but should live as he and his sons did. This treatment gave me great satisfaction, and indeed the behaviour of the whole family vied with each other in showing me most countenance and favour, and when any disturbance or alarm took place in the camp, such as the young fellows out of savage wantonness, or in a drunken frolic killing any of the captives they could find, I was always concealed on these occasions until the danger was over. The old king became so very fond of me, that he offered to make me his son-in-law, when I should be disposed to marry and fancy any of his daughters, who were reckoned the handsomest in the camp, and had more wampum than any others. He was satisfied with my telling him that I felt myself highly honoured by the proposal, and although at that time not inclined to take a wife, I did not know how soon I might change my mind, and I should certainly be happy to take one of his family for a partner. Little did I suspect that the ease and tranquillity I then enjoyed should be of but transitory existence. I had not sojourned in my new situation for ten days, when Perwash, my former father, expressed a desire to have his son back again, saying that he and his wife had heartily regretted having sold me to the Frenchman, and were willing to return the merchandise exchanged for me, provided I was again restored to him, adding that it grieved their hearts to see me in the possession of another. Owasser, however great his desire to keep me in his family, knew that though he was chief of the nation, he had no power to keep another’s property, nor did he choose to expose himself or his family to the revenge of Perwash, who would take the first opportunity of resenting the injury done to him. He was therefore obliged to give me up to my master, who with his whole house received me again with most expressive marks of joy and satisfaction, while that of Owasser seemed to regret my separation, the princesses themselves showing they were not indifferent. The number of prisoners now increased every day. Towards the end of July they had upwards of fifty, besides a number of scalps that were brought daily into the camp. They were every day killing some of their captives, even some of those that had been with them as long as I had. When I was in the hall of a Frenchman’s house which was crowded with Indians, some of the young warriors brought in eight captives naked, into the hall, at sight of which I was surprised and terror 1891-92. | AN EPISODE IN THE PONTIAC WAR. 245 struck. I enquired of an Indian of the same nation as myself, who frequently had expressed a regard for me, whether or not I was to fall a sacrifice with these they were about to murder. At this question he was amazed at seeing me here, and without making any reply, hurried me through the crowd, and putting me into another room in the house charged me to lie close, make no noise, for otherwise I should be discovered and put to death, and locking the door he left me to ruminate on what had passed. I found in the same place two Dutch merchants in a similar position as myself, having been secreted by their different proprietors, who were desirous of saving them from the fury of their country men. During our confinement we heard the Indians making long harangues over their victims, telling them it was to make their nation prosper in the war against the English that they were to be killed. The poor captives were begging the Frenchmen who were looking on to intercede for them; one little boy in particular, (a drummer of the Ran- gers) about eleven or twelve years old, was crying bitterly, imploring their mercy, but alas! he knew not how vain it was to ask it of butchers whose hearts were steeled against every feeling of humanity. I ventured to creep to the side of the window where I saw them lead eight of the poor captives to the river side whom they massacred on the spot. Some of them they tomahawked, others they shot with their guns, while some were put to death by making the little boys shoot them with bows and arrows, in order to accustom them to cruelty and perfect them in the use of weapons. Thus they prolonged the pain of these unhappy men, and when one would fall the multitude would set up the most dreadful yells and shouts that can be imagined. When the objects of their barbarity were all dead they proceeded to scalp them, and some of the savages took the skin off their arms to make tobacco pouches of them, as they did with Captains Robson and Campbell. The first joints of the fingers were left dangling by way of tassels. They then threw the bodies into the river that they might flow down to the fort, that their countrymen might see specimens of what they should all undergo in a short time When this tragical scene was ended, the Indian who had hidden me came and set me at liberty, first leading me publicly through the crowd to convince me that there was no danger, and then conducted me to Perwash, who seemed very glad to see me safe, he having heard that the warriors were on the hunt after me for my destruction. The following cause was given for this last act of atrocity: an old squaw, the wife of a chief, dreamt that she saw ten Englishmen slain and scalped; this she recounted to the young warriors, who wished for nothing better than a pretext to make a frolic. She conjured them at the same time to make her dream good, otherwise she prophesied, they would not prosper in 17 246 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ VoL. es war. This, with a good deal more enthusiastic stuff in her speech, at length excited their passions to such a pitch, that they flew about the camp like maniacs to collect their prisoners, in order to butcher them as above stated, and verify the dream of this imp of hell. However, they were in some measure disappointed, for those that had any concern for their captives, concealed them. The little drummer mentioned above was a favourite of an old squaw, who wanted much to save him, but notwith- standing her tears and most earnest entreaties, the young warriors tore him away from her, declaring upon such an occasion they would respect neither age nor sex. Almost every day exhibited fresh atrocities towards some of their prisoners, so that I lived in continual dread, expecting every day to be my last; 1 therefore resolved to attempt my escape at all hazards. There lived near to where we had our cabin a Frenchman named Boileau. This man had been civil to me on several occasions, and I thought might be willing to facilitate my escape by his assistance, I thereby succeeded in gaining him to my interest. As the French were permitted to enter the fort, I gave him a letter to my friend Mr. Sterling, who likewise promised him a recompense if he succeeded in my deliver- ance. Major Gladwin also, and several other officers assured him of their countenance. Upon his return, I found him quite ready to engage in my interest. I therefore redoubled my entreaties and promises in case of success. The next object to be considered was a plan for my departure in the most secret and unsuspicious manner. He formed many schemes, but rejected them all upon a more cool consideration of the matter. Our respective eagerness, (he to enjoy the promised reward and I to enjoy my liberty), made it difficult to determine upon the most practicable means of effecting it. However, we at last came to the following contrivance. On the evening appointed, the Frenchman was to embark in his canoe, and give out publicly he was going to fish as usual; instead of doing which he was to go about two miles down the river nearer to the Fort Detroit, and at a certain point of low land covered with bushes, he was then to put in with his canoe in the dusk of the evening, when the Indians would not perceive him and so conceal himself. I, on my part, was to make the best of my way to him in the night. This scheme we were to put into execution the evening after it was formed. This, however, was prevented for that and several succeed- nights, the Indians being alarmed by a report that the Chippewahs were to be attacked by our forces, which actually happened a few days after. Captain Dalzell, who had brought a reinforcement to Fort Detroit, issued from thence on the night of the 15th of August with a strong body of men under his command, with an intention of surprising the enemy’s camp, but they had been warned by the French of his designs, for they | i 1891-92. ] AN EPISODE IN THE PONTIAC WAR. 247 lay in ambush and attacked his party with great spirit, nay, they did on this occasion what savages were never known to do before, they threw themselves into houses, annoying the British troops very much from them and from behind fences. The action continued doubtful for some time; at last one troop were obliged to retire, which they did in good order to the Fort, leaving upon the field Captain Dalzell and about sixty private soldiers. Perwash knew nothing of the attack till the firing of the artillery and small arms aroused him from sleep, when he rose up in a great hurry, put on a powder horn and pouch, and tied my hands lest I should make an escape and kill the women and family. Then taking his gun he ran off as fast as he could to join the rest of the warriors and his party, who were about two miles off where he lived. In about a couple of hours afterwards he returned to us, overjoyed with the success of his party, giving a most pompous description of the fight, and giving out that a vast number of the English were killed, and allowed only six Indians to have fallen. He also told me that our great chief was killed, meaning Captain Dalzell. I was then unbound and sent to another hut for a large wooden mortar to put corn in to be pounded. The Indians to whom I was sent. had also been at the engagement, and boasted of their feats prodigiously. They told me they had taken out the heart of our great chief, and would soon feed on it, showing me poor Dalzell’s heart roasting at the fire, pieces of the fat of which the young men took and rubbed it, in my presence, on the mouth of a poor soldier in the 6oth Regiment, whom they had taken prisoner. This and other barbarous usage practised upon the prisoners shocked me so much, that I went directly to Mr. Boileau under pretence of bringing some bread to our hut, and agreed to meet him that night at the place of rendezvous, repeating my promises of reward which I engaged still further to increase. When evening arrived I lay down as usual on my bear skin to repose, putting off all my raiments, wampum, silver bracelets, collar, etc., and about the middle of the night when I guessed all the family to be sound asleep, I crawled out of the hut on all fours. When outside I stood at the door for five minutes to hear if any one was stirring, but as everything was still I thought now was my time to set off, which I did as fast as my feet could carry me to the woods. I had no other clothing but my shirt, not daring even to put ona pair of mocassins to save my feet, for had the family happened to wake they would have instantly come to the door, and if they had found me dressed they would not have been at a loss to divine my intentions. I never in my life witnessed such a night of rain, thunder and lightning. It was so extremely dark and the woods so thick and full of briars and thorns, that I was greatly retagded in my progress. I could scarcely make more than a mile an hour. I therefore resolved 248 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. 10UL upon a new method, and quitting the woods for the river which was hard by, I waded with the water up to my chin, so that the Indians on the road could not see me. This plan would have succeeded had I had more time, but there were yet four miles to go before I could reach the rendezvous, and was in danger of being surprised in daylight. I there- fore determined to take again to the woods, but was within an ace of being prevented, for just as I was going back to the bank I saw two Indians with guns, in close conference. They passed by on the road within twenty yards of me. Fortunately there was an old tree which had fallen into the river, behind which I immediately squatted, but could not completely conceal myself, so that they must have discovered me had they looked that way. If they had, I should never have got out of that place alive. This I knew and was in great apprehension, as several soldiers who had attempted to escape were caught and tomahawked on the spot. But these Indians, fortunately for me, were in close conversa- tion, and being on a return from a feast were somewhat intoxicated. I saw them enter a little French house about one hundred yards distant. Then I immediately darted into the thicket making as little noise as possible, and to prevent the whiteness of my skin discovering me to the savages, I rubbed myself over with black moss and mire. Then pursuing my course in fear and hope, starting at every rustling of the trees, and mistaking the trunks for Indians, I at last arrived at the place appointed, and where I thought the Frenchman ought to have been waiting with his canoe, but he was not there. I ventured to call in a low voice, but nobody answered. I then began to exclaim against the perfidy of the Frenchman, who, in my desperate situation had, I thought, deceived me. Being much fatigued and exhausted I sat me down to rest, scarcely knowing what I did. My thoughts were occupied by the Frenchman’s conduct, who, I endeavoured to persuade myself, would not be such a coward’ as to abandon me to my fate, when he knew I had to undergo the most perilous part of the enterprise. I considered too, that it was his profit also to carry the affair to a conclusion. At last, recollecting myself a little, and looking around me I discovered that my anxiety and fears had made me overlook that I was about a quarter of a mile farther up the river than the place appointed. This discovery gave me fresh vigour and spirit. I soon reached the right place, and to my inex- pressible joy found the Frenchman asleep in his canoe. Having awoke him, we embarked and pushed out to the middle of the river, where we would have the advantage of the current to carry us down. We passed through the enemy’s camp, making as little noise as possible with our paddles. We could plainly hear them talking, and observed a party dancing and singing round a fire. About an hour before day break we 1891-92. | AN EPISODE IN THE PONTIAC WAR. 249 arrived before Detroit, and got on board a ship lying opposite. Then it was that I was agitated in a manner that I never before experienced. It would be vain to give an idea of my feelings on this occasion. I went in the morning to the Fort, where my friends were overjoyed to see me again. To be sure [ cut an odd figure among civilized society, the whole town turned out to see me. My appearance certainly was calculated to excite their pity as well as laughter. I had, as before remarked, nothing but a greasy painted shirt on, my face painted red, black and green, my hair cut all away, and my skin blacked all over with the moss I had put on. My legs were so lacerated with the briars and thorns and so affected with poisoned vines, that they were swollen as big as any in His Majesty’s service. Besides this, to those who inspected me narrowly, my arms presented the appearance or impressions, one of a turkey’s foot, the other of a flower in pink or purple dyes. I had thus been tattooed by the savages as a mark set upon me as belonging to their tribe, and such is the indelible effect upon the part punctured, that the impression will remain as fresh through life as on the first day of the operation. Monsieur Boileau, as soon as he had put me on board the ship went back again, fearing that if he did not return home he would be suspected of having aided me in my escape, and this was the last sight I had of him. Mr. Sterling, by my orders, gave me goods to the amount of 423, which with the 439 given by Monsieur Quilleim when he bought me, amounted to £62 10 shillings, Pennsylvanian currency. After I had been about ten days at the Fort, and had recovered from all my fatigues, it so happened that a vessel had to sail for the Niagara to bring a supply of provisions for the garrison. My friend Mr. Sterling, had obtained leave of Major Gladwin to have a considerable quantity of goods brought from that place to Detroit in his vessel, and having no proper person to whom he could safely confide their conveyance he therefore applied to me. I was sensible that the bringing up of these goods would be of great advantage to the company, it being likewise at a time when several articles were wanted here, and being anxious to do what office was in my power, for the benefit of a company with which my uncle was connected, I agreed to run the hazard of the undertaking, and accord- ingly embarked on board the ship. We had some shots fired at us from the Huron Indians going down the river, which we returned. In four days we reached Fort Schelope, near the Falls, and marched under a strong guard to Niagara, without experiencing any annoyance from the enemy. It was late before the sloop could be laden and ready to sail again. Some artillery and provisions with about eighteen officers and men of the 17th and 46th Regiments, constituted the chief part of what we had on board. We had only set sail one day, when the vessel sprang 250 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vor. III. a leak, and was half filled with water before it was observed. The pumps were all set agoing, but were of little use, so that after having thrown all the heavy artillery and some other things overboard, we found that the only way to save ourselves was to crowd sail to the land and run the vessel ashore; but it was the opinion of all that she would go to the bottom before this could be effected. While dread and consternation were depicted on the countenance of every one, I was surprised to find myself the least moved on the occasion, which must have been owing to my having been so much exposed and inured to danger some time previous. At a time when all were agitated in a less or greater degree, some stripping to swim, others cursing, swearing and upbraiding their com- panions for not working enough at the pumps, others praying, besides some who were drinking, I looked calmly on the scene, after I had become conscious I could be of no more use. When we were at the worst, and expecting every one to go down, one boat which was our last hope broke adrift; then indeed our situation was a dismal one. The cries and shrieks of a naval officer’s lady with three children affected me much more than my own condition. It was really a piteous sight; the mother held two of her children in her arms, while the other little inno- cent was making a fruitless attempt to stop the water with her hands which was running into the cabin, and already flooded it to the depth of several inches. “She did,this,’ she said, “to prevent the water from drowning her mamma.” At last, to the inexpressible joy of all on board, the vessel struck upon a sand bank within fifty yards of the shore. The difficulty now was how to be conveyed to land, which it was desirable should be done with immediate haste, as we every moment dreaded being dashed to pieces by the violence of the surf of the lake. In this situa- tion we should have been much at a loss, had not Captain Montresor of the Engineers, bravely undertaken to swim to shore, to endeavour to bring off the boat which had stranded there. The distance was consider- able and the waves running high, and there was much danger of Indians being there on the watch; he, nevertheless, accomplished the bold adven- ture, and brought off the boat, by which means we ail got safely on shore. Expecting the Indians would certainly come upon us, we fortified our position in the best way we could, with barrels of provisions, etc. The necessity of the measure was soon apparent, for we were soon attacked by a large body of them who had watched our movements, waiting doubtless till an opportunity offered of our being more off our guard, which, in fact we were at that moment. Several of us were walking along the beach, when we were of a sudden alarmed by the cries of the savages which made every one take to his heels as fast as possible to gain the breastwork. JI had very nearly fallen again into their hands on this 1891-92. ] AN EPISODE IN THE PONTIAC WAR. 251 occasion, as I chanced to stray from my companions. There was one poor soldier of the 60th Regiment who happened to be nearest the enemy. They rushed upon him out of the woods, and the first who came up to him he instantly knocked down. The second savage struck him with his tomahawk which felled him to the ground; but neither that nor the scalping deprived him instantly of life, for as soon as the Indians left him, (dead as they thought) he got up, staggering to the foot of the hill where we had barricaded ourselves. The Indians still continued to pour their fire upon us, not a man durst venture forth to bring the poor soldier up the hill, who by this time had become insensible. He paid no attention to our calls, but wandered a little further on to where the Indians had gone. We afterwards found him a corpse under an old tree. For my own part I had much to do to regain the top of_the hill, being hard pressed by several of the Indians, and in my flight scrambling through the bushes, I left both my shoes in their hands, a loss I did not much regret. As soon as we arrived at our breastwork they began to fire very heavily upon us, which we immediately returned. Our work being very open and inadequate, we had several men killed. The Indians left us near dawn. We were detained in this place, which we called “Lover's Leap,” for twenty-four days, as we could not get a reinforce- ment of batteaux to carry us off to Niagara. It was here that I first entered upon duty as private soldier. After we had quitted this position, we marched over the carrying place at the Falls just three days after the Indians had defeated our troops in a rencontre. We saw about eighty dead bodies, unburied, scalped and sadly mangled. When at Niagara, I determined not to attempt fortune longer in the woods, and resolved to go to New York, where after residing some time with my uncle, I pro- ceeded to join the 42nd Regiment, in which corps I had obtained ,an Ensigncy, at the time when they were preparing for an expedition against the Shawanese and Delaware Indians to the westward, under General Bouquet. NOTE: By Thomas Rutherford, of Farrington, Roxburghshire, Scotland. The subject of the preceding was my father. He was born at Scarborough, in Yorkshire, 1746. His father having died at Barbadoes while he was yet an infant, he was sent to Scotland to the care of his grandfather, Sir John Rutherford, who had settled there, having amassed a considerable fortune by commerce, besides being proprietor of a large tract of land which still bears his name, “ Rutherford County.” 252 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vor. ITI. Soon after my father arrived in America he was sent by his uncle to Fort Detroit, in charge of military stores and supplies for the garrison, and having executed his commission, was about to return to New York, when he was prevailed upon to accompany an exploring party to the lakes, which set out on the 2nd of May, 1763. The account of that disastrous expedition was written by my father at Fort Detroit, immediately after his escape from the Indians, and addressed to his cousin, (Sir John Nisbet, of Dean) then at New York, who deeming the incidents of his captivity and escape sufficiently interesting to commemorate, had particularly desired to have a narrative of them in writing. After serving thirty years in the 42nd Regiment, (called the Black Watch) during which time he was engaged in both American wars, he quitted the army and retired to a small property, Mossburnford, in Roxburghshire. At a subsequent period he was appointed Major of the Dumfries Militia, under the command of the Earl of Dalkeith. He died at Jedburgh, on the 12th of January, 1830, in the eighty-fourth year of his age. 1891-92. ] EARLY TRADERS. 953 EARLY TRADERS AND TRADE-ROUTES IN ONTARIO AND THE WEST. 1760-1783. By CAPT. ERNEST CRUIKSHANK. (Read, 27th February, 1892). The reason why I have included the “ West” within the scope of this paper is that from the conquest of Canada until about the year 1816 the whole region now forming the States of Iowa, Wisconsin, and Minnesota and for a considerable portion of that time, much of the present States of Ohio, Michigan, Indiana and Illinois still remained within the “sphere of British influence,” long after it had actually ceased to be British ter- ritory. During the period’ named, practically the entire trade of this vast territory was conducted by English, Scotch, and Canadian merchants having Montreal as their base of supplies. From 1763 to 1783, all these northwestern territories, together with Ontario, were administered as a part of the “government” or province of Quebec. These traders acted an important part during the American Revolution and the War of 1812 and it was largely due to their active loyalty and influence among the Indians that the western provinces were then pre- served from becoming a part of the United States. British garrisons continued to occupy Detroit and Mackinac until 1796 and for twenty years afterwards the isolated settlers at Milwaukee, Green Bay, and Prairie du Chien still professed themselves British subjects and proudly kept the Union Jack flying over their trading stations. As late as 1818, I find a trader described in a legal instrument as “ Amable Grignon of the parish of Green Bay, Upper Canada.” The Indian tribes of this region continued to be more or less under the control and superintendence of the Indian department of Upper Canada until about fifty years ago. Many of them made annual journeys from the banks of the Mississippi to Sandwich, Ont., to receive their presents. When the celebrated Black Hawk finally surrendered, he was found to have carefully treasured a British flag, and a medal of George the Third given to his tribe half a century before. The conquest of Canada at once transferred the trade of the province and the vast interior country to the North and West from the hands of the French to those of English traders. Successive governors of Canada 254 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. ITT. had actively exerted themselves to confine the English colonists to a comparatively narrow strip of land along the Atlantic seaboard while they jealously retained the commerce of the great country behind, almost exclusively in their own hands. In this policy, they had been so far successful that in 1756 they held a chain of forts extending from Montreal to the foot of the Rockies. The posts of Presqu’ Isle, Le Boeuf, Venango, Du Quesne, commanded the navigation of the Ohio. They had stations on the Chicago, St. Joseph’s, Wisconsin, Wabash, and Illinois Rivers which quite monopolized the trade of the surrounding country. Thriving settlements of long-standing at Kaskaskia, St. Louis, New Orleans, and elsewhere on the Mississippi gave them full control of that mighty river. They had establishments at Prairie du Chien and Lake Pepin in Wisconsin. Pascoya on the upper Saskatchewan was 900 leagues beyond Mackinac and the journey usually occupied three months. Their most. western post was still 100 leagues beyond Pascoya. La Verendrye, Le Gardeur de St. Pierre, De Niverville and other bold adventurers had explored the adjacent country. Determined efforts were made to wrest the trade of the Northern Indians from the Hudson’s Bay Company. The northern shore of Lake Superior and the rivers falling into the Lake from that direction were thoroughly explored. An expedition fitted out at Mackinac ascended the Michipicoton or Pijicic River as far as they could go; hauling their boats overland to the head of Moose River they dropped swiftly down that stream and took the principal British factories on James Bay by surprise. They returned - by the same route with their booty and when the French flag was final- ly lowered at Mackinac, two small cannon were found there which had been taken in this daring raid. It is still possible to ascertain pretty closely the extent and value of their trade as it existed in 1754 just before the final struggle began. The Indian country had been mapped out into districts, and traders were strictly prohibited from passing the limits of the district for which they obtained licences. They were also forbidden to carry spirits except for their own use or to sell any to the Indians. Each trader was required to report at the post of his district before going out to trade and again on returning. The commandant of this post heard the complaints of the Indians and if they appeared well founded, promptly redressed their grievances. As Sir Guy Carleton remarked, “They did not depend on the number of troops, but on the discretion of their officers, who learned the language of the natives, acted as magistrates, compelled the traders to deal equitably, and distributed the King’s presents; by this conduct they 1891-92. ] EARLY TRADERS. 255 avoided giving jealousy, and gained the affections of an ignorant, credulous, and brave people whose ruling passions are independence, gratitude, revenge, with an unconquerable love of strong drink which must prove destructive to them and the fur-trade if permitted to be sent among them; thus managing them by address where force could not avail, they reconciled them to their troops and by degrees strengthened their posts at Niagara, Detroit, and Michilimackinac.” Ninety canoes were annually permitted to go to the southern posts. These were Niagara, Toronto, Frontenac, La Presentation, Detroit, Ouias, Miamis, Michilimackinac, La Baye, St. Joseph, Illinois, and their several dependencies. Twenty-eight canoes were despatched to the northern posts which were Temiscamingue, Chagouamigon, Nipigon, Gamanis- tigouia, Michipicoton, Mer du Ouest, Riviere des Kikipoux, Lake Huron, and Belle Riviere. POST. GARRISON. 1g S32 Ne b \OnIGGKS. un sr Mens. TOn Canoes. tsPOMEOr si88e hate oss es 0 we I s ‘i ot sae: GOMECMAC. «5. Lochis bec ic es le ues 3 i‘ 17 ie oO ° Detroit and dependencies... 4 t Pe ees: a ees EZ a Michilimackinac and Memencdencies. ket. 3. s 2 . ee TN HD eds Rs La Baye and dependencies... 1 %: $e ine TA i <5 2g NOS. 0) 0 ig ae a oe I by Chik Lee ee see 5 : | LINN GSC Gee en toca ce. ae Pet aa DNR G near be PUES 1 SPIN SMART 2s adh, 4. Barth sak maar PR’ came Ae Bitrate © atten enasouamicon ...2. 2. 6. is. I i Be oer etre eae 4 ¥ Peso. 00k. Sk ah ee I 5 boo alc DRE Ra 5 ;: Gaministigouia, Michipicoton 1 , FREES een act 3 9 4 Berar urest. +. yak 2 oe I : 6 : 9 + Pabdere des: Kiki pou x... Joc). ee De Yes con a ve ee 2 5 Peg DE LUGOW)) ieee ts vy Nei Cecicha hia PR PM AS Uy 2 e Mellemmivitrege2 lan obvi eea ae. fF. A: 5 ee ee 2 is The average value of each canoe was estimated at 7000 /zvves. Toronto and Frontenac were called the King’s Posts.* The trade there was con- ducted for the benefit of the Crown and the furs so obtained were sold by public auction in Montreal. Toronto in particular was founded with the express object of drawing trade away from the English post of Choueguen or Oswego. About two-thirds of the entire Indian trade, it will be *In addition to those posts Kalm’s map indicates the out-stations of Gandalskiagon apparently on the present site of Whitby, and Redcharle between Niagara and the mouth of the Genesee. 256 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. pWou. Tit noticed, was carried on with the tribes of the Far West. For many years the determined hostility of the Six Nations had hindered the French from the free navigation of the great lakes, but they then had several small ships of war on each of the lower lakes and an unarmed schooner upon Lake Superior. All of these vessels were frequently employed in transporting goods between the principal posts. Ample justice has been done to the great skill manifested by so many Frenchmen in the management of primitive people. “No other Europeans” says Merivale, “have ever displayed equal talents for conciliating savages or it must be added for approximating to their usages and modes of life.” But truly remarkable as was the ascendancy acquired by Gautier, Langlade, La Corne and others, it is doubtful whether they ever possessed as great and permanent an influence among the Indians as Johnson, Butler, McKee, Elliott, or Dickson. It is probable that few of the water-ways, portages, and paths used by the Indians remained unknown to the hardy and adventurous Cowreurs des Bots. But their knowledge was jealously kept secret and much of it perished with them. Consequently after the conquest, land and water- routes formerly well known to the French, had to be re-discovered or at least re-explored by their successors. During the war too, many of the less important trading-stations had been abandoned or destroyed. The old and favorite canoe-route from Montreal to Lake Huron by way of the Ottawa, Lake Nipissing, and French River although interrupted by no less than forty-two fortages and decharges had never fallen into disuse, but four trading-houses upon the Ottawa alone had been recently abandoned and were already crumbling to ruin. One of these was 14 leagues above the Longue Sault, one three leagues higher at the mouth of Hare River, another at Isle des Allumettes, the fourth at the Riviere du Moine. A short portage connected a branch of the Ottawa with the Cataraqui and Lake Ontario. Missionary, soldier, and trader had traversed in succession the route from the Bay of Quinte by way of Balsam Lake and Lake Simcoe to the once populous country of the Hurons. The more direct route from Toronto to Lake Simcoe was also frequently used in the latter days of the French occupation. From Burlington Bay the Indians used a fortage into the Upper Thames and another from the forks of that river into Lake Erie at Point aux Pins. Three well defined trails led from different points on the Grand River to Lake Ontario, and there was also a portage less than five miles in length from that stream into the Chippawa. The carrying- 1891-02.] EARLY TRADERS. 257 place at Niagara Falls lay on the eastern bank of the river and was about nine miles long. Block-houses guarded the wharves at the land- ings, the lower being called Petite Marie; the upper, Little Niagara. Windlasses were used for hoisting heavy weights up the heights and also for assisting vessels to overcome the rapids at Fort Erie. From Lake Erie the French made their way at an carly date to Lake Chautauqua, thence down the Venango into the Ohio, but this route was soon abandoned for the shorter and easier one from Presqu’ Isle (Erie) to French Creek. Here they made so good a road that heavy cannon were easily hauled over it in the days when they held Fort du Quesne. The forts they had built at Presqu’ Isle, Venango, and Le Boeuf were taken and destroyed by the Indians during Pontiac’s war. They were not rebuilt, the route became disused, and the road soon fell out of repair. There were three other much frequented water-routes from Lake Erie to the Ohio. A fortage of a single mile connected the headwaters of the Cuyahoga with the Muskingum ; another four miles in length united the Sandusky with the Scioto. The carrying-place from the Miami of the Lakes to the Great Miami was nine miles long, and a branch of the former river interlocked with a branch of the Scioto. In the region watered by these rivers the fiercest struggle for trade had been waged and here those inevitable collisions occurred which precipitated the conquest. About three hundred English traders annually came over the mountains from Pennsylvania and Virginia. They usually ascended the Susquehan- na, Juniata, or Potomac to the head of boat navigation and then made their way through the gaps of the hills to the nearest branch of the Ohio. Many of the Indians living in the vicinity were emigrants from the English colonies who had settled there with the permission of the Six Nations by whom they were treated as allies or “younger brothers.” From the first they were inclined to be friendly to the English and regarded the French with suspicion. One English factory was established far up the Muskingum, another at Shannoah (Shawnee-town) near the confluence of the Scioto with the Ohio, but their principal mart and place of trade was at Pickiwillany (Piqua) on the upper waters of the Great Miami. From these posts, individual traders driving pack-horses before them made their way to the different Indian settlements. As early as 1749, De Bienville reported that every village on the Ohio and its tribu- taries had one or more English traders in it and that each of these had men employed in transporting their furs. Raymond, the Commandant of the French pust on the Miami of the Lakes, at the same time described the feeling of the Indians as decidedly hostile to his countrymen. The Six Nations claimed the sovereignty over the country on the 258 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ VoL. eel south side of Lake Erie as far west as the Sandusky River. They held it solely as a hunting ground, making no attempt at a permanent settlement. . They also claimed the lands on either side of the Ohio from its source to the mouth of the Wabash. The Delawares, reduced to less than 500 war- riors had taken up their residence on the Muskingum, and the Shawanese, another allied tribe, numbering 300 fighting men, were seated on the Scioto. Neither of these tribes raised much grain. They maintained themselves almost entirely by hunting in which they were very expert. The Wyandots (frequently called Hurons) occupied a very fertile tract of land on the Sandusky River, The number of adult males was variously estimated at from two to six hundred. Their villages were composed of regularly framed houses neatly covered with bark. They were considered the richest and most industrious Indians on the contin- ent. Mr. McKee told Governor Simcoe that when he first became acquainted with these people (about 1750) they would frequently change their dresses eight or ten times in the course of an evening, when holding one of their grand dances, and that each dress was so loaded with ornaments as to be valued at 440 or £50. They bred many horses, black cattle, and hogs and grew great quantities of grain not only for their own use but for the supply of the neighboring tribes that preferred to employ themselves entirely in hunting. In 1752, Charles de Langlade at the head of a band of Chippewas destroyed the English factory at Pickiwillany and the remaining traders were soon chased from the Ohio valley. The neighboring Indians then passed fora few years under French influence, but never seem to have become actively hostile to the English. When the war was over, the trading-posts were not re-established, as the Indians could be easily supplied from Pittsburg or Detroit. This province as far north as the borders of Lake Michigan was frequented only by roving bands of Missassaugas who seldom remained long in one place. At the date of the conquest, their principal village seems to have been near the present site of Toronto. A remnant of the Hurons, Christianized and superintended by a French missionary, was settled opposite the village of Detroit. The French inhabitants of Detroit already numbered about 2500. The settlement extended seven or eight miles on both sides of the river, and was in a flourishing condition. The settlers grew a considerable quantity of grain and bred many cattle but they devoted their attention chiefly to the fur-trade which was great and lucrative. Tribes of the Ottawa Confederacy numbering about 900 warriors had their villages in the immediate vicinity. 1891-92. ] EARLY TRADERS. 259 From Detroit the favorite route to the Illinois and the Mississippi was by the Miami of the Lakes and its tributary the Au Glaize, from which there was a portage of twelve miles to the Wabash. The distance to Fort Miamis on the Au Glaize was 216 miles. A few French and half- breed families occupied a deserted fort, and the Miami village opposite could turn out 250 fighting men. Thence to Ouias or Ouiatanon, hard by a populous Kickapoo village with the principal town of the Ouias (Weas) directly opposite, was 183 miles of rather difficult navigation. Vincennes, 240 miles further down the Wabash, had long been an important station. A trading-house had been established there in the same year that Penn had founded Philadelphia. The permanent popula- tion of the French village did not exceed four hundred persons, but the Indians for a great distance around constantly resorted to this place for their supplies and trade was brisk. The distance by land across the prairie to the Illinois was estimated at 240 miles. Much shorter but less frequented was the land-route from Detroit to Fort St. Joseph on the river of the same name, situated close beside a village of 200 Ottawa warriors and another of 150 Pottawatomies. From this place there was a portage of four miles to the Kankakee, a branch of the Illinois. The distance by water to the Mississippi was 541 miles. There was a second portage from the St. Joseph to the Wabash. The Chicago river was connected in a similar manner with another branch of the Illinois. All of these routes were much used by the Mackinac traders. The French settlements on the Illinois were flourishing and populous. As early as 1750, Pére Vivier had estimated their population at 1100 whites, 300 negro and 60 Indian slaves. At the date of the conquest it was believed to have increased to 2050 whites and goo negroes, but many soon afterwards elected to follow the French flag across the Miss- issippi rather than submit to English rule. In 1765 the geographer Hutchins stated that Kaskaskia had a population of 500 whites and 400 or 500 negroes; Prairie du Rocher, 100 whites and 80 negroes ; Cahokia, 300 whites and 80 negroes. The station of Michilimackinac, situated on the western shore of the straits of the same name, was the distributing point for the trade of the farther west and northwest. It had been shrewdly built on the very boundary line between the territories of the Ottawa and Chippewa Indians, so that when these two nations came to trade, each could encamp on its own lands within a stone’s throw of the stockade which stood so near the water's edge that the waves frequently dashed against the palisades. The Jesuit mission of St. Ignace and about thirty houses 260 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. iNUE. stool within. Twenty miles to westward lay the Ottawa village of L’Arbre Croche having a population of fifteen hundred Christian Indians principally engaged in agriculture. In fact the traders of the post were wholly dependent upon them for provisions both for their expeditions into the fur-country to the west and north and when returning to Montreal. A number of French families had already taken up their permanent residence on Green Bay near the mouth of the Fox river where they cultivated small farms and gained a comfortable living by selling their surplus products to passing traders. The Fox and Wisconsin rivers afforded an easy and tolerably direct passage to the Mississippi. The principal village of the Winnebagoes or Puants stood on an Island in the lake to which they bequeathed their name. The capital of the Sacs on the Wisconsin river was described by Carver as the largest and best-built Indian town he had ever seen in the course of his extensive experience. It consisted of about ninety houses, each of them large enough to shelter several families, built of hewn plank neatly jointed, and covered so securely as to be proof against the heaviest rains. The streets were regular and spacious. The inhabitants tilled their gardens ener- setically and grew such quantities of corn and vegetables that this was considered the best market to purchase provisions of any within several hundred miles. The male population of the tribes between Green Bay and the Mississippi was not believed to exceed 1200, divided in the ~ following proportions—Menomonees, 110; Folles-Avoines, 100; Win- nebagoes or Puants, 300; Sacs, 300; Foxes, 320. An Indian village of almost three hundred houses occupied the site of Prairie du Chien and a considerable number of French traders made it their head-quarters. The neighboring tribes and even those living on the most remote branches of the Mississippi annually assembled there about the end of May with the furs they had obtained during the winter. A general council of the chiefs was then held to determine whether they should sell their peltry to the traders who came there to purchase or take them to the French posts in Louisiana. All of the smaller trading-stations to the north and west of Mackinac had been abandoned during the war except one occupied by J. B. Cadotte at Sault Ste. Marie. The Ottawas and Sioux and the Indians of Wisconsin generally, remained firmly attached to the French interests and it was from these hardy and warlike tribes that they obtained their most efficient auxiliar- ies. Picked bands of these Indians had defeated Braddock on the ee ee eee see ee eee ee 1891-92. ] EARLY TRADERS. 261 Monongahela and participated in the French triumphs at Oswego and Lake Champlain. The number of Indians living to the north of Lake Superior and Huron was vaguely estimated at 12,000 fighting men, chiefly Saulteaux and other clans of the great Ottawa Confederacy. Those about Lake Nip- issing, frequently termed the Lake Indians, were conjectured in the same loose way to amount to half that number, but very little was known about them as they had scarcely any commerce with the whites. They had no fire-arms and seemed to have no intercourse of any kind with other tribes. Rogers said that they appeared “to live as independent as if they had a whole world to themselves.” Traders from the English colonies hastened to occupy the new channels of trade suddenly opened to them by the fortunes of war. They followed hard on the heels of the victorious armies and sometimes even preceded them. When on his way to Detroit in 1761, Sir William Johnson found that a storehouse had already been built at the upper landing on the Niagara by Rutherford, Duncan & Co, who were preparing to monopolize the carrying-place around the Falls under authority of a permit from General Amherst. They had discovered a large quantity of hand-sawn plank left by the French in the Chippawa Creek and were using it to build a small vessel for the purpose of exploring the unknown shores of the upper lakes. Other merchants established themselves at Oswego where for a few years they carried on a greater Indian trade than at any other place on the continent. One of the first English merchants to make his way to the Lake Super- ior country was Alexander Henry who published an account of his early travels in 1809. In 1760, he accompanied General Amherst’s army in its advance upon Montreal, taking with him three boats loaded with merchandise. By singular ill-luck or mismanagement all his boats were swamped in attempting to run the rapids at the Cedars and he lost his entire stock. Undismayed by this disaster Henry immediately hurried back to Albany and secured a fresh supply. This was quickly sold at Fort Levi. Tempted by dazzling tales of the ease and rapidity with which fortunes were made at Mackinac, the great fur-market of the west, he resolved to go there next year. Even then he was not destined to be first in the field, for General Gage had already granted a passport for that place to Henry Bostwick, and it was with difficulty that he was persuaded to issue another as the French posts west of Detroit had not yet been 18 262 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. Je #18 surrendered and the Indians were reported to be very hostile to the English. Henry’s persistence finally triumphed, and early in the spring of 1761 he set out on his journey, with several large canoes heavily loaded. Following the Ottawa route he reached Mackinac several days in advance of a body of soldiers sent from Detroit to take possession of the fort. He found Mr. Bostwick already there and their lives seem to have been in some danger until the troops arrived. Detachments were immediately sent to occupy St. Joseph’s, Green Bay, and Sault Ste. Marie, but as the public buildings at the latter place were accidently burnt soon afterwards, its garrison was withdrawn. When Mackinac was taken by the Indians, Henry, Bostwick, Ezekiel Solomon, (another English merchant) and about three hundred French Canadian Voyageurs and others were made prisoners. A Mr. Tracy was the only English trader who was killed on that occasion. The small garrisons at St. Joseph’s and Green Bay were next compelled to surrender. In this extremity, Cadotte of Sault Ste. Marie proved himself a true friend to the English. He dissuaded the Chippewas of Lake Superior from joining Pontiac and used his influence to obtain the release of the prison- ers. Henry was sent by way of Lake Simcoe and Toronto to Niagara where he arrived in time to accompany Bradstreet’s avenging army to Detroit, in command of a small party of friendly Indians. In 1765, a regulation was adopted prohibiting all white men from trad- ing to westward of Detroit without a license and Henry’s perseverance was rewarded by the monopoly of the trade of Lake Superior. He seems to have had no ready money, but he promptly bought four freighted canoes at twelve month’s credit for 10,000 pounds of beaver. This fur was then worth 2s. 6d. a pound. At Mackinac the value of every commodity was reckoned in pounds of beaver. Manufactured goods of every kind brought fabulous prices. A stroud blanket was valued at ten beaver skins; a trade-musket at twenty ; a pound of powder or a two-pound axe at two; a knife or a pound of ball at one. For a shirt, Henry had shortly before paid ten pounds of beaver and fifteen for a pair of leggings. Even when a man went to the garrison-canteen, he took with him a marten skin (worth Is. 6d.) to pay for his drink. Henry took Cadotte into partnership and apparently put the trade of Sault Ste. Marie and the north shore into his hands. He next engaged twelve boatmen at one hundred pounds of beaver each for the season, and bought for their provision fifty bushels of Indian corn for ten pounds of beaver a bushel and the customary allowance of tallow at a dollar a pound. Upon arriving at Chagouamigon (or Chequamegon) Bay, where the French had formerly a trading post upon an island, he found the 1891-92. | EARLY TRADERS, 263 Indians destitute and almost naked, and was obliged to advance them at once goods to the value of 3000 beaver-skins. The result of the winter’s trade was 150 packs of beaver weighing a hundred pounds each and twenty-five packs of otter and marten. In his second venture, he advanced to each male Indian, goods valued at one hundred pounds of beaver and to each woman, thirty pounds worth. As a proof of the remarkable honesty of these people, he relates that although he had advanced to them at this time goods to the value of two thousand beaver-skins, not more than thirty skins were unpaid in the spring, and that this loss was due to the death of an Indian whose family brought in all the furs he possessed and offered to pay for the remainder. Upon again returning to Mackinac, he made the acquaintance of Mr. Alexander Baxter who had come from England to examine the deposits of copper ore on Lake Superior and he threw himself with his accustomed energy into this mining project. A company was soon formed, composed of the Duke of Gloucester, Hon. Charles Townshend, Sir Samuel Tutchet, Mr. Baxter, the Russian consul in London, and Mr. Cruikshank in England and Sir Wm. Johnson and Mr. Alex. Baxter in America. In 1770, Mr. Baxter returned from England with the necessary authority to begin operations. Bostwick and Henry were next taken into partnership, probably to make use of their local knowledge and influence. During the winter they built a barge and a sloop of forty tons at Point aux Pins near Sault Ste. Marie, and in May, 1771, they sailed with a party of miners for Ontonagan where they built a house and opened a mine. The miners were left there during the winter and in the following spring a boat was sent to them with a supply of provisions. On the 20th of June, it returned with the entire party. The mine had suddenly caved in and they had failed to find silver ore in paying quantities. In August of that year they began working a vein of copper on the north shore and during the season of 1773 penetrated about thirty feet into the rock. The vein then rapidly diminished in size and was abandoned. This fail- ure combined with the high price of labor and provisions and the difficulty of obtaining mining supplies thoroughly disheartened the English shareholders and they declined to proceed.* During these years Henry had continued to trade with the Indians of Lake Superior but he soon determined to seek the new and promising field of trade in Canadian Northwest. *General Gage remarked that ‘‘ their want of success was not so much owing to the mismanage- ment of their agents as to want of foresight in providing the necessities requisite for such an undertaking the want of which at that immense distance must have overturned their scheme at once. ””—Letter to Captain Vattas, 26th December, 1773. 264 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vou. IIT. A trader whose name I have not ascertained had sent several canoes as faras Rainy Lake in 1765. The Indians there having been without supplies for several years, detained and plundered them. He repeated his attempt the next year with the same result. With astonishing perseverance he fitted out a third expedition in 1766 and was rewarded with success. Leaving part of his goods at Rainy Lake to be traded out among the Indians there, he was permitted to proceed with the remainder beyond Lake Winnipeg. Other traders soon followed in his footsteps. In 1769, the brothers Frobisher formed a partnership with Todd and McGill of Montreal for the purpose of prosecuting this trade on a large scale. The Indians of Rainy Lake were not yet entirely conciliated and plundered their canoes, but before they were informed of this disaster, their supply of goods for the next year was at the Grand Portage and they were in a manner forced to proceed. Their second venture was successful and they reached Lake Winnipeg in 1770. The partnership was then enlarged and to borrow their own words, “having men of conduct and abilities to conduct it in the interior country, the Indians were abundantly supplied and at the same time well treated, new posts were discovered as early as the year 1774, which to the French were totally unknown, and had we not been interrupted by new adventurers the public in the course of a few years would have been well acquainted with the value and extent of that country.” Cadotte and Henry may probably be classed among these new adventurers. Their first expedition to the northwest of Lake Superior was undertaken in 1775. When crossing Lake Winnipeg they fell in with Peter Pond, Joseph and Thomas Frobisher, and Mr Paterson of Montreal, all bound for the mouth of the Saskatchewan. The united fleet numbered thirty canoes manned by one hundred and thirty men. At Fort Cumberland they separated, Pond going to Fort Dauphin, Cadotte to Fort des Prairies with four canoes, and the Frobishers and Henry to the Churchill River with ten others. Four different interests were then struggling for the trade of the Saskatchewan Valley but they soon combined to keep up prices. A trade-musket was valued at twenty beaver skins; a stroud blanket at ten; a white blanket at eight; a one pound axe at three; half a pint of powder or ten bullets at one. Their greatest profit was however made from the sale of knives, beads, flints, awls, and other small articles. Henry charged his rivals, the factors of the Hudson Bay Company, with practising many gross impositions upon the natives, such as the sale of prints for charms and sugar and spice as medicines. Trade was remarkably brisk and lucrative. During the winter of 1891-92. ] EARLY TRADERS. 265 1775-6 from twenty to thirty Indians daily arrived at Henry’s station on the Churchill loaded with the finest quality of furs, and in the following June, he purchased 12,000 beaver skins in three days. Major Robert Rogers, the celebrated partisan, was one of the first English colonists to explore the country around the great lakes, and while in command at Mackinac he appears to have dabbled in the entic- ing fur-trade. As early as 1765, he published a small book entitled “A concise account of North America,” Stating his qualifications as an authority on the subject in the preface, he said: “This River (the St. Lawrence) I have traced and am pretty well acquainted with the country adjacent to it as far up as Lake Superior, and with the country from the Green Bay to the Mississippi, and from thence down to the mouth of the Mississippi at the Gulf of Mexico, I have also travelled the country adjacent to the Ohio and its principal branches and that between the Ohio and Lakes Erie and Michigan and the countries of the southern Indians.” Jonathan Carver, a New Englander, wrote an interesting narrative of his travels in the West during the year 1766-8. Furnished by Major Rogers with a letter of credit on some English and Canadian traders who were going to the Mississippi he left Mackinac on the 3rd of September, 1766, and reached La Baye on the 18th. The fort at that place as well as the one at St. Joseph’s had been abandoned since Pontiac’s war and was fast falling to ruin. He stayed there two days but arrived at the Winnebago town on the 25th. Eight days paddling brought him to the carrying-place, leading to the Wisconsin from whence he gained the Mississippi by easy stages. At Lake Pepin, he noticed the ruins of St. Pierre’s deserted station. He ascended the Mississippi to the mouth of the St. Pierre and went up the latter river about two hundred miles. French traders from Louisiana had been among the Indians in this quarter telling them that their French father would soon awake and he was shown belts of wampum conveying this message that they had delivered. After returning to Prairie du Chien for supplies, he again went up the Mississippi to the Chippewa which he ascended as far as he could go. He then carried his canoe into a stream flowing into Lake Superior which he named Goddard’s River in honor of a well-known Montreal merchant, James Stanley Goddard, who had rendered him some assistance in the course of his journey. He next visited the Grand Portage where he learned that those who went on the northwest trade were obliged to convey their canoes and baggage overland about nine miles to a chain of small lakes, and relates 266 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Von. IIT. that they were in the habit of resorting to Fort La Reine on a river flow- ing into Lake “ Winnepeek” to trade with the “ Assinipoils.” Coasting along the north shore of Lake Superior and Huron he made his way back to Detroit. Louis Chevalier, a French Canadian trader, who had acquired great influence among the neighboring tribes continued to reside at St. Joseph’s until removed by force during Revolution. His establishment then numbered fifty men, women, and children. By turns trusted and suspect- ed, Chevalier appears on the whole to have been faithful to his allegiance during the contest. Like many others of his calling he had taken an Indian wife and one of his half breed children, Amable Chevalier, rendered important service during the war of 1812. A member of the noted Lorimier family had a trading-house for many years near the portage from the Miami of the Lakes which became a favorite halting-place for war-parties from Detroit in their raids upon Kentucky. Loraine, La Motte, Richardville, and many other unlicensed traders were permanent residents of Ouiatenon and Vincennes. As at Detroit, most of the inhabitants at those places subsisted by the fur-trade. The furs obtained at Ouiatenon were supposed to be worth £8000 annually. The exports from Vincennes were estimated at £5000. Among the English at least, these settlements had an evil reputation. Croghan in 1765 terms the inhabitants “an idle lazy set, a parcel of renegades from Canada, much worse than Indians.” Sir Wm: Johnson five years later speaks of them as “that lawless colony of the Wabash who are daily increasing in numbers and whilst they particularly hate us as English are really enemies of all goverment.” Making due allowance for national prejudice these estimates of their character seem fully jus- tified by their contemptible conduct during the Revolution. The trade of this region however was not undisputed. The merchants of Detroit complained that in 1765 when they were prohibited from going among the Indian villages for fear of renewing their hostility, French and Spanish traders from the Mississippi had come within sixty miles of Detroit and carried off furs for which they had already advanced goods the year before. At the same time, Mr. Fraser who had been sent to take possession of Kaskaskia, found the shops and most of the houses at that place crammed with goods from New Orleans. The merchants in general protested vigorously against any regulations that would prevent them from going among the different tribes, and urged that if these were enforced they would have the effect of diverting the trade from the St. Lawrence and turning it down the Mississippi. Besides the French and Spanish they sometimes had to compete with enterprising English traders 1891-92. ] EARLY TRADERS. 267 from the southward who were neither hampered by moral nor legislative restraints. An item in the Annual Register for 1767 informs us that “Messrs. Ferguson and Atkins, two Indian traders had lately returned (to Mobile,) from a town eleven hundred miles up the great river Missis- sippi where they had each married the daughters of an Indian chief and thereby established a mart for beaver’s fur, deerskins, &c., from which great advantages were expected.” On the other hand, Sir William Johnson in the light of long personal experience as a trader insisted earnestly on the necessity of regulating the traffic. His correspondence abounds with complaints “of the irregularity with which trade is conducted through the want of sufficient powers to regulate it.” The picture he drew of the conduct and character of many of the traders is unpleasing but instructive. ‘When the Indians are assembled on public affairs,” he wrote to the Earl of Hillsborough on the 14th Aug. 1770, “there are always traders secreted in the neighbor- hood, and some publicly, who not only make them intoxicated during the time intended for public business but afterwards get back the greater part of their presents in exchange for spirituous liquors, thereby defeating the intentions of the Crown and causing then to commit many murders and disorders as well among the inhabitants as themselves.” In a speech addressed to him on the 4th of March, 1768, the Indian spokesman had said — “the rum-bottles hang at every door to steal our lands and instead of the English protecting us as we thought they would do, they employed superior cunning to wrong us; they murdered our people in Pennsylvania and Virginia and all over the country, and the traders begin more and more to deceive.” Again in 1772, Johnson wrote:—“ The Indians complain of the great cargoes of rum which of late in particular are sent among them to their ruin as they call it, and beg that it may not be suffered to come near their castles or hunting-grounds. . . . . Thecomplaints made daily by the Indians of the abuses and irregularities of trade are many and grievous and doubtless will be made use of by them in case of a defection in any quarter. . . . . The common ttraders or factors who are generally rapacious, ignorant, and without principle, pretending to their merchants that they cannot make good returns unless they are at liberty to go where and do asthey please. . . . . They are daily guilty of the most daring impositions. ... . . Most of these evils result from the rapid intrusions on Indian lands and the unrestrained irregularities in trade to which I see no period from any steps that are likely to be taken in the colonies.” These complaints referred particularly to the older provinces where 268 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. | Vou. INDE the legislatures declined or neglected to impose regulations, and he congratulated Sir Guy Carleton upon the general absence of these abuses in his government. But unlicensed traders found their way into Canada and Johnson asserted that some of the French Canadian traders were disloyal and were inciting the Indiaus to hostilities. Canadian merchants whom Carleton consulted denied the charge indignantly, and instanced the general good conduct of their countrymen during Pontiac’s war as a proof of their trustworthiness. In response to many urgent appeals, on the 15th of April, 1768, Lord Hillsborough at length addressed a circular to the Governors of all the British Provinces in America in which he said :—“ The objects which upon this occasion will principally demand the attention of the several colonies are to provide by the most effectual laws for preventing any settlement being made beyond the line which shall be agreed upon with the Indians and for the control and punishment of those atrocious frauds and abuses which have been practiced by the traders and have been one principal cause of the disaffection of the savages.” These apparently reasonable and prudent recommendations were either ignored altogether by the local legislatures or resented as an improper attempt to interfere in their local affairs, and five years later his successor, Lord Dartmouth, confessed his utter helplessness to afford aremedy. ‘As the colonies,” he said, “do not seem disposed to concur in any general regulations for Indian trade I am at a loss to suggest any ~ mode by which this important service can be otherwise provided for than by the interposition of the Supreme Legislature, the exertion of which would be inadvisable until truth and connection have removed the unhappy prejudices which have so long prevailed in the colonies on this subject.” In the eyes of the typical American historian, a British minister is always the haughty noble, always stupid, always selfish, always insolent. The colonist to whom his policy proved obnoxious is as inevitably the pure patriot, intelligent, firm, and honest. It is not surprising then that this feeble attempt to protect the Indians should often be enumerated among the crimes of a wicked ministry and the worst of motives assigned for it. Even in Canada the regulations of the governor were systematically evaded and disregarded. This unfortunate state of affairs culminated in the wanton and brutal murder of several Indians among whom were a woman and a child, on the north shore of Lake Erie by a trader of the worst reputation named Ramsay. The murderer was arrested and sent down to Montreal for trial, but after long confinement, had to be released for lack of evidence.* *For Ramsay’s own version of this affair vzde P. Campbell’s travels. oak ages = aoe & 1891-92. ] EARLY TRADERS. 269 The frontiers of New York and Pennsylvania swarmed with dos-lopers (bosch-loopers) the Dutch counter-part of the reckless coureurs des bots. The excitement and uncertainty prevailing in all the colonies encouraged them in their defiance of the officers of the Crown and prevented punishment of their crimes. The Revolution followed and the occupation of Montreal for several months by the Americans in 1775-6 materially dislocated the trade of the province. The adhesion of the western Indians with a few exceptions to the Crown had the effect of cutting off all trade with the settlements south of the Lakes, and the posts of Niagara, Detroit, and Mackinac became of more consequence than ever. Charles de Langlade and his nephew Gautier de Verville once more led the Indians of the Northwest to the relief of Montreal. They were ably seconded by De Quindre, La Motte, La Bute, and other French Canadians. Alexander McKee and Matthew Elliott, traders of long experience and marked ability, fled from Pittsburg to Detroit where they were at once employed by the Lieutenant-Governor in the Indian Department. Both of them soon acquired an extraordinary influence among the tribes in the vicinity which they retained during the remainder of their lives. Other traders like Godefroy de Linctot, Hammelin, and McCarty joined the Revolutionary party, but their efforts among the Indians had slight success. In May, 1777, instructions were issued by the Governor to permit no vessels or boats except those of Indians to navigate the Lakes without satisfactory passports, and prohibiting the construction of any vessel larger than a common rowboat. All vessels already afloat were to be taken into the public service. To compensate the merchants as much as. possible for the loss and inconvenience they must necessarily sustain from this arbitrary measure, the commanders of these vessels were instructed whenever possible to assist in transporting their goods free of charge, merely taking an acknowledgement from the owner for the service performed. In the autumn of 1779 when Niagara was threatened with an attack, passes were refused to everybody. Yet side by side with the military operations, in spite of all restrictions and obstacles, the trade went on with undiminished energy. A memorial from “the merchants and traders from Montreal to the great carrying-place in Lake Superior and the interior country commonly named the North or Mer de Ouest” presented to General Haldimand in May, 1780, estimated the annual returns from their operations in that ” com 270 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. TI. part of the country for a number of years previous at £50,000 worth of furs. They stated that 300 men were employed by them who usually returned to Grand Portage from the interior between the 1oth of June and the 15th of July to deliver their furs and receive supplies for the next year. They had not been permitted as in former years to purchase provisions of any kind for the use of these men at Mackinac and Detroit in the autumn of 1779 owing to the increased demands of the garrison and Indians and consequently were obliged to send everything from Montreal, a distance of 1350 miles to Grand Portage, and_ 1800 miles further to their most remote stations. ‘‘ Sometimes,” they added dis- mally, “it happens that winter sets in before your Memorialists can arrive at the factories where they intend to pass the winter and when that unfortunate circumstance takes place there are instances of several having starved, and even so direful have the consequences been as to occasion the casting of lots for an unhappy victim to serve as food for his more unhappy companions.” This memorial was signed hy John Porteous, Holmes and Grant, Simon McTavish, Charles Grant, Todd and McGill, Benjamin and Joseph Frobisher, McGill and Paterson, Forest Oakes, George McBeth, and Adam Lymburner. Most of these ranked among the foremost merchants of the province. Besides twenty canoes designed to supply the local trade of Mackinac, licenses were issued in 1778 for sixty-one canoes destined for places beyond, exclusive of the northwest trade which was mainly conducted from Grand Portage. These were distributed in the following propor- tions:—two to Grand River; three to Grand River and the Mississippi; six to the Mississippi ; two to the Northwest ; twelve to the Illinois ; twenty- one to La Baye and the Mississippi; eight to Nipigon; three to Lake Superior; four to Prairie du Chien. Included in their cargoes, were 680 fusees and 29,575 pounds of powder. The merchants trading in this quarter soon after formed an association which they termed “the general store,” having a nominal capital of 29} canoes and 438,750 /¢vres in merchandise. Nine of the partners are named as residing in Montreal, seven at Mackinac, six at the Mississippi, one at each of the following places Akikemazac, Deux Riviéres, Grand River, La Baye, La Point in Lake Superior, Matchedash, Riviére au Sable, St Joseph’s, and Saginaw. The principal merchants living at Mackinac were Mathew Lesley, David McCrae, John McNamara, Patrick Duggan, Henry Bostwick, and Renjamin Lyons. Mention is made of Lyons as the owner of houses at the mouth of French River and Alexis Campion is named as residing at Matchedash Bay. This combination of interests was promoted by Major De Peyster, the Se eee Oe eS ee ene 1891-92. ] EARLY TRADERS. (8 commander of the garrison, with the object of driving out of the country unlicensed traders of whom there seem to have been a good many scat- tered among the Indian villages. One of these, a negro from St. Domingo, known by the singular name of Baptiste Point au Sable was captured at the River du Chemin, and another rendered desperate by pursuit, blew himself to pieces with a barrel of gunpowder rather than surrender, In the summer of 1778, a strong body of Virginians took possession of Kaskaskia and followed up their success by the capture of Vincennes ; in both instances being joined by many disaffected inhabitants. The principal trade of the Illinois was in consequence diverted from Mack- inac to the Spanish posts beyond the Mississippi. A party from Kas- kaskia plundered the traders at St. Joseph’s, but was pursued and defeated. Hostile Indians and half-breeds instigated by the Spaniards and Vir- ginians constantly menaced St. Joseph’s, La Baye, and even Grand Portage. A small detachment of regular soldiers was sent from Mackinac in 1780 to the latter place where they built a blockhouse for the protection of merchants. Militia officers were stationed at La Baye, St. Joseph’s, and St. Mary’s, and scouting parties despatched in various directions. Finally two expeditions, each composed of a few regular soldiers and volunteer militia and a considerable number of Indians, were sent against the Illinois and the Spanish frontiers. One of these under Charles de Lang- lade proceeded by way of Chicago directly to the Illinois. The other com- manded by Capt. Hesse (late of the 60th) followed the Fox and Wis- consin rivers to the Mississippi. This party built a stockade at Prairie du Chien where it was joined by a large body of Sioux. They next seized the lead mines and captured some boats with stores, but were after- wards repulsed in attacks on the Spanish forts at St. Louis and Cahokia although they brought off a number of prisoners and inflicted much damage. Taken as a whole, the trade of Mackinac and all places beyond, including the northwest, produced annually 4100,000 worth of furs or about half the entire quantity exported from the province. The cargoes of one hundred canoes, each navigated by a crew of eight men, were required to pay forthem. The average value of each canoe-load of goods including the cost of transportation to its destination, but not the payment of wages, was estimated at £700. A considerable variety of goods was needed for successful traffic. Guns, powder, ball, knives, hatchets, rum, and tobacco were in greatest request but a list of articles usually taken includes saddles, spurs, bridles, saddle-cloths, and housings, 272 . TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vo. III. morris-bells, razors, combs, looking-glasses, plumes, beads, ribbons, lace of several kinds, hats, laced and plain coats, shirts, shoes, and bed-gowns ; six sorts of blankets, handkerchiefs, calimancoes, osnaburgs, cottons, calicoes, muslins, linens, swanskin and embossed serge fabrics ; white, black, blue, brown, green and scarlet cloth of several grades; thimbles, needles, thread, pewter-basins, iron pots, brass, copper, and tin kettles, snuff and tobacco boxes, bar iron and steel, silver crosses, finger-rings, gorgets, arm-bands, wrist-bands, buckles, ear-rings, hangers, brooches, moons, earwheels and ear-bobs, beaver-traps, fish-hooks, spears, hoes, and fire-steels. All of these things were brought from Montreal in canoes by way of the Ottawa as this was found to be both a quicker and cheaper mode of transportation than in sailing vessels on the lakes. As the beaver gradually disappeared from its favorite haunts in the Michigan peninsula both the trade and population perceptibly declined. Many of the inhabitants had emigrated to the Wabash and Illinois where they hoped to be beyond the grasp of the meddlesome English law. The trade then was carried on in a less reputable manner than at Mackinac owing chiefly to the size of the settlement and lawless character of many of the inhabitants. Lieut.-Governor Hamilton reported shortly after his removal in 1776 that “regulations for the trade with the Indians are either not generally known or not enforced. For example great abuses exist in the weights and measures used by the traders and for want of an office to stamp the silver-works which make a considerable article in the trade with the savages, they get their trinkets so debased with copper as to lay open a large field for complaint. “The number of traders not being limited allows of many engaging in it who have no principle of honesty and who impose on these poor people in a thousand ways to the detriment of honesty and to the disgrace of the name of trader among the savages which usually means with them an artful cheat. The distrust and disgust conceived for these traders occasion many disputes which frequently ended in murder. This trade being lucrative engages several who have little or no capital of their own to procure credit sometimes to a considerable amount, their ignorance, dishonesty, (or both) occasion frequent failures; the adventurers then decamp to some other post where they recommence the same traffic improving in art and villainy, and finally become desperate in their circumstances and dangerous from their connections and interest with the savages.” Bad as these men may seem, their exgagés were infinitely worse. “They are” says Hamilton, “the most worthless vagabonds imaginable. 1891-92. ] EARLY TRADERS. O13 They are fugitives (in general) from Lower Canada or the colonies who fly from their debtors or the law, and being proficient in all sorts of vice and debauchery corrupt the morals of the savages and communicate to the wretches disorders they might have continued untainted by, were it not for the intercourse with these exgagés. Having contracted new debts, they fly to the more remote posts where they recommence the same rade.”’ The population of the settlement did not exceed 2100 of whom 127 were slaves. The French Canadians he described as easy-going and illiterate, few of them being able to read and still fewer to write their town names. “They build on the borders of the Straight, and occupy about thirteen miles in length on the north and eight on the south side. The houses are all of log or frame work, shingled. The most have their orchards adjoining ; the appearance of the settlement is very smiling.” The new settlers on the other hand were active and enterprising. They had introduced sheep and black cattle and their farms were man- aged to the best advantage. All the large vessels on the lakes were owned by them and he anticipated that in a few years the Canadians would be compelled to part with their lands and become reduced to the condition of dependents. It is stated, apparently on good authority, that there were then only thirty Scotchmen, fifteen Irishmen, and two English- men in Detrgit, exclusive of the garrison, but the greater part of the trade of the place was already in their hands. The population was considerably increased during the war by the arrival of fugitives and prisoners from the frontier who were encouraged to settle on lands in the vicinity. Indian parties accompanied by white officers were constantly sent out to harass the borders of Virginia and Kentucky and traders followed in their trail with packhorses as far as the villages near the Ohio. The portage from the Miami of the Lakes to the Wabash had been made passable for carts and the exclusive right of carrying goods was granted to Mr. Maisonville of Detroit. At Niagara there was not a single inhabited house outside the walls of the fort. Glimpses of the state of trade and the life of a trader at that post during the Revolution are found in the correspondence of Francis Goring. Writing on the 23rd of Sept. 1779, he says :—“ I have lived at this place three years last August, and have had two masters in that time and am now getting a third, still in the same house. The first was Mr Pollard, he made a great fortune and left off. The second, Mr Robison, who was formerly a captain on these lakes, is now tired of business and assigns 274 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. III. in favour of George Forsyth who has treated me with the greatest kindness and is ready to serve me in anything I should ask. I have had several offers by my two old employers to leave Niagara and live with them in Canada, but I believe I shall continue here which I prefer to Canada, the popular place where everything is carried on with the great- est gaiety, and this is a place which you may say is almost out of the world, in the woods, and frequented by nothing but Indians except the people of the garrison. . . . . At this place is carried on a great business which consumes every year 430,000 sterling worth of merchan- dise of all sorts which is mostly retailed to the Indians. We employ four clerks of which I am the senior. [or the first two years my salary was but small, but I have now (and I flatter myself that there is not a clerk in these parts that has so much) about fifty guineas per annum, being found food and washing. By carrying ona correspondence with my friend Mr. Cruikshank who supplies me with silver work, such as the Indians wear, which I dispose of to the merchants in the upper country, and the profit arising therefrom is sufficient to find me in clothes.” In 1767, Sir William Johnson reported the presence of unlicensed traders at Toronto, but it seems to have been abandoned altogether as the trading-station soon afterwards. Even the trail leading to Lake Simcoe was little used, and the Trent valley route became almost forgotten. Benjamin Frobisher said in 1785:—“I have seen several persons who have gone from hence (Montreal) to Lake Huron by the carrying place of Toronto, but have only met with one who set out from the Bay of Kentie and that so far back as the year 1761 and the knowledge he seems to have of the country he travelled through I consider very imperfect.” The commerce of Oswego had steadily declined since the conquest. Instead of forty or fifty traders as in 1750, but one named Parlow remained in the summer of 1779. His property was pillaged and his buildings burnt by a party of Americans and Indians sent for that purpose from Fort Stanwix and he then took shelter in the small fort recently built on Carleton Island. Other traders followed him there and for a few years a fair trade was carried on with the neighboring Indians. The continuance of the war occasioned everywhere an enormous rise in prices and a great scarcity of imported goods. The scarcity of coin and in fact of any medium of exchange probably - accrued to the benefit of the traders. Gold, silver, and even copper coins of most Euopean countries passed current. In addition to the ordinary French and English pieces, Spanish moidores, pistareens, pistoles, and dollars, the Johannes of Portugal and Caroline of Germany were in common circulation. mo, ee. ae ee ed ee a Bat oe a a Cert oe ee a a: ee bo =I a 1891-92. | LAKE CURRENTS. LAKE CURRENTS. BY jE.) J) CLARK. (Read, 23rd April, 1892.) At a meeting of the Canadian Institute, held April 4th, 1891, the following resolution was passed, on motion of the writer seconded by Mr. A. Macdougall: “That before any further steps be taken to promote the construction of a ‘Trunk Sewer,’ it is necessary that more definite, and precise inform- ation be obtained regarding the currents of the lake between the mouth of the Humber, and the south side of the Island and Victoria Park.” “That the City Council be requested to take a series of Float Observa- tions for a period of at least three months, extending through the summer and a portion of the fall—say from July till October—with temperature observations of the water at various depths, and readings of the velocity and direction of the wind, taken on the lake at the same time the floats are put in; these floats to be placed in deep water, com- mencing at thirty, feet in depth, and extending to sixty feet, or even deeper.” “That the co-operation of the Provincial Board of Health, and the Board of Trade be enlisted; and that a copy of this resolution be sent to each of the boards and to the City Council; and that a delegation con- sisting of Professor Carpmael, Dr. Canniff, Mr. A. Harvey and the Mover and Seconder be appointed to bring the matter before the above named corporate bodies.” In pursuance of the above resolution the matter was brought to the attention of the Boards of Health and Trade respectively, and unani- mously endorsed by them. Also a committee was nominated by each body to co-operate with the committee from this Institute to bring the matter before the City Council. Mayor E. F. Clarke arranged for a meeting with the City Engineer, W. T. Jennings, at which the subject was duly discussed, with the result that the engineering department under- took, with the assistance of the departments under Professor Carpmael and Dr. Bryce, to carry out the investigations referred to, the former to supply data from the Observatory in regard to the direction and velocity 276 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. (Vou. JII. of the wind, while the latter was to make a thorough analysis, both chemical and bacteriological, of samples of water taken from the various points. The investigations were carried out under the directions of Mr. C. Rust, Assistant Engineer, and N. Kerr, of the Engineer's department, Dr. Mackenzie, of the Provincial Board of Health, and the writer on behalf of the Institute. On the first trip, besides the above named’ gentlemen, Professor Carpmael, Arthur Harvey, President of the Institute, Mr. Hamilton, Manager of the Waterworks, and Mr. R. W. Elliot, of the Board of Trade, accompanied the expedition; and on many of the sub- sequent trips, scientific gentlemen and interested citizens showed the importance which they attached to the investigations by joining in, and giving the benefit of their suggestions to, the work. The apparatus used for ascertaining the direction and velocity of the currents was a float or drag made of two cross brackets of wood covered with linen, a rope of from twenty to sixty feet attached, to suit. the required depth, and a tin float surmounted by a flag, and numbered. The floats were made of different sizes, the arm pieces of the brackets varying from two and a half feet to five feet in length, and the canvas from 27 to 54 inches in breadth. These drags required to be nicely adjusted by hanging weights to them to keep them in position, and it sometimes occurred that we would lose a float, flag and all, by weight- ing it a little too heavily. ry Stations were placed nine in number along the city front from the mouth of the Humber to Victoria Park in water ranging from thirty to sixty feet in depth, as follows, No. 1, in Humber Bay, off West Toronto Water Works; No. 2, half way between No. 1 and the mouth of the new intake; No. 3, at the intake; No. 4, outside the Island in a line with Church Street; No. 5, south of the Eastern Gap; No. 6, off Ashbridge’s Bay in a line with Leslie Street; No. 7, off the Woodbine; No. 8, halfa mile off Victoria Park wharf, and No. 9, one mile south of No. 8, in 70 feet of water. A couple of sextants, a good marine glass, a sounding line, a supply of glass-stoppered bottles with apparatus for taking deep water samples, 1891-92. ] LAKE CURRENTS. ST, and a couple of self-registering thermometers, together with one for taking deep sea temperatures completed our outfit. The deep sea ther- mometer referred to, was supplied by Professor Carpmael from the Observatory, and was of a pattern specially designed for taking observa- tions on the ship Challenger on its voyages of deep sea investigations; it was made by the celebrated firm of Zambra and Negretti. Our modus operandi was to start from Church Street wharf, about 9 a.m.,on board the Ada Alice and visit our stations, take samples of water, record the temperatures, and put out generally two floats at each station; then come in between 12 m. and I p.m., and start out again at 2 p.m., and pick up our floats, taking observations by means of the sex- tants of their location when taken up. These positions were afterwards plotted on a map, showing by means of lines and arrows the direction and distance the floats had moved. The direction and velocity of the wind was afterwards obtained from the observatory for the correspond- ing days and the whole tabulated as follows :— : i = ‘ Ron = | Mean Velocity, and Direc- “2 hale Z _| s8 = tion of Wind. eg | Sele | te am (e) ‘ = i mn DATE. | 5 ge lott (aiee (eee LOCATION. = aed (2) fe a pad Ss Be | S|] of | Ss = 9 a.m. | I p.m. | 4 p.m. 2 f me & cs a2 A | ie = Nd = feet H. M. juve! 72520 |52- EF | 6 E 6 E.|S.W.| 0.20 | 4.15 | .047 | Leslie Street. = 6) 16) 7° W. |10S.W.| t0'S.W.|NNE| 0.50 | 6.25 | <08 | Eastern Gap. : SuesOnera0 Nee era Ne GEN: CEN Eon! || seo.) ety el leeshe street: © g| 25 | 6S.W.|6S.W.|7S.W.]S.W.| 2.06] 5 30| .37 Bey) Ue mrton 25. (c4e Will ace. 17 Saw SOW. | oa, cB asa! ham es a NITE TNR) ie OR Dasa ee E.;/8 E.|S.W.| 1.55 | 6.10 | -.025 i es Peete.) 30.) «Calm 71-3:S2| to) NN: }.S. W. |) 3:63) | 4.1: |! 2720. | 24m’s’S. of Vict. P’K: BeLOn eQOM See Be a7 es Ben TOs aE. So Wil) 1, OOseoesoulllaakOn mW. Of Island. Sepik We2On| 0) We Tae SvE. | nr) 1S: E. | 0.50 | 4.05 | .12 | Eastern Gap, | Peg) 20. (54). We) for) + Skitrg Ne WaleSe kB; -77.| 4.30 | .17. | Woodbine. The observations were continued altogether about 35 days, viz.: 8 day s in July, 5 in August, 9 in September and 11 in October. Some days the lake was so rough it was impossible to continue our operations; on the 3rd of July, having got as far as the Eastern Gap we were compelled to turn back owing to the quantity of water shipped by the Ada Alice. It 19 278 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ VoL. TE. was unfortunate that we had not a boat that was capable of standing a rougher sea, as that is the very time when the required information would be most valuable. The highest velocity of the wind we were able to operate in was 25 miles per hour. While the currents seem to be under the influence of the winds to some extent, there is considerable lack of uniformity, particularly at different stations; for instance, the currents in the Humber Bay did not conform to the same general principle as at other stations; also, the currents at the Eastern Gap seemed to be different from those to the east and west of it. But one thing seems to be pretty clearly proved, that the general direction of the currents is paralled to the coast line from Victoria Park to the western extremity of the Island, that is N.E. and S.W. nearly. Thus North East, East, and South East winds pretty generally produce currents flowing South West, while South, South West, and West winds give North Easterly currents, and North and North West winds give rise to variable currents; thus on seven occasions when the wind was from the North and North West the resulting currents were two North East, three South West, and two South East. Also a South West wind would pro- duce a North East current south of the Island, and a North West one west of the Island. The phenomenon of the current being in a contrary direction to the wind was more marked in Humber Bay than to the south of the Island; although on one occasion, on the 17th of July, we put out, near Victoria Park, first a 30 feet float, second a surface float without flag or _ drag, a mere tin can with an iron rod, four feet in length, attached, and third an empty tin can; the wind was fresh from the East; the first and second floats went dead against the wind, while the empty can was driven along before the wind on the tops of the waves. Close in shore we some- times observed the current in an opposite direction to that farther out. Instances of counter under-currents were obtained from Mr. J. Raynor and Mr. J. G. Rosesseau, fishermen at Niagara. They informed us that when they had their nets out in deep water during the prevalence of strong easterly winds, they would find in drawing in the nets that any floating submerged leaves or weeds would be caught on the opposite side of the net, showing that the under-current was from the West. This would indicate that the waters, being driven to the West, pile up at Burlington Beach and the head of the water thus raised forces a portion of the water back as an under-current. This would be more noticeable in Humber Bay if it were more closed in by Mimico point. Instead of giving the reverse undercurrent close in by the shore, it would probably be found out in a coupie of hundred feet or so of water. We made a trip to the mouth of the Niagara river to ascertain if : re ; 5 ‘ is ; ¥ 1891-92. | LAKE CURRENTS. 279 possible how far the current of the river could be traced across the lake. We put out a number of floats inside the bar and in the mouth of the river, but unfortunately we gave the floats too much line and most of them grounded on the bar; one or two that got over safely took an easterly direction. There is a distinct color line dividing the water inside the bar from that outside, and the difference in temperature is very marked. In the river, both at the surface and at the bottom the temper- ature was as high as 69° or 70°, while outside, at the depth of 400 feet, we found the water at its maximum density or 39°5° Fh. This accounts for the coolness of our water supply in Toronto; although it primarily comes through the Niagara river and is heated up to the point already indicated, before it reaches us it has to come over that cold sub-stratum of water, at least for thirty miles; so that at the intake in the month of July, we found the temperature as low as 43°; in October it was observed to be the same, and only slightly higher in August and September. As the practical outcome of these investigations is to ascertain with what degree of safety sewage may be deposited in the lake, it becomes necessary to consider another factor that enters into the question, viz., the effect of diffusion upon sewage. The share of the work, in these in- vestigations, carried out under the superintendence of Dr. Mackenzie, on behalf of the Provincial Board of Health, will afford material aid in solving this problem; the substance of which will be found in the following quotation from Mr. Rust’s report. ‘“ To ascertain, if possible, from actual tests, how rapidly diffusion and oxidation take place, Mr. Mackenzie, on the 16th October, took samples of water, in a direct line from the mouth of the intake to the outlet of Garrison Creek sewer, which discharges 400,000 cubic feet, per day. I attach a copy of the re- sults, by which you will see that the sample taken within a little over half a mile of the mouth of the sewer came within the limits of first-class water ; the wind on the occasion was from the North, which would tend to carry the sewage direct to the intake. This shows very favorable results, and tends to prove that there will be no possible danger of contaminating the water supply if the sewage be discharged into the lake at a distance of six miles east of the intake. When the population of the city exceeds 500,000, and it is found that there is the slightest danger to the water supply, precipitation works could be erected and the sewage treated by chemical means.” The copy of the schedule referred to shows that a sample of water taken near the mouth of the sewer showed a degree of organic impurity by Muter’s scale of 2°44 per million, while first class water should not show above ‘25. It also showed as high as 40,000 bacteria per cubic centimetre; yet we find that within half a mile, this water is raised to a standard of first class purity. We can then judge of 280 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. eT the immunity from danger there would be if the sewage outlet were removed to a distance of six miles. fT make one further quotation from Mr. Rust’s report. “I feel satisfied from the results of the experiments that the currents are caused by the winds. They change direction as the wind changes, although sometimes after a sudden shifting of the wind, the upper and lower currents have sometimes different directions. By the attached tables you will see that during this fall there has been a great number of days in which the wind blew from an easterly direction, and to this is to be accounted the large percentage of floats which drifted in the direction of the intake pipe. From the Observatory reports we find that the prevailing winds are from a westerly direction. The Hon. W. McAlpine and Messrs Hering and Gray, in their reports on the Trunk Sewer, considered that the sewage could safely be discharged into the lake east of the intake piped, With the above views I entirely agree and am of the opinion that the mouth of the intake pipe isin about the best possible position, as it is the nearest point to the shore where a depth of seventy feet of water can be reached; and double that depth is found within a few hundred yards to the South. The force of this will be seen when you refer back to that part of my paper where I drew your attention to the fact that the pre- vailing direction of the currents was about parallel with the coast line. _Now_ as the mouth of the intake is less than half a mile from the shore of the island, it stands to reason that if we take our outlet pipe a mile from the shore line we get our sewage a half a mile outside of the range of the inlet pipe. Herein, I believe, is perfect safety. And when we consider the immense advantage it will be to us to get clean rid of the whole foul mass of sewage without creating plague spots in our fair city, in the shape of sewage farms or what is worse, precipitating works without regard to the enormous cost of such works we are constrained to say, “’Tis a consummation devoutly to be wished.” There is yet required to be made a careful and thorough investigation into the extent to which diffusion takes place in large bodies of water and its effects on sewage. The Council, on recommendation of last year’s Trunk Sewer Committee, are partly pledged to undertake that work this year. In conclusion I beg to say, that as the Institute was instrumental in having these valuable preliminary investigations made by the Council, I hope the members of the Institute, individually, as well as collectively, will continue to use their influence to help on the great work of a perfect system of sewage disposal, for which Toronto is languishing. 1891-92. ] CORRESPONDENCE OF LIEUT.-COL. COFFIN. 281 tHe PRIVATE CORRESPONDENCE. OF LIEUT.-COL. COFFIN: DURING THE REBELLION. OF 1837. By H. R. FAIRCLOUGH, M.A. (Read 12th March, 1892.) It has been my great privilege to read a packet of letters written by the late Lieut.-Col. Coffin. Though I never knew or even saw the writer, still so vividly does the man’s noble personality appear between the lines he penned, that I feel drawn towards him as to a friend, the touch of whose vanished hand, and the sound of whose voice, now still, the pages perused have in no slight measure supplied. The individuality of the writer I have been able to picture to myself still more fully, through the many conversations 1 have had with several of his intimate friends and relatives, particularly one, the lady to whom a nvmber of the letters before me are addressed. It is because Col. Coffin was so well known and highly esteemed in Canadian public life, and because his letters deal with public events at an extremely critical period of our national history, that I have taken the liberty of bringing this interesting correspondence before the notice of the Institute. Col. Coffin* came of a fine old stock. Burke, in his “ Colonial Gentry,” speaking of the Coffin family says that “Sir Richard Coffin, Knight, accompanied William the Conqueror from Normandy to Eng- land in the year 1066, and the manor of Alwington, Co. Devon, was assigned to him.” Though, on the face of it, this statement is absurd, still it indicates the *William Foster Coffin was born at Bath, Somerset, England, in 1808. In 1813 came with his father to Canada, but returned to England, 1815. Entered Eton College, 1817. Won an Eton Postmastership at Merton College, Oxford. Returned to Canada. 1830. In 1835 was called to the Quebec bar. In 1838 was appointed Assistant Civil Secretary, and actively assisted Sir John Colborne in allaying civil strife. In 1839 was appointed Stipendiary Magistrate at Ste. Marie, a disaffected district, and in 1840 Commissioner for Police in Lower Canada. In 1842 became Joint Sheriff for District of Montreal, but resigned this position in 1851. In 1856 was made Manager of Ordnance and Admiralty lands, a position which he held until his death in 1878. Was offered but declined the Lieut.-Governorship of Manitoba. Acted on numerous government commissions. Raised and commanded the Montreal Field Battery, 1855, and was promoted to the rank of Lieut.-Colonel. Wasa member of the Royal Institution and a Gover- nor of McGill College. His published literary work includes a ‘‘ History of the War of 1812 (Montreal 1864) and ‘‘ Thoughts on Defence from a Canadian Point of View” (Montreal 1870) He married a daughter of Deputy Commissary-General Clarke, a near relative of Lord Lyndhurst. 282 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. IBDE antiquity and nobility of the family. The ancestral home of the Coffin’s is Devonshire—a county which, as readers of Kingsley’s “ Westward Ho!” are well aware, has given England so many of her sailors and soldiers. In the middle of the last century, some members of this family were settled in Boston, Mass. On the breaking out of the Revolutionary War they refused to desert the old flag, and John Coffin, Col. Coffin’s grand- father, with nine children went to Quebec, where he distinguished himself during the Siege of 1775: )'On:the 31st. Dec. in that year-he keptithe guard at Pres de Ville under arms, and with great coolness, at the critical moment directed Capt. Barnsfare’s fire upon the invading forces. “To him,” thus writes General Sir Guy Carleton, afterwards Lord Dorchester, ‘with the assistance of Barnsfare, I attribute the repulse of the rebels on that side of Quebec, where Mr. Montgomery attacked in person.” Col. Coffin’s grandfather had six sons and four daughters. One of the former, Francis, became an admiral in the British navy; another, Nathaniel, died Adjutant-General of Militia of Upper Canada ; another, the Hon. Thomas Coffin, was a member of the Legislative Councll of Lower Canada. The second son, William, was a captain in H. M. 15th Regiment of Infantry, and at the time of his death, in 1835, had Brevet Major rank. He married a Mrs. Austin, whose maiden name was Foster, and it is their son, William Foster Coffin, who wrote the letters that are the subject of this paper.+ Before I leave the Coffin family, it may be well to shew briefly who the relatives are to whom these letters are directed, and to whom Col. Coffin was so warmly attached. A brother of John Coffin, who also lived in Boston, Mass., but at the time of the Revolution made England his home, had three sons, John, Isaac, and Nathaniel. Isaac became an admiral in the British navy and for his most distinguished services was created a baronet, and given the Magdalen Islands. John, afterwards Gen. John Coffin, settled in New Brunswick. He had a family of eight, three sons and five daughters. Two of the sons became admirals in the navy, the other a general in the artillery. Of the daughters, Anne, married Major, afterwards Sir Thomas, Pearson, well known for the part he took in Canada in the war of 1812, while Mary married Charles Ogden, Solicitor-General, after- wards Attorney-General, of Lower Canada. The eldest daughter, Carolina, married the Hon. Charles William Grant, afterwards Baron de Longueuil, son of the Baroness de Longueuil in her own right and Captain +Of the daughters of John Coffin, the third, Margaret, married her cousin, Lieut.-Gen. Sir Roger H. Sheaffe, Bart., who fought at Queenston Heights, and on the death of Gen. Brock took command and completed the victory. 1891-2. ] CORRESPONDENCE OF LIEUT.-COL. COFFIN. 283 David Alexander Grant, of Blairfindy, Scotland. The children by this marriage were Charles Irwin Grant, Baron de Longueuil, who died in 1878, and Charlotte, who is married to Mr. J. Antisell Allen, both of whom are living in the beautiful old home of Alwington, in Kingston, Ont., for some years the residence of the Governors-General of Canada. It is to Carolina, Baroness de Longueuil, and her daughter Charlotte, that the letters in the packet are addressed. The correspondence to which I have had access covers a period of over six years, from January 24th, 1834,to March 17th, 1840. There are twenty-six letters in all, and, being written to intimate friends and relatives, they naturally contain much that is of merely family and per- sonal interest. But there is also a great deal that must be interesting to Canadians in general, and it is chiefly the writer’s account of and frank comments on the exciting political events of the day that I desire to bring before your notice. At the outset let me utter a word of caution. Even to-day a narrative of the incidents of 1837-38 can awake not a little intensity of feeling, and it is but natural to expect that a young man, living in the midst of those events, shotild feel the heat of party strife and express the sentiments of an ardent partisan. But herein lies the value of these letters. It is often difficult to understand and estimate fairly the principles and sentiments of both sides in a political struggle, and this holds more true the farther the contest is removed from our own time. To-day Canadians of all parties give their unqualified assent to the principle of responsible government, and it is not always easy, therefore, to appreciate the honesty and sincerity of those who in former days so bitterly denounced William Lyon Mackenzie. Yet the latter lived to acknowledge himself that it would have been a misfortune for Canada if all his plans had suc- ceeded. In any case let us bear in mind that in Lower Canada the struggle of ’37 was very different in character from that in Upper Canada —that it was chiefly a racial strife, and involved questions which, as recent events have shown, are even yet unsettled. Col. Coffin was an enthusiastic loyalist, and to his mind the problem to be solvea in Lower Canada in the earliest years of Queen Victoria’s reign was whether the work of Pitt and Wolfe was to be undone, and the tricolor was once more to float over the citadel of Quebec. His views as expressed in these letters, were undoubtedly the views of a great majority of the British population in Lower Canada at that time, and therefore deserve, to say the least, a respectful hearing. Only by studying both sides can we get the proper historical perspective. 284 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vot. lets As a fitting introduction to the narrative of hot conflict and fiery strife, which is to follow, the first letter gives a most vivid description of the burning of the Chateau de St. Louis, at Quebec, on January 23rd, 1834. This castle had been used as the residence of the Governors of Canada for upwards of 150 years. It was never rebuilt. In 1835, when the troubles in Lower Canada were coming to a head, Sir Robert Peel determined to appoint a Commission of inquiry, but his term of office was too short to allow him to carry out his intentions. These, however, his successor, Lord Melbourne, fulfilled. The Lord High Commissioner appointed was the Earl of Gosford, while Sir Charles Grey and Sir George Gibbs were made assistant commis- sioners. Shortly afterwards Lord Aylmer, who was administering the Government in Lower Canada, was recalled, and the Earl of Gosford took his place as Governor-General. Lord Gosford arrived in the frigate Pique at Quebec, on August 23rd, 1835, and in a letter written a month later, on September 26th, the Commissioners are humorously described by Col. Coffin, who also indicates the political unrest then pre- vailing in Canada, and complains of ignorance at home respecting the Colonies. “Parliament meets next month for the deliberate legal annihilation of British interests. . . . As you may imagine the proceedings of our new rulers are the subject of much anxious speculation. As yet they are secret and mysterious. The people themselves look as if burthened with some mighty secret, or as if environed ~ with the web of some frightful conspiracy. Everything they attempt is @ ¢atons. They» walk like so niany cats upon thin ice, slipping at every step and fearful lest the next may plunge them beneath the surface. This is the natural consequence of the terrorism which has been exercised by Roebuck and his mendacious accomplices in England, who have impressed the British public with the belief that the Canadians, goaded by the tyranny of the English population, were in a state of actual revolt. An officer of the Pique assured me that previous to their sailing it was a matter of general surprise that the commissioners had not been backed by an extra regiment or two. Nothing in fact can be compared with the gross and shameful ignorance that generally prevails respecting these Colonies. The meeting of the Assembly will alone satisfy the existing curiosity which amounts to a wish to know ‘the worst at once,’ and then we shall find that all this disturbance has been created and all these undignified personages have been sent from their dull homes across the wide Atlantic, for the simple purpose of proving the fallibility of some infallible panacea for Canadian grievances. On the principles they profess they cannot do good and must do harm. “Lord Gosford is a most unaristocratic looking lord. I have seen many a farmer with more of the air of a gentleman. He is of quarto size and dimensions, with a very tropical complexion, being much of the hue of a nutmeg. They say that he is good- natured and accessible, that he delights to walk about with his hands in his breeches pockets, or to relax from such absorbing occupation by a sly game at pitch farthing with the little boys under the chateau wall. Sir George Gibbs—did you ever hear such a name—is an engineer officer suddenly metamorphosed into a diplomatist. His trade 1891-92. ] CORRESPONDENCE OF LIEUT.-COL. COFFIN. 285 is that of springing mines, let him beware that the present does not explode beneath his own feet. Sir Charles Grey is the éeau-¢deal of a Leadenhall butcher. We are told that he is a very good man, but he looks like a very vulgar one. They go here by the name of the three G’s—gander, goose and gosling.” It was just a month after this letter was written, when the Parliament of Lower Canada assembled. Jord Gosford, in a very conciliatory speech, assured the House that all real grievances would be attended to. “The Home Government” he said “was prepared to surrender the control of all public revenue arising |lrom any Canadian source, on con- dition of a moderate provision being made for the Civil list. Plurality of offices should be abolished, and intelligent French Canadians have the paths to positions of honor and profit open to them, equally with the English-speaking races ; in future the fullest information with regard to the public accounts would be given the House; no bills would be re- served for the royal assent where it was possible to avoid it, and all complaints should receive due consideration.” But no concessions could please Mr. Papineau and his followers. They ignored the Royal Commission and appointed Mr. Roebuck their agent in England to press their grievances before Parliament. The Legislative Council throwing out this bill, Mr. Papineau indulged in some violent language. “The time has gone by” he said “when Europe could give monarchies to America ; on the contrary, an epoch is approaching when America will give republics to Europe.” A supply bill for only six months was voted by the Assembly, but rejected by the Council, and the Governor in proroguing Parliament had to acknowledge his failure and consequent disappointment. “Itis to me matter of sincere regret that the offers of peace and conciliation, of which I was the bearer to this Country have not led to the result which I had hoped for. The consequences of this rejection, and of the demands which have been made to his Majesty, I will not venture to predict.” Meanwhile Sir Francis Bond Head had assumed office as Governor of Upper Canada. He arrived in Toronto at the end of Jannary 1836, while the house was in session, and though announced in advance as “a tried Reformer,’ he soon showed that he had little sympathy with such Reformers as Mackenzie and Bidwell, who not content with airing their just grievances, resorted to veiled threats of secession and leagued them- selves with Papineau and the Lower Canadian “ Patriots,” who were already preparing to resort to arms. Finding that the new Governor would not become their tool, the As- sembly cut off the supplies, but Sir Francis after refusing his assent to any money bills whatever, so that the members had no sessional allowance to 236 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vou. Il. draw, prorogued Parliament on the 20th April, and a month later dis- solved the House and issued writs for a new election. Public opinion was evidently opposed to the extreme measures advo- cated by the reform leaders, for in the ensuing contest the party, which in the last house had a large majority, was overwhelmingly defeated, and most of the leading men were beaten. The joy with which this news was received by ardent loyalists through- out the country may be inferred from the words of Col. Coffin. Writ- ing from Montreal, he says :— ‘Hurrah for the Hero of the Pampas !* His jockeyship has stood him in good stead, and most sincerely do I rejoice at his victory. I only hope that he will know how to use it in moderation and wisdom. I am not infidel enough to doubt of such a man, but rest assured the most trying part of his task is yet to come. Everything is expected from him, and one false step may provoke a radical reaction which will make the Upper Provinces a territorial appendage to the United States in the course of a year. But—deuce take the clever fellow-—he soars above misgiving. The people here and at Quebec are about to sacrifice whole hecatombs in his honor in the guise of public dinners.” Mr. Coffin himself, however, kept aloof from these demonstrations “ being determined neither to eat, drink, or speak politically for a long time to come.” In Lower Canada the Legislature again met on the 22nd September. Lord Gosford announced in a dignified manner that the Home Govern- ment desired to give the members another opportunity of reconsidering their action, and he trusted they would vote the supplies in the proper manner. In the address in reply the Assembly did not refer to the ques- tion of supplies, but simply demanded that the Council should be made elective. Shortly afterwards a despatch from Lord Glenelg, Colonial Secretary, informed the House that this principle could not be admitted, but notwithstanding, the Assembly resolved to transact no business until the Council had been made elective. The result was a deadlock, and Parliament was ‘prorogued. In accordance with the report made by the Royal Commission, resolu- tions were proposed in the British House of Commons on the 6th March, 1837, to the effect “that it was unadvisable to make the Legislative Council of the Province elective ; but that it was expedient that measures be adopted for securing to that branch of the Legislature a greater degree of public confidence.” The Executive of the Province was authorized to use the public money of the Province for necessary expenses. * That is, Sir Francis, who was known as ‘‘ Galloping Head” from the ‘‘ Rough Notes ” he published in 1826 describing several journeys across the Pampas and the Andes. 1891-92. ] CORRESPONDENCE OF LIEUT.-COL. COFFIN. 287 At this the Patriot (so called) party was roused to deep indignation ; meetings for remonstrance were held frequently and in various places, and Papineau and others made hot revolutionary speeches. The excite- ment was intense, and at its height when William IV. died, and Queen Victoria ascended the throne. On August t8th, Lord Gosford assembled Parliament once more. The Governor made a dignified speech. The Home Government, he said, wished to give them another opportunity of considering their action before the Imperial authorities passed an Act which would deprive the Provincial Legislature of that control over its own revenues which it was desirable that it should have, “ a result for the attainment of which Her Majesty’s Government would willingly make every sacrifice, save that of the honor and integrity of the Crown.” In the address in reply, presented eight days later, the Assembly pressed their former demands with more persistence than ever, and warned the mother country that if she carried her resolutions into effect her supremacy in British America would no longer depend “upon the feelings of affection, of duty, and of mutual interest” but upon “ physi- cal and material force.’ Her exercise of power was compared with that of “the most despotic governments of civilized Europe.” Lord Gosford regretted the obstinacy of the Assembly, and dissolved the House by proclamation. Many were the appeals now made by Papineau and his followers for the people “to lay down their lives on the altars of their country.” It was clear that blood must be shed, and both “ Patriots” and “ Loyalists” began to prepare for the coming struggle. On the 6th November the first conflict took place. The so-called “Sons of Liberty ” were leaving the place where they had been assembled, when they were met by a small number of members of the Doric Club, and a general fight ensued. This was followed by an attack upon the house of a Mr. Idler, where the Sons of Liberty met, the wrecking of Mr. Papineau’s home and the sack of the office of the Vindicator. The Riot Act was read, and the magis- trates of Montreal and Quebec issued proclamations forbidding the assembling of bodies of men for drill, and prohibiting “all public meet- ings and processions which are of a nature to disturb the public peace.” A new commission of the peace was issued for the district of Montreal, which removed sixty-one magistrates suspected of disloyalty. Meanwhile the troops were being concentrated in Montreal, where Sir John Colborne, now Commander of the Forces, had fixed his head-quar- ters. Not only New Brunswick and Nova Scotia sent aid, but even Upper Canada, through Sir Francis Head, despatched all the regulars in the Province, the Governor having determined to rely wholly on his militia. 288 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. INE Earl Gosford, on the 16th November, issued warrants for the arrest, on a charge of high treason, of Messrs. André Ouimet, J. Dubuc, Fran- cois Tavernier) George de’ Boucherville, Dr. Simard, }) Weblanc ade Papineau, Dr. O’Callaghan, T. S. Brown, Rodolphe Des Rivieres, and Ovide Perrault. Of these the last five managed to escape. On the same day (16th Nov.) the Montreal Volunteer Cavalry, under command of Lieutenant Ermatinger, were despatched to St. John’s to arrest two men named Davignon and Demaray. They had secured their prisoners and were returning to Montreal when about a mile from Longueuil they were met by some 200 men, armed with rifles and muskets, who opened fire on the troops, wounded the commander and five men, and finally rescued the prisoners. In a letter dated November 17th, Montreal, Mr. Coffin speaks of this event :— ‘These are queer times for quiet people. Things bear a very unpleasant appear- ance in this part of the world. 1 would not say dangerous, but certainly disagreeable. Warrants have been issued for the arrest of several individuals in this City and District on charges of High Treason. In town we have been successful enough in bag- ging a few ;—to counterbalance this success, the Montreal Volunteer Cavalry, which was employed as a constabulary force, having been despatched to execute similar war- rants in the vicinity of St. Johns, and having accomplished the object of their expedi- tion, were attacked on their return by about 200 armed /adztants, and after having had four of their number wounded were compelled to relinquish their prisoners and retreat, which they did in good style, and, considering that there were twenty-two only in number opposed to such enormous odds, in a manner which reflects much to their credit. This reverse will doubtlessly be magnified into an utter defeat of all the British troops in the Lower Provinces by the force of the “nation Canadienne.” To reassure you on this head I give you the facts. The state of public feeling is very un- easy in this district ; the Canadians appear cowed in town, but they have shown pluck and preparation in the country. I have since I wrote the last word seen a very bright and handsome pewter ball which has just been extracted from the leg of one of the volunteers—an awkward customer I promise you. ‘The British are, as you may sup- pose, very much exasperated. Should any disturbance take place, blood will be spilt, and such an occurrence may be hourly expected. The non-appearance of the troops which had been ordered from Halifax and the West Indies has placed Government, I should imagine, in a dilemma. If things proceed much longer in the same train the Kingstonians may before long find themselves called upon to perform what they have so recently promised. ‘““T must condole with Mr. Grant that the first act of rebellion should have been committed on his property. At the same time you may congratulate yourselves that you are safe at Kingston, and moreover that you have something to the fore there let the worst happen.” The next letter, written three days later than the preceding, acquaints us with some more of the stirring events of this exciting month :— 1391-92.] CORRESPONDENCE OF LIEUT.-COL. COFFIN. 189 * On Saturday” (z.e. Nov. 17th) ‘‘ four companies of the Royals and two pieces of artillery were despatched to Chambly. Some of the Police accompanied them for the purpose, if possible, of identifying any of the insurgents. They met with many indi- cations of a rebellious spirit—had a slight skirmish in the woods with some armed habitants and took seven prisoners. This appears for the moment to have created a panic, but I have grave doubts whether the effect will be permanent. It is evident that the peasantry has been extensively provided with arms and ammunition, and ‘systematically instigated to resist the authorities. There can be also no doubt that with their immense numerical superiority, if they only knew their own strength and how to direct it to the best advantage, they might prove ugly customers. Until they receive some terrible lesson, I doubt very much whether they will be reduced to consult their own discretion. As yet they appear to obey their leaders implicitly. . . . De- bartsch has been compelled to make his escape from St. Charles. T. 5S. Brown and Rodolphe Des Riviéres have since taken possession of his property with many of the insurgent inhabitants of that vicinity. They are deliberately fortifying themselves in his house, throwing up fieldworks and making divers other military preparations. Their Commissariat |)epartment has been actively employed within the last few days in killing and salting all Debartsch’s cows. This is actually the case. ‘The British inhabitants of the City are arming and drilling, and talking and swaggering after the most approved fashion. I really wish they would drop a little of the Bobadil. Modesty is the most graceful plume to the helm of valour. I dare say they will fight well enough, but they brag most unconscionably. The City was never more tranquil than at this moment. Papineau and a few other such vultures, against whom warrants of arrest for high treason have been issued, are off.” Two days after this last letter was written, Col. Gore was sent against the rebels posted at St. Denis. He was accompanied by 200 infantry, some volunteer cavalry, and three guns. At the same time Lt.-Col. Wetherell was ordered to proceed against St. Charles (otherwise known as Debartsch). The repulse of the troops at St. Denis on November 23rd, Wetherell’s victory at St. Charles on the 25th, and the brutal murder of Lieut. Weir, who was captured by Dr. Nelson, the rebel commander at St. Denis, are events too well known to call for more than a mere reference to them. Writing from Montreal on Dec. Ist, Mr. Coffin thus speaks of these thrilling incidents : ** Markham,” (z.e., a captain of the 32nd who was in command of the skirmishing party at St. Denis, and who had received four wounds), ‘“‘is doing very well. Fancy his men, when landed from Sorel without shoes to their feet and altogether as war-worn as if they had retreated from Moscow, breaking from their ranks and rushing up to his lodgings to ask how he was doing, and when assured of his convalescence, cheering and dancin about like so many Bedlamites. I have been told that the scene was one of the most affecting ever witnessed. Of poor Weir it is painful to write. All that we have since heard confirms the first distressing intelligence. Nothing absolutely decisive is yet known, but of the fact of his murder there can be but little doubt. And yet I will undertake that a far louder feeling is displayed on his account at a distance than here. Here, as in the time of the cholera, and in all times of public peril, self 290 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vot. rie “ absorbs every other nobler sentiment. Every man appears absorbed in one considera- tion—-the worthier, how he shall fight ; the more sordid, how he shall run. é Poor amiable kind-hearted Weir, by whose side I sat at dinner hardly ten days since ! His fate demands a hecatomb and it will be sternly exacted. Eight companies marched yesterday for St. Denis from Sorel, the Light Company of the 32nd (Markham’s and Weir’s) among them; the men are awfully savage. I doubt if a trace of that murderous den will be left. So much for civil war. Woe be to those who have brought its horrors upon this hitherto peaceful land. “Simultaneously with the departure of this detachment returned Col. Wetherell and his Royals with their two guns and thirty prisoners. They were received by an immense concourse of people and with the greatest enthusiasm. They brought with them the standard of revolt—a pole surmounted by a donnet rouge with a gilt tassel and surrounded with a humble imitation of the Roman fasces. Ovide Perrault, of Montreal, Advocate, is the only man of note known to have fallen. At St. Charles about one hundred were slain—more may have fallen and their bodies have been burned in the houses which were destroyed. “This District is ina lamentable state. The County of Two Mountains is quite in 4 state of insurrection. Hitherto these gallant patriots have done nothing but menace and expel the old country people from amcng them at the point of the bayonet. We have numbers flocking into town for protection who have been despoiled of their cattle and other moveables, and wantonly driven from their humble yet happy homes to beg their winter’s bread in this city. Everything has been done and will be done for them that is practicable. A man at St. Johns, a loyal Canadian volunteer, was found in a field near that place yesterday with three musket balls through his body. He had been murdered by some of the St. Athanase Patriots. MM. Peltier and Cherrier, have been this day accommodated with apartments at the Queen’s expense on charges of High Treason. At Quebec as well as here the volunteers are very busy and I under- stand getting on admirably. The townships are also arming, and all the back English settlements to which munitions of war can be conveyed without interruption have been amply provided. I think before they have done the French leaders will find themselves in a hornet’s nest. The 43rd is on its way to Quebec by the Post Route. We expect daily to hear of their arrival and I suppose we shall have ten thousand men out in the spring, until when it will be strange indeed if we cannot keep the province.” A letter of December gth gives us interesting information concerning the aid which the rebels expected from the Americans, also concerning the vigorous measures adopted by the Government. “ Things here brighten up extemporaneously and people’s faces glisten proportion- ately, to be clouded fer contra on the following day. The worst intelligence we have is of the unnatural though not unaccountable sympathy which is getting up on the other side of the lines. This is an evil without immediate remedy among a people who may be doubly influenced to act against us—part from the most honourable feelings, but the plupart from mercenary motives. The rebel recruiters on the lines offer eight dollars per month as the wages of their treasonable iniquity and 200 acres of land when the war is over and the British banner expelled from the American soil by the “ triumphant generals of the Republic.” ‘* But you want facts, not speculations. The first therefore is as cheering a one to us as it has proved ominous of the future fate of similar Yankee enterprises. A party Se oe 1891-92. ] CORRESPONDENCE OF LIEUT.-COL. COFFIN. 291 of the rebels had purchased two brass three-pounders in the States and attempted by the assistance of some of their American recruits to bring them into the Province. The Militia however of Missisquoi Bay who had made application for arms to the Commander of the Forces, fortunately received them about an hour before intelligence reached them of the advance of the rebel detachment. With a zeal and promptitude altogether unexpected and which reflects the greatest honour upon them, they abso- lutely broke open the arm chests and ammunition kegs, rushed quite “ promiscuously” to the spot where the rebels were—attacked them—killed five—wounded more—took some prisoners and captured the guns—bravo for the Yankees on our side of the lines ! ‘*Poor Weir was buried yesterday with military honours, the whole population (British) having turned out to attend him to the place of interment. I never witnessed such a sight before. I suppose there were 3000 men under arms. Considering that they have been only three weeks under drill you would be astonished at the soldier-like appearance of some of the volunteer corps. It must have been an imposing and alarming spectacle to Jean Baptiste. I cannot write to you about poor Weir—the details of his fate are too horrible for your eye. I will, if I can find time to-morrow, give Dr. Sampson some account of it and other things. You have undoubtedly heard that the second expedition to St. Denis reached St. Hyacinthe and returned without having encountered any opposition. Poor Weir’s remains were found at St. Denis. A proclamation will appear this morning offering £500 reward for the apprehension of his murderers. “‘ Martial law is declared. When we have time we shall give the rebels upon the Ottawa some proof of its efficacy. They are safe in a bag and can keep till wanted.” “The rebels upon the Ottawa” had not to wait very long. On the 13th Dec., Sir John Colborne marched against them with about 2000 regulars and militia, crossed the Ottawa on the ice, and directed his course towards the village of St. Eustache, where about 1000 patriots had assembled. Mr. Coffin accompanied the troops in the capacity of interpreter to Col. Maitland, and he was therefore an eye-witness of the battle of St. Eustache. His vivid description of the fight, was written to his young cousin Miss Grant, It is one of the most interesting letters in the packet, but unhappily is too long to be quoted in its entirety. “You must know that as I was acting interpreter to Col. Maitland, I was with the lead- ing files and had consequently the best opportunity of seeing everything, and perhaps the most brilliant sight I ever beheld was the first opening of our artillery upon the rebels as we advanced upon St. Eustache. We ascended the bank of the river ; about two miles below the village we suddenly heard and saw the smoke of musketry in the woods on the opposite shore. This we knew arose from Globenski’s corps of volunteers which had been detached through the bush in that direction to intercept any fugitives from St. Eustache across the ice. The rebels had anticipated them, and at a sharp bend in the river we suddenly came in sight of two columns of patriots, say about three hundred men each, crossing the river under the impression (as it ultimately proved) that the main body of the troops was advancing in that direction. Sir John was at that moment with the advance, he instantly ordered up the guns, at a moment the ranks opened out right and left and two or three pieces rattled up, unlimbered, and opened like light upon the gentlemen in wz/tz who were slowly wending their serpen- 292 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. PVor EET tine way across the ice at about the distance of a mile. You may fancy'the ¢ab/eau at the moment. The day was one of the calmest and brightest of a Canadian winter. The whole scene bore that still and peaceful character peculiar to the Canadian land- scape at this season of the year. . . . Ina moment all is animation and excitement. Words of command thunder along the line—the men roused from the plodding quie- tude of the march are loading and priming and bayonetting—a reawakened volcano— orderlies are dashing here, aides-de-camps there, and dragoons everywhere. Sir John and his immediate staff, looking like so many military cucumbers, are reconnoitering through their telescopes in front, while up come the guns, the artillery drivers lashing and swearing, and the horses doing all they ought not to do, until a couple of pieces are brought to bear, and then the thunder of their reports and the whistling rush of the balls, and the reiterated commands discourse sweet music after the school of Charles XII. “T had just returned through a street, the lower part of which in conjunction with the Church Presbytery and nunnery was one mass of living flame. Every here and there lay the body of some unhappy rebel stretched out upon the snow, with a small group of five or six idlers standing round each, while the deep glow of the conflagra- tion brought into startling relief the livid features of the dead and the wondering countenances of the living. Here and there were groups of artillery removing their guns—soldiers searching for their billets—irregulars laden with plunder of the most incongruous description—horses that had broken loose rushing wildly here—tumbrils hurrying up from the vicinity of the flames in another direction—and then the din— the shouts—the wild laughter—the enquiries—the orders—and above all the deep diapason of the devouring fire. “The first detachment of the 43rd has reached Quebec. Pearson is not with it. The rest will be up soon. All the world is in glorious spirits and nobody seems to care a fig for the past or the future. Nothing but gaiety is in anticipation ; how I should _laugh at the change a Yankee invasion would effect! . . . You must not suppose that I have altogether lost sight of your late perils and present disquietude. I do not think you have any serious cause for alarm. Yet I cannot help thinking that Sir Francis has more on his hands than he bargained for. Navy Island and the Buffaloes never I guess came into his calculation. He has been taken by surprise not a little. I don’t imagine he will be quite so ready to despatch a// his troops on a future occasion. You will have the remainder of the 24th up by the same post with this letter. Ne After the battle of St. Eustache, the various districts lately so disaf- fected, made loud protestations of their loyalty. Having arrested some of the ring-leaders of the revolt, Sir John Colborne, deeming the country sufficiently pacified, returned to Montreal on the 19th December. Meanwhile Lord Gosford had been pressing his resignation upon the Home Government. This was accepted about the beginning of the new year, but owing to illness his Excellency did not leave Quebec till near the end of February. Sir Francis Head followed him very shortly. On January 14th Mr. Coffin writes: “Our latest intelligence here from London confirms a very unexpected and, at this moment, unfortunate occurrence. Col. Sir George Arthur is appointed to succeed Sir F. B. Head as Governor of Upper Canada with the rank of Brigadier General. ‘The 1891-92. ] CORRESPONDENCE OF LIEUT.-COL. COFFIN. 293 Ministry has acceeded to the request of Lord Gosford for his recall, but his successor has not yet been named. ‘The circumstance of the latter individual not being known in London induces me to credit the rumor that Sir John Colborne is the man.” On Sunday, February 25th, he writes: “Lord Gosford we are assured will leave Quebec on Tuesday. I am told that he is looking very ill, and to tell you the plain truth I have my doubts if he can quit on this day. His remaining here, powerless himself and disqualifying others, is an incalcul- able evil. The crowning absurdity of his administration has been the proclamation of a general thanksgiving. It is tantamount to the repeal of Martial Law in this district —has been already adverted to in that point of view by the Chief Justice of the Court of King’s Bench in his charge to the Grand Jury of this district. Conceive the anomaly of the very soldiers who are ordered to go tochurch and return thanks for the profound peace and tranquillity which has been restored to this province, being at the same time under orders to be continually ready at an hour’s notice to march for the purpose of repelling invasion or suppressing insurrection. But the malignity of the evil is not yet felt.” Mr. Coffin was so far correct in his surmises that Sir John Colborne was appointed to administer the Government temporarily until a suc- cessor to Lord Gosford could be named. The references in these letters to the troubles of Upper Canada at this time are not numerous, but in the last letter I have quoted from, Mr. Coffin speaks of one of the foolish plans projected by the miszuided Mackenzie after he had taken refuge on American soil. Early in Febru- ary, 1838, he designed attacks on Canada at four different points, Detroit, Sandusky, Vermont and Watertown, N. Y, The notorious Van Ren- salaer and Bill Johnson assembled a force of about 2000 “ patriots” at French Creek on the St. Lawrence, near Watertown, intending to attack Kingston, but the brave front made by the loyal militia overawed the enemy, and they gradually dispersed. However there was much alarm in Kingston. About the time that the invasion of Kingston was expected Mr. Coffin was sent on an important mission to Albany. ‘“T must now relate to you the cause of my expedition to Albany and the matters and things which befell therefrom. I had the honour of being sent by Sir John Col- borne in quest of Governor Marcy. . . . I went upona Mission as nearly allied to diplomacy as the Canadian revolt is to the French revolution. But éadinage a part Sir John treated me in that matter with a great deal of gratifying confidence and con- descension. I was put in possession of all necessary facts—my letters were open and were rather those of introduction, and I was left personally to communicate what is generally contained in despatches. On my return I assumed the responsibility of con- veying certain intelligence to General Wool, with whom I had a long and interesting | interview, and I am happy to add that Sir John expressed himself satisfied, and that too in the kindest terms, with the manner in which I acquitted myself.” 20 29 t TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. TIL. In this letter Mr. Coffin expresses his views as to the attitude of the Americans in a very pointed and concise manner. “The upper classes in the state, the educated and the intelligent, are decidedly averse to a collision with England. The lower classes sympathize with the rebels, less because they love patriotism than because they envy and hate the British. A war has been hitherto averted by the personal influence of a few sensible men.” Early in February the Earl of Durham was appointed governor-in- chief and “Her Majesty’s High Commissioner for the adjustment of certain important affairs affecting the Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada.” At the same time an act was passed in the Imperial Parlia- ment, suspending the constitution of Lower Canada, and establishing a “ Special Council” to take the place of the two Houses of Parliament. This council was to be composed of equal numbers of French and English. From one of the letters before me, I learn that among the appointments made by Sir John Colborne to the Special Council was that of Mr. Coffin’s brother Austin, who was “to represent the interests and the wishes of the emigrant population of the townships.” With what intense eagerness Lord Durham's arrival was awaited may be gathered from a letter of Mr. Coffin’s, dated March 30th, 1838: “T know not what to think of the new Avatar. When in Quebec I saw a letter from the Hon. A. W. Cochrane, now in London. He augurs favourably of Lord tvurham, and all the world here seems inclined to chime to the same tune. One thing is certain, he is the arbiter of the destinies of the people of these Provinces, and be it for good or be it for evil, I tremble to think how momentous a trust has been confided to the wisdom or to the caprice of an aristocratic Whig Lord, and a man who will pull down the high if he can, and keep down the low if he dares. From the sensation which Canadian affairs have created in England, and the ostentatious tuition his Lordship is now undergoing at the Colonial Office, (so many hours fer diem the newspapers say) and his evident and most laudable desire to establish a noble reputation as pacificator of Canada, I fear that he may overdo the thing, that he may come out here with an exaggerated and Quixotic idea of the stern justice it is his duty to dispense, and in his anxiety to play the part of a Minos, confound the tried British loyalists with the soz- disant loyalists of Canadian extraction. “There is an Association Canadienne on foot here headed by a few respectabie names—by a few of the heads of the old and first Canadian families who with a short- sighted anxiety to protract the existence of ‘wotre langue, notre religion, et nos lois,’ represent the mass of the French Canadian people—the whole district of Quebec, and Three Rivers and a vast majority of the district of Montreal, as perfectly loyal, and then ask, Are we to be disfranchised? Are we to be punished for the faults of a few?” A letter dated Quebec, June 2nd, makes reference to the outrage per- petrated on May 29th in Upper Canada by a band of fifty rebels under Bill Johnson, who before daybreak boarded the steamboat Sir Robert Peel, while taking in wood at Well’s Island, on the American side of the St. Lawrence. Though the weather was cold and stormy, the passengers Ws ee. ere ee ee en ee a ae a PS is | % ee sat) a) es al Stak os LAess | —— 1891-92. ] CORRESPONDENCE OF LIEUT.-COL. CUFFIN. 29> and crew were forced to leave the vessel, which was pillaged and burnt. Mr. Coffin writes: “What an atrocious outrage! 1 was inconceivably shocked to hear that Mrs. Samp- son and party had been exposed to the violence of these ruffians. I fear their loss in property must have been great, independent of the terror and cruel exposure to which they were subjected. The excitement throughout the loyal portion of the people here was intense, and is still so; it is easy, therefore, to imagine what it must be with you. I trust, however, most earnestly, that no serious attempt at retaliation will be made now - in cold blood.” Lord Durham landed in Quebec, amid great pomp, on the very day of the Sir Robert Peel outrage. Mr. Coffin thus describes the new Governor: ‘*He barks loud and by the teeth he shows I think that (reversing the old proverb) ‘his bite is waur than his bark.’ This man Lord lurham is a smasher—he will make or break whatever he takes in hand—and one trait in the fellow I like, for good or for evil he wants no man to share the responsibility with him. This is a hasty opinion of a man who has been hardly ten days in the country, but it agrees with my preconcep- tions and is confirmed by the decision of character he has already displayed. His court, establishment, staff, etc., is of a very splendid description, and I really think, from his personal appearance and, where appropriate, from his courteous demeanor, that this display arises as much from policy as from natural taste for the magnificent. As policy it is undoubtedly good all the world over, but most especially in Lower Canada. The relicts of the patriot party, and this place is still plentifully bespatted with them, are evidently awestruck, nor is this feeling confined to them alone.” An incident that well illustrates the character of this aristocratic Whig Lord is recorded in a letter bearing the date of June 23rd, 1838, and written from Montreal. ““We are expecting daily to receive some definitive instructions respecting the future fate of the prisoners. What that may be John George Earl of D. only knows. I have, however, great misgivings. The Governor-General is to be here himself in the begin- ning of July. The fact is that the good people of Montreal are not more intractable than their neighbours. Through the Press they assailed his Lordship upon his arrival, whereupon the Vice-regal Earl countermanded the preparations which were then making for his reception here, and openly declared that he had intended spending £20,000 in Montreal, by which sum Quebec would be the richer. Whereupon the good City of Montreal fell upon her marrow-bones and cried ‘feccavz’ in no time. A meeting was held incontinently, resolutions passed, and his Excellency declared to be the we Plus ultra of a nobleman, a Governor, an ambassador, sapiens ne etiam et : However that may be, his Lordship is to be here on his way to Upper Canada, and although he has expressed a determination to live on board of the steamboat that conveys him up, still it is hoped that he may condescend to cast the light of his golden countenance on the intelligent, independent, and disinterested population of the City of Montreal. I like this same John George for the dare-devil, don’t-care-a-fig sort of way in which he carries on the war. He hired the John Bull as his private travelling carriage,—one of her boilers, however, got out of order, so that he is compelled to put up with a steam frigate. To make amends he has bespoke the River Saint Lawrence 296 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. A on. BT for his journey. Any man presuming to travel on it the same day is to be excommuni- cated forthwith. The very fishes have been ordered to retire to their holes at his august passover.” One of the first questions which Lord Durham had to deal with was the fate of the numerous political prisoners. A formal trial by jury was thought unsatisfactory, Frenchmen being likely to acquit and English- men to condemn, through sheer national sympathy or antipathy. Lord Durham adopted a policy which gave general satisfaction here, but aroused great hostility at home. Having induced some of the imprisoned ring-leaders to confess complicity in rebellion, the Governor-in-council pardoned minor offenders, but banished the principal ones to Bermuda under penalty of death should they return, the sime punishment being threatened Papineau and others in the event of their setting foot again in Canada. This decision was proclaimed on the 28th of June, the day fixed for the Queen’s coronation. In the British House of Lords, the actions of the Governor excited indignation among his political enemies. Lord Lyndhurst declared that no such act of despotism had ever been hazarded in any country that respected legal forms. Lord Brougham and the Duke of Wellington also denounced the Indemnity ordinance, and the Ministry yielding to the criticism allowed a vote of censure upon Lord Durham to be carried. The Eari at once sent in his resignation and returned to England with- out even waiting for his recall. These events aroused astonishment and indignation among British Canadians. \ Mr. Coffin writes from Quebec on September 23rd: “\Vhat think you of the last intelligence from Fngland? Can you conceive anything more ungenerous or discreditable to British legislation than the whole course of con- duct adopted towards the l-arl of Durham? and that such suicidal measures should emanate from the House of Lords! The long record of political blundering which constitutes the history of British North America presents no act more shameful to the parties principally concerned, more humiliating to England herself, or more ominous to these Colonies, than the nullification of these ordinances by a pusillanimous Ministry. Lord Durham goes home at once. He expressed that determination in his reply to the address of the !eputies from the Lower Provinces whom he has dismissed. The Malabar 74 is under orders to convey him and his family to England by the ¢th of next month. It is almost incredible, yet not the less true, that the Earl of Durham received letters from Her Majesty and from Lords Melbourne and Glenelg, expressive of their satisfaction of these obnoxious ordinances and of his general administration of the Government, dated the very day on which the debate took place in which they were so factiously assailed and he so disgracefully abandoned. 1 will not trouble you here with the state of feeling in Quebec. but refer you to an article which will appear _in the JWontreal Gazette of ‘Tuesday next, signed “‘an Englishman.” I need not reiterate here what will, at all events, be easier to read in print than in hieroglyphics.” Sir John Colborne again became Administrator of the Government. 1891-92. ] CORRESPONDENCE OF LIEUT.-COL. COFFIN. 20% From a letter of Mr. Coffin’s we learn that soon after Lord Durham’s arrival, Sir John Colborne decided to retire from Canada. He writes on June 23rd: “Sir John Colborne has determined on demanding his recall. John George fancies himself General in every sense of the word, and [| can easily understand that any interference on his part would be intolerable to Sir John. To say the truth as far as Sir John is concerned, I cannot regret his decision. He requires rest, and every such man ought to retire on his laurels before they fade. Health and happiness be with him wherever he goes !” As Administrator and Commander of the Forces Sir John Colborne had his hands full. The very evening of the day Lord Durham sailed from Quebec, rebellion broke out afresh, the first act of hostility being the seizure by about 400 men of the steamer Henry Brougham at Beau- harnois, on the St. Lawrence. Dr. Robert Nelson established himself at Napierville, issued a Declaration of Independence, and proclaimed him- self Provisional President of the Republic of Lower Canada. He was in command of a large number of American mercenaries, and was soon joined by many Canadians, his force aggregating some 2000 persons. But such prompt and effective measures were taken by Sir John and the loyal militia that within one week after its outbreak this second re- bellion was suppressed. Most unhappy were the consequences of this foolish rising. Courts- martial were organized, many prisoners were sentenced to transportation, while twelve were condemned to death and afterwards executed. But worse than this was the misery caused by the avenging zeal of extreme loyalists who burned and plundered freely in the disaffected dis- tricts. Quoting from the Montreal Herald, Garneau tells us that “On Sunday night the whole country behind Laprairie presented a frightful spectacle, being one sheet of livid flames; and it is said that not one rebel’s house has been left standing. God knows what is to become of the Canadians who have not perished, their wives and their families, dur- ing the coming winter, seeing that they have nought in prospect but the horrors of hunger and cold.” In a long and very interesting letter of July 9th written from St. Denis, Mr. Coffin gives us a very different and happier picture of the Eastern Townships, as lately seen by him when making an excursion on horse-back from St. Denis to Lennoxville, and thence to Port St. Francis. He says: ‘“‘] was anxious to judge for myself as to the actual state of the rural population of this District. I rode therefore, and having fifty occasions per diem to pull up and chat, or dismount and enter into the houses of the people as I passed along, I think 298 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. INDE I have been enabled to form a pretty accurate opinion as to the present state of feeling throughout the parishes I visited. I passed through those of Varennes, Vercheres, St. Denis, St. Charles, La Presentation, St. Hyacinthe and St. Pie, generally considered as the most disaffected in this disaffected district, and subsequently through the French country in the District of Three Rivers from Drummondville to Port St. Francis. I found universally the same olden civility and good nature, the same quiet and pastoral appearance which characterized this contradictory peasantry previous to the revolt. This visitation has left few traces of its progress, and those few are of a nature to disappear rapidly. Houses and barns are building and repairing, agriculture proceeds in the customary routine, pot herbs flourish with the usual exuberance in every little garden, and flowers adorn and humanize every cottage window. i; How to manage these amiable /adztants is a problem upon which Mr. Coffin has an opinion to offer : “Now the only way to control a people so easily misled is to coerce the misleaders. Substitute for these dangerous chatterboxes men who, understanding the language and the habits of these people, will go and reside among them, will identify themselves with them, will talk with them by their own firesides, administer summary justice for them at. their doors, who may worthily represent a Government hitherto misrepresented or unknown, and explain the objects, the rules and the advantages of institutions whose benefits they thus practically diffuse. This is my view of the thing, and, I may add, in that of Sir John Colborne, is the intention and duty of the Stipen- diary Magistracy just now introduced into this province. In discharging this duty they must naturally observe all that is going on in the country parts and will report accordingly, but their first labour is a labour of peace and reconciliation.” In another part he adds, ‘‘The majority of these people is, I believe, loyal, but there is also a large and dangerous minority who desire a change and who are encouraged in their hopes and wishes by their proximity to the Frontier. The latter will cause trouble yet, if not well looked to. Not but that Iam convinced that it is in the power of the Govern- ment to make itself so beneficially felt in this as well as in the French country and to win back the reasoning and reasonable portion of these recusants from their political heresies. Feeling convinced, as I conscientiously do, that our system of government is practically the best in the world, if properly administered and brought home to the governed, I am equally sure that if it fails in its effect it will be the fault of those who dispense it.” English as he was, Mr. Coffin could not but warmly admire the French as contrasted with his own fellow-countrymen. ** You cannot help remarking in this country the striking contrast which exists in the manners of the two races. Among the French all its politeness, hospitality, good will, deference. This is a stiff-necked, unbending and apparently most unamiable genera- tion. Here, as in their fatherland before them That independence Britons prize too high Keeps man from man and breaks the social tie. And, yet, in the main, when you know how to take them, they are good fellows enough.” a a 189} -92.] CORRESPONDENCE OF LIEUT.-COL, COFFIN. 299 At the request of Sir John Colborne, Mr. Coffin gave up his position as Assistant Civil Secretary, and accepted that of Stipendiary Magistrate in what had been one of the most disquieted districts. His reception by the peuple was not a kindly one, and his success in restoring good fecling was not as great as in his generous enthusiasm he had expected it would be. Writing from Sainte Marie de Monnoir, Sept. 23rd, he gives us the following account : ‘‘] was on the point of being stationed at Belceil, in the centre of your rebellious Censitaires, when it was unfortunately discovered that Sainte Marie was a more dis- agreeable and a more turbulent place, and I was sent there forthwith, as I sometimes flatter myself, into honorable banishment like Lord Bloomfield to Stockholm. This extensive and populous seigniory is unquestionably most disaffected. To you who are acquainted with the habits and character of the Canadian peasantry, one trait alone will suffice. Not one man in twenty will salute me, or offer the slightest mark of recognition or respect. Most of them look very sulky, and many will not even look at all. Now this speaks volumes. Still I do not despair. I have only just begun. The country has been without law or justice or even the appearance thereof, except in very heinous cases, for years, and even in them justice was administered at such a distance, that practically the people have known nothing of its operation or of its effect. I have made the Police and the Magistracy respected, I believe feared, hereabouts, but I doubt if my authority is popular. ‘This is, however, a matter about which I care little just now. I hope that time will produce the natural good results of justice united with firmness and kindness wherever it can be beneficially exercised.” Lord Durham had remained in this country only five months, yet in that short time he had examined very thoroughly into the causes of dis- content, and his report sent in on his return to England is one of the most valuable and statesmanlike documents ever presented on Colonial affairs. “In each and every Province,” he wrote, “the representatives were in hostility to the policy of the Government, and the administration of public affairs was permanently in the hands of a Ministry not in har- mony with the popular branch of the Legislature.” _ The principal recommendations made by Lord Durham were a Federa- tion of all the Provinces, an intercolonial railway, and an Executive Council responsible to the Assembly. Failing a complete Federation, the immediate union of Upper and Lower Canada was strongly urged. The report was vigorously condemned by the members of the Family Compact in Upper Canada, but for the most part was received with warm approval. Mr. Coffin’s views are given in a letter dated April 17th, 1839: “T do not suppose that you have plunged very deeply into this document of the ab- dicated Autocrat. My attention has, of course, been chiefly directed to his view of the affairs and present condition of the Lower Province, with which in the main I am much pleased. He has separated the real from the ostensible cause of quarrel and 300 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vor. Til. has developed fairly and very lucidly the national character of the controversy. His report on the Upper Province is generally denounced here as a distortion or misrepre- sentation of facts and therefore, of course, replete with false inferences; and there is a flippant superficiality in its style which contrasts strongly and very disadvantageously with the account of Lower Canada—the two productions are evidently from very dif- ferent pens. ‘‘From what we can learn, they have resolved at home upon a legislative regenera- tion of the Canadas of which “A Union” is to be the basis. I doubt the efficacy of the proposed panacea if the maintenance of the British connection is the-real and honest object of the Ministers—if there is no republican arriére pensée—no paving of the declivity of revolution—of which I am sure there is a great deal. And even then, however dishonest and deceitful the policy, a statesmanlike view of the same end would rather have aimed at it through a Legislative Union of the whole Pritish North Amer can Provinces. Admitting the impossibility or inexpediency of maintaining the connection between us and the Mother Country, and that all parties acquiesced in the necessity of a separation, I should say (private feelings apart) that the true policy of England, her interest and her duty would be to unite her American Provinces, elevate them collectively to the rank of an independent people—create an antagonistic Re- public on the North American Continent, and make the United Provinces redress the preponderance of the United States. Institutions of a republican character would bribe the disaffected and discontented, while the legislative form of general govern- ment aided by such additional restrictions as Great Britain, in conferring a constitu- tion, might very easily impose, would ensure such strength to the executive and con- sequent security to property as can never be expected under the jealous limitations and circumscribed power of a Federative Constitution. Such a republic established in these colonies under the immediate protection of Great Britain, receiving from her all the benefits they at present derive and returning the same —relieving her from the expense of garrisoning and governing and yet acting as an outlet for her superabundant population and increasing manufactures, would, ¢he necessity of such separation once satisfactorily established, possibly prove as good a scheme as any— certainly better, immeasureably better than a simple Union of Upper and Lower Canada.” In 1839 the British Government, having determined upon the advisa bility of uniting the two Canadas, sent out as Governor General the Right Hon. Charles Poulett Thompson (afterwards Biron Sydenham & Toronto), a noted merchant, who was in 1834 President’ of the Board of Trade. Owing to his connection with the Baltic timber business, he was at first regarded with suspicion in Canada, but shortly became very popular. Says Mr. Coffin, writing from his retreat at Sainte Marie (Sept. 23rd, 1839). “That Poulett Thompson, the avowed enemy of the Canadian merchant, should be the man, would be incredible, if any extravagant or incomprehensible project in her Majesty’s Ministers could be a just ground for incredulity. I would almost wager that if he does come out, Sir John Colborne will return to Canada. In the course of a few months confusion will be thrice confounded. Poulett ‘| hompson will follow the herd of incapables that has preceeded him, and ministers on their marrow-bones will pray Sir John to return to save them—if he can.” 1891-92. ] CORRESPONDENCE OF LIEUT.-COL. COFFIN. 301 And again a few weeks later : ‘“‘T shall very probably part company from H. M. Ship Government, and return to my profession in the spring. She appears to be a crazy craft, very insufficiently manned, and as for the Skipper, the manner in which ‘greatness’ has been ‘thrust upon him’ only completes the ‘midsummer madness’ of the whole expedition.” Mr. Coffin, however, had reason shortly to change his opinion of Lord Sydenham. The new Governor proved to be a man of great ability, and Mr. Coffin acted under him in a number of important Commissions. But at the time of Lord Sydenham’s appointment, Mr. Coffin could not but think that the Home Government was slighting Sir John Col- borne, for whom he had the highest and most affectionate regard. Writing to Mrs. Grant, he says : “Sir John is really going, and for his sake I am sincerely glad of it. Considering the intricate game he has had to play, his political career in this Province has been most felicitous. His military is beyond praise. He returns universally respected and regretted, even by the Canadian population. He has worthily won his laurels ; long may he live to enjoy them. I cannot help thinking that her Majesty’s Government will award him on his return home with something more substantial and permanent than expressions of thanks. “T suspect much that the restoration of Judges Panet and Bedard and the release of Viger from prison, are among the chief reasons for relieving Sir John. I've a notion that the uncompromising veteran will not yield his point, that Minis- ters know it or conjecture as much, and anticipate this obstacle to their wishes by providing at once a convenient successor.” And writing three days after Lord Sydenham assumed the Govern- ment, he says: “In Sir John we have lost an exemplary man—a laborious and practical Governor, and a soldier experienced in the peculiar warfare of harassment and alarm, more than actual incursion, to which these Provinces have been and _ still are exposed. The existence of a man so singularly and peculiarly qualified to preside over the Government of these Provinces at this crisis, appears almost to have been a specia] interposition of Providence, while the blind and senseless manner in which it has been rejected and despised, argues equally the truth of the saying, ‘that Providence stulti- fies those it intends to destroy.’ ” Here follows an account of Mr. Coffin’s parting with the chief he loved so well,an account I cannot forbear from quoting, even if it reveals some slight measure of personal vanity in the writer : “T took leave of him about a week since. He was very kind and warm in his ex- pressions of personal kindness and remembrance. My parting with him was attended by circumstances of peculiar gratification to me. They afforded me a glorious triumph over those cubs arround me, who envious of the confidence he openly reposed in me, had caballed so successfully as to induce me to resign my first appointment. When the time for his departure arrived, he found business throng upon him which these fellows were incompetent to perform. He sent for me and kept me in town a week, 302 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vou. ITT. busily employed night and day, with him continually in his usual friendly and con- fidential manner, until I had got the work done for him which these gentry could not do. I could see that it was gall and wormwood to them, the hounds! while I, the while, was unimaginably silky and buttery, and as soft and soothing in all my doings as the boiled pease in the shoes of the knowing Pilgrim to Compostella. I cannot help thinking from Sir John’s manner that he expccted me to ask him for something, possibly to push my interests with the new Gzé, but I was determined to show him that a loyal Englishman could serve him disinterestedly, and I could have done ten times more than I did do from sheer love for the gallant old man—God bless him— without hope of favor or reward.” Sir John Colborne did receive, on his return home, “something more substantial and permanent than expressions of thanks.” He was almost immediately created Baron, I.crd Seaton, and shortly afterwards was further honoured by being appointed Governor of the Ionian Islands. During his tenure of this office, he carried through many important legislative reforms. In 1860, on his return to England, he -ecame a Field Marshal of the Empire. 1891-92.] THE PHOCAS OF TERRE NEUVE. 303 THE PHOCAS OF TERRE NEUVE. By REv. PHILIP TOCQUE, A.M. (Read 2nd April, 1892.) Naturalists describe no less than 15 species of seals. The kind most plentiful and which pass along the coast of Newfoundland with the field ice, are the Phoca greenlandica, which is the technical or scientific name given to the harp or half-moon seal, which frequents the coast of Terre Neuve or Newfoundland. About the last of the month of February these seals whelp, and in the northern seas deposit millions of their young on the glassy surface of the frozen deep. At this period they are covered with a coat of white fur, slightly tinged with yellow. I have seen these “white coats” lying six and eight on a piece of ice, resembling so many lambs enjoying the solar rays. They grow very rapidly, and about three weeks after their birth begin to cast their white coat. They are now captured, being killed by a stroke across the head with a bat, gaff or boat-hook. At this time they are in prime condition, the fat being in greater quantity and containing purer oil than at a later period of their growth. It appears to be necessary to their existence that they should pass a considerable time in repose on the ice; and during this state of helplessness we see the goodness of Providence in providing these amphi- bious creatures with a thick coat of fur, and a superabundant supply of fat as a defense from the intense cold of the ice and the northern blasts. Sometimes, however, numbers of them are found frozen in the ice. When one year old these seals are called “bedlamers.”” The female is without the dark spots on the back, which form the harp or half moon, and the male does not show this mark until two years old. The voice of the seal resembles that of the dog, and when a vessel is in the midst of myraids of these creatures, their barking and howling sounds like that of so many dogs, literally driving away sleep during the night. The general appearance of the sealis not unlike that of a dog, whence some have called it the sea dog, sea wolf, etc. These seals seldom bring forth more than one, and never more than two, at a litter. They are said to live toa great age. Sometimes a stray one is caught in a net, reduced to a mere skeleton, with teeth all gone, which is attributed to old age. Buffon, the great French naturalist, says: “The time that intervenes between their birth and their full growth being many years, they, of course must live very long. I amof opinion that these animals live upwards of a 304 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. ILI. century, for we know that cetaceous animals in general live longer than quadrupeds ; and, as the seal fills up the chasm between the one and the other, it must participate of the nature of the former, and consequently live much longer than the latter.” The Newfoundland seals probably visit the Irish coat. A number of seals were killed on the west coast of Ireland in 1856, among them the old harp, and Sir William Logan gives an account of the skeleton of this kind of seal having been found embedded in the clay around Montreal 40 feet deep. The Phoca cristata, or hooded seals, are so called from a piece of loose skin on the head, which can be inflated at pleasure. When menaced or attacked the hood is drawn over the face and eyes asa defense. The female is not provided with a hood. An old dog-hood is a very formidable animal. The male and female are generally found together, and if the female happens to be killed first, the male becomes furious. Sometimes 10 or a dozen men have peen engaged upwards of an hour in despatching one of them. I have known a half a dozen hand-spikes to be broken in endeavoring to kill one of these dog-hoods. They frequently attack their assailants, and snap off the handles of the gaffs as if they were cabbage stalks. When they inflate their hoods it is very difficult to kill them. Shot does not penetrate the hood, and unless the animal can be hit somewhere about the side of the head it is almost a hopeless case to attempt to kill him. They are very large, some of their pelts which I have measured being from 14 to 18 feet in length. The young hoods are called “blue backs.” Their fat is not so thick nor so pure as that of the harps, but their skins are of greater value. They slso breed further to the north than the harps and are generally found in great numbers on the outer edge of the ice. They are said not to be so plentiful and to cast their young a few weeks later than the harps. The harbour seal Phoca vitulina frequents the harbors of Newfound- land summer and winter. Numbers are taken during the winter in seal nets. . The square flipper, which is perhaps the great seal of Greenland Phoca barbata, is now seldom seen. The walrus 7rzchecus rosmarus, sometimes called the sea horse or sea cow is now seldom met with. Formeriy this species of seal was frequently captured on the ice. This animal resembles the seal in its body and limbs, though different in the form of its head, which is armed with two tusks, sometimes 24 inches long, consisting of coarse ivory ; in this respect much like an’elephant. The under jaw is not provided with any cutting or canine teeth, and is compressed to afford room for the tusks, projecting downwards from the upper jaw. It is a very large = ‘eee 1891-92. ] THE PHOCAS OF TERRE NEUVE. 305 animal, sometimes measuring 20 feet long, and weighing from 500 to 1,000 pounds. Its skin is said to be an inch thick, and covered with short yellowish brown hairs. What is called the seal is the skin with the fat or blubber attached, the carcase being left on the ice where it is killed. The flesh of the seal is frequently eaten, the heart and kidneys are like the pig’s, and taste like them. The first thing that occurs in Nev/- foundland to break the winter’s torpor is the bustle and activity attending the outfitting of the vessels for the seal fishery. In its prosecution are combined a spirit of commercial enterprise, a daring hardihood and intrepidity almost without parallel. The interest of every individual, from the richest to the poorest, is interwoven with it—from the bustling and enterprising merchant that, with spy-glass in hand, paces his wharf, sweeping ever and anon the distant horizon for the first view of his re- turning ship, to the little broom girl that creeps along the street, hawking her humble commodity. The return of the seal hunters reminds one of Southey’s poems, “ Madoc” and “ Roderick the last of the Goths.” The seal fishery of Newfoundland has assumed a degree of importance far surpassing the most sanguine expectations of those who first em- barked in the enterprise, and has now become one of the greatest sources of wealth to the country. In the commencement the seal fishery was prosecuted in large boats, which sailed about the middle of April and as its importance began to be developed, schooners of from 30 to 50 tons were employed, which sailed on the 17th of March. In 1845 the number of sailing vessels employed was 350, from 60 to 150 tons manned by 12,000 men. The time spent on the voyage was from two to six weeks. The sailing vessels have now been mostly superseded by steamers from 300 to 800 tons, carrying from 150 to 280 men each. In 1891, 19 steamers were engaged in the seal fishery. One steamer brought in §,000 young harps the first trip and 18,000, old seals the second trip. The total value of both trips estimated at $132,000. Some of the steamers have brought in from 20,000 to 40,000 seals. A number of seals are taken in seal nets in winter and spring. A few years ago 150,000 seals were taken to the shore by persons who had walked on the ice in some of the northern bays of the island. Some years ago the ice was packed and jammed so tight in some of the bays for several weeks, that the seals on it could find no opening to go down, and numbers of them crawled upon an island, when some people happened to land upon the island and discovered them; 1,500 seals were slaughtered among the bushes. Seals have been known to crawl several miles over land. The number of seals taken yearly on the coast of Newfoundland is from 400,000 to 600,000, producing, commercially, no less a sum _ than $1,500,000. The seals are sold by weight. The young are sold at from 306 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. IIL. $4 to $6 and the old ones at from $4 to $5 per cwt. The price, however, is regulated by the value of the oil in the British market. A young seal will weigh from 30 to 50 pounds, and an old seal from 80 to 200 pounds. It is calculated that the fat of 80 young harp seals will produce a ton of oil. The seal fishery is a constant scene of bloodshed and slaughter. Here you behold a heap of seals writhing and crimsoning the ice with their blood, rolling from side to side in dying agony. There you see another lot, while the last spark of life is not yet extinguished, being stripped of their skins and fat, their writhings and heavings making the unpractised hand shrink with horror to touch them. The seal fishery being prosecuted during the vernal equinox is rendered particularly dan- gerous. It is a voyage of hopes and fears, trials and disappointments, and the prosecution of it causes more anxiety, excitement and solicitude than any other business in the island. Sometimes the seals are sought after at a distance of from two to four miles from the vessel, over huge rugged masses of ice, and during this toilsome journey the men have to jump from one pan of ice to another, across horrid chasms where yawns the dark blue water ready to engulf them. Sometimes “slob,” or ice ground up by the action of the waves and covered with snow, is mistaken for hard ice, and the poor sealers leaping upon it are at once buried in the ocean. Not unfrequently, when the sealers are at a distance from the vessel in search of their prey, a freezing snowdrift or a_ thick fog comes on, when no object around can be descried, and the distant ship is lost. The bewildered sealers gather together. They try one course, then another, but in vain, no vessel appears. The lights shown from the vessel cannot be seen, the guns fired and horns blown cannot be heard. Night comes on, and the wretched sealers perish through fatigue, cold, and hunger on the glittering surface of the frozen deep. Scarcely a fishing season passes but the widow’s wail and the orphan’s cry tell of the dreary, the dreadful death of the seal hunters. Sometimes vessels are crushed between two large masses of ice called “rollers,” when all on board are consigned to one common destruction. The islands of ice or icebergs, are dreadful engines of destruction. Many of these iron-bound ships come in contact with them, and sometimes vessel and crew perish together. The Newfoundland seal is different from the Behring sea seal. The Newfoundland seal is what is called the hair or bearded seal. They are sought after for the value of their fat instead of their fur. The New- foundland sealskins are worth not more than 50 or 60 cents apiece, where- as the fur seal, when dressed, is worth $60 a piece, in first hands. All the Newfoundland seals are whelped on the ice and not on the land as the fur seal. 1891-92.] CIRCULAR.LETTER. 307 CIRCULAR-LETTER ADDRESSED TO ASTRONOMERS OF ALL NATIONS. PROPOSED CHANGE IN; REChHONING THE. ASTRONOMICAL DAY. TORONTO, CANADA, 21st April, 1893. The Canadian Institute in co-operation with The Astronomical and Physical Society of Toronto, have had under consideration the subject of Astronomical Time Reckoning, and have, after much delibera- tion and consultation, appointed a Joint Committee to suggest the best means of ascertaining the views of astronomers throughout the world. The Joint Committee have presented the accompanying Report, in which both Societies concur. On behalf of the two Societies we have the honour to direct atten- tion to the observations and recommendations of the Joint Committee, as well as to the appended extracts, expressing the views of the follow- ing gentlemen :— 1. Sir John Herschell. 2. M. Otto Struve, Imperial Astronomer, Pulkowa. Mr. W. H M. Christie, Astronomer Royal, Greenwich. Prof. S. Newcomb, Nautical Almanac Office, Washington. Commodore Franklin, United States Naval Obs., Washington. Mr. C. Carpmael, President Astronomical Society, Toronto. NY He fw Mr. Arthur Harvey, President Canadian Institute, Toronto. 308 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. (Wor Sie In order to obtain the views of as many astronomers as possible the Joint Committee recommend that answers be invited to the following question :— Is it desirable, all interests considered, that on and after the first day of January, 1901, the Astronomical Day should every- where begin at Mean Midnight ? It is requested that early answers to this question be sent to the following address :— JOINT COMMITTEE ASTRONOMICAL TIME, CANADIAN INSTITUTE, TORONTO, CANADA.: As it is intended to send copies of further papers on this subject to those replying, it is desirable that the full name, official designation, if any (professional or non-professional) and proper address be furnished with each reply. ALANuwMACDOUGALE G. E. LUMSDEN, Joint Secretaries. 1891-92.] CIRCULAR-LETTER. 309 REPORT OF THE JOINT COMMITTEE Of The Canadian Institute and The Astronomical and Physical Society of Toronto. SANDFORD FLEMING, C.E., C.M.G., LL.D., Etc., Chairman. Canadian Institute. Astronomical Society. ARTHUR HARVEY, President. CHARLES CARPMAEL, M.A., F.R.A.S., Etc., President. Gro. Kennepy, M.A., LL.D. Joun A. PATERSON, M.A. ALAN MAacpouGaLL, C.E., Secretary. G. E. LumspEn, Corresponding Secretary. TORONTO ‘April 20th, 1863. Your Committee on the subject of Astronomical Time Reckoning, beg leave to report as follows :— (a) That the Sixth Resolution of The Washington International Con- ference of +884, which was carried unanimously by the representatives of the twenty-five nations there assembled, counting among them several astronomers of world-wide fame, reads as follows :—“ The Conference expresses the hope that, as soon as may be practicable, the Astronomical and Nautical Days will be arranged everywhere to begin at Mean Midnight ;” (4) If any action is to be taken on this Resolution, the most appropri- ate date for the new reckoning to take effect would be the first day of the new century ; (c) As the Ephemerides are usually prepared four or five years in advance, it is obvious that if it be decided to make Astronomical Time accord with Civil Time at the date named, a common understanding should not be delayed beyond the year 1895 or 1896 ; (2) To arrive at an agreement, it is considered essential to ascertain the views of those concerned ; (e) The Canadian Institute and The Astronomical Society should, in the general interest, assume the duty of inviting opinions upon the sub- ject, to be collated, tabulated and published in a special report ; (7) If the weight of opinion expressed by those who respond to such invitation, be in favour of a change, further steps may be taken with the view of reaching an international understanding ; (g) Your Committee suggest that the opinions which have already been expressed by some leading astronomers be published. To this end, 21 310 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vow. IIL. extracts from the writings of Herschell, Struve, Christie, Newcomb and Franklin, are hereto appended; also, remarks recently made by the Presi- dent of the Astronomical and Physical Society of Toronto, and_the President of the Canadian Institute ; (2) Your Committee recommend that replies be asked to the following question, and that it be widely circulated :— QUESTION. Is it desirable, all interests considered, that on and after the first day of January, 1901, the Astronomical Day should everywhere begin at Mean Midnight? (¢) Your Committee further suggest that astronomers generally throughout the world be invited to send definite replies to the question as soon as convenient. Replies to be addressed, “ /ozwt Committee, Astronomical Time, Canadian Institute, Toronto, Canada.” Respectfully submitted, SANDPORD FLEMING: Chairman. — a 1891-92. ] CIRCULAR-LETTER. 311 APPENDIX. EXTRACTS FROM THE OPINIONS OF ASTRONOMERS AND OTHERS REFERRED TO BY THE JOINY COMMITTEE. I. (935) Astronomical time reckons from noon of the current day ; Civil, from the preceding midnight, so that the two dates co-incide only during the earlier half of the Astronomical and the later half of the Civil Day. This is an inconvenience which might be remedied by shifting the astronomical epoch to co-incidence with the civil. (147). . . This usage has its advantages and disadvantages, but the latter seem to preponderate ; and it would be well if, in consequence, it could be broken through and the Civil reckoning substituted. Uniformity in nomenclature and modes of reckoning in all matters relating to time, space, weight, measures, etc., is of such vast and paramount importance in every relation of life as to outweigh every consideration of technical convenience or custom. The only disadvantage to astronomers of using the Civil reckoning is this—that their observations being chiefly carried on during the night, the day of their date will, in this reckoning, always have to be changed at mid- night, and the former and latter portions of every night’s observations will belong to two differently numbered civil days of the month. There is no denying this to be an inconvenience. Habit, however, would alleviate it ; and some inconveniences must be cheerfully submitted to by all who resolve to act on general principles. Al! other classes of men, whose occupations extend to the night as well as day, submit to it, and find their advantage in so doing.—Szr John Herschell’s Treatise on Astronomy-— Third Edition. II. Much earnest reflection, on the other hand, must be given to the desire expressed at the meeting, that Astronomical Time Reckoning should be brought in accord with the commencement of the day in civil life. In this matter, astrono- mers have not simply to abandon a custom of long standing, and consequently to make conditional changes of practice established for many years, but, at the same time, astronomical chronology is disturbed, which is easily understood, must exercise a marked effect on the comprehension of all problems bearing upon matter. Without doubt, the astronomer must make a great sacrifice for the fulfilment of this desire ; but, in reality, this sacrifice is not greater than that entailed on our forefathers when they passed from the Julian to the Gregorian Notation of Time, or when they altered the commencement of the year: a sacrifice of convenience by which we yet suffer when it becomes necessary to refer to phenomena of remote dates. At this period, we must the less stand in fear of a like sacrifice, when by such means an acknowledged existing non-accord between science and ordinary life can be set aside: a non-accord which, it is true in individual cases, does not press heavily on the astronomer, but which is a constant source of inconvenience for non-professional astronomers who are desirous of making use of astronomical information. And in such respect, this sacrifice ceases so to be considered and is transformed into an act of public utility with regard to all astro- 312 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [V on. UNG nomical details which stand in clear relationship with the outer world in which almost daily conflicts come to the surface between the different designations of dates. Con- flicts among others which are even injurious to astronomical labours in such observa- tories where observations are continually adjusted to the day. . . . While the I)irectors of the Pulkowa Observatory make their full acknowledgment to the Astro- nomer Royal for this precedent, which has been established, so are they ready to follow the example, and this fact leads us the more to expect that also this course will be adopted by the Washington Naval Observatory, as in the American Marine the Date Notation from midnight has been already accepted. It is only in the matter of the period when the Date Notation, according to Universal Time, should be introduced into the publications of the observatories, that we feel inclined to recommend that there should be delay until, in this respect, the most perfect possible understanding be attained by all astronomers, in order to avoid the much more critical disturbance in astronomical chronology which would arise if the transition to the new Date Notation was not equally followed on all sides. We are desirous, accordingly, of suggesting a suitable time-point for the commencement of the year for which the Nautical Almanac would inaugurate the changes corresponding to the requirements named. The latter, as has before been said, could come to pass in the year 1890. We would, however, ourselves prefer the change to take place, in the first instance, with the change of the century. Until that date it would probably be the simultaneous proceeding of all astronomers, with general consent, to look forward to this period of transition, and it would more easily stamp itself on the memory of all who hereafter would be busied in investigations in which exact chronology plays a part.—Papfer on the Washington Conference by Otto Struve, Director of the Imperial Astronomical Observatory, Pulkowa, Russta. III. The reasons for making the change, as affecting astronomers, are :—(1) The introduction of the Universal Jay commencing at Greenwich Midnight, and reckoning from o to 24 hours makes it inexpedient to have another time reckoning of o to 74 hours starting from Greenwich Noon. There are already frequent mistakes of date arising from confusion between civil and astronomical reckoning, several practical observers using the former, which is also commonly employed in almanacs and occa- sionally in some astronomical periodicals. The use of ¢Aree different systems of reckoning solar time would greatly increase the confusion. (2) The circumstances under which astronomical observations are made have completely changed in modern times since the application of powerful telescopes to meridian instruments and the development of Solar Physics. The change of date at noon in the middle of the day’s work has thus, in many cases, become very inconvenient. (3) As regards meridian observations, the experience of the past year at Greenwich Observatory (where obser- vations are carried on as continuously through the 24 hours as at any other observatory) shows that the whole of the astronomical day can be introduced very easily and with decided advantage on the whole. (4) In the case of extra-meridian observations, the observer usually finds it convenient to work in the earlier hours of the night, so that little or no inconvenience would result from a change of date at midnight. Dis- coverers of comets and observers of meteors, who observe in the early morning, often use civil reckoning, and mistakes of date have, on several occasions within my own 1891-92. ] CIRCULAR-LETTER. ahs knowledge, resulted from the existence of two different modes of counting time. (5) For spectroscopic and photographic observations of the sun, it is now recognized that the day should be reckoned from midnight, and the same reckoning would natur- ally be used by the observer when he takes spectroscopic and photographic observa- tions at night, and also in determinations of the places of comets, stars, etc., which he may make in connection with his spectroscopic observations. It seems absurd to expect the same observer to change his system of reckoning mean solar time according to the class of observations he is making at the moment. (6) The proposal to include in the routine work of an observatory, photography of the stars, as well as of the sun, will further increase the difficulty of maintaining a distinction as regards time- reckoning between the various classes of astronomical observations. (7) At many observatories, magnetical and meteorological observations are carried on concurrently with astronomical observations, and it is admitted that for the two former classes the day commencing at midnight should be used. (s) For the distribution of the time to the public, a work which is undertaken by many observatories, the civil day would be used. (9) Thus civil reckoning commencing at midnight must be used for solar, mag- netical, and meteorological observations, and also for the distribution of time to the public, so that the retention of astronomical reckoning would involve the use of two different systems of mean solar clocks, differing by 12 hours, in the same observatory— a circumstance likely to lead to intolerable contusion. (10.) As regards the supposed discontinuity which would arise from the change in the Nautical Almanac, the differ- ence of time-reckoning is precisely similar to that which would have to be taken into account in the comparison of Greenwich observations with those made at any other observatory. The astronomical calculator is in the habit under the present system of allowing for the difference in time-reckoning between different observatories, and his task would be greatly simplified if he had only to deal with universal time.—/efort to the Trustees of Greenwich Observatory, by W. H. M. Christie, M.A., LL.D., Astron- omer Royal of England. IV. The first of these recommendations proposes a change in the method of counting astronomical time which has come down to us from antiquity, and which is now uni- versal among astronomers. The practice of taking noon as the moment from which the hours were to be counted originated with Ptolemy. This practice is not, as some distinguished members of the Conference seem to have supposed, based solely upon the inconvenience ‘to the astronomer of changing his day at midnight, but was adopted because it was the most natural method of measuring solar time. At any one place solar time is measured by the motion of the sun, and is expressed by the sun’s hour angle. By uniform custom, hour anyles are reckoned from the meridian of the place, and thus by a natural process the solar day is counted from the moment at which the sun passes over the meridian of the place or over the standard meridian. . . . A change in the system of reckoning astronomical time is not merely a change of habit, such as a new method of counting time in civil life would be, but a change in the whole literature and teaching of the subject. The existing system permeates all the volumes of ephemerides and observations which fill the library of the astronomer. All his text-books, all his teachings, his tables, his formulz, and his habits of calculation are based on this system. To change the system will involve a change in many of the 314 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. IONE precepts and methods laid down in his text books. . . . But this would only be the beginning of the confusion. Astronomical observations and ephemerides are made and printed not only for the present time, but for future generations and for future centuries. If the system is changed as proposed the astronomers of future generations who refer to these publications must bear the change in mind in order not to misinter- pret the data before them. The case will be yet worse if the change is not made by all the ephemerides and astronomers at the same time epoch. It will then be necessary for the astronomers of the twentieth century, using ephemerides and observations of the present, to know, remember, and have constantly in mind a certain date different in each case at which the change was made. For example, if, as is officially announced, the Naval Observatory introduces the new system on January 1, 1885, then there will be for several years a lack of correspondence between the system of that establishment and the system of the American Ephemeris, which is prepared four years in advance. I see no advantage in the change to compensate for this confusion. If astro- nomical ephemerides were in common use by those who are neither navigators nor astronomers the case would be different. But, as a matter of fact, no one u es these publications except those who are familiar with the method of reckoning time, and the change from astronomical to civil time is so simple as to cause no trouble whatever. The change will affect the navigator as well as the astronomer. Whether the navigator should commence his day at noon or midnight, it is certain that he must determine his latitude from the sun at noon. The present system of counting the day from noon enables him to do this in a simple manner, since he changes his own noon into the astronomical period by the simple addition or subtraction of his longitude. To introduce any change whatever into the habits of calculation of uneducated men is a slow and difficult process, and is the more difficult when a complex system is to be substituted for a simple one. I am decidedly of the opinion that any attempt to change the form of printing astronomical ephemerides for the use of our navigators would meet with objections so strong that they could not be practically overcome. _. I respectfully submit that in view of these considerations no change should be made in the change of reckoning time employed in the publications of this office until, by some international arrangement, a common date shall be fixed by all nations for the change.—Argument against changing the Astronomical Day, by Prof. S. Newcomb, LLD., Etc., Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac Office, Washington, Dec. 6, 1884. V. Referring to the letter of Professor Newcomb, concerning the resolution of the late International Meridian Conference on the subject of the change of the astronomi- cal date, so as to make the midnight of Greenwich o hours, instead of noon as at present, I have the honor to submit the following considerations. . . . The order referred to was not issued without a knowledge on my part of the views of such a distinguished astronomer as Professor Adams, of England, as well as of those of other members of the Conference. A reference to the proceedings of the Conference shows that its recommendation on this point was unanimous. It has been publicly announced in Nature that the Astronomer Royal of England proposes to make the change,on the same date as that directed by me; this has been confirmed by a telegram received from him by me. So far as the counting of astronomical time from antiquity is con- cerned, it is the argument of conservatism which desires no change in an existing 1891-92. ] CIRCULAR-LETTER. B15 order of affairs; yet, assenting to this argument, we might refer to a still remoter antiquity—to the time, not of Ptolemy, but of Hipparchus, the ‘‘ Founder of Astronomy,” who reckoned the twenty-four hours from: midnight to midnight, just as the Conference has proposed. While it is unquestionably true that some confusion may occur, yet the liability to it will be almost entirely with the astronomer, who, through his superior education and training, could easily avoid it by careful attention to the ephemerides he was using. luring the years of change, before the ephemerides are constructed in accordance with the new method, it will only be necessary to place at the head of each page of recorded observations the note that the time is reckoned from midnight, to call attention to the fact, and thus obviate the danger of error. It is an undeniable fact that the educated navigator finds the conversion of time a simple matter, yet experience has demonstrated that to the mariner who is not possessed of a mathe- matical education there is a decided liability to the confusion which is so greatly deprecated by all who are interested in this subject. I believe that to all navigators, at least to all English-speaking ones, the new method will prove itself decidedly advantageous. As is well-known, for many years navigators kept sea time, by which the day was considered to begin at noon, preceding the civil day by twelve and the astronomical day by twenty-four hours. The change to civil time now kept on board ship was effected readily and without triction, so that the recommendation of the Con- ference regarding the commencement of the nautical day has already been largely anticipated. The navigator is concerned not with his longitude but with his Green- wich time, having obtained which he can take from the Nautical Almanac the data he seeks, whether given for noon or midnight, and when the ephemerides shall have been made to conform to the new system there will be one time in common use by all the world. Jt seems to me eminently proper that the nation which called the Conference should be among the first to adopt its recommendations, and while it might possibly be better to wait until an entire agreement has been entered into by the astronomers of all nations, yet the fact that the first and most conservative observatory in the world has acceded to this proposal of the Conference would seem to be a sufficient reason why we should not wait for further developments. In deference, however, to the views so well advanced by Professor Newcomb, and in view of the fact that the President has recently transmitted the proceedings of the Conference to Congress, as well also of the desirability of securing uniformity among the astronomers of our own country at least, I have suspended the execution of the order for the present.—Remarks by Commodore S. R. Franklin, Superintendent United States Naval Observatory, Washington, Dec. 11th, 1884. VI. The subject of reform in time-reckoning was brought before the Canadian Institute many years ago by Mr. Sandford Fleming. The reforms suggested were much needed, and were so ably advocated by Mr. Fleming that already several of them have been adopted not only on this continent, but in various countries all over the world. One important suggestion, however, although recommended by the Wash- ington Conference, has not yet been acted upon, viz., the making of the astronomical and nautical day to accord with the civil day. It has been suggested that a body like this Society may render valuable assistance in this matter by collecting the opinions ot astronomers on the subject. The Canadian Institute having been the first society to 316 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vou II. bring the whole subject prominently and successfully before the world, it would be well for us to ask their co-operation with us in this matter. As an illustration of some of the inconveniences which result from the present want of accord between the astronomical and nautical day and the civil day, I may refer to a case within my own experience. In 1873 a sudden and very violent storm caused great destruction along the south-eastern coast of Nova Scotia. I had occasion to investigate that storm, and, for the purpose, obtained the logs of vessels which were caught in it. I was assisted in this by the late Sir Henry Lefroy, then Governor of the Bermudas, who procured the logs, or copies of the logs, of the ships which put into the islands for repairs. The satisfactory examination of these logs was attended by great difficulty owing to a want of uniformity among the sea captains in making entries. For instance, many of the captains wrote up their logs at noon for the twenty-four hours. Some of them were accustomed to enter up the events occurring between, say, noon of the 2oth of the month and noon of the 21st, under the date of the 20th; that is, the astronomical and nautical day during which they happened, while others entered the same events under date of the 21st, or that upon which the entries were made, so that, in the absence of specific information, it was impossible to tell to which set of twenty-four hours any given event should be referred. Had the captains been in the habit of changing their dates at midnight, no such inconvenience would probably have resulted. For my part I am decidedly in favour of bringing Astronomical Time into harmony with civil reckoning at the change of the century. After considering all that can be said against any alteration in the present dual system, I am satisfied that any inconvenience which would result to indi~ viduals from the change would be limited in duration and would not be felt by a large number of persons. If it be determined once for all to abandon the double notation of dates at the beginning of the new century, ample time would be allowed for any neces- sary preparation for the change, and when the period of transition arrived any incon- venience which might temporarily be felt could not be compared with the advantages which would follow in all future years from uniformity of reckoning.—Remarks to the Astronomical and Physical Society of Toronto, by Charles Carpmael, Esg., Superinten- dent of the Meteorological Service of Canada, February 11th, 1593. VII. The Canadian Institute, which took the initiative in bringing before the Scientific world, in 1879, the principle of Universal Time Reckoning, heartily co-oper- ates with its sister society in the endeavor to bring the Astronomical day within the sphere of uniformity it has continuously advocated. The Council of the Institute approves of the terms of the Circular Letter prepared by the Joint Committee under the Chairmanship of Mr. Sandford Fleming, long identified with this subject, and an honourary member of both societies. It is not easy for me to conceive any reason for beginning the day at noon, other than the convenience of having all the hours of dark- ness brought within one astronomical day. Stellar observations for the purpose of practical astronomy no longer requiring darkness, this reason no longer exists, and I trust we are now warranted in expecting the abolition of a double notation of date as the result of our efforts. —Arthur Harvey, Esg., President of the Canadian Institutes Toronto, April, 1593. 1891-92. ] GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY. 317 GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ORIGINAL CONTRIBU- TIONS TO THE ZUBLICATIONS. OF THE ‘CANA DIAM ANSTITUTE. The following list of the original contributions to the Canadian Institute publications has been prepared by David R. Keys, librarian of the Institute, assisted by Doctors Bell, Coleman, and Needler, and Messrs. Dewar, Harvey, Pursey and Spry. The share taken by these gentle- men is indicated under the section Bibliography. The Publications of the Canadian Institute have appeared in four series, as follows :— 1. The FIRST SERIES began August, 1852; concluded December, 1855 ; contains 41 numbers in 3 vols. 4to. It has for title, ‘‘ The Canadian Journal; a Repertory of Industry, Science, and Art; and a Record of the Proceedings of the Canadian Institute.” The SECOND SERIES began January, 1856; concluded January, 1878; contains 92 numbers in 15 vols. 8vo. It has for tit!e, ‘* The Canadian Journal of Science, Literature, anc History.” 3. The THIRD SERIES commenced in 1879, concluded April, 1890; contains 20 numbers in 7 vols. Its title is ‘‘ Proceedings of the Canadian Institute.” 4. The FOURTH SERIES commenced October, 1890. Its title is ‘*‘ Transactions of the Canalian Institute.” In the list, the large Roman numerals refer to the Series, the smal! Roman numerals to the Volume, and the Arabic number to the Page. Papers marked ¢#¢, have not been printed in the Institute’s publications. ARCH AOLOGY (See also Classical Philology, Ethnology, History and Linguistics.) Series, VoL. PAGE. WILSON (PROF. DAN.)—Some Coincidences between the Primitive Antiquities of the Old and the New World.......... I. li. 213 Hints for the Formation of a Canadian Collection of Crania. I. lita 9345-47 Remarks on the Intrusion of the Germanic Races on the Area of the Older Celtic Races of Europe........... I. il. 246 Observations suggested by Specimens of a Class of Concho- logical Kelics of the Red Indian Tribes of Canada NGS AA ace eo eg aeRO RCD. Oe, Caos Sec aur Oe ite WS. Saye: Displacement and Extinction among the Primeval Races of Mating hich ee sec ter es olson le ciataqarol cls oielstevere, ovate gs aera waves Le ie 4 The Ancient Miners of Lake Superior............ ge Ue i. 225-37 Discovery of Indian Remains, County Norfolk, Can. AWESt. ite i, 511-19 Phe: Oiniorieh care. lose, a vcad ors seers tee aceior ears, ale = +. Tl: iv. 429-41 Illustrations of the Significance of certain Ancient British Skullbormss (2129) fasts cestotarctnetsssteusiaysts seo oes 8 [ES viii.) (127257 Notice of a remarkable Memorial Horn, the Pledge of a Treaty with the Creek Nation in 1765............... ue i. 255-60 he Bohemianes Kul (GLA I a titeraia- Rea TE CHE Sr seen etre III. Vv: 124 318 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. SERIES. ART. HORSTERS: (J. Wiles) —Antani@anadadlo-daysyecns sida seein cine sees I'VE HOWLAND (HEN RY (S2iira)— the Art of Miching.2sm.+ as.es > accor JUL INGLIS (REV. DAVID).—On the Relation of Quantity to the Asthetic SENET Chg oes rersteectet reyes is si ster er ase, disse sey ovamevetartcle sels ies Nt LAUDER (W. W.)—History of Musical Instruments. (7Z77.) .... Acie od SCA D DEN GA(D Re soy) —Canadayine sculptureyaces. ae scit-is senate ee Whe SLR WOODE( W.VA, Esqs)—-ColourminyNatune! mm/s creerier: Due WILSON, (PRO D!)—PanliKane; The Canadian Artist’. .......-c5- «< ts MASIOIENC, CCMA te (12 eladl we Sister \oMians bia ics ci.Alaleieed ee adels 2 LEI ASTRONOMY .-—Including Climatology and Meteorology. ASHE (LIEUT. E. D.)—On the employment of the electric telegraph in determining the longitude of some of the principal places im} Canamal atten ae iate seat @ csrsayaicie schon ah oes May possieds ule CARPMAEL (C.)—On the reduction of the barometer to sea level ...... IU CHAP MAIN (-s]-)——Noteron theicause; ofsitides) - a1 ciclee eke eae IT. CHERRIMAN (PROF. J. B.)—Atmospheric Phenomena of light...... I. On the variations of temperature in Toronto ............ Ie General Meteorological Register for Toronto, 1853........ Me Mean Meteorological Results at Toronto during the year HSS Alay At stiaetees chats Cet eter on eect oleate mae eee yore CLARK (J. M., M.A., LL.B.)—The Luminiferous Ether .......... sear AVE. CRAIGIE (W., M.D.)—Meteorological Observations at Hamilton ...... i Mean Meteorological Results at Hamilton for 1854 ...... ile DADE (REV. C.)—Remarks on the Law of Storms, as set forth in a tract published by Richard Budgen, in the year 1730...... Jl Lunar Influences ........ Pee EOYs 3c oS AOE LE 10% Biographicalanoticerotsaes (yy sldsms4) mente ior terete treater aserey- MOE ELVINS (ANDREW).—The Outburst of Sun Spots in 1887 .......... 11) 0b FLEMING (SANDFORD, C. E., C. M. G., LL.D.)-—-Time-Reckoning. CLL Yala coe 5 550s at ia ae SS PTS oe Ne es eR Lee ee III. Longitude and Time Reckoning. (ELLE) rar beet Samael OL Uniliversalior Cosmic Mimegem -ryerieitris setae horns remeron: Jee And in supplementary pamphlet of 1or pp. Scientific plime-Reckoningnma (227) eae ee sae eee Ie Refonmsyin) PimeWeckoninpsaen( 277) en aces a rere certo ele IV. HAHN (DR. OTTO).—Organisms in Meteorites. (77#.) ....... ..... 1006 HENNING (THOS )—Meteors and Falling Stars...................-- Me Remarks on the Planetoids Between Mats and Jupiter .... I. ERUNIO AE ee) =P lanebofeAtue se ondsa S520. mee ieel ricer teas oc Ie HODGINS (J. G.)—Memo. on the steps taken by the Education Depart- ment to kstablish a System of Meteorological Stations Whroushouts Uppers Cartadagseon 1 gees netstat I KINGSTON (G. T.)—On the Employment of the Electric Telegraph for Predicting Stoumsr a sects rte irae oy etaeelilts On Deducing the Mean Temperature of a Month ........ ee Mean Meteorological Results at Toronto for the year 1861. II. Onthe Annual and Diurnal Distribution of the Different WindsratHloromtoes 2s, ot cise 2 oats oyetieeie etree dale teins arate JU: [Von III. Vo. Pacr. i | BE ars li, 242-44 lil. 409-14 ll. 144 Vs). ¥L32-38 vil 19-20 xiii. 66-72 iv. IQI- iv. 453-65 i. I-14 xiv. 279-80 rs 6, 26 il. 14-18 il. 185-6 ili, 161-63 li. 93-97 il. 187-8 ill. 172 Vv. 294-99 xill. 335-40 422-5 xiii, 352-54 vi. 24-25 i. 97-137 i. 138-49 lie OO i. 227-38 ii. 128-42 vii. 30 ii, 188-91 209-12 ili. 206-209 Is 924,207 ill, 410-11 ll. 177-9 iii. 5-7 Vii. 97-103 ix. 10-25 a 1891-92.] GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY. SERIES. KINGSTON (G. T.)—On Magnetic Disturbances at Toronto during the VERT els O-O2 INCLUSIVE strat cclswyleksla riniede ic +) sielie therein we Mean Meteorological Results at Toronto for the year 1862. 11. On the Abnormal Variations of some of the Meteorological Elements at Toronto and their Relations to the direc- TOMA Ofpt Me VVC aren Meret ish ctets afapelc nie) a. nollie loishcrelate 1 Mean Meteorological Results at Toronto for the year 1863. II. On the relative duration of the Different Winds during Rain or Snow....in the years 1853 to 1859 ............. Il. Mean Meteorological Results at Toronto for the year 1864. II. Monthly Absolute Values of the Magnetic Elements at Toronto, from 1856 to 1864, inclusive ............ Sell. Monthly Absolute Values of the Magnetic Elements at Toronto, from 1865 to 1868, inclusive, with the an- NuallbmeansiromerosttOwLOOSs sic. \-c' ste cuetiae eetas ae me On the Annual Distribution of Temperature at Toronto in theiyears/T85S-O8le acess ste sate cis aes viele a aetoeenle Il. On the Change of Barometric Pressure and Pressure of Vapour that accompany different winds, at Toronto, from observations in the seven years, 1860-66, inclusive. II. On the Diurnal and Arnual Variations of Temperature at ETalifaxstNeSeca cle tetera 5 sae aie eee ie LACHLAN (MAJOR R.)—On the establishment of a System of Simul- taneous Meteorological Observations etc., throughout thes BritisheAmerican: Brovinces: 2... <2 —e eee Le On the periodical rise and fall of the Lakes.............. I. Account of a sudden fall in the waters of the Niagara River, March pt SA8 20 is ter-re ciouteuare.s eieie areibie evotorceeeiemel erie Te MACDOUGALL (ALAN, M. Inst., C. E.)—The Water Temperatures ol diake-Ontarion\((222:,)! nisecyste ies sees ese aceite eee LT. MACGREGOR (C. J.)—On the Climatology of Stratford, Ontario ...... Il. MURRAY (ALEX.)—Meteorological Observations on Lake Nipissing, October andwNovember, TOhAm a tees. cptaiciekeslstesteieve otek I, LEFROY (CAPT. J. H., R.A., F.R.S.)—Remarks on Thermometric IREDAS LOLS eater eeet els. Set rae! 3 wie ake Ceerelavene t's Sete tenet ew ote it LIVINGSTONE (J. A.)—Notes on Astronomy. ( 72¢.) ..........-.. TIT Mie mpiunposestots COMELSiic).ya1-14) sf sistale I, PHILLIPS (J.)—The Pentaiege! orecessole Ene ve AnetS 2 tc,0.6 -s)ayeis oye ee III. a oe (WLELID: cicrsisien pre Ls ROTTENBURG (COL. BARON DE).—The supposed Self-Luminosity ofp thesblanetrNepiune: as. 2s natee => spo Ss c= stedsler os = ue Report of the Committee on Prof. Kingston’s Plan for Biedictinpe StormaStrepyepetiecis stsicke Gs sselacis e weeusinse 4 Solar Spots observed at Toronto in January, February and March it S Sic iave paren tories ohare soos Goes les sla.shetepete wtets 10 VoL. viil. Vill. elds xii. xiii. lil. xii. iii. _ . iii, iii. 319 PAGE. 157-67 238-45 109-29 171-77 240-45 108-13 114-18 263-64 474-7 303-7 26-32 241-46 405 293-305 204 27 479-73 146 29-31 Toahi 145 £ 118-19 195-215 245 120 122-25 145 424-29 179-80 293-97 320 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. SERIES. SWALLWOOD (PROF. CHARLES)—Contributions to Meteorology, from observations taken at St. Martin, Isle Jesus, Can- Ada TAs themeer ere tts ts cers CORA eee ical ee ots eae Tele The Observatory at St. Martin, Isle Jesus, Canada East. (OLLEI LAIST G SACRO CRT EIA Ae OoseStEn ey AO AG Rt ee Vee SWALLWOOD :(PROF, CHARLES)—Mean Results of Monthly Meteorological Registers at St. Martin, Isle Jesus, Canad aghast eee sate nitoase Seber ohn, cycrsreveeieye ke eu loe aes it Remarkable Low Temperature at St. Martin, Isle Jesus, December mess 4 acu cmark yeti mecca Ean eae Il Temperature of the Cold Days of February, 1855 ...... ie STUPART (R. F.)}—Barometric Pressures. (77%.) . 220. 00clccewsens 1OOf THOMSON (A. C.)—Notice of Mock Suns, as seen near the Muskoka IRONED Thal INCOK AS) onl OLS RN RADI Web Loe wince heise pig o.ooins cuidibo's = lu TOMKINS (W. GRAEME).—Comparative Tabular Meteorological Obser- vations in Canada, England and Russia ................ IN WILLIAMSON PROF. JAS.)—On the Longitude of Kingston......... 1 Wonatizgu Comets ws etiimrr ites Ate ae eae patie tee hates wa 3 a IT. BIBLIOGRAPHY, ANON.—Canadian ©mmuithological Bibliography. aj.ssee eee eee eee ae IV. Catalogue of Books Exhibited at the Caxton Celebration (of 5777) Add: RONODLOs MN hss a esi eae aa ei eae ote ete ei cu II. BELL (A. J.)—List of Contributions to classical Philology in Transactions OL Cue (Convrchizin IbMGIy Gedo og mabdborotes sobovobe IV. CHAMBERLAIN (A. F.)—Bibliography of Canadian Archeology ...... islet COLEMAN (A. P.)—List of Contributions to Geology in Transactions of thevCanacian institute =.) (2c. as Meter leveei et aera et nets IV. DEWAR (ROBERT).—List of Contributions to Chemistry and Miner- ‘ alogy in Transactions of the Canadian Institute .......... IV. HARVEY (ARTHUR).—Contributions to Geology and Mineralogy in the Transactions of the Canadian Institute .............. elle KEYS (DAVID R.)—Classified List of Original Contributions to the Transactions of the Canadian Institute from 1850-1893 .... IV. NEEDLER (G. H.) —List of Contributions to Astronomy and Meteorology in the Transactions of the Canadian Institute .. ......... IV. PURSEY (G. G.)—List of Contributions to Astronomy in the Transactions oftheiGanadiantlnstitutes =ss sate met te + ek eeeeni eee IV. SPRY (WILLIAM)—List of Contributions to Engineering in the Trans- actions ofthe Canadian ustitutes=s.s-.44- 42 46k ae Saas IV. BIOLOGY (See also Archeology, Chemistry and Medicine). ACHESON (GEO. )—Biological Study of Tapwater in the School of Prac- tical ca a TOVON TOy mee eee ed areas See oe 100 ADAMSON (REV. W. A., 1).C.L.)—Decrease, Restoration and Preserva- tloniofeSalmonwinnGanadasmaee eee atte miter rene J0(e ALLAN (HON. G. W.)—On the land birds wintering in the neighborhood (OLRM NING MING Eras aA ome AAEM tas todas ome Ch optob os Ie Some of ure VMicraronvabikd s.r acne lei eine meter JOU ARMSTRONG (CHARLES).—Physianthus Albens ............. ...2- III. BAILEY (BRUCE).—Coleoptera collected in Kicking Horse Pass ..... ILI. [Vou IIT. VoLt. PaGr- iv. 262-66 ili. 281-92 ili. 214 ill. 171 ill. 196 V. 111 vii. 462 iv. 380-95 ili. 82 ili. 486-88 i. 60-64 xv. 601-14 lil: 323-4 vii. 40-41 iii. 327-30 ili) 82455 li. 342-3 ili. 17-36 ili, 318-20 ili, 318-20 lii. 324-26 i. 413-26 il. I-7 i. 169-72 iii. 87-100 Vil. 230-31 Ve ie a5 1891-92. ] GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY. 321 Series. Vor, Paar. BARRETT (DR. MICHAEL).—On the Composition, Structure and De- MelOnneNntiols BONG wre aati clyeeleh is jeils + cs, hoveierd ord sleds ne X. 194-204 BETHUNE (REV. C. J. S.)—Nocturnal lepidoptera found in Canada II. viii. 1-16 x. 247-60 BOVELL (DR. JAS.)—The Anatomy of the Leech ............. Pesta i Va ez7230 Note on the Preservation of some Infusoria with a view to thevdisplayianat heirs Glia testes ctseicis oils olsjcrehs Gialeat: « LTP evils 341-2 On the Structure of certain parts of the Bear and Lobster I. lili, 203-4 BRODIE (WM.)—Food Plants of Platysamia Cecropia ................ III. iv. 211-13 BUCHAN (J. M.)—Notes on the Flora of Hamilton .................. II. xiii. 281-304 Rlorastamiltonensis say see ereiieecieracicls cies, «ere oeniaionies ITI. ii. 145-56 CHAPMAN (PROF. E. J.)—Habits of a Small Snake in Captivity.... II. xiii. 551-56 COTTLE (DR. THOS.)—Notes on the Canadian Saturnie............ i il, 212-13 The Evening Grosbeak, Coccothraustes vespertina........ I iil. 287 hte Mastodonaisantieus t . cie tutes. sa. Paice: seeeeenye ae wal ill. 405-6 Capture of Two Birds of unusual occurrence in Upper Can- ada (Picus meridionalis, Ortygometra jamaiciensis).... II. iv. 388-89 On the Two Species of Astacus found in Upper Canada.... II. viii. 216-19 COUPER (WM. ) —Coleoptera Collected in Canada ............... I ili, 210-13 1D (6 Toe 33539 CRAIGLE (DR. and MR. W.)—List of Indigenous Plants found in the Neighborhood of Hamilton, with the dates of their being foundiinthowenandsexamnined inate play Nerina: ie ll, 9222-28 FREELAN]) (PATRICK).—New Traversing Biaee for the Microscope . II. li. 277-80 On the Movements of the Diatomacee.................. Il. vi. 324-27 CAMO Sea( (fod) a Ne Revekoy WEN ENS Aa oe. eee dco nodee =n Sidlede ayaa het INAS Vi. 17-18 GARNIER (DR. R.)—New Species of Menobranchus....... Bre cea Ut @ OE v. 218-19 GEDDES (CAPT. GAMBLE).—The Affection of Insects for their Young. ILI, ili. 42 An Entomolooicall rip inethe Ikockies! 4.5 4emee eae a DET: li, 232-42 GIBSON (JOHN) and MACOUN (JOHN).—Botany of the Eastern Coast Ohslealke Miron ante ean peace sevcieen, eee eae Appell xive AOR 635-57 Flora of the Valley of the St. Lawrence and the Great eaKeS ey ones ... Il, xv. 51-66, 161-76, 349-64, 429-35, 546-56 HARVEY (ARTHUR).—The Cruel Plant (Phystanthus Albens). (Zil.) II. vii. 226-29 HINCKS (PROF. W.)—Observations on a specimen of Sula Bassana.... II, vii. 329-36 Materials fora Fauna Canadensis ............. ethos II. vii. 446-61 484-502 SEAS Eruthiomidacaw a(L7/)lertay nett. ae oe ate Il. viii. 462-6 Considerations Respecting Anomalous Vegetable Structures. II. iii. 311-18 Remarks on the Classification of Mammalia.............. Il. Vv. 512-16 Canadian Falconide....... Sem arate Sueeteer ats srs ieee aie ATs iv. 443-49 Questions in Relation to the T eons of the Structure of Lasse (ELE /ey) Merete ie eh cha a edome nce Sane hs es es INE Vv. 332-40 SPECiMenioOlanh) OLalotCanadata.-cre eiaee ames nee oie If vi. 165-68 276-84 On an Improved classification of Fruits ................ II. vi. 495-7 Fissirostral Suborder of Insessorial Birds ................ ae ix. 230-40 Remarks on the Principles of Classification in the Animal Kingdom in reference to a paper by Prin. Dawson.... II. x 19-30 On CHONSISI a] Win ERIN ret alias Suite ns View babe sae ats If. X. 371-85 Some Thoughts on Classification in Relauion to Organised AETYOS eis ign eet ee MMPER RTs 2Per die G4, 6% dic’, sie 6 eS ee Le xi, 31-45 o22 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ Vou. ae Series. Vout. Pacr. HINCKS (PROF. W.)—Grallatores : Waders or Stilted Birds.......... atte Xe AY - 02 MolluscouseAmimalsyrrryre sick) sc aelenoneteirascioros tiene css et Ble Ky 0 QhQ=27, II., xi., 392-8, ba | Oa OI) Illustrations tof thetGemus) Carex «sce acc et cries cele s ai Sp x1. 398-9 Improvement in the Arrangement of Ferns .............. I]. xii: 35869 Biographical siceteirotim c\s As «s SStebedete lars. cleicesd ole LOE i. 332-43 Mieamumaliako iC anaclatay eve: aeretcseccieysteyeie arcs pel'siraCisccssiehey Sheree ape III. vi.40, 66-91 WILLIAMS (J. B.)—Destruction of Wild Animals..................+. Ill. iv. 142-46 Ganadianw Wood peckerssnm (lean) detelsraessy akelm ste leidiatee 1 Description of Mill-Dam and Bridge................-.-. ile A MEMBER OF THE INSTITUTE.—Railway Termini and Pleasure Grounds, UGNKOTE NCO Oe, ec ynin est IRE MaOler Cn Ra ee eee ae ip BACHE (A. D.)—Notes on Measurement of Base Line on Hapete Plains, Nice wen OLEC OaSty SURVEY ia ciolccera crcl aele em ar) «feel -l iecetemaliaya Es De BRUNEL (ALFRED, C. E.)—Engineering Contributions to the ‘‘ Jour- 1 ee CrOR TRG Beet tee eRe AIO iP ane kel RMP SCRUM Ce Il. Economy of Fuel for Steam Machinery ............. .. ale Victoria Bridge, Paper on Report of R. Stephenson...... Il. ea(Eee VV.) —Preservationvoh, dimber 22%, %s. este co te cle enle # eco s+)8 aessleese « JU CHAPMAN (PROF. E. J.)—A Table for calculating the Weight and Yield per Running Fathom of Mineral Veins........... Il. CLARK (LEVI J.)—The Sewage Problem in Toronto .......... Telete City Sanitation and Sewage Disposal.............. ... Ill. A Consideration of Sewerage Schemes..... .......+.... JU CLARKE (T. C., C.E.)—Action of Ice on Bridge at Rice Lake....... I. CUMBERLAND (FRED., C.E.)—Notes of a Visit to the G. T. R. Works: VV est sof WOrontonenyacteiyee eto ns seen eels ee renirs ie DUMBLE (J. H., C.E.)—On the Contraction and Expansion of Ice.... II. Ice Phenomena on Rice Lake. (J///.).......+.... ere el FLEMING (SANDFORD, C.E., P.L.S.)—Patent Centre Line Railway ._ I. News Compounds Raily E(Z7a)e ciao ence sales eee ile Toronto Harbour, Its Formation and Preservation........ 1. Report on Preservation and Improvement of Toronto Har- GILBERT (JAS.)—The Arizona Copper Mine. HECTOR (THOS.)—Scale for the Computation of the Area of Irregular ED OURES Hee Reeder eae peers ol ie cretl ein staves wef evoke ore tear tera Te KEEFER (T. C., C.E.)—Notes on Anchor Ice Report on Railway Bridge over the St. Lawrence at Montreal I. LACHLAN (MAJOR R.)—On the Formation of Canal between Lakes Sta Clainvande ri eee tia orice Save cs saetokeoi.d eteasieuslea cals ance Ils LAMB (DANIEL).—Handgrenades and Coal Torpedoes .............. LN, LEVEY (CH.)—Gold Mining in the Saskatchewan. (///.) ...........- III. Fleatande cating eB uilainos ie. oh, 2 oreteis) yee spenet be os ora er III. LOUDON (VAS:)—NotesvonsVenttlation) co sisya ticles ,aieke cscs es vere ss eh 1M MACDOUGALL (ALAN).—Aerial Navigation...... ............... Ti, Present Efficiency in Disposal of Sewage ................ Ve MERRIT (W. H.)—Report on the Mining Industries of Canada ........ 19 0 Iron and Steel Production in Ontario .................. IV. MICKICE: (GEORGE, By A.)=-Notes‘on Nickelee sc. : sages usecsts ss TV 22 Meyopttedetaioie tek chess: oeegaieye ae MUG HARVEY (ARTHUR).—Remarks on the Sewage Problem in Toronto .. IV. HOUGHTON (JACOB, C.E.)—Water Works in the United States .... I. VoL. Sees il. lil. ill. 240-54 ii. 299-314 77-92 326 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. RICHARDSON (HUGH, Harbormaster).—Report on Preservation and Improvement of Toronto Harbor ..... STEPHENSON (ROBT.)—Report on Victoria Bridge TRURAN (WM.)—On the Durability of Railway Iron TULLY (KIVAS, C.E.)—Report on Preservation and Improvement of CROSLACY CN inaOW ONO. Lona Cen MorontoPklanbo rae he se eee eo ee epee chet eee ETHNOLOGY (See also History and Archeology). ASSIKINACK (F.)—(A Warrior of the Ottawas) Legends and Traditions SERIES. Ofpetle’ © dalawalhssiey i fsseotey oveyavonecsiey nceeavcge Stat «(oksen evedate hops te Il. BELL (C: N.)—The Mound Builders in Canada....... .... siosseos: WUE BLE ASDELL (WILLIAM).—The Indian Tribes of Canada............ I, BOYVEE, (DAWVID):—Savagery in) Civilization: . 402 dees fiche de etee oe 1801 BROWNE (JAS.)—The Aborigines of Australia.........2.. 0. -.000e Il. Superstitions and Traditions of the Aborigines of Australia. ITI. CHAMBERLAIN (A. F.)—The Mississaguas of Scugog.............. 5 1006 Deluge Myths of the Canadian Indians........ INO lniovale Hi lWNNMOsis AaSogankgadcaeenoanarnos IO CUMMING (W. H.)—On Marriage and Infanticide in China. ........ Wt DARTNELL (G. H.)—Duration and Expectation of Life in Canada.... I. HARVEY (ARTHUR).—Celtic, Roman and Greek Types in France.... IV. HIND (H. Y.)Superstitions and Customs of the Assiniboine and Saskatch- ewan Indiansiteise cise: ole aieqern terse eae ele iclero oi 10 KANE (PAUL).—Notes of Travels among the Walla Walla Indians .... II. MhelChinooks Indians s 5 ir teh oeetednetterer ir spats ore ra choirs Il. LEE (RICH.)—The Native Tribes of Polynesia’ . os isdide 25 0- ebi eso Il. McLEAN (REV. JOHN).—Mortuary Customs of the Blackfeet Indians .. III. MATTHEWS (Dr. PERCY W. P.)—Early Development of Aboriginal Womens eysat yale actus mace APA ON ONY ir ren ae lO MORRIS OH) —iDravyelsinu Chinas. cchraoeGnee eine ital. aie: De BAYVINEGS (iti )-—he Hskimo (of Hudson’siStrait) yee os sem dele eis eee IDL, OJIJATEKHA.—Pagan Belief in Religion. (7tt.) .... ....00...0.- III. REYNOLDS (THOS.)—Discovery of Copper and other Indian Relics Nears Brock vill 6 ea. emcee rat tertteenel cera tarcha tolerate ters II. SPUPART(R.P.)—Eskimo of Stupatt Bays eii( 71.) das... m vo sero ste s III. TUCKER (DAVID).—On Secluded Tribes of Uncivilized Men....... 1M WALLBRIDGE (T. C.)—On some Ancient Mounds of the Bay of Quinte. II. WILSON (SIR. DANIEL).—Narcotic Usages and Superstitions of the Ohelamclanigqny Woah (Abs osogc.csccdscsspuce se It. Supposed Prevalence of One Cranial Type throughout the JN THCAN ANON IAINEH) Bin Mods pdoocdoopeceotaneeds xe Il. rine IDE eco aecatiagenonobedooo boone sooe0nGd III. Some Ethnographic Phases of Conchology.............. lie Notice of a Skull brought from the Crimea.............. UU Modi‘ications affecting the Ethnic Significance of Peculiar Cranial Hormscuia yt cris Sradateaequreis aol vets weet Ethnical Forms and Undesigned Artificial Distortions of Wie IanenCermnbin, | (WUHAN Ge 3! ahagendd6d so. voce Il. Physical Characteristics of the Ancient and Modern Celt.. II. Race Head Forms and their Expression by Measurements. II. The Huron Race and its Head Form. (///.)........ Il. We RIpkhthandedness... ss.jvsa eee tam alee (Mor. Tite VoL. lil. lv. il. PaGE_ 115-25 297-309 151-37 209-10 129-31 251-71 505-11 2-3 II-13 144 178-84 191 176-208 253-62 417-24 II-30 443-59 20-24 181-86 161-76: vi. 26, 213-30 vil. vi. 43 329-36 95-114 326-43 409-17 233-64, 324-44 406-35 125-43 377-409 321-31 414-25 399-446 369-405 . 269-303 113-34 193-231 1891-92. } GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY. SeRIES. WILSON (SIR IDANIEL).—Hybridity and Absorption of the Red Indian RACE Sarseiay SOUL hi: BERT eR Ie so oa) ai.8) > oxeiol (5 aa Ewell, Interolacialy American) Mianweneyaets |p etsteteist=\ 40a 's 6 wi e.06 ere le * Ld, Brain Weight and Size in Relation to Relative Capacity of I EVGLS Wenner Og Gray OS DOLD ES OIG eID Rea eee WU An Ancient Haunt of the Cervus Megaceros or Great Irish 1D RAR MER he SBon TAdco 5... rao. co iBT Det Sa ICR oe ICE 327 Vor. Pace. xiv. 432-66 XV. 557-73 XV. 177-230 i, 207-24 GEOGRAPHY (See also Archeology, Classical Philology, Geology and History.) BROCK (HENRY).—The Upper Niagara River.......... vseeeeeeess III. ii. 222-28 FLEMING (SANDFORD, C.E.)—On the Valley of the Nottawasaga. (ZEB res aeons one cout eto ahs a aiik otuate teeta euate ae it i. 223-26 GILBERT (G. R.)—Old Shore Lines in the Ontario Basin ..... ...... Ill. vi. 2-5 GOODBY (DR.) and BOVELL (JAS., M.D.)—Passing Visits to Rice Lake, Humber River, Grenadier’s Pond and the Island. (Natural History Specimens) ......66....4. SEO S Sat eee il 201 GORGEN Yay (AR TEUIR §— Corea, ai(@2iZ ie ee casa ssc oe Ao arejeee IU Vv 105 KANE (PAUL).—Incidents of Travel oa the North West Coast, Van- couvers: ISiands Orecon etc .).e tei ne hie he eerie creel: If iii. 273 PAYNE (F. F.)—Mammals and Birds of Prince of Wales Sound ........ III. Vv. III-23 SCADDING (REV. H., D.1D.)—Memoranda of Vesuvius and its Neigh- DOUTRGOM BN. cctersah ease ile ped heeeesre eee Barn, Sane oper e ifr ll, 237, 261 STRATFORD (G. S. T.)—Description of Louisburg, Cape Breton. (//7.) I. i. 126-28 STUPART (CAPT.)—The Flying Proas of jhe Ladrone Islands. (///.).. III. vii. 43,204-5 WILSON (SIR. DAN.)—The Southern Shores of Lake Superior...... saeelQ EE 1. 344-56 GHOLOGY (Including Mineralogy). BARNETT (J. D.)—Mechanical Value and Treatment of Hard and Soft (Cor ea om itn Gar oe BOER OMA D2. CEG ap eoe etn Hae TE iv. 82-92 BELL (ROBT.)—On the occurrence of Petroleum in the N.-W. Territories. III. i. 225-30 Geology of the Route of the Intercolonial Railway .. .. II. xv. 381-87 On the mode of occurrence of Apatite in Canada ........ ILOG lll. 294-302 Marble Island, Hudson Bay. (J///.)............. Staller: 3 Ill. iv. 192-204 BILLINGS (ELKANAH.)—Some New Generz and Species of Cystidea fromnthemlrentonslamestonemect scp sae cea eee I. ii, 215-8, 251-3, 268-74 On the Fossil Corals of the Devonian rocks of Canada ES (CUB Soot ree II. iv. 97-140, v. 249-82 ; vi. 138-48, 253-74, 329-63 Note on a New Genus of Paleozoic Brachiopoda . ...... ie vi. 148 BRYCE (P. H.)—Natural History of Ground Waters .................- DV: i. 149-69 CHAPMAN (EDWARD J.)—A Review of the Trilobites. (Z//.) ...... Il. i. 271-86 New Trilobites from Canadian Rocks. (///.)...... ..... ile iii. 230-38 NN GW SHeGIe Ol ASHURIIS)\. ais \Sctee hakic we idiclack Sauce lee. 1G iv. 1-4 ASapRUS BNE RIStOS. EtG y (Lone tee cet. eRe Sc a ak dy once eh s II. iv. 140-2 INE WwaSpeciesiouwArelacrinitest:: seus saclay eileen: Il. Vv. 358-65 Atomic Constitution and Crystalline form as Classification Gharacterssim) Mineralony : 2).6. | cbc BEB sa wn ot LIC li. 435-9 An outline of the Geology of Ontario .................. II. xiv. 580-88 On the Leading Geological Areas of Canada ............ ee XVte Io=22, 92-121 A popular exposition of the Minerals and Geology of Canada. II. v. I-19, (il.) 168-82, 517-31; vi. 149-65, 425-55, 500-18; vii. 108-21 ; viii. 17-33, I1I-27, 185-216, 437-62 ; ix. I-10. SERIES. 328 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. CHAPMAN (EDWARD J.)—-Notes on the Drift Deposits of Western Canada, and on the ancient extension of the Lake Area Ofithatiregioum css owe a mu incre ciciaie este na sce es 1G On the Geology of Belleville and vicinity. (J//.)........ Ne On the occurrence of Copper Ore in the Island of Grand Meret es (LE asst osece tap aben suetsay eke saan o/s levees ae ~iseshey nD: On Wolfram from Chief-Island, Lake Couchiching ...... 1D On the Klaprothite or Lazulite of North Carolina ........ ME On the Position of Lievrite in the Mineral Series ........ THe On the occurrence of Allanite or Orthite in Canadian Rocks II. On some minerals from Lake Superior.... ............. If. On the analysis of some Canadian Minerals .. ......... Jit OnisomerBlow-pipe reactions...) .)-1.ieerie ieee 5 UE On the Analysis of some Iron Ores and Ankerites from Wondonderrys Ina vee cie az ole voles III. vi. 31 STUPART (CAPT., R.N,)—Whence did the Scandinavians Obtain their nowled xejo ithe tGomipassie ne eirarein cele ciel efoiiekehaie si ete) = NOE vi. 44-45 TYRRELL (J. B.)—David Thompson, The Pioneer Geographer of the IN fo) AUDEN VE Sec hb eg Reyne ObLce eit CMRI 5 G Orareute dO ola We \ yi.) 31, 135-600 WILSON (SIR DANIEL).—Science in Rupert’s Land........ ...... MI5 vii. 356-47 Elistoricaly Moot pulmmtsiay Ame nla yey tVerr\s) ofejs/elrie s/eielevenaie eters Mts ix. 289-316 ighersid ieatiompom Omen! Sei tsfelel-) ele einer ete ciety ae PL ae xi) BOG220 Men emis las COL mM ener, ier cyeyenatesenal cl ais rs' toh lolopetls aa ttevalane ey Ce XU Ak Alexander Gordon the Antiquary ........ jaca i exis 9-37; Xv. 122-44 JURISPRUDENCE AND LAW (See also History and Psychology.) ‘O’SULLIVAN (D. A.)—Jurisprudence of Insanity .......... ....... OE Vv. 44°55 PROUDFOOT (HON. W.)—Some Effects of Christianity on Legislation. 1V. li, 159-75 RAE (G. M.)—Should the Privilege of Making Wills be Restricted...... IME vi. 43 WILSON (SIR DANIEL).—The Law of Copyright............... Pee Xie) 4in5=26 LINGUISTICS (See also Archeology, Classical Philology, Ethnology and History.) ASSIKINACK (F.)—(A Warrior of the Odahwahs) The Odahwah Indian Ib giATeThEVEER "Shs api AOE CUDA GO UCU OO OOD DO TO UD OO te THR iii, 481-85 v. 182-86 BROWNING (T. B.)—Elocutionary Drill Chart. (Z/.)... .......... i vi. 181-211 BURNFIELD (REV. GEO.)—Ancient Egyptian Language............. JMO iii. 281-92 CAMPBELL REV. PROF.)—Siberian Inscriptions. (///.)............ Vs iil. © 261-83 Mile MEd OLitestemy Hayate tee. a1c lous arc teaare: sie atete ates. os wile otin eta vit II. xiii. 510-45 fihesshepherdeisingssots Hoy pt ier. one sa aaa cir If. xiv. 158-207 219-78 ithesEastern! Origm) of the Celtsas:jn5. 2 seeds ae Sunita eae xv. 73-91 277-327 The Affiliation of the Algonquin Languages ........ .. I: if 15-53 Nsiaticucirines ine Noxth Americas... aerteaaiettenie aan! o. aelitte i. 171-206 The Khitan Languages ; the Aztec and its Relations... III. ii. 158-80 Some Laws of Phonetic Change in the Khitan Language. . III. i. 282-99 CHAMBERLAIN (A. F.)—Relationship of the American Languages.... III. v. 57-76 dhesBskimowRacevand jWeanguages woe weieeye aeons ose III. vi. 8-10 261-337 ‘hel Gataw basian guages sts cals\. wie ars aferelerete rate ielere s-sseus ele TUE vi. 25-6 me Mississacuavsanouage: 1727.) vauek anciecie ne se aele III. vi. 46 GrammaticaltGender insti a eit he ails esc AGe Giclee ooh alae Ss JO vii. 216-17 Language otf the Mississaguas of Lake Scugog.......... III. Vii. = 213-15 CUMMING (W. H.)—On the Amoy Colloquial Dialect............... 10% xi. 81-95 DUNLOP (J. CUNNINGHAM).—The Quichua Language.......... yldllic v. 130-32 FERGUSON (REV. PROF.)—The Etruscan Question........... ... UT: v. 84-105 GEIBTE (REV .jA. ‘C:}—Canadian, Wnglish. i. csc se eee aie ve ese et Il. ii, 344-55 HALE (HORATIO).—Development of Language................005. III. vi. 43, 92-134 332 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Von. III. SERIES. VoL, PaGe. HOUSTON (WM.)—Old English Spelling and Pronunciation.......... III. ii. 219 hheaScience orm clishuiayh valine ca nian eanare eie III. Vii. 5 Phonetio Spelinieta. es) % i.a.1.diduln ordi vase ot pees reach me Nie iv. 188 KELLOGG (REV. DR. S. H.)—Modern Hindi as related to the Sanskrit andl E Preller te amen tate ee cava roar sch icone Ste See ete ee TUL. vii. 4 MacLEAN (REV. JOHN).—Indian nee and Literature in Mani- toba, North-West Territories and British Columbia...... III. v. 215-18 McNISH (REV. DR. N.)—Language and Literature of Brittany......... TK: v. 76-84 Uinbriak@aptan eye gate see ay ces stegehcies Ah eae eh tee oT v. 219-40 The Gaelic Topography of Wales and the Isle of Man..... Te ii, 181-93 A Topographical Argument in Favour of the Early Settle- Ment onthe British: Islesiby Celts.y.\.. 0. a0. ehaees III. i. 310-31 Phe Sean ana ere eele yey bs iciee saan eras ne cece tae IQUE Vil. 3I The Gaelic Topography of Damnonia.-..... eee dean JOU ill. 43-57 Surnames and Place-Names of the Isle of Man .......... IV. li. 103-12 MORICE (REV. A. G., O.M.I.)—The Déné Languages............... IV. i. 170-212 ORONHYATEKHA.—The Mohawk Language ...................... Il. x. 182-94 XV. I-12 ROUSE (M. L.)—On the Number, Nature and Musical Character of Wowells ound Sys ees «crac MeN em ee Aen ine Ill iil. 58-9 Analogy Between Consonants and Musical Instruments.... III iv. Q2-4 SCADDING (REV. DR.)—A Note on the Etymon of Ontario.......... II vii. 502-8 Phonetic Anomalies Observed in some Modern Forms of Ancient Proper Names. geste sae eee . - Ll. “vill, 9320-41 SPENCE (DAVID).—Peculiarities and External Relations of ie Gaelic PAN GUAGE Var cciels melee ts covaheila i eUoreneie ee cate cheba Per mere NUE vi.45, 238-43 OssianicuPoethy,vesytiencite cee eles epee es 563) S Spehe ees i. 216-26. SQUAIR (JNO.)—A Contribution to the Study of the Franco-Canadian Dial Gctraera ahd orate) Slee inilsiavevore eel Sa a etek mise ote rt oe aes Ill. vi. 161-8 ROW (CEHAS SEE) =— The Study of Languages eee ac DEE” De veygo5-75 VANDERSMISSEN (W. H.)—On the Nature of Roots and Words .>.. ID. “xv. 500-20) WILSON (SIR DANIEL).—Vocal Language of Laura Bridgeman ...... II. xi, 113-23 184-6 LITHRATUREH (Seealso Archeology, Art and Ethnology.) MACNISEH: (REV.N.)—The Poems (of (Ossianeaeka. 9 aaa leciecen II. xiii. 392-402 MEREDITH (E.A.)—Some New Emendations in Shakespeare.......... JOBE, i. 381-89 SCADDING (REV. DR.)—On Errata Recepta. II. ix. 137-53, 317-26; x. 386-406 ; xi. 45-71. On Metonyms, or translated and quasi-translated Proper TRAIN ESSA 2s eich ao Ee HTS TS ee CE RE en eee JU Canada in the Bodleian ....... SP cna (e toe Nt PRE rata Te II. Merton @ollesetand§@anadae. . iia eer re ieee te 31-40, 223-32, xii. Xl. xili. 35756 370-412 453-89 Leaves they have Touched. II. xiv. 73-124, 315-47, 479-502, 597-634; xv. 145-60, 531-45. Early Gazetteer and Map Literature of Western Canada.. II. XV. 23-45 Canadian Noms-de-Plume Identified.... ...... II. xv. 259-76, 332-48, 436-58 SMITH (GOLDWIN).—The Lamps of Fiction (an address)...... ..... TE xu aa 7-50 WILSON (PROF. DANIEL).—Some Associations of the Canadian and Emelishy Maples, apicten <)siericcars sete ts aire nsmest ticlerers ste ete he iil. 380 Barly Notices\ofithemBeavetrnrsssiestit cree iia tclects 10 iv. 359-87 American) Literary) Morzemes\ ic Scr. c.temieyem ae et deen wetter TE, xii er 34-48 RicardusiiCorinensishe.. acct cn ces Serio coe ene eee teas II. xii. 177-206 1891-92. ] GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY. SERIES. MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. BAKER (ALFRED).—Experiments in Connexion with the Doctrine of PTO DADE Gy iccrere chanel fete ste steel ta TAA ace ese lo see ahese' ohsl a aante 1100 CHERRIMAN (J. BRADFORD.)—On the Atmospheric Phenomena of NERESN Urs a coeletehea ties Siekewoh averatebevenaPneel crater sl eb o\oh'v evarer bree I Notes on Poinsot’s Memoir on Rotation............-+.+. II On Linear Asymptotes in Algebraic Curves............-- 1 On a Reduction of Curves of the Second Order .. ....... 10 NIGES. ON IN ATEN Se ee Soc Bauancoge ddepaouad pa UdeRor II. IL., ix., 249-53 ; xi., 388-92. INotefonk Guldin/ S#Properttesiusc. 1. viseisrheisv)s\ delat reste aonsters ie On the Reduction of the General Equation of the Second Degree in Plane Co-ordinate Geometry............-. Il. Note on the Composition of Parallel Rotations ........... Tid CLARK (J. M.)—Some Thoughts'on Thermotics................00000: Ill. HESSEN DHNi(Ca)=— Ay NewsPlaninteter sti cect oe' secs s.otelae cies os PEE: GALBRAITH (JNO.)—On the Conservation of Energy and the Nature OLS HOVGe eer ars erie eten-tseyststam cre ou atae ateva, arate elalaieahacs-aneeypvolets II. KENDALL (REV. E. K.)—Note on Euclid Bk. I., prop. v..... Bio sa,82 te Remarks on the Negative Index of a Function ........... lu KINGSTON, (Gz @3)—Co-efficients of Magnets... 25. 22s sce a eee 10 LANGTON (JOHN).—Ona Small Capillary Wave not hitherto Described. II. WON acac diiting oDUD ISA HEL codes odo npegoacdaooDcO lose Il LOUDON (PROF. JAS.)—Notes on Mechanics’ "1.4... 060s cece ee sie Il. INotestonsStatlesterys trcrctelesevcsalaxele eiscontietguttersisiave shes wets erevencr ate II. @nithelStabilitysof Bloating Bodies ..c1 nc ose «ile 1a II. OnpMinlinears Co-ordinates! tae peritets cis eke slay Nieegs se aishets) nae II. Notes on Relative Motion ............. W rsielausinre: conlerovlens = Ill. Buler's}Hquations:of, Motion: ¢ 210526 «<0 cae saisiele wie's Bala Ill. Geometrical Methods, chiefly in the Theory of Thick lenses. ITI. ‘Lhe SphericaliA berrationyofy Mirrors) ysis ascii ete 10 F HOWUMON (Wi-sJ:)—lheRadiometer:, M272 )) 02. oie Yo eeeenre oe seis II. MACFARLANE (ALEX.)—Notation for Physical Units ... .......... III. MARTIN (J. W.)—Geometric Problems relating to Curves.............. ie Remarks on some General Properties of Curves.......... Il. NOBLE (CAPT. A.)—Value of the Factor in Hygrometric Formulae.... II. ROSEBRUGH (DR. A. M.)—Duplex Telephony. (//..) .............. III. Telegraphing to and from Railway Trains .............. III. ROSEBRUGH (T. R.)—New Trigonometrical Scale ..... ............ III. SCADDING (REV..DR.)—Phototypography: 22...0.2 .\.sj) SULELVAN, (DION (C:)—Fortuitous: Events). (724). ..2 0 2s2.60. 0-00 Il. 335 Vot PAGE i. 245-51 ill, 422-37 vi. 20-28 vii. 180-90 xi. 96-113 vi. 33-38 iv. 61-66 vi. 40-42 Vv. 25-6 V. 142-3 ii, 23C-41 i. 430-46 vi 29-30 iv. 147 Vii. 22, 206-12 Xe I-19 Nie iS 3-00 il. 34 ii. 29-33 lii. 01-8 v. 14-20 iv. 396-406 vil. 103-8 xX. 232-46 lili, 409-14 lv. 26-56 xl, 207-24 xv. 465-85 it, 105 vii. 477-83 x. 161-82 vi. 39 ii. 130 ili. 10-15 Vv. 197-203 i. 207 xiii. I-25 v. 193 APPENDIX (Addresses of the Presidents of the Canadian Institute. ) LEFROY (CAPT., Afterwards General Sir J. Henry).—On the affairs of theslnstitute; neue Tren toca Ge ee cae ce eee Ms 121-3 SERIES. 336 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. ROBINSON (SIR. J. BEVERLEY).—The Condition, Object and Pros- pects of the Canadian Institute......... I. Considerations respecting the condition and prespeets i the Canadianglns titubedis cy..1 hayden sis os ohlz eweie heals tenereneisisen Ie ALLAN (GEO. WM., M.L.C.)—The present condition and future pros- pects of the Institute, with a review of its past history. II. DRAPER (HON, C. J., C.B.)—Observations on the ‘scientific progress of JAS GEA J Hen ee ape nes Saoe Taner 4 Ob eche Ms Il. Observations on the work of the Institute and of the Toronto Observatory sare ccclPei Ns wiciat seers 9 catia esse eee ke ALLAN (HON. G. W.)—The progress of discovery in the regions of science II. WILSON (DANIEL, LL.D.)—On the enlargement of the sphere of knowledgeresiscitatseectelss | Hey M: Canssoc. © E ..... sg Rutherford: Andrew. 225.001 selene SF Rutherford; Walter; Mis a225.%)-.. «. vy Ryerson, G. S., M.D., 340 OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. VoL. III. } SSNERWOOdS |Win sae. ene tratleve cdots lee Toronto. Wade, Fenty: .2'hsrciasietlinc lene Toronto. ShOntiss eles ates aed eve ents ee Wadsworth; Veeb: coe eee nee a Shutt,) Prof HT; MsAy, BGiS 4 Ottawa: WALKER, B. E., 2nd. Vice President. ie SmithesP Poly Ave eis yh ee eerste ee Morontos. |) Watson, Rev. Ds, DID 2a: Beaverton Ont. SmithjGi Be) VME Dia sorte ers ee Weaver, ls Ds 323) 02. ccaa seer anor Toronto. Smoke ;S: 1€.5 Meats oiclniaemenete « se Witloress;7Grsi.yo Accents er Huntsville, Ont. Sparing Charlesse anes e eae me Wilkes, Miss Marcella®. i. 0)... 24: Toronto. Speishter da Bs. bl S neers hei dae Walia s\a George aesemternstrsrs cis ismcre s Spence; MODEL aise meee elses as Williams: cw selsvimicerieslorremyseiee Se Spotton; VE. B:; MA jcc chee ere: ss Willmott, Arthur B., M.A......... ns Squar, Worofy OMNI B Acetyl: a Wilson, Gy EL ihe as atavetaictrs 5 srelcieis Ee S\tenidin, ION 18h, (CAIS donas ono ane of Wilson, aResiNivarirs ostectee ashe Macleod, Alta. SuUpanin Capts WO IRIN Meee ei ae aS Wood, H. Rk., B.A. Missoula, Montana, U.S.A. SD LULU Nan Eaiansy otal sizer estore