AP el ef Of IK * oe wit 4% Sok ot PR « id * ¥ +7 * * e058 > * +, a4 ose 4" Pag ° * wletele eivace ch & + * > eee ole Pate we =e . ete > .* * + ee 4 ob 8 8 6b ee bose * te Sere * $ * ers ate Ps tes se +s “se * . sei + + * - * * o« ** «4 >* i a + Aft, > ’ a : “6 eee oiste® “* * . * * . * _* ‘ se e#be ee . - . — < oJ * * e *-* J eee e a? « - * eet eeeenee * * ae s . oa eee * eee ¥ * + . * * . . * + * * * er . ** : eaters * 8 ee, ’ ry . ~ “* ee ans * * “ee aa . « * * *-* >? * * © ee ’ enews se o- * a eee oo 8 8 * 244 e 4% * aiatete ** ae esate ete io wes ere ie eee *_* = +e eee ee oe ye * « e+ +e es . e ee *.0 © ¢ @ + *e@ae * 4 e# 7 ¢ + -* @#¢ “se we eee + *2 ¢ *_¢ »* « eee eee 4 * , . * *-*« eee -«¢ 4 ee et + . ++ Pee eee +t &*% a4 @ 4 4 @ * « ra-6 . * ee #. © @ 7 © —& ho “lw oC at ek oe © #4 6 + + @ © io," eee ate eee see -*+* + em FF tt a ** PPP A pd < * eee tele s -_* *-¢ 2 = +4 & * 5- » © & @ ¢- * * « ee > * * . . . * *.* enue « «o Pond te oo “ + ee 4 6 68 Pyrat at ot et te ee ee ee +. * eee > * a8 ee » + * a * et ate +-#+@-@ < eee +? a 46 > * /-* ad a ee” 4 7 ++ s e ¢ ¢e ¢ @ * 4 te eee * e+ * & & ve ed - ‘eee « se « “ees une toee + at oe ee ee . + + 4.06 # % ** @ oe 5 9 . ** * eve ee ate TRANSACTIONS. OF The Canadian Institute. VOLUME VII. TORONTO: PRINTED FOR THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE BY MURRAY PRINTING COMPANY. 1904. OME LC ER S OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 1900-1901 President, JAMES BAIN, Jr., Eso. Ist Vice-President, 2nd Vice-President, PROF. A. P: COLEMAN, Pu.D. PROF. A. B. WILLMOTT. Secreta = ees aS. © Ry Fa, STUPART, Eso. Treasurer, Ba ee ae ae ; : - WILLIAM SCOTT, M.A. Liblatiatsc 2) eS 2 oe = DRY, AB. - MACALLUM: Curator, eee a A! CS. ONE ARMSTRONG: hs. Editor, - : 2 a - - GEORGE KENNEDY, M.A.,- LL.D. Members of Council, JOHN MAUGHAN, Esg., CHAIRMAN BIOLOGICAL SECTION. B. FE. WALKER, F.G.S. S. DILLON MILLS, Esq. ARCHIBALD BLUE, Esq. PROFESSOR SQUAIR. G. G.. PURSEY, Esa. Assistant Secretary and Librarian, MARGARET J. LOGAN. OAT PC BRS THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, 1901-1902 President, JAMES BAIN, Jr., Esg. Ist Vice-President, 2nd Vice-President, PROF. A. P. COLEMAN, Pu.D. PROF, A. J. BELL, Pu.D. BECO, es ere a, RO STUPART,: Eso. Creasurer, Bt ence) eee WIE ETAM: SCOTT .“M-A. Eibravian, © - : - : = PROF. A. B. MACALLUM, M.A., M.B, Pu. D. Curator, oe SS NS eC. HSPARMSTRONG,; Eso. Editor, = i Ree - GEORGE KENNEDY, M.A., LL.D. Members of Gouncil, JOHN MAUGHAN, Eso., CHAIRMAN BIOLOGICAL SECTION. PROF. W. H. ELLIS, M.A., M.B. PROF. J. FLETCHER, LL.D. E. C. JEFFREY, B.A., Px.D. i B. E. WALKER, F.G.S. S. DILLON MILLS, Eso. Assistant Secretary and Librarian, MARGARET J. LOGAN. CP Pecans THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 1902-1903 PROF. A. P. COLEMAN, Pu.D. Ist Vice-President, 2nd Vice-President, R. F. STUPART, Eso. PROF. A. J. BELL, Px.D. Secretary, - eta a ae?” PROF, J: J. MACKENZIEY: BOA MB. Creasurer, Shek by iy ae EL LAM SCY TE OMA: ’ Librarian, - - > - - PROF; A. B. MACALLUM, M.A., M.B., Pu.D Curator, - 0 = 3 oC,“ H. ARMSTRONG, Eso. Editor, apres GEORGE KENNEDY, MLA OLE, D: Members of Council, JOHN MAUGHAN, Esog., CHAIRMAN BIOLOGICAL SECTION. B. E. WALKER, F.G.S. PROF. W. H. ELLIS, M.A., M.B. S. DILLON MILLS, Esq. JAMES BAIN, D.C.L. JOHN BERTRAM, Eso. Assistant Secretary and Librarian, MARGARET J. LOGAN. CONTENTS. Officers of The Canadian Institute, 1900-01 6 . ‘6 “ 1901-02 ‘“ & Cte 1902-03 On the Anatomical Characters of the substance ‘‘ Indian Soap ” Miss M. Dawson, B. Sc. On the Structure of *‘ Indian Soap " Explanation of Plate, : ; On the Ancient Desiees at Niagara Falls P. W. CURRY. The Course of the Pre-Glacial Tonawanda River in Canada Hypothesis of the Mode of Gorge Formation and Character of thie Floor of the Gorge , 3 ; : : : : ; ; : 3 A Déneé Surgery : ; . : : : Rev. FaTHer A. G. Morice, O.M.I. The Classification of the Dénés LETTER FROM THE REV. FATHER MORICE. Critical Examination of Spanish Documents Relative to the Canary Islands, sub- ‘mitted to the writer by Sefior Don Juan Bethencourt Alfonso of Tenerife Joun CAMPBELL, LL.D., F.R.S.C. The Canary Island Inscriptions 2 General Vocabulary Comparative Vocabulary of Peruvian Grammatical Analysis of the Inscriptions Phonetic Values of the Canary Island Inscriptions Compound Characters on Rocks The Ripening of Cheese and the Réle of Micro-Organisnis in the Process y Pror. F. GC. HARRISON. Number and kind of Bacteria in Cheese at Different Stages of Ripening . Acid in Cheese . Yeasts Literature Goethe’s Faust ; : : : ; : Pror. L. E. HORNING. Physical Geology of Central Ontario : : ALFRED W. G. WILSON. ~ ~~] vi. TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VOL. Introduction . Topography of the Pre- ance Fleor The Palzeozoic Series Post-Carboniferous History Literature Observations on Blood Pressure, with Special Reference to Chloroform R. D. Rupotr, M.D.,; M.R.C.P. Introduction ; The Normal Effects of Gravity Abdominal Pressure : E The Effect of Certain Drugs on the Blood Pressure Complications arising during the Administration of Chloroform Methods of Resuscitation in Chloroform Poisoning Rev. Henry Scadding, D.D. An Investigation into the Effects of Water and Aqueons Solutions on some of the Common Inorganic Substances on Foliage Leaves . JAmMEs B. DANDENO, A.M. Introduction Historical Résumé ; é Absorption of Water by Foliage I Leaves Incrustations, Guttation Drops, Dew Does Distilled Water become Alkaline when placed upon Leaves of Plants ? The Effects of a Nutrient Solution and of Distilled Water upon Leaves of Plants) )=7; : ; ; : : : . : . : = The Effects of Strong Solutions ne to the Cut Ends of the Petioles of Foliage Leaves : : 3 On the Effect of a Solution Bhs to the Leaf Surface . Tobacco-Leaf ‘‘ Spot” : = ? Some of the Effects of Sea-Water on the Air On the Effects of Water and Nutrient Solutions upon Developing Buds of Willow Twigs Summary of Results and Conclusions . , ; : : 5 Fi Bibliography : The Windward Islands of the West Indies J. W. Spencer, M.A., Pu.D., F.G.S, Introduction and How to Reach the Islands Sombrero ; ; The St. Martin Archipelago . The St. Kitts Chain, Montserrat and the Saba Banks ~ Antiqua and Barbuda The see ene Archipelago . Dominica Martinique, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines Vil. PAGE 140 142 157 162 s, eke in eS Ce! FE ee 1902-03.] — CONTENTS. vii. PAGE Trinidad , : . : : : : 3 : , : - jut #305 Barbados : : F E : f ; nS 466 General Changes of Level of Land and Sea : : q J : ; 368 Photography in Natural Colours : : : i ‘ : ; ; : Soe aa i . J. S. PLasKetT, B.A. Joseph Brant in the American Revolution . 2 : é 2 : : 3 391 LizuT.-CoL. E, CRUIKSHANK. The Beginning of Municipal Government in Ontario 3 5 : “ g . 409 PRoF. ADAM SHORTT. Sawdust and Fish Life . : ; ; : , ; 4 : ; : 425 y Pror. A. P. Knicut, M.A., M.D. ‘Historical : ‘ , : : : : : . : ‘ ; S426 Experimental : ‘ : é ; : : : : : : é 433 The Sinking of Sawdust . : 5 : - : : ‘ : : pease Extracts from Sawdust : : : , : : : : : , 436 Source of Poison 4 ¢ : : 5 3 : ’ : 37, Pulp Industry, Beet Sees adele é : . : E : : A 439 Strength of Sawdust Extracts : ; 3 ; . : ; : . 440 Extracts from Cedar (Ontario) . ; . . : ; ‘ : : 441 Extracts from White Pine ; : ; : : : ; : : » 444 Other Wood Extracts . : : ; . ; 447 Extracts Quickly Soluble 534 Boa the 5 ; Ree . ; . 449 Fish at Mill-Ends 3 ; : : : é . 3 ; : j 450 A Stagnant Artificial Pool ; Z ; : ; t ; : . Fash Comparative Results. : ; : : : : : ‘ : ; 452 Experiments with Bark . : : 4 : : : 3 P : - 456 Decaying Sawdust : = : 5 : ; : 2 : ; : 458 Aromatic Compound : : : ah tee ; : : 4 . - 459 Nutritive Relations : 5 é : : : : ; ; : ; 461 On the Bonnechere River : ; ; : ; ; ; : 5 HS AG2 Conclusions, Acknowledgments . : 5 3 5 ; ; 5 , 465 Appendix . : ; : ; : ; : ; : : : ; . 466 ' The Bacterial Contamination of Milk and its Control . : , : 467 d Pror. F, C. HARRISON. Contamination from the Fore-Milk . : ‘ ; : 4 : Aaa7O Contamination from Animal and Milker , : ‘ : : 48P Methods of Prevention . i - ; : : ; : 5 eA a82 Milking Machines 2 : p ; ‘ : 483 Cleaning Milk by the use of a Gravel Filter : i ; : ; : » 485 Cleaning Milk by Centrifugal Force . : : 5 ; : : 486 The Bacterial Content of Milk before and after Seen : ; ; . 489 Vili. TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUT Contamination of Milk from the Stable Air . Contamination of Milk from Dairy Utensils Bacterial Contents of Cans cleaned in various ways The Effect of Temperature : ; : : Certified Milk : ‘ F f : : : ' References The Chemistry of Wheat Gluten GEORGE G. NAsmiITH, B.A. Historical Observations : Properties of Gliadin Properties of Glutenin The Ferment Theory of Gluten Formation -. The Aleuron Layer of Wheat . Conclusions Bibliography The Nah:ane and their Language Rev. FATHER A. G. Morice, O.M.I. E, [VoLt. VII. PAGE 490, 491 The Palzeochemistry of the Ocean in Relation to Animal and Vegetable Proto- plasm Introduction . The Origin of the Physiological Relations of the Chemical Elements in Blood Plasma Pror. A. B. MacaLLum, M.A., M.B., Pu.D. Gr ia) wm ¥ - SBSB The Origin of the Relation of the Chemical Elements within Protoplasm itself The Composition of the Primeval Ocean The Relation of the Salts in the Ocean to Protoplasm Evidence from the Lakes and Rivers of the Present Period Tables giving the Proportion of the Elements in a number of Rivers and Lakes Summary of Conclusions F i a eA “Ke : at myn ONLY, Academy Of Sciences REV.) HEIN RY S\i© ADDING. Ds): 1813—1901, PRESIDENT OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, 1870-76. TRANSACTIONS OF ike CANADIAN - INSTIEU VE. ON THE ANATOMICAL “CHARACTERS OF’ ‘FHE SUBSTANCE SINDEAN SOAP?’ By Miss M. Dawson, B.Sc. (LOND. AND WALES). (Read 3rd March, 1900). ON THE STRUCTURE OF “INDIAN SOAP.” In December, 1898, a piece of the material used by the Indians of British Columbia as a substitute for soap, was sent to the Botanical Laboratory, Cambridge, by Prof. Anderson, of the Department of Agriculture, Victoria, B.C. Enclosed with this was a report upon the material from Dr. Fletcher, who stated that Prof. Macoun had identified it as a Polyporus, allied to P. betulinus, which had become changed by its own mycelium into punk. Dr. Fletcher explained that the scroopy feeling upon rubbing the soap between the fingers is due to the presence of quantities of resin, also that it burns freely with a strong resinous odour and much black smoke, in a similar manner to birch bark, which accounts for its use by the children of the district as candles. With hot water, it scarcely produces a lather, but rubs up like clay, and leaves a chalk-like deposit on the hands after drying. Some of this “Indian Soap” was handed to me last April by Prof. Marshall Ward for a more detailed study of its anatomy. A superficial 2 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vou. VII. examination suggests that the substance is either a dead fungus of the larger Polyporus type, or a mass of wood destroyed by a fungus. It is whitish cream in colour, very friable, breaking into long, thin strands, which seem to be held together by fragments of dead matter. To the touch, it has a curious saponaceous feel, but as Dr. Fletcher remarked, does not produce any appreciable lather when rubbed up with water. If cut dry with a razor, the sections peel off like shavings, and even in very small pieces they are exceedingly impervious to cold water,—they will float on the surface for weeks. Hot water or alcohol, however, wets them readily. If a small portion of the “soap” be teased out, it is found to consist of a meshwork of hyphz, covered over with, and more or less bound together by irregular fragments of very varying size. With iodine, or Schultz’s solution, the hyphz stain a faint yellow, the fragments a deeper yellow. Iodine and sulphuric acid at first give a deep yellow colour, but then the sections gradually dissolve up. Phloroglucin or aniline chloride and hydrochloric acid give no trace of colour. The hyphz stain readily with haematoxylin, Congo-red, carbol, fuchsin, aniline blue, etc., either in alcoholic solutions or in water solutions, if the sections have been previously treated with alcohol. After soaking in alcohol, thin layers of the substance become semi- transparent, and show very clearly longitudinal strands, which in section show irregularly arranged circles, held together by darker portions of the material. Distributed over the “soap” occur deep brown areas, which, to the naked eye, appear like a stain. This colouration is very intense in some places, whilst in others it is scarcely noticeable. The deeper brown areas seem to mark successive layers in a direction at right angles to the longitudinal strands ; there is, however, no regularity in the thickness of the layers, and here and there the dark areas cross each other. When examined microscopically, besides these longitudinal strands above referred to, the most striking character is the presence of a double set of hyphe lying one above the other. Thus, as shown in Fig. 2, the substance is seen to consist of interwoven hyphe, running in alternating strands longitudinally and transversely, with a more densely matted line separating these strands. The hyphe arranged thus are colourless, very rarely branched, regular, somewhat thick walled and show but very few transverse divisions. Clamp connections occur here and there. (Fig. 12). Overlying these and very irregularly distributed are numerous dark brown hyphe, showing frequent swellings and branchings and occasional transverse septa. (Figs. 5 and 11). To their 1900-1.] ON THE ANATOMICAL CHARACTERS OF THE SUBSTANCE “‘INDIAN SOAP.” 3 presence undoubtedly the brown colour, mentioned above, is due, since though present throughout the material, they are very much more numerous in the more deeply “stained” areas. With this exception, it is impossible to discover any method in their distribution. The longitudinal strands of hyphz are especially clearly seen if a rather thick section is mounted in eau de javelle or potash, and examined under low power. The section gradually clears, owing to the almost complete solution of the coarsely granular substance, which adheres in fragments to all the hyphz, and seems to be the cementing materia! which holds the whole structure together. Indeed, thin sections treated with potash are almost immediately disintegrated, breaking first along the boundary lines of the strands of hyphe, and then the individual hyphz are separated from one another completely. Sections cut transversely to the direction of the longitudinal strands show circular areas of loosely interwoven hyphe, with intermediate layers, consisting of a denser meshwork of hyphe, running between these areas. As before, the overlying brown irregular hyphe are visible all over the sections. (See Figs. 1 and 3). No trace has been found of any remains of woody elements, though a very large number of sections have been carefully examined. Nor has it been possible to obtain any indication of the presence of lignin with any of the usual micro-chemical tests. In connection with the large colourless hyphe, one and only one group of spores has been found. They had obviously been considerably compressed and dried up, but were sufficiently clear to show a few still attached at intervals down some hyphe. The spores are very small, apparently spherical or oval in the fresh, colourless, with slightly thickened walls. The evidence of their mode of formation is not very satisfactory, but they seem to be borne sessile upon the hyphe in groups of two or more. (Fig. 4). A second group of spores of another kind was found in connection with the dark brown hyphe. Like them, they are deep brown in colour, with thick walls, mostly oval in form, and much larger than those described above. Though lying amidst the hyphe, this group did not show any spores attached, consequently no information could be gained as to their method of formation, though there could be no doubt of their connection with this set of hyphe. (Figs. 5 and 6). In Figs. 8 and g are shown very thin microtome sections, cut transversely and longitudinally as regards the strands of hyphe. 4 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vov. VII. Staining either with Congo-red or with hematoxylin after twenty- four hours treatment with iron alum, showed the existence of a third set of hyphz, which had not been noticed before. These form a meshwork between the strands of larger hyphe; they are extremely delicate and colourless, and in fewer numbers can be seen running amongst the other hyphe, within the strands. This detailed structure was most satisfactorily seen by mounting the sections in glycerine. Dehydration with alcohol, and clearing with either clove oil or xylol, caused the hyphz to collapse to such an extent that the appearance of the sections is greatly altered. An examination of hyphe separated out by eau de javelle, under Zeiss Hom. Imm. 4, confirmed the presence of these delicate colourless hyphae amongst and upon the larger ones. (Fig. 10). This suggests that they are parasitic in nature. As regards the function of the brown irregular hyphe, their general characters and distribution suggested, at first, that they might represent a conducting system such as has been described by Istvanffi and Johan Olsen* = (Fig 11): This, however, is apparently not their function, for no treatment has been successful in decolourizing them. Even after fixing in alcohol or Rath’s solution, embedding, dehydrating and clearing, they retain their brown or yellowish brown colour. They appear, too, to be present throughout the material, and though more numerous in some regions, they do not here exhibit any special characters. Beyond this, moreover, the occurrence of a group of spores, in connection with these hyphe, makes it impossible for them to be conducting in function, but points rather to their being the hyphe of a fungus parasitic upon the main fungus, which consists of the large, colourless hyphe. We come next to the consideration of the nature of the substance, which causes the saponaceous feel possessed by the material. It has already been suggested that this character is due to the presence of resin, and from all the results, which an examination of its behaviour has given, this seems to be the correct view. It is insoluble in water but very slowly in strong alcohols, and more slowly in ether or chloroform, in each case resulting in a clear, golden brown liquid. Ether or chloroform does not precipitate it from the alcoholic solution. * “Uber die Milchsaft behdlter bei den héheren Pilzen.” Bot. cent., 1887. Istvanff, ‘‘ Untersuchungen iiber die physiologische anatomie der Pilze, etc.” Pringsh. Jahrb., xxix. 1900-1.] ON THE ANATOMICAL CHARACTERS OF THE SUBSTANCE ‘INDIAN SOAP.” 5 When these solvents are allowed to evaporate off, a whitish brown amorphous mass remains. If small pieces or sections of the material be treated with eau de javelle or potash, a bright red colouration is produced, running along the boundary of the longitudinal strands and gradually diffusing over the substance. By degrees a red liquid oozes out, which turns brown in a few hours. (Fig. 7). If these solutions be treated with acid, a heavy, brownish white flocculent precipitate is produced, probably the resinous acid. Staining with dry sections of alkanna root and fifty per cent. alcohol gave an intense reddish pink colour, universally over the sections, but somewhat more intense along the edges of the strands. Alcoholic solutions of alkanna or sudan iii.* were obviously useless, owing to the extreme solubility of the substance in question in alcohol. Some better results were obtained by using a concentrated ethereal solution of sudan. The sections, cut dry, were left in the stain for a few seconds only, then washed in water and mounted in glycerine. These showed that the hyphze themselves were quite unstained, whilst attached to them and scattered irregularly over them, were deeply stained fragments and drops; in addition, along the meshwork of hyphe dividing the strands of larger hyphz, a pale pink stain was given. The dark brown hyphe were still visible, retaining their usual colour. (Figs. 13 and 14). This confirms the view that the resinous substance is present in the innumerable fragments, adhering to all the hyphe, and the presence of this substance explains the clearing of sections with clove oil, xylol, or potash, when these fragments are almost completely dissolved away. A spectroscopic examination of an alcoholic solution of the resinous substance shows a complete absorption of the blue rays. As regards the nature of this substance “ Indian Soap,” the general arrangement and character of the large colourless hyphe seem to support Prof. Macoun’s conclusion that it consists of a fructification of a Polyporus,—the longitudinal strands representing an incipient stage in the formation of the Polyporus tube. The spores found, however, were not in any definite position relative to these tubes, nor was their arrangement on the hyphe in accordance with basidial formation. The * This dye has been described as a test for resins, fats, etc., by Buscalioni, Un nuovo reattivo per l'istologia vegetale. See Bot. Centr., Nr. 22, 1899. 6 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. |Vot. VII. whole structure has obviously been much changed by the action of parasitic hyphe, so that we may perhaps, with justice, conclude that it consists of some large fungus, probably of the Polyporus type, which has been destroyed by two parasitic fungi, probably also to be classed with the higher forms. As a result, degeneration of some of the interwoven hyphz seems to have taken place, giving rise to a resinous substance, to whose presence the characteristic saponaceous feeling is due. EXPLANATION OFPLATLE, Fic 1.—Section at right angles to strands of hyphz. Treated with potash and mounted in glycerine. Obj. %. Fic. 2.—Section parallel to strands of hyphz. Obj. %. Fic. 3.—Section as in Fig. 1 under 1 inch obj. (Reduced %). Fic. 4.—Group of spores in connection with the large, colourless hyphz. Stained with carbol fuchsin. Oc. 4. Obj. Hom. Imm. ;}5. Fic. 5.—Brown hyphz with group of spores. Oc. 4. Obj. Zeiss D. Fic. 6.—Spores of the above group. Oc. 4. Obj. Zeiss F. Fic. 7.—Small piece of ‘‘soap”’ treated with potash (5%). Shaded portions coloured deep red. (Macroscopic). Fics. 8 AND 9.—Microtome sections showing three systems of hyphz. Iron alum (24 hours), and hematoxylin. Oc. 4. Obj. Zeiss D. Fic. 10o.—A few hyphe, separated by the action of eau de javelle. Brown hyphz were present, but are omitted from the figure, which shows the fine colourless hyphz running amongst the larger colourless ones. Oc. 4. Obj. Zeiss D. Fic. 11.—Portion of section, treated with potash, showing the arrangement of the brown overlying hyphz, resembling that of a conducting system. Oc. 4. Obj. Zeiss D. Fic. 12.—Portions of separated colourless hyphz, treated with alcoholic potash. Oc. 4. Obj. Zeiss Hom. Imm. 7. Fics. 13 AND 14.—Staining of resinous fragments by an ethereal solution of sudan iii. Oc. 4. Obj. Zeiss F. ‘ Trans.of Canadian Institute Vol. VI, Pl. 1. i SIAN AS Huth, Lith London if ww Ga pear tity nape ; : oO s _ eS Sea <= Oo a i ¢@ lt ww i a N, MCRR CRWADA DIV CANTILEVER BROGE PROriE OF AiviR Borror Scare 30's Wor 1859 reg ecu or ae * wis! ee SHAOLO PORTION SHON FL00R of BRIDGE Saonam 61nk Some FOR T/on OF SeunOIng- Sowwavee TARE OUR me Semman or ane | ENGINEER'S REPORT OF SOUNDINGS AT M.C. R. BRIDGE. 1900-1. | ON THE ANCIENT DRAINAGE AT NIAGARA FALLS. 7 ON THE ANCIENT DRAINAGE AT NIAGARA FALLS. By P. W. CURRIE. (Read oth March, rgor). IN preparing this paper, the writer has gone over the ground confirming and adding proofs of the statement of others in regard to the old watercourses of the Niagara District.* THE COURSE OF THE PRE-GLACIAL TONAWANDA RIVER IN CANADA. The river crossed the present Niagara river nearly at right angles. The edge of the southern bank where it crossed the river is now indicated by the line of breakers above the Falls. The hollow below these breakers is directly due to the erosive action of the ancient stream. Its northern limit was the bank now called Hubbard’s Hill, ending on the Canadian side at Mr. Alexander Fraser’s house, and shown also on the opposite or American bank of the modern river. Further evidence of this former channel is found in the character of the soil and of the rock levels in Queen Victoria Niagara Falls Park. At the Dufferin Islands and at Table Rock, the rock level is at the surface. At the Power House where the bed rock is exposed, it is about eleven feet below the level of the water in the channel east of Cedar Island. Opposite the Carmelite Monastery, the rock level is about twelve feet below the water level in this same channel. At the gravel pit rock was found at a depth of about eighteen feet below the same water level. Near the high bank forming the * He has to acknowledge the kindness of Dr. J. W. Spencer, whose theory as to the old watercourses is the one accepted in this paper; also many favours from Mr. Wilson, Superintendent of Queen Victoria Niagara Falls Park; Mr. C, H. Mitchell, Engineer at Niagara Falls, and his assistant, Mr. Howard Dixon ; Mr, Rothery, Superintendent of the Park and River Railway; and Captain Carter of the ‘‘Maid of the Mist,” all of whom aided very much in gathering materials for the paper. 8 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VIL. south boundary of the Park, where the Ontario Power Company sank a test pit, rock was not found till the hole was down thirty- three feet in the sand, or between thirteen and fourteen feet below the water in the channel above referred to. The dip in this part of the Park is to the south, but it is too slight to account for these differences in level. The above facts show the existence of a V-shaped depression in the Park, the rock level sloping downwards north and south, to a point at or near the present gravel pit. The bottom of this depression is lower as it recedes from the river, so that if it were cleared of drift, the water would even now flow down it. It is also generally in a line with the course of the old Tonawanda River across the course of the present Niagara. The course of this channel through Niagara Falls South is not so easy to trace, but what evidence there is, is confirmatory. At the Michigan Central Station at Niagara Falls Centre, the rock is within a foot or so of the surface. In digging the sewer in front of Victoria Hall, the excavation went down nine feet, six inches, but no rock was found. At the line between Niagara Falls and Niagara Falls South, a well was dug over thirty feet without striking rock, and where the street car turns to go to Drummondville, a well thirty-three feet deep is resting on hard pan, that is, it is not yet down to solid rock. Between Niagara Falls Centre and the Niagara Falls South boundary, the land level rises about sixteen feet, leaving sixteen feet fall in rock level in 960 feet, a difference not accounted for by the dip. The next place where conclusive evidence of the channel is found is at St. David’s ravine. The opening in the escarpment worn out here is about one and a half miles across. The banks slope gradually as do those of all ancient channels, and have not vertical walls as the gorge and other modern cafions have. The old river bed at St. David’s is at present used for obtaining the fine sand which is deposited there. These sandpits are very deep, and the arrangement of the sand and gravel in them is very interesting. On the Governor Maitland estate, near them, a well over 150 feet deep was dug through sand and gravel. Mr. Warder, of Stamford, who dug many of the wells of this district, says that a deep deposit of sand and gravel is found continuously from St. David’s Ravine to Niagara Falls South. On the way to the latter place, the depth of soil overlying the rock increases, but the increase in depth, he thinks, is due to the greater accumulation of drift in that direction, and not to any 5 IR = I. AVINE FROM C » bs I AVIDS D Site iP HE y ) U ENTRANCE TO POOL. x WHIRLPOOL RAPIDS SHOWINC OUTLET OF THE WHIRLPOOL. DOWN THE ST. Davip’s RAVINE FROM G. T. R. 1900-I. | ON THE ANCIENT DRAINAGE AT NIAGARA FALLS. 9 depression of the rock level. The latter, he thinks, remains nearly constant. In the St. David’s valley below the escarpment, are found several flowing wells. Above the escarpment, the surface drainage is either towards the Whirlpool or Thorold. It is possible these flowing wells are caused by the water of the Niagara soaking through the porous soil of the drift. The course of the channel below the escarpment is harder to trace accurately, but by ascertaining from the farmers the facts in regard to their wells, some very interesting information was obtained, throwing a good deal of light on the subject. Mr. Warder, whose opinion with regard to rock levels above the escarpment has been stated already, says that in St. David’s village the rock is generally sixty or seventy feet below the level of the surface. On the road to St. Catharines, within a mile of the village, wells are found dug in the rock, which is, relatively, close to the surface. On Lot 54, north of Usher's cement works, Mr. Muir has a good well. In digging it he struck red sandstone rock about twenty feet from the surface. Between Mr. Muir’s farm and the lake, as far as Virgil, good springs are very scarce, and those who dig wells do not strike rock. On Lot 58, a well was dug fifty-three feet without striking rock. On Lot 33 they dug thirty-five feet, then bored fifty feet without striking rock. Mr. Harris, west of Lot 61, found rock at one hundred feet below the surface. The northern boundary of this channel seems much more indefinite than the southern one. Where this channel crosses the Niagara river, is clearly visible on both sides of the river from the deck of the Toronto steamers. Near Queenston the river bank is formed of red shale. At a projecting point about three miles below Queenston, the shale changes to clay, and the bank is formed of clay from here to a place near the middle of Paradise Grove, where shale of the same kind as that at Queenston again forms the bank. The space between these points, about three miles, was at one time filled with shale of the same kind as that at Queenston and Niagara. This was washed out by the ancient river, and during the glacial period, 10 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. {[Vot. VII. filled with clay. The map shows the probable course of this ancient stream. Into the main stream flowed a tributary which joined it at St. David’s. Its channel was relatively much narrower than that of the main stream. It appears to have been formed by the union of three small tributaries, whose waters finally came together at the Whirlpool. One followed a buried channel through the Collegiate Institute srounds, in Niagara Falls, Canada, to go by way of the present Niagara to the Whirlpool; on the way it was joined by a tributary flowing on the American side from Eagle Mount; while a third tributary seems to have flowed south from the present Devil’s hole to join the combined stream at the Whirlpool. Beyond the Whirlpool, the combined stream followed nearly the course of the present Whirlpool ravine, although the latter seems to be a little to the south of the old channel. This is shown by the rocks, Niagara and Clinton, found in place in the bed of the stream at present flowing through the ravine. The bed of this stream was probably not as deep as the bottom of the present Whirlpool, the latter having its depth increased by the rotary motion of the water. The Whirlpool ravine crosses the Grand Trunk tracks about a quarter of a mile south of the Stamford station. After this, it crosses a field and road. On the far side of the road is a pond fed by a spring creek, whose source is near the Presbyterian church in Stamford village. From a little above the pond a wide depression, not very clearly defined, follows back towards Stamford, veering, however, northwards in the direction of the sandpits at St. David’s. At the highest point of this depression in swampy ground near the side of the road, is a little grove of trees. From this starts a depression slanting downwards almost without a break to within one hundred yards of the sandpits. Any moisture falling on this depression could easily soak through the intervening gravel into the sandpits and St. David’s ravine. OUTLET OF ANCIENT STREAM AT DeviL’s HOLE. ErRopED BED POINTS UP PRESENT STREAM. SAND Pits, ST. DaAvip’'s. Send Wack tqy ~ Bowlders dand Meck a tend Mosk « fi ie alas é any Hf Bae Oy se: if ite. ay ra! ee ENGINEER’S REPORT OF TEST-BORINGS AT M.C. R. BRIDGE. 1900-1. | ON THE ANCIENT DRAINAGE AT NIAGARA FALLS. II HYPOTHESIS OF THE MODE OF GORGE FORMATION AND CHARACTER OF THE FLOOR OF THE GORGE. The water wears a large pit in the shale underlying the Niagara limestone, leaving it projecting until, unable to support its own weight, it breaks off and falls into the water. The Clinton limestone is under- mined in the same way. After falling, these great masses of rock in front of the centre of the Canadian fall, are used as pestles by the tremendous power of the water, ground against one another and against the floor of the stream, until a great hole or basin is worn out down stream from the falls. As the water gets down stream further from the fall, it loses energy, and finally a point is reached at which it can no longer move the larger rocks. At this place they are deposited in what formerly was the floor of the basin, and over these larger pieces smaller ones are deposited successively on account of the decreasing power of the water until, at some distance from the stream, the deposit attains a maximum height, acting there as a dam, over which the accumulated water flows. This water, by erosion, wears off the top of the old deposit, so that the position. of the shallow dam, of the basin in front of the falls, and of the falls itself. is gradually advancing up stream, leaving behind it, in the bed of the river, the accumulated mass of fallen blocks. This is the way in which the gorge has been made, at least from Foster’s Flats. Below this, there may be part of the stream flowing on a bed of rock in place, as there was a time in the history of the Falls in which there were three separate cascades, and this condition would destroy the power of the water to dig out a deep hole as described above. The borings made by the Michigan Central Railway to test the foundations of the Cantilever bridge afford a remarkable confirmation of this hypothesis. For 150 feet below the waterline, or nearly 70 feet below the deepest part of the river at this point, before striking rock in place, they bored down through clay and boulders. The rock they found was the red shale of the Medina, which, according to the above hypothesis, was the bottom of the deepest part of the basin worn by the Falls when passing this point. In his report, the engineer called some layers, lime rock, sandstone, bastard lime rock, etc. Thinking these layers might represent remains 12 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII. of the original hard rock, the shale having been removed by the action of the water, and its place filled by detritus, Mr. H. Dixon, assistant engineer to Mr. C. H. Mitchell, went with the writer to Queenston, where we, using transit and chain, found the thickness of the different layers of rock and shale along the cliff. We tried to correlate the hard layers with those mentioned in the borings under the bridge, but found no relation whatever existing between them. We then decided that these masses of solid rock were simply very large boulders. In his report on the soundings taken under the bridge, the engineer expresses the same opinion. The Canadian fall at present furnishes very good evidence of the correctness of the above hypothesis. On the margin of the Horseshoe Fall, both next Goat Island and the Canadian shore, great boulders are lying at the foot of the cliff. There is no sign of any such in the centre. Then one of two things must happen,—the rocks sink where they fall at the base of the cliff, or the force of the water carries them down stream to be finally deposited somewhere else. The soundings support the latter hypothesis, for the water is deepest not right under the fall, but a considerable distance down stream. The force of the water carries the rocks forward while their gravity causes them to sink, so they wear out the basin described above. The American fall has great masses of huge boulders at its base. These, as in the Canadian fall, have dropped from the overhanging Niagara and Clinton rocks, but the water coming over them is not strong enough to displace them. Accordingly they pile up where they fall, and instead of wearing a deeper hole, protect the underlying shale from erosion and stop the wearing action of the fall. This explains the fact that, so far, observations on the American fall can detect but little retreat, as all differences found in measurement are not appreciably greater than the allowance which may be made for errors of observation. Evidences of a similar state of affairs are found at Niagara Glen. The main stream on the American side was strong enough to move the great rock masses, and the erosion went on continuously, leaving a clear channel, while on the Canadian side a fall of water much smaller in volume and corresponding to the present American fall, descended. During the greater part of its course it was unable to remove the larger rocks, though its central part was stronger than the sides, and in the lower part, at least, left a tolerably clear channel. In the upper part, 1900-1. | On THE ANCIENT DRAINAGE AT NIAGARA FALLS. 13 however, as at present in front of the American fall, the great rock masses are now piled up close to the cliff in such a way as effectually to stop the water from wearing away the soft shale. The deep channel being in this way partially filled, the action of the weather on the lateral walls gradually causes a talus to be deposited on the sides of the gorge, giving the older parts of the river the rough V-shape shown by the soundings taken at the Cantilever bridge. One more thing remains to be accounted for, viz., the Whirlpool. Where the current from the Whirlpool rapids enters the Whirlpool, a ledge of rocks projects from the east bank into the Whirlpool. The appearance of the water indicates a shallow part, probably a continua- tion of the ledge, running clear across to the other side. The Whirlpool basin itself is very deep, probably deeper than it was worn by the Falls or by the pre-glacial stream which formerly passed here. Where the water leaves the pool the passage is very narrow, rocks in place project- ing into it both from the Canadian and American sides. Even in the centre of the channel the water appears to be quite shallow. The depth of the water in the pool is due to the course of the river. Even while it ran on the top of the bank, before the Falls reached the Whirlpool, there would be here a deep pond, in character much the same as the present one. After the Falls passed this point, the same cause would deepen the hole where the change in direction of the stream occurred. The shallowness of the exit of the Whirlpool is comparatively easy to account for. As the Falls cut their way back from Queenston, a time would come when only a very thin wall would remain between the water of the Whirlpool and that of the gorge. As this partition would break down rapidly in its upper part, the level of the Pool would suddenly lower, leaving the last part of the quartzose sandstone to be eroded only by the mechanical force of the running water—a very slow process. The ledge above the Whirlpool was left during the time that the thin wall below was being taken out, before the cataract at the upper part had attained power enough to excavate deeply. The Whirlpool basin was then probably no deeper than the Medina. Since then, the peculiar character of the motion of the water and the erosive action of the stones and pebbles carried by it, have deepened the basin to its present depth. 14 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. The following is a list of the works consulted in the preparation of this paper : ‘* Travels in North America,” Lyell. “‘ Geol. of the Fourth District of New York,” Dr. Jas. Hall. “The Report of the Commissioners of the State Reservation at Niagara, 1893-94,” containing Mr. J. W. Spencer's papers on the ‘‘ History of Niagara Falls.” “* Another Episode in the History of Niagara Falls." From ‘‘Am. Jour. of Science, Vol. VI., 1898,” J. W. Spencer. ““The Tenth Annual Report of the Commissioners for Queen Victoria Niagara Falls Park, 1895,’ containing Prof. G. K. Gilbert’s Monograph on ““Niagara Falls and their History.” ‘* Origin of the Gorge of the Whirlpool Rapids,” F. B. Taylor. 1900-1. ] DENE SURGERY. . 15 DENE SURGERY. By THE REv. FATHER A. G. MORICE, O.M.I. (Read 3rd February, 1900). FROM the icy wastes of the Arctic circle to,the barren borders of Patagonia, under whatever clime and with any environment, or mode of life, the American Indian is more or less shamanistic in his beliefs and practices. To him disease is not that deviation from the normal state of the living organism which is understood among us to result from natural causes. In his estimation, it is mainly due to the ill-will of certain minor spirits whom he generally believes to be under a greater, rather undefined power, and even subservient to the incanta- tions of the conjurer whose role it is to exorcise them out of the patient, free the latter’s body of any noxious matter due to their machinations, or otherwise influence them to the extent of restoring him to his former state. This particularity of the native mind is well known, inasmuch as there hardly ever was a tribe without one or more shamans, or medicine men. What would seem to be less generally understood is the fact that, even in the olden times, the aborigines were far from relying exclusively on the mysterious powers of their conjurers in cases of bodily distress. Either on the advice of the latter or independently therefrom, they frequently had recourse to natural means in order to regain lost health, alleviate temporary ailments, or obviate the result of accidents. The vegetable kingdom furnished them with antidotes against almost any ill that humanity is heir to, and, in several instances too, they resorted freely to external treatment and artificial devices, the most important of which were, among the Northern Dénés, surgi- cal bleeding and burning. Prof. O. T. Masson has given us, at the end of his paper on “ The Ray Collection from the Hupa Reservation,” a valuable list of the plants, both economical and medicinal, used by the northern California Indians. Mr. James Mooney has rendered a like service to science in his valuable essay on the “Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees.”* I * VII, Annual Report Bureau of Ethnology, pp. 324-327; Washington. 16 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. might also refer the reader to what I have myself written on the same subject in my “Notes on the Western Dénés,* pages 130-132 inclu- sively. This part of my study, though not intended to be exhaustive at the time of its writing, might for the present, take the place of a complete treatise on Déné medicine. But, though bleeding at least was and remains a very prevalent practice among the natives, I have been unable to discover more than one reference thereto in the whole range of the American ethnographic literature at my command. Very valuable and detailed monographs there are on almost all the chief stocks into which the northern American race is divided, which consider them from every possible standpoint, but, with the one above mentioned exception, they invariably ignore the practice of bleeding so much in vogue among the different tribes. My attention was lately drawn to this desideratum by an article from the pen of the Rev. H. C. Meredith, published in the December number of the American Archeologist} The cuts which accompany his paper represent stone implements of such unique design as to render them worthy of a moment’s consideration. Those implements have quite a history. Found, close by Indian skeletons, in the vicinity of Stockton, California, by several persons of good social standing, some of them came into the possession of the above-mentioned gentleman. To make a long story short, a few of the latter subsequently passed into the hands of a South California collector of antiquities who, after much hesitation and a consultation with a would-be expert, pronounced them to be frauds and published his opinion to that effect in the American Archeologist. One of his main reasons for predicating dishonesty was that he “could not imagine any practical use to which they could have been applied,’ an excuse which is hardly satisfactory. Thereupon Mr. Meredith came up with a spirited reply containing sworn affidavits and detailed information which leave no doubt that his relics are genuine. A number of similar objects had already, it seems, found their way into the United States Museum, Washington, D.C., and it is probably of them that a Mr. Lyman Belding wrote in Zoe; that they “differ from anything” he had “seen elsewhere.” Those implements are chiefly noticeable for three distinct features which are more or less reproduced in all the specimens illustrated, * Trans. Can. Institute, No. 7. + The American Archeologist, vol. I, p. 319. 1 Vol; ILE, ip. "200. Fie, I From ‘' THE AMERICAN ARCHEOLOGIST.” By permission of the Proprietor, Pror. W. K. Moorehead, Saranac Lake, N.Y. ¥ ‘i a 1900-1. ] DENE SURGERY. 17 namely, their sharp points, their curved outlines and their serrated — edges. The first particularity is probably what led Mr. Meredith to incline “to the opinion that they were used on occasions of sickness and ceremony for lacerating and bleeding the temples.”* My own studies of the Northern Dénés allow me, taking into consideration that analogy found in most things aboriginal, to subscribe to the reverend gentle- man’s conclusions. But there remain the invariable and apparently unnecessary curvedness and the indentations of the relics. That these two peculiarities were intended for a specific purpose it would be idle to deny. What was that purpose? The idea of their having been designed as saws must be abandoned owing to the nature of the material, soft and brittle obsidian. Both Prof. Wilson and Mr. Meredith are agreed on that point. On the other hand, temple- bleeders do not require to be crooked in outline or serrated on the inner curved edge as is the case with most of the implements figured in Mr. Meredith’s article. A brief reference to the custom of blood- letting as it is practised among the Northern Dénés may throw some light on the question. Among those aborigines, bleeding may be considered under five different heads. There is_ blood-letting proper, darting, piercing, gashing and scarifying. The Northern Dénés have always been poor, unzsthetic workmen and, as I have noted elsewhere,t among them “where extra exertion was not absolutely necessary, it was very seldom bestowed upon any kind of work.” This explains how it is that none of my informants could remember the use of, or any reference to, anything like a lancet or bleeder by their ancestors. A sharp piece of stone, a flake from one of the few tools or weapons they made, or, more generally, even a common flint or obsidian arrow-head did that duty. Yet it would seem that, in pristine times, they had something like a_ bleeder, for one of the tribes, the Carrier, has a word, hokweth, to designate that instrument The first process, I said, was, or rather is—for in that respect native surgery has not changed with the advent of the whites—we?r’s’wket or blood-letting proper. As among us, the operation is performed either on a vein or an artery. In the latter, and by far the commonest, case, * oc; cit. t ‘Notes on the Western Dénés,” Trans. Can. Inst., vol. IV., p. 36. 3 18 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. the chosen subject is the temporal artery. This is slightly cut with as sharp an instrument as can be procured, and the blood is allowed to escape until a rich red colour has succeeded the dark hue of the first flow which is supposed to be the cause of the ailment. The wound is then compressed by the application of a piece of skin or of a green leaf, according to the season. The head is afterwards bandaged so as to ensure the speedy healing of the wound. In cases of phlebotomy, the vein at the bend of the elbow is the one operated on. Head-ache, general uneasiness, nervous complaints, catalepsy or any accidental stiffness of a limb furnish the usual pretexts for this sort of bleeding. Pains in the legs are, however, more com- monly relieved by pricking or darting either side of the knee when fire was not resorted to, as shall be seen further on. This leads me to speak of the second process, which is darting or thrusting. Though widely different from the first, it is, in the eyes of the Indians, nothing but a modification thereof, and it goes by the same name. The natives have recourse to it mostly in cases of local pains, when it is a question of congested blood either in the course of a malady or as the result of an accident, as in cases of contusions consequent on a blow, a fall, etc. It differs from the first method of blood-letting in having the flesh, not the veins, as its seat of operation. The skin is first thoroughly softened with hot water, the diseased flesh is firmly gripped or pinched out by the left hand while, with the right, the blade of a sharp knife is thrust therein. The escape of the thick, blackish blood affords immediate relief, though the operation may have to be repeated time and again. All these details I know by personal experience. A modification of this process, the usefulness of which is prac- tically confined to cases of head-ache, is piercing. .In connection therewith, the fleshy part of the forehead is grasped as in the previous operation and then several times transfixed with an awl or a like instrument. The fourth way of using the lancet, ze/’s# tas, is simply the gashing or cutting open of a swelling, a sore or any unhealthy excrescence on the skin. The Dénés are rather impatient under the stress of long standing ailments. They much prefer undergoing a painful operation to waiting for the natural issue of any complaint. We now come to the fifth way of using the surgical bleeder which 1900-1. | DENE SURGERY. 19 will, I think, explain the curvedness and inner indentations of Mr. Meredith’s crooks. It is nesn@lW’tes or scarifying. This is very commonly resorted to in all cases of rheumatism, local aching and mal de raquettes, or the spraining of the instep resulting from too severe snow-shoeing. It is also regarded by many as a panacea against several other ills of a temporary nature. It consists in scratch- ing numerous lines on the afflicted limb, followed, in many cases, by a liberal application of the bruised root of the hemlock plant (Conium maculatum). Now let the reader glance at Mr. Meredith’s crooks. What is more natural than to suppose that the indentations thereon were designed as so many teeth of a stone currycomb intended to lessen the labour of the native surgeon, as the scratches must be very numerous, while work done with a single point would necessarily result in a useless flow of blood from the first scarifications and unduly prolong the sufferings of the patient? On the other hand, the crooked outlines of the bleeder are easily explained by the use the implement is put to. Its curvedness is simply a means of having it fit the various parts of the arm or leg whereon the simultaneous scarifications are produced. That this is not a mere fancy of mine can readily be inferred from the fact that this peculiar method of bleeding is not confined to the Déné race. We read in the paper by Mr. J. Mooney already referred to that, among the Cherokees, “there are two methods of performing the operation (of blood-letting), bleeding proper and scratching, the latter being preparatory to rubbing on the medicine which is thus brought into more direct contact with the blood.” He then explains that “scratching is a painful process.... In preparing the young men for the ball play, the shaman uses an instrument somewhat resembling a comb, having seven teeth, made from the sharpened splinters of the leg bone of a turkey.” He further enters into minute details concerning the operation which he says is performed “on each arm below the elbow and on each leg above and below the knee.” So much for the curvedness of Mr. Meredith’s implements. The indentations noticeable on some of the outer or straight edges may be explained by the fact that finally “the instrument is drawn across the breast from the two shoulders so as to form a cross, ... so that the body is thus gashed in nearly three hundred places.”* * VII. Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, p. 334. 20 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. Surgical scratching on flat surfaces is also practised, though seldom enough, by the Northern Dénés. Here are two late instances that will illustrate the circumstances under which bleeding is mostly resorted to here. About two months ago, I returned from a trip of over three weeks duration to an outpost of my central mission. On the way back, one of my companions experi- enced some physical difficulty with one of his feet which rendered snow-shoeing exceedingly painful, if not quite impossible. Without any loss of time, his instep was duly scarified with a pocket-knife by one of his fellow Indians. Upon my return here, I noticed one of our women who since some time had been suffering from some nervous derangement, possibly catalepsy, bandaged about the head. Enquiry brought out the fact that, during my absence, she had undergone an almost identical operation in the vicinity of the temples with the addition, this time, of a poultice of bruised hemlock roots. Another surgical practice which was formerly much in vogue among the Carriers, but has now fallen into desultude, was that of burning. It could not properly be called cautery, as its object was not the searing of the flesh as a means of stopping blood or of preventing the extension of a local trouble. It was used mainly against rheumatism or any ill of a cognate nature, and its chosen seat of operation was very generally the joints of a limb, either the wrist, the elbow, the shoulder, or the knee. Sometimes also any part of the spine, and more seldom a spot on the bony surface of the head were likewise experimented on. This is how the operation was performed. When an Indian had resolved to get rid of an aching pain that had become too acute for patient bearing, he took a round piece of tinder perhaps one-third of an inch in diameter, wetted with his saliva that part of its surface that.was to come in contact with the flesh, and then pressed it firmly on the joint the healing of which was deemed most likely to ensure the prompt recovery of the whole limb. Next, he himself, or an obliging friend ignited the top of the tinder, which was suffered to burn down to the very flesh, wherein a corresponding sore or cavity was inevitably produced. The excruciating pain consequent on the slow combustion of the piece of fungus was ordinarly borne in the most stoically indifferent way possible. A moment of the severest anguish is nothing to the Indian, especially if accompanied by the 1900-1. } DENE SURGERY. 21 hope of a speedy recovery ; but almost any bodily discomfort, if too prolonged, is to him a torment past endurance. To return to our surgical experiment. Should the tinder totally consume itself on the flesh, the operation was deemed a failure, and it was at once repeated on an adjoining place. Was the result of the second attempt identical with that of the first, a third spot, always close to the joint, was operated on, until, under the effect of a slight explosion due, perhaps, to the sudden contact of the fire with the serous fluid under the epiderm, the burning piece of tinder flew up as a sure token of the disappearance of the cause of pain. The greatest faith was placed in the. efficacy of this operation, and many an old Carrier bears to this day indelible marks which testify to his former trust in that “ fire cure.” Another kind of operation in connection wherewith fire figured as a most important factor, was that resorted to as a cure against ear-ache. It has an even more superstitious complexion, and it is likewise on the wane. In such cases, a few hairs picked from the tail of a dog were singed and their extremities introduced, while burning, into the drum of the ear. Should the hair used have been that of a she-dog, the cure was regarded as a matter of course. Another appliance much in vogue among the Carriers, and which, though taken from the vegetable kingdom, is hardly less effective than fire, is a sort of blister made of the bruised green leaves and stems of a plant called waltak in Carrier, and of the botanical identity of which I am not quite sure, though I incline to the belief that it is the Ranunculus sceleratus. Its caustic properties are so great that it is seldom applied directly to the flesh, sometimes a thick covering of linen stuff being unequal to the task of rendering its application bearable for more than a few moments. It is used against almost any acute pain of a local character. Passing now to the various branches of the surgical art such as it is practised among the Northern Dénés, we may come to the setting of broken limbs. This, I am bound to say, is done in a most clumsy way. Though all our Indians, being expert huntsmen and therefore experienced butchers, know and name without the least difficulty any part of the animal anatomy, the most they formerly could do in connection with the injured human body was to try, not always 22 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII. successfully, to reduce dislocations. As to fractures properly speak- ing, no setting of the broken ends of the bone was attempted. The limb was simply enclosed, with hardly any padding, in several envelopes of birch bark with a few wooden splinters bound around as tight as possible, and then left to heal as best it could. In every instance deformity ensued as a matter of course, and even now more than one crooked leg or stiff arm is a witness to the inefficiency of Déné surgery. In no case was amputation resorted to, except when it was self- evident that the limb, foot or finger, was too deeply cut to allow of the edges of the wound becoming reunited. In such cases, the bark of the aspen root (Populus tremuloides) was much esteemed as an astringent. More than once, too, persons supposed to be endowed with magic powers, and who were on that account styled uwzé hutgaz (he whose mouth effects cure), were in times past, asked to suck the blood out of the wound so as to prevent gangrene or any other undesirable result. Such persons were so much the more inclined to render this service, as they well knew that it would not be left unpaid for. And so it was that even on such occasions superstition claimed rights which, as shall be seen in the course of this essay, affected more or less nearly all surgical operations. | But if the cut did not materially affect the bone, and in other cases as, for instance, that of a serious bite from a vicious dog, the Carriers had, and indeed continue to have, recourse to suture, generally with satisfactory results. In olden times, very often shreds of moose sinews were used as thread, while sharp splinters of bone, commonly of a swan wing, did duty as a needle. Ligature against hemorrhage was unknown. Applications of the chewed bark of aspen root took its place. When the wound or sore manifested a tendency towards decomposition, a sort of blister of the inner bark of the willow (Salix longifolia) and of the outer bark of the bear berry bush* was applied, generally with good results. All cases of hernia are treated by bandaging. But sometimes the * Not to be confounded with the Kinnikinik plant or Arctostaphylus uva-urst, The plant I now refer to is a shrub four or five feet high, whose name seems to be unknown to all the English-speaking people I have met, though the plant is very abundant all through my district. French Canadians in the service of the Hudson’s Bay Company call it, it would seem, /’arbe aux sept écorces, though it is no tree at all. The medical properties of its leaves, bark and root are highly valued by the Indians, The word I call it by is merely a translation of its Carrier name sces-mai-tccen, bear-berry-stick, or bush. 1900-f. ] DENE SURGERY. 23 rupture has been so serious that it results in a complete protrusion of the abdominal viscera. Such cases are always fatal here. Unable to effect a cure, the Dénés try to alleviate the sufferings of the patient by means of an eagle or goose quill, slightly cut at the end, and stuck in the outward excrescence. This serves as a duct for the purulent matter which is usually formed in the vicinity of the rupture. Incredible as it may seem, I never heard of any case of inguinal hernia, and the natives I questioned on that subject profess to be ignorant thereof. Gunshot wounds are now treated first by sucking out the fine soot-like residue generally concomitant with the tearing of flesh by a projectile from a fire-arm, after which the shots or ball are extracted if possible, the wound carefully washed and finally covered with some emollient medicinal herbs. I have said that amputation was unknown among the Northern Dénés. This is strictly true as regards surgical operations; but, among the Sekanais, there was another kind of amputation which was often practised, especially by the women. This consisted in the voluntary cutting off of a finger or of part thereof as an outward sign of extreme grief, anger or resentment. It was resorted to mostly on the occasion of the death of a beloved child, sometimes upon the loss of a kind husband and, more seldom, in cases of disappointed love. More than one mother went even further, and did not hestitate to horribly lacerate the breasts her dead offspring had sucked, as a mark of her disgust that she should be left alive after the object of her affection was gone.* Not long ago there died among the Sékanais, who trade their peltries at Fort McLeod, a woman who is said to have had but two fingers left intact. Even here, at Stuart’s Lake, we have among the Carriers, a Sekanais woman whose shortened index attests the intensity of her past troubles. On such occasions a common axe replaces the surgical knife. The treatment of incipient deformities is hardly more serious than that of fractures. As a matter of fact, in most cases it is commenced: too late and stopped too soon to be of much benefit. As with fractures, pieces of birch bark, with the addition occasionally of wooden splinters, are kept very tight over the spine or the diseased * Such outward marks of sorrow recall facts recorded in the history of barbarous nations. Thus we read that, at the death of Attila, his followers manifested their sense of the loss they had suffered by lacerating themselves with knives. 24 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. limb by means of stout bandages. But as the patient is generally a child, and as youth has pretty much its own way among the natives, it commonly happens that said patient soon grows tired of the restraint imposed by the apparatus and easily persuades his parents to throw it away before half the time necessary for a cure has elapsed. Thus it is that hunch-backs, mostly females, are not unknown among the Dénés. Speaking of females reminds me of a circumstance in connection wherewith Déné surgery is, as a rule, more successful. I mean that dangerous complaint known to medical men as prolapsus uteri. As most of the drudgery of the daily life, especially when on the wing, still falls to the lot of the woman, accidents, oftentimes quite serious, follow as a matter of course. Heavy packing, stumbling, falling, or the straining of the lower extremities frequently enough occasion the displacement, more or less pronounced, of the womb. In such cases, the treatment observed is quite rational, and therefore, it is ordinarily crowned with success. The patient is immediately laid in a recumbent position with the head rather lower than the womb, and quite commonly, by dint of external manipulation, the injured organ is pressed up to its normal place, after which strong bandages covering a plaster-like padding, added to copious draughts of the decoction of the stems of the raspberry bush, help to neutralize the effects of the accident. But I am bound to confess that, in the more severe cases, sterility ensues even in otherwise healthy women. Some persons of this Mission are quite noted for their skill in connection with all complaints of this and a cognate nature. Considering the inconstancy of the native temperament, it speaks well for their comprehension of the gravity of such complaints that, in extreme cases, they should keep the patient as long as a full month reclining with the head in a lower plane than the rest of the body after the womb has been duly replaced. I know of one such case which was so serious that the organ had escaped from the body and was protruding almost in its entirety. It happened in a remote village long before I was here, and its treatment may therefore be considered as an instance of unassisted native surgery. It was consequent on a painful delivery, and the mother was so skilfully operated on that she lived to see several grandchildren by the daughter who was the involuntary cause of the whole trouble. On such occasions, our Carrier women wrap their hand, preparatory to internal manipulation, with a kerchief or some soft material 1900-1.] DENE SURGERY. 25 and, of course, perform the operation as gently and as gradually as possible. Midwifery was formerly unknown among the Carriers as it has remained among the Tsilkoh’tin, another Déné tribe. But since the advent of civilization, it would seem that our women are not half as hardy as they used to be*, and, whenever possible, one or more of their female neighbours are now called in to assist nature in the process of parturition. So far as I know, this aid consists in external pressure only. It goes without saying that none of the various instrumental operations resorted to in grievous cases among civilized people are known among poor children of the forest, whose only cutting tools were, but yesterday, roughly flaked stone implements. As parturifacients, three plants are chiefly valued and used to this day among the Carriers. They are the horse-tail (Equzsetum hyemale ) which is taken in strong decoctions, the bark of the Devil’s bush (Fatsia horrida), and that of the elder (Sambucus racemosus), hot infusions of which are drunk previous to parturition or before the after-birth is expelled. A particularity subsequent to delivery which is proper to the natives and is based on superstitious notions, is that relative to the placenta. This was formerly wrapped and suspended from a tree at some distance from the village. Should it have come in contact with water, the mother was believed to be doomed to perpetual sterility. Any reader, ever so little conversant with American aboriginal sociology, knows of the sudatory or sweat-bath wherein the whole naked body is exposed, within an hermetically closed space, to the effect of steam emanating from heated stones. This is quite common among the Northern Dénés. But those Indians have besides a partial or local vapour-bath which is a favourite with lately delivered women. This is called yen-diz'ai (it—an object long or heavy—lies on the ground), while the regular sweat-bath is known as f¢se’-z@/, or the heat of stones. Yen-diz az consists in a round, shallow hole about one foot in diameter dug in the ground, wherein two or three red hot stones are laid. Across the apex of the cavity, small sticks are deposited gridiron-wise and then covered with moistened grass, * That this is a common result of civilization over savage populations is shown by the following state- ment, one of the many which could be adduced: ‘‘ When they begin to take on civilized habits, the Dakota women find they can not continue to follow the customs of their grandmothers.” Riggs’ Dakota Grammar, etc., p. 208, 26 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. Finally some rag, as an old towel just soaked in water—the equivalent of the piece of tanned skin of former years—is thrown on the grass, thus completely closing the aperture of the hole, and the patient steams herself over it in the region of the womb. This contrivance is, it seems, fruitful of the most satisfactory results. As soon as the new-born child has received the first cares necessi- tated by its entry into the world, due attention is paid by its mother and her attendants to its future personal appearance. Here long heads do not meet with favour; therefore the head of the infant is frequently compressed or squeezed between the hands applied to its top and to the chin. No mechanical or permanent contrivance is called into requisition. Futhermore, its eyes are time and again opened and the lids pressed asunder, not any too gently, so as to cause generous dimensions for the balls, and the tiny eye-brows* are from time to time manipulated into the most elegantly arched shape possible. I will now close this review of the Déné surgery by mentioning an operation which the preceding pages have not prepared the reader to anticipate, I mean the extraction of cataract. Few ills are more common here than diseases of the eye. The number of blind people among the Carriers, and the Babines especially, is altogether out of proportion with the population. Snow-haze, accidental blows on the face received in the thickets, smoke from the camp fire or from underneath the fruit-drying or salmon-curing shanties, added some- time to uncleanliness on the part of the old people, are the main causes of this too prevalent complaint. Cataract is easily discerned by the natives who treat it in this wise. A minute pellicle is torn from a piece of birch bark (Bztula papyracea), after which it is doubled up and its extremities firmly held between the fingers. One of the sides of the curve thus formed is then used as the edge of a scraper on the corner of the eye next to the bridge of the nose, and the thin film-like covering on the eye-ball is worked on till part of it is torn asunder, thereby affording a hold for the grasp of the fingers. These now complete the operation by gently drawing off the whole impediment to vision. Instead of birch bark, others use for the same purpose a piece of calcined bone which, coming in contact with the waste tissue formed *I suppose I will not teach anything to my readers by recalling the fact that Indian babies are almost always born with a full crop of hair and more than once with several teeth. 1900-1. | DENE SURGERY. 27 on the eye, seems to have the same drawing properties as a magnet has on a bit of iron. In either case, the eye is left sore and bloody. It is now carefully washed, and, as a final treatment, it is bathed with a cooled infusion of the inner bark of the bear berry bush to which a little woman’s milk has been added. The former especially is reputed to be quite a specific against any soreness of the eyes, though its mordant properties render its application very trying at first. With this last preparation the patient is made to retire, and, when he wakes up on the morrow, he generally feels quite well. Such operations are even now quite common and as uniformly successful. But I am inclined to believe that, considering the primitive way they are performed, at least as much credit is due to the endurance of the patient as to the skill of the oculist. The most common form of ophthalmic trouble among the Northern Dénés is snow blindness and its resulting whitening of the affected pupil. A persistent haziness in the atmosphere and the refraction of a strong light on the water will sometimes have the same effect on persons of a delicate constitution. If allowed to develop itself unhindered, this deterioration of the pupil will completely destroy the sight. The Carriers’ great remedy against this complaint, as in all cases of soreness resulting from accidental blows or tearings, is the balsam of young spruce tops (Adzes nigra). The upper shoots once cut off the sapling are bent and split in two and then left by the fireside. After the resinous liquid they contain has been heated out, the ball of the eye is gently coated therewith by means of a bird quill. 28 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL VII. THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE DENES. LETTER FROM THE REV. FATHER MORICE. STUART'S LAKE MISSION, 2 /an., zgo7z. Editor ‘‘ TRANSACTIONS C.I.,””» TORONTO. DEAR SiIR,—In a late communication from Prof. O. C. Mason, of the Smithsonian Institution, I find the following :— “‘In the publication which you sent me, you call attention to the list of Atha- paskan tribes published in the Standard Dictionary. Supposing me to be the author of that list, you make some just observations about its meagerness. I am happy to » tell you that, while I wrote a great number of definitions for the Standard Dictionary, I did not make any ethnological list whatever.” Prof. Mason here refers to remarks published in the latter part of the first of my papers lately printed in the Memorial Volume (p. 82). It is indeed very unfortunate that I should have been guilty of such an injustice with regard to a scientist whom I know by personal experience to be so pains-taking and conscientious in his work. My regret is so much the greater as I more than half suspected the real author of the classification incriminated in my little paper. But the list of the editorial staff of the Standard Dictionary prefixed to that valuable publication left me no choice but to attribute the incomplete Déné classification to Prof. Mason, who is described as having been in charge of the anthropological department, while the actual compiler’s name is therein associated with a branch of lexicology which has no necessary connec- tion with ethnography. ’ Hoping you will kindly give this rectification as mnch publicity as was granted to the statement which has necessitated it, I remain, dear Mr. Editor, Yours faithfully, A. G. MORICE, O.M.I. 1900-1. | SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS. 29 Citi AL {EXAMINATION (OF» SPANISH “DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO: THE CANARY ASLANDS, SUBMITTED TO, THE WRITER BY “SENOR DON, JUAN BETHEN- COURT ALEONSO, OF TENERIFE. BY: OMN. CAMPBEEL, iki Pik.o.C. Eres Professor tn the Presbyterian College, Montreal. (Read 26th January, rgor). A VALUABLE treatise, published in Paris, and bearing date 1629-30, is entitled: “Histoire de la premiere Descouverte et Conqueste des Canaries. Faite des l’an 1402, par Jean de Bethencourt, Chambellan du Roy Charles VI., etc.” Teas =) ae ~°PA'!T®X3z092 3 a = =~ Berenice. ted See jo < = Se e as ale 3 ee 50S = Ic + 20= be otis 40l C= EO: Dt = S ao eee lee Se sheen Secret Sant > C+ VN elie (eA) : Son to o Wx “SS SS > = —~ OB BIE ~4eO7 ls 9 a Soa Or) oe Seas thee ie ee i ee 8 = + At l= ox Siu INSCRIPTIONS. 74 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vov. VII. INSCRIPTION XV. Follows the same perpendicular order: go pi ti au mo tu ka ma pi si i be + SeaX) i ar ar ma au au Pimo ema Kasi au mai arau: Pimo be goititu arau. Pimo gives to Kasi this tablet suitable : Pimo under erects suitably. “Pimo gives this fitting tablet to Ikasi: the underling of Pimo correctly sets it up.” This is evidently an earlier inscription than No. XIII., which commemorates the death of Pimo or the first. Ikasi, the learner, has no other memorial. The postposition de, under, below, is probably the shortest name in the world for a servant. INSCRIPTION XVI. In the same order : da au no la da ra te Danda au Alarte. Tribute this Alarte. “The tribute this Alarte (gives, receives, etc.).” In No. XIV. Alarte, the grandfather of Otsekoi, receives the tribute of Aukera. This may be another record of such feudal dues, paid on a different occasion. The document is imperfect. 1900-1. | SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDs. a INSCRIPTION XVII. The order of reading is the same: au it te ra saha ka de ra ra ka ma te Itzahar Tekara aur Deka mate. Itzahar, Tekara child Deka King. “Ttzahar, son of Tekara, King of Deka.” The word for king is the equivalent of the Japanese #2-to, mz-kado, the honourable door, or sublime porte. In Basque it would be 7z-ate, an abbreviation of szra-ate, the admirable door. The Basque a¢e and the Japanese ado, are probably the original of the English “gate,” and cognate words in other languages, including the Gaelic geata. Lexico- graphers are almost absolutely ignorant of the extensive Iberic element in all Indo-European and even Semitic languages. There are also debts the other way, as in the Basque fan-Zoka, a pile of stones, and the Japanese dan-jaku, a boulder, in which pax and dan are not native words, but ancient survivals of the Semitic eden, a stone, denoting former intercourse with Hebrews, Assyrians and similar orientals. Itzahar means “the old ox,” which, in Turanian nomenclature, is not remarkable. Sitting-bull belonged to the same race. Even in Celtic, the Babylonian Sin-Gasit, who is the original of the British legendary Hen-gist, is sean-gazscidh, the old warrior, a name which he no doubt received as a child. Tekara may be the Basque zzgora, the rod, scourge, etc. Deka again may stand for zdekz, open. INSCRIPTION XVIII. In perpendicular or Japanese order : be au ha ra ka u ma Au arau Mama beha Kama. This right Mama regards Kama. 76 ’ ‘TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. |Vot. VII. “Kama thus suitably shews regard to Mama.” » The name Mama has already appeared in No. II., an inscription not of Hierro, but of Canaria, where it is combined with that of Goma, a word not unlike Kama or Gama. Canaria is a considerable distance from Hierro, but the multitude of its inscriptions, as compared with other islands, suggests that Hierro may have been chosen by the Iberic aborigines as their place of sepulture, and thus that the Mama and Gama of this inscription are the Mama and Goma of No. II. INSCRIPTION XIX. Read in the same way: te de ma ma ra ma al sai ma Temara Dema Masai al ema. Temara tribute Masa-to power gives. “The tribute of Temara gives sovereignty to Masa.” The name of Masa does not occur elsewhere, unless it be in: M. O’Shea’s XXII., in which the Roman Lamia is called a Masa, Basque mesu, mezu, envoy. Instead of Masa as a proper name, one might read mezut “to the envoy” or Lamia, which would relegate the inscription to the early days of the Roman empire. Temara has already found mention in No. XI., as the tributary of Mama, lord of Sibara. Temara may be zamarz, the horse, or zamar, the crab. In Japanese ¢emarz is a hand-ball. INSCRIPTION XX. Reads like the preceding, but has lacunae or partial defacements : ra ma i bi rabe no no te no no ma be be go be berabe berabe ma ka ha no sari be Mai anoma beha au bite * * * * vyabe no Beberabe no ranono Beberabe zari Goma beka. Tablet contributed regards this envoy * * * * vade of Beberabe of towards Beberabe commander Goma chief. 1900-1. | SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDs. 77 “The contributed tablet regards this envoy (bitezar) * * * * (a tribute) towards Beberabe: the commander Beberabe, chief of Goma.” This imperfect inscription seems to relate to a military man and an envoy, so that, instead of, “the chief of Goma” standing in apposition to him, the words may denote the giver of the tablet. The writer knows of no Basque or Etruscan name or word like Beberabe, but as Bibi-rube, it is just what an Etruscan document would turn the Latin Vibius Rufus or Rufinus into. There was a C. Vibius Rufinus in the Roman consulate 22 A.D., to whose family the supposed éz¢tezar or envoy may have belonged, although his date would suit the time of one at least of the Lamias. INSCRIPTION XXI. Goma beka. Goma chief. “The chief of Goma.” Unfortunately, the name of the chief is lost. INSCRIPTION XXII: u at u be ar be da erbe da hei di beri fe) ha tu za al bi te de no ma a am be u te bera mopira sa da mopira te Udaberri al ema osa atherbe obt ate edate: udahate ambera beheitu debe mopira mopira ardizain be. Spring power gives overseer shelter cave door extend: summer more than lower forbids eight eight shepherd under. “In spring, the overseer gives authority to open the door of the cave shelter : in summer he forbids to lower (into it) more than cight (times) eight, under a shepherd.” [Vou. VIL. TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 73 The inscription, which does not contain a single proper name, is the best test of the correctness of the method of interpretation. INSCRIPTION XXIII. This reads horizontally, from left to right, with a slight variation : simasa te la no si le ya te no ma i ma no Chimasa Tela nausi, Leyate non mat ema. Chimasa Tela lord. Leyate, who tablet gives. “Chimasa, lord of Tela, Leyate who.gives the tablet.” Talaya, by some derived from the Arabic, denotes “a look out on the coast; Chimasa may be a form of szematu, to threaten, meaning “the menacer,” and Leyate signifies “the zealous.” INSCRIPTION XXIV. This irregular inscription is to be read in the main perpendicularly : be go am 5 a la ramama oO hal ma ro ure aita i 2 te ka Belamaka Goramama atta 010i 5 amar 3 ahal urte. Belamaka Goramama father remembers 5 tens 3 power year. “ Belamaka, the father of Goramama, remembers fifty-three years of authority.” The name of this aged sovereign appears alone in No. X. His son’s may be gora-mama, “ the exalted spirit.” 1900-1. } SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDs. 79 INSCRIPTION XXV. oO go le be ro arpe ka te i Olero gabe Arpekatet. Olero lord Arpekate to, “To Arpekate, lord of Olero.” Olero or Oloro invites comparison with Oleron or Oloron in the Lower Pyrenees. Arpekate is, perhaps, a verbal form of evfeka, a stroke of the claws, meaning “to claw.” INSCRIPTION XXVI. Also, with one variation, perpendicular : re) Sa al ma i ta ar 1 be al Osa mat Arbe attat Alberri. Pays-attention tablet Arbe father to Alberri. “The tablet honours Alberri, the father of Arbe.” Arbe appears in No. VIII., as one of the oldest of the kinglets of Hierro. Alberri, his father, furnishes a still higher antiquity. The name may mean as it stands “new authority.” It is not at all likely to be alfer, lazy, alabere, similarly, etc., but it might easily be e/barrz, the crippled, lame, z/berrz, the new moon, or z/bera, the waning moon. 80 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. INSCRIPTION XXVII. Perpendicular, like the last : a a u le ro) te be berabe me rosari be da al re be ri mo ka tu me u ka pi ka a na me ma ri ri Abere aberabe be umerri: umerrt kama lerrozarri mopika : obeka athedatu art almena. Cattle tread under lambs: lambs shepherd place-in-order by twos: better take away ram virility. “Cattle tread under the lambs. The shepherd will place the lambs two inarank. It is preferable to deprive the rams of their virility.” This last inscription is worthy of comparison with No. XXII., both denoting, not only the existence in Hierro of a pastoral Iberic popula- tion, but also that of a population whose humble class of shepherds was able to read such engraved notices. This seems to indicate that educa- tion was general in the islands, or at least among the Iberians in them, before the Christian era, and in the early Christian centuries. Can it be that all their writing was confined to rock faces ; or had they, as Strabo asserts regarding their congeners, the Turdetani of Spain, books and parchment documents, containing, among other things, an account of their eventful history? Everything tends towards the suspicion that they once had such memorials, which may not all have perished. Librarians and similar custodians pay little attention to documents which they cannot read, and can, therefore, neither class nor catalogue. The question is worth asking, not only of archivists in the Canary Islands, but also of the same in Spain, southern France, Italy, and north-western Africa, whether a little research may not bring to light important historic facts concerning a race that has played no small role on the stage of the past. 1900-f. | SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS, 81 GENERAL VOCABULARY. COMPARING THE CANARY ISLAND DIALECTS WITH IRISH-GAELIC, WELSH AND BASQUE: I., W., B. aala, alamen, abara, abora, abimbar, acaman, achaman, acano, acaman, achacae, chacais, achahuaran, achemen, achic, achicaxna, achicuca, aguahuio, achijerres, achimaya, achimencey, achjucanac, achjuragan, achormaza, acoran, achoran, acucanac, aculan, adago, adarg, adargomo, adarno, aemo, afaro, aguayan, ahicasna, ahico, ajerjo, aho, ahof, alcorac, alcoran, algarabana, alio, aljereque, almogaren, 6 water, god, to throw stones, highest god, lunar year, sun, rock pools, great god, milk, son, descendant, peasant, clown, illegitimate son, trifles, mother, noble, supreme god, god and lord, green figs, god, highest god, fresh fat, goat's milk, shoulder (of rock), arm of rock, tree; water, corn, grain, dog, son of plebeian, dress, skin shirt, torrent, milk, god, wheat and barley, sun, narrow wall, temple, lo. lua, uaran, I. ur B. adbar, adbal I. cause; peryf W. creator. beim-bair I. acmhaing I. puzssance. eigh I. moon, cann I. full moon, eang I. year. huan W., samh I., shems Arabic. cuas I. cavity. aigh-urraim I. upholding power. segh I. mz/k, seghamhuil [. mz/ky. ae I., esil W. gwasan W. ac-cuig I. secret son. ceirriach W. iog, iogain I, acmhaingeach I. uchaf, uchbenaeth W. uachdarach I., udd-dragonoll W. boccore Arabic. crom I. aige-ceannach I., ‘the wpholder of authority. agalen W. lump of butter. at I. mzlk. otir I, otir-gob I. udarondo B. fear-tree. aw W., amh, amhan, en I. bar I. cian W. gwesyn W., oganach I. gwise W., haik Arabic. easar, easard I. as, ceo I, uileghlic I, a@d/-w7se, uilecoireach I., ollgwyr W. all-just. iolach-arban I. mzxed grazn. haul W. cul-gwyrch W. armighthear I. sanctified, airmhidh I. vow, airmhidin I. reverence. 82 almogaroc, altacayte, altaha, althos, amago, umiago, amodagas, amolan, ana, anepa, anthaa, antieux, antraha, ara, aramatonaque, archormaze, arguna, aridaman, artamy, arteme, asidir-magro, asitis-tirma, atguaychafortanaman, atinavina, atinaviva, atis-tirma, auchones, auchor, azamotan, axa, axo, xayo, azarquen, tacerquen, babilon, baifo, balma, belete, beleten, benesmen, benesmer, bimba, bochafisco, borondango, bosigaiga, burgado, cancos, cariana, cariano, carabuco, carabuco, casjua, TRANSACTIONS OF THE adoration, brave man, brave man, god, sacred mount, sticks sharpened with fire, butter-cake, sheep, lance, brave man, house, man, goat, barley cakes, green figs, saddle bag, flock of sheep, etc., chief, prince, invocation to God, invocation to God, he who holds the heavens, hog, cry of surrender, invoca- tion to God, connections of caves, cave dwelling, barley bread, goat, mummy, syrup of mocanes, nickname of Tenerife child, kid, cloud, veil, first milk, harvest, August, round stone, roasted grain, butter-cake, el pene (Spanish), shell-fish, priests of medium rank, rush basket, large bag, earthen jar with handle, male goat, the cud, CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. ermygiad W., urnaighe {I, frayer, iarrata I. asked. lath-cathach I. warv-champion. lath I., lluyddwr W. alla, alladh, alt, art I. myg W. sacred. maide I. stick, miodog I. bidog W. dagger. eim-aran I. oen W., uan I. lamb. omna I. niadh I. hero. anedd, W. anra I. meanYmen. ari B. ram. eorna-taoisnighthe I. bokkore Arabic. bolgan W. airmheadh I, herd of cattle, altain I, flock, porthmon W. drover. ardmhaor I. chtef magistrate. magh-adraidh I. feld of adoration. aitchim-trom I., 7 deg for protection. adh-se-a-cabhairt-neamh I, cymhorth- nef W. aitheach-ban I. sow, hob W. aitchim-trom I., 7 beg for protection. uaigh, uaighneach I, cave. ogof W., coire I. haidd-miod W. éarley cake. seaghach I. e-goat. ecc, echt I. dead. deasguin I. molasses, etc. buibiollan I. coxcomé. beag-boc I., bitika B. beala I. flaith I. pen-cywain W. first harvest. beinn fomhar I. first harvest. beim I, Zo strike. poeth-plisgo W., bocht-blaosg I. barachdaen W. bread and butter barantionsan I. biach I., potzuak B. bylchiad W., murac I. carnach I, heathen priest. crannog I. crannog I. cailphig I. culbhoc I., bwch-gafr W. athchagnadh I. 1900-1. | SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS. 83 cel} moon, gealach I. cela, month, gealach I. chabogo, chaboigo, cavern, ogofawg W. chabor, royal palace, sabhal I. granary, storehouse. chacanisos, feet, cos I. chafija, debility, afiechyd W. chacares, castanets, cliciwr W. chafariles, rock pools, tiobhar I. chajaco, chajasco, litter, bier, caiteach I. wzznow sheet. chajaija, dark colour, gwywgoch W. chajajo, corpse, dead, aisc, eag, oighidh I. chajinasco, cumular clouds, eachanach I. stormy. chalafusco, crevice in mountains, scalp I. chamato, woman, cyffoden, cymones W., gamh, caom- hog, coint I. chayofa, nose, comar, comhor lI. chede, limit, boundary, chede B. cherga, belly, croth W.,, cilfin I. chescaro, mean, penurious, cagaltach I., cyrrithus W. chibichibi, a game, gogampau W., subha I. chibusco, rope, suag, sioman I, chichiciquico, squire, gaisgidheach I. chihisquico, cavalier, gwych W. chilhisquizo, squire, giollasguain I. chinea, lower hell, anwn W. chinichibito, change of pasture, cyfnewydiad W. change. chiribito, ear mark on cattle, cearbhach I. ragged, torn, clustnod W. chirrimile, small helix, cregyn W., creachan I. chirripota, pubescent girl, gwryf W. chiscano, bone, seic, asna I., asgwrn W. chiscanado, bony, asnach I., esgirnig W. chivato, kid, gabhar I. goat, giden W. ciguena, female goat or ewe, ceathnaid I, sheep. chocos, chips of wood, casnaig I., coed W. wood. coran, man, gwr VW. coruja, red owl, sgreachog I. cotan, man, cathaidhe I. warrior. creses, beech-nuts, grech, creachach I. cuna, dog, cu I., cian W. cuncha, cancha, little dog, cynos W. cuteto, piebald animal, caideacha I. sfotted. datana, war cry, deodhann I. é6y God's help, a gagan Dduw W. god grant. debase, idler, taimheach I. eccero, limit, boundary, ewr W. echeyde, hell, avagddu W. efequen, place of worship, impuighim I. pray. embroscar, poison water, amh-briosog, rossachd I. enac, night, nos W. ere, eres, erales fresh water holes, feirsde, earc I. esmira, bee-hive, smeraighe I. swarming of hive. esquen, house, iosdan I, estafia, to beat, asti B. 84 fagayo, faira, faisca, faita, fayacan, faycao, faysage, fe, firancas, firanque, fol, fole, furna, furnia, gabio, gabeit, gabiota, gagames, gahuata, gaire, gayre, galiot, gama, gambuesa, ganigo, guanigo, ganofa, gara, garajao, garepa, garepa, garfa, gocho, gofio, gongo, goran, goro, gouro,. groja, gua, guacacque, guacaros, guachafisco, guaclo, juaclo, guague, guaire, guamf, guan, guanac, guanac, guanaja, guanarteme, guanhot, guanoco, guanoth, guanil, guapil, teat, udder, round stone, spark of fire, treason, governor, priest, councillor, crescent moon, stray, beetle, big bag, abyss, evil spirit, devil, appetite, devil, war-councillors, devil, enough, shed for wild cattle, earthen pot, generous, island, rock in sea, water fowl, chip, shaving, spark, lance, little yard, porridge, hole, yard, circus, arena, little yard for kids, laughter, son of, jug of measure, bettle, reduce to powder, natural cave, measure, noble, man, son of, estate, republic, devil, king, favour, gift, weak, infirm, steward of estate, wild cattle, skin cap, TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. boig I., piw W. bair I., bwrw W. bacht I. : brad W., fionaih I. pencun W. faigh I. | VOL. feasach I., knowing, skillful. fasuigheadh I., 4xowledge of law. fas I., crescent, growing. bracach I. primpiollan I., chwilen W. bolg I. uffern W., ith frionn I. siabhra I. siobradh I. geogamhail I. sighidh, siogidh I. gearait I., prudent. goilline I. cmyhwys W. gabhann I., a pound. cunnog W., cuinneog I. hynaws W. sgeir I. curcag I., gwyach W. sgealp, sgolb I. gwraich W., caor I. geurgath I., gwaywffon W. cata I. sopa, zopa B. ionga I. cro.cruy lL: chwareufa W. cal, corlan W. gaire I., chwardd W. ua I. cuachog I. chwil W. creafog I. ceule W., iseal I. cuachog I. guaire I., gwerlin W. ymbaffiwr W., fighéer. gein I., cenaw W. ceannas I. ceannach I. einioes W. ardmhaor, airdimnhe I. cymhorthi W. gwan W. ceannart I. agh I., cattle, anial W., weld. cwflen W., caba, caibin I. VII. 1900-1. | guardaseme, guarirari, guatatiboa, guaya, iguaya, guayca, guaycos, guaycas, guayafacan, guayfan, guayere, guayoto, huayota, guijon, guirre, guisne, gurancho, gurgusiar, gurgusiar, hana, hara, harba, harhuy, harmaguade, hecheres hamanates, herguele, hero, herez, hirahi, hiragi, huirmas, ife, iguanoso, iguaya hiraji, ilfe, irichen, iruene, irvene, jameo, jao, josio, jarco, jeren, jilmero, jucancha, jurnia, juvague, leren, ha, lion, machafisco, magado, magarefo, magarejo, magido, mago, maguas, magada, king, who anchors the world. national festival, spirit, buskins, sleeves, co-adjutor of governor, co-adjutor of governor, populace, devil, ship, vulture, pudenda, cave for animals, to cry, to examine, pry, help, ewe, loan, sheep skin, vestal virgin, councillors, shoeing, cistern, heaven, large sleeves, white, weak, infirm, god of heaven, hog, wheat, devil, apparition, water hole in lava, term of endearment, dead, shaft of mill, rod fishing from the shore, god universal, abyss, fat ewe, irrigation ditch, summer sun, sun, object of little value, mace, club, tall thin boy, fire wood, Guanche, vestal, SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS, airdcheim I., ewzznence. accaire I., heor W., anchor. eisteddfod W. sia I. asachcos I., gwentas W. cuachog I. cympencun W. cympen W. gwerin W. sigidh, gosda I. cwch W. buri W., gairrfhiach I. caise I. gurna I., cor-ychain W. gairgala, golghair I. chwilgar W., cuartughadh I. anaice, congain I. caora I., sheep. airle I. caorach I. er-maighdean I., xob/e virgin. agarach comchaint I., uchreithwr cymanfa W. archeniad W. fuaran I. earc I. llawes W. aoibhe I., fazv, abead Arabic. egwan W. sia erc I. lia I., lwdn W. rhygen W., 7~ye. iarog I. airidh, arrach I. uam, uain I., a hollow. cu, W. erca I. garan W., seaghlan I. genweirio W. sia-ceannach I. fuirne I., uffern W. mamog W. llyr W., flirim I. les, leus, lo L., Zgh?. laom I., dlaze of frre. meas-beag I. piocaid, picidh, fascut I., makatu, makilla B. mac I., doy, llipa W., /anky. fagoid I., ffagod W. mogh I., maz. maighdean I. 86 mahey, maho, maxo, majec, malgareo, maniota, manonda, marona, masiega, maxio, mayan, menceit, mesdache, minaja, minajo, misgan, misg'ano, moca, moneiba, moreiba, malan, naguayan, oche, hoche, Omanamastuca, oranjan, orduhy, parano, puipana, punapal, quebehi, quehibi, quevechi, quevihiera, rapayo, reste, sabor, sabuco, safiro, samarin, sera, serfacaera, sigone, sisa, sorrocloco, sunta, suzmago, tabajo, tabajoste, tabese, tabite, tebite, tabona, tabor, tafiaque, tafique, TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. hero, shoe, sun, rough music, little bag, black 'goat with white feet, fried meat, thatch, enchanted spirit, piece, part, heir apparent, relaxation, goat, cat-hole, javelin, female idol, buttermilk fat, animal, insect, grease, fat, bright red, god, court, hall, a stand, [Vot. VII. mogan I. mogan I., amgoesan W. mais I., mychedin W. szsshzne. mawlganu W. mang I., amner W. ban an dubh I., gwyn yn du W. white in black. mollwyn W. mutton, bruin I. stew. imscing I. covering. mwci W. men Arabic. fineachas I. z#herttance. feisteas I, meann, mionnan I. zd. musgan I, meas I., moko B. foznt. menerbh I. goddess of dyeing. mehin W. fat, molchan I. dzttermilk cheese. ednogyn W., snagan I. usg, iach I, omh aineamh dathach I. 6/ood stain coloured. arnaigh I, ard-tig, alladh I. brannra I. white and cinnamon goat, buidhe-ban I, yellow-white. first son, dignity, dignity, greatness, burnt ears of wheat, support, defence, counsel, advice, sharpened stick, insect, priest, cheese-hoop, priestess, noble, leader, pen-eppill W. ceap I, gofyged W. gwchder, cynghori W. erre-bihi B. airchiseacht I. cyfarwyddiad W. yspig W., cipin I. gwiban W., giuban I. seanmoirighe I. cor, cylch W. seirbhiseach I. attendant. seighion, soichinealach I. yard to attract wild cattle,gaiste I. ¢vap. the couvade, sor-acholtsu, sor-ahalge B. care of newly-born, shame of newly-born. (This is not a Celtic custom). war fleet, dart, milk-pail, cooked whey, handled pot, stone knife, royal palace, lancet shaped flint, flint knife, uiginge I. saeth W., sais-macha I. tubog I., duphe B. chwig W. whey. poite, poitin I. deimhne I. edge tool. sabair I., ysgubor W. granary. twca W., diobadh I. samhagh I, edge, epaki B. cve?. — us tamaismia, tamasma, tamaro, tamarco, tamarcano, tamarco, tamarco, tamasaque, tamazen, tamogantacoran, | ears en acoran, tamonante, tamogitin, tamogantin, tamozanona, tamozen, tano, tafio, tara, tarha, tarja, tarhais, taro, tarqui, tarquis, tarute, tasaigo, teseque, tasasa, tasorma, teberite, tebija, tefene, tegala, tazufre, tegue, teguevelt, teguevita, tehuete, SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS. 1900-1. | tafrique, stone knife, lancet, tafugada, much, abundant, tagoro, tagoror, town council, taguacen, hog, taguado, taguao, taguas,squeezing ladle, tahatan, ewe, tahuyan, skin petticoat, tajalaque, palm leaf, tajorase, goat under one year, _ tajos, night-bird, tajuco, milk-pail, talabordon, slope against the sea, tamaide, fountain, tamaite, big, swollen, sparrow, short fur cloak, skin dress, violent blow, tall vulgar person, large fat adder, lance, hog, house of God, inspired priesthood, house, fried meat, barley, straw basket, sign of remembrance, tree, stone granary, call to speak, certainly, ambassador, corpse, shaft of mill, flat stone, cattle mark, ear clip, little handled earthen pot, roasting grain, shepherd’s enclosure, goat skin bag, yellowish chalk, ewe, goat, small skin bag, 87 spealg I. splinter. hafog W. tagra I., dadllewr W. dzscuss. arcain I. guasge W. a squeeze. dafad W. hugan W., gown. duilleog I. leaf. aos arraise I., oes cyrhaedd W. age attaining. eos W. nightingale. dabhach I. tuilemara don I. om account of the tide. tiobraid I. ymchydd W. camhuin, scamoghuin I. wry-meck. zamarra B., ionar I. zamarra B., sgabul I. tuargain I. deating. amrosgo W., tamhanach I. diamhar I. amusadh I. attack. mochyn W. tamhait an crom I. W., conjurer. tamhaighim I. J dwell. mochyn W., #zg, muc anong I. /frzed pork. tumdhias I. bushy ear of corn. toin, tonna, tonnog, tunog I. dere, dyre W., tarra, tarrsa I. come thou ( here ). dair I., derw W. oak. daras I. house. dewin deamhnoir I. frophet, see tara. deigh I, treithu W. taise I. deatachan I. chzmney. sarn W. diobhaladh I. muzz/ation, gofyriad W. clipping. pig, pigin I. teibidh I. havvest making. teagair I. tais-cofra I. dathach I. coloured, chromatic. othaisg-allaidh I. weld sheep. othaisg-fiadha I. weld sheep. tiach, tiochog, I., cod W. 88 teigue, teique, teseique, tejuete, teniques, teofuivite, testadal, teste, teseique, tezerez, tezezez, tibiabin, tibibeja, tifia, tifiar, tigalate, tihagan, tihaxas, timargo, timixiraqui, tingalate, tirma, tisamago, tistirma, titogan, tofio, tofio, tabajoste, tolmo, tozio, trichen, trifa, tufa, tujite, urraja, valeron, varode, verdone, xerco, yubaque, zeloy, zonfa, zucaha, zucasa, TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. hard land, argillaceous earth, shepherd’s bag, three stones of hearth, goat or ewe skin, coloured chalky earth, trace of animal, great man, cudgels, sticks of wild olive, priestess, small handled earthen pot, correction, to steal, tall slender man, ewe, invocation, measure, weight, tall thin person, sacred cliff, sacred cliff, sacred cliff, heaven, handled pot, cattle trough, land slide, crockery, wheat, corn, grain, ewe, little purse, cry to scare hawks, cave of vestals, lance, big stick, shoe, reed mat, son, hole, centre, navel, daughter, legitimate son, [VoL. VII. tingh I., tew W. dense. toes W., doigh, taos I. dough. tiach I. teinngha I. relating to the fire, teinntein I. the hearth. fetha-boc I. des-dathach I. deisidh I. 7z¢ sat, rested. toiseach I. tagar I. fight, zigor B. zotz B. small sticks. dewin-ben W. pibcyn W. cosp W. cipio W. teircfheolach I. othisc, othaisg I. diomrac, I. ¢emfle, diamaireachd I. mystery. tomhas, toimhseacan I. tan-cleith I. drim I, trum W. cif. diagha-magh I. sacred field. diagha-drim I. ditiu ceann I., tuddo cwn W. covering of the head. cib W., tupin B. dabhach I. deillion I. s/de away. toes W., taos I. dough. triosg I. grazn. arba I. dafad W. tiach, tiachog I. oergri W. ffau-lle-rhian W. cave-room-virgin. bruidh, bioradh, morgha I. buailtin, baircin, farachdach I. cuarog I., archen W. beach I. gille I. ion, ionga I. oghachd I. ac-aicsi I. hezr. 1900-1. ] aceben, acichei, haquichey, aderno, afaro, ofaro, agonan, aguamante, aijara, aijota, aites, ajinajo, jinajo, alcaritofe, algaritofe, alchofe, algafita, algarfe, amagante, amogante, amuley, anarfeque, aromatan, balo, bejique, bequeque, bequeque, berode, beya, bicacaro, SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS, 89 NAMES OF PLANTS. plant, beans, vetches, hardwood tree, grain, plant, mallow roots, bush or bramble, mushroom, plant, bush, Cedronella canar, yellow flowered thorn, Agrimonia, Cedronella trip, mallow, berry, herb, wormwood, barley, Plocamia pendula, Sempervivum, Canaria, easping-ban I. ox-eye daisy, Chry- santhemum leucanthemum. ekosari B. derwen W. oak, bar I., brachtan I., wheat. ccenamb I., samphire, Crithmum mar- itimum. ucas-fiadhain I. sylvestris. casair I. thorn. caochog I. puff-ball. uath I. whzte thorn, Crataegus ox- yacantha, iodha I. yew, Taxus baccata, ote B. 6éroom, Genista tinctoria, aiteann I. jurze, Ulex europzus. conasg I. furze whins, Ulex euro- pzus. lus-grafandubh I. horehound, Ballota niger. oirchiabhach I. golden hatred. leatach-buidhe I. /ady’s mantle, Alche- milla vulgaris. lusgrafanban I. forehound, Ballota alba. mil-mheacan I. mallow, Malva syl- vestris. magon, bacon W, amharag I. mustard, Sinapis arven- sis; amaraich I. scurvy grass, Cochlearea officinalis. mormont I. wormwood, Absinthium latifolium ; norp I. houseleek, Sem- pervivum tectorum. eorna I, bhalla I. wall pellitory, Parietaria officinalis. beidiog W. evergreen. feusogach I. bearded capillary, Adian- tum capillus veneris. bythwyrdd W. evergreen. bihi B. corn, fead I. bulrush, Typha latifolia; fiag I. rushes, Juncus ; feith I. honeysuckle, Lonicera peri- clymenum. bascart I. cénmamon, Laurus cinna- momum. mallow, Malva go bubango, cadil, cail, carisco, chabora, chajil, chajinate, chaguira, chenipa, cheremina, chibusquera, chibusco, chilate, cofecofe, cosco, creses, garao, garse, garasera, girolana, givarvera, hivalvera, golgora, guasimo, guaydil, gurman, haran, iguaje, TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. gourd, food plants, grapes, plant, plant, plant, plant, herb, plant, plant, berry of same, graminaceous herb, Chenopodium, herb, beech-nuts, sacred tree, plant, bush, butcher's broom, plant, plant, convolvulus floridus, plant, fern, plant, (VoL. VIL pepog I., pompiwn W. cadhal, cal I. coleworts. caora I. seamar, seamrog I. clover, Trifolium repens. cagal I. cockle, Agrostemma githago; cuisle I, hepatica, cucuillean I, bed- straw, Galium verum; casair I. thorn. casmhoidhach I. haresfoot. chosgair I. J/aurel, Laurus nobilis ; cocoil I. drdock, Arctium lappa. cnaib I. emp, Cannabis sativa. chermen B. fear, goirmin I. woad, Isatis tinctoria ; coireaman I. cov7- ander, Coriandrum sativum ; guir- min I. zzdigo, gorman I. d/uedottle, Centaurea cyanus; surramont I. southernwood, Artemisia abrotanum; searbhan I. dandelion, Leontodon taraxacum. subcraobh I. raspberry, Rubus idaeus. subha I. rasp-berry. chilista B. /extzls, seirg I. clover, Tri- folium pratense. pigogo W. sfzzach, Spinacea olera- cea ; gabaisde I. cole-worts. cusag |. wzld-mustard, Sinapis arven- sis. grech I. caorran I. mountatn-ash, Pyrus aucu- paria. glasair I. defony, Betonia officinalis. caoirinleana I. valertan, Valeriana officinalis ; caorogleana I. meadow- pink, Lychnis flos cuculi. calgbrudhan I., Ruscus aculeatus. zurchuri B. joflar, culuran I. dirth- wort, Aristolochia; galluran I, angelica, Angelica sylvestris ; glasair I, defony, see garasera. gaoicin I. arvwm, Arum maculatum ; hasuin B. zeftle. codhlan I. popsy, Papaver ; codalian I, mandrake. Mandragora. corrman I. wall pennywort, ? Sedum; gorman I. dluebottle, Centaurea cyanus, see cheremina. ira B., chorrain I. Asplentum. cuigeag I. cénqguefotl, Potentilla reptans: cusag I. wld mustard, Sinapis. irichen, jarjado, jirdana, jopebe, joriada, jorjal, juesco, loro, marmojarse, marmojoce, marmolan, mocan, mol, morangana, name, niame, orijama, orixama, pirguan, romame, sajira, sanjora, saquitero, sorame, shrub, wheat, shrub, shrub, herb, Bophthalmum, plant, mallows, tree, herb, mountain tree, Visnia mocanera, aromatic shrub, strawberry, plant, plant, Cnecrum pul, plant, fruit of thorn, plant, Sempervivum, tree, little bush, SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS. gI arne I. sloe, Prunus spinosa; oruin I. beech, Fagus sylvatica; uillean I. honeysuckle, Capritolium pericly- menum. ceirchen W. oats. groisaid I. gooseberxy, Ribes grossu- laria ; curcais I. flag, bulrush. caorthainn I. gutckbeam, ?. Pyrus aucuparia; crithean I. asfez, Populus tremula ; cailtin I. haze/, Corylus avellana; scrutan I. hawkweed, Hieracium; sraidin I. shepherd's purse, Capsella bursa pastoris. sobha I., hebog W. sorrel, Rumex acetosa ; copog I. dock, Rumex obtusifolius ; fib I. dzlberry, Vac- cinium myrtilus. ceannruadh I., celandine, Cheli- donium majus. crostal, crutal I. moss. ochus I., Malva vulgaris. llawryf W. /aurel, Laurus nobilis. barbog, barbrog I. barberry, Ber- beris vulgaris; borramotur I. wormwood, Artemisia absynthium ; feoran-curraigh I. water horehound, Lycopus europzus. malabhar I. dwarf elder, Sambucus humilis. meacan I. ¢aprooted plants, meangan, maothan I. oszer. marros I. yvosemary, Rosmarinus officinalis. mariguri B. noinin I. dazsy, Bellis perennis. oragan I. weld marjoram, Origanum vulgare. ragaim I, sneezewort. Achillea ptarmica. fraochan I. dzlberry, Vaccinium myrtilus; bairgin I. dzttercep, Ranunculus repens, mearacan I. foxglove, Digitalis. romhan I. /rench wheat, ? Polygonum fagopyrum. seichearlan, seicheirghin I. przmrose, Primula veris. sinicin I. howseleek, Sempervivum. sgeachmhadra I. wz/d rose, Rosa canina. surrabhan I. southern wood, Artemisia abrotanum. 92 tababoire, tabajoiri, tabaibo, tacorantia, taragontia, tadaigo, tagasaste, taginaste, tajose, tajarnollo, tamozen, tanjose, tarabaste, tarambuche tarhais, tasaigo, tebete, tinanbuche, titimalo, togia, trichen, trifa, vesto, TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. aromatic herb, Euphorbia, Dracunculus canar, bush, Cytisus, bush, plant, barley, plant, herbaceous plant, bulbous plant, tree, plant, mountain tree, bryony, purgative plant, sand plant, wheat, wheat, mallow roots, [VoL.- VII. bofulan I. megwort, Artemisia vul- garis; biorfheir I. water-cress, Nasturtium officinale. dathabha I. hedllebore, Helleborus niger. gacharonda I. arvum, Arum macula- tum. sceitheog I. hawthorn, Crataegus oxyacantha. ddrewgoed I. J/aburnum, Cytisus alpinus. giogun-ard, oigheannach I. /hzstle Cirsium lanceolatum. cuigeag, cuigmhearmhuire I. common cingueforl, Potentilla reptans. tumdhias I. bushy ear of wheat. caineog I. éarley and oats. treabhach I, wzveter rocket, Eryssimum barbara ; trombhod I. vervain mal- low, Malva ? gropis I. allow. erwnben W, éz/b. darach I. oak. sgathog I. cotton grass, Eriophorum polystachion ; sgathog I. ¢refozt, Trifolium. eabhadh I. asfex, Populus tremula. cnaibuisge I. water neck weed. taithfhuillean I. qwood-béne, Lonicera periclymenum. taga I. ¢eazle, Dipsacus. rhych W. ~xye. arba I. fochas I. mallow, Malva. COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY O05 BPERUVIAN: (Q. QuicHUA, QT. QuITENA, A. AYMARA, AT. ATACAMA, I, ITENES, C. CAYUBABA, S. SAPIBOCONO, AND Y. YURACARES), WITH CELTIC (A. ARMORICAN, G. GAELIC, E. ERSE, AND W. WELSu#.) above, after, air, all, angry, arm, armpit, Peruvian, araja A., ucata A., huayra Q., taque A., pina Q., hicani A., huallhuancu Q., Celtic. goruch W. gwedi W. awyr W. gac E. ffrom W. caine W. cesail W. a 1900-1. | arrow, ashes, ask, bad, basket, beard, beat, belly, below, bind, bitter, black, blood, blue, body, bone, bow, branch, bread, break, breast, bring forth, butterfly, buy, cheek, choice, clear, cloak, clothes, cold, corpse, cut, dance, dark, dead, death, die, deep, demon, deer, dew, dice, do, dog, Peruvian. micchi A., quella A., isquina, mayina A., valchar, ualcher At., sappa A., tironcayu A., panay Q., huacta Q., puraca A., urac Ot., ichen At., huata, huatay Q., haru A., chamaka A., coca A., hachi At., huila A., yahuar Q., selqui At., hanchi A., cchaka A., picta O., ali A., tanta Q., ttanta A., pakiy Q., haiti At., pivur At., sarma At., pilpinto A., rantiy O., buca I., ahllay Q., illan, illari Q., iscallo A., sau A., acsu At., chiri Q., serar At., aya O., cuta A., raymi O., kata Q., hinata A., huanhu, huanuy Q., amaya A., mulsi At., ccorahua A., supayu A., zupai QO., huantahualla A., lluchos, taruco Q., taruja A., sulla A., huayru Q., rurani QO., anu A., alljo Q., locma At., SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS. Celtic. picell W. ulw W. gofyn, ymofyn W. ysgeler W. wicked. cawell W. rhawn W. hair. pwnio W. chwatio W. bru, bolg G. goris W. is, isod W. caethiwo W. chwerw W. much W. cuchiog W. fuil G. crau W., cru G. glas G. W. neach G. seis E. bwa W. osgl W, teisen W. cake. bregu W. uchd E. afell W. esgor W. balafen W. prynydd W. dzyer. boch W. ethol W. glain, eglur W. casul W. gwise W. oer, goroer W. ecE: cat W., a cut. llemain W. caddug W. darkness. ymado W. angau, angeu W. mas W. marw W., craff W. siabhra E. enaidmall W. cellaig W. stag. gwlith W. ffrist W. llunio W. make. cain W. llechgi W. czr, 93 94 door, dress (woman's), drink, dry, dust, ear, earth, eat, end, enter, equal, eye, face, faggot, fall, falsehood, fat, father, father-in-law, fear, feather, field, figure, form, fire, flesh, flower, fly, foot, fountain, fowl, fox, friend, frog, ghost, girl, give, TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. Peruvian. puncu A., O., anoco A., upiya Q., chaki Q., turo Q., iradike C., idatu C., hoire At., lacca A., oloma At., ccorpa A., mantana A., cusca A., nairi A., iyocori C., akanu A., picho A., tincuna A., selima At., karina A., lanccu A., huira QO., tata Al{1S:, O:; ttosi At., ajsarana A.,, puru Q., puyu A., cancha Q., vaca At., yapu A., tunar At., culam At., humur At., nina A., O., cuati S., aicha A., aycha Q., sabur At., pucher At., cuspi Q., kayu A., cuchi At., ebbachi S., puquio O., hualpa A., atoc QO., cachomasi A., hampatua A., ccaira A., kayra Q., llantu QO., ppucha A., tahuaco A., imilla A., huiti [., [Vou. VII. Celtic. porth W. gynog W. gowned. yfed W. sych W. stur G, clust W. tudd W. daiar W. Ilwch W. dust. llewa W. gorphyn W. myned W. cystal W. meilyn W. suil G., crai W. gwyneb W., cainsi E. ffasg W. disgyniad W. celwydd W. creinio W. Zo le. bloneg W. gwer W. tad W. tadcu W. dychryn W. pluen, plu W. caint W. maes W. ceufaes W. cymle W. eilun W. ufel W. tan W. goddaith W. hig A., eig W. ymborth W. meat. fur W. gwiban W. cas G. ped W. ffynon W. golfan W. sparrow, gylfinog W. curlew, etc. gwyddgi W. cydymaith W. llyffant W. creiniog W. gwyllon W. Alural, bachgenes W. hogen W, plah A., merch W., daughter. dodi W. 1900-1. | So, goat, gold, good, granary, great, green, hail, hand, harness, hate, have, he, head, heal, health, heart, heaven, horn, hot, heat, house, in, increase, iron, jaw, king, kiss, know, lamb, lance, laugh, leaf, learn, leg, life, light, lip, Peruvian. humi A. QO., paca A., sila, telir At., ccori Q., coori A., asque A., alli Q., coptra Q., capur At., ccari, khal At., komer Q., chijchi A., tachlli A., arue C., uru I., recau At., coysma At., tausi At., hupa A., dala Y., ppekei A., lacsi, hlacse At., callana A., hampi Q., ccaya At., haiti At., urajpacha A., huakra Q., quajra A., cambs At., capi At., huntu A., conic Q., uta, ata A., puncu A., turi, thuri At., huasi Q., na A., aliyani A., quella A., kaki Q., capac Q., curaca Q., quischama At., yatina A., una A., chita QO.. chuqui Q., teshma At., llakka A., yaticha A., chara A., haka A., ceana A., uirpa, sirpi Q., SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS. Celtic. imich G. boc G. Nill W. aor W. gwiw W. llesol W. ysgubor W. syberw W. cri, glas W. gorm G. cesair W. liaw W. trec W. casau W. dygyd W. efe W. talcen W. pen W. llyw W. gwellau W. cymodi W. iechyd W. uchd E. dveast. goruch W. adove. adharc G. twym W. craf W. chwantus W. cynhesu W. ¢o heat. ty W. ffronc W. hut. twlo W. hut. ios-da G. an G. helaethu W. caled W. cargen W. ceap E. goruch W. szprenie. cusanu W. adwaen W. uan G., oen W. gid W. kzd. gwayw, ysgeth W. dychwardd W. duilleag E. dysgu W. esgar W., cara E. bwch W. cain, cynneu W. gwefus W. 95 96 load, love, louse, male, man, medicine, meet, middle, moon, morning, mother, mountain, mouth, much, ° nail, neck, night, no, nose, old, open, paint, palace, peace, pigeon, pike, plant, pot, priest, rabbit, race, rain, reed, rest, red, rich, ripen, river, road, Peruvian. penaclo At., qquipi At., lappa A., orko Q., chacha A., kkari A., Q., huataki I[., ccolla A., tinquy Q., chaupi Q., taipi A., irare C., quilla Q., ccamur At., ccara A., mama A., Q., At., cua S., monono Y., kkollo A., iruretui C., pata Q., pico I., quaipi, khaipe At., simi Q., alloja A., khin, qquini At., sillu A., cunka Q., conka A., haipu A., hani A., ibarioho C., cenca Q., ucuti I., istorana A., llampi Q., inca-pillca Q., tecum At., culcataya A., tupina Q., liga A., payla A., potor At., ppucu A., pachacuc A., cuys Q., ayllo A., hallu A., curcura A., sama A., pako A., Q., capac At., quaraj Q., poccoy Q., hahuiri A., mayu G., peter At., TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. | VOL. Celtic. pynorio W. hoffi, cudeb W. lleuen W. gwryw W. cia G. gwr W. cathaidhe E., warrior. iachaol W. cynghyd W. cefnaint W. lloer W. gealach G. eighmor E. gwawr W. dawn. mam W. iog E. mynydd W. gallt, garth W. ponc, bre W. safn W. genau W. lliaws W. ewin W. hoel W. cegen, W. ¢hroat. be E., gosper W. evenzng. chan G. ffri W. comhor E. gwth W. egori W. lliw W. plas W. tangnef W. colom-cuddan W. gwaywffon W. llys W. paeol W. pot W. faigh E. cewning W. hil W. gwlaw W. corsen W. seib W. basc E. cyfoethog W. goludog W. ffaethu W. suir G. afon W., amhain G. fford W. VIL. 1900-T. | round, run, see, seed, servant, sew, shadow, sheep, shoe, sick, sin, sister, sit, skin, sleep, small, smoke, snake, sour, speak, spread, Star, stone, string, strong, sun, swallow, sword, tail, take, teach, thigh, throat, thorne, throw, tie, trumpet, trunk, stock, truth, village, 7 Peruvian, moyoc Q., huayra Q., paway Q., ulla A., ricu Q., unjana A., atha, sata A., yana A., chucuna A., chitua A., ccaura A., usuta, ojota A., onchok Q., chata A., collacha A., turay Q., tiyay Q., ccara Q., punu Q., iquina A., iqui A., huchuy Q., hisca A., heuque A., katari A., callcu A., sana A., ni Q., arusi, arusina A., takay Q., sillo, huarahuara A., coyllur Q., halar At., ccala A., lica O., chanca A., capac QO., At., inti-As,, Oc, villca A., puine Y., camosi S., reganama At., calhua Q., chupa Q., hapi Q., yatichana A., changa Ot., etippi S., tiana Q., tocenaclo At., chinuna A., cqueppa O., capintin QO., quelechar At., lican At., SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS. Celtic. amgant W. gyru W. ffoi W. seall G., gweled W. edrych W. cenio W. had W. gweinydd W. gwnio W. cysgod W. caora G. esgid W. gwanychu W. stcken. gwyd W. chwaer W. eistedd W. croen W. hun A, huno W. cysu W. ychydig W. bach W. mygu W. nathair G., neidr W. sarug W. cynanu W. yngan W. areithio W. teddu W. seren W. reult G, careg W., gall G. llin W. tant W. cryfach W. stronger. ganaid W. haul W. huan W. samh E, llyncu W. claiseach E., cledd W. cynffon W. tybio W. addysgu W. clun W. gwddf W. xeck. tron W. tawlu W. cynhas W. mutual tte. cadbib W. ffe. cyff W. gwirder W. Ilan W. 97 98 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII. Peruvian. Celtic. vulture, condor At., gwylldyr W. wall, percca QO., bwrch W. wash, maylla QO., ymolchi W. harina A., glanau W. : water, eubi S., aw W. $ puri At., mer W. yaku A., QO., uisge G., gwy W. sama Y., como I., huma A., amh E. ocean. weave, tilana A., . eilio W. well, pucyo A., pydew W. white, hanco, hancona A., guen A., gwyn, can W. yurac O., pur W. wife, liqui At., gwraig W. wild, kita Q., chwidr W. will, muna A., myn W. chicatha A., gogwydd W. orichnhuenhua C., gorchymyn W. ¢éo w7//. winter, casac-puchu A., gauaf W. wizard, pachacuc Q., faigh E. woman, rakka Q., gwraig W. ; marmi A., merch W. tana L., dynes W. word, aru A., gair W. worm, lacco A., llyngyr W. worms. writing, quippu O., coffau W. /o record. young, youth, huaina A., ieuaint, ieuanc W. iroco I, ir W. GRAMMATICAL ANALYSIS “OF THE ANSCRIP TIONS No. I. a. koi Lasgue, desire. entu Basgue, to hear. pono Basgue, root of pontsu, heumeur sombre. Menera, a goddess, composed of B. mex, power. au B., this. Me Fav N83 Ie Arba, proper name masculine, probably the root of the B. arrapatu, to seize. imi B. imi-ni, ipi-ni, to place. aur B., child. ne B., n, an, en, to. Kai, proper name latinized as Caius. ba B., if. erru-nai, compound of evr, root of B. exrukz, compassion, and zaz, will. 1900-1. | co. SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS. 99 Sotoberri, proper name feminine, compounded of B. soo, vault, cellar, and éerrz, new. uga, old B. word for mother, survives in wgazama, second mother zgazazta, second husband of the mother, and wga¢z, mother’s milk. neke B., difficult, fatiguing, trouble, poverty. aita B., father. barka, root of B. darvkatu, to pardon. ka B., postposition, by, with. . mira B., astonishment, admiration from mtratu, to behold, but here employed as a substantive, a spectacle or object to be seen. erimi, from B. ev, cause and 7772-727 (see above, 4). etorri B., to come. seme B., son. ema, root of B. ema-n, to give. gure B., our. erren, peculiar form of erruki (see erru-vaz, 6). emaitsa B., present, gift. imi, see 4. uga, see c. ra B., to. erruki B., compassion, here an adjective. anre B., lady. aur, see 0. ne, see 0, lekatu B., to please. be B., under. neke, see c. gabe B., without, deprivation, ekarri B , to carry: original of the English word. dio B., he does it to him. ematu B., to calm. bahi B., pledge. gabe, see above. erruki, see above. pabetu B., to help. imi, aur, ekarri, see above 4 and e. gabetu B., to deprive. entuka B. ez¢u, to hear, and a, by. - mira B. mzratu, behold, see. bere B., own. beha B. édehatu, behold. beha-ka B., by beholding. artu B., take, hold. doi B., just, right. gogoratu B., to remember. achol B., care. nio, Etruscan for dzo/, 1 do it to him, but B. imperfect of the same is 7707. egi B. egz, to do. duen B., who has, for B. dev, who is. obi B., tomb, grave. pabe B., help. ba, Etruscan and Japanese, place. 100 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. |Vou. VII. No. II. age B. appearance, age-17, declaration. zio, Etruscan for do, he does it to him; but the B. imperfect of the same is cov Or 220n. utsite B. wfzz, wtzzten, to leave. ba B., if, see No I. 6. so B., regard. jabe B., lord. No. III. bizitate B. diztandu, bzztar/e, inhabit, inhabitant. arau B., rule, night. doi B., see No. I. ematu B., to give, fuller form of ema-v. debe B., prohibition, B. debekatu, forbid. esatz B. esaz, esaten, to say. behi B., cow. No. IV. al, ahal B., power. No. VI. behatu, see No. I. f debe, see No. III. No. VII. au, aita, see No. I. a, ¢. No. VIII. esatz, see No. III. asma B., a sign, indication. ema, see No. I, d. No. IX. mamuta B. mamu, phantom, mamutu, act a ghost. mai B., table, tablet. edatu B., to stretch, to extend. No. XI. ichpichoi B. zchficho, ‘‘ pari, gageure,” in dative. atita, obscure form of atchtkz, ztchekt, to hold. umerri B., lamb, small cattle. No. XII. kosatze, now B. koskatzen, to carve. mai, see No. IX. No. XIII. bizitza, see No. III., d¢sz#za now means ‘‘la vie.” No. XIV. aitabe B. aztaba, grandfather. emaitz B., see No. Le. bizitzate, see No. XIII. umerri, see No. XI. No. XV. goititu B., to raise. No. XVI. danda B. ‘‘pact, obligation.” No. XVII. mate, explained in text ad Joc. No. XVIII. No new words. No. XIX. dema B., ‘‘ gageure.”’ 1900-3. | No. No No No. No XX. . XXII. . XXII. XXIII. SeEXONIVE 5 20:6 . XXVI. . XXVII. SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS. IOI anoma B. ano, portion and ema, given. bite-zar B., envoy. no B., sign of genitive. ranono B. rao, towards. zari in B., agint-zarz, buru-zarz, a captain; Japanese kashira, Semitic sar, Sclavonic czar, Teutonic sazser, etc., etc., a universal word. beka, form of B. dekox7, front, forehead, a chief. beka, see above. osa, old form on Iberic inscriptions of the Isle of Man. Its root is 0 as in B. o-ariu, to give attention. In Japanese it is wya-maz, and also means ““to give reverence.” Here it denotes, sa, the person giving 0, atten- tion, to the flocks. atherbe B., shelter. obi B., grave, pit, cave. ate B., door. edate B. edatu, extend. udahate is not B. wdahaste, a synonym of udaberr?, spring, but, as uda-berré is literally ‘‘new summer,” so uda-haze will he ‘‘end of summer.”’ ambera, now B. azubertze, as many as. beheitu, B. deheztz, to lower. mopira, Etruscan 8. See the writer’s Etruria Capta. ardizain B., shepherd. nausi B., master, more commonly nabusz. non, Etruscan ‘f who.” oroi B., to remember, fuller ovoztu. am for amar B. ten. ahal, al B., power, authority. urte B., year. jabe, see No. II. osa, see No. XXII., here employed as verb ; perhaps it should be written o-tsu. abere B., cattle. aberabe, survives in apurtu, apurtzen ‘‘ baisser.”’ kama, evidently denotes one who has the care of sheep and other cattle. The writer does not know it as Basque. To keep domestic animals in Japanese is kai-oki. lerrozarri B. /evvo, a rank, and ezarrz, to place. mopi-ka, Etruscan mof7, 2, and B. ka, by. obeka B. oéek7, better. athedatu for B. zfoztea, or ateratzen, artib..)cam- almena B., power, vigour. 102 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. (Vou. VIL. PHONETIC VALUES OF “THE CANARY ISLAND CHARACTERS: vowel, diphthong, aspirate syllable, b, p syllables with a, 0, u, ee Sense to, tu, syllables, fasste tins ee da, de, di, syllables, ka, ga, is ace ko, ku, go, gu, syllables, go, syllables, i « ma, mo, mu, syllables, me, mi, s na, no, nu, ‘. neni os r, syllables, sa, so, su, syllables, se, si, chi, zi, syllables, Virotn. Rocks. I | =o. ee Je Fis Vi Te eee M supplied from above. $ S26 & supplied from above. AR A,N. An, A L LC eel COMPOUND CHARACTERS ON ROCKS. m MN bara © mama / nobe (aiensasa: behetu a uy _berabe t he emaich vV bebe Oo Vi, LW bera te besa masi & (1 mara ig alma D4 mopira b sama FV, Ww arbe SQ simasa DLA vosari an oe as ie sipisa S ramama Vy iP 1900-1. | THE RIPENING OF CHEESE. 103 THE RIPENING OF CHEESE AND THE ROLE OF MICRO-ORGANISMS IN THE PROCESS. F. C. HARRISON, AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, GUELPH. (Read 23rd March, 19or). DURING the last twenty-five years the ripening of cheese has been the subject of numerous investigations, and although the problem has been attacked in many varied ways, it cannot be said, even now, that the changes which cheese undergoes from the time it is made until it is ready to be eaten have been fully explained. The task of the investigator is, no doubt, a difficult one, owing to the many different kinds of cheese manufactured, the various ways in which they are made, and the diverse methods used to ripen them. The difficulties do not by any means end here. No two cheeses are exactly alike; the bacterial flora of the milk changes constantly ; the methods of manufacture differ slightly from day to day, and more so from season to season; the temperature and humidity of the curing room usually alter with the outside temperature; and lastly the difficulty of sampling and the methods of analysis leave much room for improvement. The constant publication of some new culture method for lactic acid bacteria suggests that as yet no completely satisfactory method of cultivating them has been discovered. Ferdinand Cohn, in 1875, declared that the ripening of cheese was a fermentation due to the influence of fermenting organisms. He micro- scopically investigated rennet, and finding bacteria present in this substance concluded that the ripening of cheese was due to bacteria introduced into the cheese from this source. He considered that the milk sugar underwent butyric fermentation. He also found J. ¢ermo, microccz, and the Hay bacillus present in the cheese, and came to the conclusion that these were introduced with the rennet, because Remak had found &. sazdtzlzs in the stomachs of calves. A few years later Duclaux published his researches upon Cantal cheese) a soft cheese manufactured in France. He isolated a number of micro-organisms, six of which he supposed were of special importance, —an alcoholic, a lactic, a butyric, and a ferment acting upon casein and 104 TRANSACTIONS, OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. forming alkaline nitrogenous compounds of simple composition. Of the remaining two ferments, one was a vibrio, which preferred an optimum temperature of 75° to 80 F., formed spores, and caused the development of carbonic acid and hydrogen gas when grown in milk. The casein was transformed into an albuminous substance, soluble in water; small amounts of butyric acid and sodium butyrate were formed. Duclaux attributed the matting together of the cheese after it was cut, to the action of this vibrio, which he thought caused the parts of © the coagulum to stick together and form a solid mass of cheese; consequently the presence of this germ was desirable, but unfortunately should the germ enter the coagulum itself gas was produced ; and, as a consequence, the cheese became puffy or swollen. The other ferment was more objectionable because it formed acetic acid, and a substance of an intensely bitter taste. In conclusion, he considered the ripening to be caused by the butyric ferment, because under its influence the casein was precipitated, but afterwards gradually dissolved or digested. This ferment was probably helped by others which acted upon the albuminoids so as to split them up into compounds of a less complex nature; ammonia being the simplest. Benecke made a microscopical analysis of Emmenthaler cheese of different ages. He found Cohn’s rod-like bacteria, which were probably identical with 4. swbtzlis, and also yeasts. In consideration of the circumstance that the formation of peptone like bodies took place chiefly at the beginning of the ripening process, and that at this time an increase of schizomycetes, probably identical with 4. sadzeles, was noticed, Benecke arrived at the conclusion that the ferment which brought about the peptonization of the fresh curd was B. subtelzs. The objection that 4. subtzlzs was an aerobe and could not live in the interior of hard cheese, he set aside and followed the observation of Liborius, according to which 4. sudéz/zs retained its peptonizing qualities even though the air was shut off, provided that some kind of sugar was available. The gradual disappearance of the milk sugar was account- able for the diminishing of the rod-like forms in cheese which had reached a more advanced stage of ripeness. In conclusion, Benecke believed that the formation of amides (Leucin, etc.) was not due to the action of the Schizomycetes. In 1887, Duclaux published the results of further studies upon 1900-1. | THE RIPENING OF CHEESE. 105 Cantal cheese, and was able to study them in pure culture. The dilution method of culture was then in vogue, and some writers have criticised the accuracy of his work on this account. Not only did Duclaux isolate a large number of species, but he was able to contribute other interesting details as to form, spore formation, aerobic and anaerobic characters, physiology, and the nature of the fermentation products of the different micro-organisms, that he studied. To all species isolated, he gave the generic name Tyrothrix (cheese-threads), and of these seven were aerobic and three anaerobic. All but one of these germs possessed the ability of coagulating the casein; and, subsequently digesting the coagulum. From one of the most energetic of these bacteria ( 7yrothrix tenuzs) Duclaux isolated a ferment which was able to convert the casein into a soluble peptone. This he called casease and the product of its action on casein he named “ caseone” ; this latter substance might be even further split up into other substances, as leucin and tyrosin. Several of the other species isolated also produced the last named substances. Adametz, working at Sornthal, in Switzerland, in 1889, upon Emmenthaler and Cottage cheese (a soft variety) isolated nineteen different, well characterized schizomycetes and three yeasts. Of the first, seventeen were new species and were supposed to influence the ripening process. Contrary to previous investigations, neither b. sudzzlzs nor &. butyricus was found. He divided these bacteria into three groups. (a). Such as dissolved the paracasein, or changed it to a peculiar spongy condition. Soluble albuminoids and peptones were produced in greater or less quantities at the same time, and these were accompanied by traces of smelling (e.g., Butyric acid) and tasting (e.g., bitter extractive matters) substances. (6). Such as developed slowly in sterilized milk, and for which unchanged paracasein was not a favorable soil, but they easily assimilated the substances produced by the first group. (c). Such as had no appreciable effect upon any of the nutritive substances herein concerned, and whose presence or absence made no difference to the ripening of the cheese. The Cottage cheese was distinguished bacteriologically from Emmenthaler by the following points : 1. The larger bacterial content (in one gram of Emmenthaler 850,000 germs, and in one gram of Cottage cheese 5,600,000 bacteria). 106 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. 2. The greater number of species. 3. The relation of the peptone gelatine liquefying to non-liquefying colonies (1:300 to 1:600 in Emmenthaler against 1:90 to 1:200 in Cottage cheese). The bacterial content of Emmenthaler was shewn to grow during the ripening process from 90,000 to 850,000 and finally he ascribed to the liquefying germs the réle of ripening the cheese. Adametz also demonstrated that when disinfectants like Thymol and Kreolin were mixed with the curd, the ripening process was totally checked. The same result ensued from attempts to ripen Hauskase (Cottage cheese) in an atmosphere of Carbon disulphide. De Freudenreich by the use of better methods, such as the employ- ment of whey peptone gelatine, and more accurate triturations obtained much higher figures than Adametz. He followed, step by step, the ripening of a single cheese, in order to see if the changes the cheese passed through were the work of special microbes, and to see if the species present at the commencement of ripening continued active until the end of the process. The cheese was analysed at intervals of eight to fifteen days, and like Adametz he found in fresh cheese many different micro-organisms which quickly disappeared as the cheese aged, so that at the end of eighteen days, a microbe called Baczllus x, by the author, predominated in the culture plates ; and at the end of sixty-four days, only this bacillus was found. The analyses were continued until the 155th day when the ripening was perfect. The cheese at this time contained 1,662,500 bacteria per gramme, all being Baczllus x. The highest number counted was 8,975,000 when the cheese was fifty-two days old, but there were considerable fluctuations in the numbers found. The acillus x was a true type of lactic acid germ, somewhat similar to Adametz’ No. xix, and forming, like it, lactic acid. De Freudenreich described minutely the morphology, physiological properties, and the resistence of this germ to desiccation and chemical agents, and in the end came to the following conclusions : 1. The ripening of cheese was the work of bacteria; without bacteria there was no ripening. 2. Two periods could be distinguished in the ripening: the first characterized by the presence of many species, and the second dis- tinguished by the predominance of one bacterial species. In most cases 1900-1. | THE RIPENING OF CHEESE. 107 this single microbe was Aaczllus x, when it was absent, it was replaced by other bacteria belonging to the same class of lactic acid ferments. Adametz had also found in predominating numbers a germ very like Bacellus x, and which also behaved as a true lactic ferment. It did not appear probable that these germs alone produced all the phases of ripening without the co-operation of other bacteria. Lloyd, who was appointed by the Council of the Bath and West of England Society to make investigations upon Cheddar cheese making, did much work on this subject; and, although no numerical data are given, he stated after making over 100 separate cultivations that, “In the manufacture of Cheddar cheese, one and only one organism plays an important part up to the time the curd is put into the vat, and that organism is Baczllus acidi lactict. Further, when the cheese was ripe, this bacillus was most abundant, and that the ripening during the first few months depended mainly on 4. aczdz lacticz, supplemented as the cheese grew older by the growth and action of 4. amylobacter.” De Freudenreich in 1895 followed up his first work by a very extensive contribution to the subject. He analysed bacteriologically five Emmenthaler cheese made at the Riitti Dairy School. By means of special methods, such as the use of milk serum gelatine, milk agar, anaerobic culture methods, and partially sterilized cheese emulsions, he endeavoured to give the best opportunities for the liquefying species to grow, especially Duclaux’s Tyrothrix forms. The latter were, however, found only a few times. The principal liquefiers present were bacilli belonging to the sudéeles and mesentericus groups. These researches corroborated his former work. The lactic acid species, abundant from the start, increased greatly during the ripening process, whilst the liquefying germs were few in number and decreased rapidly. The most complete numerical data given of a single cheese were as follows : Age in Days. Number of Bacteria per Gramme. EreshyCheese aires. svat. cele dis ieee Sn ae eer 750,000 (0 eee aE oe MMO RE Sires rep en SH ed a tate 15,000,000 Gia ea LCR aa ech eens ee Ak Neh ee 20—30,000,000 LWIG GOA OOO LoDo coy GOCDAS ona clase ago 40,000,000 G5 tea savciensceiel ect eustels ae eae eper hasta ciate 20,000,000 Forms resembling Tyrothrix were found only four times out of sixteen analyses. 108 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. Hay bacillus types were found only six times out of eleven analyses. Agar surface plates were used for isolating these germs as they favoured the growth of this group of micro-organisms. The remaining analyses agreed very closely with the above; on one occasion, however, the large number of 100,000,000 lactic acid bacteria per gramme were found in cheese ten days old. In addition to these analyses, a number of cheese were made with starters made from the microbes isolated during the investigation, as well as many of Duclaux’s Tyrothrix forms. The experimental cheese were compared with control ones; and in most cases the ripening was not normal. In conclusion, de Freudenreich drew the following con- clusions from his observations and experiments : 1. Those often looked upon as prime factors in the ripening of cheese—the gelatine liquefying bacilli (Tyrothrix, Potato, or Hay bacillus) are not numerous in cheese, and generally not in milk. 2. Far from multiplying in the cheese, they seem, even if added to it in great quantities, to die off rapidly, unless when added in the spore form, in which case they remain alive for a longer time, but without multiplying. 3. Added to milk set for cheese, they seem neither to produce fermentation nor favour it. 4. Probably various lactic ferments play the principal, if not the only part, in the ripening of Emmenthaler cheese. In the soft cheese, on the contrary, Ozd¢um lactis, and also yeasts, take part in the ripening. Under the heading of “Character and Variability of species of Tyrothrix,’” W. Winkler found after an examination of species of Tyrothrix that, “whilst some, as 7. ¢ezuzs, were more allied to the hay and potato bacilli, others as 7. uvocephalum and T. filiformis were more nearly connected with the granulo-bacteria. They adapted themselves with great ease to different nutrient media, and their characters thereby became altered. In milk, they were more or less peptonizing. Butyric acid was only produced by a few of them. Milk sugar favoured their growth, but seemed to interfere with their peptonizing power.” Three varieties of Tyrothrix tenuis were cultivated: (1) a form which peptonized milk and liquefied gelatin; (2) a form which produced lactic acid, but did not liquefy gelatin; (3) a fluorescing type which formed a red pigment on potato. Winkler stated that, “ Baczllus xv1, Adametz, which was undoubtedly 1900-r. | THE RIPENING ‘OF CHEESE. 109 a species of Tyrothrix, was an example of the conversion of a lactic acid bacterium into a peptonizing organism. 7. urocephalum and T. tenuts were found to aid the ripening of cheese, and there were grounds for believing that in this ripening, peptonizing bacteria played the principal part. A bacteriological examination of hard cheese always shewed a greater preponderance of lactic acid bacteria, and this might possibly be explained in this way, that certain peptonizing bacteria changed in the cheese to lactic acid bacteria, especially strongly developing the property of producing lactic acid. Aside from the behaviour of 7. ¢enuzs and 7. urocephalum that of Bacillus xvz, Adametz in Emmenthaler cheese confirmed this view.” These results of Winkler were subsequently made the subject of a special research by Wittlin working under von Freudenreich. The experiments were made with a culture obtained originally from _ Duclaux, and after many cultivations on gelatin, no evidence was forthcoming to support the conversion contended for. Wittlin failed to be convinced that 7yrothrzx tenuzs could be converted into a lactic acid bacterium ; and the author supposed that Winkler’s results were due to contamination. By making emulsions of various cheeses and inoculating milk therewith, De Freudenreich was able to obtain absolutely anaerobic bacilli. These bacilli probably formed butyric acid. One of the two isolated, formed spores and from its shape, it was evidently a clostridium form. He named it Clostridium foetidum lactis. This germ,as its name implied, imparted a disagreeable odour to the milk, did not grow on gelatin, but on agar developed slowly giving rise to a cheesy odour. It apparently entirely dissolved the casein of milk, this medium turning yellow, only a slight sediment remaining. Later de Freudenreich became convinced that this clostridium was identical with the bacillus of malignant oedema. I have also found this bacillus in two small experimental cheese, made from Swiss milk, its pathogenicity and cultural characteristics leaving no room to doubt its identity. In a Holland cheese, Weigmann found two aromatic bacilli. These gave the milk cultures a cheese aroma. When pasteurised milk was inoculated with these forms, and cheese made, it ripened and resembled Swiss cheese. These germs were gelatine liquefiers and digested the casein of the milk. A very systematic study of the rise and fall of the bacteria in _ Cheddar cheese was made by Russell and Weinzirl. Six cheeses were analysed at various periods, and the qualitative distribution of the 110 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. bacteria found at the different stages is thus graphically delineated by the author’s diagram. The general results are thus summarized : 1. There is at first a marked falling off in the number of bacteria in green curds for a day or two. (Period of initial decline). 2. This is followed by a very rapid increase in numbers, in which the bacteria reach scores of millions of organisms per gram. (Period of increase). 3. This period is followed by a diminution in numbers at first rapid but later more gradual, until the germ content sinks to insignificant proportions. (Period of final decline). 4. The time necessary to reach the maximum development (second period) is hastened or retarded by such external conditions as tempera- tures ete: 5. The second period also marks the beginning of the physical change that occurs in the cheese in the earlier part of the breaking down of the casein. 6. The bacterial flora of cheese differs markedly from that of milk. In milk, the lactic acid bacteria predominate, but accompanying them are always liquefying or peptonizing organisms, and as a rule bacteria capable of developing gaseous bye-products. In the ripening cheese the peptonizing or casein digesting bacteria are quickly eliminated; the gas producing bacteria disappear more slowly, sometimes persisting in very small numbers for a long time. The lactic acid bacteria on the other hand develop enormously for a time until the cheese is partially ripened, when they too begin to diminish in numbers. 7. The generally accepted theory that the peptonizing or digesting bacteria are able to break down the casein in the cheese as they do in milk is improbable because this type of bacteria fails to increase in the cheese and usually disappears before there is any evidence of physical change in the condition of the casein. The same is true where cheese is made from pasteurised milk to which copious starters of these peptoniz- ing organisms have been added. 8. The coincidence existing in point of time between the gradual ripening of the cheese and the marked development of the lactic acid 1900-1. | THE RIPENING OF CHEESE. 11f bacteria seems to indicate that these phenomena are causally related. This view is further strengthened by the fact that cheese made from pasteurised milk in which the lactic acid bacteria have been destroyed fail to ripen in the normal manner, while the addition of a pure lactic acid ferment to the pasteurised milk permits the usual changes to occur in a probably normal way. Schirokich took up the study of this problem by preparing in milk pure cultures of some peptonizing bacteria as well as of lactic bacteria and then investigating by means of chemical analysis the changes which took place in the milk in the course of the development of the micro-organisms in it. The change in the composition of the milk was studied as to (1) the quantity of the casein of the milk converted into soluble form ; (2) the amount of ammonia found in the cultures, and (3) the amount and kind of fatty acids produced by the micro-organisms. With reference to the first point, it was found that while the peptonizing bacteria converted during the first fifteen days of their culture almost all of the casein of the milk into proteids soluble in water, and the remainder into products of decomposition, the lactic bacteria did not alter in the slightest, the amount of nitrogen in the soluble protein matter after thirty days of culture. In other words, while the bacteria of the former group acted very energetically on the casein, those of the latter group did not affect it at all. The fungus Ordium lactts was also found very active in changing the casein, although in a lesser degree than the peptonizing bacteria. Further, the author found in the cultures of the Ozdtum dactts \ess ammonia than in those of the peptonizing bacteria, and none whatever in the cultures of the lactic bacillus. Finally, on comparing the nature of the fatty acids formed in cheese (the author experimented with hard Gruyére and soft Brie cheese) and those produced by the bacteria in pure cultures, he found that the mixture of the volatile acids caused by the bacteria not liquefying gelatine did not correspond to those which are formed either in the hard or in the soft cheese. On the contrary, the volatile acids produced by the peptonizing bacilli were found to be very similar to the mixture of these acids produced in the ripening of Gruyére cheese. And, lastly, great similarity was observed between the volatile acids of the soft Brie cheese and those produced by the fungus Ozdzum lactzs. Thus, all three lines of investigation pursued by the author lead to the conclusion that the bacteria of lactic fermentation, though present in 112 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vou. VII. milk and cheese in very great numbers, do not induce the changes in the casein in the process of ripening, and if they exert any influence at all, it is only indirect, since these bacteria do not dissolve casein, do not give off ammonia, and do not form the volatile acids characteristic of ripened cheese. The peptonizing bacteria and the fungus Ozdzum lactis, on the other hand, produced all the changes of casein which take place in the ripening of cheese; they yield soluble proteids and decompose albuminous compounds with the formation of ammonia and _ volatile acids corresponding to those occurring in the cheese. It is pointed out that the peptonizing bacteria would appear from the foregoing to play an exclusive part in the ripening of cheese, but such a conclusion would overlook the important fact established by the analysis of Bondzinsky, viz.: that there is in cheese only a small quantity of peptone which is not precipitated by ammonia sulphate. In opposition to this fact, the author found while investigating the nature of the soluble albuminous bodies in pure cultures of peptonizing bacteria that, under the influence of these micro-organisms, the casein is con- verted almost entirely into peptone. In view of these opposing facts, the author concludes that the joint action of the peptonizing bacteria and the lactic acid bacteria must be considered as essential to the ripening of cheese, and that this should serve as a starting point for future investigations of the process. The lactic acid bacteria are not capable of producing this process, while the peptonizing bacteria, when they multiply without any check, carry on the decomposition too energetically and to an undesired extent, but in the presence of lactic bacteria, which in a measure restri¢t and regulate the development and activity of the peptonizing bacteria, the joint effort of all these micro-organisms gives the desired results. From this point of view, the chief care in the production of cheese should be that both the peptonizing and the lactic bacteria are in the curd, and that the proper conditions for their life activity are provided. But the peptonizing bacteria, especially the Bacillus subtilis, are very widely distributed and multiply with extreme ease ; therefore from a practical standpoint, no provision need be made for their presence, and attention should be confined to the lactic acid bacteria. Having defined the part which the peptonizing bacteria play in the ripening of cheese, the question still remains unsettled whether these bacteria, which are according to de Freudenreich present in hard cheese in small numbers, act as such in the process of ripening, or by means of 1900-1. | THE RIPENING OF CHEESE. 113 diastase secreted by them at the beginning of the process. The author states that in experiments made by him, it was shown that the diastase in question, named by Duclaux, casease, acts just as energetically in the absence of the bacteria by which it is secreted as in their presence. From this, it would follow that if casease is a factor in the ripening of cheese, it would have to be present only in a small amount. Von Freudenreich’s results in two series of experiments made in 1897, considerably strengthened the theory that the lactic acid germs were the chief factors in the ripening process. He grew a number of lactic acid bacteria, isolated from cheese, in sterile milk to which chalk had been added to neutralize the acid formed by the bacteria. These bacteria were thus able to continue their growth, and at the end of two or thtee months a portion of the casein was found to be converted into soluble products. Thus cultures of three different species of lactic acid germs gave 5.1, 6.4, and 2.4 times as much soluble nitrogen as there was present in the original milk. The reaction of these cultures was not acid, but neutral or slightly alkaline. Von Freudenreich concludes his second paper by stating that “ It appears from my experiments that the lactic acid ferments, especially those isolated from cheese, are endowed with the power of rendering the casein soluble and decomposing it. Emmenthaler cheese, as compared with the results of Bondzynski, gives even more conclusive results. Thus, the latter author found in the filtrate of two emulsions made from ripe Emmenthaler cheese 1.44 and 1.51 per cent. of soluble nitrogen. The nitrogen of the amides gave 0.93 and 0.82 per cent. These figures are nine to ten times higher than mine, but Bondzynski analysed cheese and I milk. But it takes eleven kilograms of milk to make a kilogram of cheese and the agreement is as perfect as can be when we consider that the experimental conditions (temperature, etc.), were not identical. These results, proved by my numerous experiments, show that the lactic acid ferments are in enormous numbers in ripening cheese, whilst other species, as the Tyrothrix class, are relatively rare, and this fact permits us to affirm that the microbic agents in the ripening of cheese ought to be looked for among the lactic acid ferments.” A new factor in the ripening of cheese was the discovery of an unorganized ferment, or enzyme, in milk by Babcock and Russell. These authors kept milk in contact with an excess of chemical substances that destroyed the metabolic activity of bacteria, but which did not suspend entirely the action of the organized ferments. Under these conditions the milk coagulated, and there was a progressive formation of soluble 8 114 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. proteids (albumoses and peptones) comparable to the breaking down of the casein in the normal ripening of cheese. Bacterial life was not absolutely excluded from the milk with which the experiments were performed, but by elaborate precautions, their numbers were minimized as much as possible. Cheese was also cured under anaesthetic conditions. A cheese kept under chloroform and heavily saturated with this anaesthetic, even when more than a year old was physically thoroughly broken down and resembled a well cured cheese. Chemically, more than fifty per cent. of the casein was converted into soluble products, which amount is about the same as that found in normal cheese of the same age. Bacteriologi- cally it was sterile. These experiments seemed to the authors to indicate that the inherent enzymes in the milk played a very important rdle in the break- down of the casein. The year following this discovery, 1897, the authors published additional studies, and named the ferment ga/actase, on account of its presence in milk. It was found that this enzyme was allied to trypsin, the digestive ferment of the pancreas, and in this connection, it is inter- esting to note that Jensen independently discovered that cheese made from pasteurised milk with the addition of ether to prevent bacterial action, and a certain amount of pancreas to furnish the trypsin, cured more quickly, and contained nearly fifty per cent. more soluble nitrogen than cheese made without the addition of pancreas. This ferment, however, differs from trypsin, in that it gives rise toa certain amount of free ammonia. It also differs with regard to the temperature at which its action is most energetic. Storch’s test for determining whether milk has been heated to a temperature exceeding 80° C. depends on the presence of galactase, the activity of which is destroyed by this temperature. Babcock and Russell also made extensive researches on the distribu- tion of galactase in different species of mammalia, in individual milks at the same or different periods of lactation, etc. As to the structures in the body in which the enzyme is found, the authors have not yet examined the mammary glands for its presence, but suggested the close relationship between the blood and milk, as seen in the production of immunizing substances in the milk of animals rendered artificially immune to bacterial poisons. 1900-1. THE RIPENING OF CHEESE. 115 Barthel has recently pointed out that normal cows’ milk contains large numbers of leucocytes, and attributes Storch’s test to their presence in the milk. He even considered the leucocytes, or an enzyme secreted by them, as the cause of the phenomena observed by Babcock and Russell and by them attributed to galactase. The leucocytes also behave in the same manner towards anesthetics as galactase, and another indication that the colour reaction obtained in Storch’s test is due to the presence of leucocytes, is that whey gives a reddish-brown and not a blue colour as in the case of milk. The latter colour has been shown by Storch to be due to the casein of the milk. Schirokich, in 1898, experimented on the diastases produced by Lyrothrix tenuts. He grew the bacillus for four days at 35° C., and then filtered the culture through a porcelain filter, and added the germ free filtrate to sterilized milk. The milk was digested and the casein became soluble in water, but the liquid had not the odour of cheese. He then tried another method. A pure culture of a lactic acid ferment was made in sterilized milk, and, as soon as complete coagulation had occurred, five per cent. of the sterile diastase from Tyrothrix was added, and the mixture kept at 35° C. The diastase acted slowly on the casein, and at the end of fifteen days the mixture had a typical cheesy smell. This experiment was repeated several times with like results. Further experiments showed that the intensity of the cheesy smell depended on the amount of acid present in the milk when the diastase was added. In conclusion, Schirokich suggested the use of pure cultures of lactic acid together with digesting bacteria and casein, as the ripening seemed to be a special kind of symbiosis. In a series of articles in the Milch Zeitung (1899) Weigmann discussed the rdéle of the lactic acid bacteria in the ripening of cheese, especially referring to the work of de Freudenreich. He drew the following conclusions, from his own experiments and also those of other investigators : 1. The special lactic acid bacteria are not cheese ripening bacteria, the form used by de Freudenreich in his experiments being only facultative, or more probably degenerate lactic acid bacteria. 2. Lactic acid bacteria have an important rdle in cheese ripening, not in actually taking part in the ripening, but by directing the process in the right direction. 116 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. 3. This function consists in eliminating certain forms of bacteria and fungi by the lactic acid formed, and providing an acid nutrient medium upon which only such bacteria and fungi can thrive as can withstand the acid or consume it. The micro-organisms which consume the acid prevent its accumulation in too strong a degree, take part in the peptonizing and flavour producing processes, and enable other bacteria or fungi, whose activity was weakened by the acid, to continue their work. 4. The specific character of a particular kind of cheese depends upon the predominating form of micro-organism, which the manner of preparation and the handling of the cheese have brought about. Boekhout and Vries made Edam cheese from pasteurised milk inoculated with a lactic acid ferment isolated from Edam cheese, but this cheese failed to ripen. Cheese made from pasteurised milk and inoculated with a plug of fourteen day old cheese did not ripen, and the same result took place with cheese made from pasteurised milk and mixed with five per cent. market milk. Better cheese was made from milk heated to 55° C. for half an hour and treated exactly as in the above experiments, but even this cheese could not be called normal. Then these investigators attempted to get milk as germ free as possible, by washing the hind quarters of the cow with soap and water, followed by three per cent. boracic acid. The milker’s hands were similarly treated. The milk obtained was not quite sterile, but so poor in bacterial content that a portion remained a long time in the incubator at 22° C. without change. This milk was divided into two equal portions without the addition of any cultures, and this part acted as a check on the other portion with which the following three experiments were made: 1. Milk inoculated with fourteen day old cheese. 2. Milk inoculated with a lactic acid bacterium isolated from Edam cheese. 3. Milk inoculated with market milk. In numbers one and three experiments, there was a normal ripening, but the cheese made from milk inoculated with the lactic acid bacillus failed to ripen. 1900-1. | THE RIPENING OF CHEESE. 117 The cheese made from the control milk did not ripen at all. From these experiments, the authors concluded, that: 1. The heating of milk changes the casein and prevents ripening. 2. If we look for the ripening organisms among the lactic acid bacteria, we must remember that not all the lactic acid bacteria are able to cause the ripening. 3. The theory of Babcock and Russell is incorrect, otherwise the control cheese would have ripened. 4. If the theory of Weigmann should be confirmed, it must be qualified in so far that the organisms are still alive on the fourteenth day, for the cheese used was inoculated with fourteen day old cheese. De Freudenreich and Jensen’s experiments on the relation between lactic acid ferments and the ripening of Emmenthaler cheese were very extensive and thorough. They conclude that the Tyrothrix bacilli take no part in the ripening. They did not multiply in normal cheese, and even when added in large numbers they exerted no influence on the decomposition products, in fact their influence was harmful. The natural enzymes (galactase) perhaps participate in the ripening, by rendering the casein soluble, and thus facilitate the operations of the lactic acid ferments. Pasteurising deteriorates the quality of Emmenthaler cheese. Another fact brought out was the loss of the soluble constituents of cheese during ripening. The results of de Freudenreich’s experiments in 1900 confirmed the work of Babcock and Russell upon galactase. Several new facts were also demonstrated. The presence of 0.3 and 0.5 per cent. of lactic acid considerably decreased the action of the diastase. Twenty per cent. of ether was added to milk sterilized at 120° C. and this was then inoculated with a few drops of an emulsion of spores of Tyrothrix tenuis, and kept at 35° C. Another lot was similarly treated, except that the emulsion of spores was previously heated to 100° C. to destroy the enzymes present. At the end of three months, the latter sample had undergone no, change and contained 0.053 per cent. of soluble nitrogen ; and in the first sample, a change commenced at the end of four weeks, and progressed rapidly during the next two months. At the end of that time; there was some digestion of the casein, and the chemical analysis showed 0.098 per cent. of soluble nitrogen. This experiment showed that not only were the diastases 118 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. produced by bacteria capable of action on casein, but even bacteria themselves or even their spores might contain digesting enzymes. De Freudenreich does not believe with Babcock and Russell that galactase plays the principal réle in the ripening of cheese, but that in rendering the casein soluble, it probably prepares for and facilitates the work of the bacteria which cause the ripening, and the special taste of cheese. Jensen studied the origin and properties of the enzymes found in cheese, both hard (Emmenthaler) and soft (Limbourg) varieties. To determine if galactase played any part in the ripening, he examined the following four points : 1. Is the galactase of milk in sufficient quantity in the curd to be able to produce an appreciable transformation of the casein ? 2. How long does galactase remain in the cheese ? 3. Are the natural conditions met with in cheese such, that the galactase can exercise its action ? 4. Does the pepsin of the rennet take part in the ripening of cheese? By a series of analyses, too long to quote in this paper, Jensen partially answered the above questions. Thus he concluded : 1. As cheese is made with rennet, galactase and the pepsin in rennet are present in sufficient quantities to produce changes in the casein. 2. Soft cheese is richer in enzymes than hard cheese. 3. The quantity of free lactic acid in soft cheese is sufficient to hinder the action of galactase, and consequently favour the action of the pepsin. In hard cheese, on the contrary, the quantity of free lactic acid present is smaller and only helps in a slight degree the action of pepsin at the expense of the galactase. To determine which of the two factors, the lactic ferments or. galactase, plays the principal réie in the ripening of Emmenthaler cheese, Jensen compared the changes which naturally occurred in the casein of cheese with those caused by each of the two factors above mentioned. The action of galactase was rendered insignificant by using one per cent. of Formalin to prohibit bacterial action. Whilst to show the action of this enzyme, fifteen to twenty per cent. of ether was used to destroy the bacterial life. Again, the chief function of galactase is in its rendering albuminoid substances soluble, and the principal role of the ° 1900-1. | THE RIPENING OF CHEESE. 119 lactic ferments is to form decomposition products. Thus, at the commencement of the ripening of Emmenthaler cheese, soluble albuminoid substances are first formed and only traces of decomposition products ; and as soon as the free lactic acid is neutralized, the lactic acid bacilli commence their work, and immediately there is a consider- able increase in the decomposition products. The quantity of these latter products constantly increases during the rest of the ripening process, whilst the augmentation of soluble albuminoid substances diminishes. In other words, the lactic acid bacteria or their enzymes become more and more the only factor in the ripening, probably because the galactase becomes gradually enfeebled. In a few words, the changes that occur in the casein during the ripening of Emmenthaler cheese seem to consist of a metabiosis between galactase and the lactic acid bacteria. From the results of his researches, Jensen thus describes the process of ripening in Emmenthaler cheese: The curing is due to different fermentations accompanied by two simultaneous processes—salting and drying. The term fermentation is used to signify the chemical decomposition, due to organized ferments or to unorganized ones. Salting helps to keep the cheese, moistens the crust, and facilitates the drying. These two actions (salting and drying) delay fermentation, especially at the outside of the cheese. Before transferring the cheese to a warmer room, salting and drying continue for some time, during which interval the galactase begins its action and dissolves or renders the casein soluble. At the same time, the amount of free lactic acid gradually diminishes. As soon as the cheese is placed in a warmer room, the lactic acid bacteria commence to increase, the temperature of the interior of the cheese probably rises, and the greater part of the soluble albuminoid substances form and the production of the holes finishes. The drying out of the cheese also occurs more quickly at this temperature. Finally, the cheese is transferred to a cooler room, in which the cheese age, until they are considered ripe. During this time, the bacteria slowly die out, but their enzymes continue to act, and increase the quantity of the products of the decomposition of casein. During the last fermentation, the final salting is given, and drops of liquid (tears) form in the holes in the cheese. 120 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, [Vot. VII. Babcock and Russell, in 1900, experimented upon the action of rennet on cheese, and concluded from a number of experiments : 1. That an increase in the amount of rennet extract used in making cheese does increase the amount of soluble nitrogenous products, which measure the progress of cheese ripening. 2. Increase in amount of rennet used does not increase the water content of cheese; and, therefore, the ripening of cheese cannot be indirectly affected in this way. 3. The products of peptic digestion in milk and cheese are confined to the higher decomposition products, viz., albumoses and peptones precipitated by tannin. 4. The increase in soluble nitrogenous products and also in milk due to an increase in amount of rennet extract used are confined to those bye-products that are peculiar to pepsin, thus indicating that the digestive action of rennet extract is attributable to the action of the pepsin incorporated with rennet extract. 5. The crucial test of this conclusion was made by adding purified pepsin to milk and making the same into cheese, where rennet extract was or was not added to curdle the milk. In such cheese digestion has been increased in those cases to which pepsin has been added, and this increase has been confined to those bye-products that are characteristic of pepsin, and which also appear in cheese made with high quantities of rennet. 6. The digestion in cheese incident to pepsin is determined mainly by the degree of acidity developed in the milk and curd. In Cheddar cheese, peptic digestion probably does not begin until the acidity of the milk is approximately 0.3 per cent. lactic acid. 7. Acid salts as phosphates, etc., favour peptic digestion in milk in a manner comparable to free acids. 8. Free acid does not normally exist in Cheddar cheese, the apparent acidity being due to acid salts. The results of the first researches of Chodat and Hofman-Bang were published in 1898, and their conclusions were as follows: 1. A single species of bacterium can produce the digestion of the casein and the characteristic odour of cheese. 2. That contrary to the opinion of de Freudenreich but in agreement 1900-1. | THE RIPENING OF CHEESE. 121 with that of Duclaux, bacteria which are not lactic acid producers can ripen cheese. 3. The acidity at the commencement of ripening was not necessary to bring about the solubility of the casein. In their second paper (1900), they criticised de Freudenreich’s work and report fresh results. De Freudenreich had shown that lactic acid bacteria could attack and render soluble portions of the casezn of milk, but Chodat and Hofman-Bang point out that it has not been shown that the lactic acid bacteria can attack coagulated casein; and these two substances are so different that the results which have been obtained with the casein of milk cannot be applied a przorz to coagulated casein. These authors then experimented to see if the lactic acid bacteria were capable of dissolving coagulated casein. They isolated five different germs from Emmenthaler cheese, all of which produced lactic acid, and others volatile acids, as formic, acetic, and valerianic. These germs were grown on coagulated sugar-free casein, which had been previously sterilized at 120° C., for three successive days. At the end of three months, the acidity of the lactic ferments and the percentage of soluble nitrogen were determined, and it was found that the bacteria were well developed and were not contaminated, and that the quantity of soluble nitrogen had not increased. All the cultures had a feeble butyric odour. From this experiment, the authors concluded that de Freudenreich was wrong when he said “That the lactic acid bacteria play the principal rdle in the ripening of Emmenthaler cheese.’ Further, they thought the lactic acid bacteria in their cultures grew at the expense of the casein dissolved in the water used for moistening the curd in the culture flasks. The lactic acid bacteria were also sown in flasks containing casein modified by casease obtained from a species of Tyrothrix. The casein was not dissolved by the Tyrothrix, and after the lactic germs had grown on this substance for two-and-a-half months, there was no increase in the percentage of soluble nitrogen. Again, they seeded sterilized casein with living Tyrothrix, allowed it to grow until the curd was softened, without becoming liquid, and then sterilized germs and casein together at 120° C. Upon the casein thus prepared they placed a lactic acid bacillus, but with negative results, no increase of soluble nitrogen was demonstrated, which showed that the lactic acid germ had not been able to attack the casein. 122 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vou. VII. Klein and Kirsten rendered heated milk suitable for cheese-making by adding calcium chloride. In their experiments they were able to produce normal cheese of several varieties (Bachstein, Spitz, Remoudou, Kloster, etc.) by heating the milk to temperatures varying from 85° C. to 100° C. for different periods of time, treating it with calcium chloride (twenty-five grams of calcium oxide per litre) and adding either cultures or starters. Cheese made by this method not only ripened normally but also gave a larger yield than cheese made from non-heated milks. My own studies on the bacterial content of cheese were com- menced in 1896 at the Bacteriological Laboratory of Dr. Russell, at the University of Wisconsin. During that summer and the following one of 1897, many analyses of Canadian Cheddar cheese were made, the methods of analyses being similar to those already published in the various reports of the Wisconsin Experiment Station. Briefly described, they are as follows : A sterilized test-tube was sent to a factory with the request that a plug of cheese be placed therein, and asking that the cheese trier be sterilized with steam before use. A typewritten form accompanied each tube, upon which the cheesemaker filled out particulars as to the age of the cheese, condition of manufacture, amount of rennet used, ete. From one to five days elapsed between the taking of the sample and the making of the analyses; and, on many occasions, the cheese received was very greasy or had otherwise deteriorated owing to the very hot weather, and the length of time taken in transit. Doubtless these facts have contributed to bring about the diversity of the results shewn in my first table. On arrival at the laboratory, one gram of cheese was weighed out and triturated with ten grams of sterilized sugar, sand or powdered glass. Sterilized water was then added and various dilutions made, differing with the age of the cheese. The medium used at Wisconsin was the ordinary beef peptone gelatin, with or without the addition of milk sugar. From two to five plates were made. Subsequently this method was improved on, by using sterilized warm water (37° C.) for the dilutions, and yeast water lactose gelatin for medium. To this a small quantity of precipitated chalk was usually added. This medium gave excellent results compared with the ordinary nutrient gelatin or whey peptone gelatin, the colonies of the lactic acid bacteria were larger, and the dissolving action of these germs on the chalk materially aided the labour of counting. 1900-I. | THE RIPENING OF CHEESE. 123 Following de Freudenreich’s plan of obtaining the liquefying germs, surface cultures were occasionally made. This method also helped in the isolation of yeasts, the surface colonies of which were far easier to spot than those deep in the gelatin. Anaerobic methods of culture failed to show any obligate anaerobes. Pake’s apparatus was used for counting the colonies, but when these were too numerous, a low power of the microscope was employed and from five to ten per cent. of the total number of microscope fields in a Petri dish of eighty m.m. diameter were counted, and computations made therefrom. TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. *poinjeuw uaymM Woo! 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Ou Aye ARS aw Ae » OF Ane aUA Reson oe ae Ou Spe tS ”’ c re Se eee ae Gane a Zz A eel eral nm F101 Ne ‘sAeq 9 “asaoyy) jo 28V TE GEAUSIN AE Zs gb St zb 6 moe: £e of lz tz 1z gi Sr zI 6 9 € -skeq ° we = : ‘eo10a ayy Aq pajuesaides st Ayipioy jo *jue0 aed pue viajoeg jo sraquiny ‘skep 90.14} JO sported ur [eUozi40y ay} Aq pajyuasoades si ported awry, “eS90q4) AvppeyD ueIpeuryD jo Suruedry oy} Sump Ajpioy junowy oy} ur eq pue asny ‘9S9e4) JeppeyD uvipeurd jo Suiuedry ay} Surinp evueyeg ploy oor] jo [eq pue osry sho way =col ool = 6 SS SSB 8 GY SC 9 0 SS Gh Or 63s 0S. Ss Og SL Ore Ge 0&2 Ges 088 Ge 018 S03 03 6 Goer Sei 08] G0) Tht STs] Soe Se ‘Saplinly Guuadily roche fo Bie eden eee RES FSR a Gee “suabng Dusanpayl s09) Pad ‘ouabng Bulsasiq( uiosn>) me wuabog pala [—] s Z| SiH 40 Seon SFONVHO SNNGdld INN VI4SLOVE 40 ThW4 ONY SSH sed 90109 oS oor “AVpIO jo ‘yuoo 41 pur suon]! a reg ith Niaeiy” Veg iv») a, al } i 1900- 1.] THE RIPENING OF CHEESE. NUMBER AND KIND OF BACTERIA IN CHEESE AT DIFFERENT STAGES OF RIPENING. tN nn CHEESE I. Aeein Days No. of Bacteria Lactic Acid Gas Producing Deore Vioasts per gram. Bacteria. Bacteria. Becton | eee ote seal | Sena BE RELLY bo 0 2 aN eee | Curd. 290,000,000 289,700,000 : 50,000 250,000 2 Days. 430,000,000 429,599,000 serena ake ote 1,200 400,000 ee 387,000,000 B805549;0000) waar: 1,200 750,000 1@y 217,000,000 | 2193599; COOOM NN auerretey-let-t- 700 40,000 D5 eos 85,000,000 SMistsyOll9) || Sasuaces 50 182,000 BO ns 64,000,000 | 63,800,000 Ue aeerp ede ta By cunt 200,000 Diao 38,000,000 resol) | ss ata cele Aah sieees ere? 190,000 Syne ott 22,000,000 Puc KOneey || " bioepadoo || SEOs 240,C00 Hay 19 7,000,000 | 6,867,000 : 25 ¥33,000 50) 3,500,000 BGO || Soo50c00 || oovnde 70,000 REMARKS.—The temperature of the curing room was from 65° F. to 75° F. The ripened cheese was of good flavour and texture. CHEESE II. : Be ntl Ss 4 Casein eretanh Days: No. of Bacteria Pacue Acid G28, Producing MeesGae Veaste: per grain, acteria. acteria. Bactonan 1 Day. 520,000,000 514,900,000 5,000,000 LOOsOOO!|l yay eis cae ae 480,000,000 477,000,000 3,000, 000 25,000 2,000 Tie i 275,000,000 274,250,000 700,000 2,000 45,000 Tez ues: 270,000,000 269,900,000 OOO! itl) wares. 27,000 Tage, 130,000,000 120;000,000))|| Nn aeeeeee 500 70,000 Baris 83,000,000 SZ5900;Q00) 0) Moe ce 100 32,000 Sle ae 31,000,000 31,000,000 ise) ae bracseal ih wm oleparererals 14,000 aij 6 OU 6,700,000 (7OOKOC |) | be dhooos 0,500 ® CHEESE III. : E No. of Bacteria Lactic Acid Gas Producing Casein : ; Age in Days. per gram. Bacteria. Bacteria. Digennue Yeasts. 2 Days. 340,000,000 34050005000) Steen erie 5,000 10,000 Clie 214,000,000 ZITA; GOO;OOO0w! a)", | Mewar NN aaceeees 70,000 1 SE 134,000,000 133-.750,000 Be / A aera Uy sebh cea 250,000 a aga 88,000,000 865500; 0008S amnreracrt tee 1,500,000 Zor is 37,000,000 264750, O00)! 1 Ui reaceh-wereneteatll tml iire. eet a 1,220,000 Bipten 27,500,000 20; 7OO,OO0)\ |) sles tee ae mea 800,000 At iuiics 12,250,000 Tis Q5O; OOO isis -tepenare uel Mab atese ee) 300,000 Both of the above cheeses were of good flavour. 126 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. ACID IN CHEESE.* Method.—Five grams of cheese and an equal amount of glass were ground together in a mortar; 100 c.c. of water was then added and well mixed with the cheese. After standing fifteen minutes, the mixture was filtered through a dry filter paper, and 25 c.c. of the clear filtrate taken for the determination of the acidity. Phenolphtalein was used as indicator. Where the acidity was determined in an unfiltered portion, as much as two per cent. of acid was found in the older cheese, probably due to the casein neutralizing the alkali. Curd at Milling showed .54 per cent. acid figured as lactic acid. GC Seutivaee 9 00 .76 on oe Cheese 6 days old from Salting showed 86 per cent. acid. oe 6 “e oe ce 86 -¢ ae 13 oe ee oe 81 oe sé 13 ee oe ae 79 ot oe 20 6 ae oe 86 be * 20 ee oe ae .9gO oe ee 27 ee ae oe go ot “e BF oe os ae 86 ae 34 oe -t oe 93 oe ee 34 ‘ oe 1.02 oe ae 41 ae ee I o8 ae oe 41 ‘ “ce 1.08 ee oe 48 ‘ oe oe I os ‘ ‘ 48 oe “ae 1.08 ‘ é 55 EE Ca Cofs) : eats HOS: ‘ ae 225 ae ‘ ce 1.08 ‘ The work of Russell and Wenizirl on the normal cheese flora of Wisconsin cheese, during the entire history of the cheese from the time it was made until it was consumed, has been duplicated in my laboratory, but with these differences : 1. Canadian Cheddar cheese was the subject of study. 2. The culture medium used was somewhat different ; yeast-water, lactose gelatine, whey peptone gelatine, and ordinary beef broth lactose gelatine were employed. From six to ten Petri dishes were poured for each analysis. *These determinations were made by R. Harcourt, Associate Professor of Chemistry, Ontario Agri-— cultural College. 1900-1. THE NING OF CHEESE. 12 9 THE RIPENING OF CHEESE 7 3. The oldest cheese analyzed was fifty-one days old. Russell gave the result up to 108 days for two cheeses, and up to 237 days for one. The general results of these studies on Canadian cheese are shown by the diagram and tables, and demonstrate the enormous increase of the lactic acid bacteria in the initial stages of cheese-making. From the moment the milk is placed in the vat, every condition favourable for the growth of this class of micro-organism is carefully fostered. The greatest number found was in cheese two or three days old; at this age, one cheese contained 520 millions bacteria per gram, nearly five times as many as Russell observed in Wisconsin cheese. From this point the numbers decline at first rather rapidly, but subsequently the decrease is more gradual. Comparing my results with Russell’s and summarizing them, I might state that in Canadian Cheddar cheese there is: 1. Period of increase in which the bacteria develop most rapidly in the curd, and in the cheese up to the age of two or three days, followed by 2. Period of rapid decline, in which the numbers fall away somewhat rapidly until about the thirteenth day, when the cheese may be said to enter the final 3. Pertod of slow or general decline, in which their numbers slowly decrease, at the 430th day but 1,400 per gram were found. The results, whilst agreeing with Russell's, as to the enormous development of the lactic acid bacteria in cheese, differ in that there is no period of “Initial Decline,’ and that the “Period of Increase” virtually takes place in the curd. The maximum number are present in the cheese at the moment it is taken out of the press. The “Period of Final Decline,’ I have subdivided, although my two divisions may be quite well taken together. If in connection with this remarkable increase of lactic acid bacteria, we examine the amount of acid present in the curd and cheese, we find that the greatest increase in acidity occurs between milling and salting. From this point until the cheese is forty days old there is a gradual and progressive increase. Thus, the increase in acidity from the time of milling until the cheese was six days old was 0.32 per cent. calculated as lactic acid, and the increase from the latter age to forty-one days old 128 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL, VIE was exactly the same, 0.32 per cent.; but in the former case, the increase was accomplished in six days, and in the latter thirty-five days. Whilst the increase in numbers of the lactic acid bacteria can fully account for the initial increase in acid, no ready explanation can be given for the gradual and progressive development of acidity from the sixth to the fortieth day. The acidity is due more to acid salts than to free acid, and it may be that some change occurs in the acid bases, and perhaps some of the fatty acids are liberated. The “Period of Rapid Decline” is practically synchronous with the gradual increase of acidity, and the “period of gradual decline” is coincident with the maximum amount of acidity. This increase, followed by an almost perinanent amount of acidity, may possibly explain why the bacteria die out at first rather rapidly and subsequently somewhat more slowly, the least resistant germs being killed off quickly by the slow accumulation of acid followed by the gradual death of the stronger individuals. Lactic acid bacteria—The prevalent lactic acid species present in all samples was undoubtedly the 4. aczdi lactict of Esten. This author stated that this bacterium is identical in every particular with Giinther and Thierfelder’s organism. In most of the samples of cheese it was the predominating lactic acid bacterium present. Next in numbers was B&. lactis aerogenes, or a form closely allied to it. This microbe curdled milk into a soft curd, and after some time gas bubbles appeared. When cultures of the above two organisms were seeded together in sterilized milk, a firm curd was produced with little or no gas. Occasionally a micrococcus producing a buff-coloured colony, and also torulae were found. Both of these turned litmus red and coagulated it into a solid curd with no separation of whey. Gas producing bacteria—The gas producing bacteria belonged usually to either the 4. cofz group or else to the 4. dactis aerogenes group. In the former group many varieties have been cultivated, showing considerable differences as to motility, indol and gas produc- tion. Nearly all writers on dairy bacteriology blame varieties of this bacillus for producing gassy milk and bad flavours. In_ several instances the cheese was mottled when this germ was present and this result might be possibly brought about by the bleaching action of the hydrogen liberated in the cheese by this ubiquitous microbe. According to Weinzirl the “huffing” of cheese results from the activity of a large number of Hueppe’s B. aczdz lactzct. Cohn considers 1900-I. | THE RIPENING OF CHEESE. 129 this germ to belong to the aerogenes group, but the forms of this bacterium that I have met with in Canadian cheese show considerable variations from the type, especially with regard to the appearance of the gelatine colonies which simulate rather that of B. acidi lactici (Esten). This group does not increase in cheese and I have not found them in cheese older than thirty days. The liquefying bacterta found in Canadian cheese were not numerous, and their numbers decreased as the cheese ripened, so that in three weeks old cheese they were seldom found. 2015-2042 (28 lines). ¢ 2043-2046 (4 lines). Note.—b=Urfaust 18 4. Note posttion of scene zn Part J. PaRT I., 1808. 17. Wald und Hohle. @ 3217-3341 (125 lines). b 3342-3369 (28 lines). € 3379-3373 (4 lines). Note 1.—b= Urfaust 18 4. ‘* 2.—This scene= Frag- ment I5. Changes ? Espec. II 3346-48. 3363. 3366. . Gretchens Stube, 3374-3413. 19. Marthens Garten,3414-3543. 20. Am Brunnen, 3544-3586. S) e} Note.—Ach, 3550, counted as one line. Seeuie7= 15. Zwinger, 1278-1310. 16. See 17 for Part I. a. See 18 a for Part I. c. Zwinger, 2047-79. 21. Zwinger, 3587-3619. Dropped. Nacht—Strasse vor Gret- chens Thiir. @ 3620-45. (26 lines) o£ Ur-> faust 17. 6 3646-49. ¢ 3650-59. (10 lines) cf Ur- faust 18 a. 22. (4 lines). d@ 3660-3775 (116 lines). - Dom, 1311-71 (61 lines). . Dom, 2080-2137 (58 lines). Note 1.—After 2094 line omitted= Urfaust 1326. Note 2.—2124-27=5 lines in Urfaust = 1356-60. Note 3.—2131-35=6 lines in Urfaust = 1364-69. 23. Dom, 3776-3834 (59 lines). Note 1.— Line 3789 added after 1323 of Urfaust. Note 2.—After 3791 a line omitted=Urfaust 1326. Note 3.—Lines 3821-24=5 lines in Urfaust, 1356-60. Note 4.—Lines 3828-32=6 lines in Urfaust, 1364-69. 138 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. URFAUST, 1773-1775? FRAGMENT, 1790. ParRT I., 1808. [VioOxr...Valiis 17. Nacht — Vor Gret- chens Haus, 1372- 97 (26 lines) cf Part ele 2h. Dropped. 18. Faust and Mephisto- pheles (vor Gret- chens Haus). @ 1398-1407 (1to lines) Dropped. Gp leawtell, Aaa 6 1408-1435 (28 lines) Seeuus 2: Ga art leaneae. 19. Faust and Mephisto- pheles. Dropped. Prose. 20. Nacht, 1436-1441. Dropped. 21. Kerker. Prose. Dropped. See 22 a. See 22 ¢. See 17 0 24. Walpurgisnacht, 3835-4222. . Walpurgisnachtstraum, 4223-4398. . Triber Tag. Prose. . Nacht, 4399-4404 . Kerker, 4405-4612. Verse. Other Changes ? 1900-1. ] PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO. 139 PHYSICAL. GEOLOGY OF CENTRAE ONTEARIO* By ALFRED W. G. WILSON. (Read 20th April, rgot.) CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION. LOCATION. Historical References, and Sources of Information. Résumé. TOPOGRAPHY OF THE PRE-SEDIMENTARY FLOOR. Diverse Character of the Crystallines. Even-topped Character of the Uplands. Dissection. Gradients. Three Problems Stated. First PROBLEM.—THE PRE-SEDIMENTARY TOPOGRAPHY. Inliers. Outliers. Conclusions. Examples Elsewhere. SECOND PROBLEM.—DATE OF EROSION. THIRD PROBLEM.—CONDITIONS OF EROSION. SUMMARY. THE PALZZOZOIC SERIES. A Question of Correlation. SANDSTONES. ARKOSE. BLACK RIVER AND LATER FORMATIONS. SUMMARY OF THE PALOZzOIC HISTORY. POST-CARBONIFEROUS HISTORY. MEsozoic, CAINOZOIC, AND EARLY PLEISTOCENE EPOCHS. Measure of Erosive Work. * This paper was written as a thesis for the Doctorate of Philosophy at Harvard University, and was presented in May, r1gor. 140 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vo.. VII. PRESENT FEATURES.—General Description. Pleistocene Deposits. Eastern Rock-Valleys. Jointed and Fissured Uplands. Gorges and Valleys of the Niagara Cuesta. Islands and Outliers. Depth of Excavation. Lowland Rock-Surface. Summary. PLEISTOCENE History.—A Summary. RECENT History.—A Summary. LITERATURE. INTRODUCTION. LocATION.—That portion of the Province of Ontario designated CENTRAL ONTARIO is a triangular area with its base on Lake Ontario to the south ; the western arm is formed by the Niagara escarpment in its extension from Hamilton to Collingwood ; the northern boundary: follows the edge of the crystalline rocks from Georgian Bay to a point on the St. Lawrence river a short distance east of Kingston. Fitstorical References and Sources of Information.—Previous to the institution of the Geological Survey of Canada, in 1843, there had been no systematic studies of the geology of Upper Canada, now the Province of Ontario. Before that date much even of the then unsettled parts of the Province had been surveyed into townships, and more or less accurate maps prepared. Admiral Bayfield’s surveys of the Great Lakes were the most important work upon the shore-lines of the Province. The present available maps, though in part corrected by more recent work, are based largely upon these early surveys. Dr. J. J. Bigsby had published (1829) a few papers in which reference is made to certain features of the area under discussion. After the institution of the Survey, the most important work is that of Alexander Murray. Between 1843 and 1856 Murray had explored and mapped a large portion of the present Province. His work in 1843 in the western portion of this area, and in 1852 in the eastern portion, forms the basis of our present knowledge of its geology. The first systematic account, in which all of Murray’s work is summarized, was published by Sir William Logan in 1863. This volume, entitled “The Geology of 1900-1. | PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO. 141 Canada,” is still the standard work of reference for the geology of “Old” Ontario. Since 1863 there has been little work in the area under the auspices of the Survey, except some work in 1886, the results of which have not yet been made public. Both previous and subsequent to Logan’s summary there have been many shorter papers published upon various topics. Some of these will be noted in the text. In the preparation of the present paper the writer has made use of many sources of information, and due acknowledgment will be made in the appropriate places. During the last few summers, as opportunity offered, the greater number of localities referred to in the context have been visited, and use has been made of the writer’s own observations in the field. The writer wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to Mr. J. M. Clarke, of Albany, for the identification of a number of fossils ; and to Professor W. M. Davis, of Harvard University, for advice and criticism while this paper was in preparation. Résumé—The area comprises, in all, about 6,500 square miles of territory. Within its limits are found rocks ranging in age from the Archean to the Niagara. These are overlaid by a great complex of deposits dating from the Pleistocene epoch. Everywhere along the northern boundary the various members of the crystalline series are found passing beneath the Cambro-Silurian sediments ; in some locali- ties outliers of the sediments are found upon the crystallines ; again, inliers of the latter are found wholly or partially surrounded by the former. At one time the sediments extended much farther towards the north; their removal has revealed ridges, valleys, and residual monad- nocks, the sub-mature topography of a well-dissected plain of denuda- tion, a plain long antedating the Cambrian. The basal members of the sedimentary series are destitute of fossils, and consist of more or less coarse detritus ; above them thick deposits of fossiliferous limestone were’ formed, and in many localities this limestone rests directly upon the crystallines. These limestones are in turn overlain by bituminous shales. A second cycle of slow depression, much greater than the former, resulted in the formation of a similar series of deposits, the upper members of which lie beyond the area under consideration. In the long interval from the close of the last period of deposition within the area until the beginning of the Pleistocene epoch, during 142 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. which the northern portion of this continent is supposed to have, at different times, stood at different but undetermined elevations above the then sea-level, the rocks of this area were exposed to the atmospheric agencies of disintegration and degradation. The result was the develop- ment of a topographic system whose remnants, though partly obscured by the deposits of the Pleistocene epoch, are still recognizable. Extensive climatic changes, by some supposed to be the product of, or accompanied by, elevation of this and adjacent portions of North America, interrupted these processes of dissection ; ice, in the form of sheet-glaciers, modified the topography produced in previous epochs, and introduced large amounts of material from the adjacent crystalline area. During the close of the epoch, the time of melting of the glacier, the clay, sand, gravel and boulders which it carried were deposited. The waters collected in great lakes in front of the retreating ice. Around their shores deltas were built, beaches formed, and benches cut; anda new system of drainage lines was instituted. Again, however, changes in relative elevations of different parts, and the withdrawal of the ice, led to the partial dismemberment of the drainage systems, to the definition of the present lake basins, and to the development of new lines of drainage, which are essentially the same to-day, though these and the lake levels are being slowly modified by secular changes of elevation. TOPOGKAPHY OP THE PRE-SEDIMENTARY: FLOOK Diverse Character of the Crystallines—The crystalline series along the northern boundary of the area comprise rocks in greatest variety, crystalline limestones, micaceous and hornblendic schists, and gneiss, the latter very abundant. Associated with these are plutonic and volcanic rocks, acid, basic, and of intermediate varieties. The whole region has been one of complicated folding and intense metamorphism. The schistose structure of the rocks, throughout the area, is nearly vertical, and has a northeast southwest trend, with local variations from this general direction. This great variety of rocks would necessarily offer different resisting powers to erosive agencies, and give rise to very diverse topography. In travelling through the region on foot one is continually ascending or descending. Even then he cannot fail to note the many small tarns, muskegs, and beaver-meadows found so frequently upon the upland areas. . £900-T. ] PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO. 143 Even-topped Character of the Uplands.—Al\most anywhere in the region the ascent of a height, from which a good view can be obtained, will disclose a remarkably even sky-line, indicative of the even character of the upland surface, with occasional greater elevations standing out in relief. One of the best localities to see this is from the crest of the divide between Deer bay and Stony lake, almost the middle point of the northern boundary of the area. The waters of Deer bay lie 120 feet below ; to the north-east is ‘the small Lovesick lake; to the east, three miles away, is the basin of Stony lake, the water-level being thirty feet below that of Deer bay. The sky-line of the upland upon the opposite side of these basins is remarkably even. Almost directly east, twelve miles in an air line, are the Blue Mountains at the other end of Stony lake, rising above the general level. These ridges, locally called mountains, are syenitic masses which stand out nearly 200 feet above the rolling surface of the surrounding district. A most striking view over the upland is that obtained from the summit of the cliff near the narrows of Haliburton lake, in the town- ship of Harburn, forty-five miles north of Stony lake. Here the observer will be standing about 175 feet above the lake, and over 1,000 feet above Lake Ontario, this being one of the highest points in Central Ontario. The waters of Haliburton lake flow southerly. Within a radius of ten miles are a number of small lakes and streams whose waters flow to the west, north or east, eventually reaching the Georgian Bay or the Ottawa river. Looking towards the east, south or west, the even upland plain appears to have a slight inclination to the south. Towards the north the direction of inclination is not so evident. Over the upland there are sometimes large, nearly flat areas of muskeg, a feature in which it is comparable to the uplands of Norway. Dissection.—Though still in an early stage of the cycle, the region as a whole is much dissected. Minor ridges and valleys trending prevailingly northeast and southwest are the dominant topographic features of the upland areas ; deep, steep-sided valleys, due apparently to later dissection, interrupt the continuity of the upland surface ; slopes, frequently of almost bare rock, are common, and steep cliffs not infrequent. At the borders of the sedimentary series the difference in level between the general upland surface and the bottoms of the larger valleys would average about 150 feet; further north, in areas which have perhaps been much longer denuded, this difference is much greater. All the deeper valleys are now lake basins; many of the larger basins 144 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. in the vicinity of Haliburton are deep, so that the depth of the valley bottoms below the level of the upland plain is frequently as much as 400 feet. The less-deep lateral valleys seem frequently to be graded with respect to the lake surfaces. In some localities, in small areas upon the upland, the topography is rolling, with only occasional low ridges and shallow valleys, except close to the present lake depressions. Gradients—The general even character of the skyline throughout the crystalline area justifies a comparison of the arithmetic gradients of the surface upon which the sediments rest, as ascertained by the differences between the elevations of a number of localities within the area. Data to institute a comparison along a series of parallel lines, outside of the sedimentary area, are not available. Radially from the upland surface in the vicinity of Haliburton lake to a number of points along the base of the Cambro-Silurian escarpment, between Georgian Bay and Kingston, the average gradient is nearly nine feet per mile. Figure 1.—AB represents the plain beneath the sedimentary cover ; BC, the plain north of the edge of the cover ; DB, the plain over the surface of the sediments; a, the escarpment, 6 and ¢, outliers. Vertical exaggeration about forty times. At Toronto the crystallines are known to be about 1,100 feet beneath the present surface. Two other borings, one at Cobourg, and the other in the township of South Fredericksburg, indicate that the floor is over 500 and over 600 feet, respectively, below the surface at these localities. The average gradient beneath the sedimentary cover along a series of lines from the foot of the Cambro-Silurian escarpment to the bottoms of these borings indicates that the gradient beneath the cover varies from twenty-two feet per mile in the western portion of the district to over forty-one feet per mile at the eastern end. The relative attitudes of these two surfaces are represented in figure 1, where AB represents the edge of a cross section of the plain beneath, and BC the edge of a cross section of that outside the sedimentary area. Upon the surface of the sediments toward the eastern part of the area, the gradient appears to lie between that beneath and that without the cover (fisure: 1, DB). - Im) the vicinity, of Toronto it, in part, approximately coincides with that upon the surface of the crystallines 1900-1. | PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO. 145 to the north. The surface is too irregular to justify any general comparison. In the area studied, that portion lying east of a line running a little to the east of north from the west side of Balsam lake is inclined towards the southeast. West of this line the inclination is towards the west. The meagre data available thus indicate that beneath the sediment- ary cover towards the western end of the area the average gradient is more than double that of the uncovered portions, while at the eastern end it is about four times as great. Near the western end, the gradient from the summit over the crystallines to the Black River escarpment, and over the surface of the Palaeozoic strata, is nearly the same. This gradient is less than half the average gradient of the northern side of the basin of Lake Ontario (23.7 feet). The relative positions of the three plains suggest certain problems which may be summarized thus :— 1. Do these three plains represent three distinct periods of planation ? 2. Are AB and BC of the same age, but now discordant by warping ? 3. Did the plain AB formerly extend upward in the direction BF ; is BC of the same age as DB, or is it younger ? 4. Is the discordance between AB or DB and BC produced by warping ? The accordance of the plains DB and BC towards the western end of the area is suggestive of warping elsewhere. Data of a detailed character as to the gradient upon the uncovered crystalline areas and upon the sedimentary outliers of the plain AB between the point represented by B and the front of the escarpment @ have not been obtained. Without them the evidence available is inadequate to solve the problems. It should be added that the relative arrangement of the three plains, represented as meeting in a broad angle at B, is purely fortuitous. The data in hand are not enough to determine whether AB and BC represent two intersecting plains, or portions of a continuous arc, and whether all three have a common point of intersection. Similar relations between two plains of denudation upon crystalline rocks, meeting at low angles, have been found by Van Hise in Wiscon- sin (96), and by Smyth in the region south of Lake Superior (’99). 10 146 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII Darton has described a somewhat similar case in Virginia (’94, 582). In the Grand Cafion of the Colorado we have an actual transverse sec- tion of two such intersecting plains, both older than the Cambrian, but meeting at a much higher angle. THREE PROBLEMS STATED.—Among the many problems which present themselves for consideration, three, which have reference to the character of the sedimentary floor, seem worthy of special attention :— 1. Have we here an ancient sub-maturely dissected plain of denuda- tion, a kind of geographical fossil, or is this topography the result of post-sedimentary causes ? 2. In either event is there any possibility of approximately dating its origin ? 3. Is the plain wholly the product of sub-aerial processes, or have we here a plain of submarine abrasion, and subsequent dissection ? FIRST PROBLEM, PRE-SEDIMENTARY ‘TOPOGRAPHY.—Turning now to a consideration of the first of these problems, it will be necessary to describe, with some detail, a number of special localities which seem to afford evidence for its solution. Inliers—In the township of Verulam, about midway between Sturgeon Point and Bobcaygeon at the foot of Sturgeon lake, conspicu- ous among the hills just north of the lake, is a ridge of aplitic granite known locally as Red Mountain. The exposed base is about sixty feet and the crest one hundred and ninety feet above the level of Sturgeon lake. The ridge itself is about 2,000 feet in length and 600 in breadth ; the longer axis strikes N 23°E. The crest is rounded, but falls off at the northwest corner very abruptly, at an angle of about 80°; on the east the inclination, though less, is still too steep for a person to descend in safety. At the south end the descent on both sides, though steep, is less precipitous. The crest and sides, especially towards the north, are free from boulders ; but the southern end, where the crest is lower, is strewn with large and small sharply angular fragments derived from the ridge itself, together with some large blocks of limestone. Forming a belt one hundred yards in width is marshy ground, beyond which are lower ridges of morainic material. Half a mile to the west of this ridge, occurs a second much smaller granitic ridge trending in the same direction. The deposits of drift seem to obscure any limestone deposits which occur in the immediate vicinity. Four and a half miles to the west, at Sturgeon Point, thin-bedded fossiliferous Trenton limestones 1900-1. | PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO. 147 are found dipping north at less than one degree. On the south shore of the lake other outcrops of limestone occur, with very light southerly dip. To the north, the edge of the Cambro-Silurian escarpment, looking out over the main body of the Archean, is found at a distance of about 11.5 miles (as measured on the maps). Is this the summit of a monadnock, buried when the sediments were deposited, and since uncovered in the progress of denudation ; or have there been granitic intrusions since the formation of the stratified deposits? In this locality positive evidence either way seems to be lacking. Further east, just north of Varty lake, and four miles from the edge of the escarpment, is a small oval dome of pink gneiss. Towards the north end of the dome four shafts, on a line transverse to the longer axis, penetrate the overlying limestone and show that the dip is nine degrees east on one side, and very much less on the other. A short distance away from the dome the strata have a dip of less than one degree. Near the southern end, where the gneiss is exposed, the limestone strata, quite close to the contact (the last few feet are covered with sod) are in an attitude which indicates that they abut against the gneiss. The higher strata, which once must have overarched the dome, have been eroded away. Here then we have beds of limestone strictly conformable with each other, and parallel to the surface upon which they rest, where seen in the shafts, arching over a dome of gneiss. So far as could be ascertained there is no evidence of post-sedimentary elevation. In the valley of Mill creek, a small stream, the outlet of Sydenham lake, about five miles from the main area of the archean, is a small ridge of gray micaceous gneiss. The valley of the creek is about one mile in width, and flat floored ; the nearest of the two bounding escarpments is 400 yards away, and the crest is 105 feet above the valley floor. The small crystalline ridge has evidently been exposed by the agency which carved the deep broad valley. Similar exposures of gneiss are found in the depressions occupied by many of the lakes of the Trent river system, on the Moira river, and elsewhere in like situations. Still further east, at Kingston Mills, just west of the bridge across the gorge of the Great Cataraqui creek, there is a railway cut transverse to a granite ridge. The west end of this cutting passes through a small mass of calcareous quartz conglomerate, lying in a hollow upon the flank of the granite. The contact between granite and conglomerate shows in cross section on both sides of the cutting. There are, in all, 148 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. about twelve feet of strata, dipping lightly to the west. The contact plane between these strata and the granite has, for the upper two-thirds of its length, a dip of about thirty-five degrees to the west. Towards the base this dip flattens out, and just where the line of contact passes beneath the material of the railway bed, the bedding of the sediments and the surface of the granite seem to be parallel (figure 2). In this calcareous conglomerate are found fragments of crinoid stems and the casts of a Cameroceras. Several specimens of the latter, composed of white crystalline calcite, were taken from one of the lower beds at a point six inches from the granite. Other specimens more than five feet distant from the granite are identical in appearance with FiGuRE 2.—Diagram to show the relative positions of the calcareous quartz conglomerate and the granite at Kingston Mills railway cut. Horizontal and vertical scales equal. those obtained close to it. Neither rock has undergone any changes such as might be expected were the granite a _ post-sedimentary intrusion. On the southwest flank of the same hill, at a slightly higher elevation, is a small exposure of a compact, fine-grained, gray lime- stone, with a conchoidal fracture, and in close proximity to the granite, which can be followed around it. A quarter of a mile west the lime- stone beds in the valley are fifteen feet in thickness. Three and two-thirds miles almost directly south of this, at Fort Hill, on Barriefield common, midway between the Gananoque road and the river shore, occurs an ovoid quaquaversal dome with a gneissic core. The direction of the main axis of the dome is about northeast. The strike of the gneissic structure is about east and west, while the dip is almost vertical. The limestone forms a low infacing ridge, in places broken down. The maximum dip, sixteen degrees, occurs on the southwest side of the dome, but rapidly becomes less as one recedes 1900-1. | PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO. 149 from the central core. On the northeast side the dip is five and a-half degrees to the south of east, but away from the core, this also diminishes. The limestone is compact, fine-grained, and fossiliferous. In texture it much resembles that found upon the higher exposures on the southwest flank of the granite ridge at Kingston Mills. (figure 3.) FIGURE 3.—Transverse section of the quaquaversal dome at Fort Hill, Kingston. Horizontal and verti" cal scales equal. One-third of a mile east of the dome, the nearly horizontal lime- stones form an easterly-facing escarpment, talus covered, facing a large area of crystallines, partly gneiss, but mainly a dark red granite. The valley between is about one hundred yards in width, but towards the northeast the depth and width diminish, and the limestones, still almost horizontal, outcrop near the granite (figure 4). This granite is itself a Figure 4.—Diagram to show the apparent relative positions of the limestone’and crystallines east of Fort Hill. Horizontal and vertical scales equal. large inlier from the western side of the arm of the crystalline series which connects the Canadian archean with that in New York. East and north, through the township of Pittsburg, there are many ridges of gneiss with a general northeast trend, thes trikes being sympathetic with the direction of the ridges, and the dips nearly vertical, or when inclined, the inclination is generally the same on both sides of the ridge in question. Between some of the ridges long tongues of horizontai strata extend northeastward, frequently, though not always, with an escarpment facing the gneiss. In no place does the limestone show a dip sympathetic to the inclination of the ridge adjacent, though there are cases where the relative positions of the two are such that the dip ought to be nearly thirty degrees, if the gneissic ridge were elevated after the deposition of the sediments. With reference to these ridges of gneiss, and to the unroofed dome at Fort Hill, Dr. Drummond writes: “ The Laurentian strata have been here elevated into these great ridges at a period subsequent to the 150 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VIE Black River times” (’92, 110). So far as indicated in the context, the only evidence upon which this deduction is founded, is the occur- ence of the limestone strata “at a high angle,” dipping outward from the central dome of gneiss. The evidence, as stated, seems inadequate to admit of the broad conclusion reached. If the ridges were elevated subsequently to the deposition of the strata, z.e., were ridges of deformation, certain necessary results would follow. Over large areas the gneissic structure is frequently parallel. If, in such an area, a ridge is formed by elevation without faulting, in a region where the dips are not ex- actly vertical, the inclination on the side of the new ridge towards which the structure hades would be steepened, and that on the side opposite lessened. A traverse across the ridge in the direction of hade would show a decrease to Figure 5.—If AB represent the position of the surface of the gneiss before upheaval, and ACDB the position of the surface of the dome after up- heaval, then that portion that moves upward at a will have a less distance to rise than that at 0, Therefore the dips between @ and 4 will be steepened. Similarly, on the opposite side the dips will be a minimum where the grade was lessened. Beneath the crest the uplift will be uni- form, and hence there will be no alteration of dip. Where the grade of the new ridge is steepest the change from the original dip will be greatest. greatest, followed by an increase through the normal at the crest, to a maximum where the grade was at a maximum upon the op- . posite side, and then decrease to the normal (figure 5). In a series of such ridges this dzverszty of dip would occur unzformly across the ridges. Secondly, strata adjacent to a// the ridges would be inclined in sympathy with the elevation, the greatest inclination being nearest the steepest and highest ridges; where the inclination of the ridge is very steep the strata would be affected for a longer distance away from the centre of elevation, or if the uplift did not affect the strata at any great distance, faulting and slipping would occur. If the uplift took place gradually, or rapidly, during the period of deposition of the strata, the wuzform diversity of dip in the structure of The strata would tend to thin If the uplift were very great some of the beds might even end in wedges against the sides of the ridge. The other necessary results would be as in the former case, though faulting and slipping are less likely to occur, owing to the softness of the beds. In the sections as usually exposed it would be very difficult to distinguish between intersedimentary and _post- the ridges would be as in the first case. ‘out over the crest, if the material were somewhat coarse. sedimentary uplift. 1900-1. ] PHysICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO. 151 Had the ridges existed prior to the deposition of the sediments, having been the product of erosion, the structure of ridge and valley would frequently have the same dip; in cases where the dips varied the diversity would not be systematic. The position assumed by the sediments would depend upon three factors, two of which are, in practice, determinable by observation, the third by inference only. The steepness of the grade of the ridge would necessarily be an important factor. Where the grade was light the sediments would be deposited evenly over the inclined floor. As the inclination of the floor increased the tendency would be for the beds to wedge out and finally to abut against, rather than to rest upon the incline. The fineness or coarseness of material and the degree of agitation of the water would be important varying factors. Where the waters were quiet, and the sediments coarse, the deposition could take place upon slopes down which the materials would readily move if the waters were agitated. If the sediments were fine, the slopes upon which they could rest would be much steeper. The angle of repose for the sediments will then vary as each factor varies, and hence numerous variations are possible and many of these are also probable. The deduction leads to inquiry as to what is the maximum angle of repose at which, under what may be called normal conditions of deposition, strata of different compositions may be deposited, for obviously this must be known before we can determine, from the dip alone, whether strata were deposited in an inclined position. The number of variants is too great to permit of a complete reply to the question; it seems advisable rather to apply the criteria already deduced to the facts under consideration, and indirectly to obtain a partial answer to the last problem. In the areas where the gneiss is not obscured by a cover in the bottoms of the valleys, we frequently find the dips the same over large areas of ridge and valley ; sometimes there is diversity, in the valley it may be vertical while in the ridge it is inclined, or vice versa, but uniform diversity is not found. This wszform continuzty and lack of uniform aiversity, particularly in areas where the structures are inclined away from the vertical, would alone indicate that these are not ridges of deformation, but on the contrary, would lead us to infer that they are the result of erosion. Attention has already been called to the lack of sympathetic dip in limestones adjacent to steep gneissic ridges. At Kingston Mills cut the upper part of the granite face was too steep for the coarse sedimentary 152 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII deposits to rest upon it under the then existing conditions. Conse- quently they moved down, as deposited, to a position of stable equilibrium, producing in the slipping, the slight upward drag seen in the beds just at the contact. At the ridge near Varty lake, and at that one now fronting the escarpment east of Fort Hill, similar conditions probably prevailed. The steep face of the ridge in the latter case has a slope of about thirty-five degrees, in some places it is even steeper, yet the limestones show no sympathetic dip, (figure 4). At Fort Hill, where the grade indicated by the strata is zow sixteen degrees, the water would probably be somewhat deeper, and the calcareous sediments were very fine grained. The inclined position of the much coarser sediments at Kingston Mills, and the state of preservation of the fossils in these coarse sediments, indicate that the water was moderately quiet so there seems no adequate reason why the finer material should not have been deposited in its present inclined position at Barriefield com- mon, (figure 6). With reference to the other criteria, thinning out of Figure 6.—An ideal section to show the probable conditions at Fort Hill betore degradation and denuda- tion. The dotted lines show the bottom and top of figure 3. beds, faulting and slipping, so far as known the two latter are absent, and the first can only be applied rarely. The balance of evidence thus seems to indicate that the ridges are of pre-sedimentary origin, and that the sedimentary strata were deposited essentially in the positions in which we find them to-day. It is interesting to note that at the base of the cliff on Deer bay, in the distance of a little over a mile, there is a continuous transverse section of no less than five light anticlinal domes in strata which are only removed a few feet from the gneiss, here below the water level. The arch dies out in about the first twenty feet of strata. Above that, so far as the eye can judge, they are nearly horizontal. Logan (68, 98), refers to strata near Millburn (then, Daly’s Mills) having comparatively high angles of dip near the junction with the 1900-1. | PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO, 153 Laurentian, where they seem “almost always to be slightly accommo- dated to the worn surface.” Laflamme (’84, 15; '86, 43) has noted similar features in the Lake St. John region; and Adams ('938, 338) has drawn attention to the fact that the roche moutonnée character of the Laurentian rocks was impressed upon them in pre-Cambrian times.* Outlers—Similar evidence as to the character of the pre- sedimentary surface is offered in the vicinity of the numerous outliers upon the crystallines. Conclustons.—\n Central Ontario, from the evidence afforded by the inliers of Archean within the area of Palzozoics, and of the outliers of Paleozoic strata upon the Archean, it seems that the sediments were laid down upon an uneven floor essentially the same as that presented at the present day by the Laurentian areas along the borders of the Cambro-Silurian escarpment. Examples elsewhere—These buried oldland surfaces are found in many other localities. Sometimes the eroded surface is almost a plane, as seen in the Grand Canon section of the plain upon which the lower Paleozoic deposits rest. Again the surface may have had irregularities many hundred feet in height, as shown by the Baraboo ridge in Wisconsin, or as seen in an area in the Scottish Highlands, described byGreilkien s(oce Newberry, Oo. 57; living; (72,.60, and 77. 427; Dutton, '82, 209; Geikie, 88, 400; Bell, ‘94, 362; Keyes, '95, 58; Van Hise, ’96, 59). SECOND. PROBLEM, DATE OF EROSION.—The second and third problems for consideration have reference to the time and conditions of . erosion by which this pre-sedimentary topography was produced. From the writings of the earlier geologists the prevailing view seems to have been, that the Paleozoic sediments were laid down upon a rising sea bottom, and that the Archean areas in Canada represent the first emerged land. The more recent view is that the sediments were accumulated on a sinking land surface. In this area, the granites, gneisses, and schists date from Archean time. The evidences of a vast amount of denudation afforded by the truncating surfaces, and the absence of lower and middle Cambrian sediments from every portion of the area, make it improbable that during the deposition of these sediments elsewhere the land here was below sea level. The consensus of opinion, based upon the study of * See also Lawson, 1890. 154 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. the conditions of the pre-Cambrian floor, and upon the distribution of the Cambrian sediments over North America, is that during the interval of the deposition of early Cambrian sediments there was a great interior continent, of which Central Ontario would form a part. Walcott (91, 567) thus sums up the conclusions from his studies on “North America during Cambrian time” :—1. “The pre-Cambrian Algonkian continent was formed of the crystalline rocks of the Archean nuclei, and broad areas of superjacent Algonkian rocks that were more or less disturbed and extensively eroded in pre-Cambian time. Its area was larger than at any succeeding epoch until Mesozoic time.” 4. “ The interior continental area was, at the beginning of Cambrian time, an elevated, broad, relatively level plateau between the Paleo- Appalachian sea on the east, and the Paleo-Rocky Mountain barrier on the west.” 7. “The Cambrian Sea began to invade the great Interior Contin- ental area in late Middle Cambrian time, and extended far to the north toward the close of the period.” 8. “The depression of the continent in relation to sea level began in pre-Cambrian time and continued with a few interruptions until the close of Paleozoic time.” Many conclusions with reference to events which occurred so long ago must necessarily be somewhat uncertain. With our present know- ledge of the evidences, it seems that during Archean and early Cambrian times this area formed part of a continental area. The processes by which the even-topped upland was produced operated so long ago that it is impossible to determine their precise nature. The character of the subsequent dissection appears to indicate that the present topographic features of the uplands were, in the main, the product of subaerial erosion during a pre-Potsdam period of elevation. The balance of evidence thus leads to the conclusion that the present surface features of the crystalline area, at least along the borders of the Paleozoic sediments, are essentially the same as they were in pre- sedimentary times. The problem now arises as to the process by which the degradation and the denudation produced the even-topped upland and the varying features of the present topography. It would be well to note with reference to the term even-topped, that a personal equation must be considered. The expression is used here 1900-1. | PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO. 155 to describe the sky-line of the upland plain, where for long distances, so far as the eye can judge, it appears with no marked irregularity. In many parts of the area the surfaces of large lakes offer horizontal lines for comparison. Occasional irregularities occur, and these frequently make abrupt changes in the otherwise even line. Upland plain has been used to indicate that imaginary surface whose elevations accord with the elevations of the even sky-lines, as seen in many parts of the area. Upland indicates portions of the present land surface whose elevation accords closely with the upland plain, and whose surface presents only minor irregularities, as compared with the greater irregu- larities of the surface of the region as a whole (figure 7). The present FicureE 7.—Diagram to illustrate the definitions of terms. topography is such that although the slopes are frequently graded, there are few areas to which the corresponding term lowland should be applied. The change in gradient from the valley side to the upland is frequently so marked as to justify the use of the term shoulder to describe the place where the change occurs. THIRD PROBLEM, CONDITIONS OF EROSION.—Two hypotheses have been offered to account for the origin of topography of this nature. The one would consider it as the product of a single cycle, the other as the product of two or more (n+1) cycles. The first, the “ bevelling” hypothesis, would consider the present features as those of an ancient mountain system reduced to maturity and possibly re-elevated and made more rugged. The second would consider that the even uplands (produced during a long interval of time, at a period when the land stood relatively near base level) are remnants of the upland plain, and that the present valleys and lowlands were due to an increased activity of the agencies of degradation and denudation because of subsequent elevation. If the area is part of an old mountain system reduced to its present form by bevelling, the present elevations must have once been higher and more rugged than they now are (figure 8, ABCDEF). In the process of degradation the ruggedness would be reduced and the slopes become graded by the removal of waste from the mountain sides and its transportation to the valleys, where it would either remain or be 159 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. removed according to circumstances. Eventually, there would be a uniformly graded slope from stream bed to mountain top (AGCDHF). After the production of this slope the process will continue, but more slowly, with the gradual reduction of the crest, and corresponding Ficure 8, decrease in grade, approaching but never reaching complete horizon- tality. Of necessity there will always be one point, or a series of points in line, higher than all the rest. From here the gradient would be downwards in all directions. In the late mature stages, when there is some approach to a nearly smooth surface over the whole mountain, there will be no abrupt change in slope. Such an explanation of the process of degradation makes no pro- vision for the occurrence of areas of greater or less extent with almost identical elevation, (A’ IC, DK); nor for the abrupt changes in gradient such as occur at the shoulders before mentioned (A’, C, D.) Hence, in the writer’s conception of the process, it seems inadequate to explain significant facts of the present case. The two-cycle (n+1 cycle) hypothesis would explain these peculiar- ities by postulating a previous cycle (or cycles) of erosion in which the land was cut down to a surface of very faint relief and subsequently elevated and dissected, the new valleys not having yet extended their graded slopes far enough to completely obliterate the plain of the former cycle. The shoulders were produced where the change in gradient from the present valley side to the older plain occurs. In almost every locality where the Cambro-Silurian sediments are seen in contact with the crystallines, the surface is seemingly quite fresh. Except in one known locality, where a distinct arkose of angular material is found, the old soil cover seems to be completely gone. The process by which this cover was removed and the surface of the Archean freshened, is at present undetermined. SUMMARY.—The present topography of the pre-sedimentary floor may be regarded as the product of a degradation which produced a 1900-1. | PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO. 157 planation surface, and the residual monadnocks, as indicated by the even-topped upland. This surface was uplifted to permit of the renewed activities that carved and denuded the ungraded, or partly- graded slopes of sub-maturity, now presented wherever it has been freed from the Paleozoic cover. This latter dissection and denudation ante- dates the sediments, within this area, commonly called Potsdam, and may well] have taken place in early and middle Cambrian times. The ancient pre-sedimentary surface may be conveniently described as a sub-maturely dissected and denuded peneplain dating from before early Cambrian times. SHE PALAOZOIC: SERIES: A Question of Correlation.—\n tracing the geological history of this area, by means of the nature and relations of the different deposits found adjacent to and within its boundaries, there is a question that must not be disregarded, as to the correlation of partly eroded stratified deposits, at a low angle of dip, around the margin of an oldland area. In the formation of a series of deposits upon a slowly sinking land surface, the normal distribution of material is the formation of sand and pebble beds at the shore line, grading gradually into clays and muds, and thence into calcareous deposits (figure 9). Any given stratum must have three synchronous members, each merging gradually into the FiGuRE 9.—Diagram to represent the normal distribution of sediments. A, oldland; B, sandstone and conglomerate zone ; C, shale zone; D, limestone zone. Transition zones are indicated by lines. adjacent member. The beds composed of strata which have been deposited successively must also each consist of these three members. During the time of the formation of any given bed the forms of life existing at that time will be distributed over the surface of that bed, each in its appropriate locality. The sand-loving forms will be near the shore, the mud-loving forms in the areas which afterwards become converted into shale, and the forms which thrive best in deep clear water will be found further seaward. At the transition zones where 158 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. there is a merging of conditions there will be a merging of forms. Accidents may happen by which the normal distribution is slightly disturbed ; and some few forms may exist in all three zones. Since the production of the deposits, their thickness, and their other relations depend upon the two factors, rate of depression and rate of supply of detritus, with varying conditions as to depth of water, there are many possible variations from the normal arrangement. The result of one such variation is represented diagramitically in figure 10, where the rate of supply of detritus has been sufficiently in excess of the rate HSU humno FicurE 10,—Diagram to represent a special variation in the distribution of sediments. A, oldland ; B, sandstone and conglomerate zone; C, shale zone; D, limestone zone. Transition zones are indicated by lines. dc, sub-aerial deposits. of depression of the land, to permit of the transgression of the sands over the seaward zones. If a rapid variation had taken place in the opposite direction, the muds and sands might become mingled along the shore, and eventually the limestones might rest directly upon the oldland surface. Irregularities in the variations of each factor will lead to many irregularities and overlaps along the zones of transition. By subsequent processes, after a greater or less interval of time, these deposits will become indurated and form sandstones and conglom- erates, shales, and limestones. If, after uplift, the greater part of the sediments are eroded away, and small remnants, perhaps as outliers, remain in protected areas, we may find limestone in one place which is contemporaneous with sandstone in another, though the fossils in each are wholly unlike. Moreover, deposits, of entirely different epochs, may be almost identical because derived from the same source. SANDSTONES.—In Central Ontario, particularly towards the eastern end, where the sediments occur in ellipsoidal basins, and with a very slight and irregular dip, the sandstones and some of the other beds entirely without fossils, there is a strong a priori argument for consider- ing that the saxdstones and some of the limestones are contemporaneous. The oldest sediments, within the area, which can be identified by fossils, are the Black River limestones. Conformably below these are beds, 1900-1. ] PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO. 159 which in some cases carry fossils that are supposed to mark a transition vertically from the Chazy at least, but which equally well may mark a transition horizontally. Chiefly as outliers, but occasionally passing beneath the non-fossiliferous beds below the identified beds of the Black River formation, are a series of sandstones usually termed Potsdam. (The maximum thickness is, locally, sixty feet). As no fossils, except some very obscure Scolithus borings, have, so far as the writer knows, ever been found in these beds; and as Potsdam is a term introduced to describe rocks where certain definite stratigraphic and faunal relations hold, it is inadvisable to apply the term until these well defined relations are proven to exist here. Even were fossils found in the sandstone, the possibility of their being, zz ¢hzs locality, contemporaneous with the lower limestone beds, would not be diminished. Much of the sandstone of these deposits, in this area, occurs in depressions between pre-sedimentary ridges. There are many angular fragments of gneiss and quartz, both large and small, included in the sandstone. In many places there are no known beach-worn pebbles, and no fossils, even in very thick beds; the material has been well sorted and consists almost wholly of quartz grains; the beds are frequently very massive and obscurely cross-bedded ; ripple marks are absent or very obscure in many localities. There thus seems to be good reason for thinking that much of this sandstone may be waste which was laid down here, possibly by streams, after the crystal- line surface had been smoothened and freed from its residual soil, if such ever existed, but before the advent of the sea, and that the shore- line of that time is now concealed by the overlying deposits. Subse- quently, in the rapid depression of the land immediately preceding the time when the limestones overlapped upon the crystalline area, the surface of these sands may have been evened off, and perhaps a small amount of new material was added. ARKOSE.—There is one known locality in which the non-fossiliferous sediments beneath the identified Black River limestone are especially interesting. At the foot of the escarpment on Deer bay, just at water level,a few well marked beds of arkose are exposed. The beds average about ten inches each, the whole deposit being an unknown amount over six feet in thickness. This arkose consists of translucent partly worn crystals and fragments of quartz and angular fragments of pink orthoclase feldspar, cemented with a dark reddish-purple feldspathic and calcareous cement, with occasional patches which resemble the argillaceous portions of some of the succeeding beds. The rock is 160 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. readily friable and forms a beach of small gravel just at the foot of the cliff. The constituents of this arkose are distinctly different from those of the adjacent gneiss. The nearest outcrop of gneiss is one hundred yards away, and the water between reaches a maximum depth of nine feet, but, from the conformation of the bottom, the exposed portion of the deposits must evidently be within a very few feet of the gneiss imme- diately below it. The deposits may be regarded as a remnant of the old soil cover of pre-sedimentary times, slightly rearranged. BLACK RIVER AND LATER FORMATIONS.—Succeeding these unidentified beds are the Black River limestones, which form a cuesta, whose northern boundary forms an escarpment extending from Georgian Bay to Kingston. The Black River beds are succeeded by the Trenton limestones with a thickness, as calculated from the dips near the eastern end across Prince Edward county, of over 1,400 feet. These are overlain by about 100 feet of Utica shales. Above this are nearly 800 feet of Lorraine shales and sandstones, overlaid in turn by 545 feet of Medina marls and sandstones. The upper bed of the Medina is, in Central Ontario,a heavy gray sandstone, about twelve feet in thickness, but occasionally thicker. The beds above this, found in the Niagara escarpment, consist of Clinton dolomitic limestones and shales, overlaid by the Niagara limestone. Throughout the region, so far as known, there is no observed unconformity between the beds of the various formations. SUMMARY OF THE PALAOZOIC HISTORY.—The geologic history of the area, subsequent to the period of denudation and dissection of the crystallines, was begun by a depression of the land, during which some small amounts of sand were deposited along and near the shores, with deposits which formed shales and limestones in the deeper waters. This depression continued somewhat faster than the rate of supply of detritus, and finally limestones, which, however, contain siliceous material, were deposited over the whole area. The waters were “ richly tenanted by a great variety of forms of invertebrate life, and repre- senting the culmination of invertebrate animals in the Lower Paleozoic” (Dawson, ’89, 73). The great thickness of the deposits indicates that the Trenton epoch was of considerable duration. Towards the close of the limestone-forming epoch a variation took place, the new material supplied to this area was in the form of clays and muds. The change in the character of the deposits was accompanied by a change in the types of animal life here present. This change, marked by the Utica shales, was probably caused in part by a decrease in the rate of depres- 1900-1. | PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO, 161 sion of the land. That it did not cease is shown by the thickness of the deposits. Throughout the Lorraine epoch the area has been one of large sandy mud flats, alternately bare, exposed to the sun and rains, and submerged. The shallow sea appears to have endured for some time, since these deposits gradually give place to the sandstones of the Medina epoch. During the Medina there has been an alternation of the depth of the ocean here, as evidenced by the mingled sandstones and marls, the former with mud cracks, ripple and current marks. The final stage of the Medina led to the accumulation of a broad thick band of fine-grained siliceous sandstone, free from ferric oxide, in marked contrast to the majority of the lower beds. The succeeding epoch must have begun with a relatively rapid depression of the land, since the overlap of the Clinton dolomitic lime- stone upon the upper sandstone of the Medina is abrupt. The depres- sion seems to have continued rapidly enough to permit of the overlap of the succeeding Niagara rocks upon the crystalline areas far to the north. From the purity of the limestone, and from the types of organic remains, and their abundance, it is inferred that the waters of this epoch were clear and warm. The materials from which the limestone is made were probably drawn from the sea water by the invertebrate animals in the making of their hard parts. This second great limestone-making epoch was followed by a gradual shallowing of the water, during which the Guelph dolomites were formed. Eventually the water became very shallow ; enclosed lagoons, occasionally flooded, were numerous ; in these lagoons the salt and gypsum beds of the Onondaga were formed by the evaporation of the water and the concentration and precipitation of the saline compounds in solution. The sandstones of the succeeding Devonian period are now many miles distant from the front of the Niagara cuesta. They may at one time have reached out and overlapped it, but if so, what their north- eastern extension may have been is unknown. During the period of their formation the central portion of the Archean area may have been above water, and the denudation which has subsequently removed all the Niagara limestone, with a very few small protected areas excepted, could then have already begun. It is interesting to note that the peneplain represented by BC (figure 1, page 144) may date its beginning from this Devonian degradation. Tl 162 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vor Vi, The area had thus taken part in three great cycles of deposition concomitant with three great continental oscillations, or a long continued single oscillation of varying rate. During two of the cycles great lime- stone deposits were made within its boundaries. The nearest known areas of Lower Carboniferous are in Michigan, 140 miles away, and their composition is such that it is usually inferred that ever since the close of the Devonian period this area has been above sea level and exposed to denudation and dissection. POST-CARBONIFEROUS HISTORY. MESOZOIC, CAINOZOIC AND EARLY PLEISTOCENE EPOCHS.—There is little or no direct evidence of the history of the area during Carboni- ferous and Mesozoic time. The late Mesozoic was a period of extensive peneplanation throughout most of North America. In Wisconsin and Michigan to the west, and in New York and Pennsylvania to the south, the remnants of the planation surface have been recognized. It seems probable that the same planation processes, working northward from these areas, and southward from the Arctic region, may have, in part, produced the younger of the two plains upon the Archean areas in Canada. It is true, this plain may be of pre-Palzeozoic age. Whether it is such, and yet younger than that beneath the sediments cannot be shown until it is proven that the sediments once actually rested upon it, and not upon a surface now eroded away. This latter would be the former northward extension upon which they now rest (figure 1, BF p. 144). The study of the isolated outliers, such as those of the small areas of limestone in the Lake Nipissing region and elsewhere, may show that they are preserved because thrown into their present protected positions by the downthrow of a fault block. If so, the probability of this plain being of Cretaceous age will be strengthened. By way of comparison it may be noted that a series of faults dislocated the early sedimentary rocks of Sweden and Norway. Later planation left only a few small patches at baselevel, upon the downthrown blocks. Subse- quent elevation of the whole area, and erosion of these softer remnants produced a series of depressions, in some of which are still found isolated patches of the soft rocks. The lower portions of these depressions frequently form lake basins, the most noted of which are Boren, Roxen, Glan, and Braviken. The period of Cretaceous planation was followed by an undetermined amount of elevation of portions of the continent, probably including this area. The immediate effect of such an uplift would be the active UL We a \ ‘ \ \ \ spe )\ _L-DUFFERING { “i \ ae : = ala ee SEN (AN CAS ; : . Y 0 ‘ ee ey ¢ 0) (¢) Ou e RIVER SYS TEMS oa AL ONTARIO AW.G Wilson Scale — 10 20 30 | Ae tint ¢ i i f } 1900-1. | PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO. 163 renewal of the process of subaerial degradation, and the development of topographic forms and an adjusted drainage system appropriate to a region underlain by alternate series of strong and weak rocks at low angles of dip. During the extensive Pleistocene glaciation the topo- graphic features, the product of the preceding cycle, may have been largely modified, destroyed, or otherwise obliterated, and new forms produced. Measure of erostve work.—Our measure of the work performed during these two periods must necessarily be derived from a knowledge of the present features, and of the conditions existing before the oper- ation of the erosive agents. The proportion to be assigned to either period depends upon a knowledge of the relative competence of the processes of degradation, and of the time during which they were oper- ating. The amount of work performed by either process, and by both, will vary with the locality, and with the conditions under which the process is in operation, eg. geographical position, elevation, position with reference to baselevel, character of the rocks, relation to the ice front and to the névé of a glacial lobe. At present the knowledge of the total effects of both processes, and of the method of operation of sheet-glacier ice, seem too limited to warrant the assignment of a definite portion of the work to either, except in local cases. PRESENT FEATURES.—General Description—The Niagara cuesta is a prominent topographic feature extending along the south shore of Lake Ontario from east of Rochester to Hamilton, thence northward across Ontario to the Manitoulin Islands, thence curving southwestward to the east of Green Bay and across parts of the States of Wisconsin, Illinois and Iowa. Lakes Erie, Huron, and Michigan are situated upon the outer lowland; Lake Ontario, Georgian Bay, and Green Bay lie upon the lowland in front of the cuesta; Lake Superior lies in a position outside of both lowland and cuesta. The cuesta-front forms one boundary of a great inner lowland. The southwestern loop of this lowland is best developed in the State of Wisconsin, and may thus be appropriately designated the WISCONSIN LOWLAND. The eastern part, the ONTARIO LOWLAND, includes the basins of Lake Ontario and Georgian Bay, as well as the adjacent land areas. The two parts of the inner lowland are connected by a narrow, more or less submerged belt, passing across the Manitoulin Islands. It has been found convenient to refer to the present unsubmerged part of the Ontario lowland, within the Province of Ontario, as the CENTRAL ONTARIO LOWLAND. (Map I.) 164 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, {[Voxt. VII. The northeastward extension of the Ontario lowland merges gradu- ally with the cuesta formed by the Black River strata. The escarp- ment-front of the Black River cuesta extends from the vicinity of Kingston northwestward to Georgian Bay, and thence across the bay, beneath whose waters it seems to be still traceable, to the Manitoulin Islands. The unsubmerged portion of the escarpment averages about ninety feet in height, and locally is occasionally much higher. In the region west of Lake Simcoe, and in northern parts of Hastings and Addington counties, it is partly obscured by drift deposits. The fronts of both cuestas present many irregularities appropriate to development under subaerial processes. The principal physical features of “Old” Ontario are those characteristic of an ancient coastal plain which has passed through a period of planation followed by one of uplift, dissection, and the development of an adjusted drainage system. Similar topographic forms have been developed, also with varying strength and expression, in Middle England, in the Paris. Basin and elsewhere near oldland areas. The drift deposits in Central Ontario form a prominent ridge, or series of ridges, the Oak Ridges, of varying breadth, lying at an average distance of about ten miles north of Lake Ontario, and extending east- ward to the vicinity of Trenton. At the western end, near Palgrave, the thickness of the deposits is sufficient to almost obliterate the escarp- ment of the Niagara cuesta. A number of spurs extend southward and northward from the main ridge. This morainic ridge divides Central Ontario into two drainage slopes, a northern and a southern. The Trent river, the largest stream within the area, conveys a large percentage of the drainage from the northern slope, and from the southern slopes of the crystalline area to the north, across the ridge to the Bay of Quinte in the vicinity of Trenton. The remaining portion of the drainage of this northern slope reaches Georgian Bay, chiefly by the Severn river from Lake Simcoe basin, and by the Nottawasaga river. The waters from the southern drainage slope reach Lake Ontario by a number of small streams. East of Trenton the drainage, which is across the area from within the Black River cuesta, is controlled almost wholly by the rock topography. The present features of Central Ontario, as a product of the operation of the two processes, Pliocene and early Pleistocene subaerial erosion, and Pleistocene erosion by sheet-glacier ice, are of special interest, not only in themselves, but because of their relation to the PLATE I. FIGURE 1.—Pleistocene deposits at Taylor’s Brick Mills, Toronto. The lowest beds are Lorraine shales; these are overlain by a thin sheet of till, and this in turn by the beds of the first Interglacial epoch. (Photo. taken 1895). FIGURE 2.—Pleistccene Deposits at Taylor's Brick Mills, Toronto. Beds of the second Interglacial epoch. (Photo, taken 1895). 1900-1. | PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO. 165 question of the origin of the basin of Lake Ontario. Although over large areas the topography of the rock floor beneath the Pleistocene deposits cannot be ascertained, there are also large areas in which there is no difficulty in determining its essential features, often even to minute details. Since the interpretation of the features of this rock topography depends upon its relation to the overlying Pleistocene debris, it has been thought best to first describe in outline, these latest deposits. Pleistocene Deposits—Hinde (77), Coleman (94, ’95, ’97, 98, ’99, 1900), and others, have described Pleistocene deposits occurring in the vicinity of Toronto, notably at Scarboro’ Heights, describing three sheets of glacial till. The two upper sheets overlie thick deposits of stratified and finely laminated clays and stratified fossiliferous sands and gravels. (Plate I.) One hundred miles east of Toronto, just north of Trenton, occur series of deposits in which is cut a sea-cliff attributed to Lake Iroquois. The crest of the Iroquois sea-cliff is 718 feet (bar.), and the rock surface just east of this, along the Trent River is about seventy- eight feet above Lake Ontario.* The total thickness is thus 640 feet. These deposits show three till sheets alternating with two series of strati- fied beds, chiefly sands and gravels. The precise thickness of each of the five series of beds has not been ascertained as yet, but the till beds certainly, and the stratified beds probably, are much thicker than the similar beds at Toronto. Between this locality and Toronto, in each of four other transverse sections northward from Lake Ontario, the three till sheets have been encountered by the writer. In a trip, on foot, along the lake shore from Presqu’ Isle to Burlington beach, the two lower of these three till sheets have been traced for a long distance. East of Port Hope, between Bow- manville and Whitby, and west of Toronto, a till sheet rests in many places directly upon the rock surface. Sometimes only the upper portion of this sheet is visible, and occasionally it passes wholly below the lake level. Provisionally this lowest sheet may be considered as the equivalent of the lowest till sheet at Toronto and at Trenton. From Port Hope westward a second till sheet, with varying thick- ness, resting upon stratified deposits, both sands and laminated clays, and once (near Oshawa) upon the lower till sheet, can be followed along the lake shore almost continuously to Scarboro’. At Scarboro’ there is a nearly continuous section about nine miles in length. Between Port Hope and Trenton the edge of this sheet lies from one to four miles *There is a continuous exposure of rock surface along the Trent, transverse to the ridge, and ina number of localities to the eastward the general topography of the rock surface can be well established. 166 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL VII. back from the lake shore. Provisionally this bed, from its position, not from any identification of underlying beds, may be correlated with the middle till sheet, the lower of the two sheets exposed at Scarboro’. Except in the Scarboro’ section, the edge of the third till sheet is found at a varying distance back from the lake shore. At Trenton it is about three miles from the Bay of Quinte ; in Northumberland county it is about six miles north of the lake. Its extent northwest of Toronto has not been traced. The upper till in these localities is thus provision- ally correlated with the upper till in the Scarboro’ section and in the vicinity of Toronto. In no place, so far as the writer is aware, is it known to rest upon the middle till sheet, but always upon stratified sands, gravels, or clays. In Northumberland and Durham, and else- where, the upper till sheet is overlain by a series of stratified sands and gravels. In the districts around Lake Scugog and around Lake Simcoe, and for some distance on either side of these areas, till sheets, overlying sands and gravels also occur. From their relative position and other relations, there is reason to think that the upper one of these is the equivalent of the third till sheet on the Lake Ontario side of the ridge. The middle till sheet rests unconformably upon the beds of the first interglacial epoch ; the amount of erosion which preceded its deposition cannot at present be determined because the necessary data are not all collected. Obviously the amount of erosion to be attributed to the ice sheet is also, at present, indeterminate. A maximum limit of less than five miles may be assigned in one case for part of the underlying deposits, because of the fragments of Utica shale in the middle till. It may be possible to define the upward limit later when the precise relations of the stratified beds are worked out. In the Scarboro’ section this till sheet fills an old erosion valley in the underlying stratified deposits. Hinde (’77, 402), who first described the depression, regarded it as a result of glacial erosion, but recent investigators, because of its form, location transverse to the direction of the ice movement, and the absence of any evidence of violent erosion, consider it an old river valley. Similar but smaller depressions, some of which even Hinde regarded as stream channels, are found elsewhere in the Scarboro’ section, and more rarely in sections to the east. At the eastern end of the Scarboro’ section, where the ice ascended across the beds, the stratified beds, which underlie the till sheet, are very much contorted and plicated. Westward from this there is little or no ee HN 5 £ 7 J Lo Ae " mn wae ay » PEA Ea tk FIGURE 2.—Laminated clays and sands slightly folded by the overriding ice sheet, near Newtonville. 1900-1. | PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO. 167 plication, not even at the crossing of the old depressions, and the till sheet descends at the opposite side of the section. Some twelve miles further west it again ascends over plicated beds. In some sections east of Scarboro’ the till sheet is seen in clear cut cross section ascending across the beds with almost no plication of the underlying deposits (Plate IT). Whether the three periods of glacial transgression and retreat, marked by the three till sheets and the intermediate deposits in Central Ontario, are to be correlated with similar periods as determined to the south of the lake, or represent local variations in the later positions of one ice sheet, it is at present impossible to say. The correlation of the deposits in the two localities, for lack of sufficient knowledge of inter- vening areas, is not yet definitely determined. Professor Chamberlin has provisionally classified the fossiliferous beds beneath the middle till sheet as contemporaneous with the interval preceding the Wisconsin formation, regarding the middle till sheet of the Toronto sections as equivalent to the Wisconsin till (’95b, 273). He suggests that the Toronto beds might lie in a position at least one hundred miles back from the front of the ice sheet whose till deposits overlie them (’95a, 768 ; see also, Coleman, 1900). A feature of particular interest is the fact that here are two sheets of glacial till, overlying still soft sands and gravels, over which the ice that deposited the till sheets must have transgressed. In its transgression the ice sheet has passed over large areas without leaving any mark of disturbance in the underlying beds. In some cases, not in all, where it ascended, the beds on the side from which the ice came are very much disturbed, but the disturbance is confined to the place of ascent. Many instances of modern glaciers over-riding soft deposits have been cited as evidence of the inability of the ice to do significant erosive work. To this the principal objection has been that this inability is shown only at the edge of the sheet. In Central Ontario, whatever the distance between these beds and the edge of the ice sheet which overlay them may have been, it is extremely improbable that at its maximum exten- sion they were just at the margin. There were two periods when the ice overran obviously very incoherent deposits, and there is no known evidence of great erosion by these ice sheets a/one, over a distance of more than one hundred miles in length, and of a width undetermined, but more than six miles for the middle till sheet, and over an area very much larger for the upper, and perhaps for both. Whatever may have been the amount of material eroded by the ice during these two advances, there is an enormous amount still in place, lying between the 168 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, [VoL. VII. rock floor and the youngest till sheet. The inability of the sheet- glaciers, under certain unknown conditions, to remove this material during the two last periods of transgression, raises the question as to whether these conditions may not have existed also during the period of operation of the first ice sheet, when it was overriding bed rock instead of soft sands and clays. This question can in part be answered by a study of the bed rock features. Eastern Rock-Valleys—The eastern boundary of the moraines is approximately a line running northeast from Trenton to a_ point just south of Croyden in the northern part of the township of Camden, Addington county. East of this line in the southern part of the county of Hastings, in Prince Edward, in Lennox and Addington, and in Fron- tenac, the topography of the underlying rock surface is but little concealed, large areas of almost bare limestone are quite common. This is also essentially true of the rock topography along the margin of the Black River cuesta between Mud Turtle lake and Kingston, with the exception of a narrow belt in part of Huntingdon and Hungerford townships. In the eastern counties the drift cover is very thin, and rock valleys, now occupied by streams, can be followed readily from their outlet on Lake Ontario or the Bay of Quinte, more or less completely across the limestones towards the Archean. In these counties there are six at least which can be followed all the way across, each to a long narrow lake whose limestone scarped basin is floored with crystalline rocks. There are many more which reach nearly across (Map II). From a map study of Jefferson county, New York state, it seems probable that at least some of the streams in that state belong to this category. The whole series of valleys, some twenty-five and more, is remarkable for its parallelism, the general direction being southwest, and for the regular spacing of the streams. The valley depressions of some are readily traceable under the lake waters, with some complications, to a line running between Stony Point and Point Peter, and in some cases beyond. Where these valleys are unsubmerged, their sides, at the lower ends, are generally steeper on the southeast, towards which the rocks dip, and less steep, sometimes broadly open, on the northwest. Towards the upper end, especially in the case of those which reach the Archean highlands, the valleys are sometimes still broad, but both sides are of about equal altitude and steepness. The average depth is about one hundred feet, locally often much more, and rarely less, except in the smaller valleys. Towards the lower end the width varies to about five miles, while at the upper ends they are usually much narrower. — — () fe RQ in Se ‘saz7tUuur1az,vI¢ HOF SUT Vi jo figiur191aay)u suinatjs ayzburimoys dVW Il dVW 170 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. Near the edge of the cuesta, the breadth is sometimes over a mile, and some of the valleys are remarkably flat-bottomed, occasionally with gneiss outcropping in the floor, the sides being limestone. Very frequently the bounding walls in the upper reaches are so steep that they are in places unscalable. The intervalley spaces are flat topped, inclined gently southward at a less angle than the dip, and have a thin, more or less discontinuous covering of drift, rarely enough to significantly change the flat upland topography. Some few of the intervalley areas, though flat topped, are very narrow in parts, even to one hundred yards in width. The drift blocked equivalents of these valleys are found all the way to the vicinity of Lake Simcoe and perhaps beyond. The upper reaches along the Black River cuesta, are generally occupied by streams or lakes. The Trent river, through part of its course, occupies portions of several of these. The Bay of Quinte, itself a complex, may be a member of the series. The lower courses of all lie below the level of the first interglacial deposits, and in some cases the lowest till sheet, overlaid by some of the interglacial beds, is found within the valleys. They are thus either of glacial or of preglacial origin. The axial direction of the drumlins in Hastings county, corroborated by the direction of striz upon the inter-valley upland surfaces, indicates that the direction of ice flow sometimes made an angle of about fifteen degrees with the direction of these valleys. Sometimes, just at the edge of the escarpment, striations are found on a curved rock surface bending down obliquely into the valley. The best example is on Mill creek, about two miles west of Sydenham. Occasionally in the valley bottom striz are found which are not accordant in direction with those upon the adjacent upland, but which nearly accord with the direction of the valley sides, suggesting in some cases, local oblique motion beneath the general ice stream. In other cases the direction of ice motion and that of the valley coincide. As a rule the escarpments and valley-sides, where the rock is exposed, are little, and generally not at all, scoured. On the other hand, where there is a change in the direction, and the valley is bounded by a steep rock wall, that cliff face is sometimes polished smooth on the thrust side, but not elsewhere, in one case, near Napanee, for over one hundred feet below the crest. The postglacial retreat of the escarpments has been very small in some cases, and in others nothing at all, there being no talus in some places, in others stric rounding over the edge, or, again, the cliff presents a polished face. In one PEASE il: FIGURE 1.--Long Reach, on the Bay of Quinte—a drowned rock-valley. FIGURE 2.—Benches on the lower Trent, north of Trenton. 1900-1. | PuHysICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO. 171 case a broad open valley (Great Cataraqui) suddenly turns slightly and narrows to a gorge cut in granite, through which the ice has passed. In another case (Consecon creek, Prince Edward county) the present creek heads on the upland and runs southwesterly, the valley gradually broadening and deepening. About a mile to the east of its head the Bay of Quinte valley, (Plate II1., fig. 1) whose depth below the upland at this place is 185 feet, cuts across at an angle of about fifty-five degrees. These valleys are all, with the single exception of the gorge at Kingston Mills. carved out of homogeneous limestones, lying in a nearly horizontal position. Before the carving of the valleys the country must have been one of almost no relief. The adjacent region, from which the ice came, is also one of low relief. There are thus no topographic features which would cause the action of the sheet-glacier to be concen- trated along certain lines which are oblique to its own general direction of motion, and there is no reason why these lines should sometimes unite into one trunk valley. The expectation is that a sheet of ice would under such circumstances tend rather to reduce than to accentu- ate topographic features. This was true in this area in the case of the second ice sheet, and has been shown to be true elsewhere, and therefore is not an assumption as to a method of sheet-glacier action. It is known that an zce stream, which invades a valley of sub- aerial erosion tends to destroy the systematic arrangement of spurs and re-entrants. That a sheet-glacier in a less confined area would tend to erode systematic valley-systems more or less athwart its course seems highly improbable.* On the contrary, their form and adjustments are appropriate to stream erosion. Loose debris in the bottoms of the valleys near their heads, pinnacles, and isolated outliers along the valley sides, are, how- ever, almost completely wanting. Occasionally the present stream is held back, forming a small pond, by the accumulation of a little drift debris across a portion of the valley, or by a rock obstruction. Where the tributary valleys join a main valley there is no discordance, or as Playfair puts it, there is “such a nice adjustment of their declivities, that none of them join the principal valley, either on too high or too low a level; a circumstance which would be infinitely improbable, if each of these valleys were not the work of the (predecessor of the) stream that flows in it.” (’02, 102). The fact that these valleys are broadly open towards the southwest, *Compare with the valley of the Rhue, Davis, 1900, p. 275. 172 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. and are narrow and steep-walled towards the northeast, indicates that the streams which carved them flowed towards the southwest. These streams may have been initially consequent on a plain inclined towards the southwest, but whose inclination has since been altered by secular uplift or depression, so that the present St. Lawrence flows over the lowest portion of the sag. The direction of the streams has undoubtedly also been controlled by the direction of the master joints of the lime- stone, and the valleys may have been developed by headward growth of streams guided by these joints. To the writer this latter alternative seems the more probable, though additional field work is necessary before a definite opinion can be expressed. The outlet to the present St. Lawrence seems to be a complex of several of these valleys in which the water is now flowing in a reversed direction owing to secular changes in elevation. Jointed and Fissured Uplands.—Another feature of the rock surface of the limestone uplands, found upon the intervalley ridges, along the Black River escarpment, and upon the many outliers in front of the escarpment, is the joint structure, which has split the surface layers into rhomboidal blocks of various sizes. Subsequent weathering of the upper blocks especially, has widened the fractures and rounded the edges of the blocks more or less. In some cases we find till and pieces of gneiss in these widened fractures, and in others the glacial striz bend obliquely downwards in crossing the curved surfaces near the open fissures. Again, over wide areas of almost bare rock, the joints occur, but the blocks are close together and there is no weathering or rounding of the edges, and the striz cross the joints without deflection. These features occur sometimes within short distances of each other on lime- stones that are identical in texture, and so far as known, identical in composition. They are found both at the edges of the upland and some distance back from them ; unfissured areas are sometimes found close to the edge of the escarpments. The jointing which produced the rhomboidal blocks preceded the earliest ice advance. The relation of the ice-scoured surface to the open fissures shows the existence of these fissures before the advent of the ice which planed that surface. The low temperature of the sub- glacial water, and the absence of organic matter in solution, except the small amount derived from the preglacial soils, render it improbable (but not impossible) that the subglacial waters could have materially widened them. During interglacial times, at least portions of the area were below the level of standing water, and were possibly covered with ice, so that it seems very probable that much of the weathering pro- PILI, WW FIGURE 1.—Blocks on the Black River cuesta, about one-third of a mile from its edge, near Stoco Lake. FIGURE 2.—The front of the Black River cuesta, Deer Bay. Talus nearly to the crest. 1900-1. } PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO. 173 cesses which opened the fissures must have operated during preglacial time. In any event ice which was capable of scouring passed over the area after the fissures were opened, removed some of the blocks from small areas, but left still larger areas with the blocks still in position, even on narrow ridges, The topography of these uplands is in many places similar to that peculiar to a limestone region undergoing the process of subaerial degradation. A comparison with ridges in like situations in the unglaciated area of Wisconsin shows that the similarity is very striking. In central Ontario, however, there are no pinnacles nor small promin- ences in front of the escarpments. Many of the larger outliers still remain as such, generally each with a steep cliff and talus slope in the direction from which the thrust of the ice-sheet came. On the lee side there is a long trail of rhomboidal blocks from the rear slopes of the outlier. Cilate TVertro.: 1) Along the escarpments where the old cliff faced the ice thrust there is always a well defined talus slope, sometimes right up to the crest, (Plate IV., fig. 2.) When the direction of the cliff approaches parallelism with the direction of ice motion, the talus is frequently much smaller and occasionally nearly wanting. Where the valley sides are graded to the edge of the upland, loose blocks usually seem to be altogether wanting in the valleys. Whether any of the original soil covey is still in situ it is at present impossible tosay. Certainly much of the present soil is imported. Gorges and Valleys of the Niagara Cuesta—Along the Niagara cuesta from east of the Dundas valley, described by Spencer (’81), to Cabot’s Head on Georgian Bay, are a number of incisions transverse to the escarpment, varying from deep and narrow gorges to deep but broadly open valleys, sometimes as much as ten miles across the mouth, whose bottoms are occupied by obsequent streams flowing to the inner lowland. . There seem to be three types of these valleys; first, narrow short and deep gorges, which in some cases might almost be described as hanging gorges, since they are not yet cut down to grade with respect to the rock floor in front of the escarpment. Second, narrow steep- walled gorges, which so far as known appear to be graded with refer- ence to the frontal rock floor. Third, deep broadly open valleys, whose upper reaches may become gorges. They are graded with respect to the rock floor of the inner lowland some distance, sometimes a number of miles, away from the immediate vicinity of the escarpment. 174 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. The gorges of the first type seem to be free from drift debris, and their immature form would indicate that they are largely of postglacial origin. The second and third types are usually more or less drift filled, especially in the upper reaches of the third type. The valleys of the second type are relatively narrow and steep walled. The level to which their mouths are graded is not known. The valleys of the third type are broadly open at the point of exit from the cuesta, and some of them penetrate ten to eighteen miles back from its front. Occasionally they are indicated by topographic depressions beyond the point where the bounding rock scarps can actually be followed, though the amount of drift material upon the cuesta has usually obliterated all rock-surface features beyond the limits already mentioned. The rock-walls of each valley (except the Dundas valley as far as can be traced at present) tend to converge, but convergence to a point of union has only been demonstrated for the walls of some of them. Some have also tributary lateral gorges. Spencer has described several entering the Dundas valley. In these tributaries the walls usually unite and the present stream falls over a cliff. The tributary gorges may belong to any one of the three types. Owen Sound, sometimes wrongly designated a fiord, Colpoy’s bay, and other bays upon the Georgian Bay coast, may serve as illustrations of the type (Map III). There are, however, between Owen Sound and Burlington, a number of valleys, not submerged, and equally typical. The north shore of Manitoulin Island seems also to possess many com- parable with these, but developed on Trenton and older strata. As in the case of the rock-sided valleys at the eastern end of the area, we lack an accurate knowledge of the precise form of valley which a sheet-glacier, acting on homogeneous rocks in a region of very low relief, might possibly be capable of eroding, and of the form of escarp- ment-front, which it might, acting alone, produce. It is necessary then to make the partial assumption, that if the sheet-glacier were capable of producing such topographic features, the products would bear a definite relation to the direction of ice advance, and would, in homogeneous rock, assume forms less tortuous than those carved by the more mobile erosive agent, running water charged with sediment. The direction of the valleys as a whole is entirely independent of the general direction of the ice movement, whether it be determined from the evidences out upon the lowland or from those upon the crest of the cuesta at the edges of the valleys. They lie in all positions through an angle of about 180°; all but one (that at Dundas) in such a position PLATE V.—VALLEYS IN THE NIAGARA CUESTA. FIGURE 1t.—View across the unsubmerged valley of the Bighead river. Cape Rich in the right background. Looking west. FIGURE 2.—View across a portion of the unsubmerged valley of the Beaver river. Blue Mountains in the distance. Looking east. FIGURE 3.—Fisher’s Gully, a tributary of the Dundas valley, showing systematic arrangement of spurs and reentrants. 1900-1. ] PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO. 175 that any water which formerly flowed through them must have reached the lowland in front of the cuesta. In many of them the rock scarps which form their sides show no evidences of glacial action. Had the ice advanced up or down them we would expect to find ascending or descending glacial striz. In places there is a systematic arrangement of alternate spurs and _ re-entrants, producing a tortuous channel, eminently characteristic of stream erosion, but, if we may judge from existing examples elsewhere, such as no ice stream could have passed through. (Compare with the valley of the Rhue, Davis, 1900, 275.) The Owen Sound valley, and several others along the Georgian Bay shore, both northwest and southeast of this, in their lower reaches, flare broadly open towards the direction of the ice advance. Striz show that in part they controlled the direction of the ice motion, diverting it, in the Owen Sound case, about fifteen degrees to the east of its general direction. This broadly open portion of the valley was certainly modified by the ice. Along the eastern side of Owen Sound, and similarly in some of the other embayments in the escarpment, there are spurs which have not been removed, while upon the western sides, which received the thrust of the ice, the escarpment presents a much more even face. North of Owen Sound in Colpoy’s bay, and between Lion’s Head and Cape Croker, there are a complicated series of channels, irregular bays, and islands in front of the escarpment. The different channels bear no definite relation to the direction of the ice movement in adjacent regions, some being even transverse to it. There is no evidence of discordance where the smaller side channels join the principal channel. Between Owen Sound and Collingwood there are two unsubmerged sinuses extending far inland. Through one of these the Bighead river enters Georgian Bay at Meaford. The other, which reaches back for more than fifteen miles, over eight miles in breadth at the mouth, and about 1,000 feet in depth, is now the valley of the Beaver river, which enters the bay at Thornbury (Plate V, figs. 1 and 2). Between Collingwood and Hamilton there are a number of similar valleys. The most important of these are those now occupied by the Noisy, Mad, Nottawa, Nottawasaga and Credit rivers, Sixteen-Mile creek and Twelve-Mile creek. A branch of this latter heads on the outlier west of Milton, and through its upper course passes between it and the main escarpment. The largest of all the valleys is that at Dundas, described by Spencer (’81). (Plate V, fig. 3.) 176 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII. In most of these the mouth of the valley is more or less drift- encumbered, but it can be shown in several cases at least that they are graded with respect to some level lower than that of the Medina sediments immediately in front of the escarpment. This is definitely proven for those which lie northwest of Collingwood, for the Dundas valley, and for some others north of Burlington. Hence, the systematic form of each, their direction independent of the ice movement, and other features cited, render it very improbable that they are due to glacial erosion. On the contrary, they may all except the Dundas valley, be regarded as due to the development of obsequent drainage, tributary to some master stream or streams running along the inner lowland. Some of them are, in their lower courses, occupied by till, which in some cases is, and in others probably is, that of the lowest till sheet ; many of them are graded to a level on the rock floor, which must have been deeply submerged at the time of the deposition of the lowest interglacial beds. In the Dundas valley some stratified deposits are found overlying the till. The similiarity of form and development of the valleys whose relations to the lowest till sheet and to the interglacial beds has been proven, to those in which the relations are unknown, because not worked out, renders it probable that none of them are of interglacial origin. It is possible, though very doubtful, that the upper reaches of some of them may have developed during interglacial time. Islands and Outliers —In Lake Ontario towards the eastern end, and extending as far west as Presqu’ Isle, are a great many large and small limestone islands and shoals, all lying north of the line between Stony Point and Point Peter. Gull Island, four miles west of Cobourg, is also a limestone island. In the northern part of Lake Huron, between Cape Hurd and Grand Manitoulin Island, are a number of small rock islands. Some of these are of rock fragments at water level, the bed rock not being visible, but the large majority are composed of bed rock in situ. The Manitoulin Islands are rock islands. In Georgian Bay many of the islands are of limestone rock—attention will be specially called to those along the Bruce peninsula (Map III). In Lake Simcoe, along the east side, there are a few islands with limestone bases. Many of these islands are unsubmerged portions of the higher irregularities of the series of escarpments. Some of them lie in front of the main escarp- ments, as indicated by soundings around them. On the Central Ontario lowland in Halton county, just west of Milton, is an outlier, capped by Niagara limestone, severed completely WIZE WWZ Uy wit WN a ae Ga AY. tag Ly PZ Hi as Sy we cA 2 y-d)\ Wy dul MAP showing the partly submerged valleys and islands tnfront of the Niagara Cuesta inthe vicinity of Cape Croker. Datum line Georgian Bay level. Depths and elevations in feet. Se Cweuk natu verse “ny se > 4y a) \\ eX MAPA: ATA PF showing thestreams in the vicinity of the Milton Outlier. Scale inmiules. 7, > [o) 7 a HYTI/p.\ ieee | 1900-1. | PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO. 179 from the main escarpment, having a surface area of about four square miles (Map IV). Were the land under water this would form a large island, comparable to some of the islands already noted along the Bruce peninsula. Similar outliers may occur elsewhere along the line of the escarpment. In some other localities in front of the cuesta, outliers, capped with Medina sediments and surrounded by drift-filled valleys, were noted, suggesting a similarity to the Milton outlier, but being further out on the lowland, they had perhaps undergone greater degra- dation. In front of the Black River escarpment, notably in Hastings county, are a number of outliers of limestone, with much jointed and fissured upper beds. Some few of the outliers are of sandstone. If the region were partly submerged these also would form islands in front of the escarpment. As already noted, many of these outliers present a steep face, with a talus slope at the base, towards the direction of the ice advance, and a long trail of loose blocks on the lee side. Some of the islands and outliers were certainly in areas protected from ice erosion. The case of the Manitoulin Islands cannot be con- sidered, as the writer has not sufficient personal knowledge of the facts. In the great majority of cases, however, they do not occupy such protected places, and there is direct evidence that the ice transgressed them. Their relation to the escarpments, and the effects which have been produced by the ice, seem clearly to indicate that they had an existence prior to the advance of the ice sheet. The more salient features were smoothed off, but the essential features are still pre- served. Depth of Excavation—Another interesting fact is the remarkable uniformity in the depth of excavation of the lowland below the crest of the Niagara cuesta. At Cabot’s Head the depth is about 800 feet, at Collingwood 1,100, near Dundas 1,000.* The unsubmerged portion of the Ontario lowland is located on rocks ranging from the Trenton to the Medina; the submerged portion is on Trenton in both cases. The lowland has thus been excavated on rocks of four different horizons, and of very diverse texture. Lowland Rock-Surface-—An almost continuous transverse section of the rock surface of the lowland is shown along the north shore of Lake Ontario, parallel to the Dundas valley, from Hamilton to Lorne Park (twenty-five miles). Between here and the river Rouge (thirty miles) *743 measured, 1,000 calculated, Spencer, 781, 323. 180 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. there are many exposures in the valleys of creeks and rivers. and in a few places along the shore. It is thus known that there is no extensive discordant deepening for forty miles east of Burlington Heights. The lowest part of this section, with reference to the present lake level, is situated on Lorraine shales and sandstones. The surface is lightly rolling, but the average elevation toward the escarpment is about one foot per mile. At right angles to the lake shore it varies to about fifteen feet per mile. Between the Rouge and Whitby (thirteen miles), there is no known rock exposure. At Whitby and near Bowmanville the Utica shales come to the surface; between these two points there is possibly a valley twelve miles in breadth, but probably of no great depth. For twenty miles east of Bowmanville, to Gull Island (three miles east of Port Hope) the rock, Trenton limestone, is again concealed. From Gull . Island to Presqu’ Isle (twenty miles), there are a number of exposures of Trenton limestone. East of Presqu’ Isle the rock is continuous to below Kingston. Between the Rouge and Presqu’ Isle the upper edge of the lowest till sheet seldom sinks below the water line. Were there any very deep or canon-like depression of the rock surface the till might reasonably be expected to give some indication of the existence of such depression, for in every case within the area, where such depressions are known to occur, the till sheets above would give ample evidence by their accord- ant depressions. Along the Georgian Bay unsubmerged portions of the old valleys are in some cases over 1,000 feet below the escarpment, and are graded with reference to a level still lower. So far as is at present known there is no evidence of discordant deepening due to the movement of the ice along the front of the escarpment in a direction different from that of the general movement; if such deepening has taken place it is not located on the soft Medina strata, but on the Lorraine, which are known to form escarpments, or upon the Trenton. In no case,so far as the writer is aware, has drift from a higher geological horizon been found overlying a lower horizon, well out on the lowland, a result which must obtain if there has been significant lateral motion of the ice from the Georgian Bay region. Summary.—The work of the ice sheet in Central Ontario seems to have been that of smoothing off pinnacles, small spurs, and other out- lying features of the limestone areas. Only the larger of these topo- graphic forms were able to resist the ice, and these, more or less 1900-1. ] PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO. 181 modified, have remained to form islands or outliers in front of the different escarpments, or the spurs of the intervalley ridges along the valley sides. The essential features of the topography are not destroyed, though they are more or less completely obscured and obstructed by drift. The relation of the area to the fronts of the ice sheets which crossed it is not yet determined. The results of the writer’s studies at present suggest that the great moraine of Central Ontario is largely an inter- lobate moraine between an ice lobe coming from the east of north, and a lobe coming from the east ; and that the lateral spurs, on the north and on the south sides of the great moraine, represent the positions successively occupied by the retreating ice front.* The area seems to have been almost always one receiving deposits rather than one from which the soil and rock was being removed. The streams which produced the pre-glacial valleys throughout the Central Ontario lowland, and the obsequent streams of the Niagara cuesta must have been tributary to some trunk stream, or perhaps to two such master subsequents. The location of these trunk streams would normally be along the lines of deepest cutting. Their direction of flow cannot be determined at present, though that of the tributaries is known from the forms of the valleys. Those on the Black River cuesta flowed southwest, those from the Niagara cuesta northeast, east, and southeast. Obviously the trunk stream, though flowing parallel to the escarpment, must have had some outlet from the region. Deter- mining the location of this valley has been one of the chief difficulties to be met by the river-erosion hypothesis for the origin of the basin of Lake Ontario. The attitude with respect to the present St. Lawrence valley, and certain other features of the rock valleys in the vicinity of Kingston, and the immature character of the present St. Lawrence channel render it extremely improbable that the waste from the lowland was ever carried out through this channel. If the drainage of the Ontario lowland was that of a normally developed river lowland there is but one known outlet which is at all suitable, that by the Dundas valley.+ The course of the valley from the vicinity of Copetown west- ward is highly problematic. Spencer considers that it was towards the south, while Grabau (1901) has recently advocated an extension towards the west, in continuation of an initial consequent direction. The direction of flow of the streams that occupied this valley has not *See Chamberlin, 95a, p. 768. tThis suggestion had occurred to the writer before he was aware of Dr. Grabau’s opinions, referred to below. 182 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vo.t. VII. been definitely determined. A river flowing westerly through this outlet would be a normal consequent stream, and tributary streams from both sides would occupy the position of normally developed sub- sequents. The attitude of the broadly open valleys along the Georgian Bay suggest that there may have been a second master stream with an outlet southwestward from the bay. At present our knowledge is so imperfect that the direction of flow of these master streams, and their relations to these different valleys, which may be members of a normally developed system, have not been determined. The probability that there were streams on the Central Ontario lowland, to which the streams in the preglacial valleys, already described, were tributary, makes it equally probable that similar features were developed to the southeast along the basin of the present lake. At present we know neither the depth to the rock floor of the basin, nor the amount of drift filling. The relation of the basin to the ice lobes is also unknown. Hence differential deepening, which has not operated on the unsubmerged lowland, may perhaps have been in effective operation in the portion of the basin east of the Niagara river, and west of Stony Point. PLEISTOCENE HISTORY—A Summary—The Pleistocene deposits of Central Ontario present a complex which has not yet been studied in sufficient detail to warrant more than a brief reference to certain salient features. The best known locality is that in the vicinity of Toronto, where the order of succession of the deposits has been established. The probable relations of these deposits to similar beds elsewhere in the area have already been noted. Mention has also been made of certain sands and gravels which overlie the third till sheet in some parts of the area. The fossils of the lowest group of interglacial beds at Toronto indicate that the climate of that part of the region was, for a time, warm and temperate, perhaps like that of Ohio. During this period the lake was connected with the Mississippi drainage, a connection which may have been an inheritance from the cycle preceding the first ice advance. Whether the ice sheet at this time had withdrawn wholly from the region, or only part way, must at present be a matter of conjecture. The fossils of the upper beds of the first interglacial deposits indicate climatic conditions approaching those of the lower Gulf of St. Lawrence and the Labrador coast at the present day. The close of the inter- glacial period was followed by an interval during which there was a considerable amount of erosion, just how extensive is not determined. The interglacial beds of the latter epochs have, as yet, been little investigated. PLATE VI.—PLEISTOCENE LAKE BENCHES. FIGURE 1.—Transverse section of the Ircquois bench and sea-cliff, Scar- boro’ Bluffs. FIGURE 2.—Iroquois bench and sea-cliff, and light morainic topo- graphy of the third till sheet, Scarboro’ Bluffs. PLATE VII.—PLEeEISTOCENE LAKE BENCHES. FIGURE 1.—Iroquois bench and sea-cliff, Scarboro’ Bluffs. FIGURE 2.—Boulder pavement in front of a sea-cliff, near Lake Simcoe and south of Orillia. 1900-1. ] - PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO. 183 While the ice sheet was retreating across Ontario, a series of lakes were formed between its front and the highlands to the south and west. In the latter stages of the ice retreat, portions of the present land area of Central Ontario were beneath the waters of these lakes. The land was being gradually elevated at the northeastern end, so that at present the old shores are not parallel with the surfaces of the existing lakes. The deposits of the different periods of ice transgression and retreat have been so little studied, and so little differentiation seems to have been made between the deposits of sands and gravels of these periods, and those formed by their re-arrangement during the periods of the great Pleistocene lakes, that at present there is much confusion with regard to the history of the area during the Great Lakes epoch. (Plates VI and VII.) RECENT HISTORY—A Swummary.—Since the withdrawal of the Pleistocene lakes the amount of erosion has been small. The courses of the present streams are in part determined by the valleys of the preglacial rivers, in part by the position assumed by the drift deposits with respect to the retreating ice sheets, and in part to the controls exercised by the Pleistocene-lake beach-deposits. There is at least one lake (Scugog) whose drainage seems to have been affected by the differential uplift indicated by the present attitude of the old lake beaches.* Some of the streams have cut through the glacial deposits into the bed rock. Streams entering Lake Ontario west of Toronto, or flowing into the Georgian Bay, have cut deep steep-sided ravines and valleys through drift and shale. Some few, in the vicinity of Oakville, have cut deep straight-sided, flat-bottomed valleys through about forty feet of drift and eighty-five feet of shale-- The present streams meander in courses largely independent of their valley sides, here truncating an old spur, there widening the former meander belt. Sometimes there are two or three back meanders between adjacent spurs of the old valley. In the upper courses, where the stream is still working upon glacial debris, these misfit meanders are especially common, In the great majority of cases there seems to be but one terrace below the general level of the area adjacent to the valley. North and east of Toronto, the Trent, the Moira, and a few smaller streams, have in part cut new channels in Trenton limestones. The channels, which average perhaps twenty-five feet in depth, are straight- *This may be true of Pigeon and Chemong lakes also. tIn one case 400 yards in width. 184 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VIL. sided and flat-bottomed. In almost all of these the river breaks into rapids, and occasionally plunges over a low fall (Plate VIII). In parts of the lower course of the Trent there are two rock terraces, one a small rock-cut bench, the other due to the removal of the drift debris from the old rock surface. There is reason to think that in parts of the course there are remnants of yet higher terraces upon the drift, but they are not conspicuous topographic features (Plate III, fig. 2, p. 171). The relations of all of these terraces to the Pleistocene lake levels and to the former water supply are interesting problems which have not been considered. The present valleys are inappropriate in size and form to the present streams in flood. Parts of the present valleys of these streams and their tributaries, and the valleys of all streams east of the Moira, are rock-valleys, not of recent origin, and have already been described under the caption “Eastern Rock-Valleys.” Along Lake Ontario the waves have cut benches and sea cliffs in the drift deposits. The longshore action is distributing the material, thus derived, east and west from the vicinity of Whitby, forming bars, spits and hooks. Towards the west the most important of these are Toronto Island and Burlington Beach. Towards the east, from Presqu’ Isle neck to Point Peter, there are a great many bars blocking the ends of partly submerged rock valleys, and forming large and small lakes. Back from some of these bars, small sand-dune belts have formed. *s]]2yy UWOfauay UOJULIS ary Af Aq ‘0704 q— ‘S][Ry UOJOUAY MOTOq IAAL JUo1T OY) jo jauueyo sunod SUIT —=1HUUN BAY Aal ae 1900-1. ] PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO. 185 EPGERA TURE: ADAMS, F. D., 1893. ‘‘ On the Typical Laurentian Area of Canada.” Jour. Geol., Vol. I, pp- 325-340. BELL, ROBERT, 1894. ‘‘ Pre-Paleozoic Decay of Crystalline Rocks North of Lake Huron.” Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. V, pp. 357-366. Bicspy, J. J., 1829. ‘*A Sketch of the Topography and Geology of Lake Ontario.” Phil. Magazine, 2nd Ser., Vol. V, pp. 1-15, 81-87, 263-274, 339-347, 424-431. CHAMBERLIN, T. C., and SALISBURY, R. D., 1885. ‘‘ The Driftless Area of the Upper Mississippi Valley.” 6th Ann. U.S.G.S., pp. 199-322. CHAMBERLIN, T. C., 1895 (a). ‘* Glacial Phenomena of North America.” In Geikie’s ‘* The Great Ice Age,” pp. 724-775. 1895 (b). ‘‘ The Classification of American Glacial Deposits.” Jour. Geol., Vol. III, pp. 270-277. CoLeMaN, A. P., 1894. ‘‘Interglacial Fossils from the Don Valley, Toronto.” Amer. Geol., Vol. 13, pp. 85-93. 1895. ‘‘ Glacial and Interglacial Deposits near Toronto.” Jour. Geol. Vol. III, pp. 622-645. 1897. ‘‘Glacial and Interglacial Deposits at Toronto.” Brit. Ass. Adv. Sci., pp- 650-651. 1898. ‘‘ Canadian Pleistocene Flora and Fauna.” Report of the Committee. Brit. Ass. Adv. Sci., pp. 522-529. 1899 (a). ‘‘Canadian Pleistocene Flora and Fauna.” Report of the Committee. Brit. Ass. Adv. Sci., pp. 411-414. 1899 (b). ‘‘ Lake Iroquois and its Predecessors at Toronto.” Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. X, pp. 165-176. 1900. ‘‘Canadian Pleistocene Flora and Fauna.” Report of the Committee. Brit. Ass. Adv. Sci., pp. 328-339. DarTOoNn, N. H., 1894. ‘‘ Outline of the Cenozoic History of a Portion of the Middle Atlantic Slope.”” Jour. Geol., Vol. II, pp. 568-587. Davis, W. M., 1900. ‘‘ Glacial Erosion in France, Switzerland and Norway.” Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. XXIX, pp. 273-322. Dawson, J. W., 1889. ‘* Handbook of Canadian Geology.’’ Montreal. DrRuMMOND, A. T., 1892. ‘‘The Physical Features of the Environs of Kingston.” Can. Rec. Sci., Vol. V, pp. 108-117. Dutton, C. E., 1882. ‘* Tertiary History of the Grand Cafion District.” Monograph Il, U.S.G.S. 186 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. GEIKIE, A., 1888. ‘* Recent Work of the Geological Survey in the North-west High- lands of Scotland.’” Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., Vol. XLIV, pp. 378-441. GrapBav, A. W., 1901. ‘‘ Guide to the Geology and Paleontology of Niagara Falls and Vicinity.” N.Y. State Museum, Bull. XLV. HINDE, G. J., 1877. ‘‘ The Glacial and Interglacial Strata of Scarboro’ Heights and other Localities near Toronto.” Can. Jour., New Series, Vol. XV, pp. 388-413. IRVING, R. D., 1872. ‘On the Age of the Quartzites, Schists, and Conglomerates of Sauk County, Wisconsin.” Amer. Jour. Sci., Ser. 3, Vol. III, pp. 93-99. 1877. ‘* Geology of Central Wisconsin.” Geol. of Wis., Vol. II, Part 3, pp. 406-636. KEYES, C. R., 1895. ‘‘A Report on Mine la Motte Sheet.” Sheet Report No. 4, Mis- souri Geol. Surv. LAFLAMME, J. C. K., 1884. ‘‘ Report of Geological Observations in the Saguenay Region.” Can. Geol. Survey, 1882-83-84, Part D. 1886. ‘‘ Note sur le contact des formations paléozoiques et archéennes de la pro- vince de Québec.” Proc. Roy. Soc. Can., Vol. IV, Sect. 4, pp. 43-47. Lawson, A. C., 1890. ‘‘ Note on the Pre-Paleozoic Surface of the Archean Terranes of Canada.” Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. I, pp. 163-174. Locan, W. E., 1863. ‘* Geology of Canada.” Can. Geol. Survey. MuRRAY, ALEX., 1843. ‘Report on the Geology of parts of the champaign region of Western Canada.” Can. Geol. Surv., pp. 51-91. ’ 1848. ‘* Report on the Western and Huron Districts.” Can. Geol. Survey. 1850. ‘“‘ Report on parts of the Western Peninsula.” Can. Geol. Survey. 1851. ‘‘ Report on the Geology of the Region between the St. Lawrence and Ottawa Rivers.’’ Can. Geol. Survey. 1852. ‘‘ Report on the district between Kingston and Lake Simcoe.” Can. Geol. Survey. NEWBERRY, J. S., 1858. ‘‘ Colorado Exploring Expedition.” Lieut. J. C. Ives, Part III, Published by order of the Secretary of War, Washington, 1861. PLAYFAIR, J., 1802. ‘‘ Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth.”’ Edinburgh. SmyTH, H. L., 1899. ‘‘ The Crystal Falls Iron-Bearing District of Michigan.” Mono- graph XXXVI, U.S.G.S., part II, pp. 329-487. SPENCER, J. W., 1881. ‘‘ Discovery of the Preglacial Outlet of the Basin of Lake Erie into that of Lake Ontario; With Notes on the Origin of our Lower Great Lakes.”’ Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., Vol. XIX, pp. 300-337. Abstract in Can. Nat. and Geol., New Series, Vol. X, pp. 65-79. Van Hise, C. R., 1896. ‘A Central Wisconsin Baselevel.”’ Science, New Series, Vol. IV, pp. 57-59. WaccotTtT, C. D., 1891. ‘* The North American Continent during Cambrian Time.” 12th Ann. U.S.G.S., pp. 523-568. 1900-1. | OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE. 187 OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE. WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO CHLOROFORM. BY ka D. RUDOLE, MED. EDIN., M:R.@.e) Lonps=) LORONTO. (Read 27th April, 1907). INTRODUCTION. THIS paper contains the results of work which I have conducted during the past three years in the Physiological Department of Toronto University. A grant of money was made by the Scientific Grants Committee of the British Medical Association towards defraying the expenses, and is here gratefully acknowledged. The work has been of a somewhat intermittent character, owing chiefly to the difficulty in obtaining a steady supply of animals. The kymograph used was a Ludwig one, with a glass pen writing in ink upon white paper. The tracings thus obtained were very long, as often experiments extended over several hours, and only short pieces of them are able to be used here to bring out the points mentioned in the text. I have as far as possible avoided theorizing, being rather content to state the results which were actually obtained under given conditions ; a certain amount of speculation is occasionally inevitable however. I am greatly indebted to Professor A. B. Macallum for much valuable advice, and to Mr. Scott, D.Sc., for constant assistance in the carrying out of the experiments. Before actually passing on to discuss alterations in blood pressure produced by definite causes, one should mention that occasionally strange falls in the blood pressure of dogs occur without any apparent cause. If these were not noted they might be wrongly interpreted. I vy : of Nt omni" Tyr Mai nt MMi My Mona \ my WV vy Ym yy TracinG I.—9/38.—Dog under Morphia. No Chloroform for several minutes. This fall in blood pressure occurred without apparent cause and gradually disappeared, Tracing 1 shows one of these vagaries. The animal, a mongrel 188 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. spaniel, weighing about 40 Ibs., had been given three-quarters of a grain of morphia an hour before the experiment began. It then was chloro- formed. After it was completely insensible and for several minutes had not been taking any more of the anesthetic, this fall in pressure occurred. It looked somewhat like that produced by irritation of the vagus nerve, and it was suggested that the canula in the left carotid might be producing this, but nothing was altered and yet the pressure recovered of itself and the fall did not recur during the two-hour experiment. PuUgtatatavatatatnrarara avatitstatatavatarara atatatntaravavavatatatarivarstatstVavataUavanatatatatatatatatsn tat anum uni imi tangtaretamniuc ni innate emu net Tracine II.—3/7.—Dog under Morphia. No Chloroform for several minutes. Shows marked fall in pressure with slowing of pulse. Animal horizontal. Cause of fall not apparentand it was spontaneously recovered from. Tracing 2 shows another fall occurring under similar circumstances to the last. The animal had not had any chloroform for several minutes. In this case the fall is even more marked, and looks extremely like that produced by irritation of the vagus, but it completely disappeared without any of the factors having been altered, and did not recur. Such falls as these, when they happen to occur during the actual administration of chloroform, may be the unexpected ones described by the Glasgow Commission on Chloroform, and which Lieut.-Col. Lawrie ascribed to asphyxia ; we will refer to this point later on. It was frequently noted how much different dogs varied as regards the amount of their blood pressure and pulse rate. Often poorly- nourished and small varieties of dogs had high pressures, whilst large, well-nourished animals had the opposite. 1900-1. | OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE. 189 THE NORMAL EFFECTS OF GRAVITY. It has long been known clinically that the circulation of the blood is affected by the posture of the body, and that in weakened states of the circulation the blood and other fluids, obeying ordinary hydrostatic laws, tend to accumulate in the most dependent parts of the body. Further, it had been noted that if the posture of the body be suddenly altered, é.g.,if a person be raised from the horizontal to the erect posture, the inertia of the blood tends to make it lag, and as a result the upper pole of the body, including the brain, temporarily becomes more or less bloodless, and in consequence the individual may actually faint. This method of inducing insensibility was actually employed by a Parisian surgeon, who then operated upon his patient, rendered thus insensible to pain. George Hayem' writes as follows: “ Phlebotomists had known for a long time the influence of position on the production of syncope when Piorry instituted his experiments on the subject. He bled some dogs upright, and they fell at the end of a certain time into a sort of state of dissolution with suspension of respiration. He stopped the hemorrhage then and placed the animal head downwards, and immedi- ately it breathed again. Often the same experiment could be repeated many times on the same dog. I repeated the experiments in 1880 and found them to be perfectly correct.” It has constantly been observed, moreover, that some individuals are much more susceptible to such changes of posture than others, and that almost any person if temporarily weakened in any manner, will tend to suffer from dizziness or even faintness on suddenly assuming the erect posture. The effects of different postures and of sudden and _ gradual alterations of these, have of late years been studied more accurately in animals by means of tracings of the blood pressure. The very beautiful tracings put on record by the 2nd Hyderabad Commission on Chloroform are examples of these observations, and more recently Mr. Leonard Hill has added some of the same nature. My experiments were done on dogs, with the exception of a few upon cats, and they confirm largely what has already been observed and recorded. In each case the animal was secured in a trough which was so constructed that it could be swung into any angle with the horizon, with the canula in the artery always remaining in the axis of rotation. The canula was further carefully kept at the same level as the manometer. Unless for some special reason the canula was always placed in the proximal end of the left 1 ** Death from Hemorrhage,” Archive de Physiologie, 1888, p. 102, 190 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vou. VII. carotid artery. The animals were all under the influence of some aneesthetic, the nature of which is mentioned when necessary ; but as the effects of posture were more or less the same in all cases, it may be inferred that they were not due to the anesthetic, except as regards degree. As a rule some morphia was first given hypodermically, and then very little chloroform sufficed to keep them quiet. Tracing 3 is from a dog under chloroform. Where the tracing begins he is horizontal, and the canula is in the carotid. At 1 the hind feet were suddenly lowered. and the pressure is seen to markedly fall. When placed horizontal again at 2 the pressure rapidly rose and went above the normal for a short time, 3, and then resumed the normal line. This is a very constant feature in such tracings, and is probably due partly to inertia, and partly to the compensation which has been taking place 5 4 3 2 I tT ng mnt pit TracinG III.—1/3.—Normal effects of gravity on carotid blood pressure. Dog under Chlorotorm. 1 Animal placed vertical (feet downwards). 2 Horizontal again. 3 Compensation continuing. 4 Head downwards. 5 Horizontal again. against the effect of the vertical position still continuing after the animal is again horizontal. This compensation, as we shall see, is partly affected by increase in the rate of the heart-beat and partly by constriction of the arteries, while contraction of the abdominal wall is also of service here.’ At 4 the animal was suddenly placed in the vertical feet-up posture, and at once the carotid pressure rose. This rise was not so great as the fall which occurred in the feet-down posture, and a rule may be deduced that the lowering of a pole of the body does not raise the arterial blood pressure in it so much as ratsing that pole lowers tt. When placed horizontal at 5 the pressure fell below the normal line for the same reasons that it rose above that line at 3. Some dogs are not nearly so susceptible to the effects of gravity as 1 ‘Influence of Gravity on the Circulation.” Hill and Barnard. Journal of Physiology, Vol. XXL., 1897. 1900-1. ] OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE. 1g! others. Thus, Tracing 4 is from a dog under morphia and chloroform just as in the previous experiment, and yet the change in pressure in the different postures is very slight. I found that cats are especially alien, gh | oT Balatgigintalaratalalalaigtpinigialatataiatgigtgigin vad) TracinG 1V,—9/22.—Dog under Morphia and Chloroform, x Vertically teet downwards, 2 Hori- zontal. 3 Head downwards. 4 Horizontal. immune to the effects of change of posture; and Mr. Leonard Hill records'that some animals, e¢g., certain species of monkeys, actually over-compensate, and thus have a higher carotid blood pressure in the feet-down than in the normal posture. Most animals compensate somewhat after a short time for the vertical feet-down position. As one might expect, animals that habitually or frequently assume the vertical posture are better able to compensate against any fall in blood pressure in this posture than are animals which do not naturally become vertical. Thus apes and domestic fowls compensate well, while snakes and hutch rabbits compensate badly. 2 I 3 Seat Pyavt wer TT yA TON My Pi ~~, 0 sf ran TracinG V.—g/19.—1 Vertically feet downwards. 2 Compensation occurring for vertical posture. 3 Horizontal again. Tracing 5 shows such compensation. At 1 the animal was placed vertical, and at 2, though still in the vertical posture, the blood pressure 1 ‘* The Cerebral Circulation,” page 88. 2 Leonard Hill, ‘‘ Further Observations on the Influence of Gravity on the Circulation,” Supplement to the Journal of Physiology, Vol. 23, Feb. 27th, 1899. 192 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL “VEL is seen gradually to right itself. At 3, on the animal being placed hori- zontal, the pressure went for a moment above the normal line, the compensation still continuing. But if the vertical posture be maintained for a long time this compensation will fail, as shown by Mr. Hill on certain animals', and as often shown clinically when people faint from long standing. The swelling of horses’ legs from long standing is another familiar illustra- tion of the same thing. 4 Horizontal. Tracing 6 shows compensation for the feet-up posture. At 3 the feet were raised and the pressure in the carotid temporarily rose, but although the animal was kept in this position it soon fell to the normal Compensation for this posture shown. 8 line, and when the animal was placed E horizontal at 4, the compensation ” continuing for a while, the pressure 3 actually went below the normal. s When the canula is placed in : the proximal end of another artery, 5 eg., the femoral, as in Tracing 7, i the same phenomena are observed. fa Then, of course, the vertical feet-up posture causes a fall in pressure, and the vertical feet-down a rise. This tracing illustrates well again the rule that the rise produced in the pres- sure in the vessels of a pole of the body by lowering that pole is not so great as the fall produced by raising it. 1 Ibid. Tracinc VI.—o/28.—Canula in carotid. i ‘ g = 1900-T. ] OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE. 193 4 3 2 I a WN yy yo hi Ma nl TracinG VII.—9/26.—Canula in horizontal end of femoral artery, 1 Feet down. 2 Horizontal. 3 Feet up. 4 Horizontal. The effects of posture are less marked in the distal end of a divided artery than in the proximal. Tracing 8 is taken from the distal end of the femoral artery. In it the respiratory waves appear, and the whole pressure is considerably lower than in the proximal end of the same 3 2 I i a ee TracinG VIII.—o/22.—Canula in distal end of femoral artery. 1 Horizontal. 2 Head downwards, 3 Horizontal. artery. When the hind feet are lowered the pressure is scarcely altered (before tracing begins), but when they are raised the pressure slowly falls somewhat. This is another illustration of the rule above mentioned. 15 T4 13 12 On t v; [ost ty att font Mw iV Nia) Ces Tracine IX —1/5.—Canula in proximal end of splenic artery. 12 Vertically teet down. 13 Hori- zontal, 14 Feet up. 15 Horizontal. Tracings taken from the proximal end of the splenic artery show a marked fall in the feet-down position, and a slight fall in the feet-up. Thus the pressure falls in both vertical postures, but especially in the feet-down one. Tracing g is taken from the proximal end of the splenic artery. At 12 the feet were lowered, and after a short hesitation the pressure fell markedly. At 13 the animal was replaced in the horizontal 13 194 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. position. At 14 it was swung into the vertical feet-up position, and a slight fall occurred. So much for the changes in pressure uninfluenced as far as possible by anything except posture. I next proceed to the effects of certain factors in increasing and decreasing the blood pressure, and its suscepti- bility to gravity and inertia. ABDOMINAL PRESSURE. Tracings 10 and 11 show the effect of firm abdominal pressure in raising the blood pressure while this is low from the animal being in the vertical posture. In 11 the vertical position assumed at 18 produced a slight fall, and abdominal pressure applied at 19 raised the tracing to 6 5 4 3 inn a aca TRACING X.—3/10.—3 Vertical. Pressure continued to fall. 4 Abdominal pressure. 5 A pressure removed. 6 Horizontal. TracinG XI,—1/2.—18 Vertical. 19 Abdominal pressure. 20 Horizontal. even above the normal line. In the former tracing the pulse was hastened by the abdominal pressure, in the latter it remained unaltered. Abdominal pressure, however, in order to be effectual, must be of an exceedingly firm nature, and probably pressure upon the aorta itself has something to do with the result. It has been shown indeed that when the aorta is compressed by itself a marked rise in the general blood pressure occurs’. Far more abdominal pressure is necessary than would be required merely to empty the abdominal veins—this being the usual explanation of how the resulting rise in blood pressure is brought about. 1 J. A. McWilliams, British Medical Journal, Vol, II., 1890, p. 835. 1900-1. ] OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE. 195 Hill and Barnard give a tracing’ showing the effect of abdominal pressure. In it the pressure actually goes above the normal line, as it also did in tracing 11 just given, and in order to get such a rise a large amount of abdominal pressure must have been applied, and probably the aorta was more or less completely obstructed by this. I tried the tightening of an abdominal bandage as described by Mr. Leonard Hill? but got almost negative results. Consequently I believe that slight supporting of the abdominal walls by bandages can have little or no effect upon the general blood pressure, and the comfort given by such to a certain class of patients cannot be attributed to any appreciable rise of blood pressure. One point, however, must be here borne in mind, and that is that while in healthy animals the abdominal wall is normal, in certain individuals it is abnormally flaccid. 46 4 nn 44 oO _—- — — ———_—_—_ ——_—_—_— woe TracinG XII,—1/3.—Spinal cord previously divided at level of last dorsal vertebra. 44 Vertical. 45 Abdominal pressure. 46 Horizontal, Tracing 12 shows the effect of abdominal pressure on a vertical animal in which the blood pressure was standing almost at zero on account of previous division of the spinal cord. Ls) =_ —_———-----ereroarrr nnn lr Tracine XIII.—g/20,—Canula in distal end of fermoral artery. 1 Abdominal pressure. 2 Pressure removed, Tracing 13 shows the effect of abdominal pressure on the blood pressure in the distal end of the femoral artery. The animal being horizontal, as seen the pressure slowly fell, which goes to prove that, as 1 Tracing 86, Journal of Physiology, Vol. XXI., 1897. 2 ‘The Cerebral Circulation,” p. 100. 196 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vor. VII. previously stated, the aorta must be compressed during firm abdominal pressure. \o ip 2) ~ ve oe ae Tracinc XIV.—1/3.—Dog under Atropin. 7 Vertical. 8 Struggling. g Horizontal. Lower line is respiratory tracing. Tracing 14 shows the effect of posture on an animal in which the vagi had been paralysed by atropine. At 7 it was placed vertical, with very little fall in pressure. The effects are practically the same as when the vagi are intact. Division of the Spinal Cord at various levels. This always produces a great lessening in the compensation for the feet-down position. 14 13 12 ann Hh nth TracinG XV.—3/10.—Spinal cord previously divided opposite 8th dorsal vertebra. 12 Vertical. 13 Horizontal, 14 Head down. Tracing 15 illustrates this point. The cord had been divided opposite the eighth dorsal vertebra, and the pressure in the horizontal position fell somewhat. When the animal was placed in the vertical feet-down posture at 12, the pressure fell rapidly and threatened to actually become negative. The pulse did not hasten, in fact, slowed somewhat. The pressure rose about the ordinary amount in the feet-up posture, as shown at 14. 1900-1. | OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE. Tracing 16 shows the carotid blood pressure occurring in a dog in which the spinal cord had been divided near the eleventh dorsal vertebra. In this case the pulse increased greatly in rapidity as the pressure fell on the animal being placed vertical at 27. The animal was kept in the feet-down position for some minutes without any appearance of compen- sation occurring, and was placed horizontal again at 29. Now the vaso-motor fibres for the splanchnic nerves leave the cord above the level of the eighth dorsal nerve; the section in this experiment took place well below this, and thus the vessels of the splanchnic area were not paralysed by the operation, yet a very marked fall occurred. This would point to the fact that the vessels of the lower part of the body are very largely concerned in the keeping up of the normal blood pressure in the feet-down position, because when they are paralysed the pressure markedly falls. 27, 28 29 Tracing XV1.—7/25,—Spinal cord previously divided opposite 11th dorsal vertebra, NS No compensation occurred, 29 Horizontal again. 27 Vertical. 198 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL VII. lf the distal end of the divided spinal cord be stimulated by the Faradic current, the pressure in the carotid artery is decidedly raised, as shown in Tracing 17. Here the animal, in which the spinal cord had been previously divided in the lower dorsal region was placed feet-down at 43, with the result that the pressure fell. At 44 the distal end of the 46 45 44 43 Tracinc XVII.—1/2.—Spinai cord previously divided in lower dorsal region. 43 Vertical. 44 Faradic stimulation of distal end of cord. 45 Horizontal. 46 Distal end again stimulated—no effect. divided cord was stimulated as mentioned, and a considerable rise in pressure took place. At 45 the animal was replaced in the horizontal position. This experiment again shows how dependent the general blood pressure of the body is upon the vaso-motor tone of the vessels in its lower part. When the animal was placed horizontal again, 38 3a Yunnan Ne mn WW nym TracinG XVIII.—8/22.—Spinal cord previously divided opposite last dorsal vertebra. Animal horizontal. 37 Distal end of cord stimulated by Faradic current. 38 Stimulus removed, similar stimulation of the distal end produced no effect. Tracing 18 shows only a slight rise on stimulation of the distal end of the cord while the animal was horizontal. This is a result which one would naturally expect. The vaso-motor influence of the lower part of the body is supposed to be very limited and chiefly confined to the skin.’ The experi- ments just related, however, would suggest that the vascular tone of the lower part of the body is of considerable importance in the regulation of the general arterial blood pressure. Without doubt the splanchnic area is the one chiefly concerned in the regulation of the blood pressure, but it is here suggested that the tone of the lower limbs is of more import- ance in this regard than is generally recognized. r Foster’s Physiology, Part I. 1900-1. | OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE. 199 THE EFFECT OF CERTAIN DRUGS ON THE BLOOD PRESSURE. Morphia.—Morphia was used hypodermically upon about forty-five dogs. It was followed in every case by salivation, in the majority of instances by vomiting and in a few by purging. The action of this drug on dogs appears to be very much like that of Apomorphine on man in these respects. Morphia produced distinct slowing of the pulse, and made the animal go under chloroform more easily and stay unconscious longer, and this entirely coincides with what many clinicians have observed. Chloroform.—This anesthetic was always administered on a towel, and no attempt was made to measure the dose. In none of the dogs did vomiting occur after the administration of chloroform had been commenced even when they had had morphia previously, and I find no mention of this complication occurring during the anesthesia of these animals in any literature. In all of fifty-two dogs killed by chloroform the respiration distinctly stopped before the heart. The period between the stoppage of the respiration and the cessation of the heart’s action varied from a few seconds to several minutes. Asa rule, the more concentrated the chloro- form vapour was, the shorter this period became. In nearly all cases the respiration stopped before the pulse tracing had disappeared, but on several occasions, when it seemed as if the heart had ceased, auscultation showed that it was still beating. After the respiration had stopped the first sound of the heart would get weaker and weaker and at last cease, while the second sound would remain loud and clear for some time and then gradually also cease. The question as to whether the respiration or the heart stops first in chloroform poisoning is one about which a great deal of controversy has raged, and the point is not yet unani- mously settled. The Hyderabad Commission held that the respiration always stopped first, and that there was no such thing as chloroform syncope.’ Dr. A. R. Cushny performed many careful experiments with different dilutions of chloroform to see the effect on the heart. If the vapour was very concentrated the heart was affected, but he says, “ Although I cannot agree with the Hyderabad Commission that the heart always continues to beat after the respiration ceases, yet the difficulty of maintaining the concentration necessary to paralyze the heart simultaneously with the respiration is extremely great, and | r Lieut.-Col, Lawrie, Lancet, March 14th, 1891. 200 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VIL. should think in ordinary chloroform administration such a simultaneous paralysis can never occur.’ Lieut.-Col. Lawrie stated in Appendix No. 3, of the Report of the Hyderabad Commission’ that chloroform has no direct action upon the heart, and this is quoted again in a letter upon the Report of the Anesthetic Commission in the British Medical Journal of January rg9th, 1901. I have no doubt, however, but that chloroform does poison the heart muscle in the same way as it must more or less poison every organ in the body. As _ stated, in all of my fifty-two experiments in this regard the respiration stopped before the heart. If the amount of chloroform given be very great, however, artificial respiration, even if immediately commenced, will not save the animal—showing that the heart as well as the respiration is poisoned. Dr. H. C. Wood in an address delivered before the International Medical Congress in Berlin in 1890,’ says, “ We definitely proved that in the dog chloroform has a distinct direct paralysing influence on both respiration and circulation ; that the respiration may cease before the heart, or the two functions may be simultaneously abolished ; but that in some cases the heart is arrested before the respiration. We have several times seen the respira- tion continue as long as one or even two minutes after the blood pressure had fallen to zero, and the blood had completely disappeared from the carotid artery.” This might well be and yet the heart might have been found to be still beating if auscultation had been practised. In trying to explain the results of the Hyderabad Commission he says further on, “It may be that the heat or other climatic conditions sur- rounding the pariah dog make his heart less sensitive to the action of chloroform than the hearts of dogs in northern climates.” J. Harris‘ in testing an apparatus for producing painless death of lower animals by chloroform, which had been taken out from England to India, found that it would not work, the reason being that the high temperature: pre- vented the concentration of the chloroform vapour. By placing ice in the chambers animals were readily killed. I can quite understand this, and have frequently noticed during the Indian hot weather that it was more difficult than usual to get patients “ under,” especially if a punkah were swinging near by. On the other hand it is hard to explain the following statement, “It is stated that iced chloroform has been used in 14,000 cases in Wiirzburg, Bavaria, without any ill results. Rapidity of administration, comparative freedom from danger and absence of nausea 1 Lancet, March 14th, 1891. 2 Lancet, January, 1893. 3 British Medical Journal, August 16th, 1890. 4 Indian Medical Record, May roth, 189g, 1900-1. | OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE. 201 are the advantages claimed for this preparation.” My experiments were done through the several Canadian seasons upon many varieties of dogs, and yet I never found the heart stop before the respiration, although, as stated, on several occasions the pulse tracing did so. Dr. B. W. Richardson in my opinion stated the case aright when he wrote that “death in man during chloroform anesthesia is not generally due to respiratory failure, but that in animals the physiological death from chloroform is a respiratory failure.” He says that Snow also thought so. In my experiments the animals were killed with chloroform in the horizontal and vertical postures, after poisoning with various drugs, cutting of one or both vagi nerves, division of the spinal cord at various levels, opening of the abdomen, bleeding, etc., and yet, as stated, the respiration always stopped before the heart. Post mortem examinations were made on most of the animals so killed, but the condition of the heart and great vessels then does not seem to be any indication of what it was just after death, as artificial respiration, abdominal pressure and other restora- tives were all tried, and these must have altered the conditions of things. Such remarks may also apply to the results of post mortems on persons who have so died. With this proviso, one may say that the right side of the heart was always engorged with blood, and that the left was generally more or less empty, but occasionally also was full. In one case after death from chloroform, followed by artificial respiration, the animal’s body was frozen, and transverse sections of the chest made. Here the right side of the heart was found to be engorged and the left was partially filled with blood.’ The most dangerous time for a dog is while he is going under first. Then, if he be struggling, the danger is great. In most cases, as already stated, when the breathing had stopped under these circumstances, artificial respiration would restore it and save life, but occasionally it failed to do so. When chloroform is given slowly and sufficiently diluted then the animal goes under completely without necessarily much, if any, fall in blood pressure. This is in agreement with Shore and Gaskell’s results The least struggle, however, even if only of the nature of increased respiration, temporarily sends up the blood pressure more or 1 Philadelphia Medical Journal, 1900, Vol. IT., p. 1,113. 2 Asclepiad, 1890. 3 ‘ Death from Chloroform,” by the author, Canadian Practitioner and Review, Feb., 1898. 4 British Medical Journal, 1891, Vol. II., p. 1089. 202 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vo.L. VII. less, and as surely lowers it immediately afterwards. This after lowering may be partly of the nature of compensation, but it is most probably due, in part at least, to the struggling causing a greater inhalation of the drug, and hence poisoning by it. 9 8 70 a ea ie ae oa ues me mm mmm me ee e-em ow = a a a a a nn = nn ee we eae aw we oo on se ne nee er ene oe- a rerrene TRacinc XIX.—o/31.—Chloroform poisoning. Animal Horizontal. 3 Chloroform pushed. 4 Struggling. 5 Pressure falling and pulse slowing. 6 Chloroform removed. 7 Respiration ceased. 8 Pulse very slow. 9 Artificial respirations. Tracing 19 shows a very typical tracing of chloroform fozsonzng. The animal was horizontal when the chloroform was pushed at 3. He had not had any morphia. A slight temporary fall, with slowing of the pulse occurred, which is very frequently the case, followed by struggling at 4, with a consequent rise and hastening of the pulse. Then about forty seconds after the commencement of the chloroform, a rapid fall with slowing of the pulse, set in. The chloroform was removed at 6, but several seconds later, the respiration ceased, and the pressure fell more, with great slowing of the pulse. Artificial respiration was commenced twenty seconds after the respiration failed, and the animal recovered. Even though the chloroform towel be removed as soon as ever the struggling sets in, the temporary rise followed by a fall occurs, sufficient chloroform vapour being present in the air passages to produce this train of events. Conclusion 19 of the Anzsthetic Committee of the British Medical Association is that “struggling must be regarded as a source of very grave danger under chloroform,” and Lieut.-Col. Lawrie’s rule, as given in his recent book on chloroform (p. I11) is “never to give chloroform while there is struggling or irregular breathing.” With this clinical rule my experiments on dogs entirely agree. 4 3 2 gy ss) 1. al ~ Mee NO ISS mn “al F / ha Any A! Vy My UU ni [fw a He Tracing XX.—3/11.—Chloroform poisoning. S Struggling. 1 Chloroform pushed. 2 Pressure began to fall quickly. 3 Chloroform removed as pulse slowing. 4 Respiration stopped. 1900-1. | OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE. 203 In. Tracing 20 another illustration of the same thing occurs. At S, the animal, which was not at all under the influence of an anesthetic, began to struggle violently, and the result was a rise in pressure, with quickening of the pulse. At 1 chloroform was started and pushed. The pressure began to fall quickly at 2 with great hastening of the pulse. At 3 chloroform was stopped, as the slowing of the pulse heralded threatened respiratory failure, but at 4 the respiration did cease, with the usual great slowing of pulse and fall of blood pressure. The animal eventually recovered under artificial respiration. This extreme and sudden fall of the blood pressure occurring synchronously with the stoppage of the respiration was noted by the first Hyderabad Commission, who stated the case as follows. “ Although a gradual loss of tension in the arteries took place after the first stage, the decrease of tension was more abrupt when the respiration became affected. The stoppage of the respiration was always succeeded by a sudden increase in the relaxation of the coats of the femoral artery and a fall in tension.” It is difficult, however, to understand how they could have concluded that, “It was further observed that struggling demanded that the chloroform be pushed and not withheld.” No advice could well have been more dangerous than this, and fortunately the second Hyderabad Commission put it right. The chart just given shows that struggling raises the pressure, and that if chloroform be commenced during the struggling, then the pressure falls almost at once, in fact, it seems from what we have observed that the preliminary rise in blood pressure in chloroform anesthesia is not due to any vaso-motor stimulation, but rather to the almost constant slight struggling—it may be only increased breathing—which occurs then. Dr. J. A. McWilliam’ found that “with moderate respiration the results of a certain dose of chloroform were very slight, whereas the same dose during exaggerated respiration caused great depression and extensive fall of blood pressure.” While all admit that a considerable dose of chloroform produces a great fall in blood pressure, it is not settled how it does so. Many believe that it is due to the paralysing action of the drug on the vaso- motor centre, while on the other hand, Shore and Gaskell’s cross circulation experiments seem to prove that it is due to the direct action of chloroform on the heart. These cross circulation experiments, however, involve a very difficult technique, and when repeated by others have not always given the same results.” 1 British Medical Journal, Oct. 1890. 2 Journal of Physiology, Vol. XXI., Nos, 4 and 5, 1897. 3 ‘‘ Cross Circulation Experiments,” Lieut.-Col. Lawrie, Lancet, 1898, Vol. II, p. 24. 204 42 (une 43 Respiration still very ample although pressure almost zero, 42 Right carotid divided and with it the vagus. TracinG XXI.—14/39.—Dog horizontal. TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vo.L. VII. There can be no doubt but that chloroform can weaken and even paralyse the heart, and that chloroform can weaken and even paralyze the vaso-motor centre, but the question at issue is, which of these two actions is it that occurs first. In my opinion it would be exceedingly unlikely if either one should occur alone, and the proba- bilities are that the fall in pressure is due to both factors occurring in different degrees in different animals. In one case the vaso-motor centre might prove the more susceptible to the poison, while in another the heart might first show its effects. In both cases a fall in pressure would occur. The importance of the fall is very differently guaged by different observers. As already stated, all have noticed it. The Hyderabad Commission actually considered it a safeguard, arguing that where the pressure was low less chloroform would be carried to the centres, and therefore these were not,so) likely to “be: poisoned); jand! JA. Mice William argued in the same manner.’ On the other hand Mr. Leonard Hill thinks that this fall in pressure, due in his opinion to paralysis of the vaso-motor centre by chloroform, is actually the cause of death in such cases, and he believes that the respiratory failure which occurs so constantly in dogs poisoned by chloroform is due to the anemia of the respiratory centre resulting from a fall in pressure. Without venturing to express atl Opinion on so important a point one may say that a mere fall of blood pressure with assumed anemia of the respiratory centre does not soon cause stoppage of the respiration but rather stimulates it, as shown in Tracing 21, where the animal was bled to death and the respiration continued even after the blood had ceased to flow from the severed vessel. «Hy "G-) Weods ‘and W: S. Carter “haves shown that “even “ereat 1 British Medical Journal, 1890, Vol. II. p.834. 2 Journal of Experimental Medicine, Vol. II, p. 139. 1900-1. | OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE, 205 anemia of the brain produced by tying both carotids and both vertebral arteries produces little if any change as a rule in the respiration. From this fact they were led to the conclusion that, “ The respiratory centres are remarkably insensitive to a lowering of their blood supply.” Further, I have frequently observed that the respiration stopped while the pressure was still comparatively high, and only after the cessation of the breathing did the pressure somewhat suddenly fall to zero. Tracing 20 illustrates this point. One might say in fact that the pressure only falls very low after the respiration fails and that probably the stoppage of the respiration due to poisoning of the respira- tory centre is the cause of this sudden extra fall in the already slowly falling pressure. It seems that as the factors which maintain the blood pressure become weakened by chloroform the respiratory pump becomes more necessary to the upkeep of this pressure than it usually is, and hence when it stops the pressure drops at once. Possibly, however, an anemic respiratory centre is more susceptible to the toxic effects of chloroform than one not so anemic, and this special susceptibility Mr. Hill believes he has noticed along with others.’ When the blood pressure falls greatly from chloroform and remains low, life must be endangered, but in my experience animals do not die more easily from chloroform administered in the vertical than in the horizontal position, and it is decidedly harder to kill a dog with chloroform when the pressure is very low from hemorrhage than when this is not the case. The second Hyderabad Commission noted this point thus, “ In Experiment III, the splanchnics were divided, a proceeding which, as is often said, bleeds the animal into its own vessels. The pressure was after this exceedingly low, but chloroform was given and various other actions taken, and then chloroform had to be pushed on a saturated sponge enclosed in a cap for eleven minutes before the respiration ceased.” Again J. A. McWilliams writes as follows,’ “The fall of blood pressure is in a certain sense protective. It retards the continued access of the anesthetic into the vital organs. I have frequently been struck with the good resisting power shown to the influence of both chloroform and ether in animals in which a very low pressure was present due to other causes than anesthetics, e.g., vaso-motor paralysis.” He rightly adds that, “On the other hand the fall of blood pressure may become excessive and prove a source of great danger.” If then it is harder to kill a dog by chloroform 1 ‘Causation of Chloroform Syncope,” by L. Hill, British Medical Journal, April 17th, 1897. 2 Second Hyderabad Commission Report. 3 British Medical Journal, October, 1890. 206 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vou. VII. when the pressure is low than when it is not so, why should it be that all anesthetists are agreed upon the danger of giving anesthetics when the patient is sitting up? The answer I believe lies in the fact that most deaths which occur in practice in the administration of chloroform are not cases of poisoning from the drug but ave due to syncope resulting either from the pain of an operation commenced too soon or from fear. A close perusal of the Clinical Report of the Lancet leads one to the same conclusion. Very many of the deaths which have occurred during the administration of chloroform were not cases of poisoning at all, as the dose was too small. The following cases summarised from this report are probably examples of these. Sertes A, Case 3.—Fistula in ano, dose % dram on towel, anes- thesia incomplete, felt pain ; in one minute pulse failed. Case 28.—Extraction of tooth, sitting posture, 25 drops on sponge, only 4 or 5 respirations, operation not begun, on being asked a question answered in thick and trembling voice and stretched out her arms, face became bluish, eyes haggard, head and arms fell, she was dead. Case 73.—For delirium tremens following a fracture, 1% dram on lint, after 2 or 3 inspirations the man writhed and fell back dead, not under influence. Series B, Case 56.—For removal of finger, 30 drops on lint, syncope. Case 105.—Castration, 15 to 20 drops on lint, pulse ceased. Case 285.—Reduction of dislocation, % dram, pupils dilated and heart’s action failed. Case 426.—Dressing sprain of ankle, a few drops, syncope. Sir J. Y. Simpson well remarked in this connection! that, ‘ All the patients that die under the hand of the operator when chloroform is used do not necessarily die from the effects of the chloroform upon the constitution. In several of the recorded cases the dose given was too small to have had any such fatal effect. Before the time that anesthetics came to be used deaths on the operating table often occurred. Such cases have been recorded by Brodie, Cooper, Home, Travers, etc., etc., but they excited no marked share of professional t Works of Sir J. Y. Simpson, p. 148. 1900-1. | OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE. 207 attention, as they were generally supposed to be accidents against which no action could be of any use. Of late vears and since chloroform has been employed they have usually been directly and at once ascribed to the deleterious action of chloroform.” He then gives details of a num- ber of cases of fatal syncope immediately before or during operations in which chloroform had not been used. Here is one example, “A few days after the discovery of chloroform, a case of hernia which had been strangulated for a few hours was brought into the Infirmary, and Pro- fessor Miller thought it a case demanding operative interference and one in which chloroform should be tried; but I could not be found in time to give it, and the patient was operated on without an anesthetic. Pro- fessor Miller had only proceeded the length of dividing the skin when the patient fainted and died with the operation unfinished. If the chloroform had happened to be used and this fatal syncope had occurred while the patient was under its action the whole career of the new anesthetic would have been at once arrested. Such cases teach us at least that caution is required in our reasoning and _ inferences, seeing death may occur and has occurred in operations without chloro- form, and with phenomena quite similar to those ascribed to the action of chloroform.” The distinction between deaths from chloroform and deaths simply occurring during the administration of chloroform is even more important to-day than it was in Simpson’s time. Nowadays so many patients have a dread of chloroform that one would expect cases of syncope to occur occasionally when patients are going under the anesthetic and are still conscious and afraid. R. Ballard! discusses this point well and argues that children and dogs are less apt to be afraid, and hence are less likely to suffer from syncope; and the British Medical Journal in an annotation suggests’ that the reason why parturient women are less apt to suffer from chloroform is that they do not dread it. Snow* mentioned several cases in which, although chloro- form was administered, death was attributed by him to fright. In all only a small quantity of chloroform had been given and that freely diluted, and in every case great fear and apprehension were noted before the administration. The fact that many deaths which occur during the use of chloroform are not due to the use of the anesthetic, is further brought out by the recent Report of the Anzsthetic Com- mittee of the British Medical Association. Out of eighteen cases of death “under chloroform” they found that only three were due entirely to the drug, four were chiefly due to it, and the remaining 1 Lancet, 1898, Vol. I, p. 1,253. 2 British Medical Journal, 1900, Vol., p. 35. 3 Treatise on Anesthetics, 1858. 208 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. eleven—more than 50 per cent—were doubtful. Their 17th Conclusion is that, “Imperfect anesthesia is the cause of a large number of cases of danger under chloroform.” We have seen that workers differ greatly as to the danger of great falls in blood pressure due to chloroform administration. It seems clear, however, that such falls are at any rate indications that the patient is very deeply under, and if only one could clinically recognize such a fall with ease it would be a valuable danger signal. Duplay and Hallion! hope before long to describe a method of ascertaining the blood pressure during surgical operations under anesthetics; and if they or any one else should succeed, a valuable result will have been attained. Occasionally during the administration of chloroform, sudden falls of blood pressure may occur, along with marked slowing of the pulse, evidently of the nature of vagus inhibition of the heart. Such falls were noted by the Glasgow Commission, and were considered to be a cause of sudden death under chloroform.2, The members of this Commission, in discussing the points of agreement between them and the Hyderabad Commission, say that “ Both observed peculiarly sudden and unexpected falls of pressure and slowing of the heart. The Commissions differed as to the origin of these. The Hyderabad Commission attribute it to asphyxia ; the Glasgow Commission say not asphyxia, whatever may be the cause.” These falls closely resemble those which we gave early in this work as occurring occasionally in dogs apparently without cause; no chloroform being administered at the time. When they occur during the administration of chloroform the Hyderabad Commission, as stated, consider them to be asphyxial and of no danger, in fact, the opposite, as tending to prevent the further absorption of the poison. Lieut.-Col. Lawrie* dogmatically states that, “The special effects which the Glasgow Commission attributed to chloroform were produced by accidental asphyxia . . . the slowing of the pulse and circulation through stimulation of the vagus is a safeguard in chloroform : : Pe) poisoning. Tracing 22 shows such a fall. Chloroform was started at 7, the dog being already slightly under. He struggled a little. The sudden fall occurred ten seconds later. The chloroform was not removed, and yet 1 Archiyes Generales de Medicine, Aug. 1900. 2 Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, Vol. XIII., p. 395. 3 ‘* Remarks on the znd Hyderabad Commission,” by Drs, McKendrick, Coats and Newman, British Medical Journal, June 14th, rgoo. 4 Lancet, June 21st, 1900. 1900-1. | OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE. 209 twenty seconds later the fall had been partly recovered from and the pulse had resumed its former rate. A strong resemblance will be seen between this tracing and one produced by either stimulation of the 8 7 . 9 nny Wy www TracinG XXII.--9/23.—No Morphia. 7 Chloroform pushed, dog being horizontal. 8 Sudden fall in pressure with slowing of pulse. Chloroform continued and yet pressure normal again at 9. distal or the proximal end of the vagus, as shown in Tracing 23, and it seems that all are agreed that such falls are of the nature of vagus inhibition. Whether the vagus centres are directly stimulated by the chloroform, or are more or less reflexly affected through afferent nerves, or whether the stimulation is of the nature of asphyxia, it is hard to say. From the fact that the fall disappears even if the chloroform be continued, I would be inclined to agree with the Hyderabad Commission 13a 13 12a 12 Trin Malt) Vth TracinG XXIII.—3/11 Dog horizontal. Left vagus previously divided. 12 Distalend of cut vagus stimulated by Faradic current. 13 Proximal end stimulated. that such is not a source of danger; and as regards the nature of the vagus inhibition, from the same fact, I would consider that it is caused by strong vapour irritating the sensory branches of the vagus, and as the sensory nerves become numbed the reflex disappears. It is not a constant phenomenon, however, even when very concentrated vapour is used. Another case from similar stimulation might show reflex laryngeal spasm. The fact that these occasional, probably safe, falls in pressure do occur in dogs is not sufficient ground in my opinion for 14 210 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. changing the view that usually a markedly slow pulse is an urgent indication for the immediate removal of the anesthetic. As arule, unless an animal has just been struggling violently, the pulse becomes considerably slowed when he is going under chloroform and becomes fast when he is coming out. The exception mentioned is struggling, and this, as has been already shown, may so hasten the pulse that it only slows when, or just before, the respiration stops. The cause of this slowing is doubtful, some attributing it to stimulation of the vagus by the chloroform vapour, some to the direct poisoning of the heart muscle, and others again to asphyxia. Whatever the cause of this gradual slowing may be, it is a valuable sign clinically. The fall of pressure is evidently not due alone to it, as shown by the fact that such falls occur when the vagi are divided, when atropine is given (vide tracing 47), or while the pulse is still fast after struggling (vide tracing 20). Nevertheless the fall in pressure and the slowing of the pulse as a rule go hand in hand in deep chloroform narcosis. As regards the effect of posture during chloroform narcosis, generally speaking the animal is rendered less resistant to the effects of gravity than is one not so poisoned, and hence the vertical feet-down position produces a greater fall than it would otherwise do. If the animal be first placed feet-down and then chloroform be pushed, as might be inferred, the pressure falls more freely than when the drug is given in the horizontal position. This is in accordance with Mr. Leonard Hill’s observations, when he considers chloroform to be the most powerful agent known for abolishing the mechanisms which compensate for the influence of gravity.’ The effects of various operations on the blood pressure while the animal was under chloroform were tried, and as a rule they were chiefly negative. TracinG X XIV.—3/8.—Dog under Chloroform and horizontal. 10 Abdomen opened freely. 11 Splenic artery tied. Tracing 24 is taken from a dog completely anesthetized with chloroform and lying horizontal. At 10 the abdomen was freely opened 1 Journal of Physiology, Vol. XXI, Nos. 4 and 5, 1897. 1900-1. | OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE. and the splenic artery was tied at 11, and yet no fall in pressure occurred. A slight rise in fact occurred at 11, which might have been due to the tying of the artery. Thus no sign of shock appeared, and this is in accordance with the results obtained by the Hyderabad Commission, who were unable to produce shock in dogs under chloroform by any operation they tried. COMPLICATIONS ARISING DURING THE ADMINISTRATION OF CHLOROFORM. Various complications may occur at any time during the administration of chloroform, which produce more or less effect on the blood pressure and are as well often danger- ous. Vomiting never seems to take place in dogs under chloroform, as already noted. The effects of struggling have been already discussed. The inhalation of fluid when occurring during anesthesia is sometimes a source of great danger. Tracing 25 is taken from a dog under chloroform. When this tracing begins he is already in the feet-down position. At 9g two hundred ccs. of an aqueous solution (of chloretone) were poured down his throat. He swallowed distinctly several times, but did not seem to breathe again. The pressure after a slight transi- tory rise fell rapidly, but the pulse remained fast. At 10 he was placed horizontal, and some rise of pressure occurred. Atrtificial respiration was tried, but did not seem to work well—no sign of life appeared and he was evidently dead. On opening the thorax the right side of the heart was found to be enormously distended with blood, as were also" the wens “enterine it Whe left side was nearly empty. The lungs contained 10 fe Wve WA een econ in 2I!I 10 Horizontal. 9 200 cc. of fluid poured into fauces. Tracing XXV.—7/18.—Dog under Chloroform and vertical. 212 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. frothy blood, and evidently the animal had died of drowning. This chart shows that in acute asphyxia, as stated by the Hyderabad Commission, the pressure may fall rapidly. The pulse, however, did not slow as the Commission found it to do, and the chart bears no resemblance to one in which death occurs from chloroform poisoning (unless indeed the animal be already under atropine.) In Tracing 26 a dog under chloroform ‘had already had some solu- tion (of chloretone) poured into the stomach by means of a tube. While still vertical the remains of the solution, about I oz., were poured into the fauces, the tube having been removed. At once at 7 the nat Tracinc XX VI.—3/8.— Dog under Chloroform and vertical. 7 An ounce of fluid poured into fauces- gasped. 8 Some of solution inhaled. g Horizontal. Animal recovered. pressure fell, then rose for a few seconds, and then began to fall steadily with slight hastening of the pulse. The animal was placed horizontal and began to breathe again, and finally recovered. This chart shows the danger of even small quantities of fluid accumulating in the fauces while the laryngeal reflex is done away with by an anesthetic. Even tracheotomy might not save the patient, as the fluid is quickly drawn into the lungs themselves, as shown by the post mortem examination of the dog from which Tracing 25 was taken. These charts agree then with Lieut.-Col. Lawrie’s contention that in asphyxia the pressure falls. The fall is only marked in odstructive asphyxia, however. When asphyxia is brought about by free opening of the pleural cavities producing pneumo-thorax, so that although the animal is breathing hard no new air enters the collapsed lungs, then after many violent acts of inspiration the respiration ceases and then only the pressure falls and the pulse becomes markedly slowed. Kcnow and Shenbeck' showed that in animals whose respiration was paralyzed by Curara asphyxia produced arise in pressure, then a gradual fall, then a strong increase and finally a fall to death. rt ‘On Blood Pressure in Asphyxia,” Skandin Arch. f. Physiologie, I, 603-641. Tap. 5, 6. 1900-1. | OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE. PIG Tracing 27. In this animal double pneumo-thorax had _ been produced in the manner described with very free openings through the parietes. The whole tracing is too long to reproduce here, but the Tracinc XXVII.—3/11.—Double pneumothorax previously produced with very free openings through parietes. Pressure well maintained until respiration stopped at 22. Pressure then fell with slow pulse— asphyxia. pressure was well maintained until respiration stopped at 22. Then it fell and the pulse became very slow and ceased a couple of minutes later. A momentary rise will be noticed at 22 just after the respiration ceased. In Tracing 28, on the other hand in which both pleure had been freely opened, a marked respiratory wave appeared with some rise in pressure when the trachea was clamped at 22. At 23 the attempts at 2 22 = vi | a hy at TracinG XXVIII.—3/11.—Double pneumothorax previously produced. 22 Trachea clamped. 23 Efforts at breathing ceased and then arterial pressure fell. respiration stopped, and then the pressure fell slowly with marked slowing of the pulse. About three minutes later the pulse became fast and the pressure rose a few mms., giving a good example of delirium cordis. Thus it may be seen that very different tracings are got in different conditions of asphyxia, and that no one description will suffice for every form. This probably is the reason why Lieut.-Col. Lawrie and his critics got so far apart in their statements, some asserting that the pressure fell in asphyxia, and others that it rose, eg., Dr. J. H. Potter 214 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. wrote:'| “We have in asphyxia increased blood pressure with lividity; in fatal chloroform narcosis we have just the opposite, viz., diminished blood pressure with pallor.” They were both right probably, for, as shown, the question of whether the pressure rises or falls in asphyxia entirely depends on how the asphyxia is produced. It seems that as long as efforts at respiration are made as in 28 the pressure is main- tained but as soon as such efforts cease then the pressure falls. In chloroform poisoning the respiratory centre is paralyzed and there are no efforts at respiration and therefore the pressure may at once fall. vA _ , TracinG XXIX.—o/31.—Animal inhaling strong Chloroform vapour. Inspiratory stridor. Inspiratory Stridor—Tracing 29 shows the effect upon the blood pressure of inspiratory stridor produced by the inhalation of strong chloroform vapour. A fall occurred during each inspiration. In Tracing 30 the left vagus had been already cut. At Io the right vagus was being handled, which produced some fall of pressure. At 11 this nerve was divided and immediately the pulse increased in rate, the pressure rose and the respiratory curve became more marked. Each dip in the tracing was accompanied by an inspiratory stridor, VOLO tad gt Marl May Tracinec XXX.—o/31.—Left vagus already divided. 11 Right vagus cut. 12 Inspiratory stridor set in evidently of a paralytic nature. evidently caused by the flapping together of the vocal cords, the muscles of which had been paralyzed by division of the vagi. This result, how- ever, is not a constant one on division of the vagi. Thus, either spasm of the laryngeal muscles as shown in Tracing 29, or paralysis, as shown in Tracing 41, may produce inspiratory stridor, and this stridor is shown to have a marked effect on the pressure. The stridor due to spasm disappears as the animal becomes more deeply anesthetized ; that due to paralysis does not so go away. 1 The Lancet, Vol. I, 1890. 1900-1. | OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE. 215 A Rigid Condition of the Body may occur while the animal is deeply under chloroform and may disappear as he comes out. Tracing 31 is taken from a case of this kind. The animal was completely anesthetized and still taking chloroform at 6, but the jaws were rigidly closed. At 7 he was still very rigid and the jaws could not be forced apart. Chloroform was stopped at 8, and soon the spasm lessened and the jaws relaxed, and without giving any more chloroform a stomach 8 7 6 PAHs tonne moore Tracinc XXXI.—1/4.—Animal completely under Chloroform. 7 Rigid condition of body. 8 Chloroform stopped and rigidity soon ceased. tube was passed with ease. I have seen this rigidity occur clinically occasionally under ether to a marked degree, and to a less extent under chloroform. G. O. C. Mackness' mentions a case where “suddenly clonic spasms of the face and limbs came on” under chloroform where the patient recovered ; while E. W. Dickson’ gives an instance where such ended fatally. Fourteen cases are mentioned by the Anesthetic Committee of the British Medical Association in which fits or epileptic convulsions were noticed.’ METHODS OF RESUSCITATION IN CHLOROFORM POISONING. Of all methods tried artificial respiration was found to be by far the most certain method of restoring animals in which the respiration had stopped as a result of chloroform poisoning. In the majority of cases it was successful, though occasionally, even when started as soon as the natural respiration had ceased, it failed to save life. In these latter cases probably the heart and vaso-motor centre were paralyzed almost synchronously with the respiration. The method followed was rhythmical compression of the chest, and the effect on the blood pressure consists in a rise during each expiration. In using the method the air passages must be kept free by keeping the tongue firmly pulled out and if necessary introducing the tip of the index finger into the rima clottidis, by which means the vocal cords are kept apart. The Lancet Clinical Report mentions a case “ where mechanical stimulation of the larynx by pressing the finger down to the rima glottidis was said to r British Medical Journal, Dec. 7th, 1895. 2 British Medical Journal, Oct. 19th, 1895. 3 Report of the Anaesthetic Committee, British Medical Journal, Feb. 23rd, 1891. 216 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII. have been successful in restoring life,’ and apart from this probable reflex action, the pressure of the finger assures the operator that the cords are swung apart. One soon learns to tell whether artificial respiration will be success- ful or not in a given case by the “feeling” of the chest. If this feel elastic, and it be easy to make the air pass in and out, all is well; but if this be not the case, even although the air passages be free, it is bad. Why this should be I am not quite certain, but certainly artificial respiration on a dead dog will not produce the amount of respiratory tide in such that it will do in a living animal. It must be remembered that when one compresses the chest the air is not thus a@zrectly pressed out, but the compression lessens the cubic capacity of the thorax and then the elasticity of the lungs drives the air out. If this elasticity be lessened then compression of the chest will not so readily cause the air to pass out. This is observed in cases of Emphysema, where the elasticity of the lungs is more or less lost’ and expiration in con- sequence becomes difficult. As the animal recovers under the influence of artificial respiration it becomes progressively easier to make a good flow of air in and out of the chest, until at last this occurs spontaneously, and when once this stage has been reached I have not seen the respiration fail again. The Hyderabad Commission report such cases, however. Tracing XXXII.—9/4o—Dog poisoned with Chloroform, 4 Respiration ceased but heart could be heard on anscultation. 5 Artificial respiration. 6 Pulse appeared and pressure rose. 7 Artificial respiration stopped at 6 and pulse here failed and pressure fell again. 8 Artificial respiration again. 9 Pulse started again and soon after natural respiration commenced and animal recovered, Tracing 32 illustrates the beneficial effect of artificial respiration on the pulse on blood pressure. At 4 the animal was very deeply poisoned with chloroform, the pressure was almost zero, and the respiration had stopped, and the pulse was absent from the chart though the heart could be heard to be beating. The chloroform had been removed. At 5 artificial respiration was started, and the waves produced by it are visible on the tracing. At 6 the pressure suddenly rose, and with it the pulse appeared. At 7 artificial respiration was stopped, and at once the pressure fell again and the pulse disappeared. At 8 artificial respiration was resumed, and at 9 the pressure rose again and the pulse reappeared. 1 Diseases of the Lungs. Sir Douglas Powell. 1900-1. ] OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE. 217 Artificial respiration was stopped and the pressure fell slightly, but natural respiration soon set in, and after that the animal gradually recovered, the pulse as usual becoming very fast during recovery. This tracing shows then the good effect of artificial respiration on the heart. The method might almost as properly be called “artificial circulation” as “artificial respiration ;” which name would constantly remind one that he was directly acting on the heart while performing the movements of the method. The effect of Tracheotomy on the blood pressure is interesting. Besides being useful in cases where some obstruction in the air passages exists above the level of the wound thus made, the operation appears to Tracinc XXXIII.—9/31.—Dog poisoned by Chloroform. Respiration stops. Artificial respiration tried without avail. 17 Trachea opened and respiration commenced at once and remained, stimulate the respiration reflexly. In Tracing 33 the respiration had ceased as a result of chloroform poisoning, while the pulse continued. Artificial respiration had been performed, but no attempt at natural respiration appeared. The tongue had been drawn out forcibly and repeatedly (ILaborde’s method), and the air passages were clear. Tracheotomy was performed at 17, and at once the animal commenced to breathe and soon recovered. Tracing 34 shows the same phenomena even better. Natural respiration had stopped here for several minutes. The puncturing of the trachea at 27 at once was succeeded by a gasp and rise in biood 28 27 ee TracinG XX XIV.—9/28.—Dog poisoned with Chloroform. Natural respiration stops for ten minutes ; Artificial respiration being continued. 27 Trachea opened and artificial respiration continued as before. 28 Natural respiration occurred and animal recovered. pressure as shown in the tracing, and the animal recovered. The air passages were clear. The effect on the respiration here is evidently of the nature of reflex stimulation. The same thing is seen often when the surgeon is performing tracheotomy for any condition. As the trachea is punctured a violent gasp occurs. In desperate cases of 218 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII. chloroform poisoning it might be justifiable to thus operate in the hope of producing this reflex effect. Forcible Pulling Forward of the Tongue seems, as has long been noted clinically, to stimulate respiration, and in several of the dogs it seemed to be the last straw starting respiration. Professor Syme in a clinical lecture delivered in 1884’ said,“ Attention to the tongue is another point we found of great consequence. When respiration becomes difficult or ceases we open the mouth, seize the tip of the tongue and pull it well forward, and there can be little doubt that death would have occurred in some cases if it had not been for the use of this expedient.” It has been recently demonstrated that pulling on the tongue does not open the glottis, and it would seem more probable that it reflexly stimulates the respiration. The chloroformist who has been trained in Edinburgh always has a pair of fenestrated artery-forceps handy for this purpose. The preceding notes and tracings emphasize the following points as regards the effects of chloroform. First, that any struggling during its administration greatly hastens the toxic effects, and that hence the drug should be removed while such lasts, and then should be given more gradually when the patient is quiet again. One frequently sees clinically the chloroform pushed at such a juncture, especially if the struggling has been started by the surgeon commencing the operation; but struggling without any such cause generally indicates that the vapour is too concentrated, and struggling due to this is doubly dangerous. Second, a fall in blood pressure is hard to detect accurately clinically, but it is usually accompanied by slowing of the pulse, and such isa danger signal, and the chloroform should be at once removed. This slowing may occasionally be of a transient nature and due to stimulation of the vagi by concentrated vapour; or it may be the more serious slowing in the wake of which lies respiratory failure. Third, if respiratory failure should occur—and it is much more likely to do so during the preliminary administration than later on—then artificial respiration is by far the most valuable method of restoring it. Artificial respiration not only keeps up the respiratory tide but also, as shown in Tracing 45, directly stimulates the circulation and raises the blood pressure, in fact the circulation may be feebly carried on for a 1 Lancet, June 21st, 1885. 1900-1. OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE. 21 9 short time by respiration alone. Thus, whether one believe that chloro- form kills by respiratory paralysis or by heart failure, or by vaso-motor paralysis, artificial respiration should be resorted to at once, and should rank, in my opinion, above all other remedies which may afterwards or along with it be attempted. Fourth, forcible pulling out of the tongue, the placing of the finger in the rima glottidis, and the performance of tracheotomy all seem to stimulate respiration. Fifth, the horizontal position is advisable when chloroform is being administered, not because respiratory failure is less likely to occur in that position, but because the risk of syncope is thus greatly lessened. Syncope is in my opinion the cause of death in most cases reported, and in many at least is not due to chloroform poisoning at all, but to the shock of pain or emotion before the patient is fully under or when he ts coming out. The actions of three drugs were investigated in regard to choroform poisoning. These were, Nitrite of Amyl, Hydrocyanic Acid, and Atropine. Nitrite of Amyl—This drug was given in several cases where the respiration had ceased as a result of chloroform poisoning, but no beneficial results were obtained. In each case one or more capsules containing the drug were crushed in the fauces while artificial respiration was being maintained. Hydrocyanic Actd—On the first of January, 1898, an article appeared in the Lancet by Professor Hobday, of the Royal Veterinary College of London. In it he suggested the use of hydrocyanic acid as an antidote in cases of chloroform poisoning. The dose recommended was I minim of Scheele’s acid by the mouth for every seven or eight pounds of body weight. He stated that he had found it invariably useful in animals in which, as a sequence to chloroform poisoning, the respiration had stopped. He had already published’ a list of forty-three observations on various animals, including dogs, cats, horses, sheep and calves, showing the results obtained by this method of resuscitation. In the last paper he refers to a series of fifteen additional consecutive cases in which H.C.N. had been successfully used in dogs after the respiration had actually ceased. Dr. A. Wilson, of Manchester, in the next number of the Lancet? opposed this view very strongly, arguing on theoretical grounds that as H.C.N. is the most powerful of all respira- r Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics, June 1896. 2 Lancet, Jan 8th, 1808. 220 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII. tory, poisons, hence it could not be useful when the respiration was already paralyzed by chloroform. He concluded by saying that “ It would be useful if Professor Hobday could give an account of the effects of the dose he recommends on a healthy animal.” The argument that because H.C.N. is the most powerful of all respiratory poisons in fatal doses, therefore it could not do good in any dose, was so obviously open to criticism that I determined to take advantage of Dr. Wilson’s sugges- tion to Professor Hobday and to try the effect of the drug in non-lethal doses on a healthy animal. Ex. I—A healthy mongrel collie dog, weighing thirty-three pounds, was given hypodermically in the back 9 3-7 minims of Acid Hydrocyan. Dil. (equal to 4 5-7 minims of Scheele’s Acid, ze., 1 minim of Scheele’s Acid to every seven pounds of body weight) at 2.48 p.m. The room was at 58° F. Notes were made every thirty seconds of his condition. They may be summarized by saying that in two minutes the animal was breathing hard and rapidly, with mouth open as if after exertion. This continued for five minutes and then he vomited. The breathing gradually became normal again. He vomited once more at 3.1 p.m. and then all symptoms disappeared and he remained well. The effect then of a dose of 1 minim of Scheele’s acid to every seven pounds of body weight is, very briefly, first, great stimulation of the respiration; second, vomiting ; third, recovery. In order to note the effect of the drug on the blood pressure, pulse and respiration, several dogs were used. They were previously given some morphia hypodermically and afterwards just enough chloroform to keep them quiet so that there should be no struggling to mar the results. 7 6 5 ROUT Tracinc XXXV.—1/4.—Effect of small dose of H.C.N. Dog slightly under Morphia and Chloroform and horizontal. 5 Five minims dilute H.C.N. into fauces. 6 Respiration more ample. 7 Pulse raised from 87-106. Recovery. Tracing 35 illustrates the effect of a small dose of the drug. The animal had been given % grain of morphia hypodermically half an hour before the experiment began. He weighed about seventeen pounds. At 5 he was lying horizontal and breathing quietly, twelve to the minute, with a pulse of eighty-seven, and was slightly under chloroform. 1900-T. | OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE, 221 5 minims of dilute H.C.N. (equal to 24% minims of Scheele’s acid) were injected into the fauces. The respiration almost at once became more ample—although this is not fully brought out in the tracing—but it was not hastened ; and the pulse was raised from 87 to 106. No bad effects followed, and 7% minutes later the animal was reported as quite normal again. Here then a dose of about 1 minim of Scheele’s acid to seven pounds of body weight increased the amplitude of the respiration, slightly hastened the pulse, but did not otherwise alter the tracing, and no bad effects were produced. 1A a IN TRACING XXXVI.—o/29,—Effects of small dose of H.C.N. Dose administered just before tracing begins. 4 Respiration very ample, pulse slightly irregular, pressure unaltered, Tracing 36 is from a dog of about nine pounds weight which had been given 4 grain of morphia half an hour before the experiment commenced. One minute before the tracing commences 3 minims of dilute H.C.N. were injected hypodermically. A few seconds later (at 4), the respiration was deep and sighing and somewhat irregular, the pulse was slightly faster, and the pressure remained unaltered. After that the respiration became hastened, but beyond the tracing the animal com- pletely recovered. Thus a slightly larger dose than Professor Hobday recommended, about I minim of Scheele’s acid to six pounds of body weight, produced no bad effects when given hypodermically. The chief alteration noticed was marked increase in the amplitude of the respiration. Tracing XXXVII.—3/10.—Effects of H.C.N. Dose administered at 8. 9 Breathing very ample, pressure rather higher, 222 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. 17 First dose, respiration excited and somewhat irregular, pulse hastened and pressure slightly raised, Repeated doses of H.C.N. Tracinc XXXVIII.—13/35. Tracing 37 is from a dog twenty-two pounds in weight which had previously been given % grain of morphia hypodermically. Some minutes before this tracing begins he had been given 6 minims of nitrite of amyl, but the effects of this had completely worn off. He was now given three minims of Scheele’s acid by the mouth, ze., about the maximum dose recommended by Professor Hobday. In a few seconds, as shown by the tracing, the respiration became very ample and then hastened, the pulse somewhat increased in speed and the pressure was a little raised. No bad effects ensued. Next we come to a series of experiments undertaken to find the effects of repeated doses Of He Ne Tracings 38, 39 and 40 are from the same dog and show well the effects of repeated doses of the drug. The dog was a fox terrier weighing about twelve pounds. At 17, 3 minims of Scheele’s acid were placed on the back of the tongue. Almost immediately the pulse hastened, the respiration became greatly excited, irregular and more ample, and the blood pressure rose somewhat. A couple of minutes later, fifteen seconds before tracing 39 begins, the dose was repeated. The same effects occurred, but soon wore off, and at 18a the tracing looks as it did before the first dose of H.C.N. was administered. Two minutes later the dose was again repeated at Ig (in tracing 40). The respiration once more became excited, but soon grew infrequent, the pulse became much slower and the pressure fell, making the chart look like that from one form of asphyxia, and soon the animal died of respiratory failure. The thorax was quickly opened and the heart was seen to be still beating—and it continued to beat even after it was completely removed from the body ; and, when the contractions had ceased, they could for several minutes be started again by simply putting 1900-1. ]. OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE. 223 the heart under a stream of cold water. But although the heart was beating when the chest was opened it was practically empty, and a wound made in the left ventricle did not bleed to any extent. In this case death resulted from 9 minims of Scheele’s acid given to a twelve pouna dog in three doses within four minutes. The result was death from respiratory failure, but before this occurred 18a 18 WW Tracinc XXXIX.—o/26.—Repeated doses of H.C.N. 18 Second dose given. Respiration excited. 18a Pulse slowing. there was great and repeated stimulation of the respiratory centre. As with many other drugs, a small dose produces one effect and a larger dose the opposite—stimulation in the one case, paralysis in the other. It is the first stage, that of stimulation only, which is produced by the dose recommended by Professor Hobday. N. Grehaut’ showed that repeated small doses of H.C.N. produced powerful stimulation of the respiration. After the injection of 5 c.c. of a 1/10,000 20 19 VR aint ale me, Tracinc XL.—o/17.—Repeated dose of H.C.N. 19 Third dose. Respiration excited and then slowed and stopped about 20. Pulse slowed, pressure fell to zero, solution of pure H.C.N. into the jugular vein of a dog weighing 10 kilo., the respiratory movements immediately became more ample and soon again returned to their ordinary rhythm. He found that 7/1,000 cc. of pure H.C.N. killed a 9 kilo. dog in seventeen minutes. Next, single doses just sufficient to produce death were given to several dogs in order to note the sequence of events. An animal weighing about sixteen pounds was given 10 minims of dilute H.C.N. (equal to 5 minims of Scheele’s acid) hypodermically. He had already had 3 minims half an hour before. The pulse rate, blood 1 Physiolog. Researches on H.C.N. Archiv. de Physiol, 1890, p. 133. 15 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vor. VIE 15 Heart stops. Last respiration occurred about 14. Tracinc XLI,—7/16.—Final stage of fatal H.C.N. poisoning. pressure and respiration were noted at frequent intervals as given below: Pulse. Respira- Blood tion. Pressure. Just before administration... 105 24 125 mms. Two minutes after admin- IStratiOnk er .-lerlarralss 156 39 125 mms. Two minutes later........ 228 29 140 mms. Two minutes later........ 168 24 140 mms. Two minutes later........ 174 iii 140 mms. Four minutes later........ 160 18 Poursminutes laters III 12 Hour minutes latena. wee. 44 10 (Tracing assuming an asphyxial type with great amplitude of pulse waves.) Four minutes later......... 34 5 Awowminutes: later 7.1.1 88 7 Pressure now commencing to fall steadily. Two minutes later..:...... 118 2 Tracing 41 shows the last stage of this case. The last respiration occurred at 14, the pressure fell steadily, and the pulse became fast at the last. Another dog was treated in the same manner, and the next tracings show the effects at inter- vals. The animal weighed about ten pounds and was given IO minims of dilute H.C.N. hypodermically, following on 4 minims a few minutes before. He had had no morphia. Just before the last dose was given the pulse was 82, the respiration 16, and the pressure good. (He had quite recovered from the first small dose. ) Pulse, Respira- Blood tion. Pressure. Two minutes after last administration 160 26 In statu quo. Two mirutes later.. 50 7 In statu quo. Three minutes later (tralcie942) opie eee a In statu quo. Three minutes later. 100 Just stopped Falling steadily. Six minutes later...Tracing 43 shows the termination of this experiment. The heart stopped after beating rapidly to the end. 1900-I. | OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE, 225 yyy yyy Watolateteistalatetett iatalatatalatatalalalallatalalatslatatslsalalalalolelelatalallatlstsltoletelelal lalatalalabatalatatentatatalatptalatatalalatalalalsUalaUa lal Ualalavay TracinG XLII.—9/28.—Poisoning by H.C.N. seven minutes after fatal dose was given. P. 42 R. 7 pressure still maintained. ee ee eta taatata tutus arataa arate latatatata Caraatatatu tau uuu urs atau tatutartainu na rtanran un rannnnttt tttetatetatettatabstatattontetet mtetet rt ttt tetettetay Tracinc XLIII.—9/34.—Poisoned by H.C.N. Last stage. Respiration already stopped. The sequence of events then from a small fatal dose is as follows: First, preliminary stimulation of the respiration and pulse, the former increasing in amplitude as well as in speed ; second, slowing of the respiration and pulse, the pressure being maintained ; third, stoppage of the respiration, pulse increasing in speed and pressure falling ; fourth, pressure falling to zero, pulse remaining fast until death. I poisoned four dogs thus which had previously had a hypodermic dose of morphia. In none of them did vomiting occur, nor convulsions. One dog which had had no morphia or chloroform showed a strong tendency to convulsions before death from a dose just sufficient to obtain a fatal result. He vomited frequently. When the dose of the drug is largely in excess of what is necessary to produce death, then the animal almost at once passes into a state of convulsion. From these experiments it would seem that the dose of Scheele’s acid recommended by Professor Hobday, viz., 1 minim of Scheeie’s acid to seven pounds of body weight, is a safe one in a dog. Sucha dose, or a lesser one, produces the stage of stimulation of the pulse and respira- tion with no alteration in the blood pressure. The effect of the drug soon wears off, and the animal seems to be none the worse. The next tracings show the effect of using H.C.N. when danger “as occurred from chloroform poisoning. A thirty-pound dog while vertical was given chloroform until the respiration stopped. In Tracing 44 the respiration stopped at 18. At 19, 4 minims of dilute H.C.N. were 1 226 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vo. VII. administered hypodermically. At 20 he was placed horizontal and respiration of a very fast nature at once commenced. In the tracing the big waves represent the pulse, slow because asphyxial, and the little ones are the respiration. The pulse is sixteen per minute, and the respirations are sixty. Beyond this the pulse hastened, the pressure improved and the animal completely recovered. No artificial respira- tion was here employed, and it seems probable that this animal was saved by H.C.N. The placing of him horizontal greatly aided the result. 21 20 19 18 ( ar yriret u nitnt LARA MInAAAAninnnannnannnannnannns Tracinc XLIV.—3/10.—Antidotal use of H.C.N. Animal vertical, 18 Asa result of Chloroform pressure fell and respiration stopped here. 19 Animal apparently dead. H.C.N. hypodermically. 20 Horizontal. 21 Respiration 60 per minute, pulse 20 (large waves are pulse and smaller ones respiration). Animal recovered. II 10 9 | yh WWW, AN te Ann ale RAnnAnnnannn Tracinc XLV.—3/11.—Antidotal use of H.C.N. Animal being vertical, Chloroform pushed, pressure fell and respiration ceased ato, 10 H.C.N. given. 11 Pressure rising, respiration rapid (not shown on tracing). In another case an animal was apparently saved from fatal chloro- form poisoning only to die from H.C.N. poisoning. A dose equal to I minim of Scheele’s acid to three pounds of body weight was used, and hence it was not to be wondered at that he eventually died. Tracing 45 was taken from this case. While the animal was in the vertical posture chloroform was pushed, and at 9 respiration stopped, and the pulse as usual became exceedingly slow—ten per minute—and the pressure fell to almost zero, At 10, twenty-five seconds after the cessation of respiration, 7% minims of dilute H.C.N. were injected into the fauces. Respiration of a very rapid nature commenced almost at once, although it produced no sign on the tracing, and at 11 the following note was made: “Blood pressure rising; respiration good although not shown on chart.’ Thus, so far nothing but good had resulted from the H.C.N., and the animal seemed certain to recover. But now symptoms of H.C.N. poisoning set in as follows: 2% minutes from the time of administration of the H.C.N. natural respiration 1900-1. | OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE. 227 stopped, and the pulse was thirty-eight. One minute later artificial respiration was commenced. Five minutes later the animal was placed horizontal, with the result that the pressure rose slightly. The finger was introduced into the glottis. With each artifical respiration a spasm of the depressor muscles of the lower jaw was felt. This spasm gradu- ally spread to the muscles of respiration, and eight minutes after the administration of the H.C.N. the spasm evolved itself into natural respiration. This stopped two minutes later, and artificial respiration this time failed to restore it. The animal died 19% minutes after the administration of the H.C.N. This animal “died cured” so far as the chloroform was concerned. Bearing in mind the extreme uncertainty of the strength of prepara- tions of H.C.N., I took special care to procure from a reliable source a fresh supply for each of the experiments. Scheele’s acid is roughly double the strength of the dilute Hydrocyanic Acid of the British Phar- macopeeia. I used the drug both by the mouth and hypodermically, and seemed to get about the same results by either method. My experiments taken in conjunction with the more numerous ones of Professor Hobday would suggest that in ¢rwe cases of chloroform poisoning, when the respiration has stopped or seems likely to do so, it would be well to try the use of a medicinal dose of this powerful drug. It could be given, hypodermically or by the mouth, as an adjunct to artificial respiration and other restoratives. Cyanide of potassium would be the most suitable preparation to keep on hand for such emergencies, being a more staple body than the solution of acid. The B.P. dose of the dilute acid is 2 to 6 minims, and that of the U:S:P) 1 to 15 minims. Professor Hobday recommended a dose of 1 minim of Scheele’s acid to seven pounds of body weight. For a man weighing, say 140 pounds, according to this the dose would be 20 minims of Scheele’s acid ; that is 40 minims of the dilute acid. Although such a dose appears to be safe in animals, I should very much hesitate to recommend it in practice even in an emergency; but the full B.P. dose of 6 minims could be employed with absolute safety, and that of the U.S.P., viz., 15 minims of the dilute acid, might be used if necessary. Forty- nine minims is the smallest fatal dose of which I can find any record.! Atropine——The action of this drug has been very thoroughly and repeatedly studied of late, and my experiments do little but confirm the results which others have obtained. Atropine has been termed by Binz’ “the most powerful of all stimulants”; Wood and Cerna’ have 1 Taylor's Medical Jurisprudence. 2 Lectures on Pharmacology Binz, Vol. I., p. 93. 3 Journal of Physiology, 1892, p. 882. 228 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. proved its potent action in stimulating the respiration, increasing “the air movement,” as it does in suitable doses, from 100 to 300 per cent. Nevertheless the drug does not seem to have come into general use in practice as a stimulant, although Lauder Brunton and others have urged its value in conditions requiring stimulation. I have discussed this question more fully elsewhere.’ I used ten dogs in studying the action of atropine in conjunction with chloroform, and the results may be discussed under two headings: First, The effects of atropine when administered previously to the giving of the anesthetic, and Second, the antidotal action of atropine when given after poisoning from chloroform has occurred. Seven of the dogs were previously given morphia, while three were not so treated. In the first place it may be noted that the effect of gravity on an animal under the influence of atropine may be quite as marked as without it. In Tracing 46 the dog, while thoroughly under atropine, was placed vertical at 5 and the pressure is seen to fall in a very decided manner. This is scarcely what one would have expected on general principles, and it may be that the heart is already beating up to its maximum and hence can do no more when called upon to compensate for the fall in pressure. In tracing 14, however, gravity produced very little effect under similar conditions. The use of atropine with a view to preventing danger during the administration of chloroform has long been strongly recommended by certain writers, and has been as vigorously opposed by others. Many anesthetists, especially in Scotland, regularly give a hypodermic injection of it either alone or combined with morphia before com- mencing chloroform, and in Lyons this method is much used. The Glasgow Commission found as a result of their experiments that atropine lessened the danger of death from chloroform, believing as they did that strong inhibition of the vagus from chloroform was a real danger, which would be impossible when this nerve was paralyzed by atropine, Lieut.-Col. Lawrie, on the other hand, representing the second Hyderabad Commission, opposed the use of the drug, arguing that: “If the Committee regard the effect of atropine as beneficial they 1 ‘‘ Notes on Atropine,” by the author. Montreal Medical Journal, October, rgoo. 2 ‘Les Accidents du Chloroforme et leur Reméde.’”” Ann. et Bull. de la Soc. de Méd. Gand. 1889, Pp. 253- ist ‘ulvde [eyUOZOF{ 9 «‘[eonsaA S ‘uldosje sapun Boq—'f1/6—"J ATX ONIOVAL SLU Us eeu un OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE. 1900-1. ] 230 TRANSACTIONS OF THE f Sat satinw: r = ~ —a —_ _ — Oem ee em see et ee Ve me eee ee we eee ee eee ee ee, oe’ ec -_— — ~ — Respiration Pressure fell rapidly, but pulse remained fast. Chloroform pushed at 7 while animal struggling, Horizontal. Tracinc XLVII,—7/18.—Dog under Atropin. did not stop and animal recovered. 8 Chloroform removed. CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. must intend to imply that the inhibitory action of the vagus is a danger in chloroform administration when atropine is not used; 4..| 10 | 25 | o |Top dying. 4..|105 BON O29 | So 75 oz Renu? |) 2 |) © 5.) |Lo7 75 |\100 | 62 | 62 | 75 6..| 10 | 25 | o |Dying. Fh slit. | 3c 6 | 50 | 50 |100 |172T 7ho olen) || As ||) Ye) |[IDERIC (Coe i570). | | *Root is seen at 3rd node on main stem, tPlant growing vigorously, at conclusion of experiment. (55 days). On testing the leaves it was found that starch was present, excepting in the four most recently developed leaves, and in the terminal buds. Another plant (B. 3) was substituted on November roth. 1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES, PLANT B. 3. 3 Length of aa || Date. ra last internodes. g | Remarks. 6 3 Z foo MOVs l@sceacons 4 31 Tig erersteye stele 4 34 saa Teese ete sie ys 4 37 3 | Die sesevern 6 3 6 ilo eoniniae 6 9 6 Gt percha relent 6 22 12 TO}e: 8 B 19 ogo woods 8 12 9 TG satevesae: are 8 19 6 UG@\oceroutons 8 44 25 ZO weareensne oc 8 62 19 Pied aly ees 8 100 19 AE OOO AOE 10 6 12 9 PAR exe cheers 10 6 12 oO ZO oreo 10 6 12 fo) DI sips is 10 6 19 7 2 See tte cs ie) 6 19 fo) 7X8) a 10 6 22 3 BDcocacasss 10 6 31 9 WSC <5 sya 10 6 37 6 | Flower-bud developing. 2a FSS 10 6 37 o up opening. Soasosoae 10 6 37 fe) vt open. AS ccis atest 10 6 37 o | Flower open. hag 10 6 37 oO a ale. (Cyc te 10 6 37 fo) Plant dying. Flocoa oor | 10 6 | a7) °° “dead. (27 days). PLANT C.—(CONTROL, IN FLOWER-POT IN SOIL). Ps % 3 Date. 3 SE 25 = Remarks, ° wo 8 Onc = 3 Feed aoee 3 Zz =) 5 = OCR 7 s50e eee 8 19 (a) INO Soioea 8 19 fo) QA avarats 8 i9 oO IB. 8 19 o Rib o8 6c inte 3 6 6 Deere ers sveic.< 10 12 6 ZO eyed a'e si 3 ako 25 12 Tp Ica eos 10 By 12 28 10 56 19 . 2 OMevey ste + 12 19 22 BObear es, 5 4,4,0 12 25 6 BI reyes 12 3 12 None as. 12 oe 19 Pac patter 12 12 37 Bonu cae 14 19 4 14 44 25 274 : TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vor. VII. PLANT C.—Continued. Z me | é | 2 EW acy | | fatto |i nem) i2 Ss. Date. ‘ ae 5 tees Remark S et ee Ze ie iS Be | eae | ie tasrganer| | INOVERScie: se os 14 75 aia) One e. 16 12 eel Scene 16 19 6. | i@)e, *afvsogs 16 62 4a |) peel ACES overs a aun ies | Broken off ; bud from 4th node recorded. TES eeae 25 | | 14-..-....- 3 28 iGo Sobor Go) 919 | MW®oroaasoe 12 19 | T7---see6 S371 25 ited 2 25 ieleo euler ac 6 19 Ai apo e og UZ 6 | D2 Dicinicleneioushe 12 (| FINS obi OO 19 al ZS RODE C | 31 12h «i BOnz eas och 44 niece BAN ce cau An y reteset kei 50 6 | .. | Two buds springing from near the base. Aco OOOO a3 12 TOM) ce 29 BR ieee sh A ma bse Branches from near the base recorded and Bodeoacoc 56 be mae lene only the /o/a/ increase in length of stem IDEs igs eoton% aye ae ee 38 given. Dierenievelave 62 Bier te uae 12 Alera censycts | 24 Bcobcooet ano oe ans ests: ; te nejevsers te me eh 53 End of the series. (51 days). It will be noticed that the plant in soil in the flower pot being transplanted from soil, remained almost at a standstill for six or seven days, when growth proceeded more or less regularly. The plants whose roots were in water suffered no such standstill in regard to growth as did the plant in the soil, although all were taken from the same propagating-box. SERIES II. This series of experiments was carried through in the physiological laboratory at the botanic gardens during the month of December, 1899. The records given in the table below show the daily increase in length of stem and also the increase in number of leaves. All the plants were subjected to the same conditions of light, and as nearly as possible, to the same conditions of temperature, but owing to the fact that some of the plants were under bell jars, the condition of temperature, as well as of moisture could not be kept exactly the same. 1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 275 Plant used, Helianthus (Sunflower). ; Apparatus was arranged as in Fig. 7 for plants 1 and 2 in the same bell-jar. The spray was a nutrient solution and the roots were in distilled water. Plants 3 and 4 were arranged as in I and 2, excepting that the spray was of distilled water. Plants 5 and 6 were in nutrient solution, as in the ordinary water culture, but under a jar with ventilation at the top and bottom. Plants 7 and 8 were under a bell jar with ventilation at the top, and the inside was kept moist by means of flat dishes of water; roots were in distilled water. Numbers 9 and 10 were in soil and were kept under a jar. Numbers 11, 12, 13, 14 were in soil in an ordinary flower-pot in the room. Ke ee DATE. 63] 8 Ze tas Es| 5 | lecl ed PLANT. | fal ay Sea GS Wares Chath EV At eS BET MEMEP Nee jl Sep ea) PNG sto] Res, 3) a 3 c | ¢ oO < £ e Is § 2 6 v vo 2x o o | » we 2) a | a a) Q Q AQ QA | Q — foal mw |< =< PLANT 1. INOmOIMIEAVeES sapere hss oc tek cue $i 8) 28) Sil roll wee re engiholhstemas ise a 162| 200) 200) 219] 219) 237) 245) 245) 83 PLANT 2 INomoipleavies teint. lajys2 states 8| 10 110) “Tolsir2|2 eral ers|= 18) ro) Sea ie Benotiiorsteme aseyiceis aes oe aes 206] 248] 248] 256] 284] 284] 300] 300] ‘ 94]....| 86 PLANT 3. IN@; Ot IGEN GS oMpcouenas “sooudodas Gy ii kei) aie] ais] sie) ell eA Go eSIinoo5 ENS EMNOL StENY 2 or. Sens.) iims iciose 15G| 194] 225] 256} 300; 300] 328} 328) 169). PLANT 4. INI@>, OMIGEN Eb pccedee0d bocode sooe SH oj] NG} 1G} GH GY, TIO) UC AP llega - Wenstinotuste ms sry. of celery ails 181| 206] 256] 256} 272| 272] 281) 281] 1oo].. 134 PLANT 5. | INommOtpleAVES is cf5 co )e. sls oteusysiiet wieroe © |S |S | ae RS | | | TT ee Length of stem....... iste rafcrcya, states 147| 169} 182] 197] 219} 244] 250] 250] 103 PLANT 6. | INO mmolpleaveSsicoes) . okcieisidcn ess Gi ol ei Sl VS) Ge 10 Al peaiers Wenpihvof stem). << 4.5 ..02- i. ese) 131] 162| 162] 169] 206] 209) 222] 222] 91 97 PLANT 7. *! | INGwmolpleavescc 5a cis eset s< be Oh Ore ears on Ole eS) S/N ks Lenetbomstem fo e6.\0. 2 sac ce 0 sd 162] 225) 256] 256] 291) 300| 312/ 312) 150 PLANT 8. INO Ofpleaviesnmayte Saisie sed ce ts Sia es Pes |S |e S| |S neo Wises Lengtiotgstenlp occn)ecics cates: 150] 181| 181] 181] 181! 200] 203] 203] 53]....| 102 276 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. | 6 ..| DATE. | \22| 3 | eee PLANT. | SB ARUN re | asi om ¢ | #2| Ge 3) 3} Sy 3} 3} 3} . = 2 g 3 ie; £)/6)8)4)8)4)a)é| 2 lea |_| | -— — S| - | — +] PLANT 9. | INOMEOIPIEAVES', «205.00 s/o sei sins. Sievers 8] 8| 8} to} Yaz Saal ira} Sag) ele eee Wen bhvotstem\a. a.sc Oy o leiele 225| 262] 303] 312| 387| 406| 469] 469] 244|....|.... PLANT Io. | | INomot@leaviesnc.ce Ietteck err icr 8| 8]. ol) £2) 12\- 12) 16) 16) 78) eae Wenpthiofystemls. 1. --)- ere ttele 219} 281| 291| 316] 337] 337] 387| 387] 168] .. | 206 | PLANT II. | INO seo fl GaVvesis saci yen cae tea ee 8|> Tol) Virol rol rel) ree era 16 ee eee IE EaVe MOLE Cea 6e 0 bGH5 oo b0e 237| 284) 325) 352] 381| 387] 500] 500] 267|....|.... PANT 12: | | Non of leaves is citias aoasts aye 6) 8) eS) y rel) “Tol, 2! r2i- rely Glare IKene-thiofstemis.--eee 2 .. .| 194] 253] 269] 319] 363] 375] 431] 431| 237 PLANT 13. INotmofileaves) incessant 8] S| <8) tol. a0) 402) 12) te) 4a eee eng thiot stems sacs eee: 219] 285] 322] 381| 381] 412|. 462] 462 243]....]...- PLANT 14. INiSY Cit IEEE a> haan adeeb neOUo dec 8) > 3), 8)" To} sr2) 7 12] ree aa ees eee Wengtihvofistems G5 cs. oeqecis os 137| 170] 212] 269) 272] 325] 365] 356 210|....| 214 Plants 1-8 were each. carefully weighed before being placed in the bottles, with a view to ascertain by weight the increase in growth, if any, but it was found during the course of the experiment that it would be impracticable to employ this method to determine growth throughout a series of experiments continued for so long a time as here contemplated, because some of the plants lost many of their leaves. As soon as a leaf dropped it began to absorb of the solution, as detached leaves do, and consequently quantitative determinations of ash increase might lead to error. On December 21st plant 1 had developed an aerial root about 16 mm. in length, and on 23rd this had increased in length to 34 mm. On December 21st plant 4 showed three small roots just coming forth from the stem at the second internode, and on 23rd these roots had grown to a length of about 6 mm. On December 25th one of these had grown to a length of 19 mm., but on 28th had withered. The root that developed on No. I was dead on December 3st. On December 30th, observations were made as to the general appearance of the plants, and it was found that the leaves of 1 and 2 showed a tendency to curl, and had the appearance of plants grown in 1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. AiG too rich soil. The leaves were much crowded towards the top and they showed a good green colour. Plant 3 seemed to be dying and the uppermost leaves were becoming very pale. It may be that death was being brought about by fungi which attacked a dead leaf that clung to the stem and decomposed there. The stem of plant 4 had become pale and the upper leaves had become a pale yellow and begun to roll in from the tips, not curling at the edges as in 1 and 2. The leaves of plants 5 and 6 curled similarly to 1 and 2, but had a much more stunted appearance. The plants were now removed from the jar and they did better after being removed. These plants do not seem to take kindly to water cultures. Plants 7 and 8, leaves flat and thin, becoming very pale; stems thin and bending. Plants 9 and Io, growing well, and have ficrappearance Ob It, 12,13, 14. The difficulty with these plants seemed to be that they could not well endure a moist atmosphere, and they had a tendency to send out aerial roots. Of course, in the case of No’s 1 and 2 this would spoil the experiment, as the roots would, or could, then do the absorbing. In nearly every case, however, the atmosphere at some time became too dry for the roots, and so they died down. The spraying, in the case of 1, 2, 3, 4, lasted continuously for about thirteen hours, then a rest was given for at least twelve hours, nearly always much more than twelve hours. The roots were aerated regularly by means of a hand pump through the tube left for this purpose in the bottle. Distilled water was fed regularly to the roots through the tube just mentioned. Notwithstanding the fact that these plants were not well adapted to this experiment, there are some conclusions of more or less importance to be drawn, and which bear upon the subject under discussion. The average increase in length of stem of 1 and 2 is less than that of 3 and 4, as is also the case with 5 and 6. In both cases the nutrient solution seemed to retard the growth in length of the stem. The average increase in length of stem of 3 and 4 is greater than that of I and 2, though the number of leaves is greater in I and 2. In the case of 7 and 8 a small increase in length of stem and in number of leaves was found. The following conclusions, applicable to this plant, may fairly be drawn from the experiment, though due allowance must be made for slight exigencies :— (1). A spray of water seemed to stimulate growth for a time. h TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoOL. Vie (2). The general effect of placing the plant under a bell jar is to retard growth of stem but promote growth of leaves. (3). Plants deprived of all food matter, except that contained in the air and in pure water, will grow rather rapidly for a time but will gradually die, the leaves first turning yellow. (4). Plants grown in a moist atmosphere tend to send out roots at the internodes as well as at the nodes. (5). A nutrient solution fed in the form of a spray to a plant seems to affect the plant in a way similar to that of a nutrient solution applied to the roots, as in the ordinary water culture, and therefore it may be assumed that some, at least, of the solution had been absorbed* and had been used in the general vital processes of the plant. Though the plant, fed with a solution applied to the /eaves in the form of a spray, did not show a healthy or vigourous growth, yet the same may be said of the plant whose voo¢s were supplied with the solution. On the completion of the experiments, January 7th, the liquid medium in which the roots dipped was examined, and it was found that in the case of I and 2, none of the liquid spray had made its way down into the water about the roots. The liquid, however, showed an acid reaction in all cases. It was found further that those plants growing in distilled water, 7 and 8, had a much more extensive growth of roots than 5 and 6, those in the nutrient solution. SERIES III. The following series of experiments was arranged and conducted in the basement of the University Museum where the atmosphere was exceedingly dry at that season of the year, but the temperature was fairly constant, ranging from 60 to 70 degrees F. The plants supplied by a spray were arranged as shown in Fig. 7, while the others were placed under bell jars with ventilators. These were aerated daily, as were also the roots of the plants, and this aeration was accomplished by forcing a stream of air into the liquid surrounding the roots. The capacity of the bell jars was twenty-four liters. The number of leaves was recorded regularly, and measurements * Absorption by the leaves is indicated also by the experiments in Chapter X. 1900-I. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES, 279 were made upon the last three internodes in particular, and recorded, and also upon the whole plant as nearly as possible, so as to give the increase in growth from time to time. The measurements are in all cases given in millimeters. Plant + A.—Thunbergia alata, roots in distilled sterilized water and fed with a spray of nutrient solution. Plant 1 B.—¥agopyrum esculentum (buckwheat), under the same conditions as 1 A. Plant 1 C—Ipomaea purpurea (morning-glory), under same conditions as I B., and substituted for it. Plant 2 A.—Thunbergia alata, roots in distilled water and plant kept under a jar frequently moistened and _ venti- lated, no spraying. Plant 2 8.—Fagopyrum, under same conditions as 2 A. Plant 2 C—Thunbergia, substituted for 2 A. and kept under same conditions. Plant 3 A.—Thunbergia alata, roots in a nutrient solution, formula given on p. 238 ; atmospheric conditions same as 2a. Plant 3 &.—¥Fagopyrum, same as 3 A. Plant 4 _A.—Thunbergia alata, roots in distilled sterilized water and under the same conditions as I A., excepting that the liquid used for spraying was distilled water instead of a nutrient solution. Plant 4 &—¥agopyrum, under same conditions as 4 A. TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. A.— OBSERVATIONS. 280 PLANT I. S| * | Length of last | % 2 internodes. 5 3 o = « Date, 1900. as £ £ 3 |™-m.|m.m.im.m,.| & = a m.m.|m,.m Reba Qe er Cy ae shi Sl Felleone Ming AG 81> 22) 937i) 190) 97] 19 Was séood 8| 22) 44) 37] 122) 25 Mi Qits ceckeays 8| 25] 44| 56) 144| 22 WSooeoac 10} 25) 44! 87] 175! 31 OE goons To} 44] 100) 12] 200) 25 17. ..--| 10] 44| too} 22) 209) 9 18...»..|. I0| 44] 100) 31] 219) Io W@hcoeoe 12| 112] 44| 3] 247| 28) Bilooooes 12 LCG| OZ s|n28siag6 DA geri: 12} 119] 125| 25] 350| 67 Aho lace 12] 119] 137} 50] 387| 37 Prose SA 12| 119] 137| 100) 437} 50 WARS A co5 oc 14] 137| 119] 6) 467) 25 Rscooed 14) 137| 125] 19) 519] 47 Secscie 14g 72522 |S 221s 2c. ses lets 7 ele 5 | 25\5 250s ! [Vou. VII. Remarks. | One bud is seen at 5th node. Bud noted on 28th is a flower bud. | There is a second flower-bud. Stem referred to above, died down, and a branch is recorded below. 4) 3h) 3 3 Ae 3 Oana 4; 31) 37| 12 41 31) 44 37 6 44, 56 3 6| 44) 62] 19 6| 44) 62!) 28 6) 44| 62] 28 66)s20- 15 9 81 6 2 ear 134| 22 156} 22 166} 10 166 fo) Second flower-bud broken accidentally. Flower-bud developing naturally. Another branch developed which is recorded below ; the one recorded above had ceased to grow. The flower mentioned on February 28th dropped off. April23...... GH Su AU GH eiitilagoc 28. 8] 47] 44] 6] 109) 28 Was? “Rsdoeoc 8] 47). 44| 6] 109) Oo 7 fie : 8| 47| 44) 6] 109) oOo BLE tee chess | Si) S5olea7 en Ole nTO a7 TiS iwere ce eneSi S0| a4 7 aeOl SU LOle 0 Another branch developed. MiayatSe ssc PA 19) Bim22 enor ZO 4\....| Ig) 9} 20s DQVnysors 4; 19} 16} 3] 37 9 PATE Rin hic Aleeto|ly 22 3) 44, 6 27, Ft) =i AWS tel) 2 oS Sst oS) ONE” sce owe Alt aang|e25)) sWOlh a5 3iago | End of experiment ; plant living. (118 days). 1900-1. } EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 281 PLANT 1 B.—OBSERVATIONS. ‘ = ¥ Length of last | % » internodes, 5 3 Date, 1900, = 3 3 Remarks. ° to) 2 ¢ |m-m.|m.m,./m.m i= iS Zz m.m.|m.m. Feb. (9::. Boocall HGo}| 4) sao oar Hit oooade Bier 100| 16) 116) 4 TQ yee votes lg.c 100] 16) 116) o bie eee eae 4|.. tool 25) 125, 9 TG ysrevevaisc A. Ioo] 28] 128} 3 WOncpooc ZN sero} Gill) wil Gey G) 1 (IRIS 4| 100} 37 3] 141 7 oie cae 4| 100] 44| 3] 147) 6 LO e crac 4| 100| 44] 6] 150| 3! PIN 55380 4| 106] 44] 9] 159] 9, 2S 5000.0 4] 106] 44) 9] 159] oO AQ. odeoc 4| 106} 44! 9} 159 o Chlorotic. PH CBISS 4| 106} 44! 9) 159] 0 Very chlorotic. DS tare ters fetexeve!| fe loneter|(ev sd|laoballoes allt Dead ; killed apparently by fungi. (19 days). PLANT 1 C. SUBSTITUTED. Maren Sic ts 5 4| 19] 75) 37| 144 Wesaisiege 4| 50] 37| 31] 206) 62 Wgoonge 5| 50| 37) 25] 275) 19 @oo0ace A Sel Sail SYA) Seyi ue Dieataleree\ 5| 50) 50] 44] 256) 19 Zhe. 5} 50} 50) 44 256| 0] Dying down from topand attacked by fungi. 2G),ces 5] 50] 50] 44] 256] o Moacscog|lodoalias d ollascace Soollec Plant taken from the jar, carefully cleaned and replaced. VEXED Kei lear Aer aneves| svey srsl ararsscil ese ail | terere ltsierece lrevexers PLANT 1 C. living but attacked by aphides. Siearee Silloieo.8| leads lene oro fs beginning to thrive again. 2 Brcimeiere ves ewes Skene eiliss-eiaetuer ss thriving vigourously. 23h. Seid al lace paetel oor leer Ct thriving well and a small branch NEA Va Zisis cc ci< ol eimibi2 272g |e | OO |erehe growing from near base. Unie ooolle E29) 73) 1OQ| 43) i-.6.6 LS dew nsllda ox 19} 37} 19] 175| 66| Growing very rapidly. Tesi AUP etsiecators 37| 50] 19] 178] 3 AMR COOK BF OZ Si 209| su 2By i ils 75| 62| 19] 278] 69 A sco anollooo 69} 22} 3] 291 4 Gumte sO). ele. 75| 31) 19] 322} 31] Plant healthy. (90 days). PLANT 2 A.—OBSERVATIONS, ING, Opnoasao Al Gl) Bel Be) vvelioe iocedas Aleoz iene ein SGl)) 10 1s scone ‘| 2A) A Coll Bei) UGavoocr Gl 2a) Aa al Bel OOo Cae Gle25 |, 251) 3) 75| 16 LIS) obaae 6| 25; 25| 3| 75] 16| Leaves losing colour. MS oo a6 6| 25| 25| 3] 75| 16| Leaves dropping. Mar. 2 6| 25) 25/ 3| 75| 16 Stealers 6) 25) 25| 3| 75| 16| Plant dead. (24 days). 282 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII. PLANT 2 A.—Continued. New plant substituted—same species. _ | Length of last 3g ee internodes, dp “5 Zz 2 | 2 Date, 1900. 2 res Bi Remarks. 6 m.m,|m.m.|m.m 2 FS $ . . . . , ial pis Z m.m.|/m.m WES teh da ee 5) 2) es h| (eae lO W2ngoaoc Gi 12) eau ees STs Wyo ge an Ee eid] siil| u@)| Tara! ais i@b.ceean El Se) Srdh Uie || ey) 7) Pee 6} 37] 37) I9] 119] Oo PUNE S eens 6} 37| 37} 19| 119} | Two lateral branches starting. 20% einer 6} 37| 37] 19) 119] oj Plant dying from top. iteong ae 4| 37| 37| 19] 119] 0} Leaves turning yellow. Aprilia eee eee 4| 37| 37| 19] 119| 0} Leaves dropping. Sic eke Al 371 371 To] 119), 0 2B Raiosepae 4| 37) 37| 19) 119] o| Plant dead. (46 days). PLANT 2 B.—OBSERVATIONS. IDE. @eosoue a) @) uCo}) ual) Alo ses TAL esi Ale 50|sLOo|ean2} ania to 104n Beeot 4| 25) roo} 16) 116; 4 Nae coco 4| Too} 34) 6) 125) 9 Tilsnio GO bie 4| 100] 34 141; 16 Uocodee 4| 100] 37| 12| 159]. 9 1G je 4| 100] 37) 16) 153] 3 WO iorrelerets 4) 44) ro) 3) 166] 13 TO eerie 4| 44] I9} 3] 169) 3 BI Atisisis 4| 44) 22) 16] 184) 15 Pero aoeie Bae 2 12| 212] 38 Dieu Neretare Ginga) Sai) roln225 18 28. “| 34! 34] 22] 228 3 WEN Ae AB re Gneszi Sz e25ieesi 3 Boocenc Fea Br 6| 244] 13 ee 7| 37} 37| 9} 250) 12 MOacsoac S37 37) 19|h266)s 10 UO one sc Sieeaizin aG|) . 6|e2601h eas IDAs angie 8| 37] 19) 3] 2690] o AGS Saor 8| 37| 19| 3 269] 0} Losing colour and dying from top. Ql ite sieve 8| 37/ 19] 3] 269] o| Apparently dying. April eae. wes 8| 37; 19| 3) 269 0} Losing turgor and leaves dropping. 8. 8| 37| 19] 3] 269) oj Dying. DO rotet ia 8| 37) 19] 3] 269] 0] Dead. (73 days). 1900-1. EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 283 PLANT 3 A. F 3) 44 o Ways eae Alene |e | es ne Sieve MM nG| TA) Bl an @ Tia scare 6s @} nah ng) 3] so) 2 MO arvates 6} 16) 37] 9] 69] 16 Pio od pio Bl ete a7 LOlN75|) 16 740 \5 ASOD A 12 e307 ee Ola 75| a BT scarsrei: 4| 12| 37; 16| 75| 0o| Topdead; a branch springing from base. April 4 A 12 71 O71 | ee 5 4| 12] 37) 16| 75) 0, Growth confined to branch. BRANCH. INDE) 28 Astin Ale Me Me eens clsee Plant not dead but seems stunted, and growth so slow that no further observa- tions are taken. (68 days). PLANT 3 B. Hebe VOrreime al | GA G Wlloo ac itis ‘soc Ale Ol = O2iert2l) 875\0) 16 OP ere Ay eenO | 75a 19 KOA |e 1S) Noe cae AN esO|EO7| 22 LOO ats Wop00,00 All —G)| t37il I! Tere MOR aise er. “ul | Si7| Yl A) Uae) 107 See AIO AlrSiiee az agi r2cl. -.3| LO tcysesies Al S74 Ok es Ne qao as Alem 7\(enr 44 ental el Ag a3 BiG SAO 6 Al 44256 si r59| 15 Paha eo BO 4| 44) 50! 3! 184) 25 Za eereloter 4, 44, 50] 19] 200, 16 Chev ha era | 5| 44) So] 25; 206/ 6 Mary (25tcte,. 4 | Se 4 eS Oe i7| 219 |e Sraeerme | 5| 50 44/ 3] 228) 9 Wee wo oe Ole SOOO 37 269} 41 16......| 5] 50} 50! 37] 269] oj and lateral branch.. 12 Por 5] 50]. 50] 37] 269) o 2 2 16 BO ee ces ec ee SOS Ol 37) 200| nO oe ne 19 Terese ee ees Ol SO 37 e200) 0 a te 25 April 4 Shh Geese lee Hee eases Growing very slowly ; flowers all dropping. 2 Sr crrsenets WA ail. Growing very slowly ; seems to have spent its energy in flowering. (78 days). 284 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. PLANT 4 A. : < & | Length of last & : 5 internodes, 5 z Date, 1900. ie g v Remarks. i) 3 8 6 |m.m.|/m,m./m.m.| © = 2 Z m.m,/m.m. : FEY Closocas 7 e222 |e lr) 1 thes BD Oe al FE ay al “ORI us 1 Co. 60% 72244 Ole 72) ro Tin ayers a Gl Zs SOL ule} hdl 16) Mococas aa Soll aye TiAl air W@sbdoe- 6} 25) 50] 50] 125] 13 Wife 6} 25) 50) 53) 128) 3 MO atetay st S| SO 75 |iees | etSOlnnen I@)oo10000 8} 56) 81} ~3) 166) 7 Pie 5 onto 5} 56; 87) 9g] 178 PS DOQSE 5, 56 87) 16) 184) 6 Phe snonteg sere 4| 56) 87; 19] 187! 3 Miatrs. 2h ster 4| 56) 87] 25] 206) 19 Ceeuc 4| 56, 87 25] 206) o}| Leaves turning white. W)sodo 9 4| 56; 87) 31] 212] 6 2s 2} 56} 87) 31| 212) 0} Almost dead, excepting a lateral branch near the base. BRANCH Mair; On -- 2). | Ore MW\ococuE 2). 22 |lresllereyac Al cooooe Ale DDI voteeellloneters Asc oac 2}. AOL Ble teistes Alc Bole te eer JAR ester Ol eyatetell one sslltcterere | ..| Dead. (54 days). | | PLANT 4 B. IED Caccces Blow 87) 12] Ioo}.. iiieaag so 4+. 87| 37| 125] 25 Moocoos 4| 87) 44) 12] 144] 19 WRoGoOoe 4| 87) 50, 16) 153) 9 iGoonace 4| 87 50 19] 156, 3) TOlepetse¥ers 4| 87| 50, 22) 159! 3) Commencing to flower. NG 5 a0 Sie 25) tz! 2) Ole 200) eat MOteyer seis 6} 25] 22) 6] 209] 9 WOligaues 625 iiee2|) (Gle2r2 teens AL SGogac Gl) 225] e225 (6/2272) Vo! AR ets Gl) 25 ee | eer Ole 22 eo} 250 as 6) 52 olzi2z/ so) 5; WIE: Potcage 6| 25] 22| 6) 212| oj Lateral bud developing.. 19 Sicilians Sip 25|) 226), 272/-¢= (ol ef ce 19 i@saon60 4, 2 22 6) 212 fo) as ts 19 Tete Al. 25|\eeezi" sG)en2)) Mo Wp Gaba 4, 25| 22) 6) 212} o| Dying down. ROA vexetetecs 4; 25} 22 6) 212) 0} Branch dies. Bile loo be A254) 122\Ole212 fo) 200 Bike Sle 2 0222 | O Bile. vistsets 2) 2522 |G eae | April 4. 2) 25), 22) 6) 272) to) Dead: a ((Saraays): | | | | 1900-1. ] EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 285 SERIES IV. The following series of experiments was carried on in the basement of the University Museum, and was set up on December 2Ist, after the manner shown in Fig. 7. All the plants used were of the species Thunbergia alata. Plant A. In a spray of nutrient solution, roots in distilled sterilized water, Fig. 7. Plant B. Same as A. Plant C. Plant under bell-jar, roots in distilled sterilized water, no spray. Plant F. Sameas C. Plant FE. Plant under bell-jar, roots in a nutrient solution half the concentration of that given on page 238, no spray. Plant D. Same as E. Plant G. Plant with roots in distilled sterilized water, spray of distilled water, Fig. 7. Plant f. Same as G. A. G | ‘ : 2 Date. = Length of internodes, Remarks, | es | z ai “3 7 7 IDS i gaooae 4| 25| |.-..|...-|.-.-|----| Poorest plant and not very green. FOS eye 6| 30) 9 cl psests 2 fe Ge sofa t2) 0 J5)a02.|2-.-\n0--| One cotyledon) yellow, Oils Cea Bie aN “Bio meatal Ache Saalleigeal local Cotyledons dropped. liane Bisoeens 6| 30] 16] 15) .| Pais GIRS 30| a6 354 TOme Gl 4) Sl AG) Wile oSdllacc. 117 Ree SiesO eels! 40!) 25 2| ited bee 8}... 3.6 40] 10}. Divers 8}.. 65] 220}....| AWDor eave Fla 68) 20)....| One leaf dropped. A.I INA, Wodenoe 5b. dulle weal aria a coal lees ... |.. ..| Plant removed; broken by accident ; Brsoeos rid] Ce a erorctal nodtae, lokeuaral lecsec strong one substituted. Bancoos Tel 7/5 |e LO | Perave TL iecisets Wei (|| Sacco) Sl Roce le PID Oo aoc I7| 75} 70} 90] 20] ..|....| Two leaves dropped. WIENS 1G) Gee Io} 75} 70} go} 95) 80] ..| Three well marked flower buds. TS irene wee | 8} 75| 70} go} 95] S85|....| Flower opening. A.—41 days ; A. 1.--46 days, plus, very healthy at the close of the experiment. 286 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. B. g Date. S Length of internodes, Remarks. 5 Zz Dec 2tre G25 |G) ee Plant small and not healthy looking. Mie doe we (2) Cllegaolloanalians +! as55 rhs pana 8) 25) Ss) elas 5 ORE Oe 4) 28) =o) 3ie- Cotyledons dropped. Nanyesiactse ZA Sedei Oy oraltooalloooc 7 Paes CaP le 8 | amo | 7 lepenevell eereral| (ere lW@nose os EaZOty FOlieg * Fill’. Jai|em evel somes One leaf dropped. iso ath.clls o-6ollooonl bec 55 Io greta lene Died down seemingly. Mods woln||n0 doll>eoh|hnocolloaaollsdoxolics sulle oo Revived. So odd obleddo Bent over and apparently dying. ilo ener Taken out and replaced by another which had been kept in soil in case of accident. (29 days). W@)soo50¢ @) TO ARI < g Date. as Length of internodes. Remarks. 6 Zz Dec...) Alle 2S Wen lest |letesatch toy el 2 Alyse eke O) BO] US cocllentajesac Beate « @| “Bol 2) Gloss sjoac Two cotyledons dropped. Bhs is evens Al eeGOl a2 il ZO liereralevetere||= (elie: ec aires Go ate ER) 1 cesolle at chars (|, Byoy| 23sil| Ga) Gia So alle TOR sha s\> 6} 30] 28) 60) 7ol....|. Ilo Goo 7| 30] 28] 60} roo) 20}. Two lower leaves chlorotic. TSi55 45 a 6| 30) 28) 65] 110} 45). PN Se oglloote jooee alloc =| 50 ZO oRL |More cacrsisil suet a i|[esenotel | eretens 60 BraNncH RECORDED. | | EDN ee anaces 4 | ool aeallas aoe assllocde Leaves turning yellow. II...... Ble ccclececlesccl[eccc[eccclocce 2 Byers! «.% Al MN eS |Pe vray lueeats)|(oxelcH| (eke sts Chlorotic. UES 6 aren eve 7a) e Te tellatternal loic Mt MereeFeret ks GW SEI) Kel clio o (87 days, plus). | 1D | | We C2). 4 as) Hlecoc|oeadincsallacce BAVots sy sios 4] 40) 12/....]-... loeculleace Aika dcoood O40) 30) Bll le ere ||-1-1- ¢ Sil ge Kiceallooor Poaeios Se acta tect | eriter Plant wilted down. SUBSTITUTE. IND. Ge aee 8] 100) Blige ec : Bo oebee Si) 1G Wea aiidiooollsen s lecerets TT ew 8] 110] 45 alee BIS Saran 1A TAO Sle ooo lc ; ot Sie | | BRANCH RECORDED. KD aceiobes 1194) Re] bio tal mse PIR cre |) TSl 2) 2Sicocadllascslladesll Mar Oo renee SSO Ol Ol 20), TO... EOuiia dare 15} 30] 50] 125) 175| 145) 15 ) E.—41 days ; substitute (46 days, plus). 288 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VIL. 1D} g : Date. & Length of internodes. Remarks, 3 Zz Decs2inee-.c 6) 4 oO) H=18 | ee ral Severell es ereilete: 2iatney fer Bl eRAO Wy 22|lcvelle croc oomaelincise 7 Pe RE 6} go} 25). 8 Bia craters Ae) S| AAle.cullbooclleoar One cotyledon dropped. Ee ea ocne GIAO 25) es5 | Siecle: Freer oe (jp aC} AR ACH. elloszaollsooc TOPs qh oO] Ae AG iil ooalle se VA cis sans A Al PE 9 2X6) Ales ollocoe Lower leaves wilting. DB eisceahe 7 Sella ; iis coalloo ou Dae ev 4|.- ‘ 1S | Oi Naveretone CNS ers |[60.04l [boo Els oaolfooo0 Bie bres e-7r\-1- Goo dolledoolonos Dall ¢ IGitAn aaa 8].. 28).. BRANCH RECORDED. 1G Ake i Alb Ss 5 dlhe BG ene 1O| es |e | ere Mairstone eet: ie 4], OU! eh oo Pollo oamloaas 3] 15|----|- Ley: \siecere 12 | es (to eS] e2ol| ego Ale ea laeap|le (87 days). G. IDEs Bi oso nnd 6| 20) 6| sell teatts Best plant in the series. odie ei € Gi e20) 35 BG svaveuers 6] 20 18) fl areeriis tateney | Wescurtes Bloor 6| 20) 18) 20 Two cotyledons dropped. ane. (3) tine Gl S20) Sets] 4G) gas cetan lanier Fe dectapes Gly 3o)- 1Sia Ol esiere lane TOres chess Sia rSiees50) mSOlmmasie DAS ores 8} 20) 18} 50} 60) 25). ie) ea ciate IO}.. feel 80 10 BAAS ec: TO). Seal wate. taste I00| 20 ZO ates Sli se 100| 25] Branch at first node. IHEDS Wits gonoe Ol ere easier on ASSAD 4| IO} 15/ 3)--+-Jereeleee- : : Marg20) 1. =. | eetOl ats i cO| hire Slightly chlorotic. Ti eeerogeves 2 Chlorotic. (87 days). 1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 28 H. Bi Date. % Length of internodes, Remarks, 6 Zz WDECE2 Ts -)-1<10's “lo ike = LOlleweallacagllaoedlisecs DAY Aa. o(n15): Gj), eikel) st callodcallgnoallasos Pie fateicare Gi} fits] IG) PSG lGecellasonll ee hie aa we “i ais itsl| TOV assaooalloode Cotyledons dropped. ENG. Sie ooeae Ge -atsl) ake AEs colle coaiionus Tier: i tsi uIP eI Sloe asl oes 1i®), 6G GOc Gisecollecnall: Ge] nCllanemlleaca T4i /sysyalyis Gls aHdlloaaal| ARO Macl aeice| [aoe TO ores Tiss iollov ud load Gel) lion on Ailenc oe Goo olloaoallacce SA ate|laaae Asoc con 7 | roe | ements eae 55| 20|....| Branchat first node. BRANCH RECORDED. Beb yy sses. <. SIP IZOW Sle eeealine calla erillsoere Wilgeeyomrys's 4) 35| 10 DG eratscreys 4] 35] 15 Mar TO} 2-2 A OG) Abllecaslloossllageclonos 18. papi liters aie awe ee ...| Dead. (85 days). From these experiments certain conclusions may be drawn, an investigation into which would throw some light, not only upon the absorption of non-poisonous dilute solutions, but also upon the question of water-absorption. The plants best suited to this foliage culture are those whose leaves are adapted to moist conditions, and those whose roots are fibrous and numerous. Those having tap-roots will draw upon the food stored in the tap-root, defeating, to some extent, the results of the experiments. If plants can utilize food solutions applied to their leaf surfaces, it may be that rain-water, after a period of dry weather more or less prolonged, falling upon leaves, aids directly in nourishing the plants. Galloway and Woods have shown that lime-water used as a spray acts as a food, or at least produces a growth distinctly above the normal. It is now known that the bordeaux mixture causes an increase in growth by supplying food, or by action in the nature of a stimulus. The nutrient solution applied to the leaves produced a substantial increase in growth, indicating that the solution was absorbed, or that it acted as a stimulus, or both. The conclusions in regard to growth are based upon :—(1) large increase in number of leaves and in total leaf area, (2) increase in length of stem, (3) the production of flowers, coupled 290 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. with a general appearance which can scarcely be described in words and figures. In the case of the plant Helianthus, the solution used seemed to be too strong when applied to the roots as well as when applied to the leaves. The effects, though in a measure injurious, were similar, making it seem probable that the solution was absorbed. The effect of water used as a spray was to stimulate growth for a time, then to produce a chlorotic unhealthy appearance. In the case of the buckwheat plant, the characteristic reddish colour of the stem was maintained where the nutrient solution was applied to the leaves, as well as when applied to the roots. Where the spray was of water the stems became pale. These experiments being carried on through such an extended period of time give strength to the conclusions reached. It will be noticed in a few cases that accidents happened to the plants, owing to frequent manipulation of the apparatus necessary to carry on the work. This was unavoidable. To sum up we may say, that a nutrient solution when applied to the leaves affected the plants as did the solution when applied to the roots, that the nutrient solution produced a substantial growth, and that water used as a spray stimulated growth for a time. In order to ascertain more fully the effect of the nutrient solution applied to the leaves in this way, it was thought that an estimation of the ash content would throw some light upon the matter. The following experiment was designed to determine the effect upon the content of ash by feeding a plant with a nutrient solution applied to the leaves in the form of a spray (Fig. 7). Eight plants of the same species (Justicia speciosa) were selected so as to have them as nearly as possible uniform in size and quality. They were divided into two groups of four each, the division being made so as to have by estimation the same amount of ash in each group. This was of course only an approximation, but it was made in such a way as to leave error, if error there was, on the safe side. The selection of plants was not made by the writer. Group I.—M, N, O, P; Group II.—A, B, G, H. The plants of Group I. were at once dried and then analyzed to ascertain the content of ash. Those of Group II. were fed, as described above, for seventeen days, when they also were dried, weighed and analyzed in a similar way. The plants in both cases were dried first in air, and then for two days in a desiccator for dry weight calculations. 1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 291 The following tables show the results of the experiment; weight given in grams, length of stem in centimeters :— IIe | | Plant. | Leaves. Length of Weight dry. Weight of ash, | Per cent. of ash | ster. to dry weight. | VU eyo) ose e -savafo) ohlsl«s hake 8 | 14 . 2631 ZOO4 mae 16.91 INGE ian stab cee oa cee esite & 8 15 | . 3900 .0610 15.64 MO rrr Ppp ts) ieyeiare/ si] 6 12 | .1719 .0281 16.34 PS ogy DORs ae Eeead 8 I | - 3930 .0653 16.61 30 | 52 1.2180 1589 Average per cent. of ash to dry weight 16.37. Minar JN. selo.cronig Cae OOO DOO cD 6 10 Bade pass Seuicin coe era 6 | 12 {Gis 5 eta ea eeeees 8 14 LA tersis atime ee 8 II 28 47 LE b In Geel oro erate ob ON een 8 tl 3281 0592 18,04 [Beant 6 Cae clo on Om mre 8 3667 0663 18.08 Grier 12 | 22 5722 . 1005 17.56 Plierar ie ct uert tis 10 | 3575 .0640 17.90 a a a) : = peas = 38 | 61 1.6243 . 2900 Average per cent. of ash to dry weight, 17.89. Gain per cent. in number of leaves. ........ Settee: Desor/ oe ut feng thwotestemm.. seme e eee Sere se 207 s as dry weight. 22... ssmocemceie 5 ence RG o Sy = ss IS) CRE NS PA a nee MRO cid bd Go treaeee Tt O25 The plants fed with the nutrient solution contained 1.52 per cent. more ash, in proportion to dry weight, than did those which were not fed. The important point brought out in this experiment is, that each plant of Group II. (those fed with a nutrient solution in the form of a spray), contained a higher per cent. of ash in proportion to dry weight than did those of Group I. This is the more striking because it does not depend upon approximations, as do the comparisons in weight with Group I. Since it is impossible to calculate the amount of ash in a living 292 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, [VoL. VII. plant in order to ascertain if that plant makes any increase, it is neces- sary in al] such investigations to base results upon estimates with similar plants grown under similar conditions. The results of this experiment support the conclusions arrived at in regard to the effect of nutrient solutions applied to leaves in the form of a spray. There is not only a visible increase in number of leaves and in length of stem, but also a substantial increase in dry weight and in weight of ash. Since the actual content of ash in proportion to dry weight is increased, there can remain no doubt that the leaves had absorbed some of the substance applied in the form of a spray. VII.—THE EFFECTS OF STRONG SOLUTIONS APPLIED TO THE CUT ENDS OF THE PETIOLES OF FOLIAGE LEAVES. It was necessary first to determine whether solutions when applied to the cut ends of the petioles of leaves ascended through the blades. It was found by chemical analysis that solutions did ascend through the blade of the leaf even to the margin. This having been proved, it was then possible to investigate the effects of solutions entering leaves in > this way. The leaves were placed in solutions as shown in Fig. 8, and the records of the experiments are self-explanatory. For the first series of experiments leaves of the following plants were chosen :—Malva, Primula, Nicotiana, Ranunculus and Dicentra. In twenty-four hours after setting up the ex- periment, solutions (HCl) and (H.SO,) produced a decolorization of the leaf tissue from the base of the leaves outwards in all the leaves, especially so in the leaves of Primula and Nicotiana. This decolorization, in some cases was slightly more extensive in the region of the large veins, but had when small the shape of a semicircle whose centre was at the junction of the petiole and the blade of the leaf. Solution (NH,OH) had caused a blackening of the tissue in the part of the blade nearest the petiole ; and had produced a deepen- ume, ing of the green colour out towards the margin. FIG. 8. Solution (NaHCQO;) had caused a “ frozen” ap- S.. solution used; A, pearance between the main veins, extending from cardboard cover to prevent the margin inwards, especially so in the case of too rapid evaporation. "NT: 3 Nicotiana. 1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 293 On October 15th, seventy-two hours after the leaves had been placed in the solutions, observations were made upon all the leaves and records taken. FeSO, *m/16, veins blackening generally but in the case of the Dicentra there was a blackening up the centre. ZnSO, m/4, Malva dry, Dicentra whitish up the centre, and the others limp with a freckled appearance. HegCl, m/16, leaves all dead ; salt ascending except in Dicentra, brown from the base outwards along the chief veins. CuSO, m/16, all dead, with the apparent exception of Dicentra, which seems to be living ; Ranunculus is darkened all over ; Malva dried with a deep green margin. | Ba(NO,), m/4, Malva crisp from the margin inwards, especially between the chief veins ; Dicentra dry along margin. KCI m/2, Malva dried and salt had crept well out along the veins, Dicentra wilting at the margin. Na,CO, m/4, Malva dried and discoloured outward from a yellowish green to dark ; Ranunculus darkened on the veins, with the dark colour spreading ; Dicentra dry at the margin. HCl m/4, all brownish from the base outward, the region next the margin is green and apparently living. H.SO, m/4, similar effect to that produced by HCl, but rather more extensive decolorization, especially so in Ranunculus. KOH m/4, dark from the base outward with all the leaves resembling the effect produced by Na,CO. NaOH m/4, same effect as KOH. NH,NO;, m/2, all slightly wilted, and. some have a_ frozen appearance near the margin. NaHCO, m/4, all wilted dry and Ranunculus darkened. NH,OH 5/, all wilted and dead ; Malva very dry. * 66 m” is a solution made by dissolving the mol. wt. in grams of the substance in a liter of water, thus FeSO, m/16 means 152 grams in 16 liters of water. 5 294 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vous Wair Glycerine m/2, all fresh, Nicotiana spotted. Gr. sugar m/2, all fresh. Ca. sugar m/2, all fresh. MgCl, m/2, similar to KCl. NaCl m/2, similar to that of KCI. It was found that in ten to twelve hours after taking the leaves from the solutions some of them underwent other changes worthy of note. - The part of the blade of the leaf turned yellowish-brown by the acids had changed to a bluish colour, showing that very probably the tissue was undergoing further changes, resulting in a product having an alkaline . reaction. Judging from their effects. these substances may be classified as follows :— Weidsa. .eeee oie chs cute doniGl eH sSOx ikalies seven. Sp KOH NaOH: Decomposable alkalies..... waNa.CO- WINE. OE: Poisons pease ha. hn Pi ake ones CuSO,, HgCl,, PbA,, FeSO,, ZnSO,. Osmotically active substances..MgCl,, KCl, NH,NOs, etc. In a second series of experiments the arrangement was as shown in Fig. 8, and continued for three days, when the leaves were taken from the solutions, and observations made upon their conditions then and afterwards. The acids, in a measure, acted as did the alkalies, showing that these substances alike penetrate readily the walls of the cells in all directions, and do not follow the veins. Acids and alkalies to some extent dissolve the cellulose, and so make a way for themselves readily in all directions. LEAF OF PRIMULA STELLATA, PLACED AS IN FIG. 8. I. Strength of Solution, m|g; set up November oth. Solution. Died in. Remarks. INaG@liees asses Loldays Salt ascended. Bai (N@e) soacece: | 1 day ICMOs 55000005 | 2days KGa yar toca severe: 18 days Salt ascended. WikedtGiles soon aaac 8 days IGN @ Scere: | 10 days Salt ascended. Nae COneanct ni eeeaday.s Like that of NaOH. 1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 5 1.— Continued. Solution. Died in. Remarks. LS noeseesis 64 2 days Depressed spots. 159 i eC ae ae 3 days | BOS reaiaoacuen 7 days J al( GIs cede cromneroreee 3 days Petiole and base of leaf very red. Ue SO ore steps cizys 2 days Like that of HCl. INAIOU i csctere | 8days Crisp margin. IEB eye sis iete se 2 41 days Salt ascended. INCE 4 tes Cupane 8 days Wilted from margin. PRA eer cls 2 days Veins dark towards the margin, blue. Isles no éousnor 4 days | Yellow up the veins. HG eer 3 days | Petiole red. Ish Onigaooote alee gidays | NaOR@e rere: | 18 days | Salt ascended. KOT ceri 11 days | Salt ascending. NIG OR sacs ace 1 day | (.3125%) base blackened. [Vou VIL. 1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLJAGE LEAVES. 297 1V.— Continued. Solution. Died in. Remarks. (CAC coocodooun 41 days plus INAS, peau saooe 2 days Veins darkened, blade blue. es SUEZ TF oasenoo0 14 days Turned yellow. Po SUMA Tasers « 15 days Solution acid. aWyGGiocasucosss 24 days IN@EREC OR. 11 17 days Salt ascended. INJal KOR Goes as 14 days Wilted from margin. IN EO Higenpme oe 2 days Died from margin. V. Strength of Solution, m/64,; January 5th. INGIC Biseopcusoor 54 days plus Ba (NOs) ey secre 3 days Bluish. IK(CHO)le 5 Agaeaau 4 days (Cus One sbdcouos 1 day Very limp. 15 Ol oan 27 days Spotted yellow, salt ascended. NEA Ghee saeoncne 14 days Turned yellow. 1S (ORES nie pecan 30 days Turned yellow. INC Olanitar otc. 36 days Limp. ZEMIOn AneceoooS 3 days Freckled on upper side, spotted blue on back. AGT Rec are ever evaysntsveies 5 days Base bluish. IRECIL, Sod peo 4 days Veins not blackened. POA Ss comoeeoee 2 days Blade stiff, not limp, back blue. Inle( Gln sGbeoaoGe 5 days Petiole blue. 18 (Cl Seats Serer 5 days Petiole red. inl SOnonso6ao 0 4 days Petiole and base red. NAOH o522%. 14 days Very limp second day, turgor restored on third day. [Ola bacon ssc ge 11 days Very limp second day, turgor restored on third day. Nal OSL G dono 1 dav (.31254) base blackened. Cally sdboguaocd 54 days IFGISKO)n SoudoauaE 5 days Veins blackened. Go SulseversAR acco 12 days Wilted, not yellow. ae, CUEETOAQ as Sptod 1o days Solution reddened. aly COteryars tia. 54 days plus INEUSUCO MS sae sae 14 days Gradually wilted down. NH,NO, 17 days [x5] PX OO es ieee 6 days | Died from margin. SAIS Tate Soe aie ose 47 days Turned yellow. VI. Strength of Solution, m[r28 ; January 22nd. NaCl . 44 days plus | Salt ascending. BANOS) go s-...6. 5 cave : Spotted. EOCIO nes wise. os 4 days Crisp margin. COTES Ont aaa 1 day Limp. OG) acee See Cenee 44 days plus | Salt ascending. Mic. Glee. 30 days Turned yellow as it wilted. JONKOON ot emcee 44 days plus NEVI COR ogsanoce 30 days Crisp margin, turned yellow as it died. ZENSOG Ss ee 13 days Back of leaf blue. 1 SL RES A 14 days Margin blue. 298 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. VI.— Continued. Solution. Died in, ISB epee eta 44 days plus Re Glan vrumeracl 4 days IR DAG cae ees 14 days EA GUS seven Guyer. 4 days ENCE eerie ac 4 days ISIS 0 Desa eogeee ec 4 days INAO Tatas: 44 days plus [COE (ea eeaeras cade 29 days NIHOH: 34 days CaGlingencr acer 44 days eS Ole teteccis) os 4 days CSUR Aegis 13 days SUSU Alerteale si a7e 12 days ply Cetpeperstcre je 44 days plus NalHiGOfeeeee 34 days INIETIN © eaerensters 32 days IK ROR cesar: 5 days Remarks. Salt ascending. Margin, blue, veins not blackened. Petiole blue. Base most affected, petiole blue. Petiole red. Petiole red. Salt ascending. Salt ascending. [(.15625/). Much wilted second day, but recovered afterwards Veins blackened. Petiole decomposing. Petiole decomposing. Became yellow from margin. Yellow margin. Summary of records, of experiments! J., IL, ITE SDV.; VV [aie figures in the vertical columns denote the time required (in days) to kill the leaf. The letter “p” after a number indicates that the year was living and fresh at the termination of the experiment. Solution. m/4 INA GI ae mite eee ot as 16 IRC ee ortetstors espe ioheieies 18 LINK ORE Seaitaae 10 CaCl ea 6 eee see 4 Wilf ©) ys a acinar Gaoee 8 INAB EOF li astieasnice 4 1X] BY ORS Sea gt ere eco 7 ClO Fron cen ate 2 LC lc obitremoccmae ae 3 INEM @)) 2 Geecetereeaicend Soe B IN(O) 3 ER Oot Sones 2 CANCEIS Mat ana gop ou 4 Ine Gl Eeeah srocarnaeoe _— RES OLR ee ce raceenee — KR Okina ar. I CUS OMe rata er chec cr — INAEIGOR Pee ccue cn. 4 INIEL RIN Oe cece ts > asstsere | 6 IB an(IN@ yates ciel. ce I RDA Eaton an eter: — HegCl, = HCiz.- 3 HeSO re een Gia | 2 Com SUIT Freie reel ols) Covered with crystals. 5 a 9 days Turned dark brown, 6 m/50 3 days Veins black. 7 m/4oo0 | 6 days Veins turned yellow. 8 m/4 2 days Coated over with crystals. 9 m/400 10 days plus | Very green but glossy. 10 — 10 days plus | Turning yellow at margin. 11 — 10 days plus | Turning yellow at margin. | I1].—LEAF OF TRAPAEOLUM. I m/4 I day Soft. 2 oe 1 day Dry. 3 Bs 1 day Dry. 4 f 1 day Soft. 5 oC 1 day Soft. 6 m/50 1 day Dry. 7] m/400 1 day Dry. 8 m/4 2 days 9 m/400 to days plus Very fresh looking. 10 — g days Wilted from margin. TI — 2 days Crisp. *1. NH, NOs; 2. KCl; 3. MgCl,; 4. KNO,; 5. NaHCO;; 6. FeSO,; 7. HgCi,; 8. Ba (NOg), g. PbA, ; 10. H.O dist.; 11, HO tap. 300 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, [VoL. VII. IV.—LEAF OF LUPINE. Solution. Strength. Time to kill. Remarks. I m/4 5 days Had a tendency to curl. 2 ae 4 days Same as I. 3 a 5 days 4 a 5 days Tendency to curl. 5 Pe 5 days Much curled. 6 m/50 2 days Veins black. 7 m/400 1 day Veins yellowish. 8 m/4 2 days Salt on surface. 9 m/400 10 days plus Very fresh looking. 10 | —- 8 days Dried spotted yellow. 1} — 7 days Spotted. V.—LEAF OF PRIMULA OBCONICA. I m/8 10 days | Spotted and ‘‘ frozen” appearance. 2 m/8 10 days plus | Wilting at the margin. 8 m/8 10 days plus | Spotting. 4 m/8 10 days plus Quite fresh. 5 m/8 7 days Spotted, then all yellow. 6 m/100 3 days | Veins blackened. 7 m/400 5 days | Sick looking in two days. 8 m/8 3 days Wilting second day. 9 m/400 10 days plus Very fresh. 10 _ 10 days plus | Fresh. 11 -- to days plus | Fresh, VI.—LEAF OF CUCURBITA. I m/8 | 3 days ‘*Frozen”’ appearance. 2 m/8 | 3 days Crisp at margin. 3 m/8 | 2days Spotting. 4 m/8 | 3 days Salt ascending. 5 | m/8 3 days Freckled appearance. 6 | m/r100 2 days Veins blackening. Gf m/400 2 days Veins becoming yellow. 8 m/8 1 day Salt ascending. 9 m/400 | 10 days plus Very fresh. 10 — 6 days Yellow at margin. 11 — 5 days Yellow at margin. VII.—LEAF OF CUCURBITA. “Tol m/8 3 days plus Salt on the upper surface. 74 m/8 3 days plus Salt upon the upper surface. 19 m/8 2 days Wilted second day. 73 m/8 2 days Died in spots. 72 m/8 3 days plus Quite fresh. 100 m/8 3 days plus Fresh, salt not all dissolved. 76 m/256 1 day Veins brown. *191. Neut. sol.; 74. Ks PO,; 19. KCIO;; 73. ZnSO,; 72. Naz HPO,; 100, CaSO,; 76. CuSO, 160. K,0; 70. KI; 71. Na, CO3; 111. KBr; 75. Na A; 10. HO dist.; 11. H,O tap. 1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 301 VII.—LEAF OF CUCURBITA.—Condinued. Solution. Strength. Time to kill, Remarks. 160 m/8 2 days Poisoned look, salt ascended. 70 m/8 2 days Died in spots. 7 m/8 2 days Very limp. TI m/8 3 days plus Very fresh. 75 m/8 3 days plus Sait ascending on upper side. 10 = 3 days plus Fresh. II — 3 days plus Fresh. VITI.—LEAF OF LUPINE. 191 m/8 3 days plus Fresh. 74 m/8 2 days Dead trom the margin. 19 m/8 2 days Light green, veins yellow. 73 m/8 | 3days Wilted second day. 72 m/8 3 days Light green. 100 m/8 3 days plus Salt not all dissolved. 76 m/256 1 day Lighter green. 160 m/8 3 days plus Almost dead. 70 m/8 2 days Veins green. 7p m/8 3 days Brown at margin. I1I m/8 3 days Fresh. 75 m/8 3 days | Veins green. 10 — 3 days plus Fresh. II —- 3 days plus Fresh, ! . IX.—LEAF OF PRIMULA OBCONICA. 1gI m/8 3 days plus Fresh. 74 m/8 3 days plus Fresh. 73 m/8 2 days Spotted. 76 m/256 1 day Very limp. 160 m/8 2 days Poisoned looking. 70 m/8 3 days Dead in spots. All others! 3 days plus) VII. a.—Leaf of Acer. i m/4 3 days Colour lighter green, wilting from margin. 2 m/4 3 days plus Almost dead, wilting from margin. 31 m/4 3 days plus Almost dead, tendency to spot. 4 } m/4 3 days | Freckled between veins and with yellowish spots. 5 m/4 3 days Veins darkened, dried from the margin, black near the petiole. 6 m/50 2 days Wilting in twenty-four bours, petiole and veins blackened, blade deeper green. » 7 m/400 4 days plus Slightly wilting fourth day, petiole dying. 8 m/4 1 day Frozen appearance between veins. 9 m/400 5 days plus This leaf remained fresh much longer than any of the others. *1o — 5 days Wilted. par — 5 days Wilted. * Numbers ten and eleven died in five da longer, ys while number nine remained fresh until May 28th, eleven days 302 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII. VIII. 6.—Leaf of Ampelopsts. Solution. | Strength. Time to kill, Remarks. ai | m/4 4 days Veins darkening, brown in streaks. 2 | m/4 4 days plus Dead and crisp at the margin. 3 | m/4 4 days Blade spotted. 4. | m/4 3 days Blade spotting, wilting and limp second day, | drying up fourth day. 5 m/4. 4 days Base brown, margin green, petiole and veins | | darkening. 6 | m/50 2 days | Margin black. 7 m/40o 4 days plus | Blade wilting some, petiole dying, margin | black, veins dying near base of leaf. 5 m/4 1 day Frosen appearance between veins, veins de- colourized. 9 m/400 4 days plus Slightly wilted. 10 -- 4 days Wilting on second day. II | _— 5 days plus Fresh. * In the cases in which the leaf died it became blackened after death. Certain solutions seemed to produce, after a few days, a translucent appearance in the region between the main veins. It appeared as though the intercellular spaces in this part of the leaf were injected with water. On examination it was found that the cells in this region were plasmolyzed. Then, from these considerations, namely that the cells were plasmolyzed, that water appeared to be in the intercellular spaces, and that solutions of considerable concentration were known to ascend through the blade, it may be concluded that the cells in this region were killed by an osmotic action, causing a loss of water to the cell. It was noticed that normal solutions of H.SO, and of HCl had practically the same toxic power, as might be expected, since they are chemically equivalent and contain the same amount of replaceable atoms of hydrogen. This result does not accord with the results obtained by Kahlenberg and True (1896, p. 92), who showed that 1/6400 gram- equivalent solution of H,SO,; was as Toxic to Lupine radicles as 1/3200 gram-equivalent solution of HCl. Judging from their results and conclusions, one might infer that they regarded a gram-equivalent per liter solution of H,SO, to contain ¢wzce as many ions as a gram-equiva- lent solution of HCl which, however, is not the case according to Mohr,* Talbott and others. 3 : From the experiments here recorded it may be concluded that certain salts kill the leaf by osmotic action, while others produce death by chemical action. The latter may be classed as poisons and the * Titrimethode, p, 56. + Quantitative chem, anal., 1900, p. 65. 1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVEs. 303 former as non-poisons. Among the poisons, CuSO, was the most deadly. With dilute solutions it always rendered the leaf quickly limp, commencing at the margins. With strong solutions there seemed to be a complete “ paralysis,” the whole leaf becoming wilted in a very short time. With HgCl, the action took place from the base outwards, showing that the solution made its way out laterally from the vein only with great difficulty, while the CuSO, seemed to penetrate the whole leaf rapidly, causing a wilted condition but no discolouring. The experiments with the sugars are of little importance, because of the fact that a fermentation took place quickly, and the solution became a solution of an organic acid, resulting from a decomposition of the sugar. The grape sugar, as might be expected, was much more suscep- tible to fermentation than was the cane sugar. Certain of the salts, notably ZnSO, produced a depression of the surface in spots, due to a decrease in the turgor at that point, generally without that “ water-logged ” appearance so common in cases where a leaf is being killed by osmotic action. The cause of the “water-logged” ap- pearance seen in the case of certain non- poisonous, but strong- ly osmotic substances, is due to the fact that these salts in solution upon reaching the thin walled paren- chyma cells in the leaf, draw water os- motically from the cells into the inter- cellular spaces, at first in the region between the main veins. In nide; P, a precipitate; Z, a zone of water; B, saturated with FIG, 9, A, filter paper cut in the form of a leaf, it is saturated with ferric chloride, and then placed ina solution of potassium ferrocya- ; , potassium sulphocyanide, and then placed in a_ solution of ferric some cases this is noticed at the margin in excess ; d, wholly soluble in excess; M, margin of area if a living = leaf be used, of the leaf, but the drying action of the air upon the water drawn into the intercellula chloride ; a, dilute solution ; b, strong solution ; c, partially soluble spaces, causes the leaf to become crisp and dry along its margin. The salts ascend readily into the leaf and penetrate the whole blade, 304 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VOLS Valle as is proved by testing the leaf for the salt taken up by the petiole. The cells of the leaves having the “water-logged” appearance are plasmo- lyzed, showing that water has been extracted osmotically by the salt. This phenomenon is mentioned by Vines (p. 40). Certain solutions will, therefore, if applied to the cut ends of the petioles, kill the leaves by extracting water from the cells. This effect is not so rapid as might be expected, because the solution which ascends the petiole and enters the leaf, is not of the same concentration as that supplied in the test-tube. This fact is not as yet generally known to botanists, because in the experiment to demonstrate the rate of ascent of sap in plants, a solution of a lithium salt is taken, and the distance of ascent is determined at any given time by the height of the lithium salt. It is known that the experiment with eosin is not accurate, for the reason that the water ascends faster than the eosin. What is true of eosin is true of lithium, and probably of any other solution, as may be demonstrated as follows :—Saturate a piece of filter paper with a solution of potass-sulpho-cyanide, allow it to dry, then place one end of the paper in a solution of ferric chloride. As the iron solution ascends, the height of the solution is indicated by the deep brown-red colour, formed where the salts meet, in consequence of the chemical action between them. 544- “On the Geological and Physical Development of Dominica, with Notes on Martinique, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines.” In preparation. “On the Geological and Physical Development of Barbados, with Notes on Trinidad.” In preparation. 1901-2. | THE WINDWARD ISLANDS OF THE WEST INDIEs, 353 A few words may be said as to the means of reaching the different islands. From New York the ships of the Quebec Steamship Company leave on irregular dates, but averaging three or four sailings a month, sometimes first touching at St. Croix, next at St. Christopher (universally ‘called St. Kitts) and then sail onward to the south. On other voyages the ship calls first at St. Martin, and then proceeds as before. Again St. Kitts may be the first stop. While most of the larger of the more southern islands are visited on each trip, this is by no means so certain as on the north bound voyages. After touching at St. Lucia, or St. Vincent, the steamers proceed to Barbados and often to Demerara, and some of the tourist steamers in winter, to Trinidad. Another line sails for Grenada and Trinidad direct. The Pickford and Black Line, from Halifax, sails regularly every four weeks for Bermuda, St. Kitts, and on to Trinidad. Local steamers of the Royal Mail Line sail regularly once a fortnight between the larger islands. There are other occasional steamers by which passage between the islands can be made. But to the smaller islands, one must depend upon small schooners or sloops of perhaps only ten tons capacity, which may usually be found sailing weekly from the larger islands, for carrying the mail, etc. Thus there is a weekly sloop from St. Kitts to St. Martin, Anguilla and Sombrero; from St. Martin to Guadeloupe; from St. Croix to St. Thomas and the Virgin Islands, etc. To and from Barbados and Martinique there are fortnightly steamers to England and Franée, and other steamers to the South American ports and Colon, as also to Jamaica. The Quebec Line and the Pickford and Black steamers sailing among the islands usually travel at night, so that the tourist can go ashore for the day and get a glimpse of these most beautiful tropical lands. The coasting vovages of the Royal Mail Line give no oppor- tunities for seeing the islands, as they make brief calls, day or night, and then proceed onward. SOMBRERO. Sombrero is a lonely sentinel away out in the Atlantic, at the northern end of the Windward Chain, being situated forty miles beyond Anguilla. It is less than a mile long, with a breadth of a quarter its length. Its flat top is pitted by former workings for phosphate of lime. It is about thirty feet above the sea, with vertical walls, so that landing at the foot of a ladder is difficult. It is composed of a coral-bearing soft white limestone, found to be of early Pleistocene age. Pockets on the surface have been converted into phosphate of lime by birds. which, during some portion of the Pleistocene period, made it their 354 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII. home. There is not a tree on the island. The great lighthouse of this region is here, and six men are in attendance upon it. Tt sma dependency of St. Kitts, a sloop from which visits the island weekly (see map, Plate A, appended). THE ST. MARTIN ARCHIPELAGO. St. Martin, St. Bartholomew and Anguilla rise out of the same banks which are submerged from 100 to 200 feet. The whole forms a physical unit, being an isolated remnant of the dissected and submerged Antillean plateau. The margins of the plateau are further indented by deep valleys, heading in amphitheatres, as shown west of Anguilla and St. Martin, and south of St. Bartholomew, where the incisions on the two sides of the drowned tableland have united into a channel across it. These features are shown on the map (Plate A, appended). This mass rises prominently above the broad channel, 2,500 feet in depth, separating it from the Saba banks, but from its eastern side the descent to the Atlantic abyss is not known to be interrupted by other features. St. Martin (see map, Plate A, appended) is mostly composed of mountain ridges (the highest point of 1,360 feet may be seen in figure 1, Plate I.) and valleys which broaden out rapidly, from the cul de sac of each, and terminate in bays, in front of which there are often beaches, such as that shown in the illustration, where the Dutch town of Philipsburg is built. These valleys are formed by the rapid erosion of high lands due to the tropical storms, one of which I witnessed, when eight inches of water fell in three hours. Such rainfalls in the dry season are due to the mountains, even low ones, condensing the moisture out of northeastern trade winds, while neighbouring flat islands, like Anguilla, have a great scarcity of rain. On the western side of St. Martin, Simpson’s Inlet is a beautiful bay or lagoon, enclosed by ridges connected by sand beaches. Only an incon- siderable portion of St. Martin could be considered a coastal plain. The mountains are composed of the old West Indian igneous foundation, probably, in part, older than the Tertiary era, though perhaps, in part, belonging to the earlier Eocene days. There are also volcanic tuffs, and a formation of grey limestone which is composed of calcareous layers intercalated with tufaceous beds, but the calcareous strata are more or less silicified into chert. Such are well seen along the shore, as at Pelican Point, illustrated in figure 2, Plate I., where also boulders three or four feet in length, more or less rounded by the 1901-2. | THE WINDWARD ISLANDS OF THE WEST INDIES. 1355 waves, may be seen. The silicified formation contains manganese which has been economically worked, and also iron ore. Similar igneo- calcareous formations have been found in St. Bartholomew to belong to the Eocene period, from the fossils which Cleve* obtained in the calcareous layers. Remnants of the white limestone, or the Antigua formation, (of the Oligocene period) occur about Simpson’s bay, and in the French portion of the island. Tintamarre, an off-lying island, rising to a height of ninety feet above the sea, is a remnant of the former coastal plain of St. Martin. It is composed of two calcareous formations, both of white limestone, but the strata of the lower are more or less upturned, and contain Oligocene fossils ; the upper, substantially horizontal, contains an old Pleistocene fauna. Anguilla (see map, Plate A, appended) is a low-lying island, separated by a strait of four miles in width from St. Martin, of which it was a former coastal plain. Its highest point, near the northern cliffs which are being encroached upon by the sea, rise to only 213 feet in height. At points the old igneous foundation may be seen near waterlevel, beneath the white limestones. The disturbed lower beds contain an Oligocene fauna, and the upper horizontal beds hold Pleistocene fossils. It is often difficult to distinguish these formations apart, although separated by such a long geological gap. This island is also interesting from the occurrence of Pleistocene bones discovered by Mr. Wager Ray, and found by Prof. Ed. Cope to be those of Amblyrhiza,—rodents, as large as a Virginia deer, whose ancestors had ‘migrated from South America in the Pleistocene period, when there was a continuous land connection with that continent. Gravel formations have been found in these islands belonging to later days of the Pleistocene period. Coral reefs are now flourishing, especially off the coast of Anguilla, but they are not raised above the sea level. The roads of the flat island of Anguilla are well made, as also those of St. Martin, which, however, have to pass over several high hills. St. Martin is politically divided between Holland and France. St. Barthol- omew is French. Both French colonies are dependencies of Guade- loupe, and both are free ports. Anguilla is an English dependency of *On the Geology of the Northeastern West India Islands,” by P. T. Cleve. Trans. Roy. Swedish Acad. Sc., IX., No. 12, p. 26. 356 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. St. Kitts. From St. Kitts there is a weekly schooner to St. Martin, Anguilla and Sombrero, from St. Martin a fortnightly schooner to St. Bartholomew and Guadeloupe; from St. Martin to Saba and Curacao sails a monthly schooner. At St. Martin the Quebec Steamship Line calls about once a month on the outward passage from New York. Anguilla has practically no exports and is a very poor island, the negroes living on “ground” provisions (tubers), some fruits, etc. St. Martin formerly produced sugar, but this industry has almost disap- peared. Some cattle are raised for export, but the salt production is now the principal source of wealth. The few thousand people of these islands are almost entirely black or coloured, with only a few whites, mostly the descendants of the planters of slave days. But many of the » old families have disappeared. English is the language spoken in the Dutch portion of St. Martin, but it is also generally understood on the French side of the island and in St. Bartholomew, whose inhabitants are largely of French origin. Before leaving this subject, I wish to express my very high appreciation of the Honorable Diedric C. Van Romondt, K.N.O., and formerly Governor, and his family, and to thank them for the princely hospitality shown to Mrs. Spencer and myself, such as characterized the palmy days of the West Indies. His charming suburban home is in the beautiful valley of Cul de Sac, opposite the highest point of the island, both of which may be seen in figure 1, Riace le THE ST. KITTS CHAIN, MONTSERRAT AND THE SABA BANKS. Here we find three elevated remnants of the dissected Antillean plateau rising up as tablelands to 3,000 feet or more above the floor of the drowned valleys. But the channels separating them have a depth of 15 to roo feet below the ‘surface off the )sea, Om the St. Kitts remnant, St. Eustacia, St. Kitts itself and Nevis rise as the mountainous back-bone of the region, with the Saba banks, as a slightly submerged coastal plain, to the south. (See map, Plate A, appended). Montserrat is a repetition of the central mass. Saba is simply an extinct volcanic cone, rising precipitously from the floor of the sunken Antillean ridge, but at the foot of a submarine tableland now forming the Saba banks. Its height . above the sea is 2,830 feet, with the water 2,250 feet or more in depth. On the floor of an extinct crater, at the height of several hundred feet, is perched the town of Bottom. It is a small Dutch settlement where the inhabitants are engaged in boat building, or as mariners. 1901-2. | THE WINDWARD ISLANDS OF THE WEST INDIES. 357 Saba banks have an area of 800 or 900 square miles, rising to within 100 or 150 feet of the surface of the sea. This is a fine example of a submarine tableland not surmounted by any mountains. Its surface has been levelled over by coral growths and sands derived from them. It is the only conspicuous remnant of the coastal plains on the Caribbean side of the mountainous back-bone of the Antillean ridge until the Grenadines are reached. (See map, Plate A, appended). Saba and Statia (the colloquial name of St. Eustatius), are both within sight of St. Martin, and can occasionally be reached by sloop from St. Martin and St. Kitts. Statia, St. Kitts and Nevis are all situated on a narrow submerged ridge. The north-western end of Statia and the south-eastern end of St. Kitts are the remains of the old dissected and degraded mountains composed of the ancient trappean foundation of all the Antillean islands of the Windward chain, but the remaining portions of these two islands and Nevis are surmounted by volcanic ridges, belonging to geological days more recent than the early Pleistocene epoch, with the volcanic activity continuing down so recently that some of the craters are still preserved, such as that of Mount Misery (4,314 feet above the sea), with one side removed to a depth of 600 feet. It is about a quarter of a mile in diameter, with a lake partly filling the depression (according to my friend, Dr. Christian Branch, who then resided in the island). Statia has also a perfectly preserved crater, called the “Quill,” rising to a height of 1,950 feet. (See view, figure 1, Plate II.). From the central ridges, the surface slopes in the form of a g/acts, which is deeply dissected by valleys, as shown in figure 2, Plate II. At only one point on the north-eastern side of the island did I see any lava, and that belonged to a Pleistocene eruption, but Dr. Branch informed me that some black rock had been reported from near the summit of Mount Misery. The soil is made up of volcanic ashes of great fertility, which is constantly creeping down the slopes. At Basse Terre, St. Kitts, in 1880, a cloud burst upon Monkey hill, back of the town. (See figure 3, Plate II.). Over thirty inches of rain fell within three hours. The floods from such storms carry ruin before them. Great, deep valleys are rapidly excavated out of the loose, volcanic soil, while the material removed from them settles upon the more level land, in this case filling the streets and gardens with mud to several feet in depth. On the slop- ing ground every structure is washed away by the sheets of water, and people overtaken by them are whirled into the sea. Sometimes where the bodies are caught by an obstruction, this impediment to the current causes a deposition of mud, so that they may be quickly buried on the 9 358 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vor Mi plains before reaching the sea. A similar flood, though not so severe, yet drowning many people, occurred in Montserrat during my stay on a neighbouring island. These floods give some idea of the very rapid changes in the physical features of this tropical region. But in addi- tion the Atlantic ocean is encroaching upon the eastern sides of all the islands, owing to the waves being thus driven by the north-eastern trade winds. Accordingly, almost all the ports are upon the leeward sides of the islands. In St. Kitts, there are wild monkeys, but they belong to an African species, and it is not known who imported them. Nevis is a nearly circular island radiating from a volcanic dome which rises to an altitude of 3,596 feet. It is nearly always wrapped in a cloud, like the summit of Mount Misery in St. Kitts. Its sloping surfaces are similar to those of St. Kitts, of which it is now a political dependency, though formerly the more important. In the seventeenth century there were several thousand white settlers who were forced to leave owing to the concentration of the lands into the hands of a few owners. Now the whites are few and poor. Here was born Alexander Hamilton, one of the fathers of the American republic. So also the wife . of Lord Nelson, who, at his marriage here, was attended by Prince William (afterwards King William IV.), as best man. The island is separated from St. Kitts by a strait only a few miles wide, and very shallow. The old eruptive foundation of these islands belonged to the very beginning of the Tertiary era, or to a little earlier geological time. Dur- ing the Miocene, and until about the close of the Pliocene period, this region was a land surface, and no formations were accumu-. lated beneath the sea. But in the Pleistocene period a most interesting phenomenon occurred. A volcanic upheaval raised Brimstone hill on the flanks of St. Kitts to a height of about 700 feet, without having pro- duced a crater. (See view, figure 1, Plate IV.). In the outburst, the floor of the sea was thrust up so that a limestone veneer, about thirty feet thick, covers the sides of the hill, which is about half a mile in diameter, to a height of 400 feet, on which a strong fort was formerly raised. The formation thus lifted up contains fossils which show that it was formed at the close of the Pliocene or beginning of the Pleistocene period. The same phenomenon was repeated twelve miles away in Statia (see figure 1, Plate II.), but there the limestone mantle occurs to a height of over 900 feet, and on the summit a well preserved crater was formed. 1901-2. | THE WINDWARD ISLANDS OF THE WEST INDIES. 359 Montserrat (see map, Plate B, appended), shows the old igneous foundation, small remnants of the earlier Tertiary (Oligocene) limestone, and the surface accumulations from two volcanic cones of apparently the same age as those of the other inner islands of the Windward chain. Most of the roads in these islands are well made. Very fine sugar estates cover the slopes of St. Kitts and Nevis, but the industry is paralyzed, and prevailing poverty has succeeded the luxuriant wealth of a generation or less ago. In Montserrat, great quantities of lime juice and citric acid are produced. The people are mostly negroes, with a considerable number of Portuguese, descendants of labourers imported some time ago into St. Kitts. The old English white families are dis- appearing from different causes, the final being the intermarriage of those in reduced circumstances with people of colour, that is to say, with those whose blood is very slightly coloured. These in their turn become commingled with others of darker shades, so that eventually you find descendants of the most distinguished white families appearing like full- blooded negroes, in spite of the very strong prejudice against the mixing of the races, which socially ostracises the slightest trace of African blood. ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA. These two islands (see map, Plate B,, appended) form another distinct tableland, rising 2,000 feet or more above the floor of the submerged Antillean plateau (see map, Plate B, appended). The island of Antigua impressed itself upon me as a little continent, with all the features necessary to complete one, and indeed this impression is not far wrong, for here may be studied all the geological and physical history of the dismembered and drowned tableland between North and South America, except the phenomena of the later volcanic activity. It is the starting point of investigation. Moreover, it is a fertile island and suggests prosperity, until one looks beneath the surface and finds that the prices paid for the sugar now are no more than the smallest pittance required for sustaining slave labour. The south-west quarter of the island is mountainous, the highest peak rising to 1,330 feet. This district is broken up into narrow ridges, with the valleys rapidly increasing in size, so that their lower reaches are broad flats extending into the shallow bays, where corals grow in profusion. In these valleys are small rivers, but over most of the other sections of the island the drainage is underground without water courses. The central belt of the island is a low depression, out of which rise several hills. The north- eastern part is sothewhat higher and undulating. The mountain district 360 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. is characterized by the old Antillean igneous foundation dating back to the beginning of the Tertiary era, or in part a little older. Even the latest trace of volcanic activity does not appear to have been as late as the Miocene period. The central portion of the island is underlaid by | tuffs derived from the older volcanic remains, but contain some beds of silicious limestone and others of fresh-water origin with silicified wood and land shells. It belongs to the Eocene formation. The north- eastern part of the island is composed of white limestone—the Antigua formation belonging to the Oligocene period. But over this is a mechanical limestone, composed of the broken débrzs of an older one, dating back to the close of the Pliocene or beginning of the Pleistocene epoch, and probably still another series of late origin composed of the same material, but distinguished by unconformity and the contained fossils. There is also a still newer formation of gravel belonging to a later Pleistocene epoch. Barbuda is a flat limestone island, with lagoons on the west. The highest point rises to only 115 feet. It is the remains of the old Antillean coastal plain extending seaward from the mountains of Antigua. The termination of the central plain in the harbour of St. John’s is illustrated in figure 1, Plate III., where the cliffs of the eastern rolling country are shown in the distance. Figure 2, Plate III., shows a fragment of the dissected coastal plain at Hodges’ hill, which appears in the background to the right. The population and the present conditions of Antigua are similar to those of St. Kitts. The roads are nearly always excellent. Being generally low, the island is rather dry and is not subject to the same rain-fall as the more mountainous islands. Dr. Christian Branch could find no remains indicating the permanent occupation of Antigua by the Caribs, who were numerous in all the other islands, and he attributes the fact to the scarcity of water at certain seasons of the year. THE GUADELOUPE ARCHIPELAGO. This is another remnant of the dissected Antillean plateau, of which the lower lands are now submerged. The summit of the ridge con- necting it with Antigua is covered by about 2,000 feet of sea, but both sides of it are indented by deep embayments (see map, Plate B, appended). The tableland has been deeply dissected, so that being now sunken there are deep channels between theislands. The archipelago is 1901-2. | THE WINDWARD ISLANDS OF THE WEST INDIES. 361 underlaid bythe old igneous foundation common to the Windward group, but on Guadeloupe proper this is surmounted by tuffs and by volcanic accumulations, which have been ejected during the time extending from the close of the Pliocene period to the present. There are several cones, the highest of which is 4,863 feet. Several eruptions have been recorded in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Grande Terre is a rolling coastal plain, separated from the main island by a narrow strait, called Salt River. Its general characteristics are those of the limestone section of Antigua, being underlaid by white calcareous marl of the Antigua formation, with the remains of a mantle of mechanical limestone above, and also another calcareous formation belonging to the beginning of the Pleistocene epoch, while on the mainland, as at Petit Bourg, there is a mid-Pleistocene deposit of sand and gravel. Marie Galante and Petite Terre are also limestone islands like Grande Terre, forming part of the old coastal plains in front of the mountain section. The Saintes are remnants of the old igneous basement. Remains of a small elephant which emigrated from South America in the Pleistocene period have been found in Guadeloupe. The roads in this French island are good. A coasting steamer sails round the island and to the dependencies. The main industry is sugar, which is principally raised on Grande Terre. Fine coffee is also culti- vated, as well as some cocoa and vanilla. The people are mostly coloured, with a larger white population than in the English islands, but the.coloured population is more unsatisfactory from our point of view, and dislikes the intrusion of foreigners. And in their policy they have done much to impair the prosperity of the island. In disembarking or embarking at Basse Terre, the capital, one is liable not merely to the imposition of the boatmen, but one’s life may be imperilled by them, practically, without redress. So also one may be insulted, or even assaulted, as was the case of even an American Consul. The successful revolution in Haiti has left here a bad effect which has not disappeared. But from the white people with whom I came in contact I received only the greatest courtesy. DOMINICA. Here is a repetition of the mountainous part of Guadeloupe, trom which it is separated by a depression about 2,000 feet below sea-level (see map, Plate B, appended). It (see map, Plate C, appended) has no coastal plains like Antigua and Guadeloupe, unless we so regard the banks, some twenty miles to the south-eastward, as the remnant of the 362 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. MOEA VILE Antillean tableland, now dissected and submerged. Again one finds the old igneous basement, over the denuded surface of which are several igneo-sedimentary deposits (of the older Tertiary era) surmounted by the newer volcanic formations, which culminate in cones, one of which is 4,747 feet above the sea. The earliest eruptions occurred about the commencement of the Pleistocene period, and the last in 1880. After the renewal of volcanic activity, there was an early Pleistocene deposit of coral rock, preceded and succeeded by gravel accumulations; all except the last of these formations have been mostly removed by denudation so that only fragments are now to be found, on the small remnants of the coastal slopes, the best example being the Grand Savanna, as shown in its relationship to the mountains in figure 2, Plate [V. Some little flat land is found in the rapidly widened valleys, such as that at the mouth of the Layou river (figure 3, Plate IV.). Fragments of terraces in their natural condition are few, but one may be seen at Roseau, on which the church is built, (illustrated in figure 1, Plate V.). Back of the town is an erosion plain (Morne Bruce), at 400 feet above the sea, which was once a coastal feature. The correspond- ing terrace, on the other side of the valley, shown in figure 2 (which is almost a continuation of figure 1, and might be joined at letters A B), may be seen sloping outward, owing to the local elevation of the volcanic centres, and not to the regional rising of the land. Dominica is the most beautiful of the islands. Portions of it have never been cultivated, and in some of the valleys one may see a tropical vegetation, among which are tree ferns of great size and loveli- ness. The situation of the town of Roseau, the capital, at the mouth of the Roseau valley, and in front of the terrace of Morne Bruce with the sloping terraces on the other side of the valley, which is headed ina high mountain (not seen in Figures 1 and 2 owing to cloud at the time of photographing them), is unsurpassed in its graceful beauty, in spite of the dilapidated appearance of the town. The valley itself becomes enlarged, after passing above its mouth, which is, in fact, a canon or gorge cut by the river since the recent elevation of the land. It is shown in figure 3, Plate V., the view being taken from the summit of Morne Bruce. On account of the floods of the swollen mountain streams, the coast- wise roads are badly cut up, and because of the almost impossible under- taking of maintaining bridges, one is compelled to travel on horseback, except for a few miles near Roseau. There are a few degenerated descendants of the freedom-loving Caribs, who were so ruthlessly 1901-2. | THE WINDWARD ISLANDS OF THE WEST INDIES. 363 destroyed alike by the Spanish, French and English during the early bloody history of the West Indian region. As if by an irony of fate, the islands have ceased to be of commercial value to the conquerors, and their descendants have mostly disappeared, or sometimes have become lost in the admixture with the. negroes, whom they imported to supplant the natives on their own soil. The negroes here are mostly from French settlements, and speak a jargon, almost unintelligible to the English or French visitor. Hardly any industries flourish. A little sugar is still cultivated, cocoa and limes are grown quite extensively. Mr. Frampton has started the cultivation of the kola bean. MARTINIQUE, ST. LUCIA, ST. VINCENT AND THE GRENADINES. These islands (see maps, Plates C and D, appended) form a continuation of the mountain chain of Guadeloupe and Dominica and are composed of the same old igneous foundation and overlying tuffs, and later gravel deposits, and probably of some remnants of the old Pleistocene limestone (as in Guadeloupe and Dominica), though I did not see them. The older basement is more exposed than in the more northern islands, and the old traps are decayed to considerable depths. In fact, as we go farther south, the physical features assume more mature forms. Thus Mar- tinique is deeply indented by the Bay of Fort Royal, and the hills to the south of it are erosion features. But the northern part of the island is surmounted by the more recent volcanic ridges and cones, the highest of which rises to a height of 4,438 feet. Martinique is more or less flanked with sloping surfaces (due in part to the sloping beds of tuffs underlying them) as in St. Kitts (illustrated in figure 1, Plate VI.). Remains of base level erosion benches may be seen as in figure 2, near St. Pierre. Martinique is the most important of the French islands, but, unfor- tunately, it is so often placed in quarantine, on account of yellow fever, from which the other islands are generally free, that one is uncertain of being able to visit it, for if even a single case of fever breaks out, the traveller cannot leave, except by going on a French steamer bound for France, or by chartering a sloop and lying at sea for sixteen days, an experience which, for even a few days, one does not desire to have repeated. On this account, although lying in front of the island we did not land. This was the home of Josephine Beauharnais, afterward the wife of Napoleon I. St. Lucia (see map, Plate C, appended) is surmounted by a cone rising to 4,000 feet. The igneous rocks, belonging to the ancient 364 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vou. VII. basement of the island, are deeply eroded and also decayed. Here is the best harbour among the islands, generally the only anchorage being in the open roads. We also find here the only pier in the Windward Islands, at which the ocean steamers can land, and this was built on account of the great coaling station. There is also a fine botanical garden at Port Castries, the capital. The slopes of the southern side of the island are largely cultivated for sugar cane. As elsewhere, the coloured population greatly predominates. The fer de lance, one of the most poisonous of the snake family, is as common as in Martinique. On the south-western coast, the Pitons rise on one side out of the sea (to 2,019 feet) as shown: in figure 3, Plate VI. . They are remains one crater, partly blown away, partly carried off by the waves, and denuded by torrential rains. Travellers frequently mention them. St. Vincent (see map, Plate C, appended) repeats the features of St. Lucia. The highest cone in the Soufriere mountains rises to an altitude of 4,048 feet. Just south of it, the large crater is occupied by a lake at an altitude of 1,930 feet, but the rim of the crater is from 3,000 to 3,600 feet above the sea. The volcanic eruption of 1812 sent the ashes to Barbados, more than a hundred miles away, where the dust obscured the sun for three days. Some of the valleys have a mature form, as that of the very beautiful Buccament, illustrated in Plate VII. This, however, was desolated by a hurricane about four years ago. The valley crosses the island to the sea, so that a little submergence would separate the hills, to the right in the picture, from the main portion by a strait. This feature is constantly appearing among the Windward Islands. There was a very fine and far-famed botanical garden before the hurricane, which carried every tree-top away, blew every insect off the land and covered the island with showers of fine earth. The Grenadines (see map, Plate D, appended), represent the most complete subaérial dissection of the ancient volcanic foundation, so that a large number of islets and rock rise above the extensive banks which have a length of over a hundred miles, and are submerged 100 or 150 feet. But Grenada, as large as St. Vincent is surmounted by the later volcanic ridges with the highest point attaining an altitude of 2,749 feet. Grenada is the most celebrated of the islands for tropical fruits of fine varieties. The Trinidad steamers from New York stop here, but not the Windward Island lines, except the regular fortnightly Royal Mail steamer. IQOI-2. } THE WINDWARD ISLANDS OF THE WEST INDIES. 365 TRINIDAD: This is not an Antillean island, (see map, Plate D, appended), but a part of South America, being situated on the continental shelf, and separated from the mainland by only a shallow strait. Along the northern coast there is a range of mountains containing crystalline schists, and rising to points 3,000 feet above the sea. Isolated ridges occur in other parts of the island, in some cases having a height of 1,000 feet. Elsewhere the island is generally low, with occasional extensive swamps. Apart from the northern mountains, the sandy, shaly, and calcareous strata are of a much more clastic nature than the formations of the Windward Islands, for these materials have been supplied by the South American rivers, such as the Oronoco ;—but they belong to the same geological periods as those of the Antillean chain. There are no volcanic accumulations as in the other islands. During the long Miocene-Pliocene period, land surfaces prevailed and gave rise to most of the present topographic features. These, however, were thinly covered by subsequently deposited mantles, so that the general changes of level of land and sea, the connection with North America, and the drowning of the region again, are phenomena common to the history of the other islands. Among the strata certainly no more recent than the Eocene period, are radiolarian and foraminiferal organisms that were accumulated at abysmal depths of the ocean, of perhaps two miles or more. These are of importance in showing that where there had been shallow seas, or even land, the region had sunken to the great depth mentioned, and been raised again, so that other shallow water formations could cover them and constitute the foundation of the modern land features. Trinidad is a beautiful island of large size, but its fertile plains are only partly cultivated, as much of the island is still covered by primeval forest. The roads of the cultivated districts are excellent. Sugar cane is the principal product. Pitch Lake is most valuable, and is far famed. It lies on a flat plain a mile from the sea and 110 feet above it, and has an area of about a hundred acres. No high land occurs within sight of it. It is immediately surrounded by a small open wood. It is a dreary spot. The pitch rises and overflows a loose sandstone, which is covered by a red earthy loam. The surface of the pitch is hardened, and only plastic near the centre, so that it can almost everywhere be walked upon. But through the fissures of the crust are numerous springs of water and 366 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vou. VII. sulphuretted hydrogen, sending an offensive odor through the whole district. Situated near one of the mouths of the Oronoco, Port of Spain is a city of commercial importance, and having been almost destroyed by conflagrations, it has been rebuilt with a modern appearance. Near it is located the largest and most celebrated botanical garden in the West Indies, except that of Jamaica. In Trinidad there is a larger percentage of whites than in the other islands described, but they embrace several nationalities. Besides the negro labourers, there are many Hindoos imported to the sugar estates. Being on the edge of the belt of Trade Winds, with the intervening mountains, the island seems much warmer than Barbados, which is separated by less than two degrees of latitude. Trinidad has direct steamship communications with New York, but not by way of the Windward Islands. The Halifax steamers touch it once every four weeks. The Royal Mail line gives a fortnightly connection with Barbados. Occasional vessels of various lines also stop here, by which one is able to reach the Venezuelan ports, the Isthmus of Panama, and Jamaica. BARBADOS. This outlying island (see map, Plate E, appended) is situated somewhat more than a hundred miles east of the main Antillean Chain, but on the same submarine plateau (see maps, Plates D and E). The surface of Barbados rises in terrace steps, or slopes, to an altitude of 1,104 feet. Except in, and adjacent to the Scotland valley, on the northeastern side of the island, the surface rocks are composed of a white limestone, or a coral formation. But in the valley referred to, ‘and adjacent to the coast, there are beds of sand, accumulated when this region was connected with the continent, and received the sands carried down the rivers—perhaps the ancient Oronoco. This deposit cannot be newer than the early Eocene days, and I am inclined to regard it as belonging to the Cretaceous period. Upon its surface is a marly deposit containing foraminifera and radiolaria, like similar accumulations in Trinidad. These were formed in oceanic abysses at a depth of two miles or more, in a geological epoch that may be referred to the Eocene period. The region, after having sunken to such a great depth, rose so that upon the oceanic beds we find a shallow-water formation of white limestones, as in Antigua and the other islands mentioned before, belonging to the Oligocene series. During the long 19OT-2. | THE WINDWARD ISLANDS OF THE WEST INDIEs, 367 Miocene-Pliocene period the land underwent changes of level, at times very high, so that the broad valleys between the island and the main group were being modified into rolling features by atmospheric agents, acting for a very long time. About the close of the Pliocene period, the region was depressed, so that only a very small islet remained away out in the Atlantic. Then followed the great elevation of the region, when all the islands and the continent were united. This was succeeded by another subsidence, so that the terraces round Barbados were cut out of the new coral reefs, as the land was again rising. Since their elevation the streams and rains have begun to excavate small canons into the margins of the terrace steps. The occurrences of these terraces and little valleys give diversity to the surface features, for there are no mountains here. (See figure 1, Plate VIII.). The sea is encroaching upon the east coast, as in all the other islands, on account of which all the ports are on their western or leeward side. An illustration of the encroachment is shown in figure 2, Plate VIII., where the raised coral reef is breaking away and great blocks are lying along the coast. The fertile sugar estates have been occupied by numerous owners, which has given rise to social conditions somewhat different from that found in the other islands. Within twenty years after the arrival of the first planters (1625), the population rose to 50,000, including many cavaliers, Irish labourers, and Indians stolen from other islands. The population now numbers 200,000, of whom one-fourth are whites. As the area is only 166 square miles, it is the most densely settled country in the world, so much so that the labourers on the estates get only three days’ work a week, and another set work the remaining time—and that at twenty cents a day. More than half of the coloured infants die within a year, but even this does not keep down the increase. These conditions intensify misery caused by the ruined sugar trade. The people live on “ground” provisions (sweet potatoes, at fifteen cents a bushel, when bought; yams, a large tuber); bread-fruit, used green in place of potatoes ; sugar cane and some fruits. They also get a small quantity of fish at times, of which the flying fish is most delicious. In the church of the parish of St. John is the tomb of Theodore Paleologos, the last representative of the Christian Emperors of the Eastern empire, he having died here an exile in the seventeenth century. f 368 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vou. VII. GENERAL CHANGES OF LEVEL OF LAND AND SEA. The primary object of my three visits to the West Indies and to the Central American region, and another to be begun in a few days, has been to carry on my investigations of the great changes of level which have occurred in late geological times, for there one finds the most com- plete evidence at present obtainable. In visiting the Windward Islands, I wished to extend the observations made elsewhere bearing upon the time of the great earth movements, and in doing so I had to investigate the geological formations, the results of which have been published in papers mentioned in the foot-note. Besides the geographical descrip- tions, with some geological results given here, I have included the charts of the region from which much more information can be gathered.* On these I have also drawn certain lines of soundings to bring out the drowned valley-like features. While a somewhat less elevation of the region would connect the more northern of the Windward Islands, as we have seen, a rise of 3,600 feet would unite Dominica and Martinique (by way of the banks shown on map, Plate C), with an embayment between them reaching to a depth of 6,600 feet, miles within the line connecting the two islands. An elevation of 3,300 feet would bring the ridge between Martinique and St. Lucia to the surface, with another deep indentation to the west, a tributary of which heads in an amphitheatre, incising the island mass north-west of St. Lucia to a depth of 6,624 feet, within the line where the shelf is sunken only 600 feet. Between St. Lucia and St. Vincent, the connecting ridge is mostly within 1,200 feet of the surface, except for about five miles where the channel across the col reaches to a depth of about 3,000 feet below sea level. From this point the drowned valley rapidly deepens to nearly 6,600 feet within the line of the islands. The deepest part of the drowned valley crossing the ridge between St. Vincent and the Grenadines is only a mile wide and does not exceed a submergence of 1,300 feet. The Grenadine banks, really a submarine tableland, are covered by 100 or 150 feet of waiter, and the western slopes show the indentations, amphitheatres or cirques reaching to the same great depth, and still further away the soundings suggest that the submerged Antillean .plateau in part rises more than 9,000 feet without quite reaching the surface of the sea. The cirques or amphitheatre-valleys on the eastern sides of the islands have not been so fully shown as on * The charts are a reduction of Chart 40, U. S. Hydrographic Office. The various larger charts ot the different islands should be consulted. 1901-2. | THE WINDWARD ISLANDS OF THE WEST INDIES. 369 the western, on account of the eastern slopes being the more precipitous, and the soundings fewer in number. Between the Grenadine and Trinidad banks (see Plate D), the connecting plains may not be submerged to more than 750 feet, except in a narrow channel. The various forms of the valley-like indentations of the border of the great submarine Antillean plateau are similar to those upon the slopes descending from the high tablelands of Mexico and Central America, which have been fashioned by the rains and streams, and accordingly their occurrence is interpreted as evidence that the former altitude of the now sunken plateau was as great as the present submergence of the valleys now drowned. This conclusion is only to be modified, in referring to the islands, or their districts, which have been the scene of Pleistocene or more recent volcanic activity, for here we find local elevation due to plutonic forces which have not affected the great earth movements of the region. Among the Wind- ward Islands the evidence of the full height at which the land stood has not been determined, as among the Bahamas and on the south- eastern margin of the North American continent, where we have found that it exceeded 12,000 feet. At the time of the great elevation of the Antillean plateau, the region west of the Caribbean sea—Central America—was low. The valleys are the result of two periods of erosion,—namely that of the Miocene-Pliocene, with the production of broad rounded forms, and that of the early Pleistocene days when the elevation reached the maximum height and all the islands were united so as to connect South and North America. This last epoch was of the shorter duration with the deepening of the old valleys, the formation of canons, and the excavation of cirques or amphitheatres, at the heads of the narrow valleys, as they were dissecting the tablelands. In the remains of elephants, and the large rodents of Guadeloupe and Anguilla, we have confirmatory evidence of the great elevation during the early Pleistocene epoch, for these mammals migrated from the continent about that time. But all the Pleistocene animals have disappeared from this region, and the modern species have not found their way to these islands, for since the very general subsidence which exterminated the former species, there has been no connection between the islands and the continent. Beyond the proper limits of this study, between St. Croix and St. Thomas, of the Virgin Island banks, there is a remarkable basin attaining a depth of 15,000 feet (see map, Plate F), unlike any other 370 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII. feature in this region. But the col at the head of the valley connecting it with the channel leading to the Atlantic basin is submerged only 6,402 feet, or about the same depth as the cirque of St. Lucia, or the indentations within the lines of the Windward Islands, and consequently this St. Croix indentation can be brought within the same investigations of changes of level as the Antillean Chain. By the rise of the land to this amount the migration of South American mammals could have even reached the North American continent. Such was the explana- tion of the occurrence of the numerous South American types of bears found at Port Kennedy, near Philadelphia, upon the remains of which Professor E. D. Cope was at work when overtaken by his untimely death, for these types had no geographical distribution that would suggest a connection with South America by way of Mexico and Central America. In conclusion, I must thank the many kind friends, whom we made in all the islands, for their lavish hospitality, so that our scientific trip was converted into a social holiday and a pleasant memory never to be forgotten. PLATE I. FiGure 1.—View of the Valley of Cul de Sac. Beach on which is built the town of Philipsburg, with salt pond in rear, Island of St. Martin. FIGURE 2.—Pelican Point, St. Martin, with sea rolled_boulders, some four;feet long. era |? ya Mie a PLATE II, FIGuRE 1.—The ‘‘ Quill’ of Statia, from Brimstone Hill, St. Kitts. FIGURE 2.-—G/ac?s of volcanic ashes, dissected by rains, St. Kitts. FIGURE 3.—Monkey Hill, and town of Basseterre, St. Kitts. rea. IOUT, FiGuRE 1.—Harbour and City of St. John’s, Antigua. FIGURE 2.—Coast of Antigua, near Hodge's Hill (on the right). RvAcie els FIGURE 1.—Brimstone Hill, 700 feet high, on the flanks of the volcanic ridge, St. Kitts. FIGURE 2.—Grand Savanna and Mountains, Dominica. FIGURE 3.—Layou Valley, Dominica. PLATE V. FIGURE 1.—Roseau Town and Valley, Dominica. Morne Bruce in foreground (40o feet high). FIGURE 2.—Nearly joins Fig. 1 at AB. Sloping terraces back of Town. FIGURE 3.—Roseau Valley, from Morne Bruce. Renae WIL FIGURE 1.—View of the north-western side of Martinique. FIGURE 2.—View near St. Pierre, Martinique. FIGURE 3.—The Pitons, St. Lucia. leyeNauo; W/E Buccament Valley, St. V incent. PLATE VIII. + COPRINGTON Gotrest, B'nos: FIGURE 1.—View about Codrington College, Barbados. FiGuRE 2.—East Coast of Barbados, showing Terrace at 150 feet altitude, and fallen masses of coral rock. i reds ye ay | * PLATE A. SOMBRENO L vise Pin ae oe a] oso wa soz 2007 ish we de y 09-Gs “5 2 (38150 jy 5 at 5 brkohs MAF" oy 2 By SO 2 ae oa a9 a2 7 r “ ey 5 ry, 23 20 w Co 40 aN wos 20 5 ; (tes) BAB AS BAN Ie, q22 38 20 eas plute coruland wand 26 ay | B29 I Ba GOL 22 = \ PA zo 419 a 42 yea i ae ak Shonfe Sul ce ea PS. 220, (See plan onYOU)145 SCALE— 24.5 English miles to one inch; heavy contours in feet fathoms of six feet. 2 stown® BER rie ny ABS S? BARTHO 29-24 26 329 ‘st CHRISTOPHERSIL. S72 36a 275Brstist 355 320 33a uo sO 235 c20 U5 320 =-NEVIS British) 305 All the maps (F, A, B, C, D, E) can be joined into one. ordinary soundings in e+ BARBUDA I. (sritish) . fo (See Chart NaS) PLATE B. Go : oe bb = Soe Spanish Pt 28 PP las Re d~ Lepingeinbank ‘ ute! 140 16 eo Pe 25975 og 49 a we 39 400 Zo 418 47 49 E 45 oy 407. = f ° ae 7a 7320 “4 ie ig ite do * 5 255 wef a7 iS 9 uB iS i 7 a o_ 20 + su so * Diamond. oa Ae 7 at 7 SCALE—24.5 English miles to fathoms of six feet. ints, we gl 4 to = SZANTICUA Orns Ue) O64 HM (See Chait No 1OVG, i Yorths SI one inch ; All the maps (F, A, B, C, D, E) c heavy contours in feet ; can be joined into one. ordinary soundings in ‘ae : fl cw Mi, - igty y ; ey en °° Ut ty 'g PLATE C. Petit puviiy (See plan 1020. UFredy (See plan 1022) FY ROR MARTINION (See Chart NoL009, (Frenoh; CS fry 6 » LUCIA \CHAND ST LUCK 1346 sent 0so Ch Be, tbe, * y 114 \ oz SCALE—24.5 English miles to one inch; heavy contours in feet ; ordinary soundings in fathoms of six feet. All the maps (F, A, B, C, D, E) can be joined into one. PLATE D. ri y Ba 5 ISS s a 28 - May 300 47 $2 patel 2: onapurte R** 29 29 @ 32 29 936 25 ge Les fonts, 2s 27 2: 5 20026 1a, 93~2? nik 405 96 3 SN. es sh 87 [SS 70 co ¢. rk sh 82 : 94 ° w 63 77 P : Frcs je ; dmce oe) 37 2 é es ScALE—24.5 English miles to one inch ; heavy contours in feet ; ordinary soundings in fathoms of six feet. All the maps (F, A, B, C, D, E) can be joined into one. PLATE E. bu 1563 6 920 5 5 falda at es LEECH, SNAIL, “VORTICELLA ; 442 ‘s pe oe Worms, TADPOLE : : F sel 4'3 ae re ue BLACK Bass FRY 5 : : 444 ss PINE EXTRACTS ON FISH EGGS . F - 444 es ah 3s MINNOws, PERCH, Worms, TADPOLE < : 445 ie UL ue CRUSTACEANS, Hypra, VORTICELLA, Bass, - 446 ss MAPLE EXTRACTS ., : : : : : : ‘ , : 448 se HEMLOCK EXTRACTS : : 5 : : 5 Like} Me BRITISH COLUMBIA CEDAR EXTRACTS . C : . : ; 448 UG RED PINE, OAK, ELM. . : 5 449 RAPIDITY OF SOLUTION : : é : : : : : F : 449 FisH AT MILL ENDs . : A c : ° ; 5 c : é : 45° A STAGNANT ARTIFICIAL POOL é : : : : : : : : 451 COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF PINE, CEDAR. : ¢ : 3 : A G2; oS ee HEMLOCK BARK, CEDAR BARK . : ‘ . 453 Ss ‘ HarD Woop SAWDUST 6 c 5 : : ea G4 i 2p CONCLUSIONS BASED ON : 6 : . ; 456 EXPERIMENTS WITH WHITE PINE Bark . . : ‘ : : : : 5) AB sf ‘¢ HEMLOCK AND CEDAR BARK : : : : . 457 DECAYING SAWDUST . 4 4 : A : j : ; z 7 450) BACTERIA IN Woop Extracts . : : - : : : ; : c 458 AROMATIC. COMPOUNDS : 459 NuTRITIVE RELATIONS c 461 SAw MILL ON THE BONNECHERE | RIVER A S 5 5 : : 462 CONCLUSIONS. C : : : 4 : : : : : 465 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . : ; : - : - ae 4os Dr. CONNELL’S BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION : : : ¢ : : 466 NOTE.—The trees mentioned in the following report are: White Pine (Pinus Strobus, L.), Red Pine (Pinus Resinosus, Ait.), British Columbia Cedar (Thuya Gigantea, Nuttall), Ontario Cedar (Thuya Occi- dentalis, Linn.), Hemlock (Thuya Canadensis, Carr.), Maple (Acer Saccharinum, Wang.), Elm (Ulmus Americana Linn.), Ash (Fraxinus Sambucifolia, Lam.), Qak (Quercus Rubra, Linn), Spruce (Picea Alba, Linn), 426 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII. PART [—HisToRicaLr: THE following is a continuation of my preliminary report upon the effects of polluted waters on fish life. The work was first begun at the Dominion Biological Station, St. Andrews, N.B., in 1900, and has been continued since then at the biological laboratory of Queen’s University, Kingston, and along the saw dust beds of the Bonnechere River in the county of Renfrew, Ontario. The investigation was begun at the suggestion of Professor Prince, the fish commissioner for the Dominion of Canada, and has been carried on largely through the encouragement which he has given from season to season. The question, “Is sawdust injurious to fish life?” has been before the Canadian public for over forty years. The Frshery Act of 1858 for the two Canadas provided that fish ways should be erected upon dams that obstructed the passage of anadromous fish to their spawning grounds in the shallow head waters of rivers; and it forbade also throw- ing lime, chemicals, and other poisonous material into such rivers. It did not mention sawdust or mill rubbish, but it provided for the making of regulations by the executive, and in the exercise of this power we find that on May 16th, 1860, a by-law was passed making it illegal to throw “slabs, edgings, and mill rubbish into any river or stream which may have been leased or reserved by the Crown for propagation, or where fish ways have been erected.” This by-law was embodied in the amended Act of 1865, the clause relating to sawdust reading as follows :— “ Lime, chemical substances, or drugs, poisonous matter (liquid or solid), dead or decaying fish, or any other deleterious substance shall not be thrown into, or allowed to pass into, be left, or remain in any water frequented by any of the kinds of fish mentioned in this Act, and saw- dust and mill rubbish shall not be drifted or thrown into any stream frequented by salmon, trout, pickerel, or bass under a penalty not ex- ceeding a hundred dollars.” Immediately after confederation the Act was further amended, and a very important proviso was attached to the foregoing clause, viz.:— 1902-3. | SAWDUST AND Fis LIFE. 427 “Provided always that the Minister shall have power to exempt from the operation of this sub-section, wholly, or from any portion of the same, any stream or streams in which he considers that its enforcement is not requisite for the public interests.” Evidently the promoters of this legislation either did not feel sure that sawdust was poisonous, or they thought it just, in the interests of the lumber industry, to exempt from the operations of the eta certain larse rivers’ in (the! maritime provinces, Quebee “and Ontario. Exemptions were continued by the minister from year to year down to 1894, when they ceased by Act of Parliament. Parlia- ment itself, however, extended these exemptions down to 1899. In 1873 an Act was passed making it illegal to throw mill refuse into navigable rivers, on the ground that in some parts of the Dominion rivers once navigable had ceased to be so on account of the accumula- tion of mill rubbish. The Otonabee River in Ontario, and the La Have in N.S., were two rivers which were obstructed in this way. Most of the Eastern United States have legislated against throwing sawdust into streams containing protected fish; but so far as I have been able to discover, the promoters of the legislation have never been able to prove conclusively the poisonous action of sawdust. At any rate, the scientists of the United States Fish Commission have not been unanimous in their opinions regarding the matter. For example, in the Fish Commissioner's report for 1872-3, part i., “Inquiry into the Decrease of Food Fishes,’ Mr. Milner, one of the investigators, says (page 49): “In a number of rivers entering into Green Bay, the white fish was formerly taken in abundance in the spawn- ing season. Saw mills are numerous on all these streams at the present day, and the great quantity of sawdust in the streams is offensive to the fish, and has caused them to abandon them. In one or two rivers of the north shore (Michigan) they are still found in autumn.” In this same report another scientist, Mr. Atkins, referring to the Penobscot River, says (page 303): “The extensive deposits (of saw- dust) have in some instances so altered the configuration of the bottom as to interfere with the success of certain fishing stations; but beyond that I see no evidence that the discharge of the mill refuse into the river has had any injurious effect on the salmon. It does not appear to deter them from ascending, and being thrown in below all the spawning grounds it cannot affect the latter.” 428 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. In the Fish Commissioner’s report for 1872-3 and 1873-4, vol. I., we meet with another confident statement, but no proof. Mr. Watson, in an article on “ The Salmon of Lake Champlain and its Tributaries ” (page 536), says: “The sawdust stained and polluted the water, and the sediment and debris of the mills settled largely on the gravelly bottoms, which had been so alluring to the salmon, changed their character, and revolted the cleanly habits of the fish.” Four vears after this the Commissioner inserts in his report (1878) a translation of an article by Professor Rasch, of Norway, on “ The Propagation of Food Fishes”: “ That the rivers on which there is con- siderable cutting of timber gradually become more and more destitute of salmon is an undeniable fact; but while it is asserted that the saw- dust introduced into the river from the saw mills causes the salmon coming from the sea either to forsake the foster stream because of meeting the sawdust, to seek another river not polluted, or else when the fish attempts to pass through the areas quite filled with sawdust then this by fixing itself in the gill openings, or between the gills causes its death, yet later experience seems to entitle us to the assumption that sawdust neither causes the salmon to forsake its native stream, nor pro- duces any great mortality among the ascending fishes. The hurtfulness of the sawdust to the reproduction of the salmon is not so direct, but is exceedingly great in this, that it partly limits and partly destroys the spawning grounds of the river.” In his report for 1879, the Commissioner gives a translation from another Norse writer, W. Landmark, on “The Propagation of Food Fishes.” This scientist mentions four objections to sawdust :— 1. “Sawdust gradually sinks to the bottom, and thus fills the very place where the fish eggs are to develop, with impure and injurious matter.” 2. “ When eggs are brought into contact with sawdust or any other rotting wooden matter for any length of time, the eggs are overgrown with a species of fungus, which invariably kills the germ.” 3. “When the water rises and causes the masses of sawdust which have gathered-in the river to move, a large number of young fish are carried away with it, and are gradually buried in the newly-formed piles of sawdust.” In a foot-note he says: “It has been said that saw- dust will drive the salmon entirely away from a river, but I think that 1902-3. | SAWDUST AND FIsH LIFE. 429 this is very improbable, and could only be possible in cases where a river has been completely filled with it.” 4. “The refuse from the saw mills, in many places, interferes with the fisheries.” For the next eight years we find little or nothing in the reports of the United States Fish Commissioner regarding the ill-effects of saw- dust. In an appendix to his report for 1887, entitled “ Fisheries of the Great Lakes in 1885,” we find the following expression of opinion from Hugh M. Smith and Merwin Marie Snell: “The fishermen appear to be considerably hampered in their operations by the presence of great quantities of drift wood and sawdust from the mills. At times this debris covers the lake (Michigan) for miles around, and very seriously interferes with the seining and netting. The most disastrous effects, however, are seen on the fish themselves, especially during the spawning season. Spawning grounds formerly existed in this vicinity, but they have been deserted for some years owing to the deposit of sawdust thereon.” On November 29th, 1888, there was started in Forest and Stream a very remarkable correspondence, which lasted nearly a year. The general topic was the effect of sawdust upon trout. The writers lived in Canada, the New England States, and some in the west as far as California. Both sides of the question were presented with great vigor. Most of the correspondents were evidently keen sportsmen and close observers of nature, and the only regret one feels in reading through these letters is that some of the men did not test their ob- servations and conclusions by experimenting with sawdust. The following is a typical letter :— A CENTURY OF SAWDUST. Editor FOREST AND STREAM. I was delighted with the intelligent way in which your correspondent ‘‘ Piscator ” handled the sawdust question in your issue of December 27th. It is a comfort to listen when a well-informed person speaks, but in these days of callow pretension experience is usually elbowed back from the front. In my opinion the famous Mill Brook, of Plainfield, Mass., which has a record ofa century asthe finest trout water in the Hampshire hills, supplies those very conditions and corroborative data which ‘‘ Piscator ” declares are essential to determine what pernicious effect the presence of sawdust has upon the denizens of mill streams. Here is a water power which carried no less than thirteen manufactories fifty years ago. These included a tannery, a sawmill and factories for making brush and broom handles, whipstocks and cheese and butter boxes, all of which discharged, more or less, sawdust and shavings into the streams, to say nothing of three satinet factories and a felt hat factory, whose waste must have been deleterious to fish life. 430 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. Most of the buildings have since been destroyed by fire or tumbled into pieces by decay, but the old foundation, walls, and dams remain, and untold tons of tanbark and sawdust still cover the beds of the abandoned mill ponds knee deep, all of it in a perfect state of preservation, as I happen to know from wading the stream last summer. Nevertheless, the brook continues fairly stocked with small trout, despite the supple- mentary fact that it has been unmercifully fished ever since the memorial days of the ** Mountain Miller,” fifty fingerlings per rod being not unusual now for a days’ catch. Besides, at no time within my recollection have there been less than three sawdust-pro- ducing mills on this stream at once, so that it may be asserted that its waters have not been normally clear for a century. Where the current is rapid and the water broken by ledges and boulders, the presence of the sawdust is scarcely perceptible, but at mill- tails, and in the basins above the dams, it accumulates in quantity and remains, becom- ing water soaked and sinking to the bottom. Obviously, in localities where the entire bottom is imbedded by sawdust, fish can neither spawn nor feed ; but it happens that such deposits do not form on their breeding places, nor is the area of their foraging ground appreciably diminished by their presence. Even in the half-emptied and now useless ponds, the current constantly scours out a central channel through the sawdust, leaving the bottom clear and pebbly ;. so that, in fact, these local beds are of no more detriment to the fish than so many sub- merged logs. The trout can range far and wide without encountering them at all. Yet, strange to say—that is, it must seem strange to those persons who take it for granted that sawdust kills fish—the most likely places for the larger trout are these self-same pebbly channels in the old ponds, along whose edges, despite a hundred freshets and ice-shoves, the persistent sawdust and tanbark lie in wind-rows so deep that the wader feels as if he were going to sink out of sight whenever he puts his foot into the yielding mass, every movement of which stirs up a broadening efflorescence which spreads for rods away, distributing itself throughout the stream. From these sawdust beds I can always fish out three or four good trout with a cautious fly, and at certain times the surface is fairly dimpled with breaking fish, which presumably are after larvz and insects which the sawdust has harboured, though careful investigation might discover other inducements for their congregating there. In passing I would remark that this Mill Brook is fed by seven lateral brooklets, which tumble into it from the adjacent hillsides at intervals between dams, and are so effectually protected by overgrowth that they must always serve as prolific breeding places, secure from predatory birds and small boys, as well as places of refuge to trout which wish to escape the sawdust of the main stream. I have seen trout streams, especially in the pine barrens of Northern Wisconsin and Michigan, which were by no means as favoured as this Mill Brook, the current being comparatively sluggish, and not so capable of purging itself of sawdust ; yet I know ot few trout streams in any lumber region where its denizens cannot avoid the sawdust if they will, by withdrawing to the headquarters or lateral tributaries, provided fishways are supplied to enable them to sur- mount the dams where the accumulations chiefly occur. What I remark as most singular in the Mill Brook is, that the trout gather most where the sawdust is thickest, both on old mill sites and on sites where mills are running now. I take my best trout right from under the flume of a whipstock factory and sawmill, where the refuse is dumped as fast as it forms. But I recall to mind a still more striking example of the innocuousness of sawdust. There are in Hampshire county, Massachusetts, a series of three large natural reser- voirs, varying from half a mile to two miles in length, which for fifty years have abounded in pickerel, perch, eels, and bullheads, It is said that they originally contained trout, but the water is dark and discolored 1902-3. | SAWDUST AND FISH LIFE. 431 by the drainage of spruce and cedar swamps. At the outlet of the lowest pond once stood a village called Hallockville, which operated a grist mill, sundry sawmills, and what was then the largest tannery in Massachusetts. It was burned in 1846 and never rebuilt, and the dams and foundation walls are now almost destroyed and buried by a new growth of forest. But the sluice and flood stream below are still clogged with the sawdust and tan bark deposited a half century ago, and the water is black and for- bidding, though much broken into swirls and rapids by boulders and ledges. But for the colour of the water, it is a most likely-looking place for trout, though it has been tested time and time again without successful results. It has always been maintained, from the date of the building of the tannery, that there were no trout in it. I used to fish it myself when I was a boy. Last summer I took therefrom five small trout with a worm. They had doubtless worked their way up from the Buckland streams below, for they never came through the dam from the pickerel ponds above. Nevertheless, the lower streams are occupied by many sawmills, and carry their proportion of sawdust, that substance which some of your correspondents maintain is fatal to fish life. I leave your readers to draw their inferences, and trust that Mr. Fred. Mather will feel himself sustained by this testimony of the streams. That gentleman is not apt to make mis- takes. He is grey with the experience of years, and that is better than guess work. WASHINGTON, December 29th. CHARLES HALLOCK. In this same year (1889) a very remarkable report on this subject was sent to the Hon. C, H. Tupper, the Minister of Marine and Fisheries, Ottawa, by W. H. Rogers, late Inspector of Fisheries for Nova Scotia. The report did not appear among the State papers, and it was consequently published in Halifax under the title of “ The Suppressed Sawdust Report.’ No one can read this pamphlet without being staggered with the mass of information which is supplied to prove the harmlessness of sawdust, and the marvel is that the Minister did not order a thorough investigation to be made into the whole subject. Of course, diametrically opposite views were expressed by other fishery officers, in whose judgment, no doubt, the Minister had perfect confidence. For example, Mr. S. Wilmot, the Superintendent of the Dominion Fish Hatcheries, wrote a very vigorous report denouncing the deadly effects of sawdust, and his opinions were certainly entitled to some weight. But there was this marked difference between the reports of the two officers: Mr. Rogers’ was bristling with facts and observa- tions based evidently upon first hand knowledge of the subject, whereas Mr. Wilmots’ report showed no close acquaintance with it. Turning again to the reports of the United States Fish Commis- sioner, we do not find any further reference to sawdust until 1892, when Mr, Hugh M. Smith again reports upon “The fisheries of the Great Lakes.” At page 404 he says :—“ At first white fish and trout were both abundant. . . . Since 1881 or 1882 they have been com- paratively scarce. . . . The gill-net fishermen lay the blame on the small meshed pound-nets. The pound-net fishermen, on the other hand 432 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. threw the responsibility on the saw mills and the gill-net men. The saw mills, they say, pollute the waters with sawdust and vegetable refuse, and the gill-net men lose a great many nets, which with the fish in them soon decay and become a putrid mass, which contaminates the fishing grounds, and causes the fish to leave for other places.” Comparing this with his report for 1887 it will be seen that Mr. Smith refrains from asserting any ill effects from sawdust, and places the responsibility for such statements upon the fishermen. A similar remark applies to the International Fish Commissioner’s report for 1893, and to the report of Mr. Richard Rathbun in 1899 on the “ Fisheries in the Contiguous Waters of the State of Washington and British Colum- bia.” “ Attention,” he says, “has been especially called to the Skagit river, on whose banks there are numerous shingle mills, from which a very large amount of refuse is allowed to enter the water. According to the statements of the fishermen in that region this practice has caused a great deal of damage to the spawning grounds of the salmon and has affected the fishery in other ways.” Coming to 1899 we find a very important report from the Dominion Fish Commissioner, Professor Prince, and one from the Deputy Com- missioner for the Province of Ontario, Mr. Bastedo. Both reports command attention from the fact that they take opposite sides upon the sawdust question. Professor Prince says: “So far as our present knowl- edge goes, sawdust pollution, if it does not affect the upper waters, the shallow spawning and hatching grounds, appears to do little harm to the adult fish in their passage up from the sea.” . . . “ There is no case on record of salmon, or shad, or any other healthy adult fish being found choked with sawdust or in any way fatally injured by the floating particles.” Again, in summing up his conclusions upon all forms of pollutions : “In the first place it is evident that circumstances modify the effects of all forms of pollutions, so that waste matters which would be deadly in one river will pass away and prove of little harm in another, where the conditions are different. In the second place it shows how varied are the effects of various waste products under the same conditions upon different species of fish. Salmon will survive unharmed where shad and gasperaux would be killed off. Further, these notes indicate how little is actually known of the effects upon fish life of these various pollutions from accurate and thoroughly scientific experiments.” Contrast with this Mr. Bastedc’s opinion as published in his report 1902-3. | SAWDUST AND FISH LIFE. 433 for the same year: “There can be nothing more destructive of fish life than the depositing of sawdust in the rivers and lakes. It is said to absolutely kill all vegetation, and it is well known that in waters where there is no vegetation fish life is noticeably absent. Minute crustacea of various kinds feed upon the juices of the plants which are to be found at the bottom. These afford food for the smaller fish, and again these furnish food for others of larger size.” Such was the state of our knowledge in 1900, when at the sugges- tion of Professor Prince, I undertook some experiments at St. Andrews, N.B., for the purpose of ascertaining whether or not sawdust was injuri- ous to fish life. PART I].—EXPERIMENTAL. The results of these experiments were published in the report of the Minister of Marine and Fisheries, Ottawa, in 1901, and went to show that brook trout were not injured by living for two weeks in a water tank largely filled with sawdust, so long as a copious supply of water was allowed to run into and out of the tank. These results were abund- antly corroborated this summer (1902) in a series of experiments carried on for several weeks in the biological laboratory of Queen’s University, Kingston. Perch, rock bass and black bass fry were all used. In fact, the tests this season were, if anything, more exacting than they were in 1900. The volume of pine and of cedar sawdust used was 20 per cent. of the whole volume of the tank, and both adult fish and black bass fry (these latter only about six weeks old and an inch long) were kept for four or five days in the mixture, without any apparent injury. When, however, sawdust was allowed to lie in still water, or in very slowly running water, entirely different results were obtained. Then, the most disastrous effects followed the immersion of different animals in the poisonous mixture. Not merely did adult fish die in it, but fish eggs, fry, aquatic worms, small arthropods, animalcules and water plants. Nor was the cause of death due to suffocation from lack of oxygen, because when air was made to bubble rapidly through the solu- tion the final results were the same, the only difference being that death was somewhat delayed. Noone could paint too vividly the deadly effects of strong solutions of pine or cedar sawdust when soaked in standing water. Adult fish died in two or three minutes ; fish eggs ina few hours; fry and minnows in from ten to fifteen minutes ; aquatic worms and insects, eight to twenty-four hours; aquatic plants, a few days. Every living thing died in it, and if one were to judge of its 434 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. (Vor, AVAL effects by laboratory experiments alone, then the prohibitory legislation needs no better defence. Without anticipating further the results of these experiments, I shall proceed to describe them, so that the reader may be in a position to draw his own conclusions, if he differs from mine. THE SINKING OF SAWDUST. As regards the sinking of sawdust, the following experiment was typical of a large number which were carried out, in order to determine how much and how quickly sawdust sank after being thrown into the water at the tail end of a mill. A litre measure was filled up to 900 c.c. with tap water, and then 100 c.c. of moderately packed pine sawdust was poured upon the water. The moment the sawdust touched the surface, particles began falling to the bottom, and continued to fall for nearly twenty minutes. During this time the water had penetrated 100 c.c. of the floating sawdust, and this volume of it began to sink very slowly ex masse. Figure 1 represents the conditions in the experiment at the end of the 20 minutes. No less than 70 c.c. of the sawdust lay at the bottom ; 100 c.c. were between the 700 and 800 goo ¢.c. marks, and about 20 c.c. only were float- ing. The 100 cc. of sawdust at the beginning of the experiment had swollen 700 C.C, to nearly 200 c.c. On giving the vessel a slight tap, the 100 c.c. of water-logged sawdust, lying between the 700 and 800 seo c.c. marks, suddenly upset and most of it sank to the bottom. The large parti- cles, however, rose again to the top, so Sawdust floating BOONE Ce 20 C.C, Sawdust sinking 800 c.c. Too C.Cc, 600 C.Cc. 400 C,C, CC. . . va that in less than three minutes more, only 200 €.¢. 30 c.c. were floating, and the rest, swollen to 170 c.c., were lying at the bottom. 70 C.C. 100 C.C, Sawdust sunk The following conclusions are based FIG. 1. upon the results of many similar experi- Litre measure at end of 20 minutes. ments: From 50 per cent. to 80 per cent. of white pine sawdust sinks in standing water, in from two to three minutes. The variations in quantity and time depend upon, (1) the size of the particles (2) upon the manner 1902-3. | SAWDUST AND FisH LIFE. 435 in which they are made, (3) upon whether the water is perfectly still or agitated, and (4) upon whether the particles are dry or moist. Large particles sink much more slowly than small ones, because the latter are more easily penetrated through and through by the water. Dust made with a hand-saw sinks more slowly than sawdust made with a large mill saw. The difference seems to be due to the difference in the force with which each is made. A large upright or circular lum- ber saw strikes the log with great force, squeezes out the imprisoned air from the wood fibres, renders them denser, and as a consequence they sink more quickly than particles of a similar or smaller kind which have been made by a hand-saw. When water is slightly agitated, sawdust thrown upon it sinks more quickly than when the water is perfectly still. Consequently, in the swells of a steamer, in the waves made by wind, and in the ripple of a slight rapids, all the sawdust excepting the largest particles would sink to the bottom in a few minutes. If thrown into a rapidly flowing stream, sawdust is carried down- wards until it reaches comparatively still water, and then the finer particles sink ; the coarser may be carried for miles and miles down a river and out into the bays of a lake or sea. In laboratory experiments the coarser particles would float for days, because the water is unable to penetrate the fibre and displace the imprisoned air, which gives to wood its buoyancy. Wood fibre is, of course, heavier than water, and therefore sinks ; and pine logs would sink much more quickly than they do only that the water cannot pene- trate their interstices and drive out the air. Yet they do sink in con- siderable numbers, as every lumberman knows. Hardwood logs cannot be floated to market at all, because the water of the cell-sap permeates them, rendering them heavier than water and they sink. A very simple experiment illustrates how pine logs sink after being in the water some time. Throw a piece of black- board crayon into a dish of water. At first it floats, but soon bubbles of air escape from the chalk, and in a few moments it sinks to the bot- tom. So is it with sawdust and logs. Sawdust from cedar takes a longer time to sink than that from pine. In fifteen minutes 66 per cent. only had sunk, probably because it contains more resin and consequently water-logs more slowly. Maple 436 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VIL: sawdust ranged half way between pine and cedar—66 per cent. sinking in eight minutes. Elm sawdust differed from pine, maple, or cedar in that only about 30 per cent. sank in twenty minutes ; 75 per cent. of oak sawdust sank in six minutes. So that as far as my experiments went the different kinds ranged as follows : oak sank most quickly, then white pine, maple, cedar, elm. But it must be remembered that the particles in my experiments differed from each other in size and in the moisture they contained, and consequently different results might easily be obtained. The important point is that all kinds sink in a few min- utes, especially in agitated water, but not, of course, in a stream with anything like a rapid current. EXTRACTS FROM SAWDUST. The first experiments of the season were performed for the purpose of determining the effects of sawdust upon fish eggs. The St. Andrew’s experiment had shown that adult trout were not injured by sawdust in rapidly running water ; but two other points remained to be determined : (1) Whether sawdust killed fish eggs, and (2) whether it destroyed the food of young, or full grown fish. Perch eggs were collected along the shallows of Collins Bay, just west of Kingston, and brought to the laboratory on May 12th. They were placed in a clean aquarium with a stream of tap water (from Lake Ontario) running into and out of the vessel. On the same day a bag made of bleached cheese cloth, and filled with a peck of white pine sawdust was placed in an aquarium, 40M%in. x I5in. x 164%in. It was weighted with stones to keep it on the bottom. Water entered the aquarium very slowly, so that the conditions of the experiment ap- proximated somewhat to those in the pools of a sluggish stream. Next morning it was noted that asa result of the bag of sawdust being in the aquarium all night, the water had dissolved out a_suf- ficient amount of material from the sawdust to turn the bottom layer of water a yellowish brown color. This layer measured 13¢in. in a total depth of 16% inches. Above the yellowish brown layer, and EEE separated from it by a well-defined surface, the water was as clear as that of Lake Ontario. Only about $ths of the bottom of the aquarium ra TTI IIT eee 1902-3. | SAWDUST AND FIsH LIFE. 437 was covered by the bag ;its upper surface stood about halfan inch above the brownish liquid. These conditions are represented in figure 2, Four batches of eggs were placed in the aquarium at 10 a.m. of the 13th of May, viz.: two batches on the very bottom of the aquarium in the brownish water, and two on the surface of the bag of sawdust, well within the clear water. Next morning at 9.00 a.m. every egg in the yellowish brown water was dead ; and every egg in the clear water was alive. Assuming that the brownish water was a saturated solution of material extracted from sawdust, two other solutions were made from it, —one of 25 per cent., and one of 50 per cent. strength, in tap water. Fresh batches of eggs were placed in each of them. In twenty-four hours the eggs in the 25 per cent. solution were all alive; half of those in the 50 per cent. solution were dead. In twenty-four hours more some of the fry had hatched out, but eggs and fry in both solutions were all dead. In order to ascertain whether the death of both larve and fry was not due to lack of oxygen, rather than to poisonous extracts dissolved from the wood, air was made to bubble rapidly through some of the brown water. This experiment was begun at 12.30 p.m., and 800 c.c. of air per minute were passed through 230 c.c. of the discoloured water. At 5.30 p.m. of the same day, a batch of 60 eggs was placed in this aérated water, and air was passed continuously through it all night at the rate of 400 c.c. per minute. Next morning at 10 a.m. every egg in the batch was dead. The conclusion, therefore, is quite clear. The eggs were killed, not by lack of oxygen in the water, but by the poison contained in the water and evidently dissolved out of the sawdust. The water had changed during the night to a much darker shade of brown. This marked change in colour will be discussed in a sub- sequent report. SOURCE OF POISON. The source of the poison given off by sawdust is undoubtedly to be found in the contents of the wood cells. Sugar, starch, oil, resin, gum, jelly, alkaloids, and acids are all examples of material stored in different parts of plants. In the older parts of trees the protoplasm and sap disappear com- pletely from the cells, and they may then contain nothing but the 438 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. stored material. In the pine family there is stored in the wood and bark cells an abundance of crude turpentine and resin. The Norway spruce of Europe furnishes in this way turpentine and Burgundy pitch. The yellow pine of the Southern United States yields spirits of turpen- tine by distillation of the crude turpentine which runs away from the tree by cutting intoit. The residue after the distillation is resin. Now the poisonous material in sawdust must be either the cell wall or the stored material. It cannot be the cell wall, for this is just the wood fibre or material used in making paper, and pure paper is cer- tainly not harmful to fish life. The poison can scarcely be anything else than the turpentine and other substances stored in the cells. Different trees, such as tamarack, pine, cedar, spruce, etc., generate and store different kinds of reserve material. When a log from one of these trees is cut into boards, the sawdust gives off proportionately much more poisonous matter than the slabs, edgings and bark. The reason of this is easily understood. As each cell or vessel is micros- copic, and contains only a very small quantity of poison, and as the cell wall must be broken open in order to let out the contents, it follows that the greater the number of cells that are opened, the greater will be the quantity of turpentine, resin, etc., poured out. Hence, a saw log converted into sawdust, or ground into shreds, as in a pulp mill, gives out the maximum of poison; whereas a similar log sawn into boards, edgings and slabs, will give out a much less quantity. The minimum will be given out by a saw log floating in the water. The total waste in manufacturing saw logs into boards is some- times stated as equal to the lumber obtained for market ; but this is a gross exaggeration. Prominent manufacturers like the Rathbun Co., W.C. Edwards, M.P., and J. R. Booth estimate the waste as varying between 25 per cent. and 35 per cent. of the whole log. The proportion of refuse varies with the size of the logs, with the kind of lumber into which the log is cut, and with the kind of saw used in the mill. The old-fashioned gang saw and the large circular saw produce a higher percentage of waste than the more modern band saw. There is more waste in cutting a log into inch boards than into 3-inch deal, and small logs produce proportionately more waste in bark, slabs and edgings than large logs. The waste in sawdust alone varies from 10 per cent. to 20 per cent. 1902-3]. SAWDUST AND FISH LIFE. 439 PULP INDUSTRY. There are other industries in Canada, which in preparing their products for market grind up plants and trees, and thus let out their cell contents. One of these is the pulp industry—likely to become very extensive in the near future. Two processes are in vogue in this indus- try. In one, the logs are macerated with chemicals, the mills being known as sulphite mills. In the other process, the logs are ground into shreds in what are known as mechanical mills. Both processes liberate the greatest possible quantity of stored material from the wood cells, and if this material is equally poisonous with that liberated from saw- dust, then the waste water discharged from a pulp mill should be much more poisonous than from a sawmill. The St. Andrew’s experiments determined the percentage of poison from a sulphite mill which is fatal to fish life, but, so far as I know, the percentage of poison from a mechanical mill has never been determined. A provisional conclusion, however, may be based upon some of the experiments to be described later in this paper. BEET SUGAR INDUSTRY. The manufacture of sugar from the maple and from the beet depends upon the fact that sugar is one of the reserve materials stored in the cells of these plants. In order to liberate the sugar from the beet roots they must be thoroughly ground into a mash, so as to rupture the cell walls. The more effectively this is done, the higher is the percent- age of sugar obtained from the beet. It is easily conceivable that the water that escapes from beet sugar factories may contain matter that is poisonous to fish life. Professor Prince called attention to both these sources of pollution in his report for 1899, and they are referred to now merely for the pur- pose of emphasizing the fact that other industries may pollute the streams of Canada to even a greater extent than lumbering. In all three industries the source of pollution is. the contents of the wood or plant cell. There is a similar action going on in nature all the time. Leaves, branches, and trunks of dead trees are decomposing continuously ; their cell contents are being dissolved in rain and melting snow, and are in part carried away in streams and rivers. The only difference is that in 440 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. this latter case the poisons come away so slowly that air (oxygen), sun- light, and bacteria have ample time in which to change their poisonous character ; whereas in the saw mill, the pulp mill, and the beet sugar factory, the poisons are quickly discharged into running water, and tend at once to produce their effects upon fish and other life. STRENGTH OF SAWDUST EXTRACTS. As already explained, the first experiments were made with solu- tions obtained by soaking white pine sawdust for at least twenty-four hours in tap water from Lake Ontario. When the sawdust was soaked for four days in tap water, 1,000 c.c. of the yellowish-brown solution already described as oozing out from the bag of sawdust, and lying at the bottom of the aquarium, yielded 1,240 milligrams of solid matter after evaporation in a platinum crucible. The ash from this weighed 80 m.gs., which was found to be exactly the same as that from tap water. Deducting this from 1,240, leaves 1,160 m.gs. as the weight of the material stored in the pine cells of the sawdust, and dissolved out in 1,000 c.c. of water in four days. After filtering off the first water, and adding fresh water to the same sawdust, and allowing the mixture to stand five days longer, it was found that 1,000 c.c. of this second solution yielded a total of 360 m.gs. of solid, or allowing for the ash in tap water, a net residue of 260 m.gs. of reserve material was dissolved out the second time. The corresponding figures for cedar (Ontario) sawdust were as follows :— 1. Solid from 1,000\c.c. soaking four days...--.-..--...-- 1,300 m.gs. 2. Same sawdust with first water filtered off, fresh water added and allowed to stand five days .... ......, =550 m.gs. 3. Same operations repeated, soaking five days ........ = 350 m.gs. No allowance is made in these figures for the ash from tap water, viz., 80 m.gs. These figures indicate clearly enough that the reserve material stored in the wood cells comes away in diminishing quantities every time fresh water is added to the sawdust. The next point sought to be determined was the number of times that fresh water could be added to a fixed weight of sawdust and con- tinue to produce solutions which would be poisonous to fish life. For 1902-3. | SAWDUST AND FIsH LIFE. 441 the purpose of getting information on this point two series of experi- ments were carried on, one with cedar sawdust and one with white pine. EXTRACTS FROM CEDAR (ONTARIO). On the second of June 400 grams of cedar sawdust were placed in a cheese-cloth bag and sunk to the bottom of a small glass aquarium (12 in. x 8 in. x 6 in.) containing 7,000 cc. of tap water. Next day. there had formed at the bottom, to a depth of two inches, a dark yellow- ish brown solution. The uppermost four inches were tinged a light yellow by diffusion, but there was a perfectly distinct surface of a greyish colour separating the upper from the underlying dark water. These characters became still more marked during the week, at the end of which time 1,400 c.c. of the lower liquid were siphoned off into a shallow circular dish and a perch weighing seventy grams immersed in the solu- tion. In thirteen minutes it was lying on its back moribund, but revived when returned to fresh water. The control animal was kept twenty-four hours in 1,400 c.c. tap water in a similar vessel and then returned to the aquarium. A perch weighing twenty-five grams was placed in 400 c.c. of this extract and air bubbled rapidly through it all the time. In twenty- eight minutes it was dead. The control animal in tap water under similar conditions was alive at the end of seventy hours. Three Daphni@ in this extract died within two hours. Fresh water Hydra died almost instantly in it. Paramcecia were unaffected by either cedar or pine extracts. These scavengers were often observed apparently feeding upon the dead bodies of Hydra that had died in the poisonous extracts. On the 13th, all the water was poured off and fresh water added. On the 14th, a perch weighing seventy grams was placed in 1,400 c.c. of the solution formed during the preceding twenty-four hours. It was moribund insix minutes. With air bubbling rapidly through some more of this solution, another perch placed in it was moribund in seven minutes. Pond silk appeared to be unaffected by an immersion of four days in this water. June 15th. A perch moribund in fourteen minutes in a third solu- tion—all the water being poured off and fresh added. 442 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vo.. VII. June 16th. A perch moribund in eight minutes in a fourth solution from the same sawdust. June 16th. A perch moribund in ten minutes in a fifth solution formed by soaking this same sawdust in fresh water for seven hours. June 17th. A perch moribund in ten minutes in a sixth solution. With air bubbling through more of this solution, another perch moribund in twenty-one minutes. June 18th. A perch moribund in twelve minutes in a seventh solu- tion. The water was poured off twice to-day, making an eighth solution. June 19th. A perch moribund in eight minutes in a ninth solution, At I1 a.m. a pond leech was placed in this solution. It had eighteen young ones, five large and thirteen small, attached to its back. Three of these young at once detached themselves from the mother’s back. The adult showed every symptom of discomfort by swimming rapidly round the vessel, then pausing and rolling itself up into a wheel as if to escape the effects of the water. It tried to leave the vessel, but was put back again. Gradually the smaller young detached themselves from the mother until only two or three of the smallest (about 44 inch in length) remained on her back. The larger young ones were about an inch long, but when extended they were an inch and a half. Finally the smallest dropped off and wriggled about with the others on the bottom. The mother came to rest in about three-quarters of an hour. The young were all dead at 4.30 p.m.; the mother was moribund at 6 p.m., and died during the evening. Two pond snails lived just twenty-four hours in this solution. The larva of an aquatic insect lived five and a half hours in it. At 11.30 a.m. three bunches of vorticellz were placed in the solu- tion. Their cilia at once stopped moving in all the individuals, and they assumed the spherical form. By 5 p.m. most of these animals had dropped from their stalks and lay quite motionless at the bottom of the glass. Apparently they were dead. Returned them to fresh water, but found them all apparently dead next morning. A bunch of embryos of the pond snail placed in this extract at 5.30 p.m. to-day were all found dead the next morning. June 20th. Placed a perch weighing seventy grams in 600 c.c. cedar 1902-3. | SAWDUST AND FIsH LIFE. 443 water drawn off for the eleventh time; air bubbling through it very rapidly. Moribund in ten minutes. Placed in this extract about a dozen worms gathered from the mud in water about three feet deep. These animals were massed together and lying among the roots of aquatic plants. The moment the solution touched them they separated all over the bottom of the watch glass, wriggling in all directions and voiding their faeces. In three hours they were all dead. So were two small phyllapod crustaceans which happened to be along with the worms. June 24th. Placed a batch of about fifty aquatic worms in cedar extract drawn off for the twelfth time. At first great wriggling ensues with evacuation of faeces ; then constrictions occur in each segment of the body, making the animal look somewhat like a string of beads ; then the hinder end appears to disintigrate but leaves the front end living and moving ; finally the head dies. In two hours most of them were dead, but in a few the head was still alive. June 25th. At 9.15 am. placed a tadpole one inch long in cedar extract drawn off for the twelfth time. Apparentty dead in fifteen minutes, but revived in about an hour when returned to fresh water. Up to this time all experiments with cedar extract had been con- ducted with what might be considered as saturated solutions ; that is, the solution used was siphoned off from the bottom of the aquarium where the sawdust was ]ying and where the dark colour showed the extract to be the strongest. From this date the experiment was varied by throwing out all the water, filling up the aquarium with fresh water and allowing the bag of sawdust to float at the top of the water. In this way the solution was uniform in colour and strength throughout the aquarium. The animals were then as a rule placed in the aquarium and usually swam about below the floating sawdust bag. June 27th. Mr. Halkett, an officer of the Department of Marine and Fisheries, arrived to-day from Belleville, bringing with him about 100 black bass fry. The weight of one of these of medium size was found to be 135 milligrams ; its length one inch. _ Placed two of these fry in cedar extract drawn off fourteen times. Both appeared to be dead in two minutes. Placed in fresh water they did not revive. June 28th. Two black bass fry in cedar extract drawn off sixteen times from the same sawdust, died in two hours. 444 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vo-. VII. June 30th. Changed all the water on the cedar sawdust to-day no less than five times. Immediately after adding the fresh water black bass fry were placed each time in the aquarium, and in each case the animal was dead in from half an hour to forty minutes. July 7th. The last experiment with this sawdust was performed to- day. The water was changed this morning at 9 a.m. for the thirty-first time, and immediately afterwards a black bass fry was immersed in it. It swam about below the floating bag which contained the sawdust. The odour of the cedar was scarcely perceptible in the water. The strength of the solution was, of course, increasing all the time. At II a.m. the fry was dead. Some of the water that was drained off from the sawdust at 9 a.m. was found to contain 235 m.gs of solid matter per 1,000 c.c. Allowing for the residue after ignition, there would still remain 155 parts per million of poisonous extract dissolved out of the cedar cells in the thirtieth withdrawal. This is quite remarkable when it is remembered that the sawdust had been soaking continuously for five weeks, and the water on it changed thirty times. Comparing the solid in this solution with that in a saturated solu- tion ‘already given, viz., 1,240 per 1,000 c.c., we conclude that there has been a continuous withdrawal of poisonous extracts from the cedar. The question, therefore, of whether a river is polluted with sawdust or mot, simply becomes a question of determining the quantity of sawdust poured into a known volume and flow of water, and the further question of determining whether the resulting solution is poisonous enough to kill fish eggs, fry, adult fish or fish food. Warm water was found to extract the poison from wood cells much ‘more quickly than cold water. EXTRACTS FROM WHITE PINE. The general effect of pine extracts upon fish eggs has already been described. It only remains to point out some special effects under varying conditions. One of these is that eggs live longer in aérated sawdust water than in unaérated. This is quite clear from the following experiment: At 9.45 a.m.of May 18th, two batches of eggs were placed in pine water at the bottom of the aquarium. At 5.30 p.m. every egg but two was dead. At 11.15 a.m. of May 17th two batches were placed in pine water through which air was bubbling at the rate of 400 c.c. per minute. At 1902-3. | SAWDUST AND FisH LIFE. 445 9.45 a.m. of the 18th, twenty out of one batch of thirty-three were dead ; and in the other, thirteen out of seventy-three were dead. At 5.30 p.m. of the same day all of the first batch of thirty-three were dead, and only seven were alive in the other. The effect of aérating the pine water was made apparent in another way. At 10.25 a.m. of the 18th, 120 eggs were placed in pine water ina shallow dish so that the water was only three-eighths of an inchdeep. At 5.20 p.m. only a few were dead ; all the rest were very quiet. At 9 a.m. the next morning forty-seven were dead ; at 6 p.m. all were dead except five. At 10.30 a.m. of the 20th four of these five had hatched out and were quite lively. This experiment shows that the large surface exposed to the air absorbs oxygen, and therefore tends to prolong the life of both larve and fry. In contrast with this it is interesting to note that the same quantity of poisonous water put into a tall jar at 6 p.m. of the 19th had killed every egg in a batch of nineteen by 10.30 a.m. the next morning. In this case, the depth of the water and the small surface exposed to the air prevented the diffusion of the oxygen downwards to the eggs, lying at the bottom of the vessel. There can be no doubt that fish instantly perceive the poisonous character of pine or cedar extracts. A minnow was placed in the large marble aquarium already described, and being driven to one end of the vessel, it sank through the clear water and into the yellowish brown extract lying at the bottom. The moment his head touched it he started towards the surface. I drove him back several times, and each time he sank into the coloured water he made frantic efforts to escape from it. He refused finally to be driven into it. Immersed in the pine extract in a separate vessel the minnow was moribund in three minutes and could not be resuscitated in fresh water. A perch placed in goo c.c. of pine water, in a shallow dish, was moribund in three minutes. Another perch in pine water with air bubbling rapidly through it lived three and a half hours. Two limicolous worms died in thirty minutes; two rotifers lived only ten minutes. One tadpole half an inch long lived two hours. Another tadpole of the same size died in half an hour in a weak solution. A similar animal in strong cedar extract lived only six minutes. A copepod placed in it at 11 a.m. was alive at 3.30 p.m., but died during the early evening. 446 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. iViou. Vaile Daphnia and the larva of an aquatic insect lived three days. One hydra immersed at 10.40 a.m. was dead at 5 pm. Its body was partly disintegrated and many paramcecia appeared to be feeding on it. Another hydra on being placed in the extract contracted its tentacles, detached itself from its support, contracted the lower half of its body, voided the intestinal contents, and appeared to be dead in two hours. It revived in fresh water. A colony of vorticelle at first showed no signs of discomfort ; the cilia kept on moving, and the stalks contracting spirally. Soon the stalks ceased their movements; a little later the cilia stopped; the animals took the spherical form and within one and a half hours all were apparently dead. A rock bass weighing seventy grams when placed in 1,300 c.c. of the extract became moribund in twelve minutes. All of the fish revived in from five to twenty minutes when returned to fresh water. A perch weighing thirty grams when placed in a jar containing 400 c.c. of the pine water with air bubbling rapidly through it was moribund in ten minutes. June 16th. Up to this time my experiments with this extract had been made with strong solutions. To-day a series of experiments were begun for the purpose of ascertaining, if possible, how long the same sawdust would continue to give off poisonous solutions when the saturated water was drained off and fresh water added from time to time. With this end in view 360 grams of white pine sawdust were placed in a cheese cloth bag at 9 a.m. and sunk to the bottom of a small glass aquarium, I2 in. x 8 in. x 6 in., containing 7,000 c.c. of tap water. Two hours after, 800 c.c. were siphoned off from the extract at the bottom of the vessel. This was found to be very slightly poisonous to adult fish. Next morning at 10 a.m. 800 c.c. more were siphoned off. A rock bass lived in this one hour and twenty minutes. Another fish lived six hours in it when air was made to bubble rapidly through it. The third and fourth withdrawals of 800 c.c. each were thrown away. June 21st. The larva of an aquatic insect lived twelve hours in the extract drawn off for the fifth time: vorticellae lived twenty hours, limi- colous worms twenty hours, a pond snail seventy hours. The sixth and seventh withdrawals were thrown away. June 27th. The eighth withdrawal of 800 c.c. made by soaking the pine eighteen hours, killed a perch in three hours, and three black bass fry in half an hour. 1902-3. | SAWDUST AND FIsuH LIFE. 447 June 30th. A slight modification was made in this experiment. In place of siphoning off the strong extract at the bottom of the aquarium, the whole 7,000 c.c. of water were drained off, and the aquarium was filled up with fresh water. The weights were removed from the bag: which at once rose to the top of the water. Consequently the extract coming off from the sawdust, being heavier than the fresh water, fell towards the bottom and became uniformly diffused throughout the vessel. This was the twelfth withdrawal. Black bass fry lived five hours in this water, which was, of course, becoming more poisonous all the time. July 7th. The last experiment with this sawdust was made to-day. The bag is still floating. The water was changed for the twentieth time at 9 p.m. last evening. At 9 a.m. to-day a black bass fry was immersed in this solution. In two hours it was dead. Some of this solution was evaporated and was found to contain 160 m.gs., or, allowing for the re- sidue after ignition, eighty parts per litre. That is, pine sawdust soaking continuously since June 16th, with the water on it changed twenty times furnished in twelve hours eighty parts per million of poisonous extracts from its wood cells. Comparing these figures with those for a saturated solution already given, viz.,1,160 parts for 1,000 c.c., we see that there has been a continuous withdrawal of poisonous material from the sawdust. The question, therefore, of determining whether any stream is polluted with pine saw- dust or not is largely the question of determining the minimum amount of sawdust extracts which will kill fish eggs, fry, adult fish, and fish food. Needless to say, such determinations would have to be made for every sawmill stream in Canada, and for each separate kind of fish. OTHER Woop EXTRACTS. A number of experiments were made with extracts from other woods besides pine and cedar. Norway, or red pine, British Columbia cedar, maple, hemlock, oak, ash, elm were all used, but it was soon dis- covered that the most poisonous extracts were obtained from tie pines and cedars. Consequently experiments with the hard woods were soon discontinued. From all hard woods, however, the saturated yellowish-brown extract was found to be very poisonous to both adult fish and fish eggs. The following experiments give typical results in the case of each of these woods. 448 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. MAPLE SAWDUST. A dark orange liquid oozed out from maple, and lay at the bottom of the aquarium. This was separated from the clear liquid above by a perfectly well-defined greyish surface. At the top of the water (16%4 inches deep) intake and outflow pipes allowed tap water to flow into and out of the aquarium at the rate of 600 c.c. per minute. A perch having sunk into this extract once or twice could not afterwards be driven into it. The animal soon found where the fresh water inlet was, and when driven to other parts of the aquarium would always come back to the fresh water. Aquatic plants in maple extract lost their chlorophy] in three days. Returned to fresh water they regained their colour, but the tips of their leaves had died. HEMLOCK SAWDUST. Hemlock has always had a bad reputation, but does not deserve it. On July 27th, six black bass fry were placed in a mixture of five volumes of water to cne volume of hemlock sawdust. The vessel was covered with four layers of cheese cloth, and a copious stream of water was made to fall upon it from a tap about a foot above it. The fry were all alive and well at the end of three days, when they were returned to the aquarium. As a control experiment, five black bass fry were kept for the same length of time in the same volume of water, viz., 600 c.c., with air bubbling through it all the time. These animals also were quite lively and well at the end of the experiment. BRITISH COLUMBIA CEDAR SAWDUST. This sawdust sank rapidly, 75 per cent. falling to the bottom of perfectly still water in two minutes. It gave off a very poisonous extract. Two black bass fry lived only one minute in a solution made by standing five and a-half hours. The colour was a beautiful amber with a strong smell of cedar. A solution made by one gram of saw- dust standing in 500 c.c. water for three hours rendered a black bass fry moribund in two hours. A solution from one gram in 750 c.c. water for twenty-seven hours, killed another fry in two and a-half hours. Even as homeopathic a solution as one gram in 1,500 c.c. killed fry in less than eighteen hours. If much of this sawdust is poured into British Columbia streams, 1902-3. | SAWDUST AND FIsH LIFE. 449 the stockholders of British Columbia Fish Canning Co’s will need to look closely into the future prospects of their industry. NORWAY, OR RED PINE. Within three minutes, 90 per cent. of the sawdust from this wood had sunk. A strong solution made in eighteen hours rendered a black bass fry moribund in one hour. This water when aérated, but not filtered, rendered another fry moribund in exactly the same time. In both cases the gills of the animals seemed to be affected by fine particles of the wood fibre clinging to the filaments and preventing re- spiration. This was not observed to be the case with any other kind of sawdust. A solution made by soaking one gram of this sawdust for nine hours in 250 c.c. of water killed a fry in less than an hour. Another fry lived fifteen hours in a solution made by soaking one gram in 850 c.c. water for six hours. OAK. Contrary to expectations, oak sawdust was not so poisonous as pine and cedar. It communicated an orange colour to the water just as other woods did. A tadpole lived three days in a strong solution, and was quite lively at the end of that time. ELM. A few experiments were made with elm sawdust. Here again a dense yellowish-brown layer forms at the bottom of the aquarium. This kills adult fish in from half an hour to two hours. A tadpole lived over an hour init. When this water was thoroughly aérated a perch lived twenty hours in it, and was then active and apparently well. EXTRACTS QUICKLY SOLUBLE. The experiments hitherto described would seem to indicate that some considerable time was required for the water to dissolve out the poisonous extracts from white pine sawdust, but such is certainly not the case. This was clearly shown in the following experiment, Fig. 3. Two minnows were confined in a bottle containing 600 c.c. water and eighteen grams of white pine sawdust. Fresh water was made to enter and leave at the rate of 100 c.c. per minute. The inlet tube passed straight to the bottom of the vessel, and its lower end was therefore buried in about an inch of sawdust. One animal lived forty minutes, the other fifty. When the incoming water was reduced to 80 c.c. per minute three 450 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vox. VII. - minnows lived only from three to five minutes. Outlet. When the fresh water entered at the rate of 125 c.c. +" per minute, minnows lived from twenty to ninety ===? Inlet. minutes. The control animals were kept for a week in a similar bottle, without sawdust, of course, and with water coming in at the rate of 110c.c. per minute. In these experiments the poisonous extracts must have been coming away all the time. The moment the bottle was full of water the minnows were slipped into it. Consequently, when the fish were killed in five minutes, the 600 cc. at first in the bottle, and 400 c.c. additional water were poisoned. When they were killed in ninety minutes, no less than 11,250 c.c. were poisoned. That is, the percentage weight of sawdust to poisoned water was .16 per cent. This determination is important, as we shall see later, when we come to compare it with the percentage of sawdust thrown into the Bonnechere River. FIG, 3. FISH AT MILL-ENDS. Millmen and anglers alike testify that many kinds of fish are taken by hook and line at mill-ends, no matter how excessive the sawdust may be. The sawdust does not kill the fish so long as there is a rapid and abundant flow of water. Why do fish thus congregate at mill-ends? To answer this question we must remember two things: first, rapidly running water is better aérated than sluggish water ; and secondly, some fish, such as trout and salmon, ascend streams until they reach suitable spawning grounds, or are stopped in their ascent by high falls or mill- dams. In ascending a river these fish are but obeying a law of their nature ; in congregating at mill-ends they are equally obeying a law of their nature,and are instinctively seeking water which furnishes their blood with a plentiful supply of oxygen. This instinct is well illustrated in the experiment just described in Fig. 3. The experiment was repeated a number of times, and in every instance the fish discovered where the fresh water came in. In one instance, in order to get close to the in- coming water, a minnow stood on its head for fifteen minutes with more than half of its body buried beneath the sawdust. It was thus acting under the impulse of two fundamental instincts, viz., the instinct to avoid poisoned water on the one hand, and to seek fresh water on the other. The experiment seems to throw light upon the experience of anglers who have found that trout desert the main stream when saw mills are running, and betake themselves to the unpolluted branch streams lower down. 1902-3. | SAWDUST AND FIsH LIFE. 451 ro A STAGNANT ARTIFICIAL POOL. Reference has already been made to the fact that black bass fry, minnows and perch, when placed in an aquarium, invariably avoided the poisonous sawdust water at the bottom. Having sunk into it once or twice, it was found almost impossible to drive them into it again. Here was a conflict between two fundamental instincts. On the one hand was the natural instinct to hide in deep water ; on the other hand, the equally natural instinct to avoid the poisonous solution at the bottom. Which instinct would the fish obey if compelled to make a choice ? The following experiment was designed for the purpose of seeing which instinct was the more powerful, and for the further purpose of imitating what might possibly occur in a stagnant pool along the course of a sawdust polluted stream. A glass aquarium 12 in. x 8 in. x 6 in. was placed in a much larger vessel and a mixture of ice and salt packed in the latter so as to sur- round the aquarium. The aquarium was then half-filled with white pine extract which had been forming for three weeks, and which killed adult fish in from one to three minutes. After the extract had been cooled down to 8° c., tap water at the tem- ori perature of 13° c. was slowly admit- é Taco _ os ee ted to the aquarium so as not to ai ays: ie disturb the underlying poisonous water. The tap water, being warmer, floated clear and transparent on the dark purplish extract below. The clear water entered and left the aquarium at the rate of 150 c.c. per minute. The arrangement of apparatus is represented in Fig. 4. At first two minnows were placed in the aquarium. They at once dove to the bottom, encountered the poisonous water, immediately came up again, repeated the operation a few times, and finally remained swim- ming about in the clear water. Three black bass fry, liberated one after the other, went to the bottom and never came up—suffocated and poisoned in the dark stagnant water at the bottom. Of two other minnows dropped into the aquarium, one large one never came to the surface ; the other joined its fellows in the clear water above. All three soon found the end at which the fresh water was entering and remained there facing the stream. This experiment shows what might possibly happen in pools parti- 452 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. ally filled with sawdust. Wood extracts would form, and being cooler and heavier than the clear water, would lie at the bottom of the pool. Of course, fish already in the pool would be driven away, but those coming up or down stream through shallow stretches, and trying to hide in the deeper waters of the pool, might be suffocated or poisoned. COMPARATIVE RESULTS. After obtaining the general results detailed in the preceding part of this paper, it seemed desirable to plan a series of experiments that would show comparative results at a glance. With this end in view, two grams each of different kinds of sawdust were placed in shallow circular dishes containing respectively, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, gO0O, 1,000, 1,200, 1,500, and 1,700 c.c. of fresh water. After soaking for about five hours in each case, a minnow was placed in each of the dishes. The length of time each animal lived was carefully noted, ex- cept in those cases where death occurred during the night. The results are given in the following tables :— WHITE PINE SAWDUST. Weight of | Volume Time Time at which minnow Resnies Sawdust. |Waterc.c.| Scaking. was immersed, SSEUSL From 2 grams. 300 10 a.m. 2.43 p.m. Lived about 9 minutes. oe 400 ce oe ae “ee os 500 ce e “cc “6 oe 600 “ec oe oe oe ae ‘ ‘ “e “ec 700 f : ‘ “ 800 ue ss ** To minutes. oe e oe iad oc 900 I oe 1000 “ce “e ce Fe “e “ | 1200 «6 “6 “ 20 “6 oe 1500 e oe “e 2 oc oe 1700 ce “e “ce 29 ac ONTARIO RED PINE. i 2 grams. 300 10 a.m. 2.47 p.m. Lived 47 minutes. oe 400 ay “e “ce 50 “e “et 500 “ ce “ec 50 ce se 600 oe ae «« 1 hour and 28 minutes. ee “ce “ce “ee “e ce 700 I I oe 800 ce “e “ee I ce a oe “é goo “e ce “ce ] «ce 53 é ‘s 1000 ee OG ‘¢ 2 hours and 20 sé oe 1200 «ec “ce oe 2 “ec 50 ce “e ae ec ae ay 66 2 1500 ; 3 45 ‘ 1700 ‘ ae oe 3 oe 45 ae 1902-3. | SAWDUST AND FISH LIFE. ONTARIO CEDAR. Weight of | Volume Time Time at'which minnow Results: Sawdust, |Waterc.c.| Soaking. was immersed. From 2 grams, 300 10 a.m. 2.33 p.m. Lived 8 minutes. 66 oe oe ce ce ae 400 se oe oe 9 ce oe ae ce “ce ae oe e tole) 20 es 700 ce ce oe 21 oe 6é 800 “ce ce ce 22 ce ce goo ce ae ce 27 ac oe 1000 “ec ee “oe 27 “ec by 1200 os us Shouts a 1500 “ ge 1 and asiminutes: inf 1700 ia) oe 6é I ce ce 55 oe BRITISH COLUMBIA CEDAR. 2 grams. 300 |10.15 a.m. 2.51 p.m. Lived 6 minutes. ce 400 sce “ce ae 6 ing 6s 500 6é ims ce 15 “ec “ce 600 ee 6é | “ec 53 ce cc 700 ae oe | oe “ce ae 800 te as ‘« 1 hour and 9 minutes. Ge goo ee Gt | Jumped out of dish unnoticed. ss 1000 ce Se Lived 1 hour and 32 minutes. oe 1200 ec oe ce I “oe 36 “6 be 1500 oe oe “ec 3 ae 50 ee oe 1700 oe “ec “ce 3 ce 29 ce HEMLOCK BARK. Bark. 2 grams. 300 |10.10 a.m. 2.36 p.m. Lived 55 minutes. a 400 os a “* 1 hour and 32 minutes. o¢ “e ae ae oe “6 oe ae cs oe ce : “oe i cc a 700 as ‘ SS) 2ehours. os 800 ss és “« 1 hour and 32 minutes. rs goo ae GG Jumped out of dish unnoticed. 1000 es “s Lived 2 hours and 18 minutes. oe 1200 “ee (a4 ce 3 oe 24 oe oe 1500 “oe ae ce 4 oe ce 1700 ce cay ce 4 “e 15 ce 454 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, [Vot. VII. Harp MAPLE SAWDUST. F Vv . : pfouawe eeare lwatedeelRsoitnes | wcotnineaaenns Re From July rs5th. 2 grams. 300 10.38 a.m. 3-30 p.m. Lived 2 hours and twenty minutes. July 15th. ‘S 400 z sé July 21st, 1oa.m._ Still alive. as 500 es sh ‘« 16th. Died last night. <6 600 ee ue oo 21st, toa.m: Stillvallive: “ 700 ae a «16th. Died last night. oe 800 ss ss So 21Steeloaeime Stllvalives 3 goo . ss Lived only 2 hours. i 1000 a as July 18th. Died between 4 p.m. and 8 p.m. ts 1200 sf #s Lived 3 hours and 30 minutes. ee 1500 es “ July 18th. Died between 4 p.m. and 8 p.m. oe 1700 og < “SS 20th: sDiedisip-m: This experiment was discontinued July 21st, 10 a.m. ONTARIO CEDAR BARK. | 2 grams. 300 |10.20 a.m. 2.41 p.m. Lived 37 minutes. se 400 es Se ‘¢ 1 hour and 20 minutes. os 500 ss Ef se 50 minutes. ae 600 es GG ‘« -50 minutes. os 700 ag a ‘« 1 hour and 20 minutes. ae ae “6 ee ce ce : 800 I 31 ‘ goo oe “ce “ce I oe 40 “ee ce 1000 “ae “ce “e I ac 57 ae ee 1200 OG es <2 hours 10 ee oe 1500 oe ae ce 4 ce “ce 1700 “se ce ce 4 “oe 20 ce ELM SAWDUST. 2 grams. 300 |10.44 a.m. 3-30 p.m. Lived 4 hours and 30 minutes. July 15th. “s 400 sf os Died toa.m. July 16th. =a 500 Oe “ Lived 1 hour and 30 minutes. a 600 on a ‘« 2 hours and 30 we a 700 “s ss ‘« 1 hour and go ss on 800 +f ne July 21st, 10oa.m. Still alive. goo yy «« 78th. Died last night. ss 1000 rs ss “« 2ist. Died last night. “ 1200 ee ae Lived 1 hour and jo minutes, a 1500 oe uf ‘« 4 hours and 30 oe a 1700 Se ss «« 1 hour and 30 oY This experiment was discontinued July 21st, 10 a.m. 1902-3]. SAWDUST AND FISH LIFE. 455 Oak SAWDUST. Weight of | Volume Time Time at which minnow Results Sawdust. |Waterc.c.| Soaking. was immersed. Since July 23rd. 2 grams. 300 |10.15 a.m. 2.30 p.m. Lived 2 hours and 30 minutes. of 23rd. sé 0o se 66 66 2 6c fe) “ce ee ues oe “eé ce 3 oe 3 oe ee 600 oe ce oe 7 ee 30 ce ce 700 oe oe ee 2 “eé 20 “ce A Me . f One lived 2 hours and 20 minutes. 820 giaminials \ July 24th. Died last night. Fe Ke ; ? { One lived 7 hours and 30 minutes. ae aaaimals \July 24th. Died last night. HS 1000 es ie July 25th. Jumped out unnoticed. a 1200 ub os ‘¢ 30th, gp.m. Stillalive. Released. a 1500 oe e Lived 3 hours and 30 minutes. 3 3 uy 1700 eg * July 25th, 3 p.m. Dead. ASH SAWDUST. 2 grams. 300 =|10.48 a.m. 3.30 p.m. July 21st, 10a.m. Still alive. of July 15. July 15th. ae 400 ss ‘s Lived 1 hour and 30 minutes. oe 500 a ss July 21st, 10oa.m. Still alive. es 600 ss ae Lived 1 hour and 40 minutes. on 700 gs cs ‘« 2 hours and 10 se mg 800 a a July 21st. Died last night. us goo +4 cs Lived 1 hour. by 1000 Se Re July 21st, 1o a.m. Still alive. 1200 es uG «« 2tst. Died last night. ut 1500 ub es «2st, 1Ioa.m. Still alive. es 1700 re ie “« joth. Died to-day. This experiment was discontinued July 21st, 10 a.m. HEMLOCK SAWDUST. 2 grams. 300 |I0.15 a.m.| 2.30 p.m. July 26th, 9.30a.m. Dead. of 23rd. July 23rd. “6 400 6 ce ia ce “ec < 500 fe se July goth, 9a.m. Released. e 600 “e “ce se oe sé oe 700 “6 a3 “c «6 “ a 800 & < July 26th. 9.30a.m. Found dead. oh goo ss sf Lived 45 minutes. we 1000 us og July 26th, 11 a.m. Dying. My 1200 on ss Sez othya.00.) 3 Dead: + 1500 es fs Lived 1 hour and 45 minutes. a 1700 ae a July 26th, 9.30 a.m. Dead. 456 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII. SPRUCE SAWDUST. Weight of | Volume Time Time at which minnow Sawdust. |Waterc.c.| Soaking. was immersed. Results. 2 grams. 300 |10.30 a.m. 2.40 p.m. Lived 3 hours and 30 minutes. of 23rd. July 23rd. a 400 es “f July 24th, 9.30 a.m. Found dead. oc 500 ee ce “ec “se «ce oee 600 oe ce ce 26th, “ ce ce 700 “ce oe ce 24th, ae ce ee Ke : iW f July 24th, 9.00. Dying. 800 2 animals Vane deaths a Found dane a goo ie FE July 26th, 9.30 a.m. Found dead. ss 1000 ss ss goth, g.00 a.m. Released. “e 1200 eo ce ae oe Dying. es 1500 WY es ‘¢ 27th, 7.30p.m. Dying. ss 1700 ny oy «« 26th, 9.30 a.m. Found dead. The reader will, of course, understand that in all experiments due. allowance must be made for constitutional differences in individual fish. Some men survive the effects of cold, hunger or poisonous drugs longer than others. In the same way some species of fish, and some individuals in each species, are naturally more hardy than others, and can survive in poisoned water a longer time. Some are more delicately organized and are, therefore, more easily killed. For example, black bass fry lived longer than minnows in some of my experiments. Conse- quently too much importance must not be attached to the exact number of minutes or hours that a fish will live in any given strength of sawdust solution. When we are dealing with vital phenomena, all we can con- sider is the general average of a number of experiments. Keeping this in view, some conclusions may fairly be drawn from the foregoing results. 1. White pine sawdust is by all odds the most poisonous substance. 2. Next comes Ontario cedar. 3. Then British Columbia cedar. 4. Red pine, cedar bark and hemlock bark are moderately poisonous. 5. Maple, oak, ash, elm, hemlock and spruce may all be grouped together as only slightly poisonous. EXPERIMENTS WITH BARK. From the frequent references to the pernicious effects of bark which may be found in the literature of sawdust pollution, one would naturally 1902-3. | SAWDUST AND FIsH LIFE. 457 expect to find that bark solutions were very destructive to fish life and fish food. The very opposite was found to be the case. Compared with the wood extracts, the bark solutions were comparatively harmless. Even tan bark, much execrated by fishermen and anglers alike, was not so poisonous as one might expect, but the experiments must speak for themselves. WHITE PINE BARK. a Only 11 per cent. of sawdust from this bark sank in ten minutes. A black bass fry seemed perfectly unharmed after being three hours ina solution of this bark that had been forming for twenty-two hours (one gram in seventy-five c.c. tap water). The animal was then returned to the fresh water aquarium. This same bark, after soaking two weeks, gave a solution that killed solely by suffocation. This was quite apparent from the fact that two minnows when placed in this water (freely aérated) lived for fwenty-four hours and were then liberated. When the solution was unaérated the minnows died in an hour or two. Pouring the solution several times from one vessel to another aréated it sufficiently to enable two minnows to live three days in it without apparent harm. After standing six weeks a scum formed on the surface. This was removed and the solution aérated by pouring it several times from one vessel to another. A minnow now lived in it for two days and was liberated, apparently as well as ever. HEMLOCK BARK. A solution made by soaking one gram of this sawdust bark for fifteen hours in 100 c.c. of tap water killed a minnow in six minutes. After soaking for two weeks this water killed a minnow in one hour, even when thoroughly aérated. But these were very strong solutions compared with the ones obtained from wood. CEDAR BARK. Only 5 per cent. sank in fifteen hours. In two days it had all sunk excepting about I percent. A I percent. solution (one gram in 100 c.c.) made in fifteen hours, rendered a minnow moribund in fourteen minutes. Here again the solution was a very strong one compared with those obtained from wood sawdust and used in the experiments previ- ously described. 458 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, [VoL. VII. As bark extracts, therefore, are not more poisonous than those from pine and cedar woods, it seemed useless to conduct separate experi- ments upon their effects. DECAYING SAWDUST. One objection frequently urged against the practice of throwing sawdust into streams and rivers is that the decaying sawdust imparts suclhy a disagreeable odour to the water that sensitive fish are driven away to other waters not so polluted. It seemed to me, therefore, that some progress might be made towards a definite conclusion in this matter, if sawdust were allowed to stand for several weeks in an aquar- ium and tested from time to time as to the changes going on in it, and the influence of these upon fish. With this end in view about 1,000 grams of white pine sawdust were placed in an aquarium three feet four inches long, fifteen inches wide, and filled up to sixteen and a half inches deep with fresh water. This was done June 24th. No water was allowed to enter or leave the vessel. No direct sunlight fell upon it. The usual results followed, viz., a well defined layer of pale, yellow water one and three-quarter inches deep formed in a few hours and lay at the bottom. On top of this was the perfectly clear layer about fifteen inches deep. After soaking for two days, bubbles of gas began to rise to the sur- face of the water, but no attempt was made to analyze it. The bottom yellowish layer had become so dense that no object could be seen across it—a thickness of fifteen inches. Its upper surface was sharply marked off from the overlying transparent water by a thin greyish layer. Microscopic examination of this layer showed it to be swarming with bacteria. At the end of a week, only about an inch at the bottom had retained the original yellow colour ; the next inch had changed to a yellowish brown ; then came a greyish layer about one-sixteenth of an inch thick ; above this, what had at first been fourteen inches of perfectly clear water had turned to a dark grey, though still quite transparent. Black bass fry placed in the aquarium at this time at first sank to the bottom, but after meeting the poisonous extract once or twice could not subse- quently be driven intoit. On the contrary they swam along the top with their nose just touching the surface of the water, and behaved as if suf- fering from lack of air. They lived only about two hours. 1902-3. | SAWDUST AND FISH LIFE. 459 Four days after this, black bass fry placed in the upper fourteen inches lived only about one hour. They also swam along the surface and appeared to be gasping for air. That they were suffocating in both cases was proved by the fact that when fry were placed in a wash bottle of this water with air bubbling through it, they lived on for twenty-four hours, and were then apparently well and exceedingly active. On being transferred from the wash bottle to the aquarium the animals at first plunged downwards to the bottom, paused there a moment, but soon came towards the surface breathing very rapidly. Evidently they were suffering from lack of oxygen. They swim along the top with noses upwards and body inclined at an angle of about thirty degrees with the surface. Gradually they tire; sink towards the bottom ; rise again ; swim convulsively towards the surface ; jump clear out of the water with gaping mouth ; become exhausted by their convulsive efforts and finally sink to rise no more. Of all the fish killed in this extract not one ever rose to the surface after death. It would be difficult to say whether this experiment throws any light upon a point much discussed in the literature of sawdust. The point is this: if sawdust kills fish, why are they not found dead in con- siderable numbers along the course of the strearn? In my experiments the dead bodies of the fish never rose out of the poisonous liquid. AROMATIC COMPOUND. The foregoing experiments show that the oxygen naturally dis- solved in the upper fourteen inches of water had, at the end of a week, all disappeared. It was used up either in supporting the life of the bacteria, or in oxidizing the wood extracts through the agency of the bacteria. Bacteria were abundant in every part of the aquarium, but especially in the underlying solution. Moreover, either by their action on the pine extracts, or by the chemical decomposition of these extracts, an aromatic compound of a sweetish pleasant smell had begun to form. At the surface the smell was faint ; but in the water siphoned off from the bottom the perfume was strong and agreeable. The production of this compound is possibly due to micro-organisms, and if the special bacterium could only be isolated and used upon the extracts without admixture with other forms, it might be possible to manufacture a per- fume from pine which many people would find agreeable. Alcohol, lactic acid, acetic acid, etc., are all formed by the action of bacteria upon vegetable substances in solution ; the quality, too, of butter and cheese is determined by the action of bacteria on the constituents of milk ; and 460 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. (VoL. VIL. it would, therefore, be only in accordance with well known facts to find that aromatic compounds, some pleasant, some unpleasant, could be formed from pine extracts by the action of different kinds of micro- organisms. Some of the bottom water was distilled for the purpose of seeing whether this aromatic compound could be thus separated from the water, but the attempt failed. The distillate had the aromatic odour of the original water, but mixed with it was a disagreeable burnt smell. This distilled water killed minnows in half an hour, both when aérated or unaérated. At the end of three weeks the uppermost fourteen inches of water had gradually become a steel grey or slaty colour and was quite opaque. The outlines of a window sash ten feet away could not be seen through it. The extract at the bottom still killed by its vegetable poison ; the slate coloured water above still killed by suffocation. At the end of five weeks these conditions were but slightly changed. In place, however, of the pleasant aromatic odour previously arising from the surface, a musty, disagreeable smell had taken its place. As the laboratory windows were always open, mosquito larve became numerous and appeared to be feeding upon the bacteria. These larve died in sawdust solutions only when prevented from coming to the surface to breathe. The water at the very bottom was still of a yellowish tinge; the uppermost was smoky or slate coloured, as already explained. About 6,000 c.c. of this slate coloured water was siphoned off from the middle, on July 31st, and placed outside of the laboratory in direct sunlight. The object of this was to compare changes taking place in the slaty water placed in sunlight and breeze, with changes taking place in the slaty water which remained in the aquarium. Dr. W. T. Connell, Professor of Bacteriology,made cultures from these two waters and compared them on three different occasions. His report which will be found in the appendix to this paper, shows that while the number of colonies from water in the shade increased from 3,435 per cubic centimetre to 7,870 per cubic centimetre ; the number of colonies from water in sunshine increased from 3,435 per cubic centimetre to 37,070 per cubic centimetre. These latter were different bacteria from the former. Sunlight and air had killed off those kinds of bacteria which flourish in shade and in absence of oxygen, and had stimulated the growth of other kinds of bacteria which flourish in sunshine and 1902-3. | SAWDUST AND FIsH LIFE. 461 moving water. As a result of sunlight, warmth and breeze, what had been exceedingly disgusting water was changed in a fortnight to water brownish in colour, without any odour, and perfectly transparent. A heavy precipitate lay at the bottom. Minnows were able to live in it, and soon made havoc with the mosquito larve. In short the water had, within the fortnight, changed to normal water, while that in the shade still retained all its disagreeable and poisonous characters. The decay- ing mass of sawdust and water was kept for three months, and up to the very last showed no improvement. Slimy, a dark slate colour, foul smelling, teeming with anaerobic bacteria and mosquito larve, it was utterly unfit to support any kind of fish life. NUTRITIVE RELATIONS. However, the connection between a few links in the chain of animal life was apparent enough, viz., wood extracts supported bacteria, bacteria supported mosquito larve, and these again (after aération of the water such as would occur in running water) supported fish life. These obser- vations dispose to some extent of the oft repeated charge against sawdust that it destroys the food of young or newly hatched fish. When min- nows relished mosquito larvze as food, and I frequently saw them eating the larve, it requires no great stretch of the scientific imagination to understand how fish fry of different kinds, such as trout and salmon, might subsist upon the larve of mosquitoes and other aquatic insects, these latter in turn subsisting upon bacteria, and the bacteria subsisting upon the organic matter derived from the decaying vegetation of the forest. Another thought comes up in connection with the presence of organic matter in streams and rivers. The organic matter which passed into a river when Canada was covered with forest must have been quite different in character from that which this same stream receives to-day from the vegetation of the farms along its valley. The surface drainage from a forest must differ in kind from the surface drainage of a farm, and the bacterial life in each must differ also. Moreover, the waters of our smaller streams were, years ago, shaded by trees, and the varieties of their bacterial life must thus have been quite different from the bacterial life in sunlit streams of to-day. Consequently, it may fairly be argued that the insect life, in and along the streams of an agricultural district, differs both in kind and number from what characterized these same streams 100 or 200 years ago.. And if larval and adult insect life has dwindled or disappeared, so must the fish life which subsisted upon it. 462 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. The Anglo-Saxon has always been a disturbing factor in the bal- ance of life. Forests, game and fish all disappear with his arrival. To get good fishing or good hunting now-a-days one must travel back to unsettled districts. No one expects game to be plentiful along the shores of Lake Ontario, but many people are amazed that fish are not abundant in it. They still hug the pleasing delusion that if brooks have been overfished, the fish hatchery can restock them. But with the disappearance of our forests it is exceedingly doubtful whether we can ever again, by all the help of hatchery, overseers and fish commissioners, re-people the streams which have been depleted by man through over- fishing and deforestation. He has upset the balance of life; it can only be fully restored by a return to primitive conditions. When game, therefore, becomes plentiful on the streets of Ottawa city, fish will be equally abundant below the saw mills of the Chaudiere Falls. Such, at least, is the conclusion to which my experiments point, notwithstanding the indisputably poisonous effects of strong solutions from sawdust near the source of pollution. As I have already pointed out the question of whether any particular stream is sufficiently polluted with sawdust to kill fish life is simply the question of determining whether enough sawdust is passed into the stream to poison its waters. The forestry engineer will soon be trained to determine the strength of sawdust solutions, and will then be able to settle this question of pollu- tion beyond the possibility of doubt. ON THE BONNECHERE RIVER. At present, however, a final judgment cannot be pronounced upon the poisonous effects of sawdust. These effects must be studied near the mills and along the sawdust beds of our rivers. A three weeks’ study of the Bonnechere river, a tributary of the Ottawa much polluted with mill rubbish, led me to modify very considerably the conclusions which I had based upon my laboratory experiments. I visited the mill represented in two of the illustrations of this report fully expecting that not one fish could survive in such surroundings. But pike were abundant for miles below the mill, and fish (chub) could be caught any day along the side of the submerged driftwood. Stranger still, the fish so caught lived for three hours in a pailful of sawdust water drawn from the very centre of a sawdust bed. A few brook trout had been caught earlier in the season just below the mill when it was running. At the date of my visit, August 20th, 1902, the mill had been closed for seven weeks and no sawdust was then passing into the river. 1902-3.] SAWDUST AND FIsH LIFE. 463 The owner of the mill furnished the following information: The water passing over the dam is a stream nineteen and a half feet wide, by one and one-half feet deep, and moving two feet per second. This would mean that about sixty cubic feet of water were passing over the falls every second. Add to this, leakage through the dam, mill, and timber slide, estimated as equal to what passes over the dam, or sixty cubic feet more, a total of 120 cubic feet per second. The total water, therefore, passing down the river in July, August and September, would average 10,368,000 cubic feet per day, and weigh 642,816,000 pounds. The mill cut an average of 375 logs per day. The logs averaged twelve inches in diameter and were chiefly sixteen feet long, but many Sawmill on the Bonnechere river, a branch of the Ottawa. Sawdust and edgings pass into the river from the end of the mill. were thirteen feet. Taking the specific weight of wet pine as .75, each log would weigh about 560 pounds. Of this weight about 13 per cent. would pass into the river as sawdust. This 13 per cent. was obtained as the average of five estimates furnished by such lumbermen as E. W. Rathburn, Esq., J. R. Booth, Esq., and W. C. Edwards, Esq. Conse- quently about seventy-two pounds of sawdust would pass into the river from every log cut into inch boards, or a total of 27,000 pounds of saw- dust per day. Expressing this as percentage of water (642,816,000 pounds) we get .004 as the percentage strength of sawdust in this water. 464 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot., VALE During the high water of April, May and June the strength of the solution would be considerably less than .004 per cent., and as chub and brook trout were caught on and off all summer below the mill, this strength of sawdust solution was certainly not strong enough to kill off all the fish, though it is quite conceivable that it might drive fish down the river into tributary streams where there could be no sawdust pollution. Comparing this percentage with that in two of the laboratory ex- periments described on pages 450 and 452 we find that in one case two grams of white pine sawdust in 1,700 c.c. of fresh water, z.¢., .12 per cent. strength, soaking for five hours, killed a minnow in twenty-nine minutes ; and in the other case a percentage of .16 killed in ninety minutes. Slabs, edgings and sawdust, half-a-mile below the mill. Of course, these figures are mere approximations, but they point unmistakably to the conclusion that the sawdust poured into the Bonnechere river is not destroying its fish life. Moreover, in Golden Lake, an expansion of this same river, and ten miles above any saw mill, lake trout used to be very abundant. Every October large num- bers were caught in nets along their spawning beds. Now these spawn- ing grounds are reported to be deserted by the fish, and certainly sawdust cannot be blamed for their disappearance. Higher up the river, in Round Lake, the October fishing is still good, solely because there are fewer settlers and less fishing. 1902-3. | SAWDUST AND FIsH LIFE. 465 CONCLUSIONS. 1. Strong sawdust solutions, such as occur at the bottom of an aquarium, poison adult fish and fish fry, through the agency of com- pounds dissolved out of the wood cells. 2. The overlying water in such an aquarium does not at first kill fish. After about a week it does kill, but solely through suffocation, the dissolved oxygen having all been used up. 3. Bacteria multiply enormously throughout all parts of such an aquarium, and through oxidation change the poisonous extracts to harm- less compounds. Mosquito larve live on the bacteria. No doubt, in natural pools, other aquatic insect larvez live on bacteria also. 4. Subsequent aération and sedimentation of sawdust water purify it, so that fish can live in it without injury. 5. Since adult fish and black bass fry both refused to be driven into pine extracts in the bottom of an aquarium after they had experienced its poisonous effects, we may infer that fish would desert a river much polluted with sawdust, going down stream and into tributaries to escape from the disagreeable influence of sawdust extracts. 6. No stream can be pronounced off hand as poisoned by sawdust. Each stream must be studied by itself and the varying conditions must be thoroughly understood before a judgment can be pronounced. The chief things to be considered are (1) the quantity of sawdust, and (2) the volume of water into which the sawdust is discharged. Subordinate conditions are the rapidity or sluggishness of the stream, the amount of sunlight or shade, and the character of the water, whether from agricul- tural lands or from primitive forests. 7. Further observations and studies along sawdust polluted streams and rivers of Canada are urgently needed before more definite con- clusions can be reached. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. Acknowledgment is due to Toronto University. the Public Library, Toronto, and the Canadian Institute, for the privilege of consulting their libraries in order to write the historical part of this report. I am under special obligations to my colleague, Prof. J. C. Connell, M.A., M.D., for the large number of minnows which he procured for me, and which were so indispensable for the laboratory experiments. 466 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. Dr. John Waddell and Mr. C. W. Dickson, M.A., both of the School of Mining, Kingston, rendered valuable aid in determining the amount of solid matter in sawdust water. The Ontario Fisheries Department facilitated my task on the Bon- nechere by instructing their overseers to assist me in every way possible. APPENDIX TO DR. KNIGHT'S REPORT ON ‘SAWDUS® AND FISH UE: BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF SAWDUST WATER IN SHADE AND IN SUNSHINE. Examination of sawdust water in aquarium made July 31st, 1902. Two agar plates made. The frst averaged 3,300 colonies of bacteria per cubic centi- metre. None of the colonies were spirilla which were present in large num- bers in direct microscopic examination of the water. The chief colonies were those of a spore bearing bacillus, a variety evidently of B. Subtilis; also a few sarcinae, particularly one like Sarcina Lutea. The second plate averaged 3,570 colonies per cubic centimetre. In general characters they were the same as in the first plate. AUGUST 4TH, 1902. Waterin aquarium. Agar plates averaged 3,570 colonies per cubic centimetre. These were in all respects like those of July 31st. Same water in sunlight since July jrst. Agar plates average 4,200 colonies per cubic centimetre. These colonies contain the same bacteria as in the aquarium water, but in fewer numbers. Further, there is present a fluorescent bacillus, making up half the number of colonies present. AUGUST 8TH, 1902. Water in aquarium. Agar plates develop 7,870 colonies per cubic centimetre. These colonies are of the same type as those found on previous plates with the addition of about 1,000 colonies of B. Mesentericus Vulgatus per cubic centimetre. Water in sunlight. Agar plates develop 37,070 colonies per cubic centimetre. These consist mainly of B.:Fluorescens Liquescens ; also of Sarcina Lutea, and an occa- sional colony of B. Subtilis. Ww. T. CONNELL, Prof. of Bacteriology. 1902-3. BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION OF MILK. 6 902-3 4 THE BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION OF MILK AND ITS CONEROE: By F. C. HARRISON, PROFESSOR OF BACTERIOLOGY, ONTARIO AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. (Read 28th February, 1903.) MILK as sold in cities, towns or villages contains a varying number of bacteria according to its age, the amount of sediment in it, and the temperature at which it has been kept. Soxhlet,’ Uhl,? Backhaus* and others have shown that the more dirt or sediment, the more bacteria there will be, and Renk* has given us some interesting experimental data on the amount and kind of filth present in ordinary market milk. This filth is largely made up of excrementitious matter, vegetable fibres, epithelial debris, hairs of the cow, dust particles, etc., and the amount of filth contained in a litre of milk furnishes a positive index of the degree of cleanliness observed in the dairy stable. Renk found the following amount of dried impurities in the milk supply of the following German cities: Leipzig, 3.8 milligrams; Munich, 9 milligrams; Berlin, 10.3 milligrams; Halle, 12.2 milligrams per litre; and Hird® found in the Washington, D.C., milk supply, 5.30 milligrams of filth per quart. Backhaus’ has also shown that 50 per cent. of fresh manure dissolves in milk and does not appear as sediment ; and therefore the weight of undried filth in all these samples would have been more than doubled. This investigator has also determined by actual tests that the daily milk supply of Berlin, Germany, contains about 300 pounds of dirt and filth. Further, many of the bacteria derived from such sources are very harm- ful, for not only are such fecal bacteria concerned in the intestinal troubles of infants, but they also give rise to abnormal fermentations in butter and cheese, producing taints, off-flavours, and decomposition products in these foods. For the guidance of the dairyman who buys milk for sale, and for the housewife, Renk‘ suggests the following rule: If a sample of milk shows any evidence of impurity settling on a transparent bottom within two hours, it is to be regarded as containing too much solid impurities. When we examine the results relative to the number of bacteria in European market milk, we are at once struck by the enormous numbers that are frequently present. 468 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. (VoL. VII. Thus, Clauss* found that the number of germs per c.c. of Wurzburg milk ranged from 222,000 to 2,300,000. The average was between one and two millions per c.c. Knopf’ found from 200,000 to 6,000,000 per c.c.in the milk of Munich. Bujwid* examined the milk of Warsaw, where there was an average of 4,000,000 per c.c. In the milk immediately after it was drawn from the cow he found 10,000 to 20,000 perc.c. In Amster- dam, Geuns? found 2,500,000 per c.c. in fresh milk. Renk! examined the market milk of Halle and found from 6,000,000 to 30,700,000 per c.c. Uhl" in 30 tests of Giessen milk found from 83,000 to 169,600,000 per c.c. In the month of June he found an average of 2,900,000 per c.c. The average in May was 22,900,000. Uhlexplains this difference by the supposition that the cows and stables were kept clean during this latter month, and there was less night’s milk mixed with the morning’s. Knochenstiern!” examined more than 100 samples of the milk of Dorpat. He divided the samples into four classes, according to their sources. The averages of the numbers in the several classes ranged from 10,000,000 to 30,000,000 per C.c. The milk supply of Helsingfors was studied by Hellens,*’ who found in samples taken in the summer from 20,000 to 34,300 bacteria per c.c., while in the winter the bacterial content ranged from 70,000 to 18,630,000 and averaged 2,111,000 per c.c. About 60 per cent. of the summer samples contained over 1,000,000 bacteria per c.c., against 35 per cent. in the winter samples. Rowland" found in twenty-five samples of London, England, milk an average of 500,000 bacteria per c.c. Sacharbekoff® examined more than eighty samples of St. Peters- burg milk. The number of bacteria ranged from 400,000 to 115,300,000 per c.c., with an average of 16,596,000. Conn" has already pointed out the fact that the market milk of American towns and cities contains fewer bacteria than are to be found in European supplies; and he has explained as the reason for this difference, the free use of ice in North America. Sedgwick and Batchelder!” examined a number of specimens of milk from Boston. They found, as an average of several tests that milk obtained in a clean stable from a well-kept cow, milked into a sterilized bottle, contained 530 bacteria per c.c.; but when the milking was done under the ordinary conditions of farm practice, the number of bacteria reached on the average, 30,500. From fifteen samples of milk obtained 1902-3. | BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION OF MILK. 469 from the houses of people in the suburbs of Boston, the average was 69,000 germs ; from fifty-seven samples from milkmen the average was 2,350,000, and from sixteen samples secured at groceries, the average was 4,577,000 bacteria per c.c. In 1901, Park’® reported on the milk supply of New York. He found that during the coldest weather the average was about 250,000 bacteria per c.c., during cool weather about 2,000,000, and during hot weather about 5,000,000. Regarding the harmfulness of these bacteria the writer cites the universal clinical experience “that a great many children in cities sicken on the milk supplied in summer, that those who are put on milk that is sterile, or that contains few bacteria, as a rule, mend rapidly, while those kept on the impure milk continue ill or die.” Leighton” determined the number of bacteria in the milk supply of seventeen dairies at Montclair, N.J., the investigation extending over a period of three years. In dairies of the most approved type the average number of bacteria per c.c. was below 15,000. Poorly equipped dairies, in which the owners had endeavoured to do their utmost to produce a pure product with the crude means at hand, gave an average of between 40,000 and 70,000 per c.c.; and in those dairies in which neither good equipment nor good intentions prevailed, the average number of bacteria was over 180,000. McDonnell® sampled 352 lots from eleven American cities. The worst samples were found in restaurants, and with small retail dealers. Twenty-eight per cent. of all samples contained less than 100,000 bacteria per c.c., while 34 per cent. had less than 500,000 per c.c. Loveland and Watson” found fn the supply of Middletown, Conn., from 11,000 to 85,500,000 per c.c. ; and milk as delivered by milkmen to their private customers in the city of Madison, Wis.,” ranged from 15,000 to 2,000,000 organisms per c.c., varying mainly with the seasons of the year. The writer examined about twenty samples of Guelph market milk, a few years ago, and found an average of 650,000 bacteria per c.c. Eckles* has made a bacteriological study of the milk supply of a creamery. He found from 1,000,000 to 5,000,000 organisms per c.c. in winter, and in summer from 10,000,000 to 80,000,000 per c.c. During the summer of 1901,” whilst investigating an affection known as bitter milk in a large cheese factory, the writer had the opportunity of analysing the milk of ninety-six patrons who delivered 470 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. milk to the factory. The results of this examination showed that the mixed milk of each patron contained from 4,000,000 to 30,000,000 of micro-organisms per c.c. Astonishingly large numbers (from 100,000 to 5,000,000) of the Colon bacillus were found in many samples. Having seen from this review of the bacterial content of European and American milk supplies, let us now examine the sources of this contamination. The bacteria which find their way into milk come from :—(1) The fore-milk; (2) The animal and milker; (3) Dusty air; (4) Unclean utensils. And, as Russell remarks, “the relative importance of these various factors fluctuates in each individual instance.” I.—CONTAMINATION FROM THE FORE-MILK. (See /7zg. 7). The constant presence of bacteria in freshly-drawn milk is a matter of considerable importance, and this fact helps to explain the ineffectual attempts to obtain milk in commercial quantities uncontaminated by bacteria. At the same time it has been but very recently that investi- gations as to the number and nature of the organisms that gain access to the milk through their localization and multiplication in the milk ducts, have been made. The first recorded experiments are those of Leopold Schultz* in 1892. He examined milk bacteriologically at the first of the milking, in the middle of the milking and at its close. This examination consisted merely in counting the number of bacteria present, and asa result, the following figures were determined :—The first milk contained from 55,000 to 97,200 germs per c.c.; the middle milk from 2,000 to 9,000 germs per c.c.; and the last milk was in some cases sterile, and sometimes contained about 500 germs perc.c. The number of germs in the last milk, he says, depended upon the quickness with which the milking was done. When done quickly, all the germs. were washed out, so that “the last milk was often, but not always, sterile.” Gernhardt” investigating the same subject found a larger number in samples from the middle of the milking than at the beginning. To explain this result, as well as to explain irregularities in the numbers, he suggested that the bacteria made their way up through the milk-ducts of the teats, through the cistern, and into the smaller ramifications of the ducts which connect the cistern with the ultimate follicles. As many of the colonies so formed are not easily removed, they are not found in the first milk, but appear later when they have become broken up by the persistent movements of milking. 1902-3. | BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION OF MILK. 471 Von Freudenreich,* on the other hand, states that when in the udder milk is free from bacteria, except when the milk glands are ina diseased condition. H. L. Bolley and C. M. Hall,” in their studies of the bacterial flora of the milk of ten healthy cows, isolated sixteen distinct species of bacteria, some of which were common to both the first and last milk, and others to only one of these. All the micro-organisms found were bacteria, and none were found which produced gas. Russell” in his text-book on Dairy Bacteriology, published in 1894, states that he has found an average of 2,800 germs per c.c. in the fore- milk, while the average of the remainder of the milk only had 330 germs per c.c. In characterizing this, he says that “the number of species is usually small, one or two kinds usually predominating to a large degree. Those that are commonly found are those that produce lactic acid, as these microbes find in milk the best medium for their growth.” Gosta Grotenfelt,?! however, in his text-book on the “ Principles of Modern Dairy Practice,” reasserts the statement of Von Freudenreich that when the milk is drawn from the udder of a healthy cow, it is germ- free or sterile. Rotch” concludes, from an examination of the bacteria found in four cows’ milk, that the bacteria do not necessarily come from external sources, but that they may also come from some part of the milk-tract between the udder and theend of the teat. The few colonies, however, obtained in the plates from the latter half of the milkings, are considered as possible contaminations between the “cow ” and the “ plates.” Moore* states that in investigations made upon this subject, he found that, in addition to the bacteria in the fore-milk, the last milk from at least one-quarter of the udder in every case contained bacteria. Conn,* reviewing this subject, says that the different results of many of these early experiments are due to the small quantities of milk taken, while in the latter experiments large quantities have been taken. He adds, “ Undoubtedly the milk-gland of the healthy cow produces milk which is uncontaminated with bacteria, but the large calibre of the milk ducts makes it possible for bacteria to grow in the duct to a con- siderable extent, so that it becomes a matter of extreme difficulty to obtain milk from the cow, even with the greatest precautions, which will not be contaminated.” Harrison,» in 1897, in a report of investigations upon this subject 472 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vo.. VII. stated. “When milking is done there remains in the teat of the cowa little milk that affords nourishment to any bacteria that may come in contact with it through the opening at the end of the teat.” The average of a number of analyses made by him shows the presence of 18,000 to 54,000 germs in the fore-milk, and 1,000 to 3,000 in the after- milk. Experiments have also been conducted on human milk by Pal- leske,*® Honigmann,®” Knochenstiern,* and Ringel,®* but all of these have independently found it impossible to get human milk from the mammary gland in such a way as to be sterile. The most recent work upon this subject has been done by Moore and Ward,” of Cornell University. They investigated the source of a gas and taint producing bacterium in cheese curd for a certain factory that was troubled with “ gassy curd.” They easily located the trouble in the herd of a particular patron. On inquiring into the history of the herd it was ascertained that at the time of parturition, the placentae had been retained by a number of cows, and these had been allowed to decompose in the uterus. It was soon after this that the “gassy curd ” began to appear. A thorough bacteriological examination located the bacilius which was the cause of the “gassy curd” in the udders of the cows of the herd; and it seemed very probable, though, of course, not demonstrable, that it had gained access to the udders from the decaying placentae. Subsequent to this, Ward conducted further experiments, and in an article on “ The Persistence of Bacteria in the Milk-Ducts of the Cow’s Udder,”*! he concludes, (1) “ certain species of bacteria are normally per- sistent in particular quarters of the udder for considerable periods of time, and (2) it is possible for bacteria to remain in the normal udder and not be ejected alongwith the milk.” These conclusions controvert the statement previously made by Von Freudenreich and Grotenfelt that the milk-ducts are always sterile at the close of milking, becoming tenanted from the outside alone by organisms which chance to come into contact with the end of the duct. The results of still later investigations by the same author are pub- lished in a bulletin on the “ Invasion of the Udder by Bacteria.” In these investigations a bacteriological examination was made of the udders of milch cows slaughtered after reacting to the tuberculin test. In all cases the udders were perfectly normal. Just before slaughtering the animals were milked as thoroughly as possible and samples of the milk taken, and a bacteriological examination made. After slaughter- 1902-3. | BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION OF MILK. 473 ing, a similar examination was made of the tissues of the udder. In all cases, even in the upper third of the udder, bacteria were found, and they were identical with those found in the milk. He concludes that “milk, when secreted by the glands of the healthy udder, is sterile. It may, however, immediately become contaminated by the bacteria which are normally present in the smaller ducts of the udder.” However, “the bacteria so far found in the interior of the udder do not affect milk seriously. This, however, does not preclude the possibility that forms more injurious to milk may invade the udder.” From the above resumé it is apparent that widely different results have been obtained by different investigators, and it has been a very interesting study to see whether the experiments conducted at Guelph would throw any light upon these divergencies in results. The plan of experiment has been as follows: For a number of days samples were taken from the fore and after milk of a number of cows on the College Farm. The samples were collected in sterile test-tubes, and previous to taking the milk, the flank, udder, and teats of the cows were thoroughly washed with a 1I-1000 solution of mercuric chloride. Gelatine plates were then made from these samples, and afterwards the number of colonies counted and the different species isolated and culti- vated on the various media. It soon became apparent that while several species were more or less constant in the udders of all the cows, yet there were many variable species present in the milk of some cows that were not present in that of others, and not even in the same udder on two successive days. Therefore, in making a systematic study, it was deemed best to confine our attention to those species that were more or less constantly present in the milk of all the cows, and to make a complete study of those existing in the udder of one particular cow. The number of bacteria present in both the fore and after milk of the various cows, and of the same cow, and even in the different quarters of the udder of the same cow, were so widely different that little stress can be laid upon an exact enumeration. The following samples, which are typical of many others, will illustrate the point : Cow No. 1. Determination 1. Kore-mulky right front teat... i022 scencacas 86,400 per c.c. ss SO many, SS. 9 ura Stas viene era ee 120,000 oe SMMNeS yy peo TON, May). wo cera nye a 40,800 - ce rote ture SSS) ees cpettorsl clea cre: 57,000 he 474 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII. Determination 2. Hore-milkjerisht front steaty eee cele eee 48,000 per c.c. a Se, SNAG pts CUR ie ecciste tanta forest tetee: 24,080 ss WS left) '“irortws* oie tie tress enes 22,400 ss gs O" volnimd’ Mas ce oave ete ckoreele ears 35,100 ss Cow No. 2. Determination 1. Bore-millke .s2rccinietareyaretere cepetn ooeeie Sererera erotik 200-500 per C.c. ANfter=mi ilk: |.) Sc ldintee ets oistetet ti cietsioks ohieieeiers 0-100 £8 The results of a large number of determinations, of which the above are typical, showed on an average 25-50,000 germs per c.c. in the fore- milk. The numbers in the strippings or after-milk varied greatly with the manner of taking. For example, when the milking was done quickly, but very few and sometimes no colonies were found in the “ strippings,”’ whereas, when the milking was done slowly and some time lost before the samples from the last milk were taken; the number of bacteria was very variable, being in one case as high as 57,000. The important point, therefore, is not the exact number, but the fact that bacteria were found in large numbers, not only in the fore, but in the middle and last milk of nearly all the cows tested. The number of species present in the udders of cows is very small. Of this number some are more or less constantly present, whereas others are very variable in their presence. Of those species which are present, the characters are in many cases so slightly marked that their identifi- cation proved a very difficult matter. In fact, with the exception of Bacillus acidt lactict, not a single species discovered was strongly characterized. A number had a very little or no effect upon milk, and even the digestors were in every case very slow digestors. B. acidi lactict (Conn No. 206), B. acid lactici (Conn 202), and B£. lactis aerobans (Conn 197) are the only ones that have been found con- stantly present in the samples, and in every case they have composed at least 95 per cent. of the germs present. The following species have been only more or less variably present, and in no cases have been found in large numbers. B. halofaciens (N. Sp.). This bacterium approaches in characteris- tics Bact. annulatum (Wright), but differs from it in several details, so that we do not hesitate to call it a new species. The name refers to the characteristic halo found in gelatin cultures. As this bacterium was of quite frequent occurrence, we made butter from cream ripened with a culture of it, and found that the flavour of the butter, while not strong was quite disagreeable. At the same time, its presence in relatively 1902-3. | BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION OF MILK. 475 small numbers, and the fact that the flavour was not strongly marked, make this an inconsiderable item so far as the “natural ripening” of such milk is concerned. Micrococcus vartans lactis (Conn 113 and 104). Conn, in speaking of this coccus, considers it one of the most important of dairy species, and suggests that it likely exists in the milk-ducts. Bacillus No. 18, Conn. This species appeared very frequently in all samples examined, but never in very large numbers. In old gelatin and agar cultures, spores appeared at the ends of the bacilli. Two cultures from these heated for ten or fifteen minutes at a temperature of 85° to 99° germinated in one day. The species is very similar to Bacillus No. 18 Conn, but differs in that growth on potato is not spread- ing, and no spores are found in potato culture. Bacillus No. 7. This bacillus was quite constantly present for some weeks, but afterwards disappeared. It seems to resemble J. cremoris (43) (B. lactis No. 9 Flugge), but differs in its effect on milk, so that it would appear to be an allied species. Bacterium No. 8. The gelatine plate colony appears very similar to No. 7, but the organisms otherwise differ, both morphologically and culturally in many particulars. Like No. 7 it appeared quite constantly for some weeks and then disappeared. B. exiguum (Wright). This bacterium was found almost con- stantly present in the milk of one of the cows tested, but was never found in that of any other. There were never more than from one to four colonies per plate present, so that its effect on the milk was very inconsiderable. Its similarity to Bact. exiguum (Wright) is most marked. Wright isolated this bacterium from water, but the fact that he found its optimum temperature to be 36° and that it is a facultative anaerobe does not make it at all surprising that it should be found in the udder of a cow. Micrococcus No. ro. This coccus comes in the same class as Conn’s 167, and may be identical with it. The most marked variations are the gelatin colony, and the fact that in no culture of this germ was there the slightest indication of a yellow colour. At the same time it agrees in morphological characters, and especially in the fact that, although a liquefying coccus, it fails to curdle milk. Like several of the forms previously described, this coccus was found to be present for some time in the samples taken, but afterwards, 476 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. (Vou. VII. in a few weeks, completely disappeared. In no cases was it present in large numbers. Comment has already been made upon the fact that by far the largest number of species determined in all the samples tested, were lactic acid species, and that other species, although more or less con- stantly present, were not invariably so, and never in very large quantities. This is a most important, practical consideration, for it means that, although by the most scrupulous care, it may not be possible to procure milk free from germ-life because of those that are present in the udder of the cow, yet the species that gain access to the milk through this source are, for the most part, beneficial ones. In Bulletin No. 21, 1900, of Storr’s Agricultural Experimental Station, Conn speaks of a method, now widely adopted in American dairies, for procuring what is known as a “natural starter.” The method consists in drawing milk, just as has been done in all the examinations we have made, into sterilized flasks, and using cultures from these as starters. Conn says, “ there can be no question that the use of natural starters thus made has been a very decided advantage to the buttermaker,’ for the reason that “the bacteria which are within the cleanly cow’s udder and thence get into the milk, are most commonly of the desired character.” There is, no doubt, some uncertainty about this method, but so far as all examina- tions conducted by us are concerned, the cultures so obtained would be good ones, being largely composed of lactic acid species. While the large per cent. of lactic acid species present is the paramount characteristic of the bacterial flora of freshly drawn milk, yet there are other peculiarities of considerable, if not equal, importance. By reviewing the description of the species determined, it will be noted in every case that, although each species would grow at room temperature, yet the optimum temperature was in the neighbourhood of 37°. This fact was well demonstrated in comparing gelatin plates, made from the general milk supply, with those made from the aseptically drawn milk. These plates cannot be kept at a temperature higher than 22°, and it was most marked that when plates from the former were quite covered with bacterial growth, those from the latter were still clear. On the other hand, when agar plates were used and kept at a temperature of 37°, the order of growth was slightly reversed. This explains facts that were noted in reference to the keeping quality of the aseptically drawn milk, as compared with that of the general milk supply; for, when kept at room temperatures, the former remained gocd considerably longer than the latter ; whereas, when kept at 37°, both became curdled in less than twenty-four hours. 1902-3. | BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION OF MILK. 477 Another marked characteristic of all the species was that they were facultative anaerobes. The anaerobic faculty was especially marked in the two species, Nos. I and 2, that were found to be so uniformly present in all the milk tested. This is just what one would naturally expect, for the conditions in the udder must be largely anaerobic conditions. In virtue of these conditions, and possibly other undeter- mined conditions, the udder, so to speak, exerts a selective action upon the bacteria which may be temporarily present in it. In this they are, of course, aided by the mechanical expulsion of bacteria in the process of milking. In order to throw a little Jight upon this problem, experiments were conducted in inoculating udders with well-marked but harmless bacteria, which could be easily recognized by their cultural characteris- tics. Bacillus prodigiosus and £. exiguum, both of which were marked by their pigment production, were the ones experimented with. Cul- tures of these were smeared upon the ends of the teats, so that the bacteria might work their way up into the udder, just as any other germ might which comes in contact with the ducts of the teat. In the case of B. prodigiosus, about 20,000 per c.c. were present in the fore-milk at the first milking eight hours after inoculation. By the third milking only a few were present, and after that it disappeared completely. The experiment was repeated with 4. ex¢guum with similar results, although a smaller number—240 per c.c.—were present in the first milking, and by the fourth milking it had disappeared. No doubt the small number was due to the fact that this germ grows more slowly than B. pro- digiosus. In view of Ward’s discovery of Bb. fluorescens liquefaciens in the udders of certain cows, it seemed advisable to attempt to colonize this germ in the udder, and a bouillon culture was smeared upon the ends of the teats of a cow in the manner already described. This bacillus was discovered in the fore-milk six hours after the teats were smeared, but was not found in the fore-milk of the second and third milkings. It does not seem probable that an aerobic bacterium of this character is able to live and compete with facultative anaerobic bacilli. Further, the optimum temperature for the fluorescing bacterium is not 37°. Possibly, by continuous experimentation, we might have finally dis- covered a species which would persist in the udder, but at the same time, the bacteria chosen have evidently fared much the same as other 478 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vo.. VII. more or less injurious forms which may occasionally find temporary lodgment in the udder. Exception, however, may occur, as we have the gas and taint producing bacillus located by Ward and Moore in the udders of the cows of a particular herd. Another fact that may have a bearing on this problem is that normal healthy organs, taken from the body immediately after death, may contain bacteria which are capable of development. Thus, Ford® has shown that 80 per cent. of healthy organs, removed from killed guinea pigs, rabbits, dogs and cats, contained living bacteria. No udder tissues were examined by him, and in order to ascertain if bacteria existed in the udder of healthy animals a few experiments were made along these lines, but they are open to criticism because it is impossible to say, with any degree of certainty, that the bacteria found came from the animal’s glands or blood, or from infection through the teat. However, by selection of cows which had been dry for several weeks before slaughter, the latter objection is to some extent overcome. The liver was examined at the same time, and its bacterial content, if any, noted. The methods employed in this work were essentially those used by Ford—a large piece of the tissue to be examined was excised with a sterilized knife, placed in a sterile jar, and immediately taken from the slaughter house to the laboratory. Small pieces of tissues were then cut from ¢he zuside of the large piece with sterilized knives, and then held in the flame of a Bunsen burner with sterilized forceps, until the whole of the outside of the piece was well scorched. The piece was then trans- ferred to beef bouillon or peptone whey bouillon, and the preparations placed in the incubator at 37°. On the fourth day gelatine plates were made from the different pieces of tissue, and the bacteria, if any, were isolated. I. An aged cow, dried up five weeks before slaughtering, udder small, with considerable fatty tissue. All organs perfectly healthy. Bouzllon. Peptone Whey. Liver ob ne Subsequent plating and sub-cultures gave :— BL. mesentéricus vulgatus. B. subtilis, and a Micrococcus, identity not established. Bouzllon. Whey Peptone. Udder ae a 1902-3. ] BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION OF MILK. 479 Plates gave colonies of :— B. subtilis. Micrococcus (sp ?). II. An aged cow, dry for some time, the butcher not knowing the exact length of time. Udder of a fair size, and well formed. All organs apparently healthy and normal. Bouzllon. Whey Peptone. Liver 4 a Plates gave colonies of :— B. lactis aerogenes. Proteus. Peptone. Whey Peptone. Udder — = III. An aged cow, dry for four weeks previous to slaughter. Udder fair size. Organs normal and apparently healthy. Bouztlon. Whey Peptone. Liver + + Gelatine plates gave colonies of :— B. subtilis. A spore-bearing bacillus, which produces no effect in milk. Bouillon. Whey Peptone. Udder a a. Gelatine plates gave cultures of :— Micrococcus varians lactts. These results, whilst agreeing with Ford’s, are not sufficiently authoritative to allow us to assert positively that the bacteria found in the udders of the two cows came from the blood or lymph stream, rather than through the teat, but in conjunction with the results obtained by Ford, they threw doubt on the supposition that all udder infection comes originally through the orifice of the teat. It is also noteworthy that a spore-bearing bacillus belonging to the sudzzlzs group, and several micrococci were isolated by Ward from udder tissue. Another fact, which is difficult to explain and which may possibly have some influence on the bacterial content of the udder in its normal condition, is the strong germicidal power of freshly drawn milk. This property was first 480 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII. noticed by Fokker,* and subsequently confirmed by Freudenreich,” and quantitative studies of freshly drawn milk, inoculated with various bacteria, show that an actual destruction of bacteria took place. This germicidal property has been shown to exist in the milk-serum, and is evidently allied to the similar bactericidal property of blood, for Brieger and Ehrlich*® and Wassermann® have found that the milk of immune animals can confer immunity. If then, this germicidal power exists in fresh drawn milk, it is certain to be present whilst the milk is still in the udder, and may inhibit or prevent the rapid multiplication of adventitious bacteria, which penetrate up the opening of the teat. Although we have fre- quently found large numbers of lactic acid bacteria in freshly drawn milk, yet the reaction of this milk is never acid. De Freudenreich* has also shown that the bactericidal power is not the same for all species, that whilst the cholera vibrio, the typhoid bacillus, and even 2. Shafferi (a colon bacillus), are destroyed in large numbers, the bactericidal action is less pronounced on lactic acid bacteria. These facts may possibly explain why the germs of the colon type are so seldom found in the healthy udder, for we know that the teats and udder of the cow are constantly brought in actual contact with particles of manure, and even the hands of the average milker are soiled with stable filth, which undoubtedly contains colon bacteria. It might be reasonably asked if the advice, commonly given to those who wish to procure milk as near sterile as possible, to milk the first few streams in a separate utensil, is good. And in reply we would say, decidedly yes, for not only is the number of bacteria in the fore- milk much in the excess of the bacteria found in the rest of the milk, but frequently the number of species found in the fore-milk is consider- ably larger than that in the after-milk. (See zg. 2). In reviewing the subject there can be no doubt that the number of bacteria present in the milk as it exists before being drawn from the udder is somewhat startling, and were nothing more than an enumera- tion of the germs given, there might be some occasion for alarm. However, a systematic study of the germs proves that, with the possible exception of rare cases, this source of bacterial life is much more beneficial than baneful to the average consumer of milk and its products. 1902-3. | BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION OF MILK. 481 CONTAMINATION FROM ANIMAL AND MILKER. A prolific source of contamination is from the animal and milker, and the following realistic statement,” describes a condition which unhappily is only too common on many farms :— “The day has gone by when a pretty milkmaid went, in clean white apron and with shining milk pail, to milk the cow with the crumpled horn, out among the buttercups on a dewy morning. Instead, some old fellow stumbles out of the house and to the barn, with the stump of a clay pipe in his mouth, and wearing overalls and boots saturated and covered with the filth acquired by a winter’s use. When he reaches the barn he selects some recumbent cow, kicks her until she stands up dripping and slimy, and as he is a little late and the milk will hardly have time to cool before the man who carries it to the city will come along, he does not stop to clean up behind the cow, but sitting down on a stool, proceeds to gather the milk, and whatever else may fall, into a pail which perhaps is clean and perhaps is not. Of such refinements as washing the udder of the cow or wiping her flanks he has never heard. If he has, it is only to scoff. Then he stands the milk behind the cows. That is bad enough, but it is not all the story. Everyone knows that in straining the milk the strainer becomes obstructed, more or less, with dirt and filth, and when the milk does not run fast enough, he would be a rare milker who hesitated to scrape away a place with his fingers so that the milk might run more freely. Those who have seen certain fingers, as I have, know what that means.” This description seems hardly credible, but when one visits an ordinary cattle stable, he is prepared to believe almost anything under this head. The hair of cows, even those that are kept very clean, swarms with bacteria. (See Fzg. 3). Many hundreds may be isolated from a few particles of hair, and this fact alone shows the importance of keeping cows clean, well carded and well brushed. When in this condition, they are not so liable to lose hairs, nor are the hairs so easily dislodged during the movements of milking. The particles of manure and filth which cling to the sides, flank, udder and tail of animals are laden with germ- life. Wiithrich and Freudenreich*®! have found far more bacteria in manure when the animals are given dry food than when kept upon grass, and the most numerous species present were the colon bacillus, the hay bacillus, and other species able to liquefy gelatine, and peptonise casein. Great care should be taken in the construction of cow stalls. If they are too long the hind-quarters of the animal are apt to be plastered with 482 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, [VoL. VII. manure when she lies down; and when too short, the hind-quarters and tail find their resting place in the gutter. (See /zg. 4). The milker, too, is not always above reproach. Clothed in dust- laden garments, used for all kinds of farm and stable work, without even washing his hands, he does the milking as he would do any other job on the farm. Too often the milker has the filthy practice of moistening his hands and the cow’s teats with milk. Freudenreich* reports. some experiments in which the germ-content of milk was reduced from several thousands to 200 where the hands were well rubbed with vaseline before milking, and as pointed out by Russell,® a pinch of vaseline not only helps the milker to obtain a firmer grasp, but also prevents scales or dirt from being rubbed from the teats, and its effect on sore or chapped teats is healing. METHODS OF PREVENTION. Contamination from the milker can, however, to a very large extent, be prevented by moistening thoroughly the flanks and udder of the cow before milking. Germs cannot leave a moist surface, and the dust-like particles are thus held in place. (See Fig. 5). The following instructive experiment is cited by Russell°? :— “When the animal was milked without any special precautions being taken, there were 3,250 bacteria per minute deposited on an area equal to the exposed top of a ten-inch pail. When the cow received the precautionary treatment, as suggested above, there were only 115 bacteria per minute deposited on the same area. This indicates that a large number of organisms from the dry coat of the animal can be kept out of the milk if such simple precautions are carried out.” It has been frequently found that the germ-content of the milk in the pail is increased from 20,000 to 40,000 bacteria per minute during the milking period by the dislodgment of organisms from the animal. By diminishing the exposed surface of the milk-pail, (see Fzg. 6), a considerable amount of dirt may be excluded, as it is obvious that less dirt will fall in a pail with a small opening. A number of different types of such pails are now in use, and Eckles® and other investigators have given us experimental data on the subject. Thus 43,200 bacteria per c.c. were found in the milk drawn in a common pail, as against 3,200 per c.c. in the covered pail. The milk soured in forty-three hours in the first case ; sixty-four hours in the latter case. The milker should put on a clean, loose, cotton or linen smock over 1902-3. | BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION OF MILK. 483 his clothes, and invariably wash his hands immediately before milking. The milking smock should be washed frequently and should be kept, not in the open barn or stable, but in some place as far removed as possible from all kinds of dust and dirt. The practice of moistening the hands or cow’s teats with milk should be scrupulously avoided. “ MILKING MACHINES. Of late years several milking machines have been introduced to obviate the difficulty in obtaining milkers, and to lessen the time taken in milking. Such machines, in order to be a success, must do the milking naturally, quickly, thoroughly and without any annoyance to the cow. Further, milk drawn by such a machine must be of good keeping quality, and the machine must be adaptable to the requirements and arrangements of an ordinary dairy farm. When first introduced many dairymen expressed the opinion that these machines would guard against the admittance of all dirt, but unfortunately this requirement has not been fulfilled by a machine installed in the Dairy Stable of the Ontario Agricultural College.* This machine, called the “ Thistle Milking Machine,” (see zg. 7), was in more or less constant use in our stable during the summer of 1899, and we took advantage of this opportunity to make bacteriological analyses of the milk milked with the machine as compared with milk drawn by hand milking. We found that the machine milk had a far larger germ content than that milked in the usual manner, and after making a direct comparison between the number of bacteria in machine milk and the number in hand milk, we found that the proportion varied greatly, from three to twenty times as many bacteria being found in the machine milk as in the hand drawn milk. The averages were as follows :— Machine Milk. Hand Milk. No. of Analyses. No.of Bacteria No. of Analyses. No. of Bacteria insecm:. of inC.CM.. OF morning s milk. morning's milk. 161 141,600 78 10,600 Evening’s Milk. Evening's Milk. 74. 165,000 16 12,900 These results were greatly in favour of hand-milking, and the large number of bacteria found in machine milk was attributed to three causes: 484 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. 1. When the rubber teat-cups are fastened on the cow, a small portion of the hairy coat of the udder is included in the cup, and no matter how clean the animal is, germs are sure to be present on this coat in considerable numbers, depending upon the cleanness of the udder. When the suction of the machine is applied, the force exerted naturally draws any loose or dry particles that may be on the teats and that portion of the udder within the cups, down into the milk. In this way, many germs on these particles gain access to the milk, and find in it suitable conditions for their growth and multiplication. 2. The teat-cups and connecting tubes to the milk pail are made of rubber, and consequently cannot be scalded or steamed, as scalding water or steam would crack and spoil the rubber ; hence it is impossible to cleanse them thoroughly from germ life. They may look clean after being rinsed in warm water and kept in cold water, but they are certainly not bacteriologically clean, z.e., free from germs; and in the process of milking many of the germs on the inside of the rubber and in the crevices of the tubing are washed into the milk. Conclusive evidence on this is afforded by the fact that, time and again, germs that were constantly present in water in which the rubber tubing was kept between milkings, were also found in the milk. 3. In detaching the cups from one cow and putting them on an- other, attendants sometimes let them fall upon the floor of the stable, and in this way germ-loaded particles of dust and dirt get into the teat- cups and find their way into the pail as soon as the milking of the next cow begins. Of course, this may be put down to carelessness on the part of the attendants ; but in our experience, no matter how careful the transfer was made from one cow to another, instances of the cups falling occurred from time to time, and each time undoubtedly made a large addition to the germ content of the milk. | In 1898, the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland” offered a prize of £50 for the best milking machine. Only two makers entered their machines for competition, viz., Mr. W. Murchland of Kilmarnock, (the Murchland Milking Machine Company), (see Fzg 8), and the Thistle Mechanical Milking Machine Company. The judges, after an exhaustive trial, awarded the prize to the Murchland Milking Machine, it having in every respect most effectually filled the conditions which they originally agreed should guide them in making their awards. In every instance the samples of milk drawn by this machine were found to keep satis- factory. After a lapse of forty-eight hours, they were found in no 1902-3. | BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION OF MILK. 485 respect inferior to the samples of milk drawn by hand, in fact, if any- thing, rather superior in point of flavour. The judges regarded the Murchland machine as a practical success. On the other hand, the chief defect in the Thistle Milking Machine was the effect it had upon the keeping qualities of the milk. Most of the samples from it de- veloped sourness in twelve to twenty-four hours, while samples drawn by hand from the same cows at the same time, and kept under precisely the same conditions, remained perfectly sweet for from thirty-six to fifty hours. The Murchland Machine was also placed in competition for a prize of £50 at the York meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society® at York. In the opinion of the judges it presented such difficulties for efficient cleaning, that they were unable to report that it adequately fulfilled the requirements set forth in the regulations for these trials. No award was made in the competition. CLEANING MILK BY THE USE OF A GRAVEL FILTER. The gravel filter in most general use is the model used by the Copenhagen Milk Supply Company, (see Figs. 9 and ro). It consists of two enamelled iron tanks placed at different levels; a pipe in the form of a siphon has its long limb connected with the bottom of the upper tank, and its short limb with the bottom of the lower tank, so that the milk poured into the upper tank comes up as a kind of spring at the bottom of the lower one. On the bottom tank there are three layers of gravel, that in the lower layer being about the size of a pea; in the middle layer somewhat smaller, and in the third or top layer, a little larger than a pin’s head. The layers are separated from each other by perforated tin trays. On the top of the uppermost layer of gravel are five thicknesses of fine cloth. The whole is kept in position by a pyramidal frame-work which presses down the tin trays. As the milk rises to the top of the tank, it passes into a large storage or mixing receptacle. These filters require the most careful management, and are generally taken to pieces immediately after use, when the gravel is ‘washed in hot water until the water comes off clean. It is then steamed at atemperature of 202° F., after which it is spread out in shallow trays, and baked at a high heat. For the concluding operation, the gravel is placed in a winnowing machine, which drives off all particles of fine dust. Schuppan* seems to have first called attention to the use of gravel filters as a means of reducing the number of bacteria in milk. He 486 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, [Vot. VII. reported in 1893 that the bacterial content of milk was reduced 48 per cent. by sand filtration; and at the meeting of the German Dairy Association in 1893, he strongly recommended the use of sand filters for removing dirt and germs from milk. The use of sand filters was, however, questioned by other members. Backhaus,® whilst giving no numerical data, reports that these filters have no effect in reducing the number of bacteria in the filtered milk. The mechanical separation is good, all coarse particles, such as hair, straw, manure, etc., are arrested ; but the bacteria are washed out of the manure, and the milk contains more bacteria than before filtration. In 1899, Dunbar and Kister®® made an exhaustive study of the working of this class of filter. In twenty-two analyses of raw and filtered milk there were in seventeen cases more bacteria present after filtration, and in four cases fewer bacteria. A few examples of their results will suffice : Raw Milk. Filtered Milk. 80,000 per cC.c. 60,000 per C.c. 793,000 “ 44,100 - 95,000 r 49,400 " 819,000 : 94,000 is Average 446,700 e Average 61,800 : In these cases filtration diminished the bacterial content of the milk. Of the seventeen other samples, the bacterial content after filtration was increased, thus :— Raw Milk. Filtered Milk. 0,000; Derr cic: 600,000 per C.c. I p 650,000 o 0,000 % ) 650,000 S 1,260,000 rf 320,000 ii 620,000 fs 3,900,000 { 14,300,000 The average of the seventeen analyses was :— Raw Milk. After Filtration through Gravel. 1,300,000 per C.c. 5 507,000, Per cic. CLEANING MILK BY CENTRIFUGAL FORCE. Clarified milk, (see zg. zr), or milk that has been passed through a separator, has been recently quite extensively advertised. The effect 1902-3. ] BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION OF MILK. 487 of this method of cleaning milk is similar to that of the gravel filters, and according to Backhaus,® 95 per cent. of the mechanical impurities (hairs, manure particles, etc.), are eliminated. The separator divides the milk into three parts, the slime which adheres to the bowl of the machine, the skim-milk and the cream. Several investigators have given us data of the number of bacteria which are found in these three products. Thus Popp and Becker™ found the germ content per c.c. of the whole milk, to be 72,954; of the cream of this milk, 58,275 ; the separator skim-milk, 21,735; and the separator slime, 43,891. Scheurlen® found in one litre of milk 2,050,000,000 of bacteria, and after separation 1,700 in the 200 c.c. of cream, 560,000,000 in the 800 c.c. skim-milk, and 18,000,000 in the 6 c.c. of slime. Other investigators have also shown that centrifugation does not decrease the number of bacteria in milk. Thus, Fjord and Fleisch- mann® claim that centrifugal separation has little value as a means of purification, and Conn® states that “ milk after passing through a centri- fuge, although it contains less gross impurities, shows more bacteria than before. This is explained by the fact that masses are broken up, and large numbers of bacteria liberated, “and again,” the same writer says, “centrifugal purification does not materially affect the bacteria, for there seem to be about as many after treatment as before.” Niederstadt®* obtained similar results, for he found that by the centrifugal treatment of 300 litres of milk, about 130 grams of sediment were obtained. The cream was richer in bacteria than the sediment. The separator effected no purification of milk from bacteria, and 75 per cent. of the bacteria went into the cream. Dunbar and Kister,” in an exhaustive series of experiments, found in four instances fewer bacteria after separation, the average of these four instances being as follows :— Raw Milk. Centrifuged Milk. 446,000 per c.c. 146,000 per c.c. But in the remainder of the experiments, twenty-four in number, more bacteria were found in the separated milk, the averages in this case being : Raw Milk. Centrifuged Milk. I,400,000 per c.c. 2,200,000 per C.c. It would seem from these figures that the smaller the number of bacteria present in the whole milk, the more efficient was the separator in reducing their numbers. 488 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. Eckles and Barnes* have also investigated the purification of milk by the centrifugal separator. They found a large proportion of the bacteria removed by centrifuging, but no enhancement in keeping quality. Russell in a private communication to the writer expresses his opinion thus :—“I do not think clarification is worth the trouble, unless the milk is exceptionally dirty.’ At the suggestion of the Ontario Department of Agriculture, we (my assistant, Dr. Streit and myself) have reinvestigated this subject. A power belt separator was used, run at the speed indicated by the manufacturers. The milk came from farms in the vicinity, and was of average quality, similar to the ordinary factory supply. About 150 pounds of this milk were thoroughly mixed in a sterilized can witha sterilized stirrer. A half-pint sample of the milk was taken in a steri- lized jar, the rest of the milk being put through a separator. The cream and skim-milk were caught together in a sterilized can, and were again thoroughly mixed with a sterilized stirrer, and another half-pint sample of the clarified sample was taken. Both samples were immediately carried to the laboratory, where suitable dilutions were made and plates poured. The culture medium used was whey gelatine, with one per cent. of peptone. The plates were kept at 20° C. and counted at the end of forty-eight or seventy-two hours, depending on the size of the colonies. In most cases the plates were counted by each of us independently, so as to reduce the personal equation. Each result given in the table is the average of four plates, and thus the gross average represents the numerical results obtained from 240 plates or analyses. 1902-3. | BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION OF MILK, 489 THE BACTERIAL CONTENT OF MILK BEFORE AND AFTER SEPARATION. BEFORE SEPARATION. AFTER SEPARATION. | More bac- DATE. Total No. of Liquefying MotallUNosof) 9) Liquefying | teria after Colonies. Colonies. Colonies. | Colonies. \Separation + | | or less — ae | April 8 447,000 25,000 775,000 64,000 + eer iS 391,000 23, 300 1,000,000 196,000 ai Cee 491,000 6,500 529,000. 18,700 4° GC ie) 442,000 7,500 469,000 16,000 ss HG Wat) 1,351,000 88, 500 2,495,000 271,000 =} coe 1,990,000 67,500 2,070,000 110,000 =f Sal UOC) || Asszoe | 4, 250,000 21,600 ~ O87 3,000,000 3,800 | 35750,000 | 9,000 | + S19 1,850,000 6,600 | 2,700,000 | 30,700 + HS atte) 2,500,000 6,000 | 2,800,000 25,700 + 22 1,100,000 4,200 || 1,160,000 10,850 + fe N22 1,200,000 10,850 || 1,200,000 18,750 | + Age on 2,000,000 15,000 || 2,000,000 10,000 = “Ch 24 2,000,000 11,000 || 2,250,000 13,000 ag [26 996,000 6,000 | 1,100,000 | 12,600 + “a6 I, 100,000 11,000 || 994,000 | 8,600 = UIE Soya 2,700,000 4,800 2,900,000 | 12,000 + eee ona 3,000,000 13,000 | 2,700,000 7,600 - May 1 714,000 22,800 | 790,000 56,000 de ful 646,000 30,000 | 730,000 32,000 + BG a) 950,000 38,000 | 908,000 36,000 ay 3 832,000 26,000 964,000 | 38,000 | 3 SOE, 530,000 30,000 710,000 40,000 | te LO ay 480,000 13,000 || 805,000 | 22,000 | - SG] 2,250,000 31,000 || 2,470,000 | 61,000 + SOG) 2,060.000 6,000 | 3,000,000 | 61,000 fe ae ZO AOS. |) aba eae 2,750,000 | + 20 Ze SOOLOOOMME NN 2 ss acai: 25300; 000M ire = ze 16,000,000 20,000 15,000,000 | 19,000 — 73 12,000,000 26,000 17,000,000 | 26,000 Average 2,359,000 19,800 2,759,000 | 44,540 | ~ 400,000 bacteria per c.c. more in centrifuged milk. 24,740 liquefying bacteria per c.c. more in centrifuged milk, A perusal of the table will show that on six occasions there were fewer bacteria after separation than before, and on twenty-four occasions more bacteria present after clarification than in the raw milk. Another striking fact brought out by this investigation is the large increase of liquefying colonies in the separated milk. The bacteria which liquefy gelatine are usually harmful, some are spore-producing germs and they give rise to off flavours in both cheese and butter. Many of this class are present in manure, on particles of fodder, etc., and 490 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. our results seem to show that these bacteria exist in clumps or masses in such material and the centrifugal process breaks these up and distributes them through the milk. These results obtained at Guelph are identical with those obtained by Dunbar and Kister, and go to show that centrifugal purification, as far as bacteria are concerned, is ineffectual. CONTAMINATION OF MILK FROM THE STABLE AIR. Although it is difficult to separate contaminations from animal and milker and that from the air, it is better to consider the latter source of infection separately, as the number of germs floating in the air depends to a great extent upon the amount of dry fodder and straw that may be used in the stable. If manure is not frequently and thoroughly cleaned out, it gets dry and small particles from it help to swell the number of microbes in the air. The greater disturbance of these dusty fodders at any time, the greater will be the germ content of the air at that time. The following data show the number of bacteria per minute deposited in a 12-inch pail. In series A. (see Fzg. 12), the exposure was made during bedding ; in B. (see /zg. 73), one hour after this operation. Series A. 16,000 13,530 12°216 12,890 15,340 19,200 23,400 27,342 42,750 27,820 18,730 [2)200 average... 20,100 Series B. 483 610 820 Wass 1,880 1,987 2 Tae 1,650 990 1,342 2,370 1,750 Average.... 1,400 These results indicate that many bacteria are attached to particles of considerable weight, as they soon settle on the floor. Cows are frequently bedded with dusty straw at the very time when milking is going on, a forkful of straw in some instances that have come under my observation, having been thrust under the cow that was being milked. Dusty fodders are often thrown down from the loft when the milking is in progress, filling the stable with dust, every particle of which carries spores of moulds and bacteria. It must be remembered also that very undesirable spores which are very difficult to kill, even by long- continued steam heat, abound in straw and hay. 1902-3. | BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION OF MILK. 491 Much benefit would ensue either from moistening the fodder or from feeding and bedding an hour or so before milking commences, to allow the dust, etc., of the air time to settle. In many of the more modern dairy farms, the stables are thoroughly cleaned and ventilated, the floors sprinkled, and the manure removed from the building before milking commences, or a milking room is provided, into which the cows, one, two or three at a time, are brought for milking. This room is supplied with water, conveniently located, and kept in an absolutely clean condition. CONTAMINATION OF MILK FROM DAIRY UTENSILS. Probably more trouble is caused to butter and cheese makers by the use of dirty utensils than any other way. Every article that is brought into contact with milk is at once infected with bacteria. When milk is left in storage cans for some time, a tremendous number of microbes develop, and a vast number of spores or latent forms of bacteria are produced. In this way, vessels are infected, and the bacteria find lodgment in all the cracks and crevices of pails, cans, dippers, strainers, etc. Take any milk-can and run the point of a pen-knife along the seam of the can, and you will find a stinking, cheesy mass, composed very largely of bacteria, all ready to grow and re-produce when fresh milk is poured in the can. Nothing is tnore difficult to clean than these dairy utensils, with the facilities at hand on the average farm. Scalding with hot water is often insufficient to kill the bacteria on the inner surface of the can, and in the cracks and crevices which are usually present. The following experiments will suffice to show the importance of utensils as a factor in milk contamination. Thus Russell? took two cans, one of which had been cleaned in the ordinary way, while the other was sterilized by steaming. Before milking the udder of the cow was thoroughly cleaned and special precautions taken to avoid the raising of dust; and the fore-milk was rejected. Milk drawn into these cans showed the following germ-content : Number of Bacterta. Hours before Souring. SPEMIMEC\PAall o's? ... « ROTM Of Gerona a ed hh a MR 281% Oroidanry parks... 6.0 4,265 aye aus he ae 23 The writer® has also shown the great differences in the bacterial content of cans by a bacterial analysis of the can washings. Cans were rinsed with 100 c.c. of sterile water, and numerical determination of this rinsing water was made. 492 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vo.. VII. The following data are from cans poorly cleaned, (see /zg. 74), cans washed in tepid water and then scalded—the best farm practice—and cans washed in tepid water and then steamed for five minutes (see /7zg. 15). BACTERIAL CONTENTS OF CANS CLEANED IN VARIOUS WAYS. Number of Bacteria per c.c. of Can Washings. Roony Cleaned tyus 2s 238,500 342,800 215,400 618,000 806,000 5 10,000 230,000 600,000 418,000 Average. .442,000. Ordinary Method...... 89,000 84,000 _ 26,000 24,000 38,000 76,000 15,000 44,000 93,000 Average. . 54,300. Approved Method..... 1,100 1,800 890 355 416 725 Average. =. 1880: Allcans should be constructed so as to facilitate cleaning. Stamped pails, without seams, may now be purchased, but if seams are present they should be examined to see that they are well flushed with solder. The bottoms of all cans should be concave, and not convex, to expedite cleaning. After thorough rinsing to remove organic matter, cans should be washed in hot water, to which borax or soda may be added. After washing, rinse with boiling water, and if available place the can over a steam-jet for a few minutes. THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE. After the milk is infected with bacteria, the temperature at which itis kept exerts an important influence on the rate of growth or multi- plication of the bacteria in the milk. Freudenreich® obtained some milk, which when delivered at his laboratory two and a-half hours after the milking, had 9,300 germs per c.c. Samples were stored at 15°, 25° and 36° C. (or 59°, 77° and 95° F.), and the results were as follows per c.c.: iS. 25° 354 g OMESe sey 16,000 18,000 30,000 6 NS) wee 25,000 172,000 12,000,000 Cp OE aeycinie 46,500 1,000,000 35,280,000 ah aE re eee 5,700,000 577,000,000 50,000,000 1902-3. | BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION OF MILK. 493 If we analyze this table we find that at 15° the increase during the first half hour was 700, or 7 per cent., which would indicate that the average duration of a generation is thirteen hours. Inthree hours more, the increase is 15,000, or 150 per cent., which gives the average duration of a generation as two hours. In the next three hours, the increase is 21,500, and the average duration of a generation about 3% hours. From the ninth to the twenty-fourth hour, the average is about 2% hours. At 25°, the times required for a doubling of the number are for the successive periods, about half an hour, about an hour, and about 7% hours. At 35° the time occupied in a generation was about twenty minutes at first, then about forty-five minutes, and at last thirty-seven hours. These results are curious, but could only be explained by a fuller knowledge of the species concerned, and of the cause influencing the changes. The most important point brought out in this experiment is the tremendous rate of increase at the higher temperatures ; therefore, much may be done to restrain this rapid multiplication by cooling the milk as rapidly as possible. Milk allowed to cool naturally takes some time before it reaches the temperature of the air. Hence, measures should be promptly taken to reduce the temperature quickly. CERTIFIED MILK. Of late years a number of sanitary, model dairies have been estab- lished in the vicinity of large cities in various parts of the United States and Canada, (see Figs. 16 and 17), which have placed on the market, milk with a relatively low bacterial content. Such milk is known as “hygienic,” “ sanitary,” or “certified.” It is interesting to note that these establishments prosper, an indication that the discriminating public appreciate the honest endeavour of these dairies to produce milk which will fulfil the requirements of the most exacting sanitarian. These establishments put.into practice the suggestions made by various experimenters and investigators, as the result of their experi- mental inquiries, and these have been more or less briefly outlined in this paper. The freedom from bacteria obtained in these dairies depends on the thoroughness with which all details are carried out. Russell? has shown that when samples of milk are secured under as nearly aseptic conditions as possible, the germ content was 330 organisms per c.c.; but when drawn under ordinary conditions, the bacterial content was 15,500 organisms per c.c. Marshall® gives similar results, 494 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. for example, milk drawn under aseptic conditions averaged 295 bacteria per c.c.; under ordinary conditions, 786,000 per c.c. In certain cases milk coming from sanitary dairies is endorsed by a board of examining physicians and experts. Thus, the Milk Com- mission™ of the Medical Society of the County of New York endorses milk from various dairies when the acidity of the milk is below 0.2 per cent., and when the milk contains less than 30,000 bacteria per c.c. The Milk Commission of the Philadelphia Pediatric Society give their endorsement for milk free from pus and injurious germs, and having not more than 10,000 germs per c.c. Such milk naturally has enhanced keeping qualities, and milk and cream from several such hygenic dairies in the United States were shipped to the Paris Exposition in 1900, arriving in good condition after 15 to 18 days in transit. The adoption of a numerical standard seems a very necessary step. Bitter suggests that 50,000 organisms per c.c. should be a maximum limit in milk intended as human food. Park thinks that any intelligent farmer, with sufficient cleanliness and a low temperature, can supply milk averaging not over 100,000 bacteria per c.c., when twenty-four hours old,and suggests that the sale of milk should be so regulated that that containing more than this number per cc. should be excluded from the market. Rochester, N.Y., has already tried the enforcement of this standard, with good results. In the opinion of Russell, “the practical difficulties to contend with in establishing a milk standard based upon a quantitive bacterial determination are such as to render its general adoption extremely problematical.” On the other hand, this investigator advocates the employment of the acid test, and postulates that milk should not contain more than 0.2 per cent. figured as lactic acid, and if possible the acidity should be brought down to O.1§ per cent. To conclude, from what. has been brought up before you, it is undoubtedly easy to see the reason for cleanliness in all operations con- nected with the dairy business. “ All the results of scientific investi- gation,” says Fleischmann, “which have found such great practical application in the treatment of disease, in disinfection, and in the preservation of various products, are almost entirely ignored in milking,” and the only remedy for this state of affairs is “a campaign of education among the farmers who produce milk, concerning, first, the simple protection of a readily putrescible fluid from pollution with dirt or other elements of decay ; and, second, the sanitary protection of milk from infection.’® 1902-3. ] BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION OF MILK. 495 REFERENCES. . SOXHLET. Deut. Viertjschr, f. off. Gesundhtspfig, Bd. 24 (1892), pp. 8-75. UHL. Zeitsch. f: Hyg. Bd. 12, (1892) p. 475. . BacKHaAus. Milch Zeitung, 26, (1897), p. 357. RENK. Cent. f. Bakt., Bd. 10, (1891), p. 193. Hirp. Report Health Officer, District of Columbia, 1895. . CLaAuss. Inaug. Diss., Wurzburg, 1899. . KNopF. Cent. f. Bakt., Bd. 6, (1888), p. 553. . BujJwip. Quoted from 7th Report Storrs’ Experimental Station, Conn., (1894), p. 70. . GeEuNS. Neder. Tydschr. v. Geneesk., 2 R., XXI., (1885), Arch. f. Hyg. 3. . RENK. Cent. f. Bakt., Bd. 10 (1891), p. 193. CE leo Camciis . KNOCHENSTIERN. Inaug. Dissert. (1893), Dorpat. . HELLENS. Inaug. Dissert. Helsingfors (1899), Cent. f. B. II., VI., 261. . Rowan. British Medical Journal, II. (1895), p. 321- . SACHARBEKOFF. Cent. f. Bakt. 2 Abt., Bd. 2 (1896), p. 545. . CONN. Report Secretary Conn. Board of Agriculture, 1895. . SEDGWICK AND BATCHELDER. Boston Medical Surgical Journal, Jan. 14, 1892. SELARKes SClenCes MeiSehsh3) (LOO), ps) 322. . LEIGHTON. Science, n. ser. 11, (1900), p. 461. . MCDONNELL. Penn. Department Agriculture Report (1897), p. 561. . LOVELAND AND Watson. Report Experimental Station, Storrs, Conn. (1894), p. 72. . RussELL. Dairy Bacteriology, 3rd Edition, p. 59. . HARRISON. Ontario Agricultural College and Experimental Farm Report 22, (1896), p. 107. . EcKLES. Iowa Experimental Station, Bulletin 59, 1got. . Harrison. Ontario Agricultural College and Experimental Farm Bulletin 120, May, 1902. ScHuLTz. Archiv f. Hyg., Bd. 14, (1892), p. 260. . GERNHARDT. Inaug. Dissert. Dorpat, 1893. . FREUDENREICH, E. von. Dairy Bacteriology, London, 1895. . BoLtny & Hay. Cent. f. Bakt., II Abt., (1895), pp. 1-795. MINUSSE IL eOG. Cit. . GROTENFELT. The Principles of Modern Dairy Practice, N.Y. . Rotcu. Transactions Association American Physicians. IX., (1894), p. 185. . Moors. Bureau of Animal Industry, 12th and 13th Annual Reports, p. 261. . Conn. United States Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, Bulletin, 25, p. 9. . Harrison. Ontario Agricultural College, Report 22nd (1896), p. 207. . PALLESKE. Virchow’s Archiv, C XXX., (1894), p 185.7 . HONIGMANN. Zeitsch. f. Hyg. XIV. (1893), p. 207. . KNOCHENSTIERN, H. Inaug. Dissert., Dorpat, 1893. 496 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Voc. VII. . RInGEL. Munch. Med. Wochenschr., (1893), No. 27. . Moore AND Warb. Cornell University Agricultural Experimental Station, Bulletin 158. . WARD. Journal App. Micr. I., p. 205. . WarpD. Cornell University Agricultural Experimental Station, Bulletin 178. . CHESTER. Determinative Bacteriology, N.Y., 1901. . WRIGHT. Memoirs Nat. Acad. Science, VII. (1895), 246. . Forp. Transactions Association American Physicians, XV. (1900), p. 389. Journal of Hygiene, Igor. . FOKKER. Fortschr. d. Medecin. VIII. (1890), p. 7. . FREUDENREICH, Von. Ann. de Micrographie, ILI. (1891), p. 118. . BRIEGER AND EHRLICH. Zeitschr. f. Hyg., XIII., (1893), p. 336. WASSERMANN. Zeitsch. f. Hyg. 18 (1894), p. 235. 50. SMITH. Journal Mass. Association Boards of Health, II. (1892), p. 23. (Quoted by Sedgwick (68). . WUTHRICH AND FREUDENREICH. Cent. F. Bakt., II. Abt. 2., (1895), p. 873. RussELL. Dairy Bacteriology, 5th Edition (1902), p. 36. . ECKLES. Quoted from Russell’s Dairy Bact., p. 38. . HARRISON. Cent. f. Bakt., II. Abt., 5 (1899), p. 183. . DRYSDALE. Transactions Highland and Agricultural Society, Scotland, 5 Ser., 10 (1898), p. 166. . Journal Royal Agricultural Society, Eng., (1900), p. 468. . SCHUPPAN. Molk. Zeit. 7, (1893), p. 241- Cent. f. Bakt., XIII., (1893) p. 155. . BACKHAUS. Milch Zeit. (1897), p. 357- . DUNBAR AND KISTER. Milch Zeit. (1899), p. 753, 787- . Popp AND Becker. Hyg. Rundsch., 3 (1893), pp. 530-534- . SCHEURLEN. Cent. f. Bakt., XI., (1892), p. 54. . FLEISCHMANN. The Book of the Dairy, p. 98. . Conn. The Dairy (1902), p. 21, London, Eng. Agricultural Bacteriology (1901), p- 189, Phila. . NIEDERSTADT. Chem. Centbl. I (1893), p. 396. . FREUDENREICH. Ann. de Microg., 2 (1890), p. 115. . MARSHALL. Michigan Agricultural Experimental Station, Bulletin 182, 1900. . PEARSON. Seventeenth Report Bur. An. Ind., Washington, D.C. (1900), p. 191. . SEDGWICK. Principles of Sanitary Science, N.Y., 1902. Nore.—I desire to acknowledge the courtesy of Mrs. Massey, Dentonia, for the use of Figs. 16 and 17 ; Major Alvord, of the United States Department of Agriculture, for Fig. 6; The City Dairy Co. for Fig. 11; The Kjobenhavn Maelkforsyning for Figs. 9 and ro. Fic. 1—CONTAMINATION FROM THE FORE Fic. 2—BACTERIAL CONTENT OF MILK, MILK. THE FORE MILK BEING REJECTED. Gelatine Plate shewing colonies of bac- Gelatine Plate shewing colonies of bac- teria in ;1; c.c. (about 2 drops) of the fore teria in 75 c.c. (about 2 drops) of milk milk. (First few streams from all four taken from the middle of the milking. teats). Shewing the bacterial contamination from hairs. FIG. 4—CONTAMINATION FROM ANIMAL FIG. 5—CONTAMINATION FROM ANIMAL AND MILKER. AND MILKER. Gelatine plate exposed under the udder Gelatine plate held under cow for one of a cow for one minute, while milking minute while milking. The udder and under ordinary conditions. flanks well moistened with water. Fic. 6—SANITARY MILK PAIL AND MILKER PROPERLY CLOTHED. Tutstik Motsixs Macuing wn Orzaarios, § Fic. 7—THISTLE MILKING MACHINE. 2 Ss REN ec acme “Yurences APEARATOS, =: FIG. 10—FILTERING MILK THROUGH GRAVEL. “SUOLVUVdAIS "GS “AONOY IWOAAININAD AT MTX DNINVATO—I1 ‘DTW : ayy a0 Fic. 12—GERM CONTENT OF BARN AIR DuriInNG- FIG. 13—GERM CONTENT OF BARN AIR DURING BEDDING, CLEANING UP, FEEDING, ETC. BEDDING, CLEANING UP, FEEDING, ETC. Gelatine plate exposed to the deposition ot Gelatine plate exposed to the deposition of germs for one minute in a stable when some of | germs for one minute in a stable when all the the above operations were in progress. above operations had been completed. Fic. 14—-CONTAMINATION FROM THE USE OF FiG. 15 CONTAMINATION FROM THE USE OF IMPROPERLY CLEANED DAIRY UTENSILS. PROPERLY CLEANED DAIRY UTENSILS. After a can had been washed with warm water, After a can had been washed, scalded and and thoroughly drained, a quantity of sterile steamed for five minutes, and thoroughly drained, water was added and the can well rinsed. This a quantity of sterile water was poured in and the gelatine plate was made from ;},5 c.c. (a very can well rinsed. This gelatine plate was then tiny drop) of this water. made from 1c. c. (about six drops) of this water, Fic. 16—A SANITARY DAIRY. FILLING BOTTLES. - 3 a » SRS Fic. 17—A SANITARY DAIRY. BOTTLE WASHING AND BOTTLE STEAM STERILIZER. THE CHEMISTRY OF WHEAT GLUTEN. 497 THE CHEMISTRY OF WHEAT GLUTEN. By GEO. G..NASMITH, B.A. (Read 26th April, 1902.) I.— HISTORICAL 5 : 2 : . 3 ‘ 4 5 é 497 Il. —OBSERVATIONS : : : ‘ : : : : : ESOL IIl.—PROPERTIES OF Geen : : é ; : : : : : 509 ne —PROPERTIES OF GLUTENIN . : : . a . RU@ V.—THE FERMENT THEORY OF Spree oenmalias : : : ; 511 VI.—THE ALEURON LAYER OF WHEAT : : ; : ; : : a BUS VII.—CoNcLuSIONS ‘ A ; 5 ‘ : : : : j : S14 VIII.—BIBLIOGRAPHY : i : : : : : ; : é : eee LO ].—HISTORICAL. THE first preparation of gluten from wheat flour by washing away the starch from dough seems to have been made by Becari,’ but Einhof? was the first to give special attention to its composition. He extracted wheat gluten with dilute alcohol, and he found that the substance which precipitated on cooling, diluting or concentrating the solution was practically identical with gluten itself. Taddei® named the portion soluble in alcohol gliadin, the residue zymom. Berzeliust thought that he found a second constituent in the part of the gluten soluble in alcohol, which he called mucin, and which was precipitated by acetic acid. | He® regarded Taddei’s gliadin as identical with the substance obtained by Einhof from wheat, barley and rye. The insoluble residue Berzelius called plant albumin, from its great similarity to animal albumin. De Saussure® found that wheat gluten contained about 20 per cent. plant gelatin, or glutin, as he proposed to call it, 72 per cent. insoluble plant albumin, and 1 per cent. mucin; the latter, although differently prepared, he considered to be similar to the mucin of Berzelius, and it had, as he thought, the power of transforming starch into sugar. Boussingault,’ like Einhof, considered that part of the gluten oluble in alcohol to be identical with the entire gluten proteid. Liebig* named the portion of the gluten insoluble in alcohol plant 498 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. fibrin; he rejected the term zymom given by Taddei, and also that of plant albumin of Berzelius, in the latter case because solubility in water is a characteristic of albumins. The portion soluble in alcohol he called plant gelatin, and considered it to be a casein-like compound of a proteid with an undetermined organic acid. Bouchardat® found in gluten a substance soluble in extremely dilute acid, which he named albumin, since he regarded it as forming the chief constituent of egg albumin, blood fibrin, casein and gluten. Dumas and Cahours” found four proteids in flour, namely, an albumin which was obtained from the water used in washing out the gluten; plant fibrin left as a residue on extracting gluten with alcohol ; a proteid from this alcohol which separated on cooling, and finally a second proteid which precipitates from the same alcohol on concentration and cooling. This latter he called glutin. Mulder" prepared plant gelatin by extracting gluten with alcohol, filtering hot, allowing to cool and redissolving the white precipitate which settled out twice. This he considered to be a compound of sulphur with protein, and he found that it did not contain phosphorus. Von Bibra” stated that on exhausting gluten with hot alcohol insoluble plant fibrin remained behind, while plant gelatin and plant casein dissolved ; the plant casein separated on cooling. These bodies he thought had the same elementary composition, and were in fact isomers. Giinsberg® held that gluten was composed of three proteids, gliadin being a mixture of two. These were, (a) gluten fibrin, soluble neither in alcohol nor warm water ; (b) gluten casein, insoluble in hot water but soluble in alcohol ; (c) gluten gelatin, soluble in alcohol and hot water. Ritthausen™ found four proteids in gluten, namely, gluten casein, gluten fibrin, plant gelatin or gliadin, and mucedin, of which the last three are soluble in dilute alcohol. His casein was prepared by ex- tracting gluten with boiling alcohol, cooling, exhausting the casein which settled out with absolute alcohol, then with acetic acid, and finally neutralizing the clear filtrate from this with ammonia. The decanted alcoholic fluid from the casein contained the gelatin, which separated on evaporation. Scherer” digested gluten with artificial gastric juice and observed that the greater part went into solution in about fourteen hours. Martin” found that only one proteid was extracted from gluten by 1902-3. | THE CHEMISTRY OF WHEAT GLUTEN. 499 dilute alcohol or hot water, which gave the reddish violet reaction of proteoses and peptones. Because of this reaction and its comparative insolubility he called it insoluble phytalbumose. The residue was coagulated by boiling water, and was soluble only in acids and alkalies. He claimed that dilute alcohol extracted only fat from dry flour, and came to the conclusion that insoluble phytalbumose was produced from a soluble albumose, and gluten fibrin from a globulin by pre-existing ferments. Chittenden and Smith” made preparations of gluten casein accord- ing to Ritthausen’s method, which averaged 15.86 per cent. of nitrogen. Osborne and Voorhees® in an exhaustive research brought many opposing views into harmony. Like Martin they found only one proteid in gluten that was soluble in alcohol, and considered that the various proteids claimed by previous investigators to have been soluble in alcohol were impure preparations, perhaps mixtures with fat. Martin’s gluten fibrin they termed glutenin, and found its composition to be practically identical with that of gliadin, a conclusion that had not hitherto been suggested. The high percentage of nitrogen they thought due to their improved method of preparation by which all starch, etc., had been removed. Contrary to Martin’s experience they found that dilute alcohol extracted gliadin directly from flour. Osborne and Voorhees further arrived at the conclusion that gluten is made up of two forms of the same proteid, one being soluble in cold dilute alcohol and the other not. They found that flour exhausted with sodium chloride solution yielded the same amount of gliadin as was obtained from the gluten made from an equal quantity of flour, or by direct extraction of the flour with 70 per cent. alcohol. They, therefore, held that gliadin exists as such in the seed. Teller’ noted again the fact that gliadin possessed proteose-like characters, as previously stated by Martin. Gliadin he found to be slightly soluble in dilute salt solution, and he regarded it as identical with that body classified by Osborne and Voorhees as proteose. O’Brien” found himself in agreement with Osborne and Voorhees in considering that gluten pre-existed as such in flour in the same proportions as in gluten, and that there was but one mother substance in flour which gave rise by a process of hydration to gluten. His con- clusions were, (a) that the differently described derivatives of gluten soluble in alcohol merge into one another ; (4) that the portion soluble in alcohol may be made to pass into the insoluble stage ; (c) that a proteose is readily formed as a secondary product from gluten. 500 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. Fleurent,?! whose work, like that of O’Brien, was unfinished when Osborne and Voorhees’ results were published, found himself also in agreement with the latter in concluding that only one body soluble in alcohol was present in gluten. Besides gliadin and glutenin he found a very small quantity of a third body which he called conglutin. Morishima” found only one proteid in gluten (that he named artolin) which he prepared by kneading gluten with dilute alkali and treating the decanted fluid with hydrochloric acid until it contained one per cent. of the acid in excess. .The precipitate washed with one per cent. hydrochloric acid and made up with alcohol toa solution containing 70-80 per cent. of alcohol, was filtered and saturated with absolute alcohol and ether. Its composition he found to be: ARTOLIN (MoRISHIMA). Cron seicvetctar ecto eeree ereiece 52-29 1 Le eer tnonn GOR RIAL Ac cM ac Re 7.02 IN (a isofers ois iohe sisi Ga bas ae iaiaera eee 16.51 She See seas oc iereaanie ecteeastetn eh mip teerer 74 O's Gar ty seb) deaieg seers ae creieeraye ie terns O) OATS CN EMEP acicic oes oO Ccorrecact oe TeGi7 Mayer*™ held that the old name of plant gelatin was inappropriate, since it was chemically unlike gelatin: the latter does not contain sul- phur, and is insoluble in dilute alcohol. Ritthausen** commented on Fleurent’s and Osborne and Voor- hees’ careful work, but, nevertheless, clung to the views propounded in his early paper. In criticizing the work of Morishima, he pointed out the fact that proteids are soluble in dilute acids, and concluded that artolin was glutenin linked with hydrochloric acid. The subjoined analyses, taken from the paper ef Osborne and Voorhees were found by reference to the original papers to be accurate: BoussINGAULtT. JONES. Dumas and CaHours. Mutper. Von Bipra. Plant. Plant. Plant. Gliadin. Gelatin. Casein. Glutin. Gelatin. Gelatin. C .....eee 52.30 54-44 53-46 53-27 54-85 53-57 EL At. sitehtee 6.50 7.42 Folks rhe s7| 7.05 Tele IN ee 5 fiteh@ye) 15.98 16.04 15.94 D537 15-57 Syke A Sere sietsse aS sie .60 .88 © een Aric 22.30 22.16 23537 23.62 21.79 22.86 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 1902-3. | THE CHEMISTRY OF WHEAT GLUTEN. 501 GUNSBERG. ———-——RITTHAUSEN——-—— ~~ OSBORNE and Plant. Gluten Plant. VOORHEES. Gelatin. fibrin. Gelatin. Mucedin. Gliadin, (Gos Sa csce 52.68—52.65 54-31 52.76 54-11 52.72 Beds petatins. conus 6.77— 6.88 7.18 7.10 6.90 6.86 Seosccssccrist Nimkl Sere Srsteis 1.01 85 .88 1.14 INSraieyaveversince 17.76 —17.45 16.89 18.01 16.83 17.66 OR oases 22879—23502 20.61 21.08 21.48 21.62 100.00 -100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 GLUTENIN. JONES. SCHERER Dumasand CaHours. Von Bipra. RITTHAUSEEN. C....... 52-79 54.60—52.34 53-37—53-23 55-57 52-94 Hi 7.02 7-45— 7-13 7.02— 7.01 6.95 7.04, Nive conte: 15-59 15-81—15. 36 16.00—16.41 15.70 17. 0a Sater worn maererith 1h Wen Malaya steven) ors 1.02 96 (Osean 24.62 22.14—25.17 23-64—23.35 22.76 21.92 100.00 100. 00-100.00 100.00-100.00 100.00 100.00 CHITTENDEN OSBORNE and SMiIrH. and VOORHEES, Coe ome raeias 52.87 52-34 Flbgepettpes ate wate c's 6.99 6.83 Nie Siniatzc ane 15.86 17-49 Sict flan ineise a Tesl7 1.08 (Chae ae 22a 22.26 100.00 100.00 II.—OBSERVATIONS. While working at the composition of wheat flour, Professor Macallum suggested that [ should trace to its source the phosphorus which he found to be present in the cellular elements of the wheat grain. It was sought for and found in gluten, no matter how carefully prepared or how long it had been washed in tap or distilled water. Gluten was prepared in the usual manner by kneading dough in a stream of water until free from starch, dried at 110 C. until the weight was constant and the phosphorus estimated according to Neumann's” method, which was found by experiment on known solutions of phos- phoric acid to be perfectly accurate. Two quantities of gluten yielded o.11 and 0.12 per cent. of phosphorus respectively. In order to determine next which of the constituents of gluten (z.e., gliadin or glutenin) contained phosphorus, gliadin was prepared by 502 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII. extracting starch-free gluten with 70 per cent. alcohol, filtering the solution repeatedly, and afterwards evaporating completely to dryness. Average of five estimations 0.83 per cent. ash. fe two ¥ 0.29 4 phosphorus. Gliadin was prepared by extracting gluten with 70 per cent. alcohol, filtering and diluting with twice its volume of 1 per cent. sodium chloride solution ; the white precipitate, separating out, was collected, washed with distilled water, till free from chlorine, and dried at 110 C. The analyses gave :— I IT Of IV Phosphorus........ 0.19 0.19 OnIS yy Ween ee INS NG 6 coding ob Ohodde Os205 OVZOW nm 2 OG stervenc hoa Wane eraventes INbuMoyets oy Soaancedan 17.705 17.435 17.64 17.555 The ash from these was dissolved with hydrochloric acid ; the solu- tion evaporated almost to dryness in a platinum crucible, was diluted with distilled water, and treated with a quantity of dilute hydrochloric acid containing also potassium ferrocyanide. A blue colouration im- mediately indicated the presence of iron; repeated trials invariably yielded the same result. In order to determine whether the iron was organic or inorganic, a solution of gliadin in ammonia-free distilled water was added to a solution of haematoxylin. No darkening whatever occurred, showing that the iron must be organically combined. Inorganic iron salts with hematoxylin give an intense dark blue colour. Pieces of freshly-pre- pared gliadin, suspended in haematoxylin, gave no reaction in thirty hours. The iron, like the phosphorus, must be in organic combination. Previously to this I had found that on digesting gluten with arti- ficial gastric juice, and repeatedly renewing the fluid, a part remained insoluble even after two months. This residue, after extracting with absolute alcohol and ether, was dissolved in 0.2 per cent. sodium hydrate, and precipitated by 0.2 per cent. hydrochloric acid, the precipitate being insoluble in excess of the acid. Evidently this was a nuclein, and must have come from the gliadin or glutenin of the gluten. A gram of gliadin, purified by precipitating, dissolving, repreci- pitating, and extracting with absolute alcohol and ether, was digested with artificial gastric juice at 38°C. A residue remained which gave all the reactions for nuclein, and undoubted reactions also for organic iron and phosphorus. 1902-3. | THE CHEMISTRY OF WHEAT GLUTEN. 503 A large amount of gliadin was now prepared by extracting gluten with 7o per cent. alcohol, filtering, concentrating to a small quantity, precipitating with 95 per cent. alcohol, extracting in the Soxhlet apparatus for sixteen hours with absolute alcohol to remove fat and lecithin, and finally drying for three hours at 110°C. Analyses gave the following :-— GLIADIN. Ciera opts a) s.chu5 52.39 Av. 6. 1 | aaa cian 6.84 Av. 6. Nona dbalneancnte ca 1/704 Ole Awe 2e Siachayspaie ct iete scele Te 2 eA Oe ich IGE CRT OEE 21.89 1 eae nee ane 0.267 Av. 2. BORER erase nse 0.034 Av. 2. 100.00 The iron was determined gravimetrically since the amount was so small that only a few drops of 1/40 normal solution of potassium per- manganate were necessary by the volumetric method, and the exact end point was consequently difficult to determine. Taking all necessary precautions to eliminate aluminium and calcium, results were obtained by extracting the iron from the ash, which were concordant with those obtained “from the filtrate after precipitating the phosphorus as ammonium phospho-molybdate. The weight of ferric oxide seldom ex- ceeded 0.6 milligram. The analyses in other respects agree very well with those of Osborne and Voorhees, except that the carbon and nitrogen contents are slightly Jjower, and that they obtained no phosphorus. A large quantity of gliadin was prepared and digested at 38°C. with artificial gastric juice in litre flasks. Digestion was continued for three weeks, the flasks being frequently shaken, and the clear supernatant fluid renewed several times. The considerable residue was collected on filters, washed free from proteoses and peptones with water, then with 70-95 per cent. alcohol which removed some fat. The residue dissolved in 0.2 per cent. sodium hydrate solution, was filtered, and the solution precipitated with excess of dilute hydrochloric acid, the process of solu- tion and precipitation being repeated several times; the precipitate was then collected on “hardened” filters and washed with distilled water till free from chlorides. Extracted with absolute alcohol in the Soxhlet apparatus for sixteen hours, dried at 110 “C., and analyzed, the residue yielded the following results :—- 504 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VIL. GLIADIN NUCLEIN. Cretan hratetcetess 49.47 per cent. Av. 2. EA eee ttve ane eure 6.98 oe LM 2 ING ce abit tenentne § 16.60 as AW. 2: Srecaele eases 0.80 oe One. Peet yeealetey sence taeers 0.2 pe Av. 2. GL ioe mee oeats 0.04 es Av. 2. OkSachi oomoeust 25.82 100.00 INN Pes seoeceaause Gseyoee ConiG sai 2 The amount of phosphorus was very small, practically the same, in fact, as the gliadin from which it was prepared. The chemicals used were carefully tested in blank experiments, but no trace of phosphorus was found in any of them. Possibly the prolonged digestion with frequent renewals of hydrochloric acid solution had removed some of the phosphorus. The result was, however, quite unsatisfactory, since it was to be expected that the amount of phosphorus and iron would be much greater than in the substance from which it was derived. The analyses of the gliadin and the nuclein, derived from it, may be com- pared side by side :— Gliadin, Gliadin Nuclein, (Cia medaacodmos Sess) 49.47 » Fle ches cetisiicies 6.84 6.98 Ngee ascee 17-47 16.60 SWS ext Bs onion core rh 10 0.80 Oe teat foe 21.89 25.82 Pissaaeesaiares = C3207 0.29 IN GRAR See aiotaé EOL O0R4 0.04 100.00 100.00 From this it may be gathered that the two compounds are quite distinct chemically as well as physically. Glutenin was prepared, as recommended by Osborne and Voor- hees!® by extracting all the gliadin from gluten by dilute alcohol, dissolving the residue in 0.2 per cent. potassic hydrate, and precipitating by exactly neutralizing with 0.2 per cent. hydrochloric acid; the pre- cipitate washed with 70-95 per cent. alcohol, was again dissolved in 0.2 per cent. potassic hydrate and filtered perfectly clear through heavy filter paper in an ice chest. Precipitated from the solution by exact neutralization with 0.2 per cent. hydrochloric acid, washed with distilled water till free from chlorides, then with 70-95 per cent. alcohol, extracted 1902-3. | THE CHEMISTRY OF WHEAT GLUTEN. 505 in the Soxhlet apparatus for ten hours with absolute alcohol, and dried for three hours at 110 °C., the glutenin so prepared gave on analysis the following :— GLUTENIN. NasMITH, OSBORNE, Caeke sae oles 52-75 52-34 |is ae erere ae ore Tee 6.83 IN Sere Se rebeee 16.15 17.49 Sioa etecelinee 1.06 1.08 Oe ee eontener 22.58 22.26 1s eae ee aoe 0.215 Freie iavevetstaneste iste 0.026 100.00 100.00 Ash 0.188 per cent. Another preparation by Fleurent’s method”! which was also care- fully filtered, yielded 16.55 per cent. nitrogen. The figures are not at all in agreement with those of Osborne and Voorhees for this compound. Mine are considerably higher in carbon and hydrogen, and much lower in nitrogen, a result which might be accounted for by carbohydrate impurity. Since, however, it was prepared exactly as described by him this seems unlikely. The fact that the amount of iron and phosphorus is practically the same as in gliadin at once suggested the possibility of these elements being derived from a certain amount of nuclein mechant- cally carried along with these compounds in the attempted purification process. Impure glutenin was digested with pepsin and hydrochloric acid, but the insoluble residue was so difficult to separate from soluble starch, and was so evidently impure that the complete analysis was not made, though the presence of iron and phosphorus in it was demonstrated. In repeating the work of Morishima” a copious precipitate as usual occurred at the neutral point, but when more acid was added nearly all went into solution ; after twenty-four hours only a trace of precipitate settled out. Glutenin has again and again been shown to be soluble in dilute acids. Artolin, as I found, is derived from another source than Morishima supposed. A 0.4 per cent. hydrochloric acid extract of flour was made, filtered perfectly clear and potassic hydrate added until neutral, when a precipitate was thrown down, which proved to be nearly all gliadin. If to this 0.4 per cent. hydrochloric acid extract more acid was added, a precipitate began to appear which increased with the acidity. This in large part separated on heating, and it proved entirely soluble in 70-80 per cent. alcohol, the result showing it to be gliadin. 506 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. This property of gliadin, of being precipitated with excess of acid, has not, I think, been hitherto noted. Since the compound of Morishima was prepared in practically the same way artolin is evidently gliadin in acid combination. Glutenin remains in solution. The body obtained under these circumstances by Morishima would perhaps correspond to a proteid salt,” eg.,.a chloride of gliadin. I obtained the substance called conglutin by Fleurent”! but in quantity insufficient for analysis. In order to decide whether the iron and phosphorus in gliadin and glutenin were actually in molecular combination in these compounds, resource was had to the microscope. Grains of Manitoba hard wheat were imbedded in celloidin and sectioned. Macallum’s methods for determination of iron”? and phosphorus* were used. For iron the celloidin was removed by equal parts of alcohol and ether, the sections passed through absolute alcohol and inorganic iron salts removed by 2.5 per cent. hydrochloric acid in 95 per cent. alcohol. Sections so treated showed no trace of colour with pure hematoxylin in aqueous solution (0.5 per cent.) after the lapse of thirty minutes. The sections now placed in sulphuric acid alcohol (4 vols. acid, 100 alcohol) at 40° C. were removed at intervals of half hours ; on washing out the acid, and placing in hematoxylin, the sections gave a marked reaction for iron, the organic iron combination having been broken up and the inorganic iron salt formed retained in sitt. Sections unextracted by hydrochloric acid showed much inorganic iron in the aleuron layer and germ. When this had been removed by hydrochloric acid no colour whatever appeared after standing for twenty minutes in hematoxylin solution. After treatment with sulphuric acid alcohol the nuclei of the aleuron and large parenchymatous endosperm cells were stained with hematoxylin purplish blue-black. The aleuron cell contents gave no reaction, nor did the proteid matter of the endosperm, which constitutes gluten. Gliadin and glutenin, therefore, do not contain iron in their molecules, and that present must have been derived from the nuclei of the cells of the endosperm and aleuron layer; and possibly in small amounts from embryo cells. The distribution of iron in the embryo, or germ, is a point of interest. The closely packed cells of the embryo each contained a large nucleus coloured with hematoxylin almost black. In the rapidly dividing cells of the radicle and plumule a diffused purplish blue-black reaction occurred, which under the highest power could not be identified with any definite granules or structures. Some of the cells, other than those in a 1902-3. | THE CHEMISTRY OF WHEAT GLUTEN. 507 rapid state of division, gave a faint purplish reaction, perhaps from iron derived by diffusion from the nucleus. In order to show the distribution of organic phosphorus the inor- ganic phosphates were first removed by soaking for half an hour in acetic acid alcohol. Sections removed at the end of this time, placed for a few minutes in the nitric-molybdate solution, and then in one per cent. solution of phenylhydrazine hydrochloride showed no trace of green colouration, this fact indicating that all inorganic phosphates had been removed. Such extracted sections were now placed in nitric-molybdate solution at 35° C. and removed in series at intervals of half an hour. When placed in a solution of phenylhydrazine hydrochloride for a few minutes, they showed a green colour, which increased in depth with the times during which the section remained in the molybdate solution. In twenty hours the aleuron layer and embryo were stained a bright green. Sections which had had the celloidin removed by alcohol and ether, and which were subsequently extracted with absolute alcohol in the Soxhlet apparatus for several hours, gave exactly the same reactions as those unextracted. Consequently lecithin could not have been present. The aleuron cells in such preparations showed a large nucleus of a much deeper green than the rest of the cells, and under the high power the colour was seen to be confined to the spaces between the aleuron grains, the coloured parts appearing in the form of a network. The network had a more or less punctated appearance, the grains themselves were perfectly colourless. In the endosperm of such preparations the nuclei alone were coloured, though sometimes, after twenty-four hours, the proteid matter packed between the starch grains, and even the cellulose gave the phosphorus reaction. Possibly phosphorus had diffused from the nuclei. The manner in which the phosphorus is distributed in the different types of embryo cells is quite varied. The palisade-like absorption cells between the endosperm and embryo appeared finely granular and of a uniformly dark green tint. The cytoplasm of the radicle and plumule cells were of a finely granular character, and gave the phos- phorus reaction. Around these tightly packed cells of the radicle and plumule were other cells much more loosely connected, whose contents appeared vesiculated. The intercellular material gave a faint phosphorus reaction, while the large granular nucleus was much darker and very prominent. z 508 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vo.. VII. Between these vesiculated cells and the absorption tissue of the embryo were large cells loosely bound together. These cells, even under the low power, were very different from the others, containing large, well-separated granules, coloured a bright green. Under the high power these granules appeared round, angular, or often crescent-shaped. In very thin sections they were quite separated from one another and very brilliantly coloured; in thin sections the nucleus often was not apparent. In thicker sections these granules were seen to be connected, forming a loose kind of meshwork, the spaces between being filled with a finely granular substance, giving a faint but distinct phosphorus reaction. When treated for the iron reaction a very faint violet tinge appears in these cells, but only between the bodies which stain so brightly for phosphorus, From this it seems that, with the exception of the rapidly dividing cells such as those of the radicle and plumule, iron is found in the nuclei only of the various cells of the wheat grain. Phosphorus is more widely distributed, appearing between the aleuron grains ; in fine grains in the radicle and plumule cells ; in the foam-like mesh work of another type of embryo cell ; in the very distinct large granules just described, and in tke nuclei of all these cells. From the various ways in which these different cells stain, and the several methods of phosphorus distribution in them, one may conclude that there are probably several nucleins present. Osborne and Campbell” extracted wheat germ with petroleum naphtha, ground the residue to a fine flour, extracted this with water, saturated the clear filtrate with sodium chloride, and subjected the re- sulting precipitate to a vigorous peptic digestion. The nuclein so pre- pared, they conclude, “ is not an original constituent of the extract nor of the cells of the embryo, but results through several molecules of nucleic acid with oneof Protein.” To this nuclein, washed with water and dissolved in dilute potassic hydrate solution, was added hydrochloric acid until a precipitate formed, which readily separated. When this was filtered off a considerable excess of hydrochloric acid was further added to the filtrate, whereupon a precipitate of nucleic acid separated out which became so dense and brittle that it could be ground under water. This operation, as described, I repeated, but a small quantity only of nucleic acid was obtained, which, however, did not become brittle under water. As I expected, the ash of this nucleic acid and of the 1902-3. | THE CHEMISTRY OF WHEAT GLUTEN. 509 nuclein, also prepared, gave distinct reactions for iron, even after stand- ing for several weeks under dilute hydrochloric acid, a fact unnoticed by Osborne, and showing that part at least of his nuclein had come from the nuclei of the cells. If this nuclein had been derived from the nuclei of the embryo cells, it must have contained iron, since, as above demonstrated, its presence is invariable in the nucleus. Probably his nuclein was derived both from nuclei and ground substance of the cells. It may then probably be admitted that the phosphorus and iron in- variably found in gliadin and glutenin, no matter how carefully they have been prepared, are present in the form of nuclein or nucleic acid, which have been derived from the nuclei of the parenchymatous endosperm cells chiefly, and carried with them in the purification pro- cess. Perhaps aleuron and embryo cells imperfectly separated in the milling process contribute part of them. III. PROPERTIES OF GLIADIN. Gliadin extracted directly from raw flour by dilute alcohol is always contaminated with fat, which gives to its solution a yellow tinge. On diluting this solution with an equal volume of sodium chloride solution, a snow-white precipitate separates, which, if the ailu- tion is sufficient, collects into brownish flocculent masses, and either rises or sinks, according to the strength of the salt solutions. Prepared in this way gliadin is exceedingly viscid, adhering to everything with which it comes in contact. When precipitated by water alone, gliadin will not readily separate. Evaporation of the alcoholic solution and cooling cause a considerable gummy mass of gliadin to separate, while a few drops of sulphuric acid to the supernatant fluid throw down almost all of the gliadin left in solution. A solution of gliadin evaporated to dryness forms a glue-like brittle, opalescent, yellow mass ; hydrated gliadin, exhausted with abso- lute alcohol and ether, and dried over sulphuric acid, forms a pure white friable mass. Either variety will almost wholly go into solution on warming in dilute alcohol. Gliadin is slightly soluble in distilled water, and then gives the pink biuret reaction ; it is not entirely insoluble in dilute salt solutions, as stated by Osborne and Voorhees. In dilute alkalis it readily dissolves, and the greater part of that dissolved separates on neutralizing. Its action with hydrochloric acid is peculiar ; it may be extracted directly from flour by dilute acids, filtered per- fectly clear, and yet an additional drop of acid throws down a cloudy precipitate which increases in quantity with further addition of acid, 510 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. but separates completely only on heating ; as it cools, however, more or less of the precipitate goes back into solution. A drop of alkali to the acid solution only produces a faint opalescence, which does not increase with additional alkali until the neutral point is reached, when a sudden clouding occurs, and a precipitate settles out on heating. A cold alcoholic solution of gliadin filtered clear, clouds slightly in twenty-four hours, depositing a small precipitate which increases in quantity with the length of time under alcohol. It is much more soluble in boiling than in cold alcohol, a saturated solution of the former depositing a heavy precipitate on cooling. Heating to 130° C. in the autoclave renders gliadin insoluble in alcohol. In artificial gastric juice at 38° C. it rapidly dissolves, depositing a small amount of nuclein, and yielding a considerable amount of true peptone, as evi- denced by the deep red colouration with potassic hydrate and cupric sulphate in the filtrate after removal of proteoses by saturation with ammonium sulphate. It is a unique proteid, in that it gives this red biuret reaction before as well as after digestion. In this particular the name “insoluble phytalbumose” applied to it by Martin’® does not appear appropriate. The proteid is entirely insoluble in absolute alcohol, and is precipitated by strong alcohol from solutions in weak. Addition of salt to a solution of gliadin in 70 per cent. alcohol does not produce precipitation until water is added. Millon’s reagent, and nitric acid give the usual proteid reactions. Gliadin is distributed throughout the endosperm, especially toward the periphery, where the small proteid granules are much thicker and the starch granules they enclose smaller. It is also contained in bran, and probably in aleuron cells as part of the packing between the aleuron grains, for both bran and.shorts yield gliadin to dilute alcohol. IV.—PROPERTIES OF GLUTENIN. Glutenin is almost completely insoluble in salt solutions, water, and alcohol ; readily soluble in dilute acids and alkalis, from which solu- tion the proteid is precipitated unaltered when the solution is rendered neutral to litmus. It has a definite coagulation temperature which lies about 70° C. Gluten dehydrated with absolute alcohol and ether, is very slowly soluble in dilute acids and alkalis, more or less remaining un- dissolved. Experimental evidence seems to show that glutenin exists as such in the wheat grain. Its composition, according to Osborne, is practically identical with that of gliadin, results differing greatly from £902-3. ] THE CHEMISTRY OF WHEAT GLUTEN. 51 those of previous investigators, who had only in one instance obtained from glutenin as much as 17 per cent. of nitrogen. Osborne considered it an altered form of gliadin, but the fact that it has a definite coagulating point, while gliadin has none, would indi- cate that it is improbable. No one has yet succeeded in making gliadin assume a form at all resembling glutenin. In my opinion the two proteids are entirely distinct in origin as well as in properties. Osborne states that glutenin is slightly soluble in cold but much more in hot dilute alcohol, the dissolved proteid separating on cooling. Since glutenin is coagulated at about 70° C. the proteid dissolved must have either been due to gliadin imperfectly separated from the glutenin, or to part of the latter split off by heat. The trace soluble in cold alcohol, as Osborne himself hints, may have been gliadin, which is exceedingly difficult to separate from glutenin. V.—THE FERMENT THEORY OF GLUTEN FORMATION. The question whether gluten exists as such in flour, or whether it results by the activity of a ferment, is one on which there. are consider- able differences of opinion. Wey] and Bischoff* considered gluten to be formed from pre-existing globulins by a pre-existing ferment in flour. They held that flour extracted by 15 per cent. solution of sodium chloride, and heated to the coagulation point of globulin, gave no gluten. They were, however, unable to isolate the ferment. Martin ° thought that gluten did not pre-exist in flour as such, but that his gluten fibrin was derived from a precursor globulin, and his in- soluble phytalbumose or gliadin, from a soluble albumose. He stated that gliadin was not extracted directly from flour by 70 per cent. alcohol. Johannsen*! advanced arguments against the ferment theory, and thought gluten existed as such in a finely divided state in the wheat grain. He stated that a temperature of 60°C. did not injure the gluten- forming power of flour, and that flour made by mixing dry starch and finely-powdered gluten behaved like ordinary flour. Ballard® maintained that gluten pre-existed as such in flour. Osborne”* arrived at the same conclusion. O’Brien?° found that flour heated to 100° C. for thirteen hours gave practically the usual amounts of gluten; also that a paste made with boiling water yielded gluten in apparently normal quantities: that flour left twenty-four hours under absolute alcohol and ether, yielded gluten when these evaporated. He concluded that there is but one compound soluble in alcohol, that the 512 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII portion soluble in alcohol may be made to pass over into the insoluble stage, and that there exists but one mother substance of gluten in flour. None of the proofs as to the existence or non-existence of a ferment appear at all conclusive. Dry heat at 1oo° C. or even 110° C. for several hours does not kill ferments, neither does alcohol for a short period. To prove the non-existence of a ferment presents in this case peculiar and apparently unsurmountable difficulties, but a few facts bearing on the point may be given here. Seventy per cent. alcohol, cold or hot, applied directly, extracts gliadin from dry flour ; warm 95 per cent. alcohol does the same ; flour moistened with 95 per cent. alcohol and heated to 80° C. yields abundant cliadin, as does flour stirred into boiling water and then extracted with alcohol. When flour, however, is slowly sifted into boiling water, so that every particle comes into instant contact with water or steam at 100° C. it yields no gliadin to dilute alcohol. Dough made from flour and boiling water does yield gluten on washing, as stated by O’Brien, but it is smaller in amount and is of irregular consistency. The temperature of the dough when mixed was found to be only 52.5° C. Now glutenin has a definite coagulation point. Martin’ stated that the residue after extracting gluten with dilute alcohol was coagulated by boiling water. Before noticing his work I had found the coagulation point of glutenin to be about 70° C. When, therefore, a dough was made with boiling water, and only reached the temperature of 52° C. only a comparatively small amount of the flour must have been heated to 70° C.,a temperature which ccagulates glutenin. Consequently a quantity of gluten would be formed from the portion of the flour not heated to that point. A dough made in this way and gradually heated till it reached a temperature of 80° C. yielded no gluten, proving that its formation depended upon the glutenin not being coagulated. A dry heat of 110° C. for ten hours does not coagulate proteid, and flour heated to this point still yields gluten ; but if flour is heated to 120° C., or even 100° C., for half an hour in the autoclave a dough of little coherence results, and no gluten is obtainable on washing even over silk. The glutenin had been coagulated. In other words any temperature or manipulation that would kill a ferment which might be present would coagulate the glutenin and therefore gluten could not be obtained. The fact that gluten has a definite coagulation point would seem to indicate that it is not derived from the same substance as 1902-3. | THE CHEMISTRY OF WHEAT GLUTEN. 513 gliadin. I have never been able to transform one of these compounds into anything at all likethe other. With the idea of finding out whether gluten changed into gliadin, I extracted all the latter from flour, let one half stand over night under water and the other under alcohol for twenty-four hours, but neither yielded anything to dilute alcohol. The fact that ground, dried glutin mixed with starch yielded dough of normal properties, as stated by Johannsen*! is no proof as to the non- existence of ferment action, since if ferment action were present the dried gluten itself would have been the resultant product of the ferment action. Flour was slightly moistened with absolute alcohol and heated on a warm bath to 70° C., being stirred all the while with a stout thermome- ter in order to heat the mixture evenly throughout. Alcohol was used to prevent any possibility of ferment action. After drying in the air, one half was taken and made into a dough, from which, as I expected, gluten could not be obtained. A small quantity of raw flour was intimately mixed with the other half and this was also made into a dough. In this case also no gluten could be obtained. This proved that the formation of gluten depended altogether on whether glutenin was coagulated or not, since the ferment if existing should have been present in the added raw flour. Now ground air-dried gluten mixed with starch and made into dough yields gluten of normal properties. Such a dough of ground gluten and starch warmed above 70° C. does not yield gluten since the glutenin has been coagulated. Therefore when glutenin which had been already made, as in the the second case, or glutenin, or even its pre- decessor in the raw flour in the first case, was coagulated, a similar result obtained. The probability, therefore, seems to be strong that glutenin is present in flour as such. And since gliadin is extracted directly from flour or bran with 70-95 per cent. alcohol, cold or boiling, and also by dilute acids or alkalis, it also apparently is present as such in flour, and not derived, as O’Brien” holds, from the same parent sub- stance as gluten. VI.—THE ALEURON LAYER OF WHEAT. The outer endosperm layer of wheat was stated by Sachs*® in 1862 to be rich in oil and nitrogenous compounds. Ten years later Pfeffer* pointed out the fact that gluten was not derived from the aleuron layer as was commonly believed. He maintained that the high 514 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. nitrogenous value of the latter was due to substance not proteid in’ nature, and to adhering endosperm rich in gluten. Johannsen in 1888 again emphasized the fact that aleuron cells do not contain gluten; he stated that these cells contained nitrogenous granules imbedded in a soft protoplasmic mass, rich in fatty matter. According to O’Brien” the protoplasm of an aleuron cell is con- tinuous with that of adjacent cells, aleuron as well as endosperm. He found oil present in considerable quantities. The individual aleuron grains on addition of water appeared to consist of a central core which was more or less soluble in water, salt solutions. dilute acids and alkalis, and not readily stainable. The layer surrounding this core he found to stain readily with iodine, hematoxylin and aniline stains, and to be insoluble in any of the above mentioned reagents. From an aqueous extract of bran he obtained a coagulable proteid, probably a globulin, and proteose which, when evaporated to dryness, yielded a gelatinous semi-transparent substance, partly separating in small round spherules, regarded by him as artificial aleuron grains, since they gave all the reactions of those imbedded in cell protoplasm. He also extracted from bran by means of dilute alcohol a proteid which corresponded to gliadin. Dilute alcohol, I found, extracted gliadin from both bran and shorts. Aqueous extracts of bran gave a globulin coagulable by heat, and also a proteose-like body which was not gliadin. On evaporation of this proteose extract no granule corresponding to O’Brien’s artificial aleuron grains could be obtained, although a granular material did separate ; the solution at the same time exerted a very strongly reducing action upon Fehling’s fluid. I was unable to make out a double coat to the aleuron grains. The substance between the aleuron grains seems to be chiefly gliadin, and contains inorganic iron, calcium salts and phos- phorus-holding compounds. VII.—CONCLUSIONS. Gliadin and glutenin do not come from the same parent substance, nor are they of the same composition. Gliadin has not a definite coagu- lation point, while glutenin has. Gliadin is obtained from rye, barley, and maize, and from the bran and shorts of wheat, while glutenin cannot be obtained from these. By chemical or other means one has as yet not been transformed into anything at all resembling the other. 1902-3. | THE CHEMISTRY OF WHEAT GLUTEN, 515 Both gliadin and glutenin invariably give the reactions for organic iron and phosphorus, but are not nucleo-proteids. Under the micro- scope the gluten matrix in thin sections of wheat does not show any indication of iron or phosphorus, and it must, therefore, be concluded that the organic iron and phosphorus found in gluten are due to nucleins or nucleic acid derived from the nuclei of the large endosperm cells. Probably part is derived from nuclei of the aleuron cells, or of the embryo cells, or from the nucleins present in the cytoplasm of the embryo cells. Gliadin exists as such in the wheat grain, and the theory of its formation by means of ferment action is not justifiable. Strong alcohol mixed with flour and then diluted with water to a 70 per cent. solution extracts gliadin from it ; boiling alcohol also extracts gliadin from flour or bran. Glutenin exists as such in the wheat grain; any manipulation that will destroy the hypothetical ferment will coagulate glutenin, thus mak- ing gluten formation impossible. Gluten formation is not merely a mechanical mixture of gliadin with glutenin, but a definite physical state of the two mixing substances is necessary. Coagulated glutenin with gliadin does not form gluten. There are probably several nucleins or nucleo-proteids in wheat, as shown in the various ways phosphorus is distributed in the different types of embryo cells. Organic iron is found only in the nuclei of the endosperm, aleuron, and embryo cells, and in the cytoplasm of the absorption layer, plumule and radicle cells. The proteid between the aleuron grains shows the presence of organic phosphorus only. 516 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vou. VII. VIII.—BIBLIOGRAPHY. 1. Common Bonon I, 1, p. 122. 2. Journ. d. Chemie, von Gehlen, V, p. 131, 1805. 3. Abstr. Schweiger’s Journ. f. Chem. u. Physik, XXIX, 514. 4. Lehrbuch d. Chemie, 3te Aufl., VI, p. 453. 5: Berzelius, Jahresb., VII, p. 231, 1826. 6. Schweiger’s Journ., LXIX, p. 188, 1833. 7. Ann. de Chem. et de Phys., LXV, p. 30; Abst., Berzelius Jahresb., XVIII, 327, 1837. 8. Ann, der Chem. u. Pharm., XXXIX, p. 129, 1841. g. Ann. der Chem. u. Pharm., XLIII, p, 124, 1842. 10. Journ. f. prakt. Chem., XXVIII, p. 398, 1843. 11, Ann. d. Chem. u. Pharm., LII, 419, 1844. 12. Die Getreidearten und das Brot, 1860. 13. Journ. fiir prakt. Chem., LXXXV, p. 213, 1862. 14. Journ. fir prakt. Chem., LXXXV, p. 193. 15. Annalen der Chemie, XXXIX—XL, 1841. 16. Br. Med. Journ., II, p. 104, 1886. 17. Journ. Physiol., XI, p. 419, 1890. 18. Am. Chem. Journ., XV, 392, 1893. 19. Am. Chem. Journ., XIX, p. 59, 1897. 20. Annals of Bot., 1895, p. 182. 21. Comptes Rendus, 1896, p. 327. 22. Arch. fiir exp. Pathol. u. Pharm., XLI, p. 345; Abst. Chem. Central-blatt, II, 1898. 23. Chem. Central-blatt, I, p. 465, 1898. 24. Journ. f. Prakt. Chem., p. 474, 1899. 25. Archiv. f. Anat. u. Physiol., Physiol. Abth., 1900, p. 163. 26, Proc; Roy.) S0cs, lz, Pp. 2774, 1s0l1-2: 27. Journ. of Physiol., XXII, p. 95, 1897-8. 28. Proc. Roy. Soc., LXIITI, p. 471, 1898. 29. Journ. Am. Chem. Soc., XXII, p. 379, 1900. 30. Berichte d. D. Chem. Gesel., 1880. 31. Ann, Agronom., XIV, p. 420; Abst. Journ. Chem. Soc., March, 1880. 32. Journ. de Pharm. et de Chem., 1883-84, Ser. 3, T. VII. 33. Bot. Zeitung, 1862. - 34. Pringsheim’s Jahrb., VIII, 1872. 35: Journ. Am. Chem. Soc., 1902. Man in Modern Costume. icine Medi me A Nah: 1902-3. | THE NAH‘ANE AND THEIR LANGUAGE. 517 THE NAH‘ANE AND THEIR LANGUAGE. By THE REv. FATHER A. G. MorRICcE, O.M.I. (Read gth April, 1903.) OF the twenty odd tribes which compose the great Déné family, few, if any, are so little known as the Nahvane. Many are the travellers who had passing references to them in the course of their writings, but exceedingly few are those who had as much as seen one of them. In fact, Dr. G. M. Dawson is the only author who can be said to have introduced them to us, and his information, frag- mentary, and at times inexact as it is, is confined to the limits of a few pages. Writers are not even agreed as to their very nameas a tribe. Thus while Pilling in his valuable Bibliography of the Athapaskan Languages has adopted the spelling Nehawni, Kenticott calls them Nahawney ; Ross writes their name Nehawney; Richardson changes this into Noh’hanne; MacKenzie dubs those he met Nathannas ; Campbell and Dawson alternate between Nahanie and Nahaunie; others prefer Nahawnie, and Petitot himself never speaks of them but as the Na”anne, his” being the equivalent of my upper dot, which stands for the hiatus. He derives that appellation from Nari’an-o'tine, “people of the West,” but does not state from which dialect the word is borrowed. All the western Déné who know of that tribe, as well as its members them- selves, pronounce it Nah‘ane, and there can be no doubt that Petitot is correct in the meaning he ascribes to that term, whatever may be said of its derivation. For sunset or occident, the Tsilkotin say zare7zN, the Carriers zaanaz, the Tsékéhne zaven‘oN, and the Nah‘ane themselves naean. The final e is expressive of personality and sometimes of plurality or collectivity. On the other hand, Mr. J. W. MacKay! repeatedly calls the tribe Ku-na-na, the name given it by the Tlhinket, its neighbours in the south-west. But that he is somewhat mixed as to the ethnographical status of those Indians is shown by his remark that “the Ku-na-nas of the Stickine valley are closely allied to the Tlinkeets of that section, 1 B.A.A.S. Tenth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada, p.p., 38-39. 518 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII. z.e., the Skat-kwan.”! As a matter of fact, the latter are just as pure non-Déné as the former are undoubted Déné. In common with all the Déné and many other aboriginal families, the Nah‘ane recognize as their property no other vocable than Déné, “men,” though the branch of that tribe best known to me, the Thalh- than, will occasionally call themselves Tcitco’tinneh or “ stick-people,” whereby they simply translate the name given them by outsiders, since, according to Dawson, and as I have myself ascertained, “the interior Indians are collectively known on the coast as ‘stick Indians.’ ”? So much for the name of the tribe. Now as to its ethnographical status. This seems even more of a mystery tothe few writers who have ever referred to it. It is now over nine years since I stated myself that the Nah-ane “hunting grounds lie to the north of those of the Tsékéhne. But I am not familiar enough with their tribal divisions to state them with any degree of certainty, nor do I sufficiently possess their technology to speak authoritatively of it.” I am glad to be now in a position to say that, in the course of the present year, I have taken a trip to their chief village Thalhthan,* in order to add as much as possible to my knowledge of that tribe and its language. I have succeeded in gathering besides the material for a grammatical compendium, quite a goodly little dictionary, and not a few texts in its dialect which I intend shortly to publish. Yet I must con- fess that we must still fall back, for the details of their frontiers and some other particulars, on what the late Dr. G. M. Dawson wrote of them in 1887--Notes on the Indian tribes of the... northern portion of British Columbia.° Inaccurate as it is from a philological standpoint, his is the only account of the Western Nah‘ane worth referring to. 1 Notes on the Indian Tribes of the Yukon District, etc., p. 2. 2 Tenth Report, p. 39, note. 3 Notes on the Western Dénés, Transactions Canadian Institute, Vol. IV., p. 31. 4 Most writers spell this word Tahltan, when they do not have it simply Taltan, and Dr. Boas corrects them by Changing it into Ta’tltan, All sin through ignorance of the Déné phonetics and of the meaning of that word, which is a contraction of Tha-selhthan, tha, the usual alteration of thz, water n compounds, and s@lhthan, a verb which has reference to some heavy object lying therein. s Annual Report of Geological Survey of Canada. 1902-3. ] THE NAH‘ANE AND THEIR LANGUAGE. 519 iL Broadly speaking the tribe consists of four main divisions. To my certain knowledge, its principal seat in the west is Thalhthan, a salmon fishery at the confluence with the Stickeen of a river of the same name, by about 58° 2’ of latitude north. From the new village in the im- mediate vicinity of that place, these aborigines radiate as far south as the Iskoot River, taking in all its tributaries and some of the northern sources of the Nass, and in the east to Dease Lake and part of the Dease River, extending also to all the northern tributaries of the Stickeen. Further north, we meet the Taku branch of the tribe, which claims “ the whole drainage basin of the Taku River, together with the upper portions of the streams which flow northward to the Lewes, while on the east their hunting grounds extend to the Upper Liard River and include the valleys of the tributary streams which join that river from the westward.” The third division of the Nah‘ane is the so-called Kaska, about whom much misapprehension seems to exist among the whites I met in the course of my journey, a misapprehension of which Dr. Dawson constituted himself the echo when he wrote: “The name Kaska is applied collectively to two tribes or bands occupying the country to the eastward of the Tahl-tan. I was unable to learn that this name is recognized by these Indians themselves, and it may be, as is often the case with names adopted by the whites, merely that by which they are known to some adjacent tribe. It is, however,a convenient designation for the group having a common dialect. This dialect is different from that of the Tahl-tan, but the two peoples are mutually intelligible, and to some extent intermarried.”” In the first place I must remark that Kaska is the name of no tribe or sub-tribe, but McDane Creek is called by the Nah‘ane KasHa—the H representing a peculiar gutturalo-sibilant aspiration—and this is the real word which, corrupted into Cassiar by the whites, has, since a score of years or more, served to designate the whole mining region from the Coast Range to the Rocky Mountains, along, and particularly to the north of the Stickeen River. All the whites who mentioned the subject to me concurred in Dawson’s opinion that the so-called Kaskas form quite a different tribe, and in a footnote to the latter’s essay, a Mr. Campbell goes even so far 1 Notes on the . . . northern portion of British Columbia, p. 3. 2 Ibid., p. 9. 520 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. |Vou. VII. as to state that the “ Nahanies of the mountains (who correspond to a subdivision of the Kaskas), are quite a different race trom the Nahanies of the Stickeen (Tahl-tan)”!. Now the Thalhthan Indians I questioned on the subject unanimously declared that those pretended foreigners spoke exactly the same language as themselves, with, of course, some local peculiarities. From a Kaska boy, with whom I travelled for a number of days, I ascertained that even such non-Déné words as ’ki, paper, khukh, box, ’kunts, potatoes, which I thought proper to the Thalhthan Indians, who borrowed them from the coast, were the only ones current among his people to designate those objects. The physique of the Kaska is somewhat different from that of the Thalhthan aborigines, inasmuch as I recognized in the former the thin lips and small, deeply sunk eyes of the Tsé’kéhne, while the latter resemble more the Carriers of the Coast Tlhinket, with whom from time immemorial they have more or less intermarried. The sociology of the two divisions of the Nahvane is as widely different, and their respective mode of life aud social organization confirm my previous assertion in former papers that, to all practical purposes, the western Nah‘ane are Carriers, while their eastern brethren are Tsekehne. Another circumstance which has contributed not a little to the estrangement of the two tribal divisions, is the long-standing feuds arising out of difficulties concerning the hunting grounds, the making of slaves, and other causes. Even to this day the Kaska resent the Thalhthan’s assumed or real superiority, and will not be confounded with them as co-members of the same tribe. Hence their declarations to the whites and the travellers’ and traders’ printed statements. According to Dr. Dawson, the so-called Kaskas are sub-divided into the “ Saze-oo-ti-na” and the “ Ti-tsho-ti-na” and their habitat is in the neighbourhood of the Dease, Upper Liard and Black Rivers. His “ Saz-oo-ti-na” may be Sas-otine or “ Bear-People,” while his Ti-tsho-ti- na’s real name is no doubt Tihtco’tinne, or Grouse-People, an appellation which would seem to leave it open to discussion whether we have not in them rather the names of two different phratries or gentes than those of two genuine ethnical subdivisions of a tribe. “ Eastward they claim the country down the Liard to the site of old Fort Halkett, and northward roam to the head of a long river (probably 1 Notes, etc., p. ro. 1902-3. | THE NAH'’ANE AND THEIR LANGUAGE. 521 Smith River) which falls into the Liard near this place, also up the Upper Liard as far as Francess Lake.”? This statement would seem to dispose of Petitot’s Bad-People or Mauvais-Monde, a“ very \ittle known tribe,” he says, “ which used to trade at the now abandoned Fort Halkett to the number of 300 or 400 souls,”? Father Petitot furnishes us with our fourth division of the Nah‘ane when he states that “a little band of 300 Na’annes (Déné) roam over the mountains of the MacKenzie. They are the Nathannas of Sir A. Mackenzie. We can add thereto the Etaottines of the Good Hope mountains, and the Espa-t’a-ottines of Fort des Liards in equal number.’? To the above certain divisions of the Nah‘ane tribe, we should perhaps add the Ts’Ets’aut, an offshoot of some inland Déné, whom Dr, F. Boas discovered some years ago on Portland Inlet, on the Pacific Coast, somewhat to the southwest of the Nah‘ane proper. That Dr. Boas would himself connect them with the Nah‘ane tribe is apparent from the statement that “ Levi (his informant) named three closely related tribes whose languages are different, though mutually intelligible ; the Tahltan (Ta-tltan) of Stickeen and Iskoot Rivers, the Laq’uyip or Nagkyina, of the headwaters of the Stickeen, and the Ts’Ets’aut.” This surmise is fully confirmed by Mr. MacKay, his annotator, who states that those Indians “belong to the Kunana, a tribe which inhabits the lower Stickine valley and whose headquarters are at Tahltan.”® But here scénduntur doctores. According to Dr. Boas this handful of natives, which now consists of a mere dozen individuals, would have numbered about 500 souls sixty years ago, while Mr. MacKay has quite a different story to account for their separate existence as a tribe. He relates that, not more than forty years ago,® three or four families hailing from Thalhthan in the course of their wanderings made for Chunah, on the sea coast, but took a wrong direction and struck on the west shore of Portland Channel, where they were practically forced to remain in a 1 Notes, etc., p. ro. 2 Mémoire abrégé sur la Géogrphie de |’ Athabaskaw-MacKenzie, p. 46. 3 Lbid. ibid. 4 Tenth Report, B.A.A.S., p. 34. 5 lbid. p. 38. 6 It is now eight years since both statements were published. un ty nN TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. subject condition by the Tsimpsians, among whom they had unwittingly tumbled. Be this as it may, the language of the Ts’Ets’aut such as recorded by Dr. Boas himself, while it shows here and there undeniable traces of a Déné origin, has become so corrupt by the admixture of foreign terms and the alteration of its original lexicon, that the propriety of their being classified as Nah‘ane is now quite problematical. The population of the whole Nah‘ane tribe must remain little more than a matter of guess. From the Iskoot, close to the Pacific, to the Mackenzie, across the Rocky Mountains, is indeed a broad stretch of land, and the very fact that it is so sparsely peopled renders it so much the more difficult to obtain anything like an exact computation of the tribesmen. I myself took some years ago a census of the Thalhthan village, and my figures were in the close vicinity of 190 souls. The population has since decreased, so let us call it 175. From native sources I ascertained that the “Kaska were more numerous, perhaps 200.. Petitot puts at 600 the number of the trans- montane Nahvane and allied subtribes. Allowing for the probable decrease and possible exaggeration, let us say 500. There remain the Taku, of whom I have no means of ascertaining the exact numbers. Probably 150 would be a conservative figure. We thus obtain a total of 1,025, or in round numbers, 1,000 souls for the whole tribe, and I believe this is as fair an estimate of its population as could possibly be had at the present time. As already stated, the eastern Nah‘ane somewhat differ in physique from their western congeners, the only portion of the tribe with which I am familiar enough to describe it de vzsu. Their stature would be rather below than above the average, the maximum height being five feet eight inches. Their feet and hands are small and well shaped, and their head is round and not so large as that of the neighbouring 1 In the course of his account of that adventure and the circumstances which lead to his getting acquainted therewith, Mr. McKay takes occasion to speak of an invasion by the Tsimpsian of the territory which is now the Tsimpsian peninsula, whereupon Dr. Boas remarks that “‘there is no traditional evidence of the invasion of the Tsimshian tribe to which Mr. McKay refers,” adding that ‘‘it is probable that the Tsimshian were originally an inland people,” two statements which, apparently difficult to recon- cile as they at first appear, nevertheless are in no way conflicting. There may be no tradition of such an invasion among the Tsimpsian, but their very name betrays their origin. The Skeena River is known to them as the A’s#én, and they call themselves 7’s@m-sién, people from the Skeena, or the river. To this day, anybody can see, two miles from Hazelton, on the Upper Skeena, a prairie or ancient townsite, where one can distinguish the cavities over which were built their winter subterranean houses. Now the name of the locality is Tamlarh-am, the beautiful place, in Tsimpsian, and those two words are still used in that con- nection by the inland Kitkson to the exclusion of any name in their own dialect. 1902-3. | THE NAH‘ANE AND THEIR LANGUAGE. 523 Tlhinket. With them the nose, without being of the regular aquiline type, is not so squatty as among the Tsilhkoh’tin and other tribes. The lips are full, the eyes dark and not quite as large as is common with the Carriers. The forehead is low, broad and bulging immediately above the eyes. The hair is invariably black, coarse and straight. Their beard is scanty, though a few, especially such as have taken to shaving—they are very progressive and great imitators—disport a fair quantity of dark, bristly facial hair. As to their complexion, it varies considerably according to the individuals. Contrary to what I have noticed in other tribes, some of the eastern Nah‘ane women have cheeks of a tinge which might almost be characterized as rosy, though the facies of others is quite swarthy. All the adults above forty have the septum pendent and pierced through with a hole which held formerly a large silver ring, perhaps two inches in diameter. The leading men or notables wear likewise silver rings hanging from the lobes of the ear, and these are the only present remnants of the many ornaments which the helix was originally made to support. Neither in blood, customs nor language are the western Nah-ane pure Déné. They are indebted to no small extent to the Tlhinket of Fort Wrangell for their present make-up. To them also they undoubtedly owe that lack of moral strength and force of character which has left them such an easy prey to the vices of unscrupulous white men. Very few are to-day the western Nah‘ane who can be represented as bodily sane. Syphilis, a disease hardly known among the other Déné, is but too prevalent among them. Liquor is also slowly but surely killing them out. I am bound to add, however, that adverse circumstances are a great deal to blame for the development of such pitiful results. Had missionaries established themselves among them before the rush of strangers to the Cassiar mines, the natives would not, in all probability, be the degraded beings they have become. Since the last few years, a representative of the Anglican Church has struck his tent on the arid hill of Thalhthan. But I am sure he could not well himself take exception to my statement that his influence has not been in the interest of temperance. Though no other Déné that I know of have had to undergo the test of being left alone to wage their war against such a degraded foe as 524 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. (Vor VAI: a majority of the Cassiar miners have shown themselves to be, it is difficult for me to imagine for a moment, for instance, the Tse’kéhne tribe sunk to the low moral level of the present Nah‘ane whom I have met or have been told about. While the eastern Nah-ane lead the simple patriarchal life of the Tse’kéhne, with hardly any sign of a social organization, their western congeners, with the remarkable adaptiveness proper to the Déné race, have adopted practically all the customs and some of the mythology of their heterogeneous neighbours on the seacoast. Thus it is that matriar- chate or mother-right is their fundamental law governing and regulating all inheritances to rank or property. Though they have no totem poles, they know of the gentes, which at Thalthan are those of the Birds and of the Bears. Each of these have several headmen or ¢énxé-thie (the equivalent of the Carrier teneza), who alone own the hunting grounds, and on festival occasions, such as dances or potlatching, are granted special consideration. These ceremonial banquets are much in vogue, and as a result, almost every house in Thalhthan is now crowded with a quantity of trunks containing goods publicly received or to be likewise given away. Those houses are now of rough unhewn logs, with stoves instead of fire-places. But the tribe’s residences were originally much less elaborate, and consisted of brush shelters, sometimes with low walls made of long, slender poles. Therein they dwell, generally several related families together. Marriage was never accompanied with any ceremony or formality. It seems to have been based principally on the bestowing of furs or other goods on the parents of the prospective bride. Polygamy was known everywhere, but it is now practically abolished, the only exceptions being a very few cases among the present Kaska. As to divorce, it is obtained without any formality, and is often enough resorted to. Shamanism was originally the only form of worship common to the whole tribe, and in the east witchcraft, and the social disturbances it entails seem even now quite prevalent. The Kaska boy I have already mentioned as a companion on part of my trip from Thalhthan was just being taken away from revengeful fellow-tribesmen who had already done to death two of his brothers under the plea that their parents were responsible for the sickness and ultimate death of some Indian or 1902-3. | THE NAH‘ANE AND THEIR LANGUAGE. 525 Indians against whom they were believed to have exercised their black art. As among the other Déné, such deaths were the cause of family feuds of long duration and bitter hatred, when they did not lead to reprisals and a series of murders. Thus would originate their inter- necine wars, which consisted merely in ambuscades, surprises and massacres, accompanied sometimes with the enslaving of the women and the children. 2 But their “ wars” were more frequently directed against foreigners, such as the Tsimpsian of the upper Skeena, or against the Tlhinket of the coast. They had no war chiefs, or indeed any chief at all in our sense of the word. In times of peace, their special avocation and means of subsistence are hunting and fishing, to which a few of the younger men add packing for the miners andthe Hudson’s Bay Company. As their territory is so extensive, it still abounds in fur-bearing animals and game of almost all descriptions. I found moose especially plentiful all over the country. The mountains are also rich in sheep and goats, No wonder then, if the Nah‘ane are well-to-do. In fact I consider that the western part of the tribe is at present dying on a golden bed. In the house of my hosts at the time of my visit were to be seen, besides gilt bronze bedsteads and laces of all kinds, two sewing machines, two large accordeons, and, will the reader believe it ?--a phonograph! All this in the forests of British Columbia, north of the 58th degree of latitude! Since I have mentioned death, I may remark that cremation was, until recently, the mode adopted by the western Nahvane to dispose of their dead. And, in this connection, we have a ludicrous admixture of the new order of things with the olden ways, in the small travelling trunks bought from the whites, which are to be seen planted on two posts, in several places along the trails, and which contain some of the bones of the dead picked up from among the ashes of the funeral pile. In As to the language of the Nah‘ane, much might be said. I shall point out in the following pages only those particularities which are its exclusive property, and leave out most of the general features which are common to all the Déné dialects, and which the reader will find detailed 526 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII. in my paper on “the Déné Languages,”! and in my forthcoming com- plete grammar of the Carrier language. Furthermore, all the following remarks shall apply more particularly to the idiom of the western Nahvane, the only one I have ever studied. Neglected by the ethnographers as the Nah-ane have remained to this day, their dialect has still been more of a ‘terra incognita to the philologists. With not even the least grammatical note has it been honoured so far in all the linguistic literature at my command, and the only vocabulary by which it has ever been represented in scientific pub- lications consists of the four columns of Thaihthan words printed by the late Dr. Dawson.? . And here I may be allowed to state that, after a careful study of their language, I have had the satisfaction of ascertaining that of all the corrections in the latter’s vocabulary which I lately declared* were de- manded by the general rules of Déné phonetics and suggested by my knowledge of the other related dialects, not one have I found to be un- warranted. Before going further I must also correct the one statement Dr. Dawson makes concerning their language. Speaking of the Thalhthan and Taku Nahvane, he writes: “These Indians speak a language very similar to that of the Al-ta-tin, if not nearly identical with it, and so far as I have been able to learn, might almost be regarded as forming an extension of the same division. They appear to be less closely allied by language to the Kaska, with which people they are contiguous to the eastward.”4 I have already done justice to the latter assertion. By Al-ta-tin, Dr. Dawson means the Lh’ta’tin, or ‘“ People of the beaver dams,” as the Tsé’kéhne are called by the Carriers. His notion about the similarity of the two dialects I have found prevalent in other quarters. To prove its utter groundlessness, I need but reproduce here the Nah-ane and the Tsékéhne versions, for instance, of the doxology. Was the Chippe- wayan version available, I have no doubt that it would be found more alike to that of the Tsé’kéhne than to that of the Nah‘ane. Grammati- cally speaking, there is more affinity between the Tsé’kéhne and the Chippewayan—two very distinct tribes—than between the Tsé’kéhne and the Nahcane. 1 Transactions Canadian Institute, Vol. 1. 2 Notes on the northern portion of British Columbia, p. 19. e# seg. 3 Transactions Canadian Institute, Vol. VI., pp. 99-109. 4 Notes, etc., p. 2. 1902-3. | THE NAH‘ANE AND THEIR LANGUAGE. 527 THE DOXOLOGY. IN NAH‘ANE. IN TSE’KEHNE. Séesdga (Etha’ ‘ka’tcéh, CEtcimeé: Utqon CE&tha: qfh, CEtcwinh qfih, ka’tcéh, Ahtige-Ti ’ka’tcéh hut’sihkaihtin. | Yétqire-Ingi qfih ut’scerhautcez. Lhann kastséh tfida ahih’té la, td’gu Sé rhasséh tarhit’qé ille a, qf qdih, *ka’tcéh, ue’té ’katcéh, ét’tha ta’da cetfi | awuz‘on qfih int’lhon gé ta ussé utcetazit wotdzite a'téh éyéne ’ka’tcéh hu’karo’té ni. | e’tah éyétce qfih hahut’gé. To start with the sounds as such, I will remark that the following desinential letters or groups of letters are never found in Carrier or Chilcotin, but are quite common in Nahrane: «¢, és, tc, tlh, kth, to which we must add the medial -s//-, as in as/hé, I make, and -svh-, as in etisrhuh, I snore. Final ¢s occurs often enough in Babine, and final Zc is as frequent in Tsé’kéhne, but the other compounds are never found even in those idioms. On the other hand the letter », which sometimes terminates a word in Carrier, never occupies that position in Nah‘ane. We should not forget either to notice that the double letter 7 or a7, which is so frequent in Kutchin appears also in Nahvane to the exclusion of all the other Déne dialects. Some Carrier letters have their fixed equivalents in Nah‘ane. Thus the Carrier initial 7 is often replaced by ¢in Nah‘ane. Ex.: vz, mind, Nahvane, ¢z2: ma, eye, Nah‘ane, fa: aunzlh, purposedly, Nah‘ane, atzh ; dtinz, he will say, Nah-ane, dé#tz. The initial » of many Carrier words becomes 7 in Nahvane (as well as in Tsé’kéhne), and we have pen, lake, in Carrier, but mex’ in Nah‘ane; ¢hapa, shore, in Carrier, thama in Nahvane ; #@-, his, in Carrier and mwe- in Nahane. A Nahvane sound, which I have found in no other Déné idiom is that which I render by H. It is a kind of a guttural aspiration, much more pronounced than that of the common xz. Its equivalent in the other dialects is 4, or the Greek rho, and in the possessive case, it is inflected into a soft 7. Ex.: 7s, pus ; possessive, me-r7ze, his pus. The first particularity which strikes a Déné scholar in his study of the Western Nahvane, is the presence therein of a regular accent, some- thing quite unknown in all the northern Déné dialects. I have no doubt that the intercourse of that subtribe with the Tlhinket of Fort Wrangell is responsible for that feature of itslanguage. This accent has for effect, not only to lengthen the syllable it affects, but even to raise the pitch of the voice when the accented syllable is pronounced. Thus it often falls on monosyllables. Gun is #@ma (a Tlhinket word) in Nah‘ane; ussa’ 528 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. means, “I do not know ” in the same dialect. Much stress must be laid on the wz of the first word and on the sa of the last, otherwise neither would be understood. On the other hand the voice must also be raised with a sort of con- strained effort when one pronounces the words ‘khon’, fire, nehn’, land, tzé, gum, etc., though many other monosyllables lack this distinguishing feature. In this connection I must not fail to record what, to a student of the Carrier idiom, seems something of an anomaly. In my “ Notes on the Western Dénés,”! I wrote some years ago: “ In these nouns there is generally one syllable which is more important and contains, as it were, the quintessence of the word. Thus it is with the ze of te@ne.... In composite words such syllables only are retained. Now it happens that in Nah‘ane the accent falls precisely on the first syllable of that word (which means “ man” in all the dialects), and not on the second, which is hardly audible when pronounced by a native. In the same way, instead of using only the second half of the word, as is usual with the Carriers and the Chilcotin when they refer to the human body or to any part thereof, as in ze-y@s’te, human body ; xe-va, human eyes ; me-¢'stltcen, human neck, etc., a Nah‘ane will always utter the whole word, giving particular prominence to its first part, and say, for the same objects, ¢én’e-r2, tén’e-ta, ten’ e-’kwos, which the careless listener will most probably take for zén’rz, cén’ta, etc. Beside their accent, the Nah‘ane have, when speaking, a particularly marked intonation. This is so pronounced that it could almost be com- pared toasong. In fact, I have noticed the following modulation as being of very frequent occurrence. Its finale especially is hardly ever omitted. = Tu’gu tzenés’ thiye ecya asqah, 2.6., Lo-day I have become very sick. Students of native languages must have noticed that most tribes or portions of tribes have their own peculiar way of singing out, as it were, the sentences of their respective idioms. When there is nothing in their elocution which can be compared to a song, the finale, at least, is almost certain to stray out of the recto tono. So the ending of each Shushwap sentence is infallibly from G to upper C, while the Coast Salish, or at 1902-3. | THE NAH‘ANE AND THEIR LANGUAGE. 529 least the Sicalh, content themselves with raising the voice from G to A, or one full tone. The intonation of the Carriers varies too much according to the different groups of villages to be recorded here. I will choose but one, which is characteristic of the Hwozahne, or people of Stony Creek. Ntcen _ lheeetni, au t’scetoest’soek ; z.€., What does he say, we don’t understand him. The elocution of the Chilcotin and of the Tsékéhne is more uniform. Any member of the former tribe would, I think, easily recognize the following sentence, which they are ever ready to utter when anything is asked of them which they are not disposed to grant. lat kan’te kule ; z.é¢., There is none. But to return to our Nahvane dialect. From a terminological point of view, it has all the appearances of an eclectic language. Indeed, I would fain compare it to English, as it occupies to some extent, with regard to the other Déné dialects, the position held by that language relatively to the European idioms. Its vocabulary furnishes us, besides fully forty nouns,! which are more or less Tlhinket, several terms which duly belong respectively to the Kutchin, the Hare and the Chippewayan dialects. Here are a few examples. Kutchin: djugu, now, Nahcane, tugu ; Lhaon, quite, Nah‘ane, /han ; wkwet, knee, Nah‘ane, ekwet; Hare due, no, Nahvane, tueh ; guntze, elder brother, Nahvane, e¢zye; Chippe- wayan: sorha, well; Nahane, séga; esdan, 1 drink, for which the Nahvane have an absolutely homonymous synonym. Even the Tsimpsian has lent them one word, /e/k, to designate the snake, a reptile which is not found within Nahvane territory. A few words of English have also crept into the Nah‘ane vocabulary, and it is worthy of remark that whenever an / occurs in them, the Nah‘ane have t I may here draw the reader’s attention to the fact that a people of a low mental standard, a nation of uncultivated intellects, may borrow many unchangeable words from the vocabulary of its heterogeneous neighbours, but will never attempt to appropriate verbs. The former they will leave in their original form, or allow them through neglect or ignorance to slowly degenerate into more or less different terms; but when it is a question of verbs, the low type intellect is not up to the task of adapting them to the exigencies of its grammar, In other words it cannot digest and assimilate them, 530 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. altered it into an x. Thus for gold, they say gon; for silk, s¢zk; for dollar, dana. The word fas for barrel they owe to the Tlhinket, who had themselves borrowed it from the English speaking skippers and traders (kas =cask). Chinook has contributed masmas (a corruption of musmus), cattle, and probably kzmdan (for kiutan), horse. Following the example of the coast Indians, the Nah‘ane have likewise changed the Chinook for cat, pus, into tuc. At times this propensity for appropriating foreign terms leads to curiously hybrid compound words. For instance, the Nah-ane equivalent of organ is half Tlhinket and half Déné. All the Déné call that instru- ment a “ paper that sings.” As the Nah‘ane had already borrowed the Tlhinket work ’k#k for paper, and on the other hand, as they did not know or could not use the Tlhinket synonym for “sings,” they un- scrupulously retained the first vocable to which they added their own equivalent for the verb and said “k7k-etqzne. The dictionary may be regarded as a thermometer which faithfully registers a people’s status and chief avocation. Its readings are seldom at variance with fact, and when it records, for instance, a multitude of fish names or, still better, when it possesses several names for the same fish according to its age or condition, it will inevitably denote a nation of fishermen. In like manner the sociological status of our Nah‘ane is betrayed by their vocabulary, which abounds in fine distinctions for the names of the larger animals on which they mainly subsist. I will take but one example to illustrate my meaning. With them the generic name of the marmot is ¢etzyé,and the female is called hosthelh, while the name is known as oe?’getha. A little marmot in general is named oe’kane, or usthe-tsetle. But if it is only one year old it goes as wsaze; the next year it will be known as ovekhutze, and when in its third year, it will be called ¢w@tzyé-tucztze. And note that all of those eight words apply to only one kind of animal, since there is another term to denote the smaller variety of marmot (arvctomys monax). We have therefore our Nah‘ane stamped by their very vocabulary as a people of trappers and huntsmen, and the abundance of their terms for a mountain animal furthermore sheds a good ray of light on the topography of their country. Another reliable indicator of a primitive people’s main occupations, to which it adds a valuable hint at the nature and climate of its land, is 1902-3. | THE NAH‘ANE AND THEIR LANGUAGE. 531 the calendar. Subjoined is that in use among the western Nahcane, and the careful student of Americana will perhaps find it worth his while to compare it with those of the Carriers and of the Tsé’kéhne published in my “Notes on the Western Déné.”! Of course, all the months therein recorded are lunar months, and coincide but imperfectly with our own artificial divisions of the year. January, sa-?’sés/hze, moon of the middle (of the year). February, ta@non-thene, the snow is a little frozen over. March, z/2’sz-sa, moon of the wind. April, ¢/hz-penetsé-e, the dog uses to bark. May, zh:aze-sa, moon when all the animals leave their winter retreats. June, @yaz-e-sa, moon of the little ones (when animals have their young. July, etcetc-e-sa, moon when they moult. August, 72’ka-e-sa, moon when they fatten. September, “osthelh-e-sa, moon of the female marmot. October, 22@n-then-tsetle, moon of the small ice. November, s@n-then-tco, moon of the big ice. December, kevrh-urwoesse, the rabbit gnaws. We have tarried so long over the sounds and substantives of the Nahvane language that our remarks on the other parts of speech must necessarily be brief. In its numerals we finda confirmation of what I said some time ago when I wrote, speaking of the roots of languages in general: “ The numerals and the pronouns. . . generally have a kind of family air in cognate dialects. As to the pronouns, I think that hardly any qualificative reservation is necessary, but it is not so with all the numerals.” Of the ten Nah‘ane numbers, only three (one, //zge, Carrier, ilho ; three, thade’téh, Carrier, tha; and five, /hol/a, Carrier, kwollaz’) have any affinity with the Carrier, Babine, Chilcotin or even Tsé’kéhne numerals. The other seven have not the faintest resemblance thereto. A peculiarity worth recording in this connection is the fact that the numbers two, three and four are in Nahvane perfectly regular verbs which are conjugated with persons—plural, of course—and tenses. Let us take, for instance, the number three, shade’ téh. We have at our dis- posal any of the words of the following conjugation : t Transactions Canadian Institute, Vol. IV., p. 106. 2 The Use and Abuse of Philology, Transactions Canadian Institute, Vol. VI., p. 92. 532 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vo.. VII. PRESENT. PROXIMATE FUTURE. tha-des? téh, we are three tha-di'tilh, we are going to be three tha-dah'téh, you are three tha-dah’tilh, you are going to be three tha-hide'téh, they are three tha-heda’ tilh, they are going to be three Past. EVENTUAL FUTURE. tha-des? tée, we were three tha-di tée sa, we will be three tha-dah’tée, you were three tha-dah’ tée sa, you will be three tha-hide'tée, they were three tha-hedt' tée sa, they will be three In all these words the main root for three is, of course, ta. Yet thadest téh, etc., are single words whose neither first nor last component parts can be used separately. The only approach to these conjugable numerals I know of is to be found in the speech of a small portion of the Carrier tribe. It is restricted to the number two, zatue, which becomes xa?’soetnue, we are two (persons), zahtne, you are two, etc. I should not forget, however, a peculiar set of numerals for which I find no more appropriate qualifi- cative than the epithet “inclusive.” These not only have in Carrier all the persons and tenses of the above, but they are even modified so as to form a separate class of adverbal numerals. Here are a few examples: na-t sel torh, both of us ;! na-neltorh, both of us; xa-nelhtorh, both of you ; za-rheltorh, both of them. The following are impersonal verbs: xa-hwultorh, both times, na-hwothil torh, it is going to be both times, etc.; tha-hwul’torh, all of the three times ; ¢7-hwultorh, all of the four times, etc. All these forms, tenses or persons can be applied in Carrier to all the numerals of that class, except the first, the ninth and the tenth, and in this respect, as in so many others, that language surpasses in richness all the other Déné dialects. The Nahvane lacks an equivalent for the personal plural particle ze, which the Carriers suffix to the verb when in English we make use of the demonstrative and relative pronouns “ those who,” as in /zwo?’szt-ne, “those who lie,” the liars. Instead of this, the Nahvané will say, by a curiously abnormal commingling of a plural pronoun with the corres- ponding singular verb: “he-lies they,” ¢sed’szt oekhune. This renders speech unnecessarily long and rather unwieldy. 1 With an idea of impersonality, which it is impossible to express in English, and which is absent in nanel torh. ‘auInjsoD) suloued ut UDWIO AY IJUR. UPA \ THE NAH‘ANE AND THEIR LANGUAGE, 533 A feature of the possessive pronouns which the Nahvane shares with some related idioms is the absence of a term for the second person of the plural. Most of the eastern Déné dialects even lack altogether the same person of the personal pronouns, but the Nahvane are not so verbally destitute. In their minds, however, there lurks some vague confusion about the difference between the first and the second person plural of those pronouns which, at times, does not seem to be fully grasped. In common with those of the other Déné dialects, the Nah-ane verbs are rich in persons, some, like the verbs of station and the verbs of - locomotion, having as many as eighteen for each tense, as against the twenty-one their Carrier equivalents boast of. In the face of that relative richness it is somewhat of a surprise to find that the regular or common verbs have not even a single person representing the dual, which is rendered, as with us, by the plural, while even the Carrier, which is rather deficient in that respect, possesses, at least, the first person dual for all the verbs. A point of resemblance with the eastern dialects is the plural of some Nahvane verbs, which is formed by the incorporation of the particle da, without any alteration of the desinential syllable. Thus, until we come to the plural, the conjugation of the verb ?s¢-mészit, | wake up, is practically that of its Carrier equivalent. But after this, the similarity is confined to the main or initial root, which, through all tenses and with any person, remains invariable in all the dialects. The following partial conjugation of the present of the above mentioned verb will illustrate my remark : CARRIER. NAH‘ANE. Dual.—/?’se-n2tzit, we wake up, both of us. Dual. —? se-nittzit. ?sé-nehzit, you wake up, both of you. t’sée-nahzit. ?sé-rhenzt, they wake up, both of them. ? se-henizit. Plural. —?/’se-?sentzth, we wake up. Plural.—?sé-dasi¢z7t, Usé-nehtilh, you wake up. t sé-dahztt. ?'sé-rhentith, they wake up. ? sé-dahesit. Another most important point of resemblance of the Nah‘ane with the eastern Déné dialects, is the utter absence in the former of any special negative form. This particularity may be said to constitute its fundamental difference from the Carrier, Babine and Chilcotin idioms, the verbs of which are distinguished by at least one, and frequently two or even three syllabic inflections in addition to the negative particle. “TRANSACTIONS 0 OF THE CANADIAN Insrirore. verbally ae than the Carrier. It is also” oe pure in _more embarrassed in its phraseology, and owing to its aceens _ delicate i in its ohonates. a ay UM 1902-3.] THE PAL4OCHEMISTRY OF THE OCEAN. 535 THE PALZOCHEMISTRY OF THE OCEAN IN RELATION TO ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE PROTOPLASM. By A. B. MACALLUM, M.A., M.B., PH.D. Read 17th January, 1903. CONTENTS. ie NGER ODUGTION( hays do. eh pak Gest ay! toy bef de sie eed ok 1045 C. INaaSOgm es Gites Soec es 843°C | Mea S Og eect o rats rae slap eae 1073 C t Op. cit. } F. W. Clarke, The Relative Abundance of the Chemical Elements. Bulletin U. S. Geol. Survey No. 78, 1891. “Ves 544 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vox. VII. thin crust and easily affecting the depression. These phenomena would be repeated at other points as the temperature of the crust and the atmosphere gradually lowered, until at a point below 100°C. nearly all of the water originally present in the atmosphere had condensed to form the oceans of the globe. : The composition of the ocean would follow from the occurrence of , the soluble chlorides, sulphates and carbonates of the metals which came in contact with the first condensations. As pointed out, the con- densation of superheated water would convert the chlorides of mag- nesium, iron and aluminium into magnesia (Mg O) oxide of iron (Fe, O;) and alumina (Al, O;), the first of which is soluble only in 55308 parts of hot or cold water,* while the two latter are practically insoluble, even in dilute acids. The magnesia, of course, would dissolve in water which contained either hydrochloric or carbonic acids, but the amount dissolved would, on account of the slight quantity of these acids in the water, be very small. The other chlorides, namely, those of sodium, potassium and calcium, although equally abundant, would not be leached out of the rock surface in equalamounts. The solubilities of these salts differ. For example, 100 parts of water dissolve at 99°C 154 parts of calcium chloride, 56.3 parts of potassium chloride, but only39.7 parts of sodium chloride. In consequence there would be different quantities of each chloride dissolved, and the calcium chloride would by far predominate, while the potassium chloride would be more abundant than the corresponding sodium compound. There would, as already pointed out, be very little ferric chloride and what would be dissolved would gradually all be converted, first into the colloidal ferric hydrate, and eventually into the insoluble oxide of iron. It does not follow that the ocean would contain, even after a long period of action on the rockcrust, the whole of the chlorides of calcium, potassium and sodium originally disposed over and diffused through the now more or less rigid rockcrust. The constant washing out of the land areas would no doubt tend to remove these salts from the rocks until there would be little left in the latter and at the same time they would become correspondingly more abundant in the sea water. But other salts would begin to appear there also. The magnesia derived from the chloride of magnesium, through the action of super- heated water, would, under the action of carbonic acid in the rain water, go into solution as carbonate, but the amount so dissolved, would, on account of its low degree of solubility, be very small and it would only *Fresenius, Liebig’s Annalen, Vol. 59, p. 123. 1902-3. | THE PALZOCHEMISTRY OF THE OCEAN. 545 after a long period of time become appreciable in the ocean. The carbonic acid in the rain water must have acted, as it does now, on the silicates of sodium, potassium and calcium in the rocks and produced free silica and carbonates of these elements, these latter going into solution and thus reaching the ocean, where, acting on the chloride of calcium, carbonate of lime and chloride of sodium and potassium would be formed. The calcium carbonates would be removed by deposition and thus constitute the origin of the limestone beds of the pre-Cambrian ° age, but the chlorides remaining in solution, thus contributed to an increase in the amount of sodium and potassium in the sea water.* The sulphates in the rock crust disintegrated or affected would also be carried to the sea, but, as these would be small in quantity, they need not be specially considered here. Thus the history of the sea must have begun and continued for a period of unknown length. The only change came from the discharge into the sea of the carbonates, the consequent removal of the lime and the slow increase in amount of magnesium, sulphuric acid, and of potas- sium and sodium. The two latter elements were not removed from the sea except through the rainfall. As I shall presently point out, the pot- assium compounds are to-day removed from the ocean apparently as rapidly as they are added by river water, and, in consequence, the amount in sea water now appears to be stationary. In the earliest geological period the conditions which now contribute to this result did not exist, and the ocean retained all the potassium it held or received through river discharge. In all probability the potassium equalled, and even exceeded, the sodium inamount.t When sediments began to form, and, when soils made their appearance, then, and then only began the elimination of the potassium from the ocean. It has been long estab- lished that potassium manifests a marked capacity to unite with silicates of alumina to form firm compounds, and these obtain whenever potassium salts in solution come in contact with argillaceous material, sedimentary or otherwise,* while the sodium, magnesium, and calcium are unaffected. *Sterry Hunt (Chemical and Geological Essays, Boston, 1875) held the view that the most abundant Constituent in primeval sea water was calcium chloride, and that with the gradual addition of sodium carbon- ate calcium was removed as carbonate and sodium chloride consequently took its place. t Joly (loc. cit.) assumes that the greater part of the chlorine now in the ocean was originally united with the iron, calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium, these elements entering into combination in proportion parallel to the proportions in the rockcrust as determined by F. W. Clarke (/oc. cit.) This postulates that 14 per cent. of the chlorine now in the ocean was united with sodium, and consequently the ocean originally contained about one-seventh of thesodium it now holds. As the proportion of sodium to potassium in the rock crust is 100 to 95, 0n Joly’s hypothesis the potassium in the primaeval ocean must have really equalled in amount the sodium therein. Joly, however, is in error in supposing that the chlorides of magnesium and iron could have existed, and he should consequently have made a greater allowance for the amounts of chlorine combined with the sodium, potassium, and calcium. { Sterry Hunt (of. cit. p.95.) 546 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. The capacity to abstract the potassium is increased if the silicates are mixed with organic matter. Consequently the potassium which rain water may contain is in great part removed when the latter filters through soils, and, therefore, the water discharge from alluvial areas is always richer in sodium than potassium. This capacity of soils to abstract potassium is a matter of direct demonstration, and it “ explains the presence of so small an amount of potassium salts in the waters of rivers, lakes, streams, and oceans where the lime and soda have accumu- lated.”* This cause of deficiency acts not only in the case of the potas- sium leached out of disintegrating rock by rain water, but also on the potassium carried from the sea to the land areas by rain water. The potassium thus carried is not inconsiderable, for, according to M. J. Pierre, the rain water in the neighbourhood of Caen (France) annually carries to each hectare of land, about 7.9 kilograms of this element, or about 1.23 tons per square mile. This mode of elimination also operates in the ocean, where, how- ever, the organic matter responsible for the removal, is derived from plankton organisms, which, on dying, fall to the sea bottom and their remains decomposing, the potassium they hold reacts with the argil- laceous material on which the deposits rest and forms the mineral known as glauconite, containing as low as 0.95 per cent. of oxide of potassium, but other estimates range from 2.52 to 4.21 per cent. The sodium present is very much less in quantity.} This mineral is now being formed, as it has been formed in the past, on the ocean bottom over the areas which fringe the continental coasts and it constitutes as much as, or more than,half of the deposits in shallower waters. Consider- ing the extent of these areas as well as the fact that they cover the sea bottom of those localities into which river discharge takes place, it will be recognized what a very important factor the constant formation of ~ glauconite is in eliminating potassium from sea water and thus prevent- ing an increase in the amount of that element in the ocean. This formation has been going on in the past geological periods, for it is to be found§ in the primary formations of Russia and Sweden, in the sands * Mendeleef s Chemistry, Vol. 1, p. 547, 1897. + The reference is given in Dr. Angus Smith’s “ Air and Rain,” which is quoted by Joly (loc. cit.) t The analysis of five specimens as given by Murray & Renaud (Challenger Report, Deep Sea Deposits, p. 389) gaye: Z. I. TEES VL Vw Vz (GE OAR Gna Re aBeaoM Tomita obras aaor 1.69 1.26 1.27 1.34 1.19 Whe 0). a cbhickcosdo pores SGceonon he oc « 12.49 93.13 ~ 3.04 2.83 4.62 UGE OE ecto coundasposasenaepcsucsaadar a j5A Gund a2 3.86 3.36 0.095 IEW Ondo. sna) DOME BoC de Beane ae 0.90" "0.25 10725 0.27 0.62 Other analyses quoted by Roth, (Allgemeine and Chemische Geologie, Vol. 1, p. 559, 1879) gave a per- centage of potassium (not Ke O) varying from 2.8 to 7.3. § Murray & Renaud, op. czt., p. 384. 1902-3. ] > THE PALZOCHEMISTRY OF THE OCEAN. 547 and gravels of the Cambrian sandstone of North America, in the Quebec group of Canada and in the coarse Silurian sands of Bohemia. In the Mesozoic period it was more abundantly formed and its deposits are very marked in the strata of the Cretaceous division. It is also found in the Tertiary from the lowest strata to the highest of the series. It is thus shown that the formation of glauconite occurred in all the geolo- gical periods from the commencement of the Palzozoic Age to the present time and that thus a very large proportion of the potassium which the ocean would now contain, were it not for the formation of glauconite, has been removed from it.* In the formation of glauconite, organisms appear to play a very distinct part and amongst these the Foraminifera are the most important. The decomposing organic matter of the dead forms liberates sulphur which combines with the iron in deposits to form sulphide} This latter is converted into sulphuric acid which, acting on the fine clay sets free colloidal silica and ferric hydrate in a condition which pro- motes their union and the silicate so formed combines with potassium to form glauconite. It is obvious that organic matter is a very important factor in the process and that in the absence of animal organisms no glauconite would be formed, a view which explains the almost complete absence of this mineral from the deep sea areas, but it also postulates as decidedly, that before the appearance of living forms in the primeval ocean, there was little or no potassium eliminated from it, and this, taken in conjunction with the fact that in earlier pre-Cambrian times there could not have been much or any soil to affect the potassium in the waters discharged from the land areas, makes it quite clear that there was a period during which the potassium content of the ocean must have increased absolutely and that this was succeeded by a period in which the amount of the potassium ceased to increase or remained practically stationary, while decreasing relatively to other constituent elements. The beginning of this latter period coincided with the ap- pearance of living forms in large numbers in the sea. The history of sodium in the ocean has been one of uniform in- crease through all the geological ages. The addition that is to-day being made by river discharge is large and must have obtained as abundantly in the past. There have, on the other hand, been no im- portant agencies which have served to eliminate it from the ocean. The great salt deposits, some of which are as old as the Cambrian, are, *Forchhammer was the first to point out that potassium is being removed from the ocean, (British Association Report, 1844, p. 153.) From his analysis of Fucoids and of the metamorphosed Fucoid schists of Scandinavia he came to the conclusion that Fucoids constitute a very important factor in the process. t Murray and Renaud, of. cit., p. 389. 548 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. (VoL, VIL. as is certainly the case with the Stassfurt beds, the result of the evapor- ation of land-locked arms of the sea.* and they are constituted of but an infinitesimal fraction of what is contained in the ocean. Sodium chloride, like other constituents of sea water, is carried landward with evapora- tion and rain clouds, but it appears to be returned to the ocean, without any perceptible loss, through the river discharge. The only method of elimination which at all possibly counts is that in which it is imprisoned mechanically in the sedimentary deposits during their formation. , That sodium chloride is removed in this way has been pointed out and em- phasized by Osmond Fisher, but there are no data which serve to indi- cate that this is a considerable factor in diminishing the sodium content of the ocean. All the known facts point in the contrary direction. There is no mineral in the course of formation, which is extensive or abundant in its distribution and which also requires . considerable quantities of sodium for its production, and there are, further, no agencies acting in the soils which serve to remove sodium compounds from the percolating water. In these considerations we find a full explanation for the relative proportions (100: 3.613) of the sodium and potassium which now obtain in sea water, and also for those which obtain in the river discharge of the globe. According to Murray’s estimate for nineteen principal rivers, the proportions would be 100: 38.6. We may postulate from this that in the early geological periods of the pre-Cambrian period, when soils did not exist, the quantities of each element discharged by rivers or bodies of water derived from the land surface, were nearly equal. Since the primeval ocean, as pointed out above, contained these elements in almost equal quantities, this condition must have continued until long after soils holding organisms and organic matter had appeared, and even for an indeterminable period after organisms had made the ocean their habitat. The change in the relative proportions once begun must have gone on with extreme slowness, and oceanic organisms, at first wholly of the unicellular kind, must have, after acquiring a relation to these elements, just as slowly responded to the changes in the proportions of their medium. The river discharge of the globe has been from primeval times add- ing also magnesium and calcium to the sea. According to calculations based on Murray’s data, the proportions relative to the sodium shown in these are 134 and 591 respectively to every 100 of the latter. This is, of course, based on approximate estimations, and they may be incorrect, * See G. P. Merrill’s ‘* Treatise on Rock and Rock Weathering and Soils,” p. 120, 1897. 1902-3. | THE PALZOCHEMISTRY OF THE OCEAN, 549 as they seem to be, if one scrutinizes the proportions that are found in rivers whose waters have been carefully analysed. There are only two rivers, the Amazon and the St. Lawrence, which give nearly the proportion of magnesium called for by Murray’s estimates, while the Ottawa, the Mississippi, and the Nile give quantities much below that of the sodium, and the quantities of the calcium are found to vary very much for the different rivers. If we disregard Murray’s estimates and base our observations on the analyses of the various rivers, we can safely conclude that, while the quantity of calcium added, except in the case of the Nile, is always, and sometimes very much, greater than the sodium addition, the latter does not probably exceed the amount of the magnesium discharged. In the ocean, however, the sodium, calcium, and magnesium have the proportions of 100, 3.91 and 12.0. The comparatively low proportion of magnesium in sea water is explainable. In the first place, as pointed out above, there must have been in the primeval ocean but very little magnesium, owing to the conversion of all the chloride of magnesium into magnesia which is, except in minute quantities, insoluble. The conditions which so affected magnesium chloride left the chlorides of calcium, sodium and potassium unchanged, and in conseqence these went into solution in primeval sea water, and were, therefore, as compared with magnesium, very abundant. Further, the ocean at first must have contained only traces of the latter element and the subsequent addition of it through river discharge would increase the amount in sea water, but not to such an extent as to make it overtake the sodium. There is another factor which operated in limiting the amount of the magnesium. This is the tendency shown by the chloride to interact with the carbonate of lime when the latter undergoes deposition to form limestone, and, in consequence, this always contains carbonate of magnesia. When the latter exceeds Io per cent. the mixture of the carbonates is given the conventional name of dolomite, and in some formations of this kind the magnesia is found greatly to exceed the lime. Dolomites are found in all the periods down to and including the Cambrian and even in the pre-Cambrian, it is associated with the crystalline schists.* An exact estimation of the magnesium so localized is impossible, but on the average it cannot be more than Io per cent. of the quantity of the calcium due to deposition, so that the amount of magnesium removed annually from sea water must fall far behind that of the calcium. It follows from this that whatever were * Zirkel, Lehrbuch der Petrographie, 1894, Bd. 4, p. 499. 550 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII. the proportions of these two elements in primeval sea water, the propor- tions must have slowly changed, and as a consequence the magnesium must have gradually increased while the calcium practically remained stationary. . It must of course be admitted that magnesium is withdrawn from the ocean by organisms, but the amount thus removed is very small, and in no case is it an important method of eliminating the element from sea water. In the hard part of corals it is as a rule under one* per cent. and in the coralreefs it is less than that in amount, while the. calcium constitutes nearly 40 per cent. Forchhammer’st analyses of the ash of sea weeds reveal a quantity of magnesium which he regarded as important, and he held that the Fucoids thus remove quantities of this element and deposit them in the beds which contain the solid substances of sea weeds as far as they are insoluble in water.{ According to the analyses of Gédechens,§ the ash of Fucoids contains from 4 to 7 per cent. of magnesium. That the element is eliminated from sea water by these forms may be conceded, but it is doubtful if the quantity removed in this way is sufficient to affect materially in time the total amount retained in the ocean. 5 We may conclude, therefore, that in the formation-of dolomites, of magnesia-holding limestones and chalk deposits, and, to a minor degree, in the activities of animals and plants, elimination of magnesium from sea water has always obtained ; and, further, that the amount eliminated annually does not equal the amount of magnesium added to the sea by river discharge. This postulates a constant increase in the amount of magnesium in the sea; and in this respect it must be ranged with sodium, which increases in amount at a greater rate, since, so far as is known, there are for it no agencies of elimination in operation which compare with those affecting the potassium, the calcium, and even the magnesium. The sodium, therefore, though it is not added in greater amount than in the case of the latter, is increasing at a greater rate, and thus the proportion of sodium to magnesium in sea water is slowly alter- ing. As pointed out above, the primeval ocean must have contained’ but an exceeding small quantity of magnesium, and the amount of the latter now in it is practically wholly derived from the leaching out of the land surfaces during the intervening ages. As regards the calcium in sea water there is less uncertainty. The * According to Forchhammer the corals, Jsis nobzlis and Corallium nobile, contain 6,36 and 2.1 per cent. respectively of magnesium carbonate. t Roth, of. cit., p. 616, where the results of analyses of a number of forms are given. t Op. cit., p. 159. § Ann. d Chem. und Pharm., Vol. 54, p. 351, 1854. 1902-3. ] THE PALZOCHEMISTRY OF THE OCEAN. 55 calcium of river discharge greatly exceeds in amount that of the three other elements, and yet it is less abundant than either in the ocean. If there were no elimination of calcium from sea water, the salts of the latter element would long have reached the point of saturation in the ocean. The present condition is easy of explanation. On the one hand calcium separates from sea water through the formation of sulphate and carbonate of lime, which are to a high degree insoluble. This constit- utes in part the origin of the gypsum beds and of the limestones of sedimentary origin. On the other hand the myriads of organisms that have their habitat in the sea have the lime “habit,” and they conse- quently remove from solution enormous quantities of calcium. This is the case not only with all forms provided with exoskeleta and endos- keleta, into the composition of which lime largely enters, but also with those which exercise the precipitating effect on the calcium salts they absorb from sea water, the precipitation rarely going so far as to form a distinct deposit in the cells or tissues of the organism. This power to precipitate is universal, as shown by the fact that the capacity to form calcareous skeleta is almost universal, and this capacity is merely an enhancement of the power to precipitate. The latter, therefore, operat- ing so largely, separates calcium from sea water, and on the death and disintegration of the organisms, the element is deposited on the sea bottom either as phosphate or carbonate of calcium.* These deposits, owing to the fact that they contain few calciferous fossils, are regarded as due to chemical reactions alone; but if they are, sedimentary lime- stones should be of a more uniform distribution, whereas we find them more or less localized. The explanation that they are due to protoplasmic “secretion ” and not to either chemical reaction or skeletal deposition in living forms accounts for much, and indicates what a factor living proto- plasm, animal and vegetable, is in the separation of calcium from sea water. Sterry Hunt + advanced the view that in the primeval ocean the chief salts were chlorides of calcium and magnesium, and that the constant, large output by river water of carbonates of sodium and potassium, and particularly of the former, affected a conversion of these _ into carbonate of lime and chlorides of sodium and potassium which were retained in solution, while the carbonate was deposited. The objection to this view is that, if it is correct, the conversion ought to have taken place in the pre-Cambrian period, and, therefore, there ought to be extensive limestone deposits in the rocks attributed to that period. *Sterry Hunt, of. cit., pp. 82 and 311, t Of. cit., pp. 2 and-41. 552 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII. There is, indeed, in these rocks only a small amount of crystalline or other limestone, and there appears to be still less in the divisions of the Huronian, which, as pointed out, have a thickness in the Lake of the Woods and Rainy Lake districts, according to Lawson,* aggregating 50,000 feet, all representing sedimentary formations. What limestone and gypsum are present in pre-Cambrian rocks can very well be attri- buted to the occurrence of calcium salts in the oceans of the Archzan in quantities, however, which could not have very greatly exceeded those which obtain to-day in sea water. V.—THE RELATION OF THE SALTS IN THE OCEAN TO PROTOPLASM. From the considerations advanced in the preceding section of this paper, it follows that the ocean has been, and is now, slowly changing, not in its composition, but in the proportions in it of the various elements to each other, and that, as a consequence, it is now in this respect greatly different from what the primeval ocean was in the period following the first condensations of water vapour on the rock crust of the globe. It may again be noted that in all these changes there are two distinct periods. In the first, or older, life was not represented except towards its close, and therefore, the only factors engaged in eliminating any of the elements from the sea were purely chemical ones such as are illustrated in the precipitation of lime as carbonate and sulphate and of magnesia as carbonate. In this period the elements must have differed in amounts from each other less markedly than they do to-day, and the constant addition to these from the discharge from the land surfaces did not tend to alter, even after a very long interval, the proportions which first obtained. This period must have terminated some considerable time after the appear- ance of living forms on the globe, and especially only after the adapta- tion of vegetable forms to a land life, and the consequent production — of soils. The second period could not have begun at once after the appearance of living forms, for these must first have acquired a relation to the elements and then have developed the habit of disposing of the various salts which they took out of the sea water. This period may well be supposed to have begun when there had developed not only a considerable diversity of forms in the sea, but also the organisms which contribute to the production of organic matter in soils. In this period the removal of potassium from the land surfaces decreased, * Loc cit. 1902-3. ] THE PALZOCHEMISTRY OF THE OCEAN. 553 and the combination of this element with argillaceous matter at the bottom of shallow portions of the sea began. As a result the amount of potassium in sea water became stationary. At the same time the removal of calcium on a larger scale than obtained in the preceding period commenced and this checked the increase of calcium salts. The first forms of life in the primeval ocean were undoubtedly unicellular, and they were probably also organisms which presented features intermediate between those of the vegetable kingdom on the one hand, and those of the animal kingdom onthe other. These forms must have persisted for a period of unknown but very great duration, for in them developed not only a nucleus but also the capacity on the part of the latter to divide in the remarkable and complicated manner illustra- tive of karyokinesis, and which is characteristic now of the cells of both kingdoms. This process of division, so alike in its main features in animal and vegetable cells, must have become fixed before specialization had gone so far as to evolve both animal and vegetable types, for, had it been otherwise, there would have been greater differences in the pro- cess in animal and vegetable forms. That the process has continued practically unchanged in all the intervening millions of years shows how deeply fixed in the organism this morphological habit has become, and, therefore, the act of fixation must have taken an incredibly long period ° of time during which the ocean was changing, not in the relative propor- tions to each of the elements it contained, but in the absolute amounts of these. During this long period, these organisms, neither distinctly animal nor distinctly vegetable, exposed as they were to action of these same elements, must have acquired a relation to them as fixed as the karyokinetic process was becoming. Their protoplasm had established all its normal processes in the presence of potassium, sodium, calcium, and magnesium in certain proportions in sea water, and, after the lapse of the long period of time required for the elaboration of the karyo- _ kinetic method of division, these processes became unalterably depen- dent on the presence of the elements in the proportions which then pre- vailed. Without this fixed relation life could not continue, and when specialization into animal and vegetable forms occurred this fixed relation was transmitted to the forms of both kingdoms. How long these latter forms remained unicellular cannot, of course, be surmised, for there are no means of determining the length in time of this or any part of the pre-Cambrian age, but that it was of very great duration can hardly be questioned, and it must have strengthened the relation which obtained between protoplasm on the one hand and the elements in certain pro- 554 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. | VoL. VII. portions, on the other.* In consequence, their descendant forms inherited this relation, and transmitted it to the forms and species which arose through variation and other causes. When multicellular forms arose these were endowed with the same relation. The proportions of the elements in the early pre-Cambrian ocean with their long action on protoplasm must then have conferred a more or less fixed property on the latter and, in consequence, living matter, whether animal or vegetable, now shows in its ash proportions of the elements greatly different from those found in the media in which it lives or in the circulatory fluid which bathes it. This relation or property resists change even after exposure to altered conditions for a very long period of time. ~Before the circulatory fluid (blood plasma) was established in multicellular animals, a great change must have occurred in the proportions of the elements in the ocean, a change which would account for the wide differences between the proportions in the protoplasm or tissue on the one hand, and those in the blood on the other. The proportions of the elements in living matter are due then to conditions which obtained in the ocean far back in the pre-Cambrian age, while those in the blood or plasma are due to conditions which occurred in the ocean long after this and yet before the beginning of the Cam- brian period. The proportion of potassium to sodium in blood plasma is nearly+ double what it is in the ocean and therefore that difference must have resulted in the period that has elapsed since the rudiments of a circulatory system were developed in those Metazoan animals which gave rise to Vertebrates. As pointed out above, it is difficult to obtain the exact proportions of the sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium in living matter, for, except in muscle fibre, protoplasmic structures cannot in sufficient quantities be freed from adherent material which carries these elements in very different proportions. Calcium exists in tissues apart from the protoplasm and as precipitates or deposits, and according to recent observations which I have made, this is true in a very large degree of * Geologists concede a very long time to the pre-Cambrian, a duration which, according to the different estimates, ranges from one-third to tour-fifths, and even nine-tenths, of the whole geological period. The very fact that all the chief types of animal lite, and perhaps also of vegetable life as well, appeared before the close of the pre-Cambrian age, indicated that the latter was of inconceivably long duration. + Amongst the oldest and highly specialized forms are Olenellus and the Brachiopods of the Cambrian. The oldest Vertebrate remains are in the Trenton division of the Silurian, more recent than the Cambrian, but these are ‘‘ ganoid” in character and this fact postulates a long preceding period of development out of Protovertebrate forms which therefore could not have first appeared much later than the beginning of the Cambrian. The circulatory system of Vertebrates accordingly has a history which began in the pre- Cambrian age. 1902-3. | THE PALZOCHEMISTRY OF THE OCEAN. 555 potassium. With regard to this element it may be said that active living matter has the power of absorbing it in large quantities and disposing of it in an inert form by precipitating it at the peripheries of cells or in inert organic masses within them, and, as a consequence, the ash of animal and vegetable cells shows a larger quantity of potassium than the protoplasm of the cells required. This illustrates how diffcult it is to determine the primitive and fixed proportions of potassium and calcium, and further, how little we should depend, even in the case of muscle, on the analyses of the ash of organs or organisms, for this purpose. If a sufficient quantity of Amcebze* could be obtained for analysis it might yield results of value but until that is done, the exact proportions of sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium must be a matter for con- jecture. It can scarcely be that the proportions found in muscle repre- sent even approximately those which should obtain in undifferentiated propoplasm or cells.+ VI.—EVIDENCE FROM THE LAKES AND RIVERS OF THE PRESENT PERIOD. It may be pointed out that in the composition of the rivers, large lakes, and seas of the world, there is evidence confirmatory of the view that potassium and calcium predominated in the pre-Cambrian seas. The conditions, of course, which contribute to the composition of the lakes of to-day are not the same as those which existed when the oceans of the globe were formed. There are but infinitesimal traces of the chlorides of calcium and potassium in the rock crust or sedimentary strata, and, further, there are, apart from the deposits of salt, and that amount of it due to rainfall, but small quantities of sodium chloride which can to-day come under the leaching action of water. There are also soils to alter the proportions of the chemical elements derived from them. Nevertheless it happens that in lakes surrounded, either wholly or * Fresh water, unicellular animal organisms are apparently free from excess of the elements. They are, as a rule, free from potassium, at least in such quantities as are found in other organisms. t According to J. Katz (Pfluger’s Arch., vol. 63, p. 1), the proportions in muscle from different animals are: ; Na, x, Cay Msg: Meares s/o ea tteloies aoe aE boo a Oe mates 100 400 9-3 26.4 PIGS A oie satis cist aparece Fone ule WES 100 354 7.20 25,1 Rea ib sce hie, abe ayietan wonee toe as eT mele wie ee areal 100 870 40.0 60.5 12 i OER SRO OO Ete e OC RCE meet Der cee, I0O 1415 145.0 105.0 These and other results of the same observer are open. to the objection that no effort was made to get muscle fibre free from all adherent tissues. Visible blood vessels, tendons, nerves and fat were indeed re- moved but these constitute only a part of the non-muscle portions of the tissue and they may be the cause of the variations shown in the results. 556 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII. partially, by regions in which pre-Cambrian formations occur, or are the only apparent rocks, the potassium predominates over the sodium. For example, in the water from Reindeer Lake, which is situated 400 © miles directly north of Lake Winnipeg, Professor Adams found the potassium to exceed very greatly the sodium. In the water from the Churchill River, as well as in the water from the Saskatchewan River above the junction of the Big Stone River, the potassium is much richer than the sodium.* These rivers drain rocky areas chiefly of the pre- Cambrian type. Rocks of the primitive kind, therefore, contrary to the prevailing opinion,t supply to the water which comes in contact with them more potassium than sodium. Even in the case of Lake Superior which draws its supply not only from the primitive rock region on its northern side, but also from the areas covered with soils of alluvial and drift origin on the south, the potassium is about equivalent to the sodium. In the lakes of the Bavarian Highlands, Rachel See, Wiirm See and Ronig See, the potassium is twice in amount that of the sodium. In Lake Zurich the potassium exceeds the sodium. In Lake Geneva, in Pyrenean and Vosgean Lakes and in those of Russia, Armenia and Central Asia the potassium is approximately two-thirds of the sodium. It is probable that if proper methods for estimating potassium had been current in his day, C. Schmidt would have found for the lakes of Russia, Armenia and Central Asia a higher potassium value than he obtained, for the methods then in vogue for the determination of the element in the presence of sodium were very faulty and gave very low results. It is probable also that this may explain the low value found by Sterry Hunt for the potassium of the Ottawa River, whose waters, as well known, are derived largely from Archean regions. The Tables A and B show further that, in nearly all cases, the calcium is very abundant. In the Nile only, amongst the rivers, is it less than the sodium, while it very greatly exceeds it in the rest. In the lakes it is very abundant relatively, with the exception of the Rachel See and Lake Onega. In the Bavarian lakes, Lake Geneva, Lake Zurich, and some others, it is exceedingly abundant relatively. The magnesium is always less than the calcium, and the relative difference is sometimes very great. It may fall below the sodium, but, as arule, it is greater in amount. These proportions, one can readily understand, must have been * F, D. Adams Geo, and Nat. Hist. Survey of Canada, 1880-2, p. 6, 4. ' + This opinion is based largely on the fact that the potash feldspars are difficult to decompose while the soda feldspars readily undergo decomposition, 1902-3. | THE PALZOCHEMISTRY OF THE OCEAN. 557 uniformly maintained for an indefinitely long period. It may even be claimed that, in the case of Lake Baikal, of Reindeer Lake, and other lakes supplied from Archzan areas the proportions have obtained from pre-Cambrian times, and further, that the river discharge of that period, coming as it did from pre-Cambrian rock areas wholly, would contain the four elements in these or similar proportions. That would postulate that the primeval ocean was merely a gigantic body of fresh water, in which the sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium obtained in quantities and proportions as they now obtain in a lake situated in Archean area. As already pointed out, these proportions gave place to others, and to-day, as in the past, the relative amounts of each element are changing, so that in a few million years hence the composition of ocean water will be appreciably different from what it is now. One can, indeed, illustrate what changes have taken place in the ocean by reference to such a large body of fresh water as Lake Superior. If the latterwere to lose its outlet no doubtits area would be larger than it is now, but when that had attained a certain extent the evaporation would balance the inflow as in the case of the Caspian Sea, and in consequence the salts held in solution would constantly increase in amount, but each at different rates up to a certain point, when the proportions would begin to approximate those in ocean water. One cannot of course say that this is what has happened in the case of either the Caspian or the Sea of Aral, for these bodies of water were connected with the ocean as late as the beginning of the Tertiary age, but it may be pointed out that if their composition was, to start with, the same as that of the ocean in Tertiary times, their present composition is strong evidence of the effect that the salts derived from leaching of the land areas have in modifying the proportions, for in that respect either is markedly different from the other and from the ocean. The Great Salt Lake of Utah may be adduced as an instance of the change of a body of fresh water into one which presents a high degree of salinity and which in the proportions of its salts is remarkably not unlike the ocean. This lake, which is in part of the area covered by the glacial Lake Bonneville, is considered by G. K. Gilbert to have been a body ot fresh water about 25,000 years ago. He arrived at this result by determining the discharge of chlorine into the lake by river water and comparing it with the quantity at present obtaining in the lake. Lake Bonneville had* an outlet delivering its waters into a tributary of the Columbia River and thus the lake was kept fresh. When, however, this outlet was lost, changes climatic and physical operated to reduce * Monographs of the U. S. Geol. Survey, Vol. 1, Lake Bonneville, 1890, p. 254. 558 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. the volume of water, and, evaporation keeping pace with the inflow, a concentration of the salts held in solution took place. An examination of the present sources of inflow shows that these do not contain the sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium in the relative proportions which are found in the lake. Gilbert estimates that it would take only eighteen years to give the lake through its fresh water inflow, all the calcium it now contains and that 850 years would to this end be re- quired for magnesium. He does not deal with the case of the potassium of which the analyses he reports show only traces in the inflow water, but this also may have been due to faulty methods of determining that element. These latter seem to be the only explanation for the great. discrepancy between the amounts of potassium found by Talmage* in 1889 and Bassettt in 1873{. Short as is the extreme period required by Gilbert’s calculations to affect all the changes in the composition, it has epitomized the history of the ocean. Even if we postulate that the primitive rock crust of the globe in pre-Cambrian times contained more sodium chloride than what is found now in Archzan formations, there is also more of this salt in the strata of later geological periods which cover the drainage area of Utah Salt Lake. Of course there is not a complete parallel between the latter and the ocean, for the relative proportions are not exactly the same, but their approximate similarity is striking, and, it may be added, very convincing as to the extreme probability of the thesis maintained above.§ TABLE A. RIVERS. Na. kK. Ca. Mg. SO}. Cl. Si. Fe. 1. St. Lawrence ... 100 22.9 638.0 143.4 136.0 223.0 343.0 2 POORER WA dsc 6 che pce 100 64.2 416.7 82.5 67.3 224.3 402.0 yee 3. Mississippi...... 100 35:5 462.0 82.0 1 8.4 86.4 17.0 4. Amazons........ 100 72.6 1,089.0 135.6 36.0 90.0 eae BSEPIN GlGiserete auc hese 100 2212 risen 41.5 18.5 16.0 44.4 6. Assinaboine..... 100 10.5 122.0 69. 4 127.9 50.0 4. Red River....-. 100 12.3 133-3 83.2 190.0 QI.4 8. Nineteen Rivers (Murray) <2... 100 38.6 590.9 134.2 197.6 53-5 145-3 37:9 * Science, Vol. 14, 1889, p. 445. t Chemical News, Vol. 28, 1873, p. 236. See Table B, Utah Salt Lake, 26 and 27. § In Lake Shirwa, according to J. E. S. Moore, (‘‘ The Tanganyika Problem,” 1902, p. 2z,) we have a lake which was once fresh, but has become salt through the loss ot its outlet. So far as I know no analyses have been made of its waters. 1902-3. | THE PALZOCHEMISTRY OF THE OCEAN. 559 TABLE B. LAKES AND SEAS, Na. WE Ca. Mg. SO}. Cl. sSze Fe, OMPSUPCHION slenite< 5 100 97.2 1,015.0 208.0 27.5 103.2 19.3 enue 10. Rachel See «.... 100 =: 199.4 13.0 Heat 17.5 5 eae 1.6 11, Wiirm See ...... 100 223.9 2,445.0 809.0 Sone 412. Walchen See.... 100 117.7 2,557.0 808.5 1g. JROMIg See ~ 2.55 « 100 207.9 5,812.0 588.8 Eqeeschlier Sees... x. 100 96.4 3,141.0 661.0 15. Lac Gaube (Pyrenean)..... 100 66.3 421.0 17.9 16. Lac Gerardmer (Vosges)....... 100 70.4 117.6 29.8 cor 3e ta ese 17. Lake Geneva.... 100 74.5 2,345.0 341.3 Sve 55-0 1,806.0 18. Lake Zurich... ... 100 =III.7 ~ 1,843.9 272.0 441.0 36.0 60.8 Sno 19. Lake Peipus..... 100 ign 929.5 159.9 18.5 134.0 1353 3.4 20. Lake Onega .... 100 41.4 67.3 51-4 33-4 104.7 36.9 2.2 21. Lake Tschaldyr (Armenian High- lands) )ee-> 37.2: )1OD 59-3 219.3 45-7 88. 2 65-3 172.1 5:5 22. Lake Baikal..... 100 58.9 399.6 60.6 98. 5 41.7 16.1 IG fee 23. Sea of Aral ..... 100 2.38 18.6 24.2 113.0 156.0 aete 24. Caspian Sea..... 100 3°35 9-4 2257 80.0 163.7 Be MWCACISEA! Gein os 100 28.4 40.3 1.27 2.0 556.1 26. Utah Salt Lake.. 100 Ba22 1.22 7.81 14.9 169. 2 27. Ee Seeds TOO 25.8 1.56 7.82 19.1 192.2 DO NOGEA Neste eee ai'eiers 100 3-613 3.91 12.0 20.9 180.9 REFERENCES FOR ANALYSES. 1 and 2. Sterry Hunt, Phil. Mag., 4th series, Vol. 13, p. 239, 1857. 3. Warren Upham, The Glacial Lake Agassiz, United States Geol. Survey, 1895, p. 543. 4. Mellard Reade, Am. Journal of Science, Vol. 29, p. 295, 1885. 5. O. Popp, Annalen d. Chem. und Pharm., Vol. 155, p. 344, 1870. 6 and 7. Warren Upham, Op. C7z., p. 542. 8. John Murray, Scottish Geogr. Mag., Vol. 3, p. 76. 9. Warren Upham, Of. C7z., p, 542. 10. Johnson und Lindtner, Liebig’s Ann. der Chem., Vol. 95, p. 230, 1855. 11-14. Adolf Schwager’s Analyses in Willi Ule’s Der Wiirm See (Starnbergersee) in Oberbayern, Leipzig, 1901. 15-17. Delebecque, Les Lacs Frangais, Paris, 1898, pp. 197-205. 18. F. Moldenhauer, Schweizer Polytechn. Zeitschr., 1857, I., p. 52. (Reference in Kopp and Will’s Jahresber. der Chem., 1857, p. 724). 19-22. C. Schmidt, Bulletin’s Acad. Imp. de St. Petersburg, Vol. 28, 1883, pp. 245-6. 23 and 24. C. Schmidt, Bull. Acad. Imp. de St. Petersburg, Vol. 20, pp. 134 and 143, 1875. 25. R. F. Marchand, Journ. fiir Prakt. Chem., Vol. 47, p. 365, 1849. 26. J. E. Talmage, Science, Vol. 14, 1889, p. 444-6. 27. H. Bassett’s Analysis, reported by G. K. Gilbert, Lake Bonneville, U. S. Geol. Sur- vey. Monographs, p. 253, 1890. 28. — Dittmar, Challenger Report, Physics and Chemistry, Vol. 1, p. 203. 560 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII. SUMMARY. The points discussed in the preceding pages may be summarized as follows :— 1. The composition of the ocean represents the result, on the one hand, of the leaching action of water on the land surfaces of the globe continued throughout all the geological periods, and, on the other, of the chemical and other agencies modifying or enhancing the power of sea water to retain in solution the mineral constituents derived from the land surfaces through river water since the beginning of the primeval period. 2. The relative proportions of the elements, and especially of sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium, in river discharge are not parallel to those of the same elements found in the sea. In river water, the calcium is always more, and the potassium less, abundant than the sodium, while the magnesium appears to approximate in amount the latter. In the sea, on the other hand, the sodium is much more abun- dant than the other three elements, and this is due to the continuous pre- cipitation of a very great portion of the calcium added by rivers as carbonate, to the subsequent fixation in the limestone so formed of the magnesium as carbonate, and to the removal, continually taking place, of potassium, which is affected through animal and vegetable forms, and its consequent fixation in submarine deposits as glauconite and other potassium-holding minerals. The calcium and potassium appear to be stationary in amount, while the magnesium added by river water appears to exceed in amount that removed from the sea, and, in consequence, is slowly on the increase in the ocean, but its rate of increase is far behind that of the sodium. 3. The relative proportions of the elements in the ocean have, therefore, always been changing, and these proportions must have been, in the earlier geological periods, very different from what they are now. In the ocean of the earliest period the relative proportions of the elements approximated those found in river discharge, or rather those found in fresh water shed from areas covered with Archean rocks. In this the potassium approaches the sodium in amount while the magnes- ium exceeds the latter, and the calcium is relatively very abundant. 4. This condition must have continued until living forms made 5s ae “a he ‘ 1902-3. | THE PALZOCHEMISTRY OF THE OCEAN. 561 their appearance in the ocean when the gradual elimination of the magnesium, and particularly of the potassium and calcium, began. The forms were in all probability unicellular, and as the period must have been of great duration, the organisms and their protoplasm acquired a fixed relation to the four elements. 5. With the appearance of vegetable land forms and the formation of soils the removal of potassium from the land to the sea by river water diminished, and this, in conjunction with the elimination of the element from sea water by organisms, made the amount in the sea stationary. Through the action of living forms the calcium also in sea water has been kept stationary since that remote period. 6. In the transition from the ocean of the more ancient composi- tion to that of the present, the unicellular forms became multicellular, and developed circulatory systems, the vascular fluids of which were at first simply modified sea water. In the blood plasma of Vertebrates, the three elements, sodium, potassium, and calcium are in relative pro- portions strikingly like those which now obtain in sea water. The magnesium only is considerably less than it is in sea water. The whole is due to heredity, the proportions of the saline constituents of the plasma being a reproduction of the proportions which obtained in sea water when circulatory plasmata were developed. 7. The proportions of the four elements which obtain in living proto- plasm are as yet unknown, for the latter has the power of precipitating the potassium, calcium and probably the sodium and magnesium as ipert compounds in itself or in its adventitious structures, and thus analyses - would comprehend the inert material as well as the quantities of these elements which are actively participating in the processes of the living substance. If we could determine the latter quantities alone we could regard them as a representation of the proportions obtaining in prime- val sea water to which the protoplasm of unicellular organisms had established a fixed relation. 8. That such a relation could be inherited may be inferred from the fact that the karyokinetic process, being practically the same in the animal and vegetable cell, has continued unchanged in both from the primeval period when the karyokinetic process first developed in a parent unicellular organism neither distinctly animal nor distinctly vegetable. This indicates how marked an influence heredity wields. g. Briefly, animal as well as vegetable protoplasm owes its relations 562 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. (Vou. VII. to the elements sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium to the com- position of sea water which obtained when all forms were unicellular, just as the blood plasma owes its relations to the same four elements to the composition of sea water which prevailed when circulatory fluids were established. 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