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TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

~ Gumberland and Westmorland Association

FOR THE

ADVANCEMENT OF LITERATURE
AND SCIENCE,

No. X.—1884-85.

ere Evirep ey J. G. GOODCHILD, F.G.S., F.ZS,

MEMBER OF THE BRITISH ORNITHOLOGISTS’. UNION ;
H. M. GEOL, SURVEY,

PRICE TO MEMBERS, ONE -SHILLING,
NON-MEMBERS, TWO SHILLINGS. AND SIXPENCE.

’ CARLISLE :
eed iT. COWARD, PRINTERS, SCOTCH STREET.
1885.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

Cumberland and Westmorland Association

FOR THE

BOVANCEMENT OF LITERATURE
AND “SCIENCE,

No. X.—1884-85.

Evirep sy J. G. GOODCHILD, F.GS, F.ZS,

MEMBER OF THE BRITISH ORNITHOLOGISTS’ UNION 35
H. M. GEOL. SURVEY.

PRICE TO MEMBERS, ONE SHILLING.
NON-MEMBERS, TWO SHILLINGS AND SIXPENCE,

CARLISLE :
G. & T. COWARD, PRINTERS, SCOTCH STREET.
1885.

SOON) TAB ES .

Page
Norrs ON THE PROCEEDINGS AT THE ANNUAL MEETING AT BOWNESS Vv.
RULES 2: abs ae ie Re ae Ho AVIS
List oF OFFICERS at hae ne a eh 50 x
REPORTS FROM THE ASSOCIATED SOCIETIES Se Le Seu exe
REPORT OF ASSOCIATION SECRETARY... we *, .. XXVI.
TREASURER’S ACCOUNT BAG ee ae, oe ... XXVIL

©
List or PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED FROM OTHER SOCIETIES IN EXCHANGE
FOR THE ‘‘ TRANSACTIONS ” ast se = ... XXVIi,

Part I,— PROCEEDINGS art tut ANNUAL MEETING (Bownezss)—

ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT (R. S. Fercuson, F.S.A.)

‘*Potsherds and Pipkins.” ... re vas $e 81
“‘The Hematite Iron Mines of Low Furness.” By H. W.

ScHNEIDER (Windermere) Plate V. ... Pe nh: 99
“‘Trilobites of the Skiddaw Slates.” By J. Posriz-

THWAITE, F.G.S. (Keswick) Plates I. to IV.... 30 71

‘*On the Best Locality for Coal beneath the Permian Rocks
of North-West Cumberland.” By J. D. Kernpau
(Whitehaven) ie ae an as .. 109

Part II].— PAPERS COMMUNICATED TO THE SOCIETIES, AND SELECTED
BY THE ASSOCIATION CoUNCIL FOR PUBLICATION—

‘*The Lake-Basins of the Neighbourhood of Windermere.”

By W. G. Cottinewoop, M.A. (Ambleside)... es 1
“‘Some of the Old Families in the Parish of Crosthwaite.”

By J. Fisoer Crostuwaite, F.S.A. (Keswick) Bee ll
‘‘Our Summer Visitors.” By T. DuckworrH (Carlisle) ... 29
“Wild Flowers around Carlisle,” Part 2. By W. Duck-

WoRTH (Carlisle)... Ri ae nee Les 43

‘“The Orientation of Ancient Churches.” By Gro. Watson
(Penrith) ... £6 sit sat fer ais 59

NLOU ES

Much matter of interest has had to be omitted in this Number

owing to want of space.

Spare Copies of Nos. 1, 3, and 4 of the TRANSACTIONS well be
gladly received by the Secretary (Mr. Crowder, Stanwix, Carlisle),
and One Shilling will be allowed for each copy.

CUMBERLAND & WESTMORLAND ASSOCIATION FOR
THE ADVANCEMENT OF LITERATURE AND SCIENCE,

Proceedings at the Annual Meeting at Potoness,
1885.

THE TENTH ANNUAL MEETING of the Association was held this year at
Bowness-on-Windermere, on Tuesday and Wednesday, Gune 2nd and 3rd.

The Proceedings began, as usual, with the Address of the retiring President,
Mr. R. S. FerGuson. The subject was ‘‘ Potsherds and Pipkins,” being an
able sketch of the rise and progress of the potter’s art from the earliest times.

The party—now numbering about seventy—afterwards sat down to lunch at
the Old England Hotel, at the close of which Mr. W. H. Schneider, the
President of the Windermere Literary and Scientific Society, said a few words
on the rise and progress of Barrow, which he justly described as being almost
unique among English towns during the present century. When he first came
to it in 1839, there were only about half-a-dozen houses. In 1859 began its
real era of progress with the opening of the Park Mine, its population increasing
in the two following years from 700 to 3,000. In 1871 the number was
18,000; in 1881, 47,000; and in 1883, 53,000. JHlaving received much
interesting information on the steel works, to which Barrow owes so much of
its rapid advance, the company, to the number of about one hundred and
twenty, embarked on Colonel Ridehalgh’s beautiful steam-yacht The Britannia,
which had been most kindly placed at the disposal of the members, and had a
pleasant sail to Lake Side. Here a special train was waiting to take the party
to the Barrow Steel Works ; arriving at 3-30. Divided into parties of twenty-
five, each accompanied by a courteous guide, the members were shown the
various processes of iron and steel making. The smelting furnaces were visited,
and then the grooved sand beds into which the molten iron flows, and is shaped
into the well known pig iron as it cools. The steel works were next visited,
and the huge Bessemer blast furnaces where the liquid metal is deprived of its
carbon, afterwards mixed with the spiegeleisen, and then, as steel, poured into
the moulds. It is now rolled out to a length of perhaps eighty or ninety feet, and,
after being cut to the proper size, left to cool and consolidate into steel rails. About
ten years since, a length of thirty feet was the utmost that could be obtained; now,
one hundred and eighty feet is the maximum length to which a rail can be
rolled. ~About five o’clock the company left for Furness Abbey, the interesting
features of which were ably described by Mr. J. T. Micklethwaite, F.S.A., the
well known authority on monastic buildings, and by Mr. Paley of Lancaster
After tea at the Furness Abbey Hotel, the party returned by special train
Lake Side, and thence in Colonel Ridehalgh’s yacht to Bowness, arriving
shortly after eight p.m.

vi.

On Wednesday, the day’s proceedings began with the Council Meeting at the
Bowness Institute, after whieh the Annnal General Meeting was held, the
President in the chair.

The Yearly Report and Balance Sheet were read by the Hon. Secretary, the
Chairman remarking that the unfavourable financial condition of the Association
was largely due to the very inadequate sale of the Zvamnsactions among the
members of the affiliated Societies, only a little over four hundred copies having
been taken last year, though there were nearly 1300 Association Members, and
intimating that it had been found needful, in consequence, to reduce, for the
present, the length of the annual volume from over 200 pp. to 150 pp.

The Reports of the Societies having been taken as read, it was moved and
carried that the Report and Balance Sheet of the Association, just read, be
adopted. On the motion of the President, seconded by Mr. Healey, (Winder-
mere,) Mr. Davip AINSWORTH, M.P., was unanimously elected President for
the ensuing year. Mr. GoopcHILpD and Mr. R. CRowDER were re-elected
Editor, and Secretary and Treasurer respectively. The Rev. H. A. MACPHERSON
was appointed Zoological Recorder ; and the Rev. J. Woop of Rosley, and
Mr. W. Hopcson, Botanical Recorders. The reading of original papers then
commenced with one by Mr. Schneider, on ‘* The Hematite Iron Mines of
Low Furness,” read by Mr. Irving, and illustrated by the author by means of
a large-scale map. The next paper was one on ‘‘ The Birds of Cumberland,
with Observations on the Birds of Westmorland,” by the Rev. H. A. Mac-
pherson and Mr. W. Duckworth. Mr. Postlethwaite of Keswick then read his
paper, illustrated by diagrams, on ‘‘The Trilobites of the Skiddaw Slates.”
A paper on ‘‘The Phonetic Structure of the Dialects of Cumberland and
Westmorland,” read by the author, Mr. J. G. Goodchild, F.G.S., concluded
the business, several papers having been omitted for want of time. A vote of
thanks to Mr. Schneider and the Committee of the Windermere Society, for
the hearty way in which they had laboured to make the Meeting a success, was,
on the motion of Dr. Troutbeck, seconded by Mr. W. I. R. Crowder, carried
unanimously. A similar compliment having been paid to the readers of papers,
and a hearty vote of thanks passed to Mr. R, S. Ferguson, for the admirable
way in which he had filled the Presidential chair for two years, the company
adjourned to luncheon at the Old England Hotel.

At two p.m., the carriage Excursions to Dungeon Gill, Skelwith Bridge, &e. ;
and also to Kirkstone, va Troutbeck, returning through Ambleside, favoured
as they were with the finest possible weather, brought the Annual Meeting of
the Association to a pleasant conclusion.

alg orate bl eR es

OF THE

CUMBERLAND AND WESTMORLAND ASSOCIATION FOR
THE ADVANCEMENT OF LITERATURE AND SCIENCE.

1.—That the Association be called the “CumBERLAND AND
WESTMORLAND ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF LITERA-

TURE AND SCIENCE.” °

2.—The Association shall consist of the following Societies :—
Whitehaven Scientific Association, Keswick Literary and Scientific
Society, Workington Scientific and Literary Society, Maryport
Literary and Scientific Society, Longtown Literary and Scientific
Society, Carlisle Scientific Society and Field Naturalists’ Club,
Ambleside and District Literary and Scientific Society, Silloth and
P Holme Cultram Literary and Scientific Society, Brampton Literary
and Scientific Society and Field Naturalists’ Club, Penrith and
District Literary and Scientific Society, Windermere Literary and
Scientific Society ; and of such other Societies as shall be duly
affiliated. Also of persons nominated by two members of the
Council ; this latter class of members shall pay the sum of 5s.

annually.
3.—All members of affiliated Societies, unless otherwise ruled
by the regulations of their respective Societies, shall be members

of the Cumberland and Westmorland Association.

Vill.
4.—The Association shall be governed by a Council, consisting
of a President, Vice-Presidents, Secretary, who shall also be
Treasurer, an Editor, and of ordinary members, two to be elected
by each affiliated Society. The President, Secretary, and Editor

shall be elected annually at the Annual Meeting, and shall be

capable of re-election.

5.—The Vice-Presidents shall consist of the Presidents of the
various affiliated Societies; and the delegates of the various

Societies shall be elected annually by their respective Societies.

6.—An Annual Meeting of the Association shall be held at such
time and place as may be decided upon at the previous Annual
Meeting, or (failing such appointment) as may be arranged by the

Council.

7.—At each Annual Meeting, after the delivery of the Presi-
dent’s Address, and the reading of the Reports from the affilated
Societies, the objects of the Association may be furthered by

Lectures, Papers, Addresses, Discussions, Conversaziones, &c.

8.—The Committee of each affiliated Society shall be entitled
to recommend one original and local paper communicated to such :
Society (subject to the consent of the author) for publication in the
Transactions of the Association ; but Societies contributing capi-
tation grant on a number of members exceeding one hundred and
fifty shall have the privilege of sending two papers. The Council
shall publish at the expense of the Association the papers recom-
mended, either in full, or such an abstract of each or any of them
as the author may prepare or sanction ; also those portions of the

Association Transactions that may be deemed advisable.

9.—The Council shall endeavour to promote co-operation among

et ee

iy

ix.

existing Societies, and may assist in the formation of new ones ; it
may also aid in the establishment of classes in connection with
any of the associated societies.

10o.—Affiliated Societies shall contribute annually towards the
general funds of the Association, Sixpence for each of their
members; but when the number of members of the affiliated
Societies exceeds one hundred and fifty, a reduction of fifty per
* cent. shall be made upon the payment for each member in excess
of that number.

r1.—The rules can be altered only by a majority of two-thirds
of the members present at an Annual Meeting. Any member
desiring to alter the Rules must send a copy of the proposed
alterations to the Secretary, at least two weeks before the meeting
is held.

12.—Past Presidents of the Association shall be permanent
members of the Council, and be described as Past-Presidents.

13.—The travelling expenses of all who assist in carrying out
the programme of the various affiliated Societies shall be defrayed

by the Society assisted.

The Eleventh ANNUAL MEETING will be held in the Summer of
1886, and due notice of the place of Meeting and of the arrange-
ments will be sent to all members of the Association.

Members willing to contribute original Articles on subjects of
local interest, or short /Votices of anything that may be considered
worth recording of local and scientific value, should communicate
with the Honorary Secretary, ROBERT CROWDER, Esq., Stanwix,

Carlisle.

e

OFFICERS FOR THE SESSION 1885-86,

President :
DAVID AINSWORTH, Esa,, M.P.
Past-Presidents.

THE Lorp BisHop oF CARLISLE.
‘THE Late I. FiercHer, Esq., M.P., F.R.S.
TuE Hon. P. S. WYNDHAM, M.P.
Rogert Frercuson, Esq., M.P., F.S.A.
Ricwarp §. FEeRGuson, Esq., M. iA abe M., F.S.A.

Vice-Presidents.

J. Vivian, Esq., C.E., (Whitehaven. )

Rev. T. N. Hoar, M.A., F.H.S., (Keswick.)
J. B. Battry, Esq., (Maryport.)

Rev. J. R. Grpson, (Longtown.)

Rev. C. H. Parez, M.A., (Carlisle. )

Rev. E. M. Reynoups, (Ambleside.)

H. L. Barker, Esq., (Silloth.)

G. J. Jounson, Esq., (Brampton.)

Rey. E. W. Cuapman, M.A., (Penrith.)

H. W. Scunerper, Esq., (Windermere.)

Delegates.

T. F. TP Anson, M.D., F.R.H.S.,
A. Krirenin, F.C.S.

A. A. H. Knicurt, M.D.,
GEORGE BLACK, M.B.,
Dr. Marutas,

Jos. CaRTMELL, A.M.1.C.E. MArypOr.
Dr. Mc. LacHuan,
WILLIAM JARDINE,
Wm. Nanson, M.A., F.S.A., ) >
Henry Barnes, M.D, FRS.E, ( Catlisle
C. W. Smriru,
JAMES BENTLEY,
JOHN GRAHAM, ) «g:

W. F. Witson, § igen
Rev. S. F E

CS. rear Brampton.
Major W. B. ARNISON :
GEORGE WATSON, 3 Le
*EORGE HEALEY,
T. THompPson,

| ‘Whitehaven.
Keswick.

Longtown.

Ambleside.

Windermere.

Hon. Association Secretary and Treasurer.
Rosert Crowper, M.A., Stanwix, Carlisle.

Editor.
J. G. GoopcuILp, F.G.S., F.Z.S., H.M. Geol. Survey, 28 Jermyn-St., London

Zoological Recorder.
Rev. H. A. Macpuerson, M.A., St. James Road, Carlisle.

Botanical Recorders.

Rev. R. Woop, M.A., Rosley Vicarage, Carlisle.
W, Hopeson, AL 8., Flimby, Maryport.

=

RRA

om

RR Ay a

HON, SECRETARIES OF THE LCCAL SOCIETIES.

W. H. Kitcurn, 27 King Street.

Whitehaven ih ee

Keswick ... ... T. E. Hientron, Brigham, Keswick.

Maryport ... .. D. Irvine, The Gas Works.

Longtown ... ... WHXLLIAM JARDINE, United School.

Carlisle... .. JOHN Sinciatr, 6 Hawick Street.

Ambleside ... ... JAMES BENTLEY.

Silloth me ... JAMES B. Brinks.

Brampton ... .. C. J. Rie.

Penrith ay: ... H. M‘LEan Witson, M.B., C.M.
a Col. W. C. MacDovucatt.

F. Barton, 8 Biskey Howe Terrace, Bowness.

Xiil.

Heports trom the Associated Societies.

WHITEHAVEN SCIENTIFIC ASSOCIATION,

HOWGILL STREET.

18th SESSION, 1884-85.

President ve Pa th afc Ae J. G. Drss, C.E.

Vice-Presidents.

J. Vivian, C.E. | W. Mc.Gowan.

Past-Presidents. *

T. F. I‘Anson, M.D., F.R.H.S. H. A. Frercuer, F.R.A.S.
W. Jackson, J.P., F.S.A. JAMES Barrp.
Aveustus HELDER. R. Russeiyt, C.E., F.G.S.
W. H. Kircuin. A. Kircntin, F.C.S8.
Committee.

E. Astett, M.D. T. Jackson, M.D.

B. Taytor. JoHN Nixon, B.A.

T. GorpDon. E. Crompton, C.E.

G. Scounar, C.E.

Curator of Museum ... ese ak oes W. I‘Anson, M.B.
Curator of Building ... Pee me #8 R. Pickrerine, C.E.
Treasurer ... ae ee an: ne J. S. HEtton.
Hon. Librarian ses ss a oa R. B. Gorpon.

Hon. Secretaries,

W. H. Kircuin. | E. Doxgson.

xiv.

The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :—

Nov. 4.—CoNVERSAZIONE.—ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT.

Nov. 18.—T. F. I‘Anson, M.D,—‘‘ Extracts from the Log of the ‘North-
umbria.’”

Dec. 2.—H. M. James.—“‘ Atlantis, the Lost Continent.”

Dec. 16.—R. Pickerine, C.E.—‘‘The Works of Public Water Supply in

; West Cumberland.”

Jan. 6.—W. H. Warson, F.C.S., F.G.S.—‘‘Modern Thought and
Tendency.”

Jan. 20.—Joun Vivian, C.E.—‘‘Salt and Salt-mining.”’

Feb. 3.—Joun Crum.—‘ Michael Faraday.”

Feb. 17.—R. Russrxt, C.E., F.G.S.—‘‘ The Soils of Cumberland in relation
to Agriculture.”

Mar. 3.—R. Hewton, Ph.D., F.C.S.-—‘‘The Life and Chemical Work of
Adolphe Wurtz.”

Mar. 17.—JosrrpH Huceues.—‘‘ Steam Boilers.”

Mar. 31.—W. I‘Anson, M.B.—‘‘ Bacteria.”

Apr. 14.—A. Kirenin, F.C.S.—‘‘ Coal Gas.”

Apr. 28.—Business Meeting, Election of Officers, &c.

KESWICK LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.

16th SESSION, 1884-85.

President he rh ee ae Rev. W. CoLvite.

Vice-President ... ap BCA ‘be Rev. J. N. Hoarr, M.A.

Secretary ke is ax se Mr. T. E. Hicuron.

Treasurer ae ee as a Mr. Evwin Jackson.
Committee.

Rev. H. D. Rawnstey, M.A. J. PosTLETHWAITE, F'.G.S.

GxrorGe Brack, M.B. Wm. Woop.

J. FIsHER CrostHWAITE, F.S.A. G. H. Drxon, B.A.

Hon. Curators of the Museum.

A, A. H, Kyicur, M.D. | JoHN BIRKETT,

XV.

LECTURES.
1884,
Noy. 3.—Rryv. J. Taytor, M.A.—‘‘ Erasmus of Rotterdam.”
Nov. 24.—Rev. J. T. Pottock, M.A.—‘‘ Elocution.”
Dec. 8.—J. R. ANDERSON, Esqg.—‘‘ The Crusades.”
1885.
Feb. 2.—W. Rovurn Firzparrick, Esq.—‘‘Schiller: German Dramatist,
Poet, and Historian.”
Feb. 16.—Dr. G. Brack.—‘‘Dr. John Brown, of Edinburgh.”
Mar. 2.—Rev. J. N. Hoare, F.H.S.—‘‘Early Christianity in North-
umbria.”
Mar. 9.—J. G. GoopcuriLp, Esq., F.G.S.—‘‘ The Lion and its Kin.”
Mar. 23.—Rev. T. W. Norwoop, M.A.—‘‘Gipsies.”’

ORDINARY MEETINGS.
1884.
Oct. 27.—PRESIDENT’s ADDRESS. j
Noy. 17.—Rrv. J. Suarpe Osriz, B.A.—‘‘ Thackeray.”
Dec. 1.—Dr. A. A. H. Knicur.—‘‘The Weather.”
Dec. 15.—Rev. H. D. Rawnstey, M.A.—‘‘Some Reminiscences of Word-
worth among the Peasantry of Lakeland.”
1885.
Jan. 26.—Mr. G. H. Dixon, B. A.—‘‘ The Legal Position of Married Women
in ancient and Modern Times.”
Feb. 9.—Rerv. H. Wuirennap, M.A.—‘‘George Fox.”
Feb. 23.—Mr. G. E. Lowruran.—‘“‘ Fire,” (illustrated by experiments. )
' Mar. 16.—Mr. J. F. Crosruwaits, F.S.A.—‘‘Some of the Old Families
in the Parish of Crosthwaite.”
Mar. 30.—AnnuAL Mertinc.—Mr. T. E. Hicuron.—‘‘ Progress of the
Rise of Power in the People in the 19th Century.”

XV1.

MARYPORT LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY,
ASSEMBLY HALL, HIGH STREET.

9th SESSION, 1884-85.

President... SA: Ae San Ree ... J. HEWETSON.
Vice-President ae an ee aaa ... J. B. Batry.

Past-Presidents.

(i J. Cantmett, A.M.LC.E. | W. Hive. | Dr. W. B. Marazas.
Committee.
Rev. J. S. Craic. Mr. A. Hine.
Rev. W. P. ScHAFFTER. Mr. F. WALKER.
Mr. J. Ross Mr. J. WILLIAMSON.
Mr. P. B. MeLmore. Mr. R. H. Hamiton.
Mr. G. M. TIcKLE. Mr. C. EAGLESFIELD.
Delegates.
Dr. MArHias. | Mr. J. CARTMELL.
Hon. Secretary and Treasurer ae so se Mr. D. Irvine.

The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :-—
1884.
Oct. 28.—Mr. J. B. Bartey.—‘ The Order of St. John of Jerusalem.”
Nov. 13.—Mr. Frank Curzon.— ‘‘Our Faces, and how we came by them.”
(Black Board Lecture.)
Nov. 25.—Mr. C. EaGuisFIEvp, —‘‘ Classical Architecture.”
Dec. 9.—Mr. J. B. Mason.—‘‘ Chess.”
1885.
Jan. 13.—Mr. J. Newsy Heruerineton, F.R.G.S.—‘‘ The Revolutionary
Element in English Poetry, or Poetry and Politics from 1785 to
1832.”
Jan, 27.—Mr. R. H. Hamiuron.—‘“‘ Ferns.”
Feb. 10.—Rery. J. I. Cummins.—‘‘St. Patrick a Cumbrian.”
Feb. 24.—Rey. C. B. 8. Gittines.—‘‘Sir W. Scott in Cumberland.”
Mar. 10.—Mr. Parrinson B. Mretmore.—‘‘ Electricity.”
Mar. 24.—Mr. J. G. Goopcnriip, F.G.S.—‘‘ The Lion and its Kin.”
Apr. 4.—Election of Officers, &c.

Xvii.

LONGTOWN LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.

—_——-

Sth SESSION, 1884-85.

President a ee bes Ah .. Rev. J. R. Grpson.

Vice-Presidents.

R. A. Anxtson, Esq., M.A. Mr. S. F. Mc. Lacuian, M.B.
Rey. P. CARRUTHERS. Wm. Easton Ropertson, Esq.
Treasurer and Secretary... or ee ... Mr. Jon WILSON.
Committee.

Mr. I. Rice. Rey. Wm. Ly?TEIL.

Mr. Wm. LitTLe. Mr. A. TWEDDLE.

Mr. A. P. WILKIE. Mr. Wn. Kiicour.

MEETINGS.

1884.
Nov. 4.—Rev. J. R. Gresoy, President of the Society. —‘‘ Words, their

use and abuse.”
Nov. 10.—Mr. PowE.Lu THomas.—Elocutionary and Musical Entertain-

ment. (Special Meeting.)

Nov. 18.—Rev. Jos. WALLACE, M.A.—‘‘The Use and Abuse of Tobacco.”

Nov. 25.—Rrv. Dr. Grant.—‘‘ The Association of Ideas.”

Dec. 2.—Debate: ‘‘Are the works of Charles Dickens elevating in
character ?”

Dec. 9.—Rev. Grorce LamBert.—‘‘ The Pilgrim Fathers.”

Dec. 16.—Readings: ‘‘A Night with Byron.”

Dec. 23.—S. F. Mc. LAcHLAN, M.B.—“‘ Oliver Goldsmith.”

Dec. 30.—Mr. Wm. Jarpine.—‘‘ An Hour with Mark Twain.”

1885.
Jan. 6.—A Musical Evening.
Jan. 13.—Mr. Joun Witson.—“‘ Fallacies in Common Proverbs.”

Jan. 20.—Jos. HepwortH, Esq.—“‘ Coal Tar Colours.”

Jan. 27.—Mr. R. Nixon.—“‘ Epictetus.”

Feb. 3.—Debate: ‘‘Is the present system of Examinations and Grants in
Schools beneficial to the Scholars 2”

XVlil.

Feb. 10.—Rev. Witutam Lyrrett, M.A.—‘‘John Duncan, Weaver and
Botanist.”

Feb. 17.—Rerv. George Davires.—‘‘ What is Freemasonry ?”

Feb. 24.—Rrv. C. J. Sentor.—‘‘ What I Saw and Heard at the Inter-
national Temperance Congress at Brussels.”

Mar. 3.—Readings from different Authors.

Mar. 10.—HucH Miter, Esq., F.G.S.—‘‘The History of a Liddesdale
Stone.”

Mar. 17.—Rev. J. R. Grpson.—‘‘ The Sun.” :

Mar. 24.—Rerv. P. CarrorHers.—A Paper on Sir Walter Scott.

Apr. 7.—Business of the Society, Election of Officers, &c.

CARLISLE SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY AND FIELD
NATURALISTS’ CLUB.

8th SESSION, 1884-85.

President = .. B.S. Fereuson, Esg., M.A., F.S.A., LL.M.

Past-Presidents.
THe Rieut Rey. THE Lorp BrsHop oF CARLISLE.
Ropert Frerevuson, Esq., M.P.

Mites MaciInnzs, Esq.

Vice-Presidents.

S. J. Biynine, Esq. | Rev. C. H. Parzz, M.A.
Treasurer... ten ae Wm. Nanson, Esq., B.A.. F.S.A.
Hon. Secretary a} 2 JOHN Srnciarr, 6 Hawick Street.

Committee.
Mr. R. J. Batuuir. Mr. R. M. Hi.
Dr. MAcLAREN. Mr. Isaac CARTMELL.
Dr. CARLYLE. Mr. Gro. Dawson.
Dr. BARNES. Mr. J. A. WHEATLEY.
Mr. T. Duckwortn. Mr. Rosr. CrowpeEr.
Mr. W. Duckworru. Mr. W. 2. Dopp.

a

xix.

During the Session the following Lectures have been delivered :—

PUBLIC LECTURES.
1884.
Nov. 4.—R. A. Attison, Esg.—‘‘ The Making of the English Language.”
Dec. 2.—Rev. H. A. MacpHerson.—‘‘ The Birds around Carlisle.”
1885.
Jan. 6.—Wwm. Nanson, Esq., B.A., F.S.A.—‘‘ Porcelain.”
Feb. 3.—R. S. Fereuson, Esq., M.A., F.S.A., LL.M.—‘*The Beaumont
Hoard.”
Mar. 3.—J. G. GoopcuiLp, Esq., F.G.S.—‘‘The Lion and its Kindred.”

ORDINARY MEETINGS.

1884.
Nov. 20.—Mr. W. Duck worrs.—‘‘ Wild Flowers around Carlisle.”” Part 2.
Dec. 18.—Mr. W. Hopeson.—‘‘ The Hill Naturalist.” Part 2.

1885.
Jan. 22.—Dr. CaRrLyLe.—‘‘ Fungi.”’
Feb. 19.—Mr. T. Duckwortu.—‘‘ Summer Visitors.” Part 2.
Mar. 19.—Mr. Grorcze Dawson.—‘‘ Local Entomology.” Part 6.
Apr. 23.—Mr. Joun Sryciarr.—‘‘ Insects mentioned in Shakespeare.”

AMBLESIDE AND DISTRICT LITERARY AND
SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.

8ru SESSION, 1884-85.

President ... ase re ao ... Rev, E. M. Reywnonps.

Vice-Presidents.

F. M. T. Jones, Esa. | G. Gatry, Esa.

Past-Presidents.

R. Crewnson, Esa. | Rey. H. 8. CALLENDER.

XxX.

Treasurer nes ie az 4s MM Mr. W. Lisrer
Secretary a oa ue et .. Mr. C. W. Swire
Committee.

Mr. T. BELL. Mr. J. Hirp.
Mr. J. BENTLEY. Mr. W. E. PErRcrvat.
A. J. Broptrg, Esq. H. Repmayne, Esa.

Rev. H. 8. CALLENDER. Mr. J. RUSSELL.
J. Fremine, Esa. Mr. STALKER, Senr.

LECTURES, PAPERS, &c.
1884.

Oct. 31.—Rev. BE. M. Reynoups, M.A., Prestprnr.—-Debate: ‘‘That it
does not appear that the advantages of the proposed Railway to
Ambleside will outweigh the disadvantages,”

Nov. 11.—Dr. J. E. Taytor, F.L.S., F.G.S.—‘‘ Flowers and Fruit, and
their relation to Insects and Birds.”

Nov. 28.—Miss Mary Baskin, (Author of ‘‘Into Smooth Waters,’
“Released,” &c.)—Readings and Recitals.

Dec. 12.—W. E. Cuurcu, Esq.—‘‘ Punch, or the London Charivari, of
to-day.”

1885.

Jan. 9.—W. G. CottInewoop, Esq., M.A.—‘‘The Lake Basins of the
Neighbourhood ; a new Examination of their Structure.”

Jan. 23.—Waynman Drxon, Esq., C.E.—‘‘The History and Work of the
Order of St. John of Jerusalem.”

Feb. 6.—Rev. C. W. Rawson, M.A.—‘‘ The Life of Mahomet.”

Feb. 25.—J. G. Goopentip, Esa., F.G.S.—‘‘The Lion and its Kin.”

Mar. 6.—H. MarsHatt Warp, Esq., M.A., of Owen’s College, Man-
chester. —‘‘ Green Leaves.”

Mar. 20.—GrorcE Gatry, Hsq., V.P.—‘‘ How Customary Tenure was
established in Westmorland.”

XX.

SILLOTH AND HOLME CULTRAM LITERARY AND
SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.

6TH SESSION, 1884-85.

President ae bis Be By JoHN Lerrcu, M.B., C.M.

Vice-Presidents.

Rey. S. Hepert, M.A. © i JOHN GLAISTER, Esa.

Committee.

Rev. J. Brown, M.A. W. M. Hupson.
G. T. Carr. J. T. MIppLeTon.
W. CRABB. R. Peat.

J. GRAHAM, C. V. Porrer.

J. THOMSON.
Hon. Treasurer ... sor ak Bae an J. STRONACH,

Hon. Secretary... see eee ae .. H. L. Barker.

LECTURES AND MEETINGS.
1884.
Oct. 15.—R. J. Battie, F.R.A.S.—‘‘ Meteors and Comets.”
Oct. 29.—Rxrv. J. T. Potitock, M.A.—‘‘ Elocution.”
Noy. 12.—W. H. Hoopiess.—‘‘The Home of Shakespeare,” with Illus-
trations.
Nov. 27.—Miss Mary Baskty.—Miscellaneous selections from American
and English Authors.”
Dec. 10.—Rozpert Fercuson, Esq., M.P.—‘‘Snakes and Snake Worship.”
Dec. 19.—Readings by several Members.
1885.
Jan. 7.—J. Newsy HeErHerincron, F.R.G.S.—‘‘Charles Dickens as a
Novelist.”
Jan. 21.—James THomson.—‘‘ The Succession of Life on the Earth.”
Feb. 5.—Rerv. C. B. S. Giiiines.—‘‘ Sir Walter Scott in Cumberland.”
Feb. 19.—Rev. 8. Heperr, M.A.—‘‘ An Evening with the Stars,” with
Magic Lantern Illustrations.

Xxil.

Mar. 4.—J. G. GoopcurLp, F.G.S., H.M. Geological Survey.—‘‘The Lion
and its Kin.”

Mar. 11.—HvucH Miuurr, F.G.S., H.M. Geological Survey.—‘‘ Raised Sea
Beaches and old Sea Bottoms.”

Mar. 26.—Rosert Hornspy.—‘‘ Agriculture.”

BRAMPTON LITERARY AND FIELD NATURALISTS’
SOCIETY.

SESSION 1884-85.

President 4 Re ea me .. G. J. Jonson, Esa.

Vice-Presidents.

Rey. 8. FALE. | Rev. H. J. BuLKEiry.
Treasurer wee bate oe brs Mr. Isaac B. Honeson,
Hon. Secretary aise Fait Ae Mr. Rice, Brampton.

Committee.

Jos. Tompson, Esa. | Mr. A. M. Smits.
Mr. G. Burton. Mrs. H. Y. THompson,
Mr. J. FARRER. Miss BELL.

Mr. W. Huet. | Miss Mc. QuEEN.

Mr. T. RID.ey. Miss THom.

The following Meetings were held during the Session :—
1884.

‘Oct. 14.—Rev. 8. Farte.—‘‘ Jersey to Normandy,” Illustrated.

Oct 21.—Mr. Vatrance, Elocutionist.—Literary Entertainment.

Nov. 4.—Dr. H. Y. THompson,—‘‘ Electricity and Electric Lighting,”
Illustrated by Apparatus and Experiments.

Nov. 18.—Mempers.—Shakespearian Reading, ‘‘Midsummer Night’s
Dream,”

XX1iL.

Dec. 2.—Dr, Woruersroon.—‘A Geological Epoch.”

Dec. 16.—Mr. T. Rrpiey.—Debate.

1885.
Jan. 20.—CONVERSAZIONE.
Jan. 27.—_J. THompson, Esq.—“ Electricity.” —Annual Business Meeting.
Feb. 10.—Rerv. H. J. ButkeLry.—‘‘ Eminent Persons who died in 1884.”
Feb. 24.—A. M. Smiru, Esqg.—‘‘Shakespearian Portraits.”
Mar. 17.—Mr. H. Jackson.—Debate—‘‘ Poor Law Reform.”

PENRITH .AND DISTRICT LITERARY AND
SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY:

4ru SESSION, 1884-85.

President ae aa th ... Rev. E. W. CHapman, M.A.

Vice-Presidents.

Rey. J. Tannanitt, M.A., (decsd.) | J. G. Goopcutip, F.G.S., F.Z.S.

Past-Presidents.

M. W. Taytor, M.D., F.S,A. Sect. | Masor W. B. ARNISON.
Secretary ne eats ... H. M‘Lean Witson, M.B., C.M.
Treasurer a Be at on Mr. J. B. SHAWYER.

Delegates.
Masor W. B. Arnison. | Mr. GEorGE WartsoN.
Committee.
W. B. ARNISON. | J. 'THOMPSON.
Rev. W. M. ScHNIBBEN. GEORGE WATSON.

Jonn Pavrinson. G. V. Sire.

Rey. J. H. Ousron. | Francis Kine.
Tuomas LESTER. I J. 8S. Yeates.

XXIV.

Hon. Curator of Museum ... a3 ie ... CHARLES SMITH.

Librarian... te ae Re Aa i. Js STUART

The following was the Programme for the Winter :—
1884,
Nov. 13.—ConvERSAZIONE AND EXHIBITION of various Objects of Interest.
PRESIDENT’S ADDRESs and Election of Office-bearers.
Nov. 20.—Rry. C. H. Gem.—‘‘ Tennyson.”
Nov. 27.—J. G. Goopcnitp, Esq.—‘‘ Penrith Dialect.” Part 1.
Dec. 11.—C. H. Hicerns, M.D.—‘‘ Hamlet.”
Dec. 16.—Grorcr Watson, Esq.—‘‘Cécely Neville, and the Feudal Lords
of Penrith.”
Dec. 30.—Pror. H. A. NicHotson.—‘‘Our Domestic Animals.”
1885.
Jan. 15.—J. N. Heruerineton, Esq.—‘‘ Novelists of the 18th Century.”
Jan. 22.—Readings from Novelists of the 18th Century.
Feb. 3!—M. W. Taytor, M.D.—‘‘A Tour in Canada.”
Feb. 10.—J. P. Sourrr, Esq.—‘‘ Botany.”
Feb. 24.— Do. do.
Feb. 28.—J. G. GoopcuiLp, Ese.—‘‘ Penrith Dialect.” Part 2.
Mar. 2.—J. G. Goopcutip, Esq.—‘‘ The Lion and its Kin.”

WINDERMERE LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC
SOCIETY.

3rD SESSION, 1884-85.

President Sea Bon acs oe Wee H. W. ScHNEIDER.

Vice-Presidents.

EK. P. Srocx. | Gro. HEALEY.

Secretaries.

W. C. Macpovuca.t. | F. Barton.

ee eS

XXV.

“Treasurer... ess ae ae ses JOHN HOLLAND.

Delegates.

Gro. HEALEY. | T. THOMPSON.
Committee.

J. W. ATKINSON. A. RAwson.

J. T. Bownass. J. ROBINSON.

J. R. Brrpson. W. Taytor.

R. Gece. | T. THOMPSON.

F. CLowss. W. V. YATES.

H. CRosseEy. GEORGE HEALEY.

T. Doxsson. W. E. Bonp.

R. Morean. JAMES BELL.

Eight Public Lectures and two Members’ Meetings have been held
during the Session, as follows :—

Dr. J. E. Taytor.—“‘ Dust.”

Mr. A. Krrcutn.—‘‘ Some of the Phenomena of Light.”

Memeers’ Mrerinc.—Debate, opened by Mr. B. A. Irvine, on “ Consti-
tutional Government.”

Mr. Martinpae.—‘‘ Lichens.”

Dr. W. CLARKE Rosinson.—‘‘ Northern Mythology.”

Members’ Mretinc.—Rey. L. R. Ayre.—‘‘ A Study of Coins.”

J. W. Batiantyne, M.B.—‘‘On Healthy Homes.”

Mr. B. A. Irvine.—‘‘ The Jordan Valley.”

Dr. CLowss.—‘‘ Fire—Friend and Foe.”

Mr. Bonp.—‘‘ Concert Lecture.”

XXVi.

Report of the Association Secretary

FoR THE YEAR 1884-5.

THE past year has, on the whole, been of a satisfactory character.
The number of affiliated Societies is ten, being the same as last
year ; but the number of Members on whom the capitation grant
has been paid is slightly in excess of the previous year, being 1268,
or an increase of 74. The number of Association Members is 22.

It is again a matter for regret to observe that the Zvransactions
of the Association do not as yet receive the recognition that the
generally high standard of their contents should ensure for them.
With a Membership of 1268, only 416 copies have been taken by
the affiliated Societies during the year, and in the case of four
Societies, the Zyansactions are either wholly or partially presented
to their Members. Considering the extremely low price of 1/- for
a publication of over 200 pp., it does indeed seem surprising that
such should be the case; and it will now be a question for the
Council to consider whether, under these circumstances, it will be
possible to expend so large a portion of the Association funds in
this publication, in face of an increasingly adverse balance.

No. of Members on Copies taken

- Society whom Grant is paid. of No. IX. Terms
Whitehaven... 302 Bat $0 Free to Associate Members
Keswick <r 49 Bas 40 To Members at 1/-

Maryport 80 88 Ae 60 Free to Gentlemen ; Ladies, 1/-
Longtown ad 47 abe 3 To Members at 1/-

Carlisle ee 52 ae 120 To Members Free

Ambleside Sp) LILO ae 25 To Members at 1/-

Silloth Bes 63 dae 20 To Members at 1/-

Brampton ste 76 bay 9 To Members at 1/-

Penrith sis) alos waft 50 To Family Ticket-holders, Free
Windermere... 116 Members at 1/-

Assoc. Members 22 At 1/-

9
22
Total 1290 438

XXVIL

Cumberland and Hestmorland Assoctation for the
Advancement of Literature and Science.

BALANCE SHEET FOR YEAR ENDING APRIL 30, 1885.

RECEIPTS. PAYMENTS.
Balance brought forward £38 6 6] Fee to Lecturer at Annual
Subscriptions in Arrears ... 0 10 O Meeting (Penrith) ize oO) 0
Transactions(No. VIII.)Sold 0 8 o | Expensesof Annual Meeting 3 12 6
* Authors’ Copies Sold ... 2 10 3 | Editor’s Postage Account... 0 15 0
Back Numbers Sold .. IO O| Printing 7rans. Part VIII. 48 2 ©
Capitation Grant (1884-5) Authors’ Copies... i SRE
on 1116 Members ... 25 16 3] Postage of Zransactions ... 0 6 6
Subs. of 18 Assoc. Members 4 10 oO | Circulars, Stationery, &c.... I 10 4
Transactions Sold, No. IX. Sundries... a Ae LOMeoRyO
To Socs. (284) £14 40 Balance in hand ... Be eS)
», Assoc. Mems. 0 18 o
3, Authors’Cops. 3 10 2
», Back Nos. o 18 6
19 10 8
Editor towards cost of his
paper on Minerals eee ee LOO
Bank Interest uae HEP Oe LG
£94 9 2 £949 2
Examined and found correct, 10th Fuly, 1885,
WM. NANSON. ae
HENRY BARNES, { 4###rs-
ASSETS. LIABILITIES.
Balance brought down £23 15 1 Messrs. Coward for Printing
Grant from Society eeee ork 20) Transactions No. 1X. £52 15 9
Subscriptions (1883-4) ... 0 12 0] Cost of Authors’ Copies ... 5 I II
: Do. (1884-5) ... 012 0| Postage of Transactions ... 010 8
Transactions, No. IX. Secretary’s Postage Account 0 17 0
To Societies (129 copies) 6 9 0} Circulars, Stationery, &c.... 1 14 5
Back Numbers _.... .. O10 O| Sundries... ee yt ery hana
Estimated Balance due to
Treasurer ay 5 20-10), 4!
£62 3 11 £62) 3°13

TRANSACTIONS, Parr IX.

Sold to Societies a8 a ae 416
Sold to Association Members... fs 22
Presented ce ae its von 19
Sold. 45. ae a ait Se 2
On hand (June 19, 1885) se A 291

Total 750 copies

XXVili.

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS OF SOCIETIES

RECEIVED BY THE ASSOCIATION IN EXCHANGE

FOR THE TRANSACTIONS.

United States Geological Survey Annual Reports for 1880-81,
and for 1881-82-

Transactions of Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union, 7 Parts (for 1882).
Transactions of Essex Field Club, 1883-84.
Transactions of Bristol Naturalists’ Society, 1882-83, & 1883-84.

Transactions of Burnley Literary and Scientific Club for 1883
and 1884.

Transactions of Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club, 1882-83-84.

Transactions of the Midland Union of Natural History Societies
for 1881-82-83-84, and part of 1885.

The Proceedings of the London Geological Society for 1882,
1883-84-85.

Transactions of the Birmingham Natural History and Micro-
scopical Society, 1883-84.

—

——.

ON LAKE-BASINS OF THE NEIGHBOURHOOD
OF WINDERMERE.

(The substance of a Lecture given before the Literary and Scientific Soctety
of Ambleside, Fanuary 9th, 1885, )

By W. G. COLLINGWOOD, M.A.

1. Problem of the Conditions of Basin-formation. After learning
all one can from accessible manuals and magazines, there still
remains a perplexity involving the origin of Lake-basins. It may
be that the authorities, to whom we owe unparalleled opportunities
for understanding the physical history of our country, are reserving
the explanation of these, as of other difficulties. But meanwhile,
one asks, ‘“‘Can any rule or reason be alleged, as fixing the
positions and proportions of Lake-basins? What gave such and
such a lake its site, and its size?”

Suppose we climbed the hills near Bowness, and as we looked
up and down Windermere were informed—“ Once there was a
time when all this ten-mile-long basin was not excavated. Before
the great Ice Age the land lay flat, or nearly so,—a plateau
swept bare by the breakers of the sea. Then came glaciers, sliding
down from the higher parts, shod with sharp stones ; grinding and
grooving the earth so powerfully and so persistently that they
hollowed out Windermere.” To which the learner might answer,—
«“ And was all the lower end of Windermere filled up to the brim
with rock, before the glacier came?” ‘No doubt.” “Then why
did not the glacier carve its channel down Winster-way, instead of
curving round to Newby Bridge? There was nothing to prevent
it, and it would have taken a straighter course too. And why is
yonder little tarn perched just where it is—so awkwardly on a
broken hillside? and why are these peat-mosses,—which of course

are real lake-basins, though small and choked with peat,—why are
1

2

they just in the places where they are?” The reply might be—
‘Glaciers excavate more rapidly in the softer material, and in lines
where the ground has been broken by faults.” ‘ But,” we should
urge, “here is no question of harder and softer ; and as to faults,
no fault marks out the course of Windermere. Can you tell what
planned and directed the excavation of these basins? For an
etcher would never say that it was aquafortis that made the
lines of his picture: left to itself, the acid would bite the whole
surface to uniform blackness ; as the glacier (if such are its powers)
would grind the whole surface to uniform smoothness, unless its
flow were directed and its force emphasized by some previous—
and, for our answer, more important—operation. What iron pen
drew in the rock the outlines for this mighty landscape of Nature’s
Liber Studiorum ?”

2. Minor Basins, anticlinal, The hills we spoke of, to
south of Bowness-on-Windermere, are of Bannisdale Slate, which
shews especially-visible—though monotonous—bedding. So
that we have no difficulty in ascertaining the structure of any
small area ; though the sameness of the strata, together with their
bewildering contortion and undulation, makes it difficult, if not
impossible, to map the structure of the whole formation. Examining
the tiny peat-basins and small tarns, we find that they are none of
them cut or carved out of simple continuous beds. Wherever
there is a basin, there is a break. Such breaks are not usually
faults. The structures in which they are found may be described
as eddies in stone, occurring at the intersection of crossing
waves; anticlinals rounding themselves into domes; synclinals
curling themselves into cups. The completeness of dome or of
cup seems to have been often marred by some want of continuity
of effort ; the synclinal cup has one side open, the anticlinal dome
is not often truly quaquaversal: and, beside that, the rock is
exceptionally shattered and denuded at these points.

To take one of many instances, the sketch (Fig. 1) shows how
clean the continuity of bend may be: for the beds, B B, run round
unbroken in this instance in a sharp curve of more than a quarter
of a circle: proving it impossible that this structure, so intimately

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connected with the creation of the basins described below (see Fig. 3),
could have been produced by glacial disturbance of great loose
blocks, or by any action except such as created that undulation and
contortion of bed which characterises this, or any other, mountain-
district. In this particular anticlinal dome no basin, worthy of the
name, exists; the scale, as shewn by the figure carrying sticks,
being extremely small ; which makes the instance more striking as
an example of the finesse of Nature’s rock-modelling. Magnify
this example some hundreds of diameters, and you increase the
little rock-pool among the furze into a fair-sized tarn. In our
neighbourhood I have not as yet seen many examples of the kind ;
and such as exist need no»farther illustration.

3. Minor Basins, synclinal. Simple synclinal structures in
which peat-mosses lie are common: and the position of the basin
is generally as shewn in
Fig. 2, which gives five small
basins and the rocks sur-
rounding them, and dia-
grammatically suggests their
converging dip. Rowan-tree
Hill, three miles south of
Bowness, on which they
stand, is built of steeply-
sloping slate-beds, for the
most part following the un-
dulations of parallel earth-
waves, running—as most of

A)

4

the evident earth-waves of the district do—roughly ENE.
and WSW. Across these a line of disturbance cuts, and at
this point throws the outcropping beds into a form resembling
a theatre, or a pile of cups one within another; in each
circle of which, broken and dislocated, lie the basins. Among
many such cases, an accessible and striking one occurs in the
Coniston Series (this of Rowan-tree Hill is in the Bannisdale Slate)
at the angle between the road from Ambleside to High Cross,
and that leading from it, near High Cross, to the Tarns.

4. Compound Basins. A great number are not very perfect
in this theatral configuration ; occurring just at the clash of cross-
waves in their most marked intensity. It is no exaggeration to

WS _ say that there are scores of such,
trom a dozen yards to some hundreds
of yards in diameter. A complicated
example of this kind is given in the
map (Fig. 3), which shews Great
Candlestick Moss with parts of two

ar. other basins, situated not far from
a] 5 :

60 0 the spot shewn in Fig. 2, and con-

taining the anticlinal dome sketched

-\ ad in Fig. 1, which is here marked by a

ewe zeyyards §=small circle. The arrows denote

Fis. 3. observed dips; the broken lines,

anticlinal axes, as well as I can make them out from the bedding
and from the other indications of structure, such as the strike of
ridges, which, in this country, generally indicate the strike of
earth-waves. It will be seen that the depression lies irregularly
at the intersection of a steep synclinal axis with other synclinal
axes. In Fig. 2, one semicircular synclinal produced several
basins : in Fig. 3 one basin is formed out of the union of several
synclinal pits.

In the Volcanic Series of Borrowdale we have less opportunity
for ascertaining structure on a small scale, owing to the massiveness

of the strata. But the
character of the moor-
lands of this formation
resembles that of the
Upper Silurians in the
hillocky nature of the
ground. Fig. 4 shews a
space of such _ hillocks
on Loughrigg Fell, with
the strike of the slaty
cleavage, which slightly

varies in each separate block; suggesting that it was by the
disruption of these, in some such earth-movement as bent the
more pliable Upper Silurian strata, that the ground between them
was prepared for the formation of basins.

5. Analogy of Structure in the Alps. By the study of these

earth-waves on a large scale in the Alps, especially in the Cretaceous
MONE Alps of Savoy, one A V A

Co ~s learns that as a rule

A eS their attendant cir-

S cumstancesaresuchas

Fig. 5. Figs. 5 and 6 exhibit. Fig. 6.

Fig. 5 shows the usual break along the crests of the anticlinals
AA, creating longitudinal valleys, called in Savoy ‘“‘combes.” The
alternating valleys, V, are called “‘vallons.” It may be argued
that, if the top of the wave bursts along and forms a combe, the
under side of it may tend to break along the bottom of a vallon
at S. And in fact the great faults of Savoy indicate that some
such weak lines do occur along the vallons—not that every
synclinal is broken throughout, as not every anticlinal bursts
along its whole length; but the tendency and general practice
is undoubtedly toward solution of continuity under those circum-
stances.

But neither Savoy nor any other real mountain-district is ridged
in simple horizontal waves—mere extensions of Fig. 5. There

6

is a cross-current, so to speak, which ruffles them, though not
violently, till they assume the structure of Fig. 6. Here, from C
to C, is formed a cross-valley ; and not only that, but invariably a
break in the rock, generally accompanied with vertical faulting and
lateral dislocation ; which in these Alps must be distinguished, at
least in results, from one another. The gorge created where the
anticlinal axes are cut by the cross synclinal axis is called a “cluse,”
the Cluse of Savoy being well known on the road from Geneva to
Chamonix. The point where the synclinal axes cut one another
is invariably the position of either a basin, or an alluvial flat which
must anciently have been a lake ; examples of this are the Lake of
Annecy, lying in a series of such basins ; and the flats of Sallenches
and Chambéry.

6. Structural relations of Windermere. Do these facts, taken
in conjunction with our observations on the small basins of our
moors, throw any light on the origin of Windermere? We know
that the mountains of the Lake District are created by a system of
undulations, greater than those on the surface of the Upper
Silurians, though less than those of the Alps; yet in structure and
origin, similar. Our district is ridged across on axes running ENE.
and WSW.; the great Volcanic formations and Skiddaw Slates are
bent into enormous arches, whose billowy swell bears on its back
the multitudinous ripples of the Upper Silurians. These great
billows, like the little surface-waves, are crossed by counter-currents,
creating broad transverse undulations. Through the district, from
North to South, runs the synclinal axis of this counter-undulation,
whose anticlinals thrust up the Skiddaw Slate to West and East of
us, at Black Combe and near Shap.

Fig. 7 is a diagrammatical view of the structure of the southern
part of the district, seen from the south. The formations are
lettered—S, Skiddaw Slate; V, Volcanic Series of Borrowdale ;
F, Coniston Flags and Grits; B, Bannisdale Slates; and DD
represent the dykes which traverse the strata and shew that our
seven-mile flooring is not flawless. The Topography :—M, Coniston
Old Man, beyond which the Valley of Wrynose and Little Lang-

|

dale may possibly represent the “‘combe” or longitudinal break of
the southern great Cumbrian anticlinal; answering to the Keswick
valley in the north. C is the great Coniston fault ; H, the Hawks-
head fault, throwing down in an opposite direction ; and T is the
Troutbeck fault. Windermere lies in the line WW;; a position
analogous to the line CC of Fig. 6—the “‘cluse” of the Alps. Its
structural relations are identical with those of the Lake of Annecy
on the one hand, and with those of Candlestick Moss (Fig. g) on
the other. Windermere lies in the hollow, or series of hollows,
conditioned primarily by the rupture of synclinal pits, where the
synclinal axes of crossing undulations cut one another.

7. Laws conditioning the Origin of Basins. This then, I would
suggest, may afford us a rule for the conditions of origin of Lake-
basins, in those cases where they are not coincident with faults.
In a great number of cases, and those ranging over great differences
of dimension, Lake-basins lie at the intersection of synclinal axes.

To this rule we might add two corollaries, First, that the size
of the Lake-basin is proportioned to the breadth of the waves.
Second, that the frequency of Lake-basins is proportioned to the
number of such intersections ; every intersection not necessarily
creating a basin, but affording the possibility of one; while every
so-called Lake-basin may consist of two or more “deeps,” or true

8

basins, combined. From this we see how some districts, in spite
of glaciation, do not exhibit lakes ; because their strata, unlike the
ancient formation of our Lake District, of Wales, Ireland, Scotland,
and the Alps, have not been crossed and recrossed by axes of
elevation.

But, after all that has been said, why does Windermere not run
in a straight line? Because the earth-waves are not straight. You
see that in a glance, for example, at the map of the Alps, whose
axes run northward from the Gulf of Genoa to the Lake of Geneva,
and then turn eastward; the Lake of Geneva itself starting from the
“‘cluse,” greatest of all such cluses, at the corner where the turn is
taken. In the same way, the broad transverse waves which cross
the narrower—but steeper—ENE. and WSW. ridges of the Lake
District appear to present a concavity to the West, parallel with
the main direction of the Pennine Fault, and marked by the
multitude of minor faults which break up the district in lines
running NNW. and SSW.

8. Basins in Faults, The Lake-basins of our neighbourhood,
which do not lie in anticlinal or synclinal breaks, coincide with
faults in the direction just described. The East-and-West faults
do not usually influence the modelling of the Lake District ; they
are parallel with the Pendle Anticlinal, and were created (according
to Mr. Clifton Ward’s “ Physical History of the English Lake
District,”) at the same epoch ; that is, before or during the Post-
Carboniferous elevation and denudation which raised this district
from the sea as a plateau whose general height was some few hundred
feet only above the present summits. It was ages after this, that, in
Post-Permian times, the Pennine axes were formed, with their corres-
ponding NNW. and SSW. faults, which shift the older faults, and
which are coincident with numerous valleys and more numerous
basins. On the Coniston Old Man nearly all the peat-mosses, as well
as most of the other physical features, seem to have been deter-
mined by these later faults. Their effect in breaking up a plateau
of denudation must have been, in the first place, enormous ;—the
downthrow of several exceeding halfa mile. In the second place,

9

those effects must have been more or less permanent ; because the
district was never again subjected to the marine denudation which
alone could wholly obliterate them: its only subsequent submergence
was partial,—at the glacial epoch ; and the glacial agencies them-
selves are commonly understood xather to have emphasized than
destroyed the pre-existing surface-sculpture. It was these Pennine
faults which shared with the undulation-fractures in the work of
sketching out the Lake-system of our Lake-land. The North-and-
South undulations themselves are connected with, and, as I read,
contemporaneous with the Pennine elevation. So that both
synclinal breaks, like Windermere ; anticlinal breaks, like some of
the minor basins ; and fault-basins, like Coniston-water, owe their
origin to the came causes and to the same epoch ; without which
our district would have been a mountain-land, but not the land of
Lakes.

9. Share of Glacial Action in the Creation of Basins. We
have seen how large a part was played by entirely pre-glacial
operations in the origin of Basins. What was the part played
by Glacial Action ?

In the closest scrutiny of the minor basins, I have failed to find
anything to shew that ice has been at work of erosion inside the
basin, however much it has smoothed the surrounding rocks. If
ice had any share in excavating these peat-basins, I venture to
suggest that it must have been by tearing out and carrying away
the already-broken blocks which filled them. The wonderfully
distinct traces of ice-action close to their brinks prove that, if
glacial erosion scooped out these basins, some tool-marks at least
should be left; but it is not so. Further, the shapes of these
small basins are wholly incompatible with the theory that they
have been produced by frictional erosion; and the fact of the
greater permanence of eroded rock-surfaces makes it all the more
curious that the edges of these peat-mosses are not glaciated, while
the upstanding rocks around them exhibit s¢z@ as fresh as if they
had been cut yesterday.

But granting that such internal fracture and fissuring as the

10

structure suggests, and as a synclinal burst demands, may be
gradually revealed by denudation; displayed, perhaps, with under-
ground drainage in the fashion of an hour-glass ; and you have the
possibilities of one of these tiny basins, with no violation of proba-
bilities, and in accordance with a rule which shews the localization
of Lake-basins no longer as a work of hazard, but as an exemplifi-
cation of a law of Nature. Then let the glaciers push and lift out
the loose blocks, as we know they can; and crush in what they
cannot push out, as we know they must,—and you have a form of
glacial action much more suited to the purpose of creating these
minor basins, than glacial erosion.

And if Candlestick Moss can have been so created, why not
Loughrigg Tarn? and if Loughrigg Tarn, why not Windermere?

11]

SOME OF THE OLD FAMILIES IN THE PARISH
OF CROSTHWAITE.

By J. FISHER CROSTHWAITE, F-S.A.
(Read at Keswick, March 16th, 1885.)

~ Havine given in two former papers the best account I could of
the Derwentwater family, and of the Radcliffes, the first of whom
Sir Nicholas Radcliffe, married Elizabeth, sole heiress of Sir John
de Derwentwater, in the reign of Henry V., A.D. 1417; and also
of another notable family of the name of Bankes, in which I gave
all the particulars I could gather of Sir John Bankes, whose Charity
still keeps his name in memory,—I shall in the present paper
confine my remarks to a few of the Notable Yeoman Families of
the ancient parish of Crosthwaite.

Since the extinction of the House of Derwentwater, the records
of that family, with the documents relating to the early history of
the ancient manor, are gone. I am therefore obliged to take up
such fragments of history as I have been able to collect from
various sources, and put them together as well as Icould. I have
had but little spare time of late, and must therefore bespeak your
indulgence for the hurried manner in which this effort has been
made.

There can be no doubt that the yeomen of Borrowdale and of
Castlerigg and Derwentwater are many of them occupying, and
some are still owning, the selfsame lands as their ancestors did
before the Norman Conquest. There are other notable families
besides those I am going to mention—such as the Leathes of

12

Dalehead Hall and Legburthwaite Manor, and the Brownriggs of
Ormathwaite—but I must confine myself to the following.

THE STANGERS.

One of the oldest yeoman families in the parish is that of the
name of Stanger. This is a German name; but it will be seen
that a family called Stanger was settled here long before the advent
of the German miners, who came in the reign of Queen Elizabeth.
We find this German name in London, where it is pronounced
Stanger, as it used to be pronounced here formerly.

It is reported that “Thomas Curwen, Knight, in the twenty-
eighth year of King Henry VI., ie. A.D. 1450, did ride and go
all his bounden about the manor or lordship of Thornthwaite in
the fells, taking then with him John Stanger, at that time feoffer of
Darwent Fells, and divers others both old and young men.

“The original grant is dated 1255, remaining with Edward
Ratclyffe, Baronet, now Lord of the said manor.”

In 1616, John Stanger of Ullock is mentioned in one of the
“Three Solemn Decrees” respecting their “most venerable old
Church, and their very aged and much esteemed Grammar School.”
He is there set down as having in his hands “twelve pounds,
fifty-one shillings, sixpence of the said school stock.” It was the
custom then for the eighteen sworn men to retain in their hands
sums of money belonging to the school, and to pay interest for it,
until a sufficient sum accumulated to enable them to purchase land
for the further endowment of the school. The family left Ullock,
and Edward, the eldest son, remained at Powter Howe; Daniel,
at Braithwaite ; James, at Wood End, Thornthwaite ; and a sister,
Hannah, married a Mr. Lowther. Thomas, the fourth of the
family, married Elizabeth Blethwaite in November, 1673, at
Cockermouth, where he settled. He was ordained deacon of the
Presbyterian Church established there in 1651. He became
deacon in 1695, and ruling elder in 1700. He was distinguished
as one of the early active members of the church, and when this
church suffered persecution in the reign of Charles II., many of its
meetings were held in his house.

ES TO a a Se LD Pe NS iia

13

This Thomas Stanger was great-grandfather of James Stanger,
who was born in the year 1743 at Cockermouth, where the family
then resided. He went to London in 1763, where he soon entered
the house of Mr. Francis Moore in Cheapside, a most liberal and
worthy man, distinguished by several ingenious mechanical inven-

_ tions.

He married a distant relation of the same name, Miss Hannah
Stanger, sister of Dr. Stanger of London. This was on the roth
October, 1791.

In 1771 he was admitted into partnership with Mr. Francis
Moore, in connexion with Mr. Topham and Mr. James, and he
was subsequently for many years the senior partner in that
respectable firm. He retired from business in 1823, when his
younger son was admitted a partner, as his elder brother had
been seven years before.

In 1810 Mr. Stanger purchased the Lairthwaite estate (then
cailed Dove Cote), and built a mansion, where he generally
enjoyed the society of his relations and friends during three or
four months in the year.

A record of the period says of him as follows :—“ Died April
4th, 1829, James Stanger, Esq., in the eighty-sixth year of his age.
Of this estimable man it may be truly said, that as few live to so
advanced a period of life as he did, so there are few who have
exhibited more unblemished integrity in business and social inter-
course, or more consistency of character. His descendants and
connexions, near and remote, will long cherish his memory, both
on account of the example which he set them of steady, well-
regulated, and rightly-principled exertions in his sphere of life, and
on account of the uniform kindness which he displayed.

“The reward of diligence in business was opulence; yet not
that opulence which blazes out like a meteor, and is sudden,
deceitful, and oftentimes really injurious, but a gradual advance in
the career of prosperity, honourable to the commercial character,
and advantageous to the community, by the opportunity which it
afforded him during many years of his later life, of devoting a
considerable portion of his time to general usefulness, and likely,

14

it is hoped, to be permanently beneficial to those whose interests
it promoted along with his own.

“Modest and unassuming, sincere and uniform, he lost no
friends except by death; and it was his happiness to gain many
friends as life proceeded. He wasa firm Dissenter from principle,
but without the least bigotry, and a warm friend of general liberty,
without any of the asperity of a party man. A kind Providence
blessed him with a very considerable portion of strength and
vigour, even beyond the period of four-score ; and just when life,
owing to increasing infirmities, was beginning to be nothing but
labour and sorrow, God called him by an easy transition to the
reward of the good and faithful servant.”

There are many still living who remember him, as I do, coming
to Lairthwaite every summer. His venerable appearance in his
carriage, driven by old Tom Bowe, his venerablelooking coach
man, was striking. He always attended divine service in the
parish church, where he had a pew. He gave off land from Dove
Cote field to widen the church lane, which is now the side-road
for foot passengers.

On his decease his eldest son, Mr. James Stanger, came into
possession of the property, which he enlarged by building a wing,
in which he had an excellent organ built by Hill of London.

The memory of this good man is still fresh in the minds ot
many. He was a devoted laymen and a staunch adherent of the
Reformed Church of England. As superintendent of the Cros-
thwaite Sunday school, he built the present school at High Hill
expressly for that purpose, as will be seen by the inscription on
the porch, ‘‘ Crosthwaite Sunday School, 1833,” the school having
been previously carried on for a short time in the church, and
afterwards in the National school close by, formerly the Quakers’
meeting house.

Of his labours as a layman I must not now speak, for they
would take a paper of considerable length to give even a sketch of
them. His Sunday evening services and lectures in the school
room, conducted there for sixteen years, were much appreciated,
and fully attended, not only by the parishioners, but by many of

15

the tourists during the season. His restoration of the parish
church, at a cost of over £4,000, is a lasting monument to his
memory. His advocacy of the Church Missionary Society, the
Bible Society, and the Society for Propagating Christianity
amongst the Jews was effective, and he frequently accompanied
the deputation to other towns to assist in the work. He was a
supporter of many other similar societies, but he founded branches
of those I have named in Keswick, which still flourish. His
memory is cherished in the hearts of all who were so happy as to
come within his influence ; and the result of his life-long labours
in the cause of religion and education will remain for generations
to come.

The name of TicKELL is also among the earliest of the dalesmen,
and although of German origin, the family was settled in Cumber-
land before the colony of German miners.

Of this family was Hugh Tickell, a Quaker, who was distinguished
for his zeal as a preacher, and for the sufferings he underwent for
his religious convictions. The following notice of him is extracted
from a tract published by Dorothy Tickell, his widow.

“Hugh Tickell was ‘convinced’ in 1653, when George Fox
first came into Cumberland, and he gave up his house for meet-
ings. And in time the Lord blessed him in both ‘spirituals and
temporals,’ and he became a minister of the Society, and in that
capacity he travelled in Scotland, the west of England, and other
places. He suffered much for his ‘testimony,’ both in the spoiling
of his goods and imprisonment of his body for tithes; as in the
year 1664, he and four friends more were cast into Carlisle gaol by
Henry Marshall, priest of Crosthwaite: though he kept him in
prison about three years, yet he took tithe of his land. But after-
wards this/priest Marshall fell down a pair of stairs, and broke his
skull, upon which he died. He was afterwards imprisoned in the
same gaol in his old age (being about sixty-eight years old) by
Richard Lowry, another priest of the said Crosthwaite, because he
would not pay him tithes; who kept him in prison about nine
months, part of it in cold winter, and in a cold nasty place, not fit
for honest men to lie in, till Providence ordered his enlargement.

16

And this priest Lowry was suddenly stricken, and had all the use
of one side of his tongue, and his understanding much taken from
him, and so he continued a long time. The said Hugh Tickell
patiently bore all his sufferings, and willingly endured these for
the testimony of Jesus and for a good conscience. But in his last
imprisonment he contracted a distemper of body which, increasing
upon him after he came home, he grew weak, but continued in
great patience, ‘set his house in order,’ and died.”

The registers of the Society of Friends contain no account of
his death. In Besse’s ‘“Sufferings of the People called Quakers,”
quoted by Mr. R. S. Ferguson, F.S.A., in his appendix to his
notice of “ Early Cumberland and Westmorland Friends,” he gives
the date of Hugh Tickell’s second imprisonment 1682, and the
printed account of him, Thomas Laythes, and others, was pub-
lished, according to Smith’s Catalogue, in 1690, so “iat must be
the latest date we can assign as that of his decease. The account
says that he was buried at Portinscale, but the old meeting-house
graveyard at High Hill would be the place of his interment, being
the nearest burial place for that body, to Portinscale.

On the 27th February, 1685, the properties called the ‘Quakers’
Charities,” in this parish, were in part conveyed by Hugh Tickell
to trustees, two-thirds of the property to go the County Charity,
and one-third to the parish of Crosthwaite. And on the same day
he devised by will certain fields to the same trustees, with reserva-
tion in each case for his own life and the life of his wife Dorothy.
A complete division, with a partial exchange, of the two properties
was made in 1769.

The property held for the county includes the farm at Millbeck
long tenanted by Mr. Stamper’s family, and School House Orchard
at High Hill, upon a portion of which the Crosthwaite Sunday
School is built. The old meeting house at High Hill, now con-
verted into two cottages, with the burial ground close by, still belongs
to the Quakers’ Charity. The portion of the charity given to the
parish of Crosthwaite is distributed at Easter by Mr. Charles
Christopherson, Mr. Joseph Wren, Mr. Joseph Hall, and Mr.
William Mayson.

17

_In the parish register, December 26th, 1702, is the following
entry of burial, ‘‘ Dorothy Tickell, of Portenskell, Widow, Quaker,
was buried in Wooline, according to Act of Parliament.”

The WRENS OF CASTLERIGG were an ancient and opulent
yeoman family. There was a Mr. Justice Wren, who was a magis-
trate, and who is mentioned in the Crosthwaite Parish Registers
as having celebrated marriages during the Commonwealth. There
was also a Gawen Wren, who was contemporary with Francis, first
Earl of Derwentwater. He took a lease of the Town Cass, which
led to a lawsuit in the time of his widow, when John Fisher of
Naddle and twenty-eight other tenants combined to claim the
property as common to the tenants of the manor, to cut grass
for their cattle when they came to market, and also to cut withes
to bind the thatch upon their houses. The tenants prevailed in
their contention, after eight or nine years’ litigation. It was said
at the time that the land was only worth twenty pounds—and the
tenants had one hundred pounds to pay in costs, although they
won the suit.

The enfranchisement of the manor of Castlerigg is dated the
18th August, 1623, and although Nicholson and Burn say, Vol. ii.,
p. 80, that Gawen Wren’s was the principal tenancy enfranchised,
I find on reference to the deed, that John Bankes, son of William
Bankes of Castlerigg, and John Bankes of Eskembeck, paid more
money for their lands than he did. But the family acquired other
estates subsequently, until it is recorded in the court rolls of the
manor that they held thirteen lands and tenements in Castlerigg
and Derwentwater.

On the 23rd of January, 1721, Grace Wren of Castlerigg,
spinster, made her will, and among other bequests she left the
following :—“ First, I give and bequeath unto my brother Gawen
Wren, and my cousin John Wilson of Ashness, the sum of forty
pounds in trust for the use of the poor children born within the
parish of Crosthwaite aforesaid, that is to say, that my trustees
shall lay out the said sum of money, or purchase a piece of freehold
land with the same, and with the interest and profits of the said

money or land my said trustees shall yearly lay out in buying
2

18

school books and bibles with the same, the said books so bought
to be distributed by my said trustees yearly about the time of
Easter to and amongst such poor children born in the said parish
of Crosthwaite, who if mindful and willing to learn English, and
whose parents are not of ability to buy them books ; zm hopes that
this small sift of mine may encourage some children to learn to read
and thereby they the better understand their duty both to God and
man.”

The will was never proved, but the document bears the endorse-
ment by her father, “ My Daughter Grace’ Will.”

It was, however, immediately acted upon, for on February 24th,
1722, the first record states as follows :—‘‘ Mrs. Grace Wren
first charity books was given at Crosthwaite Church by Gawen
Wren, junr., and John Wilson of Ashness, who were desired by
the Doner to se them Distributed every yr. As long as they Live,
and after their time to their heirs for the good of the poor of the
parish of Crosthwaite, for Ever. The Forty pounds is now in Mr.
Wren’s hand, and is to be laid out on Land, as soon as a purchase
can be met with. The interest of it is to buy Bibles yearly.”

Eleven Bibles and five Testaments were given, and the names
of the recipients follow ; amongst the number is “Gyles Senogle
of Crosthwaite, son a Testament.” May 24th, 1728, the trustees
bought of Thomas Birkhead of Stonethwaite, for thirty pounds,
land called Scale Close, Dalts, and Scale Brow, lying between
Seatoller and Longthwaite ; and February tst, 1741, the trustees
bought of Barbara and Ann Wren all that Meal Tithe rent of
seven shillings and ninepence due and paid on the 25th of April
out of a messuage called Birkhow-sykes, then in the possession of
the Rev. Isaac Robley, clerk, minister of St. John’s.

The Charity has now an income as follows :—

From Consols_ - - ‘ - - ~ £6 3.8
From Land in Borrowdale - - - “0 Ze. 6
Meal Tithe paid by St. John’sin the Vale Vicar 0 7 7

Atay tings

—

19

Ten grants in money are made to different schools for the purchase
of Bibles, Testaments, and School Books.

Frances, daughter of the last-named Gawen Wren married Mr.
John Langton. He was succeeded by his son, Gawen Wren
Langton, who died in 1790, and he was succeeded by his son,
Thomas Langton, who sold the capital mansion and estate
adjoining to the late Mr. Thomas Birkett of Portinscale, from
whom it passed to a nephew, whose daughter (Mrs. Barnes of
Carlisle) now owns it.

The Brighouse, Howgate, and other tenements, were sold by
Mr. Thomas Langton to the late Mr. Joseph Tickell, formerly of
St. John’s Vale.

Excepting Miss Grace Wren’s admirable charity, and a mural
tablet on the north wall of the parish church, there is now no
visible memorial of the former consequence of this influential
family in the parish. On the tablet is inscribed :—

Erected in Memory of Mr. GAWEN WREN,
of Castlerigg,
who departed. this life
28th day of April, 1738,
aged 86.
Who was a lover of his parish,
a kind friend, and
a tender father. -
The late Mr. Abraham Wren once informed me that the old family
of the Wrens of Little Town in Newlands, was descended from a
junior branch of the Wrens of Castlerigg.

GOVERNOR STEPHENSON, a na.ive of Keswick, was buried in
the parish church. In the pavement before the communion rails
is a large gravestone which bears the name of Edward Stephenson,
formerly Governor of Bengal, of whom a summary account may be
given.

In a manuscript in the British Museum, written by one of the
family, it is stated that he was descended from Rowland Stephenson
of Swinefleet, in Yorkshire, who at the time of the Spanish Armada
led eighty men into the field for the defence of his native land,

20

and that his father, Edward Stephenson, settled at Keswick in the
seventeenth'century. Governor Stephenson was born in the year
1688, and dying intestate in 1765, aged seventy-seven, his only
brother John, succeeded to his estates, which in default of issue of
his only son Edward, John devised to Rowland Stephenson, a
distant collateral relative, who subsequently sat in Parliament as
Member for Carlisle, and in 1782 became sized of them on the
death without children of the last-named Edward. Upon Row-
land’s decease in 1807, his only son, likewise named Edward,
inherited ; and on his decease, the estates devolved upon R. E, W. P.
Standish, Esq., of Farley Hill, Berkshire.

Having entered upon a commercial life, the subject of this notice
embarked for Calcutta in the year 1707, then nineteen years of
age, in the service of the United Company of Merchants trading
to the East Indies, where he rose to eminence as a factor or
merchant in the English factory, and in that vocation gathered
the nabob’s fortune, with which, after many years, he acquired
many valuable estates in the north of England.

In 1715, Mr. Stephenson, with two others of the ablest factors,
was deputed by his brother traders to proceed to Delhi, with a
memorial which humbly stated their claims upon the Mogul
Government for protection, enumerated the hardships under which
they laboured, and prayed not only for relief, but for the enlarge-
ment of their juridicial authority within the precincts of Calcutta,
as well as for the grant and assurance of ample privileges in the
rich traffic in which they dealt. Innumerable obstacles retarded
the progress of the mission ; but at length, after the lapse of nearly
two years, its objects were fully attained, but not, indeed, through
the art of diplomacy, but out of the Mogul Emperor’s gratitude to
a medical gentleman of the name of Hamilton, who accompanied
the party, and who had the good fortune to cure that potentate of
a disease which had baffled the skill of his own Indian physicians.
On being commanded by his imperial patient to name his reward,
the generous doctor, with the virtue of a public-spirited man, who
preferred the Company’s interest to his own, solicited as his only
recompense the advantages sought for by them, A firman was

21

thereupon issued in 1717, which, inclusive of other immunities,
not only confirmed all former grants to the Company, but allowed
them liberty to trade free of customs, to construct new fortifications,
to coin money (in the same manner as they had been permitted
in 1691 to purchase Calcutta). thirty-seven villages, so as to
give them a district extending ten miles from that factory
on each side of the river Hooghly; and with that decreee,
the beneficial effects of which have been experienced by the
English to this day, the mission tcok leave of the Emperor,
and returned to Calcutta. On the death of Henry Hankland on
the 28th August, 1728, Mr. Stephenson, as the oldest member in
Council, was by his colleagues chosen fresident, an appellation first
given to the chief executive officer of the factory in 1700, that of
agent only having been previously used, and the title of Governor
not having been conferred until 1758, when the celebrated Colonel
Robert Clive, afterwards elevated to the peerage as Lord Clive,
was appointed first Governor of Bengal; for so humble were the
views of the Company in Mr. Stephenson’s days, and so little
resemblance did its chief servant bear to a Governor General in
later times, that the outlay of a little more than one hundred pounds
in the purchase of a chaise and pair of horses for the President of
Calcutta, was refused as a reprehensible piece of extravagance,
and the amount ordered (7th January, 1725,) to be repaid, the
Court of Directors observing that, if their servants would have
such superfluities, they must pay for them themselves. The
presidency of the factory at Calcutta was accordingly held by
Mr. Stephenson until the arrival from England, on the 18th Sep-
tember, 1728, of John Dean with the Company’s commission as
president.

Upon his return to England, Mr. Stephenson took up his abode
at Keswick, having built the large house near the entrance to the
town on the Ambleside road, called Governor’s House, which
though now stripped of much of its former respectability, was then
the only mansion of any consequence in his native place. There
he lived for many years, during which he bought not only
Holme Cultram Manor and Abbey, with Brecon Hill Tower, and

22

lands about Derwentwater, but in 1741 also became the owner of
the Manor and Castle of Scaleby, by purchase from Richard
Gilpin, Esq., recorder of Carlisle. The Royal Oak Hotel was
built by the Stephensons upon the site of the former inn, which
was the house from which the Governor went out to India. In
the churchwardens’ books there is an entry showing that Mr.
Stephenson supplied the wine for the sacrament at the parish
church. Mrs. I’Anson sent out one of her sons to India from the
Royal Oak, when she was landlady, in the hope that he would
return with a nabob’s fortune, as Governor Stephenson had done.

The celebrated Richard Watson, Bishop of Landaff, in his
autobiography, which was published by his son, the Rev. Richard
Watson, LL.B., in 1814, has near the commencement the following
characteristic remarks :—‘‘ All families being of equal antiquity,
and time and chance so happening to all, that kings become
beggars, and beggars become kings ; no solid reason, I think, can
be given why any man should derive honour or infamy from the
station which his ancestors filled in civil society ; yet the contrary
opinion is so prevalent, that no words need be employed in proving
that it is so. German and Welsh pedigrees are subjects of ridicule
to most Englishmen; yet those amongst ourselves who cannot
inscribe on the trunk of their genealogical tree the name of a peer,
bishop, judge general, or any person elevated above the rank of
ordinary citizens, are still desirous of showing that they are not
sprung from the dregs of the people. Without entering into a
disquisition concerning the rise of this general prejudice, I freely
own that I am, on this occasion, a slave to it myself. I feel a
. Satisfaction in knowing that my ancestors, as far as I can trace
them, have neither been Aewers of wood, nor drawers of water, but
ut prisca gens mortalium—tillers of their oz ground, in the idiom
of the country, statesmen.”

It is with some such feeling that I approach the account I am
now going to give of the family of CRostHwaITE. I am indebted
to that indefatigable antiquary, Mr. William Jackson, F.S.A., of
St. Bees, for the earliest written record I have of the family of
Crosthwaite. He found amongst the Curwen papers a grant made

23

by Walter Fitz Roger of Threlkeld, to Sir Adam de Crosthwaite,
which he got photographed, and of which he gave me a copy. It
is written in contracted Latin. I sent it to a gentlemen in London,
a barrister, who undertakes the translation of such documents. He
gives it first in brief, then in full Latin, and then in English. The
date is the fourth year of the reign of Edward III. [1330 or 1331.]
“To all sons of Holy Mother Church who shall peruse this present
writing or hear it read. Walter Fitz Roger of Threlkeld (sends)
Greeting. Know ye that I have Given and Granted, and by this my
present Charter have Quitclaimed and Confirmed, to Sir Adam de
Crosthwaite, All that land of Mosshouse in Setmabanwick which
formerly belonged to my father Roger, And All the right that I
have or might have in the same To Have and To Hold to himself
and his heirs or to his assigns, In Fee and heirship, freely, quietly,
integrally (and) peacefully, in wood in plain, in meadows and
pastures, in moors and marshes, in ways and waters, and in all
liberties and easements and free common rights to the said land
of Mosshouse in Setmabanwick within or without appertaining,
So, that is to say, that neither I nor my heirs can in future assert
any right or claim to the said land at any time, And that this grant
and enfeoffment shall faithfully and without fraud or deceit be
observed and kept, I have sworn with the Holy Evangelists in
my hands. In testimony whereof I have to this present writing
affixed my seal in the presence of these witnesses.

“Sir Thomas de Lowther, Sir Thomas de Brougham, Peter
Dauncer, Nicholas the Frenchman, William Blount and
Robert his brother, William de Crosthwaite, and others.

“ Given at Crosthwaite in the Fourth Year of the Reign of King
Edward the Third.” [A.D. 1330 or 1331. ]

At the commencement of the Crosthwaite parish register there
are baptisms, April 4th, 1618, of Anne, daughter of Robert Cros-
thwaite of Fornside and Jane his wife.

2nd Feb., 1622. Isabell Crosthwaite, daughter of Christopher
Crosthwaite of Smathwaite and Eleanor his wife.

Oct. 26th, 1625. Robert, sonne of John Crosthwaite of Stork-

24

house and Margaret his wife. (He was afterwards of Wanthwaite,
and is once called in the register “ John de Wanthwaite.”)

April 4th, 1627. Frances Crosthwaite, daughter of Percival*
of Setmabanning and Elleanor his wife.

At this time Percival Crosthwaite seems to have been the
eldest of the elder branch of the family, and resided on the
principal estate, Setmabanning. His marriage is recorded thus:—
“June 11th, 1626. Of Percival Crosthwaite of Setmabanning and
Elinor Grave of Burns.”

The younger branches of the family each left descendants, who
subsequently lived at Hollin Root, Beck Wythope, Birket-myre,
Brundholme, Castlerigg, Dalehead, Monk-Hall, and Keswick as
farmers, while the elder branches remained at Setmabanning, and
Wanthwaite, in the Vale of St. John’s, and at Storkhouse, which
has now gone to ruin. We have the following entries in the parish
register :—

1692, January 1st. John Chrosthwaite of Wanthwaite, buried
in church.

(In 1705 John Crosthwaite was residing at Setmabanning, and
in 1716 the resident there was Thomas Crosthwaite. )

‘The following burial is recorded :—

1729. December 26th. Jane Crosthwaite of Setmabannin
widow (Quaker).

The family ultimately were settled at \Vanthwaite.

* The following extracts of births from the parish register shows that the
Crosthwaites of Monk-Hall and Keswick are descended from a younger son of
Percival Crosthwaite of Setmabanning :—

BAPTISMS,

Feb. Ist, 1634. Christopher Crosthwaite, son of Percival of Setmabanning
and Ellinor his wife.

Oct. 13th, 1667 Christopher Chrosthwaite, son of Christopher Chrosthwaite
of Pietnest and Jane his wife.

Aug. 14th, 1702. Robert Chrosthwaite, son of Christopher Chrosthwaite of
Burns and Ruth his wife.

Sept. 22nd, 1735. Peter,+ (second) son of Robert Crosthwaite of Dalehead
and Mary his wife. (Afterwards of Monk- Hall.)

t+ Peter Crosthwaite founded a Museum, in Keswick, in the year 1780, and it remained in
the family till 1870, when it was disposed of.

Te ST Te ey Vee peor we = ~

25

1749. March roth. We have the burial of Timothy, son of
Peter Crosthwaite of Wanthwaite.

But the family sent off sons who settled in other places. Mr.
William Jackson, F.S.A., found in the register of St. Nicholas
church, at Whitehaven, as follows :—

1700. May 12th. Peter Crostwheat, ye son of Tho. Crosthwt

of the Parish of Crostat.
Buriall.

Duty to ye King, 4s.

At that time there was a duty on births, deaths, and marriages.
“Tt was an expensive thing to die,” Mr. Jackson observes, ‘‘ mar-
riages and births were encouraged by a lower rate of duty.” I find
on reference to our register of births that this was a young man
from Setmabanning.

One member of the elder branch of the family went from Setma-
banning or Wanthwaite, and settled in Ireland, a long time ago.
I am unable to fix the date. Mr. Richard Hone, Suffolk-street,
Dublin, says:—‘“‘The family are probably descended from a
Thomas Crosthwaite, described in an ordinance made in the year
1654, for ‘settling one hundred pounds per annum in Ireland upon
Richard Uriel and Thomas Crosthwait, of Cockermouth castle, in
the county of Cumberland, in satisfaction of their losses and faithful
services.’” This ordinance was confirmed by the Act and Declar-
ation (made by Cromwell’s Parliament) touching several acts and
ordinances made since the 2oth April, 1653, and before the 3rd of
September, 1654, and subsequently by an Act of the Irish Parlia-
ment, fourteenth and fifteenth Charles II., chapter 2, section 20,
(1662,) a grant of land, yielding one hundred pounds a year, was
directed to be made in favour of Thomas Crosthwait.

It would no doubt be interesting to know what the faithful
services and losses were that Royalists and Cromwellians alike
considered should be recompensed.

Three brothers of this family became clergymen of the Estab-
lished Church. The eldest was the Rev. John Clarke Cros-
thwaite, A.M., who began his ministry as Dean’s vicar of Christ
Church Cathedral, Dublin, and examining chaplain to the Bishop

2”)

26

of Kildare. He afterwards became rector of St. Mary-at-Hill,
London, and Barnard Hyde’s lecturer. He was the author of
several works, among which are ‘‘ Twelve Lectures on the History
of Esther, an illustration of Providence, to which is added Six
Discourses on the doctrine of a particular Providence.” 1858.
Also, “‘ Eight Lectures on the Book of Daniel, and Four Discourses
on the doctrine of Mutual Recognition in a Future State.” Two
volumes on Modern Hagiology, and other works. The youngest
of the three brothers, the Rev. Benjamin Crosthwaite, was formerly
at St. Andrew’s, Leeds. He is canon of Ripon, and is now vicar
of Knaresborough. Although above fourscore, he is still active,
and I heard him preach an excellent sermon in his own church
last summer. He revisited the home of his ancestors and sojourned
at Gale Cottage on two occasions, and he preached some years
ago at morning service for the Crosthwaite organ fund, and his
son, the Rev. Robert Jarrat Crosthwaite, preached in the evening.
The latter has recently been appointed a prebend of York, and to
a living in that city. The other brother died of fever in Ireland,
during the Irish famine.

I will not follow out the junior branches of the family, which
would lengthen out this paper beyond the proper limit; and
having given a separate notice to this Society of Peter Crosthwaite,
founder of a museum in Keswick, which appeared in your Zvrans-
actions for 1877-78, this may be a sufficient reason for leaving out
any fresh matter which I have since acquired. But, I cannot
forbear mentioning that the last representative of the eldest branch
died in India. He left his home at Wanthwaite without giving
any intimation to his family, and took service in the Royal Marines.
He wrote to his mother from Fort George, India, apologizing
for the trouble he had occasioned her by his departure, and saying
that he would now adhere to his determination to try his fortunes
abroad. He requested his brother-in-law, Mr. Sanderson, to see
Sir Henry Fletcher or Mr. Crackenthorpe, to procure him a cadet-
ship in the H. E. India Service. Failing that, he said, he must
pass away “unknown, unwept, unsung.” He died abroad, and
left his property by will to Mr. John Sanderson, in trust. It con-

27

sisted of Stockhouse (or more properly, Storkhouse), Wanthwaite,
Walk Mill, Crook, and Little Ings. It passed to Mr. Daniel San-
derson, and after him to his younger brother, John Sanderson, who
afterwards sold it to the late Mr. Abraham Fisher, whose executors
sold Wanthwaite to Mr. Henry White of London, whose fore-elders
sprang from the same valley of St. John’s.

This is one instance showing how far back most of the yeomen
families might be able to trace the possession of their holding, if
they only had a friend like Mr. William Jackson, F.S.A., to go
into the records held by lords of manors like those of the ancient
family of Curwen.

The name of FISHER is of great antiquity.

In the ministers’ accounts, 33 Henry VIII. (1542) for the
Furness monastery, we have the names of all the holders and of the
payments made by the freeholders of Borrowdale for the dues
payable to the church, which at that time were paid to Henry VIII.
and continued to be so paid till in 1615, when the dalesmen paid
for the enfranchisement of their estates the sum of twenty-five
pounds, two shillings.

I see that in a paper which I read before this Society on “Old
Borrowdale,” 2nd June, 1875, I gave the names and amounts paid
by each tenant (in 1542) to John Fyssher and Launcelot his son,
who were ‘“ Bailiffs of the Lord the King there for the time afore-
said.” There were eight Fyshers, six Burkheads, three Brathwaytes,
three Udales, one Lambert, one Hynde, two Harveys, Hugh Rich-
ardson, and John Jobson.

In the great deed of Borrowdale executed 1613, (seventy-one
years later,) we still have the same names, with the addition of
Lamplugh, Hudson, Banks, Howe, and Sir Wilfrid Lawson of
Isel, as amongst those who bought their property free.

The fortunes of the dalesmen have been increased from time to
time by second and younger sons going out and succeeding in
business in the metropolis. In the year 1788, Isaac Fisher, son
of Mr. Joseph Fisher of Seatoller, was apprenticed to a silversmith
in London, and the witness to his indentures was William Birkett,
a banker’s clerk, who went from Borrowdale ; who was the person

28

who first suggested the clearing-house system for private bankers,
which is now also in use by all joint stock banks, and by the
railway clearing house,—for which he received a retiring pension
from the London private bankers.

Mr. Isaac Fisher died at the early age of forty-five, in the year
1819. He was an instance of great ability and energy in business
transactions, and would no doubt, like his friend Sir Richard
Birnie, have risen to eminence in London, if his life had been
prolonged. He amassed a considerable fortune, which he left to
his brother, Mr. John Fisher of Seatoller, and an adequate compe- °
tency to his sister, Mrs. Gibson of Powter Howe, and others of his
relations. The former bought many valuable estates in Borrow-
dale, and others in this neighbourhood, leaving his youngest
surviving son, Mr. Abraham Fisher, a large landed proprietor.
Perhaps I may be allowed to quote the last paragraph in my paper
on “Old Borrowdale” respecting this worth dalesman.

“ As a representative man, the Borrowdale statesmen never had
a worthier than Mr. Abraham Fisher, J.P., of Seatoller. Living
among his own people, thoroughly understanding and appreciating
his neighbours, he exercised an influence social, moral, and
religious, which was felt during his life, and will be remembered
for many years to come. He was the last of the Fishers of
Seatoller, and no nobler man could be found to be the last
representative of his family and name in Borrowdale.”

The following lines upon Mr. Abraham Fisher were written by
the Rev. James Dixon, a native of Borrowdale :—

Weep, ye ’mong whom he dwelt, for he is gone—
The man of kindly speech and tender heart ;
Whose wealth sat lightly on him—never seemed
A barrier set between yourselves and him.

But he has left it all, and left besides

What is a thousandfold more precious

Than all the wealth and honour of this world—

A bright example : for he had that faith

Which lifts the heart above all earthly things,

To crowns that fade not, goodly mansions built
Within eternal walls, where never come

Nor death, nor tears ;—that heaven-born faith which makes
The poorest man far richer than a king,

And gives him comfort in the darkest hour.

OUR SUMMER VISITORS.
By T. DUCKWORTH.
(Read at Carlisle. )

THE GRASSHOPPER WARBLER.

THE first visitor I am going to speak about is one of the shyest,
and perhaps the least-seen, of any that we have in this country.
Have you ever heard on a fine summer evening, a peculiar trilling
sound, like that of a cricket? If you have, it is the song of the
Grasshopper Warbler (Salicaria locustella ), a bird which is known
in France, Italy, Holland, Germany, Switzerland, as well as in
Denmark and Sweden. This bird arrives here about the 29th of
April. It is fairly plentiful in some parts, but is very local in its
distribution. I believe it is unknown in the southern part of this
county. I have heard it near Stainton, Kingmoor, Newbiggin,
Brisco, Wreay, Cumwhinton, Todhills, Wragmire, Orton, Newby
Cross, and in different parts on the banks of the Petterill, the
Caldew, and the Eden. In some years it appears to be more
‘numerous than in others. By referring to my note book, I find
that in the years 1880 and 1881, they were very numerous in their
favourite localities. They prefer the dry furzy commons, the out-
skirts of woods, and open parts in the same; but I have heard
them also in rough occupation-lonnings. The best time to see
this bird is on its first arrival, as the males are the first to come,
and they then select the topmost twigs of the heather, furze, etc.,
to utter their cricket-like cry, which is their only song of love. My
brother in May, 1879, saw and heard six males, all trilling within

30

a radius of two hundred yards, on Newbiggin Fell, at an elevation
of 1140 feet. After they are paired, there is seldom any more
perching at the top; they are then very shy and recluse in their
habits, and seldom move far from the spot they have first selected.
They are not easily disturbed, and are loth to take flight, so that,
after pairing, it is very difficult even to see the bird at all; they
trust for concealment to the surrounding herbage. The whole
bird is very closely feathered, presenting no point that can be
easily ruffled on a forward motion, so that it can glide through the
closest and thickest undergrowth. It slips into the cover one
knows not where, and threading along without stirring a twig, it
will in an instant slip out again at a point several yards distant.
Just before the bat and the owl sally forth in quest of their prey,
is the time to listen to this warbler; its note falls on the ear so
plaintively, sometimes starting very low, increasing in loudness,
and gradually rising nearly a tone, then imperceptibly falling a
semi-tone, and appears to fade away in the distance, till it increases
in loudness again and gradually falls away. It has a wonderfully
weird effect on any listener, heard in the calm hours of the night.
I remember well, when staying in the neighbourhood of Silloth,
my bedroom window looked out on a furze-clad common, where
there were several Grasshopper Warblers, who sang all through the
night, and up till eight o’clock in the morning. I can tell you I
did not get much sleep,as I was noticing the peculiarities of their
different modes of expression and intonation. Some naturalists
say that it has the power of ventriloquism, but this I take exception
to, as on several occasions I have taken notice of this so-called
power, but more particularly on one occasion, down in Stainton -
banks, I crept upon my hands and knees to within a few feet of
the bird, and in the twilight I could observe its bill quivering
whilst it was uttering its song, which was accompanied with a
curious shivering of the wings, and I noticed that the apparently
so-called ventriloquism was produced when the bird turned its
head in different positions ; and I must say the sound did appear
to come from several directions, and yet it was clearly the produc-
tion of the same bird. I have also observed this in the Corncrake.

31

In the many years that I have been an observer, I have never
heard this warbler in the daytime, after eight, a.m. They continue
their song till about the middle of August; and as I never hear
them after that time, I presume they leave us early in September.
As may be supposed, the nest of this bird is one of the most
difficult to find of any we have breeding in this country. It is a
red letter day when the naturalist find this bird’s abode, and its
eggs are always considered a valuable addition to the cabinet of
the oologist. How many ornithologists have ever seen this bird’s
nest? The Rey. C. A. Johns, in his “British Birds in their
Haunts,” says, “its nest I have looked for in vain.” Now I am
happy to say that I have found several in my time, and a pretty
sight it is to see the nest zw sztu. You can never flush this bird
off its nest, as it quietly slips off and scuttles through the herbage,
just like a mouse. I remember on one occasion, one slipped off
its nest from between my feet, and even after that I had the utmost
difficulty in finding it, so dense was the undergrowth. The nest is
almost always concealed in the most secluded and thickest part of
the cover, although there are some exceptions to this rule. All
that I have seen were composed of dry grass well interwoven, and
were lined with finer grasses in the inside. In shape the nest is
like a deep cup. The number of eggs is generally five ; although
I have found them with six. They are very beautiful, of a pinkish-
grey, and are mottled all over with minute spots of a darker colour ;
sometimes the colour forms a dark zone, with a dark hair-streak
round the larger end. They also vary much in size, as I have seen
clutches twice the size of others. I have found the nest of this
‘bird on the following dates: May 14th, 17th, roth, 30th; June
6th, 16th, 19th, 21st, 23rd ; and also on the 6th of August.

THE REDSTART.

In some of your country rambles, you may perhaps have observed

a bird flitting uneasily before you out of the hedgerow, or the stone

dyke, and displaying his reddish-orange tail, a bird which is locally

known here as the Redtail, or Redstart* (Phenicura ruticilla).
[ *Sta7t is an Old English Name for tail. EDp.]

32

The constant jerking motions of this appendage, with which it
accompanies its change of position; the remarkable way they close
and expand their tail, so rapidly and frequently, taken in conjunction
with the colour, so clearly distinguish it, that you cannot mistake
the Redstart for any other bird. This visitor is distributed over
the greater part of Europe, from France, Italy, and Spain, to
Holland, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Russia, and
Siberia, and according to Temminck, is found in Japan. It is a
bird of no great abundance anywhere, and in some parts is con-
sidered rare ; it regularly resorts every year to some places, and in
others is never seen. In this district it is fairly plentiful; you
may see it from the garden wall, up to a height of nine hundred
feet on Croglin Fell. Itis partial to old ruins, and especially if
covered with ivy; old walls, outbuildings, and in the suburbs of
towns ; you will also find it in the depths of woods, particularly
those of the birch. It arrives here about the 11th of April, and
departs about the end of August or the beginning of September.
The young birds leave before the old ones. The male is one of
the handsomest birds we have, and is sure to attract attention with
his white forehead and black throat, particularly when perched on
some commanding situation—the top of a tree, top of a post, or
on a jutting pinnacle of aruin. This bird on its first arrival (the
male precedes the female) will sit and sing for hours in early morn,
and anyone who has seen and heard him, from the top of some
ruined abbey or old castle, is not likely to forget his somewhat
plaintive strain. The song of this bird varies much in its expression,
being sometimes low, soft, and sweet, and at other times bold and
jerking, reminding one of the Common Wren’s vernal spring
roundelay. Although knowing the song of the Redstart so well, I
was once, when up at Aldby Field, on the foothills of the Pennine
range, much struck by a peculiar song which sounded from an
orchard. I was not satisfied till I had made out the songster,
which turned out to be a Redstart, perched on the top of an apple
tree. I had never before, nor have I ever since, heard the same
song from the Redtail; it imitated the song of several birds, notably
those of the Blackcap and the Garden Warbler, and mixed their

33

strains with its own with excellent eftect. It appears to be a bird
which can be taught certain airs, as Mr. Yarrel mentions one that
was in the possession of Mr. Sweet, which could whistle the Copen-
hagen waltz. Ihave heard this bird sing whilst on the wing; after
pairing he does not perch so high when singing, but yet always
where he can see around him. They nest in various situations:
holes in trees, in old walls, sometimes in ornamental vases in
gardens, on the ledges of outbuildings, and in bowers covered with
ivy, sometimes in holes two or three feet deep, and at other times
only a few inches. I have seen it under the coping of a wall on
the public road, where people were passing every few minutes
within a few feet of it. The birds nest in the same holes every
year. I know of one hole, in a tree near to the Asylum, where
there has been a nest year after year ever since I was a boy. The
Rev. C. A. Johns mentions a pair of Redstarts, who, themselves,
or their descendants, for twenty years, nested in the box of a
wooden pump. On one occasion, the pump being out of order,
the owner employed workmen to repair it. This proceeding
offended the birds, who deserted it for three years, and then for-
getting, or forgiving, the intrusion, returned to their unquiet home.
Another pair constructed their nest for ten successive years in the
interior of an earthenware fountain placed in the middle of a garden,
This species is singularly attached to its nest. We remember one
which had made its nest in a garden wall, being discovered by a
young lady, who used to visit it daily, and who dexterously caught
the old bird while sitting, and carried it with great tenderness into
the house to show her sister, and then replaced it on the nest.
Notwithstanding this, and that the eggs and young were frequently
handled, the Redstart reared her brood safely ; and the lady looks
for the arrival of her friends every summer. Bishop Stanley
mentions one which built its nest on the narrow space between
the gudgeons or upright iron on which a garden door was hung ;
the bottom of the nest, of course, resting on the iron hinge, which
must have shaken it every time the door was opened ; nevertheless,
there she sat, in spite of all this inconvenience and publicity,
exposed as she was to all who were constantly passing to and fro.
3

34

I once saw a nest built in a wooden shed in High Stand plantation,
where they were sawing timber; the nest was about three inches
above the man’s head who was attending the engine, yet the bird sat
quite still and incubated her eggs. This nest was the prettiest I
have ever seen of this bird ; the outside was built of the fronds of
the common bracken, and was beautifully lined with the feathers
of the pheasant, and the pure white feathers of barn-door fowls.
The male bird is very fussy when you approach too near to the nest,
complaining with a querulous note. He is very attentive to the
female while sitting, and sometimes feeds her while on the nest.
I have watched the male bird with a caterpillar in his mouth to
feed her with, but he would not go near till I had removed a
considerable distance, and then I watched him through the field
glass. The nest is generally loosely constructed, and is formed
of moss and dried stalks of grass, and is lined with feathers, and
sometimes a little hair. The eggs generally number six, although
I have found them with seven and eight ; they are of a light blue
colour, elegant in shape, but very fragile. The food of these birds
consists of insects, caterpillars, beetles, worms, and various fruits.
From its song, together with its light, elegant shape, its varied
plumage, and its graceful motions, it may be considered one of
the most interesting of our summer visitors. You need not go far
from here to observe this bird; in the first or second week in
April, if you take a walk round the Castle Bank, you are sure to
see him, either on the castle wall or on the trees skirting the foot-
path.

THE Woop WARBLER.

In my previous paper I have already spoken about the Willow
Wren and the Chiff Chaff, and now I am going to introduce to
you their cousin, if I may term him so, I mean the Wood Warbler
(Sylvia sylvicola), 1 may state that these three birds resemble
each other so closely in size, habits, and nesting (although their
songs are different), that except to the practical ornithologist, they
may easily be confounded with each other. In this district you
may look out for him about the 27th of April, I never see or

35

hear him after the middle of August ; so I conjecture he leaves us
early in September. This bird is found from Germany, Holland,
and France, to Sweden, and also in Morocco. It frequents woods
of medium growth in preference to plantations, thickets, copses,
and hedgerows, and it loves especially birch and beech woods,
where the undergrowth is not so dense. When the males arrive,
which they do a few days before the females—a curious circum-
stance in nearly all our warblers, and one I have never heard
satisfactorily accounted for—they mount higher up in the trees
than either the Willow Warbler or the Chiff Chaff, and there begin
their song. This I cannot describe satisfactorily by words; its
note is very peculiar and shrill, resembling the word “twee”
repeated slowly twice or thrice, and then followed by a sort of
shake, or hurried repetition of the same tone, accompanied by a
vibratory action of the wings, which curiously affects the song. In
pairing time you will often hear them tweeing and trilling against
each other, to win their dames, as if they would shiver themselves
to pieces. ‘They will also stop in the middle of their song, and
give forth a strange, sad, melancholy note, to which the late Canon
Kingsley thus beautifully alludes in his “Prose Idylls” :—

‘Von Wood Wren has had enough to make him sad, if he only recollects
it ; and if he can recollect his road from Morocco hither, he maybe recollects
what happened on the road—the long weary journey up the Portuguese coast
and through the gap between the Pyrenees and the Jaysquival, and up the
Landes of Bordeaux, and across Brittany, flitting by night, and hiding and
feeding as he could by day; and how his mates flew against the lighthouse,
and were killed by hundreds ; and how he essayed the British Channel and was
blown back, shrivelled up by bitter blasts ; and how he felt, nevertheless, that
‘that wan water he must cross,’ he knew not why; but something told him
that his mother had done so before him, and he was flesh of her flesh, life of
her life, and had inherited her ‘instinct,’ as we call hereditary memory, in order
to avoid the trouble of finding out what it is and how it comes. A duty was
laid on him to go back to the place where he was born, and he must do it; and
now it is done; and he is weary, and sad, and lonely ; and for aught we know
thinking already that when the leaves begin to turn yellow he must go back again
over the channel, over the Landes, over the Pyrenees to Morocco once more, Why
should he not be sad? He is a very delicate bird, as both his shape and his
note testify. He can hardly keep up the race here in England ; and is accord-

36

ingly very uncommon, while his two cousins, the Willow Warbler and the
Chiff Chaff, who, like him, build, for some mysterious reason, domed nests
upon the ground, are stout and busy and numerous everywhere. And what he
has gone through may be too much for the poor Wood Wren’s nerves, and he
gives way ; while Willow Wren, Blackcap, and Nightingale, who have gone
by the same road and suffered the same dangers, have stoutness of heart enough
to throw off the past, and give themselves up to present pleasure. Why not?
who knows? There is labour, danger, bereavement, death in nature; and
why should not some, at least, of the so-called dumb things know it, and grieve
at it as well as we.”

It is a pretty sight in early morn, when the sun is glistening on
the leaves, to see the Wood Warblers in search of their morning
meal. You will see them peering under the leaves, and searching
every twig carefully, picking off insects here and there, and some-
times catching them when suspended in the air; at times they will
stop in the middle of their song and pick up some small larva. It
is pleasant to see them toying with the females, and chasing
them right merrily. They are purely insectivorous birds, as far as
I have been able to determine. There are always two or three
pairs of birds in different parts of the wood, and they seem each
to have their allotted stations. They build a domed nest on the
ground, sometimes under a bush or tuft of grass, sometimes under
a mass of dead leaves ; and instances are recorded of them nesting
in a low bush, but this has never come under my observation.
The nest is always well concealed, and can only be found after a
careful search. It is composed of dry grass, moss, dried ferns,
and dead leaves; and it differs from the nest of both the Willow
Warbler and the Chiff Chaff in being lined with fine grass and hair,
instead of being lined profusely with feathers. The eggs number
five or six, although seven and eight sometimes occur ; I have also
seen them sitting with three. They are of a roundish shape,
white, spotted all over with a deep reddish-brown, at times with a
darker zone round the large end. ‘The Wood Warbler is a
beautiful bird, and of an elegant shape. The best places in this
district to study the habits of the Wood Warbler are Newbiggin,
Dicky Wood, Kingmoor Wood, Orton, wood top of Cowran Cut,
Redcat, Brisco, and Wreay. I should like some of our members

+o eg?

37

to go to some of these places early in May, especially Kingmoor,
as it is nearest to hand, to hear for themselves the sad call-note of
this bird.

THE TREE PIPIT.

If you take a walk in the country about the 16th of April, you
are sure to observe a bird, which, from its song, and the manner
in which that song is given, will be sure to attract your attention.
I mean the Tree Pipit (Amthus arboreus). This bird is found in
Denmark, Norway, Sweden, France, Italy, Switzerland, Madiera,
and also in Asia and Japan. It winters, I believe, in Africa. In
the counties of Cumberland and Westmorland it is plentiful. It
resorts to the borders of woods, as well as to orchards, and hedge-
rows where elm or other trees are planted at intervals; and it is
especially found in cultivated and arable districts. On their
arrival, the males (which precede the females by a week or ten
days) repair to their respective situations and commence their
songs of invitation. - These strains are often uttered from the
topmost twig of some tree where the bird is perched, but I notice
that he does not give the full song there, but only when he is on
the wing. What a pleasure it is to see him rise up with a simple
twitter, and shoot up like a sky-rocket till he has attained a height
of forty or fifty feet, and then, poising himself like a Kestrel for a
few moments, he will, with motionless extended wings, and erect
and expanded tail, descend either to the ground or to the twig he
started from, sometimes in a semi-circle to some other tree a little
way off, uttering all the time his twee twee twee, twe twee twee-e-e.
He is a joyous bird, and will continue his song and aerial flights
all day long, especially in the month of May. I have seen it
perform the same evolution twenty times in half an hour. If you
are in a good locality, you may see half-a-dozen of them ascending,
descending, and singing within a short distance of each other.
The telegraph wires are also a favourite resort, along the railway
embankments. About the middle of July the Tree Pipit is silent
as far as his song is concerned, and he only utters a soft call-note,
a simple ‘“‘pit-pit ;” he is seldom seen in the trees at this time, and

38

you will not observe him to soar in his somewhat graceful flights,
as he does in the spring- and early summer months. This bird
seems to be intermediate between the Wagtails and the true Larks;
like the latter, the Pipits have the hind claw elongated, but not to
so great an extent. It does not roll in the sand and dust itself
like the larks, but thrusts its beak into the water and sprinkles
itself, much after the manner of the wagtails ; it vibrates its tail
also like the latter, and runs along the ground with ease and
celerity, searching for insects and their larva, and small seeds,
which are its principal food. Its nest, which is placed on the
ground, underneath a small bush, or under a tuft of grass, is com-
posed of dried grass and vegetable fibres, and is lined with hair.
One I found last year had a regular tunnel to it through the
thick undergrowth ; if I had not seen the bird run off, it would
have been impossible to have found it, as it was the length of my
arm through the cover. The eggs number five or six, and they
vary so much that I will not attempt to describe them. Mr.
Hewitson says :—

‘© Amongst our land birds, there is no species the eggs of which present so
many or such distinct varieties as those of the Tree Pipit. No one would at
first believe them to be eggs of the same species; and it was not till I had
captured the bird upon each of the varieties, and also received them from Mr.
Doubleday, similarly attested, that I felt satisfactorily convinced upon the
subject.”

I have found all the known varieties of the eggs of this bird in this
county. The-female sits very close when incubating, and when
she leaves her nest, does so very quietly, running a short distance
on the ground before she takes flight. Although this bird seems
so ill adapted for long flights, an instance is on record of one
having alighted on board a vessel from Liverpool, at a distance of
at least thirteen hundred miles from the nearest mainland of South
America, and about nine hundred from the wild and barren island
of Georgia. The length of this bird is about six inches, and it
may be distinguished from the rest of the genus by having the hind
claw short and curved.

39

THE SPOTTED FLYCATCHER.

The Grey or Spotted Flycatcher (Zusicapa grisola) is a quiet,
unassuming bird, and one which is common nearly everywhere ; it
is the last to arrive of all our summer migrants. It is found on
the continent of Europe as far north as Norway and Sweden, and
it also occurs in Africa, even as far south as the Cape of Good
Hope. It generally arrives here on or about May 14th, and it
leaves us in the middle of September, but sooner or later, according
as the season is less or more favourable to the continuance of the
supply of its insect food. It has a number of local names—Cherry
Sucker, Cherry Chopper, Beam Bird, Bee Bird, and Post Bird. In
some places it is held as sacred as the Robin, and there is an old
saying in the country :—

“*Tf you scare the flycatcher away,
No good luck will with you stay.”

It is a familiar bird; there is scarcely a country house or suburban
garden which has not its pair of Flycatchers. It also frequents
woods, plantations, orchards, and low bushy hollows. It is rather
a mute bird, and has a faint call-note something like sheetic,
sheetic, sheetic tic tic. Some naturalists affirm it has no song, but
it has, and it is uttered in such a low tone as to be scarcely heard
a little way off, and then but rarely ; it somewhat resembles the
song of the Whinchat. This bird is very useful in clearing the
orchards and gardens of flies that throng there when the fruit is
ripe ; at which times, although actually preserving them from the
myriads of insect destroyers, it is often accused of perpetrating the
very mischief it does so much to prevent; from this erroneous
opinion has arisen the name Cherry Sucker, applied to the cherry
protector by those who take every opportunity of destroying it. In
summer time, it is very interesting to watch this Flycatcher perched
in Some prominent position which commands a view all round ; in
an Instant it may be seen to dart after some fly or insect, often at
sO great a distance as to be out of our sight, but not to the tele-
scopic eye of this bird, who will capture it and return to his post
with great rapidity, ready for another victim: and thus it continues

40

to do all the day long. Nothing can be more graceful or pretty
than the action of these birds in taking their prey. The good
work a pair do in clearing a garden of insect pests may be gathered
from the following observations of Mr. Denham Weir, who had a
pair of these birds which nested in his garden. He watched them
carefully, and found that they fed their young no less than five
hundred and thirty-seven times in one day, beginning at twenty-five
minutes before four o’clock in the morning, and ending at ten
minutes before nine in the evening. It is impossible to give the
precise number of flies that might have been consumed by their
brood, as they sometimes brought to them one large fly, at other
times two, three, four, five, and even more flies of different sizes.
After their arrival they do not lose much time in preparing for
their future progeny ; indeed, they have been known to complete
their nest in one day anda half. The nest is built of moss, dried
grass, and straw, and is lined with hair and feathers, and sometimes
with cobwebs. The number of eggs is five; they are of a bluish-
white colour, clouded and spotted with light brownish-red, generally
darker at the larger end; some of them resemble the eggs of the
Robin, only a shade smaller. ‘They build in the hole of a wall, or
of a tree, on the ledges of outbuildings, between the branch and
the trunk of the stately oak, elm, beech, and various other trees,
in ivy, or in woodbine climbing up a porch, on the head of a
garden rake set up against a wall, in ornamental stone-work in
gardens; one I knew built for many years on the window-sill,
another in a doorway through which people were constantly passing,
and would not leave its nest until just within reach of the hand;
one in a rose-bush against a cottage wall, which would actually let
the inmates touch it while sitting on the nest; another pair built
in a bird-cage hung against a tree in an orchard. A Song Thrush
built a nest on a hanging bough of a spruce fir, where she hatched
and brought up four young ones; on examining the apparently-
deserted nest a month later, we found that a Flycatcher had built
a beautiful nest inside, where she was sitting on four eggs. I have
known these birds, after they had brought up their first brood
successfully, build at:uther nest on the top of the previous one,

41

and hatch their second. One that had built its nest in a pear-tree
against a garden wall, has been known to try to conceal it by
drawing the leaves of the tree over it. But the most curious
instances of caprice in this matter, are those of two pairs of birds
which selected ‘street lamp-posts for the purposes of nidification.
One of these is mentioned by Atkinson as having occurred at
Leeds; the nest was built in the angle of a lamp-post, and
the parents succeeded in rearing their young. In the other
instance, the nest was made in the ornamental crown on the top
of one of the lamps in Portland Place; it contained five eggs,
which had been sat upon; and Mr. Yarrel states that he saw the
nest in its curious receptacle at the Office of Woods and Forests.
In “Science Gossip,” a gentlemen mentions,a pair of Spotted
Flycatchers who built their nest on the capital of a column
supporting the portico of his house. He and his family had been
much interested in watching the proceedings of these pretty and
interesting birds. Judge of his dismay, when sitting out under a
tree near, he observed the hen bird and the nest descend to earth
and both execute marvellous gyrations thereon. His son easily
caught the bird, with nest attached, when the the cause of this
domestic calamity became manifest. A woman has been, by
misogynous old bachelors, said to be at the bottom of all mischief.
It proved so in this case, for having used a woman’s long hair in
the construction of her nest, the little bird had got its head and
neck through a loop of the said hair, and, on attempting to leave
her nest, had brought both herself and it and the five eggs to
grief. I could fill a volume with anecdotes of this bird, but will
conclude with a charming instance of parental affection displayed
by a pair of Spotted Flycatchers. A pair of these little birds had
one year inadvertently built their nest on a naked bough, perhaps
in a shady time, not being aware of the inconvenience that followed;
but a hot sunny season coming on before the brood was half-fledged,
the reflection of the wall became insupportable, and must inevitably
have destroyed the tender young, had not affection suggested an
expedient, and prompted the parent birds to hover over the nest
all the hotter hours, while, with wings expanded and mouths

42

gaping for breath, they screened off the heat from their suffering
offspring.

And now, I hope what I have said about these birds, may lead
you all to protect and cherish these pretty, interesting, and useful
creatures. The music of birds is grateful to the ear; to listen to
a thousand warblers enjoying happy freedom in their native wood-
lands, is, I am sure, to some people most delightful. Birds make
part and parcel of the country—they form, so to speak, one of the
ingredients in it; they are among the objects that appeal agreeably
to our senses. Who does not arrest his footsteps to listen to the
trill of the soaring lark, or to the delightful strains of the Thrush,
the Blackbird, or the Blackcap Warbler? We feel that the country
would lose one of its greatest charms, were it not resonant with
their melody. Each grove and shrubbery, each bosky dell from
side to side, each heath and upland common, each hedge and
garden and petty rural homestead, receives some of these wandering
minstrels ; and if I could only impress upon some of you, to seek
to know each note and song of these tiny visitants, and distinguish
the form and plumage of each songster, my labour will not have
been in vain.

43

WILD FLOWERS AROUND CARLISLE. Barr LT
By W. DUCKWORTH.

(Read at Carlisle, 1884.)

Last year I finished the first part of this paper with the Heaths,
ERICACE, ending with the Winter Green, Pryola media, The three
orders following this contain trees and shrubs only, and therefore
have nothing to do with the present paper. The trees around
Carlisle would be a very good subject for some future paper, if
anyone will take it up. I hope some one of our members will act
on this suggestion.

The first flowers we have to deal with to-night are the Pere-
winkles, order APOCYNACES. Neither the Lesser, Vinca minor,
nor the Greater, V mayor, are indigenous to this part of the
country, and therefore we generally find them about gardens and
pleasure grounds ; often in a seemingly wild state, though I think
such is never really the case.

The GENTIANACES, as far as my knowledge goes, are only
represented by two genera. In the first, Erythrea, by £. centaurium,
a plant much sought after by our cottage doctors. Its pretty tufts
of pink flowers are open only during dry weather, and even then

_ they close about three o’clock in the afternoon. It varies much in

sgl

its growth, dependent upon the situation: on the Scar, where
there is much undergrowth, it grows to two feet in height, while in
some of the pastures about Stainton it reaches only three or four
inches. In the next genus, Aenyanthes, we have but one flower,
and that the Bog Bean, JZ érifoliota, considered by many to be

44

the most beautiful wild flower we have. Its bearded pink- and
white flowers, standing straight up from the mossy pool, matted
with their thick and floating rootstock, have an appearance that
when once seen is not easily forgotten. Only this summer, while
on one of our local mosses, during the nesting-time of the Black_
headed Gull, I counted on these floating rootstocks of the Bog
Bean, many of them thicker than my thumb, and in a pool not
half the size of this room, thirteen nests of the above bird, each
nest containing its complement of three eggs. Many pieces of
rootstock were floating about, and were cut as clean as with a
knife, by the bills of these Gulls, to form cross-pieces for the
foundation of their nests. Of the properties of the Bog Bean I
might enlarge for some time ; it is greatly used in many places for
rheumatism ; it has often been used in imparting a bitter flavour
to beer, in place of hops; for tanning purposes, etc. I know one
man who goes every year to Cumwhitton Moss to gather it, for
medicinal purposes. The nearest place to Carlisle where it may
be found is a wood behind the Asylum,

The Jacob’s Ladder, order PoLEMONIACE&, P. ceruleum, I have
not found wild; with us it is a garden plant.

The order CoNvoLvULACE® furnishes us with two species,
Convolvulus arvensis and C. sepium, The former of these two
plants might have been seen this year growing plentifully among
the nettles on the Castle Bank, though it is generally an inhabitant
of cornfields. The Great Bindweed hangs out its large but fragile
bells from many a hedge and thicket. Almost anywhere on the
banks of the Eden, where there is a luxuriant wild-growth, you will
find it, here gathering together a few twigs of willows, or tufts of
grass ; there twining its way up to the light by the help of the Giant
Groundsel or the Meadow Rue, making, as it were, step-ladders of
much stronger-stemmed plants than itself. Thus, by what Dr.
Taylor calls “woodcraft,” it hangs out its white blossoms to sun
and breeze and insect, in order, not only to preserve its place
among other wild flowers, but also by the maturing of its seeds to
spread its species further abroad. Of the parasitic genus in this

45

order, the Dodder, Cuscuta, I have not been able to find any
species near us.

Of the SOLANACE we have the Hyoscyamus niger, which occa-
sionally occurs on waste ground ; Dalston Green and other places
are given as localities for it; last year it was found near Corby.
The |S. nigrum I know of only as a casual in a garden at Stanwix.
iS. dulcamara is common about the hedges around Kingmoor, on
Stainton Banks, etc.; and in autumn its pretty clusters of red egg-
shaped berries look very tempting, especially to children, who
ought to be taught not to eat any wild fruit or fungi without first
knowing what it is. The other remaining plant in this order,
Atropa belladonna, does not occur near Carlisle.

The SCROPHULARIACE# include many well-known wild flowers.
In the first genus, Verbascum, we have one well known plant often
found in gardens, V. ¢hapsus, which may be found growing wild
near Dalston; I have also found it on Beaumont Banks. It is
easily recognised by its thick flannel-like leaves and its tall spike
of yellow flowers, which only open a few at a time. We have
many of the Veronicas, or Speedwells, with us; one of them
especially is well known, the Germander Speedwell, V. chamedrys,
often miscalled Forget-me-not, but still better known as Birds-eye.
It may be found on all our hedge banks. Others not so well
known, as V. serpyliifolia, may be found near Carleton, and several
other places; V. scutellata, by the side of Monkhill Lough;
V. anagaillis, in a ditch which runs across Kingmoor; V/V. decca-
bunga, with its pretty blue flowers, in almost all our ditches and
water-courses ; V. officinalis, commonly distributed ; V. hederifolia,
on the Old Brampton Road, just past Stanwix villa; V. buxdaumit,
in many places—near Dalston, St. Ann’s, etc. This last plant, on
a heap of stones just past St. Ann’s, flowered through all last
winter. In springit died, and I have not seen it since on the same
place. This plant is an alien, now become a colonist. Of the
Barisias we have only one, &. odontites, a late-flowering plant,
which may be found by any of our roadsides at the end of summer.

Euphrasia officinalis is a common meadow- and heath plant with

46

us; it often varies considerably in its colors, from white to red.
I think it is old Culpepper who says of this plant, that “if its
virtues were as much sought after and cultivated as they are
neglected there would be no work for spectacle makers.” There
are many legends associated with the Eyebright, too many in fact
to quote here; but one which my brother and I heard one Satur-
day night, while making our way to the Museum, is perhaps worth
repeating. A quack, having his stand at the entrance to the
Sands, was detailing to his audience the powers of herbs, “and
their true qualities” over every other medicine invented. Thus
he spoke :—“ Does a dog when it is ill go to a druggist’s shop, to
get poisoned? No! it goes to the green fields, and there picks
out for itself a certain grass, which it eats and makes itself sick,
thus getting rid of the bad humours of the stomach. And so with
other animals. Do the birds go to a druggist’s shop? No! the
very herb that I hold in my hand is noted, and has been from time
immemorial, for curing diseases of the eye! The lark, when its
nestling gets its eye pricked with a thorn (he did not say how),
goes in search of this herb, perhaps having to fly miles and miles
before it finds what it is in search of. When it has found this
herb, this Zuphrasia, it brings a piece carefully to its nest in its
beak, and there it chews and chews it up till it is a perfect pulp,
and then applies it to the injured eye of its nestling, which in a
short time heals, and it regains its wonted sight.” When we left,
he was selling his pills and potions as fast as he could hand them
out. Rhinanthus crista-galli is too common in most of our meadows;
by some its presence is considered a sign of bad land, by others, a
sign of bad husbandry. I believe it is partially parasitic on some
of the roots of the grasses. It is easily known by its bladder-like
capsule, in which the seeds when ripe make a distinct rattle when
shaken. As it ripens before the other meadow plants are fit for
the scythe, it has therefore little chance of being exterminated.
The Yellow Cow-wheat, Melampyrum pratense, may be found in
Wetheral Woods. The Field Lousewort, Pedicularis sylvatica,
with its finely-cut leaves, looking almost like a fern, is found on
Kingmoor, and a white variety at Corby quarries. P. palustris, a

B

Sera te See ME reel

47

plant of much larger growth, near Blackwell. The Knotted Fig-
wort, Scrophularia nodosa, often known as Stinking Roger, is
common by most of our river-sides. .S. aguatica is much the rarer
plant with us, and I have only seen it in three places—Scaleby
meadows, the Scar, and the Cherm Wood, near Cargo. It may be
easily distinguished from the other by its winged stem, and by the
absence of tubers at the root. On the Scar this summer (1884),
we had plants which measured nine feet in height—five feet more
than what Hooker gives. Dygitalis purpurea is common in many
places, but seems to be somewhat local in its distribution, as some-
times in a day’s walk you will not see a single plant. I remember
walking last year from the Alston branch of the North Eastern
Railway to Brampton along what, I think, is known as the Black
Fell side, and not a single plant of Foxglove did I see till I got to
Farlam, and there they were very much dwarfed. I am not
geologist enough to say, but I think that there I must have crossed
from one geological formation to another. In the Toadflaxes we
are only represented by two species. Linaria cymbalaria, commonly
known as Aaron’s Beard or Wandering Sailor, is considered by
many authors as not really indigenous, though when it was first
established is not certainly known. It may often be seen festooning
old walls, as at Carleton, St. Ann’s, etc. The finest plants I ever
saw are growing on the walls of Scaleby Castle. It is often a
favourite window-plant in cottages, being grown in a hanging pot.
The Common Toadflax, Z. vulgaris, the Butter and Eggs of
country children, may often be found on railway banks and waste
ground ; it grows near the Caledonian Railway Sheds, and in the
Stainton lanes. The Mudwort, Zzmosella aquatica, is found at
Newby and Thurstonfield. Jimulus luteus, known as the Monkey
Flower, though naturalised in many parts of Cumberland and
Westmorland, does not occur near Carlisle, except as a garden
flower.

In the Broomrapes, order OROBANCHACEH, we are not repre-
sented, unless I stretch a point, and include that very curious
parasite the Toothwort, Zathrea sguamaria, which has been
found near Low House, the nearest point I know of to Carlisle.

48

Here it grows on the roots of the Horse Chesnut, a fact which is
not mentioned in any of my botanical works ; it is generally found
on the roots of the Elm and the Hazel. Last Easter I found it
very abundant about Lowther on both these trees.

Verbena officinalis was found some time ago growing about
Knowefield, and was put under cultivation, where it still may be
seen.

We now come to another large order of British plants, the
LaBIAT&, flowers with a lip; and according to the new lights
under which botany is being studied, these lips are evolved or
developed in order to make a resting-place for insects while
robbing the flower of its honey; while so doing the insects take
the pollen as well as the honey, and carrying it to another flower,
they thus fulfil their duty as cross fertilizers. In many of the
plants these lips are marked with dots and streaks of darker shades
of the same colour as the rest of the corolla, in others with a
different colour, which act as honey guides to their welcome
visitors. Lycopus europeus may be found at the Black Dub, a
little above Holme Head; and also in a wood behind the Asylum.
Several species of Mint, MZentha, are common with us. Thymus
serpyllum on sandy soils; Origanum vulgare, on the Scar and on
Skew Banks; Calamintha acinos I saw growing pretty freely in the
grounds at Englethwaite on our visit there, it also occurs on the
banks of the Midland Railway a little higher up. Ajuga reptans
is not uncommon, and I have found a white variety in Wetheral
Woods; white varieties of flowers are now regarded as cases of
reversion to an older type. Zeucrium scorodonia occurs at Prim-
rose Banks, Skew Banks, etc. I remember some years ago seeing
a lot of people at Wetheral with armfuls of this “yarb.” They
were from some part of Lancashire. Of the Dead Nettles,
Lamium, we have several; the very beautiful Z. galeobdolon, I
know of in only one place, between Wetheral and Warwick. A
writer in “Science Gossip” some time ago claimed Yorkshire as
the most northern limit for this flower; but I claimed for Cumber-
land, going a point still further north. JZ. maculatum occurs at

ee

49

several places—Wetheral, Hesket, Grinsdale, &c., but always, I
think, as a garden-escape. It is easily known by its fine purple
flowers and its leaves streaked with white. WZ. purpureum, or Bad
Man’s Posy of the children, is everywhere; a white variety in Barras
Lonning, Dalston. Z. a/bum, on the banks of the Eden near Linstock.
L. incisum is found at Blackwell. Of the Hemp Nettles, Galeopsis, »
I think we have only two: one is G. ¢e¢rahit, which is to be met
_ with everywhere, and whose flowers vary in all shades between
purple and white. The nearest place I have found G. versicolor is
Cargo ; though it is very common a little further north. This has
a very handsome yellow and purple flower, and it might well be
introduced into our gardens as an annual. In the Woundworts,
Stachys, we have one plant, which is greatly in use among herbalists,
SS. detonica, and not without reason I think, judging by what I have
have heard of its properties from disinterested persons. Used
regularly it is almost a certain cure for nervous headaches. Its
fame is not confined to our country ; the Italians have a proverb
which says, “Sell your shirt, but buy betony.” Two other Wound-
worts are common with us, S. sylvatica and S. palustris; a
hybrid between the two, amdiguwa, was found this year at Dalston.
: S. arvensis occurs near Blackwell. JVepeta glechoma, a little
creeping plant with a strong aromatic smell, grows on many of our
hedge sides. This has many old-fashioned names, such as Gill-
; run-along-the-ground, from its habit; Alehoof, from its being used *
____to impart a bitter flavour to that and other beverages. Marrubium
vulgare is found at Dalston. Lrunella vulgaris is very common,
and is a plant which often retrogades, as white varieties are not
uncommon. Scutellaria galericulata, a rare plant with us, is found
near William’s Wood.

The next order, BoRAGINACE&, includes the Scorpion Grasses
or Forget-me-nots, though really to only one of them, A/yosotis
palustris, does this name belong. It is common by most of our
streams. JZ. cesfitosa may be found on the Scar; J. collina, near

Corby; JZ. versicolor, on the Kingmoor road. Lzthospermum
arvense, at Cummersdale. One of the fields belonging to the

Corporation is called Grumwell Meadow, possibly being named
4

50

after the common form of this plant, which in old herbals is spelled
Gromvel. Symphytum officinale, a plant much used now in many
places for cattle-feeding purposes, may be found with white flowers
by the side of the Eden, near Linstock ; while the purple-flowered
one has been found near the Cross Roads, Harker. Sorago
» officinalis, a plant in great request at one time for many purposes,
occurs about Rockcliffe, Dalston, and Stanwix. Its leaves are
still used in the making of “claret cup,” and for other inviting
drinks ; but I cannot hear of its being used as a salad now; it is
a very useful plant to bee-keepers, and ought to be carefully
cultivated by them. Lycopsis arvensis, a small hispid plant with
blue flowers, is not uncommon in many of our cornfields, and it
often occurs round Stainton. Cynoglossum officinale grows somewhat
commonly about Dalston Green, and the colour of its flowers,
dark claret, is almost unique among wild flowers. The Dusky
Cranesbill, Geranium pheum, is something like it, but darker, Its
properties are both narcotic and astringent, and the name is said
to be derived from the resemblance of the rough texture of the
leaves to a hound’s tongue. Legend saith the leaf ties the tongues
of hounds—-how, I cannot tell you. u/monaria officinalis grows
with us only as a garden escape, and I think is not really a native,
Its former use in lung complaints was due, I believe, to the
principle of “like curing like,” the spotted leaves resembling in
appearance an animal’s lungs. £chium vulgare is common enough
about the docks at Silloth, but is rare with us. I have seen it in
the neighbourhood of the Stony Holme.

Belonging to the next order, LENTIBULARIACEA, is the Butter-
wort, Pinguicula vulgaris, a not-uncommon bog plant. I met with
it on Kingmoor some three or four years ago; but have not seen
it since. It may be found on Harker and Todhills mosses, and is
easily recognised by its rosette of pale yellow leaves, lying close to
the ground, and by its single purple flower, on a stem ranging
between three and six inches high, resembling in appearance a
half-closed violet. It is an insectivorous plant; but its mode of
catching is quite different from our other two noted insect-catchers.
It has no glands nor tentacles like the Sundew ; no trap like the

51

Bladderwort; but the edges of the leaf are simply enrolled.
Hapless insects creeping under these for any purpose whatever—
food or shelter—find too surely that they cannot get out, as the
edges of the leaves close uponthem. The Bladderwort, Ufricularia,
I have not been able to find in this district ; though I still hope to
do so some day, as we have some places very likely for it.

The next order, PRIMULACE, contains some favourite flowers ;
though one of them, the Primrose, Primula vulgaris, 1 am sorry
to say, is fast disappearing from the neighbourhood of our city; it
still leaves its trace in the “Primrose” Banks around us, Primrose
only in name now. The Primrose has adapted itself admirably
for the purposes of cross fertilization ; a study of pin centres and
rose centres, as they are called by gardeners, will well repay all the
attention that is given to them. The Cowslip, P. veris, is very
abundant in many of the holmes by the side of the Eden; and in
situations where the Primrose and the Cowslip meet, may often be
found hybrids between the two, called Oxlips; though not the
real Oxlip, P. e/atior, of botanists, which grows only in one or two
of the S.E. counties of England. Of Loosestrifes, Zystmachia, we
have but one, Z. zemorum, which grows freely about Wetheral and
Corby Woods. Axagallis arvensis, or Poor Man’s Weather Glass,
is not uncommon in the fields about Kingmoor. This gets one of
its names from always closing its petals before rain; I at least
know of one instance where it did not do so; but the exception
might prove the rule. Glaux maritima grows on Rockcliffe
Green. :

In the next order, PLUMBAGINACE, Armeria maritima grows in
profusion on Rockcliffe Marsh, and to see acres of it in bloom at
once is a sight worth seeing. We have the whole of the Plantains,
FPlantago, and in a walk from say, Stanwix to Rockcliffe, you might
find them. /. major and P: /anceolata, are common everywhere ;
P. media, on Stainton Banks, and all down by the side of the
Eden. FP. coronopus and FP. maritima, on Rockcliffe Green and
Marsh. On our excursion to Caldbeck we found this last plant
growing very fine on Warnell Fell.

In the next orders, CHENOPODIACEZ and POLYGONACE2, are

52

included the Goosefoots, Oraches, the Persicarias, the Docks, etc.;
plants, nearly all of which have small and inconspicuous flowers.
The best known of the Chenopodiums is the Mercury Goosefoot,
or Good King Henry, C. bonus henricus—why called after King
Henry I know not, unless he was a lover of herb-puddings, of
which it forms an important ingredient, in company with our next
plant, Common Bistort, or Snakeweed, Polygonum bistorta, better
known as Eastermer Giants and Easter Ledgers. Good King
Henry is generally found in the neighbourhood of villages and
farm-houses. Stainton produces some fine specimens of it ; while
some parts of the Caledonian Railway banks are covered with
Eastermer Giants, PP. amphibium, as its name implies, may be
found by the sides of ponds, as well as in them, and may be at
once known by its conspicuous head of pink flowers. It grows in
several still places on the Eden, and is not uncommon by most of
our sluggish streams and standing waters. Other Persicarias we
have, such as the P. dapathifolium, P. persicaria, P. hydropiper.
In the Docks, Rumex, we have among others the 72. sanguineus at
Thurstonfield, 2. hydrolapathum at Moss Pool, Sour Dockins, of
the children, 2. acetosa, in all our meadows.

Passing by several orders now, of which I have nothing to say, _
we come to the Spurges, Huphorbiacee, in which we are very thinly
represented, #. helioscopia is common in all kitchen gardens. It
exudes an acrid white fluid on being broken, which is supposed to
be efficacious in curing warts. Mercurialis perennis, an early
spring plant, is common in all our damp woods.

In the Nettle order, Urticacew, we are pretty strong, both
U. wrens and U. dioica being common with us; the latter being
the one which is still largely used for Nettle broth and Nettle
beer, and which Andrew Fairservice, in “Rob Roy,” forced for his
“spring kail.” Parietaria officinalis, easily known by its red stems,
dark green ovate leaves, and small greenish flowers in axillary
clusters, may be found by the Wetheral caves ; no doubt left there
by some of the ancient Benedictine monks, as it was a plant in
great request for medicinal uses, and is chiefly to be found by old

Or
os

churches. I have seen it on Cartmell Church, Holme Cultram,
etc. It has the property of assimilating nitre, of which it contains
a great quantity, hence its requisition as a “sovereign herbe.”
Some time ago, I was requested by a literary gentleman in Carlisle
to quote him the passage in Shakespeare in which this plant was
mentioned, a clergyman on whose church walls it grew having
pointed it out to him as a Shakesperian plant. However, it is not
mentioned by Shakespeare. The Hop, Humulus lupulus, is to be
found on the Scar, at Carleton, etc.; generally the female plant ;
the male I have seen only once, and that was at Dalston Green.

Passing by four or five orders which contain trees and shrubs,
we come to those very highly-specialized flowers, the Orchids,
OrcHipace&. The means adopted by these flowers to secure
fertilization are amongst the most wonderful in plant life; for an
account of these I must refer you to the works of Darwin, Miiller,
Grant Ailen, etc. In the Twayblades, Listera, L. ovata may be
‘met with in many places here. The finest plants I have seen
grew in a little plantation on the Longtown road not far from
Greymoor Hill. Here I have found the plant with one, two, or
three leaves. pipactis latifolia grows by the side of the river
Caldew, near Holm Hill. An old station for Cephalanthera
ensifolia has been rediscovered this year by Mr. Shepherd, near
Talkin. In the genus Orchis, we have first O. mascuda, which is
common in many of our woods and meadows. ‘This plant is
known by several curious names, such as Cain and Abel, Adam
and Eve, etc. One singular practice in connection with this plant
is to dig up its tubers and to throw them into the water, when one
sinks and the other swims ; but whether it is Adam that sinks and
Eve that swims, or vice versa, 1 am not in a position to say.
O. ustulata occurs on Stainton banks; where also may be found
0. maculata, and also Gymnadenia conopsea, which is also to be
found on Dalston Green. Habenaria bifolia is common on King-
_ moor.

_ In the -next order, the IrRipace®, I have but one plant to
_ mention, the Yellow Flag, ris psewdacorus, which is not uncommon

54

in wet places by river sides, near Carleton, Beaumont Banks, etc.
The rhizome or creeping underground stem, is regarded in many
parts of the Highlands as a sure cure for toothache.

On the Skew Banks used to be found (I could not find it this
year,) that very favourite flower the Daffodil, Narcissus pseudo-
narcissus ; the nearest place to Carlisle where one might say it was
growing really wild. Belonging to the same order, AMARYLLIDACE&,
is the Snowdrop, Galanthus nivalis, which is found growing wild
by the side of the Caldew, at Cargo Beck, and near Moorhouse.

In the order Litiace®. we have several of the onion or garlic
family. The Sand Garlic, Allium scorodoprasum, peculiar to the
north of England, I found last year on the Scar; this year, on the
banks of the Eden, near Linstock. A. vineale is common on
Stainton Banks, and might be found this year at the entrance to
Kingmoor. A. ursinum, Ransoms, or Ramps, is common in
many places by the sides of the Eden, the Petterill, and the Caldew.
I am informed by Mr. Hands that Gagea lutea, a rare plant, was
found by one of the Grammar School boys near Wetheral. Hya-
cinthus nonscriptus is plentiful in Spa Well Wood, and other
places. Many a racy controversy has taken place about this plant,
whether it or another, the Campanula rotundifolia, has the proper
title to be called the Harebell; and enough has been written at
one time and another to form a separate paper at some future
meeting ; it is too long to go into here. Polygonatum multiforum
occurs in Newby Woods.

Paris quadrifolia grows in Wreay and Peastree Woods. It is
often found with five or six leaves instead of the usual four; and
this year, in company with Mr. Hodgson, we found near Lowther
a plant with seven, the largest number J think which is known.

Colchicum, or Meadow Saffron, I once found some years ago on
the railway banks between Kirkandrews and Burgh.

In the following order, HypROCHARIDACE&, we have but one
plant generally known, Anacharis alsinastrum, which has caused a
good deal of excitement in its day. It first appeared in Ireland
in 1836, then in Scotland in 1841 or 1842, and about the same

dd

time in England, in the Grand Junction Canal, near Market
Harborough ; afterwards in nearly every stream in the country.
Dire were the prognostications about it: soon would all our lakes
be a mass of green weed through which no boat could be pulled ;
our rivers choked with it, and our ponds but mud-holes. Like
many another Yankee scare, it has had its day. Though I believe
the sports on Talkin Tarn were stopped through it one year, if not
more. I remember in February, 1873, coming round by the north
end of the tarn, where there was a bank of this weed, blown up by
a severe gale some time before, six or seven feet high, and ten or
eleven broad at the base.

In the ALIsMACE&, Alisma plantago is common in the ditches
about Kingmoor, Rickerby, etc., and A. ranwneuloides in Monkhill
Lough. The very handsome and stately Butomus wmbellatus, is
found in Brunstock Beck, and Z'riglochin palustre grows at Cum-
mersdale.

The various species of Pondweeds have not yet been worked
out, though I expect we shall be pretty strong in them from what
I already know. Belonging to the order ARACE& is Arum macu-
latum, which grows on Davidson’s Banks, and not again, I think,
till you come near Wetheral. In Westmorland I have seen
children using the purple spadix for ear-rings. The most curious
thing about the Arum is the method adopted by it to ensure
crossing. At the point where the spathe is constricted, there is a
ring of hairs so arranged that insects can creep into the hollow
below, but can’t get out again until these hairs wither, which they
do when the pollen is ripe and discharged from the anthers.
These insects get dusted with the pollen, and then are allowed to
go, carrying the pollen to other flowers, whose pistils are ready to
receive it; if fertilization takes place. <Acorus calamus is found
in only one place that I know in this district—Stonebrigglees.
Sparganium ramosum and S. simplex are common in many pools.
Typha latifolia is found at Moss Pool, and near Cotehill.

The last wild flower I have anything to say about belongs to the
Juncace#, and a very pretty and sweet-scented one it is, the

56

bright golden yellow of its racemose flowers, with their deep
orange anthers, give it a most charming appearance when set off
by dark pools of peaty water. The perfume—which is not constant,
but given off occasionally—is exactly like the Stephonitas.

What reminiscences have heen brought to my mind while writing
these notes on the wild flowers! This last plant, the Bog Asphodel,
Narthecium ossifragum, calls up to me a bright May day spent on
a border moss. The keeper and I had been examining some
scores of nests of the Blackheaded and the Lesser Blackheaded
Gulls, and having got through from one end of the breeding-ground
to the other, we sat down to eat our lunch, with our feet in a ditch
and our backs against a pile of turf. The incessant cries of the
gulls we had disturbed in their work of incubation, was something
terrible. But after we had sat some time, and a pipe had followed
the lunch, while anecdote after anecdote anent the wild life on a
border moss, fell from the keeper’s lips ;—the gulls which were
sitting began to settle on their nests, Blackheads in the near
distance and then from right to left over a wide expanse of ground
Blackbacks ; further away, Blackheads again. It was interesting
to see, as each female gull settled herself on to ther nest ; some
dropping right on to it, others alighting at some distance and
walking quietly to it; the male bird taking his position on some
hillock a short distance away, and standing bolt upright—a sentinel
on duty; sometimes two or three on the same hillock. ‘These
hillocks were worn quite smooth and bare with the use made of
them. While this most interesting scene was going on, the keeper
asked it I could tell him the name of a flower which grew later on
by the sides of the ditch we were sitting in, and which had such a
sweet smell. This I at once made out to be the Bog Asphodel ;
the grass-like leaves were then showing about an inch high. So I
never see the Bog Asphodel without seeing the gulls as well.

In conclusion, I wish to say that we have commenced a collection
of plants for the Museum, and should be very glad if any members
will help us in the matter. It is rather hard when it is left to
one or two to do it. Already between three and four hundred

aye

plants have been collected, dried, and mounted, and will be placed
in the Museum by the time it is opened in spring. A London
Catalogue of British Plants will be kept, and the plants ticked off
as they are added, so that any one can see exactly what is wanted.
Informal meetings are held in the Museum every Saturday night,
at eight o’clock, by a few members interested in Ornithology and
Botany, and any members with information to give, or who want
information on these subjects, will be gladly received.

I a

THE ORIENTATION OF ANCIENT CHURCHES.
By GEORGE. WATSON.

(Read at Penrith. )*

THE subject of this paper—the placing of Churches East and
West—may be thought by some persons not worth enquiring into;
and I am ready to admit that, so far as modern utilitarian ideas
go, they may be right. But surely when we find a custom
religiously adhered to all over Christendom from the earliest
times, and in our own country observed with especial reverence,
we ought to consider it worth at least a brief investigation. In
Ttaly we are told there are many exceptions to the general rule of
orientation, originating, it is supposed, in the early christians taking
the basilicas and other public halls into use as places of worship,
not deeming their non-orientation any serious objection.

When, however, old pagan temples were converted into churches,
or churches built upon their sites, the east and west position would,
for the most part, be found already fixed. Vitruvius, the father of
architectural literature, who, about the time of Christ, wrote what
is to this day the text-book of classical architecture, says, ‘If
nothing prevent, the temple should be so arranged that the image
may look towards the west ;” consequently the worshippers would
look to the east.

There is, however, a general opinion amongst men of research
that we should go still further back in time for the origin of the
reverence for the eastern point of the heavens, and find it in

* Inserted under Rule 8.

60

ancient sun-worship. However that may be, it is certain that the
early christians accepted the principle of orientation as a matter of
course.

The first mention of the word church, as applied to a place of
worship, is said to occur in the fourth century; in the ‘‘Apostolical
Constitutions” of that century it is ordered, ‘‘ Let the church be
oblong, turned towards the east, with lateral chambers on both
sides, towards the east, as it is to resemble a ship: let the bishop’s
throne be in the midst, with the presbytery sitting on either side
and the deacons standing by.”

The oblong form, allegorical of a ship, as an emblem of the
“ Ark of Christ,” is said, with great show of reason, to give us the
origin of our word ave, as applied to the body of a church, the
original word in Latin being zavis—a ship. A church in Rome
built A.D. 630, is said to have had its sides curved like the hull of
a ship.

In A.D. 390 St. Augustine wrote, “‘When we offer up prayer we
turn to the east, whence cometh the light.” ‘These words no
doubt have primarily christian reference, but they would appear
to refer also to the extinct sun-worship of the eastern nations.
And here in England it is also believed by many that it is to the
sun-worship of our forefathers, whether as Druids, as converts to
Roman pantheism, or as Scandinavian pagans, that we owe the
deep-rooted veneration for the eastern aspect in church-building
and ritual.

While the pious Hebrew saw in the glorious sun rising “like a
giant to run his course,” only the most magnificent of God’s
created agencies, our rude forefathers saw a god himself; and it
was but natural that sun-worship should be a leading feature in the
religion of the dwellers in the cold north, for to them the sun’s
genial influence was of the utmost importance ; and no wonder
that they should worship the most glorious and beneficent object
with which they were acquainted, and we suppose that a special
time for their adoration was when after a night of coldness and
gloom the bright orb again showed himself upon the horizon.

It is recorded that at the winter solstice, when it appeared as

61

if the sun were leaving the earth to an icy death, there were
twelve days sacrifice to induce him to return; and the solstice
being passed, they lit up their yule fires and rejoiced over his
welcome return. These fire rejoicings, like other old pagan
customs, were seized upon by the early teachers of christianity and
turned into christian customs, that being an easier expedient than
their total annihilation. In this way the sun-worshippers’ yule-fire
became a christian festivity with a new signification attached to it.
The Saxons, we also know, dedicated one day in the week to the
sun, and we know it still as Sunday.

It is a curious reflection that when we speak of yule-tide, or put
on the Christmas yule-log, when we call the christians’ day of
worship Swvday, and when we take our places in church with our
faces towards the east, we unconsciously perpetuate reminiscences
of that old world sun-worship which moved to righteous indignation
the prophet Ezekiel when in his vision he saw apostate Hebrews
who had “turned their backs towards the temple of the Lord and
their faces towards the east, and worshipped the sun towards the
east.” ;

‘The policy of adopting pagan customs and christianizing them
was, the Venerable Bede tells us, ordered by Pope Gregory the
Great, when he sent his forty missionary priests to convert the
Anglo Saxons. “Idol temples,” he ordered, “are not to be
destroyed, but only the idols which are in them; let the fanes be
sprinkled with holy water and the altars consecrated by relics. If
these edifices be well built, it is desirable that they should be
converted from the worship of demons to the use of the true God ;
and since the people are accustomed: to slay oxen in sacrifice to
their gods, let this be turned into a christian solemnity; so that on
the day of dedicating a church, or on the festivals of the holy
martyrs whose relics may be there preserved, booths of green
boughs may be erected round these same churches, and christian
. Tites be celebrated. By retaining these outward forms of rejoicing
you will more easily bring the people to participate in spiritual
joys.”

Here we evidently come upon the origin of ‘Chapel Sundays,”

62

‘“‘Rush-bearings,” and other annual village feasts, hardly quite
extinct even now.

Under such a policy as that of Gregory the Great, no wonder
that the old veneration for the east as the point to which prayer
should be directed should not only be allowed, but in accordance
with the same feeling coming from the Latin churches, be firmly
established, and the principle of orientation become universal.

We sometimes hear the opinion hazarded that it is to the
Crusaders’ veneration for the east, as the position of Jerusalem, we
owe the eastward position of churches; we have seen, however,
that the principle of orientation was fixed centuries before the
Crusades took place. Besides, Jerusalem is not east, but south-
east, of England; and the famous Temple Church in London
built by the Knights Templars, does not point south-east to Jeru-
salem, but is set ten degrees north of the true east; clearly
proving that the Knights Templars did not regard the geographical
eastward position of Jerusalem in placing their church, but set it
to the typical east, as indicated by the rising sun.

In the building of a superior class of churches—whether these
were monastic, cathedral, or parochial—the highest constructive
talent was employed, and that was found amongst the various lodges
of Freemasons. Freemasonry then was by no means identical with
the society bearing that name at the present time; the old free-
masons were the hard thinkers and workers of their time; with
them lay the mysteries and secrets of constructive art, which they
guarded with the most vigilent care from the uninitiated. I have
no doubt, however, that these secrets related principally to only
such technical knowledge of science and art as any studious youth,
any builder’s apprentice, may now acquire if he is so disposed.

That one of the freemason’s secrets was the knowledge of how
to fix the true eastern orientation of a church, may, I think, be
inferred from the fact that generally the superior churches are set
as near as may be true east. It may also be inferred from a
curious event well authenticated, that in the eleventh century a
certain Bishop of Utrecht was killed by the father of a young free-
mason from whom the prelate had extracted ‘“‘the mystery of laying

63

the foundations of a church;” the mystery is termed “arcanum
magisterium,” which appears to indicate that it was a secret known
only to the master of the lodge. Now, one cannot well imagine
that there could be any secret of a constructional nature about the
foundations of a church that it would be possible to keep from the
eye of the uninitiated, and I think we may fairly infer that the
revealed mystery was the art of determining the true eastern
orientation ; if so, it was a miserable bit of knowledge to cost the
life of a bishop. While, however, large and important churches
are generally found to be set as near as may be due east, ordinary
parish churches are found to have a great variety of orientations.
A group of eighty-seven churches in Cumberland and Westmorland,
the bearings of which I have ascertained with sufficient accuracy
for the purpose from the Ordnance maps, range from 12° south
to 40° north of the true or equinoctial east. ‘The group comprises
only ancient fabrics, or churches, known or believed to be re-built
upon the lines of an original church. St. Andrew’s, Penrith, is a
case in point; for though, unhappily, no vestige of stone or record
of pen or pencil is left to tell what old St. Andrew’s was like, its
noble old tower remains to certify that in the present fabric the
original orientation has been preserved.

The accompanying table shows the great variety of orientations
in the group of churches; and to account for the diversity, I
venture to suggest that, as before mentioned, while the superior
churches were set out by the more skilled lodges of freemasons to
point due east, other church-builders preferred the traditional
method of setting the church to the rising sun at the time they
commenced to work ; and as in our bleak north country, and in
the absence of made roads, they would naturally commence
building in spring or early summer, that circumstance would
account for the great variety of orientation.*

* Some months after reading this paper, a singular confirmation of the theory
suggested appeared on the walls of the Royal Academy’s exhibition, in a picture
by John Pettie, R.A., entitled, ‘‘Site of an Early Christian Altar.” The
artist’s explanation of the subject is given in the catalogue as follows :—‘‘ The
method adopted in fixing the orientation of churches has been preserved in some
of the Scotch lodges. * ~* The site of the altar was decided upon and marked
by a pole fixed in the ground. - * The sun’s rays appearing above the horizon
fixed the line of orientation.” —Zawrie’s History of Freemasonry.

64

There is a record by a contemporary monk of the building of a
priory church in Anglo Saxon times, in which he tells us that in
the winter they provided the iron and timber and utensils that
were wanted for a handsome church, and zm the spring a firm
foundation was laid and the work proceeded with.

There are several interesting matters detailed in this record of
the monk of Ramsey, but the only one illustrating my subject is,
that the work of setting out the church was deferred until the
spring.

I am sorry not to have been able to obtain the orientations of a
group of country churches in the south of England, but I am in-
formed by an authority that they are very various. I did, however,
ascertain the orientations of twelve old churches in Yorkshire, and
found the same variety of bearings, but with a larger proportion
south of true east. This is also the case with the ancient churches
of London, which, however, in consequence of the devastations
of the great fire of 1666 and subsequent rebuildings and demol-
itions, are not numerous. Guided by reliable authorities, I have
been enabled to identify on the Ordnance map some thirty churches
as either original ancient churches, or in which some part of the
old church is incorporated, together with a few other rebuilt
churches which there is reason to believe were built on the old
lines. The orientation of this group may be briefly summarised
as follows :—Zrue East, none. South of East, 2° to 10°, twelve
churches; 10° to 20°, fourteen churches; 20° to 28°, four churches.
North of East, 2° to 10°, six churches ; and four churches respec-
tively 20°, 30°, 41°, and 43°; 2¢., thirty churches set from 2° to 28°
south, and ten from 2° to 43° xorth.

There were also a large number of city churches rebuilt since
the great fire, upon the sites of the destroyed fabrics, of which
there is no certain evidence that they preserve the original orient-
ations ; but they nevertheless present very much the same variety
of bearing as the group I have summarised.

On comparing the general orientation of these London churches
with our northern group, we observe that while the former are
principally south, the latter are worth, of true east ; indicating, on

Pe ae a oat OS

65

the sunrise theory of orientation, that the builders in the south
were, on account of the milder character of the climate, able to
commence building operations much earlier in the spring.

At first sight it may appear, that not sunrise orientation, but
proximity of streets, influenced the peculiar and varied positions of
the city churches ; but I submit that at the early period of most of
these churches’ foundation, in Norman or even earlier times, that
cause could not exist. For the most part, I should say, the
churches were built in open ground, and the streets took their
direction ; and so gave rise to the great irregularity and obliquity
of the old streets. A curious example of this is evident in the
case of St. Bartholomew the Great, in Smithfield, an interesting
original Norman priory church, built outside the city walls in
the open fields with the extraordinary orientation of 40° north
(z.é. midsummer orientation), and that bearing has evidently ruled
the direction of the streets subsequently formed in its vicinity.

The ancient churches of the two archiepiscopal cities of Canter-
bury and York present a remarkable contrast in their respective
orientations. .

In Canterbury all the old churches—thirteen in number—are
oriented south of east; the most eastern is Saint Martin’s (the
oldest and most historical church_in England), it is 7° south, the
Cathedral 8°, the rest ranging 9, 18, 23, 26, 28, 28, 31, and three
at 39 degrees south, the latter being midwinter orientations.

In York all the old churches—twenty-five in number—are, with
one exception, set zorth of east, beginning with the Minster, 3° north,
they range gradually up to 43° north, that being midsummer
orientation. The exception referred to is that of St. Michael-de-
belfrey, within the Minster precincts, and is set 37° south: the
reason, however, for giving it that position appears evident—the
church was entirely rebuilt in the late Perpendicular period when,
probably to disengage it as far as possible from the Minster, it was
set close up to and in a line with the adjoining street.

The cathedral city of Norwich (exactly half-way between Canter-
bury and York as to latitude) has its thirty-four old churches set

both north and south of east, but with the larger proportion north,
5

66

and with a greater number due east, or nearly so, than is usually
met with. They are as follows: eight churches within 4° each
way, or 4° N. and S. of east; the Cathedral at 6°, and nineteen
churches from 9° to 27°, all north of east; and four churches from
5° to 20° south of east.

There is a theory that churches were set to the rising sun on the
day of the saint to whom the church was dedicated. So far, how-
ever, as the group of churches in the table, and the twelve in
Yorkshire alluded to, can be taken as proof, this theory is without
any sufficient foundation. An examination of the table will show
that only in two or three instances of St. Marys and St. Michaels
set nearly true east is there even an approximation to the orient-
ation implied by this theory; while, on the other hand, we find
churches with the same dedications set at widely-different bearings.
It is also to be observed that while for the group of eighty-seven
churches there are only twenty-four patron saints, the festival days
of thirteen of the number are in the winter on days which would
give orientations much further south than any of the group.
Thus, St. Andrew’s day is, as every Scotchman, and I may
also say every Penrithian, knows, on the 30th of November,
when the sun rises about 40° south of true east; but instead of
that saint day orientation, we find six St. Andrews set from 4° to
22° north of true east; neither do I find on comparing the
dedications with the orientations of the large number of city
churches before referred to, that they lend themselves to the
saint’s day theory any better than do our northern group. I need
not, however, pursue the subject further ; a glance at the table will
show that the Patron Saint-day theory is untenable. I will only
further point out that, when we correct the dates of the saints’
days for the “old style,” by advancing them five to eleven days
further into the year, according to the early or late period in
which the church was built, even these occasional approximations
of saint-day to actual orientations will be very likely to disappear.

On the theory of the orientation being fixed by the rising sun,
a reference to the table will show the time of year when any
church in the list was commenced ; and on the supposition that

67

building would be commenced only in spring or early summer, we
have in the first column of sun-rise dates the time when each
church was set out.

Occasionally a slight difference of orientation may be observed
between the nave and the chancel of an old church, to account for
which some fanciful theories have been advanced. In “‘Brandon’s
Parish Churches,” plans of over sixty notable old churches in the
southern counties are given, most minutely measured and drawn,
and with every little peculiarity carefully noted; but in none of
them does this change of orientation appear; and from my own
observations also I am inclined to think that such cases are so
exceptional, that they do not justify the advancement of any
theories of general application: they were probably only the result
of careless setting out when a chancel has been re-built at a period
subsequent to the building of the original church.

To determine the true east without having recourse to celestial
observations by theodolite or other instrument is a very simple
operation. Like the well-known preliminary to jugging hare—first
catch your hare ; we must catch the sun and trust to his shining
for a few hours near noon, then upon a level piece of ground set
up a pole perpendicularly, or, as a neater operation, upon a sheet
of paper upon a level board fix a straight wire—say a knitting-
needle—at right angles, i.e., perpendicular to the board; from the
point where the pole or needle is placed describe at random a few
concentric semicircles on the north side of the needle, now observe
when the end of the needle’s shadow crosses the circles before
noon, and mark each point of intersection; repeat the operation
after noon, and draw a line from the point so marked on any one
of the circles before noon to the point of shadow intersection on
the same circle after noon, and the line so drawn will be true east
and west. As a check or an alternative, by careful observation
about noon mark where the end of the shadow just touches the
circumference of a circle without crossing it, then the shadow is
shortest and gives the true north and south; it is also twelve
o’clock by the sun, and a line drawn at right angles to the line of
the shadow is true east and west.

68

The deviation of a church from true east and west is frequently
made apparent to the eye by a sun-dial upon its southern wall,
when either the face of the dial is set at an angle with the wall to
be true east and west, or the “gnomon” or hand is set obliquely
so as to correct the erroneous orientation of the wall—this is so
with the dial on Penrith Church.

Closely allied to the orientation of churches is the application
of the same idea to the burial of the dead, from the earliest times.
Bourne, in his book on “Popular Antiquities,” quotes Cassalion, a
writer in the fourth century, as saying: ‘‘The faithful of old were
so observing of this ceremony of looking towards the east, that
they not only strictly observed it in their prayers when living, but
even when they were dead their bodies were placed with their
faces upwards in the sepulchre looking towards the east.”

The ‘“Giant’s Grave,” in Penrith churchyard, is perhaps as
complete an illustration of ancient sepulchral orientation as can be
found. It has a high pillar, surmounted by a cross, at each end
of the grave; the crosses, though much defaced, are still unmis-
takeably indicated. The grave has an orientation four degrees
more northerly than the church ; and, if set to the rising sun, the
burial took place either about the end of April or the middle of
August. The grave having an orientation distinct to that of the
church, appears to indicate a greater antiquity than that of the
original church, which, if then built, would have naturally ruled
the orientation of the grave.

Although more remotely connected with our special subject, the
discredit attached to the ground on the north side of the church is
too curious to remain unnoticed ; our forefathers considered the
south side of the church as the only properly sacred ground. That
at the east end and at the west end might in case of necessity,
arising from over-crowding, be ventured upon ; but the north side
was in every way diabolical—the haunt of evil spirits, and the
place of burial for the unbaptised, the excommunicated, and the
suicide. The history of any old churchyard in a sparsely-populated
place will illustrate this; we may still find instances where the
ground on the south side of the church is crowded with graves,

69

while the north side is entirely unoccupied, or only beginning to
be used.

At Crosthwaite, the church of my boyhood, I remember when
there were only two or three graves on the north side, and they
were quite recent ones; while the south side was indecently
crowded. Nobody liked the “back of the church,” as it was
called. The graves seemed to be advancing stealthily northwards
towards the ill-favoured region, as if supported and backed up by
the much good company on their south side, until at length some
persons of distinction—Southey for one—were buried there, and
then the evil charm was broken, that part of the ground rapidly
filled, and additional space for burials had to be procured.

A remarkable relic of this old superstition may be seen in a
window of the north aisle of Crosthwaite Church, where a fine
specimen of ancient stained glass shows a priest holding in one
hand a “holy bell,” and in the other the “holy book,” evidently
engaged in the arduous duty of scaring away or keeping in decent
order the disreputable crew supposed to be outside.

The belief in the presence of devils and the efficacy of holy
bells must have been very general, since it was deemed necessary
in the reign of Edward VI. to enact that “all ringing of holy bells
to drive away devils should be forborne, and all ringing of knowling
bells save one before service.”

The discredit anciently attached to the north side of the church
is also illustrated by the existence of a small door in the north side
of old churches known as the penitents’ or devils’ door, which it is
said was set open during baptisms, for evil spirits, supposed to be
driven out by the holy rite, to find ready egress to their assigned
location. ,

A “Bell and Book” reminiscence, it has occurred to me, remains
in a perverted form in this town ; we have two hostelries of ancient
origin—the “Bell and Bullock » and the “Mitre ;” they adjoin
each other, and are in proximity to places still bearing ecclesiastical
names—the Church, Bishop-yards, Friarage, Abbotts’ Bank, Friar
Street (or Gate); and until recent years the hostelries were of

70

Bishophold tenure, pretty clearly indicating their original ecclesi-
astical connection.

The “Mitre” speaks for itself; and the sign of the “Bell and
Bullock,” I venture to suggest, is a perversion of the holy “Bell
and Book,” and perhaps even the word “bull” might have been
there indicating the Pope’s bull or sealed and certified benediction
of the bell; in this way the Bell, Bull, and Book might be the
ancestor of the modern “Bell and Bullock.”

While (as I intimated at the commencement) the subject I have
brought before you has no important practical bearing on modern
life, I trust, that the old world reminiscences ; the strange phases
of religious and social feelings in bygone times brought to our
notice by the subject; may have been of sufficient interest to
be worth the time you have given to it, and in some measure
compensate you for your patient attention.

ORIENTATION OF CHURCHES IN THE DIOCESE OF CARLISLE,

| DATES AND DEGREES

Group or Cuurcues, comprising Churches wholly or in part medizeval fabrics, having the original otientations indubitably preserved, tlese being indicated by an asterisk

€ original orientation has been
sle District.

*IKXiRKBY LONSDALE, S. Wary. *KIRKBAMPTON, S. Peter, *CROSBY-UPON-EDEN, S. ¥ohn. *StT. JOHN BECKERMET. *MILLOM, Holy Trinity. *KIRKLINTON, S. Cuthbert.

x

The degrees of orientations are obtained as nearly as may be from the 25 inch and 6 inch Maps of the
Ordnance Survey made 1856-63, and will not apply to Churches re-built since the Survey, unless re-erected
upon the old lines. -

Churches re-built on sites of ancient fabrics known or suspected of being changed as to orientation,
and post-Reformation Churches of new foundation, have, when known, been omitted.

The East and West points of the Ordnance Maps (identical with the top and bottom marginal lines
of the sheets) are set to the true or sun’s meridian, the magnetic meridian not being recognised.

The left-hand column of the Table is introduced to facilitate the enquiry how far sun-rise on
Patron Saints’ Days may have ruled the orientations of the Churches bearing their names ; but, to be exact
in this matter, the Saints’ Days should be corrected for o/d style, (see page 66), thus for a 12th century
S. Cuthbert’s church the Saint’s Day, March 20th, would be our March 27th, and the orientation due to
it 4° north of east, while for a 16th century S. Cuthbert’s church it would be our March 3Ist, with

__ This Table, referred to in the Paper as comprising eighty-seven churchés, has, since the sheets were
printed off, been considerably enlarged by the addition of several important typical churches.

PATRON SAINTS Days, OF ORIENTATIONS, preceding the name. The remainder are Churches re-built on the sites of ancient foundations, there being no reason to suppose that th
on the lines of Orientations SLES STEER departed from. ABBREVIATIONS : Duplicate names are distinguished by C, for Cumberland; W. for Westmorland; Car. for Carli
pate Summer | Winter | of East. DEDICATIONS : ? indicates doubtful ; ++ lost or not ascertained. Abbreviated names, as Mag. for Magdalene, will be self-apparent.
Degrees
JUNE 2ist 433 NORTH OF EAST. MIDSUMMER.
|S, John Bap., June 24 -
|S. hl June29_.. .| June 13 | June 29} 43
S. Mary Visit., July 2 ellie debe ay Ze
|S. Margaret, July 20 ...| May 25] 5, 19 38
S. Mary Mag., July 22 Ese ee po LO! 37
S. James, July 25... we] 59 20] 5, 24 36
r as ay | co. SU 33 *EDENHALL, S. Cuthbert
» 7| Aug. 6 3° *GILCRUX, S. Mary. *CROSTHWAITE, W., S. Mary. *Croox, S. Catherine. IRTHINGTON, S. Kentigern.
|S, Lawrence, Aug. 10 Pl on kines 29 *KIRKOSWALD, S. Oswald. CROGLIN, S. Fohn Bap.
S. Mary Assum., Aug. 15 ...) ,, 28] ,, 15 25 CLIBURN, S. Cuthbert. *ALDINGHAM, S. Cuthbert.
: oy Fleas. i7/ 24 *BOLTON IreByY, A// Saints. RENWICK, Ad/ Saints. GREAT AsBy, S. Peter.
99) 25 | oy 19 23 *St. BrEs, S. Bega. *DIsTINGTON, tt STANWIX, S. Michael. ASKHAM, S. Peter or S. Columba ?
»» 23] 3s, 20 22 *AIKTON, S. Andrew. *BROUGHAM CHAPEL, S. Wilfred.
| ya 22ii| 195) 2a 21 *MELMERBY, S. Fohn Bap. *“LONGMARTON, S. Margaret. *DEAN, S. Oswald. *ARLECDON, S. Michael.
9. pp. eh 20 *PENRITH, S. Andrew, *GREYSTOKE, S. Andrew. *GOSFORTH, S. Mary.
rye By 19 *CROSTHWAITE, C., S. Kentigern. *ASPATRIA, S. Kentigern. *Ouspy, S. Luke, HARRINGTON tH
Fe OA ee 18 *ADDINGHAM, S. AZichad. *THurspy, S. Andrew. PATTERDALE, S. Patrick.
fo || as 23 17 *DacreE, S. Andrew. *MORLAND, S. Lawrence. *BOWNEsS, W., S. Martin. EMBLETON, S. Cuthbert.
| » 13] 5» 30° 16 *BRouUGH, W., 5S. Michael. *NEWTON ARLOSH, S. John. THRELKELD, S. Mary. BAMPTon, S. Patrick.
| 33) T2)|\9eps a 15 *ARBEY-TOWN, S. Mary. *NETHER DENTON, S. Cuthéert. DuFrron, 8. Cuthbert. CULGAITH, A// Saints. *BROUGHTON-IN-FURNESS, S. Mary Mag.
| Vi oo 2 14 *BONGATE, APPLEBY, S. Michael. *BoLTON, W., Al/ Saints, *MuncastTer, S. AZichael. WATERMILLOCK, All Saints.
ee Oily ae. 13 *Cuirton, 8. Cuthbert. *Suapr, S. Michael. *SHap Appey Ruins, 8. A/ary Magdalene. *UPPER DENTON, tt GREAT ORTON, +t
|S. Bega, Sep. 6 30 eels ee S| aoe 5 12 *DEARHAM, ++ *BuRTON, 8S. James. *ST. BRIDGET, BECKERMET, Old Church. MUNGRISDALE, 8S. Mungo.
| Old Lady Day, April 6 nal eae WS og II *BricHaM, S. Bridget. Lazonsy, S. Vicholas. GREAT MusGRAVE, S. Theobald. Haire, S. Thomas A’ Becket? *Urswick, S. Michael.
S. Mary Nativ. Sep. 8 FA leet Sill ere ke Io *BROUGHAM, S. Ninian. *BROMFIELD, S. Mungo. PLUMBLAND, S. Cuthbert.
| Say a 9 *SEBERGHAM, S. Mary. *CROSCANONBY, S. Fohn. *EGREMONT, S. Mary.
ag PN org BE 8 *OrtoN, W., AM Saints. *GREAT SALKELD, S. Cuthbert. *HAyTon, Car., S. Mary Mag. Lorton, S. Cuthbert. Brampton, Old Ch., 8. Martin.
Mch.31| ,, 13/8 7 *DausTon, S. Michael, KIRKBRIDE, S. Bridget, *ToreENHow, 8. Michael. *Moressy, S. Bridget.
5) DI) 14 3 6 *APPLEBY, S. Lawrence. “KIRKLAND, S. Lawrence. *KIRKBYTHORE, S. A/ichael, *WHITBECK, N. Mary.
57) 28) ast ad 5 J
Pee All sree tif 8 4 *CrosBy RAVENSworRTH, S. Lawrence. *ISELL, S. Michael. *BEAUMONT, S. Mary. *SCALEBY, Al/ Saints. *LANERCOST ABBEY, S. Mary Mag. *BEETHAM, S. Michael.
S. Mary Annun. March 25 ...) ,, 25] 5, 19 S 3 *BaRTON, S. AZichael. *CAMERTON, tt HESKEY-IN-THE-FORES?, S. Mary. TEMPLE SOWERBY, S. Fames.
i 2 pn 20 2 *CARLISLE CATHEDRAL, S. Marvy, *KIRKBY-STEPHEN, S. Stephen. *ALLHALLOWS, Al] Saints. *MILBURN, S. Cuthbert. *LAMPLUGH, S. Michael.
a PP a, Br 5 I *NEWTON REIGNY, S. John? CasTLe CARROcK, S. Peter, *BooTiE, 8. Michael. *Cumwuirtton, S. Mary.
Ay PoC) ag, BAIA VO TRUE EAST—*SKeE ton, S. Mary. *BRIDEKIRK, S. Bridget. *WARWICK BRIDGE, S. Leonard. *Corney, 8S. Fohn Bap. *ULverston, 8. Mary.
| S. Cuthbert, March 20 Pealliesf 120i ssh 24 I a *WETHERAL, Holy Trinity. *BASSENTHWAITE, S. Bridget.
| S. Ninian, Sept. 25 ... alll rp 23 pp 2S 2 ¢|*Lowrner, S. Michael. *Wuicuam, S. Mary. *WorkincTON, S. Michael. CARTMELL Priory Ch., S. Mary.
| S. Patrick, March 17... sell fy OKO] Gy 243 3 a *Warcop, 9. Columba. AINSTABLE, S. Michael. *PoNSONBY, ++
S. Michael, Sept. 29 ... peal mes bil ess) 229) as *KENDAL, Holy Trinity. *ORMSIDE, S. Yames.
Ia | Octamer 5 =| *CaLpBEcK, S. Kentigern. “NEWBIGGIN, W., S. Edmund.
oy HN a 2 6 t5| *BurGH-By-SAnps, S. Michael, *HEvERSHAM, S. Peter.
Uo 5 8 =|*Wesrwarp, §. Mary? *CLeaTorR, S. Leonard. *Lirrie Assy (ruins), S. Leonard.
S. Bridget, Oct. 8 ... Alen COA eS Io | *ULDALE Old Ch., S. Yames. *FARLAM Old Ch., S. Zhomas a Bechet.
Old Michael’s Day, Oct. 11...) 5, 3) » 12 12 | *BrwcastTLe, S. Cuthbert. “GRINSDALE, S. Kentigern. NOTES REFERRING TO THE TABLE.
| S. Wilfred, Oct. 12 ... Salo ci} poe 13
S. Oswald, Feb. 28 ... ...| Feb. 28] 5, 14 14
S. Luke, Oct. 18 Loe val on Al pp 17
All Saints, Nov. 1... ee OH Nova ed 26
S. Leonard, Nov. 6 ... 2 eee G) ll, oO 28
S. Martin, Nov. 11 ... ...| Jan. 31] 5, II 3t
S. Mary Espous. Jan. 23. ....| 5, 23] » 19 35
S. Edmund, Nov. 20... wall py 2 oor 9) 36
S. Columba, Nov. 24... eal ap ON ogg 23 37
| S. Catherine, Nov. 25 soll ay LU~N Ba #225) 38
S. Mungo or Kentigern, Jan.13] ,, 13] », 28 39
S. Andrew, Nov. 30 ... Ale Tye 1.00) gee 802 40
S. Nicholas, Dec. 6 ... lt Ay 13 |) De 41 ‘ 3 ;
S| Mary/Concep DearS ll 3 ail ay 9 42 orientation 7° north of east.
S. Thomas A’Becket, Dec. 29
S. John, Dec. 27 an eee| EC ZONA: 43
S. Stephen, Dec. 26 ... ..| DECR. 21st 434

SOUTH OF EAST. MIDWINTER. _S. Cuthbert’s, Carlisle, the church referred to in page 63 as being 40° north of east is now omitted, the
originality of its orientation being found doubtful.

TS

ADDENDA TO “ORIENTATION OF ANCIENT CHURCHES,”

IF the early church Jails could be credited with the kuowledge of the
magnetic needle, the variety of church orientations might to some extent be
attributed to its use, because the needle itself has varied considerably at different
times. The earliest record of its variation is in 1576, when it was 11° east of
true north ; in 1662 it was true north; then it gradually went to the west until
1804, when it was 24° west; since then it has been returning towards the true
north, and is now, for this longitude 20°, and for that of Norwich 17°, west of
true north, I do not, however, believe that the early church builders used the
needle, or even knew of its existence ; but if they did, and its variations were
the same before 1576 as since, the use of the needle would account only for
48° degrees of variation, whereas on collating the orientations of the cathedral
city churches (pages 64-5) and those of our own diocese, we find a range of 80°,
in short they are spread over the entire range of the sun’s eastern amplitude,
proving, I think, that to sunrise between winter and summer, and not to the
limited variations of the magnetic needle, is due the great variety of church
orientations.

In Notes and Queries, August 29th, 1885, appears a quotation from a French
author attributing the origin of the eastern position in prayer, and the conse-
quent orientation of churches, to the belief of the early christians that the
terrestrial paradise in the garden of Eden was in the east, and ought to be
turned to in prayer. This tradition is likely enough to be true of the early
christians of Palestine and the southern parts of Christendom, and furnishes an
additional illustration of the temporising policy by which pagan observances,
instead of being eradicated, were converted into christian ritual and clothed in
Biblical dress ; thus the reverence for the region of the rising sun was transferred
to the supposed position of the terrestrial paradise.

Now if this tradition had reached the early church builders of Britain, and
ruled their church orientations, we should expect to find all their churches set
from 26°% 30° south of east, that being the direction of Palestine and its
eastern regions ; or lacking sufficient geographical knowledge to arrive at that
result, they would surely have adopted some one eastern point—naturally the
true east—as an ideal position of the garden of Eden ; we cannot well suppose
they believed the terrestrial paradise to be at all points wherever the sun rose
throughout the year. The French author’s theory therefore leaves untouched
the problem of the great diversity of English church orientation.

In addition to the notices of churches in cathedral cities, it has been ascels
tained that in Exeter the cathedral alone is south of east 6°, and all the ancient
churches from 4° to 39° north of east.

71

TRILOBITES OF THE SKIDDAW SLATES.

By J. POSTLETHWAITE, (f.G._s.

(Read at the Bowness Annual Meeting. )

I believe the earliest record of the discovery of Trilobites in the
Skiddaw Slates occurs in the “ Quarterly Journal,” for November,
1866, in a note by Mr. Salter, “‘on two new species of Trilobites.”
One of these, Phacops nicholsoni, was a Skiddaw Slate specimen,
found by Professor Harkness on Whiteside, about five miles west
of Keswick.* Ten years later, Mr. J. Clifton Ward’s “‘ Memoir
of the Geology of the Northern Part of the English Lake District”
was issued, containing an appendix by Mr. Etheridge, in which
four trilobites from the Skiddaw Slates are described, namely,
Niobe doveri, sp. nov., Zglina sp., Asaphus sp., and Cybele ovata,
sp. nov. ‘The first three are from the cabinet of Mr. W. Kinsey
Dover, and are figured on plate 12; but the last, which was found
by Mr. Birkett, at Sandy Beck; south of Cockermouth, arrived too
late to be included in the plate. Since the publication of Mr.
Ward’s memoir, a number of trilobites have been found in the
Skiddaw Slates by various collectors, differing in some points from
all known forms. Some of them resemble J//enopsis thomsoni,
(Salter’s ‘‘Monograph of British Trilobites,” p. 213, plate 20,) in

the widely-divergent and deeply-cut axal furrows, reaching to the

front of the carapace, and in the short pointed and grooved pleure,

* The discovery of Trilobites in the Skiddaw Slates is also mentioned in

Murchison’s ‘‘Siluria,” p. 146.

72

but differ from it in having a comparatively-flat glabella, whereas
Mr. Salter’s specimen is remarkable for its convexity.

The features of trilobites on which authors chiefly base their
classification, are the perfect or imperfect development of the eye,
the form and position of the facial suture, the number of body
segments, and the relative size of the pygidium. In our Skiddaw
Slate specimens, the eyes and facial sutures are either indistinct or
altogether absent ; therefore, any classification, if attempted, must
be based on other features; but, as the materials at hand are
meagre and imperfect, it would be premature to name or to classify
them until we obtain a larger assemblage of their fossil remains,
I shall, therefore, merely group them together in the following
order, namely :—

A. Trilobites having the thoracic portion of the axal furrows
more or less curved, caudal shield doubtful or altogether absent.

B. Forms having the thoracic portion of the axal furrows more
or less curved, and a well-developed caudal shield.

C. Those having the axal furrows straight, except the outward
curve near the margin of the carapace, and the rounded posterior
extremity of the axis ; a caudal shield being present.

And I shall distinguish each specimen by a number instead of
a name.

Group A. No. t.

The body is broadly ovate, tapering slightly towards the caudal
extremity; the entire length is eight-tenths, and the width six-tenths
of an inch; axis, narrow; pleure about one-half wider than the
axis. Cephalic shield short and broad, the glabella expands
slightly towards the front margin, which is well rounded, and the
upper, middle, and basal lobes are well developed. The cheeks are
ornamented with lateral ridges and furrows, in a line with the lobes
and furrows of the glabella; axal furrows clearly defined, eyes
indistinct. The axis expands slightly from the posterior margin of
the glabella to the middle of the thorax, and then tapers gently
towards the tail. There are nine thoracic segments left, but

73

probably the number. may have been greater, as the remainder of
the thorax and pygidium are wanting, the outer shelly covering
having disappeared, but the size and shape are indicated by a
smooth surface on the slate. The first segments of the pleurze
curve backwards at the extremities, and the curvature increases
towards the pygidium, until at the ninth segment it commences
one-tenth of an inch from the axis. This specimen, which is only
a cast or mould in the slate, approaches very nearly in general
form, size, and structure to Cydele ovata, the principal difference
being that our specimen shows no trace of the upward curve at
the extremities of the pleurz.

Locality—summit of Skiddaw. The specimen was found by a
lady tourist, who having climbed to that elevation with much toil
and fatigue, wished to carry away some memento of her exploit,
and picked up a piece of slate for that purpose, near the base of
the pile of stones which marks the highest point. Looking at it
closely, she observed what she supposed to be a shell, and on
returning to Keswick, submitted it for examination to Mr. Birkett,
assistant-curator of the Museum of Local Natural History, and he
induced her to place it in the museum. The locality is within the
area over which the metamorphic action of the Skiddaw Granite
extends, and the slate contains numerous well-developed crystals
of chiastolite.

Group A. No. 2.

This specimen consists of the impression of a large and very
beautiful trilobite, representing part of the left pleurz, axis, and
pygidium, in a fair state of preservation, but the remainder of the
body is partly imperfect, partly covered by overlying slate, and
partly obliterated. The thoracic portion of the axis is faintly

_ rounded, and measures an inch and nine-tenths in length, and an

inch and a half in width; it appears to maintain its width to the
third segment, and then to taper rapidly towards the pygidium ;
the right axal furrow is partly covered, but the left is clearly
defined. Body segments, eight, smooth and well-rounded ; thoracic
portion of pleure about half the width of axis, segments pointed

v4

and curved upwards at the tip, and along the middle of each there
is a deep furrow. ‘The pygidium is obscure, except the left margin,
which consists of segments similar to those of the pleure, but they
extend three-tenths of an inch beyond it, showing that this part of
the animal must have been unusually large. Cephalic shield
entirely obliterated.

Locality—Randel Crag, on the north-west side of Skiddaw.
This specimen is from my own cabinet.

Group A. No. 3.

This specimen consists of an incomplete impression of the
thorax and pygidium of a very peculiar species ; the three lobes
are of equal size, and each tapers rapidly to a point. The edge of
one lobe is broken off, but when complete, the entire width at the
front margin would be about six-tenths, and the length only four-
tenths, of aninch. Each lobe is well-rounded, and would probably’
have eight segments—the number cannot be clearly determined,
as they are filled up at the caudal extremity. There is no trace of
the head. If trilobites cast their shells at certain periods, like
crabs, this specimen may represent the dorsal portion of a cast-off
shell.

Locality—Outerside, on the north-east of Causey Pike. From
Mr. Dover’s cabinet.

Group B. No. i.

Body elongated oval, length eight-tenths, and width four-tenths,
of an inch. The cephalic shield, which is somewhat indistinct,
occupies nearly half the entire length of the body; the front
margin of the glabella is slightly pointed, and there is a small
triangular projection in the centre of the posterior margin, which
partly overlaps the first thoracic segment. The cheeks are small,
and the outer angle of the posterior margin seems to be furnished
with a minute spine. The front portion of the axis is three times
the width of the pleure, but it tapers with a rapid curve, and
terminates in a slender needle-like spine, which reaches nearly to
the posterior margin of the caudal shield ; there are eight segments

(i

on the axis, but five only appear to belong to the thorax, and the
remaining three to the pygidium. The segments of the pleure
curve faintly backwards, and increase in length towards the
pygidium, in proportion as the axis decreases in width, so that the
entire width of the body is maintained until it terminates in a
semi-circular caudal shield.

Group B. No. 2.

On the same fragment of slate there is the hollow cast of another
trilobite, about half the size of the one just described, and appar-
ently of the same species, as the general form and proportions are
alike in both.

Locality—Randel Crag. From Mr. Dover’s cabinet.

Group B. No. 3.

This specimen is a good deal distorted, especially the head.
Length six-tenths, and width four-tenths, of aninch. The glabella
appears to have been small, and almost circular, while the cheeks
are large, swelling out in front beyond the margin of the glabella,
which is rather depressed. The thorax and the pygidium are
slightly rounded and well-defined, axal furrows deep ; axis double
the width of the pleurz in front, and tapering to a point at the
caudal extremity; thoracic segments seven in number. The
body maintains its width nearly to the tail, caudal shield obtusely
pointed, and terminated by a small thread-like ridge, which extends
round the margin.

Group B. No. 4.

On the same fragment of slate there are the crushed remains of
another trilobite, apparently of the same species, but not more
than a third of the size. |

Locality—Buzzard Crag, on the north-west side of Skiddaw.
From Mr. Dover’s cabinet.

Group B. No. 5.

This is a very beautiful and almost-perfect specimen. The head
is nearly half the entire length of the body, well-rounded in front,

76

but a little narrower than the truncated pygidium; length two
inches and a tenth, width an inch and three-tenths. Glabella large
and baloon-like in shape; the eyes appear to occupy the greater
part of the cheeks, which are not more than one-eighth the size of
the glabella. The front portion of the axis is about three times
the width of the first segments of the pleurze, it then tapers with a
rapid curve nearly to the posterior margin of the caudal shield,
where it is considerably less than half the width of the opposite
end. There are six thoracic segments, the first two are straight,
but the remaining four are slightly arched. The posterior segments
of the pleure are almost double the length of the front segments ;
all of them curve gently backwards. The caudal shield is an
elongated oval, along the posterior margin of which there is a
raised rounded band.

Locality—Outerside. From Mr. Harrison’s cabinet.

The matrix in which it is imbedded is the light grey indurated
Skiddaw Slate which occurs at that place. If the slate had been
of the ordinary type the fossil would have disappeared long ago, as
the rock to which it was attached projected about eighteen inches
from the ground, and the fossil being on the upper surface, must
have been subjected to the abrading action of the weather for a
great length of time. I was in company with Mr. Harrison when
he found it, and had the pleasure of chiselling it from the rock.

Group B. No. 6.

General form oblong, tapering slightly towards the head ; length
fourteen-twentieths, and width eleven-twentieths, of an inch. The
axis is well-rounded, and is about one-third wider than the pleurz;
it maintains its width from the posterior margin of the cephalic
shield to the fourth segment, and then tapers rapidly to the
extremity, which is about one-twentieth of an inch from the margin
of the caudal shield: at that point its width is one-tenth of an
inch. The axal furrows terminate at the base of the cephalic
shield ; there are five thoracic segments, and five on the pygidium.
The head is imperfect, and the portion remaining is indistinct, but
it appears to have been very small; the glabella is baloon-like in

77

form, and there is a crescent-shaped furrow at the base; the cheeks
do not appear to extend outwards so far as the first pair of
segments ; eyes indistinct. The thoracic segments of the pleure
are very-clearly defined, they spread outwards horizontally from the

deep axal furrow, but curve backwards at the outer extemity. The
caudal shield is large and semi-circular, indeed it appears to be
nearly double the size of the cephalic shield ; the pleural segments
of the pygidium, as well as those on the caudal portion of the axis,
are fainter than the thoracic segments: the first three of the former
extend to the margin of the pygidium, but the remainder of the
*eaudal shield terminates posteriorly in a broad fascia’ of equal
width all round.

Locality—This specimen was found, I believe, by Mr. Ward,
placed on a large stone at the roadside, beneath White Pike. It
is imbedded in a fragment of the hard Skiddaw Slate grit which
occurs near that place. It now belongs to the Keswick Museum.

Group C. No. I.

General form oblong, tapering a little towards the tail; a small
portion of the front margin of the cephalic shield is wanting.
When complete, the length would be about three inches and
eight-tenths, and the width two inches and three-tenths. The
glabella is slightly convex and very large, occupying about three-
fourths of the cephalic shield; axal furrows curve outwards in
front of the cheeks, which are small and almost triangular in shape.

PP nig

The eyes are indistinct, but appear to be placed near the glabella,
about one-third of the distance from the posterior margin of the
cheeks. The axis is large, and tapers rapidly towards the caudal
extremity, the front portion being nearly double the width of the
pleure. There are eight thoracic segments on the axis, they are
well-rounded and quite straight near the head, but faintly arched
near the pygidium ; on the pleur they droop backwards, and the
evenly-rounded surface gives place to a deep furrow. The
pygidium consists of a large oval shield, along the posterior
margin of which there is a broad depressed band ; the remainder

*

78

. of the surface is slightly gibbous, but perfectly smooth, except
where the raised axis crosses it to the margin of the depressed
band.

Locality—This beautiful and well-preserved specimen was found
by Mr. Harrison at Randel Crag.

Group C. No. 2.

In general form this species is broadly oval, but the specimen is
so much weathered that its distinctive features are almost obliter-
ated. The oval disc and axis, however, are clearly defined.
Length three inches and four-tenths, and width two inches and-
seven-tenths. The axis is well-rounded; it measures one inch and
a tenth at the front part, and tapers to half an inch at the caudal
extremity, which is about two-tenths of an inch from the posterior
margin of the pygidium; on the front portion it shows distinct
traces of seven segments. Axal furrows deeply cut and quite
straight, except the outward curve at the margin of the carapace.
The head appears to have been unusually small, measuring only
half an inch from the front segment, but in all probability the
latter may have belonged to the cephalic shield, and the remaining
six would be thoracic segments. The distinguishing features of
the pleurze and caudal shield cannot be made out.

Locality—Randel Crag. From Mr. Harrison’s cabinet.

Group C. No. 3.

This is the largest trilobite that has been found in the Skiddaw
Slate formation, but unfortunately it is in a very imperfect state ;
the pygidium, right pleuree, and a part of the cephalic shield are
broken off; when complete, it would be at least nine inches in
length, and five inches in width. The general surface of the body
is faintly rounded, cephalic shield almost semi-circular in shape,
glabella large, and apparently devoid of ornament, except a faintly-
arched furrow at the base; axal furrows curve boldly outwards
from the base to the margin of the cephalic shield. The right
cheek has disappeared, but the left is clearly defined: it is about
one-fourth the size of the glabella, and in form resembles a gothic

j
&
4

79

arch ; the outer posterior angle is prolonged in the form of a small
spine. Near the glabella there is a large pear-shaped mark indi-
cating the position of the eye, which appears to have occupied
nearly a third of the cheek, Axis about one-third wider than the
pleure, and tapering gently towards the pygidium; there are
seven well-defined thoracic segments, and it is probable that the
number may have been eight : they are faintly-arched, and the
ends adjoining the axal furrows are well-rounded. The front
segments measure nearly half an inch in width, but they are a
little narrower towards the pygidium. ‘The segments of the pleure
correspond with those on the axis, and maintain the same curve,
they are also well-rounded at the end adjoining the axal furrow,
but are obtusely-pointed at the outer end.
Locality—Randel Crag. From my own cabinet.

The deposition of the slate at Randel Crag must have been
under conditions unusually favourable for the growth and develop-
of animal life, and also for the fossilization of their remains, as
many of the best-developed and most perfectly-preserved trilobites
and graptolites have been found there.

The fossil remains of trilobites differ very much from those of
the graptolites occurring in the same beds; the latter, when
obtained in relief, always consist of iron pyrites, which has replaced
the original chitinous shell of the organism, and the shell appears
to have been of equal hardness on every side; but the remains of
trilobites almost invariably consist of slate of the same type as
that in which they are enclosed, and it is the dorsal surface alone
that has been fossilized. It is evident, therefore, that the shell on
the ventral surface of the body has been of a very fragile character,
and that in almost every case it has perished, together with the
legs, swimming appendages, and internal organs of the creature,
the dorsal shell alone being sufficiently hard to retain its form
until the fine mud of which the Skiddaw Slate is formed became
* solidified above and beneath it ; hence, when the slate breaks up
along the bedding planes, we find a cast only of the whole or a
part of the internal or external surface of the shell. The shell

80

itself, which would probably be formed of carbonate of lime, has,
no doubt, in most cases, been removed at a later period, thus
causing an additional line of weakness in the slate, owing to which,
the subsequent exposure of the cast is very often due.

My best thanks are due to Mr. W. Kinsey Dover, Mr. Peter
Harrison, and Dr. Knight, Hon. Curator of the Keswick Museum
of Local Natural History, for their kindness in lending me speci-
mens; also to Mr. Goodchild, to whom I am indebted for the
drawings on the annexed plates, and for the diagrams used at the
Annual Meeting of the Association.

ILLUSTRATIONS OF TRILOBITES FROM THE SKIDDA
SLATES, drawn from the original specimens. By J. G. GOODCHILD.

The references within parentheses indicate those fossils referred to in Mr.
Postlethwaite’s Paper (pp. 71-80) On the ‘‘Trilobites of the Skiddaw Slates.”
The size of each fossil is denoted by the fraction next to the figure. *

1. Impression of Asaphoid Trilobite from ‘‘Skiddaw”; redrawn from the
original specimen figure pl. xii. of Mr. Ward’s Memoir. W. Kinsey
Dover Collection.

2. Upper and lower figures, Phacops nicholsont. Drawn from the original
type-specimen figured by Mr. Salter in Quart. Fourn. Geol. Soc. vol. xix.
Whiteside. Harkness Collection. :

3 and 4. Drawn from specimens regarded by Mr. Salter as the same species
as the last. ‘‘Skiddaw.” Wyatt Edgell Collection.

5. Weathered specimen of part of the thorax of a species of? Homalonotus.
Highside, Bassenthwaite. Harkness Collection.

6. (B2.) Randel Crag. W. Kinsey Dover Collection.

7. Agnostus morea. Drawn from the type-specimen figured by Salter.
0. F.G.S. xix. Ellergill, Milburn. Harkness Collection.

8. Agnostus sp. Ellergill, Milbum. Harkness Collection.

9. (A3.) Part of the thorax of a species of? Calymene. W. Kinsey Dover
Collection.

Io. (C3.) Randel Crag. Mr. Postlethwaite’s Collection.

11. (B4.) Buzzard Crag, North-west of Skidda. W. Kinsey Dover Collection.

12. @£glinasp. Redrawn from the original of figure 3, pl. xii. Mr. Ward’s
Memoir (where it is misprinted as Mode doveri). Great Knot, Randel
Crag. W. Kinsey Dover Collection.

13. Redrawn from the type-specimen of Miobe doveri, Eth. Screes below
Randel Crag. W. Kinsey Dover Collection.

14. (B6.) Beneath White Pike. Keswick Museum.

15. 4glinasp. ‘‘Skiddaw.” Wyatt Edgell Collection.

16, (B5.) Outerside. Cabinet of Mr. Harrison.

17. (Ar.) Summit of Skidda. Keswick Museum.

18. (B3.) Buzzard Crag, North-west of Skidda. W. Kinsey Dover Collection.

19. Cybele ovata, Eth. Figured for the first time from the type-specimen
described on p. 112 of Mr. Ward’s Memoir. Sandy Beck. 3 miles
S. of Cockermouth. Keswick Museum.

20. (B1.) Randel Crag. W. Kinsey Dover Collection.

21. (C1.) Randel Crag. Mr. Harrison’s Collection.

22. (A2.) Randel Crag. Mr. Postlethwaite’s Collection.

23. (C2.) Randel Crag. Mr. Harrison’s Collection.

The outlines figured 24-26 represent trilobites that are said to have occurred
in the Skidda Slates; but that could not be obtained for the purpose of the
present paper.

24, Ogygia selwyni ; 25, Zeglina binodosa ; 26, AB. caliginosa ; 27, Trinu-
cleus gibbsit.

* Further observations on these fossils will shortly be given by Messrs. Postlethwaite and
Goodchild, in the Proc. Geol. Assoc.

It is desirable that the following note by Mr. T. V. Holmes should appear
in the present number of the 7yansactions, while the subject referred to is fresh

in the minds of the readers of Mr. Kendall’s paper. [Ep1Tor.]

Dec, 1885.

28 Crooms HiIL1i, GREENWICH,
November, 1885.

Thanks for the sight of Mr. Kendall’s remarks. Considering the want of
available space in the 7ransactions this year, I am glad to find that there is no
urgent need to add anything to what I have already written. On the other
hand, I am sorry that Mr. Kendall has not enriched the Trans. Cumb. Assoc.
with the plate of sections given by him in Proc. N. Eng. Inst. Min. Eng., and
referred to by me in my paper last year, as it would have illustrated better than
many pages of writing the difference between our respective views.

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G. & T. Coward, Imp.

it.

Goodchild, fec

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G. & T. Coward, Imp.

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Goodchild, fec’

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PLATE III.

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~ G. & T. Coward, Imp
& T. Coward, Imp. J. G. Goodchild, fecit.
J. G. Goodchild, fecit, G. ;

81

POTSHERDS AND PIPKINS.
By R. S. FERGUSON, F.S.A.

(Presidential Address at the Bowness Annual Meeting.)

ANTIQUARIES have always afforded a good deal of amusement to
other people, for which I doubt if those other people have always
been properly grateful; and the collections we form, from Don
Saltero’s museum downwards, have served as the whetstones for
many persons’ wits. Sir Walter Scott, himself an antiquary rather
than an archeologist, has ridiculed us delightfully in one of the
best known of his novels ; and Burns has described Captain Grose
as having taken up ‘“‘the antiquarian trade,” of which the poet
makes out the stock-in-business to be

A fouth o’ auld nick-nackets,
Rusty airn caps and jinglin’ jackets,
And parritch pats and auld saut-backets.

The porridge pot business is at the bottom of a good deal that
I shall say to you to-day. It is evident that before you can
make porridge, you must have a pot of some sort, of earthenware
or of metal; and that without one, you would have to be content
with cold “crowdy,” made in a bag, or in a wooden bowl, or a
bison’s horn, unless you could warm up the mess by help of a red
hot stone.

For my present purpose, I must go back into the very early
history of man in this country. I dare say you have heard

6

82

of the division of time into the stone, the bronze, and the iron
ages. In the first of these, man was ignorant of the use of metal,
and his only implements for war, for the chase, or for domestic
use, were of wood, stone, bone, or shell. To this followed the
bronze age, when man had advanced to the knowledge of weapons
and implements of bronze; these did not wholly supersede stone
weapons and implements, for the poor man would continue to use
the cheaper articles. Next ensued the iron age.

The stone age is again subdivided into two periods,—the earlier
or palzolithic age, when man did not know how to grind or polish
a stone, but only how to rudely chip it to a rough edge—the later
or neolithic, when man knew how to grind and polish a stone.
The palzolithic age is again subdivided into two, the age of the
river-drift man and of the cave-man.

The river-drift man lived at a period when the whole of
this island, including Ireland, as well also as great part of
the North Sea, was dry land, and part and parcel of the
continent of Europe. His remains have been found not only
in southern Britain, but throughout western and southern Europe,
northern Africa, Asia Minor, and India, a distribution which makes
it certain his age—-the age of the river-drift man—was one of
great length. But he was a mere hunter, armed with rude stone
implements: he had no pottery, or we should have found his
potsherds, for they are as little lable to destruction as a fragment
of bone or of antler, The river-drift man was the contemporary
here in the winter of the reindeer, the lemming, and the musk-
sheep. In the spring, summer, and the autumn, he could here
hunt the stag, the bison, the urus, the pouched marmot, the
woolly rhinoceros, the mammoth, the wild boar, and the hare ;
but the lion and the spotted hyzena hunted him. He was a man,
endowed with all human attributes; he was not a monkey, or an
ape, though both English and French professors have suggested
that in the meiocene age some of the higher apes in France could
chip flints, and cut bones.

The river-drift man has perished entirely: he is as extinct as
as the mammoth or the dodo.

83

To the river-drift man succeeded the cave man, who was a
hunter, a fowler, and a fisher. His implements, of stone, were
superior to those of his predecessor; he was an artist, endowed
with the faculty of carving on ivory and other substances animal
forms with extraordinary fidelity, and many specimens of his work
remain to us. His range was much more restricted than that of
the river-drift man—from the Alps and the Pyrenees to Derby-
shire and Belgium, and eastward to Poland and Styria. He hunted
the reindeer, the horse, the bison, and the mammoth, the woolly
rhinoceros, the cave bear, the urus, the musk-sheep, and the
ibex. He is now represented by the Esquimos; and the cave
man probably disappeared from this country about the time that
it became an island, and when its climate changed from an arctic to
a temperate one. We know a great deal more about him and his
habits than we do about those of his predecessors: we have the
Esquimos to go to for explanation of what would otherwise puzzle
us. The cave man, again, had no pottery: we have his refuse-
heaps and his rubbish-heaps, and not a potsherd among them.
But we know how he did without them: we have the Esquimos to
tell us; and therefore we say that his vessels for holding water
were probably of wood, or skin, or horn. The horns of the bison,
the urus, and the musk-sheep would make eligible vessels. He
probably, like the Esquimos, made a rude vessel by cementing
pieces of stones together with a mixture of fat and lamp-black. .
Captain Cook saw the Esquimos using vessels made of a flat stone
with sides of clay, not unlike a standing-pie. In other instances,
they made a hole in the ground, and lined it with clay, or
they coated a wooden vessel with clay so as to make it stand
heat. No doubt the cave men knew these three simple dodges :
and here we have three ways in which pottery may have been
invented.

There are races of men even at the present, who have not got
even so far as this. The Veddas of Ceylon have no pottery ;
the Andamanese have none, and use shells and pieces of bamboo,
as water vessels. The Australians have none, and use vessels
of skin or of bark. The Maories of New Zealand have no

84

pottery, and use gourds. The Tahitians have no vessels but
of wood. The Patagonians use bladders, and the Fuegians
vessels of bark.

Of course people who have such vessels cannot boil their food :
they can only roast or broil it. If they want hot water, their only
way of getting it is by the use of heating stones, or ‘“‘pot-boilers.”

To the paleolithic caveman succeeded the neolithic man, who
could grind and polish a stone. They were a small, dark, long-
headed (dolicho-cephalic) non-Aryan people, who are represented
to the present day by the small swarthy Welshman with the long
head and Iberian physique ; by the small dark Highlander; and
by the black Celts in Ireland west of the Shannon; but of course
they have been much crossed with Celtic, Danish, Norse, and
English blood. These dark small men were herdsmen and farmers.
The researches of ethnologists and of archzeologists have added
much to our knowledge of them. ‘They lived in small tribal
communities normally at war with each other, like the Afghans
and the Kaffirs. I will give an account of a neolithic homestead.
Professor Boyd Dawkins says :—

If we could in imagination take our stand on the summit of a hill com-
manding an extensive view, in almost any part of Great Britain or Ireland in
the neolithic period, we should look upon a landscape somewhat of this kind.
Thin lines of smoke rising from among the trees of the dense virgin forest at
our feet would mark the position of the neolithic homesteads, and of the
neighbouring stockaded camp, which afforded refuge in time of need; while
here and there a gleam of gold would show the small patch of ripening wheat.
We enter a track in the forest, and thread our way to one of the clusters of
homesteads, passing herds of goats and flocks of horned sheep, or disturbing a
troop of horses or small short-horned oxen, or. stumbling upon a swineherd
tending the hogs in their search after roots. We should probably have to
defend ourselves against the attack of some of the larger dogs, used as guardians
of the flocks against bears, wolves, and foxes, and for hunting the wild animals,
At last, on emerging into the clearing, we should see a small plot of flax or
small-eared wheat, and near the homestead the inhabitants, clad some in linen
and others in skins, and ornamented with necklaces and pendants of stone,
bone, or pottery, carrying on their daily occupations. Some are cutting wood
with stone axes with a wonderfully sharp edge, fixed in wooden handles, with
stone adzes and gouges, or with little saws composed of carefully-notched

85

pieces of flint about three or four inches long, splitting it with stone wedges,
scraping it with flint flakes. Some are at work preparing handles for the
spears, shafts for the arrows, and wood for the bows, or for the broad paddles
used for propelling the canoes. Others are busy grinding and sharpening the
various stone tools, scraping skins with implements ground to a circular edge,
or carving various implements out of bone and antler with sharp splinters of
flint, while the women are preparing the meal with pestles and mortars and
grain rubbers, and cooking it on the fire, generally outside the house, or spinning
thread with spindle and distaff, or weaving it witha rudeloom. We might also
have seen them at work at the moulding of rude cups and vessels out of clay which
had been carefully prepared.

From this you will see that Professor Dawkins considers that
these long-headed neolithic men knew how to make pottery.

He describes their vessels as coarsely made by hand, and
composed of clay, in which small pieces of stone, or frag-
ments of shell, have been worked. They are brown or black
in colour, and very generally have had rounded bottoms ; from
which it may be inferred that they were not intended to stand on
tables, but were placed in hollows on the ground or the floor.
Sometimes they are ornamented with patterns of lines or dots.
And in these rude, ill-baked vessels, you have the germs of an
art which has culminated in the finely modelled and exquisitely
painted vases of the Etruscan Greeks ; the majolica ware of Italy;
the stone ware of Flanders and of Germany; the porcelain of
China and of Dresden; and of many other famous “fabriques”
and ‘“‘bottegas” which I have neither the time nor the knowledge
to enumerate, or to instruct you to distinguish between.

I shall confine myself to the four great divisions into which the
history of the Ceramic art of this country is to be divided— Zhe
Celtic, The Romano-British, The Anglo-Saxon, and The Medieval.

Tue Cettic AGE.

The greater part of the pottery that has come down from the
Celtic age is sepulchral in character, and it is divided into four
classes, which have been named “cinerary urns,” “incense cups,”
“food vessels,” and “drinking cups.” Now, it should be noticed
that all these four classes differ in a marked manner from the

86

fragments of domestic pottery found about the habitations. Both
are made of clay mixed with broken stone ; sometimes nearly half
the paste consists of broken stone—such stone as is usually found
in the neighbourhood—and varying in size from grains of sand up
to that of a pea. This was done with an object—to prevent the
unbaked vessel from losing its form, and to prevent its cracking
while it was being baked ; for these vessels have all been baked,
not in a kiln, but before an open fire. If they had been merely
sun-dried or sun-baked, as many writers have said, they would
long ago have returned to their constituent elements. They are
always hand-made, the potter’s wheel being then unknown. .

The difference between the sepulchral and the domestic vessels is
that the former are highly ornamented: the latter are plain and
strong ; they are also generally round-bottomed, which shows that
their owners did not use tables, and consequently did not use
chairs, They probably squatted on their hams, and placed their
vessels in hollows on the ground, and took their food from them
with their hands, or with a spoon of bark or of wood, or of shell.

From the character of the paste of which these utensils are
made, it is obvious they could not be used for cooking. If their
proprietors were acquainted with the art of heating water, they did
it by a “pot-boiler,” or large stone heated red hot in the fire, and
then dropped into the water. These stones are often found, and
are generally much cracked. They are used to this day in remote
parts in Scotland.

Now there is another fact we can gather about our Celtic friend
who used this pottery. He must always have had his milk tainted,
and as use is second nature, he probably liked it ‘‘gamey,” and
preferred it to fresh milk. Similar pottery is still made and used in
the Isle of Lewis, and called “craggans.” In consequence of their
porousness, the “‘craggans” generally contain organic matter in a
state of putrescence. When fresh milk is poured into a craggan,
it almost immediately becomes tainted, and thus where craggans
are much used, there is a difficulty in getting fresh milk, whose
taste thus becomes unfamiliar, and people soon get to like best

87

what they know best. This is what happens in the Lewis, and I
have no doubt was the case in the prehistoric ages.

I have shown you a little of what we learn from this pottery of
its owner’s domestic habits. Let us see what these potsherds will
tell us of their religion. -

His sepulchral vessels have been classified thus: cinerary urns,
incense cups, food vessels, and drinking cups; but this is purely
a conventional nomenclature, and you must be very cautious
about drawing conclusions from the names.

CINERARY URN.

1. The cinerary urns contain a deposit of burnt bones, and in
the museum at Carlisle there are some very fine examples, which
were found at Garlands, during the building of the large asylum

88

there. Their commonest shape is that of two truncated cones,
inverted one upon the other, so that the mouth is rather contracted,
and the upper cone, by overlapping the other, forms a deep rim
by which some think it is intended to be lifted. This overhanging
rim is the chief mark of the cinerary urns ; and it is probable that
when the jar was full, a piece of skin or of cloth was placed over the
mouth, and tied by a cord or withy under the overhanging rim.
In fact, its use is the same as that of the groove round the top of
a jam pot, only, the string or withy then used, would be much
coarser than that now used by ladies in securing their preserves.
Occasionally the urns have handles; for I doubt if the rim
would serve to lift them by without breaking.

The ornamentation of these vessels is worth attention: 7¢ zs the
very earliest dawn of art. Our present art has no connection with
the ivory carvings of the cave-men, but is to be traced from this
pottery. The ornamentation of these vessels has never been found
to exhibit any representation of either animal or vegetable life. It
consists principally of combinations of straight lines in an almost
inconceivable variety. The finger nails have frequently been the
only tools employed ; at other times a piece of hard wood or of
bone has been used, sometimes just a simple point, at other times
notched, or cut into alternately sunk and raised squares. Most
frequently a twisted thong has been used, sometimes of leather,
sometimes of some vegetable fibre, with two or three plaits. Curved
lines and circular marks occur, but the patterns are generally made
up of straight lines arranged in cross, zig-zag, chevron, saltire,
reticulated, and herring-bone fashion.

2. The second class is that of the incense cups. They
are very small vessels, from an inch to three inches high,
and from one inch to four in diameter. They are of very
various shapes, and frequently have holes in them, sometimes
as many as twenty-seven. ‘They are generally of finer clay and
more ornamented than the cinerary urns. They are only found
with burnt bodies, and sometimes inside the cinerary urns. They
were first called “incense cups” by Sir Richard Colt Hoare ; but

‘ANVINOWLSGM ‘NOLAITD Wowd (FV GNV € ssvI9d) sNun

39

———

LZ EE

90

their real use is: much disputed ; the most probable idea is that
they were chafers in which a piece of lighted touchwood was
carried for the purpose of igniting the funeral pyre: the holes
would cause a draft, which would keep the touchwood burning.

3 and 4. The food vessels and the drinking vessels are rather
hard to discriminate between: some are undoubtedly drinking
cups; others may be either. They exhibit great diversity of
form. ‘They contained some provision for the departed brother
on his unknown journey, and the fact that such provision
was made proves that the race who made this pottery—the
ancient Britons—had a belief in a future state. As we also
find weapons buried with the bodies, their notion of a future
state was that it probably was one like that the deceased had
just gone through, and in which he would again require his
weapons of war and of the chase, and would still wear his decor-
ations of beads and bones.

Before I leave this the first or Celtic period, I will recur to the
“‘craggans,” which I have before mentioned. These “craggans”
exactly resemble the domestic division of this Celtic pottery, which
is unornamented, and is better baked than the funeral stuff. The
craggans are made to this day on the Isle of Lewis, and Professor
Mitchell thus describes the making of one by a woman at Barras,
whom he engaged to show him the process of manufacture.

This she duly did. The clay she used underwent no careful preparation.
She chose the best she could get, and picked out of it the larger stones, leaving
the sand and the finer gravel which it contained. With her hands alone she
gave to the clay its desired shape. She had no aid from anything of the nature
of a potter’s wheel. In making the smaller craggans with the narrow necks,
she used a stick with a curve on it to give form to the inside. All that her
fingers could reach was done by them. Having shaped the craggan, she let it
stand for a day to dry, then took it to the fire in the centre of the floor of her
hut, filled it with burning peats, and built burning peats all round it. When
sufficiently baked, she withdrew it from the fire, emptied the ashes out, and
then poured slowly into and over it about a pint of milk, in order to make
it less porous. The craggan was then ready for use and sale,

This was no doubt the method employed by the prehistoric

91

women in making the pots I have here, only a litthe more care has
been given to the ornamentation.

And here Professor Mitchell administers a caution to archzeolo-
gists, which I will tell you. This woman at Barras lived in a
wretched hut, much such as the prehistoric Britons lived in. She
had in it cottons from Manchester, crockery from Staffordshire,
cutlery from Sheffield, sugar from the West Indies, tea from
China, and tobacco from Virginia, yet she used craggans, and a
quern, and spun wool with a wooden spindle on which was a
stone whorl. Now if you were to bury her, house and all, and
dig her up in a century or two, the cottons, the cutlery, the sugar,
the tea, and the tobacco, would have disappeared. Her bones,
her spindle whorl, her quern, and her craggans would alone remain,
and some of the Staffordshire crockery ; the antiquary who dug
her up would certainly conclude she was a prehistoric Briton, and
would say the Staffordshire potsherds were a later deposit. Yet
she was living in 1863.

Tue RoMANO-BRITISH.

The Potter's Wheel.—I now come to the second of the great
divisions which I mentioned to you—the Romano-British.

Vast quantities of pottery, unquestionably the production of the
Roman period of British history, are continually found in all parts
of the kingdom. Numerous potteries existed, some, as at Upchurch
on the Medway, of very large extent ; the very kilns in which the
ware was manufactured, have also been discovered in many places,
and it is certain that a large proportion of the fictile works used in
this country were also made in it; and that an export trade in
them existed with Gaul.

The pottery of this period differs in every respect—in shape, in
ornamentation, and in paste, from that of the preceding period.
The Romano-British potters knew also the use of the potter’s
wheel, which was unknown in the British period. I am unable
to tell you anything of the history of the potter's wheel. Its
Its invention goes back into remote antiquity ; I think I have seen
it on the walls of some of the tombs at Thebes. The Egyptians

92

certainly used it, and the Romans doubtless brought it here, by
way of Gaul. c

It consists of a circular disc, or solid wheel, revolving horizon-
tally. On this the “ball” of prepared clay or paste is placed, and
the “thrower,” as the workman is called, puts his thumb, or
his fist, into the middle of the clay, and forms the vessel by
hand, and by wooden or metallic guides. The rotation of the
wheel thus ensures the vessel being symmetrical in shape, that its
horizontal section is a circle. The wheels are now generally
driven by steam; formerly a boy or girl turned each wheel by
hand. But I fancy at first the potter himself worked the wheel by
a treadle, as one works a spinning machine, except that the wheel
would be horizontal and not vertical. I can’t tell you the history
of the potter’s wheel, or who invented it. But the inventor of the
treadle motion was one of the greatest benefactors mankind has
ever had. The potter’s wheel, the spinning wheel, and the lathe,
all depend on it.

The use of this machine gives a great superiority to the pottery
of the second period, and constitutes a marked difference between
it, and that of the first period. Another difference is in the paste:
the clay is carefully prepared, and the stones and sand are not left
in. When baked the paste is hard, and brittle, and sonorous ; it
is not porous, and the vessels are light and thin.

The commonest kind of Roman pottery, of which we find pot-
sherds, is the Upchurch ware from the great potteries on the
Medway, which extended for seven miles long by two or three in
breadth, and from which all Roman Britain, and part of Gaul, was
supplied with most of its kitchen pottery. This pottery is of a
fine hard texture, and generally of a blue-black colour ; sometimes
greyish-black, and sometimes drab: the colour is due to its
being burnt in smother kilns. The forms of these vessels vary
amazingly, and they are graceful and elegant. The ornament-
ation is mainly circles and semicircles, vertical and other lines,
raised dots, etc.

Another class of Romano-British ware is the Caistor or Duro-
brian, a blue-black ware made at potteries on the river Nen. It

93

bears figures of men and beasts, and various ornaments in relief.
They were put on in “slip,” that is, after the vessel had been
formed, or “thrown,” on the wheel, it was allowed to dry, and
then “slips” of the same paste, or of a white paste, were trailed
on from instruments and formed into figures. Hunting, gladiatorial,
and circus scenes frequently occur.

The Salopian ware was both white and light red, and there were
many other local varieties.

But the best known is the Samian ware, whose potsherds, from
their brilliant colour, attract the eye and are gathered up, where
the blue-black are overlooked. The Samian ware is of a delicate
texture, much like fine red sealing-wax. It is very brittle, and as
it was the ordinary Roman table-ware, this accounts for the abund-
ance of its potsherds. The vessels of it are generally bowls, cups,
and patere or dishes. Sometimes the vessels are quite plain; at
other times highly ornamented in relief, by means of stamps.
Borders of ivy leaves; of the egg and tongue ornament; of the
tassel and festoon; and of small patterns of foliage and flowers,
frequently occur. Mythological subjects are common; sacrifices,
religious ceremonies, processions, dances of bacchantes and satyrs,
combats of gladiators, sports of the amphitheatre, etc., are all
represented ; and from potsherds of Samian ware we can gather
much information as to Roman dresses, observances, and customs ;
and some indicate a very low tone of morality. On Samian
vessels we sometimes find reproduced celebrated works of famous
artists: thus on a potsherd of Samian ware, found in Carlisle,
Mr. Cory discovered a reproduction of the famous statue known
as the Venus de Medicis. Ona potsherd in the Carlisle museum
is a representation of the battle of the pygmies and the cranes,
In another is a spirited boar-hunt—a vast wild boar charges
a man on horseback, while a dog attacks the boar.

The potters who made this ware have generally put their stamps
on it, giving their names. A list of names found in England, to
the number of over 1000, was made by Mr. Wright, and new
names are daily added to it. From these names antiquaries

94

have been able to infer that this Samian ware was mainly made in
Gaul, on the banks of the Rhine.

We have proof that Samian ware was expensive in the fact that
fragments are often found, which have been broken, and mended
with leaden rivets by the Romans themselves. Such have been
found in Carlisle.

Another class of Romano-British potsherds consist of the frag-
ments of large jars, of a coarse grey or drab colour, which we
generally call amphore, or wine jars. But this name is incorrect,
or rather we include under it many large jars of which the serie
are the most common, while an amffora or its potsherds are very
rare. These serz@ were employed for many other purposes than
holding wine ; they were used to hold oil, honey, pickled salt fish,
sardines, figs, vinegar, dried meat, etc.

Another class of Roman vessels is the mortaria, which were
used in the kitchen for pounding vegetables in with a pestle.
They were shallow dishes, with a mouth at one side for drawing
off the water, and their potsherds frequently occur.

The multiplicity of potsherds that occur about a Roman site,
shows that the Romans must have used large quantities in their
houses. They used it largely in their kitchens, and for their table:
they used it where we use wooden casks, for wine, etc.; and they
also used it as receptacles for money and little articles, where we
use boxes, baskets, bags, and work-cases.

Did nothing remain to us of the Roman in Britain, but the
potsherds they have left behind them, yet those alone would tell
us much, We should know that they had made cookery one of
the fine arts, that their tables were luxuriously served ; we could
infer much as to their mythology and their religion, as to their
games and sports, their ceremonies, their dresses, and their furni-
ture. We should know, too, that concurrent with high refinement
and artistic culture, there existed a want of morality hardly con-
ceivable by us.

We should almost be able to recover the works of some of their
greatest sculptors. .

95

Tue ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD.

Of the pottery of the Anglo-Saxon period I have very little to
say. It rarely, if eyer, occurs here. In paste, form, and ornament,
it exhibits a falling off from the Romano-British period, and it is
hand-made, without the use of the potter's wheel. It is very
markedly different from the pottery of the first or British period.

The examples we have of Anglo-Saxon pottery are few, and
almost all cinerary urns. Our English ancestors mainly took their
food out of wooden or metal bowls, and drank out of horn or glass,
so that they required little pottery. They were a coarse-feeding,
hard-drinking race, who gorged themselves on ill-cooked meat, and
then got drunk on mead or beer, which was supplied to them in
buckets. Their drinking vessels are round at the bottom, so that
bumper glasses were the rule, and heel-taps not allowed.

Their cinerary urns accompany burials by cremation. They are
contracted at the mouth, and have a neck instead of the over-
hanging rim, which marks the Celtic period. They were hand-
_ made, and frequently have great knobs on the exterior ; also small
punctured ornaments, made by a stick cut and notched so as to
make a cross.

THe MEDIAVAL.

With regard to Medizeval pottery, in England, both in Norman
and Tudor periods, it consisted largely of bowls, and dishes, and
of pitchers ; the first being used for placing the cooked meat in,
the latter for holding and carrying wine, ale, mead, and other
liquors to table ; but these were made in no great abundance.
Other materials were in use: treen, or wooden trenchers, were
used by the poorer, and pewter by the wealthier. A garnish of
pewter—which was I beliéve thirty-six round plates of different
sizes—was a mark of respectability and position. For drinking,
silver and pewter flagons, mazers of maple wood, rude cups of ash,
and black-jacks of leather, were in vogue. Earthenware—such as
it was—was expensive, and was mounted with silver for those who
sat above the salt; as for those below, and as for servants, the

96

household book of the Duke of Northumberland in 1512 orders
that “/edder pots be bought for those serving for liveries and meats
in my lord’s house.” Thus in collections of medizval earthenware,
it is rare to find dishes or small drinking cups; they generally
consist of pitchers of various sizes and shapes, suitable for bringing
large quantities of liquor to table at once: even these are rare.

In regard to elegance of form and fineness of material, they
exhibit a great falling off from the manufacture of the Roman
period, when even vessels of the coarsest clay had a pleasing
effect.

Costrels, and cruces, and jeroboams, .and jacks, and kitties, and
greybeards are among the various names by which medizeval
pottery was known. The costrel was a bottle with ears on either
side of the neck, by which it could be slung with a string; a
cruce was a little drinking cup; the greybeards, or longbeards, or
Bellermines, were stone pots or jugs with a spreading belly and a
narrow neck, on the top of which was represented a rudely
executed face with a long flowing beard. These were called
Bellermines after the celebrated Cardinal Bellermine, who was
the object of much protestant satire; he was a short, stout, pot-
bellied man, of hard features, and he must have been ugly indeed,
if the portraits on these jugs are like him.

There is a broad distinction between the pottery I have been
describing to you, and the medizval pottery—that lies in the
matter of the glaze. The Celtic pottery is unglazed.

The Roman pottery found in this country is either, like the
amphore, unglazed, or is polished, which its hard paste admits of ;
or is glazed, like the Samian ware, with a coat of some sort of
glass, put on so thinly as almost to defy attempts to analyse it. It
is mainly absorbed into the ware, and leaves only a faint polish on
the surface.

Glaze is a covering or coating applied to porous ware to make
it capable of retaining liquids. And glaze is of two kinds—vitreous
or glass glaze, and plumbeous or lead glaze, both of which are trans-
lucent. Enamel or tin glaze is also used for the same purpose,
and is white and opaque. Copper also produces a brilliant blue

97

enamel. The use of copper for this purpose was known in Assyria
and Babylonia at a very early period; so was the use of tin; but
the art was kept a secret among the Eastern nations, and ulti-
mately became lost until rediscovered in Europe in the fifteenth
E century.

3 The use of the vitreous or glass glaze was well known to the
potters of the East, of Egypt, of Greece, of Etruria, and of Rome,
__ and was used by them on many of the noblest productions of the
; potter’s art. The Persian, Damascan, and*Rhodian wares are of
this class.

The plumbeous or lead glaze is the characteristic of medieval
pottery; it is made of silica with potash or soda, and oxide of
lead. It is generally green; and green-glazed ware may generally
be set down as medieval, but not always, as has been pointed out
by both Mr. J. E. Price, F.S.A., in his tract on “London Wall,”
_ and Mr. Wellbeloved in his ‘“‘Eboracum.” A remarkable instance
_ was found in building the gaol at Carlisle, fifteen feet below the
surface, and underneath Roman refuse. The process therefore
was known to and used by the Romans; but for all that, this
lead glaze is the medizval characteristic.

Now I propose to stop here. To bring my ‘“ Potsherds and
Pipkins” at all into an evening’s compass, I have had to lop off
many interesting branches. I have confined myself to the practical
—yvery much to the culinary uses of pottery; and for those uses,
and for funeral purposes, it was first employed. I have carefully
avoided the artistic and zsthetic aspects of my subject matter: I
don’t quite know where they would have led meto. I have had

no time to go into the pottery of the East, of Greece, or of
Etruria; and have refrained from mentioning Majolica; and I
have not even alluded to the marks on modern China. I have
stuck to my Potsherds and Pipkins, such as you may find in or
about Carlisle. I claim for Potsherds and Pipkins a higher value
than you may be disposed to give them. Sir Samuel Baker says,
“Nearly all savages have some idea of earthenware ; but the scale
of advancement of a country between savagedom and civilisation
may generally be determined by the examples of its pottery.”
7

98

“ Potsherds,” says another authority, ‘‘to the ethnologist are not
less valuable than the characteristic fossils by which the geologist
determines the ages of the relative underlying strata.”

Trivial as potsherds may seem, they are milestones, which mark
the progress of civilisation. Vast must be the gap, and vast is the
gap in point of culture between the maker of these rude cinerary
urns and the maker of a piece of majolica ware. And yet the one
is the parent of the other. And the rude marks on these urns are
the first dawn of our highest art. And if potsherds are the milestones
of civilisation, yet the art of pottery has contributed much'to help
civilisation. In the struggle for existence which goes on in the
animal world, the outcome is that the strong are selected for
survival ; the weak die out. This is the law of natural selection ;
and man is subject to that law, like all other animals. But with
that law of nature man in society continues to wage a successful
warfare; animals do not. The outcome of that war—a war waged
with nature to prevent her putting into execution in the case of
man her law of natural selection—is civilisation. And one great
way in which man defeats that law and keeps alive the asthmatic,
the bronchial, the rheumatic, the gouty, and the other pets of the
doctors, is by the art of cookery; and I think that I have shown
you that without pots cookery would be at a very low ebb, and
that those who had indifferent pots had but indifferent cheer.
Thus the potter’s art not only marks the progress of civilisation,
but is one of its most valuable allies.

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Hematite.

MAP OF THE FURNESS DISTRICT
to jllustrate the Paper on the
Herlatite Deposits of Furness hy

H. W. ScHneIper, Esq.

e geological lines are taken from
maps of the Geological Survey ;
the hematite deposits, shewn by
lack patches on the map, are
ced from a large scale map by
t/ Schneider.

Scale, One Inch to the Mile.

99

ON THE HAMATITE IRON MINES OF LOW
FURNESS.

By H. W. SCHNEIDER.

(Read at the Bowness Annual Meeting. )

In the Furness District the apparent irregularities of the strata are
beyond measure bewildering, and Professor Sedgwick and several
other eminent geologists have in vain attempted to solve the
difficulties they present. Theories, again, as to the origin of the
Heematite itself, are so various, and so irreconcileable with one
another, and with observation, that all is yet hazy and undeter-
mined. It is the object of this paper to contribute something to
the facts already accumulated, from which competent geologists
may deduce the conditions under which the Hematite has been
deposited. It is unnecessary to say that such a discovery would
render Hematite mining, which is now a matter of chance, a
science of certainty and exactitude, and by cheapening production,
would confer infinite benefit on the Furness District.

Whether Heematite be a water formation, or the result of
volcanic action, none can say. There appears, however, to be
one general law concerning it—and the only law which, up to the
present time, has been found consistent in working the Hematite
mines, viz :— That the largest masses of ore are found at the junction
of the Clay Slate and the Mountain Limestone. Yet these deposits
are so irregular in shape and position, that it would appear utterly
impossible to indicate any law regulating their formation.

Another point, however, deserves attention, viz:—That to the
south the Mountain Limestone dips below the New Red Sandstone, .
and to the S.W. beneath the shales and sandstones of the Yoredale
Rocks,

100

The Low Furness Hematite Ore District is comprised within a
very limited area, and is of a very irregular shape, as may be seen
roughly delineated on the map to illustrate this paper.*

In some cases the ore is merely covered by a few feet of drift ;
in others it is found in the solid limestone rock. In some places
the limestone rock surrounding the ore is perfectly free from any
stain of iron; in others there are thousands of yards of rock without
any appreciable quantity of ore, and yet every crevice and seam of
this rock is stained with the red of hematite:

The most ancient mine in Furness is Whitriggs. Here ore was
quarried near the surface, and smelted into iron in charcoal fires,
or Biscayan Bloomeries (similar to the method used in Spain,)
many years prior to the Reformation. ‘The earliest mine, however,
that in modern times has been profitably worked in Furness, is
Lindale Moor, belonging to Messrs. Harrison, Ainslie and Co.,
whose predecessors have worked this mine for a very long period.
In this mine the ore lies on the N.W. in close proximity to slate
rocks, and there is a solid mass of ore, with nothing but drift as a
cover, which extends in places from thirty to forty, fifty, and even
a hundred yards wide, and is some seven -or eight hundred yards
in length. This mass of ore was found for many fathoms in depth,
when it was apparently cut out by a bed of rock, and it was
supposed that the life of this mine was ended. But further investi-
gation in depth proved that this bottom of limestone was of no
great thickness, and ore was again found beneath it. As time
progressed, and improvements were made in the mode of working,
this large mass of ore was developed to the south, and at the
present time the mine, still producing an enormous quantity of ore,
is about a mile in length. But over its whole length and breadth
there is nothing to show any regularity of formation, or anything
to indicate any system by which further ore should be discovered.
In fact in this mine, as in all other mines in Furness, the discovery
of ore seems to be a mere matter of chance. It frequently appears
where least expected ; and where most expected, is not found.

[* See also the Geological Survey Maps 98NW. and SW., 99SE., 91NW.,
and the Memoir thereon. Ep. ]

101

‘In close proximity to the Lindale Moor is the Whitriggs Mine,

and to this the same remarks apply. There is nothing to indicate

with certainty the presence of ore. The search is made by driving
a heading across the apparent run of deposits, which is N.W. and
S.E., so that if there be ore it can scarcely be missed. Yet in
driving these headings, cases have arisen in which ore has been
discovered in veins of from only two to six inches wide, and there-
fore neglected ; and then perhaps years afterwards, when further
exploration has been made, large masses of ore have been found
on one or other side of the original drift, and have been missed
simply by a few feet.

The Whitriggs Mine, and the runs of ore in connection there-
with, and which cover many hundred acres, are still in working,
and hitherto no bottom has been found to the ore. The’ only
peculiarity of the mine is that the ore is found nearest to the
surface at the N.W., and deepest at the S.E.

Leaving Whitriggs, we traverse to the S.W. a country in which
the occurrence of ore is very irregular, and the mineral itself of
little value, until we reach a place called Mousell, where we come
upon one of the most remarkable phenomena of the district. Here
the ore is apparently of a different formation, and is found in the
limestone rock in holes of the form of a half-globe, with the
convex side downwards, and these pots are covered simply with
sand, and what is called “pinnel,” and with other gravelly matter.
In most cases the limestone surrounding these pots is on every
side perfectly free from any stain of ore. The Mousell district is
small, being only about two hundred acres in extent, and yet has
produced ore to the amount of several millions of tons. Large
quantities have been found so near the surface that, when some
five to fifteen feet of gravel has been removed, the ore has been

- extracted by open quarrying.

In direct line from Mousell we come to the great mines
of the district—Park and Roanhead. ‘The slate rock makes
a sharp turn, throwing in a kind of wedge between Mousell
and Park. Round the edge of this point indications of iron ore
exist universally ; and in one point there is a great mass of lime-

102

stone thrown up, about three-quarters of a mile in length. Every
joint and seam of this limestone is stained with iron ore; and in
some cases the stain penetrates into the limestone to the extent of
three-quarters of an inch. Yet in no one single point—and the
reef has been diligently searched—has a single barrowful of ore
ever been found,

To the N.W. a valley intervenes between these mines and the
limestone on the opposite side of this valley, which is only about
two hundred yards wide, large masses of limestone are again
thrown up, vast quantities of which have been taken in connection
with the works at Barrow for smelting purposes. Every seam and
joint of this rock, too, is stained with iron, yet in no single case has
ore been found. This rock lies exactly to the south of the great
Park Mine, and where it dips and slopes to the back of the valley,
the ore is found. Between this and Mousell the slate rock comes
in, and underlies at an acute angle the ore which is here found.

Lying as they do on the opposite side of the valley, these mines
somewhat alter their run, and instead of trending N.W. and S.E.
they go W.S.W. and E.N.E. Their formation is most irregular.
In places large masses of rock jut out into the ore. In other cases
large masses of ore project into the rock; and the formation is
equally irregular on both sides of the mines. The ore varies in width
from one to three hundred yards, and the total length is about one
thousand yards.

The workings have not reached a sufficient depth to show what
the ultimate result will be; but from experience which has been
hitherto acquired at one hundred and twenty fathoms, it would
seem likely that at a greater depth, the slate rock on one side,
and the limestone on the other will meet, the slate dipping
below the limestone, and the ore will thus be cut out. At the
E.S.E. end, the ore in one place is within thirty feet of the
surface, and with nothing but drift over it. But to the W.N.W.
there is a depth of forty fathoms before the ore is reached. In
this forty fathoms some drift exists near the surface ; then comes a
huge mass of red clay, and beneath this, white sand. ‘The rock,
which is level with the ore to the E.S.E., is very much above it to

103

the W.N.W. In fact, while the fissure—although its sides are
irregular—remains apparently the same, the ore, lying between
walls of solid limestone, is twenty fathoms below the top of the
rock at one end, whilst it is level with the top of the rock at the
other end.

After the main fissure is passed, branches of ore break off in two
directions, one trending N.W. to N., and the other trending nearly
south.

These mines were discovered in 1851, and have now been in
working for thirty-four years; and during this period from ten to
twelve million tons of ore have been extracted. They are very
irregular in the quality of the ore, and the shape and direction of
the pocket is very uncertain. The best of the ore in the centre of
the big mine runs up to 63 °/, of iron oxide, or go °/, of oxide of iron,
whilst the bulk of the ore to the S.S.E. of the mine does not
contain more than 70 to 80°/,. Where the mine branches off
into two different directions (see map), the ore in places falls in
per centage as low as 60 °/, oxide, and here there is a large per
centage too of manganese.

The limestone continues apparently free of ore for about half a
mile due west. In all this ore-bearing rock the clay occasionally
seems glazed with ore, but in no case has any discovery of work-
able quantities been made in the clay. The limestone then dips
under the New Red Sandstone, and of course all hope of iron ore
ceases to exist.

To the south of these mines we find, as we approach Furness
Abbey, the New Red Sandstone again overlying the Mountain
Limestone. But at a few hundred yards past the Abbey the
Mountain Limestone again reappears, and half a mile further
south, the ore-bearing limestone is met with. Here two mines are
working—Yarlside, nearest to Furness, and south of this, Stank.
And here too a remarkable phenomenon presents itself.

Near the junction of the two mines the Yoredale Shale appears,
the Mountain Limestone dipping under it; and at Yarlside the
ore is found nearest to the surface in limestone rock. At Stank
the following strange circumstance occurred.

104

Very many years ago, at some period of which no record exists,
two pits were sunk to a depth of twenty fathoms, with the object,
it would seem, of discovering coal. None, however, was found,
and they were abandoned. After the Yarlside mines were dis-
covered, the then owners of Stank determined to reopen one of
these two pits. As they were in close proximity, it was a question
which pit should be selected, and by mere accident, and as was
subsequently proved—by a strangely fortunate accident, one was
chosen ; and after passing through the shale, it reached the lime-
stone at the depth of about sixty fathoms. The appearance of the
rock, from the very moment it was reached, so indicated the
presence of ore, that the shaft was continued ; ore was found, and
the shaft was ultimately sunk to the depth of one hundred and
thirty fathoms. Subsequently the other shaft was sunk, but simply
for drainage. At about the same depth as in,the first pit, limestone
was reached; but this limestone, instead of being mountain lime-
stone, was apparently magnesian limestone*—blue in colour,
solid in formation, and without any trace of iron ore. And this
formation has been found continuous down to the same depth of
one hundred and thirty fathoms. So that if this second shaft had
been selected instead of the other, the Stank Mine would not have
been discovered, because the limestone in this second shaft was
so utterly unlikely to lead to iron ore, that the works would at
once have been abandoned. Lastly, when we state the mass of
dolomitized limestone does not appear to be more than twenty
fathoms in diameter, and that its form is almost circular, we have
mentioned perhaps the strangest peculiarity of this singular mine.

The Stank Mine has been worked for about twenty years, and has
produced some two-and-a-half million tons of ore; but the formation
is more irregular than in any other mine in Furness, not even
excepting Whitriggs. No rule governs it, except the general one,
that the ore runs N.W. and S.E. Yet so many branches lie in a
direction opposite to the ordinary apparent vein, that the general

[*Probably Carboniferous Limestone, locally converted into dolomite. as it

often is where it has been affected by magnesian matter percolating downward
from the New Red that formerly covered all that part of the country. ED.]

105

rule affords but little guidance in working the mine. Trials by
means of drifts are frequently disappointing. Occasionally some
enlargement inside the drift will lead to workings being carried on
in a direction which brings them to some old drift that has been
abandoned, and would, if carried a few feet further, have discovered
a valuable bed of ore.

It should be remarked that as the mine is worked towards the
south, the superincumbent mass of Yoredale shale increases, and
the limestone dips at the same rate. The ore from one end to
the other of this mine. apparently maintains the same relative
depth in the limestone, and it is only the increasing thickness of
the shale that causes the ore to be worked at an increasing depth.

The progress and development of the iron ore district of Low
Furness is interesting and instructive. Up to the year 1840 the
production of iron orein the whole district did not exceed 30,000
tons, and this was raised in the most primitive manner by a machine
called a horse-gin. The miners were raised and lowered in buckets.
There were no pumps in the whole district, and, in fact, water bemg
reached, put a stop to further operations.

In the years 1840 and 1841 an effort was made to get a tramway
from the mines to the port of Barrow. The miners appealed to
the Duke of Buccleuch, who was then the only mineral owner
whose mines were in operation. This assistance was refused, and
the origin of the Furness Railway Company was due to pure
chance. In consequence of a scheme having been propounded to
connect Preston with Carlisle by a railway across Morecambe Bay
and Duddon Sands, prior to the formation of the Lancaster and
Carlisle Railway, the Duke of Buccleuch, the Duke of Devonshire
(then Earl of Burlington), and the Earl of Lonsdale, employed the
celebrated engineer, Mr. James Walker, to survey the district, with

_ the object of ascertaining—first, the advantages or disadvantages

that might accrue to their respective properties in consequence of
the formation of such railway ; and, secondly, to ascertain whether
_ in their joint interests any enclosure of the Duddon Sands could be
_ made with advantage. It so happened that the writer of this
paper was a personal friend of Mr. James Walker, and talked. to

106

him on the subject generally, and especially drew his attention to
the advisability of the formation of a railway from the mines to
Barrow. With his usual foresight, Mr. Walker entertained the
proposal favourably, and instructed his surveyors to ascertain the
advantages such a railway would confer both on the district and
on the mineral owners. The result was the formation of the
Furness Railway Company, with the Duke of Devonshire at its
head, who has remained the Chairman up to the present time.
This railway only extended, in the first instance, from Barrow five
miles up the country; but it reduced the distance the ore had
to be carried from seven to two miles. This railway, while in
progress of formation, was supplemented by another, which,
branching off near Furness Abbey, was carried out along the
coast up to the Duke of Devonshire’s slate quarries, and is now a
portion of the main line into Cumberland. This railway passes
the mines of Park and Roanhead, which were at that time undis-
covered. The railway was completed and opened in 1847, and
Sir James Ramsden was appointed the resident manager, and by
his energy and talent the Furness Railway Company has been
brought into its present condition. The effect of this railway was
to give an enormous impetus to the development of the mines, and
led to the extension being made to Ulverston, and subsequently to
Carnforth. The progress of mining industry was great, and the
amount of ore, which in 1841 amounted to less than 30,000 tons,
was increased in 1851 to 300,000 tons; in 1861, to 670,000 tons ;
and in 1871, to over 1,000,000 tons; and ore has continued to be
produced at an average rate of from one to one-and-a-quarter
million tons per annum up to the present time.

The opening of the Ulverston and Carnforth Railway for the
first time rendered it possible for ore to be smelted in the district,
and in 1859, the writer of this paper, with his partner, Mr. Hanney,
commenced building furnaces in Barrow, and this, it may fairly be
said, was the foundation of the present prosperity and development
of the entire district.

In 1860 the production of pig-iron was only a trifle, in 1861 it
reached 60,000 tons, and it has gained up to the present time

we

107

annually. The Barrow works are now producing over 300,000
tons ; the North Lonsdale Smelting Company, at Ulverston, about
80,000 tons; the Askham Furnaces, from 60,000 to 80,000 tons;
and Carnforth Furnaces, from 80,000 to 100,000 tons: making
the total production of the district at the present time somewhat
over 550,000 tons,

The great drawback to the Furness District is, that it is entirely
without coal ; and the problem to be solved was, whether it was
cheaper to take ore to coal, or to bring coke, made out of coal, to
the ore. The result has proved that it is cheaper to bring the
coke to ore, and hence the successful erection of iron works in the
Furness District.

As soon as the railway was in progress, it became evident that
more scientific means of raising the ore must be used. Engines
were erected, shafts were sunk deeper, and the water pumped in
large quantities. And here we may observe that the difference in
the quantity of water in various districts is very great. The
Lindale Moor mines have comparatively little water; but to the
south end of Whitriggs, passing into the royalty worked by the
Lindale Cote Company, the quantity is comparatively large, rising
up to 1200 gallons per minute. At Mousell the quantity of water
is very small, and engines of a very small power only are necessary
to keep the mine clear. At Park, also, the quantity of water is
small, and during the bulk of the year does not exceed two hundred
and fifty gallons per minute, and the largest quantity of water ever
known has not exceeded five hundred gallons per minute; while
at the extreme south end of the district, in the Stank mines and
the adjoining royalty of Yarlside, the quantity of water amounts to
4,000 gallons per minute, and after a wet season has exceeded
5,000 gallons per minute.

The future of these Low Furness mines is problematic. Fresh
discoveries are occasionally made, and ore is continually being
found laterally ; and hitherto, except in a few cases, the mines
have increased in depth, and ore still is found. But it seems
pretty evident that in all cases, after a certain depth, which is at

present unknown, but which probably will not exceed one hundred

108

fathoms below the top surface of limestone, the ore will be, so far
as present knowledge goes, entirely worked out. It is not only
impossible to say, but it is extremely improbable that the whole of
the district has yet been explored, and at any moment a discovery
equal to the Park and Roanhead conjoined mines may be made.

To shew the immense mass of wealth that lies within a very
small space, it may be said that from under the surface of one acre
at the Park mines one and a quarter million tons have been pro-
duced, and upon this minute area of surface a royalty of £80,000
has been paid to the mineral landlord, equal to a surface value of
416 per square yard.

Such is a short outline of the history of the rise and progress of
the Hoematite Iron Industry of Low Furness. And it is hoped
that whilst it may prove interesting to those who visited the district
yesterday, it may stimulate some of the members of the Association
to a personal investigation of the geological problems to which
reference has been made.

109

ON THE BEST LOCALITY FOR COAL
BENEATH THE PERMIAN ROCKS OF NORTH WEST
CUMBERLAND.

By J. D. KENDALL, C.E., F.G.S.
(Read at the Bowness Annual Meeting. J

In the latest number (IX.) of the Zvansactions, there is a commu

nication by Mr. T. V. Holmes, bearing the above title, in which
appear several criticisms of a paper of mine on “ The Structure of
the Cumberland Coalfield,” which was read about two years ago
before the North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical
Engineers. Mr. Holmes’ criticisms are directed against that part
of the paper which deals with the formation known as the
Whitehaven Sandstone. That formation, as you may know, is.
‘unconformable to the main body of the Coal Measures. It was
first studied in the neighbourhood of Whitehaven, where most, if
not all, its visible outcrops are mainly of a sandy nature, whence
its name—Whitehaven Sandstone.

In my study of the Coalfield generally, I arrived at the con-
clusion that the formation in its north-easterly extension becomes
somewhat modified, but that by taking the purple-grey colour
which characterises it near Whitehaven as a guide, we are able to
mark out its extent with considerable accuracy, although other

_ considerations are necessary to determine its downward limit

exactly, as pointed out by me in Vol. 33, Part IV., of the
“Transactions of the North of England Institute of Mining and
Mechanical Engineers.”

Mr. Holmes says that “mere tint itself, without specific evidence

110

of unconformity in each case, can give no presumption of any
weight as regards affinity or age.” With that I agree entirely, and
would point out to Mr. Holmes that he has altogether misunder-
stood me, for I hold that the purple-grey colour accompanies an
unconformity (in the district under consideration), and do not
assume, as he supposes, that there is an unconformity because
some of the uppermost rocks of the Coal Measures differ in colour
from the main mass below. In support of my view some evidence
has already been given, but as it may generally be considered
insufficient—as it clearly is to Mr. Holmes—I will herein adduce
more. If colour alone had weighed with me, as Mr. Holmes
supposes, I should have included in the Whitehaven Sandstone
series (had my paper dealt with a larger area,) such rocks as the
sandstone at Fort Putnam, near Blencow Station, which has exactly
the colour of the Whitehaven Sandstone ; but, as I have elsewhere
shewn, the Fort Putnam rock is down among the Yoredales, so
that clearly colour alone is not to be relied upon in determining
the relative age of rocks. Other illustrations of the inadvisability
of relying, in scientific investigations, upon one set of characters,
will readily occur to most working naturalists. And here I would
allude to Mr. Holmes’ correlation, in the same paper, of the coal seams
at Bullgill and Aspatria. In tracing out the identity of the seams
at those two places, he apparently relies entirely upon the distance
which the seams are apart.; in other words, decause at Bullgill there
are two well known seams, and at Aspatria there are also two
seams about the same distance apart, and the lower of which is
known to correspond with the lower seam at Bullgill, Mr. Holmes
concludes that the upper seam at both places is identical. This
appears to me—to borrow an illustration from Botany—like
employing the limited System of Linnzeus for the purpose of deter-
mining the systematic position of a particular plant, instead of
having recourse to the much, more reliable Natural System. As
Mr. Holmes must very well know, from his experience as a strati-
graphist, there are many other circumstances of which it is
necessary to take note in the correlation of coal seams besides
their distance apart, such for example as their sections, thicknesses,

:

111

and qualities, and the mineral character of their associated rocks,
as also the important consideration whether these are expanding
or contracting. Looked at in this more general way, Mr. Holmes
_ will find his correlation untenable. There is one obvious error in
in it, even supposing his mode of procedure be admitted. The dark
shale band in Aspatria No. 3 Pit which he correlates with the
Rattler band of Bullgill, is, if it corresponds with any seam in the
Lower Measures, rather the correlative of the Slaty band of that
‘ place—a seam which there occurs below the Rattler band. This
is best seen by passing from the section at Bullgill to that at
Brayton Domain first, and then on to Aspatria. With this important
amendment Mr. Holmes’ Ten Quarters seam at Aspatria becomes
the Rattler band, so that he would have to take the next seam
higher for his Ten Quarters, and that is a seam which is still more
unlike the real Ten Quarters than the one he has already fixed
upon. Moreover, the general section at Aspatria, from this new
Ten Quarters down to the thirty inch coal, is so unlike that at
Bullgill, as to make it most improbable that they are equivalent

.

parts of the Coalfield; so much so in fact that unless some evidence
of the transition from one section to the other could be produced
from an intermediate position, I should, irrespective of other
considerations, most unhesitatingly reject such a supposition.

But to return to the Whitehaven Sandstone series. The remarks
of Mr. Holmes relative to the occurrence of purple-grey rocks
outside the area embraced in my paper are altogether beside the
question. The conclusions drawn by me from the study of a
particular district are not intended to have a general application,
and therefore I must decline to follow Mr. Holmes when he
proceeds to test my conclusions in any such way, especially when
he employs for that purpose negative evidence only.

If the purple-grey colour of the rocks in the neighbourhood of
Aspatria and Mealsgate, etc., which I include in the Whitehaven
Sandstone series is due to Permian staining, as held by Mr.
Holmes, I suppose it will be generally admitted that the White-
_ haven Sandstone proper, that is, the rock of that name which
occurs in the neighbourhood of Whitehaven, was tinted in the

112

same way. Now, as the rocks throughout the Cumberland Coal-
field are of the same argillaceous and arenaceous nature it
might be expected that the Permian staining would originally
extend everywhere to about the same depth, that is to say, zs ©
lower limit would be parallel to the base of the overlying Permians.
These latter rocks, as is known, are unconformable to the Coal
Measures, and therefore the staining would cut across the bed
planes of those rocks in such a way as to suggest that the tinted
strata were unconformable to those below them. It is thus clear '
that if the unconformity of the Permians were sufficiently great we
should have a tinted band of Coal Measures which would include
the “rise” part of every seam in the field.

The unconformity actually occurring in the district under con-
sideration is of this extent, but the inferences which have just been
drawn, and which I hold to be legitimate deductions from the
premises, are not paralleled by the facts, and therefore I doubt the
validity of those premises; in other words, I dispute that the
purple-grey rocks are stained Lower Coal Measures. For in the
first place we find that at Croft Pit, near Whitehaven, they
extend only to a depth of one hundred and seventy-five feet from
the base of the Permians, whereas at Mealsgate, where the Permians
have been removed, the purple-grey rocks occur more or less
throughout a depth of five hundred and fifty-two feet. Then again
there is not a single place throughout the whole Coalfield, so far
as I know, where purple-grey rocks occur Je/ow any well known
seam in Lower Coal Measures,* which there certainly should have
been if the purple-grey rocks which I include in the Whitehaven
Sandstone series are simply Lower Coal Measures that have been
stained, as supposed by Mr. Holmes. Not one of the many seams
worked in the Cumberland Coalfield has ever been worked or
traced from the purple-grey rocks into the darker rocks of the
Lower Coal Measures, or vice versa. This fact to my mind is
perfectly conclusive against Mr. Holmes’ argument. Again, if the
purple-grey rocks were simply stained Lower Coal Measures, their

* This expression is used here and throughout this paper in the same sense
asin ‘* The Structure of the Cumberland Coalfield,”

113

lower edge would cut obliquely across the bedding when seen
in vertical section, whereas the base of the purple-grey rocks is
parallel to the bedding, as shewn by me in Vol. 33, Part 4, of the,
“Transactions of the North of England Institute of Mining and
Mechanical Engineers.”

If we look upon the purple-grey rocks as part of another
series resting unconformably upon the Lower Coal Measures, as
shewn by me first in Vol. 32, and again in Vol. 33 of the above-named
Transactions, one of the greatest difficulties we meet with in our
attempts at correlation is removed, and we can then understand—
and we cannot otherwise—why seams that have been worked over
extensive areas should disappear all at once in the midst of coal
strata, and without any dislocation of that strata, or without any
previous thinning of the seam. On my explanation this is brought
about simply: the seams in the Lower Measures being cut off by
the overlying Whitehaven Sandstone series in a manner similar to
that which is known to occur in the Coalfield of Coalbrookdale.

Under other circumstances I should have liked to reply to each
of Mr. Holmes’ objections in the order in which they occur, but
want of space compels me to deal with his observations generally.

Before concluding I would draw attention to what must be an
oversight in Mr. Holmes’ paper. In his two diagrams of the
Coalfield he shews the Permians as if lying at a greater angle than
the Coal Measures. So far as my experience goes, the reverse is
the fact, so that the further we go to the dip the greater is the
number of seams we are likely to meet with in the Coal Measures.
I mention this simply because it has an important bearing on the
question under discussion by Mr. Holmes, and not by way of reply
to any of his criticisms.

CO ———————————————
G. AND T. COWARD, PRINTERS, CARLISLE,

ry

INDEX.

Note.— The entries in this index comprise only the authors and titles of
complete papers, save in some few cases where an asterisk denotes a sub-title in
a longer paper.

PAGE
Ambleside and District Literary and Scientific pagent; Repor's

1884-85 bes am XIX.
Ancient Churches, their orientation of ie ie 59
Annual Meeting, 1885, at Bowness ae ae v.
Annual Reports of Associated Societies, 1884-85 ae ... XII-KXV.
Associated Societies, list of their Honorary Secretaries ei Rip
Association Secretary’s Report, 1884-85... in? 3h RVs
Balance Sheet, 1884-85 as tse i.) RVI
Basins of lakes near Windermere Ae Bh ue 1
Birds, Migratory .. a ae ee oS 29
Botany.—Carlisle wild flowers . iss des “ss 43
Bowness, Annual Meeting, 1885, held there ei sth Ve
Brampton Literary and Field Naturalists’ Society : Report, 1884-85 Xxii.
Carlisle District Flora 3 43

— Scientific Society and Naturalists’ Field Club : Report,

1884-85 sa or tents SOMES
Churches, ancient, their orientation ade 59
Coal in N.W. Cumberland, —where most likely to be found sa 109
Collingwood, W. G. —Lake-basins near Windermere... ue 1
Crosthwaite, J. Fisher.—Old Families of Crosthwaite Parish aed ll
*Crosthwaite family... - ee 22
Crosthwaite parish, old families there es a a3 11
Cumberland, N.W., best locality for coal there om as 109
Duckworth, T.—Our summer visitors an oe 29

1 —Wild flowers around Carlisle ee a 43
Families, old, of Crosthwaite parish eg as ike 11
Ferguson, R. S.—Potsherds and oe re me sigs rs 81
*Fisher family (of Borrowdale) .. Bee Bf ast 27
Flora of Carlisle oie ome ba ae a 43
*Flycatcher, Spotted ‘3 ye do fies 39
Furness, see Low Furness
Geology.—Trilobites of Skiddaw Slates... ob Son 71
*Grasshopper Warbler Te Sar aa = 29
Hematite iron mines of Low Furness ios Sat ng 99
Tron mines (hematite) of Low Furness __... 8 ap 99
Kendall, J. D.—The best locality for coal beneath the Permian
rocks of N. W. Cumberland 109

Keswick Literary and Scientific Society : Report, 1884-85 eae xiv.

Lake-basins near Windermere ... ast og I
Local Societies, list of their Hon. Secs. (1885) oe all
Longtown Literary and Scientific Society : boone 1884-85 wa xvii.
Low Furness hematite Iron mines ; ae 99
Maryport Literary and Scientific Society : buena 1884-85 oe Xvi.
Migratory birds <4 : Be 29
Meeting, Annual, 1885, at Bowness Lae ks aon Vv.
Mines of hematite iron in Low Furness... sie see 99
Officers, 1885-86 e oat aut aM x
Old families of Crosthwaite parish Bn a dee 11
Orientation of ancient churches.. a 59
Ornithology.—Our summer visitors (Migratory Birds) — wes 29

Penrith and District Literary and Scientific Society: Report, 1884-85 xxiii,
Permian rocks of N.W. Cumberland,—On the best locality for

coal beneath . : _ : 109
*Pipit (Tree-) Ge Ase an =a 37
Pipkins and potsherds see on 81
Postlethwaite, J.—Trilobites of the Skiddaw Slates... z = 71
Potsherds and pipkins a Be 81
Proceedings of Annual } Meeting (1885) ane a8 a0 v.
*Redstart ae Bec 31

teport of the Association Secretary, 1884-85 So een IVS
Reports of Associated oe 1884-85... se ... XII-XXvV.
Rules... ae AEB “ne vil.
Schneider, H. W.—Hzmatite iron mines of Low Furness ae 99
Secretaries, Honorary of Associated Societies ae ae xi,
Secretary’s Report, 1884-85... Sy e2-43h
Silloth and Holme Cultram eeay. and Scientific Society: Report,

1884-85 : so.dt
Skiddaw Slate Trilobites ale ere a ey 71
*Spotted Flycatcher Re Sh dB ; 39
*Stanger family ee aon - jor ave 12
*Stephensou, Edward ae op ae Se 19
Summer visitors, Our aoe aie ce mas 29
*Tickell, Hugh : é fn 15
Transactions of learned societies receiv ed in | exchange. ie VIL
*Tree pipit sae an fe ar 37
Trilobites of Skiddaw Slates... a a BoE 71
Visitors, Our summer nae or ats cae 29
*Warbler, Grasshopper, Se is sie ce 29
* Woods iar. oe Ss 34
Watson, Geor. ge. ”_ Orientation of ‘ancient churches ea ae 59
Whitehaven Scientific Association : Report, 1884-85 ... a xiii.
Wild flowers around Carlisle _.. Sa ae 43
Windermere, —lake-basins in its neighbourhood te 1

Literary and Scientific SG pe 1884-85 ... xxiv.
*Wood Warbler ae Se 34
*Wren of Castlerigg... oa be oe ae 17
Zoology.—Migratory Birds... S3 we Fre 29

G. AND a aici 5 oo) 0 | > pemnmch

“TRANSACTIONS

AND SCIENCE,

No. XI,—1885-86.

MEMBER OF THE BRITISH ORNITHOLOGISTS’ UNION; 2
= SA H. Me GEOL. SURVEY.

via

“PRICE TO MEMBERS; -ONE “SHILLING.
“NON-MEMBERS, TWO SHILLINGS AND SESBENLE-

es be ek CARLISLE: eB ; =p
6 cowARD, PRINTERS, - SCOTCH ‘STREET.
1886. eee

TRANSACTIONS

. Cumberland and Westmorland Association

OF THE

FOR THE

BMOVANCEMENT OF LITERATURE
AND SCTE NEE,

No. XI.—1885-86.

Enitep By J. G. GOODCHILD, F.GS., F.ZS.,

MEMBER OF THE BRITISH ORNITHOLOGISTS’ UNION ;
H. M. GEOL, SURVEY.

PRICE TO MEMBERS, ONE SHILLING.
NON-MEMBERS, TWO SHILLINGS AND SIXPENCE.

.

CARLISLE :

G. & T. COWARD, PRINTERS, SCOTCH STREET.
1886.

CONTENTS

Page
Norges ON THE PROCEEDINGS AT THE ANNUAL MEETING AT KESWICK -
RULES oe ate os a ee: Ges sats) vale
List oF OFFICERS me ae at oh “ae eh xy
REPORTS FROM THE ASSOCIATED SOCIETIES e ote ec Sa,
Report oF ASSOCIATION SECRETARY ... aut = KV:
TREASURER’S ACCOUNT wat 2a nat Sf ea eVAT:

Last oF PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED FROM OTHER SOCIETIES IN EXCHANGE
FOR THE ‘‘ TRANSACTIONS ” a rae a ... XXVILi

Part I.—PROCEEDINGS art tHe ANNUAL MEETING (Keswick)—
ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT (Davip AINSWoRTH). ‘‘ Lon-
don Past and Present.” ihe Ss a ee LON,
Part I].—PAPERS COMMUNICATED TO THE SOCIETIES, AND SELECTED
BY THE ASSOCIATION CoUNCIL FOR PUBLICATION—

“How Customary Tenure was established in Westmorland.”

By G. Garry (Ambleside)... re : a 1
“The Hill Naturalist.” By Wm. Hopeson, A.L.S. (Carlisle) 13
‘Local Superstitions.” By W. JARDINE (Longtown) roe 41
“‘Old Cumberland Customs.” By F. Harrison (Carlisle)... 53
Presidential Address to Maryport Society. By J. B. Battey 59
‘‘Old-Fashioned Inns.” By W. Witson (Keswick) = 67
“*Anne Clifford, Countess of Pembroke.” By Gro, Watson

(Penrith) ... HD ine ous : 89
“The Botany of the Solway Shore.” By Wm. Hopeson, A.L.S.

(Maryport)... soc Bac ay ‘ LA

“The Mineral Springs near Keswick.” By J. Posriz-
THWAITE, F.G.S.... ies a0 es .. 142

lv.
Page
Loca Screntieic Notes AND MEMORANDA :—

“Purple-Grey Carboniferous Rocks and the Whitehaven
Sandstone.” T.V.H. te we a ae LG
“Destruction of Swallows.” W. DuckworrTH s.. ante 14S
“Lump Fish in the Solway.” W. DuckwortH ... rae 4g
“Sturgeon in Eden.” W. Duckworte... see sent LOO
“Porpoise.” W. DucKWORTH ... Pe abe ae Loo

“Notes on the Land and Fresh-water Shells of Cumberland”
J. DONALD... uae he has a5 sx. “Lod
INDEX" *.4 aa 0 i. ii ae oy ealbS:

NOE E..

Spare Copies of Nos. 1, 3, and 4 of the TRANSACTIONS will be
gladly received by the Secretary (Mr. Crowder, Stanwix, Carlisle ),
and One Shilling will be allowed for each copy.

CUMBERLAND AND WESTMORLAND ASSOCIATION

FOR THE

ADVANCEMENT OF LITERATURE AND SCIENCE.

Proceedings at the Annual Meeting at Restwich, 1886.

Tue ELeventH AnnvAL MeetiNG of the Association was held this year at.
Keswick, on J'wesday and Wednesday, May 25th and 26th.

The Proceedings opened, as usual, with the Address by the PRESIDENT,
(David Ainsworth, Esq.,) whose subject was—‘‘ London Past and Present.”
The history of our great metropolis was sketched through the Roman,
Saxon, Norman, Tudor, and Stuart periods, to our own days ; the remaining
part of the able and interesting address being devoted to a consideration of
the condition of the masses in the East-end, and of the means that had been,
and might be, adopted for its amelioration. On the motion of the Chairman,
the Rev. J. N. Hoare, President of the Keswick Society, seconded by the
Rey. E. W. Chapman, a hearty vote of thanks was accorded the President.
The Members, to the number of about sixty, then sat down to an excellent
Lunch, provided by Mr. W. Wilson, of the Keswick Hotel, to whose efforts
for their comfort and convenience during the Meeting, the Members of the
Association are much indebted. Before rising, the Rev. J. N. Hoare said a
few words, welcoming the Members to Keswick.

The party then divided into two portions. One chose the Excursion on
Derwentwater, by boat to Lord’s Island, the party being received by the
proprietor, Mr. R. D. Marshall. Here a paper was read by Mr. J. F.
Crosthwaite, F.S.A., on the residence built on the Island about 1450, by
Sir T. Radcliffe, from whom descended the Earls of Derwentwater. Remains
_ of the mansion still exist, over which the party was conducted. 8S. Herbert’s
Isle was then visited. Here a paper on the Saint whose name it bears—the
friend and contemporary of 8. Cuthbert—was read by the Rev. H. D.
Rawnsley. The party then went to Portinscale, where, through the kind-
ness of Mrs. Leitch, they partook of tea, afterwards proceeding to Cros-
thwaite Church. The many interesting features of this edifice were pointed
out by the Vicar and Mr. Crosthwaite. Mr. Wivell’s Pencil Works at
Greta Bridge were then inspected, and the process of manufacturing pencils
described. The Excursion concluded with a visit to Greta Hall, for many
years the residence of Southey. By the kind permission of Miss Brindle,
ee present occupant, every facility was afforded the party of inspecting the

all.

_ The remainder of the Members went with the alternative Excursion, by

coach, to 8. John’s Vale and Thirlmere, visiting en route the Druids’ Circle.
Features of geological interest were pointed out by Mr. Postlethwaite, F.G.S,,
especially the junction of the Skiddaw slate with the granite. Castle Rock,
associated with Sir Walter Scott’s Bridal of Triermain, was then passed,
and Thirlmere soon afterwards reached. At Armboth the party divided, —

vi.

one section proceeding on foot to visit the Armboth Dyke and the old
British Camp behind Raven Crag, joining the rest of the party at Shoul-
thwaite, whence they returned to Keswick. The inclement weather of the
morning, which had doubtless prevented many Members from visiting
Keswick, fortunately changed during the afternoon for the better, and
the excursions proved very enjoyable.

In the evening the usual Council Meeting was held, and was attended by
a fair number of Delegates from the various affiliated Societies. Between
seven and eight, a Conversazione was held in the Museum at the Town
Hall, and a paper was read by the Rev. H. D. Rawnsley, on ‘“‘The Epitaphs
of Wordsworth,” especially referring to that on Southey in Crosthwaite
Church. Soon afterwards the company adjourned to the Battersby Lecture
Hall in the Library, where a Lecture on ‘‘The Tombs of the Early Martyrs”
was delivered by Professor Baldwin Brown, of Edinburgh. At its close, a
hearty vote of thanks was, on the motion of the President, accorded to the
Lecturer.

The proceedings of the second day commenced with a Council Meeting,
adjourned from the previous evening, which was succeeded by the Annual
General Meeting of the Association. The Annual Report and Balance Sheet
were read by the Hon. Secretary, which will be found on pp. xxv.—xxvii.
The improved financial condition of the Association, showing a small balance
in hand, was considered very satisfactory.

The Reports of the Societies having been taken as read, it was moved
and carried that the Report and Balance Sheet be adopted.

Major Arnison moved, and Mr. Thompson (Windermere) seconded the
motion, that Mr. Ainsworth be re-elected President for the ensuing year,
which was carried unanimously. The President having acknowledged the
compliment paid him by the Association in his re-election, on the motion of
the Rev. J. N. Hoare, seconded by Mr. G. Watson, Mr. Goodchild was
re-appointed Editor; Mr. R. Crowder, Secretary and Treasurer ; and Mr.
Duckworth, co-Recorder in Zoology along with the Rev. H. A. Macpherson.

On behalf of the Maryport Literary and Scientifie Society, Mr. D. Irving
then invited the Members to hold their next Annual Meeting in that town.
This, on the motion of Dr. Knight, was agreed to.

A hearty vote of thanks was then passed to the President, Secretary, and
Committee of the Keswick Society, for the efforts they had made to render
the Meeting a success. Thanks were also voted to Professor Brown; to the
writers of papers ; to those who had so generously entertained, or opened
their grounds to, Members during the Meeting; and finally, to the President,
for his services during the past year.

Shortly afterwards the party left by coach for Buttermere, going by the
west side of Derwentwater, through Borrowdale and Honister Pass. At
Hollas, most of the party, led by Mr. Goodchild and Mr. Postlethwaite,
went to visit the junction of the voleanic rocks of Borrowdale with the
Skiddaw slate, the former gentleman reading an interesting paper on the
subject, while Mr. Postlethwaite made a few remarks on the Salt Springs
at Brandley Mine and Saltwell Park. Rejoining the carriages, the party
soon reached Buttermere, where an excellent luncheon was provided at the
Victoria and Fish Hotels. A paper was afterwards read by Mr. Postle-
thwaite on the Honister Slate Qnarries, and on the habits and qualities of
the workmen engaged in them. <A pleasant hour having been spent on the
shores of Crummock Water, the party returned to Keswick by the vale of
Newlands. ‘The brilliantly fine weather. and clear atmosphere, made this
Excursion exceptionally enjoyable, and it appropriately concluded the pro-
ceedings of the Meeting of 1886.

|i te vig Bea,

OF THE

Cumberland andl Westmorland Association

FOR THE

Alvancement of Literature and Science,

1.—That the Association be called the “‘CumBERLAND AND
WESTMORLAND ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF LITERA-

TURE AND SCIENCE.”

2.—The Association shall consist of the following Societies :—
Keswick Literary and Scientific Society, Maryport Literary and
Scientific Society, Longtown Literary and Scientific Society,
Carlisle Scientific Society and Field Naturalists’ Club, Ambleside
and District Literary and Scientific Society, Silloth and Holme
—Cultram Literary and Scientific Society, Brampton Literary and
Scientific Society and Field Naturalists’ Club, Penrith and District
Literary and Scientific Society, Windermere Literary and Scientific
‘Society; and of such other Societies as shall be duly affiliated.
Also of persons nominated by two members of the Council; this
latter class of members shall pay the sum of 5s. annually.

a 3.—All members of affiliated Societies, unless otherwise ruled
by the regulations of their respective Societies, shall be members

of the Cumberland and Westmorland Association,

viii.
4.—The Association shall be governed by a Council, consisting
of a President, Vice-Presidents, Secretary, who shall also be
Treasurer, an Editor, and of ordinary members, two to be elected
by each affiliated Society. ‘The President, Secretary, and Editor
shall be elected annually at the Annual Meeting, and shall be

capable of re-election.

5.—The Vice-Presidents shall consist of the Presidents of the
various affiliated Societies; and the delegates of the various

Societies shall be elected annually by their respective Societies.

6.—An Annual Meeting of the Association shall be held at such

time and place as may be decided upon at the previous Annual
Meeting, or (failing such appointment) as may be arranged by the

Council.

7.—At each Annual Meeting, after the delivery of the Presi-
dent’s Address, and the reading of the Reports from the affiliated
Societies, the objects of the Association may be furthered by

Lectures, Papers, Addresses, Discussions, Conversaziones, &c.

8.—The Committee of each affiliated Society shall be entitled
to recommend one original and local paper communicated to such
Society (subject to the consent of the author) for publication in the
Transactions of the Association ; but Societies contributing capi-
tation grant on a number of members exceeding one hundred and
fifty shall have the privilege of sending two papers. The Council
shall publish at the expense of the Association the papers recom-
mended, either in full, or such an abstract of each or any of them
as the author may prepare or sanction ; also those portions of the

Association Transactions that may be deemed advisable.

g.—The Council shall endeavour to promote co-operation among

ix.
existing Societies, and may assist in the formation of new ones ; it
may also aid in the establishment of classes in connection with
any of the associated societies.
10.—Affiliated Societies shall contribute annually towards the
general funds of the Association, Sixpence for each of their
members; but when the number of members of the affiliated

Societies exceeds one hundred and fifty, a reduction of fifty per

cent. shall be made upon the payment for each member in excess

of that number.

11.—The rules can be altered only by a majority of two-thirds
of the members present at an Annual Meeting. Any member
desiring to alter the Rules must send a copy of the proposed
alterations to the Secretary, at least two weeks before the meeting
is held.

12.—Past Presidents of the Association shall be permanent
members of the Council, and be described as Past-Presidents.
| 13.—The travelling expenses of all who assist in carrying out
the programme of the various affiliated Societies shall be defrayed
by the Society assisted.

The Twelfth AnnuaL MEETING will be held in the Summer of
1887, and due notice of the place of Meeting and of the arrange-
ments will be sent to all members of the Association.

Members willing to contribute original A7ticles on subjects of
local interest, or short /Votices of anything that may be considered

worth recording of local and scientific value, should communicate

with the Honorary Secretary, ROBERT CROWDER, Esq., Stanwix,

Carlisle.

4

OFFICERS FOR THE SESSION 1886-87,

President :
DAVID AINSWORTH, Esq.
Past-Presidents.

Tue Lorp BisHop or CARLISLE. “

Tur Late I. Fiercuer, Esq., M.P., F.R.S.

Tur Hon. P. 8. Wynpuam, M.P.

Rogert Fercuson, Esq., M.P., F.S.A. a
Ricnarp S. Fercuson, Hsq., M.A., LL.M., F.S.A.

Vice-Presidents.

Rev. J. N. Hoarsz, M.A., F.H.S., (Keswick.)
Rev. W. P. Scuarrrer, (Maryport.)

Rev. J. R. Greson, (Longtown. )

Rev. C. H. Parnz, M.A., (Carlisle.)

Rev. E. M. Reynoups, M.A., (Ambleside.)

J. M. Pavtt, Esq., (Silloth.)

G. J. Jounson, Esq., (Brampton. )

Rev. E. W. CHapman, M.A., (Penrith.)

H. W. ScHNnerpEer, Esq., (Windermere.)

Delegates.

A. A. H. Knicut, M.D., :
GrorcE Brack, M.B., Keswick.
P. B. Metmore, es

D. Irvine, Maryport.
S. F. Mc.Lacutan, M.B.
WILLIAM JARDINE,
Henry Barnes, M.D., P

J. A. WHEATLEY, Cale:
C. W. SmrrH, ;
JAMES BENTLEY, Ambleside.
JoHN GRAHAM, 5

J. M. Pauvut, eilloth.

Rev. S. Fate, M.A.,

C Sp Rice, Brampton.
Major W. B. ArRnIson, .
GEORGE Watson, Penmith.
Gnorce HEALEY,
T. THomepson,

Longtown.

Windermere.

Hon. Association Secretary and Treasurer.
Rosert Crowper, M.A., Stanwix, Carlisle.

Editor.
J. G. Gooncui1p, F.G.8., F.Z.S., H.M. Geol. Survey, 28 Jermyn-St., London

Zoological Recorders.

Rev. H. A. Macrnerson, M.A., M.B.0.U., 3 Kensington Gardens Square,
London, W.
W. DuckwortTH, Carlisle.

Botanical Recorder's.

Rev. R. Woop, M.A., Rosley Vicarage, Carlisle.
W. Hopeson, A.L.S., Flimby, Maryport.

HON, SECRETARIES OF THE LOCAL SOCIETIES.

Keswick

Maryport ...

Longtown ...

Carlisle

Ambleside ...

Silloth

Brampton ...

Penrith

Windermere

J. Broatcu, St. John Street, Keswick.
D. Irvine, The Gas Works.

WILLIAM JARDINE, The United School.
JOHN SINCLAIR, 6 Hawick Street.
JAMES BENTLEY.

James B. Biyxs.

C. J. Rie.

H. M‘Lean Witson, M.B., C.M.

Col. W. C. MacDoveatt. ;
EF, Barton, 8 Biskey Howe Terrace, Bowness.

xiii.

Reports trom the Associated Societies.

WHITEHAVEN SCIENTIFIC ASSOCIATION,

\HOWGILL STREET.

19TH SESSION, 1885-86.

_ President Ses aye i Le ons J. Vivian, C.E.

Vice-Presidents.
W. Mc.Gowan. ee W. ‘Anson, M.B.

Past-Presidents,
_ T. F. \[‘Anson, M.D., F.R.HLS. H. A. Friercuer, F.R.A.S.
—-W. Jackson, J.P., F. S.A. JAMES Barrp.
AUGUSTUS HELDER. R. Russent, C.E., F.G.S.
C8.

Wz. 4H. /Kircsin. A. Kirenty, F
J. G. Dzxs, C.E.

Committee.

E. Astetrt, M.D. T. Jackson, M.D.

B. Taytor. Joun Nrxon, B.A.

T. GorpDon. E. Crompton, C.E.

G. Scovunar, C.E.

Curator of Museum... Aap in aie W. I‘Anson, M.B.
Curator of Building... a 46 .. R. Pickering, C.E.
Treasurer ... ie aes des 23 J. S. HELLOoN.
on. Librarian aa ae we “e R. B. Gorpon.

Hon. Secretaries.

W, H, Kircui, | E. Doszson,
B

xiv.

The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :—

Oct. 20.—CoNVERSAZIONE. THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

Nov. 10.—Rev. W. Lyrrer, (Longtown.)—‘‘ Border Clans: a narrative
of the Heroic Age.”

Nov. 24.—Rev. E. P. Knusiey, M.A., (Rector of Staveley.)—‘‘ A Visit
to Canada.”

Dec. 8.—J. D. Kenpatt, F.G.S.—‘‘ Formation of the English Lakes.”

Dec. 22.—W. Moc.Gowan and R. Russeni.—‘* An Hour with the Scottish
Minstrels.”

Jan. 12.—E. T. Tyson.—‘‘ Captain Joseph Huddart, F.R.S.”

Jan. 26.—D. Burns, C.E., (Carlisle.)—‘‘ Notes on the Copper Ores in the
Southern Urals.”
J. Barrp.—‘‘ Recent Improvements in the Manufacture of

Feb. 9.— Iron and Steel.”
J. Vivian, C.E.—‘‘ Salt and Salt-mining.”

Feb, 23.—H. Wooxcock, M.E.—‘‘ Manitoba, the North-west Territories,
and the United States, as seen in 1884.”

Mar, 9.—G. H. Parke, F.G.S., F.Z.S.—‘‘Some Lower Forms of Animal
Life.”

Mar. 23.—Rev. J. Macarruur, M.A., (Rector of Lamplugh.)—‘‘ Studies
in Sociology.”

Apl. 6.—Rev. A. Surron, M.A., (Rector of Bridekirk. )—‘‘ Experiences
in Abyssinia.”

Apl.. 20.—Business Meeting, Election of Officers, &c.

KESWICK LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.

17TH SESSION, 1885-86.

President... oo aie Rev. J. N. Hoare, M.A., F.H1st.S.

Vice-Presidents.

Rev. W. CoLvi.1ez. | J. R. Anprrson, B.A.

Secretary me wah ix 06 .. T. E., Hieuton.
Treasurer... we BAC Mee ... Epwin JACKSON,

Xv.

Committee.
Rev. H. D. Rawnstzy, M.A. J. PostLETHWAITE, F.G.S.
Gerorce Brack, -M.B. WiLiiam Woop.
J. Fisher CrostHwairTe, F.S.A. G. H. Drxon, B.A.

Hon. Curators of the Museum.

A. A. H. Kyieut, M.D. | JOHN BIRKETT.

The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :—

ORDINARY MERTINGS.
1885.

Oct. 26.—PRESIDENT’s ADDRESS.

Nov. 16.—Mr. J. PostiterHwaritet, F.G.S.—‘‘The Trilobites of the Skiddaw
Slates.”

Nov. 30.—Rev. H. Lonspatz, M.A.—‘‘ Frank Buckland, the Naturalist.”

Dec. 14.—Rev. H. Wuirenreap, M.A.—‘‘Crosthwaite Churchwardens’
Accounts.”

1886.

Feb. 8.—Rev. A. R. Gopparp, B.A.—‘‘Lives and Adventures of

4 Germanicus and Agrippina.”

Feb, 22.—Mr. W. Wirson.—‘‘ Old-fashioned Inns.”

_ Mar. 8.—Dr. T. H. Brown.—‘‘ Mrs. Browning and her Works.”

_ Mar.22.—Rev. H. D. Rawnstey, M.A.—‘‘ Footpaths.”

General Meeting.

LECTURES.
1885.

Nov. 3.—F. W. H. Myers, Esq.—‘‘ Nelson.”

Nov. 23.—W. R. Fitzpatrick, Esq.—‘‘ Moliére and his Times.”

Dec. 7.—Rev. J. SHarpe Ostiz, M.A.—‘‘ Notes on the Cumbrian
Dialect.”

Dec. 23.—Professor Knicut, LL.D.—‘‘Shakespeare, as Dramatist and
Moral Teacher.”

1886.

Feb. 15.—Rev. W. S. OALvERLEY.—‘‘ The Gosforth Cross.”

Mar. 1.—Rev. C. H. Gem, M.A.—‘‘ Tennyson.”

_ Mar. 15.—Rev. A. Surron.—‘‘ A Journey from Cairo to Khartoum.”

Mar. 29.—J. G. Goopexiup, Esq., F.G.S,.—‘‘ Fowling.”

Xvi.

MARYPORT LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY,
ASSEMBLY HALL, HIGH STREET.

—

10rH SESSION, 1885-86.

President ... = sae me Poy tug. de} dey uurianay
Vice-President nee ie wee ... Rev. W. P. ScHAFFTER.

Past-Presidents.

J. HEWETSON, | J. Carrmert, A.M.IC.E. | W. HINeE.
Committee.
Rev. J. S. Crate. A. Hine.
Dr. W. B. Marutas F. WALKER.
J. Ross. J. WILLIAMSON.
P. B. MEtMoreE. R. H. Hamirton.
G. M. Tick Ee. C. EAGLESFIELD.
Delegates.
Dr. MarTuHtas. | J. CARTMELL.
Treasurer ... Ria nee ae a ae Q. Moore.
Hon. Secretary 3 nee ee ae ae D. Irvine.

The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :—
1885.
Oct. 27.—CONVERSAZIONE.
Nov. 10.—W. Hopeson, A.L.S.—‘‘Seaside Botany—St. Bees to Bowness.”
Nov. 26.—R. Russett, C.E., F.G.S.—‘‘ What is Limestone?”
Dec. 8.—THos. Buatn.—‘‘ Charles Dickens.”
Dec. 22.—J. B. Barney, (President. )—‘‘Shakespeare,”—a Suggestive

Sketch.
1886.

Jan. 5.—G. H. Bariny, D.Sc., Pu.D.—‘‘ The Spectroscope and its uses.”

Jan. 19.—J. Newsy Heruerrmeron, F.R.G.S.—‘‘Chaucer, the First
English Humourist.”

Feb. 2.—H. A. Leprarp, M.D., F.R.G.S.—‘‘ Cremation.”

Feb. 16.—Witrrep Hrnz.—‘‘ The Congo.”

Mar. 2.—C. S. Hatt, M.R.C.S. Enep., (President of the Carlisle Micro-
scopic Society.)—‘‘ An Evening with the Microscope.”

Mar. 16.—Wetpy I‘Anson, M.B., C.M. —‘“‘ Bacteria.”

Mar. 26.—J. G. Goopcutip, F.G.S8., &c.—‘‘ Coal.”

Apl. 6.—General Meeting and Election of Officers,

XVIL.

LONGTOWN LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY,

9TH SESSION, 1885-86.

President ae Le oe Bich wi Rev. J. R. Grpson.

Vice-Presidents.

R. A. Attison, Esq., M.A., M.P. 8. F. Mc. Lacuian, Esq., M.B.
Rev. P. CARRUTHERS. Wm. Easton Rozertson, Esq.

Treasurer and Secretary ... hae s ee Wm. JARDINE.

Committee.

Wm. Littie. A. TWEDDLE.

I. Riae. Rev. Wm. Lytretu.
A. P. WILKIE. Wm. KiLGour.

JOHN WILSON.

Sub-Committee. ;
Mrs. Mc. LAcHLAN. Mrs. WANNOP.
Mrs. Morton. Miss A. Riaa.
Miss L. FARRIES.

The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :—

1885.

_ Noy. 3.—Inaugural Tea Meeting. Rev. J. R. Greson, (President. )—
“The Human Mind: Speech.”

Noy. 10.—Rev. Gro. Lamprrt.—‘‘ Trinidad—Historical and Descriptive.”

Nov. 17.—Debate : ‘‘Should: Education be Free?” A fir, A. P. WILKIE;
Neg. Rev. J. R. Grpson.

Nov. 24,—W. Pearson, HEsq., London, (late Lecturer Palestine Exploration
Fund. )—‘‘ What the Bible has gained from the recent
Discoveries in Palestine.”

Dec. 1.—J. H. Park, Esq.—‘‘Credulity and Superstition—what the

7 World has Suffered from them.”

_ Dec. 8.—Miss Mary Baskrn.—Miscellaneous Poems from English and

American Authors.

Dee. 15.—Rev. J. PHexrs.—‘‘ Bee-keeping.”

Dec, 22,—Debate: “Does the Newspaper Press fulfil its proper object?”
j Afir. Dr. S. F. Mc.Lacutan; Neg. Mr. J. Witson,

_ Dec. 29.—Mr. J. Witson.—‘‘ Social Forces.”

XViil.

1886.

Jan. 5.—Musical Evening, Readings, &c.

Jan. 11.—Dr. Mc. Lacnian.—‘‘ English Literature.”’

Jan. 19.—Rev. J. Wauuacr, M.A.—‘‘ The Voice of Nature and the Voice
of God.”

Jan. 26.—Mr. A. P. Witk1e.—‘‘ Yarrow and its Associations.”

Feb. 2,—Debate: ‘‘Are the Present Times Better than the Past for
Working Men?”

Feb. 9.—Mr. J. CuHatmers, V.S.—‘‘Influences of the Diseases of our
Domestic Animals on Human Health.”

Feb. 16.—W. Easton Rozsertson, Esq.—‘‘ Unwritten History.”

Feb. 23.—Mr. W. Jarpine.—‘‘ Local Superstitions.”

Mar. 2.—Dr. Taytor.—‘‘ Athletics in relation to Health.”

Mar. 9.—Mr. R. G. Bary, M.R.A.C.—‘‘ Insect Depredators.”

Mar. 16.—Mr. Frep. Harrison.—‘‘ The Effects of Cultivation on Scenery.”

Mar. 23.—Rev. C. J. Senrtor.—‘‘Frances Ridley Havergal’s Life and
Writings, illustrated by her Songs.”

Apl. 1.—J. G. Goopncuitp, F.G.S., H.M. Geol. Survey.—Geological
Lecture.

Apl. 6.—Business of the Society, Election of Officers, &c,

CARLISLE SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY AND FIELD
NATURALISTS’ CLUB.

9TH SESSION, 1885-86.

President are tes ee wad Rev. C. H. Parzz, M.A.

Past-Presidents.

The Right Rev. the Lorp BisHoPp oF CARLISLE.
Rost. Fercuson, Esq., M.P., F.S.A. | Mites MacInnzs, Esq., M.P.
R. S. Errevson, Esq., M.A., F.S.A.

Vice-Presidents.

S. J. Brnnine, Esq. | Dr. CARLYLE.

Treasurer iss a bas Wm. Nanson, Esq., B.A., F.S.A.
Hon. Secretary... a ase Joun Srncuair, 6 Hawick Street.

Tene memento meno em nen ee ee a,
t Cer ae —
i

xix,

Committee.
R. J. Barutie. F. Harrison.
Isaac CARTMELL. T. DuckwortTH.
J. A. WHEATLEY. W. DuckwortTH.
Rozgtr. CROWDER. R. M. Hitt.
Dr. MAcLaReEN. Gro. Dawson.
Dr. BARNEs. W. B. Dopp.

The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :—

LECTURES.
1885.
Nov. 3.—Inaugural. Rev. C. H. Parez, M.A., (President. )—“ History
of Education.”
Dec. 8.—Rev. H. D. Rawnstey, M.A.—‘‘Recollections of a Personal
Tour from Cairo to Sinai,”—illustrated with Magic Lantern.
1886.
Jan. 5.—J. Hepwortu, Esq., A.M.1I.C.E.—‘‘ The Standard of Light.”
Feb. 2.—R. J. Battin, Esq., F.S.Sc.—‘‘The Earth’s History from a
Scientific point of View.”
Mar. 2.—R. 8S. Fereuson, Esq., M.A., F.S.A.—‘‘The Siege of Carlisle,
1644-45,”
Mar. 30.—J. G. GoopcniLp, Esq., F.G.S.—‘ Fowling.”

; ORDINARY MEETINGS.
1885.
Nov. 24.—Mr. Wm. Hopeson, A.L.S.—‘‘ Botany of the Solway Beach—
St. Bees to Bowness.”’
Dec. 22.—Mr. F. Harrison.—‘‘Some Old Cumberland Customs.
1886.
Jan. 19.—Mr. J. Sinciarr.—“ Insects mentioned in Shakespeare.” Part 2.
Feb. 16.—Mr. T. Duckworts.—‘‘ Our Woodlands.”
Mar. 16.—Dr. CartyLz.—‘‘ Leathery Fungi.” _
Apl. 13.—Dr. Leprarp, F.RC.S.—‘‘ Drains and Drain Fevers.” Annual
Meeting.

XxX.

AMBLESIDE AND DISTRICT LITERARY AND
SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.

9rH SESSION, 1885-86.

————

President ... sos ae sae ... Rev. E. M. Reynowps.
Past-Presidcnts.
R. Crewnpson, Esq. | Rev. H. 8S. CALLENDER.
Vice-Presidents.

F. M. T. Jones, Esq. | G. Garry, Esa.
Treasurer sos es eee out a3 ... W. LISTER.
Secretary sac 532 Beh ob Ee .. J. BENTLEY.

Delegates.
C. W. Smiru. | J. Benrney.
Committee.
1. BEE. W. E. PERCIvAL.
Rev. C. H. CHAsE. H. Repmayneg, Esq.
J. FLEMING. J. RussELt.
J. Hrirep. Mr. SvaLKer, Senr.
T. MacK&RETH. C. W. SmirH.

The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :—
1885.

Oct. 30—J. C. Buckmaster, B.A., F.S.A.—‘‘ Art in its relationship to
Houses, Furniture, Dress,” &c.

Nov. 6—A. Hamitron, Esq., M.D.—‘‘ History of Vaccination and its
results,”

Nov. 20—A. Srrauan, Esq., M.A., F.G.S.—‘‘Our Lake Basins; their
origin and contents.”

Dec. 4—W. G. CoLt~incwoop, Esq., M.A.—‘‘ Stories of the Stars.”

Dec. 18—Rev. G. E. P. Reapr, M.A.—‘‘ Lord Clive, and the Foundation

of the British Empire in India.”
1886.

Jan. 29—F. Barron, Esq.—‘‘ Beethoven and his Influence on Music.”
Feb. 12—Rev. H. Hayman, D.D.—‘‘ Russian Central Asia.”
Feb. 26—J. K. Kenpatt, B.A.—‘‘ The Electrical Transmission of Power.”
Mch. 12—B. Jumeavx, Esq., F.R. Mer. Soc.—‘‘The Comet of 1882, and
its probable influence on the Earth.”
ANNUAL Meetrine ; Election of Officers.
Mch, 23—J. G. Goopcuip, Esq., F.G.S.—‘‘ Westmorland Dialects.”

XXL.

SILLOTH AND HOLME CULTRAM LITERARY
AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.

—<_—_—_—_

Tra SESSION, 1885-86.

————

President a 3 nee “ii ae H. L. BARKER.

Vice-Presidents.

Joun Lerrcu, M.B., C.M. | JoHN GRAHAM.
Committee.

Rev. J. Brown, M.A. | Rev. S. Hrsert, M.A.

G. T. Carr. W. M. Hupson.

W. CRABB. J. MADAGAN.

JoHN GLAISTER. J. M. Pav.

W. F. Wiusoy, J.P.

Hon. Treasurer ao, at 338 2p vee J. STRONACH
Hon. Secretary za See es os ms J. B. Brinks

The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :—

1885.

Oct. 9—THomaAs THomPsoN.—‘‘ Cumberland Past and Present.”

Oct. 23—P. GEDDES, F.R.S.E.—‘‘ Natural Science in its bearings on Life.”
Nov. 4—Joun Guaister.—“‘ An Introduction to our Lepidoptera.”

Noy. 18—Dr. Buack, Keswick.—“ Sick Nursing.”

Nov. 25—Rev. S. Hebert, M.A.—‘*Ten Days in Rome,” illustrated by
the Magic Lantern.

Dec. 11—Rev. JAMES CHRISTIE, B.A.—‘* Through Norway to the North

Cape.”
1886.
Jan. 13—J. Newsy HETHERINGTON, F.B.G.S8.—‘‘Chaucer, the first English
Humourist.”

Jan. 27—J. M. Pavuuu.—‘“‘ Alpine Incident and Adventure.”

Feb. 10—Dr. WetBy PANSOoN, Whitehaven. —‘“‘ Infection.”

Feb. 24—-Rev. Joun Brown, M.A.—‘‘ Thomas de Quincey.”

Mch. 10—Dr. LEDIARD, Carlisle. —‘‘ Drains and Drain Fevers.”

Mch. 24—James B. Bryxs.— “‘ Iron Manufacture,” illustrated by Diagrams
and Models.

Mch. 31—J. G. Goopcnm1, F.G.S., F.Z.S.—‘ Fowling.”

April 7—H. L. BarKer.—“ Earthquakes and Volcanoes.”

XX1l.

BRAMPTON LITERARY AND FIELD NATURALISTS’
SOCIETY.

SESSION 1885-86.

President att ore “ED oe .. G. J. Jounson, Esq.

Vice-Presidents.

Rev. S. FALE. | Rev. H. J. BunKetey.
Treasurer we Boe eis oo ... Isaac B. Hopeson.
Hon. Secretary ... on te ie aie ... OC. J. Riea.

Committee.
J. THOMPSON Dr. WoTHERSPOON
G. Burton Mrs. H. Y. THompson
J. FARRER Miss BELL
W. HoueiLi Miss MacQuEEN
T. Rm.Ley Miss THom

The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :—
1885.

Oct. 8—Socrau MEETING.

Oct. 27—Rev. H. Wuirenrap.—‘‘ Brampton 17th Century Presbyterians.”

Nov. 9—Mr. R. Hornspy.—‘‘ Agriculture: its Antiquity, Progress, and
Importance.”

Nov. 24—CaRLISLE MicroscopicaL Socrety.

Dec. 8—Rev. AppIson Crorron.—‘‘ Old Drinking Customs.”

Dec. 22—Mr. J. B. Lez.—‘‘Some things about Law.”

1886.

Jan. 12—Conversazione.

Jan. 19—Rev. C. F. Gunron.—‘‘ Music.” (Illustrated. )

Jan. 26—Dr. H. Y. Toompson.—‘‘ The Chemistry of the Air we Breathe.”
(Illustrated by numerous Experiments. )

Feb. 9—Rev. H. J. Burketny.—‘‘ Eminent Persons who died in 1885.

Feb. 23 Magic Lantern Entertainment.

Mch. 9—Mr. H. Jackson.—Debate: ‘‘Compulsory National Insurance
against Pauperism.”

Mch. 23—Revy. 8. Fatie.—‘‘ Sign Boards.”

April 2—Mr. J. G. GoopcuiLp. ~ ‘‘ Birds of Prey.”

Dec. 17.—C. Reppre, Esq., D.Ph.—

Xxiil.

PENRITH AND DISTRICT LITERARY AND
SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.

—___—_

57TH SESSION, 1885-86.

President Pre it ae Rev. Epw. W. CHapman, M.A.

Vice-Presidents.

Rev. J. H. Ouston. | W. B. ARNISON.
Treasurer aM at cle a5 bg J. B. SHAWYER.
Secretary a , _ ae H. M‘Lean Witson, M.B.

Committee.

Rev. W. M. ScHNIBBEN. GEoRGE WATSON.

T. LESTER. F. Kine.

J. G. Goopcuitp, H.M.G.S. G. V. SMITH.

Rey. H. WHITEHEAD. J. Sumpson YEATES.

J. THOMPSON. C. H. GRAHAM.

The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :—
1885.

Nov.? 5.—ConveRsAziongE and Annual Meeting.

Nov. 12.—C. H. Hicerns, Esq., M.D.—‘“ Who wrote the Plays ascribed
to Shakespeare}? gj Lecture 1.

Nov. 19.—C. H. Hicerns, Esq., M.D.-—‘* Who wrote the Plays ascribed
to Shakespeare?” Lecture 2.

Dec. 3.—Gxro. WATSON, Esq. —‘‘ Anne Clifford, Countess of Pembroke.”

Dec. 10.—Rev. H. D. RAWNSLEY, M.A.—‘‘ Personal Reminiscences of a
Tour from Cairo to Mount Sinai, in the Track of the Children
of Israel,” illustrated by Photographs.

«The Chemistry of Combustion,”
illustrated by Experiments. Lecture 1.

1686.

Jan. 7.—C. Repp, Esq., D. Ph.—‘*The Chemistry of Combustion,”
illustrated by Experiments. Lecture 2:

Jan. 14.—J. N. HETHERINGTON, Esq.— ‘The Rise of Periodical Literature.”

‘Jan. 28.—The Right Rev. the Lorp BisHor OF CARLISLE.

Feb. 4.—Hexry Marren, Esq.—‘‘ Fifteen Years in New Zealand.”

Feb. 18.—Rev. J. 8. OstLez, M.A.—‘‘ Notes on Cumberland Dialect.”

Mar. 4.—Rev. 'H. Wuirenzap.—‘‘ George Fox, the Quaker.”

Mar. 25.—J. G. GoopcuiLp, Esq., H.M.G.S.— ‘“‘ Fowling.”

XXIV.

WINDERMERE LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC
SOCIETY.

47H SESSION, 1885-86.

.

President tee ses a are so H. W. ScHNEIDER.

Vice-Presidents.

EK. P. Srocx. = | B. A. Irvine.
Secretaries. :

W. C. MacDovuGat.. | FRANK BARTON.
Treasurer... es ae ie ee JoHN HoLuanD.
Delegates.

G. HALEY. | T. THompeson,.
Committee.

J. W. ATKINSON. T. Dogson.
J. T. Bownass. G. HEAzry.
J. R. Bripson. , R. Morean.
J. BELL. A. Rawson.
W. E. Bonn. J. Roprnson.
R. Cree. W. Taytor.
F. CLowEs. T. THomPson.
H. Crossuey. W. V. YATES.

The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :—
1885.
Oct. 15.—CoNVERSAZIONE.
Oct. 19.—Mr. Freprrick GaALe.—‘‘ Story of Newspapers from the time
of Oliver Cromwell till now.”

Nov. 23.—Rev. J. ButkeLey.—‘‘Two Months in [taly and Switzerland.”
Dec. 7.—Miss Baskin.—Dramatic Recitals.

Dec. 21.—Members’ Meeting. Mr. B. A. Irvine will open a Debate on

the subject—‘‘ That Bounties are Pernicious.”
1886.

Jan. 11.—Rev. A. Rawson.—‘‘ Migration, Food, and Nests of Birds.

Jan, 18.—Professor Frank CLowes, D.Sc.—‘‘ Accidental Explosions.”

Feb. 1.—Mr. Frank Barton.—‘‘ Mendelssohn—with musical examples.”

Feb. 15.—Rev. G. E. P. Reapu.-—‘‘ Lord Clive and the Foundation of the
British Empire in India.”

Mar. 1.—Mr. T. Hart, F.G.S.—‘‘ The Sculpturing of the Earth’s Surface
by Denudation, and How Hills and Valleys are Formed,”
illustrated by maps and sections.

Mar. 22.—Mr. J. G. GoopcuiLp, F.G.S8.—‘‘ The Lion and its Kindred.”

XXV.

Report of the Association Seevetary,

For THE YEAR 1885-86.

THE past year presents a few features calling for remark in the
work of the Association.

The Council are glad to congratulate Members on the fact that
in place of the heavy deficits of the last two years, amounting last
June to over £26, the Association has this year an estimated
balance in hand of over £3. This is not owing to increased
membership, the number of Members being nearly the same as
last year, viz.—-1283 as against 1290. It is due, partly, to greater
economy in the cost of publishing No. X., which has necessarily
had to be curtailed in bulk, while fewer copies have been printed
than usual ; partly, to the decreased expenditure incurred at last
year’s Annual Meeting; and partly, the Council are glad to
observe, to the increased demand for the Zvansactions, especially
of the earlier numbers, during the past year.

The Council trust that the circular issued by their desire to
Local Secretaries, impressing on them the importance of endeav-
ouring to extend the sale of Zvansactions in their respective
districts, has not been altogether without avail.

Still, they feel that Members as yet do not generally realize the
value of the Publication, as they think its merits deserve. As an
example :—Six Societies out of the ten, with a total membership
of 590, take altogether only one hundred copies ; and, but for the
commendable action of the Penrith Society, which, like that of
Carlisle, has resolved on presenting its Members with copies (an
example which every Society, whose funds permit, might, the Council
think, with advantage follow), the sale of No. X. would have fallen
short of that of even last year.

The Council have to report with much regret the secession of
fAhe Whitehaven Scientific Association during the year. This
would appear to be mainly owing to the objection of that Society

_ ‘to the Rule which requires papers inserted in the Zvamsactions to

be both original and local in character.. The Council have always
held that the distinctive value of an annual publication like the
Transactions, which records for future reference the work of the
_ Societies, is largely due to their adherence to this Rule, and they °
see no reason for materially altering that view, though they are

XXV1L

willing that “Abstracts” of papers not necessarily of that character
should, subject in every case to their sanction, be occasionally
admitted, when such papers are of especial value.

The Council have decided that the Association shall be repre-
sented this year at the annual meeting of the British Association,
with several important Committees of which learned body, the
co-operation of local Societies is cordially invited. The Delegate’s
Report will be printed in the next number.

There is reason to regret that there has not been, hitherto, that
demand for the Publications of Societies which exchange Z’vams-
actions with us, as would encourage any large development of the
exchange system at present. ‘The printed list in the next No. will
show that the Association possesses a fair number of more or less
valuable works (especially the splendid Publications of the United
States Geological Survey, and the Memoirs of the Geological
Survey of Great Britain), which the Secretary would be only too
glad to distribute among Societies requiring them.

In conclusion, the Council can only express the hope that the
present year may prove an auspicious one in the interests of the
Association, and of the Societies affiliated to it, which it desires to
assist in every way possible, and with which it wishes to be more
closely and thoroughly identified in the future than it may have been
in the past. The Association cannot, however, do the full work it
was intended to do, without the necessary funds ; and the Council
now appeal to each individual Member to do what he can for it,
chiefly by making better known, and thus increasing the sale of the
Transactions, and by trying to augment the list of its Associate
Members not belonging to any Society. Théy trust it will thus,
in time, be enabled to accomplish the work which its lamented
founder so untiringly laboured that it might be enabled to effect,
viz.—to encourage and assist local scientific and literary research,
and also to help to diffuse the love of these pursuits among the
people of the two counties over which its influence extends.

No. of Members on Copies taken

Society whom Grant is paid. of No. X. Terms
Whitehaven ... 264 od 80 Free to Associate Members
Keswick Ser ten ABs 40 To Members at 1/-
Maryport Svs 92 oP 66 Free to Gentlemen ; Ladies at 1/-
Longtown be, 61 i 4 To Members at 1/-

Carlisle ee 135 Bre 110 Free to Members
Ambleside ae TES bes 25 To Members at I/-
Silloth ao 73 ssh 7 To Members at 1/-
Brampton hing 80 oo 9 To Members at 1/-
Penrith fo De uitslo) wae 150 Free to Members
Windermere... 120 os 12 Members at 1/-
Assoc. Members 24 nee 24 At 1/-

Total 1283 530

Cumberland and dHestmorland Association for the
Advancement of Literature and Science.

BALANCE SHEET FOR THE YEAR ENDING APRIL 80, 1886.

1885 RECEIPTS. PAYMENTS.
Balance brought forward £23 15 1 | Messrs. Coward for Printing
Grant due 1884-5 .. ag) TRG No. IX. vag 452 15 9
Subs. do. dos .:. 1 4 © | Authors’ Copies ... ea, CS See ne
Trans. sold No. IX. (129) 6 9 oO | Postage of Zransactions ... 0 10 8
Back Numbers ... © 10 0 | Secretary’s Postage Account 0 17 0

1886 Circulars, Stationery, &c. I 14 0
Cap. Grant on 1222 M’bers. 28 15 0 | Sundries ... He
Subs. of 19 Assoc. do. 415 oO | Bal. in hand April 30, 1886 36 18 7
Trans. sold No. X. (470) 23 spe fo)
Back Numbers _... 6 fo)
Non-Members’ Tickets, 1885 fo) fo)
Bank Interest a Has Org 1G

499 2 1 499 2 1

Examined and found correct, Fuly 28th, 1886,

JAMES A. WHEATLEY, | 4, 1,
HENRY BARNES, M.D., §0%4"7*

ASSETS. LIABILITIES.
Balance brought down £36 18 7 | Messrs. Coward for Printing
Grant due on 37 Members o 18 6 No. X. ea ae 16 6
Subscriptions due .. I 5 © | Authors’ Copies ... 3. OF6,
Trans. oes Socs. (30) I Io o |} Carriage of Transactions... © Seat
Members ... © 5 O Expenses of Windermere
Authors’ *Copies dh ape 2/70). Meeting ; Pe Wieileys 04
Due for Paper in No. X.. I 4 © | Circulars, Stationery, &e. a. hs
Trans. sold by Messrs, Secretary’s Postage Account 0 16 II
Coward = - I 5 6-| Editors do. do. O15 oO
Towards buying back scarce
Numbers wi x) f-:0: 19
Balance in hand ... be GUIS: 4
445 12 7 445 12 7

TRANSACTIONS, Part X.

Sold to Societies : a3 -OO
Sold to Association Members ... a 24.
Presented ae “aC bas ae 24
Sold ee aes ion As oan 7
On Sale ... we re 6
On hand August 3rd, 1886. a 15

Total 576 copies.

XXVIH.

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS OF SOCIETIES
RECEIVED BY THE ASSOCIATION IN EXCHANGE
FOR THE ZRANSACTIONS.

t United States Geological Survey Annual Reports for 1880-81,
1881-82, 1882-83, 1883-84.

2 Transactions of Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union for 1882 and 188 2:

3 Do. of Essex Field Club, 1883-84.

4 Do. of Bristol Naturalists’ Society, 1882-83, 1883-84,

1884-85.

5 Do. of Burnley Literary and Scientific Club for 1883,
1884, 1885.

6 Do. of Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club for 1882, 1883,
1884.

7 Do. of the Midland Union of Natural History Societies
for 1881, 1882, 1883, 1884, 1885.
8 The Proceedings of the London Geological Society for 1880-81,
1881-82, 1882-83, 1883-84, 1884-85.
g Transactions of the Birmingham Natural History and Micro-
scopical Society for 1883 and 1884.
to The Memoirs of the Geological Survey, Vols. 1 & 2 (Pts. 1 & 2).
II Do. do. do. Decades 1 to 13.
12 Mineral Statistics of the United Kingdom, 1864 to 1873.
13 Iron Ores of Great Britain, Parts 2 and ae
14 The Geology of Londonderry (Portlock).
15 Guide to the Geology of London (Whittaker),
16 Catalogue of Models in Jermyn Street Museum.
7 Do. _ of Publications of the Geological Survey (1884).
18 Transactions of the Hertfordshire Natural History Society
(2 Parts, 1886).
19 Do. of the Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society,
1884-85.
20 L’exposition Géographico-Botanique de Copenhague.
21 Vol. 2 (No. 1) Memoirs of the Geological Society of Russia,

IN WESTMORLAND.
By G. GATEY.

(Read at Ambleside, March 20th, 1885. )

5
| HOW CUSTOMARY TENURE WAS ESTABLISHED
g
4
‘

A PAPER was read before this Society a few sessions ago by Mr,
Heelis, upon the Customary Tenures of Westmorland,* in which
the peculiar customs incident to these tenures were explained and
the history of the Barony of Kendal was minutely investigated.
I do not propose to go over the same ground, but rather to begin
where that paper ended, and to endeavour to explain how it was
that the peculiar customs now existing in the Baronies of West-
morland grew into existence, and the reason why the tenure of
land in this small portion of the country is unlike that prevailing
in any other portion. I shall not state either the law or the facts
relating to this question with the precision observed in a legal
document, but I shall endeavour to deal with it so as to be
intelligible to everyone.

It may be assumed roughly that the distinctive peculiarities of
the customary estates in Westmorland, as distinguished from free-
holds, are as follows :__If the owner of a freehold estate dies
without making a will, his widow is entitled to one-third of the
profits during her life ; but in the case of a customary estate, the
__ widow is entitled to the whole of the profits during her life. In
both cases, subject to the widow’s right, the estate descends to the
eldest son; but if there are no sons, in the case of freeholds,

* Transactions Cumberland & Westmorland Association, No. IV.
1

En ers Se Cane er ae

2

the estate goes amongst all the daughters equally ; but in the case
of customaryholds, the estate goes to the eldest daughter, to the
exclusion of her younger sisters.

These may be considered the distinguishing characteristics of
the tenure, but in addition there are peculiarities as to the method
of conveyance ; there are small annual rents payable to the lord of
the manor, and certain payments to be made on the death of the
lord or'the tenant, and my object to-night is to endeavour to trace
how these peculiarities arose, and how it is that they have been
preserved intact up to the present time. In order to do this, I
shall have to go back to the time of the Norman Conquest and
the old system of feudal tenure. With the exception of a few
isolated cases, such as the case of Westmorland, the whole of the
lands in England may, roughly speaking, be considered as being
either freehold or copyhold. Their origin is distinctly traceable,
and dates from the Norman Conquest.

As soon as the Normans obtained possession of this country,
much land was without any owner, as they had killed many of the
original owners of the land, or driven them from their estates.
The king accordingly rewarded his more conspicuous followers by
grants of the land so left without an owner. These grants were
originally of considerable extent, and were chiefly given to the
nobles about the court, or to those who held high rank in the army.
They, having neither leisure nor inclination for a pastoral life, did
not attempt themselves to bring the land into cultivation, but
retained a dwelling-house and a considerable tract of land in their.
own hands. They allotted out other portions to farmers, on
condition of their keeping their lord’s land in cultivation, and the
remainder was allowed to be common land for the joint feeding of
the flocks of both the lord and his tenants. The land retained in
hand by the lords being subject to no services except a nominal
duty of homage and fealty to the king, became freehold, and was
conveyed as freehold from hand to hand by mere delivery of posses-
sion. The land kept by the tenants gradually by custom was
allowed to pass from father to son, or from the tenant to a
purchaser from him, until a right to convey the property grew up,

8

although nominally the holding was at the will of the lord, and
the lord exacted certain services which were afterwards commuted
into money payments, and he retained all timber and mines upon
the property; and this property is now what is known as copy-
hold. é

In form, the conveyance of a copyhold estate is to this day a
surrender to the lord of the manor, who admits the nominee or
the tenant as the new tenant, his right of veto having ceased to
exist, although for a long time it was in active operation; and by
custom copyhold estates follow freehold in their method of
descent. '

These two classes of property—freehold and copyhold—em-
bracing as they do almost the whole of the land in England, it
becomes of interest to trace how it is that the land in this
immediate neighbourhood should form an exception to the general
rule. The writers on the subject of the tenures of land treat
customaryholds with scant notice: none of them seem to have
thought it worth while to ascertain the real state of the case; and,
as a rule, customaryholds and copyholds are treated as one and
the same thing ; and there is no doubt that they do possess certain
points of resemblance, but they also possess essential points of
difference. The method of conveying a customaryhold estate is
by an ordinary deed of conveyance, and the purchaser is afterwards
admitted tenant upon the Court Roll; but, whereas the copyholder
is said to hold at the will of the lord, there is no such restriction
in the case of a customaryhold, and the admittances of customary-
holders seem to have been merely for purposes of registration, the
admittance being in no way necessary to complete a conveyance.
Again, the timber upon customary estates belongs to the customary-
holder, and not to the lord of the manor, in which respect the
customaryholder is superior to the copyholder; and although the
mines and minerals beneath the customaryhold estates belong to
the lord of the manor, the reason of this will be shown hereafter
as not derogating in any respect from the nobility of the tenure.

The explanation of the existence of this peculiar tenure in this
portion of the country is an easy one, and one which will, I trust,

4

appear satisfactory when I have given it, although I must admit at
the same time that many of the deductions are simply my own, as
I have not anywhere been able to find any treatise which has gone
into this subject in a satisfactory or exhaustive manner. Now,
although the system of tenure which eventually resulted in freeholds
and copyholds, which I have before mentioned, was satisfactory
enough in all settled parts of the country, it was necessary that
special precautions should be taken near to the border.

As may readily be imagined, the only natural bulwark against the
inroads of the Scots was the range of hills forming the present water-
shed between the northern parts of Cumberland and Westmorland
and the remainder of those counties on the south. The inhabitants
of the plains of Cumberland were easily driven back, and it was not
until the invaders reached this range of hills that an effectual
barrier could be interposed to their further advance, and therefore
it happened that the whole of the lands behind this range of hills
were parcelled out to warlike men placed here for the purpose of
repelling invasion, who held the land upon what was known as
border service. The inhabitants of the dales of Cumberland, in
return for their lands, had certain military services to perform,
such as lighting beacons, carrying warnings, blowing horns, &c.,
when the Scots invaded the territory ; and the men of Westmorland
held their farms upon the condition of providing a certain number
of horsemen, bowmen, or javelinmen, to take the field against the
Scots whenever it was required, this service however being limited
to forty days in each year. Now, in order to maintain this service,
it was essential that the properties should each provide a fixed
number of men, and that that number should not be liable to
variation, and also that there should be no liability to any difficulty
in consequence of the splitting up of the estates. In early times
the leaving of property by will was not allowed, the sale of small
portions of an estate was not thought of, and the lands descended
from father to son; and as there was a register kept of all the
estates and of their owners, and of the number of men to be
supplied by each, there was no difficulty in at once summoning
the men necessary to protect the borders. Now, if, as in the case

Or

of freeholds, the widow of a tenant had been entitled to one third
of the property for her life, or if, there being no sons, all the
daughters had had the property subdivided amongst them, there
would have been no certainty as to the number of men to be
obtained from any particular person or estate when required, as
possibly in a small tenement providing only one man for service,
the widow might have had to provide one third, and the son the
remainder, which might have produced a difficulty; and this being
the case, it became necessary to make some arrangement by which
there should be absolute certainty that the assistance required
should be forthcoming. This was done by adopting a system
which has now become one of the distinguishing characteristics of
Westmorland customaryholds, namely, that the widow shall be
entitled to the rents of the whole property for her life, and that
the eldest daughter shall take to the exclusion of her younger
sisters. By this means each estate was kept whole and undivided,
and to this custom of keeping estates in one hand may in great
measure be traced the existence down to recent times, of the large
body of Westmorland statesmen whose estates, unaltered, had
been in their families for generations ; for it became not only a
legal custom, but also an honourable tradition, that the estates
should not be diminished or parted with.

There is no doubt whatever that the customary tenants of
Westmorland paid very dearly for their estates, for although they
paid no rent, they often paid with their life’s blood for the posses-
sion of their small holdings ; and things continued in this way
until long after the remaining portions of the country had settled
down to peaceful avocations ; and it was not until the reign of
James I., when the thrones of England and Scotland became
united, that the necessity for border service ceased. ‘That king,
like all the Stuarts, was frequently in want of money, and he
began, after he had been a short time upon the throne, to wonder
by what means he could replenish his exhausted exchequer ; and
amongst other things, it struck him that if he were to take into his
own possession the whole of the lands in Westmorland which had
been held upon border service, they could be sold for a large sum

6

of money, or could be let so as to produce a considerable revenue,
as the old border service by which they had been held had be-
come a thing of the past, now that he was king of both England
and Scotland. In order to effect his purpose and yet not to
appear too prominently in the matter, the king in the twelfth year
of his reign granted to his son Charles, Prince of Wales, the
unfortunate Charles I., the whole of the crown manors in West-
morland, and then, in order to keep up a certain show of legality,
the Prince of Wales commenced proceedings in Chancery to have
it declared that the Westmorland customary estates belonged to
him under the king’s grant, and that the claim which was set up
by the tenants of customary estates was bad, as the service in
respect of which it was claimed had become obsolete. The tenants
of the manor filed their answer in Chancery, setting forth their
claim ; and in several cases tenants were evicted without waiting
for the more tedious process of the law.

The customary tenants of Westmorland were now in a sore
strait; they saw before them only two courses open, either of
which was most distasteful to them: they must either give up the
lands which they and their ancestors had held by honourable
service for centuries, or they must rebel against their sovereign ;
and on the znd of January, 1620, an event occurred memorable
in the history of this county. On that day, all the prominent
customary tenants of Westmorland assembled in the churchyard of
the little old church at Staveley, in order to discuss their position,
and to decide upon what course they should take. The meeting
was summoned by James Smith, high constable of the county, on
the pretence of viewing a bridge, and deciding as to its repair; but —
it was thoroughly understood by the tenants what this pretence
meant, and they mustered there from all parts of the county ; they
then and there passed a number of resolutions binding themselves
to the utmost of their power to defend their homes and their
properties from spoliation; but at that time they qualified the
resolution by agreeing to undertake such defence only so far as
they lawfully might. Samuel Knipe was chosen to be agent and
manager to the tenants in this matter, and it was decided to

7

present a petition to the king to allow the ancient customs of
tenant right; and jit was further decided to present a bill in
Parliament to establish those rights.

The bill was duly presented to the House of Commons, but
was rejected by them ; and on the 28th of July, 1620, the king
published a proclamation suppressing all customary estates, and
abolishing all tenure by border service. The tenants met again,
and published a remonstrance, in which they did not confine
themselves to peaceable expressions, but stated their intention of
resisting to the utmost all attempts to deprive them of their
property. Upon this, proceedings were at once commenced in
the Court of Star Chamber against those who were known to have
had a part in this remonstrance ; and it is worth while to chronicle
the names of those men who stood forward in the defence of their
lands, and even at the risk of their lives protested against so unjust
a forfeiture. They were—Anthony Wetherell, vicar of Kirkby
Stephen, who drew out the protest ; Samuel Knipe, James Smith,
. John Cartmell, Thomas Prickett, John Beck, Rowland Harrison,
Robert Mawson, Francis Washington, and Edward Tarne, who
were charged with taking part in a riotous assembly at Staveley
Chapel on the 2nd of January, 1620. James Smith, the high
constable, was further charged with summoning the petty constables
under pretence of considering the repair of a bridge ; Robert
Rawes, William Duckett, Francis Washington, Thomas Washington,
Edward Tarne, Rowland Harrison, Richard Helm, Arthur Briggs,
and many others, were charged with subscribing to the expense
of resisting the king’s decree. It is interesting to notice amongst
these names many surnames which are still prominent in the
county, and it is also a matter for comment that the name of
Washington appears twice over, when we remember that George
Washington, the great American liberator, was himself a Westmor-
land man: and in all probability these were his ancestors who
were suffering in the cause of liberty ; showing that their great
descendant inherited his spirit of independence from his Westmor-
land forefathers. The Court of Star Chamber could not make up
its mind upon the question ; it was presided over by a very able

man, whose reputation has come down to posterity somewhat
sullied—Francis Bacon, Lord Verulam ; but whatever else he was,
there can be no doubt that he was a clever lawyer, and able
thoroughly to appreciate the strength of the tenants’ case, and
therefore the Court of Star Chamber reserved their judgment as to
the rights of the customary tenants, and said that they would hold
their decision over until after the trial at the Carlisle Assizes of
those who were accused of riotous assembly.

His Majesty, King James, seems to have been equal to the
occasion. He forthwith wrote a letter to the Bishop of Carlisle,
instructing him that certain of the inhabitants of Westmorland had
been guilty of unlawful assemblies and publishing seditious procla-
mations in maintenance of their pretended custom of tenant right,
and that he, in order to avoid the inconvenience that might happen
from the insolence of such people, had given command to the
judges of assize to give no countenance to any estate claimed to
be customary, or having reference to border service ; and further
instructing the bishop to confer with the judges upon the subject,
to see that they proceeded in conformity with the king’s directions.
Nothing can show better than this the state of thraldom in which
even the Courts of Justice at that time were ; and it is difficult for
us in the present day to understand the possibility of any king so
far forgetting himself as to try to influence judges, or of judges
permitting themselves to be so influenced. Nothing, however,
seems to have come of the king’s interference, as he was taken ill
about this time, and the judges therefore postponed coming to any
decision until they were forced. Fortunately for the customary
tenants of Westmorland, King James shortly afterwards died,
before the Court of Star Chamber had been coerced into coming
to any decision. So soon as he was dead, the judges decided
according to law and right; and the Court of Star Chamber, on
the oth of June, 1625, passed the decree which confirmed to the
tenants of Westmorland their customary estates in perpetuity, to
be held according to those honourable customs which had
distinguished them. That decree was subsequently confirmed,
and a commission was issued which settled the amount of fines

pl EAN taal gS at emg. *

9

and fees payable in respect of admittance to the property, and
also the rents payable in lieu of border service, which had now
become unnecessary.

The whole of the tenants of Westmorland, however, did not
wait until the struggle was fought out to the bitter end, for many
of them, including the tenants of Grasmere, Langdale, Loughrigg,
Clappersgate, Rothay Bank, Ambleside, Troutbeck, Applethwaite,
Undermillbeck, Winster, and several others, combined, and knowing
that the king’s opposition to their custom was merely a device for
the raising of money, contributed amongst them the sum of £2700,
which they paid to the king, who forthwith became satisfied that
their rights were good and lawful, and proceeded to confirm them
without any difficulty ; and the confirmation of those rights states
that the customary tenants and their ancestors have from time
immemorial been seized to them and their heirs of good and
lawful customary estates of inheritance called tenant right, which
customary estates are divisible according to the course of descents
at common law, save only where a customary tenant dieth having
no heir male of his body, his customary lands descend to his
eldest daughter, sister, or cousin, and not all the daughters as
heirs female or coparceners ; for which premises they have been
accustomed to pay certain yearly rents or fines, namely: two years’
rent by change of lord by death, and three years’ rent for change
of tenant by death or alienation, except the tenants of Ambleside
and Troutbeck, who pay one year’s rent upon change of lord, and
two years’ rent upon change of tenant.

A question here arises—why should the tenants of Ambleside
and Troutbeck pay only one year’s rent where the others pay two?
and that question I think, although it is lost in antiquity, is capable
of a reasonable explanation. ‘The fine payable upon the death of
the lord or upon the accession of a new tenant, was to enable the new
lord to purchase his knighthood, or to pay the cost of registering
the tenant upon the manor books. The tenants of most of the
lands had a considerable beneficial enjoyment in their property,
and the services which as a rule they were required to render were
by no means commensurate with the amount of benefit they

10

obtained ; but in the case of the tenants of Ambleside and Trout-
beck it was not so. When the Scots invaded the borders, they
made hurried raids on horseback, and to horsemen there were only
two passes reasonably accessible by means of which they could
invade the fertile lands of lower Westmorland; one of these was
by way of Dunmail Raise, and the other by Kirkstone Pass. The
former, however, had to be approached by means of narrow valleys,
where much opposition would have to be met with from the
inhabitants, and it did not afford nearly so tempting a means of
approach as Kirkstone Pass, the way to which was over level
country until Ullswater was reached, and then that valley, which
was sparsely inhabited, afforded admirable means for a retreat.
The result was that the duty of defending Kirkstone was by far
the most serious one, and this naturally devolved upon the tenants
of Ambleside and Troutbeck. ‘Their services were consequently
arduous, and a tenant was not willing to pay a large fine on
succeeding to his father’s property, as the succession in itself
entailed so much danger and hard work as to be a doubtful
benefit ; this being so, the lord of the manor was only too glad to
admit the tenants on payment of the smallest possible fine, which
was one yeatr’s rent.

Writers upon the subject of tenures of land often class customary-
hold as copyhold, upon the ground that the lord of the manor is
entitled to the mines and minerals; but this arises from a
mistake. The ownership of mines and minerals was vested
in the Crown in all crown manors; and when King James
made his bargain with the tenants, he took good care not to part
with more than he could help: and so the minerals to this day
remain in the lord of the manor. Charles II. granted the West-
morland crown lands to his wife as a jointure, and after her death
these crown manors were granted to the Lowther family, in which
family they still continue.

It will be evident therefore, from what I have said before, that
the customary estates of Westmorland were from their very origin
freehold. The peculiarities of the service required in respect of
them gave rise to the customs which still exist, and these customs

11

in the course of time acquired the force of law. That notwith-
standing an attempt by the Crown to disturb these tenures, they
were finally established in, or shortly after, the reign of James I.,
and they have ever since continued to exist with their distinguishing
customs ; and that customary tenure in Westmorland arose in the
first instance from the peculiar ciycumstances of the case, and was
ultimately established by royal decree ; and that notwithstanding
certain peculiarities which they possess in common with copyholds,
they are freeholds of the most honourable sort, being held by
military service, which was considered superior to all others at the
time of its institution.

Lam afraid that I have not endued this subject with all the
interest of which it is capable ; but at the same time I cannot but
feel that it is a subject which is deeply interesting to all inhabitants
of Westmorland ; and that it is one over which it is worth while to
pause and consider, ata time when there is every probability that
one of the earliest acts of domestic legislation will be the passing

of the bill for the abolition of customary and copyhold tenure.

13

THE HILL NATURALIST.
By WILLIAM HODGSON, A.L.S., WATERMILLOCK.
(Read at Carlisle, 1884.)

THE late H. C. Watson, author of the “Cybele Britannica,”
divides the surface of the earth into six climatic zones, four of
which are represented in the Lake district—the coldest and the
warmest of the series being alike excluded. The lowest, which
Mr. Watson calls the Midagrarian, extends from 0, or sea-level, to
an altitude of 900 feet. This zone is marked by the presence of
fruticose -ubz or Brambles, Ulex and Alnus. The next zone,
Superagrarian, extending from goo to 1800 feet, is marked at its
upper limit, which is about the height of Wester Mell Fell or
Calva, by the cessation of “vica, Pieris, and Digitalis, or Cross-
leaved Heath, Common Bracken, and Foxglove. The third, or
Inferarctic zone, ranging from 1800 to 2700 feet in altitude,
includes all our mountains intermediate in elevation between Mell
Fell and High Street, Coniston Old Man, or the Red Pike. The
line of demarcation between this and the Mid-arctic zone, which
‘includes all our loftiest peaks, is marked generally by the cessation
of Calluna in an upward, and of Salix herbacea and Carex rigida.
Of course, while working away on the hills, you will here and
there encounter individuals of the species here enumerated, that,
favoured by peculiar circumstances of soil or aspect, as exposed to
the sun or otherwise, have strayed beyond the limits here assigned
to them. Should any of our botanical friends meet with such

14

wanderers, I would strongly advise them to make a note of the
time, place, and surroundings of each.

Generally speaking, the great bulk of our grasses and the major
part of our indigenous shrubs and forest trees, may be set down as
occurring within the limits of the Midagrarian zone, or at an
altitude of less than goo feet. The exceptions will be noticed by
and bye. With the London Catalogue in my hand, I will endeavour
in the order there set down, to particularise a few of the plants
characteristic of our Lakeland Flora which are to be found at an
elevation of goo feet and upwards.

The first species that occurs is Zhalictrum alpinum, a diminutive
but very pretty little plant which I have seen growing in rills on
Helvellyn, or on the surface of moist rocks over the Red Tarn, at
the very spot where the unfortunate Mr. Gough met with his
melancholy fate in the spring of 1806. Thalictrum minus, v. mon-
tanum, is found on the cliffs of Catchedicam. Several of the Crow-
foot family, as Ranunculus lenormandi, R. hederaceus, R. flammula,
R. acris, and others, inhabit fell becks and moist situations up to
an altitude of 2000 feet, and in some instances still higher. I
have seen Aguilegia vulgaris growing on the face of perennially-
dripping rocks over Dowthwaite Head in Matterdale. Corydalis
caviculata appears about the bases of our mountains in many of
the dales. Comparatively few of the Crucifers attain an elevation
exceeding that of common cereal tillage. Cardamine sylvatica
grows on Yew Crag over Ullswater; and Cochlearia officinalis, and
its variety a/fina,* may both be met with in running water up to an
altitude of quite 3000 feet. Zvesdalia nudicaulis grows on Carrock,
Place Fell, Swarth Fell, etc., and is most frequently met with where
the surface has been disturbed. AHe/zanthemum vulgare, a limestone-
loving flower, is found about Park Head on Warnell, and on some
of the calcareous hills of Westmorland. Viola palustris in bogs,
and V. dutea on dry mountain sides, are of common occurrence ;
while the different species of Drosera may all be discovered in
boggy localities, D. rotundifolia being, however, far the most

* Mr. J. G. Baker, F.R.S., of the Kew Herbarium, refers all the upland
Scurvy-Grasses to the variety a/piza.

15

frequent. Silene acaulis is found on the rocks near Grisdale Tarn,
where I saw it growing last summer. A still rarer flower, namely,
Lycthnis alpina, was sent to me by Mr. W. Dickinson, who gathered
it from Hobcarten, on the Loweswater fells. Cerastium alpinum has
been found on Dove Crags, a dangerous-looking bluff on Fairfield.
Stellaria nemorum grows in Fusedale, over Ullswater. Montia fontana
in almost every “‘well-eye” on the hills. Several species of St. John’s
Wort flourish freely in the superagrarian zone. Malva moschata is
often seen near mountain quarries, where its roots penetrate deeply
into the rubbish heaps. adiola millegrana 1 have seen but once
growing in a spring on the southern slopes of Dent, near Egremont.
I had frequently seen it stated in old lists that Zuonymus europaeus
grew in Gowbarrow parks, and the splendid manuscript Flora
compiled by the late Mr. Rooke of Whitehaven, contains a drawing
from a specimen procured there, yet I never discovered it until
last October, when I found it on Yew Crag, rooting in the rifted
rock. None of the Clovers or Vetches attain a great elevation,
except perhaps Ovobus tuberosus, which is not unfrequent in
dry rocky woods. Of the Wild Cherries I must speak with
considerable diffidence ; the most common species here, I take to
be Prunus avium. Alpine Ladies’ Mantle meets us at every turn
in the Helvellyn and Scawfell groups of hills. The Common
Tormentil is even more ubiquitous; and one of Mr. Baker’s last
letters informs me that Potentilla fruticosa and Dryas octopetala,
plants of extreme rarity, have both been recently discovered
growing upon the rocks over Keppel Cove Tarn. The lucky
finder was, I think, Mr. Backhouse of York.

Of the Audi, the species pertaining to mountain districts are
R. saxatilis, which is fairly plentifu) in Airey ravine, Matterdale.
R. chamemorus is found in turfy bogs at various stations in the
Lake country; the last I remember seeing grew in the Sticks
Moss, over the path leading from Greenside Mines towards
St. John’s Vale and Keswick. The Wild Raspberry is everywhere
plentiful. Of the wild Roses, several types occur on the lower
slopes of the mountains, In similar stations the Mountain Ash
and the Hawthorn flourish luxuriantly. The upland OnacRacez#

16

are represented by Lfzlobium angustifolium on the rocks over
Otterstone, Ullswater ; and £. adsinifolium, splendid specimens of
which grow in the rills which pour down the slopes of Kirkstone
towards Brotherswater.

Stonecrops and Saxifrages abound, there being seven species of
the former, and eight of the latter, reputed as indigenous to Lake-
land. The beautiful Grass of Parnassus is a special ornament on
every mountain slope down which the water makes its way from
some lofty spring.

Not many umbelliferous plants can be discovered at an altitude
exceeding 1000 feet, though the Wild Angelica is occasionally met
with. The Common Elder, the Guelder Rose, and the Honey-
suckle, are all present in varying situations and numbers. The
RupiacE# find representatives in the Mountain-, Marsh-, and
Ladies’ Bedstraw ; and the Marsh Valerian occurs in wet places
early in the season.

Of the Composit we have a fair variety. The Marsh Thistle
is conspicuously plentiful in wet heathy ground. The Melancholy
Thistle grows about Ashness Gill and Beckbottom farm in Matter-
dale, and the Carline Thistle abounds in Ennerdale and about
Gowbarrow Fell. The Cudweeds found are the common form
which occasionally shows itself on dry rocky prominences ; and
Gnaphalium dicicum, on Brockle Crag, Skiddaw, and the Side
Woods in Ennerdale. Senecio sylvaticus is a frequent occupant of
hillside quarry grounds. Of the Hawkweeds, in addition to
Hieracium pilosella, 1 have found.the following—/. anglicum on
the rocks in Cawdale; . vulgatum, H. murorum, H. corymbosum,
and H. doreale occur not unfrequently, especially the last named.

Ericace&.— Bilberry, Cranberry, Cowberry, and the Bog
Whortleberry, are all reputed as indigenous on our elevated
moors; indeed, I can personally vouch for all except the last
mentioned, which I do not remember to have seen, ‘The Bear-
berry is represented as a native of Martindale Forest. The
Cross-leaved and the Fine-leaved Heaths, as well as the common
Ling, are everywhere plentifully distributed. The grandest examples
of Erica cinerea 1 have ever seen grow in Ennerdale. Gentiana

17

campestris is not rare, and sometimes is found as high up as 1500
feet. MJenyanthes trifoliata, in marshes and spongy bogs, up to
the same altitude as the preceding. Coming next to the ScRopHu-
LARIACE&, we find Verbascum thapsus inhabiting ‘“‘scree-beds” in
many of our mountain slopes; still more common are the tall
flowering spikes of the Foxglove. The last species never fails to
quickly occupy the space where timber has been recently cleared.
Mimulus luteus, a reputed alien, seems gradually becoming estab-
lished in mountain runners: this is certainly the case in many of
the streams that empty into Ullswater. Of the Speedwells,
Veronica officinalis and V. serpyllifolia climb to a higher range than
their congeners. Coming to the Lapiata, Mentha hirsuta and
M. arvensis follow the streams often to a considerable elevation.
The Lesser Skull Cap, on the authority of the late Mr. Dickinson,
is found in Thornthwaite, near Keswick. The only time I met

___ with it was about eight years ago, in a spring towards the southern

base of Dent Hill, near Egremont, growing side by side with
Radiola millegrana, which also, by a singular coincidence, I have
not seen elsewhere. ‘The Wood Sage abounds everywhere, in dry
rocky. localities. : ’

Three species of Forget-me-not are met with in our mountain
brooks, while the drier banks can boast as many more. The
Common Butterwort is a tenant of most springs; and often side
by side with it is the Bird’s-eye Primrose. ‘The Common Primrose,
I may here remark, often blooms until September in lofty cold
situations. The Bog Pimpernel delights in spongy boggy places.
In such locations, high up in Borrowdale, and also in Glencoin, it
may be found when the Grass of Parnassus blooms. The Dock
family I may dismiss by stating that the Kidney-leaved Sorrel is
found rooting amongst rocks where the soil is moist and peaty,
quite up to the summit almost of our highest peaks, at the Pillar,
Scawfell, and Helvellyn; on the slopes of which last mountain
Polygonum viviparum has also been found. The Crowberry, like
the Bilberry, and others already mentioned, is of frequent occur-
rence.

AMENTIFERZ.—The Oak, Beech, Hazel, Birch, and Alder, all

2

18

adorn the lower slopes of our hills, each in the soil most fitted to
its growth ; while the lowly Bog Myrtle is found in peaty mosses.
The Willows, as a rule, do not venture much upwards. An excep-
tion, of course, must be made in favour of Salix herbacea, which
has been found on Skiddaw, the Pillar, Kidsty Pike, &c.; and
quite recently, as Mr. Baker informs me, some species heretofore
supposed to be indigenous to the Scottish hills, have been found
on Helvellyn and Fairfield. Of ContrER#, the Yew and Juniper
—the latter known locally as “horse savin”—are both abundant.
In our lakes, tarns, and mossy pools, Pondweeds, Water-lilies,
Water-starworts, Milfoils, &c., are of common occurrence. The
Orchids, again, are mostly plants of meadow and pasture growth.
Similarly of the Iris and Amaryllis tribes, Garlics, &c. Of rush-
like plants, the supply is more than abundant. Zuzula sylvatica
and JZ. congesta—the former inhabiting bosky dells, often near a
waterfall, the latter preferring the upland moors—are frequent ;
while, independent of the dwarf Juncus triglumis, inhabiting Dove
Crag or Striding Edge, six other rushes, including the variety
sub-verticillatus, are reckoned as indigenous to elevated moorish
ground. The pretty little AAyncospora alba may be classed as
local rather than rare, for while inhabiting wet moors in Ennerdale
and Borrowdale abundantly, I have never succeeded in discovering
it in the dales converging towards Ullswater. Sedges appear in
strong force; apart from those which are distinctly palustral
plants of the lower levels, or inhabitants of salt marshes, the
following may be found at varying altitudes up to 3000 feet, viz.,
Carex pulicaris, C. muricata, C. stellulata, C. ovalis, C. rigida,
C. vulgaris, C. glauca, C. pilulifera, C. precox, C. levigata,
C. binervis, C. flava, and C. filiformis. ‘This last is rare, and
extremely local, possibly the lowest in the scale of climatic zones
that I have mentioned, as C. vigéda is one of the highest. C. flava,
C: pilulifera, and C. pulicaris often grow as high as the Red Tarn,
say at an altitude of 2500 feet.

Coming now to the Grasses, of which I have previously treated
at large in a paper read at Workington, I will confine myself to
stating that nearly all our indigenous grasses are to be met with in

19

the lower zone. The few that grow above 1000 feet may be
-summarised thus: Sesleria caerulea, Agrostis canina, A. vulgaris,
with its variety pumila, Aira flexuosa, A. cespitosa, A. caryophyllea
and A. precox, Triodia decumbens, Melica nutans, Poa alpina,
P. annua, P. pratensis, Festuca ovina, F. vivipara, F. sylvatica,
and WNardus stricta. The last frequently marks the line of
demarcation between the gramineous and the heathy coverings of
our hills.

Of the Ferns I have spoken before the Penrith Society ; only I
may be permitted to enter my earnest protest against the ruthless
and indiscriminate way in which these elegant adjuncts to the
plant life of Lakeland are being rooted up and exterminated. In
the Keswick neighbourhood, once famous for its Osmunda regalis,
that plant in a wild state is now already a thing of the past. Others
of the Filices are undergoing the same fate, and I would implore
the members of this and kindred associations to use every influence
at their disposal to arrest the mischief. A fern new to the district
has quite recently been discovered, the precise location of which I
could not venture to make public. Lycopods and Equiseta we
possess in great variety as well as abundance. Of the Mosses and
Lichens, whose name is legion, I cannot now speak.

I will now proceed to make a few remarks on the feathered
occupants of the hills. We are told that Birds of Prey were once
much more common than they are now. The Eagle Crags, Falcon
Clints, &c., met with in our excursions, still testify to this. Within
living memory, the Kite or Glead or Fork-tailed Hawk, as he was
commonly styled by the dalesmen, has disappeared. One well
remembered nesting place of this bird—full in sight from the
place where my notes are written—will know its old occupants
never again. The Raven yet croaks occasionally from Priest
Crag, still nearer to my house; but he no longer ventures to
establish his nursery there, though aged men recollect when in
their school-boy days, to rob his nest was a favourite exploit with
them, not. unattended with a spice of danger. While gamekeepers

_ Class all such birds as vermin, and wage merciless warfare against

20

every member of the orders Falconidz, Strigide, and Corvide ;
when farmers join in the cry in defence of their young poultry and
lambs, and evince a sympathy frequently more than a passive
one, with the professional corvicide ; can one feel surprised at the
gradual disappearance of the Raptores, &c., from our midst, when
traps, guns, and poison are’ indiscriminately used for their ex-
tinction? The prodigious increase of field-mice—both the Long
and the Short-tailed varieties—in different quarters, must bring
about a reaction in favour of the persecuted owls and hawks,
especially the Kestrel. Who that has examined the droppings
scattered around the vicinity of a Wind-hover’s nursery, can fail to
recognise his importance as a killer of vermin in the most appro-
priate and strict sense of the term. Of these persecuted birds
there yet remain to us the Peregrine Falcon—growing yearly more
rare,—the Merlin, the Kestrel, the Sparrow-hawk, the Common
Buzzard, and the Harrier—the last mentioned all but extinct.
Of the Strigidze, the White or Barn Owl, the Tawny Owl, and the
Long-eared and the Short-eared species.

Of the Merulidz we possess the Dipper, whose lively and
interesting mode of life can be studied to perfection in our secluded
and sylvan glens. The Ring Ousel also breeds with us sparingly,
and I regret to record a palpable diminution of its numbers during
the past forty years. The Crag Starling, as we call him, comes to
us early in spring, and retires as soon as he has assisted in stripping
the Rowan tree of its scarlet fruit.

Of the Warblers ( Sy/vzade ), most of them migratory, Lakeland
may claim the Wheatear, which breeds in great abundance ;
indeed, there are some localities where they may be said to swarm
like little colonies. The Whinchat also abounds; whilst the
Stonechat is comparatively rare. Few old walls are without a pair
of Redstarts ; and the Blackcap is a real rara-avis. ‘The White-
throat, the Sedge- and Grasshopper Warblers, the Wood Wren, the
Willow Wren, and the Chiff-Chaff all spend the summer with us ;
while the lively little Gold Crest remains with us all the year
round. Several pairs breed within a few yards of my house every
season, Both Flycatchers—the Spotted and Pied species—visit

ee eee

21
us annually; the latter, 1 am happy to think, in gradually and
steadily increasing numbers. The bird is seldom seen far from
water ; makes his nest in hollow trees; his pied black and white
plumage give him somewhat the look of a magpie in miniature.
The Raven, already referred to, still manages to exist, though his
nesting places are few and far between; and they are sedulously
sought out and persistently robbed of eggs or young. The Carrion
Crow breeds in secluded woods. Of Jackdaws we have enough
and to spare. At Yew Crag, over Ullswater, is a large colony of
these birds, several hundred pairs breeding every year, building
their nests in the crevices of the precipice, or impudently appropri-
ating the numerous rabbit burrows with which the place abounds.
It is indeed a complete “jackery.” The Jay is not unfrequent in
the lower woods; he is a very pugnacious fellow, and suffers no
intruder to approach his home. I have seen a pair of them quite
overmaster a pair of Buzzards, and after a noisy and obstinate
conflict—in which the buzzards constantly had the worst of it and
retreated for other than strategetic reasons—they were driven
entirely from the woods which overlook the well-known Stybarrow
rocks. The Starlings are also numerous, although they suffered
very severely in the hard winters of 1878-9 and 1880-1. This
season large flocks have remained with us up to the present date.
Of the Fringillidz, that sweet little favourite the Goldfinch, has
sadly declined in numbers of late years, though I regard it as a
hopeful sign that several pairs of them are now in my immediate
neighbourhood. The Siskin now and then comes to feed on the
seeds of the alder, and is indeed rarely seen except when engaged
in foraging among its catkins. I hardly think the Linnet and the
Redpole so common as they once were ; possibly the abandonment
of tillage is responsible for the change, “popple” being deficient
in supply. Occasionally one sees a Brambling or a Snow-bunting in
winter. Some tourist has written to say that Skylarks are seldom
seen about the Lake country. Except in very elevated regions this
opinion is without foundation. The Bullfinch is not unusually
seen amongst us; and breeds in the upland woods, not caring
seemingly to approach too closely to the habitations of men during

22

the nesting period. The Swallows and the Martins are much
more common than the Swift or the Sand Martin; which may be
accounted for by the fact that suitable breeding places cannot
readily be found. We have few old towers, and fewer sandbanks.
The Goatsucker is seldom seen; where noted, it occurs about
trees planted near farm-steadings. I have never succeeded in
finding a nest of this species. A stray Kingfisher may now and
then be seen about the Lakes; where, however, I know no
instance of its breeding: its galleries could not be sunk into rock.
The Creeper is familiar to such as ramble much in the woods.
How amusing it is to watch the parent birds when training their
newly-fledged brood in the duty of circling round the stem or
branches of a tree. The Cuckoo abounds. I have seen as many
as a dozen individuals in company at a time; they seemed strangely
quarrelsome, chasing and hurstling each other about, uttering a
harsh guttural cry, quite distinct from the ordinary “twofold note.”
The Stock-Dove has of late years taken up its quarters at more
than one station among the hills, where its low plaintive cooing is
first heard at the beginning of March. I was greatly astonished
to hear its notes last week—a fact attributable no doubt to the
openness of the season. Wood-Pigeons abound ; in early autumn
mornings a dozen or more used to come and breakfast in front of
my bedroom windows, their morning meal consisting of the seeds
of Ranunculus acris, which they picked from the stems with great
assiduity.

Of the Grouse, the Black-cock finds a home in groves or young
plantations on the breast of the hills, preferring marshy or heathy
ground. The Red Grouse is much more common, frequenting
the open heath-clad moors, where its nest may be found at the
foot of some tuft of heath, a full month earlier than that of the
preceding species. Partridges keep to the lower grounds, a remark
which is applicable also to the Pheasant. I have frequently made
the remark that the hen pheasant is far inferior to the female
partridge as a nurse; for while the latter is justly famous for the
courage which she invariably exhibits in defence of her young, and
the ruses which she brings into play in seeking to entice unwelcome

23

intruders away from their neighbourhood, the larger bird, when
disturbed in her nursery duties, will leave her offspring to their
fate with apparent unconcern.

Of the Ardeidz, only the Common Heron seems to demand
passing notice. In the evenings especially, these birds love to
haunt the shallow edges of lakes, or the pools of silent glens,
in pursuit of fish; and expert fishers they doubtless are. Of
heronries we have but few local examples; those in Wythope
Woods and at Greystoke Castle being the only stations within my
immediate district. Old works on Natural History tell us that a
breeding establishment of these birds once existed at Yew-crag in
Gowbarrow ;—certainly not within living memory has this been the
case, yet the mistake continues to be perpetuated.

Of the Scolopacide, the Woodcock stands first in the list. In
my early days, instances of their breeding in this part of England
were extremely rare. I am happy to think the number of native
born “longbills” is on the increase. I never until last spring was
fortunate enough to make the bird’s acquaintance in nesting time.
One evening, as I chanced to pass through the grounds at Gow-
barrow, I was surprised by the notes of a bird flying over head
close to the tops of the trees, with whose peculiar cry I was not
familiar. With a low “ wisp-wisp-wisp—wap-wap-wap,” again and
again repeated, it kept flying hither and thither over my head, still
keeping apparently to the same line, and never going farther away
than from one hundred and fifty to two hundred yards. The bird
I found to be a woodcock, but whether he was simply serenading
his mate, or warning her of the approach of danger, I cannot
undertake to decide. The Common Snipe breeds in boggy upland
pastures, sometimes in considerable plenty. Let me say a word or
two of the Common Sandpiper—‘“ Willie-lilter” of our dalesmen.
I wonder if it ever fell to the lot of any of my bachelor friends here
to witness the courtship manceuvres of this interesting bird. How
he circles around his mate, uttering the most pleasing notes—
_ displaying his plumage—hopping and dancing about in every most
captivating attitude, literally dancing to his own pipes. If not,
they have a lesson yet to learn that might be of service to them in

24

future. My experience was gained in the secluded valley of
Ennerdale, through which the Lissa flows towards the lake. The
Curlew* comes to us from the swampy coasts about the beginning
of March, and retires in the autumn, after rearing his brood upon
some elevated and secluded heath. The young are extremely
clever in hiding themselves on the approach of danger, of which
they are certain to be warned by the old birds. Their nest is rude
and inartificial, consisting of a few dried stalks of grass, rushes, or
sedges, carelessly drawn together. The Plovers hardly trouble
themselves to make any nests at all, but lay their eggs merely in a
scratched hollow. I have known a cow’s or a horse’s footprint to
suffice, very few grasses or lining materials being employed. The
Peewit is of course common enough. The Golden Plover is a
local rather than a scarce bird; he is a tenant for the summer of
the higher moorlands, seldom approaching the dwellings of man.
The Dotterel is gradually becoming extinct. Anglers are, I am
afraid, answerable in a great measure for the decrease. That the
Dotterel does yet occasionally breed on the Cumberland moors I
had ocular demonstration in 1880, when I most unexpectedly fell
in with a brood on Hartside, a lofty moor over Dowthwaite Head,
Matterdale.

The Corncrake, which has been very abundant in my district
this last season, has a singular peculiarity. No actor on the stage
can simulate death like this bird. He will suffer himself to be
roughly handled on what are commonly considered the tenderest
parts of a bird’s frame, without betraying the slightest symptom of
pain; but drop him on the ground, retire a few paces, and observe
him carefully ; by and bye he will open first one eye, and then the
other, take a cool survey of his bearings, and seeing no danger at
hand, walk off with the utmost coolness. The Coot, though
frequently met with on many of the lakes, is rarely a visitor to
Ullswater. ‘The Water-hen inhabits the lower streams and pools
of the plain, rather than hillside torrents.

* During the last two seasons, while dwelling by the Solway, I have seen
Curlews crossing the Frith from Kirkcudbright, and flying inland, apparently
to reach their breeding grounds,

25

Of the last order of birds—the JVatatores or Swimming Birds—
brief notice must suffice. The great bulk of them are shore birds
only, and if driven inland by accident, are considered as stragglers.
The Wild Duck and the Teal rear their young with us occasionally.
None of the Wild Goose or Swan family, however, do so. The
Cormorant, Goosander, Scaup Duck, and other species, are winter
visitors. With one remarkable exception, we know nothing of the
extensive family of Gulls: I refer to the Blackheaded Gull, Larus
ridibundus, which of late years has become a constant visitor to
Ullswater. About the first week in March, when Peewits and
Curlews re-appear, a flock of several hundreds of these gulls makes
its appearance about the middle of the lower reach of the lake,
constantly near the same place—between Rampsbeck Cottage on
the one shore, and Waterside House on the other. Here their
courtship, I suppose, commences; and a noisy business it is.
Their screaming—who first called it laughing I don’t know—is
incessant, and their motions are uneasy. In a little time they
depart, the great bulk of them to a series of swampy pools on the
south side of Greystoke Park, where there is a gullery or nesting
colony. A few of the birds occasionally return to the lake shore
and diligently watch the mouths of the different brooks when
Minnows are leaving the lake to spawn. Also when the Ghost
Moths appear, the black-heads are very active in hawking for them
over the surface of meadows and pastures in a summer evening.

Part II.
| (Read at Carlisle, 1885.)

Durinc the spring and early summer of 1885, three different pairs
of Woodcocks were noticed during the breeding season in Gow-
barrow Park, Ullswater. On the whole, the belief seems to be
gaining ground, that more woodcocks remain with us to breed
than was formerly the case. Perhaps it may be that there are
- more observers now-a-days.

A pair of Buzzards appeared during the nesting season in the
locality already referred to, and undoubtedly succeeded in rearing

26

their brood, although their nesting-place was not discovered. The
young birds—which are readily distinguishable from adults of the
same species—were frequently observed both by myself and by
two of my sons.

Several nests of the Wind-hover, or Brown-hawk—as it is
frequently called, to distinguish it from the Sparrowhawk, to
which the name of “blue” hawk is often applied—were found
during the breeding season. My sons discovered, I believe, seven
nests in all during last spring. The Kestrel frequently makes use
of an old nest of the Jackdaw among the rocks of Yew Crag. No
nests of the Sparrowhawk were seen this season; but we heard of
a Merlin’s nest being found on Matterdale Common. |

Towards the close of my former paper, I referred to the migra-
tions of the Blackheaded Gull, and its arrival upon Ullswater
about the beginning of March in each year. About the middle of
May, two of my lads set out to visit the gullery at Greystoke. On
their arrival they found the nests—rudely constructed of a few dried
stems of rushes or sedges, with which the bog abounds—placed
upon little islets of rushes in the centre of the swamp, inaccessible
to the pedestrian except by wading. They saw that most of the
young were already hatched, and that it was just a little too late
to get any eggs. The younger brother waded towards the most
promising clumps of rushes, where he managed to secure two or
three fine specimens of eggs, and capture one of the callow young
among the sedges. This proceeding roused the resentment of the
whole colony, and brought the adult members about his ears with
hostile intent. They attacked him in a body with such pertinacity
that he was glad to invoke the aid of his elder brother in ridding
him from his assailants. Their cry is at all times harsh and
dissonant, and it smacks of anything rather than the laughter that
is associated with their name. ‘Ten days later not an egg remained;
but the pools swarmed with young gulls, which paddled about in
troops in all directions, generally contriving as quickly as possible
to place the width of the pool between themselves and the observer,
and sometimes to disappear altogether among the sedges. The
old gulls kept hovering about proclaiming their displeasure by

27

piercing cries; sometimes a number of them, perched upon a line of
dilapidated railing which separated the gullery from an adjoining wood,
showed to picturesque advantage with their dark chocolate-coloured
crowns in striking contrast with the snow-white plumage of their
breasts. There is a strongly-marked distinction in colour between
birds of this species in their first—probably also in their second—
year’s plumage, and adult specimens of the same bird. In addition
to the gulls, I observed two broods of Coots, and one brood of
what I took to be Teal, judging only from the young specimens,
as the old birds were much too wary to venture outside the fringe
of vegetation, behind which they could so easily and completely
shelter themselves from notice. Several Snipes were flushed on
the outskirts of the pool; and the characteristic notes of the
Peewit and the Curlew were frequently heard in chorus with those
of the gulls. Nor were other attractions far to seek. Palustral
plants abounded. Bogbean in its latest blooming stage for the
season, alternated with Marsh Cinquefoil ; both species of Louse-
wort were present ; tufts of Cotton Grass were conspicuous here
and there among the more sober-coloured spikes of Sedges, of
which last quite a dozen species might have been collected in’a
few minutes. The finest Cadllitriche I ever saw, of the variety
known as //atycarpa, carpeted the edges of many of the scattered
pools. Quite charmed with my visit to such a scene, I turned my
back upon it with reluctance and regret.

Turning now to the Mamma ia of the hill country, I may say
that the Wild Cat lingers among the fells of Cumberland only by
tradition. The last I ever heard of was captured in Great Mell
Fell early in the present century, by the famous pack of hounds
maintained by the Squire Taylor of Baldhow of that day, from
whom I derived my information more than forty years ago.

I have enjoyed almost unexampled opportunities of inquiring
into and observing the habits of the Common Squirrel. At the
west end of the school-house at Watermillock is a little grove of
larches and other conifers, planted by my own hands in 1845.
This grove proved to be the chosen feeding ground of a very fine
squirrel, which might be seen morning after morning dexterously

28

stripping the scaly coating from the cones of the fir, to get at the
winged seeds, upon which at certain seasons he largely depends for
a supply of food. In hard weather my children were accustomed
to feed the little birds, which soon collected about the premises
when pressed by hunger. By and bye the squirrel came for his
share of the good things. Finding himself protected from any
annoyance, “Connie,” for so we called him, became pleasantly
familiar, and would jump about the threshold, and fearlessly trip
up the steps that led into the outer kitchen, encouraged at times
by a few grains of Indian corn left specially for him. These he
would pick up, and springing upon the garden wall, or running a
few feet up the stem of a fine oak tree that grew close to the door,
would seat himself upon his haunches, and with tail erect would
nibble away at his prize, holding it between his fore paws. The
children were not slow in discovering that a crust of bread was
greatly relished by their pet, or that the outer skin of a hard baked
potatoe was a special delicacy ; and great was their delight to see
him mount to his chosen perch, and there complacently munch
away at the dainties with which they had provided him. As spring
advanced he was joined by a mate of the same species. Growing
bolder in company, the two would sometimes unite in driving away
the little birds, or even the larger poultry, when the latter chanced
to be without the protection of the cock, who alone seemed to
exercise a wholesome degree of terror over them. From his
assaults they could however secure immediate freedom, as well as
from the attacks of stray dogs or cats, by taking refuge among the
branches of the oak above mentioned; and many an amusing
incident such hasty retreats gave rise to, as the active little creatures
would peer with an air of scornful complacency at their baffled
pursuers on “erra firma. When provisions abounded, and their
appetites were satiated, they would form numerous little hoards of
provisions in an adjoining wood, usually not far. from the stem of
some tree that afforded a ready refuge in case of any interruption
to their task of conceaiment. Many a time have I watched them
while questing for such stores, when the ground was covered with
snow. ‘They would cross and recross each other’s track, quartering

29

the ground with a sagacity unsurpassed by the trained setter or
spaniel of the sportsman. I recollect coming downstairs one
morning, and spying through the staircase window one of their
number energetically at work on the stem of a tree distant from
my point of observation not more than ten or a dozen yards. The
squirrel as he worked kept his head downwards—an attitude very
unusual with this animal. Calling the attention of some of the
household to his apparently inexplicable proceedings, we decided
not to disturb the little worker, but after breakfast to go and
examine the trunk of the tree upon which he was operating with
such apparent earnestness. To our gratified astonishment, we
found that he had been sticking little balls of food, first partially
softened and formed into pellets about the size of a pigeon’s egg,
which were visible here and there attached to the bark of the tree.
Many of these balls were supported in their position by resting
upon patches of moss or lichen that grew upon the surface of the
bark. The food consisted of portions of boiled potatoe, or other
victuals, purloined from the breakfast of the poultry. On many
subsequent occasions they were observed disposing of their eatables
in the same way. This was a characteristic of the squirrel to
which I had never seen any reference.

I had frequently found myself called upon to defend my sprightly
acquaintance from the charge of stealing and sucking the eggs of
game and other birds; and sometimes I felt as though my pleading
had been vain. One day when I was roused from my labours in
the-flower garden by an unusual noise of alarm among the poultry
in the adjoining wood, I peered over the wall, where I saw the
larger of the squirrels running along the surface of the ground with
his bushy tail at full stretch behind him. This attitude gave him
very much the appearance of a miniature fox in full chase. He
was making his way through the midst of the fowls apparently with
an egg in his mouth. I own I was shocked for the moment, and
awaited the result of his conduct with feelings of anxiety. Presently
I saw him ascend the trunk of a fine silver fir tree in the wood,
where he disappeared from view among the topmost branches.
Before long I saw him again descend, and cross to the thorn

30

hedge which formed the boundary of the wood, separating it from
an adjacent sheep walk. From this hedge he collected little
patches of wool from the thorns where they had lodged when torn
from the backs of “truant sheep” as they forced a way through the
hedge in quest of “‘pastures new.” Here was an unexpected and
completely exculpatory solution of the egg difficulty. My active
little four-footed neighbour was merely collecting materials for
lining his nest, which I presently discovered almost at the top of
the tree just mentioned. The nest was rapidly approaching
completion, and in it a family of three squirrel cubs was reared
without molestation. This seems to be the usual complement of
a litter of squirrels; at any rate, every nest met with in my
personal experience has held exactly that number. They who
have seen kittens at play on a hearthrug, or lambkins gambolling
in a meadow, have but a faint idea of the sprightly antics of young
squirrels when first allowed to venture outside the curtilages of
their domicile. They run races at almost incredible speed, and
chase each other in a spiral direction round and round, or
sometimes up and down, the stem and along the branches of
neighbouring trees. They play at bo-peep after a most ludicrous
fashion, and their changes of attitude are effected with amazing
agility. They are quick-tempered, even irritable, when engaged in
such sportive exercises ; and this characteristic does not disappear
when the animals arrive at maturity.* Many a time has their
passionate clucking, accompanied by a peculiar thud or patting
sound made by the feet, betrayed their unsuspected presence. It
would be difficult to explain exactly how this thud is produced.
It is not like the stamp—stamp—made by the Herdwick ewe as
she faces round in a threatening attitude to confront the collie
when she is alarmed for the safety of her offspring. The sheep
uses one fore foot only at a time. The rabbit stamps with his
hind paws, as a note half of alarm, half of defiance, as he disappears
head foremost into his burrow. But the squirrel apparently uses

* When Connie’s offspring were fully grown, they were driven from the wood
in which they had been reared, by the combined efforts of their parents, and we
saw them no more,

31

all his feet simultaneously, or ‘“‘stutts,” as a Cumbrian would say.
I have only now to add my conviction that the squirrel does not
hibernate, as I had been taught almost from infancy to suppose ;
for even during the terrific snowstorm of March, 1881, and others
scarcely less severe in the seasons immediately preceding it, their
visits to my back door were never intermitted. Only when the
hazel nuts were ripe and fairly abundant would they disappear for
a few weeks at atime. In addition to nuts, and such other articles
of diet as I have already enumerated, squirrels seem to have a
liking for the kernels of most kinds of stone fruit. T have seen
them busily engaged in stripping a plum tree of its half-ripened
fruit, not for the sake of the outer pulp, which they stripped off
and tossed away with a disdainful gesture, but in order to reach
the seed imbedded within the central stone, through which they
can drill holes with amazing rapidity. I am persuaded, also, from
pretty close observation, extending over a series of years, that
these agile, interesting, and harmless animals spend much more of
_ their time on the ground than is commonly supposed.

Of the other Rodentia in a wild state, the Long-tailed Field
Mouse is in some places greatly too abundant in meadows; and I
_ regret to think that this mischief is being aggravated by the
mistaken folly of game-watchers and preservers in their reckless
_ persecution of owls, kestrels, and of other birds that formerly kept
_ the Muridze within reasonable limits. The Short-tailed Field
_ Mouse is also increasing at a similar rate. Of late years I have
noticed many meadows in which large patches of ground were
quite ruined for haymaking purposes by the burrowing operations
_ of mice and rats. Yet what a pretty creature is the Short-tailed
_ Field Mouse, with his chestnut-coloured fur, short stumpy tail, and
_ prominent bead-like eyes of glossy blackness. How such little
_ animals manage to gain subsistence during very severe winters, I
have never been able to determine with any amount of satisfaction.
On the 29th May, 1881, I had rambled as far as the summit of
_ Swarthfell, where, in an extensive hollow, the snow still lay deep
inthe centre. The outer edges of the drift had gradually melted
_ away, and the surface thus recently exposed bore evident traces of

32

animal life passed under the snow, which had covered the space
for many months. The whole area was scored with tracks, appar-
ently of mice; and the fibrous roots of the heath were gnawed
asunder in every direction. By what species this had been
accomplished, puzzled me greatly ; nor was the wonder diminished
by the fact that the altitude of the place was fully 2000 feet above
sea level.

Of Rats, both the common species and the Water Rat [Vole] are
not unfrequent; the latter, however, confined to the edges of brooks
and swampy spots. I have heard many a person who passed as
an authority among his friends, maintain that the water-vole is
destructive to fish, and that he is generally carnivorous. This is
not so. Any angler may soon satisfy himself on that head. He
has only carefully to observe one of these creatures in his usual
haunts, to be convinced that he is a strict vegetarian, and moreover
_ an Epicurean in his tastes, selecting only the freshest shoots of
willows, and the sprouts of sedges, reeds, or canary grass. Should
you attempt the introduction of any fresh plant, by transplanting
the same within his beat, he is almost certain to pay it most
annoying attention, by nibbling it through at the earliest oppor-
tunity. Several experiments of mine in this direction have been
foiled by his pertinacity.

Of well known animals like the Hare and the Rabbit, no detailed
remarks are called for. I will therefore pass them over by noting
that within my recollection the Hare has steadily and sensibly
decreased in numbers ; while the Rabbit has increased everywhere,
and is now in some districts so abundant as to be a formidable
nuisance to the agriculturist.

Persecuted as the Mole is in many quarters, he yet appears to
retain his ground; and I imagine that the farmer’s absurd prejudices
against the ‘“‘mowdie-warp” are less virulent than they once were.
Professional molecatchers are yet in our midst, though perhaps
their popularity has diminished since the close of last century,
when Messrs. Bailey and Culley, in their Report on the Agriculture
of Cumberland and Westmorland, found only two things whereon
to compliment our farmers, to wit—the use of light single-horse

33

carts, and the means in use among them for the extirpation of
moles.

Of the Deer family, the only wild representative now to be
found is the Red Deer of Martindale Forest, on the Westmorland
side of Ullswater. Their number is not now very large. Stray
specimens occasionally fall under the observation of the mountain
rambler. Time was when the Martindale and Heltondale farmers
complained of damage to their crops by his nocturnal irruptions
into the enclosures down in the valleys. “It is not merely what
these bucks consume by eating, but what they waste,” said a dales-
man to me many years ago. ‘Gripping a lot of stalks in their
mouths, they strip them in this fashion,” (making an upward motion
with his hand by way of illustration,) ‘‘and so lots of our finest
corn is lost.” As grain cultivation is mostly abandoned, and the
number of deer much lessened, there is now less ground for
complaint. That fine animals still remain is evidenced by the
fact that the late Sir Richard Musgrave succeeded a few years
ago, while deer-stalking in Martindale Forest, in bringing down a
splendid stag, the head and antlers of which are preserved at Eden-
hall. A few head of Red Deer are also to be found on the fells of
Gowbarrow, but within the limits of the enclosed park of Lyulph’s
- Tower. They confine themselves as a rule to the very crest of the
hills, and hold themselves aloof from the society of the Fallow Deer,
which graze for the most part along the southern slopes of the hills
fronting towards Ullswater.

The hill Fox still maintains his footing, and but for the effective
means adopted for keeping down his numbers, would soon become
_ apest to the shepherds. In the olden time a price was set upon

his head, and every person who succeeded in capturing a fox was
entitled to head-money, varying in amount in different localities.
The bailiff of the manor or the churchwarden of the parish, and
in some instances both these officials, were called upon to
_ contribute their stipulated quota. It was no unusual thing for the
captor, in claiming his dues, to bring his prize—whether Fox,

Marten, Foumart, Weasel, or feathered bird of prey, as Raven,
4 Falcon, Hawk, &c.—and suspend the carcase from the boughs of

; 3

34

the churchyard yew, or even in the church porch. They who
have never taken part in a fox-chase as conducted on the hills, can
but faintly realise the excitement, fatigue, and danger to life and
limb incurred by the hardy pedestrian during the headlong pursuit,
especially when gill and crag are alike hidden from view by drifted
snow-wreaths. While rearing her cubs, the vixen and her brood
are capable of effecting a serious amount of mischief in a few
hours. Iwell remember an instance where a yeoman, in whose
family I lodged from 1840 to 1851, sustained great loss in this
way. About midsummer my host had his flock of geese, num-
bering from twenty to thirty birds, old and young, in an enclosure
close to the farm buildings. One morning the field was found
strewed with the mangled remains of the birds. All had perished
save the old gander, which was discovered stupified with terror in
the farm yard, and one of the geese which had managed to escape
by sacrificing her tail. There had evidently been a grand foray or
worrying practice. The head, neck, and breasts of most of the
birds were gone, and these were in some instances found buried
in the footprints of cows, and other accidental depressions in
the surface, some of the former having been enlarged for the
purpose.

Of the MustTELip&, or Weasel-family, all the species commonly
considered as indigenous in the northern counties of England are
represented in the hill country. The Common Weasel is the most
frequently met with. The entire tribe are noted as being blood-
thirsty and rapacious—destructive to poultry, game, and small
birds indiscriminately, great numbers falling victims to their
predatory habits. As they commonly reject the bulk of the body
of their victims, sucking the warm life’s-blood from the veins of
the neck, and scooping out the brain, they often work mischief
out of all proportion to their size and apparent capability. Their
murderous character makes them an object of bitter dislike to
gamekeepers and poultry fanciers.

The Ermine or Stoat assumes a garb of pure white during
winter, except the tip of the tail, which is of glossy blackness.
When resuming their summer attire, they are frequently to be met

85

with in a curiously speckled or particoloured dress. They are
very pugnacious creatures, and will fight with great resolution to
the last gasp. I recollect seeing one which had its spine injured
by a stone aimed at it by a plough-boy, drag itself along upon
its forelegs only, and spring at the lad, seize him by the leg, and
quit its hold only when choked by the lad’s firm grasp of its
throat.

The Polecat or Foumart is a very destructive marauder, and is
frequently hunted by dogs trained to the sport. He is, however,
more commonly met with in the lower parts of the country than in
the mountains, where his place is taken by the Marten, or Sweet-
mart, as he is designated, to distinguish him from his mal-odorous
kinsman. ‘This last animal is much larger than those already
referred to. The huntsman of the Ullswater hounds told me that
he had not long ago seen one killed, which weighed as much as
four-and-a-half pounds; and I have seen a stuffed specimen at
Lyulph’s Tower, of the same large proportions. Mart-hunting is
keenly enjoyed by the dalesmen. When hardly run, he will take
refuge in a tree, or, if on the open fell, as more generally happens,
he will seek shelter in some heap of boulders, or hole in the rocks.
From such “bields” he is frequently dislodged by kindling a fire
to windward of his hiding place. As soon as the smoke reaches
him, he bolts. This manceuvre he will repeat until he is completely
exhausted. The chase frequently leads over very rough and
precipitous ground, and is attended with risk to the limbs and
even life of its votaries. Smoking-out has been attempted with
the fox under similar circumstances; but it is a hopeless failure
when applied to reynard. The number of Marts is gradually
becoming less,

The Badger has for many years been regarded as extinct in
Cumberland. Quite recently, however, ‘‘brock” has reappeared
_ amongst us ; stray specimens continue to be reported from different
"quarters ; and I hope it may ere long be regarded as fully re-estab-
4 lished. The number of places still known as “ Brockholes,” &c.,
_ sufficiently attest its former abundance. I remember a venerable
_ acquaintance of my youthful days describing the process of brock-

36

catching about a century ago. The village lads of Lowther and
Melkinthorp used to go to their haunts provided with empty sacks,
the mouths of which were kept open by wooden hoops. The
sack’s mouth so extended was placed over the entrance to the
burrow, and steadied between the knees of the holder, means
being at the same time adopted to drive the badger from his lair.
The dread of a bite from the animal’s formidable jaws was so
great, that my informant’s knees “dadder’d” against the rim of the
sack. It is sad to think that all this ingenuity was exerted for the
cruel purpose of baiting the animals so captured. During the
summer of 1885, John Greenhow, the gamekeeper at Gowbarrow
Lodge, informed me that a solitary badger had taken up his
quarters among the rocks on the adjoining fell. After an unmo-
lested sojourn of several months, the animal had not long ago
disappeared. The West Cumberland Times of May 8th, 1886,
records the capture of a badger and a marten on the preceding
Monday by the Blencathra hounds, in the vale of Naddle,
St. John’s, Keswick. It is quite possible that the wandering
“Brock” thus sacrificed, was the same animal that had temporarily
sojourned on Gowbarrow Fell, as recorded by Greenhow. The .
distance from the latter place to Naddle is about six miles.
The Hedgehog is another animal which has been the victim of
much absurd prejudice and superstitious ignorance. The idea of
his sucking the teats of recumbent cows may be considered as
exploded. The charge also of being destructive to young and
helpless fledglings, I consider to be grievously exaggerated.
Frequently as I have seen the animal questing for supplies, it has
been on some moss-covered bank or hedgerow, where, sniffing as
he went, and boring with his snout like a pig, you might hear a
low grunt of satisfaction as he unearthed some tiny snail or
chrysalis, which you could plainly hear him crunching between his
jaws the next moment. The Urchin is extremely pugnacious in
his temper. When bustard fishing one time in the Roe, I was
surprised by hearing piercing squeals of distress among the grass
of the meadow behind me. On quietly reconnoitring the ground
whence the sound proceeded, I discovered two hedgehogs in

37

deadly conflict. One of the combatants had seized the other by
a hind leg, to which he clung with the ferocious tenacity of a
bulldog, despite the agonised screams of the sufferer. Only by
severe pressure upon his throat with the butt end of my rod could
I succeed in making him relax his hold. On another angling
excursion, in the neighbourhood of Cockbridge on the Ellen, I
discovered an urchin’s nest, evidently of recent construction.
Externally the material used was the last year’s leaves and stems
of Carex paludosa, which must have been bitten off by the animal
and carried about two hundred yards, from the very opposite end
of the meadow, where a large patch of ground was covered by the
sedge referred to. On opening the nest, I was surprised to discover
the mother urchin in the very act of parturition, What funny
looking little things the infant hedgehogs are! The skins are of
deep pinky red, having only the rudiments of prickles perceptible
in fine silky hairs of snowy whiteness. Carefully replacing the
covering of the nest, I took my leave of “the lady in the straw.”

While sojourning among the fells, I have come upon few traces
of the Otter. Though the animal is met with in the Lakes, I
never saw a living specimen in any of the mountain tributaries of
Ullswater, or in any other of the lakes which I have visited. I
conclude, therefore, that he prefers the lower- and less-impetuously
running reaches of the rivers of Cumberland.

The Shrews, in common with the Hedgehog and other animals,
have in byegone days been the objects of aversion and active
persecution from the vulgar, owing to the baneful properties
attributed to them by superstitious ignorance. They were supposed
by our rustic forefathers to paralyse the limbs of cattle by merely
creeping over them; and their bite was held to be venomous, if
not incurable. Whether these extraordinary fallacies took their
origin from the fact that cats, though they kill the shrew indiscrimi-
nately with the domestic mouse, leave the carcases of the former
untasted, I cannot affirm. Of the Common Shrew it is not my
purpose to make any remarks; but I am anxious to state a few
facts that have come under my personal notice with regard to the
_ Water Shrew, Sorex fodiens, respecting which much doubt seems

to exist. Not long since I saw it stated in a local print, bya
Natural History contributor, that this most elegant and interesting
little creature was of a chestnut (!) colour. Mr. W. Kinsey Dover,
in an appendix to the latest issue of erkinson’s Guide to the Lake
District, mentions the Water Shrew as scarce. My experience
tends in quite a contrary direction; for whether stationed at
Aspatria, Frizington, or Watermillock, during the last fifty years, I
have ever found them in respectable numbers. ‘True it is that
their haunts lie out of the way of ordinary observers, and hence
possibly misconception has arisen. They are entirely aquatic in
their habits, and. in droughty seasons, such as those of 1859 and
1868, suffered severely from the drying up of little rills or water-
brooks. Instead of being rufous or chestnut coloured, their fur is
of the glossiest black above and white beneath, the colours being
abruptly separated ; the under surface of the tail is fringed with
stiff white hairs. Their motions, whether on land or in water, are
elegant and inconceivably rapid. They swim and dive with the
utmost dexterity. During the summer of 1842, I had almost daily
evidence of their extraordinary evolutions in an artificial pond
which was formed by damming up a little brook that flowed
through my garden. Here a brood of five in number, accompanied
by their parents, used to disport themselves with unmistakeable
delight. When the sun shone out brightly, their glossy submerged
coats glistened like frosted silver—arising, I am informed, from the
innumerable bubbles of air that cover their velvety coats. Their
watery gambols strikingly reminded the spectator of those of a
brood of ducklings at play. Nor is their gamesomeness confined
to the water. In 1876, while botanising on the Frizington Parks
estate, I was an interested spectator of their frolics on terra firma.
Here again the family consisted of five members, exclusive of the
parents. At the termination of a drain, where it emptied into an
open water-course, was the entrance to their burrow. The field
was in grass at the time, and depastured with cattle. In a semi-
circle round their hole were a number of grass-covered runs,
artistically arranged with the view apparently of forming a first-class
recreation ground. A number of paths, wide enough only to

39

accommodate a single shrew, radiated from the burrow as a centre,
each extending about seven or eight feet in length. These were
crossed by parallel semicircular tracks about a foot apart, the entire
ground plan giving much the idea of a geometric spider’s web cut
in half. Along these tracks, lengthwise and crosswise indiscrimi-
nately, the youngsters chased each other with almost lightning
speed. Should any two of their number chance to “foreset” each
other, there was a squabble, and much shrill recrimination
resulted. When tired with racing along, they would suddenly
scuttle into the burrow, only to return in a few minutes and renew
their frantic exertions. Their speed was so great, that although I
sat within reach of the inner line of tracks, I failed to capture any
of their number, and was obliged to give up the attempt. Shrews
feed on worms, grubs, caterpillars, etc.; and the bill of fare of the
Water Shrew doubtless includes aquatic insects, such as the larve
of the ephemera, etc.

I must here conclude my remarks for the present. I had
purposed to include the Bats, etc., of the district in my Notes, but
my information is hardly sufficiently accurate to warrant my prose-
cution of that intention at present.

41

LOCALE SUPERS TITIONS:
By W. JARDINE.
(Read at Longtown. )

A crReaT deal of our early information, and more especially that
concerning the manners and customs of life, is traditional. Also,
notwithstanding that man is endowed with brilliant reasoning
faculties ; notwithstanding that the present age is one of progress ;
it is wonderful how much imitation there is in the manners and
customs of everyday life. Hence we do certain things, and these
in certain ways, simply because they have been so done by our
forefathers ; also, for the same reason, we believe certain things.
Superstitions may in a certain sense be said to be hereditary: they
are handed down from generation to generation. They are local
to this extent—that in certain forms they may be peculiar to certain
districts ; also the interpretations put upon the same superstition
may vary in different localities. It is chiefly, however, in country
districts that they are most prevalent ; and, although we are slowly
outliving them, our own neighbourhood is rich in superstitions.
Let us notice a few reasons why superstitions are believed in.
_ (t) Because forecasts are vague, and interpretations may be traced
somehow in the chances of life. (2) The penalty of ill omens is
so dreaded, that the credulous shrink from putting them to the
test. (3) There are nervous cures, and love-charms, and dreams,
__ in which anxious consciousness points right—the wish being father
_ to the thought. (4) Victims of superstition are secretly pleased

42

when (by chance) an unlucky omen comes true, and have a satis-
faction even in relating their misfortunes ; while, since no one tells
of the cases that do not come true, every chance of fulfilment is a
new rivet in the chain that ought long ago to have fallen to —
pieces.

There is a sort of sacredness about them which renders people
afraid of putting them to the test; but if they were fairly tried,
they would be detected as a mental tyranny, a popular fraud; and
in a few generations would be remembered by the rustic classes
only, as the learned now remember the foolish excitement of their
forefathers in science, seeking the Elixir of Life and the Philoso-
pher’s Stone.

Most superstitions are signs of ill-luck, hence the unlucky
greatly predominate over the lucky omens. When going away,
it is considered very unlucky to meet a woman first. A farmer in
our own neighbourhood tells me that his father was once going
from Rosetrees to Drybeck to a cock-fighting contest. When
nearing the latter place, he met an unlucky person—which simply
means a person who had been the victim of bad luck some time.
His first impulse was to climb the hedge, and so avoid passing this
man on the road; but on second consideration he went on. The
result of this unlucky meeting was the best possible luck: for he
was the champion of the day, his bird being victorious in eight
contests, and he finally bearing off the head prize, a pair of shoes.
It would seem there was a possibility of defeating bad luck and
wooing good ; for it was very common of people when going away,
in order to avoid a woman or a person accredited unlucky, to send
out a man to meet them first. It is also considered unlucky for a
woman first to enter a house on a Christmas or a New Year’s
morning. Why, I don’t know; but I know a man, who, last
Christmas, was absolutely forced to go into a certain house on the
plea that the goodwife would not like to see a woman enter first.
Nor was this enough; he was pressed to take some spirits, but
being a teetotaler, had to eat a piece of bread before coming out.

It is a common saying that as much as possible ought to be
carried into a house on the first day of the year; but nothing

43
ought to be carried out. I think, however, the practice of rising
early on that morning, to carry into the house sticks, coals, etc., is
obsolete ; as is also the great provision that used to be made by
the old people for that day, by emptying their dirty water, throwing
out the ashes, and completing multifarious other household duties
on the New Year’s Eve.

Then what a halo of bad luck seems to surround Friday! It is
the day, of all others, upon which nothing important should be
done. It is unlucky to marry on that day; and in England, at
least, hardly anybody would like to get married on that day. I
know a couple who married on a Friday, and though it was said
their marriage would prove unlucky, they have lived happily
together about forty years. Of course everybody knows the ill-luck
believed to attach to flitting on a Friday. ‘“‘ Friday flit, short sit,”
is a saying which, though perhaps not so much heeded now-a-days,
has, nevertheless, a good many champions. You will find very
few servants out of our own district go to their places on that day ;
and I know farmers who are very unwilling to commence sowing
corn on that day. Why is this? Perhaps this is the reason:
Friday was the day of our Lord’s crucifixion, and is, therefore, a
fast day in the Roman Catholic church. Popular superstition soon
marked it as an unlucky day, and this idea has survived long after
the original reason which brought the day into disfavour has been
neglected or forgotten. In Scotland, so strong was the antipathy
to Roman Catholicism, that it actually divested poor Friday of its
character of ‘“ unluckiness,” and that day is now in Scotland a great
day for weddings.

The present age, however, is apt to deal a little roughly with the
beliefs of its predecessors, and a modern Englishman who found
that it would suit his convenience to get married on a Friday,
would hardly be diverted from his purpose if he were told that on
that day Adam and Eve ate the forbidden fruit, or that Adam died
on a Friday. To shew the extent to which the belief in the
un-luck of Friday is carried, I might tell that a young man, a friend
of my own, visited his aunt, a maiden lady who keeps a cow, about
six weeks ago. He suggested the necessity of trimming the cow’s

44

tail, which was too long, and was just about to do it for her, when
she interposed with, ‘‘ No, no, I won’t have it done to-day ; ¢hés is
Friday, and it would not be lucky !”

Did you ever know that it was extremely unlucky to sweep the
house before going away anywhere? How we came to recognise
such a superstition as this, it would be difficult to find out; but
one can imagine its having been handed down to posterity by some
housewife who invented the unluckiness said to follow the event to
excuse her own laziness.

Then how should the event of a timid hare crossing our path
interfere with our luck? Yet the angler coming home with a light
creel and a heavy step, invariably construes the above accident
into the cause of such.

Then you know the rhyme of the magpies :—

One’s sorrow, two’s mirth,

Three’s a wedding, four’s death,

Five’s heaven, six’s hell,

«ind seven is the deil’s ainsel’.
It is amusing to think how easily sorrow could be changed to
mirth. Why should not the appearance of as many sparrows
presage similar things? and why should superstition cling to these
birds ?

The Cuckoo visits us in spring. But it is said the year will be
an unlucky one to us if, when for the first time in the season we
hear his melodious cry, we do not have money in our pocket.

The belief—very strong in our neighbourhood at one time—that
if it rained on St, Swithin’s Day, it would rain for six weeks, has
long ago exploded, and reference need only be made to it.

That a child should never see its own shadow in the looking-glass
before it is a year old, is a well known-superstition. Many a time
have I seen a servant girl scolded for having recourse to this
method of pacifying a noisy child. For the same length of time
the hands must not be washed.

When going away, it is unlucky to have to turn back for any-
thing. I suggest that this may have its origin in this: Lot’s wife
turned, and was changed into a pillar of salt.

45

Salt is considered a very lucky thing. Many people when
removing to a new house make a point of carrying salt and meal
in first. To spill salt at any time is very unlucky. ‘A pound of
salt (spilt brings) a peck of sorrow.” In some places it is believed
to predestine a shipwreck.

It is a common saying, that “It is better to be born lucky than
rich.” We hear a great deal in these democratic times about the
persons born with silver spoons in their mouths. If it is only our
lot to be born on a lucky day, we would seem to be better off than
they. Two old rhymes on birthdays I have found. The first, a
Scotch version, runs :—

Monday’s bairn is fair of face ;

Tuesday’s bairn is full of grace ;

Wednesday’s bairn is a child of woe ;
Thursday’s bairn has far to go ;

Saturday’s bairn works hard for a living ;

But the bairn that is born on the Sabbath day,
Is lively and bonnie, blithe and gay.

Contrast this with the English version :—

Born of a Monday, fair in face ;

Born of a Tuesday, full of God’s grace ;

Born of a Wednesday, merry and glad ;

Born of a Thursday, sour and sad ;

Born of a Saturday, work for your living ;

Born of a Sunday, never shall we want—

So there ends the week, and there’s an end on’t.

Any country girl would trust it true if she were born on a

Monday ; and who that came on a Tuesday would confess himself
“graceless”! But about Wednesday’s bairn there seems to be a
difference of opinion among the prophets: one rhyme predicts
“a child of woe,” whilst the other says “merry and glad;” and
thereby, from self-contradiction, the old rhyme goes down like
a house of cards. Yewe should not forget that what we read
opposite our names in our birthday text-books, and joke over, is
_ similar to, and perhaps the outcome of, what was looked on a few
q years ‘hence as a solemn reality.

46

A great many incidents indicate the coming of strangers or
friends. If the cock crows near the door, it is a sure sign that a
stranger is coming. A stranger may mean almost anybody ; and
if that stranger comes on the same day that the cock crew, or on
the next, or even on the third day, the crowing of the cock, all the
same, foretold it! I know a good many people who have almost
implicit faith in this. If a stranger happens to come once when
one is expected, the reputation of the cock that foretold the event
is established ; thereafter he is known as a “‘true cock.”

A piece of soot blowing backwards and forwards on the bar of
the grate betokened the coming of a stranger. The hands were
clapped in front of it; and if it was blown into the fire he was
coming in, if it fell below the grate, he was going by.

Who has not seen a spark in the wick of the candle? It is
believed to foretell the coming of a letter to the person who sees
it first. It is beautifully described by J. J. Lonsdale, one of our
Cumberland poets. The words are put into the mouth of a
girl :-—

“* Here’s a letter from Robin, father,
A letter from over the sea ;
I was sure that the spark i’ the wick last night
Meant there was one for me ;
And I laughed to see the postman’s face
Look in at the dairy park,

For you said it was so woman-like,
To put my trust in a spark.”

These last two superstitions are very transparent, which, doubtless,
has a great deal to do with our hearing so little about them in
these matter-of-fact times.

As “every cloud has a silver lining,” so the omens of ill-luck are
counterbalanced by those of good. It is considered very lucky to
find anything, but particularly coins or pieces of metal containing
holes. A story was told me of two brothers who left this district
to seek their fortune in one of the larger centres of industry. One
of them found a piece of old horse shoe. One has been very
successful in business, and has prospered well in life: this is the
one who found the horse shoe. It is firmly believed by his

la

ees

¥

47

parents, and by a great many who knew him, that his good fortune
was the result of his finding the horse shoe. You all know how
holed coins are treasured ;—and I am of opinion that the practice
of hanging holed coins to our watch-chains can be traced to
superstition. Any person who has visited Breckonhill Tower,
Longtown, cannot have failed to have seen horse shoes, circular-
shaped, nailed behind each door. I once asked the reason for
this. “Ah,” was the answer given, “it is for luck. Mr. Standish
(the owner) is a queer man.” I here trace this to the fairies.
Persons also spit on money for luck: the absurdity of the custom
being excelled only by its untidiness.

An old lady in Longtown told me that if any person makes
their “honours” to the new moon the first time they see it, they
are sure to get a present before it goes away. My informant further
stated that her sister once did this, and she got a pair of gloves
before the moon went away.

There is an old superstition still believed by many, that to
ensure good fortune during the year, some part of a person’s dress
must be new on Easter-day ; it is also believed by some that if this
condition be not complied with, the birds are likely to spoil one’s
clothes. Perhaps this is why so many ladies insist on having the
prescribed new bonnet on Easter, since the proverb says :—

At Easter let your clothes be new,
Or else be sure you will it rue.

Hundreds of other little incidents are believed to be fraught
with solemn warning. If your nose itches or your ear rings, it is a
sign of death ; if your right ear burns, some person is praising you,
and if your left burns, they are speaking lightly of you; if your
foot itches, you are going to travel on strange ground ; and if your
hand itches, you are going to get money.

When the butter was long in coming, the churn was believed to
be witched, and the housewife used to throw some salt into the
fire, and put a little in the churn, to “buy over” or “frighten” the
witches. Sometimes before the churning the pitchers containing
the cream were carried to the edge of a running water and back

48

again, before the cream was put into the churn. A person informs
me that this was frequently done at Mossband.

Another very common practice in our own neighbourhood was
for people to sprinkle salt on a cow’s back after she had calved, to
keep away the witches; also it was very common to give the
young calf an egg. A person I know well, had no belief in the
custom. On one occasion most of the household had gone to
market, and instructions were left with the person referred to,‘ that
when the cow calved he had to give an egg to the calf. The cow
calved ; but instead of following the instructions of his mother, he
ate the egg himself; and yet, he said, the calf seemed none the
worse for want of the egg. This was literally ‘“ swallowing”
superstition.

Lucky stones all must have seen. Few stables are without
them ; and they are considered a sort of general charm against the
combined powers of fairies and witches, and also disease.

Charms for the cure of warts are to be found all over the
country. The following are sometimes used in the immediate
district :—‘‘ Cut an apple in two. Eat one half, and rub the warts
with the other; then throw it away, and the apple and the warts
will decay together.” ‘Get as many little stones as there are
warts on your hands, and put them into a bag. Turn your back
to a hedge, shut your eyes, repeat certain words, then throw the
bagful of stones over your shoulder.” It is important that the
person trying this charm should not go back to the place where
the bag is lying, to look at it. I remember trying this cure myself,
and believing in its efficacy at the time, as my warts all disappeared
save one.

For whooping cough there are many cures. The following
curious one was resorted to in Longtown only a few weeks ago.
Two children in English-street had the whooping cough. A pedlar
who happened to call heard the children cough, and advised the
mother to pass the children three times under a she ass. This
was done, the children were cured, and the ass got the credit.

Rheumatism is another ailment that yields to charms. An old
man living in the neighbourhood of Westlinton was much troubled

49

with this painful disease. He hung a holed stone to the bed post,
and so long as it remained there he was comparatively well. But
his sister removed the stone, and his pains returned.

The district is rich in names tracing the belief in fairies; and
many old people I have come in contact with still believe in their
existence. One person who lives in the neighbourhood tells me
it was once his bad fortune just to miss the sight of one. When
he was a boy going to school at Mossband, a fairy happened to
be passing the school. There was a general rush to get a glimpse
of the creature ; and as he was too small to fight his way to the
front, it got past before he could see it.

Fairies are things of the past; but not so the witches. They
played no small part in the affairs of our immediate forefathers.
They were consulted and believed in so late as 1817. Their
favour was courted by almost everyone ; in fact, it was considered
dangerous to offend them. Just a story or two to illustrate the
remarkable powers supposed to be possessed by “Branton Lizzie.”
On one occasion a bale of cloth was stolen from a cottage on the
side of the Lyne, near Breckonhill. Lizzie was consulted, and
probably the names of the suspected persons were mentioned to
her. On being asked who had committed the theft, she declared
she knew, but would not tell. She, however, said the cloth would
be returned within a certain time, and in the meantime the guilty
persons would be “witched.” It was said that the cloth was
returned within the prescribed time, being put through a pane of
the window into the house; and that—to use a rustic phrase—
some persons were “‘ severely handled” in the interval between the
loss and the return of the cloth. A man who lived at Low
Hallburn is said to have got out of bed and to have run along the
ceiling and rafters of the house, to have set up unearthly cries,
and to have baffled the efforts of many men to keep him in bed.
Lizzie was applied to in the emergency. She told the applicants
they must go to a certain place, and there shoot a hare, and the
man would get better. They went to the place indicated, and a
hare rose up at the very place—but no, it could not be shot, It

was, in fact, a “witched hare.”
4

50

That Netherby is believed to be haunted, we all know. I need
not tell you of Lady Widdrington’s ghost at Warren Burn ; about
the turning of the pictures nightly on the walls at Netherby, and
the curious sounds heard. Nor will time permit me to introduce
you to the white woman who used to be seen near the Fauld, or
her cousin who terrorised the inmates of the Hallburn Workhouse
some years ago by her nocturnal perambulations. Nor need I
point out to you that at certain places certain kinds of boggles
were seen ; and that hardly any road was without its apparition.

There might be an excuse for those who put such faith in
witches ; but we can hardly sympathise for a moment with those
who take the ‘ Belfast Almanack” for their prophet and friend in
weather matters. An old farmer, yet living, once invested in a
Belfast penny almanack. He, however, did not find it so trust-
worthy as he expected, and one day he exclaimed, “ That penny
almanack tells nowt but lees! The furst time I gan ta Carel I’se
gan ta git a sixpenny ’en: it'll tell the truth, an’ last a few years!”

The belief in dead lights is not itself quite dead. The general
belief was, that on the death of any person, his spirit, in the form
of a flame, passed along the “burial road” to the church, up to the
place where the coffin would rest, and thence to the grave. Once
near Wisk the horse drawing a hearse stopped in the road, and
refused, in spite of blows or kind treatment, to go on. Then some
one told of his having, when on this particular horse, met the dead
light, and about its passing between the legs of the horse. The
coffin had to be taken out of the hearse, put through below the
horse the way the light had gone, replaced in the hearse, and then
the horse went quietly on as before.

There is a border superstition relating to baptism, which is not
common in our own neighbourhood. Mr. Bulkley, of Lanercost,
tells that a south-country clergyman was doing duty for a friend
near the border, and was about to baptize a family of children,
taking up the youngest first, when he was stopped by an old woman
plucking his surplice, and crying out, ‘“‘Ye mauna christen a lass
afore a lad!” All present joined in the protest, and he yielded to
them, but asked the reason: “ Why, he'll hae nae whiskers!” In

51

east Cumberland it is further believed, that the lass will get the
whiskers the lad ought to have had.

“Gone those days of mental darkness ;
Men have outlived superstition ;
They have learned to trust to nothing
But what bears the name of wisdom, —
And confess no other power
Than the God of earth and heaven.”

58

OLD CUMBERLAND CUSTOMS.

By F. HARRISON.

(Read at Carlisle, December 22nd, 1885. )

In the old customs, as in the ballads and poetry, can be traced
the history of the people. In those old customs we see reflected
much of the life of long past ages. I will place a few old customs
before you, which, though in irregular order, and very imperfectly
described, may call attention to some customs that are passing
away. From the isolated position of this northern county, before
the days of railways, many old customs lingered and remained
which elsewhere would have long since passed away. Many of
them showed that our ancestors knew how to enjoy life, and also
that they sympathised one with another in times of sorrow and
rejoiced together in times of joy and gladness.

The first custom I will draw your attention to is that of Boon
Days, or given days, in Cumberland, when one man helped another
in a new undertaking without fee or reward. Who has not heard
of Cumberland ploughing days? From time immemorial it was
customary, when a man entered on a new farm, for his neighbours
to give him a day’s service—and grand days they used to be in the
olden time; and wherever the ploughing day is observed and
carried out on the old lines, it is still a grand day. The same
remark applies to clippings, house-warmings, clay-daubins, and
other kindred institutions. I know a village not above one
hundred miles from Carlisle, where many of the houses were
_ erected in this way. When a man wanted to build, he did not

54

consult an architect, but consulted his neighbours, who were ever
ready to render assistance ; got his clay mixed, and timber ready ;
then, on some appointed day, his friends and neighbours gathered
together and put a roof above his head before nightfall.

It is my opinion that more real pleasure was derived from social
intercourse by our ancestors than now. In the old days the Church,
no doubt, exercised a great influence over the people. Our fathers
observed with great care the festivals and rites of the Church.
A Christening used to be a much more important affair than what
it is to-day, preparations going on for days and even weeks before
the ceremony. They provided the best of eating and drinking,
but this was never touched until the young hopeful returned from
church. The good parish priest often returned with the party,
and there were doings which would alarm many people in these
degenerate days.

The same remarks apply to Marriages, which in old times were
never concluded with residents over the Border. This custom of
never intermarrying with the Scots was in vogue so late as the
reign of Elizabeth. An old writer says, “No one should marry a
Scotch woman, were she ever so honest.” In fact, our forefathers
were very jealous of foreigners of any description, and thus a clear
distinction was kept between the English and Scotch races. The
old freemen of Carlisle had some very severe regulations in that
respect, and in those regulations they called everyone Scotchmen
or foreigners who lived north of Blackford. All the weddings,
even in the houses of the poorest, were occasions of great rejoicing
and merry-making ; and it was nothing unusual for the wedding
party to be tied into the church, the door being kept secure until
such a sum was paid as kept every dry throat in the village moistened
at the village ale-house for the remainder of the day. This practice
still lingers in some remote dales, but elsewhere anyone pursuing it
would soon be handed over to the police—which official, however,
had no existence in the old times of which I speak.

In the old Funeral customs there are also traces of darker and
more barbarous times. The hospitality of our ancestors often
overcame their judgment, and funerals became scenes of feasting

55

and indulgence scarcely in keeping with the solemn rites of the
burial of the dead. I can scarcely conceive a more curious
practice than that of sending round the bell-man to announce a
funeral something after this fashion :—“ All friends and neighbours
are invited to attend the funeral of John Goulding, of the Mitre
Inn. The friends will assemble at one, and the corpse will be
lifted at two o’clock.” It dates from a byegone and primitive
age. Yet such a custom as that, handed down from the
darkest period of our history, I have seen observed in the
streets of Carlisle far on in this the nineteenth century. The
tolling of the church bells is still in vogue in most of the churches.-
The bells, which are tolled nine times for a man, six for a woman,
and three times for a child, were at one time believed to frighten
away any evil spirits that might be lingering about the dead. The
funeral customs of Cumberland, if entirely collected, would form a
work of much interest and value.

The origin of how the dates of the old Fairs in this county came
to be fixed is lost in the mists of antiquity ; but it is probable that
they were fixed by means of the Church festivals ; for it puzzles
me to know how some old-fashioned people recollected the times
of holding all those fairs on the proper dates before the days of
almanacs.

The great festival of Easter appears to have been observed with
great respect in Cumberland, and no changes in our social condition
have succeeded in removing from it that halo with which it ts
surrounded. At Hayton, near Brampton, the lessee of the tithes
gave twenty-four quarts of ale—which were always drunk in the
churchyard—as a sort of receipt. The catechism was also gone
through in country churches on Easter Sunday.

The first charter for holding a Fair in Carlisle, granted as far
back as in the reign of Henry II., being confirmed by Edward IIL.,
was to last sixteen days, commencing on the “Feast of the
Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary.” ‘There is also another
fair in this ancient city of great antiquity, and that is the Hiring
Fair. The hiring fairs of Cumberland are curious spectacles to
_ south-country folks. They are, however, institutions which will

56

soon be swept away before the advancing tide of nineteenth
century civilisation. It was a usual practice for those wanting
engagements in farm service to “stand the market” with a straw
either stuck in their hats or in their mouths,—the straw, no doubt,
being a symbol of agriculture. Anderson, the Cumberland bard,
put these lines into the mouth of one of his worthies :—

At Carel I stuid wid a strea i’ my mouth,
An’ they tuik me, nea doubt, for a promisin’ youth.

The modern rustic is far too refined to do that. The custom of
exposing a straw has now nearly, if not entirely, passed away.

In the olden time almost every village had some annual gathering
or merry-making almost peculiar to itself. The famous “ Bleckell
Murry-Neet” was known far and near. Almost every little village
had its tansy about Christmas time, which were occasions of great
mirth. Mr. G. Coward has supplied me with some interesting
details in connection with the Melmerby Round, a great gathering
which has now ceased to have existence. Melmerby folk to this
day are pastoral in occupation, intercourse, and habits, and on
Melmerby Green—one of the finest in England—-they used to
have great sport in the early part of this century. On Old Mid-
summer Day, the 5th of July, this village commenced its annual
two-days’ sports, which consisted of wrestling, leaping, foot-racing,
dog-trailing, and a cock-fight now and then by way of variety. As
many as four-score have contended for the wrestling prize at
Melmerby Round, which was invariably attended by a large
concourse of spectators. Being held at a season of the year when
the days were longest and when the country wore its prettiest
aspect, the old Cumberland sport was, probably, never seen under
more favourable circumstances than at these sports a hundred
years ago. Langwathby also had its Round, which was continued
down to as late as the year 1870. ‘The history of Langwathby
Round, like that of the village itself, is lost in the dim mists of
antiquity. The list of champions contains the names of some
remarkable men, amongst them that of John Holme, king of Mar-
dale, who won the wrestling in the year 1324. In 1826 it was

57

won by John Boustead of Beckbank, brother to the famous Bishop
of Lichfield. Unlike Melmerby Round, that at Langwathby was
held in mid-winter, on New Year’s Day and the day following,
and amongst the other attractions of wrestling, racing, dog-trails,
etc., there was a dance on the green for maidens, sometimes in the
snow. At the conclusion each maiden was presented with a bright
ribbon, called a Fancy. —

“ Barring out” is an old custom which has gone, I am afraid,
never to return. I have a clear recollection of the merriment of
a barring out. About Christmas time, in most Cumberland villages,
the scholars got inside the school early in the morning, and barred
the master out until he had made arrangements as to length of
holidays, etc. The master, who always expected the barring out
at the proper time, used to adjourn to the village ale-house and
treat the biggest boys to mulled ale—for in the winter season
plenty of big fellows eighteen and twenty years of age attended
the schools. The School Board system and the recent Education
Acts gave, however, the death-blow to this time-honoured custom.

The customs of this county regarding Christmas Hospitality
cannot be excelled anywhere. At Edenhall, under its late respected
owner and his father, the grand old customs of the olden times
have been continued. The same may be said of Muncaster Castle,
and many more of our county houses, showing us that the men of
Cumberland have warm hearts, and dispense to their less fortunate
brethren with no niggardly hand the “roast beef of Old England.”
‘We see as each year rolls by and brings back the Christmas season,
the grandest of all old Cumberland customs, namely, a iarge-
hearted, generous hospitality.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS AT MARYPORT.

By J. B. BAILEY.

(Read October 27th, 1885.)

For many reasons I should have preferred that some one more
worthy than myself had filled the Presidential chair this year.
But, as it has fallen to my lot, I shall endeavour to fill it to the
best of my ability, feeling certain that any shortcomings on my
part will not be attributed by you to any want of loyalty to the
Association.
Many ways appeared by which a suitable address might have
been given; but the same circumstances which have conspired to
place me in this honourable position, have likewise, in a great
measure, selected the subject for the present address.
As members of a Literary and Scientific Society, we have been
accustomed almost to look upon our Association as an isolated
one, unbound by any ties; but such is not the case, as we are one
of the members of a widely-spread organization. Many points in
this union of societies are very imperfectly known, which, were
they better known, might lead to a more keen appreciation of the
advantages we possess, not only as a local association, but also as
a member—and that one of the oldest members—of the “Cumber-

_ lJand and Westmorland Association for the Advancement of Litera-

ture and Science.”

It is then my object to show, as briefly as possible, the rise
and progress of our local Association; tracing out its various
: connections, and showing the advantages to be derived thereby ;

60

in the hopes that, having a clearer understanding of such matters,
we may not only be thus better able to make a full use of our
privileges, but also be more inclined to give a hearty support to an
institution which I am convinced merits our warmest regards.

Previous to the year 1876, there were four isolated societies in
Cumberland, each giving lectures on literary and scientific subjects.
With the very laudable wish to draw these into more immediate
connection, the late Rev. J. Clifton Ward, F.G.S., convened a
meeting, on February 28th, 1876, at which these four societies,
viz.—Whitehaven, Keswick, Cockermouth, and Workington—were
united into what became known as the ‘Cumberland Association
for the Advancement of Literature and Science.” It is not my
intention to deal exhaustively with the rise and progress of this
Association, but two or three points require notice, viz: (1) That
on September 25th, 1876, our own Society came into existence,
being shortly afterwards formally affiliated with the Cumberland
Association. (2) That in 1883 the Cumberland Association was
informally affiliated with the ‘British Association for the Advance-
ment of Science,” the formal affiliation having taken place a few
weeks ago. And lastly, That owing to the affiliation of two
Westmorland Societies, the title of the Cumberland Association
was, on June 6th, 1884, altered to the “Cumberland and West-
morland Association for the Advancement of Literature and
Science.” The following nine Societies in Cumberland, viz:
Whitehaven, Keswick, Workington, Maryport, Longtown, Carlisle,
Silloth and Holme Cultram, Brampton, and Penrith, together with
Ambleside and Windermere in Westmorland, constitute the Union,
which term we will now use, instead of the longer and more
precise one.

It is generally allowed that “union is strength.” This being
so, we will briefly examine the constitution, etc., of our Union, to
see whether it really does give strength ; in short—whether it is an
advantage or a disadvantage to belong to it. However vigorous
and well managed a single society may be, it must, almost of
necessity, have within it the elements of decay ; and this is more
particularly so in the case of a small society. As the various

61

local secretaries can tell, there are occasions when it is most
difficult to procure sufficient local help to make a complete
programme. Clearly, then, if the society is not to collapse, it
must look out for its lectures elsewhere. To supply the want by
professional lecturers, would require a much larger sum of money
than such societies, as a rule, possess. But there is no need to
trust to this method for even a small proportion of the lecturers,
for, theoretically, an ample supply of competent lecturers is always
available for every society affiliated with the Union, and this at
very small cost to the local association, viz.—the travelling
expenses of such lecturers. There need, then, be no anxiety
as to the sessional arrangements. Apart from the Union, it does
not seem probable that there would be such a number of lecturers
available, at least under present conditions. Thus the value of
the Union is greatly enhanced. The method of the appointment
of these lecturers may be, and doubtless is, open to objection, but
we shall refer to this question presently.

In addition to the above advantage, we have what is called an
“Association Lecturer,” i.e, one who, being engaged by the
General Council, lectures before each of the societies in the
Union, and is paid in part by the Council, and in part by the
individual societies.

Again, the Union publishes a record of the transactions of the
various associations, which an ordinary local association would be
precluded from doing. These Zvansactions are, theoretically, of
great value, as they encourage the study of local matters, the record
of which may be desirable. Each local association with fewer
than one hundred and fifty members has a right to recommend one
paper for publication, whilst if of more than one hundred and fifty
members, ‘wo papers may be recommended. Besides this, the
general reports of the local associations are recorded, together
_ with that of the Union, and the proceedings at the annual meeting
of the Union. Yet again, a new departure has been taken in the
publication of short notices, called ‘“‘ Local Scientific Notes and
Memoranda.” So important a matter does this appear, that it is
to be hoped it will be largely supported in future issues,

62

But even this does not exhaust all the benefits of the Zvans-
actions ; but as they are more in matters of detail, there will be no
need to refer to them here. As it is, four societies give them free
—of which our society is one. If every society could see its way
to do the same, the Council would be free to extend the sphere of
the usefulness of this publication, and thus render it more generally
acceptable. Many ways might be suggested to meet this end; but
if Rule 8 were to be amended so as to include Abstracts of Papers
other than those provided for by the Rule, this would doubtless be
to the material advantage of the publication. It is quite clear that
although a large society might publish a record of its own trans-
actions, the smaller societies would be quite unable to do this, and
thus, for want of co-operation, much useful matter would be lost.

It may be worth remark that this publication is exchanged for
those of several other societies, including the British Association,
London Geological Society, U.S. Geological Survey, Berwickshire
Naturalists’ Club, Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union, Essex Field Club,
Midland Union of Natural History Societies, &c. In this way
the nucleus of a circulating library might be established, which, if
not proving a universal benefit, would at any rate benefit many.

It may now be asked, of what use it is that our Union should be
affiliated with the British Association. To be connected with so
august a body may be an honour, or it may be the contrary ; it
seems most probable, however, that the balance is greatly in favour
of its being an honour. It at once raises the status of our Union,
and through it that of the various local associations, besides which
it greatly increases their usefulness. It may be that we cannot
either individually, or as an association, render much aid towards
the elucidation of many of the questions suggested for solution by
the British Association; still, the field of labourers is greatly
extended, and the more widely such associations are scattered, the
more likely is it that success will attend the efforts of those who
seek to advance Science. Many of the observations rendered
necessary are only to be relied on when they are very general in
their distribution. Of course, we may be able to accomplish but
little, still we ought to remember that even this is of great value as

63

adding to the sum total, for it is “Trifles” that “make perfection.”
Hence we have not only an object in view, but also a certainty
that that object will be appreciated.

Certain advantages are accorded to those societies which may
become corresponding societies of the British Association, but it is
not necessary to discuss them here?

It might be tedious to name all the various ways in which it is
proposed to carry out the suggestions of the British Association ,
but we may name a few most likely to be carried out amongst the
members of our Union, viz:—Observations on the Rain-Fall;
Luminous Meteors ; Rate of Increase of Underground Tempera-
ture ; Character of the Water Supply ; Position, Height above the
Sea, and Lithological Character of Erratic Blocks; Erosion of
Sea-Coasts ; Ancient Earthworks ; Prehistoric Remains ; Observa-
tions regarding the Peculiarities, Times of Flowering, etc., of
certain Plants; Arrival of Migratory Birds; Appearance of certain
Injurious Insects ; Working of the Elementary Education Code;
Elementary Science in Schools, etc. This is a formidable array ;
but I should only have wearied you with the recital of the list as
given in No. VIII. of the Zransactions. Some of them seem
trivial, still they are necessary where a law is to be formulated.
Of course the advantages to be derived by our consideration of
this scheme may be merely negative; but they may also be real.
This end may be secured if we would only take up one or more of
the topics named, and make a thorough study of it; and this, by
the way, is the end and aim of our own and kindred societies.
At least two of these subjects are separately dealt with by the ‘“(Cum-
berland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archzeological Society.”
That our Union is at any rate doing a something in the matter, is
clear, for in the last Report of the British Association there are the
titles, etc., of eight papers named as printed in No. IX. of the
Transactions of our Union, and which come within the scope of
the syllabus just quoted. ‘To fully carry out the intention, each
society might appoint a kind of permanent sub-committee, willing
to devote some time to systematic work. In Maryport we might
well consider: (1) The many questions arising out of the ancient

°

64

history of the place; (2) The Erosion of the Sea-Coasts in the
past, which raises up the interesting question of the submerged
forests, of which the Rev. J. S. Craig is shortly to speak; and
(3) The Erosive Processes still going on. Nor do we sacrifice our
freedom of action by so doing, for in carrying out these suggestions
we may be conferring a national benefit in addition to the indi-
vidual one, so that we shall be ‘‘twice blessed.”

As I have already shown, the Union is theoretically sound, but
practically it is defective. The various societies are too much on
the footing of isolated societies, and hence the benefits of member-
ship are reduced to a minimum. What we want is, that the
societies shall more thoroughly feel that they are the incorporated
elements of one whole.

But the question is, How is this co-operation to be promoted ?
It may be done very simply, and at the same time effectually. As
it is, Local Secretaries have frequently much trouble in completing
their programme, the last name or two often causing great anxiety,
and not a little expenditure of time and patience. The cure for
this state of things is in the word ‘‘centralisation.” Local Secre-
taries may be able to prevail upon members to read a paper that
has been prepared for the local society, before a neighbouring
society ; and it would be quite within their province to do so.
Even though they should be unsuccessful in getting a promise,
still the members are reminded that they are not merely members
of a local association, but of a more widely spread association.
If successful, however, they would then forward the name of the
lecturer ; the subject of the paper; and the most suitable time for
its delivery, to the General Association Secretary. The Council and
the General Secretary might add to this list. Then, when a society
is in want of one or more lecturers, instead of hunting through
the length and breadth of the two counties for suitable persons,
all the Secretary need do, would be to communicate his wishes to
the General Association Secretary, who could at once recommend
lecturers. Such a method would greatly widen the range of choice
both as regards lectures and lecturers, and so lessen the probabilities

“on

65

of disappointment, and more effectually bring the benefits of the
Union before the individual societies.

But in another particular can valuable help be given. Each
Secretary, in sending up his annual report, might state as explicitly
as possible, how the society has been worked during the past
session; stating both the excellencies and the failings, with
suggested remedies for the latter. By this means other societies,
and especially younger ones, could be guided as to the best means
of ensuring the success, not only of the local associations, but
also of the Union—for the success of the latter is dependent on
that of the former. Besides, there might with great advantage be
an interchange of views between the Committees of the various
societies, as to ways and means, etc., whilst the mere interchange
of programmes is an inexpensive but sure testimony of our unity.
Inter-association field-days would also greatly tend to strengthen
the bonds of union.

A few words are still necessary with regard to our own Society
in particular. It has been said that we are declining in influence,
and that our lectures are not so well attended as they were in the
earlier sessions. This may be true, or it may not; but we must
remember that success is not necessarily measured by numbers.
In the earlier part of our career, there was no kindred society ;
now there are two or three other flourishing societies, all having
the same aim, and for this there is cause for much congratulation.
There is plenty of room for every agency that has for its object
the improvement of the mind—and all are well worthy of our
support. Hence we may reasonably claim that we are in every
respect in a prosperous condition, and we ought therefore to use
every legitimate means to keep it so. It will be readily allowed
that the programme for the tenth session—upon which we are now
entering—is an eminently satisfactory one, reflecting great credit
upon the labours of the Secretary. There is, however, a weak
point in it, and that is the small number of /ocal names that

4 appear. For obvious reasons, it would be well to have at least

half the lectures by local men, if possible.
' But even a good programme is not sufficient to make a successful
5

66

society. It certainly provides suggestive subjects, but it cannot
give effect to them—that is not the duty of the society, but of the
_ individual. ‘To make our association more popular, we want
continuity in our work. ‘Too frequently this ends with the lectures;
and before another course is arranged, the Society has almost
slipped out of mind. The session ought to be divided into two,
viz., a Winter Session for lectures; and a Summer Session for
excursions, field-days, etc., which are of great practical benefit if
properly managed. It may not be possible to arrange a field-day
for one society ; but, as members of a Union, they can certainly
be carried on, as I have already suggested, in connection with
other societies. The benefits of such meetings must be obvious
to those wishful of obtaining a practical acquaintance with geology,
botany, etc.

But we may make our Society still more popular by having a
something—it may be external to itself—round which we may
rally, so to speak. No one can doubt the educative power of a
Museum ; but we could scarcely hope to establish a satisfactory
local one. Still, if we cannot imitate Carlisle, Whitehaven; and
Keswick in this respect, there seems no reason why we should not
support one or other of them. Then, last year witnessed the
formation of a S. John Ambulance Class. So very successful was
it, that there is the promise of an extended field of labour this
year in the same direction. And lastly, Science Classes might be
established in connection with the Society. The benefits of such
classes are too obvious to call for comment.

In conclusion, this address has been spun out to a much greater
length than I had originally intended, but I cannot sit down without
asking you, by your attendance at the lectures, to give each lecturer
that welcome which his otherwise unrequited services deserve, and
at the same time, by your hearty co-operation, to endeavour to
make the Society what it ought to be—a Society for the promotion
of Literature and Science.

67

OLD-FASHIONED INNS.

By W. WILSON.
(Read at Keswick. )

Part I.

Inns, or places for the lodgment and entertainment of travellers,
are an institution of great antiquity ; they are mentioned in some
_ of the oldest writings, and were probably made use of by nations
_ from whom no written records have descended to us. They are
frequently mentioned in the Holy Scriptures. We are all familiar
with the story of the event that revolutionised the world, which
took place in a stable because “there was no room at the inn;”
also of the man who fell among thieves, how his wants were
ministered to by the good Samaritan, who set him on his own
beast and brought him to an inn and took care of him.
The inn of oriental countries is the khan or caravansery. It is
a large enclosed space, sometimes of as much as an acre in extent,
surrounded by a brick wall something like two feet high; the
entrance is by a large gate. The inner quadrangle is entered by
an archway over which lodges are sometimes constructed for
visitors of distinction. Near the porch there is accommodation
for the keeper, and also shops for the convenience of wayfarers.
The interior is surrounded by a piazza which often forms a very
spacious quadrangle, and the visitors sleep under the arches. The
spacious court in the middle is used for the accommodation of
‘Caravans, and is often crowded with camels and their loads of

68

baggage. The habits of orientals have changed but little, if any,
since the time the Scriptures were written; and many of these
tarrying places receive travellers to-day in much the same way as
they did two thousand years ago. I have it on the authority of a
traveller who has visited the Holy Land, that the Khan of Chim-
ham, near Bethlehem, mentioned in Samuel and Jeremiah, is
‘supposed by those who have studied the subject, to be the very
inn, in the stable of which was born the Saviour.

“ Nothing,” says a recent writer, “is stronger evidence of the
size and populousness of Herculaneum, than its nine hundred
public houses.” A placard discovered on the wall of a villa in
that ruined city was a bill for letting one of its public houses on
lease ; and hence it appears they had galleries on the top, and
balconies or green arbours and baths; and the landlord had a
particular dress—a characteristic followed at the present day, not
only in the East, but in European cities, especially Warsaw.
Landladies wore a tucked up gown, and brought the wine in vases
for visitors to taste; they had common drinking vessels same as
with us, and sometimes the flagons were chained to posts.

Professor Rhys tells us, the Saxons had public houses, where
they used vessels of earthenware. The Anglo-Saxon had the
eala-hus (ale-house), win-hus (wine-house), and cumen-hus (inn).
Ale houses are mentioned in the laws of Iva, King. of Wessex.
Booths were set up in England in 728, where laws were passed for
their regulation, and enactment after enactment has been passed
since : now with a purely social, and now with a purely fiscal
object in view.

During the middle ages (see “History of Signboards,”) in
accordance with the customs then prevalent, the lords of manors
frequently displayed their coats of arms in front of their castles or
manor houses, to show who was lord and master in those parts,
and in some measure performed the duties of innkeepers. The
keep of the castle, or the lower room of the manor house, was
open to all kinds of wayfarers, and in those days was seldom
without a visitor or two: either travelling mechanics, or persons
acquainted with mysteries—as trades or professions were termed

69

in those days—or vagabond soldiers on tramp for a new master to
fight under; all arrangements resting with the house steward, who
made charges for extra privileges enjoyed by the guests ; and on
his catering, whether liberal or otherwise, depended the comfort of
the establishment.

As population increased, and the number of travellers became
greater, the places of accommodation set apart at the castles and
manor houses in time became too small for the numbers seeking
lodgings for the night. In such cases the steward, if he was an
old servant of the place, had a detached house provided, and was
allowed to carry on business in connection with head quarters.
The family arms were still permitted to be hung in front, and gave
a name to the establishment. If a lion gules were displayed on
the heraldry, it not unnaturally attained for the house the name of
the Red Lion; and if the emblem were azure, the Blue Lion; in
time the innkeepers adopted these devices in order to inform the
public that they offered accommodation for man and beast.

“The Adventurer,” in 1752, expresses indignation at the frater-
nity of publicans for the extravagance displayed in the selection of
signboards. ‘Their modest ancestors,” he goes on to say, “ were
content with a plain bough stuck up before their doors, whence
arose the wise proverb, ‘Good wine needs no bush;’ but how have
they since deviated from their ancient simplicity? They have
ransacked earth, air, and seas, called down sun, moon, and stars
to their assistance, and exhibited all the monsters that ever teemed
from fantastic imagination. Their Hogs in Armour, their Blue
Boars, Black Bears, Green Dragons, and Golden Lions, have
already been exposed by your brother essay writers. What reason
can there be,” he asks, “why the glorious Duke William should
draw porter, or the brave Admiral Vernon retail fip? Why must

Queen Anne keep a gin shop, and King Charles inform us of a
- skittle ground? Propriety of character, I think, requires that
these illustrious persons should be deposed from their lofty stations,
and I would recommend hereafter that the alderman’s effigy should
accompany his ‘Entire butt beer,’ and the comely face of that
spirited patriot who first reduced the price of punch, and raised

70

its reputation pro bono publico, should be set up wherever two-
penn’orth of rum warm be sold. Ihave been used to consider
several signs—for the frequency of which it is difficult to give any
cther reason—as so many hieroglyphics with a hidden meaning
satirising the follies of the people or conveying instruction to
passers-by. Tumble-down-Dick, in the borough of Southwark, is
a fine moral on the instability of human greatness and the conse-
quences of ambition; but there is a most ill-natured sarcasm
against the fair sex exhibited on a sign in Broad-street, St. Giles’,
of a headless female figure called the Good Woman.” ‘The
original meaning of ‘‘Good Woman,” it is said, was a female saint
who had met her death by being deprived of her head ; and this
in time was turned into a joke against females of alleged loquacity.
The sign of the ‘Silent Woman” has the same meaning. A
somewhat similar sign is the ‘‘Honest Lawyer.” A limb of the
law is represented with his head in his hands, which is the only
way it is supposed he can possibly be honest.

The meaning of many of the old-fashioned signboards is often
obscure, owing to their original signification having in numbers of
cases been altered and corrupted. The “Pig and Whistle” is an
instance. In some of the old towns it is still to be found on sign-
boards. A sow is represented sitting on her haunches playing on
a whistle—a most unnatural proceeding. The ‘Peg and Wassail”
was probably the original sign, and the following in all likelihood
gives the explanation. Wassail was a favourite liquor amongst
the ancients. It was made of ale, sugar, nutmeg, and ginger, and
is said still to be prepared by some old fashioned families about
Christmas time. Pegge in his ‘‘Anonymiana” has described these
peg tankards with some minuteness. They have in the inside a
row of eight pins, one above another, from top to bottom. The
tankards hold two quarts, so there is a gill of ale—ze., half a pint
of Winchester measure—between each pin. ‘The first person that
drank was to empty the tankard to the first peg or pin; the second
was to empty to the next pin, etc., by which means the pegs were
so many measures to the compotators, making them all drink alike,
or the same quantity. And as the distance of the pins was such

71

as to contain a large draught of liquor, the company would be very
liable by this method to get drunk, especially when if they drank
short of the pin or beyond it, they were obliged to drink again.
The old saying, “taking him down a peg,” probably owes its origin
to the above custom.

At Penrith we have another instance where the original meaning
has been probably altered in the signboard of the “Bell and
Bullock” inn of that town. If we seek for a connection between a
bell and a bullock it is difficult to find any satisfactory explanation.
It is thought by some they have been united simply on account of
alliteration ; but the more probable reason is that the original sign
was ‘‘Bell and Book,” in days when the inhabitants of Penrith
took oath by “bell, book, and candle.” After Henry VIII.
captured Boulogne harbour, “Boulogne Mouth” became a popular
sign. It soon became corrupted into “Bull and Mouth,” and
there are two inns in London at the present day bearing that sign,
and one in Leeds. Boulogne gates, which were ordered to be
taken away by Henry VIII., also became a public-house sign,
which was in time altered to “Bull and Gate” in the seventeenth
century, There was a noted house in Holborn with this sign at
that time. Readers of Fielding may remember this was the house
where his hero, Tom Jones, put up on his arrival in London.

Great changes have taken place in modern times in regard to
taverns. Formerly they were made the general places of resort by
men of rank and genius, representatives of the “wit and wisdom”
of the kingdom. ‘The “‘Bear’s Head” is celebrated as being the
place where Henry V., when Prince of Wales, revelled with Falstaff
and all the merry men of Eastcheap. ‘The celebrated club at the
“Mermaid” originated with Sir Walter Raleigh; and, as Mr.
Gifford has truly observed, combined more talent and genius
perhaps than ever met together before or since. “ Here for many
years regularly repaired Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, Beaumont,
Fletcher, Selden, Cotton, Carew, Martin, Donne, and many others
whose names even at this distant period call up a mingled feeling
of reverence and respect. Here in the full flow and confidence of

_ friendship, ‘the lively and interesting wit combats,’ as Fuller calls

72 ‘
them, took place between Shakespeare and Jonson, and hither, in
probable allusion to them, Beaumont let his thoughts wander in
his letter to Jonson from the country : ‘What things have we seen
done at the Mermaid! heard words that have been so nimble and
so full of subtle flame, as if that everyone from whom they came
had meant to put his whole wit in the jest.’”

The “Devil” tavern, as stated in “Old and New London,” stood
at No. 2 Fleet-street. Shakespeare himself must day after day
have looked up at the old sign of St. Dunstan tweaking the devil
by the nose, that flaunted in the wind near the bar. Perhaps the
sign was originally a compliment and mark of respect to the saint,
whose church stood near. At the “Devil” the Apollo Club,
almost the first institution of the kind in London, held its merry
meetings, presided over by that grim yet jovial despot, Ben Jonson.
The bust of Apollo kept watch over the door, and heard in its time
millions of witty things, and scores of fond recollections of Shake-
speare by those who personally knew and loved him. In the time
of Charles II., the “Devil” became frequented by lawyers and
physicians. The talk now was about drugs and latitits, jalap and
the law of escheats. Yet still good company frequented it, for
Steele describes Bickerstaff’s sister Jenny's wedding entertainment
there in 1809; and in 1710 Swift writes one of those charming
letters to Stella, to tell her that he had dined on October the 12th
at the “Devil” with Addison and Dr. Garth, when the good-
natured doctor, whom everyone loved, stood treat, and there must
have been talk worth hearing. An epigram runs :—

When laureates make odes, do you ask of what sort ?

Do you ask if they’re good or are evil?

You may judge, from the ‘‘Devil” they come to the Court,
And go from the Court to the ‘‘ Devil.”

In 1745 the Royal Society held its annual dinner in the old conse-
crated room. ‘The Apollo-court, on the opposite side of the street,
still preserves the memory of the great club-room at the “Devil.”
The “Devil” was pulled down and annexed by the neighbouring
bankers.

“Mitre” tavern, where some of the most interesting of the

73

meetings between Dr. Johnson and Boswell took place, was pulled
down in 1829, by the Messrs. Hoare, to extend their banking
house. The original “Mitre” was of Shepherd’s time. The
present spurious ‘“‘Mitre” tavern, in Mitre-court, was originally
known as “Joe’s Coffee House.”

In the reign of Edward III. the excessive length of the tavern
signs (ale-stakes as they were then called) was complained of by
persons riding in Cheapside. All the taverns in the city were
therefore summoned to the Guild-hall, and warned that no sign or
bush (hence the proverb, “Good wine needs no bush”) should
henceforth extend over the king’s highway beyond the length of
seven feet, under the pain of a fine of forty pence to the Chamber
of the Guild-hall.

“King’s Head” tavern was kept at the restoration by William
King, a staunch cavalier. It is said that the landlord’s wife
happened to be on the point of labour on the king’s entry into
London. She was extremely anxious to see him. The monarch
being told of her inclination, drew up at the tavern in his good-
natured way and saluted her. This tavern was long a depét in
the metropolis for turtle; and in the quadrangle of the house
might be seen scores of turtles, large and lively, in huge tanks of
water, or laid upward on the stone floor, ready for their destination.
The house was refitted in 1852, but has since been pulled down.

In a work on Inns and Signboards we read :—“ In 1711, at the
‘Duke of Marlborough’s Head,’ in Fleet-street (off Shoe-lane), the
great Posture Master of Europe, eclipsing the deceased Clarke v.
Higgins, greatly startled sight-seeing London. He extends his
body into all deformed shapes, makes his hips and shoulder bones
meet together, lays his head upon the ground and turns his body
round twice or thrice without stirring his face from the spot;
stands upon one leg and extends the other in a perpendicular line
half a yard above his head; with other postures tedious to mention.
And here in 1718, De Hightrehight, the fire-eater, ate burning
coals, swallowed flaming brimstone, and sucked a red-hot poker
five times a day. What will my billiard-loving friends say to the
St. Dunstan’s inquest of the year 1720? ‘Item, we present Thomas

74

Bruce, for suffering a gaming-table (called a billiard-table, where
people commonly frequent and game) to be kept in his house,’
At the ‘Globe,’ in 1717, was shown Matthew Buckinger, a German
dwarf, born in 1674, without hands, legs, feet, or thighs ; twenty-
nine inches high ; yet can write, thread a needle, shuffle a pack of
cards, play skittles, etc. In 1822, the exhibition of a mermaid
here was put a stop to by the Lord Chamberlain.”

Sir John Hawkins, in his life of Dr. Johnson, describes a night’s
festivity in which the celebrated lexicographer and his friends
joined. Sir John tells us, ‘‘One evening at the Ivylane Club,
Dr. Johnson proposed to us celebrating the birth of Mrs. Lennox’s
first literary child, as he called her book, by a whole night spent
in festivity. The place appointed was the “Devil” tavern, and
there about the hour of eight Mrs. Lennox and her husband, and
a lady of her acquaintance now living (1785), as also the club and
friends to the number of near twenty, assembled. Our supper was
elegant, and Johnson had directed that a magnificent hot apple-pie
should make a part of it; and this he would have stuck with bay
leaves, because, forsooth, Mrs. Lennox was an authoress, and had
written verses ; and further, he had prepared for her a crown of
laurel, with which, but not until he had invoked the muses by some
ceremonies of his own invention, he encircled her brows. The
night passed, as must be imagined, in pleasant conversation and
harmless mirth, intermingled at different periods with refreshments
of coffee and tea. _ About five, Johnson’s face shone with meridian
splendour, though his drink had only been lemonade ; but the far
greater part of us had deserted the colours of Bacchus, and were
with difficulty rallied to partake of coffee, which was scarcely ended
when the day began to dawn. ‘This phenomenon began to put us
in mind of our reckoning, but the waiters were so overcome with
sleep that it was two hours before we could get a bill, and it was
not till near eight the creaking of the street door gave the signal
for departure.”

Dr. Johnson’s was an age when heavy drinking was fashionable,
and he recommended “port for men, sherry for women, and
brandy for heroes.” But he was not a toper, being very fond of

75

tea. Readers of Boswell’s life of the great moralist will, however,
_ find an occasional vinous indiscretion recorded. The disgrace in
those days was not in getting inebriated, but in being unable to
carry your liquor.

The ‘Salutation and Cat,” in Newgate-street, was at one time
noted as a place of resort for celebrated men, one tradition of the
house being that Sir Christopher Wren used to smoke his pipe
there, while St. Paul’s was in the course of re-building. Sir T. N.
Telford, in his life of Charles Lamb, informs us that ‘‘this was the
house where Coleridge usually met Charles Lamb when in town,
and in a little smoky room they sat together smoking oronoko and
drinking egg nogg, the first discoursing of his idol Bowles, and the
other rejoicing mildly in Cowper and Burns; or both dreaming of
Pantisocracy and golden days to come on earth.” When Lamb,
in 1818, collected his works, he makes the following allusion to
their former meetings at this tavern:—‘‘Some of the sonnets
which shall be carelessly turned over by the general reader may
happily awaken in your remembrance—which I am sorry should
ever be totally extinct—the memory of sunny days and delightful
years, even so far back as those old suppers at our old inn, when
life was fresh and topics exhaustless, and you first kindled in me, if
not the power, yet the love of poetry and beauty and kindliness.”
And this meeting place of the poets was at the sign of the
“Salutation and Cat,” a curious combination of terms. Thé
following explanation is given in lVotes and Queries, from which is
derived my information on the subject :—“A lithograph which
was hung in the coffee room of the inn was presented to the
proprietor by one of the Ackermanns. An aged dandy is saluting
a friend whom he has met in the street, and offering him a pinch
out of the snuff box which forms the top of the wood-like cane.
This box knob was, it appears, called a cat, hence the connection
of terms apparently so foreign to each other.” The salutation on
some of the old signboards represented an angel saluting the
Virgin Mary.

Among literary men, few had during his time more experience
of inns than “ Bobby Burns, the poet,” as he loved to call himself.

76

There are numberless stories told of his wonderful ready wit,
displayed when in festive company in the bar parlour. A visit to
the “Globe,” a small licensed house in the town of Dumfries, is
interesting to all admirers of the bard of Scotland. It is a very
old-fashioned house, scarcely altered in appearance since the poet
lived in that town, and who, alas! too frequently sat by the “ingle
nook” in its little back parlour, surrounded by an admiring company
with “foaming tankards” before them. Some articles of furniture
then in use are still doing service in that interesting old room.
You may take snuff from the same snuff-box, drink from the same
tankard, and sit in the very same arm-chair as did the immortal
bard. Several rhymes in Burns’ handwriting are scratched on the
window panes ; and it is easy to imagine from the surroundings,
that his spirit still lingers about the place. I give one of the
verses, said to have been written in admiration of the barmaid :—

Oh! lovely Polly Stuart,

Oh! charming Polly Stuart,

There’s not a flower that blooms in May,

That’s half sae fair as thou art.

The guests of an inn in the old time were sometimes in the
habit of leaving specimens of their wit behind in rhyme, the same
as tourists and other travellers do in the “‘visitors’ book” of the
hotels at the present day; many of these are on record, and a
collection could not fail to be amusing. One or two specimens of
this kind of humour may be interesting. I select one said to have
been written by a commercial traveller on an inside window-shutter
of the “Golden Lion,” Brecon, kept by Mr. Tom Longfellow, and
here it is :—

Tom Longfellow’s name is most justly his due :

Long his neck, long his bill—which is very long too ;
Long the time ere your horse to the stable is led,

Long before he’s rubbed down, and much longer till fed ;
Long indeed you may sit in a comfortless room,

Till from kitchen long dirty your dinner shall come ;
Long the often told tale that your host will relate,

Long his face while complaining how long people eat ;

Long may Longfellow long, ere he see me again,
Long ’twill be ere I long for Tom Longfellow’s inn.

-

(wl

Here is a cutting from the newspapers :—‘‘A certain village inn
had the honour of lodging an editor, to whom a separate bedroom
was assigned. One night he was absent, and the house being full,
the landlord or landlady put a stranger in his bed. The morning
found he had decamped, leaving the following lucubration in his

room :—
I slept in an editor’s bed last night,
And others may say what they please ;
I say there’s one editor in the world
That certainly takes his ease.

When I thought of my humble cot away,
I could not suppress a sigh ;
But thought as I rolled in the feathery nest,
How easily editors lie.
When the editor returned and perused the above, he smiled and
added :—

The chap whose form has rested here,
And left his copy behind,

For a bad impression should be locked up,
For the cut is most unkind.

Behold a proof of how he lies :
In the morning he went away,

And like many that use an editor’s sheet,
He had forgotten his bill to pay.

It has often been a subject of comment why the parish church
and the inn should in so many villages be in close proximity. One
reason given is that in former times, when places of worship were
not so numerous as at present, the parishioners living at the
extreme boundary of the parish, had in many cases several miles
to travel in order to attend church service. On such occasions as
christenings, weddings, or funerals, the village inn was a useful
place of accommodation for those who had far to travel, and
needed refreshment for themselves or horses, previous to their
return home. Defoe does not seem to have liked the arrangement,
judging from the following lines, of which he is the author :—

God never builds a house of prayer,
But the devil erects his dwelling there ;

And ’twill be found on examination,
The latter holds the biggest congregation.

[NotEe.— The Council are indebted to the Author for bearing the expense of
printing the foregoing part of his Paper.

78

RAR Tis

In the Lake District we have old inns, some of which exhibit
curious sign boards, and some account of these may prove inter-
esting. At Troutbeck, in Westmorland, near to the house where
Hogarth the painter was born, is an old inn with the sign of
“The Mortal Man.” Julius Cesar Ibbotson, a well known artist,
frequently stayed at this inn about the beginning of the present
century. He was a man of jovial disposition, and very popular,
and many nights of conviviality were spent at Sally Birkett’s (who
was the landlady) by the artist and his friends. At a time when
money was scarce with the guest of the inn, it was agreed between
him and the landlady that he should paint a new sign for her, and
they should be quits; and this arrangement he accordingly carried
out. It was a picture representing two men, the one fat and jolly,
with a rubicund nose; the other pale and thin. These were said
to be the portraits of two local celebrities, Ned Partridge and Nat
Fleming. Below were the following lines :—

Thou mortal man that lives on bread,

What is’t that makes thy nose so red ?

Thou silly ass, that looks so pale,

It is by drinking Sally Birkett’s ale.
This unique signboard is unfortunately no longer in existence.
The inn, however, is still known as “ The Mortal Man.”

The following story is told of Ambleside. There was an old inn
in the town which bore the name of “The Cock.” This, along
with some other property, was purchased by Dr. Watson, Bishop
of Llandaff. In compliment to the new proprietor, mine host
conceived the idea of changing the signboard, thinking at the
time the sign of “The Bishop” would be more taking, and,
altogether, more appropriate than the homely old signboard with
the picture of a farmyard cock. A rough portrait, which somewhat
resembled the bishop with his shovel hat and episcopal wig, was
accordingly produced and fixed up in the place of the cock.
An opposition man started another inn in the meantime, and,

tne

a ies Coen ae

- digaeent

79

curiously enough, adopted the discarded sign of “The Cock.”
Whether the inhabitants of the town were partial to the new land-
lord or the old sign is uncertain, but before very long the new inn
received more than its due share of custom. The landlord of
“The Bishop,” thinking that the loss of business he had sustained
might be owing to the habit customers had formed of going to the
sign of “The Cock,” set his wits to work to rectify the mistake.
He was quite equal to the occasion. A new board was procured
and placed immediately below the portrait of the bishop. It
contained the following inscription—“ This is the Old Cock.”

Mr. Budworth, the author of “A Fortnight’s Ramble to the
Lakes,” (a book which was published in 1792,) gives an interesting
account of the places he visited and the inns he patronised during
his peregrinations through the district. His head-quarters in the
Windermere district was ‘The Salutation,” Ambleside, at that
time kept by a landlord named Wilcox,—a place at which the
author says he always felt himself at home. The number of
tourists visiting Ambleside in those days must have been small.
The “ Rambler,” as our author frequently calls himself, speaks of
Bob Partridge as being guide, boots, postillion, and boatman at
“The Salutation,” the head inn of the town. Under the guidance
of Bob he made several excursions to different places of interest
in the neighhourhood, and always speaks of him in the highest
terms. A visit to the ‘Red Lion,” Grasmere, is worthy of mention.
It was kept at the time by Robert Newton. From that inn the
“Rambler” ascends Helm Crag, and then returns to dinner and
notes the particulars of what that meal consisted. Roast pike
stuffed, a boiled fowl, veal cutlets and ham, beans and bacon,
cabbage, pease and potatoes, anchovy sauce, parsley and butter,
plain butter, butter and cheese, wheat bread, and oat cake, three
cups of preserved gooseberries, with a bowl of rich cream in the
centre. This was a wonderful spread for two people; and the
landlord of the “Red Lion” does not appear to have been in any

_ hurry to become rich, his charge for the two meals being tenpence

each. The “Cherry Tree,” formerly an inn in Wythburn, but now
no longer licensed, was also visited by Mr. Budworth and his

80

guide, who at this place had a second breakfast after descending
from the top of Helvellyn. They had here set before them
muttonham, eggs, buttermilk, whey, tea, bread and butter, and
were asked to have cheese—and the charge was sevenpence each !
Plentiful as was the spread in this case, the hostess of the “Cherry
Tree” seems to have been able to hold her own, as a grandmotherly
old lady between eighty and ninety informed them that she had
seen sixteen landlords out of a house that wished to oppose them.
Whether the opposition place was ‘‘Nag’s Head,” in Wythburn, or
“King’s Head,” Legburthwaite, we are not informed, but it was
probably one or the other.

The landlord of the “ King’s Head,” John Stanley, was known
as a facetious character, and many anecdotes of him are still
remembered in the vale. There is the story of the bagman riding
up to his door one dark night and enquiring how far he was from
the “Nag’s Head,” an inn not far away. “Only t’ length o’ t’
neck,” was the prompt reply of the landlord. The traveller,
thinking from the remark that he had reached the end of his
journey, dismounted, took a bed, and stayed for the night. In
the morning he discovered his mistake, whereupon he tackled
“mine host,” but was obliged to admit, on explanation, that he
got a correct answer to the question put by him the night before—
that, although he was still a few miles from the ‘‘Nag’s Head,”
Wythburn, the inn which he intended to patronise, he was only
the length of the neck from his own nag’s head. The signboard
belonging to John Stanley is still kept at the ‘“ King’s Head,”
Thirlspot, and is in a good state of preservation. The rhyme is
said to have been his own composition ; it reads thus :—

I. Stanley lives here, and sells good ale,
Come in and drink before it grows stale,

John succeeded his father Peter,
But i’ th’ old man’s time ’twas never better.

A favourite house of call on the road between Penrith and
Keswick, in the old coaching days, was the “Sun Inn,” Hutton

Moor End. It was kept for nearly a decade of the last century,
and during the whole of the first half of the present one, by a

ib a

sewing i ee a oe

tie Soma en Rte

ogg a a

81

very deserving couple, Isaac and Betty Hutchinson. During the
latter part of her life old Betty was very lame, and had to move
about on crutches; but it was seldom she was absent from the
“ingle nook,” and numbers of people when travelling that way
called in to see the old lady and enjoy the lively “crack.” Old
Isaac, on the other hand, was quiet and retiring, his wife doing all
the talking. After the celebrated firm of Bass and Co. had made
a success with their India Pale Ale, an agent was sent to introduce
that beverage to the inns of the Lake District. The late Mr. John
Atkinson, of the “ King’s Head,” Thirlspot, at that time a large
cattle dealer, and well known all over the district, accompanied
the traveller for the purpose of introducing him to parties likely to
become customers. Among the rest they called on old Isaac and
told him how Bass’s beer was likely to be asked for by coach
passengers and other tourists, how that it had become so popular
as a drink, and begged to be allowed to place a good order in his
hands. They received from the old man the following reply :—
“T git aw my yal fra Alfred Eemison o’ t’ Burns, an’ it’s allus
varra good; bit I divvent want to be unneighbourly,—what, ye
mun send me a hofe quarter” (a cask containing four-and-a-half
gallons). A tablet inserted in the wall of the front side of the
house, facing the old turnpike road, bears a somewhat remarkable
inscription :—
MDCCXIX.
This building’s age these letters show ;
Though many gaze, there’s few that know.

This was probably true when the rhyme was first placed there—-
that is one hundred and sixty-seven years ago. At that time the
surrounding inhabitants possessed little or no education, and the
author probably intended it as a sarcasm upon the ignorance of
the people.

The “Fish Inn,” Buttermere, has for a long time been famous
as being the home of “ Mary, the Buttermere beauty,” whose brief

- romance excited so much sympathy about the end of last century.

She was first brought into notice by the author of “A Fortnight’s

Ramble to the Lakes,” who thus described the “ Maid of the inn,”
6

82

as she appeared on his first visit :—‘‘ Her mother and she were
spinning woollen yarn in the back kitchen. On our going into it
the girl flew away as swift as a mountain sheep, and it was not till
our return from Scale Force we could say we first saw her. She
brought in part of our dinner, and seemed to be about fifteen. Her
hair was thick and long, of a dark brown, and though unadorned
with ringlets, did not seem to want them. Her face was a fine
oval, with full eyes, and lips as red as vermillion. Her cheeks had
more of the lily than the rose, and although she had never been
out of the village—and I hope will have no ambition to wish it—
she had a manner about her which seemed better calculated to set
off her dress than ‘dress her’; she was a very Lavinia,

Seeming when unadorned, adorned the most.

When we first saw her at her distaff, after she got the better of her
first fear, she looked an angel, and I doubt not she is the reigning
lily of the valley.” Mr. Budworth, with whom Mary seems to
have been a great favourite, again visited “The Fish” some years
after writing the above description of her. On this occasion he
was present at a dance or merry night, held for the benefit of the
local fiddler, where he mixed freely with the company. ‘They
were,” he says, ‘‘the very rosiest cheeked mortals I ever saw. The
men kept excellent time, and rattled on the floor with a variety of
steps ; the women danced as easily as the men determinedly. The
dance was never long, and the moment the fiddler ceased another
set that were ready called a fresh tune and began. I was glad to
notice a black eyed youth hand out Mary and another young girl
and call for a reel; and I honestly say I never saw more graceful
dancing or a woman of finer figure to set it off than Mary of
Buttermere.” Mary was the only daughter of Mr. and Mrs.
Robinson, an old couple who kept “The Fish” inn; and the
author of the foregoing eulogium afterwards deplored that he had
not left poor Mary to blush unseen, instead of introducing her to
the public by the glowing delineation of her rustic beauty given in
his ‘‘ Fortnight’s Ramble to the Lakes,” in which he published the
account of the places visited by him and other matters in connec-
tion therewith, during his rambles through the Lake Country,

x
a
_

83

Whether this had connection with the misfortune which after-
wards befel the “ Beauty of Buttermere,” is not easy to decide ;
but the little inn was sometime afterwards visited by a scoundrel
who assumed the name of the Hon. Colonel Hope, and represented
himself to be the next brother to the Earl of Hopetoun, and, to
make a long story short, he made love to the village beauty and in
a short time married her. The account of the marriage found its
way into all the newspapers, and brought to light the fact that the
real Colonel Hope had been abroad the whole summer, and that
the impostor who had heartlessly deceived poor Mary was an
unmitigated villain named John Hatfield, who had _ previously
deserted one wife—by whom he had three children—had after-
wards been married to another (his first wife being still living),
whom he also deserted, leaving her with two infant children. A
short time after his marriage with Mary he discovered that the
officers of the law were on his track, and left the village with the
idea of escaping justice. After being tracked from place to place
he was apprehended near Swansea and committed to Brecon Gaol.
He was afterwards taken to London, and examined before the
magistrates, where charges of forgery and bigamy were brought
against him. He was then committed to take his trial at the next
Carlisle Assizes, where he was proved guilty of various charges of
forgery. Capital punishment was at that time the penalty for
forgery, and the villain who brought ruin on the unfortunate women
he so cruelly deceived was ignominiously executed at Carlisle,
September 3rd, 1803. Coleridge, Southey, and Wordsworth, the lake
poets, to whom she was well-known—in fact all classes of society—
took great interest in Mary, whose conduct under her misfortunes
was marked throughout with propriety and good sense, and her
story was afterwards dramatised and acted in the London theatres.
Coleridge says: “In looking back upon that frightful exposure
of human guilt and misery, that the man who, when pursued by
these heart-rending apostrophes and this litany of anguish sounding
in his ears from despairing women and famishing children, could
yet find it possible to enjoy the calm pleasures of a lake tourist,
and deliberately hunt for the picturesque, must have been a fiend

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of that order which fortunately does not often emerge among men.’
Mary was afterwards married to a respectable yeoman of the
district, by whom she had a large family, and, according to the
poet Southey, became “ fat and good-looking.” One of her grand-
sons is at the present time the owner of the “ Fish Inn,” Buttermere.

Merry nights, similar to the one at which the Beauty of Butter-
mere was present, may be worth describing. The hard-working
inhabitants of the northern counties of England in those days
seldom indulged in taking holiday except at Christmas time, and then
all work was thrown aside from Christmas Day till Twelfth Night.
On the eve and early morning of Christmas Day, the village fiddler
went from house to house playing each of the inmates a tune and
wishing them a merry Christmas. On New Year's Day the
musician again went his round in the same manner to enliven the
villagers with his inspiriting airs, and towards the close of the festive
season, the fiddler once more went his round, but on this occasion
it was to collect subscriptions by way of a benefit. These subcrip-
tions, as a rule, were freely given; he in return gave invitations to
his subscribers to attend his merry night at a time appointed at the
village inn. At the fiddler’s merry night dancing was naturally the
order: step dances, consisting of hornpipes, jigs, reels, etc., were
kept up with great animation, the fiddler on that night providing
the music gratis; and in addition to this, the guests were allowed an
unlimited supply of bread and cheese and Christmas ale. If there
happened to be more than one inn in the village, the dance was
given in turn at each inn in the place. But nearly all the inns in
country places had during Christmas time their annual merry night,
at which times the greatest mirth and hilarity prevailed. For
graphic descriptions of scenes which took place at their festive
gatherings in the old times, we need only refer to some of the songs
of Robert Anderson, and other Cumberland bards. The following
verses from ‘The Bleckell Murry Neet,” will give an idea of the
energy at times displayed :—

The clogger of Dawston’s a famish top hero,
And bangs aw the player fwok twenty to yen ;

He stamped wid his fit an’ he shouted an’ roystered,
Till the sweat it ran off at his varra chin end,

ae

85

Then he held up a han’ like the spout of a teapot,
And danc’d Cross the Buckle and Leather to Patch,
When they cried ‘‘ Bonny Bell,’’ he lap up to the ceiling,
An’ aye crack’d his thoums for a bit of a fratch.

Mr. Budworth records an incident which occurred at the dance
he attended at Buttermere, which is characteristic of the untram-
melled way in which the dalesfolk formerly took their enjoyment.
“A stout man, more than six feet, belonging to Lorton, entered,
and most piteously regretted he had not known of the dance, as
his iron bound clogs were too heavy to dance in. Mine being by
this time dry, I offered to lend them for the night, but he had the
disappointment to find them too short, or he said, ‘They wad hae
duin varra weel,’ though, by the bye, they weighed two pounds
seven ounces. However, he soon was amongst the dancers, and
footed it away in his stocking feet ; and after they were worn out,
bare-footed.”

The most important gathering during the year in Keswick was
formerly the first Saturday in the New Year, known then as now,
as “Auld folks’ Saturday.” This was a day on which business and
pleasure were supposed to be combined. The tradesmen of the
town during the first part of the day presented and settled their
outstanding accounts for the previous year as far as they were able,
and the farmers and their wives, dressed in “their Sunday best”
met and dined at the inn they made their head quarters during the
year, in order to give the landlord of the establishment a benefit.
There was always a sumptuous dinner provided for the occasion,
and many of the tradesfolk of the town dined at the different inns
which they patronised along with the farmers, and this was called
“spending the shot.” Music was played while the dinner was
served, and after the tables were cleared, the guests assembled in
the large room, and then commenced the patter of feet among the
dancers to keep time to the jig tunes and other enlivening strains
evoked by a manipulation of horse hair and catgut. The first
Saturday in the New Year is still known in Keswick as “Auld
Folks’ Saturday,” but it now exists only in name. A few of the
“old stagers” who remember the former glory of this festival still

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make it a point to “spend their shot,” with “mine host at the inn,”

but there is no longer any approach to the mirth and hilarity of
former days.

By an examination of the history of old inns of town and country,
we find in connection interesting episodes in the lives of many of
our greatest men, who were formerly in the habit of patronising
them as meeting places for social enjoyment, and we are thus
enabled to form an idea of some of the habits and customs of our
ancestors who lived in bygone times, in days when—

The gentrie went to the King’s Head,
The nobles into the Crown,

The knights went to the Golden Fleece,
And the ploughman to the Clowne.

“A tavern,” says an ancient writer, “is a common consumption
of the afternoon and the murderer or maker away of a rainy day.
To give you the total reckoning of it, it is the busy man’s recreation,
the idle man’s business, the melancholy man’s sanctuary, the
stranger’s welcome, the inn of court man’s entertainment, the
scholar’s kindness, and the citizen’s country; it is the study of
sparkling wits and a cup of canary their book.” Goldsmith, in his
beautiful poem of ‘The Deserted Village,” thus describes the
village inn :—

Near yonder thorn that lifts its head on high,

Where once the sign-board caught the passing eye,
Low lies that house, where nut-brown draughts inspired,
Where grey beard mirth and smiling toil retired,
Where village statesmen talked with looks profound,
And news much older than their ale went round.
Imagination fondly stoops to trace

The parlour splendours of that festive place ;

The whitewashed wall, the neatly sanded floor ;
The varnished clock that ticked behind the door ;
The chest contrived a double debt to pay—

A bed by night, a chest of drawers by day ;

The pictures placed for ornament and use ;

The twelve good rules, the royal game of goose ;
The hearth, except when winter chilled the day,
With aspen boughs and flowers and fennel gay ;
While broken teacups, wisely kept for show,
Ranged o’er the chimney, glistened in a row.

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We live in a world of changes, and since the commencement
of the present century, in large towns these changes have been
very great in regard to inns, as likewise with other institutions.
Few of the old and formerly well-known licensed houses can now
be considered “places of entertainment for man and beast,” and
the term licensed victualler is in most cases a misnomer. It
is now difficult to find the respectable bar parlour, where the
guests meet of evenings to pass an hour or so in improving
conversation, political and other, while they smoke the pipe of
peace moderately moistened with alcoholic stimulant, such places
being few and far between. The innkeeper now-a-days makes his
money by selling liquors over the counter of the long bar and
depends on what is called the “‘standing-up” trade. But ‘old
times are changed, old manners gone,” and the “standing-up”
trade of the gorgeously decorated long bar, where ‘‘ two penn’orths”
of liquor are sold to customers—which means small profits and
quick returns—with social clubs now so numerous, have almost
entirely superseded the cozy old bar parlour, so great an institution
of last century. In the old time the bar parlour of the inn was
used as a meeting place for poets, philosophers, and statesmen,
consequently there are many poetic associations still connected
with those places where social intercourse among great men was
formerly held, but this sentiment, it is needless to say, no longer
exists in the modern style of innkeeping.

There is one class which must not be passed without notice,
inasmuch as they perhaps make more use of inns than any other—
that is, the commercial travellers. The commercial room of the
various inns patronised by them along their business route, has in
the case of many to be their home for the greatest part of the year.
In regard to the antiquity of their vocation, it will probably date
back as far as the innkeeper’s. When people began to move about
from place to place—an indication of growing civilization—there
was the pedlar who walked; then the bagman who took his bags
containing samples on horseback, when roads were both rough and
unsafe ; then the solitary driver of the gig, when wheel conveyances
could go on the smoother highways ; and now, to-day, there are,

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according to statistics, forty thousand of these gentlemen carrying
huge packages, who make their journey by railway, many of whom
still echo the sentiments of Shenstone, the Doric bard :—

Whoe’er has travelled life’s dull round,
Where’er his stages may have been,

Will sigh to think he still has found
The warmest welcome at an inn.

aE

aNenegetce

wear

aig rss

weay

89

ANNE CLIFFORD, COUNTESS OF PEMBROKE.
By GEO. WATSON.
(Read at Penrith. )*

PROMINENT amongst the relics of the past, on the south bank of
the Eamont, stands the hoary pile of Brougham Castle, so
picturesque an object in the magnificent landscape, viewed from
the Beacon side. For hundreds of years it was one of the seats of
the Cliffords, the last of whom was the Lady Anne Clifford, whose
life and illustrious lineage I have asked you to consider for an
hour this evening.

Those who heard my paper last year on “Cicely Neville, and
the Feudal Lords of Penrith,” may perhaps remember our notice
of the deadly feud between the second family of Ralph Neville,
Earl of Westmorland, and the Cliffords. We saw that after Ralph
Neville’s youngest daughter, Cicely, the Rose of Raby, was married
to Richard Plantagenet, Duke of York, the claimant to the throne,
her branch of the Neville family became leading champions of her
husbands cause in the terrible Wars of the Roses, in which they
came into frequent deadly conflict with the Cliffords, who fought
on the opposing Lancastrian side. We saw that so bitter and
sanguinary was the strife, that ere the Duchess Cicely died in
religious seclusion in her castle, not only the House of Lancaster,
for which the Cliffords bled, but her own House of York, had not
a male left (except an imbecile youth, a prisoner in the Tower of
London, shortly to be executed on Tower Hill) ; the only female

(* Inserted by the Penrith Society, by virtue of Rule 8.)

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representative of the Plantagenets being Margaret of York, Cicely’s
grand-daughter, consort to the Tudor King Henry VII.

But two generations later we see the Duchess Cicely’s illustrious
descendant by the female line, the great Queen Elizabeth, carried
to the tomb; ladies of the highest rank support the pall, and a
little maid of thirteen—daughter and niece to two of them—looks
on with awe-stricken face ; and as we note that this fair girl is, ere
she dies, to be the last of the Cliffords, we ask, where now is the
deadly hate of Plantagenets and Cliffoids ?

This high-born little lady was Anne, daughter, and sole heir of
George Clifford, third Earl of Cumberland, who had then been
dead some three years. Her mother was the Lady Margaret
Russell, a lady of illustrious family, and, by universal assent, of
surprising virtues. Anne Clifford was born at Skipton Castle, one
of the family seats, in 1590, but was taken early to London and
placed under the care of her aunt, the Countess of Warwick, to be
trained in courtly manners at Queen Elizabeth’s court, the Countess
being then principal lady of the bedchamber, and chief royal
favourite. For tutor, Anne had the learned and good poet and
writer, Daniel, whose memory she never ceased to venerate.

In her afier-lifetime, at great cost, she caused all available
ancient records to be collected and copied, and left behind her
voluminous records of her ancestors, together with memorials of
her own life, contained in a minute diary.

In this diary, writing at the age of sixty-three, the Countess
gives us this description of herself as a girl :—“ I was very happy
in my first constitution, both in my mind and body, both for
internal and external endowments: for never was there a child
more equally resembling both father and mother than myself.
The colour of mine eyes was black, like my father, and the form
and aspect of them was quick and lively, like my mother’s; the
hair of my head was brown, and very thick, and so long that it
reached to the calf of my legs when I stood upright, with a peak
of hair on my forehead and a dimple on my chin, like my father’s ;
full cheek’d and round faced like my mother, and an exquisite
shape of body resembling my father; but now time and age hath

Sil

_ long since ended all those beauties, which are to be compared to
the grass of the field, as Isaiah c. 40, v. 6, 7, 8. ‘The voice said,
Cry. And he said, What shall I cry? All flesh is grass, and all
the goodliness thereof as the flower of the field: the grass withereth,
the flower thereof fadeth: because the spirit of the Lord bloweth
upon it: surely the people is grass. The grass withereth, the
flower fadeth: but the word of our God shall stand for ever.’ ”

Leaving this charming young lady in charge of her courtly aunt
and learned tutor, we will take our leave of her for the present,
and, with her ancient records before us, make a sort of historical,
biographical steeplechase, from William the Conqueror to James I.,
for of course no ancestors are much worth claiming who do not
begin with the conquering William.

First we are introduced to a famous Robert Vetripont, whose
grandfather came over with the Conqueror; and this Robert, we
are told, was a great friend and favourite of King John, and by
reason of the royal favour, by his own great abilities and force of
character, and last—though not least—by his marriage with a great
heiress, Idonea, he became a man of immense power and renown.
King John gave him large possessions in Westmorland, creating
him baron, and sheriff of that county. These possessions, com-
prising the castles of Brougham, Brough, Pendraggon, and Appleby,
together with the sheriffdom of Westmorland, were made hereditary
to his heirs without the usual limitation to the male sex, so that
female descendants could and did assert their right to act as
sheriff.

The great Vetripont, however, was evidently not a new comer
to the north, for his mother was Maud Moriville of Kirkoswald,
who in her widowhood lived at Meaburn—known to this day as
Mauds Meaburn. Her rents were paid in corn and victuals, which
she insisted upon being commuted into a money payment; this,
the record says, was done “after much ado ;” by which we may
_ understand that the Meaburn copyholders went on strike—but the
: lady got her way.

Besides being sheriff of Westmorland, Vetripont was sheriff of

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four other counties, custodian of Windsor and other castles, and
one of the judges of the land.

Our townsmen rejoicing in the name of Vipond—for it is the
same name—can therefore claim a very great ancestor.

A curious phase of life is recorded of Vetripont’s time, he became
liable to the King for a fine of a hundred marks by reason of the
marriage of the widow of Hugh Hastings, who held the manor of
Crosby Ravensworth under him; but the King excused the fine,
perhaps considering that although it might be law it was not
reason, to expect Vetripont to prevent a widow marrying again if
she had so determined.

Succeeding Robert Vetripont, we find his son John selling off
considerable portions of the land of his barony, thereby founding
some of the now ancient families of Westmorland. Here is an
item for the antiquarians from the records:—‘ His tenants of
Kirkbythore and other places were acquitted of the” (unfortunately
the word or phrase is left blank in the copy, the original having
been defaced or unintelligible) °- * * “when they did belong
to the Forests of Oglebirds, alias Whinfell, which it seems was a
great servitude in those days.

“This seal of arms is yet” (Countess of Pembroke’s time)
“extant in wax, the impression being a man on horseback bearing
a shield charged with avnud/ets, also his horse trapped with these
arms of the annulets, being the proper arms of the family of Vetri-
ponts.

“And it is to be noted the greatest of the gentry in Westmor-
land who held their lands from him and his father, hath their coat
of arms charged with the like annulets, though differing in one
colour from another, and in the manner of setting them on their
coats.”

Then follows another Robert, a great warrior, slain fighting
against the King in one of the battles between Henry III. and his
barons. He left only two daughters as his co-heiresses—lIsabella,
ten years old, and Idonea, twelve months.

Robert was the last of the Vetriponts, and with him had nearly
ended his family’s connection with Westmorland; for the King

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seized his estates, which, however, he afterwards restored to the
daughters, assigning them as wards to two of his own faithful
adherents: Isabella to Roger de Clifford, and Idonea to Roger de
Leyburn ; and both guardians thought they could best fulfil their
delicate charge by marrying their respective wards, as no doubt the
King had intended.

Roger de Clifford had to wait only four or five years for his
ward reaching the then marriageable age of fifteen; but the other
Roger (like Jacob of old) had to wait twice seven years, for his
wife’ had to grow up from babyhood ; but grow up she did, and
was married to Roger Leyburn, who, with her, got one half of her
family possessions, including the castles of Brough and Pendraggon.
Idonea outlived her Roger, got another husband and outlived him,
and, dying at the age of eighty-six without issue, her half of the
Vetripont estates came to the grandson of her sister Isabella.

And now, having reached the end of the Vetriponts, let us see

-where Isabella’s Roger de Clifford came from. Of course we must
go back to the inevitable Conqueror, in whose army came a soldier
of fortune, Richard Fitz Pune, grandson of the Duke of Normandy.
This Richard Fitz Pune had a son Walter, who married an heiress,
Margaret Poxey, and with her got the castle and lands of Clifford
in Herefordshire, when he assumed the name of De Clifford, and
dropped the old Norman name Fitz Pune. His son, the second
Lord Clifford, was also a Walter; he was father of that surpassing
beauty of her age, Fair Rosamond.

The third Lord Clifford left no son, only a daughter Maud,
who succeeded to the Clifford estates, whilst her father’s younger

brother, Roger de Clifford, took an estate in Worcestershire. He
also had a son Roger, and as father and son were contemporaries,
and were both active men in the wars of their time, they were
known as Roger the Elder and Roger the Younger respectively ;

and it was the younger Roger to whom fell as ward and wife the

Vetripont coheiress Isabella, she at her marriage being fifteen

years old, and Roger thirty-four. This was in 1269.

For services in the wars of France, Ireland, and England,

Henry III. granted Roger valuable possessions and honours in

94

the vale of Monmouth; so that he came into Westmorland not
quite empty-handed. These Monmouth estates were afterwards
exchanged with Edward II. by the next succeeding Clifford, for
the Skipton Castle estates, in Yorkshire, which remain to this time
part of the Clifford possessions. This Roger, the Countess of
Pembroke tells us, built and repaired much of Brougham Castle,
and caused a stone to be set in the wall thereof, over the door of
the inward gate, whereon is engraven these words, following as
they stand—

THYS

MADE

ROGER

which words, she goes on to say, “are severally interpreted : for
some think he meant it, because he built that and a great part of
the said castle, and also the great tower there ; and some think he
meant it, because he was made in his fortune by his marriage with
Isabella Vetripont, by whom he became possessor of this castle
and lands.”

This famous inscription stone is undoubtedly the one now there,
but instead of being over the inward gateway, as the Countess
describes it, it is over the outer gate, where it was put about fifty
years ago, after having been a long time lost, and recovered in the
mill-dam close by. As regards the inscription itself, a curious
misunderstanding has arisen. The first edition of Walker's History
of Penrith gives it the same as the Countess of Pembroke, “ Z’/zs
made Roger ;” but in the second edition it stands, ‘‘ 7ws made
Roger,” for which in a foot note the author gives this reason :—
“Shortly after the first edition of this work appeared, Mr. William
Docker of Newby, ina letter to the Penrith Advertiser, stated that
the inscription which he had examined was not ‘Z7/is,’ but ‘Thus
made Roger.’ I immediately went and examined it, and was
convinced he was correct; but to make the matter more certain,
I requested Mr. Jacob Thompson to look at it when passing ; he
did so, and confirmed Mr. Docker.”

But the fact is, the author and his two friends failed to observe

95

that the first word is spelled as it generally was in the middle ages,

“thys,” but the body of the y fills the space like a wz, while the
tail of the y is squeezed in below, and not at first sight very
apparent, and this led them to conclude erroneously that the word
is thus. I shall have to refer to this inscription again in connection
with another Roger.

1283. Roger Clifford was slain in battle in the Isle of Anglesey
in the forty-seventh year of his age, leaving Isabella a widow of
twenty-nine, with an only child, Robert, then nine years of age,
who in due time became a man of war. He was fiercely engaged
in the Scotch wars, and was slain in 1314, at Bannockburn or
at Stirling, when about forty years of age, and was buried at Shap
Abbey, where many Lords of Westmorland before and after him
were laid. He built a great part of Skipton Castle, and made it
very strong and beautiful—all of which was destroyed by Crom-
well’s soldiers in 1649.

_ Following him comes his eldest son, another Roger, in 1314,
who had a short but eventful life of eight years of manhood. He
took up arms with other nobles against King Edward II.; his
party was overthrown, several of his colleagues were beheaded, but
Roger was so desperately wounded as to be reckoned a dead man,
and was spared from the scaffold; he was however attainted of
treason, and his estate seized ; but this was afterwards restored to
him.

His ferocity and obstinacy are preserved in the story, that on
being served with a writ from the king, he at the point’of the sword
forced the man who served it to eat the great wax seal attached to
it, to show his contempt for the king’s displeasure, He was never
married, and was the hero of the romance of impropriety perpetu-
ated in the name of the farmstead—Julian Bower—on Whinfell, in
which figures another Fair Rosamond, whose name was Julia, and
a secret bower, but minus the silken cord and the bowl of poison.

Roger died at thirty years of age, and was succeeded by his
younger brother, Robert, a model lord and home-loving country
gentleman, fond of the chase ; and a great builder and repairer of
his castles, To him came, in 1333, Baliol, King of Scotland, ona

96

visit to Brougham Castle, when the famous stag hunt took place in
which:a noble hound named Hercules pursued a fine hart from
Whinfell to the borders of Scotland, and back to Whinfell. The
hart giving its last desperate leap over a wall, cleared it, and fell
dead ; the noble hound failed to leap the wall, and fell dead on
the other side. The hart’s horns were nailed to a tree hard by,
where in course of time they became embedded in the growing
wood, and were in existence three hundred years after, the tree
being known long after that as the ‘“‘Hart’s-horn tree.”

The records significantly tell us that this Robert Clifford died in
his bed; though his father and grandfather were both slain in the
wars, and so were many of the Lord Cliffords after him.

This peaceful Clifford was succeeded by his eldest son Robert,
in whom blazed out afresh all the military fire of his race. He
was in the French wars under Edward III. and the Black Prince ;
was at the battle of Cressey when only sixteen, at the battle of
Poictiers when twenty-five, and perished in the French wars at
thirty-two, in the year 1364.

Then we have another and the last Roger, second brother of
the last-named Robert. The records tell us as a remarkable thing,
that this Roger actually lived to be a grandfather ; and considering
how rapidly lords were killed off in those days, it certainly was a
curious fact. We are also told that “he was counted to be one of
the wisest and gallantest men of all the Cliffords of his race, which
wisdom of his was shown in keeping himself free from troubles in
those troublesome times.” Shall we not say of him, Well done
Roger! He it was who obtained from the king the charter for
Kirkby Stephen Market ; yet he was by no means a “peace at any
price” man, but bravely took his part in the king’s battles when
called upon, both in France and Scotland ; but fighting was with
him a duty, not a passion. He was a great builder, and the record
says, built the greater part of Brougham Castle ext the east; and
I almost think it is an open question whether he is not the Roger
of the inscription stone instead of the first Roger. No doubt it is
now upon the gateway of the eastern part built by the last Roger,
and the character of the letters appears to me to belong to his

on

SE ee Ee ee en ea

97

period, rather than to that of a century earlier. His wife was
Maud Beauchamp, who survived him many years, living at Brougham
Castle as her jointure house, which the record says she greatly
enlarged and repaired, and made there “ Maud’s Pool.” I do not
know whether any reminiscence of the name of ‘‘ Maud’s Pool”
remains in the popular folk-lore, but the pool itself is to my eye
quite apparent on the west side of the castle. It was, I think, an
artificial canal from the river Lowther, above the confluence of the
rivers, to the Eamont on the north side of the castle. The canal
was widened out in the middle of its length with an island left in
the centre. It would be quite a pretty piece of landscape-
gardening, and not for purposes of defence.

The wise and prudent Roger, like many other good fathers, had
a hair-brained, wild eldest son. His name was Thomas, and for
some undefined reason he was banished by the Parliament from
the Court, and prohibited from serving the king. So by way of
working off his superfluous energies, he joined some sort of French
crusade against the then barbarous tribes of Germany, where he
was slain in the year 1393, in his twenty-eighth year. He survived
his good father only two years, and he left a son John, three years
of age, who, in due time, married and got killed, as was usual with
the race. His wife was Elizabeth Percy, daughter of Hotspur.
John fell in the French war, when he was thirty-four years old,
leaving a son Thomas, seven years of age. His widow married
Ralph Neville, son of Ralph Neville of Raby Castle, and lord of
Penrith manor.

The words of the record about this lady are noteworthy : it says,
“This Elizabeth Percy was one of the greatest women of her time,
both for her birth and her marriages; but the misfortunes of the
wars so followed her, that in her time her grandfather, the Earl of
Northumberland, was beheaded, and his son, her father, slain in
battle ; her first husband slain in France; and, after her decease,
was her son Thomas, Lord Clifford, and her son John, Lord
Neville, and her grandson John, Lord Clifford, all slain in battle.”
Elizabeth was buried in Staindrop Church, near Raby Castle.

The young Clifford, Thomas, son of John by his wife

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Elizabeth Percy, went early to the French wars, where he
was a distinguished commander. He and his men took the
strong town of Ponthoise. One snowy night, they clad them-
selves in white, and surprised and took the town. After much
service in France, he returned to England, and fought in the
terrible Wars of the Roses, he fell at the first battle of St. Albans,
fighting for the Lancastrians. His son John, then only twenty
years of age, being fiercely engaged in the same cause. This John
occupies an unenviable niche in history for his cold-blooded murder
of the young Earl of Rutland, Edmond, son of the Duke of York
and his Duchess Cicely Neville. The incident, though well
known, is so closely connected with my subject that it cannot well
be omitted.

After the disastrous battle of Wakefield, in which the Duke of
Vork and the Earl of Salisbury (the Duchess Cicely’s brother)
were overcome and slain, the youth Edmond, sixteen years of age,
was captured, and taken to Clifford, who, while the poor youth
begged on his knees for mercy, exclaimed, “Thy father slew mine,
and I will slay thee!” and stabbed him to death.

The Countess of Pembroke disputes this, the accepted version
of the story, and thinks he must have been killed in battle; but
the youth of Edmond, and the well-accredited chronicles of the
time, would appear to make the blacker version of the story
incontestible. The brutal Clifford was himself slain three months
after, in the battle of Towton,* when the Lancastrian cause was
crushed, and the House of York put in possession of the throne.

This bad Lord Clifford left a widow, Margaret, daughter and
heiress of Henry, Lord Bromflete Baron Vescey (she bringing that
title into the Clifford family), and upon her and her two sons of
tender years fell heavily the vengeance of the triumphant Yorkists.
They were attainted, their possessions seized, and the two boys
sought for their destruction, so implacable was the fury of the
victors.

Their mother got them away to the east coast, and shipped
them for the Low Countries ; but only the younger was sent; the

* At Dintingdale, just before the battle of Towton,

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elder, Henry, being secretly brought back as the child of a shep-
herd, and remained at Londesborough amongst the shepherds
as one of their children, until the widowed mother married the
good Sir Launcelot Threlkeld, of Threlkeld and Yanwath Hall,
when he was brought to Sir Launcelot’s estate at Threlkeld,
and lived the hardy life of a shepherd on the sides of Blen-
cathara and Carrock; but even there he was not thought safe,
for Cumberland and Westmorland were dominated by the cruel
and implacable Richard, Duke of Gloucester. Penrith Castle was
one of Richard’s places of residence, and he was believed to be
still thirsting for the blood of the children of his brother’s murderer.
So Henry was again moved: this time to the border of Scotland,
where he continued to live, in no way distinguished from the other
shepherds. It is said he was ignorant of his own identity, and was
not taught to read or write, lest it should betray his condition.

Then, after twenty-four years of shepherd life, the House of
York, by violent or untimely death, is extinct ; the new dynasty of
the Tudors reigns, and Henry VII. restores him to his wide
possessions and honours. Wordsworth’s beautiful poem on the
subject is well known.

In Henry, the shepherd-lord, the military fire of his ancestors
was extinct. He must have attained some degree of education
after his restoration, for the Countess of Pembroke tells us, “ He
did exceedingly delight in astronomy and the contemplation of the
stars, which it is likely he was seasoned (trained) in during the
course of his shepherd’s life. He built a great part of Barden
Tower, where he lived much, because in that place he had
furnished himself with instruments for that study.” She adds,
“He was a plain man, and lived for the most part a country life,
and came seldom to court or London; but when he was called
thither to sit a Peer of the Realm, he behaved himself wisely and
like a good English gentleman.”

The shepherd-lord’s astronomy, it appears, took the dubious
form of astrology, for the Countess says that, “in her time there
was a tradition, that by his skill in astronomy, he, on the birth of
his grandson, read the stars, and foretold that his grandson should

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have two sons, between whom and their posterity there should be
great suits at law, and that the heirs male of the line should end
with those two sons, or soon after them,” which—stars or no stars
—actually came to pass.

The shepherd-lord was twice married, to ladies of good families,
and left one son and several daughters. His daughter Dorothy
married Hugh Lowther of Lowther, a sort of cousin, he being son
of Anne Threlkeld’s daughter, and, it would appear, heiress of Sir
Launcelot and his wife, the widow of John Clifford.

The good Lord Clifford died in 1523, at the age of seventy,
and was followed by his son Henry, a contemporary of King
Henry VIII., between whom and himself as boys and men, a close
friendship ever existed—as a result of which the King created him
Earl of Cumberland. He died in 1542. His son, also Henry,
when young and at the court of Henry VIII., married Lady
Eleanor Brandon, niece to the King, and granddaughter to
Henry VII. The marriage was the occasion of extraordinary
magnificence, the King himself being present.

In preparation for the reception of so regal a bride in the north,
the bridegroom’s father caused an extensive and magnificent
addition to be built to Skipton Castle—begun and completed in
three months.

This great lady lived only about ten years a wife, and died at
Brougham Castle in 1547, leaving an only daughter.

Immediately after the death of his wife, Henry Clifford, then
second Earl of Cumberland, being thirty years old, had an illness
so serious that he was believed to be dead, and was laid out in
state under a crimson velvet hearse or pall. The men who
watched by him thinking they saw some signs of life, threw off the
trappings of death, carried him back to his bed, and applied
restoratives with such success that he was restored to life, but life
so feeble that he had to be fed literally as a new born child for
five weeks, and afterwards for several months he drank only ass’s
milk. He however recovered perfect health, and married as his
second wife Ann, daughter of Lord Dacres of Greystoke, Gilsland,
and Kirkoswald, They were married at Kirkoswald Castle.

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Much quieter would this Kirkoswald wedding be than his first
grand marriage before King Henry and his court, and a much
quieter person must have been his second bride, for we are told
she never in her life was in London, or any way near it ; evidently
Ann Dacres was a lover of her own “north countrie.”

“ Henry,” says the record, ‘“‘was much addicted to the study and
practice of chemistry and alchemy ; a great distiller of waters and
maker of chemical extractions, and very studious in all manner of
learning; he had an excellent library of books,, both hand-written
books and printed, to which he was addicted exceedingly, especially

’ towards his latter end.”

Now, as he died at Brougham Castle, it is fair to infer that these
pursuits of his latter days were followed in that castle ; and, if so,
the venerable pile which we are accustomed to associate only with
deeds of warfare, was once in its day a seat of literature and
science. He died at Brougham Castle in 1570, and left two sons,
George and Francis, and thus far the alleged astrological forecast
of his grandfather, the shepherd-lord, was fulfilled.

The eldest son, George, third Earl of Cumberland, was father of
Anne Clifford, Countess of Pembroke. He was born at Brougham
Castle in 1558, three months before the death of Queen Mary,
and he married, as before mentioned, Lady Margaret Russell.

We have seen that the long line of Cliffords were men of mark,
ever in front of the leading events of their times, and this George
was no exception. The medizval form of chivalry had passed away
with feudalism, but the spirit of chivalry was now more needed than
ever ; not in the conflict of dynasties for the throne, but in national
defence and supremacy. The man who, in Elizabeth’s reign,
would win renown, had to seek it in the wide paths of learning, of
commerce, or of naval heroism ; for it was the birth-time of English
supremacy on the ocean, as well as of English colonization, and
there arose the new passion for foreign voyaging, and to this
George, Earl of Cumberland, gave himself and his wealth without
reserve. In his education he had made but little progress, except
in mathematics, to which he applied himself eagerly, and to this
taste he owed his proficiency in navigation. His ancestors had

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expended their means in building castles and in paying soldiers ;
but he built ships and paid sailors, and that to such an extent that
he had to sell off considerable estates. He made some eleven or
twelve voyages, most of them to the least-known parts of the
world; some of his voyages were privateering expeditions, organized
to harass and plunder the ships of arrogant and menacing Spain.
Occasionally he inflicted some damage upon the national enemy,
but seldom did any good to himself. For one exploit, however,
he deserves renown ; he commanded one of the Queen’s ships, the
Bonaventain, in the world-famous little fleet that encountered and
vanquished the stupendous Spanish Armada; and it is no small
thing for the Earl of Cumberland’s fame, that his name stands in
the nation’s archives with those of Drake, Fenner, Hawkins,
Fenton, Seymore, Southwell, Raleigh, and Frobisher.

But he was a prominent man at court as well as at sea, and
foremost in all the gay and brilliant pursuits of high life; and to
his enormous expenses for his sea expeditions he added unbounded
extravagance ashore. He was a great favourite with Queen Eliza-
beth, as indeed handsome gentlemen were wont to be. She
appointed him her champion at her tiltings and court pageantries,
on which occasions he wore a magnificent suit of armour inlaid
with gold. This armour is now at Appleby Castle.

On one occasion the coquetish Queen dropped her glove for
him to pick up, and when he presented it to her on his knees, she
gave it to him to keep for her sake. He had it covered with
jewels, and wore it on state occasions in front of his hat.

But George, Earl of Cumberland, though a brilliant man before
the public, was a bad husband and father: his neglect, tyranny,
and scandalous immorality, caused a separation between himself
and his high-souled and saintly Countess. His final act of tyranny
was to leave a will disinheriting his daughter, leaving her a sum of
money and bequeathing all the possessions of the Vetriponts and
Cliffords to his brother Francis, who properly could succeed only
to the title of Earl of Cumberland.

Anne Clifford loved and venerated her mother almost to idolatry,
and although in all her voluminous writing she pens no word of

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bitterness against her father, she must have found in his case the
keeping of the fifth commandment a most perplexing duty.

After the earl’s death (Anne being about sixteen years old) his
widow commenced, on the part of her disinherited daughter, an
action at law to set aside the earl’s iniquitous will. It was argued
that the Vetripont estates and honours were by the original royal
grant to descend to the heirs, whether male or female, in the direct
line, so long as there was an heir, and to go to a second son only
if there was neither son nor daughter. In this view, Anne’s father
left an illegal will; and with this law-suit commenced the fulfilment
of the second part of the shepherd-lord’s prediction.

Mother and daughter, to maintain their claim, came to the north
and stayed some time at Appleby and Brougham castles; but on
presenting themselves at Skipton Castle, they found the doors
barred against them, and the uncle’s agents in possession ; they
then returned to London to prosecute their claims.

In 1609, at the age of eighteen, Anne Clifford was married to
Richard Sackville, Lord Buckhurst, son of the Earl of Dorset, who,
however, only two days after, by the sudden death of his father,
became Earl of Dorset.

Anne’s husband was a great courtier, and a man of accomplish-
ments and learning, but of unbounded extravagance ; and he soon
showed himself an unkind and tyrannical husband. He co-operated
with King James in the endeavour to compel his wife to agree to
her disinheritance. Twice Anne was taken before the King, and
urged to yield her claims ; but though king and husband coerced,
the brave Anne held out.

The Countess, her good mother, was still in possession in West-
morland, and residing at Brougham Castle; and in 1616 Anne
having been then married some seven years, came from her house
at Knowle, to visit her mother at Brougham Castle for a month.
Anne thus describes their parting :—“It was the last time that
ever mother and daughter saw one another, for that day, about a
quarter of a mile from Brougham Castle, in the open air, they took
their last leave one of another, with many tears and much grief,

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the mother returning to the castle, and the daughter to her
husband’s house at Knowle in Kent.”

The mother died about a month after, on the 24th day of May,
1616. The spot where she parted from her venerated mother was
ever sacred to the loving daughter; and forty years after she
consecrated it by erecting there the well-known “Countess Pillar,”
near Brougham Castle, on the Appleby road side.

Shortly after the mother’s death, King James procured an order
from four judges against Anne; her husband signed away his
claim on her estates, and royal letters patent were issued completing
her disinheritance ; and immediately after the usurping lord (as
Anne always regarded him) entertained King James for three days
at Brougham Castle.

Anne Clifford, Countess of Dorset, after thirteen years of
unhappy married life, found herself a widow. She had had three
sons, who died in their infancy, but two daughters remained.

Six years after she married Philip Herbert, Earl of Pembroke
and Montgomery; and in this marriage she was even more
unfortunate than in the first. Her husband was son of the
talented and high-souled Mary Sydney, Countess of Pembroke,
sister of the accomplished writer and heroic soldier, Sir Philip
Sydney; but none of the rare graces of mother and uncle were
found in Anne’s new husband. Walpole called him a memorable
simpleton ; in private life he was contemptible and vicious ; he was
grossly illiterate, but highly learned in matters pertaining to horses,
dogs, and hawks, beyond which his soul did not aspire. He was,
however, a great favourite with King James, who gave him £18,000
a year for the benefit of his splendid talents in attending to his
stables and kennels.

To show of what kind of stuff kings and courtiers were made at
that time, take this incident. William, Earl of Pembroke (elder
brother of Anne Clifford’s husband) had an antipathy to a frog ;
King James, with his usual school-boy silliness, threw one into his
neck, in requital whereof the earl caused a pig, to which the king
had a disgust, to be placed in his bed-room. This happened at
Wilton, under the earl’s own roof, and affected King James more

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as a breach of hospitality, than as an affront to his Majesty’s
person.

After enduring the brutality of her second husband for twenty
years, she was obliged to part from him entirely. He died in
1650. Her family consisted only of two daughters by her first
husband. The elder married the Earl of Thanet, the head of the
ancient family of Tufton of Kent; and the younger daughter was
married to the Earl of Northampton.

It is somewhat singular that a woman so high-minded, religious,
and discerning, should have made two such unhappy marriages.
Anne was indeed ill-fated in her male connections, in having had
a bad father and two bad husbands. But indeed good men were
not very plentiful at that period. She was second wife to both
husbands. It is pleasant to observe how she endeavours to make
the best of her bad bargains, and how she endeavours to say as
little against them as possible. Of her married life she thus
writes :—‘I must confess with unexpressible thankfulness, that
though through the goodness of the Almighty God and the merrets
of my Saviour, Christ Jesus, Redeemer of the World, I was born
a happy creature in Mind, Body, and Fortune, and that these
two Lords of Mine to whom I was after-wards by God’s Provi-
dence married, were in their several kinds worthy Noblemen as
any in this Kingdom, yet it was my misfortune to have contra-
dictions and crosses with them both: with my first Lord, about
the desire he had to make me sell my rights in the Lands of my
Auncient Inheritance for money, which I never did nor ever would
consent unto, insomuch as this matter was the cause of a Long
contention betwixt us, as also for his perfuseness in Consuming his
Estate, and some other extravagances of his. And with my second
Lord, because my youngest Daughter, the Lady Isabella Sackville,
_ would not be brought to marry one of his younger sons, and that
I would not be brought to relinquish my Interest that I had in
five thousand pounds, being part of her portion out of my lands in
Craven ; nor did I want divers Malicious ill-willers to blow and
foment to Coals of dissention betwixt us: so as in both their life-
times the marble Pillars of Knowle in Kent, and Wilton in Wilt-

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shire, were to me oftentimes but the Gay Harbours of Anguish,
insomuch as a wise man that knew the Insides of my Fortunes
would often say, that I lived in both my Lords’ great families as
the River of Roan (or Rhodamus) runs thro’ the Lake of Geneva
—without mingling any part of its streams with the Lake; for I
gave myself wholly to Retiredness (as much as I could) in both
these great Familys, and made good books and virtuous thoughts
my study and companions, which can never deserve affliction nor
be daunted where it unjustly happens, and by a Happy Genious I
overcame all these troubles.”

In 1643, thirteen years after her marriage to the Earl of Pem-
broke, her cousin, the last usurper of her inheritance, died, and
although King James and his judges had pronounced her disin-
heritance, a Greater Disposer of events had issued a more potent
edict, and her cousin, the fifth Earl of Cumberland, although he
had had seven sons, died without a male heir, and the inheritance
that had been wrested from her came back to her indisputably.
The male line of the Cliffords was now extinct, and the shepherd-
lord’s prediction completed.

In 1649, a year before her husband’s death, the Countess of
Pembroke came to the north and took possession of her estates :
she leaves London July 11th, arrives at Skipton on the 18th,
Barden Tower on the 28th, Appleby Castle August 8th, Brougham
Castle on the 18th.

The civil war between King and Parliament had then been
raging for some time, and she finds her castles more or less
demolished, and the churches ruined and desecrated by Crom-
well’s soldiers ; so she sets to work with extraordinary energy and
determination to repair and reinstate; her friends advise her to
desist, as Cromwell would be very likely to pull them down again,
but she replies, “Let him destroy my castles if he will, and as
often as he levels them I will rebuild them, so long as he leaves
me a shilling in my pocket.

Then there were manor courts to be held, to reclaim rights and
correct abuses; boundaries to be ridden, and a general putting
to rights of nearly all Westmorland and a part of Yorkshire—for

107

the effect of thirty years of neglect had to be remedied: and all
this was the work of many years, and for a woman of sixty was
indeed a Herculean labour.

Her castles of Skipton, Pendragon, Brough, Appleby, Brougham,
and Barden Tower, and some seven churches, were repaired or
entirely rebuilt, and a commemorative inscription placed upon
each, always ending with Zaus Deo.

She also built and endowed the St. Ann’s Almshouses at
Appleby for twelve poor women ; she built the bridge at Appleby,
and endowed, with land at Templesowerby, a trust for the repair
of the bridge, the church, and the grammar school in that town.

The Countess found her manorial rights, from long abeyance,
all but lost, and she was obliged to institute a series of lawsuits
before she got her affairs placed upon a proper basis. An amusing
incident in these suits was the disputed payment of the boon hen,
claimed in addition to certain rents. Her opponent was a retired
clothier from Halifax, Mr. Murgatroyd, who positively refused the
Countess her hen. But the woman who had held her own against
king, judges, and husbands, was not likely to give in to a Halifax
clothier. A suit at law won the lady the hen, and it was paid,
whereupon the Countess invited the clothier to dinner, when, lo!
the first dish served was the hen! and as the hostess helped him
to a good plateful, she said, “Come, Mr. Murgatroyd, let us now
be friends ; since your hen is served at my table, I will give you
half.”

The Countess never revisited London, and after the Restoration
she was as much disgusted with the profligacy of the court, as she
had been with the rule of Cromwell; and when pressed to go to
court, she answered, ‘‘ By no means, unless I may be allowed to
wear blinkers !”

Her powers of self-assertion—always, as we have seen, of the
first order—certainly did not wane in her age; and when Sir
Joseph Williamson, secretary to Charles II., wrote dictating a
Member of Parliament for Appleby, she replied, “I have been
bullied by a usurper, and neglected by a court, but I will not be
dictated to by a subject. Your man shan’t stand.”

108

She resided at all her castles in turn, changing from one to
another in great state in her coach and six, followed by a train of
servants; and at each place of residence the local clergyman
attended daily as her chaplain. Brougham Castle is always
mentioned in her journal with especial reverence, and the
chamber in which she slept, as ‘‘the chamber in which my noble
Father was born, and my beloved Mother died.”

In the voluminous manuscript memorial of her life, and in her
day-book, she gives the events of every day of her life, minutely
recorded in the wordy but dignified style of the period. I will
here give a few entries :—‘‘ And the 23rd day of the said April,
1651, I was present at the laying of the first foundation stone of
my Hospital or Alms House here in Appleby Town, for which I
purchased land, viz., the Manor of Brougham, the fourth day of
February following, and the Lands called St. Nicholas near
Appleby the 29th day of December, 1652, which Alinshouse was
quite finished and the Mother and twelve Sisters in it in January
and March, 1653.

“And this summer, 1651, Major General Thomas Harrison
came hither with his forces, for then the warr was Hott in Scotland,
so as then many places in Westmorland, and especially my castle
of Appleby, was full of soldiers, who lay here a great part of the
Summer; but I thank God I received no harm or Damage by
them nor by the King or his party who that August came into
England, and within six or seven miles of Appleby Castle, though
they came not to it. And that Christmas I kept in Appleby
Castle, as I had done the Christmas before at Skipton.

“And in this settled aboad of mine in these ancient Houses of
mine Inheritance, Appleby Castle and Brougham Castle in West-
moreland, and Skipton Castle or House in Craven, I do more and
more fall in love with the contentment and Inocent pleasures of a
Country Life, which humor of mine I do wish with all my heart
(if it be the will of Almighty God), may be confer’d on my
Posterity, that are to be secured me in these Places, for a wise
body ought to make their own home the Place of Self Fruition
and the comfortable part of their Life; but this must be left to a

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succeeding Providence, for none can know what shall come after
them ; but to invite them to it, that saying in the 16 Psa. v. 5, 6,
7, and 8, may be fitly applied: ‘The Lord is the Portion of mine
Inheritance and of my cup; thou maintainest my lot. The lines
are fallen unto me in pleasant places; yea, I have a goodly
heritage.’

“ About the roth of this March, 1655, while I lay in Appleby
Castle, did I cause a great part of Appleby Church to be taken
down, it being very ruinous and in Danger of falling of itself; and
so I caused a vault to be made in the North East Corner of the
Church for myself to be buried in, if it please God. And the
repairing of the said Church cost me about some 6 or 7 Hundred
Pounds, being finished in the year following.

“This summer (1658), in the beginning of the Spring, did I
cause Bongate Church, near Appleby, to be pulled down and new
built up again at my own charge; and it was wholly finished
about the latter end of April, 1659: for which God be praised.
Psay 116, Vv. 11, 12, 13;

“And the beginning of this summer (1659), a little before my
- coming out of Westmorland, did I cause the Church of Ninekirks
to be pulled down and new built up again in the same place,
larger and bigger than it was before, which finished the latter end
of this summer, though myself and my family were then at my
castle in Skipton in Craven. And this Church of Ninekirk would
in all likelihood have fallen down, it was so ruinous, if it had not
been repaired by me. Psa. 116.

‘And about the said 4 August, 1659, was there a Garrison of foot
soldiers put into Appleby Castle, into the great Tower there called
Ceaser’s Tower, which I lately repaired. They went away, and
after they were gone others came in their room, but stayed not
long ; as likewise into Brougham Castle for a while ; both of which
Castles these soldiers not long after quitted, and went away.
Deut. c 25, v..s.

“ And the 25th day of April, 1660, this year a new Parliament
began to sit at Westminster, wherein were chosen, most part by
my means, Knights of the shire of Westmorland, my two Cousins,

110

Sir Thomas Wharton and Sir John Lowther of Lowther, Knight
and Baronett ; and for Burgesses of the Burrough of Appleby, my
Cousin, Sir Henry Cholmsley, and Christopher Clapham, Esquire:
which Parliament proved to be a happy Parliament, by calling in
our rightfull Prince, King Charles the second, into England.”

In this truly wonderful journal of hers, we have her personal
doings, local incidents, and frequent national events, births and
marriages of grand-children ; births of grand-children’s babies are
recorded minutely to the day und hour, and always to her “great
and unspeakable comfort,” and with a text from the Psalms
appropriate to the occasion. Sometimes, too, we have deaths of
grand-children, to her “great grief,” with a text from Job or other
suitable sacred writer. Then there are innumerable visits recorded
of daughters- and sons-in-law, with their babies ; and, as time went
on, of grandsons and granddaughters with their babies, all flocking
to the throne of the venerable Countess, who writes down in her
day-book, that when they came unto her, she “kissed them all
with much joy and comfort.”

And as we go through her pages, we note that while her eldest
daughter’s progeny, the Tuftons, increase and multiply exceedingly,
those of her second daughter fade away, until in 1662 death has
not left one to share with the Tuftons the immense wealth the
aged dame will ere long leave behind her.

Another thing we note, that by her extraordinary memory and
clear mind, she daily lives over again her early life. ‘I remember,”
she will say, “how this day was sixty years; I went,” etc., and
then every minutize is given as if it had been but yesterday. I will
give a few short extracts from the last pages of her diary, written
at Brougham Castle, commencing twelve days before her death :—

“March-roth, 1676. And this morning I saw George Gorgeion
paid for 249 yards of linen cloth that he bought for me at Penrith,
designed for 20 pairs of sheets and some pillow purses, and after
dinner I gave away several old sheets amongst my servants, and
this afternoon did Margaret Montgomery, from Penrith, the semp-
stress, come hither, so I had her into my chamber and kissed her,
and talked with her ; she came to make up the 24 pair of sheets

‘
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,
:

SP ik wwe gen P eign s

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and pillow purses. The 13th day—I remember how this day 60
years I went from my blessed Mother to Naworth Castle.” ‘Then
follow minute particulars of the visit and the people she met there,
and adds, ‘“‘I went not out all this day. Ps. 121.”

“5th day. I remember how this day was 60 years. In the
morning I went out of Naworth Castle into the City of Carlisle,”
and then follow details of her visiting Carlisle Castle and Cathedral
and her return to her “blessed Mother” at Brougham Castle.

“17 day. No body came to dine, and I went not out all day.”
tgth day, Sunday, she has a swooning fit, but recovered, and was
better, and then “dined there in the painted room, Mr. Grasty,
our Parson, and my two Farmers; so after dinner they came into
my chamber, and Mr. Grasty said Common Prayers and read a
chapter and sang a Psalm, as usual upon Sundays, to me and my
family ; and after prayer they all went away.”

The zoth day. This is two days before her death, and she is
eighty-six years of age, she writes:—‘ I remember how this was
60 years ; did I and my blessed Mother in Brougham Castle give
in our answer in writing, that we would not stand to the award of
the then four Lord Chief Judges meant to make concerning the
lands of my inheritance, which did spin out a great deal of trouble
to us; yet God turned it to the best. Deut. c. 23, v. 5. ‘Never-
theless the Lord thy God would not hearken unto Balaam; but
the Lord thy God turned the curse into a blessing unto thee.’”

The 21st she writes only—“I went not out all day.” That was
her last entry ; next day, the 22nd, the hand of death is upon her,
and on being asked how she did, uttered her last words, “I thank
God I am very well.” Zaus Deo was her motto in life, and Zaus
Deo was her watchword in death.

Again the six horses had a long retinue from Brougham Castle
to Appleby, but this time they stop at the old parish church of
St. Lawrence, and in the new tomb made there by her own
directions, is laid, near the remains of her “blessed Mother,” all
that is left of Anne Clifford, Countess of Pembroke.

On the death of the venerable Countess, the greater part of her
immense possessions devolved upon her grandson Nicholas, Earl

112

of Thanet, who, however, enjoyed them only for three years, and,
dying without issue, they passed to his brother John, who, by the
death of his aunt, the second daughter of the Countess of Pem-
broke, without heirs, became possessed of the whole of the
Vetripont and Clifford estates and titles.

In conclusion I will briefly notice the contrast between the
histories of the two races of Clifford and Tufton. The name of
Tufton comes from Tufton, a manor in the parish of Northiam in
Sussex, held by the family in very early times; but they are soon
found settled in the adjoining county of Kent, probably in the
very usual way—by marrying an heiress possessed of lands in that
county. Some of the family come into ecclesiastical history very
early as benefactors to religious houses, whilst others appear in
Kentish manorial records as only farmers and shepherds, paying
rent charges in hens, eggs, and sheep—a result no doubt of the
old Saxon land law so peculiar to Kent, called gavelkind, by
which, on the death of a landowner, his estate was equally divided
amongst his children; the effect of such a law being to create
numerous peasant proprietors, and retard the growth of an aris-
tocracy. !

While the Tuftons were in this way struggling slowly out of
obscurity, the Vetriponts and Cliffords were in full blaze of feudal
glory, wasting blood and treasure in war for royal dynasties or
foreign conquest. Once, it is true, we read of a Tufton in command
of a battalion at the battle of Cressy, and laying siege to Calais ;
but, with this exception, we find the rising race of Tuftons steadily
adding manor to manor by marriages with heiresses, getting rid of
the poverty-creating tenure of gavelkind by Acts of Parliament;
and finally, on the dissolution of the monastries—by purchase or
by royal favour—becoming owners of immense landed possessions,
until in Henry VIII.’s time we find a Tufton seated at the old
ecclesiastical manor of Hothfield, in Kent; a Tufton knighted in
1603, a baronet in 1611, and advanced to the first rank of aris-
tocracy as Earl of Thanet, in 1628.

During all these centuries in which the Tuftons were rising to
wealth and distinction, we have seen the very existence of the

113

great Vetriponts and Cliffords as a race often hanging by a thread:
now on the chances of a single child arriving at manhood, and
now on the contingency of a single man coming out alive from a
deadly feudal conflict; and sometimes on the apparently hopeless
chance of the reversal of attainter and confiscation ; and at last, as
we have seen, the illustrious line becoming extinct, and the Tuftons
of Kent taking their place ; and then, as an instance of the irony
of fate—no sooner had they attained that social eminence, than
they appeared to inherit their predecessors’ mutability — four
brothers succeeding in seven years, and all dying without direct
heirs. The last of these brothers, Thomas, however enjoyed with
great honour the estates and titles for fifty-nine years, but dying in
1742 without male heirs, the baronies of Clifford, Westmorland,
and Vescey fell into abeyance. It was in his time that Brougham
Castle was dismantled, and the oak timbers and lead sold ; tradition
says they were used in the re-building of Penrith Church, and the
old notchings and mortices to be seen in the timbers of the roof
and galleries appear to confirm the tradition.

114

THE BOTANY OF THE. SOLWAY SHORE.
By W. HODGSON, A.L.S.
(Read at Maryport.)

AT present the sea appears to be slowly but steadily encroaching
upon the coast of West Cumberland. At Flimby this is quite
marked, as it is also to the S. of Workington Harbour; and many
plants that existed there within my own recollection have utterly
disappeared. Of these I may mention in passing Crambe maritima,
Hordeum maritimum, Phleum arenarium, Scandix pecten-veneris,
Euphorbia paralias, Hyoscyamus niger, etc., all of which grew
formerly along the beach between Maryport and Flimby. On the
other hand, several casuals or waifs from cultivation have recently
been detected growing upon heaps of household rubbish deposited
on the beach between Risehow and the Senhouse Dock, Maryport.
These last include several Crucifers, as Rapistrum rugosum, Sisym-
brium sophia, Brassica rapa, Thiaspi arvense, Lepidium draba,
and Raphanus maritimus, Other than Crucifers are Saponaria
vaccaria, Echinospermum lappula, Anagallis cerulea, Lolium perenne,
v. ramosum (a giant type of ryegrass), Anthemis cotula, Chrysan-
themum coronarium, and lastly Asperugo procumbens, which I
gathered early in June of the present year (1886).

RANUNCULACEZ.— Thalicirum minus, a. maritimum, the Vicar
of Rosley assures me is found a little beyond Skinburness, towards
the Grune Point. Avzemone nemorosa, though not strictly a shore
plant, yet occurs here and there but little removed from the beach,

115

Ranunculus drouettii and R. baudotii, forms of the Water Crowfoot,
occur in the river Ellen, and in the stream that joins the Solway at
Dubmill. £. hederaceus is found in most pools with a muddy
bottom; our Maryport friends may find good examples in the brook
just beyond Bank End. A. sceleratus is one of the rarest of the
family ; I have gathered this plant in the ditch by the roadside
about a furlong west of Dubmill. 2. fammula everywhere abounds
in moist places from sea-level up to an altitude of 2000 feet.
R. lingua is found in the “soughs” in the inland meadows a little
to the south of Oldkiln farm, near Dubmill ; this, the largest plant
of the order, is rarely met with in Cumberland ; other stations are,
a brook by M. and C. Railway, near Curthwaite Station, on the
north side of the line, towards Dalston; and the Moss at Newton
Regny, near Penrith. . acris is abundant, as are also the next
two species, A. repens and R. bulbosus. R. hirsutus, on the
contrary, is very rare; I find stray specimens sometimes by the
roadside from the North Lodge, Allonby, travelling toward Dub-
mill. . ficaria is known to almost everyone. Cadtha palustris,
in moist situations, more frequently met with inland than on the
shore. 7rollius europeus ; impoverished specimens of this plant,
which is generally a denizen of upland meadows and woodlands,
are found sparingly in meadows near the beach.

NymMPH&ACEx.—lVuphar lutea, in a “sough” on the Oldkiln
farm, Dubmill, near Allonby.

PAPAVERACEE.—Papaver dubium; of common occurrence about
rubbish heaps and the edges of railway embankments. P. argemone;
less common than the last, and altogether smaller and less con-
spicuous ; dry gravelly places are its favourite stations. Glaucium
luteum ; old botanical lists mark this plant as found on Flimby
beach, where it no longer grows; I found a fine specimen behind
the slag mounds at the mouth of the Derwent in August, 1885,
and this year a number of plants may be seen at the same station,

FuMaRIAce®.—Fumaria confusa may be seen close to Maryport;
it grows on a hedgebank by the footpath along the railway between
the turnpike bridge and the old reservoir, Z officinalis, a frequent

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weed in green-crops ; a tenant of light sandy soils, such as about
Crosscannonby, Old Mawbray, etc.

CRUCIFERA&.—Of this order we may discover many examples of
species seldom met with elsewhere. Three stations on the coast-
line have each yielded a rich supply of Crucifers, Wild Mustards,
Cabbages, Turnips, Radishes, Cresses, etc., viz., the north shore at
Workington, sandy beach behind Risehow, and the ballast heaps
at Silloth ; household rubbish deposited in heaps at Risehow has
produced several plants during 1884 and 1885, some of which
have no place in recognised lists of plants indigenous to Cumber-
land, or even to England; and which, from their surroundings,
one feels tempted to imagine have found their way thither among
the sweepings of bird-cages, seeing that hemp and canary-grass
spring up with them. At the Silloth and Workington stations several
plants probably owe their introduction to the deposit of ballast from
ships trading to those places. It is open to doubt whether many
of such casuals will survive beyond a few seasons. It is certain
that the bulk of the dozen exotic species found by me at Flosh-
gate, on Ullswater, in 1881 and 1882, have already disappeared.
Their chances were of the slenderest ; a bed of hard gravel affords
but meagre support for plant life, and probably few of them were
fully developed. All record of their existence might have perished,
but for the mention of them made by Mr. J. G. Baker, F.R.S., in
his recently published ‘‘ Flora of the English Lake District.”

Returning to the Crucifers: Cakie maritima may be gathered
at intervals along the entire coast line of Cumberland ; I saw some
very fine examples on the north shore at Workington in August of
1885. Crambe maritima once grew in small patches at the edge
of the Maryport bent hills, where it has long since been smothered
by the unsightly mounds of refuse from the iron furnaces; nowhere
plentiful, it may yet be found occasionally to the south of our
present limits,—Ravenglass and Coulderton are given as stations,
the former by Mr. Wood, in the “‘Botanist’s Guide,” the latter by
Mr. Dickinson, late of Thorncroft. Raphanus raphanistrum ;
found at different points on the coast between Workington and

117

Risehow, also at Silloth: always, I think, the yellow-flowered type.
R. maritimus ; the only specimen I have seen in a growing state,
was a fine plant which I discovered in August last (1885), on the
north shore at Workington, behind the Lonsdale Dock. Sinapis
arvensis grows on almost every rubbish heap. S. a/ba, on the
rubbish at Risehow; once cultivated near Allonby; scarce.
S. nigra, railway siding near the Baths, Silloth (1868). Neither
of the two last-mentioned can fairly claim to be indigenous to
Cumberland. Srvassica napus; next to Sinapis arvensis, the
commonest and most widely distributed of the charlocks. #2. rapa,
here and there along the shore, plentiful on the Furness Railway
towards Coulderton. 4. monensis, common along the coast; in
some places peculiarly abundant, as at Silloth, Flimby, and about
Siddick Junction. Sisymbrium officinale, another very common
species about hedgerows, borders of cultivated fields, rubbish
heaps, etc. .S. sophia, on the ballast mounds about Silloth Dock
(1868). S. adliaria, abundant near Maryport, S. pannonicum,
a continental species of flix-weed, was observed lately growing
in a patch of waste ground between the Railway Station at
Maryport and the river Ellen. Cardamine amara, not strictly
a shore plant, though sometimes seen in moist situations; in
swampy inland woods it is frequent enough. C. fratensis,
like the preceding, is an occupant of damp ground, edges of
brooks, etc. C. Airsuta, on old walls, especially if damp; abundant.
Arabis thaliana, on dry hedge-banks. Larbarea vulgaris, not
unfrequent about rubbish heaps, especially where the soil has but
recently been disturbed. Vasturtium officinale, in brooks, common;
as at Bank End, near Maryport, and on St. Helen’s farm, Work-
ington. JV. ¢errestre appears upon heaps of rubbish on the beach
at Risehow, also upon the Maryport and Carlisle Railway, near
Oughterside Mill. Cochlearia officinalis, on moist rocks about
St. Bees, Parton, Harrington, etc. C. angdica, shore at St. Bees, and
at Workington. C. danica has been recorded from Coulderton, and
also from about Ravenglass ; I noticed it myself several years ago
a little to the south of Workington: but that station has disappeared,
and is now quite submerged by the inroads of the sea. Drada

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verna is frequent on dry gravelly beaches; about the Salt Pans,
east of Bank End, large patches may be seen; one of our earliest
flowering plants, diminutive in size. WD. énwcana has been found
near Seascale. Camelina sativa, in Cumberland regarded as a
waif from cultivation ; I have found it on the ballast heaps about
Silloth, and two years ago it made its appearance in the garden
belonging to Gill Bank College, Whitehaven, whence it was
forwarded to me for identification, together with Caucalis daucoides
and Safonaria vaccaria. Thlaspi arvense; I gathered a single
plant of this species on the beach behind Risehow in August, 1884,
the only example that I have met with in Cumberland. TZeesdalia
nudicaulis, 1 have seen growing on a dry hedge-bank near the
village of Mawbray. Cafsella bursa-pastoris; no weed of cultivation
is more generally distributed than this species. Lefidium smithit,
not unusually occurring on dry banks, and certainly a well-
established native, while Z. draba, the next plant in the Catalogue,
is extremely rare; two or three plants grew among the rubbish
heaps at Risehow, where also in 1884 I gathered a specimen of
Rapistrum rugosum, a cruciferous plant not included in the
London Catalogue, and therefore not to be classed among plants
considered as indigenous to Britain.

RESEDACEH.— Reseda luteola, a common occupant of rubbish
heaps ; a few plants grow about the edges of the slag mounds at
both Maryport‘and Workington. 2. dwéea, a much smaller plant,
is found on the Furness Railway, near Braystones or Coulderton.

VIOLACE&,— Viola canina ; in all my botanical ramblings far or
near I have nowhere seen such beautiful types of this flower as are
to be met with during early summer near St. Helen’s farm, or
Siddick. Viola tricolor; grows by hundreds in patches among the
sandhills along the shore to the south of St. Bees, especially in
situations where the undergrowth of gorse and brambles has been
removed by burning; the var. (b) arvensis, with small white or
cream-tinted petals, may be gathered sparingly at intervals along
the coast.

DROSERACEZ.— Drosera rotundifolia, a plant more at home in

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deep spongy bogs than on the sandy beach; it may be found in
the Salta Moss, by Dubmill, and in Bowness Moss: at no great
distance from the shore in either case.

PotyGaLace&.—Folygala vulgaris; this pretty flower may be
gathered among the drier patches of vegetation about the edges of
gorse brakes, etc.; pink, blue, and white varieties are not un-
frequent.

CARYOPHYLLACE®.—Dzyanthus armeria; this is a common
sea-side flower. Along the “flows” around the estuary of the
Wampool there are literally acres of pinks, varying in shades of
colouring from deep crimson to almost pure white. All through
summer and autumn it continues to bloom. Silene inflata, an
inland rather than a shore plant; a few plants noticed this season
a little to the west of the old passenger station at Maryport ; about
Camerton Railway Station, abundant. S. maritima; this species,
unlike the last, is everywhere present along the shore, of which it
is one of the leading ornaments during summer. Lychnis vespertina
is more plentiful towards the shore than I have elsewhere observed ;
towards evening, when the dew is falling, the flowers become
odoriferous. JZ. diurna; many botanists are of opinion that this
plant and the preceding one are but varieties of the same species:
I hardly concur in this view, as I never could detect in the Red
Campion any trace of the pleasant odour that distinguishes the
other. LZ. /éos-cuculi; this Campion, when in full blossom, is a
characteristic feature of all the low-lying meadows towards the
shore ; I have seen some such fields beyond Allonby, so entirely
covered with it, as to resemble nothing so much as a gigantic
garden of Sweet Williams. Before quitting this section of the
Pink family, I may notice that a single plant of Safonaria vaccaria
was gathered this summer among the rubbish near Risehow. It
was but a small specimen of the species. It appears in the list of
excluded plants usually found in the Appendix of the London
Catalogue as aliens, waifs of cultivation, etc.

Cerastium tetrandrum ; this small plant is one that I had never
observed before the spring of the present year, when I found it

120

growing about the base of the retaining wall of the railway, towards
the beach, near Flimby station; the late Rev. R. Wood of Westward
also discovered it some years ago at Allonby. C. glomeratum
frequently occurs about places where water has stood during the
winter months. The next species, however, C. ¢riviale, is far the
most abundant and widely-distributed member of this family ;
about the quarries to the north of Maryport it grows in great
profusion. C. semidecandrum appears on the beach near Bank End.
Stellaria media is too abundant everywhere to need description ;
the variety b. dor@ana grows about some gardens near the Sun Inn,
Flimby ; the flowers are as a rule without petals. S. Zolostea is a
common ornament of hedge-banks. S. gvaminea is equally common:
a weak straggling plant, depending for support upon the shrubs—
as gorse or brambles—among whichit delights to grow. S. udiginosa
is also common, but loves damp, and usually finds a place at the
edge of ditches or slow-running brooks. Avenaria serpyllifolia ;
frequent among the ballast along the railway, or about the edges
of dry embankments. Honkeneya peploides ; no plant of the beach
is more abundant than this ; its thick glossy leaves are conspicuous
everywhere ; it is frequently mistaken for a Sedum or Stonecrop by
persons imperfectly aquainted with botany. Sagina apetala; I
cannot say positively that I have seen this species upon the beach;
but it is a common garden weed of the outskirts of Whitehaven, as
at Corkickle, etc. S. procumbens; greatly more abundant than
the last mentioned, indeed almost ubiquitous ; about the quarries
referred to above hundreds of examples occur. Spergula arvensis,
too well and widely known as an agricultural pest ; the ‘‘ dodder”
of the Abbey Holm farmers, and the “blore” of the inhabitants of
Gosforth Bottoms, by whom it is held in equal detestation ; on
St. Helen’s farm it abounds, and large-flowering specimens in
plenty grew about Siddick last season (1885). Spergularia rubra,
with its pretty little pink flowers, occurs along the whole extent of
coast up to the mouth of the Eden.

PoRTULACACEZ.—Montia fontana; this well known tenant of

“well-eyes,” ‘‘totter-bogs,” and mountain rills, grows plentifully in

121

the Bank End stream already mentioned, down almost to high-
water mark.

Hypericacenz.—Hypericum perforatum, a commont plant of
dry ground, as H. ¢etrapterum is of ditch banks ; the latter is much
more frequently met with inland than near the coast line. /. pul-
chrum, occasionally seen on dry banks, as about the rocky bluffs
of Harrington, Parton, etc.

Matvace®.—Jalva sylvestris, occasionally seen on rubbish
heaps, as also about homesteads near the beach, as at Allonby,
Mawbray, and other places.

Linacen.—Linum catharticum ; in some of the railway cuttings
and embankments common enough; more frequent in poor than
in moderately rich soil.

GERANIACEH.—Geranium sanguineum; a most brilliant and
conspicuous flower of the coast, where alone it attains perfection ;
everywhere plentiful, especially so, perhaps, at Skinburness and
Siddick; distinguished readily by its deep crimson corolla.
G. pratense, the largest member of this handsome family, with.
deep blue corolla, the petals veined with white ; stray examples
have been found with light-coloured, almost crimson or lilac,
petals ; and once I recollect meeting with a plant bearing a corolla
of creamy white, the veins of which stood out like threads of
snow. G. molle, sometimes seen along the shore; in the fields
adjoining the highway near Flimby, it grows very abundantly,
though in a dwarfed state, owing to the poverty of the soil, which
largely consists of dry gravel. G. dissectum ; less common than
the plant just treated of, yet is sometimes seen along the gravelly
embankments of the railway. G. vobertianum, on moist banks
and hedgerows a common weed. Lrodium cicutarium, on waste
banks by the sea, frequent ; it it sometimes found far inland ; it
grows upon the village green at Dalston, but its proper habitat is
by the shore.

LEGUMINIFER&.— Ulex europeus, a common ornament of dry
banks. U. gallii; this diminutive autumn-flowering species is

122

abundant in the district, though rather on open moors than close
to the tideway. Gendsta anglica approaches the shore on the north
side of the Wampool estuary, near Anthorn ; a pretty little shrub ;
on Seaton Moor, etc., abundant. G. ¢incforia, along with the last-
mentioned. Savothamnus stoparius; at many points along the
coast may be seen blossoming in great profusion. Ovonis spinosa,
and O. arvensis, are by many authorities looked upon as varieties
of the same species; the smooth-stalked type is much the more
prevalent. It is Mr. Baker’s opinion that the true sfzwosa is not
found hereabouts. ‘The finest specimens I know grow about Silloth,
but the Restharrow flourishes along the entire coast. Anthyllis
vulneraria ; frequently found in situations where the surface has
been disturbed ; behind the iron furnaces here its sulphur-tinted
flowers are more numerous and finer than I have elsewhere seen.
Medicago lupulina, and Melilotus officinalis, are of casual occurrence
along the shore, as at Workington north shore, Flimby, etc.*
Trifolium pratense, and T: medium; the latter grows frequently
in soils where the other species would certainly fail. A sea-side
station seems somehow to intensify the colouring of flowers ; there
were some fine specimens of Cowgrass beyond Siddick this season,
where the salt spray would doubtless reach them, and the colour
was very brilliant. 7: avvense ; this curiously-tufted clover appears
commonly on dry gravel banks all along the coast line; after the
new passenger station was built at Maryport, it sprang up in
abundance round the building, where patches of it yet remain ; it
is rarely found growing far inland, yet the the gravelly village green
at Dalston is in places quite covered with these plants. 7. vepens
is the well-known white, or, as it is sometimes styled, Dutch
Clover. Z: procumbens, so named from the resemblance of its
heads of pale yellow flowers to those of the hop plant, is quite
common, and so too is Z: minus, the origin probably of the
cultivated form, from which it differs but little in appearance.
T. filiforme; in the beautiful manuscript botany of the late Mr.

The variety JZ. farviflora appears among other casuals on the heaps of
rubbish behind the slag banks near Maryport, where also specimens of Medicago
denticulata, var. apiculata, have been discovered since the paper was read.

y

123

Rooke of Whitehaven, is a drawing of this extremely rare plant,
marked “St. Bees, 1845.” Lotus corniculatus adorns almost every
dry hillock of undisturbed ground, whether inland or on the beach.
ZL. major, not so plentiful as the last, and preferring moist localities,
as damp hedgerows and meadows. Ornithopus perpusillus ; several
patches occur close to the pathway that runs parallel to the
railway behind the West Cumberland Iron Works at Workington ;
a few are observable on Flimby Green. Vicia hirsuta; a
few straggling plants on the broken rocky ground about Parton,
and towards Harrington. V cracca, a very common species,
distinguished by its drooping racemes of blue flowers ; a climbing
plant, seldom found self-supporting, but clinging to bushes by its
tendrils. V. sylvatica; large patches of this beautiful species
clothe the rocky bluffs that overlook the beach from Harrington
westward ; it is far from being a common plant; in the locality
just mentioned, it is of a trailing habit of growth, the stems
attaining a length of three or four feet, but in woodland situations
it may be seen quite overtopping shrubs and coppice-wood at a
height of eight or nine feet, by means of its powerful branching
tendrils ; its long lax drooping racemes of creamy white flowers
delicately striped and tipped with violet, are extremely pretty,
and I am tempted to think would be very ornamental objects
in a shrubbery. V. sepium is a common hedgerow plant.
V. sativa is cultivated by farmers for forage, and is seldom
seen wild; several patches of it were, however, observable in
July last (1885) growing on mossy ground at Dubmill, its
habit was quite changed: having no support, the branches
assumed a procumbent form, each plant covering a circular
space of about two feet in diameter, studded all over with
lovely crimson and purple flowers. V. angustifolia, though very
rare in many parts, is abundant on the beach from Workington to
Maryport; it flowers rather earlier than the preceding species.
Lathyrus pratensis, in bushy places not unfrequent. Z. sylvestris ;
this rare and remarkably handsome wild flower, which resembles
the Everlasting Pea of gardens, was reported by the celebrated
Mr. Ray as growing on the rocks.at Redness Point, near Parton,

124

more than two hundred years ago, where it is still to be found ;
and I was overjoyed not long ago to find it growing close to the
line of rails a little to the east of Siddick Junction. Ovobus
tuberosus; only sometimes found towards the shore line, but
tolerably abundant in woodlands and heathy ground.

RosacE&.—Prunus spinosa, a well-known and common shrub
in hedgerows and brakes. Sfzra ulmaria, in ditches and moist
meadows almost universally found. Agrimonia eupatoria; this isa
plant of some reputation among cottage “medicine-men,” and so
eagerly sought after that it is becoming year by year of less frequent
occurrence ; in some of its old stations already extinct, but still to
be met with at no great distance from the shore. Sanguisorba
officinalis ; this plant is supposed to possess valuable properties
as a constituent of superior meadow hay. <Adchemilla vulgaris,
common in moist meadow and pasture lands.. Potentilla Jragart-
astrum; on dry banks not rare, and flowers early. P. ¢ormen-
tilla; on dry sandy or heathy ground. /. veptans; less frequent
than the preceding, very variable in character. PP. anserina
is well-known, and as a crop-weed very unfavourably regarded by
agriculturists, yet not without use to the human species, since Dr.
Hooker states that its root-stocks are eaten in seasons of scarcity
by the natives of the Hebrides. Comarum palustre, found only in
deep boggy ground; plentiful in Salta Moss, by Dubmill. /vagaria
vesca ; from early childhood most of us have known this wayside
favourite, the common Wild Strawberry.

With a feeling of profound diffidence I come now to speak of
the Brambles ; not that their spine-beset branches inspire me with
dread, but because of their number and the extreme nicety of the
distinctions which separate one species from another ; moreover it
is not more than about two years since my first attempts were made
in this direction. Awbus deus is easily known; not common on any
part of the coast, it is yet specially plentiful in the interior of
Lakeland, and children go raspberrying there as commonly as
hereabouts you see them foraying for ‘“black-kites.” Of the
remaining species and intermediate varieties, the following occur

125

by the shore or places in close proximity—R. dindleianus, R. rham-
nifolius, R. discolor, (a) R. umbrosus, (c) R. pallidus, R. corylifolius.
Rosa spinosissima appears at intervals all along the coast, about
Seascale, and again at Skinburness, appearing in pretty large
patches. A. mollissima, not infrequent on dry hedge-banks; a
remark applicable to the next species, 2. zomentosa. The most
common wild rose of the district is, however, 2. canina, of which
there are several varieties or sub-species ; the whole family is but
sparingly represented towards the coast, in comparison with the
districts farther inland: this is markedly the case in the White-
haven neighbourhood. Cvrategus oxyacantha needs no comment
here. Pyrus aucuparia, occasionally found not far from the shore;
in autumn its brightly tinted berries make a fine show; though not
regarded as poisonous, I have known children become seriously
unwell after eating them. /. malus, familiar among us as the
Common Crab-tree.

ONAGRACEE.—Lfpilobium hirsutum; this large and handsome
flowering plant is specially abundant on the banks of the different
streams that discharge their waters into the Solway, from the Ehen
to the Eden; here at Maryport you may notice it in perfection
about the Old Reservoir, across the river and railway from Nether-
hall. Here also may be found three others of the family, Z. parvi-
Jlorum, E. montanum, and E£. palustre, characteristic examples of
which grow on the abandoned garden patches behind Mrs.
Senhouse’s park wall; it grows more abundantly, however, about
Salta Moss, where the surroundings are more to its liking.

HALORAGIACEEH.—Myriophyllum alternifiorum; in the Old
Reservoir at Maryport, in those connected with the West Cumber-
land Iron-works at Workington, in a long narrow pool beyond
Bank End, in the Dubmill Pond, etc. Aippuris vulgaris ; this
curious and rare plant is found in a sluggish and boggy open ditch
on the Oldkiln farm, forming the boundary which separates the
farm from the adjoining peat-moss ; it is the only station for the
plant with which I am acquainted. Cadlitriche verna; in the Old
Reservoir here, and generally in pools and by the edges of slow-

126

running water, quite common ; so too is another species, C. sfag-
nalis, var. platycarpa ; this latter in a well-developed form, appears
in the brook by the roadside at Bank End.

CRASSULACEH.—The Stonecrops are but meagrely represented
along shore. Sedum telephium, on the rocks at St. Bees and at
Parton ; just a little way inland, as about Edderside, New Cooper,
Aikshaw, etc.; it is a common plant of dry old-fashioned hedge-
rows. 5. anglicum; a former well-known station of this pretty
little Sedum has lately disappeared, where a new wall has supplanted
an ancient wayside hedgerow between Allonby and Dubmill; it is
yet abundant about Cardurnock Point, and may also be seen on
dry banks at Coulderton. S. acre grows freely on the shore on
both sides of the Derwent at Workington, on the beach about
Saltpans, and elsewhere. S. sexangulare ; while residing at Water-
millock, some six years ago, I received plants of this species from
the late Mr. W. Dickinson, F.L.S., of Thorncroft, which had been
gathered by him on wall tops at Workington and about Hunday.

SAXIFRAGACE®.—Like the last order, represented on the coast
by very few species. Saxifraga tridactylites ; on wall tops and old
cottage roofs ; nowhere abundant here, though familiarly met with
in many parts of the county, especially in limestone districts.
S. granulata ; in dry gravelly places along the beach ; quite large
patches of this very interesting flower are to be seen on the railway
embankment between Flimby and St. Helen’s, also between Bank
End and Allonby. Chrysosplenium oppositifolium, and C. alterni-
folium ; these slender, succulent plants, are to be sought for in
moist shaded situations: the former greatly outnumbers the latter,
indeed, I am not altogether certain whether I have ever seen the
alternate-leaved type quite near to the shore; it is decidedly
scarce anywhere.

127

LONDON PAST AND PRESENT:
THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS AT KESWICK.

By DAVID AINSWORTH, Esa.

Arter the fullest enquiry, several antiquaries and historians hold
the opinion that London is of Roman formation, and no older
than the time of Claudius: but we need not necessarily dispute
the existence of a British London. There can be but little doubt
that the name of London had a Celtic origin. The place was
probably very small; but it must have been chosen for its com-
manding position on the banks of a fine river; and there may be
some truth in the assertion that one Belinus formed a port or
haven on the site of the present Billingsgate. What a British town
was like we learn from Julius Czesar: “It was nothing more than
a thick wood fortified with a ditch and rampart, to serve as a place
of retreat against the incursions of their enemies.”

We may therefore imagine a clearing out of the great forest of
Middlesex, extending from St. Paul’s Cathedral to the Bank of
England, with the dwellings of the Britons on the higher ground
overlooking the Thames. The late Mr. Thomas Lewin indicated
even the extent of a British London as situated on the hill
between the river //efe in the west, and Walldvook on the east.
The western gate was Zuwdgate, and the eastern Dowgate—and
these two names are doubtless of British origin: but the origin of
London will probably always remain a subject of dispute, for want
of decisive facts. A negative fact is, that very few remains earlier
than the Roman occupation have been discovered. In 1867,

128

certain piles in excavations near London Wall and Southwark
Street—possibly the remains of pile buildings—were discovered.
They were found in the peat above the virgin gravel, and were
most probably sunk by the Britons rather than the Romans, as the
capital of the former would be situated in the marshes, and of
necessity built on piles.

There is some reason to believe that there were two settlements,
one on the north and the other on the south bank of the Thames.
If so, they would be in the territories of distinct, if not hostile,
tribes. There was probably a ferry, if not a bridge, of some
description between the two shores.

The original surface of the soil of London has been much
altered in the course of generations, the depth of made earth
being often very great. At one period the Thames flowed straight
from Lambeth to Limehouse, instead of describing the large
figure S, as at present; and the greater part of the district now
stretching south and east of the river to the range of heights in the
neighbourhood of Sydenham and Greenwich, was occupied by
marshes and shallow lagoons. ‘The original city, clustered round
the eminence now crowned by St. Paul’s, was bounded on the
north and east by an extensive fev, from which Finsbury takes its
name. On the west the Fleet river, already mentioned, was
navigable to King’s Cross, and for a long period formed a con-
venient and well-protected harbour for the city. On account of
the steepness of its banks it received the name /oleburn or
Hollowburn, now left in the name Holborn, although the river is
now covered over, and has disappeared to the sight.

Two of the most important points connected with Roman
London are the existence of a bridge, and the purpose of the
“London stone.”

Dion Cassius, in the 3rd century, states there was a bridge over
the Thames at the invasion of Claudius A.D. 43, a little above the
mouth of the river; but as the mouth of the Thames was then
nearly where London Bridge now stands, this bridge was probably
almost in the same place. Throughout the entire line of the old
bridge the bed of the river was found to contain ancient wooden

129

piles: and when these piles were pulled up to deepen the channel
of the river, many thousands of Roman coins, with abundance of
broken Roman tiles and pottery, were discovered. The enormous
quantities of Roman coins may be accounted for by the well-known
practice of the Romans to make these imperishable monuments
subservient to perpetuating the memory of both their conquests
and their public works.

The ‘“ London Stone” has very generally been supposed to be a
milliarium of central point for measuring distances; but Sir
Christopher Wren believed it was part of some more considerable
monument in the Forum, his reason being that “in the adjoining
ground on the south side, after the great fire, were discovered
tesselated pavements, and other extensive remains of Roman
workmanship and buildings.” It is fixed at present close.under
the south wall of St. Swithin’s church. It was fixed deep in the
ground, and is mentioned in the time of Athelstan, King of the
West Saxons, without any reference to its being a Roman military
stone, so that there is some probability the “ London Stone” is.a
prehistoric monument.

At the beginning of the 5th century the Romans left Britain,
and probably till the arrival of the Saxons, London continued an
important commercial town. The Saxons disliked walled towns,
and in many instances destroyed those they conquered. This was
not done in London, and it is just possible the Britons may have
been able to purchase freedom from destruction. Mr. Freeman
does justice to the stout heart of the Londoners, and calls London
during this period “the stronghold of English Freedom.” The
Saxon Chronicle has little to tell of London between the 5th and
gth centuries ; but the city is described by Bede as being in 604
the metropolis of the East Saxons, and an emporium of many
peoples, who came to it by sea and land. And about the year
tooo, when Canute became master of England, the tribute which
the townsmen of London had to pay was £10,500, or about a
seventh of the amount which was paid by all the rest of the
English nation. This shows the growing importance of the town.

There is little more to be said of the history of Saxon London

9

130

than that Edward the Confessor held his Witanagemot at London,
and built and consecrated Westminster Abbey. As the coronation
church of the sovereigns of England from the time of Harold, and
on account of its proximity to the seat of English government,
Westminster Abbey has acquired a fame and importance in a
certain sense outvying St. Paul’s. There was a chapel here pre-
viously built by Siebert in honour of St. Peter, and succeeded by
a church in 980; but this being demolished by the Danes, Edward
the Confessor built an abbey and church in 1065, of which there
is now little left, and Henry III. commenced to rebuild it in 1220,
but the building was practically completed by Edward I., though
additions and improvements were made by Henry VII.

A wonderful improvement in the appearance of the cities of the
country marked the advent of the civilizing Norman. In the
second year of his reign, William the Conqueror granted the
remarkable charter written in Anglo-Saxon, which still exists
among the archives of the City of London. There are but four
lines and a quarter, and the size of the slip of parchment is
only six inches by one inch. It runs thus: ‘ William the King
greets William the Bishop, Godfrey the Portreeve, and all the
Burgesses within London, both French and English. And I grant
that they be all law-worth, as they were in Edward the King’s
days. And I will that each child be his father’s heir after his
father’s days. And I will not suffer that any man do you wrong.
God keep you.”

Within a few years handsome buildings arose in all parts of the
city; and in August 1077 occurred a great fire, ‘“‘such a one, as
never was before, since London was founded.” ‘This constant
burning of large portions of the city is a marked feature of its early
history ; and we must remember that, though churches, monas-
teries, and public buildings were rising on all sides, and built of
stone, the ordinary houses were small wooden structures. There
was also in 10go a tremendous hurricane, which blew down six
hundred houses and many churches. A portion of the roof of
St. Mary’s-le-Bow, in Cheapside, was carried off, and was forced

181

into the ground as much as twenty feet—which does not say much
for the condition of the thoroughfare !

The great change in the aspect of London by the establishment
of large numbers of monasteries, was continued and increased in
the 13th century under the Plantagenets, the various orders of the
Friars establishing themselves there. The Benedictine monks
preferred secluded sites, the Augustinians did not cultivate seclusion
so strictly : but the Friars chose the interior of towns from prefer-
ence. The Black, Preaching, or Dominican Friars settled near
Holborn, in what was afterwards Lincoln’s Inn. The Grey Friars,
or Franciscans, got an estate, and erected their convent on the site
now occupied by the Blue-Coat School. The White Friars, or
Carmellites, settled between Fleet Street and the Strand, which
liberty still retains their name. The Austin Friars, or Friars
Eremites, were founded in Broad Street Ward; and the last of
the Friaries to be established was that of the Crutched or Crossed
Friars, in 1298. These localities are now known by these names.
By the establishment of these religious houses, two-thirds of the
entire area of London was occupied by convents and hospitals.
This is the most marked characteristic of Plantagenet London.

The rebuilding of London Bridge in stone was commenced in
1176. It consisted of twenty stone, arches, a draw-bridge with a
gate-house at each end, and a chapel or crypt in the centre.
Fitzstephen, the monk of Canterbury, who lived at this time, has
left us a vivid description of London. He speaks of its wealth,
commerce, grandeur, and magnificence, of the mildness of the
climate, the beauty of the gardens, the sweet, clear, and salubrious
springs, the flowing streams, and pleasant clack of the water-mills.
Even the vast forest of Middlesex, with its densely wooded thickets,
its coverts of game, stags, fallow deer, boars, and wild bulls, is
‘pressed into the description, to give a contrast which shall enhance
the prosperous beauty of the city itself. He tells how, when the
great marsh on the north of the city was frozen over, the young
men went out to slide, skate, and sport on the ice. Skates made
of bones haye been dug up of late years in this district, This

182

sport fell into disuse, and was not again prevalent till after the
Restoration, when it was re-introduced from Holland.

In the first year of Richard I., the Court of Aldermen ordained
that houses should not be built of wood, but should have a stone
wall sixteen feet from the ground, and be roofed with slate or tile:
but the houses, in spite of this, were largely built of wood. Most
of them were plastered and whitewashed, and one of the earliest
objections made by Londoners to the use of sea coal was, that
“the smoke blackened the white walls of their buildings.”

As the chief feature of Norman London was the foundation of
monasteries, and the chief feature of Plantagenet London was
the establishment of friaries, so Tudor London was specially
characterized by the suppression of the whole of these religious
houses, and also of the numberless religious guilds and brother-
hoods. When we remember that about two-thirds of the area of
London was occupied by these establishments, and that about
one-third of the inhabitants were monks, nuns, and friars, it is easy
to conceive the disorganization which would arise by this root and
branch reform. All the religious houses, and those of the friars
lately referred to, were all condemned in November, 1538. Their
buildings were in some cases used as hospitals, e.g., the monastery
of St. Thomas in Southwark, was purchased by the citizens, with
the manor of Southwark, which was enlarged and prepared for the
reception of ‘poor, sick, and helpless objects,” and thus was
founded St. Thomas’s Hospital, which is now situated in Lambeth.
The old Palace of Bridewell, in the city, was given “for the
lodging of poor wayfaring people, the correction of vagabonds and
disorderly persons, and for finding them work.” That much of
London was in the time of Henry VIII. in a wild and uncultivated
condition, is proved by a proclamation of his, the object of which
was ‘to preserve the partridges, pheasants, and herons from his
palace at Westminster to St. Giles in the Fields, from thence to
Islington, Hampstead, and Hornsey Park.” A proclamation was
issued in 1580, prohibiting the erection within three miles of the
city gates of any new houses or tenements “where no former-house
hath been known to have been,” Only one family should live in

bland
e
,
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138

one house ; empty houses built within seven years were not to be
let; and unfinished buildings on new foundations were to be
pulled down. (A good way to prevent overcrowding and specu-
lative building !!) In spite of these restrictions, London continued
to grow. St. Giles was literally a village in the fields; Piccadilly
was the “‘ way to Reading ;” Oxford Street the way to Uxbridge ;
Covent Garden an open field or garden. Citizens went to Holborn
or Bloomsbury for change of air. The Strahd was filled with
noble mansions washed by the waters of the Thames, but the
street was little used by pedestrians. Londoners frequented the
river, which was the great highway. The banks were crowded
with stairs for boats, and the watermen of that day answered to
the chairmen of a later date, and to the cabmen of to-day.

In the Stuart period, from the accession of James to the death
of Queen Anne, greater changes occurred than at any other period.
In the early years, much of the life of the time was in the city ;
but in the later years, at the beginning of the 18th century, social
life had permanently shifted to the West-end. ‘The civil wars and
the fire changed the whole aspect of London. For years past the
sanitary condition of the houses must have been most deplorable,
and the plague and other diseases were constantly appearing, until
the great fire cleared away all the abominable buildings, which
were the centre of infection.

Befor leaving the reign of James I., it is interesting to note one
or two social matters. The Moorfields had been drained and laid
out, but beggars frequented the place, and travellers to London
passed over it as rapidly as possible. Fleet Street was the show
place of London puppets, wild men, and wild beasts. The great
meeting place for Londoners was the nave of old St. Paul’s.
Crowds of merchants with their hats on transacted business in its
aisles, and used the font as a counter on which to make payments ;
lawyers received clients at their several pillars; and masterless
serving men waited to be engaged on their own particular bench.
Besides those who came on business, there were gallants in fashion-
able finery, so that it was worth a tailor’s while to stand behind a
pillar and take notes. When the cathedral was being re-built, Sir

134

Christopher Wren made a strict order against any profanation of
the sacred building. Another favourite haunt was the garden of
Gray’s Inn, where the choicest society was to be met ; and we are
told that Mrs. Pepys went on one occasion specially to observe
the fashions of the ladies, because she was then “making some
clothes.”

London had been ravaged by plague on many former occasions,
but the pestilence which began in December, 1664, will ever live
in history as the Plague of London. On the 7th of June, 166s,
Pepys for the first time saw two or three houses marked with the
red cross, and the words “Lord have mercy upon us” on the door.
The deaths daily increased, and business was stopped. Grass
grew in the area of the Royal Exchange at Whitehall, and in the
principal streets of the city. On the 4th September he writes from
Woolwich : ‘I have stayed in the city till above 7400 died in one
week, and of them about 6000 of the plague, and little noise heard
day or night but tolling of bells.”

The plague was scarce stayed before the city was in flames—a
calamity of the first magnitude, but one which in the end caused
much good, as the seeds of disease were destroyed. ‘The fire
broke out at one a.m., on znd September, 1666, at a house in
Pudding Lane, and ended at Pie Corner. <A strong east wind
helped the flames, which raged all Monday and great part of Tues-
day. The wind fell on Tuesday night, and the flames slackened on
Wednesday. On Thursday it was extinguished, but broke out
again that night at the Temple. Houses were blown up with
gunpowder, and the fire finally mastered. Interesting details are
given by Pepys in his Diary, which time will not allow of my
quoting here; but the river swarmed with vessels with persons
carrying away their goods, and many fled to Hampstead and
Highgate, though Moorfields was the chief resort of the houseless
Londoner. Within a few days of the fire, three several plans were
presented to the King for the rebuilding of the city. Wren pro-
posed to build thoroughfares north, south, east and west; to insulate
all churches in conspicuous positions, to form the most public
places into large piazzas, to unite the halls of the twelve chief

aah ag a AES 9, FP

135

companies into one large square annexed to the Guildhall, and to
make a fine quay on the bank of the river from Blackfriars to
the Tower. His streets were to be of three magnitudes—ninety
feet, sixty feet, and thirty feet. In spite of the best advice, the
jealousies of the citizens prevented any systematic design being
followed, and the old lines were in almost every case retained.
Wren built St. Paul’s and the many churches round it; but it is
much to be regretted that his scheme for laying out the city was
not adopted. A great impetus of change was given by this fire, as
the wooden houses now gave place to brick, and an Act of Parlia-
ment for rebuilding the city of London gave the coup de grace to
the carpenters as house builders.

With this rebuilding and great extension of the city, we may
consider modern London, as contrasted with o/d London, com-
mences.

Public buildings, of a most tasteless character, were erected ;
and these are only now being replaced, and the ugly appearance
of many of the streets amended. Coaches and chairs began to
take the place of the old conveyance by water, and the banks of
the river became naturally neglected, the town spreading in all
directions. In 1750, Westminster Bridge was opened, and London
Bridge ceased to be the only one connecting the two banks. Dr.
Johnson said to Boswell in 1775, “Why sir, Fleet Street has a
very animated appearance, but I think the tide of existence is at
Charing Cross.”

To come to the present 19th century. Since 1800 the City
itself has been almost entirely rebuilt, and many of the squares,
such as Russell and Bloomsbury, were laid out soon after 1800.
The growth in those parts has been rapid, and to show how late it
has been,—at that time grapes were ripened by the sun in the
open air in gardens in Gower Street, and twenty-five dozen nectar-
ines were gathered in 1800 from three completely-exposed trees in
a garden there; and the richest flavoured celery was gathered
there in abundance. I believe in the time of George IIL, if not
later, snipe were shot just behind Buckingham Palace, in a place
now three or four miles from anything approaching country.

136

Within the last twenty years the rate of increase of population in
the outer ring of London has been 126°8 per cent., while that of
London proper has been only 36 per cent.; and in the city there
has actually been a decrease of 56 per cent., which has been
occasioned chiefly by improvements, but in the central business
districts it is almost entirely the result of the substitution of business
premises for dwelling houses. The Day Census of the City in
1866 shows the number of persons employed was 170,000, and in
1881 there was a day population of 261,000. While the night
population in 1871 was 74,897, and in 1881 only 50,526! This
is owing to the facilities afforded by the underground and suburban
railways and workmen’s trains, by which artisans and clerks can
live in fresher air and cheaper lodgings, and get to their work in
good time in spite of the distance they have to travel.

It is interesting to note, though figures are dry subjects, that
the population in 1801 was 958,000, thirteen persons to an acre ;
in 1881 the population was 3,818.000, or fifty-one persons to an
acre; and the rateable value of the City and liberties has since
1801 increased sevenfold, having risen from £507,000 to over
3,000,000.

The number of passengers and vehicles over London Bridge
was taken in 1823, and again in 1881, and®in the former year they
numbered 89,000 and 6,182 respectively, and in the latter year
nearly 158,000 and 21,466.

Hackney coaches are first mentioned in 1625, when they were
kept at inns, and only numbered twenty ; and they were limited
afterwards in number, increasing to 1200 in 1800; and in 1832
the restriction in the number was abolished. In 1871 the number
of cabs was 8,000, and in 1881, 9,500, of which more than haif were
hansoms, and there were nearly 1,000 less four-wheelers than
before ; so that what Lord Beaconsfield calls the “gondola of
London,” or the hansom cab, largely increased, and has now made
still further progress both in numbers and comfort.

The lighting, too, of the metropolis, is an interesting history of
progression. In 1416, the citizens of London were under an
obligation to hang out candles between certain hours on dark

137

nights, for the illumination of the streets; and in 1661 a special
Act of Parliament was passed to enforce the custom. The custom
was, for the watchmen to cry at dusk “ Hang out your lantern and
whole candle light!” And the origin of this somewhat peculiar
phrase is said to have arisen from a witty citizen, who hung out a
lantern and no candle. When remonstrated with for having no
light, he hung out the lantern and a small bit of candle attached,
but not lighted; and finally the order was made as above, to oblige
him to put in a whole candle, and lighted ; and this, or oil lamps,
was in use till 1807, when Pall Mall was lit on one side only with
gas, oil being still used on the other side. And lately, if not still,
some of the streets of Paris were /ighéed, if the term is admissible,
by one or two miserable oil-lamps.

The extinguishing of fires has only within recent years been
thoroughly organized. ‘Till 1866 the duty of extinguishing fires was
in the hands of Fire Insurance Companies, which in 1852 united
in support of one brigade for the whole of London, but only kept
a small establishment in the centre of the metropolis. Now the
whole is under the charge of the Metropolitan Board, and is most
efficiently worked.

Since 1866, the per centage of serious fires has diminished in a
remarkable degree—getting less each year. In 1866, there were
25 per cent. serious, and 75 per cent. slight; in 1885, there were
7 per cent. serious, and 93 per cent. slight. The total number of
fires in 1885 was much larger than in 1866, being 2,270 as against
1,338; but although the fires were about 1000 more in number, or
one-third more than in 1866, there were only half the number of
serious fires, the numbers being: in 1866, 326 serious, total 1338;
in 1885, 160 serious, total 2270.

The climate of London is remarkably healthy, the yearly rainfall
in inches is only 24°8 on an average for thirty-two years. And we
well know what it is at Keswick. I remember one winter at Wray
Castle we might measure rather by feet than inches, for in
December we had eleven inches, and in January thirteen inches,
or an average of a foot a month; and as much in two months as
in London in twelve.

138

The smoke and consequent fogs are drawbacks; and in 1306,
when the population did not exceed 50,000, the citizens petitioned
Edward I. to prohibit the use of sea coal, and he passed a law
making the burning of it a capital offence. In 1661, John Evelyn
complains in his book that on account of the increase of coal
smoke, the gardens no longer bear fruit; and instances various
cases in which the smoke had been prejudicial to health. The
smoke-producing area has since then increased from three square
miles to ever one hundred square miles; and the average daily
consumption of coals in domestic fire-places has increased to about
27,000 tons, and in winter 40,000; producing a cloud of smoke
which frequently hangs over the town, even when it does not
descend in fog. During the bad fogs in 1879-80, chest affections
increased over 200 or even 300 per cent.; and the death rate rose
from 27 per cent., the rate per week, to over 35 per cent., owing
to dense fogs in February, 1882. We can all remember when
some fat animals died at an Islington Show, some few years ago,
from the effects of bad foggy weather. ‘The weather and tempera-
ture has great effect on invalids ; and during a late severe winter,
a large pile of snow was cleared from the streets, and heaped in
one of the west-end squares, and a medical man informed me that
it had a marked effect on the air in the neighbouring houses, and
tended much to prevent the recovery of his patient in one of them.
I remember some time ago seeing a paper in the Lancet stating
that the peculiar yellow fogs were a characteristic of this part of
the Thames valley, and had been known a thousand years: but no
doubt they have been much intensified of late years.

We have already referred to the population of London. Its
composition is interesting; and probably in no city in the world
are the rich and poor so closely situated in respect to their dwell-
ings—or at least were, till the recent improvements—and yet know
little or nothing of each other ; and it may well be said that “one
half of the world does not know how the other half lives.” In
Westminster are some of the lowest haunts of the criminal classes,
and close at hand are some of the finest mansions. In the
district of Belgravia, new streets with the best class of houses have

139

been cut through and out of a district of the poorest. The different
races and trades to a great extent occupy different districts.

In 1650 Cromwell allowed the Jews to return to England, after
a banishment of centuries, and those settling in London chose
the district of Aldgate for their residences. There are now
over 40,000 of them. The special foreign district of London
is that of Soho. The main street is still called Greek Street; and .
this has now been opened up and more light and air admitted
to the crowded population by the new street called after the
philanthropic Lord Shaftesbury—Shaftesbury Avenue.

Another foreign district lies in the neighbourhood of Ratcliffe
Highway. The Italians number some 8000, and are principally
street musicians and vendors of ices, and form a small colony in
Hatton Garden. The Germans number 60,000, and are largely
employed in the sugar factories, where they stand the great heat
much better than other nations, and can imbibe enormous quantities
of beer without detriment.

The French—a less colonizing people than the German—
numbers only half the German population ; and the revocation of
Edict of Nantes in October, 1685, causing a migration of a large
number of French Protestants, occasioned a considerable growth
in the East-end of London, where the silk manufactories of Spital-
fields were then established. It was a flourishing business for
many years, but owing to large mills started in Lancashire and
Staffordshire, and improved machinery, for the last fifty years it
has been in a very depressed condition.

The majority of other manufactures is carried on near the
Thames. Ship-building in 1881 consisted of yachts principally.
The total number of ships built was only sixty-four, averaging forty
to fifty tons each. Lucifer-match making gives employment to a
large number of families in the East-end, and engineering, pottery,
glass works, tanneries, chemical works, paper works, and sugar
bakeries are all carried on in different particular localities near the
river.

A large trade in second-hand clothing is done by the Jews in
Houndsditch, especially on Sunday mornings; and on the same

140

day inthe week there are bird- and fancy-animal fairs in several
places in the East-end and in St. Giles.

The condition of the poor has attracted much attention lately,
and the Commission recently appointed, .and in which the Prince
of Wales took a prominent part, has after much investigation,
published a long and interesting report, giving much valuable
information respecting the housing of the poor, and their social
condition.

I some years ago visited the East-end of London late in the
evening, and saw the kitchens, lodging-houses, and shops of the
poorest and lowest classes in the great city. The chief comfort
was always a large fire burning in a “thieves’ kitchen,” where the
poor creatures can dry themselves if wet, and get hot water for
making their tea or cooking their supper, before going upstairs to
bed. Sometimes a song is sung, or a story told, for the amuse-
ment of each other or strange visitors. There are small shops
open nearly, if not quite, all night, where penny-worths, or even
farthing-worths, of tea, sugar, bacon, etc., can be bought. ‘These
small quantities are neatly put up in small paper “screws,” ready
to be sold, and form just enough for a somewhat meagre meal.
Besides, this must really be an expensive way of buying. Had the
purchaser the means, a larger quantity would be a much cheaper
and better investment: but their whole life is from hand to mouth.
This population has no settled home. If they gain a few pence a
day they go to a lodging-house ; if not, they resort to the casual
ward of a workhouse, or sleep on the benches in the parks in the
summer nights. :

Many of these people are dock labourers. The docks open
very early in the morning, and if extra hands are wanted, there is
a rush among the unemployed to get first to the barriers when the
gates are opened. The Irish are always helpful to their friends ;
and in a great crowd, when one wants to get to the front, they
hoist him on their shoulders, and shove him sometimes over the
heads of those in front, so as to reach the first row. This was an
old practice in the gallery of a theatre, and was called “swimming
the gallery.” They work very late unloading cargoes, and then

te Rent al

141

retire to the lodging-houses I have named, calling at the small
shops, and probably a public-house, on the way. Much of this
poverty arises from unthrift.

For much information about the London poor I am indebted to
Mr. Cockran, who has for years been intimately connected with the
East-end, and “The Charity Organization Society.” It is to be
regretted that that admirable society does not receive more help, and
that the whole system of relief is not better organized, and adminis-
tered through one channel, and through one channel only. Indis-
criminate charity is a most fatal mistake. It pauperises the recipient:
and full enquiry is absolutely necessary in every case. As a rule,
the deserving cases never come before the ordinary donor. The
really deserving poor would rather starve than beg ; and it is only
to those who go daily among them and know them intimately that
the real can be separated from the fictitious—the deserving from
the undeserving.

I have perhaps devoted too much time to the life of the people
in the East-end of London; but the condition of one’s fellow-
creatures is interesting to us all, and the more perhaps when it is
different from our own. Of those in the West-end, and the upper
classes, there is less to be told. They are well fed, well housed,
and have everything that art and science can produce for the
delight of the senses. And it is a healthy movement to see the
undoubted desire to throw more and more open to other classes the
institutions which are public, and therefore for their use and benefit
as much as ours. The vast stores that London possesses in the
collections of art, natural history, and science, should surely be
utilized for the benefit of the whole population of the great city,
and at all possible times be open to them for recreation and
improvement. To most of us the welfare of our fellow creatures is
interesting, and I have always taken a special interest in the social
questions connected with it. This must be my excuse for making
it largely the subject of my address to you to-day, and for taking
up so much of your time and kind attention. But though not a
literary or scientific subject, I may perhaps be allowed to excuse
myself with the words of Pope, with which I will conclude, that—

‘The noblest study of mankind is man,”

142

THE MINERAL SPRINGS NEAR KESWICK.

By J. POSTLETHWAITE, F.G.S.

Ar Brandley Mine, and at Saltwell Park, there are saline springs ;
and at Woodend Mine, near Threlkeld, a chalybeate spring. Of
the former, the one at Brandley Mine is the more copious, and the
water it discharges has been analysed by Mr. Thomas Ransome,
with the following result :—

Chloride of Calcium .... 87°67 grains per pint.
Do. Magnesium ... 1°53 ‘ 9
Do. Sodium sem MHO22 5 ae

Sulphate of Magnesia... = 4°35 - 55

Total 203°78

or about 203? grains of solid matter in the imperial pint. The
quantity of water discharged from the mine, when it was worked,
was about 180 gallons per minute; but as I believe the outflow is
somewhat less when the mine is full of water, it will be safer to
estimate at 150 gallons, or 1200 pints per minute. ‘Therefore,
the solid matter conveyed away by the water which flows from
Brandley Mine is about 35 lbs. per minute ; amounting to 224 tons
every twenty-four hours, 8,197 tons every year, or 819,700 tons in
one hundred years: and this has been going on for ages. We
must not suppose, however, that the space from which this immense
quantity of matter has been removed, is left entirely empty ; in all

143

probability the water which conveyed it away would deposit
another substance in its place.

This water contains a very large amount of Chloride of Calcium,
but the deficiency of the Sulphate of Soda and of Magnesia will
prevent its being used successfully as medicinal water. Chloride
of Sodium, or common Salt, is the most prominent of the substances
which it holds in solution, amounting to more than one half of the
solid contents. The Skiddaw Slate, through which the water
percolates, contains a small quantity each—of Lime, Magnesia,
and Soda, but it is scarcely possible that the whole of these
substances contained in the water can be derived from that
source ; therefore, it is natural to suppose that a large bed of Rock
Salt must exist in the heart of the mountain, or beneath its base.
I say large, because the water has been bearing it away for ages,
and it is still unexhausted. The quantity of salt contained in the
water is I10°23 grains in the imperial pint; and calculating the
flow of water at 1,200 pints per minute, it will give a total of
182 lbs. per minute, 12 tons 3 cwt. every twenty-four hours,
4,434 toms every year, or 443,400 tons in one hundred years. We
may suppose that the position of this bed of rock salt is at the
base of the mountain, and it may probably extend from Manisty
to the northern side of the highest peak of Catbells ; or, there may
be two beds, one beneath Maiden Moor, and the other beneath
the peak of Catbells: but the exact position of the bed, or beds,
and their extent, are questions that will in all probability remain
forever unsolved. Their origin is also equally obscure.

Rock salt is rarely met with in primary rocks, being chiefly
found in formations of a much more recent date. In the valley
of the Weaver, near Northwich, an immense bed of this mineral
occurs in the Trias formation, which in some parts attains a thick-
ness of one hundred and seventy feet. It is generally supposed
that this and similar deposits have been formed by the evaporation
of sea water. If we suppose that a lagoon existed on the sea
shore, separated from the ocean by a sand bar, so high that only
high tides could overflow it, and thus replace the water that was
constantly being carried off by evaporation, we can readily under-

144

stand that in the course of time an immense quantity of saline
matter would accumulate at the bottom of the lagoon. Then a
depression of the coast would cause a layer of sand or of sedi-
mentary matter to cover it, and produce all the conditions of a
bed of rock salt, such as occurs in Cheshire and elsewhere. But
the deposits of saline matter from which the Brandley and Saltwell
springs are supplied could hardly have been formed in that way,
because the sedimentary rocks where they occur are such as would
be deposited in a moderately-deep and tranquil sea, rather than on a
storm-beaten coast. And if we suppose that they were formed at the
head of a narrow estuary, along which the tides flowed, the evidences
of tidal action could not have been entirely obliterated. Then,
if their surroundings do not warrant the assumption that they were
formed near a sandy beach, could they have been deposited at the
bottom of a deep sea? Sir Charles Lyell states that Dr. Wollaston
ascertained by analysis, that water taken from the Mediterranean
at a depth of six hundred and seventy fathoms, contained four
times the amount of salt that was found in water near the surface ;
and he endeavours to account for the fact that the amount of salt
in the water of the ocean does not increase, notwithstanding the
immense quantities that are constantly poured into it from rivers,
by supposing that the saline matter gravitates towards the deepest
parts of the ocean, until it becomes so dense that it crystallizes,
and is precipitated on the bottom. This theory would just suit
the case of our Brandley and Saltwell Park deposits, but unfortu-
nately, I believe that more recent investigation has tended to
prove that water taken from great depths in the sea, contains very
little more salt than it does near the surface.

Chloride of Sodium is one of the products of volcanic emanations,
of hot springs, and most of the mineral water in volcanic districts ;
and some scientific gentlemen have been led to suppose that salt
springs, although at a great distance from any active volcano, may
have their origin in deep-seated volcanic sources. We might have
found in this theory a solution of the difficulty, by assuming that
the sources of the springs at Brandley Mine and Saltwell Park
are as deep seated as that whence the materials which form the

145

beds of ash and lava on the opposite shore of the lake were
derived ; but if so, the water would have been at a high tempera-
ture, whereas, it is very little if any higher than that of other
springs in the neighbourhood. But the large quantity of Chloride
of Sodium contained in the water, namely, 87°67 grains in the
pint, renders it more probable that it proceeds from marine
deposits than from a volcanic source.

With reference to the chalybeate spring, which finds an outlet
at Woodend Mine, near Threlkeld, I am not aware that the water
has ever been analysed, and therefore cannot enumerate the
minerals it contains, nor give their relative proportions ; but there
is sufficient evidence to prove that it contains a large amount of
iron. The stones in the brook into which it flows are coated with
the mineral, and when the mine was re-opened about ten years
ago, after having been closed thirteen years, it was found that at
the point where the mineralized water enters the level, large
masses of iron [limonite] had been deposited on the sides, and
were hanging from the roof in the form of stalactites, filling up
more than half of the width of the level. The large quantity of
iron contained in the water is in all probability due to the decom-
position of iron pyrites, which occurs in great abundance in the
Woodend veins, whence it is constantly being conveyed away to
assume new forms and to enter into fresh combinations elsewhere.

10

146

LOCAL SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND MEMORANDA. ~

PURPLE-GREY CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS AND THE
WHITEHAVEN SANDSTONE.

In Part IX. of our Zvansactions I made some remarks on the
Whitehaven Sandstone,* and incidentally criticised a paper of Mr.
J. D. Kendall’s, in which he appeared to me to assume that
+Purple-Grey Carboniferous rocks were necessarily of Whitehaven
Sandstone age, though, as I pointed out, they occur on almost
every horizon throughout the Carboniferous series in Cumberland.
My contention was, consequently, that purple-grey rocks should
not be assumed, on the mere ground of colour, to belong to the
Whitehaven Sandstone group, and, like it, to lie unconformably on
the Carboniferous beds beneath. That geologists had for many
years recognised the unconformity of the Whitehaven Sandstone,
but that actual evidence of unconformity was necessary before it
became safe to infer that the purple-grey rocks of any given locality
were of that age. In illustration, I referred to Mr. Kendall’s sheet
of vertical sections, pointing out, with regard to those of Bullgill
and Aspatria, that, looked at without theoretical preconceptions,
their general correspondence seemed to make the relegation of the
greater part of the latter to the Whitehaven Sandstone series an
unsound determination.

Mr. Kendall, in his reply (Part X.) agrees with me that “mere

* pp. 113—117.
+ Proc. N. Eng. Inst. Min. Eng. Vol. xxxii. p. 319 (1883).

147

tint itself, without specific evidence of unconformity in each case,
can give no presumption of any weight as regards affinity or age.”
Yet he states in the very next sentence, that he holds ‘that the
purple-grey colour accompanies av unconformity (in the district
under consideration),” and that he does not assume “that there is
an unconformity because some of the uppermost rocks of the Coal
Measures differ in colour from the main mass below.” I cannot see
any real distinction between assuming that the “‘purple-grey colour
accompanies an unconformity,” and assuming the existence ofa noncon-
formity on the mere evidence of the colour. Mr. Kendall admits that
some purple-grey sandstone at Blencow is of Yoredale, not White-
haven Sandstone, age, but thinks that this and other examples of
purple-grey Carboniferous sandstone, being outside the area em-
braced in his paper, have no bearing on the question. But surely,
as the Carboniferous Rocks of Cumberland form one series, and
show purple-grey beds on almost every geological horizon, any
theory not fully recognising the wide distribution of these beds is
extremely likely to be wrong.

Mr. Kendall notices certain differences in detail between the
Bullgill and Aspatria sections, differences such as commonly occur
in sections of the same beds at collieries similar distances apart ;
but omits to see that the colliery workings in this case would allow
the existence of an unconformity to be proved—did one exist.
Could Mr. Kendall have demonstrated the existence of this
supposed unconformity from the evidence of these workings, he
would have shown the accuracy of his determination in this
instance, in spite of the remarkable coincidence between the
distances of the coals, etc., at the two places, tending to an
opposite conclusion. But, failing this, he has done nothing what-
ever to strengthen his case or to weaken my illustration. And as
no one of those best practically acquainted with the Aspatria
collieries seems ever to have suspected the existence of anything
abnormal there, but to have supposed the “Ten Quarters Coal of
Bank End Pit” to be the coal known by that name elsewhere, my
impression is that satisfactory evidence of this supposed uncon-
formity will continue to be “conspicuous by its absence.”

148

I do not hold, and, consequently, have never expressed, the
theory attributed to me by Mr. Kendall as to the cause of the
colour of the purple-grey rocks. With respect to the convenience
of any particular views in the correlation of beds, I would only
say that apparent convenience has always been a frequent cause of
unsound theory.

As to my diagrams, it seems worth while to remark that a
section along a single line cannot show the full dip of two highly
unconformable formations at the same time.

TENE

DESTRUCTION OF SWALLOWS.

THE first week of May, 1886, was fine and warm. Wind princi-
pally S. and W., the 7th being a particularly fine hot day. Onthe
8th the wind veered to E., rainy and cold, which continued till the
12th, when it was N.E., with rain and sleet; on the fells heavy
snow andintense cold. Onthe roth and 11th the swallows were first
observed to be feeling the want of food and warmth, as no insects
were flying during these bitter east winds. The birds had so over-
come their natural timidity as to persistently seek the shelter of
houses, fishermen’s huts, etc., whilst others were seen clustering
together in groups, sometimes as far as twenty or thirty birds: the
birds as they got forced to the top of the group, sought the
bottom again, and forced their way in. On the morning of the
12th many swallows, 4. rustica, were flying so slow and wearied,
that the writer could have caught them with a butterfly net. Dead
birds now began to be seen and picked up everywhere in great
numbers, and in almost every part of Cumberland this occurred—
except the most southern portion, for which I have no data—and
also in the northern portion of Westmorland. Though many dead
Swifts, C. apus, were found on the 13th and 14th, yet they seem
to have stood the cold and want of food better than the Aivun-
dinide.. On the 15th I visited Rockcliffe, and beneath the cliffs
the ground was thickly strewn with dead birds, ZZ. rustica, C. urbica,

149

and C. réparia being in almost equal numbers. This occurred all
the way up the river side, so that the destruction must have been
immense. Many of the colonies of the Sandmartin have been
entirely cleared out, not a single bird being left. From both the
west coast and east fells, correspondents report that they have not
seen a single bird of the swallow kind since the 12th. I dissected
several of the birds which I brought home, and some others which
were sent to me, and found in every case the gullet and stomach
devoid of food ; the cause of death being want of food, accelerated
by the intense cold of the rth.

What effect this destruction of Swallows will have upon insect-
life this summer, will be well worth studying ; and it may be some
years before we have them back again in the same numbers. The
summer of 1886 may well be known as “the Swallowless summer.”
In a journey of thirty miles on the 2oth, I did not see a single
bird of the Azrundinide ; and the blank to one who has been
accustomed to watch them with much interest, is something
indescribable.

W. DuckworTH.

LUMP FISH IN THE SOLWAY.

On March 2oth, 1886, I received a Lump Fish from Skinburness ;
it had been taken in the stream nets set to catch flounders. The
fisherman who sent it had only seen three or four during a long
experience. On April 3rd I received another from the same place,
which was the largest I have seen, weighing five-and-a-half pounds.
It was a male, and full of melt. On Good Friday, April 23rd, a
friend met an angler on Burgh Marsh who had caught one while
fishing with the worm. He said there was quite a shoal of them,
that his line had been broken by a second, and all his tackle lost.
On the Scotch side of the Solway they are known, I believe, by
the name of the “Old Hen,”
. W. DuckwortH.

150

STURGEON IN EDEN.

On April 17th, 1886, a Sturgeon was caught by the salmon nets
at the Cargo fishery, and weighed between nine and ten stone.
W. DuckworTH.

PORPOISE.

A PorpotseE caught at Skinburness on May 6th, was four feet in
length, two feet seven inches in circumference, and weighed about
seventy pounds.

W. DuckKWoRTH.

NOTES ON THE LAND AND FRESH-WATER
SHELLS OF CUMBERLAND.

In the list of Land and Fresh-water Shells given in Part VII. of
the Transactions, p. 54, Planorbis vortex, L., is recorded as being
found near Stanwix. The examination of a greater number of
specimens from the same locality has convinced me that the shells
are not P. vortex, but merely a thin and flattened variety of
L. spirorbis, Miill., which passes into the ordinary form. Through
the kindness of Mr. Maddison, I have been enabled to examine a
large series of specimens of the two species from the neighbourhood
of Birmingham.

The two bleached specimens of Clausilia, from High Gelt
Woods, referred to on p. 60 Zoe. cit. as C. laminata, Mont., I find
on closer examination, and comparison with other shells, to be
C. rugosa, var. dubia ; the imperfect state of their preservation led
to the error in their identification.

The number of species hitherto found is seventy-eight ; and
though the name of P. vortex must now be omitted, the total
number remains the same, through the addition of P. cavinatus,
and there is one additional variety.

——

151 ¥

* Planorbis carinatus. Mr. J. C. Smith, of Edenhall, Penrith,
has sent me some specimens of this shell, which he has taken in a
- pond near Nunwick Hall, Great Salkeld. This is the first notice
of the occurrence of this species in Cumberland.

P. contortus, L. This shell, which is rare in the neighbourhood
of Carlisle, has been found by Mr. J. C. Smith in company with
P. carinatus, near Nunwick Hall.

Clausilia laminata, Mont. I have received some fine specimens
of this shell from Mr. J. C. Smith, which he found in the Lady’s
Walk, Edenhall.

J. Donatp (Carlisle).

158

INDEX.

: Vous. I.—X I.

Norr.—The entries in this index comprise only the authors and titles of
complete papers, save in some few cases where an asterisk (*) denotes a sub-title
in a larger paper. The ‘‘Local scientific notes and memoranda” are distin-
guished by an obelus (+). f

VOL. PAGE
Apatr, JosEPH.—-Ennerdale, a day there .. LIE, 139
—_— Flowering plants of West Cumberland seek) Mls sh
ADDISON, JoHN.—Old Maryport furnace, and its plate in the
history of the iron manufacture ... nia al NY 2-7
AINswortH, Davrp.—London past and present... soo 127
Air and water, their relation to health and disease . Vv. 159
Airey, Sir Grorcr.—On the Eee condition of the interior of
the earth ... : ste ne .. IIL 43
Akber the Great .. eae 1
Auuison, R. A.— History and ballads of the Border _ ts ope Ol
Altars, &e., found at Maryport “fi .. Ve. 188
Ambleside, ” Annual Meeting, 1883, held ‘there x VIIL. vii.

———— and District Literary and Scientific Society : Reports,
1878—1885-6. IIL. 21, IV. 26, V. 27, VI. xxiu., VIL. xxi.,

VIII. xxv., IX. xxv., X. xix., XI. xx.

Analogies and contrasts between human and divine science ... I. 11
Ancient buildings,—principles on which their restoration should

be conducted. IV. 129
——— churches, their orientation X. 59
* Animal intelligence 0 Vv. 62
ANNUAL MEETINGS :
Whitehaven 1876 .. L. Zi
Keswick 1877 ... II. 10
Cockermouth 1878 .., Iii. 28
Maryport 1880 ... V. 33
Workington 1881 ... VI. xxxi.
Carlisle 1882 ... Vil. i.
Ambleside 1883 ... VIII. vii.
Penrith 1884 ... IX. vii.
Bowness 1885 ... X. v.
Keswick 1886 ... XI. sv.

[The Council are indebted to Mr, R. J. Whitwell of Kendal for this Index
to the ‘‘ Transactions.”
il

154
VOL. PAGE
Annual Reports, see Reports, Annual.
ArRtLosH, Rev. JAmEs.—The local museum and its relation to the
natural history of the district ... Ms oi LE
Art, symbolism therein 5 nIe6S)

Associated Societies, lists of their honorary secretaries, 1881-2—

IGRVERS WIE kes) WAU ibe, NADMR atin IDG oath MG seh MOL, Sat
Associated Societies’ Reports, see list under Reports of Associated

Societies, and refer to each under its name.
Association secretary’s reports, sce Reports, Annual.

Batuey, J. B.—Maryport camp Ve SL

—_—___—_____——— Literary and Scientific Association, - _
Presidential Address (1885) emcee. fale)

—__________ Roman, Who was its founder? wae LEG,

Balance Sheets, 1878-9—1885-6. EV, S0;2 View 32. Vili
VII. xxviii., VIII. xxxix., IX. xxxv., X. xxvii., XI. xxvii.

Ballads and history of the Border iH tee eo
Barony of Kendal and Manor of Hawkshead ee ne SV Go
Basins of lakes near Windermere we o eee 1
Basis of Life - o A 35
Beach, raised, between Whitehaven and Bowness ... oh ae 68
+Beaver remains in Westmorland a .. WIIL 213
Beetles, common, half-an-hour with : It. 189
BENTINCK, G. CAVENDISH. —Principles o1 on which the restoration
of ancient buildings should be conducted... ee DY RH)
*Bernicle Goose ... wet Mi ALS
Ribliography, geological, of Cumberland and Westmorland ... VIL 13
of Skiddaw Slate Graptolites 5 icy MED 5
Bird ffs. -ate ieee LOD
Birds, Cumberland, in Carlisle and Keswick museums aa HEV. Oo
—— — Lake District hill-dwellers coq glee
— migratory, of Lake District. (J OHN BIrKErt. ) 33 gf Dae
——-migratory. (T. DucKwoRTH.) ... ee IV. .153,, X. 29
see Shrikes and Wildfowl.
BirKert, JOHN. Seer birds of the Lake District as nie Hl
*Bittern ‘eg, NLS
*Blackeap gat te as “HY. 158
+Black ed in Westmorland . as VED 213
Boats, their stability for rowing or sailing ae ta, UVa, 189.
Border, Cumbrian, its poets and poetry .. ra bale Leal
its history and ballads sa os at IVES OL
Borrowdale, Old . as mone 65
+Bos primigenius and Chillingham Wild Cattle... .. “WITG,211
— in Westmorland om ae ... WITLI. 213
Botany:
Caldew Valley flora “i ied i: su, N27
Carlisle District flora... Bik + IX. 83, X. 43
—_———_—_—— fungi ... aa Vil. 89
Cumberland flora os a. VIII. Pak #207, wee 212
————— lichens as 135
————_—_ mosses ‘ : ae VILL 99
Lake District, Superagrarian (and higher) flora Siahs te 2 13
Mid-Cumberland grasses A mae AV ines
Penrith flora.. wee re 34 <i Doe, Le
Solway shore flora = iss 2 i eat
Ullswater flora ae A Vill, 27,
West Cumberland flora .. Ee ia VI. 85, VII. 159

Boulder clay 50 a a sci a RER MiOk

155

VOL. PAGE
Boulders in Keswick District he a8 wee EE: 71
—— in West Cumberland si ef sei, vl
‘Bounty,’ mutineers of the ... 300 ae te 77
Bowness, Annual Meeting, 1885, held there xX. v.

Brampton Literary and Scientific Society and Field Naturalist’s
Club: Reports, 1880-1—1885-6. VI. xxv., VII. xxv.,
VIII. xxviii., IX. XXViii., X. xxii,, XI. xxii

British Association, affiliation thereto ... a VIL. xxxiii.
*Butcherbird 3 Os se ae II. 176
Butterflies of the district... vad BB: 1 TEV. So
*Buzzard A ed fe, teen WAL Oe
Caldew valley, its botany... ee ES Pee haa a 27
Camp, Roman, at Maryport .. oe, BOONE ATS E
Carboniferous and Permian rocks, their colours... .. VIL 79
Gasteropoda from Penton, &e. Ee 2 opuel 7
— —— rocks, purple-grey, and Whitehaven sandstone ... XI. 147
Cardurnock submerged forest Brn MVD EZ)
Carlisle, Annual Meeting, 1882, held there Vik? oa
basin water supply .. ; VIEL. Wipe +(1884) IX. 213

Bishop of, see Harvey Goodwin.
— district fungi : , ies .. VIE 89
———___. wild flowers" ie TX. 83, X. 43
— museum, Cumberland birds there IV. 331

Scientific Society and Field Naturalists’ Club : Reports,
1877-8—1885-6. III. 19, IV. 24, V. 24, VI. xx,
VII. xx., VIII. xxiii., IX. xxiv., X. xviii., XI. xviii.

+ wildfowl, 1883-84... IX. 211
Car ye, Dr. —Fangi of Carlisle district .% pv WELL. E89
*Carrion crow ee ; we bey OVERS EET
Cell-souls and soul-cells wet Hh SOW: 69
Celtic and Norse element in Lake language Bae .. WITT. 83
Chaloner family of St. Bees ... 12, nf ee |
*Chiff-chaff tz del EVASbS
+Chillingham Wild Cattle and Bos primigenius za 2° Winans
Christian, Fletcher, and mutineers of the ‘ Bounty’ 3. SHR 77
Churches, ancient, ‘their orientation... Be are 59
*Clairvoyance : ok Bi cree 58
Clifford, Anne, Countess of Pembroke... ie eee Nee SO
Coalfield, West Cumberland, its peculiarities a sapped His wea (in!
+Coal measures below new red sandstone oa ... WIIT. 208
———— extended over Edenside.. VII. 163

Coal, where to be a beneath Permian rocks of N.W. Cum-
berland. (T. V. Houmes.) - IX. 109, X. 805
- (Sea ‘D. KEnpatt. ) x. 109
+Coast near Silloth, its formation HA Re We- H DiS
Cockermouth, Annual Meeting, 1878, held there... .- SEES 28

Literary and Scientific Society : Reports, 1875-6—
1879-80. I. 25, II. 36, IIT. 15, IV. 18, V. 17
Meteorology . J MEROO NAT
Coining-moulds, plumbago, found at Nether Wasdale eas Tp 35
Coleridge cx SEO TAGL
CoLLINewoop, W. G.—Lake-basins near Windermere Gb. Dee 1
Colours of carboniferous and permian rocks we ie VE
*Commonage rights EV 107

Conchology.—Land and fresh-water shells of Cumberland and
Westmorland ie VII. 51, +1X. 217, +XI. 151

*Courts, manorial... =i ai «. IV. 101

156

: VOL, PAGE
Donatp, Miss J.—Land and fresh-water shells of Cumberland
. and Westmorland VILE, (51, FEXS 2175 7S
Drama and dramatists ee aS ant VARS
+Duck, longtailed ey id of DXeen2 il
DuckwortuH, T.—Our summer visitors ... IV. oe X. 29
+—_—_——_ W.— Additions to Cumberland flora DXE 212
————— Half-an-hour with a few common beetles... Ill. 189
+——_—_———-— Lump-fish caught in the Solway (1886) ... XI. 150
+. ———— Porpoise caught in the Solway (1886) oo) ETS
+-——_——_-——— _ Sturgeon caught in the Eden (1886) ply eilisilh
+—_—_—_—__—_——_ Swallows, great destruction of (1886) XI. 149
———_—_——— Wild flowers around Carlisle ... IX. 83, X. 43
Se eh the dipper \.. A Iv. 171
Earth, probable condition of its interior.. aE =a (ler
Eden River, sturgeon caught there (1886) a rity ora fay
Edenside, coal measures over : He aay OL aL
— Iceland falcons found there ... Vile l59
Euuiwoop, Rev. T.—Language of Lakeland in its ‘testimony to
the Norseman and the Celt .. VIII. 83
——_——_——-——. Poets and poetry of Cumberland, including
the Cumbrian Border _ ... acs Cuties 37,
English language, its future ... ie bi +o) VALE
music... ee wid vous Ve 2279
palate, its formation. be aot marl 1
Ennerdale, a day there ea 55 4, ry) og)
ENTOMOLOGY :
Lepidoptera of West Cumberland ore «WERE bb
Local x ‘ is (Wi AL
—- Cuspidates a: Bes bes a) Deon
+Hpipactis palustris in Cumberland sie ba .. WITT. 214
Exchanges of Transactions ... . LX, xxxv., X. xxvili., XI. xxviii.
Falcon, Iceland, in Edenside... oe a cet ee 9,
Families, old, of Crosthwaite’parish fas ow 0 EG ll
Fauna see under Lists.
Frreuson, Rp. §.—Formation of Cumberland H =n DVegra33
—— Formation of the English palate EXRauy il
————_— Plumbago coining-moulds found at Nether
Wasdale... a9 mee a 35
———_————— Potsherds and pipkins ie a aes 81
————— Rosert.—Basis of Life Ms; 35
_—_—________ Cumberland and Westmorland place- -names VIII. 1
a fea lauenaBet its future ... von ee
*Fern owl ; es i Leas
Ferns of Ullswater district... hs ee «<a OUEST
— West Cumberland ... a & Je VileeelOs
and see under Botany.
*Feudal system ... ooo hoe 8 ee OIG. ee)
*Fines on succession ee ah so VER 06
*Fisher family (of Borrowdale) Ao or ew. 27
Flax and flax-workers vE wy) Vee 257;
FLetcHer, E.—The drama and dramatists a. wos Ma Vices
——-— Isaac.—George Graham _... Ili. 29
a Wmn.—Fletcher Christian and the mutineers of the
‘Bounty’ .. : IL. 77
Flora of Carlisle District oe ad hte IX. 83, X. 43
Cumberland aa ee, veo PVD 27s +IX. 212

Penrith .., eae ee Pes ee 8. Cee lI

157

VOL. PAGE
+Crannoges in Galloway ae :f Xe 2215
CrostHWaIts, J. FISHER. —Crosthwaite, “Peter iy bt

Crosthwaite parish, its old families .. X. ll

German miners at Keswick .. WIIT111

Keswick rainfall ds sepeen ll. 57

Old Borrowdale I. 65
—_ penta Hon, Charles, and rebellions

of 1715 and 1745 tS serene eoT
——— Peter i. ms we Powe SLT ero
————— family ake S50 een 22
————— parish, old families there ... us Xe ll
*Cuckoo be II. 171, IV. 163
Cumberland, see also West and Mid-Cumberland.

— Birds in Carlisle and Keswick museums foe SEV. oor
—— dialect ks Rios 50
+———_——. Epipactis palustris found there VIII. 214
—_——_ flora 3 oe VIII. 2; #207, ne 212
—_—— itsformation ... a V. 33
—-— hematite deposits ns ae TL 63
+————— Iceland falcon found there.. ... WIITI. 206
+———_-— lesser spotted a Sec found there ... WITT. 214
——_— lichens ree Fy nee PPP VE? 129
———_——— _ mosses VIII. 99
—— North, colours of carboniferous and permian rocks

there i . VIL 79
—— North-west, its physical geography VI. 167

—_—_____—_—_——— where is coal to be sought beneath
the Permian rocks there? (T. V. Hotmes.) IX. 109, X. 80)
(J. D. Kenpatz.) X. 109

— -——— old customs XI. 53
+——_—_——._ queere whether lake- dwellings may be found in the

county ra uu NES, 207
——\ tokens ots fe se * 36
————— and Border poets and poetry vel EXSPS1S7,
——— and Westmorland Geological Bibliography .. VIL 13

———_—__ —_ —__—_________—_ Jand_ and _ fresh-water shells
VII. 51, +1X. 217, XI. 151
mineralogy VII. 101, 118, VIL. a TX. 175

place-names : Vill. 1
Cuspidates, local . 5 ae a .. IX. 201
*Customary freeholds a. DV. 102
— tenure in Westmorland, how ‘established in ae 1
Customs, old, of Cumberland ions ie anata eeineye
—_————— of Lake District i Ne Lar LE roe
Dawson, GroRGE.—Butterflies of the district at eee PVE SS
———— Entomology of the district... VII. 41, IX. 21
— —— Moths of the district Vv. 191
— and J. CLirron WaARD.—Birds i in Carlisle and
Keswick museums... tas bie tt Va ta8k
Dialect of Cumberland os aoe ae os 50
—w— of Lake-land aa .. VIII. 33
Diatomacee, their character and distribution ie V. 199, VI. 175
Dipper ( Cinclus aquaticus) ... 2 heal
Disease and health, their relation to air and water . eameV.. 159
Docks and harbours uh nae gl is 38
Doveson, Henry. —Cockermouth meteorology 3 we Te 4)

Donap, Miss J.—Carboniferous gasteropoda from Penton, &. IX. 127

158

VOL. PAGE

Flora of Solway shore sh is er a; Xe
Ullswater district ... ite As to VA,

West Cumberland .. st Me VI. 75, VIE 159
*Flycatcher, pied wee ee fe von LG
spotted e bats hr 1 39

+Footprints in Penrith sandstone oh see o>) WDE. 205
. Forest, submerged, off Cardurnock ‘ ned vs ML 188
at St. Bees a6 re 3). TEE 09

Formation of Cumberland .., dis ah vos LreroS
the English palate 400 ae a. 7 1

Fossils of Silloth New Dock . cow Re 69

Fresh-water and land shells ‘of Cumberland and Westmorland
WiLL. 52, pik 2L7 cee Al

Fungi of Carlisle district —... i. ise i. ~Mie—89
Furness, Low, its hematite iron mines ... a tas DS 99
Future of English language ... ae s PPP med) (le el!
+Galloway lake-dwellings ... oe ae jo Tee 206
*Garden warbler .. wl a. LEVER AGO
Gasteropoda, carboniferous, from Penton, ‘&e. LX. \-127
GaTEY, GEORGE. —Customary tenure, how established in West-
morland ... wi «XE 1
Geological bibliography of Cumberland and Westmorland a» -ViER—i3
excursion to Henry Pit (Whitehaven) ... eet 31
——-— history of Lake District ig ds «ney ls 59
—— structure, its influence on scenery af Bs ee 97
GEOLOGY
Gasteropoda, carboniferous tie ne A. AX 127
Graptolites of Skiddaw slates... at VE 287
Silloth New Dock, its foundation and fossils .. so EGO,
+——— section of coast near om As, sie HEX 21S
Trilobites of Skiddaw slates 405 tes Seer Ns 71
and see Minerals.
German miners at Keswick ... San EN a. “Vw
*Gibson, Alexander C. nee er) wa. EX- 164
Glacial deposits of West Cumberland... Way we VIEL~61
*Goatsucker Ban sh Lis

GoovcuiLp, J. G.—Coal measures formerly extended over Edenside VIL. 163
— —— Cumberland and Westmorland mineralog
VII. 101, 178, VIL 189, IX. 175

———_— + —— Harkness, Robert ... .. WR 145
———_———— _ Iceland falcon in Edenside oe sat WA 159:
———__—__——— Penrith Sandstone ... Ge os EERE
Goopwin, Harvey, D.D., (Bishop of Carlisle,) Inaugural

Address, 1876 : i, 8
—_—_—__——_—\__——_ Analogies and contrasts between

human : and divine science cay 11
Graham, George ... : oe A «> Le 30
Graptolites of Skiddaw slates ae am i VIEES7
Grasses of Mid-Cumberland . ee er Swi eee!
*Grasshopper warbler ae mee ya “US 29
*Greenhue rent ... Pe me aoe a LEV. 3103
Greenland Falcon... Ks a Ky, .. WILT. 205
Hiickel, Ernest, his theory of soul-cells and cell-souls ai PVE 69
Hematite deposits of Cumberland and Lancashire ... sore DB 67
———— iron mines of Low Furness _... as we) Be 99

Harbours and docks Hi “iat te aul 38

159

VOL. PAGE
Harrineron, J. D.—Coleridge 0 ms oo Dy SE
Harkness, Prof. Robert a sina sai ... WIIT. 145
Harrison, Frep.—Northern mosses _ ..: es sisy VAR eo)
—_——_—————.. Old Cumberland customs = cei eg
——_——— Prrer.—Local names se a edd h ye 15i
eT sOnA stares sane 33 iy Bs 72
Hawkshead Manor ; ULI GT OG,
Health and disease, their relation to air ‘and water .. Vi 159
Hee.is, W. Hores.—Barony of Kendal and Manor of Hawkshead IV. 989
Henry Pit (Whitehaven) visited ¥5 Lc 30
Hill naturalist (The) wad res erage ley ads
History and ballads of the Border an o2d EV 6
Hopeson, Wm.—Botany of Caldew Valley x. Se eV LT,
—___________________ Solway Shore .. Pe eeu. Ceaeve ll
____ CU swater District ak ee Al ey
—_——____——. Grasses of Mid-Cumberland ste Jip Velogeeore!
ee Hall maburalise (be) o. XE ois
Hoimss, T. V.—Carboniferous and Permian or Triassic (Poikilitic)

rocks, their colours, in North Cumberland ... VII. 79
+—_—__——_ Carlisle water supply , .. WII. 17, +1X. 213
——-—-___ Coal, where to be sought beneath the Permian
rocks of N.W. Cumberland ’ IX. 109, X. 800
+—__—___ Lake-dwellings in Galloway IX. 216
———_-——. Physical Geography of North West Cumberland VI. 167
+——____—— Purple-grey carboniferous rocks and White-
haven sandstone ra 46 gel ep 37
+—_——_——_ Silloth New Dock ‘ oa ea Exes 2a
+—________________ section of the coast near... ae ei, 213
+——_——_—— Solway Frith, changes in its channel IX. 215
——_————.. Submerged forest off Cardurnock on the Solway ;
and destruction of Skinburness by the sea
about the year 1305... VI. 121
—— and R. RusseLu.—Raised beach between White-
haven and Bowness... Il. 68
*Homage of freeholder vr a cn Perit! ON ofS)
*Hooded Crow ... S one i . WE 113
Huddart, Capt., Life of os 28 re re Wis ds
Iceland falcon in Cumberland wa 2g mal yuu. 206
—_——______—_ Edenside ... abe io ef 159
Inglewood Forest.. vis ae ae a Y 143
Inns, old- fashioned Bi oe ALi in OF
Interior of earth, its probable ‘condition .. ses . OF 43
Iron manufacture and old Maryport furnace aes se Vay, 227
and see Hematite.
Irvine, B. A.—Great lake, lagoon, or Bay of Triton 22d, BV. » 20%
*Jackdaw =a .. VI. 112
JACKSON, a oHN.—Notes on Inglewood Forest as Aneel? 143
——— Wmn.—Chaloner family of St. Bees pf feo WE, RA,
——-——— Tokens of the district ... re etovels 36
JARDINE, W.—Local superstitions Bc ppt He lee ae
*Jay en sok SVE ED,
JouNsON, Rev. W.—Cumberland lichens | Fe .. VIL 129
Kendal Barony ... aes pedal ha AST

Kenna, J. D.—Boulders of West Cumberland ... ss, Wel LE

160

VOL. PAGE
Kenpatu, J. D-—Coal, the best locality to seek it beneath the

Permian rocks of N.W. Cumberland ace, he LOD)

———-—— Geological structure, its influence on scenery V. 97

—_——— _ Glacial deposits of West Cumberland Bee illic Gill

————-—— Hematitedepositsof Cumberlandand Lancashire II. 67

we Theory and practice ... IIT. 115, 134

Keswick, Annual Meetings, 1877, 1886, held there . II. 10, XI. v.

district, its boulders a ne pe 71

ea German miners there ne CLE

—-—— Literary and Scientific Society : Reports, 1875-6—
1885-6. I. 23, I. 33, IIT. 12, IV. 14, V. 14, VI. xv.,
VII. xii, VII. Xvi, eke xVii., Xi XLVis ONL RLV

———— mineral springs in its neighbourhood aa ‘XI 143
———— museum, Cumberland birds there at a SINE ooL
— -—- —— its founder wr ee a Veto
———— rainfall .. IL. 57
Krrcmin, as —Publie water supply of West Cumberland ... VI. 19
———— W, H.—Theory and practice ... vay GUT
Kyicut, War —Wordsworth sis is 2. CU 263
Lake-basins near Windermere sas bon et ee 1
Lake District Defence Society wee os wos EVDO
—— its geological history abe ok sso 59

——_ ————_ its migratory birds sctareh Ae Piers ills ty Al
—_———— its old customs and usages ene See Lie 1 7/
——_———— quartz as it occurs there ... ee 2c, ULE
+Lake-dwellings in Galloway... cote LD
-a — quore whether any in Cumberland vie AX
Lakeland language, its Norse and Celtic elements ... .. WITL 83
Lancashire hematite deposits 18f, 67

Land and fresh-water shells of Cumberland and Westmorland
VII. 51, +IX. 217, +XI. 151
Language, English, its future 5 oon VL rel
——, Lakeland, Norse and Celtic element therein 4h VL 83
Learned Societies’ Transactions received in exchange, LX. xxxvi.,
X. XXviil., XL. xxviii.
Lerrcu, J.—Geological formation and fossils of Silloth New Docks IX. 169

Lepidoptera of West Cumberland % See oo) \VUUEOD.
+Lesser spotted woodpecker in Cumberland ; .. . VIE 214
Library of the Association, additions to IX. xxxvi., ae xxviil., XI. xxviii.
Lichens of Cumberland aoe a ee Pe val ay
Life, its basis of od ai ae Bib Ae 35
Lists :

see Birds.

see BOTANY.

Caldew valley flora bed A ant SNA 27

Carboniferous Gasteropoda wf. ces Pec d D.C alla)

Carlisle wild flowers __.. IX. 83, X. 43

Conchology.— Land and freshwater shells VIL. Bil, +IX. 217, +X1. 151
Cumberland and Westmorland minerals, VII. 107, 178,

VIII. 189, IX. 175

————————— ord 68 ee VIII. 27, bg IX. +212
———— 1 1ehens Ae aa Vilvot3s

—_—— mosses ee ate we woe, AVAETEAGS
Cuspidates... ea ait Ses 6 EX 201
Diatomacee ... ae ie ie we VE TS

sce ENTOMOLOGY.

—— lo oe

:
;

161
Lists : VOL. PAGE
Fauna, Superagrarian (and higher) of Lake District a. pps ee AD
see also Birds.
Ferns of West Cumberland ue Sei .. VI. 103
see also under BOTANY.
Fungi of Carlisle district a8 ne 3.f) WEE, 389
see GEOLUGY.
Graptolites of Skiddaw slates as .. VEEL 50
——EE————————e Works thereon * .. WII. 51
* Grasses of Mid-Cumberland is es a2 we i
Lake District flora, superagrarian and higher ... ance Os
Lepidoptera of West Cumberland ... oa w” WIM. 55
Lichens of Cumberland ... a8 oat sos) We MAS
Mid-Cumberland grasses Sas VI.....31
Migratory pee aes OL Vals Ly. 153, X. 29
Minerals of Cumberlan
Bee WW ostnclind “VIL 101, 178, VIII. 189, IX. 175
Mosses of Cumberland ... ee oom .. WIIT. 99
Moths aoe as ses ia VII. 41, VIII. 57
see ORNITHOLOGY.
Penrith flora .. iy 9 Xo LD
Shells, land and fresh-water of Cumberland and Westmor-
land i VII. 53, +X. a pc. 151
Shrikes fe xX. 97
Skiddaw Slate Graptolites Fe sa od Vill 51
see next entry.
Trilobites of Skiddaw slates ax ee 5564 Ee 71
Ullswater flora ri ate : Bae NAL fa (27
West Cumberland flora . ns VI. 85, VII. 159

Westmorland and Cumberland Minerals VIL. 107, 178,
VIII. 189, IX. 175

Wild flowers near Carlisle a See IX. 83, X. 43
+Wild fowl near Carlisle (1883-4) ... sas a, EX. 20
Local entomology... a aa a VII. 41, IX. 201
—— names eo ees
— Societies, see list under Associated Societies, ‘and refer to each under
its name.
— superstitions a4 Bo. ot ay tee tl
+Longtailed duck .. wae) Xe, DT

Longtown Literary and Scientific Society : Reports, 1877-8—
1885-6. III. 18, IV. 22, V. 22, VI. xviii, VIL xviii,
VIII. xxi. ., IX. xxii., X. xvii., XI. xvii.

Lonsdale Ironworks visited ... ass was I, 30
Low Furness hematite iron mines wie ade Ree). C2 99
+Lump-fish Ser ag ... WILT. 207
———— the Solway (1886) ae pas eo cl (ere 511)
+Macpuerson, Rev. H. P eoepneealeds Duck 2 sf pany OS ¢ DI
a ~=OTIKes TX e197)
~—__—_____ SS Willd fowl near Carlisle SASS 4).. IX. 211
MacQueen, J.—English music <sea lige 279
*Magpie BA ae sath tyes, LD
*Mammalia of Lake District hills ne ee pepe. <| Bae
+Mammalian remains at Silloth ae a ... WITT. 210
*Manorial courts ... Sats ha Eee .. IV. 101
Manor of Hawkshead Aa ee een dee View oMOo
———— St. Bees pereenn il (paer 17/

Marquis and Richmond Fees, history and customs of manors
thereto belonging oe >

162

VOL, PAGE
Martin, R. F.—West Cumberland Coal-field, its peculiarities... II. 63
Maryport, Annual Meeting, 1880, held there Bi We 33
————- Literary and Scientifie Association ; its history
(Presidential address, 1885) Ol 54g)
———\ Literary and Scientific Association : Reports, 1876—
1885-6. II. 38, III. 17, IV. 20, V. 19, VI. xvii.,
NV LS excvas, VALI s oxexen IOXG, exe XC My Nee
————— Old Furnace fas aah we tx wIMepe 2a
————— Roman camp : sine se egy hell!
—_—_—___—_, its founder ss sec, Ue 10
Mawson, G. —Lepidoptera of West Cumberland... .. WITT. 55
Meetings, Annual, see ANNUAL MEETINGS.
Meteorology of Cockermouth .. se noe ie GS Al
Mid-Cumberland Grasses... ons VI. 31
Migratory Birds of Lake District ae “i: 171, IV. 153, X. 29
*Military service, tenure by .. eas == UVy 2 105
Mineral springs near Keswick | . XI 143
Minerals of Cumberland
calgon of “VIL. 101, 178, VILL, 189, IX. 175
Mines of hematite iron in Low Furness ... ae bprebne 99
Mosses of Cumberland ae Ses vee .. WIT, 99
—— Northern ... nee ar a vee WERT 155:
Moths of the district a 2a BoD eae SR
Music, English... see Lier
Museums, local, in relation to natural history of the district |. V. 129
Names, local ae Bh i Rie eo LU OL
—— personal . aa Be ea is 72
Naturalist, The hill Peg) Lo bap. 118)
Nether- Wasdale, plumbago c coining- moulds found there ch gee 35
*Nightjar : ech $ II. 178, Vile 1s
Nrxon, J ._—Theory and practice one .. IIT, 126
Norse and Celtic element in Lakeland language ee .. WITT. 83
Northern Mosses ... ae 39 a0 ey WiEDS 1b
*Nutcracker me ae 560 55 dom AG SoS:
Officers of the Association, 1876-7—1886-7. I. 6, II. 8, III. 8,
TV. 8; V4; Viv viii., Vi. vii, VELL xii., PX. cai,
x ckee eee
Old Cumberland customs _... a zie Pag oes 8:
families of Crosthwaite parish oe a eke 2
Old-fashioned inns Fs - Be «Ale S67
On the wing; or, bird-life_ ... oe me ae) iE 0s
Orientation of ancient churches in is ss Aue OG
ORNITHOLOGY :
Cumberland birds in Carlisle and Keswick museums eS Lobil
Lake District hill- ae birds... XI: 19
Migratory birds ee bei ill IV. 153, X. 29
*Shrike, red-backed “or II. 176
Shrikes’ if ae a. EX S97
+Wild fowl near Carlisle (1888. LD aaa a cos Cem,
Otley, Jonathan ... 60 5p . IL 125
Palate, the English, its formation a Ber pene] Bos 1
Pallas’s Shrike... ia res, De OT)
Parez, Rev. C. H.—Soul- cells and cell-souls tac sue We 69
PARKER, C, A.—On the wing ; or, bird-life ore .. VI. 105

Pembroke, Anne Clifford, Countess of ... at ws ee

163

VOL, PAGE
Penrith and District Literary and Scientific Society : Reports,
1881-2—1885-6. VII. xxvi., VIII. xxix., [X. xxix.,

X. xxiii., XI. xxiii.

;

——— Annual Meeting, 1884, held there 35t wes, ORSON.
— — flora ae At vl EX, 2a
—— sandstone we cis ae TX \¢30
+—_—_ — footprints i in it ees ... WITT. 205
Penton, carboniferous gasteropoda found there iY Ao EX. 27,
*Peregrine falcon .. WI. 105
Permian or Triassic (Poikilitic) rocks, their colours... VII. 79
—-—rocks of North West Cumberland, —where is coal to be
sought beneath them? (T. V. Houmes. )es IX. 109, X. 800
(J. D. Kenpati.) X. 109
Personal names . a 58 UE 12
Physical geography of N.W. Cumberland Sa He MIRO UG7
PickERING, R.—Submerged forest at St. Bees Re .. IIT. 109
*Pied flycatcher ee ce ut ay, so V1 67,
+Pipit (Tree-) oF es on He i XO ee7
Pipkins and potsherds ait LHweXe 81
Place-names of Cumberland and Westmorland ae ite VEEL
Plumbago coining-moulds found at Nether- Wasdale eee 35
Poets and poetry of Cumberland and the Cumbrian Border ... IX. 137
Poikilitic (Triassic) rocks, their colours . 2.510) WALL RS 79
+Porpoise caught in the Solway (1886) . fee oll
PostLETHWAITE, J.—Graptolites of the Skiddaw Slates beet MLLER ST
——_—__——_— — Mineral springs near Keswick ‘eka 143
ee Trilobites of the Skiddaw Slates Je) oS 71
Potsherds and pipkins E fact PS 81
Practice and theory, their inter-relation.... mee . TIL 115
Prefaces 2 sa aa ese Ta Deal Vin. 2
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESSES :
Ainsworth, David.—London past and present (1886) se ALE
Ferguson, Richard 8.—Formation of the English palate (1884) IX. 1
ates (TBBS)A ie tein wre wl
——— Robert.—English Language, its future (1882) .. VII. 1
—_—_ —. Notes on Place-names of Cumberland and
Westmorland (1883) ae sty h WEEE, ou
Fletcher, Isaac.—George Graham (1878) ase] pe 29
Goodwin, Rt. Rev. Harvey, D.D., Lord Bishop ‘of Carlisle.
—Tnaugural Address (1876) ... I. 8
—— Analogies and contrasts between
human and divine science (1877) II. 1l
Ue ge Hon. Percy.—Akber the Great (1881) 53 ses Mab 1
— — Psychological notes (1880) Sahay 53
eee of Annual Meetings, see ANNUAL MEETINGS.
Psychological notes 3; sae 3 53
Public water supplies of West Cumberland atyanee. 19)
+Purple-grey carboniferous rocks and Whitehaven Sandstone ai els A
+Pyrrhotite found in Cumberland fee a .. WIII.214
Quartz in the Lake District ... Ms Ee Peat 8 Eemaea727/
Radcliffe, Charles, and Jacobite Rebellions “a nb lla int 20
Rainfall at Cockermouth an me so» HL. BD
Keswick 3g Pe | Ae)
ined beach between Whitehaven and Bowness... . IL 63

- *Raven oss aa. Vi LO

164

VOL, PAGE

Rawnstey, Rev. H. D.—Proposed permanent Lake District
Defence Society oc) WELT 69
Rebellions of BS ran 1745, and Hon. Charles Radcliffe ooo Ve OT
*Redstart a se 31

Reference Lists sce Lists.
Reports, Annual, of the Association : 1877-8, III. 23; 1878-9,
IV. 28; 1879- 80, V. 31; 1880-1, VI. xxvii.; 18si- Vili
XXVIL.; 1882-3, VIII. xxxii.; 1883-4, IX. xxxiii. p ABS,
X. xxvi. ; 1885-6, XI. xxv.
Reports, Annual, of Associated Societies, see details, under
Ambleside, Brampton, Carlisle, Cockermouth, Keswick,
Longtown, Maryport, Penrith, Silloth and Holme Cul:
tram, Whitehaven, Windermere, Workington.

Restoration of ancient buildings, its principles .oanVene29
Reynotps, Rev. E. M. —Stability of rowing and sailing boats <-:aVenels9
RIcHARDSON, JoHN.—Cumberland dialect ele 50
———-—— Old customs and usages of Lake District ... IL 107
Richmond and Marquis des history and customs of manors
thereto belonging Ae Le cbr te VE eo)
Roman Maryport, its founder oe ac ssc MLEXS 67
remains at Maryport .. Asi ae scot Memee88
*Rook.. VL. 112

Rules : if 5, Died; He, D5 IV. 5, Weve wi v., VIL. iii., VILL. 1K,
TX ax, x vii. La Val
Russet, R. and T. V. Hotmes.—Raised beach between White-

haven and Bowness... Tie 6S

St. Bees, Chaloner family _... ae a sis ONG eee AT|
—— submerged forest there = ie eo 09)
Sandstone, the Penrith f 1D. eee cil
—— , the Whitehaven, and purple-g -grey carbouiferousrocks XI. 147
Scenery, influence of geological str ucture on it ; Heo 97
ScuyermpER, H. W.—Hematite iron mines of Low Furness... X. 99
Science, human and divine, analogies and contrasts betweenthem II. 11
Sea owl Ser ... WIII.'207

Secretaries, honorary, of associated societies, see Associated
Societies, list of honorary secretaries,
Secretary’s Reports, see REpoRTS, ANNUAL.

*Sedge Warbler ... aes adc ‘56 Pall Wo. illite
+Shawk Beck _... ae. VLE
Shells, land and fresh- water, of Cumberland and Westmor-

land WIL-51, EX. 217, cee etoL
+SHEPHERD, P. — Additions to ‘Cumberland foray Ys. oy Ke 2
*Shrike, red-backed sa a8 Sa a ios
Shrikes sa 7)

Silloth and Holme Cultram ‘Literary ‘and Scientific Society :
Reports, 1879-80—1885-86. V. 28, VI. xxii, VII. xxii,
VIII. xxvii., IX. Xxi., XXXVI, nT,

th coast formation there : oy apg Boas
+——— mammalian remains found there a2 OVALEE2I10
———— New Dock, its geological formation and its fossils 1X. 169, +214
Skiddaw Slate Graptolites ‘iis is ie wtp Vig
—_—__— rilobites ia Se oe 5 ee 71
Skinburness destroyed by the sea on ves BPN Al ey Ui
Smiru, CHARLES.—Boulder clay tad aes veo, LU

J. C.—Penrith district flora a oe a) Xe, JZ

Sneuus, G. J.—On the spectroscope... Be ened 88

165

; VOL, PAGE
+Solway channel, its variations aN “a w. LX. (215
+ coast, its formation ue ae no XS 218
+ lump-fish caught there (1886) ae .. XI 150
shore, its botany . Nias .. XL 114
submerged forest off ‘Cardurnock a LVS 5 121
*Somnambulism ... 4 A V. 56
Soul-cells and cell-souls V. 69
Southey, Robert ... IV. 321
Spectroscope, On the I. 88
*Spiritualism is Vv. 64
*Spotted flycatcher X. 39
Stability of rowing and sailing boats Iv. 189
*Stanger family ... X. 12
Srantey, Very Rev. A. P. —Robert Southey IV. 321
*Staveley, Council of IV. 108
*Stephenson, Edward : X. 19
Structure, geological, its influence on scenery We 97
+Sturgeon caught in the Eden (1886) Jas epee Al ise | Ray
Submerged forest off Cardurnock ats Be Es ejb!
———_———— st. Bees aes aoe .. Il. 109
Summer visitors, (Migratory birds, q.v. ij IV. 153, X. 29
Superagrarian fauna and flora of the Lake District .. ris gd ener al:
Superstitions, local bee as Ne TORE 4
*Swallow = bie ss
tSwallows, great destruction of (1886) ... me wn ee 149
Symbolism im art .. . IIT. 165

Syme, JAMES. —Notes on Whitehaven Rural Sanitary District... IV. 111

Taytor, B.—Character and distribution of Diatomacz V. 199, VI. 175

Tenure, customary, how established in Westmorland XI. 1
Theory and practice, their inter-relation He 2 SE 115
Thirlmere and its associations oe Ls cag EXG 53
*Tickell, Hugh ... my re ue rex, 15
Tokens, ‘local I. 36
Transactions of learned Societies received in exchange for Associ-
ation’s Transactions, see pre of Transactions.

*Tree-pipit ‘ we Sent pes 37
Triassic (Poikilitic) ‘rocks, their colours . me OVE 79.
Trilobites of Skiddaw Slates .. ae Sig OTE 71
Triton, the lake, lagoon, or bay of me a» (DY: (261
Tyson, E. T,.—Life of Csatain- Huddart ae wea Me) IS
Ullswater district flora as ous Es .. VIL 127
*Villenage he IV. 100
Visitors, our summer (Migratory birds) .. ies IV, 63, X. 29
‘Warbler, Grasshopper see a we - eee NG 29

*_______ Wood .. CD: 34

Warp, Rev. J. CLIFTON. —Boulders of the Keswick District Rau ADs 71
—_______——— Geological History of the Lake District I. 59
Otley, Jonathan seal anes Lys}

Quartz, as it occurs in the Lake District ;
its structure and history genre EE tal

166

VOL, PAGE
Warp, Rev. J. Cuirron, and Grorce Dawson.—List of Cumber-
land birds in Carlisle and Keswick apnea IV. del

Ward Memorial Fund be, V. 34, VI. xxx.
Water and air in relation to health and disease shia J120 OV 59)
+———impure, at Carlisle ... ah ivi ait LX. 4218
supplies of West Cumberland __... hie han Vee
supply in the Carlisle basin ase) MELD 7
Watson, GErorcE.—Clifford, Anne, Countess of Pembroke ... XL 89
a Orientation of ancient churches X. 59

— Wn. H.—Water and air: their relation to health and
disease ot ee Vit 269
+Waxwing ad ofa caf ... WITT. 206
West Cofeberiana boulders ... soe isi) Went unl:
ee conltteld as peculiarities a ad Ek 63
flora : ne VIL 75, VIE. 159

and see under Flora.
glacial deposits wee wee «a. VIL. 61
lepidoptera ; «. VIII. 55
and see under ENTOMOLOGY.
——____—_—— public water supplies fed oii Nas eS
+Westmorland, Beaver remains in the county oe «» WIT 213
+—___—_—_—— black rat found there... ra wa ¢ WEE 213
+———___—. Bos primigenius there ... ao NEEL 213
——_—_——— customary tenure, how established. i. ee 1
and Cumberland Beolepiod! bibliography a. 4 MEla ls
————————— ——— land) and. fresh-water shells:
VIL. 51, +1X. 217, XI. 151
mineralogy

VII. 101, 178, VIII. 189, TX. 175
place-names : a) WEL
*Wheatear me he ho YER ee
Wauearttey, J. A. —Symbolism i inart .. 5 1 RES S66

Wuiraker, Wu.—Geological bibliography of Cumberland and
Westmorland 33 a. Wily 13
Whitehaven, Annual Meeting, 1876, held there... Lael i
—— docks, shipyard, &c., visited sp peer 30
——— docks 5 ko 38
———— Rural Sanitary District, notes thereon Pee a Pi
+——————_ Sandstone, and purple-grey carboniferous rocks .. XI. 147

—_———— Scientific Association: Reports, 1875-6—1885-6.
f 20 .EL; Sl, TI. 9) DV. V9 Wi xpaVille set
VII. XLVeG0 LX, Xiv., xX xiii., XI. xiii.

Whitethroat ie IV. 161
Wild flowers around Carlisle. i was [X, 83, X. 43
+Wild-fowl near Carlisle, 1883- 4 och mae Me IX. 211
Wu1ams, J. E.—Harbours and docks ... ac ts Mell: 38
*Willow-wren ... = Aad woot We lL be
Witson, W. —Flax and flax- workers me nie wos, MENED B27.
—— Old-fashioned inns A oe ae ee OT)
—————— Thirlmere and its associations Fe vis) tL SED
Windermere,—lake-basins in its neighbourhood X. 1

————— Literary and Scientific Society : Reports, 1882-3—
1885-6), - Vl. soex,, TX. xxi, .X. xxiv Ml cmos

*W oodcock Pere Gi lge ditsiy/
Woop, Rev. R. —Cumberland flora, additions thereto eA a7
mosses... cs, VEL 99

*Wood-warbler_... ne at os en Os 34

167

; VOL, PAGE
Wordsworth eb a Rot sie ZL 203
Workington, Annual Meeting, 1881, held there’... wi) Wilxscxae

Scientific and Literary Society : Reports, 1875-6—
1882-3. I. 26, II. 37, IIL 16, 1V. 19, V. 18,
VI. xvi., VIL. xv., VIII. xix.

*Wren of Castlerigg : ae 17
Wrnpxam, Percy.—Akber the Great ... a we Vie 1
Psychological notes a ave VER) 08

7 DEC 18388

G. AND T. COWARD, PRINTERS, CARLISLE.

-FOR THE.

“ADVANCEMENT. OF LITERA TURE
> AND SCIENCE

CARLISLE: a aes
PRINTERS, SCOTCH STREET.

;
=|
. 7 =
@ t ab 5 : a

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

~ Cumberland and Westmorland Association

FOR THE

ADVANCEMENT OF LITERATURE
AND SCIENCE,

No. XII.—1886-87.

aren BY}. G. GOODCHILD,, -F.G.S.,° -E.Z.S.,

MEMBER OF THE BRITISH ORNITHOLOGISTS’ UNION ;
H.M. GEOL. SURVEY.

PRICE TO MEMBERS, ONE SHILLING.
NON-MEMBERS, TWO SHILLINGS AND SIXPENCE,

CARLISLE:
G. & T. COWARD, PRINTERS, SCOTCH STREET,
1887.

COUN PEN TS:

~ RULES
List oF OFFICERS

ADDRESSES OF HONORARY SECRETARIES OF THE SEVERAL LOocAL

SOcIETIES

REPORTS FROM THE ASSOCIATED SOCIETIES
Report oF AssocrIATION SECRETARY
TREASURER’S ACCOUNT

List oF PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED FROM OTHER SOCIETIES IN EXCHANGE

FOR THE ‘‘ TRANSACTIONS ”

PAPERS COMMUNICATED TO THE SocrETIEs, AND SELECTED BY THE

ASSOCIATION COUNCIL FOR PUBLICATION :—

“The Maryport Camp—What was its Name?” By J. B.
Bartey (Maryport)

“ Zoological Record for Cumberland, 1886.” By the Rey. H. A.
MacepHerson, M.A., and W. DuckwortH

“‘Brampton in 1745.” By the Rev. H. WHITEHEAD (Carlisle)...

‘‘Former Social Life in Cumberland and Westmorland.” By
W. Witson (Keswick)

“Our Summer Visitors.” Part II]. By Tom DuckwortH
(Carlisle)

Tee Work in Edenside and some of the adjoining parts of
North Western England.” By J. G. Goopcui1p, F.G.S.

111

Bb bik &

OF THE

Cumberland aul Westmorland Association

FOR THE

Advancement of Literature and Science.

1.—That the Association be called the “CumMBERLAND AND
WESTMORLAND ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF LITERA-
TURE AND SCIENCE.”

2.—The Association shall consist of the following Societies :—
Keswick Literary and Scientific Society, Maryport Literary and
Scientific Society, Longtown Literary and Scientific Society,
Carlisle Scientific Society and Field Naturalists’ Club, Ambleside
and District Literary and Scientific Society, Silloth and Holme
Cultram Literary and Scientific Society, Brampton Literary and
Scientific Society and Field Naturalists’ Club, Penrith and District
Literary and Scientific Society, Windermere Literary and Scientific
Society ; and of such other Societies as shall be duly affiliated.
Also of persons nominated by two members of the Council; this
latter class of members shall pay the sum of 5s. annually.

3.-—-All members of affiliated Societies, unless otherwise ruled
by the regulations of their respective Societies, shall be members

of the Cumberland and Westmorland Association,

Vi.

4.—The Association shall be governed by a Council, consisting
of a President, Vice-Presidents, Secretary, who shall also be
Treasurer, an Editor, and of ordinary members, two to be elected
by each affiliated Society. The President, Secretary, and Editor
shall be elected annually at the Annual Meeting, and shall be

capable of re-election.

5.—The Vice-Presidents shall consist of the Presidents of the
various affiliated Societies; and the delegates of the various

Societies shall be elected annually by their respective Societies.

6.—An Annual Meeting of the Association shall be held at such

time and place as may be decided upon at the previous Annual
Meeting, or (failing such appointment) as may be arranged by the

Council.

7.—At each Annual Meeting, after the delivery of the Presi-
dent’s Address, and the reading of the Reports from the affiliated
Societies, the objects of the Association may be furthered by

Lectures, Papers, Addresses, Discussions, Conversaziones, &c.

8.—The Committee of each affiliated Society shall be entitled
to recommend one original and local paper communicated to such
Society (subject to the consent of the author) for publication in the
Transactions of the Association ; but Societies contributing capi-
tation grant on a number of members exceeding one hundred and
fifty shall have the privilege of sending two papers. ‘The Council
shall publish at the expense of the Association the papers recom-
mended, either in full, or such an abstract of each or any. of them
as the author may prepare or sanction; also those portions of the

Association Transactions that may be deemed advisable.

9.—The Council shall endeavour to promote co-operation among

vii.
existing Societies, and may assist in the formation of new ones; it

may also aid in the establishment of classes in connection with

any of the associated societies.

10.—Affiliated Societies shall contribute annually towards the
general funds of the Association, Sixpence for each of their
members ; but when the number of members of the affiliated
- Societies exceeds one hundred and fifty, a reduction of fifty per
cent. shall be made upon the payment for each member in excess

of that number.

11.—The rules can be altered only by a majority of two-thirds
of the members present at an Annual Meeting. Any member
_ desiring to alter the Rules must send a copy of the proposed
alterations to the Secretary, at least two weeks before the meeting
is held.

12,.—Past Presidents of the Association shall be permanent

members of the Council, and be described as Past-Presidents.

13.—The travelling expenses of all who assist in carrying out
the programme of the various affiliated Societies shall be defrayed

by the Society assisted.

_ The Thirteenth AnnuaL MeetiNG will be held in the Summer
_ of 1888, and due notice of the place of Meeting and of the arrange-
. ments will be sent to all members of the Association.

Members willing to contribute original Articles on subjects of
local interest, or short JVofices of anything that may be considered
worth recording of local and scientific value, should communicate
with the Honorary Secretary, J. B. Battry, Esq., Eaglesfield
_ Street, Maryport.

OFFICERS FOR THE SESSION 1887-88,

President :
R. A. ALLISON, Esq., M.P.
Past-Presidenis.

Tue Lorp BisHor oF CARLISLE.
THe wate I. Fuercuer, Esq., M.P., F.R.S.
Tue Hon. P. S. Wynpuam, M.P.
Rozgert Fereuson, Esq., M.P., F.S.A.
RicHarD 8. Frreuson, Esq., M.A., LL.M., F.S.A.
Dayip ArnswortH, Esq.

Vice-Presidents.

Rev. J. N. Hoare, M.A., F.H.S., (Keswick.)

ALFRED Hine, Esq., (Maryport.)

Rev. J. R. Greson, (Longtown. )

Rev. C. H. Parsz, M.A., (Carlisle. )

Rev. E. M. Reynoups, M.A., (Ambleside. )

J. M. Pauvut, Esq., F.G.S., (Silloth.)

G. J. Jounson, Esq., (Brampton. )

Grorce Watson, Esq., (Penrith.)
(Windermere. )

Delegates.

A. A. H. Kyiceut, M.D., :
GrEoRGE Buack, M.B., Keswick.
P. B. MELMorg, Marenont
D. Irvine, aryperts
S. F. Mc. Lacutan, M.B.
WILLIAM JARDINE,
Henry Barnes, M.D., :

J. A. WHEATLEY, ae

Longtown.

C. W. Sir, :
JAMES BENTLEY, Ambleside.
JOHN GRAHAM, 4

J. M. Pauw, F.G.S. Silloth.

Rev. S. Fatue, M.A.,
Rey. H. J. BULKELEY,
Major W. B. ARNISON,
GEORGE WATSON,
GerorRGE HEALEY,
T. THompson,

Brampton.
Penrith.
Windermere.

Hon, Association Secretary and Treasurer.
J. B. Battey, Esq., Eaglesfield Street, Maryport.

Editor.

J. G. Goopcniip, F.G.S., F.Z.S., M.B.0O.U., H.M. Geol. Survey,

28 Jermyn Street, London, 8S. W.

Zoological Recorders.

Rey. H. A. Macpuerson, M.A., M.B.0.U., 3 Kensington Gardens Square,

London,
W. DuckwortTH, Carlisle.

Botanical Recorder's.

Rev. R. Woop, M.A., Rosley Vicarage, Carlisle.
W. Hopveson, A.L.S., Flimby, Maryport,

Keswick

Carlisle

Silloth

Penrith

Windermere

Maryport ...
Longtown ...

Ambleside ..

Brampton ...

ADDRESSES OF HONORARY SECRETARIES
OF THE SEVERAL LOCAL SOCIETIES,

J. Broatcu, St. John Street, Keswick.

D. Irvine, The Gas Works, Maryport.
WiuiamM JARDINE, The United School.

Joun Sinciarr, 6 Hawick Street.

JAMES Bentiey, Ambleside.

James B. Binxs,‘ Silloth.

G. Warwick, Back Street.

H. M‘Lean Witson, M.B., C.M., Portland Place.

Col. W. C. MacDoveatt.
F. Barton, 8 Biskey Howe Terrace, Bowness.

Acports trom the Associated Societies,

KESWICK LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.

18TH SESSION, 1886-87.

President... He Bus Rev. J. N. Hoarr, M.A., F.H1st.8.
Vice-President ete 503 For ab Rev. W. CoLvILie,
Secretary sais ae re are J. BRoatcH,
Treasurer va ore se ... EDWIN JACKSON.
Committee.

Rev. H. D. Rawnstry, M.A. J. Fisner Crostuwairr, F.S.A.
Rey. J. S. Osriz, M.A. G. H. Drxon, BA

Rey. A. R. Gopparp, B.A. T. E. HicHron.

Delegates to the Council of the C. and W. Association.
A. A. H. Kyieut, M.D. | G. Buack, M.B.

Hon. Curators of the Museum.

JoHN BIRKETT. | J. PostnerHwatre, F.G.S.

The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :—
ORDINARY MEETINGS.

1886.
Oct. 25.—PRESIDENT’s ADDRESS.
Nov. 22.—Mr. J. Broarcu.—‘‘ Oliver Goldsmith and his Works.”

Dec. 6.—Mr. G. E. Lowrsian.—‘‘ Combustion,” experimentally illus-
trated,

oy ——

Te, eee

Xi.

1887.
Jan. 31.—Mr. W. Wutson.—‘‘Former Social Life in Cumberland and
Westmorland.”

- Feb. 14.—Mr. W. R. Frrzparrick.—‘‘ Goethe and his Works.”
Mar.21.—Mr. J. Fisuer CrostuwaiTe, F.S.A.—‘‘Some of the Old

Families of Crosthwaite. The Brownriggs of Ormathwaite,” &c.
GENERAL MEETING.

LECTURES.
1886,

: Nov. 1.—Professor Bratt, F.R.A.S.—‘‘ Buddhist Stories,” illustrated by

Lantern Slides.

Nov. 8.—Rev. 8. Faure.—‘“‘ Signs and Signboards of Old Inns.”

Nov. 29.—(Health Lecture.) Dr. J. M. Fox.—‘‘Sanitary Progress—Past,
Present, and Future.”

Dec. 13.—Rev. H. J. Butxerzy, M.A.—‘‘ The Use of Poetry.”

Dec. 20.—( Health Lecture.) Dr. C. Gorz Rrnc.—‘‘ Our Unseen Foes.”

1887.

Jan. 25.—Rev. J. G. Woop, M.A., F.L.S.—‘‘ Pond Life,” illustrated by

Sketches.

Feb. 7.—Ernest Myers, Esq.—‘‘ Lord Althorp and the Reform of 1832.”

Feb. 21.—(Health Lecture.) Dr. Leprarp.—‘‘ Ventilation.”

Feb, 28.—J. G. Gooncuitp, Esq., F.G.S., H.M. Geol. Survey.—‘‘ Coral
and Coral Islands.”

Mar. 15.—Rev. H. BarcuEetor.—‘‘ London English and Glasgow Scotch.”

Mar. 28.—(Health Lecture.) Dr. Buack.—‘‘Common Accidents, and How
to Treat them.”

The Committee have much pleasure in presenting their annual
report of the progress of the Society, which now consists of one
hundred and forty-seven members as against one hundred and forty-
three at the close of last Session. Including one or two members

re-elected, fourteen new members have joined the Society during
the past Session, and the attendances at the Lectures and Meetings

have been sufficiently maintained to shew that the general interest
taken in the work of the Society has not abated.

The Programme for the Session consisted of seven Ordinary
Meetings and eleven Lectures, which may be classified as follows :
Literary, five ; Scientific, two; Zoological, two; Historical and
Folk-lore, five; and a course of four Health Lectures. All the

lecturers (with the exception of the Rev, H. D, Rawnsley) fulfilled

xii.

their engagements, and the Committee, who have to rely almost
entirely upon voluntary effort, take this opportunity of expressing
their gratitude and the indebtedness of the Society to gentlemen
who (often at great inconvenience) have either contributed papers
or delivered lectures to the members.

The Committee suggest that the Rev. H. D. Rawnsley be invited
to deliver his lecture upon “Some Royal Mummies,” as a lectwre
during the Session of 1887-88. The lateness of the present season
would, they feel, prevent such an audience assembling as the subject
and the lecturer deserve.

The Cumberland and Westmorland Association having fixed upon
Keswick as the place of their Annual Meeting for 1886, the mem-
bers assembled here on Tuesday and Wednesday, May 25th and
26th. The proceedings on the first day were somewhat marred by
the unsettled stute of the weather, but the excursion to Buttermere
on the 26th was made under the most favourable circumstances.
The Committee believe from the number of members who joined in
the excursion to Buttermere that the interest in field-days and
excursions, which has lately diminished, might, by an attractive

programme, be somewhat revived.

The Curators of the Museum report the following additions :—
Two Sand Martins, purchased by the Curators. A Stone Implement
found on Rampsholme, presented by R. D. Marshall, Esq. A
portion of the Butter Form used in Keswick Market in the latter
part of last century. A large sheet Map of a portion of the Lake
District, coloured by the late Rev. J. Clifton Ward, presented by
Dr. Knight. A Map of Keswick Vale, published in 1784, presented
by J. G. Goodchild, Esq. A Roman Coin issued by Claudius
Cesar, probably about A.D, 40 or 50. The Coin was found in
pulling down the old buildings that stood on the site now occupied
by Messrs. Henderson and Mc. Kane’s shops, and is in an excellent
state of preservation. Presented by Mr. J. Postlethwaite.

Mr. Peter Harrison has also presented to the Museum, through
the President, a valuable collection of Skiddaw Slate Fossils,

Xi.

OFFICERS FOR 1887-88. President—Mr. J. Postlethwaite, F.G.S.
Vice-President—Rev. J.N. Hoare, M.A.,F.R.H.8. Hon. Treasurer,
Mr. T. E. Highton. Hon. Secretary—Mr. J. Broatch. Delegates
to the Cowncil—A. A. H. Knight, Esq., M.D., and G. Black, Esq.,
M.B. Curators of the Musewum—Mr. J. Postlethwaite and Mr.
J. Birkett. Committee—-Revs. H. D. Rawnsley, M.A., W. Colville,
and A. R. Goddard, B.A., Messrs. J. Fisher Crosthwaite, Edwin
Jackson, and Thomas Smith.

_ MARYPORT LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY,

ASSEMBLY HALL, HIGH STREET.

llra SESSION, 1886-87.

President ... rot ae ae ... ALFRED HINE.

Vice-President Ff ae Ke ... P. B. MELMoRE.

Past-Presidents.

J. B. Barury. | J. HEWETSON. | J. CartMe tt, A.M.I.C.E.
Committee. E
Rev. J. 8. Crate. FRED KELLY.
WIFrip HIne. Dr. CLARKE.
C. EAGLESFIELD. J. Ross.
Dr. Marutas. E. JAMEs.
J. B. Mason.
= Delegates.
a P. B. Menor. | D. Irvine.
% Hon. Treasurer ate ao bor ... ©, EAGLESFIELD, jun.

Hon, Secretary Fe os ot .. D. Invine.

Xxlv.

The following LECTURES were given during the Session :—
1886.
Nov. 2.-—Socran Meerine. Address by President, A. Hinu.
Noy. 16.—R. Pickrertne, C.E.—‘‘The Water Supplies of West Cumber-
land.”
Nov. 22.—R. J. Barnure, F.R.A.S.—‘‘ Meteors and Comets.”
Dec. 7.—J. PosrLerHwalTeE, F.G.S.—‘‘ Remains of Life in the Skiddaw
Slate.”
1887.
Jan, 11.—J. Newsy Herseritneton, F.R.G.S.—‘“‘ The ‘Rise of Prose
Fiction, or the Romances of Olden Times.”’
Jan. 25.—A. G. Benner, C.E.—‘‘ The Telephone.”
Feb. 8.—Rev. W. SHERWEN, M.A.—‘‘A Week in Belgium.”
Feb. 15.—J. B. Battey.—‘‘ Another Chapter in the History of Maryport.”
Feb. 22.—J. G. Goopcuiip, H.M.G.3.—‘‘ Coral and Coral Reefs.”
Mar. 8.--Revy. W. T. Herp.—‘‘ Five days in Venice.”

LONGTOWN LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.

10rH SESSION, 1886-87.

President teh he ee As ae Rey. J. R. Gipson.

Vice-Presidents.

R. A. Axutison, M.P. Wm. Easton-ROBERTSON.
Rev. P. CARRUTHERS. Rev. Wm. Lytrein, M.A.
S. F. Mc.Lacaian, M.B. Jno. WILSON.

Treasurer and Secretary ... ae ia ite Wm. JARDINE.
Committee.
J. Ria. | A. TWEDDLE.
A. P. WILKIE. J. G. Evctort.

Dr. LeicgH-GILCHRIST.

Sub-Committee.

Mrs. WaANNOP. | Miss A. Riae.
Mrs. Dr. TAYLOR. Miss L. FARRIES.

Delegates.
Dr, Mc, LAcHLAN. | W,. JARDINE.

XV.

The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :—

1886. :
Nov. 2.—Inaugural Tea Meeting, Speeches interspersed with Music.
Nov. 9.—Mr. Roperr Hornspy.—‘‘ Agriculture : its Antiquity, Progress,
and Importance.”
Noy. 16.—Rev. C. J. Senrtor.—‘‘ Frances Ridley Havergal’s Life and
Writings, illustrated by her Songs.”
Noy. 23.—Rev. Gro. LamBert.—‘‘ Pompeii and its Remains.”
Nov. 30.—Debate : ‘‘Can Hood rank with Burns as a poet?” Afr. Mr.
: Witson ; Neg. Mr. WILKIE.
Dec. 7.—Rev. J. R. Grsson.—‘‘Co-operation: Distributive and Pro-
ductive.”
Dec. 14.—J. M. Pavtt, Esq., F.G.S.—‘‘ Reminiscences, &c., of a lengthened
sojourn in the Alps.”
Dec. 21.—Mr. Witxk1s.—‘‘ An Evening with Carlyle.”
Dec. 28.—Special Arrangements.
1887.
Jan. 4,—Special Arrangements.
Jan. 11.—Rev. J. PHEtps.—‘‘ The Importance of Little Things.”
Jan. 18.—Debate: ‘‘Are our Houses and their Furnishings adapted for
Health and Comfort?” <Ajir. Mr. W. Jarpine; Neg. Mr.
WILSson.
Jan. 25.—Rev. W. Lyrtrert, M.A.—‘‘ Old Border Life.”
Feb. 1.—Mr. Witson.—‘‘ Paper : its Manufacture and Uses.”
Feb. 8.—Mr. F. Harrison. —‘‘Old Cumberland Customs,”
Feb. 15.—W. E. Rogertson, Esq.—‘ Border Heroes.”
_ Feb, 23.—J. G. Goopeniip, Esq., F.G.S., H.M. Geol. Survey.—‘‘ Hawks
and Hawking.”
Mar. 1.—Rev. H. M. Joycr.—“ Carlisle in Olden Times.”
Mar. 8.—Debate: ‘‘Is the Crofter System a good one?” Affir. Rev. W.
: Lytrert; Weg. Rev. J. R. Greson.
_ Mar. 15.—Wm. Bary, Esq.—‘‘ Plantations: their Beauty and Utility.”
Mar. 22.—Rev. J. Wattace, M.A.—‘‘ The Jewish Sanitary Customs.
Mar. 29.—S. F. Mc. Lacuuan, Esq., M.B.—‘‘Frank Buckland, Naturalist.”
Apr. 5.—Mr. J. G.. Exriorr.—“ Light.”
__ Apr. 12.—Business of the Society, Election of Officers, &e.

xv1.

CARLISLE SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY AND FIELD
NATURALISTS’ CLUB.

l0rH SESSION, 1886-87.

President ae a Bt nae Rev. C. H. Parnz, M.A.

Past-Presidents,
The Right Rev. the Lorp BisHop oF CARLISLE.
Ropert Ferausgon, F.S.A. | Mites MacInnzs, M.P.
R. S. Feravson, M.A., F.S,A,

Vice-Presidents.
S. J. Binnine. | Dr. CARLYLE.
Treasurer ‘: anc ye ROBERT CROWDER.
Hon. Secretary sie me JoHN SIncLArR, 6 Hawick Street.
Committee.
R. J. BAILuiz. | F. HARRISON.
Isaac CARTMELL. T. DuckwortTH.
J. A. WHEATLEY. | W. DuckworrTH.
Rost. CROWDER. R. M. Hitt.

Dr. MAcLAREN. | Gero. Dawson.
Dr. BARNEs. Dr. LEpIARD.
The following LECTURES, c&c., have been given during the Session :—
1886.
Nov. 1.—Inaugural. Rev. C. H. Pargz, M.A., (President. )—‘‘ Eyes.”
Nov. 16.—Dr. CartyLe.—‘‘ Club Fungi.”
Nov. 30.—J. A. WuHeEattey, Esq.—‘‘ Precious Stones.”
Dec. 14.—Mr. E. F. Bretit.—‘‘ Roman Coins.”
Dec. 28.—Rev. Canon RicumMonp, —“‘ Sir Joshua Reynolds and his Works.”
1887.
Jan. 11.—Mr. THos. Duckworty.—‘‘Summer Visitors.” Part 3.
Jan. 26.—Rev. J. G. Woop, Author of Natural History.—‘‘ Insect Trans-
formation.”
Feb. 8.—Rev. H. A. MacpHerson and Mr. W. Duck worru.—‘‘ Zoological
Notes and Record for 1886.”
Feb, 24.—J. G. GoopcuiLp, Esq., F.G.8., H.M. Geol. Survey.— ‘‘ Coral
and Coral Islands,”

XVil.

Mar, 8.—Mr. Wm. Hopason, A.L.S.—‘‘Seaside Botany, St. Bees to
Bowness.”

_ Mar, 22.—Rev. H, Wuirenzap.—‘‘ Prince Charles Stuart at Brampton,
1745.”

Apr. 5.—Mr. F. Harrison.—“ Effects of Cultivation on Scenery.”

About one hundred copies of the Transactions have been dis-
tributed free to the Members.

AMBLESIDE AND DISTRICT LITERARY AND
SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.

10TH SESSION, 1886-87.

_

President ... nat a0 3 .. Rev. E. M. Reynoxps

Past-Presidents.

R. CrEwpson. | Rev. H. 8. CALLENDER.
Vice-Presidents.
F. M. T. Jonzs. | G. GatTEy.
_ Dreasurer w+, B a ae ... W. Lister.
Secretary ay ws ae Bas =! .. J. BENTLEY,
Delegates.
C. W. Sirs. | J. BENTLEY,
Committee.
T. Bett. W. E. Percryat.
Rey. C. H. Caasz. H. REDMAYNE.
J. FLeMine. J. RUSSELL.
J. Hirp.. —SraLkeEr, Senr.
E. Hrep. C. W. Smiru.

The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :-—

1886.
3 Oct. 26.—F. Gaz, Esq.—‘‘ Stories and Short Readings. ”

a Nov. 9.—Rey. J. Brunsxit, M.A.—‘ Pleasures of Horsemanship.”
Noy. 23.—Rev. J. N. Hoarz, M.A., F.R.H.S.—“ Religion of the Ancient

Egyptians.”

Xviil.

Dec. 7.—W. Peck, Esq., F.R.A.S.—‘‘The Planets and their Satellites.”
Dec. 21.—G. E. Lowru1an, Esq.—‘‘ Various Forms of Water,” experiments.
1887.
Jan. 18.—Rev. J. G. Woop, M.A.—‘‘ Pond and Stream.”
Jan. 26.—W. H. Goxpine, Esq. --‘‘ A Trip to the Hebrides.”
Feb. 15.—C. E. Pacrr, Esq.—‘‘Some Values of Death Statistics.”
Mar. 1.—T. Macxkeretu, Hsq., F.R.A.S., F.R.Met.Soc.—‘‘The Law of
Storms.”
Mar. 15.—W. Renton, Esq.—‘‘ Thackeray.”
Mar. 29.—Debate on ‘‘ Emigration.”
ANNUAL MeetiInG; Election of Officers.

SILLOTH AND HOLME CULTRAM LITERARY
AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.

8rH SESSION, 1886-87.

President... He ae ata > J. MiPaonr, EGS:
Vice-Presidents.
H. L. BAarKker. | Jonn Lerrcen, M.B., C.M.
Committee.

Rey. J. Brown, M.A. Rev. S. Hepert, M.A.

G. T. Carr. W. M. Hupson.

W. CRABB. J. MADAGAN.

JOHN GLAISTER. JOHN GRAHAM.

W. F. Witson, J.P.

Hon. Treasurer se a ate ve ... J. STRONACH,
Hon. Secretary na wnt me ae of J. B. Bryxs.

The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :—
1886.

Oct. 13.—J. M. Paunt, F.G.S.—Inaugural Address by the President.

Oct. 27.—R. J. Barium, F.R.A.S.—‘‘The Earth’s History,” from a
Scientific Point of View.

Nov. 10.—Rev. S. Hesert, M.A.—‘‘ A Journey through the Solar System,”
illustrated by Diagrams.

Nov. 24,—Joun Guaister,—‘‘ The Honey Bee.”

xix.

Dec. ¥.—Rev. Witttam Naui, M.A.—‘‘The Geological Record.”
Dec, 15.—Rev. G. W. H. Tayrter.—‘‘The Reign of Terror in France,

1793,” &e.
1887.

Jan. 12.—J. Newsy Heruerineton, F.R.G.S.—‘ The Revival of English
Poetry after the French Revolution.”

Jan. 26.—Rev. W. A Wriciey.—‘‘ Michael Faraday.”

Feb. 9.—Dr. H. J. Wxss, Agricultural College, Aspatria.—‘ The Origin
and Life History of some Parasites.”

Feb. 25.—J. G. Goopcuinp, F.G.S., H.M. Geol. Survey.—‘‘ Coral and
Coral Reefs.”

Mar. 9.—J. J. Marrin.—“‘G. R. Sims.”

Mar. 23.—Rev. H. M. Topp, M.A.—‘‘ America.”

BRAMPTON LITERARY AND. FIELD NATURALIST
SOCIETY.

-*

SESSION 1886-87.

President or dee gh aus me G. J. JOHNSON.
Vice-Presidents.

Rev. S.. FAuwe. | Rev. H. J. BULKELEY.
Treasurer... en Rais a: ote ae J. B. Leze.
Hon. Secretary... see a3 G. Warwick, Back Street.

Committee.
Mr. Farrar. Mrs. H. Y. THomeson,
Mr. Forster. Miss BEuu.
Mr. Hopeson. Miss Emma LEe.
Mr. J. Nrxon. Miss MacQuEEn,
Mr. Rice. Miss Tom.

The following MEETINGS were held during the Session: —
1886.

Oct. 19.—Rev. 8. Fatte.—‘‘ Parson Lot—Chartist, Writer, and Preacher.”
Noy. 2.—Shakespearian Reading—‘“‘ As you like it.”

_ Nov. 9.—Rev. Canon Marruews.—‘‘ Our Forefathers.”

Nov. 23.—Rey. J. S. Ostix.—‘‘ Notes on the Cumberland Dialect.”

Dec. 7.—Debate: ‘‘On the best ways of continuing Education after leaving
School.”

Dec. 21.—Mr. Witson.—‘‘ Social Forces.”

XX.
1887.
Jan. 11.—CoNvERSAZIONE.—Natural History Exhibition.
Jan. 27.—Rev. J. G. Woov.—‘“‘ Unappreciated Insects.”
Feb. 8.—Rev. H. J. Butkerey—‘‘ Eminent Persons who died in 1886.”
Feb, 22.—Rev. Canon Cooprr.—‘‘ The Poetry of Tennyson.”
Mar. 8.—J. G. Goopcuttp, F.G.S., H.M. Geol. Survey.—‘‘ The Lion and
his Kindred.”
Mar, 22.—Short Papers.

PENRITH AND. DISTRICT LITERARY -AND
SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.

6rH SESSION, 1886-87.

President sen sae ais a nae GEORGE WATSON.

Vice-Presidents.

J. G. Goopcutip, H.M. Geo. Survey, F.G.S., F.Z.8.
Rev. H. WHITEHEAD, M.A.

Past-Presidents.

M. W. Taytor, M.D., F.S.A. Major W. B. ARNISON.
Rev. E. W. CHapman, M.A.

Secretary = see =e H. M‘Lean Witson, M.B., C.M.
Treasurer ace ee a as ais J. B, SHAWYER.
Delegates.

Major W. B. ARNISsOoN | G. Watson.
Committee.

W. B. ARNISON. C. H. Grawam.

Rev. E. W. CHAPMAN. F. Kine.

Rev. W. M. ScHNIBBEN. E. H. Keep, M.A.

T. LESTER. Rev. J. N. Marsu, M.A.

J. THomPson. J. Simpson YEATES.
Curator of Museum Aon one ae wee CHARLES SMITH.
Librarian = . a ore «. oJ SDUART.

The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :—
86.

Nov. 4.—AnnvuAL GENERAL MEETING and CONVERSAZIONE.

Nov. 18.—W. Prcr, Esq., F.R.A.S.—I. ‘‘The Sun.”

Dec. 2.— ne Ff —II. ‘‘The Planets and their Satellites.”
Dec. 16.— an Be —III. ‘‘The Moon.”

Dec. 23.— se —IV. ‘Comets and Shooting Stars,”

Dec. 30.—Prof. H. A. Nr ICHOLSON.—‘‘ The History of Evolution.”
1887.
Jan. 6.—W. Prcx, Esq.—V. ‘‘The Stellar Universe.”
Jan, 13.—T, Fawcerr, Esq., B.A.—‘‘The Earthworm: Its Place and
Work in Nature.”

XX1.

Jan. 20.—T. N. Hernerineton, Esq.—‘‘ Chaucer, the first English

Humorist.”

Jan. 27.—J. THompson, Esq.—‘‘ Something about English Pronunciation.”
Part I.

Feb. 3.—J. Tompson, Esq.—‘‘ Something about English Pronunciation.”
Part I.

Feb. 10.—Rev. J. Saarpe Ostie, M.A.—‘‘C.8.C.”

Feb. 24.—T. G. Bruny, Esq., F.R.M.S.—‘‘ Meteorology ; or Weather
' Knowledge: Its Progress and Modern Aspects.”

Mar. 10.—E. H. Keep, Esq., M.A.—‘‘Matthew Arnold.”

Mar. 24.—Reyv. J. J. Srocktey, B.A.—‘‘ George Eliot.”

WINDERMERE LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC
SOCIETY.

5TH SESSION, 1886-87.

President ... ae as 1M =a H. W. ScHNEIDER

Vice-Presidents. .

E. P. Stock. | B. A. Irvine
Secretaries.

W. C. MacDovcaLh | FRANK Barton
Treasurer... See Age ae “0 ... JOHN HoLuanp
Delegates.

G. HEALEY. | T. THompPpson

The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :-—

1886.
Oct. 25.—Mr. Freprerick Gaue.—‘‘The Writings of Dickens and
Thackeray.”
Nov. 8.—Mr. Joun Burrerwortu, F.R.M.S.—‘‘On the Structure of
Fossil Plants in the Lancashire and Yorkshire Coal Measures.”
Nov. 22.—Mr. W. D. Crewpson.—‘‘ The Norman Conquest : its Influence
5 on Modern England.”
Dec. 6.—Rev. H. D. Rawnstey.—‘‘The Need of Preserving our Foot-
paths and Roadside Wastes.”
Dec. 20.—Rey. G. E. P. Reapz.—‘‘ Lord Bacon,”
Ben. 1887.
Jan. 9.—Professor FRANK CLowsEs.—‘‘ The Germ Theory.”
Jan. 21.—Rev. J. G. Woop.—‘‘ The Whale.”
Feb. 14.—Miss MackrretH.—Dramatic Recitals.
Feb. 28.—Mr. B. A. Invixe.—‘‘ Some Natural Phenomena.”
Mch. 14.—Rev. G. CreEwpson.—‘‘Some Modification of the Organs of the
‘ Mouth in Insects.”

Xxil.

Report of the Association Secretary,

For THE YEAR 1886-87.

THE past year has not presented many features of interest. The
Council regret to observe that, chiefly owing to the withdrawal of
the Whitehaven Scientific Association from the Union, the number
of its associated Members has been reduced from 1283 to 864.
The number of copies of Zransactions, No. XI., sold to Societies,
is 435, against 506 last year—the Penrith, Carlisle, Keswick, and
Maryport Societies having bought 385 copies, leaving only 50
copies sold to the remaining five Societies with an aggregate
membership of 333. There has been a fair demand for back
numbers of Zyazsactions, some of which are now very scarce.

The plan approved of by the Council of assisting the Committees
of affiliated Societies in the compilation of their Programmes by
the formation of a list of voluntary Lecturers has not yet been
adopted ; but if a sufficient number of gentlemen consent to allow
their names to appear on such a list, along with the subjects of
the papers they propose to treat of, there seems no reason why
such a scheme should not prove advantageous in many respects,
affording as it would a large field of subjects for the selection of
local Committees.

The Association Lecturer (the Rev. J. G. Wood, F.LS., &c.,)
delivered a highly interesting series of Lectures on Natural
History before several of the Societies during the winter.

It is a matter of congratulation that, in spite of the diminished
membership, the accounts for the year show a small balance in
hand.

No. of Members on Copies taken

Society whom Grant is paid of No. XI. Terms
Carlisle Fie OA, 2% 95 Free to Members
Penrith LOO ae 160 Free to Members
Maryport Sn go Bar 60 Free to Gentlemen, Ladies at 1/
Keswick sou alts Me 70 To Members at 1/
Ambleside pe 93 re 20 To Members at 1/
Windermere’... 62 he fe) :
Brampton a 67 Ta 10 To Members at 1/
Longtown Res 46 ee 12 To Members at 1/
Silloth ies 65 ae 8 To Members at 1/
Association Members 23 Ey 23 At 1/

Total 864 458

1885-86. RECEIPTS.

Balance brought forward 436 18 7
Arrears of Grant 12 6
Arrears of Subscriptions . re ‘ 12 0
Trans. No. X. sold to Socs. I 10 O
i ,, soldbyG.& T. Coward 1 5 6
_ Authors’ Copies 2 60
1886-87.
Cap. Grant on662 Members 16 6 3
Subs. of 14 Assoc. do. 4 3 0
Trans. No. XI. sold to
Societies (295) + 14 15 0
Back Numbers sold ‘o 8 6
Non-Members’ Tickets sold
at Keswick ... see 2 TOW O
Bank Interest... SLO ©
£81 13 10

Cumberland and Westmorland Association for the
Adbancement of Riterature and Science.

BALANCE SHEET FOR THE YEAR ENDING APRIL 30, 1887.

1885-86. PAYMENTS.
Messrs. Coward for Printing

No. X. ‘ 428 16 6
Do. for Carriage of Trans. 0 yes
Do. for Circulars, Station-

ery, &c. 1 i 8
Expenses of Windermere

Meeting ee eb lO! 7
Authors’ Copies... 3.0 6
Secretary’s Postage Account 0 16 11
Editor’s Postage Account... O15 O
Towards buying back scarce

Numbers 5a0 I oo
1886-87.
Part Expenses of Keswick

Meeting ; 18 oO
Grant for Expenses of Associ-

ation Lecturer (Rev. J. G.

Wood) 5 5
Bal. in hand April 30, 1887 29 16 ;

£81 13 10

Examined and found correct, November 8th, 1887,

JAMES A. WHEATLEY,
HENRY BARNES, M.D.,

Auditors.

1885-86. ASSETS. LIABILITIES.
_ Balance brought down 429 16 7 | Messrs. Coward for Printing
Grant due on 12 Members 0 6 O No. XI. ; 435 5 9
Subscriptions due (3) o 18 o| Do. for Postages of Trans. 0 16 104
1886-87. Do. for Circulars, Station-
Grants due on 179 Members 4 9 6 ery, &c. I 10 3
Subscriptions due (9) 2 14 © | Expenses of Keswick M’ ting 5 3 114
- Transactions No. XI. sold Due for Authors’ copies... 3 6 3
to Societies (140) . 7 © O| Secretary for Postages ... I 4 2
Back Numbers sold to do. 012 0| Editor for Do. 016 0
Do. sold by Messrs. Coward 4 18 6 | To buying in scarce Numbers t 0 0
Due for Authors’ cae ne Balance in hand 5 410
(No. XI.) ... 9 6
Due for Paper in Mos Mae x 4 0
£54 8 1 254,95 5
TRANSACTIONS, Part XI.
Sold to Societies o 435
Sold to Association Members 23
Presented 41
Sold 6
On hand April 30, 1887 195

Total 700 copies.

XXIV.

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS OF SOCIETIES

RECEIVED BY THE ASSOCIATION IN EXCHANGE

bw

on

FOR THE ZRANSACTIONS.

United States Geological Survey Annual Reports for 1880-81,
1881-82, 1882-83, 1883-84, 1884-85.
Transactions of Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union for 1882, 1883,

and 1884.

Do. of Essex Field Club, 1883-84, and 1887.

Do. of Bristol Naturalists’ Society, 1882-83, 1883-84,
1884-85, 1885-86, 1886-87.

Do. of Burnley Literary and Scientific Club for 1883,
1884, 1885.

Do. of Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club for 1882, 1883,
1884, 1885, 1886.

Do. of the Midland Union of Natural History Societies

for 1881, 1882, 1883, 1884, 1885, 1886, 1887.
The Proceedings of the London Geological Society for 1880-81,
1881-82, 1882-83, 1883-84, 1884-85, 1885-86, 1886-87.
Transactions of the Birmingham Natural History and Micro-
scopical Society for 1883 and 1884.
The Memoirs of the Geological Survey, Vols. 1 & 2 (Pts. 1 & 2).
Do. do. do. Decades 1 to 13.
Mineral Statistics of the United Kingdom, 1864 to 1873.
Iron Ores of Great Britain, Parts 2 and 3.
The Geology of Londonderry (Portlock).
Guide to the Geology of London (Whittaker).
Catalogue of Models in Jermyn Street Museum.
Do. _ of Publications of the Geological Survey (1884).
Transactions of the Hertfordshire Natural History Society
for 1886 and 1887.
Do. of the Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society,
1884-85.
L’exposition Géographico-Botanique de Copenhague (MS.).
Vol. 2 (No. 1) Memoirs of the Geological Society of Russia.
Proceedings of the London Geologists’ Association, Nos. 1
and 2, for 1887.
Proceedings of the Canadian Institute for 1885-86.
Transactions of the Stirling Nat. Hist. and Archzeological
Society for 1885-86.
Memoir of Professor Harkness, F.G.S.
Twenty-six Pamphlets on Geological Subjects, by Prof. Harkness,

THE MARYPORT CAMP—WHAT WAS ITS NAME?
By J. J. BAILEY.
(Read at Maryport.)

THREE years ago, when I read a paper before this Society, on
“The Maryport Camp— Who was its Founder?”* I thought that
Ihad at last completed my work. Not that the series was a
perfect one, or that I had exhausted all that might be said on the
history of Maryport—but that I had at last reached a subject
which, having puzzled the antiquarian world so long, presented
but small chance that its intricacies should be unravelled by me.
But a way out of the difficulty has appeared, and it seems but fair
that, having gone so far in the matter, I should follow up the clue
obtained, and thus add another chapter to the ancient history of
our town. JI allude to the zame of the station. You may say that
this is a matter of little or no importance, and you may be right.
But there is also a sense in which you would be wrong ; for should
I be able to prove the points which I shall bring forward, the
issues will be great: for then a matter which for generations has
puzzled antiquarians will be set at rest. Even should certainty
not be attained, I am not without hope that the way will be opened
out for a clearer understanding of the subject.

It may seem presumptuous my saying anything when so many
eminent authorities have decided without the slightest shadow of
a doubt that that name was AXELODUNUM. But names have been
before this given to stations, and although the allocations were

* Transactions, Part IX., p. 67.
1

2

advanced with perfect confidence, yet such have been withdrawn
as more light dawned on the subject. With all due deference to
those authorities who decide in favour of Axelodunum, I am unable
to see the drift of the argument by which they have arrived at their
conclusion, viz.—that “the altars found prove it to be so;” and
hence think it not unprofitable to discuss the question.

Although many eminent authorities decide for Axelodunum, it
must be remembered that there is far from a consensus of opinion
on the matter even amongst antiquarians still living, as no less
than at least five names have been applied to the station.

These names, alphabetically arranged, are :—AXELODUNUM,
GLANOVENTA, OLENACUM, VIROSIDUM, VOLANTIUM.

Taking each of these names in order, we shall show to what
different places each of them has been applied, together with some
of the authorities favouring such allocation. Thus :—

AXELODUNUM is placed at Maryport by Professor Hiibner, R. S.
Ferguson, W. T. Watkin, and
W. H. D. Longstaffe. :
+ 55 Hexham by Camden.
_ i Stanwix by Mc.Lauchlan. (I am in-
clined to think this is the
proper name.)

. 5 Bowness by Godwin.

‘ 55 Burgh by Horsley, Wright, Dr. Bennet,
Hutchinson.

” a Watchcross by Maughan.

5 i Drumburgh by Hodgson and Dr.
Hooppell.

Speaking of this name, Dr. J. Collingwood Bruce expressly says,
“ Axelodunum cannot be Maryport; it must, from its order of
sequence in the Notitia, be situated on the Wall itself, and east of
Bowness.”* Whilst, without committing himself to the opinion,
he says further, ‘The idea is beginning to be entertained by
some, that Maryport was the Axelodunum of the Notitia.”+

* Trans. Cumb. and West. Antiq. and Arch. Soc., vol. 1, p. 175.
+ Lapidarium Septentrionale, p. 394.

3
We shall have more to say shortly regarding this name—a name
for which, as I have shown, there are at least seven claimants.

GLANOVENTA is placed at Lanchester by Horsley and Hodgson.
Bowness by Mc.Lauchlan.

5 FA Tynemouth by Dr. Hooppell.

Fa £3 Ravenglass (?) and Old Carlisle by R. S.
Ferguson.

a of Kirksteads by Maughan.

me ‘5 Whitley Castle by W. H. D. Longstaffe.

m4 Z Morpeth by Camden.

Dr. Bennet shows that in his time an opinion prevailed which
apparently favours AZaryfort ‘“‘as not unsuitable to the position of
that town in the roth Iter of Antoninus.”* Bainest says it was
Cockermouth, or some place on the coast of Cumberland; whilst
the writer of the article in “ History, &c., of West Cumberland,”
p. 24, says Maryport is Glanoventa.

OLENacUM is placed at Maryport by Camden.
ES a Old Carlisle by Horsley, Hodgson, Wright,
Mc.Lauchlan, Godwin ; and I am
inclined to think this is the correct

name.

c _ Burgh by R. S. Ferguson.

vA a Llkley by Hodgson Hinde.

a es Drumburgh by Maughan. ~

4 ss Blackrode by W. H. D. Longstaffe.

VirosipuM is placed at Maryport by Horsley, Hodgson, Hutchin-
son, Wright, Mc. Lauchlan, Godwin.

9 a Warwick by Camden.

" = Gateshead by Dr. Hooppell.

s " Adel (Yorks.) by Hodgson Hinde.

“ 3 Stanwix by R. S. Ferguson.

a Scag Warrington by W. H. D. Longstaffe.
” “ Bowness by Maughan.

* Lyson’s Cumberland, p. cxlii. + Hist. Yorkshire, vol. 1, p. 331,

4

VOLANTIUM is not a name met with in any of the lists that have
come down to us. It has been inferred merely from the words
“ Volantt Vivas” on the back of the altar by Marcus Censorius
Cornelianus. So very unlikely is this name, unsupported as it is
by evidence of any kind, that we may at once dismiss it from
further consideration.

Thus no name meets with universal approval. Why should this
state of things exist? for even /7vimg authorities are not agreed
Apparently it is because antiquarians are not decided as to the
method by which they shall allocate the names; at any rate, so
far as the twenty-three stations “fer Lineam valli” are concerned.
One has one theory, another has a different one. One decides by
etymology, another by the resemblance of sounds, a third by
probability ; whilst others consider that the matter is decided by
the altars found at any of these twenty-three stations, in so far as
they agree with the list in the Notitia.

Can any agreement be made out of such a chaos? or shall we
strike out on a fresh line? Etymology is far from being a safe
guide ; in fact, it has been stated to be the least satisfactory method
by which an allocation can be made, though, under certain con-
ditions, it may be of more use than we are likely at present to
allow. The mere similarity of sounds is no criterion. But, when
we come to the finding of altars, this is a different matter, and will
require careful consideration.

The Notitia, of which I have already spoken, was the Military
and Civil Service List of the Roman Empire. Its full title is :-—
“Notitia Dignitatum et Administrationum omnium tam civilium
quam militarium in partibus orientis et occidentis.”

In this list we have in Chapter 63 a list of twenty-three stations
in connection with what is usually called the Roman Wall. Prob-
ably the term Zer dineam valli does not apply merely to the Roman
Wall itself, for it apparently includes not only the stations actually
on the line of the Wall, but also others in its immediate neighbour-
hood, and necessary for its proper defence.

That the Maryport Camp, under whatever name it was known,
was one of these Notitia stations, is pretty generally admitted,

5

seeing that, putting aside the name Volantium, all the names
applied to it are in this list. In fact, we might almost infer, from
its commanding position, its connections, its antiquities, etc., that
such would be the case. Now itis clear that a// the names cannot
be applied to the station, if indeed any of them can.

Let us then take the first name on our list, viz., AXELODUNUM,
and enquire (1) on what grounds this name has been given, and
(2) whether such reasons are satisfactory.

The Notitia says that the First Cohort of the Spaniards was
stationed at Axelodunum. At Maryport, the spade of the antiquary
has unearthed some sixteen altars by these Spaniards. Hence the
inference has been drawn that therefore Maryport is Axelodunum ;
and, on the face of it, this inference seems. clearly the correct one’
But, we might ask whether we should be absolutely certain that
the mere finding of altars, even if taken in connection with the
Notitia, is proof positive. For my own part, I cannot see that
this fact taken fer se can satisfactorily establish a claim ; for if it
could do so, then other places might have an equal claim. As it
is, the First Cohort of the Spaniards has left its record at Netherby,
at Ardoch,* and in North Britain,t besides Maryport.

Clearly the Scotch stations are out of the running; but the
claims of Netherby might be more tangible.

Besides, if the number of altars is to be the main element, then
Maryport has the prior claim only so long as it maintains its
_ position in the front in this respect. In the same way any other
place near the Wall might, under like conditions, step into the
front rank: for who can say that a// the Spanish altars have been
found? Yet again, how is the matter to be decided when altars
by ¢wo of the cohorts named in the Notitia have been found in a
station, as has been the case at Moresby? Clearly there would in
this case be a difficulty. Surely there must be a more satisfactory
method of allocation than this. A very simple argument will show
how very unreliable this method really is. Suppose a cohort to be
stationed at Maryport, and to signify its presence there by erecting

* Celt, Roman, Saxon, p. 384. + Ibid p. 335.

6

an altar. Suppose also that this same cohort has been likewise
stationed at Bowness, its presence there being testified to simply
by a statement in a book or official list. Suppose further, that
after a lapse of say fifteen hundred years, the site of each place has
become totally unknown. An antiquarian, however, reading the
book or list, is desirous of finding out where Bowness was situated,
but all his attempts fail—etymology, sound, probability, a/7 are of
no use in solving the difficulty. But a time comes when, probably
accidentally, the altar is found at Maryport. At once there is
agreement with the book; the two things are put together, and
the inference is drawn that the site of Bowness has at last been
discovered. But it is manifest that the inference is clearly
erroneous.

May it not, then, be the case that the Roman altars discovered
at Maryport point erroneously to the name Axelodunum? Surely
something more tangible than this is necessary in order that the
chain of evidence may be complete. But, in saying this much, we
must allow that a// writers do not credit the mere finding of altars,
even though backed up by the authority of the Notitia, as sufficient
to settle definitely the name of a station. An examination of the
list of authorities mentioned above will show that the great majority
of them wrote before “the great find” of altars at Maryport in
1870. In this case it will be well to examine what new factors
were introduced by this ‘‘find,” in order to determine whether such
should necessitate a reversal of the opinions expressed by them,
inasmuch as those who give their authority in favour of Axelodunum,
have chiefly written szzce 1870.

In the first place, let it be granted that the number of altars
dedicated is not the chief factor, but rather the number of officers
or cohorts dedicating. One altar is of equal value with twenty,
if all bear the same name. We then come to this :—Previous to
1870 there were found four Spanish altars, bearing the names of
four different commanders. The aggregate value of these altars
would therefore be four. In 1870 there were found amongst other
altars, &c., eleven Spanish altars dedicated by five officers, three
of whom were the same as on the altars found previous to 1870.

Thus the “find” of 1870 added merely two fresh names to the
list, and therefore, although a marvellous find in itself, its value as
an aid to determining the name of the station is not eleven, but
two merely over and above what the older antiquarians possessed.
Besides, when so many names have been decided “on the Wall”
merely on the testimony of ove altar, surely the testimony of the
four names on the four altars found previous to 1870 ought to have
been more decisive, if indeed they could have decidedit. Evidently
the antiquarians of that date thought differently, and as evidently
many antiquarians of the present day think with them. We migh
very appropriately ask if there is any absolute necessity that there
should be any Spanish altars at the real Axelodunum at all?
Surely there must be great uncertainty in this matter, unless indeed
it was a necessary part of their duty to commemorate their presence
at a station in this manner.

That the Spanish Cohorts were at Axelodunum, wherever it was,
the Notitia places beyond doubt; but it by no means follows that
they therefore left their a/fars at that place. If this be so, it will
be clear that the evidence of altars, even under circumstances
already mentioned, is but a very uncertain guide.

Dr. Bruce, speaking of this state of affairs says, “‘In this state of
uncertainty it will be better for us to forbear attempting to give to
the Camps we meet with their ancient designation. In due time
the key may be found, which, without the application of force, will
send back the bolt, and make all plain, till then we must be care-
ful to confess our ignorance.” *

To my mind “Ae ey will be found in the following plan, which
will, at any rate disprove a name, if it does not prove it. Where it
can be proved by altars or otherwise, that the cohorts were
stationary in any camp for a long succession of years, especially
during the last two hundred years of the occupation, we have a
certain degree of presumptive evidence that they were present at
that station in or near Notitia times, and hence we might fairly
assume the name in connection with the Notitia.

Failing this method, let the various lists of stations extant be

* Lapidarium Septentrionale.

8

carefully tabulated, so as to note where there is correspondence and
where variance. Should we do this, we may doubtless get a toler-
ably correct sequence of places, which would prove most valuable
in determining the name.

Let us examine the case as regards the Maryport Camp under
each of these heads, but first with regard to continuity. That the
Spanish Cohorts have been in residence at Maryport no one can
deny, the altars most certainly decide this. By the aid then of
these altars, together with others found elsewhere, we shall be able
to prove without the slightest difficulty that the Spanish Cohorts
at Maryport were not stationary, but, on the contrary, that they
frequently changed their quarters, at any rate during the earlier
years of the Roman occupation. This much is owned by Dr. Bruce,
who says that “the diversity of troops named on them (ie., the
Maryport altars,) shows that a quicker exchange took place here
at that time than was usual.” *

The only words requiring explanation here are, “at that time.”
When was it? Four, if not five of the altars discovered were dedicated
by Marcus Mcenius Agrippa. Fortinately we are able with very
little difficulty to decide his identity. On a slab found near
Camerino in Central Italy, we are told that he was tribune of the
1st Cavalry Cohort of Spaniards, prefect of an ala of Gauls, also
of Pannonians, that he was prefect of the British fleet, and that he
was specially selected by the Divine Hadrian and sent on the
Britannic Expedition.t That both the Italian slab and the Mary-
port altars refer to the same person there would seem to be no
doubt whatever.

The statement regarding his being tribune of the first cohort of
the Spaniards is fully corroborated by the Maryport altars, whilst
his personal friendship with Hadrian is apparently testified to by
the fact that two of the altars, and possibly a third, are dedicated
to “Jupiter and the Divine Influences of the Emperor.” ‘This,

* «The Maryport altars.”” Trans. Cumb. and West. Antiq. and
Arch. Assoc., vol. 1, p. 187.

+ Roman Wall. Dr. Bruce. 3rd Edition, 1867, p. 13.

9

then, gives us an approximate date for the presence of some of the
Spaniards at least, for Hadrian reigned A.D. 117138.

How long these Spaniards remained in residence we cannot say
with any degree of accuracy; but following down the history of
the cohort, it will be interesting to notice that in the reign of
Antoninus Pius (A.D. 138—161) they were at Ardoch, in Scotland.
The next intimation we have of them is at Netherby, in the time
of Severus Alexander (A.D. 221—235). In addition we learn
that an altar was “found in North Britain dedicated ‘Genio ale i
Hispanorum’—to the genius of the first wing of the Spaniards.”*
There is here no clue to the date, but it is at any rate a further
proof of frequent change.

The next we hear of them is that they were at Axelodunum, in
Notitia times. Of course it has been argued that the rule was for
cohorts to stay “for centuries” in the same camp. Clearly this
rule cannot help us in the case before us, as the Maryport camp
shows indubitable evidence that it at least is an exception to the
rule. It has also been remarked that many sepulchral monuments
refer to the Aeirs of the deceased persons, and that this is a proof
of continuity. Thus at Maryport we have one inscribed :—

De NE
MORI REGIS
FILII HEREDES
EIVS SVBSTITVE
RVNT VIX A _ LXX.

This, however, proves little in reality, as there was a time when
property was left for a frs¢ time—when the frst heirs entered into
possession ; and this may have been a case in point. Yet again
on another point it is doubtful evidence, even though it were
allowed to be a proof of continuity, for we must first prove the
age of the stone, and then that “Morus Rex” was a Spaniard.
Both present apparent impossibilities. Besides, the sepulchral
slab found at Ardoch in the same way points to continuity there,

* Celt, Roman, and Saxon, 3rd ed., p. 335.

10

if the argument be held to be good, for we have on it the following
inscription :—
DIS MANIBVS
AMMONIVS DA
NMIONTS “3c; “COM
I HISPANORVM
STIPENDIORVM
XXVII HEREDES
FC

where the e/vs are stated to have erected the slab.

Another point might still be urged in favour of continuity of the
Spanish Cohorts in the Maryport camp. Being the First Cohort,
it might with a show of reason be argued that drafts merely were
sent from the station to the other stations mentioned, the main
body still remaining at the Maryport camp. But this idea is at
once shown to be untenable. The altars found at Netherby state
that the cohort in garrison was 1000 strong; not a mere draft, but
the whole cohort. Whilst the Maryport altars show as clearly that
the First Cohort of the Dalmatians were in camp probably about
A.D. 140, or thereabouts, and hence the Spaniards must have gone
as awhole. The presence of the Dalmatians is recorded by two
altars and two slabs. The latter are dedicated “For the safety of
Antoninus Pius” (A.D. 138—161), and thus help to fix a date
which the two altars themselves are powerless to do.

Yet another cohort was in garrison, viz., the First Cohort of the
Betasians. No very satisfactory proof as to their date is to be
had, but on each altar occur the letters C.R. (Civium Romanum),
as though the Betasians were proud they were Roman citizens.
From this Dr. Bruce seems to infer that such letters favour a date
at least as early as A.D. 211; in fact, he is evidently of opinion
that the whole of the altars found at Maryport belong to the reigns
of Hadrian and Antoninus Pius (A.D. 117—161). If it be held
that the Beetasian altars are of a much later date than this, on
account of the freshness which they present, this in itself would be
an important argument against the return of the Spaniards, and
hence against the name Axelodunum.

11

So far, then, we have been unable to trace any proof of
continuity, at any rate up to the year A.D. 200. Whether after
this date we shall be able to pick up any information leading to
the fact of the return of the Spaniards, and their continued resi-
dence in the Maryport camp, it will now be our business to
enquire.

It must be remembered that there are still several altars that
~have not as yet been brought under review in the foregoing
remarks. Many of them are of course useless for the purposes of
our inyestigation. Amongst these are the one by the “Cohort (?)
from the province of Mauritania,” and the Spanish one by Marcus
Censorius Cornelianus—seeing that they cannot be connected
with the “find” of 1870, nor can the date of their dedicators be
discovered. We shall also have to omit the altar to Belatucadrus
by Julius Civilis, and that to Setlocenia by Lucius Abareus
_ Genialis (?), as we have no means of determining either to what
cohort the dedicators belonged, nor yet the time at which they
lived. For obvious reasons we shall also have to omit all broken
altars—altars without inscriptions, etc. So that, including the
altars already mentioned, there are only some fifteen altars by the
Spaniards, five by the Beetasians, and three by the Dalmatians that
are available for our purpose.

Granted that the conclusions to which we have already arrived
at are correct, ie. with regard to the relative dates of those by
M. M. Aprippa, the Dalmatians, and the Beetasians, we have for
our present purpose some ten Spanish altars left, viz :—Four by
Caius Caballus Priscus; two by Helstrius Novellus; three by
Lucius Cammius Maximus; and one by Lucius Antistius Verianus.
With regard to the first six, their leading characteristics compare
very strongly with those of M. M. Agrippa, so much so that we
should probably not err greatly in assigning to them a date not far
removed from that of Agrippa himself. The remaining four,
although apparently of a later date, still belong clearly to an earlier
date than those by the Betasians, which appear to be the latest in
point of time, as? judged by their appearance in the “find” of 1870.
Still inferences drawn in this manner may easily err, and it will be

12

well to seek corroborative evidence. Can we in any way determine
the date of the ten altars already alluded to? Are they of the same
cr of a later date than those whose dates we have approximately
fixed? To decide this, we shall have to consider as briefly as
may be, why, when, and by whom the altars were buried. This is
not an easy question to settle, but withal it isa very important one
when a satisfactory decision is to be arrived at regarding the name.
Two truths, which we might almost call axioms, seem to point out
the way for us. They are as follows :—If it can be proved that |
they were all buried at an eavly date, then so far as altars are con-
cerned, therecould not be the slightest clueto the name Axelodunum,
for, as I take it, the large majority of the altars found at Maryport,
(including those found before 1870,) and certainly of the altars
with intelligible inscriptions, were buried at one and the same time,
and at one and in the same place. If, on the other hand it can be
shown that they were buried at a /afe date, then the probability
that the name is Axelodunum is strengthened, though by no means
is there certainty even then.

The great question to be determined is—zy were they buried ?
Dr. Bruce* supposes that the cohort in garrison withdrew in order
that it might help in defending other stations that had been
attacked, and that, before going, they buried their altars.

This seems a very plausible reason, and at almost any other
station, would have been accepted without dissent. But it should
be remembered that Maryport, by whatever name it was then known,
was the key to both their eastern and southern communications.
As I showed in “ The Maryport Camp—Who was its Founder ?” t
that they should as a body willingly leave so important a position
entirely at the mercy of the enemy, even to help in defending
stations at a distance, seems scarcely the action of a military people
like the Romans. Of course, such a proceeding would quite
answer the question why the altars were buried, for the retiring
cohort could scarcely take them with them “to the front.” Still,
under certain circumstances, even this method may have been

*Cumb, and West. Antiq. and Arch. Soc. Journ., July 17, 1870, p. 175.
+ Transactions, part ix., p. 67.

18

followed, but it is a plan that would necessitate a state of peace in
this particular neighbourhood, for naturally a cohort would not be
withdrawn from a threatened position, and especially one of such
manifest importance. That this was not the case we shall shortly
attempt to prove.

It has also been suggested that the altars were buried in a fit of
religious zeal, and that the garrison, having embraced Christianity,
buried what before had been dear to them. Unfortunately for this
supposition, we are entirely without proof that the garrison ever
did embrace the Christian religion.

The most likely supposition that appears to me is that a fart of
the garrison might be withdrawn under conditions already stated,
and that “the enemy” taking courage because of the weakened
state of the garrison, made a determined attack on the camp, and
was successful in driving the defenders out of their position. Seeing
defeat inevitable, we may suppose that they would take precautions
to hide their altars, or, at any rate, so many of them as they had
time to conceal, in the hepes that, on their return with their com-
rades in arms, they would once again restore the altars to their
original positions.

Of course, there may have been no withdrawal of fart of the
forces, as the whole cohort may have been driven out by the enemy,
but this is not very probable, considering the natural strength of
the position and the strength of the garrison, for the rst Cohort
was a double one consisting probably of nine hundred and sixty
men.

Two points observed during excavations made in 1870 apparently
favour the supposition that there had been a disaster before the altars
were buried. In the first place, the altars had been placed in the pits
with care, 1.e.—some design seems to have been followed in their
burial, for in zo case was an inscription placed uppermost. And again,
_they seem to have been gathered together from the surrounding
temples and buried in the smallest possible compass. Had they
merely wished to get rid of them, as though they had finished with
_them or that they were leaving the station for good, much the
_ easier plan would have been to place them in the ground where

14

they had originally stood. Such conduct may be fairly assumed
to infer that the intention was to disinter them. Why they were
not so disinterred we shall enquire shortly.

Another point observed was that the altars had been buried wth
haste, a fact which might point to a diminished garrison. That
they were so buried is very evident, for several of them had had
pieces broken off whilst they were being put into the pits, this being
proved by the fact that the broken pieces were found in the pits
beside the altars.

Now it is true that such hasty burial might have been only the
result of carelessness on the part of the persons engaged in the
operations, and that after all the cohort departed peaceably after
completing the burial. But even this does not seem compatible
with the facts elicited not only during the excavations made in 1870,
but also during those made in 1880.

Several mutilated altars, sculptures, &c., were (in 1880,) found
lying scattered up and down the Camp, one even being rolled over
the face of the cliff to the seaward side of the Camp. Of course
it may be said that ¢hese altars, &c., may have represented a
different period than that represented by the altars found in 1870.
But, be this as it may, at least part of ove altar represented in the
“find of 1870,” viz., one by the Spaniards under C. C. Priscus, was
found in 1880 some 350 yards from the site where those of 1870 were
found, and in close proximity to the mutilated remains found in 1870.
It is difficult to see why this should not have been interred with the
others, if the cohort had left peaceably. It is broken, and others
are in the same condition ; surely only an enemy could be answer-
able for ¢#zs state of things. Had the cohort left peaceably, it
would doubtless have followed the usual custom and have taken
its altars along with it. Clearly, in the face of a triumphant enemy,
this would have been an impossibility. Has this any bearing on the
case in point? Yetagain, Zyson’s Cumberland, p. cxlii., and Wright,
Celt, Roman, and Saxon, p. 452, point out that the town showed
signs of having been “ burnt down and then rebuilt.” This clearly
testifies to troublous times at some period previous to A.D. 417.
Such éurning may of course have been the result of accident,

15

but taking all things into consideration, it seems more probable
' that after driving out the cohort, or such part of it as remained, the
enemy set fire to the town, and at the same time mutilated all the
altars, &c., that it had been found impossible to hide.

If it then be granted that the altars have been buried as the
result of an impending disaster, what was the approximate date of
this disaster? Was it at an early or a date period of the Roman
occupation? From A.D. 180 to A.D. 210 seems to have been a
time of unwonted activity on the part of the tribes in the immediate
vicinity of “the Wall,” and the year A.D. 184 is marked out as a
year when great disasters overtook the Roman arms in the north
Can this be somewhere about the date when the altars were buried ?
when the “ruthless Briton” wreaked his vengeance on such altars
and sculptures as he could lay his hands upon? Much that has
already been said favours an early, as opposed to a late burial, and
Dr. Bruce* favours this view. The coins found also testify appar-
ently to a break in continuity. If buried ea7Zy, then the probability
is that the Beetasians buried them, if Jaze, then the Spaniards may
have performed this action, for the ten Spanish altars previously
mentioned may represent the later period. Many things, however,
seem to point strongly against the probability of a /a/e date. In
A.D. 417, the Spaniards, or whoever chanced to be in garrison,
apparently withdrew peaceably, knowing that they were not coming
back again, and hence need have taken no precautions to bury the
altars in the way that they were buried.

Besides, if buried by the Spaniards, they seem to have been
specially solicitous about the Beetasian and Dalmatian altars,
whilst leaving some of their own to be destroyed. This seems con-
trary to what we should have expected. It seems more likely that
whoever buried them would bury their own jst, and after-
wards those of the other three cohorts. Had they been buried
at different times the burial of the second or third lot would have
revealed the others. Strangely enough, the evidence is very point-
edly in favour of the fact that the Beetasian altars were buried, not
only before those of the Dalmatians, but also before those of the

* Lapidarium Septentrionale, p. 429.

16

Spaniards, and that the oldest altars were buried nearest the
surface. Thus, we might fancy, with some degree of certainty,
that the altars were buried by the Beetasians.

The date of Marcus Mcenius Agrippa being known, why did the
Spaniards of that date not take their altars away with them, or
bury them? They were apparently followed in the camp by the
Dalmatians, and these in turn left their altars behind. Why was
this? Why did they not take them away with them, or bury them
before they went? The Spaniards apparently went to the front,
on active service ; for we find them after this north of the Antonine
Wall. Clearly they could not go on active service encumbered
with so many altars as it is clear they left behind them at the
Maryport camp. They therefore may have given them into charge
of their successors, viz., the Dalmatians, and these in turn to the
Beetasians: and each apparently with the idea that they would
return at an early date to the camp.

The Dalmatians once and for all disappear from the page of
British history, unless, indeed, we again meet with them under the
name ‘Dalmatian Horse,” located, according to the Notitia, at
Branodunum and at Presidium.

That the Spaniards did not return—at any rate, for one hundred
years—we have almost conclusive evidence. Clearly the Spaniards
in garrison between 117—138 could not have buried the altars, as
in two pits at least, a Beetasian altar was buried wmder the Spanish
altars, whilst in another case a Beetasian altar was buried under a
Dalmatian one. If, however, it be held that they have been buried
by Spaniards, these must of necessity have been the returned cohort.
But the evident intention to disinter the altars, points to the fact
of their leaving the station again, and, as I have already shown,
after a disaster. Thus a second return would be necessary in order
to point to any continuous residence even during the later times.
But such a return was not likely under the circumstances, Surely
they had a regimental tradition that their “holy things” had been
hidden. Then, why were they not disinterred? for we cannot
suppose that their absence was of very long duration, The im-

17

portance of the position was too great to allow of its being retained
in the hands of the enemy for any great length of time.

Is it not an indirect proof that they did not come back again?
Clearly, however, such a method of argument involves more of
uncertainty than. is admissible.

It would thence appear most likely that the Bezetasians, before
being expelled, first buried their own altars, then those of the
Dalmatians, and lastly those of the Spaniards ; and this would be
quite in keeping with a supposed promise to their predecessors to
take care of what they looked upon as sacred.

That they did leave the camp is certain; for in the Notitia we
find that the first cohort of the Vetasians (Bzetasians?) was stationed
at Regulbium (Reculver, in Kent).

Another argument pointing to the fact of the early Basil of the
altars, and this by the Beetasians, may very probably be found in
the consideration of the general appearance af the altars as shown
at the present day. Those found in 1870 are for the most part in
a surprisingly good state of preservation, the lettering being—
especially in the Beetasian altars—remarkably clear and distinct.
It is true they are chipped, etc.; but, as has been already shown,
this was the result of accident—not of the weather, nor yet of
design.

It is also true that those found previous to 1870 are in a much
worse state ; but this is to be accounted for—not that they were in
a worse state when interred, but that they have deteriorated since
they were dug up. A very cursory examination of the whole of
the altars in the portico at Netherhall would show that they can
be easily divided into three classes; and the distinction is so
marked that, unaided by any other help than their appearance, the
merest tyro in antiquarian lore would almost unerringly divide
them correctly, each under its separate head.

Though there appears to be no record of the actual dates, etc.,
at which the altars were found previous to 1870, still an approxi-
mate date may be fixed. Thus Camden in 1599 notifies the
existence of four altars and a slab. ‘Three of these are in the

portico, and they are certainly wrecks of their former selves,
z

18

Horsley in 1732 mentions six others; and to these Hutchinson
in 1794 adds four more. These are in a much better state of
preservation than the previous ones ; but, so far as the scrolls and
inscriptions are concerned, they are much more weathered than
those found in 1870.

Assuming then that all the altars—with possibly one or two
exceptions—were buried at the same time, and that the same rate
of deterioration took place in those far off times as now, it is clear
that they could not have been above ground a very great length
of time. Hence, assuming that the Beetasians were in garrison in
early times, we may fairly allow that the altars were buried, if not
about A.D. 184, at any rate before A.D. 240. A date later than
this is not probable, owing to the regular succession of coins from
that date onwards to the close of the Roman occupation.

If then it be granted that the cohorts were not stationary, but
were, on the contrary—at any rate during the earlier part of the
occupation—frequently changing ; also that the altars are all of an
early date ; where is the altar or slab that proves Maryport to have
been the Axelodunum of the Notitia? And, if there are none, why
should this name be given as “beyond doubt?” If the Notitia
was—as we know it was—an army list, surely it would not state a
fact which was true only some two hundred and fifty years before.
Clearly it states that the Spaniards were at Axelodunum about the
year A.D. 400, the altars apparently as clearly prove that they were
at Maryport before A.D. 138, and that they afterwards left the place.
To prove that the station is Axelodunum, we must prove not only
that they returned, but that they continued in residence till within
“measurable distance” of A.D. 400. Can this be satisfactorily
shown? Ithinknot. Still we may argue that our chain of evidence
is not complete—that it has a thread of weakness running through
it. At any rate, whether this be so or not, we will now endeavour
to strengthen it by additional evidence from another quarter.

To my mind a great flood of light is thrown on the question by
a consideration of the various lists of names of towns that have
come down tous. First we will take the Notitia. In the list of
twenty-three stations ‘per lineam valli” we have the following, viz.;

19

10. ARsica. 14. Adalladba.
11. Magna. 15. Congavata.
12. Amboglanna. 16. Axelodunum.

13. Petriana.
Where we find that 4xe/odunum is in close attendance upon Amébo-
glanna and Aballaba. ,
We have a second list in what is known as the ‘‘ Cosmography
of a writer of Ravenna,” in which the following list appears in direct

sequence,
ZEsIca.

Banna.

Uxeludiano (Axelodunum).

Avalaria (Aballaba).

Maia (Magna ?)
Here Axelodunum is again in company with Aballaba, together
with a fresh name Banna. Granted that the testimony of altars is
to be relied on, Banna should be but a shortened form of Ambo-
glanna, for at the latter place an altar was found dedicated :—

DEO SANCTO :
To the Holy God Silvanus,
SILVANO VE
the Hunters of Banna
NATORES z i
| have dedicated this.
BANNA SE. J

But again, the credibility of altars as a sole means of allocation
receives a rude shock, for another list has yet to be brought in
evidence, and this list it will be found includes Jofh names. Hence

. they must refer to different places. In 1725 a small elaborately
chased bronze cup was found in a well at a village called Rudge,
in Wiltshire, and hence called the Rudge Cup. Round the rim
was an inscription consisting of the following names :—

Mais.

5 Aballaba.

Uxelodum.

Amboglans (Camboglans ?)

Banna.

No. 370 Lapidarium Septentrionale.
No. 416 Lapidarium Septentrionale.

20

Here Banna is in company with Amboglanna, and thus strengthens
the Ravenna list, when it places Axelodunum in near proximity to
Aballaba and Amboglanna. Iam well aware that all these lists are
not exactly in the same order, but a satisfactory reason seems clear,
though, for the purposes of this paper, it is not necessary that we
should enter into the details. It is sufficient that we have here
three independent lists all pointing to the fact that Axelodunum
is in the neighbourhood of Amboglanna.

Granted that the first twelve stations on the Wall are in direct
sequence from east to west, there seems no satisfactory reason why,
in a military list at any rate, the remaining stations should not
follow according to the same order. Hence, taking the Notitia
list, and allowing on an average of four miles between each station,
Axelodunum could not be more than fifteen or sixteen miles west
of Amboglanna, i.e., Birdoswald. That a greater distance inter-
vened is not likely when the intention of the Rudge Cup—a libation
cup (?)—is concerned. Hence Axelodunum would appear to be in
its proper place in direct sequence west of and not far from
Amboglanna, and thus Maryport could not be Axelodunum.

Further light on this question will be shown when we come to
discuss the next name, for arguments in favour of ove name natur-
ally are against another. Granted now that we must give up the name
Axelodunum, we have still three names left, all of which as I have
said are Notitianames. These names, still in alphabetical order, are
Glanoventa, Olenacum, Virosidum. We cannot pursue the same
line of argument with regard to these names that we did with regard
to Axelodunum, and perhaps fortunately so, for in this case I am
afraid that your patience would be sorely tried long ere I had
finished my argument.

Fortunately for you, but not for the cause which I have in hand,
no remains of any kind, so far as we know, have been found that
would tend to identify any of the places that have been called by
these names. We shall therefore have to strike out a new and
independent line, where, zo altars, but voads must be our means
of communication, and this seems at any rate a more rational
method! Asa preliminary to this method, we must ask if there is

21
any apparent plan on which the Notitia lists are compiled. The
Ravenna list may be, and doubtless is misleading, though there is
probably more design even in this list than a cursory glance would
show. But, when we come to the JVotitia list—the army list—
surely hefe, at any rate, we should find something tangible to work
upon; for, to be of any use at all, it must be at least straightforward,
if not in actual sequence of names, at any rate in intention. An
examination of the various names will probably show us that it is
to the second of these heads that we must look for success in our
search.

‘It has been, I am afraid, too much the fashion to look upon the
defences of the Roman Wall as consisting merely of twenty-three
stations, of which it is allowed, with tolerable unanimity, that
eighteen are directly ‘“‘on the wall,” the other five being elsewhere ;
such ranging, as I have already shown, between Warwick and the
immediate vicinity of the Wall itself.

But the question naturally arises, does the list in the Notitia
convey the idea that there shou/d be any sequence of places? As
we have seen, the first twelve stations on the wall are probably in
direct sequence, but this is scarcely sufficient for our purpose, as we
want not probability, but certainty, if possible. To secure this, we
shall have to examine the Notitia list from a much wider stand-
point than is shown by that part of it contained in the twenty-three
stations “per lineam valli.” After all, these twenty-three stations
give us but an inadequate idea of the Wall itself as a military work.
They present to us not a purely defensive work, but merely an
isolated barrier, without connections, without subsidiary works.
To make the list a perfect one in a military point of view, we want
the various methods by which communications were to be kept up
with the head-quarters, which, we know, at any rate in later times,
were at Eburacum (York). Referring then to our list again, we
find immediately preceding the twenty-three stations, the following
very instructive list of stations, in which the original of we have
not only the name of the station itself, but its Notitia garrison.
Omitting the name of the garrison, I have included the supposed
_ modern representative of the station.

22

1 Presidium (Brugh) 8 Verteree (Brough)
Danum (Doncaster) 9 Braboniacum (Kirkby Thore)
Morbium (Templeborocugh) 10 Maglova (Barnard Castle ?)
Arbeia (Adel ?) 11 Magee (Piercebridge ?)

Dictis (Brugh, near Askrigg) 12 Longovicum (Lanchester)
Concangium (Greta Bridge) 13 Derventio (Ebchester)
Lavatre (Bowes)

ar Om ff W N

We shall briefly discuss whether we have here direct sequence
or not. The headquarters, as we have already stated, were situated
at Eburacum (York), and the military road ran thence northwards
by Isurium (Aldborough) and Cataractonium (Catterick), and so
across Stainmore to Luguvallum (Carlisle).

The earlier portion of this road lay open to attacks from the
Brigantes, whose strongholds were in the mountainous parts of the
county, whence they were able easily to make descents on the
road, &c.

To afford protection to it, camps were planted in these lateral
valleys, and doubtless the allocation above represented, based on
the views of Mr. W. H. D. Longstaffe,* will be found to be toler-
ably correct. At any rate, a road passed wa Adel, Ilkley, and
Brugh, meeting with the main road about half-way between Greta
Bridge and Bowes. Stations at Lavatre and Verterze undoubtedly
held the pass over Stainmore. Beyond the latter station we have
Braboniacum, which may have been Kirkby Thore, (the Brovonacis
of the 2nd Antonine Iter.)’ Arrived here, we seem brought to a
stand still in the immediate neighbourhood of the western termin-
ation of the Wall, for all the stations in advance are known, and to
none of them can be applied the names Maglova, Mage, Longo-
vicum, or Derventio. Where shall we then look for these? Has
the name Concangium anything to do in unravelling the mystery?
I think so.

Thus a detachment from Dictis arriving on the second Iter would
find the names Concangium and Lavatre on their list. Of course
they knew that their route westward must lead them through

* Archeologia Alliana, vol. 8, part 24, page 287.

23

Lavatre and not Concangium. But reversing the order, their route
would pass eastwards through Concangium, and hence not south-
ward again, but northward to the Wall.

Thus the stations that are put after Braboniacum must be looked
for after Concangium, and in connection with the east end of the
Wall. Maglova and Magz may well be supposed to guard the
valley of the Tees, the possession of which was an absolute
necessity as an adjunct to the road over Stainmore. Then at
Longovicum (Lanchester), we are in direct communication with
the east end of the Wall at South Shields, vza Epiacum (Chester-
le-Street), and by another arm to the central portion of the Wall
via Derventio (Ebchester-on-Derwent).

At Braboniacum, at least three arms run to the Wall :—
(1) Via the Maiden Way, reaching the central portion of the Wall
at Magna (Carvoran). (2) Via the second Iter to Luguvallum
(Carlisle). (3) Via Whitbarrow to Old Carlisle and Keswick.

Granted then that we have shewn a perfect sequence of places,
so far as the thirteen stations just named are concerned, it seems
but natural that the same plan should be followed with regard to
the remaining stations “ per lineam valli.”

Before we can fairly discuss the next part of the question, we
shall have to decide (1) that only eighteen are on the Wall, and
(2) which five are not actually oz the Wall. Antiquarians are
tolerably in accord in placing eighteen as the number; and it
seems only reasonable that Zunnocelum, the eighteenth station,
should be on the sea coast, seeing that its garrison, according to
the Notitia, was the 1st Cohort of the Alia Classica, ie., a Cohort
of Marines.

Following then the order as given, this station must have been
on the west coast, and hence at either Bowness or Skinburness.

The Rey. W. Lytteil, writing to me on this point, says:—“I regard
Tunnocelum as derived from the Gaelic (or Celtic) dun a’ chaoil,
signifying ‘the fort of the firth—the fortress of the strait.’ This
is to be preferred to dun na caoile, meaning the ‘fort of the narrows,’
literally ‘the fort of the narrowness, or waist.’ The somewhat
narrow mouth of the Gareloch (about opposite to Greenock) is

24

called ‘The Narrows.’ The ‘Kyles’ of Bute are the ‘straits’ or
‘narrow seas’ of Bute. Of course,” he adds, ‘‘we can say ‘camp

of the strait,’ for these words are equivalent to ‘the fort of the
firth.’ ”

By adopting this derivation, the difficulty vanishes. How very
aptly it suits the position of the Bowness camp, the map of
Cumberland bears abundant testimony. If this be granted, then
the five stations we have yet to discuss must be the five last on
the list.

The question hence arises, shall we find these five stations in
connection with the eastern or the western branches of the great
road running northward from head quarters? or shall we find them
stretched across from west to east, to serve as rallying or supporting
stations? It would be easy to find five stations that would
admirably serve as supporting stations, but such a method has too
much of mere guess work about it to be of any value. To my
mind, the whole matter is inseparably mixed up with the building
of the Wall.

One theory ascribes the foundation of the Wall to Stilicho,
about A.D. 400; another to Hadrian, A.D. 117—138.

Should Stilicho have been the builder of the Wall, no great
stretch of imagination would be required to show the probability
that all the five might be on the east coast; for we know that
about his time the Roman fleet was much occupied in keeping the
daring sea-rovers back. As an auxiliary to this fleet, a strong line
of forts might be necessary along the coast; but, so far as we
know, the only evidence of such forts is at the mouth of the Tyne.
That this would be the oly place so defended seems scarcely
credible, i.e., supposing five to be necessary on the east. But if
we turn to the west, even at the same period, we shall find a more
pressing want of camps than on the east. The Picts and Scots
were a more formidable enemy to the Romans, than were the
Saxons. Against the latter, their fleet could act with success ; but
the matter was different on the Solway.

oy Var a! sell

*
a

25

It is however generally allowed that Hadrian’s was the master-
mind that planned and carried out the mighty Wall whose
remains to this day excite the wonder and admiration of the
beholder. Did he fail to grasp the elementary truth that,
unsupported, all his magnificent work was of but little practical
worth? That he did take in the whole situation, is, I think,
very clear. Hence his plan must have included a series of camps
intended to prevent the outflanking of the Wall; and thus it is
most probable that all the five stations were on the west, and in
direct communication with the line via Whitbarrow, which may
be Virosidum.

To carry forward such an undertaking, Hadrian would require an
immense quantity of provisions, not to mention numerous other
wants ; and this would necessitate a regular service of convoys
from head-quarters to the front. Now, under certain circumstances,
he could not but perceive that a route by way of the Tebay Valley
might be a hazardous one for convoys at least ; still, all the same,
his commissariat must of necessity be replenished at regular inter-
vals. Hence he must have a port in connection with the western
end of the Wall, which should, if need be, relieve him of all
anxiety on this score. Even if Agricola had not originally chosen
Maryport as his port, as I attempted to show in Zvansactions,
Part IX., p. 67, it is certain that there was a port at the time of
Hadrian, as is proved by the presence of altars by Marcus Mcenius
Agrippa. But why should he have been chosen in preference to
a less important officer? If our surmise be correct, it will readily
be allowed that the position was one, the importance of which
cannot be easily over-estimated. This officer, according to the
Camerino altar already mentioned, was specially selected to com-
mand the British fleet; and at the same time, amongst other
commands, he was tribune of the 1st Equestrian Cohort of the
Spaniards.

The intention of the fleet is obvious, whilst the cavalry must
have been necessary to keep open a line of communication with
Deva (Chester), at any rate through the Cumberland section of
the road, as also to overawe the natives in these parts. Such a

26

road, then, was a necessity ; and that it was a purely military road,
in the highest sense of the term, we may feel sure, from its manifest
importance. Besides, would so important an officer have been
put in connection with the base by a mere wiczza/ road? or would
he be put merely to superintend the despatch of provisions, etc., to
the front, as they arrived by sea? Such work is not done now-a-days
by Agrippa’s successors in command of the British fleet, That
there was such a road, via Keswick, etc., is beyond dispute; whilst
its connection with Deva speaks to its comparatively early date.
Could such a road be any other than a military road, and therefore
an Iter? If so, there is only one that is at present undecided, and
this is the tenth.

Under circumstances already detailed, I propose then to bring
this Iter to Maryport, which would thus be Glanoventa. That
the tenth Iter runs northward through our present Lancashire,
seems pretty generally allowed; and it seems certain that its
intention was to communicate with the Wall. Whether this
communication was directly made by way of Borrow Bridge and
the Maiden Way, or indirectly by way of Maryport, may be an
open question. ‘The difficulties of the former route have been
shown in connection with the transport service; whilst the manifest
advantages of the latter route have also been shown. Besides,
the Maryport camp was connected with the Wall by a grand mili-
tary road twenty-one feet wide.* Surely this is not without some
signification. That the Iter ran through Cumberland, receives
some confirmation from the fact that many eminent authorities
agree that Keswick is the Galava of that Itinerary; whilst Mr.
R. S. Ferguson sayst that Old Carlisle is undoubtedly Glanoventa.
This allocation he has apparently withdrawn,{ so that we are still
undecided. The whole of the Itineraries (leaving out the tenth)
seem to have been compiled with the special intention of having a
seaport at one end or the other, or both. Granted then that
Keswick is the Galava of the Itinerary, the inference points irre-
sistibly to the fact, that in allocating Glanoventa at the Maryport

* See Trans. Cumb. & West. Antiq. & Arch. Soc., vol. 5, p. 240.
t Ibid, part i., vol. 3, p. 88. + Ibid, vol. 7, p. 80.

27

camp, we satisfy every requirement. In every respect, as we have
shown, it would be a most fitting termination to an Iter, whilst its
distance from Keswick almost exactly suits the distance named in
the Itinerary. More than this: it is an allocation that does not
violate the conclusions to which we have already arrived ; for,
referring again to our Notitia list—it is in direct sequence after
Tunnocelum, which we have supposed to be Bowness :—

17 Gabrosentis 21 Bremetenracum
18 Tunnocelum 22 Olenacum

1g Glannibanta 23 Virosidum

20 Alionis

True, there are evidences of other camps between the two places,
but there seems to be no more reason that these camps should
have Notitia names, than that several camps in close proximity
to the Wall between Cilurnum and Amboglanna should have had.

Even etymology is favourable to us; for, on the authority of
Dr. Hooppell,* it is Glan-y-bant, i.e., “the brink of the height ;” a
most appropriate name for the station. In point of fact, Dr.
Hooppell says, in a letter to myself—and I have his permission to
use it—“TI certainly think, if Glanoventa was not at the mouth of
the Tyne, the only other place known to me that could put in a
claim for it is Maryport.” Whilst speaking on the Etymological
side of the question—the Rev. W. Lytteil has favoured me with
the following :—“Glanoventa is clearly the Celtic cadh na bhfianta,
signifying ‘the heroes’ camp’—the fort, vallum, or rampart of the
heroes. This is pronounced as clahnaveinta, for the df is equiva-
lent to the English letter V.

Such derivation carries us still farther back than the Roman
times ; for it is clear that the heroes could not be Romans. Prob:
ably the Mote Hill was then part of the belongings of the heroes,
whilst at least two undoubted “cup and ring” marked stones have
been found.

But it may be asked, Where are the remains proving it to be
Glanoventa? for the Notitia says that it was garrisoned by the
1st Cohort of the Morini. As I have already attempted to show,

*Archeologia Eliana, vol. 8, part 23, p. 50.

28

there seems to be no absolute necessity that there should be any
remains in the shape of altars, etc. Indeed, if the Morini were
stationed at the Maryport camp in Notitia times, there is not much
probability that such testimony exists.

Of one stone found at Maryport I should like to have offered a
few remarks, viz., the one No. 880 Lapidarium Septentrionale ;
but I must content myself with saying that the inscription there
given is not strictly correct, the second line being, in reality,
QVINANAH, and not QvI NANAT; nor does this appear to be the
only error in the reading: in which case the rendering will not be
accepted as final.

Whilst thus holding to the name Glanoventa, it appears to me
that voads are defore altars in the determination of places; and I
feel certain that if the search had been conducted on these lines,
rather than on those of mere theory, there would have been more
certainty in the allocation of places.

In conclusion, I think it only right to publicly own the deep
obligations under which I am placed to Mrs. Senhouse. Without
her very kind help in the matter of books, I could never have
hoped to do a tithe that has been done. The quality of what I
have written does not detract from that kindness.

29

ZOOLOGICAL RECORD FOR CUMBERLAND, 1886

BY THE

Rev. H. A. MACPHERSON, M.A., anp W. DUCKWORTH.

AVES.
I.—BREEDING Birpbs.

(1.) Cinclus aguaticus. Dipper.

In 1886, a pair of Dippers built their nest on one of the lower
boughs of a willow tree, overhanging the river Eden, at an elevation
of ten or twelve feet. An unpractised eye would certainly have
mistaken the bulky nest for an accumulation of wreckage, deposited
by the stream in flood.

In 1885, a pair of Dippers nested in this identical willow, but
the nest was then placed upon a different bough from that selected
in 1886.

In 1885, another pair of Dippers selected a similar site for their
nest on one of the lower boughs of an oak tree.

All three nests were found in situ by Mr. W. Duckworth.

Such a strange divergence from the usual habits of the Dipper is
difficult to account for.

Norre.—Mr. Shepherd of Carlisle states, that on a recent occasion
he observed a Dipper capture a small fish in the Caldew. The
Dipper emerged from the stream, and on reaching shallow water
released the captive, which made at once for deep water. After
allowing the fish a start, the Dipper darted after it and recaptured
it, subsequently releasing and recapturing it alternately, until tired
of play ; the fish was then bruised by repeated pecks, and swallowed
head foremost,

30

(2.) Dendrocopus major. Greater Spotted Woodpecker.

Several pairs of Greater Spotted Woodpeckers nested in the
North of the county in 1886. Mr. Duckworth and Mr. Cairns
visited a favourite haunt of this species in April, and had the
pleasure of examining a nest excavated out of a wild cherry tree,
at a height of ten feet from the ground. ‘The orifice measured
13} inches in diameter, and had been prepared with care, the rough
edges having been bevelled off as neatly as if the operation had
been effected by means of a rasp.

A Greater Spotted Woodpecker was shot (by misadventure) in
the same locality on June 24th, and proved to be a feathered
nestling.

(3.) Spatula clupeata. Shoveller.

Mr. Duckworth observed several pairs of Shovellers on the
preserved water at Monkhill, in April.

On the 8th of May, Mr. Smith of Drumburgh was fortunate
enough to discover a Shovellers nest, placed in a tussock of grass
on one of the Solway salt marshes. It contained nine eggs, seven
of which were hatched by a fowl, the first chick emerging from the
shell on May 26th, in the presence of Mr. Duckworth. The young
birds unluckily proved to be delicate, and only one lived long
enough to become feathered.

Mr. Macpherson submitted two of the ‘‘downs” to Mr. Bidwell,
who has long made a special study of ‘‘downs.” Mr. Henry
Seebohm obligingly examined a portion of the nest down, and
decided that it was that of the Shoveller.

Mr. Smith had reported the Shoveller as present in his district
in summer in previous years.

An adult male Shoveller, in eclipse dress, was shot near Drum-
burgh in the middle of October, and added to Mr. Macpherson’s
series of Anatide.

Further particulars of the distribution of the Shoveller during
the breeding season, together with a description of the young in
down, will be found in 7'he Naturalist, 1886, pp. 235-6.

(4.) Columba livia. Rockdove.

In April, Mr. H. Nott observed a single Rockdove fly off a ledge
at Sandwith, on which three pairs of Rockdoves nested in 1884,

31

(5.) Coturnix communis. Quail.
Mr. R. Mann heard a male calling vociferously near Allonby, on
June 18th. It is possible that a pair bred in this locality in 1886,

as in some previous years.

(6.) Scolopax rusticola.

Woodcock bred plentifully in the north and south-west of the
county (cf. Postlethwaite, Zool. 1886, p. 300) in the spring of 1886.

The first Woodcock’s nest reported was found on April 1st, by
Mr. Plenderleath, and contained four eggs, upon which an old bird
was brooding.

Mr. Duckworth examined five nests on April 23rd, one being
placed in Cross-leaved Heath (Erica tetralix), and a second among
dead oak leaves, under cover of a Rhododendron. A third was
placed in Ling (Calluna vulgaris), and a fourth was partly hidden
by some brambles.

Of five nests examined near Longtown on April 23rd, four proved
to contain eggs advanced in incubation. The fifth nest contained
five eggs ; but of these, three were ‘“‘dwarfs ;” the others were just
chipping the shell.

In 1885, a Woodcock’s nest, containing a clutch of jive eggs, was
found near Thurstonfield.

The adult Woodcocks, observed, brooded over their nests with
singular temerity, continuing in some instances to remain on the
nests until actually touched.

The first young Woodcock were seen on the wing upon the 14th
of May.

Nore.—A record of Woodcock breeding in Northumberland
appeared in The Field of May 29th, 1886, and was erroneously
referred to the Carlisle district (R. F. Mathews. Ib.).

SUMMARY.

The year 1886 opened with severe frost, which lasted, with some

interruptions, for many weeks, and resulted in a late nesting
season.
The inclemency of the weather on high grounds induced many
_ species of small birds to seek for food in the neighbourhood of the
coast. Hence Chaffinches, Greenfinches, House Sparrows, Yellow-
hammers, and Common Buntings frequented the farmsteads near
_ the Solway in unprecedented numbers,

32

The Curlew appeared on its breeding grounds near Alston on
March 26th; and the first clutch of eggs was found on a low moss
near Allonby exactly a month later.

The month of May will long be remembered for the enormous
mortality of HiRUNDINIDA, coinciding with a sudden resumption of
severe weather and east winds about May 12th. On that day, at
Alston, “Snow fell during the entire day, and some drifts were
six feet deep. In the field beside our house, there were Starlings,
Whinchats, Wheatears, Meadow Pipits, Skylarks, Common Bun-
tings, Sparrows, and Wagtails, all fraternising together. A great
many nests were destroyed. Scores of Grouse nests were lost.
After the snow thawed, some Grouse returned to their nests; of
these, some brooded for a long time, but to no purpose, while
others hatched out a portion of their sittings.” (J. Walton in litt.)

As regards the Hirundinide, their decimation is reported on all
hands, and numbers of dead birds, all perfectly empty, came under
the notice of Mr. W. Duckworth.

“In one case, remarks Mr. Tremble, “twenty Swallows were
found dead on the window ledge of a small clay cottage; in
another, the exhausted birds invaded a smithy in search of warmth
and food.”

Subsequent to this disaster, the nesting season was favourable,
and the Stockdove and Spotted Flycatcher bred in greater pro-
fusion than in any previous year.

The one satisfactory result of the summer of 1886 is identical
with the discovery of the nest and eggs of the Shoveller.

Note.—The Raven (Corvus corax) would appear to have
deserted Sandwith as a nesting station since 1884, but odd birds
occasionally visit the old haunt of the species. A solitary Raven
was observed by Mr. Nott, in the neighbourhood of the lighthouse,
on October 15th, 1886. An interesting reference to two white
Ravens, taken from one nest, in Cumberland, about the year 1548,
exists in the De rariorum animalium et avium stirpibus of Dr,
Caius, the court physician,

33

AVES.
II.— MIGRATION oF BIRDs.

TurDIp&. TZurdus viscivorus. Missel Thrush. Spring. At Sand-
with, April 7th, a great number arrived on the cliffs in the
neighbourhood of the lighthouse, and remained two days. Mr.
H. Nott shot a specimen for identification.

Turdus iliacus. Redwing.* Autumn. Carlisle, September
28th, one felled by telegraph wires. Allonby, October 2nd, one
seen. Allonby, October 7th, evening, a number passed over.

Turdus pilaris. Fieldfare. Spring. Allonby, April 16th,
one seen, Autumn. Carlisle, October 8th. Allonby, October
22nd, some flocks appeared.

Turdus torquatus. Ring Ouzel. Spring. Alston, April 5th,

arrived on breeding grounds.

Saxicola enanthe. Wheatear. Spring. Alston, March zoth,
a pair. Solway, March 31st, some. Carlisle, April lst, some
seen.

Pratincola rubetra. Whinchat. Spring. Alston, April 23rd,

arrived on low grounds.

Ruticilla titys. Black Redstart. Autumn. Carlisle,
November 12th, a male observed by Mr. T. Duckworth and
others, at Holme Head. This bird haunted a manure heap for
two days, after which it disappeared.

Sylvia cinerea. Whitethroat. Spring. Carlisle, April 25th.
Allonby, April 25th.

Sylvia atricapilla. Blackcap. Spring. Alston, April 15th.
Carlisle, May 7th.

Phylloscopus rufus. Chiffchaff. Spring. Ravenglass,
March 24th, observed by Mr. F. Reynolds.

*A yellow or cream-coloured variety of the Redwing was observed near Allonby on
November 11th, 1886, by Mr. R. Mann. ;
3

34

Phylloscopus trochilus. Willow-Warbler. Spring. Allonby,
April 6th. Carlisle and Ravenglass, April 14th.

Phylloscopus sibilatrix, Wood-Warbler. Spring. Carlisle,
May 7th.

Acrocephalus phragmitis. Sedge-Warbler. Spring. Carlisle,
May 7th.

Locustella nevia. Grasshopper Warbler. Spring. Allonby,
April 27th.

MoraciLLip&. Motacilla alba. White Wagtail. Spring. Carlisle,
May 2nd, a single bird seen by Mr, Duckworth.

Notr.—There is reason to think that in the Carlisle district
this species occasionally interbreeds with the Pied Wagtail.

Motacilla lugubris. Pied Wagtail. Spring. Alston, March
28th, arrived.

Motacilla lugubris. Grey Wagtail. Spring. March 27th,
returned to breeding grounds. Autumn. Allonby, one seen
December 27th. [Very few winter in Cumberland. ]

Anthus pratensis, Meadow Pipit. Spring. Alston, March
29th, aninflux, Autumn. Allonby, September 17th, a quantity
arrived on the Solway.

Anthus trivialis. Tree Pipit. Spring. Carlisle, April 2oth;
first heard in song May 2nd.

Lanup&. Lanius excubitor. Great Grey Shrike. Spring. Carlisle,
March, one seen, which had impaled a Yellowhammer. Autumn.
Cotehill, October (second week), a two-barred male shot by Mr.
Little. Castle Sowerby, October, a Grey Shrike shot. [This
bird has still to be submitted for examination. ]

Lanius excubitor, var. major. Autumn. Skinburness,
November 2nd, a female captured with bird-limed twigs, whilst
striking at a decoy bird. In the possession of Mr, Mackenzie of
Carlisle,

35

Musicapip#. Musicapa grisola. Spotted Flycatcher. Spring.
Scotby, April!22nd (an early date), reported by Mr. A. Sutton.
Carlisle, May 2nd.

Musicapa atricapilia. Pied Flycatcher. Spring. Wreay
Woods, near Carlisle, April 25th.

Hirunpinip&. irundo rustica. Swallow.* Spring. Carlisle,
April 14th ; Allonby, April 23rd ; St. Bees, April 23rd ; Millom,
April 24th.

Chelidon urbica. Martin. Spring. Carlisle, April 20th;
Millom, April 24th ; Alston, April 24th.

Cotile riparia. Sand-Martin. Spring. Rockcliffe, March
23rd ; Carlisle, March 24th; Alston, March 30th; St. Bees,
April 24th.

FRINGILLIDZ. Chrysomitris spinus. Siskin. Winter. Carlisle,
December, numerous,

Fringilla montifringilla. Brambling. Spring. Allonby,
April 16th, one seen. Autumn. Allonby, October 2Ist, ten
seen; wind KE. Allonby, October 22nd, fresh arrivals. Winter.
Burgh, December 27th, one shot by Mr. Tremble. Alston,
December 30th, one shot whilst feeding with Chaffinches, and
the first that has come under the notice of Mr. Walton, though
Mr. B. Greenwell obtained specimens in this district in former
years.

Linota rufescens. Lesser Redpoll. Spring. Newby, Feb-
ruary 16th, great droves appeared. Allonby, a flock of eighteen
the last week in February.

Loxia curvirostra. Crossbill. Mealrigg, November, a bird
in green plumage killed, out of a flock of ten or twelve, which
frequented some fir trees.

Plectrophanes nivalis. Snow Bunting. Alston, September
26th, a single bird seen on the moor. Subsequently, very scarce
in that district, as remarked by Mr. Joseph Walton.

; * An immature fawn-coloured variety of the Swallow was shot at Longtown, on the 2gth
September, 1886.

36

ALauDIDz. <Alauda arvensis, Skylark. Autumn. Flimby,
December 12th, great numbers passed. Mr. W. Hodgson, A.L.8.,
reports that he found a great stream of Larks passing over at
daybreak, and that the movement continued in force until
10-30 a.m., after which it slackened. By noon the movement
was over. All flew S.W., wind N.E.

CypsELIDZ. Cypselus apus. Swift. Spring. Carlisle, April 29th.
Alston, May 14th, first seen.

Picip#. Dendrocopus major. Greater Spotted Woodpecker.
Edenhall, near Penrith, one killed during the autumn, as reported
by Mr. W. Raine, who adds that it is the first he has seen in
twenty-five years. An important immigration occurred last
autumn on the east coast of Scotland and England, as intimated
by Mr. Harvie Brown and Mr. A. C. Chapman.

CucuLtip#&. Cuculus canorus. Cuckoo. Spring. Carlisle, April
25th ; Millom, April 27th; Alston, April 29th.

Fatconip&. alco peregrinus. Peregrine Falcon. Autumn.
Allonby, September 23rd, a Peregrine passed over Aiglegill,
flying high. Allonby, September 26th, a Peregrine killed a
Blackheaded Gull in the presence of Mr. Richard Mann.
Allonby, December 28th, a Peregrine paid two visits to the
farmstead at Aiglegill, apparently in search of dovecote pigeons.

It is to be regretted that five Peregrines and two Buzzards
(Buteo vulgaris, ) were killed in Cumberland in 1886. Of these,
the Buzzards, and two of the Peregrines, were killed on the
Edenhall property. A third Peregrine was shot on the Raven-
glass estuary. The fourth and fifth Peregrines were sent to Mr.
Dawson.

Faico esalon. Merlin. Winter. Allonby, December 24th,
a Merlin chased a Skylark so closely, that the small bird sought
refuge in a barn, where it was captured.

PeLecaniv&. Sula bassana. Gannet. Spring. Martindale
Fells, May 28th, an immature bird was captured on the ground.
Autumn. Silloth, an adult was seen by Mr. Low.

In 1885, a Gannet was caught in a burn near Crossfell, Sep-
tember 16th, and taken to Mr. Joseph Walton,

37

ANATID£. Anser (sp. incerta). Grey Goose. Spring. Allonby,
March 20th, a flock of eighteen passed over, flying east; wind
southerly, strong. ‘‘These are the first I have seen this spring,”
writes Mr. R. Mann.

Allonby, April 27th, a flock of one hundred and twenty Grey
Geese passed over, flying north ; weather fine, light N. breeze.

Summer. Allonby, July, eight Grey Geese seen.

Autumn. Allonby, October 5th, thirteen Geese passed ;
weather fine, wind E.

Allonby, October 15th, flock of between seventy and eighty
Geese passed, going S.W.; weather stormy, wind S.E.

Allonby, October 16th, eleven Geese going S.W.; wind E.,
stormy.

Allonby, November 17th, eleven Geese, going nearly due north,

Allouby, November 30th, five Geese flew N.W.; weather fine,
cold ; wind N. W.

Nors.—It is probable that some of the Grey Geese thus
reported are Pinkfooted Geese. The Report for 1887 will
contain some remarks on this species.

Anser segetum. Bean Goose. Winter. Allonby, January,
one shot, weighed 72 lbs.; weather severe. Rockcliffe, May 8rd,
“There are still about thirty Bean Geese on the marsh,” says
Mr. A. Smith, ‘‘but they are very wild.”

[Autumn. November, some obtained on the Solway. ]

Bernicia brenta. Brent Goose. English Solway, January
and February, a few shot. All dark-breasted birds. Bowness,
two shot March 13rth, adults, male and female. Mr. Macpherson
dissected the gander, and found its stomach extended with marsh
grass, upon which it had been feeding voraciously, together with
some fine sand.

Bernicla leucopsis. Barnacle Goose. Autumn, Rockcliffe,
October 5th, first heard. Rockcliffe, October 11th, arrived in
force.

Notz.—A single Barnacle, full winged, passed the entire
summer on the Solway, and was seen by Mr. Duckworth on
_ May 20th and June 13th.

38

Mareca penelope. Wigeon. Spring. Allonby, February
11th, evening, two flocks of fifty and sixty birds seen by Mr. R.
Mann, flying east, as though on a long flight. Mr. A. Smith
writes under date April 8th: ‘“‘There has been more Wigeon
[and Teal] about Rockcliffe Marsh during the last three weeks,
than there was at any time during the winter. I have no doubt
that they have been detained by the cold weather and snow.”

Carlisle, April 2lst, some flights of Wigeon passed up the
Eden, flying east ; wind S.W. to N.E.

Rockcliffe, April 21st, as at Carlisle.

Rockcliffe, April 22nd—26th, some passed.

Rockcliffe, April 27th, a great rush of Wigeon in an easterly
direction; the movement was at its height from 9 p.m. to
10-45 p.m., and the birds passed up both sides of the Eden, with
intervals of about five minutes between the flocks, until 10-45 ;
after 10-45, the birds continued to pass, but at much longer
intervals,

Ravenglass, April 23rd, two Wigeon on estuary ; last seen.

Moukhill Lough, April 26th ; last seen.

Autumn. Monkhill, September 7th—13th, a large flight
arrived.

Ravenglass, October 6th, two seen.

Allonby, October 7th, a flock of fifty Wigeon.

Dajila acuta. Pintail. Spring. Drumburgh, February 2oth,

one shot. Autumn. Glasson, October 23rd, one killed.

Chavilelasmus streperus. Gadwall. Spring. Silloth, March,
two seen; female shot, sent to Mr. Macpherson. Autumn.
Silloth, October 28th, a bird in first plumage shot out of a flock
of Wigeon ; sent to Mackenzie of Carlisle.

Fuligula ferina. Pochard. Spring. Silloth, February 26th,
two shot, and sent to Mr. Macpherson. Autumn. Silloth,
August 18th, some shot, as reported by Mr. Dawson. Alston,
October, one adult male shot, as reported by Rev. H. H. Slater.

Norr.—Mr. Macpherson examined a male shot near Alston in
January, 1884, and has also a memorandum of four shot, out of
a flock of thirty, in the Alston district, in a former year.

39

Clangula glaucion. Goldeneye. Spring. Monkhill, April
26th, last seen. Autumn. Allonby, October 21st, one shot by
Mr. Thomas Mann. Monkhill, October 24th, a small party.
Burgh, December 28rd, a fine adult drake shot by W. Railton.

Somateria mollisima. Eider Duck. Spring. Maryport,
March, a party of thirteen seen by Mr. R. Mann, seven in male
plumage.

Gdemia nigra. Common Scoter. Autumn and Winter.
Silloth. More numerous than usual. An adult male shot on
September 3rd, and sent to Mr. Macpherson, retained many of
the brown feathers of ‘‘eclipse” plumage. Adults and immature
birds were obtained from September to the end of the year.
Immature males begin to assume the black dress at the end of
January.

demia fusca. Velvet Scoter. Autumn. Cargo-on-Eden,
December 22nd, an adult male shot.

Mergus merganser. Goosander. Winter, 1885-6. Ullswater

- Lake, a bird in female dress shot. Mr. Tremble reports that
during the year he observed the following species on Monkhill
Lough: ‘Mallard, Teal, Goldeneye, Tufted Duck, Gcosander,
Scaup, and Pochard.”

Mergus serrator. Red-breasted Merganser. Spring. Silloth,
February 26th, one shot, Silloth, March 13th, an adult male
shot, and sent to Mr. Macpherson.

RaLiips®. Crex pratensis. Corncrake. Spring. Carlisle, April
26th, heard. Allonby, April 28th, seen and heard. Autumn.
Eden Lacy, October 7th, one ‘‘telegraphed.” Carlisle, November
18th, one telegraphed.

Gallinula chloropus. Moorhen. Spring. Sandwith, Light-
house, April 11th, 3 a.m., a Moorhen committed suicide by
striking the lantern, Wind N.N.E., fog, snow.

CHARADRUDE. Sguatarola helvetica. Grey Plover. Spring.
Allonby, May 7th, a party of six observed by Mr. R. Mann.
Autumn. Silloth, September, a good-sized flock arrived on the
_ Wampool and Waver estuary. Mr. Low remarks that, ‘Among
those seen were two which still retained the black breasts of
summer.”

40

Charadrius morinellus. Dotterel. Spring. Allonby, May
6th and 8th, four Dotterel seen by Mr. R. Mann. Mr. H. P.
Senhouse reports the presence of this species on Robinson about
the same date.

Gallinago major. Great Snipe. Autumn. Carlisle, October
30th, one shot.

Tringa striata. Purple Sandpiper. Autumn. Silloth,
October 30th, one shot.

Calidris arenaria, Sanderling. Spring. Bowness, May 2oth,
flocks. Autumn. Burgh, December, a large flock.

Tringoides hypoleucos. Common Sandpiper. Spring. Carlisle,
April 16th. Millom, April 29th, numerous on estuary. Alston,
first noticed May 15th.

Totanus canescens. Greenshank. Spring. Ravenglass,
March 26th, last seen. Autumn. Ravenglass, August 16th,
first seen.

Limosa lapponica. Bartailed Godwit. Silloth, September,

many immature.

Norr.—Mr. Low reports that Godwits in red plumage passed
the entire summer on the Solway in 1886.

Numenius pheopus. Whimbrel, Spring. Allonby, April
26th, two seen. May 7th, many arrived. May Sth, fifty in one
flock, observed by Mr. R. Mann to be feeding in grass and clover
fields. May 25th, last seen. Autumn. Allonby, July 24th,
one seen ; July 27th, two seen.

Larip&. Sterna fluviatilis. Common Tern. Spring. Raven-
glass, May 3rd, first seen. Rockcliffe, May 4th. Autumn.
Ravenglass, September 6th, last seen ; strong S.W. wind.

Sterna minuta. Lesser Tern. Spring. Ravenglass, April
29th, first seen on estuary; wind S.S.W. Autumn. Ravenglass,
August 28th, last seen; wind N.E.

Sterna cantiaca. Spring. Ravenglass, April 2nd, first

arrived at breeding grounds. Allonby, April 16th, a pair seen
by Mr. R. Mann. Autumn. Ravenglass, August 23rd, last
seen ; wind ‘‘strong” from N,N. W.

41

Larus minutus. Little Gull. Autumn. Skinburness,
August, two observed by Mr. Low and Mr. Nicol (who has shot
the species), towards the end of the month.

Stercorarius crepidatus. Richardson’s Skua. Autumn.
Mr. Johnston writes from Beckfoot, that he saw several Skuas
in the fall of the year.

CoLyMBIDA&.. Colymbus arcticus. Black-throated Diver. Winter.
Silloth, December 29th, one shot in winter dress.

Colymbus septentrionalis. Red-throated Diver. Mr. Low
writes that ‘“‘a good many speckled divers [as well as Scoters
and Scaups]” frequented the Wampool estuary during the
autumn and winter of 1886.

Aucip&. Uria grylle. Black Guillemot. Waver estuary, Sep-
tember 28th, a single bird observed by Mr. W. Duckworth.
Prior to its arrival, heavy gales from W. and S. W. had prevailed,
accompanied by very high tides.

SUMMARY.

A careful study of the data thus collated suggests that the
vernal passage of small immigrants was unusually protracted in
1886; though it should be borne in mind, that the first birds
observed are usually pioneers, and that at least a month elapses
before the bulk of summer visitants have generally completed the
passage to their breeding grounds.

In 1886, the Wheatear, Chiff-chaff, and Sand-Martin arrived as
usual at the end of March; but the following month was cold, and
it was not until May 7th that all the Sylviadz had arrived. This
tardiness of movement was correlated with the prevalence of cold
winds, accompanied by an apparent absence of insect life.

Thus, during the week ending April 24th, cold N.E. winds pre-
vailed, and small birds were scarce. The succeeding week proved
unsettled, the wind shifting from S.E. to W., and then to N.E,,
_ and the birds appeared to be hanging back.

42

But the week ending May 7th was both warm and fine, and all
the loiterers appeared. In commenting on the weather, due
regard should of course be paid to the atmospheric conditions
prevailing further south, which must have induced the migrants to
await favourable opportunities for proceeding northwards.

The vernal notes of Mr. R. Mann indicate, that Whimbrel
lingered for a month on the Solway, unless indeed the birds
observed were successive instalments which rested and then
passed on.

The presence of the Dotterel on the Solway in May is eminently
satisfactory.

The vernal movement of Wigeon in an easterly direction closely
corresponds with that of 1885, though the rush came ten days
later than in the former year.

The influx of Missel Thrushes at St. Bees in April indicates the
importance of observations at that station.

Mr. Hodgson’s remarks on a great rush of Skylarks in December
bear strongly upon Mr. Harvie Brown’s remarks in the Migration
Report of 1886; while Mr. Eagle Clarke’s suggestion, that many
migrants pass in autumn from Scotland to North Wales, wa the
Isle of Man, thus avozding the coasts of Cumberland and Lanca-
shire, is full of suggestiveness.

The year 1886 is notable for the absence of certain species in
the numbers of former years. Thus, zo Goldcrests are reported
from the coast ; while the only Short-eared Owl mentioned by any
correspondent was probably a home-bred bird, having been shot
at Burgh by Mr. Tremble on September 3rd; on which day, an
example was shot in the same district in 1884.

The presence of Grey Shrikes in spring and autumn confirms
the supposition that one or other form occurs in Cumberland
almost every year.

The absence of the Ruff from the record is to be assigned to
the fact that shooting was prohibited on the favourite marsh of
that species, during the past autumn. Mr, Tremble remarks, in
this connection, that, from the year 1856 to 1885, he invariably
met with the Ruff on Burgh Marsh in September.

43

The year 1886 leaves the census* of the Cumberland avian
fauna unaltered; but the occurrences of the Black Redstart,
Gadwall, Velvet Scoter, Eider, Great Snipe, Little Gull, Black-
throated Diver, and Black Guillemot, present some features of
interest.

In conclusion, the Recorders would tender their grateful thanks
to Mr. H. P. Senhouse, to Mr. R. Mann, Mr. A. Smith, and
other friends already named, whose hearty support has enabled
them to prepare the present report.

Tt cannot be too widely understood, that the writers desire to
receive information from every quarter. Intimation of rare birds
seen or obtained should a/ways be sent to the Recorders.

MAMMALIA.
III.—THE QUADRUPEDS OF CUMBERLAND.

(1.) Vespertilio nattert. Reddish-grey Bat.

Early in August last a numerous colony of this Bat was dis-
covered by Mr. A. Smith to have become established in an out-house,
in immediate proximity to the chimney of the gas works at Castle-
town. Of three living specimens sent up to Mr. Macpherson, one
happened to escape in a room during the afternoon of its arrival,
and flew restlessly to and fro with a light and petulant flight.
Although of course entirely unaccustomed to its new and strange
environment, this bat constantly and with considerably dexterity
avoided coming into contact with any external body, until it
happened to reach the window panes, when it appeared to be
spurred with the hope of escape, fluttering against the panes with
all the eagerness of a bird that fails to understand the substantiality
of the transparent barrier opposed to its desired exit. Subsequently
resuming its interrupted flight, the bat gyrated freely in all direc-
tions, usually flying at a height of ten or twelve feet, and wheeling
to and fro with enviable grace and buoyancy.

Mr. Duckworth subsequently observed an example which had
strayed into a room at Castletown, probably one of those previously
evicted from the out-house.

* Captain Johnson of Castlesteads has kindly expressed his impression, that
the Spotted Redshank preserved in the Proud Collection (Birds of Cumber-

land, p: 159) was obtained by himself on the continent. The doubt thus thrown
on this specimen in no way affects the presence of the species in the county list.

44

(2.) Capreolus caprea. Roe Deer.

The presence of Roe Deer in Cumberland having been doubted
in some quarters, for lack of published information, it becomes
desirable to state that a limited number of Roe Deer are established
near Wigton, in the north of the county. These graceful little
deer wander through the largest of our border plantations, occasion-
ally making their appearance in new and unexpected localities.
Thus, in 1880, a male Roe, which had no doubted forded the Eden,
took up its residence in the Cotehill woods, where it was frequently
seen for two years, as reported by Mr. T. H. Horrocks aud other
gentlemen. Ultimately it disappeared,—no one knew exactly
how,—but suspicion fell upon a local poacher who brought a Roe
into Carlisle about the time of its supposed decease.

The resident Roes maintain their numbers steadily, but there is
no marked increase. The leaves of brambles form an important
part of their diet during the winter months.

When visiting the haunts of the Roe on April 23rd, 1886, Mr.
Duckworth witnessed an interesting incident. On that day, a Roe
which had been reared as a pet by the keeper’s children, but had
disappeared for a period of eight or nine months, returned to her
early home. The school children gathered eagerly around their
lost favourite, caressing her and hastening to decorate her slight
neck with the insignia of a blue ribbon. The wilder mate, which
had accompanied the truant to her early asylum, kept watch in a
covert two hundred yards distant, awaiting the return of his partner
with manifest concern.

SUMMARY.

The continued frost of the spring of 1886, and the heavy fall of
snow in May inflicted grievous losses upon the Red Deer ( Cervus
elaphus,) of Martindale, and some years must elapse before the
mischief can be repaired.

One or two specimens of the Pine Marten (MJartes abietum, )
were recorded as killed in the Lake district during the year.

The occurrence of a dog Badger, weighing eighteen pounds, at
Thirlmere, when considered with other evidence, militates against
the published opinion of the late Mr. W. Dickinson, F.L.S., that
the Badger became extinct in the Lake District at the beginning of
the present century.

a eee ee ee

ee. re

rr «

DG AS RS AARON SE IO eR re IES EY

<a aaa

45

Mr. J. E. Harting has obligingly called Mr. Macpherson’s
attention to interesting records published in his essay on Roe
Deer ; showing that the Roe must have been abundant in east
Cumberland in the reign of Charles I., to judge from the number
captured for the sovereign upon the Howards’ estate at Naworth.
On this subject, further information is earnestly desired by the
Recorders.

Mr. A. Smith’s discovery of the Reddish-grey Bat, at Rockcliffe,
raises the number of species of Bats found in Cumberland to six.
Of these, the Pipistrelle occurs in great abundance, but the Long-
eared Bat is also numerous.

The Whiskered Bat ( Vespertilio mystacinus), Daubenton’s Bat
( Vespertitio daubentonii ), and the Barbastelle ( Barbastellus dauben-
tonii ), were formerly obtained, at least in single instances, by the
collectors of the late Mr. T. C. Heysham, in the neighbourhood
of Carlisle. At the Heysham sale, the specimens in question
entered the collection of Mr. F. Bond, whose kindness enabled
Mr. Macpherson to examine them and take transcripts of their
labels. It is not known that the Barbastelle or Daubenton’s Bat
have been obtained in Cumberland since Mr. Heysham’s death ;
but in 1885 the Recorders had the pleasure of identifying a newly
captured example of the Whiskered Bat.

The specimen in question was felled during an evening stroll
on the south bank of the Eden, by the stroke of a chance umbrella,
and was at once sent on to Mr. Macpherson, by James Fell.

During the present year, it is confidently hoped that more
progress may be made in investigating the Mammals, and especially
the Bats, of Cumberland. Zhe Recorders are most anxious to
receive examples of Bats (excepting the Long-eared and Pipistrelle)
Srom all parts of the county. Specimens should be sent alive, or
freshly killed, to the Rev. H. A. MacpHeErson, 3 Kensington
Gardens Square, W.; or to Mr. W. Ducxwortu, 8a George
Street, Carlisle.

All incidental expenses are gladly borne by the Recorders,

47

BRAMPTON IN 1745.

By Rev. H. WHITEHEAD.

(Read at Carlisle, March 22nd, 1887.)

WHEN, on Sunday, November roth, 1745, Prince Charles Stuart
was about to begin the siege of Carlisle, hearing that Marshal
Wade was expected from Newcastle, he changed his plans, deter-
mining to march eastward, so as to engage the English on hilly
ground, his Highlanders being accustomed to such ground, and
next morning marched with the greater part of his army to
Brampton ; where, having probably intended to stay but a single
night, he remained a week—more than twice as long as he stayed
anywhere else in England, and a sixth part of the whole period of
his campaign on this side of the Border.

To the inhabitants of Brampton he may have caused some
temporary inconvenience: for which, however, he made ample
amends by providing them for the rest of their lives with something
highly interesting to talk about ; the traditions of which have ever
since held the foremost place in the otherwise uneventful annals of
that quiet little town.

“They came down the Lonning”, said old David Latimer,*
relating to me what he had heard in his youth from eye-witnesses
of the Highlanders’ arrival at Brampton, “and took possession of
the chapel, where a number of them ate, drank, and slept”.

* He died in 1881, aged eighty-four. All statements as to ages of persons

mentioned in this paper have been verified, wherever possible, by reference to
registers, tombstones, and family bibles.

48

There was at that time no other entrance into Brampton from
Carlisle than “down the Lonning”; and to persons coming that
way into the town the chapel of the almshouses, on the site of
which now stands the parish church, would be almost the first
large building which presented itself to their notice.

The prince selected for himself the house now occupied by
Mr. W. Hetherington, draper, in High Cross Street; the stables
adjoining which house have only of late years ceased to be called
the “cavalry stables”; and another house in the same street, to
this day known as “the barracks”, by its name hands on the
tradition of the use to which it once was put.

Charles, whilst his soldiers were establishing themselves in these
“barracks” and other quarters in and around Brampton, occupied
himself with writing a letter, dated “Brampton, Nov. 11, 1745”,
and signed “Charles Prince Regent”, in which he informed his
correspondent, Lord Barrymore, who lived in Cheshire, that he
expected soon to take Carlisle, and to be in Cheshire before the
24th inst., when he hoped that all his friends in that county would
be ready to join him. (Ewald’s Life of Prince Charles Stuart,
vol. 1. p. 260). :

It was this confident expectation of being joined by great
numbers of English Jacobites which justified to his mind his
having taken the hazardous step of invading England. He fully
reckoned upon being not only welcomed, but also assisted, as a
deliverer.

He was therefore very anxious that his troops should be on their
best behaviour during their march southward, and not unnecessarily
molest the inhabitants of the districts through which they had
occasion to pass; a line of policy which his officers and the more
intelligent of their men consistently followed. Thus on the day of
their arrival at Brampton, Nov. 11, his “lifeguards”, described as
“well-dressed good-looking men”, are stated to have been at
Naworth Castle, where “they behaved with complaisance” (Moun-
sey’s Carlisle in 1745, p. 44). Sergeant Clark, of Brampton, now
in his eighty-third year, says that when a boy he heard one Mary
Gardner, who was eleven years old in 1745, relate that one day,

49

when Lord George Murray and his staff were dining in her father’s
farmhouse at Westlinton, some Highlanders looked in, but seeing
who were there backed out. When Lord George and his party
had finished their dinner they asked what they had to pay. Being
told there was nothing to pay, “Well”, said his lordship, “I believe
we have saved you more than we have got”. Host and guest, no
doubt, parted very good friends.

But some of the rank and file, unless they have been maligned,
were not content with dining off what was set before them in the
farmhouses which they visited. The “lifeguards” might behave
“with complaisance” at Naworth Castle. Meanwhile some of
their comrades are alleged to have been “hunting and destroying
the sheep of Lord Carlisle’s tenants, and bearing off the country
people’s geese and other poultry” (Ray’s Aistory of the Rebellion
of 1745, Pp. 95); which they are said to have done in spite of
remonstrance from their officers, who “expressed great dissatis-
faction, but could not restrain them” (Mounsey, p. 44).

Such men as these got the whole army a bad name, and
occasioned alarm for lives more precious than those of sheep and
geese. The late Mr. T. Routledge, currier, of Brampton, who
died in October last, aged seventy-five, told me that he remembered
having heard his grandmother say that she and other children were
sent off to Nether Denton to be out of the way of the Highlanders.
She did not tell him, however, and perhaps herself never knew, the
fate of which they were supposed to have been in danger. The
following story, related by one who was in the prince’s army,
throws light on this matter :—

Mr. Halkstone, whilst the army lay at Carlisle, was taken ill, and went with
a few of his companions to a farmer’s house in the neighbourhood, where he
remained several days. Perceiving his landlady to be a young woman he asked
her if she had any children and where they were. When she found that he
was no cannibal, she told him the truth was that all the children were sent out
of the way for fear the Highlanders should devour them (The Chevalier de
Johnstone’s Memozrs of the Rebellion in 1745, p. 101).

Cameron of Lochiel, at one place where he stayed a night, was

told by his landlady that “everybody said the Highlanders ate
4

50

children and made them their common food”. On his assuring
her that they did nothing of the kind “she opened a press, calling
out with a loud voice: ‘Come out, children, the gentleman will
not eat you’” (70).

But, if the sending away of children from Brampton was an
unnecessary measure, perhaps the precaution taken by Mr. Bell, of
the Townfoot farm, as related to me by his great-granddaughter,
was not out of place; he hid his plate in a draw-well. Many
families in the northern counties have a tradition of the burying of
their ancestral plate in 1745. Churchwardens, too, in. many
places concealed their communion plate ; as at Penrith, where the
church accounts record ‘‘expenses for securing church plate in
Rebellion”, and at All Saints, Newcastle, where five shillings were
paid “to gravedigger for concealing and secreting church plate”.
It may be hoped that it is not solely owing to such precautions
that nowhere in the diocese of Carlisle is there any tradition of
church plate having been plundered in 1745.* On November 11,
however, as related by Dr. Waugh, then chancellor of the diocese,
‘a party that came to Stanwix, said to be commanded by Glen-
bucket”, after gutting the vicarage, “destroyed the parish bookst
and registers” (Mounsey, p. 64); a “superfluity of naughtiness”,
difficult to account for except by supposing that they were
disappointed at not finding the church plate.

His object in marching to Brampton having been to encounter
Marshal Wade, who was believed to be coming from Newcastle to
the relief of Carlisle, but was not yet reported as near at hand,

* Had there been any such tradition, it would not have escaped the knowledge
of the compilers of the book on ‘‘Old Church Plate in the Diocese of Carlisle”,
published by Thurnam in 1882.

+ The then curate of Stanwix, Mr. Robert Wardale, writing to the chancellor
about the loss of the registers, said: ‘‘I should be glad of your directions how
to proceed in this particular” (Mounsey, p. 203). What directions, if any, the
chancellor gave, there is nothing to shew. If he gave the right directions, they
were not followed ; for there is still no copy at Stanwix of the missing registers.
It is not too late, however, to advise the present vicar ‘‘how to proceed in this
particular”. He should get permission from the bishop’s registrar to take a
copy of the transcripts; which, from about the time of the Restoration, are
preserved in the episcopal registry at Carlisle. By so doing, as it is known
that even in 1703 there was no register extant at Stanwix of earlier date than
1662 (Bp. Nicolson’s Visitation, p. 105), he will be able to recover all the
contents of the registers which Gordon of Glenbucket’s men destroyed. .

51.

the prince, on Tuesday, the 12th, held a council of war, at which
he proposed that they should march further eastward to meet
Wade. But after much discussion it was resolved that part of the
army should return to besiege Carlisle, while the remainder should
stay at Brampton.

So next morning, Wednesday, the 13th, several regiments left
Brampton with orders to wait for the prince at Warwick Bridge,
half-way between Brampton and Carlisle. About noon he arrived,
and led them on to within sight of the city, when he left them,
and returned with his guards to Brampton. The regiments
marched on to Carlisle, and at once set to work opening the
trenches.

The story of the siege of Carlisle is too well known to need
repeating here. But, on behalf of the people of Cumberland and
Westmorland, “whose courage”, as Mr. Mounsey truly says, “has
been proved during centuries of border warfare both regular and
predatory”, it is right to mention that the ignominious surrender
of the city by the militia of those counties is best accounted for by
the theory that “the conduct of the militia had its origin ina
leaning towards the Stuarts, or at least an indifference towards the
house of Hanover” (2d. p. 98).

On Friday, the 15th, the prince still remaining at Brampton,
from which place he dictated the terms of surrender, the duke of
Perth entered and took possession of the city.

The surrender was greatly against the will of Colonel Durand,
the castle garrison, the majority of the citizens, and some of the
militia officers, one of whom, Mr. Joseph Dacre, of Kirklinton
Hall, father of Rosemary Dacre, whose romantic story forms the
subject of an interesting paper by Miss Goodwin in the “Cumber-
land and Westmorland Archeological Transactions” (vol. viii,
Pp. 237-244), and great-grandfather of the present vicar of
Irthington, when the health of the Prince as Regent was drunk in
_ the market place by the Highlanders, “deliberately proposed the
health of King George” (Mounsey, p. 50).

On Saturday, the 16th, the duke of Perth “proclaimed King
_ James, attended by the mayor and ciyil officers in their robes,

52

with their sword and mace”; and, if it was on the same day that
“the keys of the city were presented to the prince at Brampton by
the mayor and corporation on their knees” (2d), the mayor and his
colleagues had enough of humiliation for one day. Especially the
mayor, Thomas Pattison, who however was only the deputy-
mayor, must have keenly felt his position when he remembered
his grandiloquent letter of the 13th inst. to Lord Lonsdale :

I told your Lordship that we would defend this city. Its proving true gives
me pleasure, and more so since we have outdone Edinburgh, nay, all
Scotland. * * * Ifyou think proper I would have you mention our success
to the duke of Newcastle and to General Wade (Ewald i, 258).

His lordship did think proper to mention it to the duke of
Newcastle, and the duke thought proper to mention it to the king,
who ordered the duke to write and congratulate Mr. Pattison upon
“the great honour the town of Carlisle has gained by setting this
example of firmness and resolution” (zd, 259). And he, poor man,
now down on his knees at Brampton, delivering up the keys of
Carlisle !

Whether Lord Lonsdale also thought proper to mention what
he had heard from Pattison to General Wade, we do not know.
If he did, then he only confirmed Wade in his opinion that there
was no need for him to march at all to the relief of Carlisle ; for
on November roth, the very day when the rumour reached Carlisle
that he was marching from Newcastle, he had written a letter to
Colonel Durand to the effect that as “the rebels” would probably
“proceed to Lancashire” without stopping to besiege Carlisle, he
saw no necessity for coming to his assistance (Mounsey, p. 47).
Nor was it until Thursday, the 16th, that having heard of the siege
he left Newcastle only to learn on arriving at Hexham that Carlisle
had surrendered. Then he returned to Newcastle, bitterly com-
plaining of the state of the roads.*

* Which, five years later, he was commissioned to repair, when he made
what has ever since been known as the ‘‘military way’ from Newcastle to
Carlisle ; no doubt an excellent road; but, as to make a good foundation for
it he placed it wherever he could on the site of the Roman Wall, which he

threw down to its lowest course for that purpose, his memory is held in no
greater esteem by antiquaries than by military critics.

53

It was doubtless to be ready for Wade, in case he should come
on, that Charles remained as long as he did at Brampton.

Some interesting particulars relating to his stay at Brampton are
given in the following extracts from his household book (Jefferson’s
History of Carlisle, p. 73) —

November 12.—At Brampton, Tuesday, to 4% stone bife at 2d, 12s; to
I sheepe, 6s; to 11} stone bife at 2d, 14 10s; to 2 sheepe, 14s; to IO
poulets, 3s 6d; to 2 geese, 2s 2d; to 5 ducks, 3s 4d.

November 13.—At Brampton, Wednesday ; Carlisle besieged by the Duke
of Perth and his regiment.

November 14.—At Brampton (when the prince was at Brampton he went
one day to Squire Warwick’s house and dined there) Thursday, 3 chickens, Is;
12 do, 3s; 4 ducks, 288d; 4 hens, 286d; 2 ducks, Is4d; 5 hens, 1s 8d;
5 chickens, 1s 8d; 3 ducks, 2s; 3 hens, 2s; 9 hens, 6s; pd for 774 pd butter,
at 4d, 1£ 5s 10d; pd for 17 pd do, at 44d, 6s 43d.

November 15.—Friday, Carlisle surrendered to the Duke of Perth and his
regiment, who would not be relieved.

November 16 and 17.—The Prince still at Brampton, Saturday and Sunday.

From which items it is evident that the prince, unlike the
marauders who are alleged to have shot sheep and geese, regularly
paid for all that he and his lifeguards consumed ; which indeed
according to all accounts was his invariable custom.

That a good deal of unauthorised foraging was done by some of
the rougher sort of his followers is confirmed by the traditions of
many farm houses in the neighbourhood of Brampton. But
Brampton tradition is comparatively silent about plunder of any
other kind. Mr. George Howard, on my asking him whether the
Highlanders committed any depredations at Naworth Castle, said
there was at that time very little there to plunder, Lord Carlisle
and his family being non-resident ; and the only thing known to
have been taken from the castle in 1745 was the lace from off the
hangings of a bed which had been the portion of the first Lady
Carlisle. It is to be hoped this was not taken by the prince’s
lifeguards. Others there were, of less ‘“complaisance”, prowlingabout
during that week; to whom let us impute this act of spoliation.
But, whoever they were, they left behind at the castle some of
their own property, which one would think was more valuable to

54

them at such a time than any amount of lace, viz., a halbert, pike,
and javelin ; on one of which weapons is the date 1745. _

They seem to have had a way of leaving such things behind ;
for at the Half-Moon in Brampton, then kept by the great-great-
grandfather of the present landlord, Mr. Thomas Thompson,
where according to tradition in Mr. Thompson’s family eight
troopers were quartered, one of them on the departure of the army
lett behind a sword, which has ever since remained at the Half-
Moon.* It is what is called a ‘dress sword”, one worn by officers
at balls or on state occasions, and may therefore have belonged to
some one of distinction.

Of persons of distinction there was no lack in that army. Indeed
there were too many of them for the good of the cause they had at
heart ; which their mutual jealousy did much to weaken. Nor was
the prince as discreet as he should have been in his mode of
dealing with this jealousy; as is indicated by the exclusive reference
in his household book to the “Duke of Perth and his regiment”,
as if they alone were engaged in the siege of Carlisle. No doubt
they did the chief part of the work, such as it was, during the
siege. Nor did they join in a demand, made by some of the
besiegers, that the men remaining in Brampton should take their
turn in the trenches; which explains the note in the household

* Doubts having been expressed in some quarters as to the genuineness of
weapons said to have been left behind by the Highlanders in 1745, it may be as
well to state that the five generations through which the story of the sword at
the Half Moon has been handed down may be practically reduced to three, as
shewn by the following pedigree, the dates in which are taken from Brampton
parish register :

John Thompson FES born —— ate died 1774
Joseph Thompson _... as 1738 Ps », 1812
Joseph Thompson _.... 5 L704 a2 1838
Joseph Thompson... Oe Loe “i 53) 2850
Thomas Thompson ... » 1818 Br .»

Now Joseph the second, who died when Thomas, who isstill living, was twenty
years old, always said that the sword had been in the house ever since he could
remember anything, and that his father (Joseph the first) and grandfather (John),
the former of whom died when he (Joseph the second) was forty-eight, and the
latter when he was ten, both of whom were eye-wilnesses of the stay of the
eight troopers at the Half Moon, always spoke of it as having been left behind
when the army quitted Brampton to resume the siege of Carlisle. The Half
Moon, I may here state, as a fact having an interest of its own, is the only
house in the town of Brampton, as far as I know, now inhabited by a member
of the family which occupied it in 1745.

55

book that they “would not be relieved”. But it was fortunate
for the duke, who was an incapable commander, that the city
surrendered as it did; since his arrangements for conducting the
siege, in the opinion of the prince’s ablest general, Lord George
Murray, were very defective.

The visit to “Squire Warwick’s house”, mentioned in the
household book, “was, no doubt”, says Mr. Mounsey, ‘‘on the
13th”, the day of “the muster at Warwick Bridge”. The squire,
though a Jacobite and a Roman Catholic, was prudently “out of
the way”, leaving the prince to be entertained by his wife, ‘“‘a
daughter of Thomas Howard, of Corby Casile, of a family which
had fought and bled for Charles the First”. So pleased was the
prince with his reception at Warwick Hall that ‘he observed that
these were the first Christian people he had met with since he
crossed the Border” (Mounsey, p. 45-6).

Bearing in mind that observation we must assign to a later day
in the same week a visit which he is alleged to have paid about
that time to another Jacobite family. The late Mr. W. H.
Henfrey, the well-known numismatist, wrote to me some years ago,
stating that there was a tradition in his family, corroborated by
letters and other documents in his possession, that his great-great-
grandparents, whose name was Hetherington, but of whose resi-
dence he only knew that it was somewhere in Cumberland, had on
one occasion entertained Prince Charles Stuart in the ’45; and he
asked me to aid him in his endeavours to localize them. This led
to my having much correspondence with Mr. Henfrey, who in one
of his letters said :—

Mrs. Hetherington, who was a great Jacobite, subsequently left Cumberland,
and came with her daughters (she had no son) to reside in London. She was a
great friend of Lady Primrose; and both ladies hid and entertained Prince
Charles Edward when he paid his secret visits to London. It is now known
for certain that on one of those visits he was formally received into the
Protestant faith at the church of St. Mary-le-Strand. I have an independent
family account of this interesting occurrence ; which Mrs. Hetherington greatly
assisted in bringing about. I have also the Bible the prince used on the
occasion,

56

In another letter he informed me that Mrs. Hetherington’s
eldest daughter, Ann, who was married to his great-grandfather, a
captain in the Guards, at Hampton church, in 1770, used to
describe how “she remembered kissing the prince’s hand with
great ceremony when she was quite a little girl; when she noticed
the webbing of his fingers, though he wore long ruffles to disguise
it”. The second daughter, Jane, was married in 1771 to Benjamin
Wilson, historical painter, and became mother of the famous
general Sir Robert Wilson. Of the third and youngest daughter,
Mary, he had no information. The object of our investigation
was to find the baptismal certificates of these three sisters, which
of course would indicate their parents’ residence. Many parish
registers did I search for this purpose; but lost my way among
the innumerable Hetheringtons of Brampton and its vicinity.

Near Warwick Bridge, on Wednesday, the 13th, while the prince
was dining at the hall close by, there was busy work going on,
exacted from unwilling hands, in the neighbouring woods. The
Carlisle Patriot of February 24, 1821, in its obituary had the
following paragraph :—

At Brampton on Sunday last, at the extreme age of 101, Mr. John Heward,
carpenter. This venerable man worked 60 years in the employment of the
Earl of Carlisle, and daily walked to his labour a distance of three miles till he
was 96, and was generally the first person on the spot. During the rebellion
of 1745 he was pressed by the rebels, who conveyed him to Corby, and there
compelled him to make ladders, with which they designed to scale the wails of
Carlisle. Whilst engaged in this employment he saw Prince Charlie, and picked
up from various sources considerable information as to that young adventurer’s
operations, which he was fond of relating to the day of his death.

That Brampton carpenters were taken by the Highlanders on
November 13th to Warwick Bridge and forced to make ladders is
a historical fact; recorded by the Gentleman's Magazine of the
period (vol. xvi, p. 604) in its “Advices from the North”; also
attested by Mr. Israel Bennett, formerly Presbyterian minister at
Brampton, who before November in 1745 had removed to Carlisle
(Mounsey, p. 68). The reason why the Highlanders were under
the necessity of having new ladders made was because there were

57

none at hand for them to beg, borrow, or steal, Colonel Durand
having taken the precaution of requesting the county magistrates
“to issue warrants for bringing into the town (Carlisle) all the
ladders within seven miles round and further, which was immedi-
ately complied with and the ladders brought in” (2, p. 73). John
Heward, who survived his work at Warwick Bridge seventy-six
years, must needs have died a very old man. His age, in Brampton
parish register and on his tombstone, is given as a hundred. But
he was not quite a centenarian ; for, according to the register of
his native parish, Kirklinton, his parents were married November
10, 1719; their eldest child, Eleanor, was baptized December 4,
1720; and John, their second child, was baptized March 18,
1721-2 (old style). He had therefore at his death almost, if not
quite, entered his hundredth year. His grand-daughter, Miss
Lydia Hewitt, of Brampton, now in her eighty-fourth year, says
she had long in her possession an account which he wrote of his
adventures whilst with the army; which she cannot now find. It
is to be hoped it may yet be recovered. Meanwhile Miss Hewitt,
who in her seventeenth year heard part of the story of the ’45
from one who was a grown man when he made ladders for Prince
Charlie, is an interesting link with one of the most romantic
episodes of the last century.

‘Another Brampton man, destined to achieve greater notoriety
than John Heward as a reputed centenarian, and well remembered
by some old persons still living in or near Brampton, was in 1745
with the militia at Carlisle; the famous Robert Bowman, whose
epitaph in Irthington churchyard states that “he died 18th June,
1823, at the patriarchal age of 119 years”. I call him a Brampton
man, not because of his alleged birth at Briggwoodfoot, Brampton,
in 1705, but because of his description in 1755 as “‘of this parish”
in his marriage register at Brampton. His experience as a
- defender of Carlisle was thus related by himself to the late Mr.
Robert Bell of Irthington Nook :

The cannon balls were coming rattling into the town from Stanwix Bank like
hail ; and besides we were starving of hunger. For my part I had nothing but
a basin of broth during three days; so in the night I scrambled over the city
wall, and cut off for home (R. Bell’s Zractate on the Roman Wall, p. 9).

58

To the late Dr. Barnes, who took great interest in his case, he
gave a different account of the length of his stay with the militia ;
for “laughing heartily he confessed that he remained among the
soldiers only one night, and ran away as soon as he could” (A//
the Year Round, vol. x, p. 212). Yet, amongst other reasons
advanced for admitting his claim to extreme longevity, great stress
has always been laid on the alleged accuracy of his memory ;
which, says Mr. Bell, was “‘excellent even up to the time of his
death”. It may be thought that a discrepancy of a day or two
between his accounts to Mr. Bell and Dr. Barnes of the length
of his stay at Carlisle is no great matter. Perhaps so; but what
are we to think of his ‘‘cannon balls rattling into the town like
hail” when we read the following statement of one of the besiegers,
and find it confirmed by history >—

We did not discharge a single shot, lest the garrison should become acquainted
with the smallness of their calibre, which might have encouraged them to defend
themselves (Chevalier de Johnstone, p. 58).

Either, then, Mr. Bowman’s memory was not as good as has been
thought, or he was somewhat given to romancing.*

The following story of another reputed centenarian, whom it
needs not an old inhabitant of Brampton to remember, I record
as told to me by the late Mr. Robert Campbell, locksmith, of
Brampton, who died in 1881, aged eighty-three. He said that his
father, also named Robert, a native of Argyllshire, when but a lad,
joined the prince’s army in Scotland ; accompanied it to Brampton
and Carlisle; but left it at Penrith; then went and lived several
years at Newcastle; was there pressed into the Marines; was
present at the taking of Quebec (1759); lived afterwards some
time at Annan; and then took up his abode at Brampton,

*T dont know whether it is owing to what I wrote some years ago, in our
‘Archeological Transactions” (vol. v, pp. 33-8), on ‘‘ Robert Bowman’s
supposed baptismal register”, that to this day I receive letters bearing the
Carlisle postmark, and containing paragraphs, cut from newspapers, about
persons alleged to have died, or to be still living, over the age of a hundred
years. But, as I have never said, and do not believe, that no one ever reaches
that age, I am at a loss to conceive what purpose is served by sending me such

paragraphs ; for surely every case of alleged centenarianism must stand or fall
on its own ground, and can derive no support from any number of other cases.

59

where, as stated in the parish register, he married Margaret
Thompson in 1791, and died in 1839 at the alleged age
of one hundred and eight. That Robert Campbell the younger
told this story exactly as he had it from his father no one who
knew him will doubt; for he was a very truthful, staid, sober-
minded man. Nor, apart from the question of his father’s age is
there anything improbable in the story itself; for it is certain that
boys of fourteen years of age did cross the border with the prince
(Ewald, i, 276). But Robert Campbell the elder’s reputed age I
was never able to verify, as his son could not tell me to which
parish in Argyllshire to write for his baptismal register.
Brampton parish register, by the way, has this entry in 1745:

Noy. 13. John son of Archibald Henderson of Argyllshire baptized.

The occurrence of this baptism during the occupation of Brampton
by the Highlanders, if merely a coincidence, is a very curious one;
for the description of Archibald Henderson as “of Argyllshire”
stamps him a stranger in Brampton.

The vicar who baptized the child, Mr. John Thomas, father of
Dr. Thomas, bishop of Rochester, had evidently not thought it
necessary to leave the town because of the presence of the invading
army. ‘Of course not’, it may be said. Well, but the records of
Brampton Presbyterian church, in 1745, contain this memorandum:

November 10 and 17. No sermon the mint being out of ye town

because ye rebels were in it.
The minister seems to have been rather in a hurry to get out of
the town; for on the first of those two Sundays, November 10,
only a few straggling Highlanders could have arrived. I don’t
think that his predecessor, Mr. Israel Bennett, would have been
“out of ye town” at such a time; for Mr. Bennett, who was then
at Carlisle, where he was one of those who protested against the
conduct of the militia, was, with others, commended by Chancellor
Waugh as having behaved “‘with coolness and resolution” (Moun-
sey, p. 52). But, though the vicar did not leave the town, there
may yet have been “no sermon”, or Sunday service of any kind,
in the parish church, at all events on November 17 ; for there was

60

the difficulty about praying for King George. The chancellor,
writing about what happened on that day at Carlisle, says:

After the Rebels got possession I was detained in town till near night on
Sunday, the 17th, to try me whether I would allow prayers to be read in the
churches without naming the King (4, p. 56).

This, he says, he “absolutely refused”, though he had “two
messages from the Pretender’s son, and one from their Duke of
Perth, for that purpose”. The prince, however, though he may
have sent a similar message to the vicar of Brampton, would
probably bear him no malice, even if he did pray for King George;
for when urged in Edinburgh to punish Mr. McVicar, minister of
the West church, for not only praying for King George, but for
stoutly asserting his right to the throne, he replied that “the man
was an honest fool, and he would not have him disturbed”. Most
persons will probably say, with Sir Walter Scott, that they “do
not know whether it was out of gratitude for this immunity” that
Mr. McVicar, on the following Sunday, after praying as usual for
King George, continued: “As to this young person who has come
among us seeking an earthly crown, do Thou, in Thy great mercy,
grant him an heavenly one” (Zales of a Grandfather, ch. \xxix).

Some accounts of the ’45 represent the prince as having made
his entry into Carlisle on November 17. But it is clearly shown
by his household book that he spent that Sunday in Brampton. It
may therefore have been on that day that he received the keys of
Carlisle from the deputy-mayor and the corporation. The late
Mr. G. Hetherington, of Brampton, who died in 1881, aged eighty-
three, told me that he had often heard his grandmother, Elizabeth
Smith, who died in 1813, aged eighty-nine, describe the crowd
and commotion in High Cross Street, Brampton, on that
occasion.

Among that crowd she said she well remembered having seen
one Margaret Ewing, a girl of sixteen, who had come with the
army from Scotland. That girls did accompany the army we
know from what is recorded as having happened at the crossing of
the river Esk, then much swollen from recent floods, on their way
back to Scotland :

61

None were lost, except a few girls, who, for love of the white cockade, had
followed the army, throughout the whole of its singular march, with an heroic
devotion which deserved a better fate (Chambers’ History of the Rebellion in
1745, Ist ed., vol. i, p. 238).

From such a fate, at all events from the risk of it, Margaret Ewing
saved herself, when, on the departure of the Highlanders from
Brampton, she voluntarily chose to be the girl they left behind
them. Penrith parish register in 1748 has this entry :

Dec. 28. John Richardson and Margaret Ewing both of Brampton married.

John Richardson was of the ancient yeoman family of the Richard-
sons of Easby, a township of Brampton ; and on the death of his
father in 1759 he succeeded to the small estate at Easby, about
forty-five acres, which is known from the ‘‘Book of the Barony of
Gilsland” to have been in the possession of his ancestors in 1603,
and may have been so for centuries earlier. He died in 1799,
aged seventy-three. His wife, Margaret, was a remarkable woman,
believed by her Brampton contemporaries to have been of a noble
house. “But if so,” says a local record, “she kept her secret well,
as she was in no way communicative to those about her, not even
to her husband, who always stood in great awe of her” (Chees-
brough’s Brampton Almanac). She died in 1813, aged eighty-four,
leaving the estate to her grandson, Richard Richardson ; and it is
said that she left it to him on the condition that he inscribed on
her tombstone the following epitaph :

Here rest my old bones ; my vexation now ends ;

T have lived far too long for myself and my friends.

As for churchyards, and grounds which the parsons call holy,

’Tis a rank piece of priestcraft, and founded in folly ;

In short I despise them ; and as for my soul,

It may rise the last day with my bones from this hole ;

But about the next world I ne’er troubled my pate ;

If no better than this, I beseech thee, O Fate,

When millions of bodies rise up in a riot,

O, pray, let the bones of old Margaret lie quiet !

The record goes on to say that “the then vicar of the parish, his
attention having been called to this epitaph, sent a copy of it to

62

the chancellor of the diocese, who at once hastened to Brampton,
and actually stood over the mason, one George Rowell, until
he had picked out the objectionable lines with a chisel and
mallet”. That the vicar knew nothing about the epitaph until his
attention was called to it may to some appear strange. But the
churchyard is a mile and a half from the church, vicarage, and
town ; and in later times a tombstone has occasionally been placed
there without the knowledge of the vicar. The chancellor, how-
ever, I think, must have ordered the stone to be altogether broken
up; for the stone which now surmounts Margaret Richardson’s
grave does not look as if it had ever borne any other inscription
than her present epitaph, which consists of ten lines, orthodox
enough to have been composed by the chancellor himself, begin-
ning thus :

Throughout the world’s immeasurable space

Go, sinful man, and learn thy God to trace !

Mr. A. Ormiston, Carlisle diocesan surveyor, writing to me about
the original epitaph, says:

An old friend of mine, Elizabeth Story (née Burgess), born August 26, 1772,
who lived for many years at Irthington, and died at Warwick in 1856, often
informed me that she had seen the tombstone, and that it was a common
practice amongst young folk to gather together in Brampton churchyard for the
purpose of reading the strange epitaph on old Margaret. Hier testimony was
borne out by another old person whom I knew, Elizabeth Armstrong, who died
in 1858, aged seventy-four, and was buried at Lanercost.

Mrs. Story’s version of the epitaph, copied from her dictation by
Mr. Ormiston, is identical with that given in the local almanac
with the single exception of the word “lie” instead of “rest” in the
first line. Mrs. Barton, of the Crescent, Carlisle, whose late
husband was a grandson of John and Margaret Richardson,
has a version which, besides differing as to several words from that
received by Mr. Ormiston from Mrs. Story, omits altogether the
two middle lines.*

* Mr. J. C. Jeaffreson, who in his ‘‘ Book about Doctors” (p. 203) says that
this epitaph was written by Dr. Messenger Monsey, physician to Chelsea
Hospital, who died in 1788, aged ninety-five, also omits the two middle lines,
and gives the last four thus :

63

Almost as mysterious a personage as Margaret Richardson, and
equally reserved about his private history, was one Lachlan
Murray,* of whose antecedents nothing was ever known on this
side of the border beyond the fact of his having come from
Scotland in the ’45. Whether he left the army during the siege of
Carlisle, or during the retreat from Derby, certain it is that he did
not return to Scotland, but settled himself at Irthington, two and
a half miles from Brampton, where he kept a school, taught land-
surveying, became parish clerk, and died in 1801, aged eighty.
He must have gained great reputation for versatility of talent,
since in 1788, as shewn by the vestry minutes, he was entrusted
with the work of “drawing a plan for a new church”. Nor is it
necessary to suppose, because no new church was built, that he
proved unequal to the occasion ; for the prudent vestry, while
preferring on second thoughts a more economical plan, shewed
unabated confidence in him by requesting him to prepare “rates,
advertisements, &c., for repairing” the old church. The worst
thing known about him is that he could not, or at all events did
not, prevent his wife, who kept a grocer’s shop, from using the
leaves of the parish register as wrappers for tea, cheese, and
tobacco.t

The prince left Brampton on Monday, November 18, to make
his triumphal entry into Carlisle, mounted on a white charger,
preceded by a hundred pipers, and welcomed by a peal from the

What the next world may be I ne’er trouble my pate ;
And, be what it may, I beseech thee, O Fate,

When bodies of millions rise up in a riot,

To let the old carcase of Monsey lie quiet.

The first four lines as given by Mr. Jeaffreson agree exactly with the version
quoted by me from the local almanac.

*The authority for everything here stated about Lachlan Murray, apart
from the register and vestry minutes, is Mr. Thomas Graham, of Beanlands,
Irthington, now in his sixty-ninth year, whose grandmother, from whom he
heard the story, died in 1838, aged ninety-five. Mr. Graham, whose fore-elders,
alternating all the way down as Thomas and David, have owned Beanlands since
1607, has often proved himself an invaluable depositary of local tradition.

+ There is therefore now no register at Irthington of earlier date than 1704,
and there is a gap from 1722 to 1729. The present vicar then will do well to
“proceed in this particular” after the method which I have recommended to
the vicar of Stanwix (ave, p. 50).

64

cathedral bells, traditionally believed to have been the last they
ever rang. But from a recent note in the Cardisle Patriot, by
“X YZ”, who has had access to the books of the dean and
chapter, it appears that the bells were rung on the recapture of the
city by the duke of Cumberland, and on many other occasions
down to 1763.

Sir Walter Scott, then, committed no anachronism when he
described Fergus Maclvor as drawn to the scene of his execution
to the sound of “a muffled peal, tolled from the neighbouring
cathedral” (Waverley, ch. 1xix).

It was on Saturday, October 18, 1746, that Major Donald
Macdonald, of Tyendrish, the original of Fergus Maclvor, with
eight others, was executed on Gallows Hill at Harraby (Mounsey,
p. 268). Referring to one of the eight, in a letter to the then
Lord Albemarle, written on the following Thursday, October 23,
Lieutenant Colonel Howard, the governor of Carlisle castle, said:

Buchanan’s body was afterwards brought into town and interred, at which
ceremony Dr. Douglas, Mr. Graham the apothecary, Mr. Lowry, and Mr.
Campbell of Brampton, assisted publicly ; the latter as mourner, the other
three as pall bearers (Lord Albemarle’s Fifty Years of My Life).

In the same letter he said: “Six others suffered last Tuesday at
Brampton”. One can easily believe that so fascinating a prince
as Charles Edward had not stayed a week at Brampton without
attracting to his cause the sympathy of some of the inhabitants;
of whom “Mr. Campbell of Brampton” would seem to have been
a prominent representative ; and it may have been as a warning to
them that six of the condemned prisoners were sent from Carlisle
to be executed at Brampton. Those six were Col. James Innes,
Peter Lindsay, Ronald Macdonald, Thomas Park, Peter Taylor,
and Michael Delard (Mounsey, p. 268). Tradition says they were
hanged on the Capon Tree ;* which for many years afterwards was

* Said by Hutchinson (i. 129) to have derived this name from the capons
with which the judges and their retinue, on their way from Newcastle to Carlisle,
formerly regaled themselves under its shade. In Hutchinson’s time (1794) it
had ‘‘apparently withstood the blasts of several hundred years”. Nothing now
remains of it but its stump.

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65

supposed to be haunted. It was even believed, says the writer of
a local tale, called “‘The Tragedy of the Capon Tree”, sent to me
about six or seven years ago by some unknown friend, that “on
the anniversary of the day of execution the spirits of the rebels
were to be seen flitting about with airy ropes round their necks”.
They have now, with the generation which stood in awe of them,
flitted altogether away; and the once famous oak which they
haunted is itself a thing of the past.

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67

FORMER SOCIAL LIFE IN CUMBERLAND
AND WESTMORLAND.

By W. WILSON.

(Read at Keswick.)

THE most probable account of the origin of the peasant proprietors
called “statesmen” is, that their tenure is not feudal, but allodial,
in so far as that they acquired their estates at a very remote period,
either by establishing themselves on unoccupied lands (like the
squatters in Australia or America), or by the conquest of previous
possessors. The evidence in favour of this opinion is—tst, That
all the estates in the dales are of customary tenure—copyhold
tenure only occurring as a very rare exception. Now, if the
“statesmen” had been enfranchised villeins, they would have held
their lands by copyhold, as do enfranchised villeins in other parts
of England. The fact that they have, since the establishment of
feudality, paid lord’s rent, heriots, and other charges to the several
lords of manors, is no proof that they really held their estates from
them in virtue of such payments ; because freeholders, elsewhere,
are compelled thus to acknowledge the authority of the courts of
the manors in which their freeholds lie.

2nd, Several “‘statesmen” can prove that the estates they now
‘possess have descended uninterruptedly in their families since the
time of Richard II., and always as customary freeholds. One
family—the Holmes of Mardale—have inherited their land in
unbroken succession from one John Holme, who came from
Norway in the year 1o60, settled in Lincolnshire, and afterwards

68

removed to Mardale; thus, probably, obtaining possession of his
land before any Norman feudal lord had ever established a claim
upon it. Mr. Hugh P. Holme, who died last spring, after but a
short illness, at the old family residence, Chapel Howe, Mardale,
was the last male representative of this remarkable family. He
was a good specimen of a Westmorland “statesman,” being a fine
looking young fellow, with a splendid physique, and moreover
possessed of superior business talent and a kindly disposition, he
became very popular. He was unmarried, and his premature death
when just attaining the prime of life, caused the deepest regret
among a large circle of friends.

3rd, Another, though but a negative proof, that the origin of
our “statesmen” is independent of, and anterior to, the Norman
conquest, is, that Cumberland and Westmorland are not mentioned
in Domesday Book.

4th, This opinion derives much support from the fact that when
James I. came to the throne of England, he set up a claim to all
the small estates in Cumberland and Westmorland, on the plea
that the possessors—the “statesmen” in fact—were merely tenants
of the crown. This is strong evidence that they were not the
vassals or tenants of any other feudal lord. But the manner in
which the ‘“‘statesmen” replied to the king’s demand seems to be
conclusive. They met, to the number of 2,000, between Kendal
and Staveley, at a place called Ratten Heath, convened by one
Brunskill, and adopted the resolution that ‘they had won their
lands by the sword, and felt themselves able to defend them by
the same means.” On these and other grounds, it seems probable
that the “‘statesmen” of Cumberland and Westmorland entered on
their lands in very remote times, either as conquerors or squatters;
and that the feudal system introduced by the Norman conqueror
was but an episode in their existence. During the days of its
power they were compelled, in order to obtain the protection
of the feudal lords, to submit to their yoke, though more in
form than in substance ; but they existed before its rise, and they
have survived its fall.

Any one acquainted with the fell dales must have observed that

69

many of the farm-houses now are turned into cottages or out-houses,
while others lie in ruins ; from whence it may be inferred that the
tenements (or holdings) must, at one time, have been much smaller
and more numerous than at present. That this was actually the
case, in one instance, at least, we have direct proof, for it is on
record that Queen Catherine, wife of Charles IL., held thirty-nine
customary tenements in Grasmere. I have also ascertained that
at the beginning of the present century there were as many as
twenty-six “statesmen” in Grasmere—men who each kept a few
cows, and a small stock of sheep on the common. Such was
probably about the number of “statesmen” in the vale when the
poet Gray passed through it. In his description of Grasmere, the
poet mentions that “not a single red tile—no gentleman’s flaring
house or garden, breaks in upon the repose of this little unsuspected
paradise ; but all is peace, rusticity, and happy poverty, in its
neatest and most becoming attire.” Could the poet now re-visit
Grasmere, he would hardly be able to recognize it. Of gentle-
men’s houses there are an abundance, and but one ‘‘statesman”
properly so called remains. But, perhaps, the change which Gras-
mere more than any other of our mountain valleys, has undergone
in a comparatively short period, is most strikingly illustrated by
comparing the Grasmere of to-day with Grasmere as depicted by
Wordsworth, who lived there for some years about the beginning
of the century. He describes it as a perfect republic of shepherds
and agriculturists, among whom the plough of each man was
confined to the maintenance of his own family, or the occasional
accommodation of his neighbour. Two or three cows furnished
each family with milk and cheese. The chapel was the only edifice
that presided over these dwellings—the supreme head of this pure
commonwealth, the members of which existed in the midst of a
powerful empire, like an ideal society, or an organized community,
whose constitution was imposed and regulated by the mountains
which protected it. Owing to the smallness of the estates, there
was not sufficient employment in farm work at all times for a
“statesman” and his family, and carding, spinning, and weaving
formed the employment of the winter months, and of any spare

70

moments during the rest of the year. The men carded and the
women spun the wool yielded by the previous clipping. Almost
every household had its weaving shop, in which one or more
looms were kept ; and many of the dalesmen were able to weave
the cloth which served for their own wear, and for that of their
families. The linsey-woolsey dresses worn by the women were
homespun, and they also manufactured linen for the various
domestic purposes for which it was required. After a web of
woollen cloth was turned out of the loom, it was taken to the beck,
and soaked in the water ; it was then placed on a flat stone, called
the “battling stone,” and well beaten with a wooden mallet. This
process was called milling—a primitive operation which had to
serve all the elaborate processes which woollen cloth now passes
through at the mill of the fuller. The inhabitants of the dales
manufactured more cloth and yarn than was sufficient to supply
their own wants, and the overplus was taken to market and sold
to traders from a distance. There is a tradition that when the
plague raged in Keswick, about the year 1665, and a few years
afterwards, as no market was held in the town, for fear of infection,
the people of the dales carried their webs and yarn to a large
stone, which is very conspicuous on one of the lower elevations of
Armboth Fell, and there periodically met and did business with
the traders. The stone still goes by the name of the “‘web-stone.”
The application of machinery to the processes of carding and
spinning, had the effect of transferring these branches of industry
from the houses of the dalesmen (of whom the majority were
“statesmen”) to the manufacturing towns—and this seems to have
been one of the chief causes of the decline of the “statesmen.”
After losing their occupation, no other could be found so suitable
for filling up spare time. Sufficient employment for large families
was not to be found at home, and the sons and daughters of the
old “statesmen” were often thought too good to send to service.
The consequence was, that they were frequently brought up in
idleness. ‘To use a local expression—the ‘“‘heaf” was outstocked.
Debts accumulated, and thus the estates, one by one, have come
into the market, and passed into the hands of large proprietors

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71

In some instances they have been bought by the great manu-
facturers, who have thus absorbed, first the trade, and then the
lands, of the old ‘“‘statesmen.”

The costume of the dalesmen is sometimes described as having
been picturesque. As before stated, the material of which it was
made was homespun, and frequently undyed, black and white fleeces
being mixed to save the expense of dying. It is curious to observe
that this homely material, which is still made in some parts of
Scotland and Ireland, has lately been pronounced by fashion to be
superior for country wear to the most finished products of the
steam loom; so that now, the most elegant ladies do not disdain
to wear dresses of the selfsame homespun of which our ancestors
made their “kelt coats.” These coats were ornamented with brass
buttons, as were the waistcoats, which were made open in front for
dest, in order to show a frilled shirt breast. Knee breeches were
the fashion for centuries. ‘They were buttoned tight round the
body above the haunches, so as to keep up without braces, which
are of modern invention. Those used for best had a knot of
ribbon and four or five bright buttons at the knee; and those who
could afford it, had them made of buckskin. ‘Their stockings,
which were a conspicuous part of the dress, were also made from
their own wool, their colour being generally blue or grey. On
their feet they wore clogs on ordinary occasions, but when dressed
in holiday costume, they had low shoes fastened with buckles,
which were sometimes of silver. At the present day this style of
dress is nearly obsolete in our vales: but some of the old dalesmen
still adhere to what was the fashion of their youth. Some four or
five years ago, four of the old “statesmen” of the district happened
to meet at Grasmere fair, and stood talking together for some time.
After a while one of them noticed that all four were dressed in
knee breeches, and thinking it a strange chance which had brought
together what, in these degenerate days, were probably about the
only four pairs of breeches left in the county, they agreed that it
formed a fitting occasion for a friendly glass and a good “crack”
about “auld lang syne.” Of these men it may be said, that they
were a connecting link between the old times and the new, and

72

that they were probably some of the last men to wear the costume
of a byegone age.

The dress of the women was not less primitive than that of the
men. ‘They wore homespun linsey-woolsey petticoats and long-
tailed bedgowns, a blue linen apron completing their attire. The
statesman’s daughter who first communicated to her native dale a
knowledge of the glories of printed calico, in the shape of a smart
print dress, is said to have created a tremendous sensation, and
more than a nine days’ wonder.

The clogs worn by the women differed from those of the men
in being pointed at the toes, and having brass instead of iron
clasps. Their bonnets were made of pasteboard covered with black
silk, and in shape somewhat resembled a coal-scuttle: the front
projecting nearly a foot beyond the face of the wearer. Bonnets
were bonnets in those days, and served to protect the head and
face from sun or rain.

In the eastern and northern parts of Cumberland, the peasantry
formerly lived in houses called “clay daubins,” which were made
of clay and roofed with thatch. When a rustic couple were about
to go to housekeeping, affer it was decided they should start life in
a “clay daubin,” a suitable site was first of all secured, and then a
day appointed on which their friends and neighbours met at the
place, each taking a spade and some provisions with him; and by
their united efforts on such occasions, the walls of the humble
dwelling were generally finished before the day was over. A good
meal was in the meantime provided for the workers and other
invited guests who afterwards joined them, and the company
usually spent the night in what Anderson, the Cumberland bard,
terms “glorious fun and divarsion.” By giving a quotation from
his song called “The Clay Daubin,” we shall be able form some
idea of the manner in which these Cumbrians used to enjoy
themselves in the good old time :—

We went owre to Deavie’s clay daubin,
An’ faith a rare caper we had ;

Wi’ eatin’, an’ drinkin’, an’ dancin’,
An’ rwoarin’ an’ singin’ like mad.

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73

Wi’ crackin’, an’ jwokin’, an’ braggin’,
An’ fratchin’ an’ feightin’ an’ aw,
Sec glorious fun an’ divarsion
Was ne’er seen in castle or ha’.

Sing hey for a snug clay biggin,
An’ lasses that like a bit sport ;
Wi’ friends an’ plenty to gie them,
We'll laugh at King George an’ his court.

In the ‘Lake Country, stone and slate being plentiful, no other
building materials seem to have been used. The houses were of
rude construction, being built (as indeed they are still) of unhewn
stone, but with far less care about jointing, and fewer ‘through
stones” than are thought necessary now. In the oldest houses in
the more remote dales, no mortar seems to have been used—
probably from the difficulty of obtaining lime, for in some instances
clay has been used as a substitute. They were roofed with rough
slates, nearly as thick as flag-stones, and said not to have been in
all cases taken from quarries, but to have been split from stones
lying on the surface. The timber used in the construction of the
houses was all heart of oak. Doors, floors, and window frames
were all of the same material. The beams were made of whole
trees roughly squared, while the smaller rafters and joists were
split. The carpenters of those days used very few nails, wooden
pins being made to serve the same purpose. In houses of the
usual size, there were seldom more than three rooms on the ground
floor, viz., the dwelling apartment, or house-part, the dairy, and
the parlour. The parlour was generally used as the bedroom of
the master and mistress. The house-part was a sort of best
kitchen, and was the ordinary sitting-room of the family. There
was frequently an out-kitchen, called the down-house, in which
washing, baking, brewing, etc., were carried on. Long after the
use of coal and fire-grates had become general throughout England,
our dalesmen still continued to burn peats and wood upon the
open hearth. Indeed it was not until nearly half of the present
century had elapsed, that railway communication making coal
cheaper, and the increased value of labour making peat dearer,

74

coal finally superseded turf, and, as a necessary consequence, open
fire places gave place to grates. The old chimneys had no flues,
and were funnel-shaped, being very wide at the bottom and
gradually contracting to the top, where there was an aperture of
the size of an ordinary chimney, through which the smoke escaped.
In these open chimneys hams, legs of beef, flitches of bacon, and
whole carcases of mutton were hung to dry for winter consumption.
Mr. Clark, in his Survey of the Lakes, mentions having seen as
many as seven carcases of mutton hanging in one chimney in
Borrowdale, and was told that some chimneys in the vale contained
more. Very few of these old-fashioned chimneys are now to be
found in the country. The staircase was made of stone, and the
space above was sometimes undivided, and seldom made into
more than two rooms, which were called lofts, and used as the
sleeping apartments. They were unceiled, and open to the roof,
which was so rudely constructed that light could often be seen
through the chinks ; and when a driving snowstorm came, it was
no uncommon thing for the people in bed to have a covering of
several inches of snow over the bed-clothes. Most of the old
buildings had a porch before the outer door, and the door was
made of massive oak, two planks thick, and fastened together with
wooden pins, which were put in parallel rows, about three or four
inches apart, and left projecting about three-quarters of an inch on
the outside. The ‘“‘freshwood,” or threshold, was the lower side
of the wooden frame which contained the door. It stood four or
five inches high, and people going in or out were obliged to step
over it. Mr. Clark tells us that there was a degree of sanctity
attached to the threshold of a door, and certain charms were, in
his time, remembered, which had their effect only in that place.
A good specimen of a door of this kind may be seen at the old
farm house at Armboth. The planks of which it is made are
fastened together with six hundred and thirty-one of the above-
mentioned oaken pegs. In these busy times, we could make a
dozen doors in the time it took our ancestors to make the six
hundred and thirty-one oaken pegs,

The food of the dalesmen was simple, being confined almost

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75

entirely to the products of their farms. They consumed a large
quantity of animal food; and as sheep and cattle were in the best
condition for slaughtering in autumn, it was then that the dalesmen
stocked their wide chimneys with a supply of meat for the winter
and spring. No animals were slaughtered in spring, for having
been on short commons all the winter, they were too lean to kill
for food. It must be borne in mind that oilcake and “ Thorley’s
food for cattle” were not yet in existence. Tea, coffee, and
wheaten bread, now so common, were then little known in our
dales ; almost the only bread our ancestors ate was “haver-bread,”
or oatcake ; and their ‘“‘poddish,” a most important part of their
diet, was but the same meal boiled instead of baked. They
brewed their own ale, and drank it at nearly every meal. Such,
together with milk, butter, and cheese, the produce of their own
dairies, was the food of our forefathers. No doubt they lived well
in their way. After tea, coffee, and sugar came into more general
use, it is said that an old dalesman remarked that “‘he wonder’t
what t’ warl wad cum teu efter a bit, when fwoks noo-a-days
couldn’t git the’r breakfast wi’out hevin’ stuff frae beath East an’
West Indies.”

Until about the middle of last century, the roads of the country
were in a wretched state. Instead of wheeled carriages, pack-
horses, and in some cases sledges, were used for conveying
merchandise from one place to another. There is an old man
now living in Grasmere whose grandmother could remember the
present church bells being brought to Grasmere on sledges by the
old road over the top of White Moss, then the main road between
Ambleside and Grasmere. Then there is the old story about the
first lime ever taken into Borrowdale. It was, so the story goes,
conveyed thither in a sack, on the back of a horse, and when the
man in charge of it got as far as Grange Bridge, a heavy thunder-
shower came on, and the lime began to smoke and grow hot in
the sack; to stop this, he poured some water on it (which he
brought in his hat from the beck), which increased the smoke so
much that, thinking there must be some devilry in smoke which
was increased by water, he took fright, threw his load into the
beck, and galloped home.

76

Here, as elsewhere, most of the travelling used to be performed
on horseback. A man and his wife often rode to market together
on the same horse, the woman sitting behind on a pillion. But
the dalesmen were by no means particular about the appearance
of their turn-out: a piece of turf dried and cut into the proper
shape, was frequently used for a saddle. In other cases, what was
called a “‘pad” was used, which was made of straw. Sometimes,
on market-days, after business was over, such of the farmers as
were convivially disposed, stayed on at the public-house holding
“crack” and drinking until a late hour. While a spree of this
kind was going on, the hungry horses have been known to break
loose in the stable, and by the time their riders were ready to
go home, saddles and bridles were all eaten, and the roystering
old farmers had to ride home bareback.

Ploughing was attended with hard labour to the ploughman, and
it required at least three men, and as many horses, to work one
plough. The horses were yoked one before another, and it was
one man’s work to drive them; a second man had to hold the
plough-beam down, to prevent the plough from slipping out ; the
third man had to guide the plough, which required by far the most
skill. If this man was not very expert, or if the land was difficult
to turn over, the services of a fourth man were required, who, with
a pick and spade, turned up places which could not be done by
the plough. Not much skill or labour was bestowed on making a
plough. It was nothing unusual for a tree to be growing in the
morning, to be cut down during the day, and made into a plough
with which a good stroke of work was done before night.

The dalesmen of the olden time worked much harder, though
perhaps not so regularly as their descendants of the present day.
Their hours of labour were much longer, and a great part of what
was their hardest work, is now performed by machinery. Though
ignorant and unpolished, they were honest and hospitable, and
possessed good natural abilities. A hundred years ago, the division
of labour was nowhere so systematically carried out as it is now,
and in remote places like our dales, many a farmer, in addition to
the cultivation of his land, followed, with more or less success,

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various handicrafts, for each of which we now employ a separate
workman.

An extraordinary instance of this diversified ability, joined to
unwearying industry, is presented by the life of the Rev. Robert
Walker of Seathwaite, generally known as “wonderful Walker.”
Although he lived in obscurity, he found a biographer in no less a
person than the poet Wordsworth, who gives a very interesting
account of him in the notes to his ‘“‘Sonnets of the Duddon.” The
parish priest, so finely delineated in “The Excursion,” is also a
picture of wonderful Walker. He was born in 1709, and was the
son of a small “statesman” who lived in Seathwaite. He was the
youngest of twelve, and a weakly child, on which latter account
his father gave him what schooling he could. At the age of
seventeen he went to be schoolmaster at Gosforth, near Egremont,
and remained there two or three years; he then removed to
Buttermere, where he acted both as minister and schoolmaster,
and received the usual small salary and “whittlegate.” Before
and after school hours, he laboured at manual occupation. He
wrote his own sermons, and did duty twice on Sundays. In
summer he rose between three and four, and went to the field—in
hay-time with his scythe, in harvest-time with his sickle. He
ploughed, he planted, he tended sheep on the fells. At other
times he clipped or salved—all for hire. When engaged in these
employments, he would be at work long before the regular
labourers, and remain after they had finished their day’s work.
Nor was he less skilful than diligent: in all such labours he
excelled. In winter he occupied himself in reading, writing his
sermons, spinning and making his own clothes and those of his
family (he was an excellent spinner), knitting and mending his
own stockings, and making his own shoes, the leather of which
was of his own tanning. In his walks he never neglected to
gather and bring home the wool from the hedges. He was the
physician and lawyer of his parishioners; he drew up their wills,
conveyances, bonds, etc.; wrote all their letters and settled their
accounts, and frequently went to market with sheep or wool for
the farmers, The next step in his career was his removal from

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Buttermere to Torver, on the banks of Coniston-water, and taking
priest’s orders, soon after which he took to wife a respectable maid
servant, whose affections he had gained at Buttermere, and who
brought him a fortune of forty pounds, which he forthwith invested
in the funds. Shortly after marriage he obtained the curacy of
Seathwaite, where he lived and officiated for sixty-seven years.
At the time of wonderful Walker’s appointment, and for many
years afterwards, Seathwaite church was without pews. He used
it as a school-room, and is described as seated in his favourite
place, near the communion table, wearing a cloak of his own
making. His great-grandson tells us that, when the family was in want
of cloth, he would take his spinning-wheel with him to the school,
where he also kept a cradle—of course of his own making. Not
unfrequently the wheel, the cradle, and the scholars all claiming
his attention at the same moment, taxed the ingenuity of even
wonderful Walker to keep them all going. The chapel was after-
wards pewed, and a new school built. To the already long
catalogue of his attainments and pursuits must be added a know-
ledge of fossils and plants, and a habit of observing the stars and
winds. Indeed the atmosphere was one of his favourite studies :
he made many experiments on its nature and properties. In
summer he used to collect butterflies and other insects, and by his
entertaining descriptions of them, amused and instructed his
children. After a long and useful life, which extended over nearly
the whole of the last century, he died on the 25th June, 1802, in
the ninety-third year of his age. In the course of his long life he
had, besides bringing up and settling in life a family of twelve
children, amassed the sum of £2,000 ; the accumulation of which,
when we consider the marvellous industry and self-denial which
‘it represented, might of itself entitle him to the name of ‘‘ wonderful.”
He was a hero in humble life—a greater hero than many in whose
honour monuments have been erected.

Many of the chapels in our fell dales were extremely small, not
affording room for more than half-a-dozen families ; but the former
chapel at Buttermere, where wonderful Walker entered on his
sacred duties, was the smallest of all. It was, in fact, the smallest

Ske >

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church in England, its walls measuring only seventeen feet in

~ length on the outside. Wordsworth describes it as being scarcely

larger than many of the single stones or fragments of rock lying
near it. Likeso many other chapels of the same class, it has been
rebuilt. In the notes to Mr. White’s Lays and Legends of the
English Lake Country, there is some interesting information about
the chapelries in the fell dales, from which some of the following
particulars are taken. He tells us that the curacy of Buttermere
was certified to the governors of Queen Anne’s bounty at one pound
yearly, paid by the contributions of the inhabitants; it was also
certified that this chapel and Wythop were served by readers,
except when the curate of Lorton officiated in them, three or four
times a year. Such curacies were held in these northern counties
by unordained persons, until about the middle of George II.’s
reign, when the bishops came to the resolution that no one should
officiate who was not in orders. But, to avoid injustice to those
already officiating, they were admitted to deacon’s orders without
any preliminary examination. The reader, as he was called, at
the chapel in the vale of Newlands, received this kind of ordination,
he also exercised the various trades of clogger, tailor, and butter-
print maker. But the pay of a reader was so trifling, that he could
only maintain himself by the aid of some secular employment.
Even the livings were, many of them, not worth more than two or
three pounds a year; and the ministers were therefore, in a great
measure, dependant upon the voluntary contributions of their
parishioners. Their stipends, besides the small money payment
above named, comprised “clothes yearly, and whittlegate.”
“Clothes yearly,” meant one suit of clothes, two pairs of shoes,
and one pair of clogs—more or less, according to the bargain
made. Mr. Clark gives the following explanation of the term
“‘whittlegate.” ‘‘ Whzt¢legate meant two or three weeks’ victuals
at each house, according to the ability of the inhabitants, which
was settled among themselves ; so that the minister could go his
course as regularly as the sun, and complete it annually. Few
houses having more knives than one or two, the pastor was often
obliged to buy his own knife, or ‘whittle,’ Sometimes it was

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bought for him by the chapel-wardens.” He marched from house
to house with his “whittle,” seeking “fresh fields and pastures
new,” and, as master of the herd, he had the elbow chair at the
table head, which was often made of part of a hollow ash tree—a
kind of seat then common. The reader at Wythburn had for his
salary three pounds yearly, a hempen sark or shirt, a whittlegate,
and a goosegate, or right to depasture a flock of geese on Helvellyn.
A story is still told in Wythburn of a minister who had but two
sermons, which he preached in turn. The walls of the chapel
were at that time unplastered, and the sermons were usually placed
in a hole in the wall behind the pulpit. One Sunday, before the
service began, some mischievous person pushed the sermons so
far into the hole that they could not be got out with the hand.
When the time came for the sermon, the priest tried in vain to get
them out. He then turned to the congregation and told them
what had happened. He could touch them, he said, with his
forefinger, but could not get his thumb in to grasp them; “ But,
however,” said he, “I can read you a chapter out of Job that’s
worth both of them put together !”

A curious custom existed at one time, of holding market at the
church. In Cumberland, as of old in Judea, the “house of prayer”
seems to have been turned, if not into “‘a den of thieves,” at least into
a common mart. In 1306 the inhabitants of Cockermouth repre-
sented in a petition to Parliament that there was a great concourse
of people every Sunday at Crosthwaite church, when corn, flour,
peas, beans, meat, fish, and other kinds of merchandise, were
bought and sold; which was so very injurious to the market at
Cockermouth, that the persons of that place who farmed the tolls
of the king were unable to pay their rent. Upon this a prohibitory
proclamation was issued against the unseemly usage. At the time
of the Restoration of Charles II., tradition says that the butcher
market at Wigton was held on Sunday, and the butchers hung
the carcases even at the church door, to attract the notice of their
customers as they went in and came out of church. It was even
no uncommon thing for people who had made their bargains before
the service began, to hang their joints of meat over the backs of

Se AS a AI RRR IE te

ne ET TEI" ELIE TE I I ET "

81

their seats until the ceremony was concluded. The zealous priest,
after long and ineffectual endeavours to make his congregation
sensible of the indecency of such practices, undertook a journey
to London, on foot, for the purpose of petitioning the king to have
the market day held on Tuesday: which favour he is said to have
had interest enough to obtain. Though such practices as these
have been long discontinued, there are people now living who can
recollect hearing the clerk give out in the churchyard, before the
congregation dispersed, the advertisements of the various sales
about to be held in the neighbourhood. In some places it was
the custom for the churchwardens to go round the village during
divine service, and drive all the loungers into church. In large
churches there was usually a choir of singers, but seldom, until
quite recently, in the smaller ones. The clerk was generally leader
of the band, and after blowing the pitch-pipe, he used to intone on
the key-note the first line of the psalm to be sung. Some twenty
or thirty years ago, the inhabitants of a parish in this district
engaged a singing-master to teach the church singers some new
tunes. He found his pupils not inapt—most of them being able
to read music. But when the music came to be wedded to Tate
and Brady’s “immortal verse,” certain old gentlemen who sang
bass were detected in substituting for the sacred words the
inappropriate and monotonous syllables “boom, boom.” One of
them, on being remonstrated with, thus replied: “‘ Yer ways may
be aw varra weel, but they dunnet suit me; I allus dud sing dum,
bum, an’ I allus will sing dum, bum !”

Our dalesmen have always been more or less musical. Some
songs that were in vogue several hundred years ago, are still
occasionally sung—chiefly at the hiring fairs, by itinerant ballad
singers. As a proof of the extreme antiquity of some of the tunes,
I may adduce the curious fact, that the air of “St. Dunstan’s
Hunt’s up,” mentioned by Sir Walter Scott as long lost and
forgotten, is still played on the fiddle from house to house every
Christmas eve, in many of the dales. In pursuance of a very
ancient custom, a fiddler goes the round of the vale on that
evening, bids “good night!” to each member of every household

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by name, and after each greeting plays the tune of “St. Dunstan’s
Hunt’s up.”

But I should draw but an imperfect picture of our dalesmen,
past or present, if I failed to notice their festivities and their sports.
The former were, generally speaking, confined to two seasons—
the sheep-shearings or “clippin’s” in summer, and the great winter
festival of Christmas. In former days, Christmas was far more of
a holiday than itis now. From Christmas-day until Twelfth Night,
all work was thrown aside, and the time devoted to feasting and
merry-making. Fiddling and dancing, “merry neets,” and “oald
wife haiks,” attracted old and young. For graphic descriptions of
these festive gatherings, as they were in the time of our forefathers, ©
I must refer you to the ballads of Anderson, “‘blin’ Stagg,” Mark
Lonsdale, and other Cumbrian bards who were eye-witnesses and
sharers in the revels. ‘The clipping feasts were much the same as
those with which we are familiar now-a-days, except that the fun
was, perhaps, more uproarious.

The great and characteristic sport of Cumberland and Westmor-
land has always been wrestling. Our north country mode of

wrestling differs from—and, as we love to think, excels—anything
of the kind practised in other parts of England, or, indeed, of
Europe. But as the wrestling ring is, happily, not a byegone
institution, but, on the contrary, as any one who cares to see a
good “warsle,” may easily gratify his wish, it is unnecessary to enter
into a minute description of this sport.

The ancient and barbarous sports of cock-fighting, bull-baiting,
and badger-baiting were popular in this, as in other counties, until
the year 1835, when they were prohibited by Parliament. It now
seems a wonder that they were not suppressed long before that
time; their influence on the community must have been brutalising.
Cockfighting was an amusement in which our ancestors took great
interest, and much care was bestowed in breeding and training game
cocks to fight mains or matches. It is not my intention at present
to give any description of this barbarous sport, but I may mention
that Shrovetide was the favourite season when the great cockfights
came off. Near several old inns in the district the site of the

ay

oink

88

cockpit may still be seen ; and we can easily imagine the excitement
attending the cockfights which took place there, and the scenes of
revelry that followed. In Keswick a large iron ring was formerly
fixed in a stone block in the market place; this was called the
bull-ring, and to this a bull, previous to being slaughtered, was
fastened by the ring in its nose, and then baited and bitten by
savage dogs amid dreadful bellowing, till the poor beast was
almost covered with foam, and quite exhausted. Great excite-
ment prevailed when a bull was being baited, and large numbers
assembled to witness the sport. On such occasions the market-
place at Keswick was crowded, and many, in order to obtain a good
view, might be seen sitting on the roofs of the adjoining houses.
I need scarcely remind you that there were no three or four storey
houses surrounding the market-place in those days. Beyond the
excitement which the exhibitions produced among the spectators,
the system was thought to be of great value in improving the
quality of the beef, an aged bull being especially tough unless
well baited before slaughtering. In the celebrated Borrowdale
letter, a young shepherd from that valley writes home to a friend,
and, among other matters, gives him the account of his passage
from Whitehaven to Dublin by the boat, which he termed a “sea
nag.” He describes how “the sea nag was gitten cowdy,” and
that “it canter’d up wi’ tae end an’ doon wi’ t’ tudder, when he
telt a man to twine t’ tail on’t, as they dui swine, or bulls when
they carry them to bait at Kessick, an’ they willn’t ga on.” When
the flesh of a bull was exposed for sale, it was the rule in Keswick,
and probably elsewhere, to burn candles during the day on the
stall on which the meat was exposed for sale, in order that
customers might be aware of the quality of the meat sold there.
When an assemblage of people took place in the town, if a man
shook the bull ring, it was understood to mean a challenge to fight
any one present ; this often led to pugilistic encounters, the same
as the Irishman’s invitation at Donnybrook fair, for anyone to
tread on the tail of his coat. ‘‘Greit Jacob Howe,” who belonged
to a well-known family of brothers then living at Applethwaite,
and who are still remembered in the neighbourhood as very

84

powerful fellows, is said to have been the last man to shake the
bull ring in Keswick. ;
Hunting and hound-trailing may be mentioned, with the latter of
which we are all familiar. Our dalesman have always been keen
hunters; but the mountains among which they lived have impressed
their sport with a peculiar character of wildness and unconvention-
ality, rendering fox-hunting among the fells quite a distinct sport
from fox-hunting as it is understood in Leicestershire. One
distinctive feature of fell-hunting is, that the hounds can only be
followed on foot; but another modifying circumstance, not less
important, is, that among the fells, most of the hunters are also
shepherds, who look upon the fox as their natural enemy, whose
death is to be compassed by any means and at all seasons. Until
quite a recent period, a few couples of hounds were kept in every
dale, and at least as many terriers; and when the presence of a
fox in the neighbourhood was betrayed by a missing lamb, or an
old wife’s hen-roost being robbed, all the dogs, and nearly all the
men, in the parish commenced—no matter what the time of year
—a pursuit, which generally ended in the death of the offending
fox, unless he had the luck to escape into some “ borrant” or other
stronghold. But even then the pursuit was not always abandoned.
About twelve years ago, a fox escaped from the hunters into the
inaccessible crevice of a rock near Stickle Tarn. For three weeks
a party of from thirty to seventy Langdale men staid by him night
and day, blasting the rock by day, and placing a stone before the
crevice to prevent his escape by night. At last a wet night drove
them down to the valley, and when some of them returned next
morning, the stone placed before the crevice was gone, and so was
the fox. Gone! beyond even the reach of John Peel’s view hallo!
The mystery of his escape has never been solved; but the prevailing
idea has always been, that “some Gursmer chap mud ha’ done it!”
Though our dalesfolk do not seem to have been at any time so
much the slaves of superstition as were many more refined and
educated communities, still many superstitious customs—though
few of them strictly local— prevailed among them in olden times.
Of these I shall only furnish one instance—that of the “needfire”

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—which has been practised in our own day. The “needfire,”
which was probably the last remains of fire worship in this country,
took its name from the Danish word néd (pronounced weed), which
signifies cattle; whence our English neat herd. “It was once,”
says Mr. Sullivan, ‘an annual observance, and is still occasionally
employed in the dales and some other localities, as a charm for
the various diseases to which cattle are liable. All the fires in the
village are first carefully put out—a deputation going round to
each house to see that not aspark remains. Two pieces of wood are
then ignited by friction, and within the influence of the fire thus
kindled the cattle are brought. The scene is one of dire bellowing
and confusion: but the owner is especially anxious that his animals
should get ‘plenty of the reek.’ The charm being ended in one
village, may be transferred to the next, and thus propagated as far
as it is required.” Miss Martineau, in her Guide to the Lakes, tells
a story of a certain farmer who, “when all his cattle had been
passed through the fire, subjected an ailing wife to the same
potent charm.” ‘The last time the “needfire” was used in this
neighbourhood was in 1841, when in some parts of Cumberland
and Westmorland there was an epidemic amongst the cattle. It
was brought over the Raise, and transferred from farm to farm
through the vales. But, at one farm a few miles out of Keswick,
the sacred fire was allowed to become extinct, the owner, a well-
known “statesman,” not having sufficient faith in its virtue to take
the trouble to transmit it, or even to keep it alight. He tells me
that he was severely rated at the time for his lack of faith. It is
now upwards of thirty years since the “needfire” was last used as
a charm to preserve cattle from infection ; and during that time a
great change has been effected in the enlightenment of the people.
The rinderpest was the severest visitation of the kind we have had
this century, but no one thought of trying the “needfire,” which
has no doubt gone its last round.

‘We still have among us men of the old school, who believe in
charms and ghosts and the like, but their number grows “small by
degrees and beautifully less.” Some people, especially the aged,
are apt to talk of the “good old times,” as if at some indefinite

86

period, long ago, all had been perfection, and, ever since, things had
gradually deteriorated. But this golden age is unknown to history,
which on the contrary, paints the past of this Borderland especially
in sombre colours. In ‘‘the good old times,” moss-troopers and
border-raiders harried our lands; lifted our cattle; and if we
resisted, took our lives into the bargain. Now our only invaders
are armies of peaceful tourists, who, though they may rob our
district of some of its romance, repay us richly in material
prosperity.

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OUR SUMMER VISITORS.
Part III.

By TOM DUCKWORTH.

(Read at Carlisle. )

IN my previous papers on our Summer Visitors, I alluded more
particularly to the different Warblers; but now I must confine
myself to those who are not remarkable for their songs, but more
for their peculiar characteristics. The first of these is

THE RinGc OvuzeEL, Zurdus torquatus,

which frequents the mountainous parts of temperate Europe. In
this district it is fairly plentiful all along the Pennine range,
although they have slightly decreased in the Ullswater district ;
but according to the observations of others, and also my own, they
have increased on the eastern fells during these latter years. It
arrives early as arule,as I have known it to, be in the Croglin
district in the end of March: but the first week in April is the
average time. It has many local names, but here it is known as
the “Fell Throstle” and the “Mountain Blackbird.” I once saw
a good number of these birds in the neighbourhood of Durdar,
very early in the season, feeding on the ivy berries; but the next
day not one was to be scen—they were all off to their breeding
places. The name Ring Ouzel, as given to this bird, is quite a
misnomer, as in fact it has no ring round its neck at all—simply
a white crescentic mark a little below its throat. In spring they

88

arrive in considerable numbers ; but they soon separate and take
up their stations on our fell sides and the moorlands adjoining
thereto.

In the spring of 1865 I was located in the wilds of North Wales
when the Ring Ouzels arrived, the male birds first; and a few
days after the females put in an appearance, and in an incredibly
short space of time they were paired, and distributed over the
mountain sides; their cheery songs burst from every coign of
vantage, and made the valleys ring with their spring roundelay.
They love to frequent sequestered gills, and especially where the
fell becks dash over the boulders. Unlike his congeners, the
Fieldfare and the Redwing, who only winter here, he is the only
species of thrush who comes from the “sunny south” to spend the
summer with us. This is something unaccountable. Here we
have three birds of the same species, whose food is nearly the
same, yet two come in autumn and stay with us all the winter,
then depart in spring to Sweden and Norway to breed: while
another travels from Central Africa to breed in our mountain
solitudes. The Ring Ouzel also visits Sweden and Norway; and
Mr. Hewitson, when on a visit to the latter country, for the
purpose of studying the habits of the Fieldfare and Redwing,
mentions how the most bleak and desolate islands were enlivened
with its song: it often delighted him in his midnight visits amongst
the islands.

In my rambles on our fells, I love to see him flitting before me
from point to point, and uttering his call note of “tuk—tuk—tuk,”
and have often been startled by the shrill clarion of the bird,
whom you may see perched like a sentinel on some jutting crag,
or on some stunted root of a tree, or a small bush, and protesting
against your approach. They object most decidedly to your
presence upon their preserves, especially when the female is sitting,
or when the young are just hatched out. I have seen the male
bird fly in circles around us, and at us, until we had removed
some distance from the nest. It will also use all sorts of stratagems,
feigning to be wounded, and tumbling before one with drooping
wings. Ifyou have a dog with you, woe betide it, as the parent

89

birds will not let it have any peace. I remember well walking -
with one of my fell friends and his collie. Two birds pursued the
dog with harsh wild cries, and flew close to him, as if attempting
to strike him with their wings. The dog was bewildered, and
came up to us as if to know what to do; but, however, the birds
gave us the same salute, until we shifted a considerable way from
the place.

The Ring Ouzel is a bold, handsome, and pugnacious bird ; and
when flying from rock to rock, his white gorget shows beautifully
contrasted with his dark plumage. His song is difficult to describe
—a mixture of the song of the Missel Thrush, some notes of the
Song Thrush, and a little of the Blackbird’s song. It is a desultory
sort of strain: after a few lilts of song, he stops and looks around
him, as if daring any one to contradict him, then breaks forth with
a few harsh notes, as if deriding his own melody.

If you should happen to come upon the Ring Ouzel suddenly,
so as to startle him, he flies away making the hills resound with his
harsh cries, startling the Meadow Pipits, the Red Grouse, the
Stonechat, and the Wheatear, and putting them all on the look
out ; he causes quite a consternation amongst all the birds in the
locality.

Bechstein thinks the voice of this species, though hoarser and
deeper, more agreeable than that of the Blackbird. Tastes differ ;
I think the contrary. I have known instances where this bird has
been tamed and made a charming pet. If my memory does not
fail me, the Rev. H. A. Macpherson had one, which was a great
favourite.

These birds lose no time in starting to build, as I have seen
their nests, with the eggs in different stages of incubation, in the
last week of April and the first week in May ; the young are fully
fledged by the middle of June. You will generally find the nest
built on some ledge of rock, or under a bank near to some small
stream, or in a stunted bush or under some heather; it is composed
of dry grass daubed with mud and lined with finer grasses; and
around the outside at times a few dried brackens, and a few twigs
of heather. The number of eggs is five, and they are very similar

90

to those of the Blackbird, but a little larger, greener in the tint,
and some of them more blotched, and the spots more decided,
than on those of that bird.

The food of the Ring Ouzel consists of worms, small slugs,
snails, and the berries of the Mountain Ash, Bilberry, etc. Even
before incubation is over he often makes raids on the gardens on
the lower foothills of the Pennine range. Some of my country
friends can well testify that he regales himself on the cherries,
raspberries, and other fruit, to their cost.

When nidification is over, the birds commence their southward
march, they then are more noticed as they gather up by the way.
They arrive in the south-eastern counties in the middle of Sep-
tember, and generally spend a week, hence they are called by the
country people in those parts Michaelmas Blackbirds.

Another migrant who often builds near to the Ring Ouzel—in
fact his next door neighbour—is

Tue WHEATEAR, Saxicola enanthe.

This bird is widely-spread over Central and Northern Europe,
Greenland, Faroe Isles, eastwards across Siberia into Alaska, also in
Sweden, Norway, Lapland, Egypt, and Asia Minor. They spend the
winter in Africa, Persia, and India. My earliest dates of the arrival of
the Wheatear are March 24th, 26th, 27th, and 29th. I first see them
in our low-lying lands on the borders of our rivers, never many
together, where they stay a day or two, and then make off to their
breeding grounds up on our fell sides and along the coast line ;
only in one instance have I seen these birds in the breeding
season between the shore and the foot-hills of the fells, and that
was in a fallow field near to the Spa Well. This bird has a variety
of local names, viz., Whiterump, Fallow-chat, Chacker, Charlie-
mufti, Chickel, and several others. They run along the ground
with great celerity, ever and anon stopping to have a look round,
first on one side and then the other, flirting the tail, and showing
the beautiful white parts of their plumage, then making a dart
forward and picking up insects here and there, taking low slightly

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undulating flights from one resting place to another, and always
alighting on some little hillock, or a jutting stump; I have also
seen them perch on rails. When the hen bird is sitting, the male
is very solicitous of his charge, and will flit before you to try and
lead you away, all the while uttering his call note, which I can
only compare to the striking of two pebbles together. On the
sandhills of our coast I have seen him feed the female on her nest,
and also take her place for a short time, as if to allow her to
exercise her feet and wings, and to take a little recreation.

During the breeding season the Wheatear has a sweet and varied
little song, often poured forth on the wing, while hovering over his
partner on the nest, during which his tail is alternately closed and
spread open like a lady’s fan. Once when crossing Glasson Moss
on a fine spring morning, I noticed a male Wheatear in beautiful
breeding plumage, sitting on a little mound of earth, and he was
singing his love song beautifully. I was close to him, and tried to
note down in my pocket book his varied notes, but I had to give
it up; I could not find words to describe it. Although its song is
not loud, there is something extremely pleasing in its softness ; and
it is all the more acceptable at this time, because the majority of
our songsters, both resident and visitors, have not as yet commenced
to pour forth their melody. In my walk that day I never sawa
female, although males were fairly plentiful all along the littoral.

It is rather curious that in nearly all our summer visitors the
males precede the females for some days. Birdcatchers are well
aware of this fact ; and all they catch in the first flight are sure to
be males, Sometimes a week or so elapses before you see the
females. What is the reason of this? Is it because the males are
stronger, and brave the hardships of the journey better? Perhaps
it may be that the initiative in all that relates to the continuance
of the species devolves upon the male. This is a puzzling question,
and one that will take some time before it is thoroughly explained,
although I have no doubt that in the course of a few years there
will be some satisfactory explanation given. The reports on
migration are getting more complete every year, owing to the

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increased number of observers in different parts of this and other
countries.

Mr. Sweet gives a pleasing account of the Wheatear in confine-
ment. He says it is a very interesting bird, and is almost
continually singing ; it will also sing by night as well as by day, if
there be a light in the room where it is kept. It has a very
pleasant, variable, and agreeable song, different from all other
birds, which, in confinement, it continues all the winter. When a
pair of them are kept together in an aviary, it is very amusing to
see them at play with each other, flying up and down and spreading
their wings in a curious manner, dancing and singing at the same
time. I have very little doubt but a young bird brought up from
the nest might be taught to talk, as they are very imitative.

About the first week in May the Wheatears have their full
complement of eggs. They nest in the loose stone walls of our
fells, under stones, sometimes under a piece of turf; and along
the coast I have found them nesting in rabbit burrows; one I
discovered in the railway yard at Silloth under some sleepers.
The nest is composed of moss and dry grass, and lined with wool
or hair, and in some instances with rabbit down ; it is very loosely
constructed. They lay five or six eggs of a pale light blue colour,
and rather large for the size of the bird. The nest is difficult to
find, although in nesting time when you see the birds they are not
far off it.

The food of the Wheatear consists of small slugs, worms, insects,
especially the Coleoptera ; and I have also watched them through
my binoculars, and seen them feeding on grasshoppers and spiders,
and also catching insects flying in the air with the same address
as the Flycatcher.

In the northern parts of Great Britain, this bird is the victim of
superstition. Mudiesays: ‘Inthe north the Wheatear is generally
found on heaps of stones, by ruins, or on the dry stone walls of
burial grounds ; and though it is a very handsome bird, and in the
early season sings sweetly, its haunts have gotten it a bad name.
As I have said before, its common alarm note is very like chipping
stones; and as it utters that note from the top of the heap which

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haply covers the bones of one who perished by the storm, or his
own hand; or from the mound beneath which there lie the slain
of a battle field, magnified through the mist of years, or from the
rude wall that fences in many generations ;—it is no very unnatural
stretch of the pondering fancy which dwells in such places, to
‘associate the Wheatear with all the superstition that, unphilo-
sophically, but not irreverently, belong to the place of graves. It
comes onward, too, to meet the traveller, and now running, now
flying, seems to pilot him to a place beside ‘the cairn,’ as if his
own bones were soon to be gathered there; and in that, its note
of solemn warning, it is more than usually energetic ; so you are at
perfect liberty to believe that it is breaking the stones that are to
cover you—if you choose ; and, really, there is no accounting for
what people will believe in such places—or in any place. The
Wheatear in the northern parts of Britain, and in places further to
the north, is the victim of such superstition, old and young continue
to kill and persecute the birds and to destroy their nests and eggs,
considering the service as one of more than ordinary merit.”

In the first or second week of August, if you take a walk along
any of our rivers, you are sure to see the Wheatear, although he
has partially changed his dress, the upper parts in autumn being
reddish brown, and the tail feathers tipped with white. I see
them in parties of two or three, never more, all along the low-lying
lands, or “bottoms,” as they are termed here, all making southward
previous to their migration. Whether they follow the east or west
coast I am unable tosay. A little later on great numbers assemble
upon the downs of our southern coast; and as they are then in
first rate condition, and greatly esteemed as a delicacy for the
table, they are captured in immense quantities by the shepherds
who attend to the numerous flocks in those districts. Some idea
of the havoc made among these birds during the months of August
and September, may be obtained from the fact that, as many as
eighty-four dozen have been taken by one shepherd in a day ; and,
according to Pennant, the number annually caught in the neigh-
bourhood of Eastbourne, in Sussex, amounted to about 1840 dozen.
The mode in which they are taken is singular from its simplicity ;

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a chamber is formed by cutting out an oblong piece of turf, which
is then laid over the hole formed, in the opposite direction, so as
to be supported by its ends; and two passages are also cut in the
turf leading into the chamber. Through these the birds run for
shelter at the least alarm; but in the middle of the chamber a
small upright stick is placed supporting two running loops of horse
hair, so arranged that it is almost impossible for a bird to run
through the chamber without getting his neck into one of the
nooses. It is said one shepherd, with the assistance of his lad,
will attend from five to seven hundred of these snares. Mr. Johns
states that it was formerly the custom for persons who wanted a
dish of Wheatears to supply themselves from the traps, placing a
penny in every hole from which they took a bird ; but of late years
the influx of visitors to the neighbouring watering-places has so
much enhanced their value, that the shepherds will allow no such
interference. We once tried the experiment of releasing a bird and
depositing the penny in the trap, when, from a neighbouring
eminence we were assailed with such a torrent of abuse, that we
declined repeating the experiment.

Instances have been recorded of this bird wintering in some of
the south-eastern counties; and Gilbert White mentions that he
has seen a few stragglers at all times of the year, especially about
warrens and stone quarries.

The next bird on my list is

Tue NIGHTJAR, Cafprimulgus europeus,

which occurs on the borders of our mosses and commons, especially -
those that are bordered with timber ; also the open glades of some
of our woods, notably Barron Wood, the edge of High Stand,
Orton, Newby Cross, the outskirts of the White Moss, Bowness
and Wedholme Flows, and, nearer to hand, Rickerby ; some years
ago a pair used to frequent Kingmoor, but I have not seen or
heard them there these latter years.
The Nightjar is commonly distributed in summer through Great
Britain and throughout Europe, ranging as far east as Central

A EL, ey Pe OO A en ot

|

95

Africa. As a rule it generally arrives in this locality in the middle
of May; but the late T, C. Heysham records having seen one
here in the middle of April. It breeds sparingly with us in this
district, and rejoices in innumerable local names—in fact more
than any other bird I know of. In some places it is known as the
Goatsucker, from the ridiculous notion that it sucks goats and
cows, and there are still in this county people who swear that they
have seen it do so. No doubt cattle when lying down, especially
near the outskirts of woods, disturb innumerable insects, and
possibly they have seen the Nightjar hawking about the cattle,
which lead them to think so. It is a preposterous name, as it is
utterly impossible for the bird to do anything of the kind, owing to
the construction of its beak. Other local names for this bird are
Fern Owl, Fern Chafer, Goat Wheeler, Nightchurr Owl, Gnathawk,
Mothcatcher, Wheelbird, Dorhawk, Evejar, Churn Owl, Puckeridge,
and Nighthawk, which is its common name in Cumberland.

Anyone taking a country stroll in the sweet summer time, as the -
shades of evening are closing in, especially where these birds
frequent, cannot but have been struck by their curious jarring
note, which has been compared to that of an old fashioned spinning
wheel ; it is given uninterruptedly, a continuous vibratory jar, first
in a higher pitch and then in a lower, and increases and diminishes
in loudness. I have timed it by my watch to continue for a minute
and a half without stopping. Mr. Bell says it is so like the croak
of the Natterjack Toad, that he has more than once doubted
from which of the two the sound proceeded. I am pretty well
acquainted with the croak of this rare and handsome reptile, yet
for my own part I can distinguish no similarity. The sound is
also very deceptive: it appears to come first from one part of the
tree, and then from another, and yet the bird was within a stone
throw all the time. This seeming ventriloquism is caused simply
by the bird turning its head in different directions ;—the same
applies to the Grasshopper Warbler and the Corncrake—I have
noticed this in all three birds.

The Nightjar when perched is very difficult to see; its colour
harmonises so well with the boughs, and he does not sit across the

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branches, but lengthwise, one foot before the other, with his head
down and tail up, apparently on the look out for moths and beetles
flying about at the circumference of the tree. A pair I frequently
watched in the summer of 1879, near to Rickerby, in still warm
evenings commenced their churring note as regular as possible at
five minutes past nine. I took my stand close to the trunk of the
tree, and kept as quiet as possible. After the love song had gone
on for some time, what I took to be the male commenced his
swallow-like flight, and then his partner appeared; but I never
could make out exactly where she came from. The pair used to
fly in circles round the tree, sometimes to a good altitude, and
then make a sudden descent to the grass; they toyed on a little
while, at times making a sharp snapping sound, which I thought
was made by striking their wings together over their back in play-
fulness, and then commenced to capture their prey. Their flight
is as noiseless as the owl’s, and they sometimes dashed close past
me without the slightest noise. They appeared at times to make
a complete somersault, as if they missed the insect they were
after, as I noticed that in the twinkling of an eye they made a
downright dash to the ground always after. It is a beautiful sight
to watch this interesting and active bird in its varied flight, now
and then wheeling in graceful curves, upwards and downwards,
ever and anon suddenly reversing their wings and dashing back-
wards, picking up some passing beetle or moth, or chasing some
insect it has missed on its way. They are birds very difficult to
observe, as the twilight darkens in so soon, and does not leave
you that time you would like to have to make correct observation.

The mouth of the Nightjar is enormously large, and shaded
with a moustache composed of long and strong bristles, which,
combined with the glutinous secretion with which the gape is lined,
evidently assist in the capture of the large moths. There is another
curious thing connected with this peculiar bird which has caused
much discussion amongst naturalists as to its use, and that is the
remarkable elongation of the claw of the middle toe, which has its
inner margin deeply pectinated, or rather I should say, a comb-like
process on it, Some say it is for the purpose of cleaning the

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bristles round the mouth from the remains of its food, and also
for removing vermin ; others maintain that it assists the bird in its
peculiar way of perching. In that charming work, Zhe WVatural
Fiistory of Selborne, Gilbert White mentions having “seen the Night-
hawk put out its short leg when on the wing, and by a bend of the
head, deliver something into its mouth. If it takes any part of its
prey with its foot—as I have now the greatest reason to suppose it
does—I no longer wonder at the use of its middle toe, which is
curiously furnished with a serrated claw.” Yarrell also quotes an
instance of its doing so. This action of the bird has never come
under my observation, although I have seen the Great Tit capture
bees in the same manner. I should not like to give an opinion
on the use of this peculiar toe: it can only be solved by patient
and careful observation. I am only sorry that my position prevents
me from devoting more time to the elucidation of this point. The
time is so short between twilight and dark, that it would require
one to live on the spot and watch for favourable opportunities.

Mr. Weir, a well known observer, relates a striking fact about
this bird, he says :—‘‘About half-past nine one evening, in the
month of July, while I was walking through a large plantation of
oak, a pair of Nightjars flew again and again around me, and within
a few yards of my head. I shot the male. At eleven o’clock, as I
had just arrived at the door of my house, an acquaintance who
was passing by enquired of me what kind of bird I had in my
hand. After telling him its name, he said he was anxious to
examine it. I lighted a candle, and upon opening its mouth he
started, exclaiming that it was not yet dead. No wonder he
thought so, for in its mouth there were no fewer than four large
moths, three of which were still alive.” As if in confirmation of
this, an ornithological friend of mine who lives in Kent wrote me,
that on the evening of the 18th June he shot a pair of Goatsuckers
_ for the purpose of stuffing, which he proceeded to do the following
evening. On skinning the first the crop contained eleven moths,
some of whom were still alive; the crop of the other bird contained
two cockchaffers and the remains of moths and small beetles.

In some seasons the cockchaffer beetle is very destructive,
7

98

especially in the southern counties of England ; in this district it
is not so common: some years you will scarcely see one, in others
they are tolerably numerous, but never in such numbers as to
cause any great damage. I have had the insect brought to me
many times by gardeners and others as something curious, to see
if I could tell them itsname. The Nightjar captures great numbers
of these, and for this service alone ought to be protected. In my
entomological days, whilst sugaring for insects in one of the
beautiful ferny glades of Barron Wood, two Nightjars played sad
havoc amongst the moths ; the time we were waiting for darkness
to set in, they snapped them up as fast as they appeared flying
down the glade. The weird and ghost-like flight of the birds, as
they flew ever and anon in their zig-zaggy way up and down the
ride, combined with the stillness of the woods, left a lasting
impression on my youthful mind. I see them now in my mind’s
eye after the lapse of many years.

What strange unearthly sounds you hear in the depths of the
woods at night, especially near the river side: the lap-lapping and
murmuring of the water on the pebbles, the whistle of the otter,
various cries of night birds, the “too-whoo” of the owl, the hum of
night-flies, and the different noises caused by predatory animals on
the lookout for their prey, and also the little sweetheartings that
are always going on amongst them in those parts. The eye of the
naturalist peers into places where other people would scarcely deign
to look. The ear also requires to be practised as well as the eye,
and night is the best time to train it; for then you can put it to
Nature’s key-hole, as it were, and hear all her mysterious sounds,
and make out what they mean. We have overheard a pair of
Water Voles engage in a very gentle and affectionate whispering,
if I may call it so, beneath the willows upon which we were
standing. ‘The old, old story was evidently being rehearsed under
there ; but the occasional splashing of the cold water made their
courting appear like very chilling business—still we all know it is
not so. Even in the calmest nights of summer there is now and
then a gentle moaning among the leaves in the woods, as if some
restless spirit was wandering among the tree tops. A naturalist

Ade cy. e

“
4
;

99

has to be no coward; he hears strange noises and sees strange
sights, sometimes unaccountable, although in the majority of
instances where we have been puzzled we have always found them
out, especially when entomologising. We could tell you some
strange stories of our adventures in the woods at night, but they
would scarcely come within the scope of this paper. Live not all
these recollections in the mind! chasing away even care while we
contemplate them, and throwing a soothing tranquillity over the
soul—a pleasure which we remember, a delight which can never
be forgotten, but can be recalled at any time, no matter how far
removed from the scenes we may be—nay, can be seen in the dark
whenever the inward eye of memory opens. By my own fireside
I can traverse scores of miles of pleasant scenery, can call up a
hundred landscapes of forest, hill, river, valley, and pastoral plain ;
of village and tree and stile; of winding highways and pleasant
field-paths, sylvan dells, charming dales, and pretty brookside
nooks. Even a life of toil is sweetened by the remembrance of
scenes like these, for they are pleasures that pass not away, but are
ever stepping unawares upon us, throwing sudden bursts of “sun-
shine upon the passing clouds,” and cheering us on our way.

To return from this digression. Gamekeepers as a rule have a
great aversion to this bird, and shoot it down unmercifully ; the
name Nighthawk I suppose being sufficient to account for this,
The structure of the bird, to any intelligent person, is quite plenty
to show that it is utterly incapable of tearing to pieces any young
game ; a glance at its bill and feet will prove this, apart from the
fact that at the time of night when the Nightjar is flying the young
game chicks would be safely ensconced under the mother’s wings.
I once was walking with a keeper, not far from Carlisle, in the
dusk of a glorious summer’s evening along the outskirts of a wood,
when a Nighthawk flew right before us, and in an instant he had
the gun to his shoulder, and shot the poor bird before I had time
to expostulate with him. When telling him what a shame it was
to shoot such a useful and harmless bird, all the satisfaction I got I
will tell you in his own vernacular. He said: “It hes t’ biggest gob
an’ laalest neb of enny burd in Cummerlan’, an’ sooks gam’ eggs,”

100

The Nightjar makes no nest, but simply lays it eggs in some
slight hollow on the ground, generally amongst heath or ferns, or
under the shelter of some small bush or tuft of heather. The
female sits very close, and will allow you to approach within a few
feet before it scrambles away in a low peculiar drowsy-like flight,
something like an owl’s in daylight. I have only found the nest
twice in all my experience. The first I found by accident ; and if
it had not been the bright beautiful eyes of the bird I should have
trampled upon it. The second was discovered in a similar manner.
One was at High Stand Wood, and the other on the border of
Dalston Hall Wood. They lay two eggs of an oval form, both
ends alike ; they are very pretty eggs to my eye, being beautifully
marbled with bluish grey and yellowish brown on a white ground
—and in the same clutch you will nearly always find one more
blotched than the other. The greatest number of these birds I
ever saw together hawking was six, and that was near to Black
Moss Pool.

The plumage of the Nightjar is a nice combination of grey,
brown and sepia beautifully blended, and shaded with rippling and
waving lines. The male bird has a large oval spot of white on the
inner web of the three first quill feathers, and at the end of the
two outmost tail feathers. And here I must finish this sketch of
the Nightjar—a most characteristic bird—by quoting the following
beautiful lines from Bishop Mant :—

Why, when May is well nigh past,

Of Britain’s summer birds the last

To reach our shores, in waving fern,
Or furze, beside some bosky bourn,
Hid from the piercing eye of day,
Their nestless eggs the Nightjar lay.
Then issuing forth in evening gloom,
With hiss, and buzz, and solemn hum,
As of the spinner’s whirling wheel,
Unseen on noiseless wings they steal,
Smooth gliding through the unfanned air,
With open months, and bristling hair
Fringing that cavern wide, prepared
To clasp the beetle’s mailed shard ;

Or circling, chase, in easy ring,

The night-moth’s soft and downy wing.

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The poet Wordsworth also refers to this bird :—

The busy Dor-hawk chases the white moth
With burring note.

The burring Dor-hawk round and round is wheeling.
That solitary bird
Is all that can be heard,
In silence deeper far than deepest noon.

The following lines will form a fitting introduction to our next
visitor—

THE LANDRAIL, OR CORNCRAKE, Cvrex pratensis.

But hark ! as by the cornfield’s side,
Where the fresh blades aspiring hide
With wavy folds its furrow’d breast,
The ear what startling sounds arrest !
Perhaps you deem from fenny bog

You hear the croaking of the frog,
Monotonous, afar or nigh,

The same untun’d repeated cry.

Again the sound ! now here, now there,
It tempts to follow ; but howe’er

Your steps the fleeting cry pursue,
You'll scarce the cause retiring view ;
You'll scarce with foot or eye o’ertake
The dark form of the mottled crake,
As his long legs low-bending pass
Through the high corn or waving grass,
With body prone; nor dares his wing
Up from the verdant covert spring.

The Corncrake generally arrives in this neighbourhood about the
23rd of April, although days sometimes elapse before you hear its
welcome cry. It is a bird oftener heard than seen. On referring
to my note books, I find in some years it is fairly plentiful, and in
others only scarce ; how to account for this I cannot tell, except it
tay be the state of the weather, or the direction of the wind,
which may be conducive to a more extended migration, and may

102

bring more birds into our northern counties. But in those years
when it visits us freely, I notice that it prognosticates a wet season.
They love to frequent the rich meadows along our river sides,
marshy bottoms, corn fields, or where there is a thick under-cover
of vegetation. In the calm soft evenings about the latter end of
spring, you will hear them calling their ‘‘crake-crake, crake-crake,”
but not unmusical cry—at least to my ear. I have reason to
suppose that the females do not arrive till some considerable time
after the males, for numbers that are shot about this time all turn
out to be males. These birds shift about a good deal after their
arrival: you will hear them calling one evening in one field, and
the next some considerable way off, as if looking for their lady
loves. Their cry is very deceiving—first sounding at one end of
the meadow, then at the other; sometimes at one place in the
middle of the field, and the next moment directly opposite. I was
first led to suppose that the bird was running in different directions
—and a fast runner it undoubtedly is—but such a short time
elapsed between the calls, and the distances were so great, that I
had my doubts on the matter; then I surmised that the Corncrake
possessed a sort of ventriloquism. But, however, one evening,
through a hole in a hedge, I had a good view of one in the act of
calling, and I observed that it thrust its neck out and in, and kept
turning its head in various directions, which made the sound appear
to come from the different quarters.

I have often called these birds up to where I was snugly
ensconced, for the purpose of close observation, and whenever
there was a good cover I never failed ; but you have to keep very
quiet, as the Corncrake is very quick at both seeing and hearing,
and if it gets the least glimpse of you, or hears the slightest sound
—the breaking of a twig, or a rustle in the grass for instance—it
puts its head to the ground and disappears like magic through the
undergrowth. The form of the bird is well adapted for this rapid
gliding betwixt the thickest grass or the closest sown corn, with its
snake-like head, and breast formed like the bow of a fast-sailing
ship. When uttering its cry it usually stands still, and apparently
with its neck thrust out and again contracted, and twisting it

————— ==

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rapidly from side to side as the craking is being produced. But I
have also seen it call whilst walking, which it does very demurely,
lifting its feet high, and bending its head and tail in rather a
comical fashion ; its strut reminds me very much of the precise
and prim walk which the waterhen assumes at times. Often when
returning from angling, in the grey dawn of the morning, have I
heard their “ crake-crake, crake-crake,” resounding in the meadows
I was passing through, intermingling with the matin hymns of our
early rising songsters. It also cries in the still hours of the night ;
but the familiar call ceases after the period of incubation.

I have known the Corncrake, more than once, cut in two by
the mowers. The bird squats so low in the grass, and remains so
still, that its whereabouts was not discovered until the sharp scythe
had stopped its cry for ever. There is not the least doubt that
numbers of this bird are destroyed every year, especially since the
introduction of the mowing machine, which cuts the grass so close,
and just at the time the birds are sitting; it is a miracle that there
are any left at all. When hay-cutting was principally done by
hand, instances have come to my knowledge where the mowers,
having got a glimpse of the bird on her nest, left a small portion
uncut around where the bird was sitting, so as to allow her to hatch
out the chicks. The young run as soon as hatched, and the little
black downy fellows are a very pretty sight. An instance of the
parental instinct of these birds, I cannot help but record. A few
years ago, on the 3oth of June, whilst some mowers were cutting a
field of grass, they inadvertently cut through the nest of a Corn-
crake, the young of which had only just broken through the shell.
Three young birds were found to be killed by the scythe ; several
others were seen to run away and hide themselves in the long
grass. A minute or two after, as the men were re-commencing
work, one of the parent birds was seen to rush out towards the
nest, and rapidly retreat with something black in its beak towards
the high grass on a bank not many feet distant. The curiosity of
the men being roused, they immediately searched the place where
the old bird was lost to view, and, to their surprise, tound one of
the young without feet, both having been cut off by the scythe,

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and in consequence it was quite unable to run a step. ‘This the
old bird having discovered, conveyed it to a place of safety by
its beak.

You can scarcely get Corncrakes to take wing; when they do
so, they fly heavily, with their legs hanging down, and generally
drop over the nearest hedge, although at times I have seen them
take pretty long flights ; one in the Rose Holms, which we flushed
out of a new mown field, in which the hay was piked, and the bird
feeding on insects among the aftermath, and where there was no
cover, took wing, and we watched it till lost to our view.

When the hay is cleared off the meadows, the birds betake
themselves into the turnip and clover fields, which afford them
abundance of food and shelter. The food of the Landrail consists
of small snails, slugs, worms, beetles, insects, and also the seeds of
grasses.

The Corncrake builds its nest in the thick grass, sometimes in a
hedge bottom where there is a dense undergrowth ; it is not a very
elaborate affair, consisting of dried grass, and lined with a few finer
grasses; it lays from eight to twelve eggs. I once knew one
with sixteen ; but perhaps this number may have been the joint
production of a pair of birds. The eggs are very pretty ones, pale
yellowish in ground colour, spotted and blotched with brownish
red, ashy grey, and purple. The richest marked specimens I ever
saw, were taken by a friend of mine in the neighbourhood of
Dalston. By his description I made sure they were the eggs of
the Quail, a bird which breeds sporadically in this district ; but on
inspection they were decidedly those of the Landrail.

The Corncrake is very highly prized for food; I know by
experience it makes a dainty dish ; and there is an old saying in
the country, that a brace of these birds is a present for a queen.

This bird, when exposed to danger from which it cannot escape,
will simulate death. Mr. Jesse relates the following incident in
proof of this assertion: “A gentleman had a Corncrake brought
to him by his dog, to all appearance quite dead. As it lay on the
ground, he turned it over with his foot, and felt convinced that it
was dead; standing by, however, in silence, he suddenly saw it

—— MS CCC

105

open one eye. He then took it up; its head fell, its legs hung
loose, and it appeared again quite dead. He then put it in his
pocket, and before long he felt it all alive, and struggling to escape.
He took it out, and it was lifeless as before. Having laid it again
upon the ground, and retired to some distance, the bird in about
five minutes warily raised its head, looked round, and decamped
at full speed.”

There is no doubt some of these birds remain to winter with
us, as I] have known birds shot at Christmas time, but in a very
emaciated condition; probably wounded birds in the autumn.
Numbers have been known to remain in Ireland all the year
through.

I cannot close this account of our Summer Visitors without
mentioning another favourite bird of mine—

THE ComMon SANDPIPER, Zotanus hypoleucus.

Known to country people as the Summer Snipe; the “Willy
Wicket” of our boyhood. It generally arrives here about April
2oth, invariably in pairs. This is the only summer migrant, during
the whole course of my observation, which does so, at least in this
district ; possibly they may pair on the coast line before making
up to their breeding haunts. This pretty little wader is fairly
numerous on all our rivers, and some of their tributaries. You will
find it breeding from the Esk, where it empties into the Solway,
right up into the heart of the fells. I have found it nesting on the
following rivers—Esk, Eden, Lyne, Irthing, Caldew, Petterill,
Croglin, Ive, Roe, in the upper and the lower reaches of the Gelt,
and also in many of our fell becks.

I love to see this Sandpiper flying about our rivers in its
somewhat rapid and tortuous flight, just skimming the surface of
the water with its beautiful arched wings, now and then sailing in
the air without moving those organs, then a stroke or two and
away again to some retired part, where they alight with their wings
held up above their back, and go some little distance in this

106

manner before closing them. ‘They run with alacrity along the
gravel, or paddle in the shallows looking for food, or run quickly
along the sand beds, leaving their pretty footprints on the wet
sand. You may at times come suddenly upon them round the
bends of the river—but as a rule they are very alert—and startle
them, when they fly up the stream uttering their sweet refrain,
“willy wicket, willy wicket.” In the early part of the breeding
season, the grotesque antics of the male bird whilst dancing in
attendance around the female, has often caused me to burst into
uncontrollable fits of laughter.

They enliven the river sides and borders of our lakes, and as
they are active in all their movements, whether on foot or on the
wing, with their pretty plumage and dapper form, they are sure to
attract the eye of the wanderer in those parts. In my angling days,
many times I neglected filling my creel, by my attention being
more devoted to the merry gambols of this bird, and other birds
which are to be found in the same localities. The many curious
insects, the beautiful flowers, the calm tranquil scenes, and the
many strange objects which come across the angler’s eye whilst
standing silently in the river side solitudes, these are quite sufficient
to spoil the day’s fishing.

You need not go far from this city to see the Summer Snipe ;
you will always find a few pairs down by Stainton Banks, Grinsdale
Island, and Rickerby, where I have often found them breeding.
I have never myself noticed this bird perch, but there is a pretty
description of its doing so in Zhe Birds of Cumberland. I have
observed it running along the stone walls by the side of the river,
and also along the trunk of a fallen tree. The bird breeds in the
middle of May, and makes a pretty, although not elaborate, nest.
I have seen the nest on the shingle, with just a little dried
grass on the inside, on the N.W. point of Rockcliffe Marsh,
just outside the tide mark, where, in a full tide, it would have
been carried away. It often happens that the water sweeps
over nearly the whole of the ground, and numbers of nests and
eggs of different birds are destroyed. We have seen them lying in
scores, where the tide had swept them from the breeding grounds

107

on the marsh, I have also found the nest on the bank side, and
I observe that it forms a better nest when built in this situation.
Sometimes it builds a considerable distance from the river; I have
known them between eighty and a hundred yards from it. At
times you will find it on the sand beds, built under the shade of
the large leaves of the butter bur, or under the shelter of some
small bush. The nest is generally in a slight depression of the
ground, although sometimes the hole is scratched by the birds
themselves ; it is built sparingly of dried grass, fibrous roots, and
sometimes a few leaves. The number of eggs are four, of a lightish
cream colour spotted and blotched with dark reddish brown and
ashy grey. The eggs laid in nests found on the shingle are
profusely marked with small spots of a reddish colour, and are not
so deeply marked as those found on the bank sides ; they assimilate
very much with the surroundings, and it takes a practised eye to
find the nest. The eggs are very large for the size of the bird, and
are arranged quatrefoil; they take up very little room, and you
would wonder how the small nest could contain them. The
prettiest nest I ever saw, was on an island in the river Caldew,
built on a small hillock of|sand, covered with wild thyme; the
nest was in a cup-like hollow on the very top—a beautiful sight.
When the bird went off the nest, it ran down the mound, and at
the first glimpse I thought it was a young wild rabbit, as there
were a few on the island. I have found the nest close to footpaths
on several occasions, notably one at Wetheral, where people were
constantly passing within a foot or two of it; in fact I should never
have thought of looking for it in such a public place; but in the
twilight of a beautiful summer night I saw the bird run off, and I
looked more through curiosity than anything else, and sure enough
there the nest was, hidden under a small bush; yet, in spite of
this, the bird hatched out the young safely. When incubation is
going on, the male takes his place on the nest for a time; this I
have seen several times by the aid of my field-glass. He is never
far away when hatching is going on, and is the first to give the
alarm with his querulous note.

The young run about as soon as they are out of the shell—and

108

pretty downy little fellows they are. If you should happen to
come near them, the old birds give a plaintive complaining note
of “weet, weet,” and a sort of soft subdued whistle, and the young
birds scuttle under cover as quick as possible. ‘They are adepts at
hiding, and if you take your eyes off them for an instant, it will
take you all your time to catch sight of them again; and at the
same time the parent birds are using all the wiles that Nature has
given them to decoy you away—tumbling about as if their wings
were broken, just keeping out of your reach-—and when they allure
you sufficiently far from the spot, they wheel right back to where
the chicks are hiding. ‘The parent birds are very assiduous in the
care of their young, and when they take wing, the old ones lead
the van to some sheltered place, all the while uttering their sweet
ringing cry of ‘willy wicket, willy wicket.” The family keep
together all the summer through, and it is a pretty sight to see
them feeding in some sequestered place.

Although this bird breeds so close to Carlisle, some of the
species in the same family breed in high northern latitudes. The
eggs of the Sanderling were first found during the late Arctic
Expedition; and the eggs of the Knot Sandpiper, a common
winter visitor here, are as yet unknown to science: the eggs have
never been found, although the young: were seen during the late
Expedition under Sir George Nares, in the highest known latitude
where bird life existed. In autumn, numerous family parties from
the upper reaches of the rivers make down to the marshes, where
they stay a short while previous to migrating to their winter home
in the “sunny south.”

Whilst sketching these notes on our Summer Visitors, what
pleasant reminiscences have been brought to my memory, of happy
days and hours spent among our fells, mosses, moors, marshes,
hedgerows, and woods. The study of Natural History is an
unalloyed pleasure ; and only those know the happiness it brings
who have opened the pages of the great book of Nature. It
operates on our kindly feelings, and in many instances opens the
communication to the most pleasing acquaintances, which from
congeniality of disposition ripen into the warmest friendships.

109

There is a peculiar interest attached to the study of Natural
History, even when pursued as a mere recreation, or without any
view of benefiting others by our observations. It throws a charm
on a country walk at any period of the year, or even on a simple
turn in the garden ; it excites habits of quick observation in the
youthful mind, and expands the heart in more mature life.

Nature’s voice is sweet
Wherever heard ; her works, wherever seen,
Are might and beauty ; to the mind and eye
She speaks of things that but with life can die.

111

ICE WORK IN EDENSIDE
AND SOME OF THE ADJOINING PARTS OF
NORTH WESTERN ENGLAND.

By J. G. GOODCHILD, F.G.S.,

OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF ENGLAND AND WALES.

-, [The following paper gives a connected summary of several lectures and
addresses given before the local scientific societies of Cumberland and West-
morland between the years 1880 and 1887. ]

I. INTRODUCTION.

II. RELATING TO ICE AND GLACIATION.

III. THE ORIGIN oF OUR Drirt DEPposITs.

IV. THe Resutts or IcE ACTION UPON THE SURFACE.
V. POoOSTGLACIAL DENUDATION.

I. Lutroduction.—In the Quarterly Journal of the Geological
Society, XXxi, pp. 55-99, was published a paper, read in June, 1874,
on the “Glacial Phenomena of the Eden Valley and the Yorkshire
Dale-District.” This gave a condensed account of the principal
facts and arguments relating to the results of ice work during the
Glacial Period over the area referred to in the title, based partly
upon work done in connection with the Geological Survey prior
to the date mentioned. Besides discussing matters whose chief
interest was more or less of a local character, the paper treated of
several matters of more general interest to geologists ; such as the
behaviour of large masses of land ice in motion, the origin of the
various and highly-complex drift deposits of the north-west of

112

England, the nature and extent of the erosion accomplished by
the ice during its stay in the North of England, and the amount
of denudation that had been brought about through the action
of various causes since the close of the Glacial Period. Within a
few months of the publication of the article referred to the same
subjects were discussed anew in the pages of the Geological
Magazine (Dec. ii, vols. 1 and 2). In these latter articles the
chief arguments were repeated in a somewhat different form, but
without any substantial alteration as regards the main points of the
original.

In the papers referred to several of the theories enunciated were
new, and were, in some respects, so different from the views then
generally accepted, that considerable reluctance to consider them
at all was manifested by the older geologists, especially by those
whose views on these subjects had been already committed to
print, or had otherwise been made public. Perhaps for this
reason, and because the acceptance of the new views involved the
entire abandonment of some of the views then current upon the
sequence of events during the Glacial Period, as well as upon the
important question of the antiquity of man, geologists in general
seem to have come, about that time, to regard some of the questions
involved as beyond solution, with the knowledge then available.

By degrees, however, as our knowledge of matters pertaining to
the geological action of ice has extended, the older views I have
referred to have been, to a certain extent, abandoned, especially
by those geologists whose views remain unfettered ; and the place
of the older views has been taken by others differing only in minor
matters of detail from those put forward in the papers mentioned
above.

Under these circumstances I have thought it might be convenient
to bring together into one article the main facts and arguments
already stated, as little as possible encumbered by local details,
and to reinforce these here and there with additional matter since
made public by the labours of other workers in the same field of
study. In substance, therefore, the following paper contains a
re-statement of the views put forward by myself in 1874. And in

1138

discussing the subject I propose to confine my attention to that
part of the area treated of in the paper in the Quarterly Journal
under the name of the Eden Valley, (or, as it would be more
convenient to designate it, Edenside,) and except in special cases
to confine my observations rather to generalities than to local
details, which I must leave the reader to gather for himself from
the map appended to this article, or from the statements given in
the paper just mentioned.

Il. Relating to Ice and Glaciation.

Physical Characters of Edenside.

Its Geological Structure.

General Relation of the Glacial Geology of Edenside to that
of East Anglia.

Preglacial Configuration of the Surface.

The Precursors of the Ice Sheet, and the Earlier Periods of
Glaciation.

Southward Advance of Scottish Ice.

Inland and uphill march of the Ice.

West Cumberland Dispersion.

Glacial Distribution of Boulders.

Differential Movements of the Ice on various platforms.

Propagation of Force through Ice.

Vertical Circulation of the Ice.

Envelopment and subsequent transportal of Organisms.

Areas not invaded by Ice of extraneous origin.

Relative Date of the Maximum Glaciation.

Latest Glaciers of local origin.

Abrupt Termination of the Period of Maximum Glaciation.

Physical Characters of Edenside.—The district herein more
specially referred to is that part of Cumberland and Westmorland
lying between the northern slopes of the Lake District and its
eastward continuation, the Howgill Fells, on the one hand, and the
main line of watershed ranging along the summit of the Cross Fell
Escarpment on the other. This area coincides, in great part, with

the lower two-thirds of the basin of the Eden, but to speak of it as
8

114

the Eden Valley is a decided misnomer. Viewed broadly, and
without regard to the minor inequalities of the surface, the part under
notice appears as an irregular plain inclined in a north-easterly direc-
tion, and falling from an elevation of 1500 to 2000 feet (that of the
east and west physical axis of the Lake District,) to a general level
of between five and six hundred feet above the sea near the foot of
the Escarpment. ‘This inclined plain terminates rather abruptly at
both its south-eastern and its north-eastern margins against the
steep edge of the great upland tract of Carboniferous rocks that
forms the Cross Fell Escarpment, and its continuation from Brough
southward past Kirkby Stephen. The bounding edges referred to
as forming the termination of the plain range in elevation from
about fifteen hundred to between two- and three thousand feet
above the level of the sea. In plan, the area thus enclosed is
rudely triangular in form, with the apex of the triangle directed
towards the south-east. At the opposite, or north-western, end,
the depressed area under notice gradually merges into the low
ground of the Solway, nearly opposite Criffel. From the Solway
to the inland termination of the plain is about sixty miles. Kirkby
Stephen,-Appleby, Penrith, and Carlisle, are all situated upon the
plain referred to. A comparatively-slight and shallow depression
in the mountain framework bordering the south-eastern termination
of the lowland area bears the name of Stainmoor. ‘This Stainmoor
depression is continued away from the plain at its foot eastward
for many miles, ranging between the high lands of Upper Tees-
dale, etc., on the north, and the fells on the north side of Swaledale,
Arkendale Head, etc., on the south. In another direction, between
the Howgill Fells and the massif of the Lake District, a second
wide and shallow depression ranges southward along the general
course of the Lune valley, and, as it were, connects the lowlands
north of the Lake District with those of the Kendal area. On the
western side of this depression lies the outcrop of the well-known
Shap Granite.

Geological Structure—The greater part of the lowland tract
consists of —(1) The Upper New Red, consisting of the Stanwix

115

Marls, St. Bees Sandstone, and Lower Gypseous Shales ; (2) The
Magnesian Limestone and the Plant Beds; (3) Lower New Red,
which includes the Penrith Sandstone and its associates the Brock-
rams. These latter rocks furnish evidence of much value in
connection with the movements of the ice. (4) Lower Carbon-
iferous rocks, characterised here by its stained sandstones and
shales, and by its dolomitized limestone; (5) Precarboniferous
rocks of various kinds. The marginal uplands consist on the
north-east and the east mainly of Carboniferous rocks of the same
age as those of the lowlands. The Carboniferous rocks of the
uplands are not, however, stained and altered as are those just
referred to. With these Carboniferous rocks occur a few rocks of
older date, including some few plutonic and volcanic rocks of well
marked characters, such as the Gabbro of Cuns Fell, and the
“oranite” of Dufton. The south-west uplands consist mainly of
older palzeozoic rocks of various kinds, many of them of strongly-
marked characters, and easily recognized even in the form of small
fragments. Amongst these rocks special mention is made of—
(1) Shap Granite, and the metamorphic rocks around it ; (2) Mar-
dale Gabbro; (3) St. John’s Quartz Felsite and the Armboth
Dyke ; (4) Sale Fell Minette ; (5) Buttermere Syenite.

To these mention may be added of the granites of Criffel, as
well as the various rocks therewith associated in Galloway.

Each of these rocks named has characters so well marked and
distinctive that boulders of it can be traced in the drift without
much possibility of error such as might arise through incorrect
identification. They consequently afford ready means of determin-
ing the general, or predominating, direction of boulder-transportal
from each of the areas that they respectively represent, and as such
their distribution has been specially considered in the remarks
that follow.

General Relation of Glacial Geology of Edenside to that of East
Anglia.—In commencing to deal with the glacial history of this
area we find ourselves confronted by considerable difficulties at
the very outset of the enquiry. In some other parts of England,

116

especially in Norfolk and the maritime districts there adjoining, a
nearly-complete record of the sequence of events from late Pliocene
times downward have been preserved, and we can, in consequence,
get more-or-less complete materials relating to the whole Pleisto-
cene history of that part of the kingdom. In the hands of my
colleagues, Mr. Clement Reid and Mr. E. T. Newton, these
materials have been carefully worked up, and have been made to
yield a connected account of the whole series of events from the
advent of cold condition in Pliocene times onward.* In the
North-West of England the case is very different ; for our materials,
except those relating to the very latest period of the Age of Ice,
are either very imperfect and fragmentary, or are else wanting
altogether.

Preglacial Contguration of the Surface.—Turning first to the
preglacial features of the surface, we find that in regard to the
minor details of surface sculpture, nothing very certain can be
made out. There are however many reasons for believing that
these minor features were different in many essential respects from
those that meet the eye there now. And in the dales of Yorkshire
adjoining the eastern parts of Edenside it is certain that the form
of the surface left by prolonged weathering, such as must have
preceded the Glacial Period, must have been very different from
what we see there now. And what is true of the Yorkshire Dales
must be true ce/eris paribus, of the parts herein more especially
under notice. All the larger features, however, appear to have
been shaped out long before the advent of the Glacial Period.
Where there are valleys and hills now, there were valleys and hills
as far back as the times when the oldest Pleistocene deposits of
East Anglia were laid down.

It seems to be perfectly clear, indeed, that not only all the
larger valleys, but also most of the courses of the smaller streams,
had already been carved into much their present form by the
prolonged action of subaérial denudation, prior to the advent of
the Glacial Period proper. There seems also every reason to

* See the Geological Survey Memoir on the Geology of Cromer,

bs eS

117

believe that the advent of the Glacial Period found the rock
surfaces over a large part of this area as deeply buried beneath a
covering of their own material, weathered and disintegrated 77 sztu,
as are any of the rock surfaces at the present day where subaérial
waste has gone on without interruption from preglacial times. To
appreciate the significance of this, we have but to compare the
character of the surface rocks of granitic areas in highly-glaciated
districts, as, for example, at Shap, with rocks in similar positions
that have not been swept clean by an invasion of land ice, as in
the case of the Cornish granites. The bare masses of hard and
solid rock at the surface in the granite areas of the northern parts
of the kingdom contrast strongly in this respect with the deeply-
weathered rock, and its accompanying thick superficial mass of
china clay, resulting from prolonged disintegration, that are associ-
ated with the granites of Cornwall, and other nonglaciated areas.
Or, again, we may compare the surface of the Chalk of Yorkshire
with that seen upon the North Downs, where thick deposits of
Clay-with-flints have gone on accumulating for long ages, almost
undisturbed by land ice, and thus bear forcible witness equally to
the continuous subaérial waste of the rock from a period long
anterior to the Glacial Epoch. (Geol. Mag. 1875, p. 360, and
Pro. Geol. Assoc. ix., No. 3.)

The Precursors of the Ice Sheet, and the earlier periods of Glact-
ation.—It is not possible to do more than hazard a conjecture
regarding the precise sequence of events that led up to that
succession of periods of extreme cold that together characterized
what we call the Glacial Period. It is possible that, from early
Pleistocene times—or even from late Pliocene, as we know was the
case in East Anglia—periods of greater cold, alternating with more
temperate conditions, may have nourished glaciers in all the moun-
tainous districts of the North. And it is not unlikely that these
precursors of the great Ice Sheet may, time after time, have pushed
their respective moraines out far beyond the mountain regions
themselves. Or they may even, under climatal conditions of
excessive rigour, have extended as far as the sea, especially in the

118

case of the maritime elevations of West Cumberland. But even
when they attained to very large dimensions, and perhaps for a
long time after the increasing severity of the cold had led to the
confluence of many of the larger streams that reached the low
grounds, there is still every reason to believe that their movements
were on the whole downhill and seaward, and everywhere radial to
the main centres of high land. If this epoch of repeated arctic
conditions was one of very long duration (? 200,000 years) as there
seems many good reasons for believing was the case, it will enable
us to account easily for many of the more striking results of glacial
action, our lake-basins for example, and especially for the origin of
those remarkable parallel rock-furrows and grooves (many of them
almost entitled tobe termed valleys) that are ploughed out of the solid
rock here and there over large areas in the north. These parallel
furrows, many of them fifty feet or more in depth, hundreds of yards in
width, and sometimes a quarter ofa mile or morein length, run side by
side over a large area around Appleby and Penrith, where their form
has long attracted attention, without hitherto meeting with a satis-
factory explanation. Many of the hill shaded maps of the Ordnance
Survey shew these features remarkably well. They are, I believe,
simply deep glacial grooves ploughed out of the solid rock by
prolonged erosion, accomplished by the ice in the earlier periods
of glacial action, when the local ice moved as a mass of confluent
glaciers outward from the Lake District toward the sea. Their
direction is quite different from the course taken by the ice during
the comparatively-short period of maximum glaciation presently to
be referred to.

It was at this earlier period, I believe, that vast quantities of the
Lake Country and of the Edenside rocks, disintegrated and loosened
by prolonged weathering in late Pliocene times, were swept by the
same seaward-flowing ice out into the low ground of Edenside, and
left, may be in the form of vast moraines, in the maritime districts
near where is now Carlisle. Along with these tough and durable
rocks must also have been transported the debris of such rocks as
the Skidda Slate, and the like, in quantities proportionate to the
areas then exposed directly to glacial action. But these, except in

a.

119

rare instances, have not survived the events that followed. What-
ever happened, I feel certain that it was during this earlier period
of large confluent glaciers that most of the preglacially-weathered
rock material was detached from the parent masses and transported
downhill and seawards by the ice. And it is but another way of
stating the same fact to observe that it must have been during this
prolonged period of intense local glaciation, and not at the ac‘ual
climax of the Glacial Period, that the largest amount of local
glaciation was effected. The main direction of the great glacial
furrows above mentioned is often nearly at right angles to the line
of movement of the ice when at its maximum of development.
This is clearly shewn by the striz, which, necessarily, mark the
direction of the very last movement of the sole of the ice at that
particular spot. In the Yorkshire Dales, and in the great mountain
mass lying between the Cross Fell Escarpment and the Tyne
Valley the prevailing movements of the chief masses of ice seem
to have been, all through, mainly downhill and seaward. And that
was the case even when the rigour of the climate had increased to
such an extent that the surface formed by the confluent glaciers of
those parts had risen to the highest level of the mountain tops.

Southward Advance of the Scottish ZIce.—But in some areas
adjoining the uplands just mentioned another factor came into
action at a late period in the glacial history of the North, and
altered the sequence of events very materially. Preglacially-
weathered detritus had been swept outwards and seawards from the
mountain areas around the Solway, probably in large quantities,
and much of this, as the icy flood swept southwards with increasing
force, may have been thrust outwards from the Solway into the
Irish Sea. But with the further advance of the ice, came a time
when the Scottish glaciers from north of the Solway began to join
ends with those extending northwards and north-westwards from
Cumberland. Then, as the outflow by way of the North Channel
became dammed up by the south-easterly advance of the Great
Northern Barrier, (whose upper surface must have been at least
2600 feet above sea leyel,) the only lines of movernent open to the

120

Solway glaciers lay in the direction of the Irish Sea on the one
hand, and on the other, eastwards across the lowlands bordering
the upper parts of the Solway, over the Bewcastle Fells and into
the Tyne Valley, and, yet again, up the lowlands of Edenside in
the direction of Penrith, Appleby, and Stainmoor. So that at the
climax of the Glacial Period the movements of the several ice
streams flowing into the Solway were first arrested, and then were
turned into directions different from any they had taken before—
in some cases in directions diametrically opposite to those they
would have taken had the Great Northern Barrier not advanced as
far southwards as the Scottish coasts. The evidence seems to
favour the view that it was mainly the upper currents of the flowing
sea of ice that were turned inland in this way: the lower strata—
more influenced by local causes than the ice at higher levels—
may, all through the Glacial Period, have flowed more or less in
the usual directions, where those directions happened to coincide
with the lines of least resistance under the various directions of
pressure. In the original papers I have referred to, evidence was
given to shew that the upper surface of the inland ice in the
northern parts of Westmorland and Cumberland rose to an elevation
of over 2400 feet above the level of the sea: perhaps it would be
within the mark to say that it rose to a level of over 2600 feet. It
must therefore be obvious that the upper limit of the dam that
ponded back the ice about the Solway and compelled its upper
currents to flow inland must have exceeded even that great thick-
ness. And here I would remark that the above observations
relating to the Great Northern Barrier of ice are not intended to
suggest that the ice of every part of that barrier emanated from
Polar regions. I do not, and never did, believe in the southward
march of a great sheet of ice over everything in its way. But I
do believe that the outward flow of most of the ice originating in
the north-western parts of the kingdom was impeded, or else turned
in southerly directions by ice filling up the North Atlantic; and
that the local ice so turned southwards acted in its turn as a
northern, or north-western, barrier upon other local streams further
south still, and so on, southward to the line where the southward

ss i iit a

121

flow was balanced by the melting of the ice, as it seems to have
been, at the climax of the Glacial Period, on the north bank of the
Thames Valley. The ice that, advancing south-eastward by the
North Channel, dammed back the Solway ice, probably originated,
as ice, no farther north than the northern parts of Kirkcudbright,
and was not part of a polar ice cap, as this is commonly under-
stood ; although its south-easterly movement may be attributed to
some such cause.

Inland and uphill march of the Ice.—TYo repeat what was stated
above :—When the north-western barrier ice changed the direction
of movement of the Solway ice stream, much of the Solway ice,
having no other means of exit open to it, was compelled to flow
eastwards over the Bewcastle Fells, along the Tyne Valley, and
thence still eastward to the point where the influence of the Scan-
dinavian ice turned the stream again southward. Thus it was
that, on the melting of the ice detritus originally derived from all
parts of the basin of the Solway, including much that was trans-
ported to the low ground about Carlisle from the country around
Penrith—amongst other well known rocks, boulders of Shap Granite
—vwas left in the form of drift around Newcastle and extending
thence southward through Durham, and out to sea by way of the
east side of the Cleveland hills.

Another stream of ice, already referred to, was diverted inland
and uphill from Carlisle past Penrith and Appleby by the action
of the same barrier that turned the current first mentioned up the
Bewcastle Fells. This, which I shall call the Edenside stream,
became more and more constrained under the lateral pressure of
local ice emanating on the one hand from the north sides of the
Lake District, and on the other from the Cross Fell Escarpment,

_as it was forced eastward. At the head of Edenside it was met by

heavy streams of local ice emanating from the uplands south and
south-east of Kirkby Stephen, and under the influence of these
masses the Edenside stream was diverted from its prevailing south-
easterly course, and forced into a more northerly direction across
the eastern end of the Cross Fell Escarpment above Brough

122

(Stainmoor) and thence eastward, hemmed in on each side by
ice-streams from the uplands of Teesdale on the one hand, and of
Swaledale and Arkendale on the other, by way of Barnard Castle
and Darlington to the Vale of York. Here it joined, and reinforced,
part of the stream that had travelled round by the Tyne Valley
and Durham, and, like that stream, was turned southwards by the
influence of the Scandinavian ice, and forced in a gradually-
diminishing mass still southwards, through Yorkshire into Lincoln-
shire and Nottinghamshire. ‘Traces of an advance even further
south than that are said to have been made out,

While the Edenside stream itself was moving inland and uphill
either as a whole, or on one horizon or other in its vertical extent,
the local ice still continued to move outwards from the larger
masses of high land. This fact was shewn clearly enough in the
paper published in the Quarterly Journal, above cited. But in
many places the directions of movement were, as might be expected,
considerably modified by the influence of outside causes. And
this modification proceeded so far in some places as to turn the
higher currents of ice into directions very different from those
taken by the ice at a lower level. To this point I shall return
presently. But one result of such action was that the higher
currents of the great mass of confluent glaciers around Shap
(where I have already pointed out that a wide depression of the
physical axis of the Lake District hills occurs) overflowed in the
direction of least resistance there, and streamed away from the
north side of the Lake District along a gradually-widening zone
parallel to the Lune Valley, past Kendal, Kirkby Lonsdale, and
Lancaster to the low grounds beyond. With this southward over-
flow went large quantities of Edenside rocks, notably large numbers
of boulders of Shap Granite.

West Cumberland Dispersion.—Much of the ice of West Cum-
berland, south of a point near Cockermouth, appears to have gone
southward under all circumstances. The main thrust of the
Scottish ice was diametrically opposite that of the ice from the
English hills somewhere to the north of that town. And it seems

123

almost certain that a line of ice-shed extended from thereabouts
across the Solway into Kirkcudbright: the ice to the north-east of
that line moving mainly north-eastward and eastward, while to the
south-west it moved paraliel to the general trend of the English coast,
along a course determined by the line of least resistance between
the local ice pressing seaward from the Lake District, and the
extraneous ice constantly tending to move inland, in a south-easterly
direction. Under the influence of this stream vast quantities of
detritus from the Lake District, as well as from Galloway, was trans-
ported in a south-south-easterly direction—always tending to press
inland—past Liverpool and Manchester, and on to the coast of
North Wales. Here the northern stream seems to have been
diverted into two branches, probably, as Mr. Strahan has shewn,
by the outward-pressing masses of ice from the Welsh hills. One
of these branches went inland, and seems to have gone over the
‘low ground south of Chester, spreading out to the east certainly as
far as Stafford, where I have found an abundance of recognizable
detritus derived from Galloway and West Cumberland. The map
appended may serve to make these complex movements more
intelligible. (See the map at the end of this article. )

Glacial Distribution of Boulders.—In dealing with the causes
that have led to the distribution of boulders in the position they
naturally occupy at the present day, many difficulties are met with.
Some of these may conveniently be discussed here. One of the
most important points to bear in mind in discussing this part of
the subject is that the initial direction of transportal of many
boulders, as well as their movements in later times, may often have
been very different from what they were during the last movements
of the ice, which, of course, were usually the movements that left
the boulders in the position they now occupy. The distribution
of Shap Granite boulders well exemplifies this. These may have
been moved, first, by purely local glaciers, say down the valley of
the Lowther ; secondly, under a more extensive and prolonged
system of glaciation when the whole of Edenside was filled with
ice moving toward the Solway, they may have been left in terminal

124

moraines on the plains around Carlisle; thirdly, when the climax
of the Glacial Period arrived and the great north-western barrier
prevented egress by the Solway, the movements of the ice were
first arrested, and were subsequently turned into directions entirely
different from any they had taken before. Some were swept in the
ice from Carlisle towards Newcastle; others again were driven
back from Carlisle past their older sites once more, and thence
towards Stainmoor and the Vale of York; others again past West
Cumberland into South Lancashire. Or, yet again, from Shap Fell
itself, under the influence of the same dam, a narrow stream gradu-
ally widening as it went southwards, overflowed from the basin of
the Eden into that of the Kent. The Ennerdale Syenitic granite
has wandered about under the same conditions almost as much,
and has gone, along with Brockram from the foot of Stainmoor,
granite from Galloway, granite from Shap, and various rocks from
all parts of Edenside, over the high ground of Stainmoor and
thence to the Vale of York. It is one of the rocks that may be
expected to occur in the drifts of Tynedale. The remarkable
feature connected with some of these facts of boulder distribution
is the rapprochement of boulders whose main directions of trans-
portal have been entirely different. The Shap Granite swept
north-westward fifty miles from its source, to Carlisle, and afterwards
moved from there another fifty miles in an easterly direction to
Durham, was there turned southward by the North Sea ice, and
thus actually rejoined the boulders of the selfsame rock that had
travelled to the Vale of York in the current that came by way of
Stainmoor.

I believe that it was the stream that came over by way of the
Tyne Valley that furnished most of the boulders that are found in
the maritime parts of Yorkshire: those of the Stainmoor stream
having travelled southward mainly by way of the Vale of York.
The same rapprochement of wanderers is observed on the western
side of England. Indeed, it is just possible that the stream of
Lake Country boulders that came down the Vale of York past
Halifax, may actually have been joined again further ‘south, by a
branch of the stream, bearing boulders of the same kind, that came
past West Cumberland and thence through Lancashire,

f° gingers rh

La

125

Differential Movements of the Ice on various platforms.—Reference
has already been made to the differential flow of the ice sheets.
Sir Andrew Ramsay, many years ago, expressed an opinion to the
effect that it was far from unlikely that the higher parts of a thick
sheet of flowing ice might be slowly moving in a direction different
from the course taken by the same stream of ice at lower levels.
He thought it possible that, under particular conditions, two cur-
rents might move even in diametrically-opposite directions over the
same point. This idea was, of course, based upon what is known
to be taking place on a small scale even amongst the glaciers of
the Alps, whose laws of motion are, in other respects, strictly
comparable to those of a river placed under like circumstances.
In the vestiges of former ice action in the north of England it
seems abundantly evident that such must have been the case there
also, and that too, to a greater extent than Sir Andrew, at the time
he made the observation, seems to have anticipated. The directions
of continuous striation seen on many of the glaciated rock surfaces
in the North of England shew in the most unmistakeable manner
that this must have been the case, on the large scale, as well as on
the small. A stream of water flowing over a boulder in its course
illustrates this point well. A foot or so above the obstacle the
water will be seen to be flowing in ordinary course in the main
direction of the stream, while on the level of the boulder itself
the stream can be seen to part to the right and the left and to flow
for a short distance in courses even at right angles to the main
current above. Occasionally, and for a short distance, the two
sets of currents may even flow in diametrically opposite directions.
The same thing happens, as Mr. James Geikie has pointed out,
with a wave breaking on a beach, and the resulting undertow. The
courses of glacial striz clearly show that the same phenomena
must have been of common occurrence during the Glacial Period.
And it is quite clear that the phenomena were by no means limited
to the small scale, but, on the contrary, they can be traced from
cases covering areas of only a few inches up to areas whose
superfices must be measured by miles. This fact has a most
important bearing upon the perplexing distribution of certain

126

boulders, and their strange interweaving with others derived from
different and often widely separated sources. Nothing is commoner
in the drift of open districts than to find in one mass of boulder
clay or other glacial deposit stones whose several parent sources
are radial to the extent of ninety, or more, degrees to each other
and their present location. There is no difficulty in understanding
how this complex crossing and interweaving was brought about if
the reader grasps the idea that the materials of the drift consist of
old preglacial weathered detritus transported hither and thither
in, on, or under the ice, under various conditions of glacial action,
and liberated as a sediment on the spot where it is now found
when the last great mass of ice melted. This last point will be
discussed in a little more detail when treating more especially of
the origin of drift deposits.

In the present paper it may be noticed that no reference what-
ever has been made to the action of floating ice. I have not
thought it worth while to do so, as the facts observable in the area
under notice are all dead against the view that floating ice has had
even the smallest share in any of the phenomena presented by the
Edenside drifts. On the other hand, as I have shewn in my paper
in the Quarterly Journal already referred to, land ice, and land ice
alone, can satisfactorily account for all the phenomena.

Propagation of Force through Ice.—Another property of ice, of
some importance in its bearing upon the subject presently to be
discussed, might almost be stated in connection with the last,—it
is that the motion of a confluent stream of ice arising from two
tributaries meeting at an angle is affected to a considerable distance
down stream by the direction of flow of the more powerful tribu-
taries. The line of swiftest motion of the Mer de Glace is affected
in this way by the Glacier du Geant ail the way down from Trelaport
to the termination of the glacier, just as the line of swiftest motion
of a river would have been affected under the same conditions.
It was contended that the field evidence in the North of England
suggested that we might push this analogy between the behaviour
of a river and that of a glacier even farther than that, and infer

127

from the facts that force may be propagated a considerable distance
through ice, not only in a horizontal direction, as it is in such a
case as that of the Mere de Glace, but also, though to a lesser
extent, in a downward direction as well. ‘The results in this latter
case, as in the former, being affected by the initial direction and
force of the disturbing current as compared with those of the
current disturbed. In treating of glacial erosion this subject will
be adverted to again.

Vertical Circulation of the Jce—It has long been known to
observers of glacial phenomena, that the lower parts of the ice
nearer the source of glacier tend to become its surface layers farther
down the stream. This phenomenon was discussed at some length
by J. D. Forbes (‘Occasional Papers,” p. 202, ef seg.) and after-
wards more fully by Professor James Geikie, who had perceived
the bearing of the facts mentioned by Forbes and applied them to
the explanation of the upward transportal of boulders. (I may
add that I had myself independently arrived at nearly the same
conclusions from a study of the same facts, before I knew of
Professor Geikie’s paper. The subject was ‘in the air” at the
time.) This tendency of the lower parts of the ice to work up to
the surface has been shewn to be partly due to the constant
tendency of flowing ice to move in the direction of least resistance;
so that where the ice encounters much frontal resistance, as it does
in pushing its way over an obstacle, its lower parts, while moving
forward, tend to flow also upward, relatively to the general level of
that part of the glacier. But the principal reason why the lower
strata of a flowing mass of ice tend to work up to the surface would
appear rather to be that, while the surface layers of ice are con-
stantly being removed through their melting by atmospheric causes,
the general level is maintained with equal constancy through the
upward swelling (or turgescence) of the ice consequent upon the
pressure exerted by the ice nearer the source of the glacier. As
the top ice is melted off successively lower strata swell up to the
surface, while the whole mass is slowly moving outward from its
source ; so that what was the bottom layer at one point becomes,

128

farther out, in the middle, and finally in its turn forms the surface,
becomes converted once again into water, sinks into a crevasse,
freezes again at a lower level, and takes its place amongst other ice
that will go through the same cycle of change.

Whatever be the true explanation, there can be no doubt about
the fact that the bottom strata of ice near the head of a glacier
tend to become its top layers farther out. And with the upflowing
of the ice, substances entombed in the ice tend to work up to the
surface also. Their rate of ascent is proportionate to the difference
between their rate of descent through the ice under the action of
gravity (a factor not of much importance in such a case) and the
rate of ascent of the ice wherein they are entombed, under the
combined action of ablation and turgescence just referred to. The
nett result is a movement upwards ; and most important this factor
becomes in relation to the distribution of boulders, as James
Geikie has shewn in the paper referred to. We can readily under-
stand how certain boulders from the low grounds of Edenside
have been transported up hill a thousand feet or more within a
distance of five or six miles. How are we to explain such facts by
any theory of submergence?

One result of the differential movements of the ice must have
been to bring together over any given spot, boulders that had
originally entered the main stream at many different levels, and
that had been derived from sources situated, in some cases, at
almost every point of the compass in relation to that particular
spot. Itis quite conceivable that the different platforms of the
ice sheet around Penrith, for example, where its maximum thick-
ness must have exceeded two thousand feet, may have consisted
of ice that had originated, some in the Lake District, some in
Galloway, some around Cross Fell, and some near Stainmoor,
entering the seething mass from all points of the compass, and
at every level up to the highest limit of the ice. Under the
circumstances one can understand how at the climax of the Glacial
Period, the ice around Penrith may have had, dispersed throughout
its mass, detritus of all the rocks occurring in the areas whence
the supplies of ice had been derived. ‘These would include boul-

129

ders of Brockram from the head of the valley, Ennerdale Syenitic
Granite, Galloway Granite, and a variety of other rocks transported
in a diametrically opposite direction, while from directions trans-
verse to these came boulders of Whin Sill, Dufton Granite, and
Roman Fell Conglomorate from the Cross Fell Escarpment on the
one hand, and representatives of the Older-Palzeozoic rocks from
various parts of the Lake District, St. John’s Quartz Felsite, Shap
Granite and Mardale Gabbro, on the other. While the ice was
still moving up the valley, under the pressure of larger accumula-
tions on the west, the combined effect of the waste of its upper
surface under atmospheric influences and the turgesence of the
whole, consequent upon the general level being maintained by the
downflow from the thicker ice to the west, tended to bring any
substances included in the ice nearer and nearer to the surface, at
whatever elevation that may have had there.

Envelopment and transportal of Organisms.—None of the ice
around Penrith ever included any considerable proportion of
marine organisms ; for, if I read its history aright, the sea bottom
of the Solway had been scoured clean out, by the outflow of large
glaciers moving seawards for long periods before the Ice Barrier
crept so far south. When this did reach the North Channel and
the ice within the Solway Basin was diverted inland, the confluent
glaciers carried with them nothing but terrestrial and subglacial
débris. But the case must have been otherwise with the parts of
the Irish Sea further south. Here the ice must have traversed a
sea bottom overspread with various older deposits containing the
remains of organisms pertaining to the various colonies of Celtic,
Lusitanian, Boreal, and Arctic species that had successively obtained
Stations there as the changes of their environments favoured the
encroachment of the animals of one province or of one bathymetrical
zone* upon that of another (Geol, Mag., 1874).

*My colleague, Mr. Clement Reid, has reminded me of the importance of this
point in its bearing upon the origin of shell beds of glacial origin. It would by no
means follow that, when once such organisms had worked their way zo the ice
that the onward movement of the mass would result in the crushing of the shells.
What we know of the behaviour of bodies entombed in modern glaciers would

9

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“Areas not invaded by Ice of extraneous origin.—\ have assumed
throughout this article, as well as in the earlier papers referred to,
that throughout the whole of the Glacial Period there were large
areas in the North of England that were never glaciated by ice of
extraneous origin at all. This fact was distinctly stated in several
places, and it was, clearly enough, also plainly indicated upon the
map that accompanied the paper in the Quarterly Journal. Tam
most anxious to add my testimony to that of my late colleague
Mr. Ward, amongst others, that there is no clear proof of any kind
soever that any polar ice cap swept clean over the Lake District.
The same is true of all the mountain masses I am acquainted with
in the North. The inland and uphill movements of the ice were
due, beyond a doubt, to the stoppage of the natural outlets for the
ice deploying upon the Solway. The barrier that effected this was
propagated in a south-easterly direction by accretions of local ice,
and was not due, I feel sure, to the actual march of the Greenland
ice itself across the land. There must have been a great barrier
of that kind somewhere off our north-western shores ; but it simply
backed up the British ice, and in a general way determined the set
of the major currents of the ice it was ponding back. There is
every reason to believe, in regard, for example, to the ice of the
Lake District, that even under the most intense conditions of
glaciation, the doftom layers of ice radiating outwards from the
high lands maintained their initial direction of movement, in some
instances, miles away from their starting point. This is clearly
shewn by the glacial strize in many places. The map appended to
the paper in the Quarterly Fournal (xxxi. pl. i.) shews such strize
at Blencow, near Penrith, where they may be easily examined
close to the Blencow Station. Others are shewn near to Skelton,
still farther removed. All these clearly point to glaciation outward
from the Lake District, and they are only instances selected out of
seem to shew that substances may be transported great distances in ice, and, in
doing so, work up from the bottom of the ice to its surface, without being much
the worse for their journey. See Tyndall’s ‘‘ Glaciers of the Alps,” p. 76, and
J. D. Forbes’ ‘*Occasional Papers,” pp. 193—195, upon this point. It is

quite likely too that the shell-bearing beds may have remained in the ice as
frozen masses, and thus would travel much as would solid boulders,

131

many of the same kind that could be adduced in support of the
same view. But it does not follow that the whole mass of ice
over that spot moved in the same direction, or at the same rate
either. The differential movements of the various platforms of
the ice sheet did, in the case under notice, result in transporting,
in the higher parts of the ice, detritus primarily derived from parent
masses situated at almost all points of the compass in relation to
that particular spot, as well as, under particular circumstances,
transporting, at a high level, boulders in opposite directions to that
of their initial course. On the outskirts of the Lake District there
are many instances of boulders of certain rocks that have first
travelled outwards under the influence of the local currents, and
then, as they worked their way upwards in the ice and came under
the influences of the upper currents that were setting inland from the
Solway, they were swept backwards again in the ice towards the heart
of the mountains. (A reference to the map will make it clear that
“the strong upper currents setting in from Scotland” (Geol. Mag.,
Noy., 1874,) did zo¢ move in diametrically opposite directions to
that of the local outflow. No one that would take the trouble to
read the original statements could fail to detect the travesty of my
views published with the above quotation.) And it was much the
same in some other instances in this district, as it has long been
known to have been the case. In the Eden Valley, as I have
before pointed out, there are abundant instances of this cross-
transportal of drift materials, and instances other than those referred
to will be found in the paper just mentioned.

Relative Date of the Maximum Glaciation.—There are almost
no data that will enable us to form any satisfactory conclusions in
regard to the dates of the various phases of the Glacial Period
above noticed. If we may judge by the enormous quantity of
material that can be proved to have been carried away by the ice
from areas of limited extent, such, for example, as the St. John’s
Quartz Felsite, the Shap Granite, Sale Fell “Minette,” and others,
(which enable us to form some kind of idea of the quantity of rock
removed from other rocks less easily traced in the drift,) confirmed

132

as this is by proofs of deep scoring and grooving, which also must
have required a vast interval of time for their formation, the period
of earlier glaciation must have been one of vast duration. If we
accept Mr. Croll’s date for the commencement of the Glacial
Period, viz., 250,000 years ago, and agree with him that it lasted
some 170,000 years, there is no difficulty in accounting for the
vast quantity of rock removed from its parent source by glacial
action. Whether the earlier part of this period was or was not
broken up by interglacial periods of comparative warmth, or whether
the succession of events included many oscillations of level of the
land there does not seem, in the districts herein specially treated
of, any evidence whatever. To find such evidence we have to
turn to such districts as East Anglia and the Yorkshire coast,
where the later glaciation left many of the deposits of older date
undestroyed. What I have contended is that the date when the
present distribution of the boulders took place was that period of
highest glaciation when the icy flood reached its maximum, and
when, debarred an exit by way of the Solway, the ice of Edenside
overflowed for some time across the Bewcastle Fells into the Tyne
Valley ; across the higher parts of Stainmoor into the Valley of the
Tees; and across the Shap Fells into the basin of the Lune. The
relative date of this period can be made out easily enough, and it
can be shewn to be contemporaneous with the period when the
south-westerly advance of the Scandinavian ice drove the land ice
currents in the Midlands south-westward into the basin of the
Trent, and reinforced the local sheets of ice, so that they extended
as far southward as the Thames Valley before the zone was reached
where the rate of melting balanced the supply. In a paper pub-
lished in the Proc. Geologists’ Assoc., 1X., No. 3, in dealing with the
question of the age of the Thames Valley Brickearths I have
pointed out that their origin, and that of other similar deposits,
admits of a simple and ready explanation if we assume that they
are due to the ponding back of the waters of the rivers by ice
extending southward from Scandinavia. And it is to this period
of the invasion of Britain by ice of extraneous origin, coming
south-westward by way of Scandinavia on the one side, and south-

naka

PARTS tp

133

eastward by way of Greenland on the other, that I would refer the
age of the Thames Valley drifts, and all the later glacial deposits
overspreading England, from Finchley to Stainmoor and the Eden
Valley. But for this reinforcement of ice of extraneous origin,
large parts of the lowland districts of England would never have
been overspread by ice at all, and our English glacial phenomena
would have been confined to evidences of a few rather large
glaciers, confined entirely to mountain regions, and rapidly lessening
in point of development, even in such areas, as they were traced
towards the south. (Proc. Geologists’ Assoc., IX. p. No. 3.)

Latest Glacters of local origin —Leaving, for the present, the
consideration of what happened at the close of the maximum
period of glaciation, I would here notice the later glaciation usually
regarded as bringing the long succession of periods of extreme cold
to aclose. In regard to the extent of this later glaciation, I feel
sure that, in England and Wales, at all events, its effects have
been considerably over-rated. Many of the accumulations of drift
regarded by some observers as moraines belonging to this period,
are, I feel sure, merely heaps of rubbish and sediment left on the
melting of the great ice sheet, and are moraines only in form.
Here and there, however, the larger valleys did certainly nourish a
few tiny glaciers after the great ice sheet had disappeared. There
seems to be several such in the Lake District; and in Edenside a
few traces of them may be seen along the Cross Fell Escarpment.
Such are those at the foot of Hikable, or “High Cup Gill”; again
at Coska, near Dufton Pike, and at the upper part of Swindale
Beck, Knock ; at Haverskils, above Milburn; Foxhills, near Blen-
carn; and at several other places similarly situated. What evidence
there is in each of these cases shews plainly enough that the last
period of glaciation followed a comparatively warm period ; that
the glaciation itself was mainly confined to very small areas ; and
that the action of the ice was practically limited to pushing out the
sediment and detritus left on the melting of the great ice sheet,
and arranging the material in mounds. In the majority of cases it
is doubtful whether the later ice remained long enough to scoop

134

out all the drift left by the older ice, or to cut down to the solid rock
beneath. The drift that is left in the bottom of these valleys, and
the materials of the moraines themselves, consist, not of detritus
native to the part of the valley traversed by the little glacier, but
of the far-travelled material nearly identical in character with that
composing the bulk of the older sediment left by the ice sheet.

Abrupt termination of the period of maximum glaciation.— Between
the commencement of the period of minor glaciation and the
close of the period characterised by the dispersal of Shap
Granite Boulders over Stainmoor, there appears to me to have
intervened a decidedly warm period, when little or no ice was
formed, and when the whole of the great mass of ice of the ice
sheet melted away on the spot. Judging by the character and
the direction of the glacial markings left in Edenside, the move-
ments of the ice sheet seem to have been brought somewhat
abruptly to a standstill, which was followed immediately by the
melting of the ice there and then as it stood, and the liberation of
its contents in the form of sediment on the spot. It looks very
much as if a change in the direction of flow of some of our great
ocean currents had been effected somewhat abruptly, and a corre-
spondingly abrupt amelioration of the climate of the North Atlantic
had at once ensued. The edge of the Great Northern Barrier
began to recede from our shores, and the local ice at once ceased
to move inland and uphill. The rate of melting of the winter
snows exceeded the supply, and no more new ice was formed.
The whole mass, as I have before said, melted as it stood; and
the waning ice sheet did not pass in reverse order through the
series of changes that accompanied its increment. The form and
direction of the strize shew in the plainest and most unmistakeable
manner that it did not break up into a series of small glaciers; on
the contrary, it is quite clear that the ice never moved after it had
attained its maximum development. I insisted much upon this
fact some years ago; but even yet its significance seems to have
been missed.

135

Part WI.—TuE ORIGIN oF ouR GLACIAL Deposits.

Earlier views.

Detritus in modern Bergs and Glaciers.

Distribution of Detritus through the Ice Sheet.

The Melting of the Ice and its attendant phenomena.

Relation of External Configuration of Drift Mounds to the
rock surface beneath.

Water-worn Detritus in Drifts.

Formation of Gutta Percha Clays.

How the Faults and other disturbances contemporaneous with
the Till were formed.

Contemporaneous Contortion of the Drift.

Horizontal passage of Till into Sand and Gravel.

Undisturbed Deposits beneath Boulder Clays.

Thickness of Drift.

Eskers.

Relation of Eskers and Moraines.

Marine Organisms in High-level Drifts.

Earlier Views.—Up to 1874 the explanation of the origin of Till
most generally accepted (I mean by those geologists whose acquaint-
ance with well-glaciated regions qualified them to judge) was that the
Till represented a mixture of débris originating as surface moraines,
which had been ground up beneath the ice and there incorporated
with other material rasped off the subglacial rock-surfaces by the
stone-shod sole of the ice sheet. (Those who really know anything
about the glacial phenomena of mountain districts will not expect
me to waste their time by discussing here any theories that ascribe
the origin of Till to marine action.) It seems to have been
assumed that the paste of mud and stones accumulated under the
ice in the way just referred to, was dragged about from one spot to

136°

another as the ice moved, always keeping between the ice and the
rock, and that it ceased to accumulate when the movements of the
ice had ceased, and was then left just in its present position and
with its present characteristics, when the ice finally disappeared.
That seemed a very plausible, view; and much of the Till, which
at first sight looks like a stony paste quite devoid of stratification,
seemed to be exactly the kind of material that, one would think,
must of necessity result from the action of such causes, which all
are agreed must have been at work on that spot.

Then in regard to the distribution of the boulders so plentifully
scattered about the districts where the Till occurs, nothing could
be more natural than to suppose that they represent some of the
material transported on the surface of the ice, and left stranded in
their present position when the ice retired from there. In the
cases where the boulders lay at higher levels than their parent
masses—a phenomenon of much more common occurrence than
many persons suppose—the agency of floating ice distributing
boulders during an imaginary period of submergence was called in
to meet the case. The same agent was usually invoked to explain
the puzzling phenomena of the crossing and interweaving of boulders
derived from sources situated at remote bearings from each other
in relation to the point where they now rest.

Detritus in modern Bergs and Glaciers.—Strangely enough it
seems to have been assumed, almost on all hands, that the ice of
the Glacial Period was practically free from detritus of any kind:
perhaps because freedom from included materials was supposed to
be one of the most marked characteristics of modern glaciers, as
as well as of even the larger masses of ice seen in the form of
bergs. Yet a study of almost any full account of the glacial
phenomena of the Arctic, or better still, of the Antarctic regions,
must have shewn that this supposed purity of the ice is more
apparent than real. One has but to refer to so well-known a book
as Lyell’s Elements—to say nothing of others—to see that voyagers
make mention, again and again, of the vast quantities of mud and
stony material transported z# the ice, and forming part of its mass,

137

One does not see how the fact could well be otherwise, except as
in the case of some of our oldest masses of ice. In Greenland, I
conceive, and to a certain extent also in the Alps, we have to
remember that glaciation has probably gone on almost continuously
from late Pliocene times down to the present day ; and any loosened
and disintegrated rock material that may at one time have formed
the surface rasped by the ice, has been long since removed, so
that the ice has none but sound and unweathered rock to work at.
In such cases, if no land rises above the level of the ice to furnish
by its atmospheric waste the material for surface moraines, the ice
may well be clean and free from detritus. It is significant, if Mr.
Croll’s views are correct, that mention of stony and muddy ice
should be made more often in connection with the icebergs of the
Antarctic regions than with those of the Arctic. In the North the
Glacial Period is now waning, and the rock-surfaces have been
ploughed and rasped down to the very heart of the rock; while in
the Antarctic region the Glacial Period has not long set in, and
the preglacially-weathered rock of that part has only just been
attacked. Be the explanation what it may, there can be no doubt
that vast quantities of stony material do occur zm, as well as on,
modern icebergs. And as icebergs are nothing but large floating
masses broken off from larger masses of ice on land, it follows
that these masses of land ice are themselves charged more or less
with stones and mud.

Distribution of Detritus through the Ice Sheet—Ilf the reader
have followed the observation made in the first part of this paper
relative to the means whereby stones and mud worked their way
into ice, as well as to their distribution hither and thither in the
ice under the action of currents, and also to their circulation from
one platform to another under the action of the complex forces at
work throughout the whole period of glacial action, he should
have no difficulty in forming some kind of idea of what must have
been the state of the Ice of the Glacial Period in this respect at
the time when it had come to a standstill and liquefaction had
commenced. Take the case of the ice over where, thousands of

138

years afterwards, the earliest settlers chanced upon the site of
modern Appleby. At that point there was a mass of ice two
thousand feet, or more, in thickness, whose upper surface formed
a nearly-continuous platform, level with the top of Mickle Fell, on
the one hand, and with the summits of the Lake District hills, on
the other. This ice had been made up of innumerable separate
streams, united into one compact mass, which had originated at
different localities situated at almost every point of the compass in
relation to that particular spot. Each stream had brought with it
various quantities of the detritus picked up in its own neighbour-
hood, and the united mass of ice had been set seething and working
under the action of the complex forces described in the first part
of this paper. As a consequence, stones from Galloway (Criffel
Granite, etc.), detritus from all along the north side of the Lake
District, including Shap Granite ; stony matter from the Cross Fell
Escarpment; and material transported in various directions from
the higher parts of Edenside, were mixed with each other and with
mud and stones that had come from nearer at hand. Many of
the stones had worked their way up in the ice considerably above
the level of the parent rock. The so-called “granite” (quartz
porphyry) of Dufton, and the Brockram, for example, amongst
other rocks, had worked up into the ice to a level of more than a
thousand feet above that of the parent masses in siti, and were to
be found in the ice at this and at all lower levels, right up to the
head of the valley, and thence by way of Stainmoor out in the
direction of the Vale of York. The same general observations,
made in connection with the ice at Appleby, will apply more or
less to the rest of the Edenside ice ; with, however, this difference,
that in the parts of the ice where strong local currents had persist-
ently set outwards from the mountain masses in sufficient force to
prevent extraneous currents from working inland at any /evel in the
ice, this local ice contained no boulders of extraneous origin, but
only such material as was derived exclusively from the particular
localities whence the local streams had issued. But there were
large areas that had long been a kind of debateable land. The
local currents emanating from the larger masses of high land had,

139

in the main, been able to hold off the invading ice ; but occasion-
ally, the upper platform of the ice (while the lower platforms still
maintained their normal direction of flow,) would move inwards
towards the heart of the mountains (when the pressure exerted by
the extraneous ice overcame the local resistance). Sometimes this
took place even in directions diametrically opposite to those taken
by the ice lower down. The result was that while the lower
currents carried local detritus outwards, the higher currents trans-
ported material of other kinds in nearly the opposite direction ;
and so, the material dispersed throughout the ice over that par-
ticular spot included boulders whose direction of transportal was
nearly diametrically opposite to that of those movements of the
sole of the ice that effected the glaciation of the rock.

The Melting of the Ice, and its attendant Phenomena.—This leads
to the point I have been for some time aiming to reach, viz :—
(1) That the chief glacial erosion of the district was accomplished
mainly in the long period preceding the climax of the Glacial
Period. (2) That the glacial markings and. striz now existing
represent only the /as¢ movements of the ice, and therefore date
mainly from the climax. (3) That the distribution of the boulders
represents the nett result of all the causes acting upon the boulders
from the commencement of the Glacial Period down to its very
close, largely modified by the very last movements that took place
before the ice began to melt. It was the melting of the ice, and
the consequent liberation of its contents there and then, in the
form of sediment (which was sometimes modified by the action of
running water) that gave rise to the various forms of drift here.
Some of the phenomena attendant upon this melting of the ice
sheet may conveniently be reviewed at this point.

Relation of External Configuration of Drift Mounds to the Rock
Surface beneath.—Amongst the phenomena above referred to, one
of the most curious was pointed out to me in 1872 by my colleague
Mr. Aveline; and had been noticed, I find, also by Mr. Macintosh,
and.others. This is, that the external configuration of a mound

146

of drift follows in a general way that of the rock surface whereon
it lies; and that the component layers of this drift conform in
their inclination, in a general way, both to the slopes of this core
of rock, and to the inclinations of the surface of the mound itself,
And this is true whether the inequalities of the surface are on the
small scale or on the large. We all know too, how, in a general way,
modern streams follow approximately the same courses as their pre-
glacial representatives. I dwelt at considerable length upon the
origin of these curious phenomena in the papers mentioned at the
head of this article. The surface of the drift mounds very
frequently represents in a general way the contour of the rock
surface beneath it, just as the surface of a field of corn represents
in a general way the larger inequalities of the surface whereon the
corn is rooted. And what is more remarkable still is, that this
curious relation between the external form of the drift mounds to
their internal structure, and to the form of the surface beneath, is
not by any means confined to mounds of Till, but is observable
almost as frequently in well-stratified deposits, such as the mounds
of sand and gravel. In eskers the fact of the correspondence
between their external form and their structure has long been
known, and, one may add, is not so difficult to account for on any
of the theories of their origin commonly received. But how are
we to account for such relations as those referred to, when the
origin of the more clayey drifts and the Till are being discussed ?
Certainly neither the theory that the Till represents a moraine
profonde, nor that theory that refers its formation to the action of
floating ice, in any form, is adequate to account for the facts. In
considering the arguments in support of either of these theories,
one cannot help. being as much struck with their inadequacy to
explain such phenomena as either these or that remarkable trans-
portal of erratics uphill far above their parent sources, which is so
common a phenomenon in nearly all highly giaciated districts.

All these difficulties (and many others that we need not consider
now) vanish, if we reject these older views, and regard all the
forms of drift found in this area as so many modifications of sedi-
ment, once dispersed through the mass of the ice, and liberated,

141

as the ice melted, at or not far from the spot where the drift is
found to-day. In the notes that follow, I shall attempt to account
for many of these glacial phenomena by this, as it seems to me,
simpler method.

First, in regard to the relationship between the forms of the
drift mounds and those of the underlying rock. We have first to
remember that when the ice of the major period of glaciation
ceased to move, and began to melt away on the spot, this ice was
charged throughout with mud and stones of all sizes. In places
the proportion of extraneous materials of this kind to the ice may
have been even as high as one to fifteen, or even, locally, and in
exceptional cases, as much as one to ten. We have also to
remember that one result of the prolonged rasping and grinding of
the rock surface was the formation of wide furrows ranging, in a
general way, with the direction of outcrop of the harder beds of
rock, but more or less modified by the predominating direction of
movement of the ice through its whole stay there. Now, when
the ice began to melt, the water resulting from its liquefaction
would naturally flow away towards the lower ground along any
lines of depression that might happen to traverse the rock surface
beneath the ice. As a consequence, as the ice melted, and the
stones and mud were liberated from any part of the ice, this
sediment would naturally tend to remain in greater quantities at
those points where it was out of reach of running water, than along
those lines where the water of liquefaction was working its way
seaward between the ice and the rock, as it was along the furrows.
Consequently, as the liberation of the sediment, mud, sand, gravel,
and boulders, proceeded, more and more of it accumulated over
the old pre-existing ridges, until in the end these became enwrapped
in layers one over the other, the form of each layer, in a general
way, being determined by the form of the surface beneath. I do
not for a moment suppose that as the ice melted it formed dridges
across the furrows extending from one mound toanother. No one
who has learnt anything of the plastic nature of ice could suppose
that fora moment. On the contrary, I have very little doubt that
the ice was always in contact with the growing mound of drift, and

142

that it was nearly always in almost as close contact with the material
at the bottom of the furrow. The gvantity of drift left in this way
was proportionate—ts¢/, to the amount of material in the ice as
compared with the thickness of the ice itself; and, 2vdZy, to the
distance of the point in question from the head of the valley. It
must be obvious that where the ice was thin, as it was on the
higher parts of the sédes of valleys, there was less detritus in the ice
than there was over the middle of the valley. Where the ice was
2000 feet thick, there must have been more sediment left than
where the ice was thin ; just as we should get more sediment left
at the bottom of a vessel containing Thames water to a depth of
two feet than we should in another vessel where the depth of the
same dirty water was only an inch.

Water-worn Detritus in Drifts—Then in regard to the second
point, it must be obvious that there must be less water flowing
beneath the ice in the higher part of each hydrographical basin
than there was nearer the sea, just as is the case with the volumes
of the rivers themselves. Consequently, much more of the finer
materials tended to be washed away to sea in the lower part of
each basin than was the case nearer the valley head. So we should
expect to find an increasingly large proportion of washed and
water-worn materials in the old subglacial sediments as we follow
them outward from the watersheds towards the sea; or, to put the
statement in another form, we should naturally expect to find an
increasing proportion of Till to water-worn material as we approach
the heads of the valleys. More than this. The ice melted at the
upper surface faster than it did at its lower, and detritus was liber-
ated there in proportion to the rate of melting. This is a very
important factor in the formation of the various kinds of drift.
Much of the material liberated at the surface of the ice would be
more or less rolled and washed by the action of the glacier streams,
the finer materials—the sand and mud—being washed down the
crevasses and moulins to be mixed with or interstratified with the
stuff accumulating beneath the ice; while much of the coarser
detritus would, by the action of the same streams, be rolled into

148

gravel, which itself would eventually contribute to make up some
or other of the various forms of drift.

Under the action of the various agents I have briefly noticed,
an infinite variety of combinations of mud, clay, sand, gravel, and
boulders of all kinds would be accumulated. At one place the
materials might be deposited, from top to bottom, in the form of
a stiff paste of clay stuck full of stones of all sizes, dropped, or
melted, into the clay without the slightest regard to either their
shape or their size. At another point, glacial streams resulting
from the melting of the ice might deposit sand, gravel, or water-
worn material, in any proportion, and these deposits were just as
likely to be left in a stratified form as in any other. Far away
from the margins of the hydrographical basins, at the points where
much ice-water was flowing seawards, the whole of the material
liberated by the ice might be expected to be more or less water-
worn in character. And here it occurs to me to make a remark
suggested years ago by a criticism on my views on this subject put
forward in the Geological Magazine by my colleague the late Mr.
E. T. Hardman. I have already pointed out that the character of
the erratics in a glacial deposit at any given spot was determined
by a very complicated set of causes. The results may be briefly
summarized as the weft resu/ts of all the transportals the several
erratics have undergone since being detached from the parent
rock. Now when the Ice Sheet melted, the subglacial streams,
being influenced in their directions by an entirely-different set of
causes from those affecting the movements of the ice, must neces-
sarily have transported water-worn material in different directions
from what those materials had ever taken when they were in the

‘ice. And so it must often have happened that the water-worn
detritus characteristic of the drift of one area has been rolled toa
distance, and mingled there with drift totally different as regards
the parent sources of their constituent erratics.

The explanation above given of the origin of the drift mounds
or drumlins, will serve also to account for the fact that the large
axes of these drumlins lie approximately in the same direction as
those of the preponderating directions of movement of the ice

144

here. Along those directions the rock surface is ridged and
furrowed most, and the form of these ridges and furrows has been,
so to speak, propagated, through the drift afterwards moulded over
the surface as the ice melted.

It will also help us to understand the other cases wherein the
axes of the drumlins do of lie in the same direction as that of the
glacial striz. The direction of the striz merely represents the
directions of the very last movement of the ice, which direction
may have prevailed only for a few thousand years; while the
direction of the greater ridges marks the prevailing line of move-
ment through a period very much longer.

Formation of the Gutta Percha Clays.—The origin of the finely-
laminated beds of clay known as gutta percha clays, which are so
commonly found in association with the more clayey forms of drift,
meets with a simple explanation on the view above set forth. They
are due to the successive deposition of films of clay deposited from
trickling sheets of muddy water flowing from the ice over the clay
surface beneath. Their formation necessarily occupied much time;
for it seems clear that each of the layers, many of them as thin as

Fic. 1.

Laminated Clays and Loams more or less affected by thrust planes due to
the movements of the melting ice above it. Length about 12 inches.
Cutting in the Midland Railway, near Langanby.

ee od

SS ola ot FS

a

145

the paper this is printed on, must have been formed by a separate
flow of water from the one that preceded it, or that followed it.
In many of the sections where these clays are exposed, they
exhibit some very curious, and at first sight, very puzzling phe-
nomena. Some of these are shewn in the figures below, which
"represent laminated clays exposed during the formation of the
Settle and Carlisle Railway. They were chiefly seen in the cuttings
near Culgaith and Langanby, four or five miles north-east of
Penrith. For leave to use these figures, which illustrated my paper
in the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, 1 am indebted to
the Council of that Society.

FIG, 2.

Section across the Midland Railway near Langanby, shewing alternation of
Till (T.), Sand and Gravel (s.c.), and Laminated Clays (c.) overlying
New Red Marl (in the right hand corner).

How the Faults and other disturbances contemporaneous with the
Till were formed.—The explanation of some of these phenomena
can be more conveniently considered here. On the supposition
that the whole of the glacial deposits here noticed were engendered
beneath the ice after it came to a standstill and had begun to melt,
we should be prepared to find some evidence among these deposits
of the exertion of enormous downward pressure, due partly to the
normal down-settling of the ice as it moulded itself to the configur-
ation of the surface beneath; partly to its subsidence more abruptly,
as would happen where tension came into play, and lumps of ice
broke off and filled up cavities below; and partly also to slight
occasional movements of the ice laterally, as it yielded unequally
before the forces that were acting upon it. Abundant evidence of
such movements as would result from any of these causes, may be

detected in nearly every section of drift exposed. Indeed it would
10

146

perhaps be correct to state that such phenomena, in some form or
other, are never absent from true glacial deposits. Amongst these
phenomena are the slickensided faces of drift, which were noticed
first, I believe, by the late Hugh Miller, and were termed by him
“striated pavements.” These closely resemble the appearances
seen on the divisional planes of hard rocks near to a fault; and
like these last, these “striated pavements” are due to the slipping,
in the plane of least resistance, of one part of a rock over another
part, under great pressure. In the case of fault-slickensides, the
pressure that gave rise to these phenomena was applied in what
was, practically, a horizontal direction, and the plane of striation,
following the plane of least resistance, is vertical (or practically so).
In the case of the glacial deposits, the stony paste was squeezed
against the hard rock by the pressure of the superincumbent mass
of ice acting from above downwards, and the plane of least resist-
ance lay, consequently, in a horizontal direction, and it is along
that direction, or that approximately, that the rock has slipped.
This is only another way of saying that the settling down of the ice
gave rise to small faults of very low hade, or as they might be cailed,
“thrust planes.” These thrust planes very commonly severed small
deposits already laid down, and pushed one part (often with more
or less accompanying disturbance) many feet or many yards away
from the point where it originated. This phenomenon is well illus-
trated by the accompanying figures.

FIG. 3.

Disturbed Laminated Clays, probably originally deposited in nearly
horizontal sheets, and afterwards deranged by lateral movements resulting from
the down-settling of the melting ice sheet above. Length of section, 9 inches,
Midland Railway cutting near Langanby.

oS oa

-

Pa Se Se a

Fic. 4.

Contorted seam of loam in Sand and Gravel. Midland Railway cutting
near Langanby.

Fic. 5.

Puckered seams of loam and clay in stony loam. Length of section, 4 feet.
Midland Railway cutting near Armathwaite.

Contemporaneous Contortion of the Drift—Another phenomenon
of very common occurrence in the drift is that of zones of puckered
and contorted strata interlaminated with others hardly disturbed at all.
Such phenomena have long been recognized as due to the disturbing
action of ice in some one of its many forms. Of course the impact
of masses of floating ice bumping against partially-consolidated
strata, would produce the same kind of effect. In each, the
disturbance would extend downward only as far as the strata

148

Fic. 6.

Intercalations of loam and clay in Sand and Gravel, with Till. Width, 6 feet.
Midland Railway, Throstle Hall cutting.

affected were pliant ; and when the disturbing cause ceased to act,
the resulting crumpled and contorted strata would naturally be
covered up by other strata undisturbed. Appended are illustra-
tions of these phenomena, taken from Cumberland drifts, where
they are due, I believe, to the irregular subsidence of the melting
ice sheet upon the pliant masses of sediment accumulating below it,
and giving rise to phenomena of the same nature as the “‘creeps” in
coal mines. By way of further illustration of the same phenomena,
I have here inserted, by permission of the Council of the Geologists’
Association, a figure illustrating a paper of mine on “The Super-
ficial Deposits of North Kent,” published in the Proceedings of
that Association. In this case I feel sure that the contemporaneous
crumpling, shewn on various horizons, resulted from the disturbing
action of floating ice upon the Thames Valley deposits, at the
time when the Scandinavian Ice-Sheet had extended so far south

149

FIG. 7.
Section of Pleistocene Loams and Gravels (Thames
Valley Deposits) at Erith; shewing evidences of
contemporaneously puckered Loams alternating with

beds not disturbed. Scale ro feet to an inch.

as to obstruct, or to dam back, the water of the rivers flowing into
the North Sea and the English Channel. It is by the action of
floating ice in re-sorting and re-distributing the old surface waste
far and wide, at a time when our southern areas were flooded into
great lakes by the action of the glacial dams referred to, that I
would ascribe the origin of the Thames Valley Brickearths and
their associated flint gravels, with implements. I would go further
than this, and be inclined to regard the anomalous distribution of
the implementiferous gravels and loams of a// the areas draining
into the English Channel as due directly or indirectly to the
action of either ice from the Scandinavian Ice-Sheet, or else from
its western analogue that came down St. George’s Channel. These
implementiferous gravels would thus be, according to this view,
contemporaneous with the transportal of Shap Granite across

150

Stainmoor. In other words, I regard them as of the same age,
and as primarily due to the same set of causes. The contortions
on the top of the section at Erith (fig. 7)—that is to say the
“‘ Trail”—date from the period when the icy barrier was retiring,
in other words, to the period when our Cumberland and Westmor-
land drifts were in course of formation.

Horizontal passage of Till into Sand and Gravel.—There is very
little to add to what I have stated above in regard to the horizontal
passage of Till into deposits consisting chiefly of water-worn and
rounded materials. These last are, I think, simply the ordinary
materials liberated from the ice as it melted, but modified more or
less by the rolling and wearing consequent upon the action of the
water proceeding from the melting of the ice nearer the margin of
each basin. One would expect, from the very nature of the causes
at work, that where the sediment liberated from the ice lay in the
path of larger bodies of water in movement, the materials of that
sediment would be more or less modified in consequence. And
that is exactly what is the case as a rule.

Undisturbed deposits beneath Boulder Clays.—The existence of
soft and incohefent strata lying apparently without any signs of dis-
turbance underneath boulder clay, and in places that have almost
certainly been traversed by thick masses of ice in motion, has often
given rise to much discussion, and has been explained in a variety
of ways. In many such cases in East Anglia, for example, there seems
to be no doubt, as Mr. Reid has pointed out, that some of the older
deposits were, during the periods of more intense glaciation, com-
pacted by freezing into masses as hard as the ice itself. I am in-
clined to think that there were also other factors at work, which will
have to be taken into account. Amongst these I think we must not
overlook the angle of thrust of the moving ice. Where the direction
of thrust formed a large angle with the surface affected, there cannot
be much doubt that considerable disturbance would result, and any
quantity of the rock affected might, in time, be removed. But
where the direction of thrust formed a very low angle with the
surface, as it usually did far away from the influence of the higher

151

masses of land, I think it quite likely that the movements of the
ice took rather the form of vod/ing than of gliding. That is to say,
in the case of the low ground I would liken the movements of the
ice to the movements of dust when driven along a road by the
wind, rather than to those resulting from the use of the broom.
Both kinds of results may, of course, occur separately, or may
occur combined, any number of times in the same section.

Thickness of Drifts—In regard to the thickness of the glacial
deposits at any given locality, I consider that thickness to be always
directly proportionate to the quantity of detritus contained in the
ice when it melted over that particular spot, less by the quantity
carried away by the action of the streams resulting from the melting
of the ice, as well, of course, as by the quantity removed by various
agencies in postglacial times. There are exceptional cases where
an unusual thickness of drift has been proved ; but there is usually
no difficulty in accounting for the excess by local causes. The
drift is nearly always thickest in the low grounds in the immediate
vicinity of mountain areas : this is a prior? exactly what might have
been expected. Its thickness in the low ground bordering on the
Solway was proved in the boring at Abbey Town, recorded by Mr.
Holmes (Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., May, 1881,) to be considerably over
a hundred feet. At this part, if I am not mistaken, the thickness of
the melting ice must have been something between 2,500 and 3,000
feet. Setting the thickness proved in the boring at one hundred
and fifty feet, and the thickness of the ice at 2,500, which is prob-
ably well within the mark, we find that there was a proportion of
detritus to ice of three to fifty. In other words: the quantity of
mud, dirt, and stones dispersed throughout fifty feet of ice was,
when it was collected all together, only equivalent to about three
feet. Had we been able to examine the ice at the time, we should
probably not have regarded the quantity of material contained in
it very excessive, as compared with the quantities known to occur
in bergs even at the present day. And yet this instance is an
extreme case where the sediment is unusually thick, and is inten-
tionally selected as such,

152

Eskers.—In regard to the much-vexed question of the origin of
those extraordinary chains and strings of sand-and-gravel mounds
called Eskers, I am still, as I was in 1874, inclined to regard these
also as only another form of sedimentary deposit left by the melting
ice. I believe that their position in the first instance was deter-
mined by the mounds they stand upon having been high enough
above the stronger currents of the subglacial streams to allow of
the accumulation of sand and gravel resulting from the washing of
the Till higher up the valley. This was occasionally added to,
perhaps, by material washed down through moulins and crevasses.
When once such a mound was started, the action I have above
described would tend to perpetuate its form as it increased in size,
It would be precisely at the spots where such subglacial mounds
occurred that, as the ice became weaker and thinner under atmos-
pheric and other waste, crevasses and their accompanying moulins
would be more readily developed, and, consequently, where the
water of the superglacial streams would sweep down in greatest
quantities the boulders, gravel, and sand that were being liberated
at the surface. And as this process would, by my theory, go on
until the continuity of the ice sheet was destroyed by melting,
there would certainly be formed, as the last traces of the ice sheet
vanished, long chains of steep-sided hummocky mounds enclosing
land-locked hollows, just as we find them in esker regions.

Relations of Eskers and Moraines.—I am inclined to regard
some of the esker-like mounds occurring in places as having origin-
ated in much the same way as a moraine. But as a rule, they are
not Zerminal moraines. I for one do not believe that such a thing
as the terminal moraine of the great ice-sheet can anywhere be
seen. Here and there, where the ice-sheet was melting over a
great ridge, or along a great hill side, quantities of materials liber-
ated by the melting of the upper parts of the ice, and set free on
its surface, were washed off that surface on to the land exposed by
the withdrawal of the ice. And in this way esker-like, or moraine-
like, mounds would be produced. But in no sense can they be
regarded as terminal moraines. Such mounds occur here and

i

153

there along the foot of the Cross Fell Escarpment, and a very
well-marked chain of them ranges along the hills separating the
lower parts of the valleys of Wensleydale and Swaledale. The
reader interested in these features will find them described in some
detail, and their probable mode of formation discussed, in my paper
in the Quarterly F ournal so often referred to.

The only true moraines occurring in the area under notice are
those tiny accumulations already referred to (p. 133) as due to the
action of the later glaciers that came after the close of the com-
paratively warm period when the Ice Sheet was melting.

Marine Organisms in High Level Drifts.—There are no shelly
glacial drifts in Edenside, but if there were, the occurrence of such
would by no means imply that any submergence of the land had
taken place. Indeed I might take the present opportunity of
again stating my conviction that, excepting some low-lying maritime
deposits, which need not be considered here, there is absolutely
no evidence of any submergence whatever. And I may add that
much of the evidence that has been adduced elsewhere in support

. of such theories,"seems to me capable of quite a different interpret-

ation. There were, doubtless, many small oscillations of level,
especially in the earlier part of the Glacial Period ; but, like the
evidence for any interglacial periods of warmth (except the one
following the climax), the evidence of such in the North-West of
England seems to be entirely gone now.

In regard to the origin of many such shell-bearing deposits,
excluding such as those of the Clyde, I still fail to see any difficulty
in regarding the present position of the included marine organisms
as due to the same causes that carried rocks inland and uphill
from the bottom of the Eden Valley on to the summit of Stainmoor,
a thousand feet or more above the source of the parent rock. I
believe that the original deposits containing those marine organisms
now in the drift, have worked up into the ice (perhaps as Clement
Reid has suggested, while the matrix enclosing them was itself
frozen), and that, once in the ice, they have gradually risen to
higher levels in it, under the combined action of ablation and
turgescence, as the ice slowly moved landward. Then, when the

il

154

ice melted, they were left along with the associated material of
inorganic origin (Geol. Mag., 1874, p. 510). In the majority of
cases, as geologists have long remarked, these organisms from high
level drifts consist chiefly of the harder and less destructible
portions alone, and some of these themselves actually shew signs
of glacial striz. Mr. Clement Reid has called my attention to the
fact that the assemblage of mollusca found in these deposits is such
as is never known to occur within the same bathymetrical zone.
This alone (without taking account of the anomalous admixture of
Celtic, Lusitanian, Boreal, and Arctic mollusca that characterises
such glacial shell-bearing gravels), is sufficient to put us on our
guard before accepting the evidence of these shells as proof of
submergence. On Mr. Reid’s view, that large masses of frozen
mud, containing organisms, have been repeatedly transported con-
siderable distances zz the ice and afterwards liberated as it melted,
there ought to be no difficulty in accounting for the deposition of
even delicate shells, unbroken, at any elevation reached by the ice,
and that is substantially the view I set forth in 1874.

Fic. 8.

Diagram to illustrate the transportal of boulders in directions contrary to the
flow of the sole of the Ice-Sheet, (see pp. 131, 139, ante.) Ice carrying boulders
down hill and outwards from the centres of dispersal in a direction from A to B, is
met at B by ice currents setting in contrary direction (in most force at higher
levels), At B the opposing forces are balanced, and the direction of least
resistance is then mainly upward. Arrived at higher levels, the local current
becomes more and more affected by the influence of the currents setting iniand,
and the ice then moves with its freight of mixed local and extraneous detritus
in the direction C, D. On the melting of the ice the sediment dispersed
throughout it is deposited on the rock surface below: the boulders both of
local and extraneous origin, between D and Z, for example, being sedimented
at Z. [It should be observed that in hardly any of the cases cited did the
direction of movement of the outflowing current lie diametrically opposite to
that of the current opposing it. The curve of transportal was probably hardly
ever entirely in the same plane. |

IV.—TuHE ReEsutts oF Ice ACTION UPON THE SURFACE.

Quantity of rock removed during the Glacial Period.—It has been
already incidentally mentioned that the total quantity of certain
kinds of rock traceable in the form of boulders in the glacial
deposits of the North of England is enormous, considering the
superficial area presented by the parent masses zv siti, The
quantity of Shap Granite in the form of boulders removed by ice
from the parent rock has long been a subject of remark, seeing
that the superficial area of the rock zz st does not much exceed a
square mile. Equally good illustrations of the point under consider-
ation are supplied by the boulders derived from the St. John’s
Quartz Felsite, the Armboth Dyke, the Mardale Gabbro, and others
already mentioned above. The tough and durable nature of the
harder porphyrites and “ashes” of the Borradale volcanic series
has also, in their case, favoured their survival through a prolonged
course of rough treatment, and the boulders of these rocks conse-
quently occur in overwhelming proportions in the drifts of particular
areas in the north. These last mentioned rocks occupy a super-
ficial extent of many square miles; but this has less to do with
their wide dispersal in the drift than has their extreme durability
under the action of mechanical erosion. This point is brought
into striking contrast by a comparison of the proportion these
boulders bear to those of Skidda Slate. 7 sz#é both rocks occupy,
roughly speaking, about the same superficial extent. Moreover,
the glacial agent that affected the one, must have affected the
other to at least an equal extent. Yet in the drifts resulting from
this action, recognisable fragments of Skidda Slate, as a rule, are
to be found only in very small quantities ; and are then generally
confined to the immediate neighbourhood of the parent rock.
Hardly any, or perhaps none at all, have survived the rough treat-
ment involved in a transportal to a distance of only a few miles.
On the other hand, boulders of the volcanic rocks from the same
area have been transported at least as far south as Cheshire, where
I have met with many well-known old friends from the north.

156

They occur also, according to Professor Green, on the east side of
the Derbyshire hills; and they may be found farther from the
parent source even than that.

The inference to be drawn from these facts is that, under the
various forms of glacial action affecting the surface, only the
toughest and most durable rocks survived ; all the rocks of lesser
toughness being sooner or later crushed and ground into small
fragments. Or, to put the same statement in to another form, it is
those rocks whose boulders have travelled farthest in the drift that
have suffered least under glacial action at home. The tougher the
rock, the farther its boulders have gone, and the more it has with-
stood wear and tear zz szt#d: the more readily it goes to pieces
under the action of mechanical. abrasion, the less chance is there
of any of its boulders surviving a lengthy transportal in the ice,
and the more the parent mass has suffered.

This relation between the capacity of resistance of any given
rock to mechanical erosion and the development of surface
features, plays a much more important part in the sculpturing of
rock surfaces than many are disposed, even yet, to admit. In the
Yorkshire dales, especially, its effects are very striking and
suggestive ; because large areas there consist chiefly of limestone,
and the action of chemical forces comes prominently into play in
its effects upon surface features. Taking one of these districts as
an example, say Upper Wensleydale and the dales branching out
of it, we find the whole of the valleys carved out of a great pile of
Carboniferous rocks of marine origin, lying sheet upon sheet of rock
to a thickness of two thousand feet or more, and still remaining in
very nearly the same position of horizontality that they had when
originally spread out upon the old sea bottoms. These rocks
consist of a great number of alternations of beds of limestone,
sandstone, and shale: the limestone beds, as I have before pointed
out, nearly always being overlaid by shales ; and being succeeded
below by beds of sandstone. The relative proportion of these
three kinds of rock to each other may be roughly set down as
limestone two, sandstone three, shale five. That is to say, there
is more than twice as much shale as there is limestone. But if we

157

compare the relative proportion borne to each other by these rocks
as they occur in the local drifts, we find them about as :—lime-
stone four, sandstone four, and shale only two; the proportion of
shale diminishing, and that of limestone increasing, the farther we
trace the boulders from their parent sources. It is therefore
evident that whatever was the agent that transported the materials
of the drift, that agent certainly crushed the shale into mud first,
reduced the sandstone to sand at a slower rate, while the limestone
boulders were suffered to travel great distances with a minimum
reduction of their bulk. It may here be mentioned again that the
drifts of these dales contain a percentage of clay small out of all
proportion to that of the argillaceous members of the local rocks.
Indeed large masses of drift occur here with hardly any clay in
them at all. (See Quart. Fourn. Geol. Soc., xxxi. p. 97.) What
became of the crushed shale was to me a long time a mystery,
until I found my colleague Mr. Clement Reid wondering whence
had come all the clay that he had been mapping as boulder clay
on the chalk wolds of Yorkshire. It was then evident that, by
some means or other, much of the clay that was missing in north-
west Yorkshire had found its way to the south-eastern parts of the
same county, and formed the matrix of the drifts there.

It is, then, clear, that under glacial erosion the relative destructa-
bility of these rocks stands as—shale, sandstone, limestone; the
limestone being, under this kind of agency, the last to be reduced. .
Now let us compare the relative degrees of resistance to subaerial
waste presented by these rocks 2” s¢¢d, and note the result.

[Under the action of the weather each of these kinds of rock
behaves differently. Where the outcrop is of shale, and at the
same time forms a steep bank alongside a stream, the numerous
divisional planes help-to make the rock go to pieces in a very
short time ; so that, in such a case, whatever the overlying beds
may be like, the bank is not long in being cut back. But where
the outcrop forms a gentle slope out of the way of constantly-
running water, such shale as is not more than usually sandy,
decomposes into a tough and nearly impervious clay, much of
which remains at the surface, and thereby greatly helps to lessen

158

the waste of the beds beneath. Some good examples of the
different rate of weathering of the same bed of shale where exposed
to the direct action of running water, and where affected only by
weathering, are found about the waterfalls or “fosses” in the Dale
District. Under the waterfall the shales that there underlie the
sandstone, as this does the limestone of the foss, are kept in the
condition most favourable for their rapid disintegration, so they
are quickly cut back beneath the harder beds that form the edge
of the fall. But at the outer end of the ravine caused by the
gradual recession of the waterfall, subaerial denudation has accom-
plished so little; notwithstanding that a rapidly-flowing stream is at
hand, that the difference between the rate of recession of the foss
and that of the sides of its ravine in one case is about as forty to
three. In other words, while that waterfall has cut back forty feet
each cliff it has left has receded only eighteen inches.

G) /
{1}
: NV 7 y L4H YY VIM viithy bo

ee eee OO ee ee eee
a -8 >)/0.

FIG. 9.

Diagram to illustrate the ratio between the rate of formation of a ravine under
the action of a waterfall, and that of the widening of its sides, where these are
not exposed to the direct action of falling water. The figures given in the
diagram are, in round numbers, those taken at Moasdale Force in Wensleydale.

The particular instance here referred to is, doubtless, an extreme
case where the beds overlying the shale are more than usually
durable ; but it serves to prove that even where there is a rapid
stream flowing, the denudation of shale does not go on very
rapidly unless the stream actually flows close to the outcrop.
Where limestone is the rock directly overlying the shale, this last
is usually cut back much faster, because the surface water finds an
easy passage into it through the weathered joints of the harder bed
above. In such cases the difference between the width of the
outer end of the ravine and the width close to the fall, compared

159

with the distance between the two points thus measured, gives
very nearly the ratio between the rate of denudation of any given
rock on the one hand by the direct action of streams, and on the
other by that of ordinary weathering.

If then, so little denudation of a rock as easily worn as shale has
been accomplished in Post-Glacial times by the rapid streams of
the Dale District, where these streams are absent we should be
prepared to find that the rate of denudation is so slow as to
produce results that are hardly perceptible. Amongst many facts
bearing upon this same point may be mentioned the occurrence of
striz dating from the climax of the glacial period, which are yet
found in many places in this district within a few feet of the
outcrop of a bed of shale, in the relative position shewn by B, in
Figure ro. Itis obvious in such a case that the horizontal distance
‘between the ice markings and the base line of the shale marks the
greatest distance that this can have been cut back in Post-Glacial
times.

The thinner kinds of sandstone, especially where these are much
split up by beds of shale, seem to go to pieces very readily ; but
upon the more compact, blocky, and little-jointed kinds, ordinary
weathering seems able to produce very little effect. A very good
example of this is to be found at Moasdale Foss in Wensleydale,
Fig. a, a waterfall caused by the superposition of a hard and blocky
sandstone upon a bed of soft and thinly-laminated shale. The
length of the ravine leading to the fall is nearly eight hundred feet,
measured from its outer end to the fall itself; while the difference
in the width of the ravine at the two points measured is only sixty
feet. Yet in this instance a rapid stream flows within a few yards
of the foot of the scars, which have thus receded only thirty feet
on each side since the ravine was formed. ‘There is good reason
for thinking that the entire excavation has taken place in Post-
Glacial times. The above remarks relative to the nearness of
glacial striz to the outcrop of higher beds of shale apply equally
to the accompanying sandstones in similar positions; so that we
get direct evidence that some of the sandstone scars have not been
much altered in form since the close of the Glacial Period.

160

But for our present object the rock of most importance as
regards its behaviour before subaerial agents is limestone. Not
much more need be added to what has been already stated about
the cutting back of a waterfall in this rock: where, however, lime-
stone is found in thick beds, and is not very much split up by
structural planes, it seems to recede not quite as fast as sandstone
does under like conditions. But under the influence of the
weather, limestone, as is well known, often wastes with great
rapidity. Jukes’s comparison of it to a glacier melting before the
summer’s sun conveys an excellent idea of the way this rock is
dissolved and carried away in solution by the waters from the
surface. The numerous structural planes that intersect every bed
of limestone are developed, and rapidly widened, to a considerable
depth from the surface, by the corrosive action of percolating
waters, which thus easily find their way downwards and are enabled
to attack rock at a lower level.

There seems reason for believing that the absolute rate of
dissolution of limestone is far from slow, even when measured by
years. In Kirkby Stephen Churchyard in 1871, there was an
erect gravestone of ordinary Mountain Limestone that had then
been put up about fifty years. As the stone was carved, at least
the greater part of it must once have been smooth and unweathered ;
but when I saw it in 1871 there were encrinite stems, and bits of
other fossils, left in relief to the extent of a tenth of an inch or
more, the softer matrix having been removed by the rain that had
fallen on the stone since its erection. One cannot be quite sure
even that the highest parts of the fossils accurately represented the
original dressed surface ; but, assuming that they did so, we have
in this instance proof that a smooth and quite-unweathered piece
of limestone, standing in a position the least favourable for erosion
by subaerial agencies, had been dissolved away at the rate of one
inch in five hundred years. |*

The foregoing statements will, I think, suffice to shew that the
relative degrees of destructibility of limestones, sandstones, and

* The paragraphs included between the square brackets are reprinted, without
essential alteration, from the Geol. Mag. 1875, pp. 325-6.

161

shales under the action of the subaerial forces now attacking them,
are very different from what they are under glacial erosion, and
are clearly such as would, in the long run, end by leaving only the
beds of sandstone at the surface to form all the features of promi-
nence, except those situated on a very steep slope. Where the
rocks lie in a nearly horizontal position, as they do over large areas
in north-west Yorkshire and the parts of Westmorland adjoining,
we ought, therefore, if it is true that the present surface features
are due to the action of subaerial forces, to find nearly all the
more prominent scars, and the terraces that extend inwards from
their edges, almost exclusively of the particular rock that wastes at
the slowest rate; that is to say, of sandstone. The shale would
be expected to be cut back fastest, while the beds of limestone,
being attacked by two sets of subaerial forces, instead of by but
one set, would be dissolved clean out of sight all along its outcrop.
Besides this we ought to find, all along the outcrop of the sand-
stones, a talus of blocks that had been dislodged from the scar by
the undercutting of the softer beds beneath them.

So far as the particular district now referred to is concerned, we
find the surface features as unlike this ideal as they could well be.
There are, it is true, many scars, and here and there a few terraces,
of sandstone; but all the more conspicuous features of this kind
consist of the more-perishable limestone. Moreover, these lime-
stone terraces occur in the greatest perfection at the very points
where, according to the theory that they are due to the action of
subaerial waste, they ought to be entirely absent. Another very
important point in connection with these terraces cannot he too
much insisted upon. This is, that in many cases, the terrace of
limestone (see A. B. in fig. 10) consists of a shelf, or sheet, of lime-
stone, of very nearly its full thickness, even at the very outer edge
of the terrace. The limestone surface, as a whole, betrays hardly
any evidence of having been longer exposed to the wasting influences
of denudation at its outer edge A than it does at B along the line
where the newer beds come on above it, which is presumably
the part last exposed. This feature is rendered all the more
striking by the fact that swallow holes are almost exclusively

162

Fic. 10.

Diagram shewing the relation of the present contour of the limestone terraces
and scars (A.B.) in Wensleydale to the contour they would assume under atmos-
pheric denudation. The rock with the vertical shading represents limestone ;
that with the horizontal shading, shales; and the stippled part sandstones.
The supposed preglacial contour is shewn by the dotted outline on the right.
The inclination of the beds shewn is not intended to have any signification.

confined to the inner edge of the terrace, as shewn in Fig. ro,
at B: swallow holes over the rest of the terrace being, as a rule,
of much less common occurrence; and sometimes are absent
almost entirely. Swallow holes, in such cases as the present,
are, of course, due to the solvent action of surface waters flowing
from the impervious beds that form the part of the hillside imme-
diately above the outcrop of the limestone ; and they are, almost
necessarily, initiated along that line where the outcrop of the
impervious shales comes on above that of the pervious and easily-
dissolved limestone below. As the face of the impervious beds is
weathered back, and new areas of limestone are exposed, the point
where the water sinks into the limestone recedes pari passd; and
so the swallow hole is enlarged and lengthened in the direction of
the hill. Now, it must be obvious that, if the development of the
limestone terrace is really due to the long-continued exposure of
the rocks to the action of the weather, that there must have been
a time when the shale overlying the limestone extended at least as
far outward as the scar now forming the edge of the terrace, as
shewn by the dotted line in the diagram ; and as a consequence,
swallow holes must have been formed there, just as they are now

163

being formed under similar conditions farther in. It is also clear
that, with the recession of the shale under subaerial waste, the
swallow holes would recede too, so that, if these conditions aré
represented here, we ought to find elongated swallow holes, or
gullies, extending continuously across the whole width of outcrop
of the limestone terrace. Moreover, seeing that vertical erosion
of limestone by chemical agencies proceeds at so rapid a rate,
there should be evidence of a considerable reduction in the thick-
ness of the limestone at the outer edge of the terrace, commensurate
with the amount of subaerial denudation of the shales resulting in
their recession from this point to the point where they are now.
It is hardly necessary to reiterate the statement that the facts, in
thé present case, are entirely opposed to any such view of the
subaerial origin of the features in question. There are compara-
tively few swallow holes in these Wensleydale limestone terraces,
except those along their inner margins ; all the rest of the limestone
remaining almost intact; or, what signs of weathering there are,
affect the whole of the surface alike. The inference therefore is
that every part of the whole terrace, from the scar at its outer
edgé, to the outcrop of the shale on its edge next the hill, has
been exposed to denudation the same length of time. In other
words, the weather has, manifestly, attacked the whole surface
equally, and has left its marks just as distinctly upon the inner
edge of the terrace as upon the parts, sometimes a hundred yards
or more off, that now form the scar at its edge; and the terrace,
has, therefore, clearly not been formed by the weathering back of °
the shale.

Another point to notice, hardly less significant, is that hardly
any of these limestone terraces shew more than traces of the vast
accumulation of blocks of sandstone that musthave been undermined
and detached by the waste of the beds of shale beneath them. If
a bed of shale lying between a bed of sandstone above and a bed
of limestone beneath, be wasted back fifty or a hundred yards, it
is obvious that some traces of the sandstone so undermined should
be found at that spot. But this is not the case except to a very
limited extent.

164

The real explanation of the phenomenon is that the features as
they now stand are not due to the prolonged action of subaerial
forces alone, but are due to the modification of old weathered
surfaces by ice. The whole of the preglacially weathered rock, talus,
swallow holes, weathered joints, and all, has been removed by long-
continued glacial action, and the old preglacial configuration has
been replaced by another of essentially different character. The
ice of the glacial period, here, probably from first to last, flowed in
a nearly uniform direction down the dales, and did not shift about
and change its direction of flow as it did in many other parts.
Under these circumstances we can readily understand how a mass
of ice two thousand feet in thickness, grinding a surface formed of
rocks presenting very variable degrees of resistance to mechanical
erosion, would, in the course of the long interval representing the
whole of the Glacial Period, cut its way farther into soft beds like
shales than it would into the tougher and less-easily eroded lime-
stones. It is well known that such minor differences in hardness
as are presented by veins of barytes traversing a limestone, or even
such as the difference in hardness between the matrix of a limestone
and that of the fossils included in it, often results in corresponding
inequalities of the surface where the rock has been glaciated. And
where the difference in hardness is more marked, as it is in the
case under notice, a corresponding difference in the resulting effects
is what might have been expected.

In connection with the subject of glacial erosion there is one
point that seems to have been overlooked by many of those who
have written about the vertical limit of the ice-sheet. It has been
assumed, seemingly upon insufficient grounds, that the rough and
craggy form of the higher parts of such districts as are well-glaciated
in their valleys is good proof that these higher parts were never
overridden by the ice. But if the view above advanced be correct
—that the ice removed from the low ground all the preglacially
weathered parts of the rock—it follows that because the stay of the
ice at the higher points was brief as compared with its stay lower
down, much less of the high lying weathered rock was removed.
Consequently, when the whole surface once more became exposed

165

to the action of subaerial agencies, the sound rock in the low
ground would be long in being affected, even where it was not
covered by drift, while at the higher points subaerial denudation
would soon remove the slightly-glaciated surface and replace it by
surface features of a different kind, so these parts would eventually
appear to have been always out of the reach of the ice. Thus it is
that in the Dale District the higher lying rock surfaces show more
decided traces of the action of the weather than are to be fouud
nearer the bottoms of the valleys. The thorough glaciation of the
low ground caused all the preglacially weathered rock—swallow
holes, widened joints, and all—to be removed; whilst at higher
levels even a considerable portion of the preglacially weathered
rock was left. In the one case the weather has had to begin its
work anew; in the other it resumed work almost where it ceased.
The same remarks will of course apply equally to those parts of
Mid and Southern England where the presence of glacial drift
marks the former extension of the ice-sheet. When compared with
its duration in the Northern parts of England, the stay of the
ice-sheet in the South was probably brief. Hence there would be
less modification of the rock surface than was effected where the
ice had a longer stay. Consequently, the slight amount of erosion
that the rocks underwent would favour the rapid replacement of an
ice-worn surface by one that to all appearance had been produced
solely by atmospheric causes.

When we consider the immense number of the boulders of
almost every rock of marked lithological character that have been
dispersed far and wide from outcrops of small extent, it becomes
evident that other rocks that, as boulders, are not so easily followed,
have, under a like amount of glaciation, suffered denudation to as
great an extent. The enormous quantity of rock material removed
in the shape of boulders from the Shap Granite at Wastdale Crag
has been already more than once referred to; and this, taken with
the other instances mentioned, will suffice to prove this point. It
would therefore necessarily follow that what is known to be true
of any particular rocks like those mentioned, must be equally true, —
ceteris paribus, of other rocks associated with it. And as the glaci-

166

ation of the upper part of the Yorkshire Dales has been as intense as
the glaciation of the country around Shap, it seems a fair inference
that the quantity of rock removed from the surface of the lower
lying Dale rocks must be at least equal, area for area, to what was
removed from Wastdale Crag. Hence we are led to the conclusion
that the ice-sheet effected some very important modifications of
form in the old preglacial valleys. Where the ice remained for
long periods, there can hardly be any doubt that many of the
valleys were both deepened and widened, in some instances to a
considerable extent ; and also that the peculiar mode of action of
the ice tended everywhere to modify the pre-existing form of the
surface, and even to replace part of this by sculpturing that is very
different from anything that, under existing physical conditions,
could possibly be produced by any kind of Subaerial Erosion,

The remarkable development of the limestone terraces in Wens-
leydale is almost certainly due to the fact that the movements of
the ice, all through the Glacial Period, were mainly in the same
direction, and did not veer about to anything like the same extent
as the ice certainly did elsewhere. While it was partly effacing
some of its earlier work in Edenside and Wensleydale, it continued
to carry its action still further, and to intensify effects already
accomplished,

In the original papers further arguments bearing upon the same
subject were discussed in considerable detail ; and an attempt was
made to show that the present form of the rock surface in this,
and in the adjoining areas, was due to extensive modifications of
old features of subaerial origin by the prolonged action of glacial
erosion.

Among the features impressed upon the rock surface by these
causes the writer is still, as much as ever, disposed to include
those remarkable semicircular hollows so common in glaciated
mountain areas, and known under the names of Coums, Corries,
or Cirques. In the original articles special reference is made to
the origin of some most remarkable phenomena of this nature
occurring near Melmerby, which illustrate in a very striking
manner, the more characteristic of these singular features.

|

167

-V.—Post GLACIAL DENUDATION.

In the same papers many facts were brought forward: to shew
that the amount of denudation accomplished in post glacial times
is in many respects strikingly small. The insignificant quantity of
material deposited by the action of streams in our lakes of glacial
origin ; the very limited vertical erosion of the river channels ; the
presence, in very many instances, of glacial strize at the foot of, or
even on the faces of, some of the precipitous scars of the north ;
the generally-unweathered condition of large areas of moutonneed
rock ; the well defined form of the eskers, and of the moraines ; the
small quantity of weathered material strewing the slopes below very
many of the rock features of the north—all seem to point to the
conclusion that the close of the glacial period was very much
nearer to our own times than we have been, as a rule, accustomed
to regard it. Measuring the effects of post glacial erosion by the
known rates of erosion now in action, and making due allowance
for the fact that the low lying rock surfaces at the close of the
Glacial Period consisted of sound and unweathered rock, it seems
to me that a period of 20,000 years since the close of that period
is amply sufficient to account for all the denudation that can be
demonstrated to have been accomplished in Post Glacial times.

G. AND T. COWARD, PRINTERS, CARLISLE,

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