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TRANSACTIONS

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BAST KENT

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et eae Canterbury : fs
& | SONS, PRINTERS, “ CAXTON . WORKS,”
, fe PRI Cc E . fe) NE S HI L L ING,
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TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

EAS KENM

Datuyal History Soniety,

NEW SERIES.

Canterbury :

GIBBS & SONS, PRINTERS, “CAXTON WORKS,”

1885,

ae i

OO MT LAT “ARE er

CONTENTS.

PAPERS COMMUNICATED :

1.—Teredo Navalis: Mr. Sibert Saunders

2,—On the Connexion between Plants and Animals:
Mr. G. Dowker, F.G.S,

3.—The Cypris Clay of the Weald: Capt. McDakin ...
4.—Stephanoceros Eichornii: Mr. T. B. Rosseter, F.R.M.S....

5.—Popular Names of British Plants :
Mr. G. H. Nelson, M.A., F.G.S.

6.—The Marine Aquarium: Mr. Sibert Saunders.
7.—A Snow Flake: Mr. A. S. Reid, M.A., F.G.S.
8.—Facts and Fancies in the History of Botany :

Mr. G. H. Nelson, M.A., F.G.S,

NOTES.
1.—The Mild Winter, 1881—2
2.—Fungi
3.-—Fungus
4.—Salt Spray in Canterbury
5.—Cleistogamic Flowers
6.—Quartz and Flint Sands...
7.—Bees and Garden Crocus “ce ee x ae oon

8.—Earthquake effects in Canterbury
9.—Gall Flies of the Oak

10,—Ants or Emmets.., re om ver ver vee vee

PAGE.

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TRANSACTIONS.

tie
TEREDO NAVALIS (THE SHIPWORM),

BY
MR. SIBERT SAUNDERS.

Read APRIL 5, 1882.

The so-called ‘‘ Ship-worm,”’ although its appearance would
seem to justify its popular name, is in reality a molluscous animal,
ranking with the conchifera. Looking at the long, worm-like body,
extending through the whole length of the tubular cavity which
the creature has formed by boring into the wood in which it has
found a habitation, it is indeed difficult to recognize its claim to be
classed with the bivalve molluscs; and Godfrey Sellius in 1738
was the first to discover that, notwithstanding the remarkable
modifications of structure rendered necessary by the conditions
under which the animal has to live, its true relationship is with
the molluscs, and not with the annelids, and that it is very closely
allied to the Pholades, whose curious excavations in stone are well
known.

On opening the tubular chamber containing a Teredo, the
animal is seen as a soft, thin, vermicular body which is, for the
most part, an extension of the mantle enclosing the riband-like
branchiz and the two long siphonal tubes, through one of which
water is taken in for respiration and food, while through the other
the exhausted water is discharged. The extremities of these
tubes are very small, just fitting ‘the opening in the surface of the
timber through which the embryo first entered, and which,
originally minute, becomes somewhat enlarged as the animal
grows ; partly by the wearing away of the surface, and partly by
the friction of the siphons—the tips of which are somewhat
roughened. The external orifice in the wood, however, never
becomes so large as to attract attention, until the surface becomes
actually broken through, either by rough treatment from outside
or the decay of the wood. The posterior extremity of the body is
also furnished with two opercula, formed of calcareous matter, and
these when brought together, close the external orifice, the siphon-
tubes being then retracted. The body gradually increases in size
towards what may be termed the head, which has a small, well-

6

defined mouth, and a kind of proboscis, the use of which will
presently be explained. The anterior portion of the body contains
the viscera; the breathing organs being, as has been already stated,
prolonged posteriorly. The bivalve shell is remarkably small,
covering only the anterior extremity of the body, and, being of no
use for the protection of an animal destined to live and die en-
closed in a chamber in which it is secure from intrusion, it becomes
the instrument by which the creature extends its burrow. It is
remarkable that there should have been so much doubt as to the
mode by which the Teredo bores into the wood in which it lives.
An examination of the hard concave shells shews that they are
exactly adapted to the purpose; each valve being shaped some-
what like the top of a carpenter’s auger, and having its anterior
surface covered with minute ridges, disposed with beautiful regu-
larity, while the microscope shews that each ridge is finely
serrated, the minute points being different in shape and arrange-
ment in different parts of the shell. The shells are open, or
‘‘ gaping” both in front and behind ; the long body being extended
through the posterior opening, while in front what may be termed
the face of the animal is exposed; but this is almost covered by a
kind of proboscis (already spoken of) answering to the ‘ foot,”
with which many molluscs are furnished, the mouth being situated
first underneath this organ. The proboscis has the appearance of,
and is probably used as a sucker, by which the Teredo fastens
itself. It thus acts as a centre-bit, and the animal, by moving the
boring-shells constantly in a circular direction, is enabled to scoop
out a channel in the wood with equisite precision and regularity,
the concave termination of the canal being as smooth as if it had
been polished by the art of man.

The composition of the shell of some pieces of Pholas is stated
to be such as would enable it to act mechanically on the hardest
limestone ; and the shell of Teredo appears to be equally adapted
to the work of rasping away the surface of very hard wood.
Some kinds of wood, however, are proof against the attacks of the
borer, among which Jarrow wood, from Australia, has been success-
fully tested; African oak and ‘‘ Greenheart ” are also too hard for
Teredo.

In like manner certain kinds of stone will resist the attacks
of Pholas—as for example, Portland stone, which contains a
quantity of silica.

The shells of Teredo are united to each other and to the
animal by strong muscles, but the valves are not connected
together by a hinge or ligament, there being no necessity for
opening and closing the valves as in non-boring Conchifera.

As the Teredo goes on extending with marvellous rapidity the
chamber which forms at once its home and its tomb (for it can
neyer withdraw itself from the excavation) it lines the walls with

7

a calcareous shell of extreme delicacy and pearl-like whiteness.
The composition of this lining has been found to contain no phos-
phate of lime, but to consist of 97 parts of carbonate of lime and
three parts of animal matter. When the animal has attained its
maturity it closes up the inner end of this tubular shell, but the
external orifice remains open for the supply of nutriment through
the siphon. The instinct of self-preservation is further displayed
by the Teredo when the wood which it has tunnelled becomes
decayed, as in the case of piers, piles, or wrecks, so that the
animal is in danger of exposure. The delicate shell which was
deposited as a lining to the burrow, and which was of the thinnest
possible material, is gradually but rapidly thickened by successive
layers of calcareous matter on the inside, until it becomes exactly
like the substantial tube constructed by Serpula contortuplicata ;
and I have in my collection portions of an old wreck in which the
tubes (which contained living animals when taken from the water)
are quite exposed by the disintegration of the wood in which they
had originally been imbedded.

Like most other molluscs, the embryo Teredo begins life as a
swimming animal, furnished with a shell from which are protruded
ciliated lobes. By means of this apparatus it is enabled to move
through the water with great activity. It rapidly passes through
several changes of form, and is ultimately found furnished with a
foot by which it can crawl. Having now fastened upon a piece of
submerged timber, whether it be the hull of a new vessel, the
remains of an old wreck, or a solid pile supporting a pier or
forming an embankment, it begins to drill a hole which is rapidly
extended far into the substance of the timber, and when a piece of
wood is attacked by a number of these marauders simultaneously
it is rapidly destroyed.

The hole by which the creature obtains an entrance is no
larger than would be made by a fine pin, but, as the burrow is
extended, its diameter increases with the increasing size of the
body of the Teredo which is at first developed rapidly, but, after
attaining a diameter of about a quarter of an inch, there is little
or no increase in this direction, but the animal still continues to
grow in length, and is frequently found as much as two feet long.
Ordinarily the length of a mature Teredo is about 12 or 14 inches.

The danger resulting from the inroads of this destructive
creature is enormously increased by the fact that, beyond the
minute opening through which it entered there is no external indi-
cation of the mischief which is being wrought within; a remark-
able instinct guiding the Teredo to avoid penetrating the surface of
the timber, and (which is still more extraordinary) to steer clear of
neighbouring tunnels. The habit of the Teredo is, generally, to
strike into the grain of the wood and follow its course. Thus a
plank or a balk of timber may appear perfectly sound, and yet be,

8

in reality, a mere shell, with the substance entirely destroyed, save
where the clever miners have left the thinnest of thin partitions
between their galleries. I have a piece of wood taken from a
vessel recently placed on the stocks for some trifling repairs, no
suspicion being entertained that the hull was infested with Teredo ;
but the shipwrights discovered that much of the timber, which
appeared sound and solid, was riddled by the ‘‘ ship-worm,” and a
transverse section of a piece of wood from this vessel, now in my
possession, shews, on a surface 6 inches long by 3 inches broad, 180
perforations varying from one-eighth to one-quarter of an inch in
diameter. ’

As illustrating the rapidity of the destruction, it may be
mentioned that planks of soft wood known to have been submerged
for less than two months have been found completely riddled by
the Teredo; and in the British Museum may be seen sections of
Quebec Elm and English Oak which formed part of Yarmouth
Pier, and, after being in the sea four years, were found to be
perforated in all directions.

Some of the performances of these self-immured agents of
destruction have become historical.

In or about the year 1731 fears were entertained for the safety
of Holland, it having been discovered that the piles which form
the artificial barrier against the inroads of the sea were being
destroyed by Teredo.

When divers went down to inspect the Russian vessels which,
during the bombardment of Sebastopol, were sunk off the mouth
of the harbour, they found that the work of removing the
obstruction had already been undertaken by a large body of these
‘submarine engineers”’ ; and in the museum of the Royal United
Service Institution there is (among other specimens of ‘‘ worm-
eaten’’ ship’s timber) a piece of one of these Russian vessels.

Various materials have been tried with the view of rendering
wood safe from the attacks of boring marine animals, but the most
reliable plan appears to be that of covering the surface with
metal ; copper sheathing being used for vessels, and broad-headed
iron nails for piles, harbour walls, &c.

There are at least four distinct species of Teredo now natural-
ized in British waters; and in tropical seas there are many others
ready to attack any vessel not properly protected.

In colder latitudes the Teredo becomes more rare, and in the
arctic seas it is unknown.

There is another genus of Pholades, named Xylophaga nearly
allied to Teredo, which bores across the grain, and penetrates the
wood less deeply than the ‘ ship-worm.”

Fossil wood obtained from London Clay, Oolite, and Green-

9

sand is found to contain the remains of burrowing animals
analogous to, and in some cases identical with, Teredo. The
discovery of these fossil remains may serve to open our eyes toa
larger view of the place which these creatures occupy in the
economy of nature.

Judged by their power to destroy works upon which man has
bestowed much labour and cost, the destruction of which may
imperil the lives of many. individuals, and even the safety of a
whole community, they cannot be looked upon as other than pests
and enemies, to be battled with and subdued by every means in
man’s power, but it is probable that at a former period of their
history they had more beneficent work to do, and that their power
of rapid destruction may have been one of the instruments in the
hands of the Creator for preparing the globe for the occupation of
man. Some such work is now being done by these boring molluscs
in tropical countries where the mouths of great rivers are liable to
be closed up by enormous quantities of trees brought down by
floods. These busy miners rapidly perforate the trees, which thus
become broken up and carried away.

FT:

ON THE CONNEXION BETWEEN PLANTS AND
ANIMALS,
BY
MR. G. DOWKER, F.G.S.

Read Marcu 1, 1882.

The latest observations of Botanists and Zoologists have removed,
one after another, the supposed boundary lines between the animal
and vegetable kingdom, so that we may now well ask if any such
line exists.

Cuvier considered the distinguishing character of the animal
to consist, firstly in its possessing the power of locomotion, second
in its having a distinct Alimentary canal, and a circulatory system,
thirdly that it had a more complex chemical composition possess-
ing Nitrogen, which the plant had not, fourthly that while plants
breathe out Oxygen, animals breathe out Carbonic Acid.

One of our most celebrated Naturalists, writing only a few
years ago, states ‘‘ There is one distinction between plants and
animals that seems still to hold good, ¢.e., that plants can build up
their structure from simple elements, while animals can only do so
from already organised materials.”

10

I propose to test these theories by reference to certain organ-
isms, as seen by the light of modern research.

Volvox globator, is a plant possessing locomotion, and on that
account regarded by the older Naturalists as an animal. Its
surface is covered with vibratile cilia, by means of which it moves
through the water; connecting these, are lines in which are certain
Ameeba-like bodies. If we examine these Zoospores under a high
power, we shall find they possess a red spot, which was considered
by some Naturalists as an eye; they have also hollow spaces, or
vacuoles, which possess the power of contracting at intervals of
about 40 seconds; these contractile vacuoles much resemble those
of the Amceba and lower animals.

The plant called Hematococeus which covers stagnant water
with a green scum in the spring, produces innumerable Zoospores
similar to those of the Volvox and having like them a red speck.
These, from their lively movements, have often been mistaken for
animals.

Presence of an Alimentary canal.—The Amoeba is an animal
though having no Alimentary canal, and so imperfectly organised
as to be compared to a living jelly without mouth, intestine, or
stomach.

The Gregarinida again are animals inhabiting the intestinal
canal of worms, they have no mouth or organs, but absorb their
nutriment from the juices in which they live.

The diatoms which may be called single celled Algae with
siliceous valves are known to possess the power of motion: some
think the motion is produced by cilia, but Professor Max Schultze
thinks it is caused by protoplasm flowing outside the frustule
through the foramina which are so minute as to keep back the
visible particles.

Circulatory System.—We have already seen that this distinc-
tion fails in the Amceba and the Gregarinida, and few of the lower
infusorial animals possess it. Ehrenberg found that the food of
many animalcules was collected in various receptacles, and assum-
ing, though not proving, that these occupied a permanently fixed
position, he gave the animalcules the name of Polygastrica. His
theory however was based on insufficient evidence and soon had to
give way.

There is a notable circulatory process in some plants as in
Nitella and Valisneria and in the hairs of the Tradiscanthia and
Nettle. In these we see a circulation of fluid or spherical globules
in a colourless fluid which follow a regular progression up one side
of a cell and down the other. We have also undoubted evidence
of the circulation of sap in all plants.

A very similar circulation takes place in the stem of the
Hydroid Zoophytes in which are found many resemblances to the

11

vegetable world, so that the name of ‘Zoophytes’ or plant-like
animals is a very appropriate one. As an example we may
instance the Zoophyte Eudendrium: this has a branching stem of
chitonous matter having a pulp consisting of moving granules,
very similar in their movements to the granules in Nitella. This
stem forms a root or attachment by a root, and at first grows in a
plant-like manner. After atime it produces Calycles or Hydro-
thecce, and from these the Zooids are produced which capture their
prey by their tentacular arms.

Muscular action is associated with a nervous system, whereby
sensation is conveyed to the muscles to set them in motion.

On feeding Vorticella and other animalcules with carmine
Dugardin, found that the food particles after their reception at the
oral aperture, were not retained in definite stomach sacculi, but
that after aggregating into spherical masses, they passed into the
sarcode till digested or rejected by the anal aperture.

Siebold, in 1845, enunciated the theory that the represen-
tatives of the Infusoria were unicellular organisms, each separate
animalcule possessing the value of a simple cell, and being
homologous with an ordinary cell-nucleus while the contractile
spaces possess a circulatory function. The simple sarcodic nature
was recognised, and all the organisms possessing such a simple
structure were classed together under the title of Protozoa, and
then subdivided into Rhizopoda and Infusoria.

In the highly organised plant, we notice some of those charac-
teristics which we associate with animals, such as the unfolding of
petals at certain times of the day, the movements of the sensitive
plants, the folding of the leaves at night, and such like.

In chemical composition there is nothing by which we
can absolutely distinguish animals from plants. Nitrogen is a
constituent of most plants being most abundant in the seed, and it
enters largely into the composition of Fungi. The essential con-
stituents of Plants are Cellulose and Protoplasm. Cellulose is
composed of Oxygen, Hydrogen and Carbon; Protoplasm of the
same with Nitrogen and Sulphur. As regards the test that
animals give out Carbonic Acid, while plants give out Oxygen, we
find that in the absence of light, plants give off Carbonic Acid,
and many of the Infusoria, presumably animals, give off Oxygen
in the presence of light. Chlorophyll is the active agent in
absorbing the Carbon and giving out Oxygen. In the fungi,
Chlorophyll is absent, and they appear to have no power of
assimilating organic food.

Thus we see, that the characteristics set down at the begin-
ning of this paper, will not afford any satisfactory distinction
between animal and vegetable.

With regard to the nervous system and complex structure which —

12

may have been considered a special feature of the animal kingdom,
the experiments of Mr. Darwin have proved that the roots of
plants have not only a power of moving, (which they habitually
do by a process Mr. Darwin describes as circumnutation) ; but
that they possess a sensation which enables them to follow with
unerring skill the line of least resistance.

The primary reason for the circumnutation is the increased
turgescence of the bladder-like cells with which the plant is built
up; but why these walls are extended and the cell becomes turgid,
is not so easy to explain.

Mr. Darwin compares the rootlet tip to the brain; it does for
the plant, what the great nerve-centre does for the animal, enabling
it to transmit information from cell to cell.

The folding of plants at night, and the folding up and closing
of leaves, is effected by a similar action.

Some plants which have been called ‘‘ insectiverous plants,”
possess in a remarkable degree, a power of sensation and motion.

The Drosera, a small plant growing on boggy ground, possesses
curious viscid glandular hairs on the leaves. These glands have
the power of absorption as well as secretion, and are very sensitive
to various stimulants. A hair, when excited, not only sends
some influence down its own tentacles, causing them to bend, but
likewise to surrounding tentacles which become incurved.

Animal substances placed on the discs, cause more prompt and
energetic inflection than do inorganic bodies or mechanical irrita-
tion. When a fly or piece of meat is placed upon the glandular
hairs, they not only bend down and clasp it, but likewise dissolve
it, and assimilate the nourishment. Under any mechanical
stimulus they contract, but soon release their hold and expand
again; on the other hand, with organic substances, they do not
relax their hold.

Physiologists believe that when a nerve is touched, it transmits
its influence to other parts of the nervous system, and a molecular
change is induced. By placing drops of Nitrogenous organic fluid
on the leaves of the Drosera, they detect with unerring certainty
the presence of Nitrogen.

When the glands of the disc are irritated, they transmit some
influence to the glands of the exterior tentacles, causing them to
secrete more copiously, and the secretion becomes more acid;
in this the plant behaves in the same way as the animal; a reflex
action is here apparent.

Another plant, the Venus Fly Trap, Dionea Wuseifera,
possesses in a remarkable manner, the same properties of absorption
of Nitrogenous substances, by the leaves, and the same kind of
nervous powers.

18

The suggestion that the plant alone possesses the powers of
appropriating the inorganic substances as its food, requires further
investigation.

In 1837, Mr. Andrew Crosse, the electrician, was pursuing
some experiments on electro crystallization, and in the course of
his investigations on solutions of Silicate of Potassa, some curious
insects were found in the solution, and were named Acarus Crosseri.
Since then the same organisms have appeared in the solutions of
Nitrate of Silver, used for photographic purposes.

In conclusion then, I would observe we have no lines of
demarcation which we can point to as separating the animal and
vegetable kingdoms.

Hit.

THE CYPRIS CLAY OF THE WEALD,
BY
CAPT. McDAKIN.

OcTOBER 4, 1882,

We, of East Kent, are fortunate in possessing a large slice of
what is known as the Wealden formation ; that charmingly
picturesque country included between the cretaceous ranges of the
North and South Downs. The central part constituting the
Hastings Sands is, like an island, surrounded by the wide undu-
lating valley of the Weald Clay, a portion of which is traversed
by the South Eastern Railway between Ashford and Tunbridge
junction, and which may be taken as an example of its surface
configuration. Its geological position may be regarded as an upper
one in the great secondary division, coming in between the close of
the oolite and the lowest beds of the cretaceous series. It is
remarkable too as being a fresh water deposit, the beds of Petworth
and Bethersden marble which it furnishes, being frequently
conglomerate masses of fresh water shells. There are other and
additional evidence of its fresh water origin, so much so that
geologists have come to the conclusion that the Wealden formation
is the delta of a large river, which at one time drained a continent
situated to the Westward, and now covered by the deep waters of
the Atlantic Ocean. This extensive delta, as large as that of the
Ganges of the present day, contained lakes and pools in which
pond life formed a small world of its own. In these ancient lakes
' the Cypris and its allies abounded, so much so that the cast off
shells of these minute creatures give some of the beds of clay a

14

micaceous appearance, and cause it to split into thin lamine like
schistose rocks.

Lyell mentions that analogous deposits on the grandest scale
are forming in the great Canadian lakes, as in lakes Superior and
Huron, where beds of sand and clay are seen enclosing shells of .
existing species.

The living Cypris of our own time is a very active creature,
and his erratic movements render him a more difficult object to
study than the rooted Zoophytes. Although very minute they are
readily discerned by the unassisted eye, and especially those which
proceed by a series of quick jerks, and have on this account been
called water fleas. The little animal resides between two valves
or shells of a calcareous brittle material and might readily be
mistaken for a small mollusc. The shells are united at the back
by a ligament and muscles, by means of which the creature can
open or shut them according to its requirements.

It has a single eye and two pairs of antenne, the ends of
which in some species are decorated with plumes, and are by some
observers supposed to act as respiratory organs, as well as to assist
it in swimming. There is, however, much discrepancy amongst
authors as to the number of feet, some stating that there are only
four, but this would present us with the singularity of an ‘ insect
quadruped,” which, to borrow the phraseology of our old friend
Euclid, would be absurd, therefore for the sake of uniformity we
had better regard it as possessed of one pair of antenne and six
legs, which it uses with great activity in running over water weeds
and other objects. It has a double tail furnished with hooks and
long claws, which it can protrude, telescope fashion, from its body.
This organ appears to be used in cleaning the interior of its shells.
It lays about 20 eggs at a time, attaching them to parts of water
weeds, several individuals repairing to the same place for this
purpose. According to Dr. Baird they are hatched in about four
days, the young making its appearance as an almost perfect animal
but undergoing several moults. This process of exuviation takes
place with the adult after each laying, and is most wonderfully
complete, for not only are the outer shells thrown off but the most
minute coverings of the antenne. Strauss says the food of these
small creatures consists of a mixed diet of animal and vegetable
substances. Individuals of one species have been seen to devour
eagerly the dead of a species different from themselves. As it
.seems a law of nature that living things should either eat or be
eaten, the various species of Cypris are swallowed in large quanti- -
ties by fish, the flavour of which is supposed to be due to some
extent to this kindof food. They are also freqnently found in the
vesicles of the ultricularia or bladder-weed, so that it would appear
they sometimes fall victims to this carnivorous water-weed. When
the ponds dry up in the summer the Cyprides preserve their lives

15

by burying themselves in the mud, although when it becomes per-
fectly dry they perish. The eggs, however, maintain their vitality,
and hatch out in four or five days after being placed in water.

The specimens of the Weald Clay, were obtained from the
quarry, about the Seabrook Hotel, on the right hand side of the
road leading from Folkestone to Hythe.

Colonel Horsley exhibited under his microscope the remains of
Cypris found in the vesicles of the Utricularia neglecta, and Mr.
G. H. Nelson specimens of Purbeck limestone showing numerous
remains of cyprides.

EY,
STEPHANOCEROS EICHORNII,

BY
MR. T. B. ROSSETER, F.R.M.S.
Read May, 1883.

Old Naturalists thought, many of the present day think, in
fact there are some distinguished Naturalists who maintain, that
the cell of Stephanoceros Eichornii is a solid gelatinous mass.
I imagine that the reason which led the old investigators of this
interesting creature to come to such conclusions, was the fact of the
dragging down of a portion of the cell when the creature retreated
into it, which made them suppose that the cell was attached to the
shoulders of the creature by an integument, and that the cell was
contractile.

Their observations were doubtless further confirmed by the
fact that the creature does not follow the general rule of tube-
bearing Rotifers, and leave the cell previous to death, but dies and
undergoes decomposition in its cell.

The dragging down of the cell by the tentacles, is caused by
their impinging on the sides of the circular aperture, or orifice of
the cell, this being, in every case I have examined, much smaller
in comparison than the other portion of the cell. It is true the
eurved portion of the cell which comes down, seems to cover the
shoulders of the creature, but this it does not do; but comes round
and forms the top of the cell when the creature invaginates itself
either from agitation, or in the act of gulping its food; the
tentacles as I have said before, impinge on the sides of the cell ;
now when the creature returns, this portion that is really dragged
down is pushed out at the end of the tentacles, and, when viewed
with dark ground illumination, one is able to see what I mean.
It is not only by tha return of the creature to seek for food that

16

the invaginated portion of the cell returns, for there are times
when the creature is quiescent in its cell, and then that portion of
the cell returns to its normal state. Again, if closely observed,
what some would think was a portion of the cell attached to the
end of the tentacles, is the sete of the tentacles, caused by their
folding up (which is characteristic of the Flosculariz), for the
sete on the closing up of the tentacles, wrap themselves round the
tentacles with an upward tendency, forming a fringe at the end of
them.

Again, if the cell is securely fastened to the shoulders of the
creature, how comes it that the young foetus, whether produced by
incubation of the ovum in the cell, or given off by viviparousness of
the parent, after swimming about for a short time in the cell, makes
its escape at the oral orifice? I have seen minute Infusoria enter
the cell after the death of the creature,—for they soon decompose—
and dive down into the recesses, groping along its sides, which are
to them like the shaft of some deep sunk well, ascending and
descending, tumbling over one another in their seemingly playful
gambols, and then come out and swim swiftly away. If the tube
had been solid, it would have been impossible for these minute
creatures to have moved about in such a fluid, for it has too great
a density for them to penetrate it. Even this, one would think,
would be conclusive evidence of the cell being tubular and not
‘a solid gelatinous mass.” H. J. Slack, F.G.S., Ex-President of
the R.M.S., dissented from this theory of the solidity of the cell,
but beyond his having been able to look down a deserted tube (?)
I am not aware that he examined the matter further.

Though convinced in my own mind of the correctness of the
opinions I had formed, yet being anxious to set this debatable
question at rest, I determined to try the process of freeing the
creature from the cell; accordingly I detached a fine healthy
Stephanoceros from a piece of Anacharis alsinastrum, and laid it
on a plate of glass, with a small quantity of water. With half-inch,
C eye-piece, I carefully observed the muscular system, and I decided
to make an incision in the cell and sever the peduncle just above
the sucker, and then I had the gratification of seeing her swim
out, leaving the cell perfectly intact, with the sucker portion of
peduncle still attached to the cuticle of the small piece of
Anacharis.

Not wishing to trust to an isolated case, I determined to try
the experiment again and push my investigations further.

On Monday, May, 15th, 1882, (10 p.m.) I placed a specimen
of §. Eichornii in a moderately deep circular trough, my object for
so doing in preference to using a plate of glass or live-box, being
to ascertain what amount of vitality existed after disconnection.

This time, instead of making a small incision in the cell, I cut

’

17

it straight across, completely dividing the cell, a small portion
with the lower end of the peduncle being left attached to the
weed. The other portion containing the animal and a greater
portion of the cell, I dragged away into the middle of the trough
and awaited results. At first, the creature did not attempt to move,
its tentacles being completely closed up in the cell; but the mastax
and intestines kept moving. It remained in this state for two
hours, and then began to rouse up, but instead of expanding the
tentacles and making an exit out of the upper end of the cell as
before, it began to [see note] back out of the cell by the lower end,
and after some time cleared it, turned round and gradually
expanded its tentacles. I watched a greater portion of the night,
and it seemed in no way the worse for the operation it had under-
gone.

The next morning, 16th (9 a.m.), it was alive, and at 10 p.m.,
it seemed to be in good health, in spite of the change in its circum-
stances. The tentacles were perfectly semicircular and rigid,
which is a sure indication of health; they become limp and
straggling when the creature is sickening or about to die.

On Wednesday, 17th (7 a.m.), I found the creature alive, and,
what was more strange, that it had thrown off an ovum, which
was in an advanced stage of development; the ovum was close to
its side, but whether attached to it or not, I do not know.

All went well with the creature until Sunday the 2ist, when
there were unmistakable signs of approaching dissolution. The
mastax worked in a very fitful manner. I left it in the evening,
feeling sure it would be dead in the morning, as was the case, just
eight days from the time of leaving the cell.

The above observations I am sure will speak for themselves,
not only as to the character of the cell of Stephanoceros Eichornii,
but also to the fact that it is able to live and propagate its species
indepently of its cell.

On another occasion I watched the development of a young
Stephanoceros from the moment of hatching. On making its
escape from the egg, the little creature bursts its covering by a
sudden jerk of the posterior portion of the body, much resembling
the jumping action of the shrimp ; the whole surface of the shelly
covering, seeming, as seen by the Binocular, to be forced upwards
and the little one floats out into its world of water. During this,
its larval state, it is vermiform and free-swimming, in fact it is a
perfect rover, poking its head into every nook and cranny. Its
head is covered with cilia, two eye-spots are plainly visible, but
there is not the remotest sign of tentacles or maxillary organs
until it settles itself down for its final state. The larva, I watched,
took up its abode close to the edge of a leaf; the peduncle

18

elongated itself, having a wrinkled or compressed annular form ;
the body had taken the form as seen in the adult 8. Eichornii.
The ciliary fringe had entirely disappeared; the creature lay
perfectly quiescent in a very transparent cell which it had formed
round itself.

The cell is formed with a secretive substance thrown off, or
exuded, by the creature. It came up as far as the posterior portion
of the body, and I was able to look down it; this was the first
stage of the cell. It was gradually built up in layers, and this, in
my opinion, explains the cause of the annules of the cell.

After about eleven hours from the time of hatching, the upper
portion of the creature commenced to swell, and small buds began
to be pushed upwards, much in the same way as the tentacles begin
to show themselves in the advanced buds of the Hydra; with this
difference, that with a good half-inch, you can discern the
rudimentary tentacles, beautifully rolled up within what ultimately
becomes the buccal cavity.

These buds were covered with minute cilia, and when they
had pushed up a short distance, they began to gradually unfold in
the same manner as one sees the fronds of ferns unfold. They
remained in this drooping state for two days, but on the third day
took the beautiful arched form of the adult.

Ehrenberg was correct when he stated that Stephanoceros
Eichornii was viviparous, although at the time his ideas were con-
sidered erroneous. I have very frequently seen them give birth to
young in this way; and on one occasion, Dr. English, Resident
Medical Officer, St. Mary’s College, Canterbury, watched an
individual under the same circumstances. The specimen that
I watched was, when I found it, thoroughly sunk into the cell.
The cell had not been retracted with the creature, but was perfectly
erect. The ‘creature was, as I thought, in a dying state, and
nothing in the shape of food tempted it to come out of its cell.
The posterior portion of the body was very much enlarged and
hung down like a bag. ‘The tentacles seemed with the funnel to
be thrust into the body of the creature, in fact, at times, it seemed
huddled ina heap. After a short time it revived a little, and
seemed inclined to elongate, but quickly retreated again. I had
been watching my specimen with a one-inch, but changing it for
half-inch C. eye-piece, I saw the outlines of a young Stephanoceros
in the pendulous position, and later a slight opening in it through
which it began to protrude head first. As it gradually came out,
the posterior portion opened much wider, and the parent seemed to
strain itself to get rid of its burden. At length it seemed about
to do so, but the young one drew back as if fearful to trust itself
from its mother, but was soon expelled by a violent effort on the

19

part of the latter. After floating about in the cell for a short
time, it made its escape in the usual way through the natural
orifice. The mother never recovered, but died in the cell about
half-an-hour afterwards.

The fact of the parent dying might at first sight seem to lead
to the conclusion that this was not a true act of viviparousness,
but I have, as I have said above, witnessed several similar cases,
but not attended with the same ‘fatal results to the parent, except
on one occasion, viz., on 5th December, 1883, when I found that a
Stephanoceros I had put in the trough for exhibition at a meeting
of E.K.N.H.S. had two live young ones inside of her. I exhibited
her the same evening; the mother remained alive until the next
evening, when another ovum incubated internally, and then she
died. I took her out of the trough and placed her on a dissecting
plate, opened her, and then the young ones floated out alive and
healthy. I was unsuccessful in trying to transfer them toa trough.

Nore.—This act of backing out of its cell is very suggestive
of its vermiform characteristics, more especially when we take into
consideration the close affinity that exists between the Rotifera
and the Annelida, more especially in connection with Loven’s larva.

N.
POPULAR NAMES OF BRITISH PLANTS,

BY
MR. G. H. NELSON, M.A., F.G.S.
Read JuLy 4, 1883.

The study of the popular names of plants is of wide philolo-
gical and historical interest, opening up a prospect into the history
of man’s progress towards civilization, and revealing much know-
ledge of his character and life before the period of written history.
The popular names of British Plants are in-the main of learned
origin. They can be called popular only in the sense that they are
used now in common speech and have ceased to be the Technical or
Scientific terms. A large number of names indicate either the use
to which they were put by man, or the services, real or imaginary,
which they rendered to animals and birds. The doctrine of Signa-
tures is responsible for another large class. It was believed that the
various parts of a plant were so formed by the Creator that men
might see at a glance what human ailment they would heal. This
was the Szyn«iwre of the plant. Some names are merely descrip-

20

tive—the plant naming itself by some marked feature. Others are
connected with religious ceremonies, or are attached to the name of
some Saint whose day in the calendar coincides with their time of
flowering. A few may be said to have a poetical or romantic idea
underlying them, but they are certainly very few. Lastly, there
are a few names which have been popularized by the great poets,
who took them directly from classical sources without any definite
idea what flower they represented or whether they were really the
names of existing flowers at all.

Those which are seemingly poetic, are but matter of fact
corruptions. The Artemisia abrotanum was called ‘“ Lad’s love”
because its ashes were used in an ointment to promote the
growth of the beard. All plants called ‘sweet’ have an aromatic
odour; ‘‘ Sweet Alison”? is merely a corruption of Alyssum;
“Sweet Cicely’ refers to no village maiden, but to a Greek word
which was applied to some umbelliferous plant. ‘‘ Sweet
William” is Sweet Willie, coming no doubt from the French
eillet, diminutive of wil, ‘an eye,’ and being a mere descriptive
epithet of Dianthus barbatus. Herb True-love is from Danish
‘“‘trolovet,” betrothed, the arrangement of the leaves being like
the quartering of awife’s armorial bearings on her husband’s
shield. If there is any poetry in Daisy (Day’s eye) it is probably
due to Chaucer. ‘‘ Eyebright”’ is due to the legend that the linnet
uses it to clear its sight. ‘‘ Heart’s ease” is only a “cordial” for
the stomach, and heals no broken heart. It was anciently applied
to the wall-flower. Amaranthus caudatus got its name of “‘ Love
hes bleeding” from the similarity of its two first syllables to the
Latin Amor, and to the crimson stream of its spike of flowers.
** Forget-me-not’’ has been the name (in many languages) of many
other plants besides Myosotis palustris. When the name became
attached to the Water Scorpion-grass, the legend of the drowned
lover was probably connected with the name.

Many plant names indicate the use to which they are put—
Gout weed, Dyer’s rocket, Pestilence weed, Fuller’s teasel, Mat
weed, Pile wort, &c. Lavender, used to scent newly washed linen,
gets it name from Javare, to wash.

The doctrine of signatures, one of the most curious supersti-
tions that hang around the healing art, is responsible for many
names. It was imagined that the Creator had impressed upon the
plant some outward sign or mark of its use in curing disease. The
spotted leaves of Lung wort showed it to be a specific for tubercu-
losis; the scaly pappus of Scabious pointed to its use for leprous
disease; the knotty tubers of Fig wort were useful in scrofulous
complaints such as that known as ‘ficus’ or the fig disease. Ceterach
officinarum was first called Spleen wort from the shape of the lobes
of the froud. So Water Wound-wort had sword shaped leaves to

21

show its power to heal sword cuts, and the Liver worts showed their
liver-like thalluses for a similar beneficent purpose.

. The descriptive names explain themselves, such as—Arrow

head, Adder’s tongue, Mouse tail, Bird’s foot, Goose foot, &c. So

Snake weed from its twisted roots; Bugloss, 7.¢. Ox-tongue, from

its rough leaves; Milfoil, thousand leaved, Foxglove, not glove of a

fox, but fox glew, ¢.e. fox music, akin to Norwegian Fox bell.

Of names having an ecclesiastical origin, the ‘‘ Star of Bethle-
hem ’’ has white stellate flowers, Christ’s thorn, St. John’s wort,
St. Peter’s wort, &c., are named from the date of their flowering,
Samphire (St. Pierre) from its connection with sea cliffs, and hence
with fishermen.

As illustrations of names originating in the legendary lore of
ancient Greece and Rome, we have the Anemone which sprang from
the tears of Venus, evanescent as the wind; the Asphodel which
clothed the meadows of Hades; the Narcissus, which from its
heavy drowsy scent was deemed the flower of the Infernal god-
desses.

Vi
THE MARINE AQUARIUM,

BY
MR. SIBERT SAUNDERS.

Read FEBRUARY 6, 1884,

The primary conditions of success are a large area of water-
surface in proportion to its depth; the regulation of light and
temperature ; a due proportion of animal to vegetable life; anda
eareful regard to the amount of life which a given quantity of
water will sustain.

The first of the before-mentioned conditions would be met by
having a tank constructed, the depth of which should be one-fourth
of its length, with a surface breadth of rather more than half its
length (outside measurement); for example :—length 28 inches;
breadth 16 inches; depth 7 inches. A tank of these proportions
would accommodate a greater number of sedentary animals than a
larger and heavier (and therefore more expensive) one having a
greater depth of water without a proportionate surface area. The
only drawback is its extreme shallowness, which makes it desirable
to view the contents only from the top, but, as the view from above
gives the aspect under which the contents of the aquarium would
be seen if they were in a rock pool, the naturalness of this arrange-
ment may be preferred by many. The form of tank which I

22

strongly recommend is one constructed on equally scientific princi-
ples, and equally capable of natural arrangement as a shelving
rocky pool, with the advantage of a picture-like effect when viewed
from the front. The proportions of this tank may be as follows:—
breadth two-thirds of the length ; depth two-thirds of the breadth ;
for example : length 36 inches; breadth 24 inches; depth (outside
measurement) 16 inches.

This tank should be fitted with a false bottom, sloping from
the front to the back, where it should terminate at about four
inches from the top. ‘The sloping platform should have irregular
lines of pieces of stone or slate cemented to it, forming ledges on
which rock-work may be arranged. Viewed from the front the
effect is extremely beautiful when the aquarium is well-stocked
with sea-anemones of various forms and colours, and the rock-
work has assumed the rich appearance imparted to it by the delicate
growths of spontaneous vegetation which soon tint every stone and
shell.

The sloping platform in this tank not only provides a graduated
depth of water, and enables the interior to be seen with good
effect, but a very important udvantage is gained by the formation
of a triangular space beneath the false bottom, which is perfectly
dark, and contains nearly the same quantity of water as the upper
portion of the tank. Through crevices at the sides—not large
enough for any of the animals (except the minutest) to pass
through—the water in the two chambers is in communication, and
a slow, but constant, circulation is set up by the difference in the
temperature of the two compartments. The darkness of the lower
chamber tends to keep the water clear by checking the development
of the spores which always abound in the water, only awaiting
the influence of a certain amount of light to germinate and render
the aquarium thick with vegetation. This valuable improvement
in the construction of Aquaria was the invention of Mr. E.
Edwards, of Chester. It was adopted and strongly recommended
by the late Mr. Lloyd, and has, I believe, been patented.

* * * * The best materials for the tank are slate and
glass, the bottom, back and ends being formed of slate, and the
front consisting of a sheet of good plate glass. Two sheets of
plate glass should be provided as moveable coyers for the aquarium,
the smallest opening between the two being sufficient to admit air
for surface oxygenation. The object of the covers is to prevent
loss by evaporation as well as to protect the water from dust.

* * % * The most suitable position fora marine aquarium
is in front of a window facing the north, north-east, or east. The
order of suitability of other aspects is north-west, west, south-east,
south-west, south. The last two are very objectionable because of
the difficulty of keeping down the excessiye light and heat in
summer. In any aspect the light will require to be carefully

23

regulated according to the season and the hour of the day. Direct
sunshine should never fall on the aquarium, but there must be
daily a sufficient amount of bright light upon it to stimulate the
vegetation, and to cause the evolution of oxygen, which will be
seen as bubbles of silver rising to the surface. In excessively hot
weather the amount of light must be lessened, and the temperature
of the tank kept down by covering it with wet cloths, and counter-
acted by frequent aeration with the syringe ; and, if necessary, by
drawing off a quantity of water at night and returning it in the
morning. This last remedy lowers the depth of water for some
hours—thus imitating the fall of the tide, and thereby assisting
the oxygenation of the water left in the aquarium—while addi-
tional coolness and freshness are imparted by the restoration of the
remainder on the following morning. On the other hand, in very
cold weather, it may be necessary to cover the tank. with thick
carpet, the better to preserve an equable temperature.

The importance of thus regulating the temperature, and pre-
venting, if possible, any wide fluctuations, will be evident when it
is considered that, while the atmospheric temperature of England
is said to vary from about 20° to 90°, that of the sea ranges only
from about 40° to 65°, and it is within these limits that the
temperature of the aquarium should, theoretically, be kept.
Practically, this is impossible with private aquaria, but every effort
must be made to counteract the effects of excessive light and heat.

* * * The best way of introducing vegetation into a new
aquarium, is to procure from a shore-pool some stones covered
with young plants of Ulva or Enteromorpha. A few older plants
of the same species may also be introduced. These will flourish
without difficulty, and give off spores which will, in their turn,
grow up into healthy plants. There will, in due time, appear
upon the stones and sides of the tank a confervoid growth, varying
in colour with the season of the year, which may be encouraged
within proper limits. The ulva, enteromorpha, and confervoid
alge are the best producers of oxygen, and the most easily
cultivated. Some other more ornamental plants may be introduced
for effect if they can be obtained young and healthy, and well-
rooted. Of red sea-weeds, the bestare G'riffithsia setacea, Corallina
officinalis ; Callithamnion, and Chondrus crispus. Of green sea-
weeds, the most suitable, in addition to Ulva and Enteromorpha,
are Cladophora rupestris and Bryopsis plumosa. But all these orna-
mental alge must be watched, and on showing symptoms of decay
should be at once removed. The bottom of the tank (between the
glass and the lower portion of the sloping platform) should have a
depth of about an inch and a half of fine shingle. When the
rockwork is arranged, some hollows should be left, which may be
filled up, in some cases with shingle, and in others with sea-sand.
These will be useful if Sabelle, Terebelle, and other annelids are

24

kept. The spots where the sand is placed must be noted and
remembered, in order to avoid disturbing it inadvertently. It will
also be well to lay a few shells or stones upon the sand with the
same object. In forming the rock-work, a few pieces of rough
pumice-stone may be cemented to the sloping bottom (in addition
to the ledges already suggested), and loose pieces of stone of a
silicious or schistose character may be piled up in picturesque
fashion over the whole surface. Care must be taken, while pro-
viding shady corners for such animals as love retirement, not to
leave holes into which anemones or other creatures might crawl,
and there die unobserved, as serious trouble would result from such
amischance. Many stones and shells found upon the beach are
suitable for rock-work, arranged as here suggested, and their
various tints add to the beauty of the aquarium.

A scrupulous regard to cleanliness in all that relates to the
aquarium is most essential, and this applies equally to everything
introduced into the tank and to the vessels used for water in con-
nection with it. Glass, slate, or earthenware are the only suitable
materials for such vessels. Earthenware should be avoided for
store vessels in which water is to remain long, as the salt acts on
the glaze, and in time renders it porous. Zinc pails may be used
to carry sea-water from place to place, but the water must not be
left in them.

* “* * * The water should be carefully run into the tank,
either by means of a syphon, or a jug may be used, from which
the water should be gently poured into a basin, held so as to break
the force of the stream, and prevent the disturbance to the shingle,
sand and stones. A piece of India rubber tubing serves for a
syphon, but I prefer gutta percha. A length of at least five feet
is required, with a bore of not more than 2 inch diameter. The
growing plants should now be dropped into the aquarium (some
regard being had to effect), and the whole left fora few days,
exposed to a good light, but not hot sunshine. When the water
has become bright and sparkling, the animals may be introduced.

At this point, the aquariist will probably feel some disappoint-
ment on learning the limitations which prudence imposes upon him.
Success may almost be said to depend now upon his self-restraint ;
certainly, without it, success will be impossible.

The temptation to appropriate anything ‘“ small and pretty”
from the sea is so great that most beginners fall into the snare, and
their experience is often only a series of failures. The pretty, but
unsuitable things, whether fish, crustacea, annelids or zoophytes
die off rapidly. But the mischief does not end with the dis-
appointment of having daily to remove the remains of some
admired tenant of the aquarium. Occasionally one will be lost
sight of behind or beneath a stone, and its death is not suspected
until decomposition begins to poison the wholecollection. * * *

25

Let the aquariist be content at first with only a few healthy and
hardy sea-anemones. None can be better than Actinia mesembry-
anthemum, which may be found adhering to the blocks of chalk
exposed at low water in the neighbourhood of Margate, Ramsgate,
Broadstairs, Dover, and other parts of the coast of Kent. If
these succeed, more of the same species may be added. They are
of various colours ; crimson, olive-green, and brown, of many
shades. Sometimes the ‘‘ strawberry ” variety may be found, of a
dark red colour, studded with spots of green and yellow, and
having, when closed, quite the appearance of the fruit whose name
it bears. From the same localities may be obtained (but with
greater difficulty) the ‘‘ cave-dwelling anemone,” Sagartia Troglo-
dytes. This, too, is a hardy species, and, like A. mesembryanthe-
mum comprises a number of distinct varieties, characterized by the
colour of the disk, and the markings of the tentacles, which are
mottled with a delicate pattern. From this peculiarity the species
has a second familiar name, ‘‘ The snipe’s-feather anemone.” The
habit of this species is to take up its quarters in the crevices of
rocks, or in holes bored by pholas, or else to bury itself in sand,
mud, or fine shingle, above which its tentacles are occasionally
protruded. In collecting Troglodytes care must be taken not to
injure the base, as, if that is done, the zoophyte will surely become
diseased, and die, after being some time in the aquarium, although
at first: it may show no sign of injury. If the coveted specimen is
ensconced in rock or chalk, it is safer to chip off a solid piece con-
taining the zoophyte and transfer the whole tothe tank. If buried
in sand or mud it should be dug up with a garden trowel. When
the tentacles are touched the dnimal retreats out of sight in a
moment, and will have to be looked for in the soil brought up by
the trowel. It will be found contracted to a small size, and
attached to a stone or piece of shell. I should have mentioned
that A. mesembryanthemum may be detached from chalk by passing
a bone paper-knife underneath the base, removing with it, if
possible, a thin layer of the chalk so as not to disturb the anemone.
Sometimes specimens may be detached without injury by gently
forcing them off with the thumb-nail.

The only other sea-anemone suitable for the aquarium
occurring with any frequency on our Kentish Coast is the princely
“« Actinoloba dianthus,” the plumose (or ‘‘ Carnation”’’) anemone.
This must be dredged for in deep water, and may be sought on the
shelly ground between Margate and Whitstable. It is found
attached to loose stones or shells which are often covered with
animal growths that are apt to die off, and decompose in the aqua-
rium. They must therefore be carefully scrutinized before being
placed in the tank, and watched afterwards. Some varieties of
S. Troglodytes, may be obtained at Whitstable in addition to the
places already mentioned, but 4. mesembryanthemum is never found

26

here. We have plenty of the large TZealia crassicornis, ‘‘ The
Dahlia Wartlett,”” which is so common everywhere. It is very
handsome when fully expanded, and exhibits a variety of showy
colours, but it is not a desirable tenant of the aquarium, and the
temptation to appropriate it had better be resisted. It isa gross
feeder, and will never live long in confinement, requiring, appa-
rently, the perpetual wash of the waves to keep it in health,
Sagartia viduata, S. bellis and S. Miniata have been found on the
Coast of Kent, but they are rare with us. These are ail desirable
additions to the collection, and being more or less abundant on
those parts of the British shores that are prolific in zoophytes
(notably Devon, Dorset, and South Wales), they may easily be
procured through one of the aquarium naturalists who collect from
those favoured localities. ‘‘The Daisy,” S. bellis, is a hardy
species of similar habits to troglodytes, and, like that anemone
exhibits great variety of colour and markings. S. widuata, ‘‘The
snake-locked anemone,” is furnished with long, slender flexuous
tentacles of translucent bluish white or grey. It loves a shady
corner of the tank, in which its crown of delicate tentacles is
displayed with beautiful effect. S. miniata; S. rosea; S. venusta ;
S. nivea; and S. sphyrodeta are all beautiful forms, and of small
size. The last named species is the smallest, and perhaps the most
striking in its simple garb of white and gold. Bunodes gemmacea,
“‘The Gem,” is an aristocratic relation of the somewhat vulgar
crassicornis. It bears confinement well, but is chary of exhibiting
its beautiful disk. B. Clavata, ‘‘ The clubbed (or Weymouth) sea-
anemone,” and B. Thallia, ‘‘ The glaucous sea-anemone,”’ are less
beautiful allies of gemmacea, and are fairly hardy.

Anthea cerens, Sagartia parasitica, and Adamsia palliata are not
to be trusted. The first is a beautiful but restless creature, who
wanders ultimately into an obscure corner where she is difficult to
get at, and there she dies. The two latter species are only ‘at
home”’ ou a shell inhabited by one of the Hermit crabs. These
crustacea will not live long in an aquarium, and the anemones are
not happy without their companionship. Palliata is especially
difficult to keep, and I do not recommend beginners to introduce
either species into their aquarium. The rare and lovely Corynactis
viridis, found only in deep water on our south-western coasts, is a
treasure to be prized in any well-established aquarium. Minute in
size, and of exquisite colour,—either emerald-green, scarlet, or
pure white, with tiny tentacles furnished with a globular head of
rich rose-pink,—the varieties of this species appear like precious
gems on the rock on which they are clustered. The British Corals
are also interesting, but, like Corynactis, they are difficult to
procure.

There are a few other British Sea-Anemones which I have not

27

mentioned on account of their rarity, but representatives of the
species I have indicated would form a splendid collection.

* * * * Having given so much attention to the Actinia,
it is time to specify some other objects which may give additional
interest to the aquarium.

Some of the smaller zoophytes and polyzoa ( ‘especially Sertu-
laria, Plumularia and Flustra) may be added for the beauty of
their polypary or zoarium,

A common starfish or two (of small size) may be introduced,
but they will require to be watched. The most hardy of the
Asteriade is ‘‘ The gibbons Starlet” (Asterina gibbosa). I do not
recommend any of the ‘“‘ Brittle stars,” ‘‘ Egg-urchins,” or ‘‘ Sea-
cucumbers.”’ :

Of annelids, Serpula triquetra (hardy) S. contortuplicata
(more showy but less hardy) Sabella tubularia and Terebella conchi-
lega are worth trying. The Serpule have calcareous tubes;
Sabelle construct their tubes of grains of mud and sand; Tere-
belle, of small stones and broken shells.

A small oyster is useful in assisting to preserve the clearness
of the water, but the shell must be hard and clean, quite free
from worm holes and the burrowing sponges.

Cockles are unsafe. A mussel if very young when put into
the tank, may live some time. A few periwinkles are useful,
natural and safe additions, but other molluses, including the lovely
sea-slugs Doris Folis, &c., had better be eschewed.

Crustacea should not be admitted into an aquarium devoted
principally to zoophytes. Crabs, if large, disturb the anemones,
and eat up the larval forms of life which should be allowed to
mature ; while, if small, they are in danger of being eaten, but
only partially digested, by the actine. The latter objections apply
equally to shrimps and prawns, which are pretty objects while
swimming clear of the tentacles of their natural enemies. The
same remark is applicable to small fishes, while large ones cannot
be kept alive unless in a tank devoted principally to them. For
such an aquarium the Gobies, the Blennies and small Grey Mullet
are the most suitable. Although the tank may (as it should
always) be kept covered, there will still be some loss by evapora-
tion which in time will sensibly increase the density of the water.
This may be ascertained by density-balls indicating a specific
gravity of 1.026”, or, better still, by the hydrometer. “Any serious
variation from the standard must be rectified by the gradual addition
of water, either distilled, or pure common water that has been
boiled,

28

Feeding the anemones is a delicate operation requiring
judgment, care and patience. When they are fresh from the sea
they must be fed with regularity, but after they have been in
confinement some time they will not suffer if left unfed for a
considerable period. ‘hey will, in fact, exist without solid food—
but they cease to grow, and ultimately dwindle in size and vigour.
It is better therefore to feed them, say, once a week. Oyster and
mussel afford the best food for them as well as for other inhabitants
of the aquarium. The soft parts of these molluscs should be cut
up into very small pieces and the whole well washed to get rid of
the liquid animal matter which would taint the aquarium. A
piece must be placed upon the tentacles of each anemone, and, if
the animal be hungry, the morsel will be speedily conveyed to the
mouth and will disappear. If it remains long on the disk, or is
allowed to roll off, it should be removed. Long wooden forceps
made of box or lance-wood are used for feeding anemones and
corals. A glass tube of about half-inch diameter is a convenient
appliance for removing morsels of uneaten or undigested food,
which should be carefully looked for while feeding, and also on the
following day or two. After feeding, an increased quantity of
oxygen is demanded, to counteract the excess of carbonic acid given
off by the animals. This should be supplied by the syringe (which
must be made of glass or vulcanite), and some extra light may be
admitted to stimulate the vegetation in its corrective work. In
hot weather still greater caution is required in feeding.

When there has been no disturbance of the water for a few
days, a film will be found on the surface which should be skimmed
off with a strip of paper, and the surface agitated. The film pre-
vents the proper ulsorption by the water of the oxygen in the
atmosphere. A mucous substance which is given off by the ane-
mones, and sometimes remains attached to the integument should
be brushed off with a camel-hair brush, and taken from the water.
Any green growth which appears on the glass front of the aquarium
may be removed by means of a small sponge-mop, but such
growths should be encouraged on the opaque sides of the tank.

I have said nothing of the minuter forms of animal life that
will be developed as time goes on. Hydroid zoophytes, in their
different stages ; polyzoa; ascidians; anelids, &c, may make their
appearance from germs introduced with specimens fresh from the
sea, or when additions are made to the water, and should always
be welcomed when thus developed naturally. Many of these
organisms will afford employment for the microscope. These and
other matters cognate to the subject might be treated of, but they
lie outside the scope of this paper.

I believe I have set down all the points essential to the
successful management of a small marine aquarium, and if they
are borne in mind, and the aquariist will devote a few minutes

29

daily to the examination of his aquarium, giving promptly any
attention it may require, his collection will never get into that
hopeless condition of disorder and decay, which has disheartened so
many. On the contrary, he will have increasing satisfaction in the
continual improvement of the aquarium, and the lessening demands
on his time and attention as it becomes more and more self-
supporting. Then it will be a source of pride as well as pleasure,
and the interest it excites will not be confined within the walls of
the tank, but will stimulate enquiry into other departments of
marine zoology. It will give additional zest to every visit to the
seaside, and the humblest animals and plants inhabiting the shore
pools will become objects of greater interest and closer study.

VII.
A SNOW FLAKE,

BY
MR. A. S. REID, M.A., F.G.S.
Read APRIL 2, 1884.

Snow is probably most generally formed by a process akin to
‘“‘ Sublimation” that is by the direct passage of the water-vapour
to its solid form without passing through the intervening liquid
stage. Many of the delicate white cloudlets which sail far above
our heads in summer time are such aggregations of minute ice-
erystals, and phenomena of certain halos and parhelia are to be
explained by the refraction of such ice-crystals present in the air.
When snow falls, if there is much wind it falls in shapeless masses,
or if the flakes have passed through a warmer layer of air during
their descent they are partially melted and fall as sleet ; or if rain-
drops pass from a warm stratum through a colder stratum they are
at once frozen into pellets of ice, and fall as hail, which form of
frozen rain would seem to be connected with electrical changes in
the air, for hailstorms are a frequent accompaniment of thunder-
storms. But the snowflakes that fall on a calm cold winter’s day
have a beautifully symmetrical structure. They are built up of
minute ice crystals, grouped for the most part into six-rayed stars,
each ray feathered with tinier crystals still. All the six rays are
set at an angle of 60° to one another. Whatever may be the form
of the rain-drop, it must in becoming solid obey the laws which
bid its molecules group themselves in hexagonal symmetry.
A transparent. block of ice does not appear to be made up of these
same feathered stars, but it is so. If a sunbeam be passed through
it and the image be received on a screen the heat of the. beam

30

decrystallizes the ice, breaks down and dissects its structure, and
there appear on the screen the same six-petalled flower-forms, but
in this case they are water-filled cavities left by the melting of the
crystals, showing that the block of ice is built up of regular ice-
crystals precisely similar to the snow-flakes. How is it that ice is
so transparent when snow is so white? It is for the same reason
that white foam forms on transparent water. Each snow crystal
is made up of little needles of transparent ice, but with them air is
entangled, and the light instead of penetrating the snow is reflected
from the ice walls of each little cavity and from the faces of each
crystal. Then the snow loses its transparency and becomes white
to our eyes like the foam of the sea. The cold snow-mantle keeps
the earth warm and protects it from frost, for the snowflakes with
the air entangled form a very bad conductor of heat. In melting
ice, which used commonly to be spoken of as a rendering of heat
latent, the heat applied is converted into a new kind of energy
and employed in tearing asunder the molecules of the ice. Thus
snow, when the thawing warmth comes to it, is not suddenly con-
verted into disastrous floods of water; but the heat has slowly and
gradually to do its work in opposition to a molecular force. The
snowflake comes on a mission of beneficence to the tender herbage,
and when its fairy forms fade before the warm breath that bids its
beauty go, it is seen that they did but hide the raindrop, ready to
fulfil its mission of destruction to inorganic nature, undermining
the foundations of the round world, wearing down the “‘ everlasting
hills.” Above the snow line upon mountains and high table lands,
the snow does not melt, and would accumulate in vast quantities
were it not for various processes that reduce the mass constantly.
Slow evaporation goes on, and the mighty avalanche sometimes
relieves the accumulating mass; but the most adequate relieving
process is brought about by the very weight of the snow itself,
gently squeezing its surplus into the valleys below, where it creeps
down to warmer regions, the pressure having moulded the snow
erystals into compact ice. Thus the immense snow-fields of the
mountain districts are drained by the glaciers, or rivers: of ice.
The denuding action of glaciers is of two kinds, the carrying of
mountain debris to lower levels, and the erosion of the valley bed
itself. The glacier in descending the valley bears with it vast
quantities of earth, sand, stones, and blocks of rock, which collect
to form moraines. The erosive action of the glacier is facilitated
by means of the fine sand and stones which fall between the ice
and the valley side. The glacier acts like a gigantic piece of very
coarse emery paper, grinding down, smoothing, polishing and
striating the most compact and sturdy rocks. The story of our
snowflake’s past work upon the earth, even in our little isle would
take many a long evening to tell. We have seen him, born of
invisible vapour, float daintily through the air in all the exquisite
beauty of pure symmetry, to wrap with warm shroud the tender

él

herbs of the field ‘‘ in winter’s bleak uncomfortable reign”; we
have watched him upon the mountain top in seeming innocence,
band himself with his fellows and plan his destructive raid upon
earth; we have seen him arm himself with rock and stone and
begin the attack with resistless force, yet so silently, so stealthily,
so gently, so secretly, and with so faira face withal that we rejoice
in his beauty and know not what evil he has worked till he is gone ;
then do we learn what destruction was being wrought beneath that
fair outward semblance of purity and grace * * * But the
sway of the snowflake, as a snowflake, is more restricted than that
of the rain-drop; he may creep down into the green valleys of
Switzerland, he may send out his voyaging ice-bergs in northern
and southern Polar seas, but sooner or later a magician’s wand is
waved over him, and his beauty is past; he must fling aside his
fair-seeming disguise, cease his masquerading, and ‘‘ stand confest ”
as only a raindrop after all. The sun smiles upon him and he is
gone; the zephyr breathes on him and he fades away, vanishing
like a fair bright hope that, be it never so fair and bright, melts
away at last before the breath of Disappointment, and leaves us
face to face with Truth.

NEL
FACTS AND FANCIES IN THE HISTORY OF BOTANY,

BY
MR. G. H. NELSON, M.A., F.G.S.

Read May 7, 1884.

Botany isso old a science that there must be much that is
curious in the theories and ‘‘ working hypotheses” by which it has
advanced to its present state. The scientific botanist of to-day is
armed with a complete classification founded on research into the
phenomena of the Vegetable Kingdom, so that on inspection every
plant can be named and classified with the strictest accuracy. But
this perfection has not been reached suddenly or soon; it has
occupied the energies of many generations of nature-lovers. _Theo-
phrastus, a pupil of Aristotle, in the 4th century, wrote a History
of Plants, but it is to Dioscorides, of Cilicia, who had studied at
Alexandria, and as a military physician had botanized in many
countries, that the title of ‘‘ Father of Botany” belongs. His one
aim was to compose a treatise which should contain the names in
every known language of plants serviceable for human ailments,
their characteristics and localities. Out of his mine all subsequent
medical botanists dug their art of simpling. He lived about the

32

time of Nero and of Pliny. In the revival of learning during the
15th century, his treatise on Materia Medica was the one source of
botanical knowledge. In the latter half of the 16th century,
Botany began to be studied apart from Medicine, when Leonard
Fuchs, Lonicer, Lobel, (whose names are perpetuated im the
Fuchsia, the Lonicera and the Lobelia), Turner, Gesner and others -
began to investigate plants for themselves. These men were the
fathers of modern Botany. In this science two things are of
primary moment—method and system; by the first is secured
the identification of each particular plant, by the second the
arrangement of the knowledge acquired. Before Linnzus
there was method only, but Modern Botany has blended
method and system completely. Botanical Description has a
precise language of its own which every botanist knows, and
which, being Latin, is available to all educated men of science.
The importance of this is shown by the fact that no solid scientific
knowledge can be acquired except by the use of words which are
fixed in their meaning. Medieval description was quite a hazy
affair. Some well known plant was taken as a kind of pattern
and the various characteristics of the plant to be described were
compared with the like portions of the model. This was illustrated
by Virgil’s description of the lemon by comparing it with the
laurel which was known to the Romans. Dioscorides was the
author of the other instrument of method—Synonomy, as in his
journeys with the Roman armies he gathered his plants and
collected a host of names for one of the same plant.

When Europe had lost the light of Greek and Roman civiliza-
tion, the Arabs, who were great scholars, bore the torch of learning
eastwards and westwards along the African shore, and it was in the
Arabic translations of ancient masters that Europe recovered the
light she had lost; but the Arabs had learned no system and
adopted simply an alphabetical arrangement. With the separation
of Botany from Medicine in the 16th century two distinct lines of
research began to be followed. Starting from the same point on _
the great highway of knowledge the two classes constantly
diverged, one of them, sinking lower and lower, first were
honest herbalists and then unequivocal quacks. The other class
slowly developed modern Systematic Botany. Caesalpin of Florence,
in 1583, was the first to attempt a Natural classification. As years
rolled by Morrison, John Ray and Tournefort each added to the
little pile of knowledge; at last Linnzeus arrived on the scene, and
every plant fell into its own place in his system. He discerned the
real importance of the sexuality of plants and on that founded an
organised system and nomenclature. The passage from his system
te the Natural Orders was an easy and inevitable step.

As illustrating the way in which certain very old generic
names of plants had become specific terms, it may be mentioned

33

that the yarrow, the ‘‘healer of wounds” in the armies of
Rome, carries its patent of old nobility by having attached to its
generic name, ‘‘ Achillea”’ one of its old synonyms ‘ Millefolium.”
It is a puzzle to some why-so many plants have for specific name
“vulgaris,” though not always common or general—some indeed
being very rare in this country. In such cases it would seem that
the name to which “‘ vulgaris”’ is attached as a descriptive, was the
true and only name of the typical plant of the genus. So again
the ancient renown is marked when a plant bears the name
*¢ officinalis’ —‘‘ belonging to the workshop.”

There is a host of plants, whose names are contained, not only
in the Latin and Greek lists, but also in the Anglo-Saxon lists,
which cannot be identified in the literary way. We use the same
names now, it may be, but we cannot tell whether the plant is the
same; indeed in hosts of instances we know quite well that the
plants are not the same. Spring time draws to a close: the
anemone of the woods is rapidly fading away and giving place to
the hyacinth; Lent is gone and the Lenten lily or daffodil will soon
be over. These names belong to the poetry of the Golden Age of
Greece, and are still names of Shakespeare and Spenser and of
Tennyson to-day. But the plants seemed to have changed, the
names remain, empty names it may be in some cases, in others,
names of far different plants. It is useless to enquire what plant
it was that the classical poets and naturalists called anemone, the
wind flower, or the pasque flower, for its quite clear that it was
not always the same plant.

Bion’s anemone sprang from the tears of Paphian Venus, as
she wept over the slain Adonis :—
Tears plenteous as his blood she pours amain,
But gentle flowers are born and bloom around,
From every drop that falls upon the ground ;
Where streams his blood, there blushing springs the rose,
And where a tear has dropped a wind flower blows.
(Bion. Idyl. i. 62.)

Pliny’s anemone never opens its flowers except when the wind
blows—a statement evidently intended to explain the name. Ovid
(Met. x. 737.) declares: “So lightly cling the petals, and so
lightly fall they, when the breezes blow, that the same blast names
the flower and the same destroys.” It has been suggested that
some kind of cistus or rock rose may have been Pliny’s plant; but
we cannot even guess at the others.

All readers of Homer are familiar with the meadows decked
with asphodel, where dwell the souls of departed heroes; and the
Scholiast declares the plant intended to be ‘‘like a squill,’”’ doubtless
some kind of lily was called ‘‘ asphodel”’ by the Greeks. Lucian in
one of his dialogues makes Charon complain at being kept waiting

34

down there on the banks of the Styx so long, where there is nothing
to be had, but asphodel (the roots were laid in the tombs as food
for the dead) and libations and oblations, and a plant of the same
name was in later times highly esteemed as an article of food
especially the, no doubt bulbous, root. It seems probable that
Narcissus poeticus or Narcissus pseudonarcissus (daffodil) was the
asphodel of poetry. But when we come to our own nomenclature
we find that this word asphodel has passed into common use under
a much altered form. ‘‘Daffodil” is a corruption of ‘fleur
d’affrodile,”’ the d@’ of the preposition having become attached to
the word ‘‘ affrodile” or “‘affrodily,” as ‘‘an eft” has become
‘“a newt.”

““Strewe me the ground with daffadowndillies,” sings Spenser
in his ‘‘Shepheard’s Calendar”; but where did he get the extra
syllable ‘‘down”? There was another plant called Sapharoun
lily: or saffron, Crocus sativa; which is of Arabic origin
(zahafaran), and it is probable that the alliterative ring of the
latter name rhyming with affodily led to the insertion of the extra
syllable “‘ down ’’—sapharoun lily and daffadowndilly.

The beautiful chorus in ‘‘ Aedipus at Colonus,’’ that chorus,
which, as the story goes, Sophocles recited to his judges when
required to prove that he had not yet sunk into dotage, contains
the following allusion to the Narcissus: ‘‘ There bloom beneath
the dews of heaven the beauteous clusters of the narcissus, time
honoured chaplet of the mighty goddess, &c.’’ The goddesses were
Ceres and Proserpina, queens of the world below, and the
dark-blue clustering flowers and heavy narcotic odour of our
Hyacinthus, make it the most probable plant for the ancient
name, Narcissus, and not the white or yellow lilies, that now go
by that name. The etymology of the word is “torpor” or
‘‘numbness,”’ and Plutarch explains the name in the same way,
adding ‘‘ those who are numbed with death should very fittingly
be crowned with a benumbing flower.”

But now see whither this literary identification leads us. If
the asphodel of olden days be the narcissus of to-day, that is the
daffodil, and the narcissus of old be the hyacinthus of to-day, that
is the blue bell, what becomes of the hyacinthus of ancient days.
Some suggest the iris of to-day is the hyacinthus of Greek poetry ;
some the larkspur according to Dioscorides, some the martagon
lily: for us it is the blue bell, but yet not the ‘blue bells of
Scotland ’’—they are the hair bell—so difficult is it to fix the right
names to the right plants. Theocritus (Jdyl. x. 28.) again, knew
a plant called hyacinthus, and he styles it ‘‘inscribed’’; and
Ovid (Met. x. 215.) narrating the legendary birth of his hyacinth
from the blood of the slain Ajax, son of Telamon, at the bidding
of Appollo, declares that its petals are inscribed with the first two

35

letters of his name Ai, Ai, the ery of sorrow and anguish, alas!
alas! It may have been in the markings on the petals of the
martagon that ancient fancy traced the “ funesta litera ” and read
the mournful story ; it cannot have been in the blue corolla of the
hyacinth now bursting into bloom in our woods.

Once more, Homer describes Ulysses as having hyacinthine
hair :—
‘* Back from his brow a length of hair unfurls
His hyacinthine locks descend in wavy curls,”
(Odyssey vi. 231.)

so also Milton, using the epithet, doubtless because it was Homeric,
and not heeding the meaning of the word, gives Adam’s hair the
same hue.

His fair large front and eye sublime declared

Absolute rule ; and hyacinthine locks

Round from his parted forelock manly hung clust’ring—
Some say Homer means “ black” hair; but elsewhere he much
more naturally gives his hero yellow or golden hair. In ancient
poetry, however, the use of colours is so vague, that the epithet
in any particular passage has to be translated rather according to
the context than the actual meaning of the word. Where colour
is concerned therefore the literary method is nearly useless. The
same difficulty of literary identification, however, appears again in
later times. We may grant that the names have been clearly
attached to some one and the same plant for many generations,
until learning and civilization began to conquer barbarism in
northern Europe and to introduce its medicines and its drugs, that
is, its dried plants, into Germany and England. But it could not
introduce the actual denizens of southern Europe in a living con-
dition, or at least only a few of them. But there exist ancient
Saxon lists of plants, made up out of Dioscorides and Apuleius
and the ancient authorities, and giving often the Greek and Latin
and the English name for a plant, which it is physically impossible
can be the same plant. To give two instances; Pliny has an
asparagus which is probably the same plant as our original plant,
in the Saxon lists this is translated “ wudu cerfille’’ wood chervil.
Caltha (palustris, the marsh marigold), means in Columella,
calendula officinalis, is a purely southern European plant, but in
the Saxon list itis red clover. Such are the difficulties which
beset us in trying to trace the plant by its name backwards to
olden days, or forwards to our own.

WO Ta:

I.—Mild Weather—Miss Kinesrorp.
APRIL 5, 1882,

The following valuable memorandum of the wild flowers»
birds, and insects, which have made their appearance during the
late mild winter was contributed by Miss Clara Kingsford :—

The effects of mild weather upon vegetable and animal life.
In one garden the following flowers have been in bloom :—Till
January 14, 1882, the China rose and pansy, the latter 934 inches
in circumference ; from January 14, and still out March 1, the
anemone, crocus, polyanthus, snowdrop, primrose, hepaticae, wall-
flower; January 1, magnolia in bud; January 9, pyrus japonica,
standing in the middle of the garden, not along a sheltering wall ;
January 12, red rose; February 7, violets; February 14, broccoli
fit to be cut, quite two months before time.

February 24, quite a swarm of small flies and gnats on the
windows of my room.

Spiders (different kinds), the common house-fly, bluebottle-fly
(musca vomitaria), lady-bird (coccinella) have frequented my rooms
during the winter.

Two living specimens of the tortoise-shell butter-fly (vanessa
urticae) were brought me. I have seen in magazines, newspapers,
&c., several] notices of butterflies having been seen flying about
during this winter; the general belief was that they had just
emerged from the pup, but in every instance they were one or
the other of the seven different kinds of butterflies which hyber-
nate during the winter, and had been lured from their winter’s
retreat by the genial weather. These butterflies never have the
fresh richness of colouring that the newly emerged butterfly has.

February 25, frog-spawn was procured for me, the previous
season not until March 11.

II.—Fungi—sy Mr. Rep.
OcTOBER, 1882.

Mr. J. Reid, F.R.C.S., Eng., described to the meeting various
specimens of fungi placed upon the table. Amongst these was a good
plant of ‘‘ Polyporus fumosus,”’ taken in the neighbourhood of
Canterbury ; also some fine specimens of ‘‘ Geaster fimbriatus,” the
fringed earth-star, taken at Merton. One of the latter had been
carefully removed with the sod of earth, and well showed how, by
the curving back of its rays, it springs from its earthy bed to
distribute its spores, when ripe, above the surrounding mossy
foliage. A specimen of the “ Fir-cone amanita,” in an early stage,

38

demonstrated the origin of the warty growths on the cap from the
outer membrane of the volva, as well as the general relation of the
veil to the gills, stem, and pileus. Various specimens of the more
perishable fungi, which had been immersed in glycerine, were
shown, in order to exhibit that, as far as the preservation of the
structure of the plants was concerned, this liquid could be relied
on, though the density and colour of tissue were too much
influenced by it. A group of the ‘tufted yellow hypholoma,”
taken that afternoon from a rail-post on Lady Wootton’s Green,
well showing the general character of the fungus, though
somewhat starved in growth, was exhibited with the others.
A specimen of the ‘ giant puff-ball,”” measuring 12 inches in one
diameter, and 11 inches in the other, was mentioned as having been
sent for the inspection of the society, by R. E. Thompson, Esq.,
of Kenfield Hall; but unfortunately since it had been received it
had decomposed, and could not be presented. In relation to this,
and a specimen of the early stage of the ‘‘stink-horn” fungus,
taken in Bigberry Wood, Mr. Reid, by the aid of coloured
diagrams, in combination with specimens, entered into a general
description of the order ‘“‘ gastromycetes;”’ particularly pointing
out how, by various formation of the same parts, the distribution
of the spores of the plant was advantageously attained.

III.—Fungus—sy Mr. Rep.
SEPTEMBER 6, 1882.

Mr. J. Reid, F.R.C.S., exhibited a specimen of fungus taken
from the wall in the vestry of St. George’s Church. It had sprung
from the surface of a piece of wood behind the hard dense plaster
of the wall, a large circular portion of which had been pushed out,
and had fallen to the floor under the growing force of the structure.
The wall had become damp from water having passed through the
roof, and, either the fungus spores had filtrated with the water on
to the wood and then germinated in this source of its nourishment,
or the dormant spores existing in the timber at the time when it
was placed in the wall, 9 or 10 years before, were excited to action
by the presence of moisture at last reaching the wood. The
mycelium, or vegetative portion, had developed into a flat layer
between the wood and plaster; and, at length, at the edge of this
layer in one direction several conical nodules formed which were
the buds of the reproductive part of the plant, the hymenophore,
or specific fungus. Three of these had developed into elegant
campanulate forms, one to two inches wide, on slender stalks
curving upward, the under surfaces having a delicate pale buff
colour, whilst the upper depressed surface had the glossy smooth
appearance of white kid leather striated with pale buff wrinkles,
here and there spattered with pale buff scales or dust. The thin,
serrated and closely packed gills extended upwards from the stem
to the disc, when they slightly divided and turned oyer the

39

involuted margin. A peculiar aromatic odour was given off from
the growth much resembling Cinnamon or Aniseed. Sections
had been made of a nodule or reproductive bud and were placed
under the microscope. In this way the outer investing membrane
was shown, having within a lighter grey cellular structure,
representing the active germinal tissue of the fungus, arising from
a darker more striated tissue, the mycelial or matrix structure.
On another slide Mr. Waymouth Reid, who had made these
sections, had collected some of the spores. These were of an
oblong oval form and of a red colour. The fungus belonged to the
order Agaracini, but the genus and species had not been clearly
determined, though many of its characters pointed to the genus
Lentinus.

Mr. Reid also exhibited some specimens of Cyathus and
Geaster to illustrate points mentioned in a previous communication.

IV.—Salt Spray—sy Cart. McDaxin.
NOVEMBER I, 1882.

Captain McDakin drew attention to the salt spray carried
inland by the late heavy gale from the south-west. This was
determined by sweeping with cotton-wool, the rain as it fell off
the windows facing the direction of the wind. The wet wool was
then washed in distilled water, which on becoming clear gave an
abundant deposit with nitrate of silver, showing the presence in
quantity of chloride of sodium (common salt) in the rain. The
wool had been previously washed in distilled water and tested for
chlorides to guard against a chance of error. It is almost needless
to remind the members of the E. K. N. H.8., that the place of the
experiment is fifteen miles from the sea coast at Folkestone. These
experiments show that the inhabitants of Canterbury must be
frequently favoured with sea air without the inconvenience of
leaving home.

V.—Cleistogamic Flowers—Cou. Horstey.
DECEMBER 5, 1883.

Colonel Horsley exhibited some Cleistogamic flowers of the
Sweet William, Dianthus barbatus, natural order Caryophyllacez.
These flowers neither secrete nectar nor emit any odour. From
their small size, as well as from the Corolla being rudimentary,
they are singularly inconspicuous. Consequently insects do not
visit them, and if they did they could not find an entrance. Such
flowers are therefore invariably self-fertilized, yet they produce an
abundant seed.

V1.— Quartz and Flint—sy Cartain McDaxin.

JANUARY 7, 1884.

Captain McDakin exhibited by means of polarised light, the
remarkable difference between quartz and flint, with the view of

40

showing that the sands around the shores of Kent are mainly com-
posed of grains of quartz and not flint; although the flints occur
in such abundance that they form by far the greater part of the
beaches of Kent.

VIil.— Bees and Garden Crocus—ny Mr. Rei.
Read APRIL 2, 1884.

Mr. J. Reid, F.R.C.S., brought before the Society some
observations he had made in relation to the visits of certain bees
to the flowers of the garden crocus. He was led by the actions of
different bees to examine the structure of the various crocuses in
his garden, of golden, purple, striped and white colours, and found
some varied arrangements interesting in themselves, and at the
same time showing adaptations for the convenience of the flowers
and attraction to the insects. From coloured diagrams, taken from
sketches and sections, he demonstrated the anatomical details,
showing that two different species were concerned in the specimens
observed. The indications derived from examining the structure
pointed to one variation at least requiring the aid of insects to produce
fertilization, It was, however, shown that in an inquiry of this
kind it was necessary to examine each set of facts separately, and
not draw conclusions on any of them until sufficient was known to
bring them into fair relations with each other. Proceeding in this
manner, he brought the actions of the bees as they had been
observed in relation to the structure as it had been defined, and
showed that by them direct and indirect fertilization was secured
for both species, whilst in the yellow crocus there remained self-
fertilization by apposition of the stigma and anther. From the
nature of the pollen, fertilization by the atmosphere seems
precluded unless under some peculiar circumstances it might take
place with the yellow flower.

VIII.—Larthquake—sy Mr. Harvey.
Read May 7, 1884.

Mr. Sypyey Harvey stated that he had met with an authentic
proof that the earthquake of April 22nd was really felt at
Canterbury. It happened at the Waterworks. The water as it
comes from the bore hole is beautifully clear, as clear as water
can be supposed to be, and it has always been clear from the first
boring. On the morning of the earthquake at 8.30, the water was
clear, but shortly after it was so thick and chalky that two tanksful
had to be allowed to run over. That was a clear proof, he thought,
that the earthquake was felt in Canterbury.

IX., X.—Mr. G, 8. Saunvers, of Tunbridge Wells, contributed
in January, 1883, a paper on ‘‘ Gall Flies of the Oak,” and in 1884,
a paper on ‘Ants or Emmets,” both of these had, however,
appeared in “The Garden.” 44 M Wales

SH MU
fo tte Sea

.. el, a
pies?
“hie

me TRANSACTIONS
| BAST KENT
DPatuyal History Soorety.
ven eNoreg

-- *-NEW SERIES.

Canterbury :

GIBBS & SONS, PALACE STREET.

1886.

PRICE ONE SHILLING.

ws

ae

‘TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

_—s«xBASM KENT

DHatuyal History Sosiniy.
3 ae No. aD,
_ NEW SERIES.

Santerbury ;

GIBBS & SONS, PALACE STREET.

1886,

CONTENTS.

PAPERS COMMUNICATED:

9.—The Water-Supply of East Kent: Mr. G. Dowker, F.G.S.

10.—Bos Longifrons : Captain McDakin ee
11.—Our Social Wasps; Mr. G. Dowker, F.G.S.

12.—A Sanitary Law Exemplified in Vegetable Life :
: Mr. James Reid, F.R.C.S.Eng.
13.—On the Dental Apparatus of the Higher Mollusca :
Mr. Sibert Saunders ...

14.—Notes on the Intelligence of a Young Raven :
Mr. A. S. Reid, M.A., F.G.S.

15.-—Some Physical Conditions of Smut in Wheat :
Mr. James Reid, F.R.C.S.Eng.

16.—Malformed Fruit of a Sloe Tree: Mr. James Reid, F.R.C.S.Eng.
17.—Trichodina as an Endoparasite: Mr. T. B. Rosseter, F.R.M.S...

NOTES.

11.—The Trepang’or Sea-Cucumber: Mr. James Reid, F.R.C.S.Eng.

12.—Some Properties of Tannin: Captain McDakin ...

" 13.—Destruction of Oysters by Star-fishes: Mr. Sibert Saunders

14.—Sea-Stars: Mr. Sibert Saunders

~ 15.—Iron in Clay Nodules: Capt. McDakin...

16.—Jet in the Wealden Strata: Mrs. Cole...
17.—Habits of the Honey Bee: Col. C. J. Cox

18,—Gizzard of Larva of Corethra Plumicornis :
Mr. T. B. Rosseter, F.R.M.S.

19.—Coccidz or Scale Insects: Mr. G. S. Saunders & Capt. McDakin

20.—Filaria: Mr. T. B. Rosseter, F.R.M.S. us
21.—Stylographs of Cat’s purr and buzz of a Blue-bottle Fly :

Mr. E. W. Reid, M.B....

22.—Our Sponges: Mr. J. T. Hillier

68
70

IX.

THE WATER-SUPPLY OF EAST KENT, IN CONNECTION
WITH NATURAL SPRINGS AND DEEP WELLS.
BY
GEORGE DOWKER, F.G.S.
Read May 1886.

HE numerous demands made upon our underground water-supply,

both for sewage and sanitary as well as brewing purposes,

render the subject of my paper a matter of deep and serious im-
portance.

I shall set forth in the first place the rise and course of the rivers,
and in the next place the wells, especially the deep ones in the Chalk
area; and I propose to show the connection between the height of
the springs and the rainfall of the district.

Although I have chosen for the title of this paper “The Water-
supply of East Kent,” I must premise that the area to which I shall
confine my remarks is chiefly East Kent as represented by a line
from West Hythe to Whitstable and eastwards, and generally to that
part of Kent included in the new one-inch maps, numbered Sheets
273, 274, 289, 290, 305, 306, which combined will form a very good
map of reference to my paper.

The well-sections are many of them unpublished, but my remarks
will chiefly be directed to their water-level rather than their geolo-
gical features.

The section I have constructed from West Hythe to the north of
Canterbury will show the general dip of the beds of the whole area,
and define approximately the thickness of the underlying beds:
I say approximately, for the beds below the Chalk vary in relative
thickness, and between the Gault and the Wealden beds we may
expect to find (after the facts revealed in the deep well-section at
Dover Convict Prison, where the Lower Greensand is only repre-
sénted by 31 feet of clayey sand) no certainty as to thickness or
character.! :

The bed called Upper Greensand between the Gault and Chalk
1 See Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xlii. p. 36.

In

42

Marl is barely represented in Hast Kent, and the base of the Chalk
Marl, which (in all the sections I have met with) has been so squeezed
and contorted that no definite thickness could be assigned to it, and
some 50 feet of the Lower Chalk resting on the Gault is an alterna-
tion of sand and clay which for the most part retains water. It is
from this bed, probably the upper part of it, that we find the springs
thrown out all along the southern edges of the escarpment of the
Chalk. For the details of these beds Mr. Hilton Price’s paper on the
beds between the Gault and the Upper Chalk may be consulted.!

The rivers of this district are the Stour, the Little Stour, and the
Dour.

The Stour has two branches, which both take their rise from
numerous springs which issue from the Chalk escarpment of the
Weald, mostly between the Chalk and Chalk Marl, or the latter and
the Gault. The southern source of the Stour is close to Postling
Church, where a strong spring rises at about the elevation of 330
feet above Ordnance Datum. Thence it flows in a north-westerly
direction receiving various tributaries; strong springs at Horton Park,
Stouting, and Brabourne, the strongest springs in each case rising at
the level of 300 and 350 feet. The water is highly charged with car-
bonate of lime, and travertine (calcareous tufa) is deposited. Thence,
flowing westward by Ashford, it is joined by another branch, rising
near Lenham Church and Westwell, and so flowing in an opposite
direction to Ashford. Here the united streams cut through the Chalk
escarpment, and flow as oneriver between Wye, Godmersham, Chilham,
Chartham, and Canterbury. Here the river is fed by several strong
springs issuing from beneath the drift gravel and clay beds of the
Stour and lateral valleys. At Canterbury, and thence towards the
Isle of Thanet, there are many springs, which rise in the alluvium
of the valley on either side, in the form of circular deep conical pits,
which are locally called “‘Nicker-pits’—a name of Saxon or perhaps
Celtic derivation. As the water from these pits is highly calcareous,
it probably is likewise derived from the Chalk, or flows between the
Chalk and Lower Tertiary beds. Such springs occur at Chartham
and at Canterbury, where one goes by the name of the Silver Hole,
and is situated near White Hall. It was proposed by Mr. Pilbrow,
the engineer, to utilize this spring for the water-supply of Canter-
bury. Again, at West Bere, on either side of the river, like springs
are met with. :

The Little Stour, which in the upper part of its course constitutes
the Nailbourne, takes its rise at a very short distance from the
source of the Great Stour, at Postling Church, is derived from the
same range of hills, and has its first spring at Etching Hill, which is
about one mile south of Postling Church; thence it flows through

1 Quart: Journ. Geol, Soc, vol. xxtiii. pp. 481.

43

the Elham Valley, by Lyminge, Elham, Barham, Bishopsbourne,
and Beaksbourne, where it forms a permanent stream, flowing thence
to Wingham, through Littlebourne, Ickham and Wickham. At Wing-
ham it is joined by a branch stream fed by strong springs (‘ Nicker-
pits”) at Danbridge, and by another stream running along the
Tertiary escarpment by Ash towards Woodnesborough ; at the latter
place there are large “swallow-holes” which absorb the water from
the surface and convey it some distance underground. Passing
Wingham these streams unite their waters in the Little Stour, which
flows parallel with the Great Stour, till their waters finally unite
at Stourmouth ; from which place the Stour (formerly the Wantsum)
flows in a very circuitous course round to Sandwich, where it bends
upon itself and flows out to sea at Pegwell Bay.

The Dour, the next river, has two heads, one a little above Ewell,
at a place called “ Little Waters,” and another southward towards
Alkham, which rises at an elevation of about 300ft.O.D. The
Alkham Valley receives the drainage of the higher hills, running as
a “ Nailbourne,” these two streams unite at River, and thence, as
the Dour, flow out to sea through Dover Harbour. The waters of the
Dour are highly calcareous, and deposit travertine. Large quantities
of this substance have been found in the Dour Valley, which formerly
appears to have received a much larger quantity of water.

To the north of Canterbury in the Tertiary area of the district the
chief stream is one which rises, in the Blean Woods near Dunkirk, at
an elevation of about 200 ft. O.D., and flows in a north-easterly
direction to Chislet, where it flows through a valley called the
Nethergong, and thence out to sea northwards by Reculver.

A similar small stream, rising near the same place as the last,
flows northward out to sea at Swalecliffe, and a third stream issues
from the Blean Woods, and flows into Whitstable Bay by the
Graveney marshes.

Over the Tertiary area from Deal to Sandwich are several strong
springs, which are partly used in the Delf, an artificial water-course,
constructed to supply the town of Sandwich with water. One of
these rises at Northbourne, receiving there the drainage of the Chalk
_ valleys which run from west to east: this Northbourne stream
empties into the Stour near Sandwich Haven. At Eastry another
similar spring occurs, flowing in a like direction, and receiving in
the same way the underground drainage from the Chalk valley
running towards Dover.

In the Isle of Thanet there are no streams of any importance ; but
One occurs at “Great” and “ Little” Brooks End, and runs north-
west into the sea near St. Nicholas, while another small brook is
found eastward of Minster, emptying into Pegwell Bay; springs

44

issue near the “Sportsman,” and from the Thanet beds of Pegwell
Bay cliff, in these instances apparently from the Tertiary beds.

Between West Hythe and Folkestone, south of the Chalk hills, are
several springs. I would particularize those at Sandling Park and
Saltwood, taking their rise from the Lower Greensand strata, and
flowing out to the sea at Hythe. Similar smaller streams are met
with at Newington and Cheriton, while another occurs at Lymne.

By the seaboard from Folkestone to Deal many springs are tapped
by the sea-cliffs. Among these I would mention a strong spring at
Lydden Spout, which issues from the Chalk Marl, about 15 feet from
the base of the cliff, which is about 400 ft. in height. The bed from
which this water issues is No. V. bed in Mr. Price’s section, 48 feet
above the Gault... At St. Margaret’s Bay are some very strong
fresh-water springs below high-water mark.

The way in which the Chalk strata absorbs, retains, and gives out
the rainfall is strikingly illustrated in the wells and “ Nailbournes ”
of the Chalk, to which I wish here to draw attention. Details of
the Petham Nailbourne are to be found in the Proceedings of this
Society for 1880.? I have before mentioned the source of the Lesser
Stour as taking the character of a Nailbourne from Etching Hill to
Beaksbourne. After a wet season the springs rise, as is apparent
by the increase of water in the wells; those situated on the highest
level being the first to show it, then successively the springs rise
in the wells lower down the valley, till they overflow, or discharge
their waters as a periodical stream; this stream runs down the
course of the before-mentioned valley till it joins the permanent
stream at Beaksbourne. After excessive wet seasons the stream
comes from the highest level, but at other times lower down. It is
evident, however, that the water is flowing as an underground
stream long before and and after it appears at the surface. In proof
of which I would mention the following facts. After a very wet
season the stream flows all the way down the valley from Etching
Hill Pond ; at other times it flows only above ground from Lyminge
Pond; while at dry seasons it flows above the ground only low
down the valley at Beaksbourne. After some wet winters the
Nailbourne may run for two years in succession ; on other occasions
it may not appear for two, three, or four successive years.

Matthew Bell, Esq., writes to me to the effect that in dry seasons
his ponds became dry when the Nailbourne was not running, and
being convinced that all the time at Bourne Park the water was
finding its way down below ground, he caused a trench three feet
wide to be sunk across the valley, through the underground stratum

1 Q.J.G.S. vol. xxiii. p, 431.
2 See Mr. Hammond’s paper, E. K. Nat. History Society, 1880.

45

of gravel {which he then ascertained to be about 12 to 15 feet in
thickness), into the Chalk below, and then filled this trench with
stiff puddle, forming an underground dam. ‘he water, as he
expected, immediately began to rise, and the sheet of water opposite
his house has never been dry since. A reference to the section which
I have prepared to illustrate this paper will perhaps explain the
action of this Nailbourne better than a mere verbal description.
It will be seen that the beds dip at a considerable angle from south
to north; at the former the impervious beds of Chalk Marl and
Gault Clay cause the water to gravitate in the porous Chalk strata
from south towards the north. The water from the Chalk is derived
in the first instance from the rain falling on its surface. This takes
a considerable time to find its way down to the impervious bed; and,
after doing so, to spread laterally through the surrounding strata.
It is evident that when the Chalk is saturated with water, the
water-level is correspondingly raised. It happens that it is some
time after the abnormal rainfall, before it affects the water-level
of the wells, and consequently before the lower strata become
saturated with water. When this is the case, the water finds its way
out at the surface, and runs down the valley. It may at first sight
appear strange that springs should break out at Postling and Horton,
as the beds dip in the contrary direction to the flow ; but if you con-
sider that the impervious beds of clay there come to the surface, and
the rainfall takes a long time to expand laterally through the Chalk,
you will understand that it will here find vent where there is the
least resistance.

An examination of the section will show also that the water-level
by no means corresponds with the height above the sea-level (a very
prevalent error). It will be seen that the water-level in the wells at
Acrise, Horton, Elmsted, and Wootton, stands at a level some two
hundred feet or more above those at Canterbury. These well-sections
are placed to scale at their respective heights, and the water-level of
the wells is shown by a shaded line. Most of these wells are dug in
the Chalk, not bored, and many of them have been deepened in dry
seasons, 80 that in this case the well depths represent pretty nearly
the ordinary water-level in dry seasons; for it is impossible to get
these wells sunk to any considerable depth below the point of
saturation or water-level in the Chalk. For instance, Mr. Collett, of

Elmsted Rectory, who has dug a well 277 feet deep, states: “The
_ springs rise and fall here in a wonderful way; they are usually
highest in May, and fall till January, when they begin to rise again.
In 1884, Jan. 13, the well was dry, next day it rose 14 feet; the
water varies in height from 13 to 63 feet.” Mr. Metcalfe, of Upper
Hardres Rectory, writes, “This well was formerly 300 feet deep, but
failed in the dry seasons of *56 and ’58, when it was deepened
60 feet. The water-level lowers in autumn from 20 to 30 feet.”

46

The Chalk area is by far the largest in this district, and, exclusive
of the Isle of Thanet, equals about 296 square miles. While the
area of the Tertiary beds is about 158 square miles.

The rainfall of the district is subject to considerable variation, and
more statistics on this head are needed. At Sheldwich the average
rainfall for three years 1883 to 1885 equalled 25:99 in. At Canter-
bury for 1884 it was equal to 20°83 in. At Ramsgate for three years
from 1883 to 1885 = 21:81 in. While at Horton Park I have for
1883 above 30-00 in. It must be remembered that the last three
years were exceptionally dry ones.

One inch of rainfall represents about 100 tons of water to the
acre. A portion of this is lost by evaporation, and some passes away
underground to sea; the remaining portion constitutes our available
supply in rivers and wells.

A consideration as to the permeability of different beds, and their
capacity for retaining water, will form an important element in our
calculation. We may consider the Chalk area as the most important,
not only as the chief water reservoir, but as constituting by far the
largest portion of the district, and it will be found that it is through-
out its extent extremely permeable when not saturated with water,
down to a short distance from the Gault. The large supplies of
water required for the Canterbury Waterworks, the Chartham
Asylum, the Canterbury Breweries, the wells for drinking water at
Ramsgate, Margate, and Dover, are all derived from this formation.
In the case of the deep boring for the Convict Prison at Dover, made
during this year, when strata were pierced to the depth of over 900
feet (penetrating both Gault and Lower Greensand), the water-
supply was chiefly, if not entirely, derived from the upper three
hundred feet, all in the Chalk. The time taken by the water to
reach the line of saturation in this Chalk area appears to be about
three or four months, and the height of the springs varies in propor-
tion to the rainfall.

The Chalk area is in some places capped by impermeable beds of
clay, as at Swingfield Minnis, but the clays and gravels over the
Chalk are for the most part permeable. North of Canterbury, over
the Tertiary area, the permeable beds are the sandy portions of the
Old Haven, Woolwich, and Thanet beds; the lower parts of the
latter, however, are impermeable. Above these the London Clay
and the clay and gravel beds of the Blean district are impermeable.

A narrow tract of land below the escarpment of the Chalk Downs,
stretching from Folkestone to Wye, is composed of impervious
Gault and pervious beds of the Lower Greensand. In many of the
wells, after piercing the Gault, the water flows up to, or over the
surface. In this area the water from the Sandgate beds of the Lower

47

Greensand is bad, being largely impregnated with iron. I have very
few data relating to the wells of this district, which is, however,
of little importance in the general survey of the water supply.

Mr. W. Whitaker, B.A.Lond., Assoc. Inst. 0.E., F.G.S., of H.M.
Geological Survey, has kindly placed at my disposal some well-
sections not before published, chiefly that of the Herne Bay Water-
works at Ford and the Whitstable Waterworks, which are in the
Tertiary area north of Canterbury. But it is not certain from these
data whether the water is derived from the Thanet Beds or the ~
Chalk. In the case of Whitstable, at a height of 48 feet above
Ordnance Datum, the well, 400 feet deep, pierced the London Clay
at 69 feet, the Tertiaries at 240 ft., and penetrated the Chalk 160 feet.
The water-level is stated to be 35 feet down, and the yield 220
thousand gallons daily. And in the case of Ford, reaching a total
depth of 260 feet, piercing the Lower Tertiaries at 110 feet, and
penetrating the Chalk 50 feet—the water-level standing 26 feet
down. From which facts it seems that the Chalk in both cases was
the source of the supply.

The well-sections in the Isle of Thanet, which have (with the
exception of one at Mr. Cobb’s Brewery, Margate) been sunk but
little below the sea-level, have only yielded water at about that
level. In the case of Mr. Cobb’s well, which reached a depth of
317 feet, no spring was met with. Artesian wells at Minster at
a low level, piercing the Thanet Bed to some 20 feet or so into the
Chalk, yielded water springs flowing to the surface.

The permeability of the Chalk in Kent was shown some years
ago by an old member of vur Society, Mr. Bland, of Sittingbourne,
in some tables which he published showing how one well was
influenced by another, and how they all fluctuated with the rainfall
of the seasons. Mr. Prestwich has in his memoirs! made use of it,
and I am indebted to the Rev. C. J. Wimberley, of Sibertswold
Vicarage, for a copy of this interesting paper. His conclusions with
respect to the permeability of the Chalk have been corroborated in
all the observations I have made, and the truth cannot be too often
repeated to those who are engaged or interested in sanitary matters.
It must be of the first importance to consider this in relation to the
sewage and health of towns. Sewage matter will contaminate a
large area of Chalk, if precautions are not taken.

The section I have made would show how regularly the lower
beds dip towards Canterbury ; but if I had continued the section to
Whitstable nearly in the same line, it would be apparent that the
Gault must rise, or there would be an enormous thickness of Chalk
to be accounted for had the Gault continued at the same dip. It is

1 «The Water-bearing Strata of the Country round London,’’ and ‘‘ Manual of
Geology.”

48

assumed that the bore at the Chartham Asylum touched the Gault.
Mr. Whitaker places the bottom of the bore at that horizon. From
the specimens I-have seen at the Canterbury Waterworks, | doubt if
they quite reached the Gault. There seems also to be a slight
synclinal of the Thanet beds in the valley of the Stour east of
Canterbury—the Isle of Thanet being on an anticlinal.

It would seem as if the Lower Greensand in this neighbourhood
cannot be reckoned upon asa source of water-supply, firstly, because
the water is not good, and secondly, because there is no high land
of this formation to receive the rainfall, nor is it certain that it
would be met with in any thickness east of Dover.’

The slight anticlinal ridge of the Thanet Chalk has yielded water
for the present supply of Ramsgate, Margate, and Broadstairs ; but
in dry seasons the supply has not equalled the demand, and supple-
mentary wells have been sunk ; these, however, all derive their supply
from the exceedingly porous beds of the Upper Chalk, the wells not
reaching much below the sea-level, about which point the line of
saturation of the Chalk is there reached. From the fact that one of
these, the Southwood Waterworks near Ramsgate, became brackish
from the influx of sea-water, the engineers of these waterworks
appear to have been afraid to sink deeper in the Chalk. It is pro-
verbially foolish to prophesy unless you know; but I would
venture to suggest that the future water-supply of Thanet must be
sought for in a well reaching down nearly to the Gault. For though
there is every appearance that the whole depth of the Chalk strata of
Kent are to be found here (the Thanet beds reposing on the higher
beds at Margate, St. Peter’s, and Broadstairs), yet there should be
no difficulty in piercing the Chalk, and I should expect an unlimited
supply of good water would be found in the Lower Chalk. Should
such be the case, there would be no danger of its being contaminated
with sea-water, if a site were chosen not too near the sea, or
directly in a line of fault. If the stratum pierced was in a state of
saturation, there would be no reason to fear that sea-water would
replace the fresh.

One great advantage of the water derived from deep Chalk strata
is its great purity, the only drawback being its exceeding hardness,
from the presence of bicarbonate of lime; this may, however, be got
rid of by adopting the admirable method employed at Canterbury, of
passing lime water in certain proportions into the fresh pumped
water, which, uniting with the excess of acid in the bicarbonate of lime
in solution, precipitates it as an impalpable powder, and at the same
time killing all organic impurities and precipitating them with the
lime.

It now only remains for me to explain the supplementary section

1 See section in Mr. Whitaker’s paper, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xlii. p. 36.

~

na al

49

and well notes which have been placed at my disposal. Mr. Bland’s
paper, already alluded to, is entitled, ‘‘ Measurements of the Altitudes
of the Hills and Valleys and the Depths of Wells through a Part of
Kent, undertaken for the purpose of ascertaining the Height of the
Springs above the Sea-level,” and referring chiefly to the Chalk in and
around Sittingbourne in the years 1827 and 1828, with the rainfall
and state of the weather from 1819 to 1829. Privately printed at
Sittingbourne. For the loan of this interesting paper I am indebted
to the Rev. C. J. Wimberley, Sibertswold Vicarage.

Notes on the Petham Nailbourne from 1772 to 1869. Communi-
cated by Mr. James Reid, of Canterbury. ‘The Nailbourne came
into Shamford Street, Feb. 22, 1772, and continued to run through
the street till June 16, 1772. It came into the street again, March
7, 1774, and continued running till June 28, 1774. It came into
the street again Jan. 12, 1775, and again Feb. 26, 1776. This
Nailbourne ariseth at Dean, in the parish of Elmsted, and at Duck
Pit in the parish of Waltham. This by Thos. Page.” From other
data this Nailbourne ran in Jan. 1860, Feb. 1861, 1864, to June,
1865, and slightly in 1866, 1869, and Jan. 1873.

Notes on a Well at Elmsted Vicarage. Communicated by Rev. G.
A. Collett. “This well was sunk in the Vicarage garden in 1884, at
an elevation of 500 feet O.D. Water was first reached at 180 feet.
Waiting for this to lower, the well was continued to 248 feet, where
a good head of water was met with. The strata met with were firstly,
11 feet of diluvial matter, stones, clays, etc., called locally ‘clay
pillars.’ All below this, Chalk without flints, with joints few and
far between, the Chalk so hard that it had to be blasted with gun-
powder, no need to ‘steen.’ We sent up at 58 feet some palatal teeth
of fish, and lower down fragments of Inocerami. Below 220 feet
the Chalk was more jointed and easier worked. The springs rise and
fall here in a very wonderful way, they are usually highest in May
and fall till January, when they begin to rise again. In December,
1884, I ran my well dry, but kept sounding it in January, 1885,
expecting water. On the 13th it was dry, next morning I found
_ fourteen feet of water, which soon increased to 40.”

In the tabulated list of wells appended, I have given the height
above O.D., the depth of well, and the water-level (where this
information is given), but in most cases, especially in bored wells,
the latter is not very conclusive. For other particulars of well-
sections I must refer my readers to the Memoirs of the Geological
Survey, vol. iv. pt. 1, by Mr. W. Whitaker, B.A., F.G.S., and the
Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, vol. xlii. p. 26. I have
confined my observations chiefly to the water supply.

I am indebted to those gentlemen whose names appear in the
Appendix of Well-sections (p. 50) for much valuable information.

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X.
BOS LONGIFRONS,

BY
CAPTAIN McDAKIN,
Read JANUARY 7th, 1885.

The -president, Captain McDakin, exhibited some skulls of
oxen, which Mr. Dean, of St. Mildred’s, Canterbury, had rescued
from being shot into a gravel pit on his property at the Martyr’s
Field, near L. C. & D. Railway Station. Curiously the same pit
from whence were obtained the molar teeth of the extinct elephant
(Hlephas Antiquus) exhibited on a former occasion in 1881.

The skulls were found by the workmen engaged in digging
the foundations of the London and County Bank, in the High
Street, at a depth of 15 feet below the surface. The soil is said to
have been a dark silt and apparently undisturbed. From the
peculiar curvature of the horns (especially in the case of the

2 smaller specimen) there is little doubt but that they belong to the

ancient British ox, named the Bos longifrons. The other two

specimens could not be classified with certainty. Mr. Boyd
_ Dawkins states that the Bos longifrons was not found at an earlier
_ period than that known as the Neolithic or polished stone imple-

ment period, and we do not find it more recently than the close of

the Roman period. It occurs in Ireland in the peat bogs with the

Trish Elk and with the Reindeer, and it has been found in some
parts of England with the remains of the Beaver. It has also been
found with Roman pottery in the neighbourhood of London.

Mr. Wright, in his excellent book called ‘Celt, Saxon,
and Roman,” mentions the Bos longifrons having been found at a
Roman villa, at Hartlip, in Kent.

Oxen of this variety are regarded as those from which the

ancient Britons obtained their principal supply of meat previously

to the time of the Roman invasion, and during the greater part of
the Roman period. Curiously enough, after the Saxons came, the
ancient Britons not only fled before the Saxons into the moun-

_ tainous parts of Wales and the Highlands, but they carried with

them these small short horned cattle. At least, we judge from the
absence of their remains with those of Saxon antiquities that they

< disappeared from the country just at the time of the invasion of the

Saxon barbarians, who introduced a larger breed of oxen to furnish
in time the roast beef of Old England, and thus to supplant the

- roast beef of Older Britain.

The small short horned cattle of Wales and southern Scotland

are supposed to be the descendants of the Bos longifrons.

The skulls have been placed in the Canterbury Museum.

54
XI.

OUR SOCIAL WASPS,
BY
G. DOWKER, Esqa., F.G.S.
Read NOVEMBER 3, 1885.

The observations communicated were mainly of a practical
character ; relating more to the habitations and habits of the
insects than to their distinctive characters and classification, and
were confined almost exclusively to the neighbourhood of the
Author’s Residence; the District includes a considerable expanse of
meadow and marsh lands, in which woodland is not common. The
soil is chiefly clay, sands, and gravel, and wild Bees and Wasps are
generally very abundant. In 1884, the gardener took 75 nests on
the premises; und in 1885, 30. From want of sufficient literary
reference at the time, the author was led to make more careful and
strict investigation of the Species and their habits that came
within his observations than he might otherwise have done, and
consequently they had a more original and independent character.
The Vespide or Social Wasps were alone concerned in the inquiry ;
the Eumenidz or Solitary Wasp being excluded, though |
Mr. Dowker had met with several species. A special result of this
study of the habits and peculiarities of the Social Wasps, was the
conclusion that they are the most maligned and illused of Insects,
on whom the most relentless persecution and ruthless destruction is
awarded. With the large number of Wasps living and breeding in
the neighbourhood, there were few instances in which any of the
inmates of the house had been stung; while the more favoured
Honey Bees were constantly venting their irritability by attacking
and stinging those who approached their hives. One year’s
experience gave plenty of facts to show how the good effects of the

Wasp more than counterbalanced the evil. Whilst watching to

ascertain in what way and with what material the Wasps constructed
their nests, it was observed, in the early part of 1885, that they
were very busily engaged amongst the leaves of a long Avenue of
Limes opposite the house. It was found on careful and persever-
ing scrutiny that they were not barkiug the trees for fibres to make
the materials for their nests, as indicated by several authors,
but that they were busy carrying away the aphides that existed in
great abundance on the Limes. Again, many were found in the

greenhouse, performing the same office with the aphides there.

Difficulties occurring in identifying the material taken by a par- —
ticular Wasp with the structure of the nest it belonged to;
microscopical examination of the nests was resorted to. Over 100
nests were examined. ‘Two different descriptions of paper, used

; 55

in the cells and coverings, alone, were found. These two kinds
were not made indiscriminately by one species of Wasp, but by
two, each making one sort of papers. ‘ This was so uniformly the
ease that the Species of Wasp making the nest could be certainly
determined by examining the paper. The nest of both Species
were in most cases constructed underground in a mole or rat
burrow, enlarged by the insect, and situated in some bank of a
_ ditch generally near to the water; in a few instances.the nests of
both were found in old thatched roofs. The papers of the largest
and commonest Wasp of the district, afterwards determined to be’
Vespa Germanica, was found of a greyish green, tough substance,
very thin, formed of concentric laminz of long fibrous material ;
_ among which might be traced the palee of Grasses. The comb
was formed of a like material, but thicker. Their nests varied
much in size, the largest, taken on August 21st, was 42in. in
circumference, and weighed ten and a half pounds. The second
set of nests were built by a smaller Species, Vespa Vulgaris, but
_ though the neuters are much smaller than with germanica, the
queens are larger. The material of these nests differs from the
first, in being composed of wood fibres of shorter lengths, generally
_ lighter in colour. The comb was very thin and easily crumbled.
_ For full description of these two Species, reference is made to ~
Dr. E. L. Ormerod’s work on British and Social Wasps, 1868.
_ Mr. Dowker is inclined to the opinion that two or more Species of
_ Wasps may be included under that termed Vespa Vulgaris. Of the
_ seven Species named by Ormerod, germanica, Vulgaris, sylvestris
_ are the Species most frequently met with in the district of East
_ Kent here referred to. Vespa Crabro, the Common Hornet is met

with occasionally in the higher chalk districts. Only the abandoned
nests of sylvestris had been met with by the Author. After
describing in detail an ingenious method for taking Wasps nests
without danger, by plowing sulphurous vapours into the nests,
3 it is mentioned that frequently the queen or queens of. the nest
_ survive when the other Wasps are killed, seemingly showing that
Be ey are gifted with a stronger vitality.

“es wt, °- + .-

‘h

=

It was purposed to continue these observations in 1886, but there .
_ was not a single Wasp’s nest reported that yearin the parish. This
could not be due entirely to the extermination of nests in the two
_ previous years, as the queens, from which the colonies originate,
_ were numerous in the Spring of the year. On the 22nd of May
_ the queens of three different Species were taken in the garden,
AE Vulgaris, V. Sylvestris, and V. Germanica. These were intently
searching for aphides along the branches of trees, but none were to
be found. The Winter of 1885-6 was one of persisting cold from
November to March, and may have so told upon insect life, as not

only to destroy the weak ones, but to affect the survivors by

6

56

removing their natural supply of animal food, so needed in their
first laborious work of the year in nest building and nourishing
their first offsprings of the new colony. This was confirmed by the
remarkable absence of aphides throughout the year. These insects
had been so abundant in the previous year as to entirely destroy
the hop growth in this district, whilst by their absence in 1886,
the hop crop was unusually abundant. It seems that though the
Adult Wasp feeds upon vegetable food, they provide the larve
with animal food. In the years that the Wasps were so abundant
the village butcher said he did not trouble himself to keep the
Wasps off, as they prevented the flies that did him more harm.
The saying that Wasps are particularly numerous in years of
abundant fruit, was disproved in 1886, when the crop of plums was_
so great that tons of fruit were allowed to rot on the ground, as
there was no sale for them, and yet Wasps were scarcely met with.
The observations here related may give a clue, by microscopical
examination of the Wasp papers, to further defferentiate the
Species in genera of Wasps.

XII.

A SANITARY LAW EXEMPLIFIED IN
VEGETABLE LIFE,
BY
MR. J. REID, F.R.C.S.Eng.
Read October, 6th, 1885.

The author explained that he had taken a certain fact in
relation to the growth of a tree to emphasize the influence of light
on development. Pure air, pure water, wholesome food, light,
and warmth, were the five natural agents usually recognised as
necessary to maintain a vigorous and healthful condition, as well
as promote development in yegetable, and, yet more especially, in
animal life. The three first and the last generally received more
or less consideration in sanitation. Lieut, however, though in
principle its value had been recognised in some degree, under the
provisions of Building Acts for Towns, did not receive the full
attention its importance demanded, and was apt to be neglected in
Local Sanitary Administration. This kad been so in Canterbury
by disregard of areal space and of direction, as well as inclination of
the sun’s rays in the construction of new edifices. Several other
illustrations of these points were dilated upon. It was also pointed
out how necessary it was for every one in whatever period of life,
but especially during childhood and youth, to pass their days

57

}
under the influence of dircct light. The consequenee of the
neglect of this natural Sanitary Law was dwelt upon. The
: _ contrast of living and working in a room with a north aspect, and
7 one with a south aspect, was shown, as well as the direct develop-
_ __ ment of disease, especially of the hereditary type, under obstruction
and diminution of light. The example of this Sanitary Law in
vegetable life was given by the exhibit of a horizontal section of
the vertical limb of a Holm, or Holly Oak, Tree (Quercus Ilex) of
more than 20 years life in the Pinectum of R. E. Thomson, Esq.,
Kenfield Hall. The section was somewhat triangular or fanshaped,
the largest side having a full curve which extended more into one
_ side than the other, its mere outline thus expressing an irregularity
of growth. The narrow curved end was directed to the north,
whilst the full curved side faced the south. The axis from N.
to 8. measured 74 inches, the central point of growth being one inch
from the N. surface, the bark oecupying 4), inch; the 8. surface
63 inches from this centre, the bark being a 3 of an inch thick. A
line drawn at right angles to the N. and S. axis through a point
84 inches from the centre of growth, and reaching the contour on
either side, gave a length of 74 inches, passed through the greatest
diameter in this direction and indicated the E. and W. points.
The measurement from the point of intersection of these two lines,
runuing in the direction of the points of the compass, to the out-
side gave 4 inches to the E. and 33 inches to the W. The form of
the contour, the S. side of this E. and W. line, taken as a base,
was that of an irregular quadrant, whilst on the N. it was some-
what triangular, the sides inclining inwards, more so, on the N.E.
sides, than on the N.W. ‘The curved contour of the trunk was main-
tained from a point 1}in N. of E. to an opposite spot 23in. N. of W.
‘The curve on the W. side of S. was fuller or more bowed than the
Eastern. The fullest growth of the wood and thickest bark were
found within this boundary, the preponderance being on the E. of
the Meridian line. The 20 annual rings that could be counted all
_ expressed the same tendency of growth, though it was more pro-
_ nounced in the last nine. The stem of the tree exhibited the
same peculiarities, but in a less marked degree ; the growth on the
_ N.E. and N.W. was not so proportionately defective. The tree
had been cut down to give rooni for more valued trees that had
been planted with it more than 20 years before." These trees were
_ placed to the N. and extended toN.E. and N.W. Still further on the
_ Eastern side a fine Ash tree of more than a century’s growth extended
_ high up above all. These last disturbing causes had accentuated
_ the defects, but at the same time emphasized the deductions to
_ be made. Not only was this tree but partially and imperfectly
_ influenced in its vigour and form of -growth by the direct rays of
_ the sun, as many a tree growing by the side of a wood will show,
_ but it was further crippled and deformed by additional obstruction

58

to and removal of this special cause of growth and strength.
Another conclusion seemed sketched on ,the surface of the exhibit
that the abiding warmth of the day, carried beyond its coagent
light, influenced the development on the N.W. by increasing its
extension beyond that observed on the N.E., where the return of
action commenced. Thus these natural coagents in life and health
should not be separated in sanitation.

Mr. J. Reid presented and explained five other exhibits from
the same Pinetum.

XT

ON THE DENTAL APPARATUS OF THE
HIGHER MOLLUSCA,

BY

MR. SIBERT SAUNDERS. ee,

A general survey of the important division of the animal
kingdom, comprehended under the term Mollusca, reveals a vast
assemblage of animals possessing widely different forms, and —
exhibiting in their structure many relative degrees of perfection.
A closer scrutiny shows that the endowments and capabilities of
the creatures are precisely those which are best suited to the con-
ditions under which their life is to be passed ; and it follows that
in those species which are sedentary (as is the case with most of
the bivalve molluscs) the organization, although wonderful in its
adaptation to the circumstances of the animal, is of a simple type
compared with that found in those tribes which have the power of
moving from place to place, searching for, and making selection of,
their food. ‘

In these we find developments of structure suited to the
requirements of the creature, and; the more active the habits of
the animal, the more numerous and complete are the special organs
with which it is furnished. Among the features thus developed
in certain classes of this great sub-kingdom, none are more remark-
able than the provision made for enabling the animal to securea
supply of food. As has been already remarked, the bivalve
mollusca, ¢.g., the oyster, cemented to a stone, or lying without
power of. spontaneous movement in its ocean bed; the mussel,
moored by its byssus.; the Pholas, self-immured in its rocky-cell ;

_the Teredo, burrowing in concealment through a piece of timber,
from which retreat is impossible, can never travel in search of food.

“| oe

aii ania

59

It is therefore brought to them in the form of minute animal or
vegetable organisms, borne straight to their mouth by currents .
ever flowing into and through the valves of their shell or through
their protruded syphons; the stream being both generated and
directed in its course by an exquisitely beautiful arrangement of
cilia covering their gills. All molluses of this type (Lamell-
branchiata), and also the Brachiopoda, although possessed of a

‘simple mouth, guarded by sensitive lips, are not only toothless,

but absolutely headless. But in the Pteropoda we find a very
different structure. A Pteropod is an animal passing an active
life in the open sea, far from shore, swimming by means of a pair
of fins attached to a head, not well defined, but bearing minute
tentacles. One of the class, Clio borealis, is rather more than an
inch in length. On each side of the mouth of this little creature
are three appendages of a conical form which, when examined with
the microscope, are found to be covered with minute tubercles,
and each tubercle proves to be a_ cylinder enclosing twenty prehen-
sile suckers capable of teing protruded in order to seize any object

- which may come in contact with the tentacle, and convey it to the

mouth. The mouth is furnished with a pair of jaws carrying a
number of spiny teeth. These jaws are contained in two hollow
muscular cylinders, which, when contracted, force out the jaws on
either side of the mouth. Inside the mouth is a fleshy organ, the
upper surface of which is clothed with hooked spines or teeth,
directed backwards, and placed in regular rows. It is this organ

_ which is the most constant feature in the dental apparatus of the

higher mollusca, for it is found under many modifications cf form
throughout the class Gasteropoda, as well as in the last and highest
class Cephalopoda. Many species ‘of Gasteropods are destitute of
eutting jaws, and depend upon the tooth-covered tongue for the
attrition of their food.

It is not a tongue in the ordinary sense of the word, and is,
with more exactness, termed an odontophore or radula. Itisa

muscular organ, sometimes in the form of a short semi-circular

ridge, situated between the jaws; in other cases forming the floor

_ of the mouth and acting in concert with a single upper jaw;

while, in many of the marine gasteropods, it is of great length,

often extending in folds backwards to the stomach; or lying

coiled up at the side of the esophagus. This lingual ribbon usually
has the edges of its posterior portion rolled together and united so
as to form a tube, the hinder end of which is closed, but the front

_ portion opens out as a flat surface in the mouth. It is armed with

teeth set upon flattened plates, which, in some species, bear single
teeth, while in others, several teeth are borne by one plate.

The teeth are arranged always in transverse rows, exhibiting
a great variety of form in different genera and species. The

60

number of teeth in a row, and the number of rows in the longitu-
dinal series, also vary greatly. The number of teeth in a row
varies from 3 to 180, and the number of rows from (say) 2 24 to
160 or 170.

The arrangement of the teeth is such as to form a triple band
longitudinally, the central line being the rachis, carrying some-
times a single tooth, and sometimes one or more central teeth
flanked by ‘lateral teeth; while the marginal tracts are termed
pleure, and the teeth ered thereon are calted uncint.

The tectibranchiate sea-slugs exhibit great variety of dentition.
The Aplysia (sea-hares) have a large, and beautiful odontophore,
the anterior portion of which is expanded on a muscular organ in
the mouth, the hinder and lower portion being tubular, and hidden
away asa reserve to be brought into use when the older parts
become worn away.

The Aplysie feed on both animal and vegetable substances,
and are provided with a pair of horny cutting jaws, and with a
gizzard armed with numerous small plates and spines.

The Bullide also have a gizzard, the calcareous plates of
which serve to crush small mollusca which are swallowed entire

by the carnivorous Bulla, whose odontophore lacks the central |

(rachidean) teeth.

Among the Nudibranchiata some of the Doridide have a Bioad
tubular odontophore, similar to that found in Aplysia, carrying
lateral rows of large hooked teeth; while others have a narrow
tongue bearing sometimes only two rows of teeth. Doris
tuberculata affords a very beautiful example of the broad tubular
odontophore. The lovely Holidide have a narrow lingual ribbon,
and, in some species, the transverse plates have each but a single
tooth ; in others the transverse plates from arched rows of spinous
teeth set like projecting combs.

In this family the tongue is attached to a large fleshy cushion -

enclosed within the concavity of a pair of large horny jaws, which
are united by a strong ligament forming a hinge joint on the upper
margin, so that the jaws work vertically.

The anterior edge of each jaw is, as it were, recurved, and

then produced outward, so as to form a cutting edge. The whole
of these organs are placed within the head of the animal, and
communicate with the opening of the mouth by a tube, within
which is acircular band of strong muscles. This, when pushed ~
forward, carries with it the mouth and jaws for the purpose of —
securing the prey, which consists of small marine animals. The
larger Zoophytes are also often attacked by the Kolids.

The next Order of Gasteropods, Prosobranchiata, is divided
into two sections. Holostomata; Univalve molluses having the

S

61
__ front margin of the shell entire. They are marine or fresh water
. animals, mostly vegetable feeders. The River Snail (Paludina)
gz and the common Periwinkle (Zittorina littorea) are examples of this
a large tribe. The odontophore of the Periwinkle is a narrow ribbon,
two inches long, and it contains about 600 rows of teeth, each row
consisting of seven teeth, viz.: a central rachidean tooth, and three
uncini on either side, hooked and dentated. Only about 24 rows
of teeth are exposed for use. The remainder of the lingual ribbon
lies coiled up on the right of the esophagus. In the Limpet the

odontophore is no less than three inches long, and the greater part
lies, folded up, but perfectly free, in the abdominal cavity. Zrochus
and Haliotis have odontophores of striking beauty, the central
_ teeth, which are numerous, but small, being flanked by rows of
large "hooked teeth set very close together.

___ Stphonostomata. This section embraces those univalve gastro-
pods, which have the front of the aperture of the shell notched or
_ produced into a canal. This serves to protect the siphon (formed
_ by a prolongation of the mantle) through which water passes into
_ the branchial chamber for respiration. The Stphonostomata are
_ all marine animals; they are carnivorous, and most of them are
_ prédacious. Their dental apparatus is combined with a very
_ remarkable organ, by means of which they are enabled to attack
_ and feed upon other molluscs, even upon those encased in a shell,
_ which forms no protection against the formidable drill of these
= -harmless-looking gasteropods. The common whelk ; the dog-whelk
_ (Purpura lapillus) ; the whelk-tingle (saurex erinaceus) ; ‘and the
pretty little Nassa reticulata all afford good illustrations of this
- singular weapon of offence. It is a retractile proboscis which is
_ ordinarily quite hidden away within the body, but, at the will of
the animal, can be protruded through the oral orifice to a great
_ length. This is effected by the action of the intrinsic circular
muscles that form its walls.. The method by which it is drawn
_ back into the body is by a number of longitudinal muscles, whose
i ‘subdivided extremities at one end are Beebe to the interior of
_ the body and, at the other, to the wall of the proboscis, the inser-
tions of the muscles varying in position throughout the entire
length of that organ. By their means the aniferior half of the
_ proboscis is drawn up within the posterior half, in the same
_ manner as the foot and lower half of a stocking, into which an
_armis thrust, may be drawn up bodily (not turned inside out)
within the main portion, that portion becoming turned back over
the lower half. The proboscis is thus shortened, not only by the
contraction of its muscular wall, but by the anterior half becoming
an | inner cylinder, contained within the lar ger cylinder formed by
f basal and _posterior half. Inside the inner cylinder is the
so-called muscular tongue, armed with a series of siliceous teeth,
those on the rachis being straight and sharply dentated, while the

62

uneini are hooked and bluntly dentated. The anterior portion of
the lingual ribbon is borne upon, and to a great extent surrounded
by strong cartilages which give power and rigidity to the organ.
At the tip the teeth are fully exposed, as from a sheath, and,
being carried over the point of the cartilaginous support, some
of the teeth project freely in front and form a powerful file
bristling with sharp siliceous spines. When brought to bear upon
the shells of other molluscs, and moved with regularity by the
action of numerous muscles, a hole is speedily drilled, and the
body of the helpless occupant devoured, or at least so much of it
as suits the taste of the assailant, the residue being left to be
cleared off by crabs or annelids.

While operating, the boring mollusc is firmly fixed by its
muscular foot to the shell of its victim, and the hole is drilled with
the greatest precision and regularity. I am inclined to believe-
that the cartilaginous sheath has a part to play in the perforation,
but at present I am not able to say how, or to what extent.
Oysters and mussels are commonly the victims of these marauding
gasteropods, but, when hard pressed, they do not hesitate to prey
on each other.

The air breathing mollusca (Pulmonifera) afford examples of
yet another form of dentition. The land snails and slugs, and the
pond snails (Zimnea and Plunorbis) are familiar representatives of
this order In these animals the lingual membrane is very broad,
and is studded all over with small similar teeth, with broad bases,
set in regular rows, like a pavement covering the floor of the
mouth. Attached to the upper part of the mouth is a broad horny
plate, against which the tongue can work. The lower edge of
this plate is curved and sharply dentated, forming an upper
mandible for cutting leaves, &c., while the minuter forms of vegeta-
tion are appropriated by the scraping action of the odontophore,
which can be protruded over the lip for that purpose.

As might be expected, when we arrive at the highest order of
mollusca——Cephalopoda, with their complicated and formidable
_ instruments for seizing their prey, we find a proportionate advance
in the dental apparatus. The mouth is situated in the centre of
the disk from which the arms, with their prebensile suckers,
radiate, and is surrounded by a broad fleshy lip. Within the
orifice are a pair of strong hooked mandibles, not unlike the beak
of a parrot. These are embedded in a mass of muscle, by means of-
which they are opened and closed. Lying within the concavity,
. formed by the horny jaws, is a fleshy tongue which, in this class,
is supposed to be partly an organ of taste. A portion only of its
surface is covered with teeth which serve to complete the comminu-
tion of the food, already cut and torn by the mandibles, and to
assist its passage to the esophagus. :

7

65
4 Specimens of the dental apparatus of the following species
were exhibited :—
- Crass CEPHALOPODA—
; Sepia officinalis. Jaws and Radula.

Loligo vulgaris. Ditto.
Octopus. Ditto.
- Crass GASTEROPODA— :
Beas. i* PULMONIFERA :

Helix aspersa. Radula.
Helix pomatia. Ditto.
PRosoBRANCHIATA :
(@.) SIPHONOSTOMATA :
Murex erinaceus. Radula.
Buccinum undatum. Proboscis and Radula.
Purpura lapillus. Ditto. |
Nassa reticulata. Radula.
- (6.) HoLosromara :
Chitons discrepans. ~Radula.

va Patella-vulgata. Do.

p Fissurella reticulata. Do.

Haliotis tuberculata. Do.

. Natica monolifera. Do.

as Trochus zizyphinus. Do.

“a4 T. Crassus. Do.

a Littorina littorea. Do.
OPHISTOBRANCHIATA--

(@.) TECTIBRANCHIATA :
Aplysia punctata. Jaws and Radula.
Bulla hydatis. (Gizzard, with dental plates.)

E (6.) NUDIBRANCHIATA : :
Fiona nobilis. Jaws and Radula.
Eolis coronata. Do.

Doris tuberculata. Radula.

L Oyster and mussel shells pierced by Purpura lapillus were
also exhibited.

NOTES ON THE INTELLIGENCE OF A YOUNG RAVEN,
a BY

ARTHUR S. REID, M.A., F.G.S.
(Abstract of paper read on TuEsDAY, JANUARY 5th, 1886.)

_ After a short general review of the natural history and known
its of the raven and a notice of the superstitions connected
it, Mr. Reid went on to read extracts from a diary he had kept,
h a view to discover how much of a raven’s intelligence was

he editary, and how much acquired. The raven under notice was

a4

obtained in the Spring of 1885 from a nest in the Perthshire
Highlands, and was kept, at first, under constant notice in the
writer’s study at Trinity College, Glenalmond: the chief obser-
vations and experiments were made when the bird (referred to
hereafter as ‘‘ Quilp’’) was from 3 to 8 months old. The following
is an abstract of the diary, with some recently added notes.

(July 8th, 1885.) Quilp has no perception of transparent
mediums, and does not acquire this perception by long experience ;
when shown pieces of meat under inverted tumblers he pecks
straight at the meat when a lucky blow upsets the glass and he
thus gets the meat he does not profit by this experience next
time: shown water in a bottle he pecks straight at the water, and
never attempts the proper entrance. (In November 1885 he has
not learnt by continued experience to get at the meat by upsetting
the tumbler. )

(July *10th.) A large looking glass was put on the floor.
Quilp approached it at once and evidently saw the reflection. His
fizst movement was gently placing his beak against the glass. —
Then he preened himself and uttered low murmurs; he nestled
close up against the glass and rubbed himself against the image.
Then he crouched together and ruffled his feathers, like a robin on
a cold day, and continually lifted his head, opening his beak and
apparently straining with his throat—something between the
retching of sea-sickness and the attempt to utter sounds under the
influence of fear. He gradually got worse, huddling up against
the glass and gaping and gasping with a peculiar moaning sound.
Fearing he was going to have a fit the experiment was ended.

(July 18th). Same experiment with same results, except
that once he went behind the glass, but returned immediately ; when
the glass was placed herizontally over him he suffered in the same
way; as soon as the glass was removed he was quite happy.

(July 14th). Quilp’s cage stands on a window-seat, 33 feet
from the ground; a ladder has been made for him. It took an
hour to persuade him to ascend it at first, and he would not trust
himself to it until he had thoroughly tested its stability by explora-
tory pecks. (By October he became quite obedient about the ladder
and went up it when motioned, or told to do so).

(July 15th). Experimented on the hiding instinct; it seems
primarily connected with storing food. As soon as he has eaten
sufficient, or if he is approached when eating, he fills the pouch
in his beak with food, and hides the food under the fender, in a
cricket bag, in the shadows of the furniture legs, among the hairs
of a skin hearth-rug, or under the hearth-rug. Whenever he
hides anything, he :nvariably picks up something to cover it with,
sometimes a scrap of paper or some hairs from the hearth-rag;
but more often just the very tiniest speck of dust. In his cage he
hides meat in the corners and always picks up a grain of sand or a —

a 65

small pebble to place on the top of it. He had 15 five shilling
pieces given him to-day, of which he hid three, and for an hour he
continually changed the hiding places of these, ‘as if not content
with them: even when these were securely hidden under the
fender he always picked up some dust or some hairs to tuck in
after them. It is very difficult to make out whether he remembers
his hiding-places from day to day; when let out he does not go
straight to the places where he hid food the day before, but rather
seems to re-discover these places in the course of his very
inquisitive peregrinations.
(July 18th). He has a great predilection for holes, which he
spends hours in enlarging. As he enjoys picking labels off things,
he was to-day tried with the coloured labels on a Gladstone
bag; result showed a preference for red. (After a series of
experiments it was found that he went for red in preference to
other colours, seven times out of ten).

& (July 20th). Quilp was tried with various objects, to see his
method of dealing with a foreign body. He always approached
with short hops and side glances; then he pretended utter

indifference, pecking about on the carpet but still getting nearer:

this would go on for, from 5 to 10 minutes; short advances and
_ then apparent indifference; next he would flutter and give a false
peck at the object, not reaching it; this was repeated till he just
_ touched it and moved it; at last he would seize it and drop it
hurriedly; this occurred several times until finally he would carry
‘it off and examine and destroy it at leisure. One thing—a pen-
_ rest made of copper wire—he would not go near, but exhibited
_ great fear of it as though it were a trap; a large tin vessel he
_ kept jumping round, croaking the while, but he would not peck at.
- it. Tried with a live toad he pecked at it at once, but it salivated
_ him as it doesadog. Each time he pecked at it his beak ran with
_ saliva. A stuffed ornithorhyncus he exhibited great fear of, and
refused to go near it, shrieking and fluttering with fear whenever
it was put near him. He has no fear of fire, he pecks directly at
flaming paper, burning matches, red hot irons, etc., burning his
beak but still continuing to peck at them. He shows no decided
_ preference for bright shining objects, as magpies are said to do. If
he has a preference it is for paper, which he tears to pieces—
apparently with no object but wanton destruction.

* (October 8th). Quilp has certainly developed sufficient
Memory to recognise me after two months’ absence; he came at

_ putting his head out to be scratched, and he will allow no one else

but the man who brings him his food to touch him. His cries are

_ peculiar, there are four distinct sets.

(1.) His war-cry, which rings with most unmistakable anger
and is accompanied by a ruffling of the crest, and fluffing
out of all the body feathers.

66

(2.) His joy-cry; when let out of his cage he hops all round
the room, and flaps his wings with cries of joy. This
is the cry one frequently hears from the ravens in the
hills.

(3.) His hunger-call, a hoarse strident ery, which he repeats,
when hungry, at almost regular half-minute intervals. -
This he only does, however, if he knows some one isin the
room: if heis crying for food when I am in the room,
and I go out, he immediately stops his cries.

(4.) His love-notes, which he only developed after he was
several weeks old. There are both low and high
notes, but very soft and gentle, more like the coos of a
dove. Some of them are apparent imitations of my
words to him: he very nearly gets ‘‘Hallo!” He is
most conversational in the evening; he will then con-
tinue to answer my remarks with his love notes.
‘* Koorookoo,”’ spoken softly at the back of the mouth,
approaches the sound of one of his commonest love-
notes.

(January, 1887. Since the above was written, Quilp has
lived out of doors for a year, and now imitates exactly the notes of |
the jackdaws and crows: he also has caught the “ clucking”’
sounds taught him by the coachman: can articulate ‘‘come along”
fairly well and will sit for an hour or more on a post, imitating
birds and human voices. He associates his ‘‘ caw” with a crow,
for if he sees one he will commence to ‘‘ caw” at once: and the
same is true of the jackdaws, whose mortal enemy he is.)

(November,30th, 1885). Quilp most certainly now recognises
the particular step of the man who brings him his food every day.
Directly he hears this particular step in the corridor, he is as
excited as any bird can well be, and jumps about the cage like
an india-rubber ball. Moreover, he now understands when I go to
the cupboard to fetch him a biscuit; although he cannot see me,
the opening of the cupboard and the rustling of the paper is
sufficient for him: I cannot, however, get him to associate any
particular word with food as a dog will. He also decidedly
connects the presence of a human being with the chance of getting
food. After he has discovered ‘that I am taking no notice of his
hunger cries he stops them, but if the porter comes in with the
letters, or any one else opens the door he begins again. He
certainly begins now to co-ordinate and associate ideas: of late he
has always shown great excitement when I have taken his empty
food-saucer out of his cage: he at once goes through the

excited jumps from perch to floor of cage that he indulges in

when he knows food is near at hand.

(December 2nd). He has of late exhibited a certain degree of
remembrance. About a month ago, he hurt his claw against the

67

fender in flying down from his cage: since then he has refused to
fly down, except on one occasion, when his curiosity was specially
aroused by a piece of tinsel paper: each other time a chair has
had to be put for him, before he would start to come down. Asa
rule he takes a bath twice a week, and if I forget to give him his
bath he reminds me of it by upsetting his water bowl. This
evening he was using his hunger-cry (although he had had a big
meal): upon taking him water several times, he upset it and
cortinued his cries: as soon as his bath appeared though, he was
down from his cage in a minute, and into the bath with cries of
joy:

(December 3rd). In using his beak as a weapon, the side
twist and the shake are as effective as the straight blow. If he
seizes your finger, when angry, the quick side twist is more
serious than the actual pressure, or the hard peck. The power of
this movement is wonderful. So with his food, the powerful shake
seems to tear it as much as the peck. ‘o-day, while. he was
eating a rabbit, each morsel received a tremendous shake, which
sent pieces flying from it for nine or ten yards: this shake also rids
the food of superfluous gravel. His beak is his great care, he
can’t bear any foreign body upon it, and cleans it continually: he
notices the smallest thing upon it, and yet he will drive a hole

_ through the thickest cardboard with one blow-of it.

(December 10th). A series of trials have been made, to

_ determine how far a raven is a bird of prey when pressed by
hunger. On July 20th a young bird. was given him: he at first

_ exhibited as much terror as the bird, he then pecked at it but did
_ not quite reach it. Finally he seized it with his claw and crushed
it to death against the perch, then plucked it and devoured it. On
November 20th a live rabbit was given him: he viewed it for
some time, then struck at its head, then viewed it again for some
_ time and struck at its back, then he left it alone and did not try to

_ kill it; his pecks were apparently exploratory. Another trial was

made with a live rabbit in December, after 36 hours.starvation, but

even then he seemed incapable of killing the animal, although he

_ several times struck at it’s eyes. When given dead rabbits he

_ invariably went for the eyes first, and then attempted (after getting
out the brain) to open the abdomen; but up to December his
strength of beak was not. sufficient ‘to open the animal. By

_. December 10th he had acquired the power of opening the rabbit’s
_ abdomen himself, always previously eating out the eyes.

In summing up the above facts and others, Mr. Reid pointed
a out what might “be considered as hereditary instincts, and what
acquired intelligence, and commented on the advantage of experi-

_ ™menting upon a bird when quite young. The hiding instinct is

F “obviously hereditary, but the memory of hiding places is only
_ acquired after some time. (January, 1887. Quilp now has a good
_ Memory for hiding places). The appreciation of transparent

68

mediums and reflections in looking glasses is not acquired by
experience. Ideas associated with food supply seem readily
acquired, and individuals are recognised as food providers, or
constant companions. (January, 1887. He will recognise his master.
50 yards away and come at his call) Certain harsh and raucous
notes are hereditary, but gentle modulated tones are acquired, and
the imitation faculty is early developed. The raven is apparently
essentially a carrion bird, and even when pressed with hunger is not
abird of prey. The tendency to destroy and tear inanimate
objects to pieces does not seem to have any particular purpose.
Apparently the raven has an hereditary fear of some things, and
approaches all strange objects with great caution, but soon
becomes accustomed to them when they are seen every day.

B.S fe
SOME PHYSICAL CONDITIONS OF SMUT
IN WHEAT,
BY

MR. J..-REID, F.R.C.S.Eng.
Read NovEMBER 4th, 1886.

The remarks were prefaced by descriptions of the fungi
causing diseases of growing wheat and the morphology of the Ear
of corn, aided by Diagrams. The fungus producing Smut,
‘‘ustilago carbo,’? was particularly displayed. Circumstances
obliged a daily walk through a field of growing Wheat and Barley
near Canterbury, during June and the greater part of July. June
was acold and dry month. The ground occupied by the crops had
been manured from the same supply, from the Farm close by.
The previous crops on the grounds were not known. In early
Spring some Acres (a) on the N. side of path had been sown with
white Wheat. About two or three weeks after, a larger piece (6)
had been sown with the same Wheat. The remainder of the
ground on the 8. (c) had been sown with Barley previous to the —
Wheat plots being sown. June 12th, 1886, the healthy Ears
began to appear in (a) plot and by the 18th were prominent over
the whole space; the spikes were then showing freely in (6)
section. In (c) space the beards of Barley were being thrust out
of the blades. June 24th, 1886, in (a) the Anthers were pretty
generally hanging from the spikelets. Smutted Ears were now
noticed and increased daily. The general aspect of the Crop was
strong and vigorous. The diseased spikes, though generally
seattered, appeared at considerable intervals, not more than two to
four in one drill space. The whole produce of one drill space was
never found affected, and similarly after careful examination of the
product of one grain in several instances, where one or two spikes —
were affected, it was found the others were untouched. Rarely
were two contiguous drill spaces affected. From the check given

69

to its growth, the diseased spikelet stood lower than the sound
ones, and hence was often hidden from view. Generally the spikes
were diseased throughout. Exceptions, however, were noticed in
which a few of the lower spikelets only were touched, and the others
~ were green, or the greater number were affected, and a few of the
upper ones were intact. In one instance the upper sound ones
were in blossom, indicating progressive development in spite of the
. disease below. This was marked for special study, and will be
noticed further on. On the first strong wind occurring, the
_ fungus-spores with the fibrous wreck of the spikelets were
- dispersed, leaving only a bare rachis, the culm and leaves
_ withering gradually. The (4) crop could not from position be.so
extensively observed. The appearance of the Smut bore the same
. relation to the period of blooming as in (a), and its progress was
_ alike in all respects. The disease appeared in (c) the Barley
section, about the same time as in (a), but was more limited;
here the affected spikes became more conspicuous, especially after
dispersion of the spores and wreck of the grain, for the rachis took
a vertical position above the drooping spikes, when relieved of its
weight. Soon after the appearance of the Smut, the Wheat-
_ blades became much affected by uredo linearis, the Summer-rust.
_ The destruction of the spikes of Wheat by the Smut was ascer-
_ tained to be effected before its protrusion from the enveloping
_ sheath. Several suspected blades that were slow to open were
unrolled, and the blighted Ear was found within, each spikelet
_ forming a greyish black compressed ovoid bead still unruptured ;
_ this condition was frequently noticed in the Barley spikes, after
protrusion, the tougher cuticle apparently delaying the disintegra-
_ tion on exposure to the air. The protrusion of the Ear is effected
_ by the pushing force of the growing stalk, and the expanding
action of the swelling spike. By the death of the Ear the
_ expanding influence is absent, and the pushing power may be
_ weakened. Not only is the blighted spike delayed in appearing,
and only comes forth when the sound Ear is in bloom; but it
_.often happens the tip of the spike catches in the unopened
_ contraction of the sheath where the leaf-blade is given off, and the
a stalk continuing to grow, a curved form is produced i in the spike
often with a sharp angle at its junction with the stalk. In Barley
he long awns projecting above the rachis adds to the difficulty
and makes the result more frequent under these circumstances.
_ The same thing happens with sound but weakly developed spikes,
or by the accidental cause of the tendril of a vetch stran gling the
upper part of the sheath. Though the disease first developes and
matures in the lower spikelets, from the upper part being first
_ exposed to the air, this part is the earliest to disintegrate; and
thus instances were met with in which a bare rachis existed at
Zz. he upper part, whilst the form of the lower spikelets was main-
tained ; or the bare end was protruding from the sheath, whilst the
_ lower ‘spikelets within peramed, their outward shape by the.

70

streneth of their fibrous tissue. Various suggestions have been
made as to the manner in which the plants become affected, and
how the spores enter and germinate with the plant. One is, that
they may enter the seed at the time of its development, and
remain dormant till the grain germinates. The coincident diffusion
of the spores and of the Pollen here noticed, rather supported that
view, but the fact also observed that the ears of corn developed
from a single grain were not all diseased appeared to militate
against it. This partial and limited attack of the parasite rather
points to the incidence of some terms, as selection or proximity
which may be co-efficient either with an external or internal
_ inyasion upon the particular portion of the growth that is
destroyed. The specimen in which the upper part of the spike
was noticed to live, whilst the lower spikelets had been destroyed,
was watched for a month, and then taken on the 2nd of August.
It grew in the (4) section of Wheat. The stem was green and
vigorous and of the same height as the surrounding sound plants.
The rachis was also greenish and bore nine spikelets. The ten
below had been destroyed by Smut, and all traces gone. The
result, briefly stated, was thus :—

10 spikelets entirely destroyed.

3 were greyish or green, the parts surrounding the seeds were

partially destroyed or slightly affected; the corn was
destroyed in the lowest one, and variously affected in a
somewhat progressive manner in the two other spikelets.
A sound grain was found in the upper one.
- 5 spikelets were sound with theusual proportion of perfect grain
1 spikelet at apex abortive.

19 total spikelets in the spike. : y

This sort of Wheat produces two and occasionally three grains
of Corn, instead of tour ; the full amount in a spikelet.

XVI.

MALFORMED FRUIT OF A BLACKTHORN
OR SLOE-TREE,
BY
MR. J. REID, F.R.C.S.Eng.
Read NOVEMBER 4th, 1886.
The several specimens exhibited with others in a sound state —

were taken from one of three shrubs growing on the edge of a deep”

ditch of a cultivated field, The shrubs were not well grown, were
partly damaged and appeared to have been trimmed. The two
other shrubs were barren. The fruit was taken in June, 1886;
the sound fruit of a dark green colour was perfect in all its parts. -
The endocarp was hard and thick, and was fully occupied within

71

by the embryo enveloped in its membrane. In one specimen a
sound and imperfect drupe grew on the same: stalk. The
malformed drupes were unnaturally enlarged, elliptically elongated
and distended at the far end. Some were curved on the long axis.
They were greenish yellow or yellow, and were unduly soft and
pulpy. They had the general appearance of small ripe yellow
plums, and it was this which first attracted attention to them ;
~ some of the more attenuated forms approximated the lineament of a
leaf of the shrub. In all the specimens the endocarp was imper-
_ fectly or scarcely developed ; it was little more than a thin mem-
brane, more rigid and tenacious than the other parts, and indicated
by a darker surface. The embryo was very variable in all the
specimens, and in no instance filled the space within the endocarp ;
in some instances it was merely a minute body occupying its
appropriate spot in the ovoid space. The soft pulpy feel was due
_ to the fluid state of the mesocarp. In one specimen this moisture
was absent, and mere dry tissue with some chlorophyll represented
_ the mesocarp ; in this instance the resemblance to the form of a
leaf was most marked. Some of the Malformed Fruit was left on
the tree for further observation, and examined after a month’s time.
_ Sound and unsound fruit had diminished by depredators. A
_ specimen found was but weakly attached to the stalk, and easily
separated, leaving a yellowish scar.. The bulk had increased and
_ was firm. The smooth yellowish outer surface was somewhat
wrinkled, and had a browner tint. The mesocarp had somewhat .
increased, the cavity of the endocarp being relatively smaller, and
_ drier, presenting the shrivelled remains of the embryo at its usual
_ spot. ‘The membrane of the endocarp was more brittle, and frayed
lengthwise more easily than in the earlier specimens. The sound
_ drupes were still green and had increased, and become more resist-
- ing to touch by increased hardness in the endocarp. The-
malformation, then, consisted of a retrocession to the leaf-origin of
the growth, a dropsical state of the mesocarp, a very essential
_ defect in development of the endocarp, and an associated atrophy
of the embryo. As to the probable causes, for seldom or never
A can a single cause be assigned for an altered or diseased condition,
_ though it is too generally assumed, the changes noticed imply
irregularity in the distribution of nutriment of the part. This
_ might result either from loss of energy in the fertilizing power of
_ the pollen or diminution of supply by local or general weakness in
_ the power of the shrub. That they were not entirely due to loss
_ of fructifying power in the pollen is shown by the fact that as
_ regards size the embryo in some specimens was nearly the same as
those in drupes of the same shrub that were in a natural condition.
There was no cause of local or general debility arising from an
excessive crop, as it was slight, confined to one side of the shrub
and nowhere crowded ; the malformed fruit too was mostly solitary,

and no local mischief of the twig bearing the drupe was found.

The scanty crop and the somewhat depraved vegetative condition

ef
ae.

72 Ware

of the shrub mentioned, together with the fact of the barren state
of the adjoining shrubs, point to a general depression of power.
As bearing on this, two conditions should be mentioned. The
shrubs were isolated and far removed from others of their species,
and probably therefore from the advantages of cross-fertilization.
Then.a high hedge, backed by a growth of trees on the other side
of the ditch, cut off the shrubs from the direct ray of the sun,
except in the very early morning on the N.E. and late evening
on the N.W. It should be noted also that the waste fruit that
falls by reason of an excessive crop has the endocarp naturally
developed.

VEL.
ON TRICHODINA AS AN ENDOPARASITE,

BY
T. B. ROSSELER, F.R.M.S.
Read FEBRUARY 10, 1887.

(Read before the Royal Microscopical Society, 138th October, 1886, and
reprinted by permission of the Council).

I was led to the discovery of this Infusorian as an endoparasite
by a fortunate accident. Being anxious to find the habitat of an
endoparasite I had observed attached to the muscles of the larva of
Oorethra plumicornis, whose life-history I was working out,
I selected the smooth water-newt as my subject, knowing from
observation of its habits that the newt feeds largely on these and
similar larve ; but whilst dragging for them, I captured some
specimens of Zriton cristatus, which I therefore included in my
investigations.

Previous to experimenting with the larve it was necessary to
ascertain what parasitic life the newt gave shelter to in its alimen-
tary canal, so that in tracing out the life-history of the endoparasite
of which the larva of Corethra is the host, the metamorphoses of
one parasite might not be confounded with those of another.

It was during the dissection of one of the newts so obtained
that I observed in the fluid in which the viscera were placed, a
species of TZrichodina, resembling, but not, I think, identical
with 7. pediculus, which is so frequently found as an ectoparasite
on Hydra vulgaris in company with Kerona polyporum. | The
creature was .so named by Ehrenberg, a name which it still
retains with English naturalists, although it is known to Con-
tinental investigators under other names. Dujardin* places it
as the second genus in his family of Urceolarieew, naming it
Urceolaria stellina, but all writers agree in the'fact of its being
ectoparasitic only, and free-smimming in its habits. Dujardin
says, ‘‘ La face opposée garnie d’une couronne complete de cils, au

* «Histoire Naturelle des Zoophytes,’ 1841, p. 527.

q ' \

v4 : 73
c "moyen desquels l’animal nage librement ou marche 4 la surface des
_ Hydras.” Saville Kent, in his ‘Manual of the Infusoria,’ p. 646,
retains the name of TZrichodina pediculus, and, under habitat,
distinctly classes it as an ectoparasite, referring also to a new
habitat, on the branchial appendages of larve of Ziriton cristatus.
% _ This T am able to confirm, having found them this year in the
same place on larve of Triton. These Trichodina, which are
] ectoparasitic on the branchiwe of the larva of Zriton, retain their
_ affinity for Hydra vulgaris, as can be proved by taking some from
"a larva of Triton whose branchie are infested with them, and
ss placing them in a watchglass with Hydra, when they will be seen
rm to attach themselves by their acetabulum to the surface of the
tentacles of the Hydre.

I have searched carefully to discover if these Zrichadina are
ectoparasitic on either the adult triton or newt, but have been
unsuccessful, although I have captured both in company with
lary, whose branchix have been infested with them.

r In order to trace the origin of the Zrichodina which, as I have
_ said, I found accidentally, I determined in March otf the present

year to investigate the matter systematically, and accordingly
_ [killed a male specimen of Triton eristatus with chloroform, washed
it with warm water with a camel’s hair brush, opened it ventrally,
and extracted the viscera. These were placed’ in a watchglass with
‘a ‘distilled water, when numbers of Zrichodina were obser ved with a
Lin. objective in the fluid; some were taken up with a pipette,
placed on a glass plate, covered with a cover-glass, and carefully

compared with the figures of 7. pediculus in Saville Kent’s ‘ Infu-
soria,’ which they were found closely toresemble. A female Zriton
_ was next taken, and subjected to the same process, but proved a
failure. .A male smooth water-newt was treated in the same way,
and yielded an abundant supply; but a female newt from the
same source was barren of results. These preliminary observations
_ furnished sufficient evidence that the Zrichodina did exist in the
_ viscera as endoparasites, and I may say that great caution was
ercised in regard to the cleanliness of the troughs, pipettes, and
issecting instruments that were used.

i On the 18th June I captured some newts, and entered upon
a still more thorough investigation of the subject.

A small newt was killed with chloroform, washed in warm
water, afterwards in distilled water, and then placed in an oblong
glass trough. The lower jaw was removed, and the ventral side
opened from thorax to anus—a slit being made on cither side to
allow the dermis to be thrown back, and thus expose the whole ot
he viscerz. The heart, lungs, and liver, with the gall-bladder,
re detached and placed on glass plates and covered with small
ell-glasses. Each was separately examined, at first dry as an
opaque object, and afterwards immersed in sterilized water and

74

teased out with needles. The result was to confirm my previously
formed opinion, that the animals were not endoparasitic in these
organs.

The alimentary canal was next detached its whole length, with
a portion of the mesentery ; the latter was spread out and examined
with 1 in. and 1/2in. objectives, but no signs of parasitic life were
visible. The alimentary canal was also examined externally its
whole length, and then placed in a perfectly clean trough with
some of the distilled water. The intestine was very much attenu-
ated, due to the fact that my stock had been kept short of food for
afew days. It was then opened its whole length, and examined
in sections. The cloaca was carefully examined, as the ureters
and the urino-seminal duct (plate XVIII. fig 1, f and g) terminate
in ashort canal, at the back of the cloaca. Not a specimen of
Trichodina was, however, found either within the alimentary canal
or in the fluid in which it was immersed.

T next examined the testes and renal organs and their ducts.
These were extracted, spread out on a’ glass plate under a lens,
distilled water added, and examined by a1 in. objective. The
testes were tolerably free, an occasional Trichodina being seen in
their neighbourhood and among the efferent ducts. But it was
otherwise with the renal organs; the fluid in their immediate
neighbourhood was literally alive with the TZrichodina, which
swarmed over the kidneys and amongst the ureters, at times
detaching themselves and moving about, and then settling them-
selves down and twirling round and round with a concentric motion.
Here, then, amongst the urino-seminiferous organs, was the habitat
of these ecto-endo-Zrichodina, a locality which, up to the present
time, according to the authorities with which I am acquainted, had
escaped the notice of old and recent investigators, the Zrichodina
being looked upon as purely cctoparasitic and free-swimming in
their habits.

Having established the habitat of the organisms, I endeayoured
to ascertain their relationship to the parasites of the Hydra.

Hydre from a pond (known as the ‘“‘reed-pond’’) were ex-
amined, and found free from Zrichodina pediculus; larvee of Triton —
eristatus were taken from another pond at some distance, and
specimens of Zrichodina were detached from the branchie, taken
up with a pipette, and placed with the Hydre in a watchglass, a
small quantity of water being added. Specimens of Zrichodina
were then taken from a newly dissected newt, put into a watch-
glass with a small quantity of water, and one of the Hydra added.
The former was used as a control experiment, and attention was
specially directed to the latter.

' When placed in the watchglass the Hydra was of course con- -
tracted, but after a few minutes elongated itself, and spread out its —

a 75

tentacles in all directions. The Zrichodina took no notice of the
_ Hydra. Some settled themselves down in a quiescent condition,
_ whilst others would spin round with a concentric motion, after a
time again putting themselves in motion. If they struck against
_ the Hydra they recoiled, as it were, from the contact, and con-
tinued their course; but at no time was there any adhesion to
~ show their ectoparasitic nature. After the lapse of an hour the
_ Hydra contracted itself, and gradually withdrew its tentacles until
_ they were mere points; in a short time they disappeared entirely,
_ and decomposition set in; some of the TZrichodina lived about
_ three hours afterwards, and then died. This experiment was
repeated at different times with similar results.

_____ It was otherwise, however, with the control experiment where
_ the Zrichodina at once attached themselyes to the Hydra. Both
_ lived for days, the former seeming as much at home on the tentacles
of the Hydra as on the branchiz of the larve of Zriton.

8 I tried another experiment. I isolated five newts, placing
_ them in a dry bell-glass on some pieces of granite, and kept them
__ without food or water for twenty-one days. I-did this to know
_ whether the fact of keeping them without nutriment would have
_ any effect on the existence of the TZrichodina if found. Of the
_ five newts one died from starvation, and the others became very
_ torpid, huddled up together, and were in a very emaciated condition.
_ I killed two, and found that the viscera had shrunk considerably,
_ more especially the liver. The gall-bladder was distended with
- gall of a light greenish colour—in the immediate change from
larva to adult it is of a dark colour. I had expected to find some
_ Trichodina in the thorax, but did not. The urino-seminiferous
organs, however, in both specimens of newt, were swarming with
_ animals in different stages of growth. This experiment goes to
_ prove that a long dearth of water has no effect on the existence of
_ the Zrichodina as endoparasites. The other two I placed in their
_ natural element, and they soon recovered their activity.

3 In reference to their vitality, I may remark that I tried in many
_ ways to keep them alive for anything approaching the time of the
control experiment, but all failed. At last, working on the assump-
_ tion that they required but little oxygen, the contractile vesicle
_ being anything but an active one, I constructed an oblong trough,
_ with the upper edges ground flat. In this I placed the viscera,
_ minus the lungs, liver, and heart; at the same time syringing the
_ visceral cavity. and emptying the contents into the trough. This
_ I covered with a plate of glass, having previously greased the
_ edges, and placed the whole under the receiver of an air-pump.
_ By thus excluding a certain quantity of air, I was enabled to keep
‘most of them alive for about twenty-four hours.

a _ In ny view the species of Zrichodina with which I have been

76

dealing differs from 7. pediculus, and from any other hitherto’
known species. ;

In particular they have not that hourglass form seen s0
frequently in 7. pediculus, either when found on the tentacles of
Hydra, or on the branchize of the larva of 7Zriton. They always
retain a dome-like form (fig 2). I do not consider that this
persistency of form is due to the sickly condition referred to by
other writers in the case of 7. pediculus, as all the specimens I have’
found have been to all appearances in a very healthy state. Again,
the number of the denticles exceeds those of 7. pediculus ; the
ring of the acetabulum of the former consisting of thirty, whereas
that of 7. pediculus has twenty-six. Its endoplast is band-like and

curved, and the cuticle offers a greater resistance to the action of
acetic acid than the denticles. The pulsations of the contractile
vesicle are very sluggish.

When the creature is treated with picro-carmine I find that
the acetabulum gives way, and the whole of the contents of the
interior are ejected, thus leaving the lorica empty (fig. 6). The
acetabulum is articulated to the body, and is easily detached by -
careful manipulation of the compressorium. The greatest length
of the body is about 1/500 in., and the diameter 1/400 in.

I have only to add that when I first found these creatures
T thought that possibly they were peculiar to the pond from which
I took the newts; since then, I have captured both species of —
Batrachians in various ponds, within a radius of four miles of
Canterbury, and found that they all harboured these parasites, ©
though in none did I find a single specimen of Hydra. The same
result followed an examination of a dozen newts sent me by
Mr. T. Bolton from Birmingham, the urino-seminiferous organs
containing large numbers of the parasites. .

-

i

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVIII.
Fig. 1.—Male organs of newt (after Owen), showing habitat of Trichodina,
_ @, testes. c, efferent tubes. ¢, kidney. /f, urino-seminal canal. g, ureters. —
Fig. 2.—Trichodina sp. lateral view x 500.
Fig. 3.— e ventral view. al
Figs 4 and 5.—Showing articulation of acetabulum (fig. 4 lorica, fig. 5
acetabulum). oe

Fig, 6.—Illustrating action of picro-carmine on the living subject, showing
lorica partially disintegrated, acetabulum detached, and ejected endoplasm.

Fig. 7.—Trichodina in situ on Hydva (Saville Kent).

JOURN BR.MICK. SOC. SER HVOLMILPL. XVIT

a ? , West Newman &Co hth
lrichodina.

NOTES;

* XI.—The Trepang or Sea-Cucumber—sy Mr. J. Rew.
FEBRUARY 3, 1885.

Specimens ot Holothuria tuberculata, variously called Trepang,
Béche-de-Mer, Sea-slug, or Sea-cucumber, were presented by
R. E. Thomson, Esq., of Kenfield Hall, who had received them
from Australia, where they were used as an adjunct and basis of
soup consumed at the dinner parties of the highest circles. Mr.
Reid, from softened specimens, demonstrated some of the characters
of the structure of the animal, and further described its nature,
habits, and position in the animal kingdom. He pointed out that
these creatures form an article of important commerce in the Indian
Seas, high prices being given for the rarer kinds, the annual worth
of the merchandise reaching a great sum. The mode of preparing
them was also described.

XII.—Some properties of Tannin—sy Carr. McDaxin.
MARCH 3, 1885.

Mr. S. Harvey, F.C.S. exhibited specimens of different
species of gall nuts. Capt. McDakin followed with a short paper
on the properties of Tannin, accompanied by chemical demonstrations,
in which some peculiar results were pointed out.

XIII.— Destruction of Oysters by Star-fishes—py Mr. Steer
: ~ SAUNDERS.
E : MARCH 3, 1885.

Mr. Saunders demonstrated from specimens the method the
_ Star-fish pursues in first strangling the Oyster and then devouring
peat.

. XIV.—Sea Stars—sy Mr. Srpert Saunvers.

e
APRIL 8, 1885.

This paper (which was too long for publication here) dealt
with all the most generally known British species belonging to the
_ first three orders of Echinodermata, viz.: the Crinoidea—Feather
Stars; the Ophiuroidea—-Sand Stars and Brittle Stars; and the
_ Asteroidea—True Star Fishes.

The chief object of the writer was to direct attention to the
element of beauty which is strikingly manifested in these animals,

78 |

more particularly: i in their symmetry of form, delicacy of structure,
and the elegance of the arrangement of the innumerable plates and
spines which are articulated to form the skeleton.

In demonstration of these points, specimens of the following _
species were exhibited, and the details of structure were shewn by
sections and by microscrupical preparations : —

CrivomEa—
Comatula (Autedan) rosaceus.

OpuIvROmMEA—
Ophiura lacertosa
O. albida
Amphiura elegans
A. brachiata
Ophiocoma rosula
O. granulata
O. Goodsiri.

ASTEROIDEA—
Uraster (Asterias) rubens
U. glacialis
Solaster papposus
Cribrella sanguinolenta
Astropecten irregularis
Asterina gibbosa
Palmipes placenta
Porania pulvilius.

XV.—Lron in Clay Nodules—sy Carr. McDaxry.
JUNE 2, 1885.

Capt. McDakin exhibited specimens of Clay-ironstones from
Crowborough, in the Weald of Sussex, and illustrated by diagrams —
the curious segregation of Iron from the interior to the surface of
the réctangular and flattened nodules.

XVI.—Jet in the Wealden Strata—sy Mrs. Cour.

Mrs. Cole produced some pieces of Jet, taken 30 years since
from a depth of 80 ft., near Battle Abbey. Reference was made _
at the same time to the discovery of a large block of similar composi- a
tion in the chalk at Shepherd’s Well Tunnel, near Dover, when —
the L. C. & D. Railway was being constructed. The block was
preserved in the Canterbury Museum throug the action of some
Members of the Society. an

XVII.— Habits of the Honey Bee—sy Cou. C. J. Cox.
JuLY 7 1885.

79

to the question of Bees pre-arranging for a new home by means of
pioneer Bees, and stated facts in his own observation and that of
others tending to confirm the proceeding.

XVITI.— Gizsard of Larva of Corethra Plumicornis—
BY T. B. Rossrerer, F.R.M.S.
DECEMBER, I, 1885.

Mr. Rosseter read a paper giving the results of two years
careful observation of, and experiments on, the structure and
functions of the Gizzard of Larve of Corethra Plumicornis. It was
illustrated by accurate and artistic drawings. The paper is pub-
lished in Vol. v., 8. ii. Journ. R. M. Society.

XIX.— Coceide or Scale Insects—ny G. 8. SaunpERs, AND
Carr. McDaxin.

FEBRUARY 4, 1886.

Mr. Saunders communicated a paper on the above subject
previously published in ‘‘The Garden” Sept. 17th, 1881. At the
same time Capt. McDakin exhibited the well known changes of
colour produced, in solutions of Cochineal (obtained from the scale
Insect ‘‘ Coccus Cacti,’”’) by acid and alkaline solutions. He also

bited some unrecorded colour indications in acid and alkaline

XX.—Filaria— sy T. B. Rossuren, F.R.M.S.
Marcu 4, 1886.

Mr. Rosseter exhibited and briefly described a specimen of
Filaria or Thread Worm, occupying the Abdomen of a Cypris which
been found in a Well.

Fats

XXI.—Stylographs ’s purr and buzz of « Blue-bottle Fly—
a By EK. W. Rew, M.B.

- NOVEMBER 4, 1886.

i»

The tracings were taken in work pursued at the St. Mary’s
tal “Biological Laboratory. They were produced by the
scular action of a Cat’s throat when purring, and by the wing of
lue Bottle Fly when buzzing. Diagrams were used to explain
methods of obtaining the time-tracing, and that of the vibration .
nd in relation to each other. The Cat’s purr gave 29 vibra-
per second. Helmsholtz states the lowest C. of the pianoforte
per second, and the lowest rate of vibration perceptible as

80. ia

musical sound is 16 per second. The vibrations of the Fly’s wing | :
gave two degrees of vibration: a, 225 double vibrations per sec. ie
and b, 150 per sec.

XXII.— Our Sponges—sx J. T. Hitxrrer, M.R.C.8.Eng.
DECEMBER 2, 1886.

This paper referred mainly to the advance lately Bea,
common with all branches of Natural History, in the knowledge o:
. the structure and function of sponges ; so that there was no difficult
in recognizing them as animals. A general description was given
of the structure of their component parts, together with their —
classification, and ample illustrations were made by well selected —
specimens and microscopic slides of all points alluded to. ‘The —
paper was a preliminary one to another that is to follow, settin;
forth the author’s more local and original knowledge. :

2 ted
[recoded . . > Sa
~s ¥

Bre :
“Pt o

= ) ‘She

“> ine

ae i

exe
2%

%

- s

BAST KENT

Nos. 8 & 4.

2 oe

NEW SERIES.

BBS & SONS, PALACE STREET.

oy eee 1880.

~ PRICE TWO SHILLINGS.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

EAST KENT
Datuyal Distory Society.

Nos. 3 & 4.
NEW SERIES.

Gayterbury :

GIBBS & SONS, PALACE STREET.

1889.

CONTENTS.

PAPERS COMMUNICATED.

PAGE.
18.—Notes on the British Birds of East Kent, with List :

q Mr. G. Dowker, F.G.S. Si gcd
19.—Life History of a Plant of Daucus Carota :

Mr. J. Reid, F.R.C.S., Eng. saci 20
_ 20.—Woodlice, Centipedes, und Snake-Millipedes :
Mr. G. S. Saunders, F.L.S. an JEZE
1 21. —The Probability of finding Coal in Kent :
Mr. G. Dowker, F.G.S. Bh ote (8,
22. —On the Occurrence of Manganese, near Canterbury :
; Captain J. Gordon McDakin noe TRE

_ 23.—On the Origin of Glauconite in the Lower Greensand:
Captain J. Gordon McDakin Pre Lie

NOTES.

_23.—Preliminary Report of the Sub-Committee on the Temperature of

the River Stour ... ac ae aA: oe woe 138
24.—White Rhinoceros Horn... ca bese ae ace oe 139
25.—Fall of Rock at Niagara Falls Re 22 nee ais ene 139
a7, | Exhibits eee
28.—Summer Excursions and their Results, 1887 tee ae Sad 141
29.—F alcaria Riviri in East Kent... see = ass aa? ae 142
30.—Development of the Ear in Animals ves Ee os ar 143
31.—Time as a Geological Factor... on ae se er. ae 145
32.—On the unity of Nature... ww. Pe Cee eS
33.—Present Knowledge in Meteorology... “a Ze he ake 146

—Summer Excursions and their Results, 1888 ae bes ses 147

35.—Subjects for the Original Observation of the Society... ae 148

INTRO BRCTION
TO

MR. DOWKER’S NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF
EAST KENT.

These Notes, when first communicated to the Society, were
preceded by a general and instructive discourse on the structure
and classification of British Birds, illustrated by drawings made
by the Author. They were founded, in the first instance, on the
Author’s personal observations, extending over 30 years, and
subsequently amplified and confirmed by the contributions of the
eight Observers quoted in the Zabulated List that follows the
Notes, to which list reference is made by the page indicated with
each Family noted. The Publishing Committee of the Society,
desiring to add to its transactions such excellent original work, and
the Author, at the same time, wishing to complete the notes up to
the time of publication, have caused a delay, which has resulted in
the issue of the present double number. Yarrell’s 4th edition is

followed in the names and arrangement of the Birds.

July, 1889.

AVAL.

NOTES ON THE BRITISH BIRDS OF EAST KENT
WITH SUBSEQUENT ADDITIONS AND
TABULATED LIST,

BY
G. DOWKER, Esq., F.G.S.

Read May, 1885.

FAMILY FALCONIDA.—(page 104.)

The White Tailed Eagle—Haliaétus albicilla—has at various
times been met with, generally young specimens, some three or
four having been found at or near the same time; some of the older
specimens met with have been preserved in the Canterbury
Museum. The latest appearance of this bird in East Kent, was in
1885; between this and the following year at least three specimens
have been shot in the neighbourhood. The first of these specimens
(now in the Canterbury Museum, where it occupies a very
conspicuous place) was for some time before flying about our
marshes, to the great excitement of the shooting fraternity of the
neighbourhood; one gentleman who had spent many hours in
attempting to get near the bird told me it had been seen attempting
to carry off a sheep, and had torn the wool off its back. But it
appears that it had only been feasting on the carcase of a dead sheep
which had been drowned in the marshes. It was then reported to
have taken some tame ducks, but there are even doubts about that ;
after being seen about a week it was ignominiously shot at Minster,
November, 1885. It wasa fine female bird, three feet in length,
and eight feet in the stretch of its wings. It was for some time
confidently stated that it was a Golden Eagle, till I pointed out
the error. Soon after this another specimen was shot near Eastwell
Park, and is now in the possession of the Duke of Edinburgh; this
latter was a male and, like the other, a young bird. Sometime
after the last bird had been shot another was seen in our marshes,
and many attempts were made to shoot it, but it got away and I
was pleased to think it might have escaped from its numerous
enemies: but I find from a letter which appeared in ‘‘ Land and
Water,” January 28, 1888, that a similar bird was shot by a
gentleman of Dover, about the year 1885, and is now in the
collection of Mr. Walter Bates, of Fulham. It appears highly
probable that these were all young birds. About the same date a
similar eagle was shot at Swaffham in Norfolk. I have recorded
one specimen of the Sea Eagle, shot many years ago by the
Rev. B. Austen, at Weatherless Hill, in the Minster Marshes.
There are also three specimens of young birds, obtained nearly the
same time, and set up by Mr. Craig for the Canterbury Museum,
where they are preserved. Mr. John Bing, of Grove Ferry, tells me
he remembers them having been shot near Chilham, and sent to the
Canterbury Museum. Mr. Gordon, of Dover, remembers one being
obtained from Godmersham Park. We have no evidence that these

82

birds were bred here ; according to Macgillivray, the White Tailed
Sea Eagle usually chooses for its retreat the shelf of some lofty
precipice overhanging the sea, and there in fancied security forms
its nest, and reposes at night. Individuals have been known to
remain attached to the same spot for many years, nor does it appear
that this bird ever relinquishes its residence to its young, but drives
them off to find a habitation for themselves ; for this reason most of
the wandering individuals that have been shot at great distances
from the breeding places, have been young or immature birds. The
eggs are two in number; when the breeding season is over the
young disperse, and though these birds are not of social habits,
several individuals may often be seen at no great distance traversing
the hills or shores, where their plunder (chiefly carrion) is to be
obtained. What a pity it is to think how these birds are destroyed.
Tf left undisturbed we might have them breeding in the Dover
Cliffs. As the Sea Eagle has so often been mistaken for the Golden
Eagle, it may as well be here stated that there is an unfailing test
by which they may be distinguished. The foot of the Golden Eagle
has the tarsus clothed with feathers; and each toe has small
reticulated scales to the last joint, which has three broad scales ; in
the White Tailed Eagle, on the other hand, the tarsus is only
partially covered with feathers, and the whole of the toe is covered
with broad scales.

The Osprey—Pandion haliaétus—is a very rare bird in Kent,
and I can findnorecord of its appearance of late years; the only
specimen I know the history of, was obtained by the Rey. B. Austen,
from the Isle of Thanet; indeed, it isarare British Bird anywhere,
and mostly confined to the North of England. Mr. Gordon knows
of another specimen obtained at Rainham Creek, near Faversham.

The Peregrine Falcon, one of the most beautiful birds of the
tribe, still breeds in the Cliffs west of Dover, and here numerous
land slips have occurred, forming an undercliff of great beauty,
known as The Warren, and Little Switzerland. This broken ground
extends from Shakespeare’s Cliff to near Folkestone ; here the cliff is
some 500 feet above the sea. The broken masses of fallen cliff
have in many cases preserved their perpendicular outline towards
the sea front; between the standing and fallen masses there is often
broken ground, covered with bushes, thorns, and brambles, some
three or four furlongs in width, a very paradise for the Naturalist
and Botanist. Colonel Fielding has described these Dover Cliffs as
presenting, during the first week in July, a very animated
appearance : ‘‘ Hundreds of Herring Gulls are nesting there, and the
young ones may be seen about their nests, attended by the parent
birds. For some reason or other, probably for the want of suitable
' ledges, the Herring Gulls do not appear to nest on the abrupt faces
of the cliffs, but in spots where land-slips have occurred, and where

83

the slopes are more or less covered with verdure. In selecting
such breeding places, the gulls, as might be expected, select the
more inaccessible slopes; great mortality occurs among the young
gulls, from their nests being placed on the steep inclines, for the
young, tempted from their nests, lose their foothold on the slippery
grass and slide and fall down on the beach below, where they are
abandoned by the parent birds.”” The Peregrine Falcon soars aloft
amid the inaccessible heights; Col. Fielding told me a pair had
reared their young there in safety in 1887, and these young gulls
must have contributed to their daily food. I should say some of
the gulls make their nests on the fallen rock just above the ordinary
high water line, and at low water these nests are invariably
plundered of their eggs. Col. Fielding estimates that no less than
400 Herring Gulls nest in the Cliffs between Dover and
St. Margaret’s Bay.

A visitor to the Cliff, immediately below the South Foreland
Light House, will be gratified to find that a considerable colony of
Guillemots make this their breeding station. It is a very bold
perpendicular headland, and only accessible to experienced cragsmen
with proper appliances.

The Merlin, though met with occasionally, is only a Visitor in
Kent ; it breeds in the more northern counties. This bold little bird
was formerly a great favourite of the hawkers; I have had some of
them given me by a friend who had used them for hawking larks ;
he tried to persuade me to try them, and although I never got so
far as to hawk with them, I tamed them, and one that I have had for
a long time afforded me much amusement and insight into their
habits ; they are generally met with in Kent during the winter
months.

The Kestrel is our common hawk, though not so frequently
met with of late as it should be. There seems to bea very absurd
prejudice against all kinds of hawks. The Kestrel is commonly
called a Sparrow Hawk, although it cannot be mistaken for that
bird by any one acquainted with its habits. As an instance of the
usefulness of this bird, I may relate that my son was one day out
partridge shooting, and saw hovering over a turnip field a kestrel,
which he shot, when immediately a covey of partridges arose—he
brought it home to me in proof of its destructive qualities ; I assured
him it would not kill any bird so large as a partridge, and on
opening it I found its crop filled with caterpillars, and I found
the same caterpillars in abundance in the turnip field. These birds
feed on mice, small birds, and insects, and are as useful as owls.

The Common Sparrow Hawk has quite a different character
from the kestrel, but it is getting scarce, although there are plenty
of sparrows it might kill with advantage. Unlike the kestrel, which

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is very easily tamed, the sparrow hawk is of a very fierce,
untameable disposition, and though I have had young ones given
me, I never could tame them.

The Kite, ‘‘Common”’ Kite, as it is sometimes called, is a very
rare bird now. The old inhabitants at Canterbury used to see this
beautiful bird sailing along over the Sturry Marshes, and there are
some specimens in the Canterbury Museum that were probably shot
in the neighbourhood. One of these birds was seen in 1867, and 1
believe one has been seen since, but it is a very rare bird now
everywhere. Pity it is indeed that so many of the Falconide‘are so
ruthlessly destroyed by the game keepers ; the rare specimens may
be found in some of our local Museums, in glass cases, ghosts of
their former selves, whose glaring eyes and distorted forms seem
to cast a mournful and reproachful glance on the human or inhuman
visitors. What was their crime? Why so ruthlessly exterminated ?
Ask the Game Keeper, he will tell you! Ask the Squire, and he
will tell you! They were the enemies of the Partridge or the
Pheasant. But ask the Partridge, and if he could speak, he
would tell you he had greater enemies than the Kite. Man was
his great enemy. Fifty or a hundred years ago in every farm in
Kent the Partridge found his home; but now, only where he
is strictly preserved is he found in any numbers. Why is this?
The hedges are cut down, and prowling cats, rooking boys, and
embryo sportsmen are constantly on the look out for what they
can get to kill and destroy. Yes, Man is the enemy, his selfish
instincts have prompted the slaughter. The Fox is ten times more
destructive than the Kite, and it abounds because it affords sport
to man, and the fox hunter is privileged. I will not grudge them
their sport, though my chickens suffer. I only ask for reciprocity.
I should like the Peregrine Falcon, the Kite, and the Kagle to have
some protection afforded them, and if the gamekeepers and county
gentlemen were better instructed in Natural History, they would
see the uselessness of destroying all the Faleonida. Those who
know best about the habit of the Kite tell us it feeds, for the
most part, on mice and ignoble game.

The Buzzards, again, are getting very scarce, though most
useful birds. They are occasionally seen in our marshes, and were
rather numerous during the German and French war; it was
supposed they were driven from the woods by the soldiers. I had
one brought me which had been shot at, but only stunned ; it soon
recovered the shock, and I kept it some time in confinement ; it
was very voracious, all sorts of garbage, fish, frogs, snakes, &c.,
affording it a dainty meal. I think it fell a victim to its voracity,
as I gave it one day a snake three feet in length, which it
swallowed whole, commencing with the head, and it also gorged
itself with fat pork.

85

The Honey Buzzard is only occasionally met with, mostly in
the Eastern parts ; it generally feeds on wasps.

The Red-footed Falcon, Hobby, Gos Hawk, Marsh Harrier,

and Montague’s Harrier are rare visitors.

The Lesser Kestrel, which is excluded from the British birds,
was taken alive by Mr. Gordan, at Dover, near the Castle ; it is to
be noted as of very rare occurrence in the British Isles.

THE STRIGIDAl.—(page 105.)

The Strigidz, so conspicuously useful to man, are certainly
getting scarcer, even the Common Barn Owl is not so protected as
formerly, when it was common to leave a hole in the barn porch
for him to enter. Has the thrashing machine anything to do with
it? Owls are among the common birds sent to the taxidermist,
and an owl is frequently among the stuffed specimens seen in
country houses. As may be noted in my list, one specimen of
the Snowy Owl was obtained from near Faversham. I fear
game keepers have no liking for owls, considering how often they
destroy them.

In confinement Owls are most interesting birds, and they are
constantly advertised as domestic pets. So this may have some-
thing to do with their being found in diminished numbers. I had
once a Barn Owl for sometime in confinement, and it was quite as
partial to sparrows as to mice. The specimen was a lady, and
received clandestine visits from one of the male sex, until one
night the gentleman managed to undo the door of the cage and let
his lady-love free. I gave him credit for great intelligence, and
was rather glad he had so gallantly rescued the captive.

The Lantide are represented by the great Grey Shrike, and
the Red-backed Shrike. The former rare bird has been met with
several times in my immediate neighbourhood, frequenting the
white thorn bushes that skirt the marshes near Grove Ferry.

ORIOLID_.-—(page .105)

The only British representative of the Family Oriolide, the
Golden Oriole, has been frequently met with in this part of Kent;
and the Rev. W. B. Delmar has not only met with several young
birds, but also obtained a nest, which was discovered in a coppice
near Elmstone. They have been found in the Kentish cherry
orchards. There is little doubt but that these beautiful birds
would breed here if left undisturbed; they have frequently
appeared in the Isle of Thanet.

The Family of Zurdidw are nearly all found in Kent, the

86

Ring Ouzel is however scarce, especially of late. I have met
with it in the Minster Marshes, but I have no record of the
White’s Thrush in the district.

Associated with the Zurdide, and in the Family Jenrulide
was formerly placcd the Water Ouzel or Dipper, they are now
included in the Family Cinelide ; and the only two representatives
in Britain have been met with in this district, although m each
case they must be placed in the category of Accidental Visitors.

Cinclus aquaticus has been taken at River, near Dover, and
the very rare Black bellied Dipper, Cinclus melanogaster, was
shot at Folkestone (on the authority of Mr. Gordon), and is now
in the Folkestone Collection.

FAMILY SYLVIIDAi.—(page 106.)

Kent justly boasts of the numbers of the Family Sylviide
that gladden her lanes. Among the annual visitors are to be
found many rare birds, such as the Blue Throat, Icterine Warbler,
Great Reed Warbler, Aquatic Warbler, the Orphean Warbler and
Dartford Warbler; while the Nightingale and Blackeap are still
common in our woods and plantations. Yet we must lament that
those which a few years ago were very common, are annually
diminishing in numbers. This may be partially accounted for by
the more denuded state of the country, of copses and hedgerows,
by bird nesting boys, domestic cats, and last but not least, the
bird catchers. JI have remarked that in the suburbs of our large
towns, from the planting up of gardens with evergreens, and the
ereater seclusion from bird nesting enemies, the Songsters have
tended to increase. The Wild Birds Preservation Act has, I fear,
been rather a dead letter in country districts, as there are
generally few that sce its provisions are carried out.

It is somewhat curious to note how fearless some of our
Songsters are of the presence of man. The Nightingale will
pour forth its melodious notes while perched on the branch just
over your head. The Blackeap will construct its nest with such
little effort at concealment, that it hangs down in the centre of
your paths. The Robin will venture on the window sill, even
before hard weather sets in. The Reed Warblers will construct
their nests close to a highway, where traffic is passing hourly
close to the nests. Domestic cats easily find out their nests. An
old friend of mine used to relate how fat the cats became when
young Nightingales were hatching out, and his pussy he was sure
made a daily meal of their young. I have been an enthusiastic
admirer of our migratory Songsters, and tried all possible means
to preserve them; sometimes I have had the mortification of
finding, in spite of all precautions, their nests have been taken.
I believe, in most cases, the young birds, if they survive the

a

87

Winter, will return the following Spring to build near the same
spot where they were reared ; the destruction of a nest thus means
the loss of the birds from the locality the following year.
Certainly this is the case with the Nightingale. I have had them
in successive years in my garden, building in the same Knecholm
bush, and when once destroyed, may be two or three years pass
without one in the garden.

I will now enumerate some of the rarer birds, with notes
relating to them; first, with regard to the Redstart (Ruticclla
Phenicurus) which used to be called the Common Redstart. I find
it now anything but common. ‘True, it may be met with in some
localities in tolerable abund ance; in the more secluded parts, for
instance, of the chalk districts, where hedgerows of Wild Dogwood
and Guelder rose, entwined with Woodbine and Clematis, form its
sheltering bower. But here, where I ofttimes met with the
beautiful little bird, it is now found no more. And even in its
favourite localities it is getting scarcer; while the Black Redstart
(Ruticilla Titys) is more frequent than formerly; this is not
merely my opinion, but is shared in by that accurate GhRENy am
Mr. W. O. Hammond.

The Dartford Warbler: as indeed its name implies, is more a
West than East Kent bird, but in either case is a rare visitor;
its habits incline it to choose heaths, downs, and furze commons.
A specimen was met with at Guston, near Dover, March 16th, 1887.

The Icterine Warbler—of some three or four specimens only,
recorded in England, one was obtained from Eythorne, in Kent,
by Mr. W. O. Hammond; and the still rarer bird, the Great Reed
Warbler (Acrocephalus turdoides), was also obtained by the same
gentleman from Wingham, in 1882; and is one of the great finds
this enthusiastic and practical ornithologist has added to the record
of East Kent birds; it is one of the gems of this gentleman’s
collection. It is well termed turdoides, having somewhat the

resemblance to the Song Thrush, and is nearly as large.

Mr. Hammond shot this specimen in the Wingham Marshes, near
Preston, while Snipe shooting in that locality. These Wingham
Marshes deserve a a passing notice, they being resorted to by many
rare birds. A small stream, having its rise at *Wingham- Well, runs
just west of the village, and is joined by another stream from the
south, their inosculation being marked by a belt of peaty bog land
which has a remarkable flora, and contains in the Marsh some
small groves of alders with reeds and marsh ferns, and is known
as the ‘‘Isle of Rees.” This belt of marsh land skirts a high
escarpment of sandy soil, with a wood on the summit, and flanked
with furze bushes. Mr, Hammond’s practical eye observed the

bird fly away from one of these marshes, and following it up, soon

was rewarded with the prize.

88

The Aquatic Warbler (Acrocephalus aquaticus) was obtained
by Mr. Gordon, at Dover, and is in the Dover Museum. In the
second edition of Yarrell’s British Birds, under the term Salicaria,
were included the Grasshopper, the Sedge, the Reed and Sayins
Warblers, the only then known species frequenting the British
Isles; they are now included in the Genera <Acrocephalus. 'The
number of fresh names given to the genera and species of late,
render the naming and determining the synonymes of the species
a difficult task. JI had generally been accustomed to the names
given in the second edition of Yarreil, but the succeeding editions
have altered these, and the last edition is now superseded by a
revised list by Mr. Howard Saunders, editor of the 4th edition of
Yarrell’s History of British Birds, revised to April, 1887, in which
a fresh list of names is introduced. I have compiled my Catalogue
from the 4th edition of Yarrell, but this is hardly out of the
publisher’s hands before we are required to modify the names ;
to prevent confusion, I have retained the names and arrangements
of the 4th edition. The Sedge Warbler is common in my
immediate neighbourhood; 1 have found its nest usurped by the
Cuckoo.

I have had in my garden in one season the Nightingale,
Blackeap, White Throat, Golden Crested Wren, the Willow Wren,
Hedge Sparrow and Robin; and near the house the Wryneck and
Reed Warbler. The note of the Nightingale is admirably represented
by the following music, taken from Macgillivray’s History of
British Birds, which I here transcribe for the use of my readers
that have not his book to refer to. Muacgillivray writes, that it was
dictated to him by a Frenchman, who sang the ditty.

bon Dieu m’a donné une fem--me, Que jai tant, tant, tant, tant,

Men. BR we oe
Boe oi

Saas See ieee

Le

bat-tue Que s’il m/’endon-ne une autre, Je ne la bat-ter- -ais plus,

plus, plus, plus, Qu’un petit, qu’un petit, quwun petit !

Robins, of course, we have all the year round; there are many
anecdotes touching the queer places they sclect and make their
nests in, In my garden I found one built in a small watering pot,

89

which had been thrown away in the shrubbery. Another
constructed its nest in the nail bag that was hung up in the tool
house; a third occupied a suspended flower pot in the furnace
house attached to the greenhouse. Although such a general
favourite, the Robin is far from having a loving disposition, as the
following fact will show :—My daughter had an aviary cage with
many canaries in it, which she kept in a greenhouse; one day a
Robin who had found his way into the greenhouse was caught and
put into the cage with the canaries, where he subsequently became
very tame and a great favourite; but one day, another Robin got
into the greenhouse, and finding one of his own species in
possession of the cage, became very jealous and began a fight with
the caged Robin, and by some means got into the cage where there
were some defective wires, and killed the tame Robin. After this
he was liberated, which was more than he deserved; but my
daughter said she could not keep a murderer.

The Fire Crested Wren has been met with on several
occasions, and may be more common than is generally supposed,
being mistaken fur the common Golden Crested Wren ; the latter
I often find builds in my Deodar.

FAMILY PARIDA.—(page 107).

Among the family of the Parida, the very rare White-headed
Long-tailed Titmouse was shot at the back of Dover Castle by
Mr. Gorilon, and is now in the collection of Walter Prentis, Esq.,
of Rainham, Kent.

The Long-tailed Titmouse is tolerably abundant, and often
met with in companies of a dozen or more; it shows little fear of
man, and may be easily approached. I have had many instances
of its beautiful nest being constructed in my garden; on one
occasion it was on the top branch of a small red cedar, which was
weighed down in an arch over the nest by the weight of it, and
completely concealed by the tree, it was close to a path and not
much higher than your head, yet it was not observed till after the
- young ones were fledged. The Tits, like the Robins, choose very
curious places for their nests. A pair of Blue Tits built in an
empty bee hive, which they had filled with leaves, leaving a place
for the nest in the centre; a friend of mine had some Tits
construct their nest beneath two inverted flower pots placed upon
the ground, and it was difficult to conceive how the birds found
their way in and out, through the two perpendicular small holes.
A striking illustration of the intelligence of these birds, was
shown by a pair that had constructed their nest in an old wall
belonging to a friend of mine residing at Sandwich; he relates,
while walking in the garden one morning his attention was drawn

90

to a pair of Tits that flitted about him in apparent great distress,
and this continued to be manifested till he perceived that a large
garden snail had drawn himself over a hole in the wall, where
their nest was situated, completely blocking the entrance; he
removed the snail, when the Tits manifested their great joy at the
deliverance.

The Great Titmouse is a great enemy in the garden where
bees are kept. He is a regular bee eater, and seems to have
discovered the plan whereby he can satisfy his appetite, which is
by pecking at the hive till the terrified bees rush out at the
entrance, and are immediately devoured by the bird. The
Bearded Titmouse (Panurus Biarmicus), which is by some
Ornithologists removed from the Family Paride, and placed in
one Panuride, has, as far as I can ascertain, not been met with in
Kent of late years, but I have seen a specimen in the Rey. B.
Austen’s Collection, which he shot in the Monkton Marshes some
years ago. The Crested Tit (Parus Cristatus) is in the Canterbury
Museum, apparently obtained from the neighbourhood.

FAMILY MOTACILLIDA.—(page 108).

We appear to have all the Wagtails; they have been named
and re-named so often, that it is no easy matter now to know what
to call them, or which is which, and as they change their plumage
at different times of the year, there has been considerable confusion
as to the species. I am still uncertain if we have met with the
Grey Headed Continental Yellow Wagtail (Motacilla Viridis). .
Since writing my remarks on this family, Mr. Oxenden Hammond
writes to me, May Ist, 1889, the Grey Headed Wagtail has just
been killed between Deal and Dover, by striking itself against the
telegraph wires.

The Pipits I have no remarks upon, except that the Tawny
Pipit has been seen by Mr. Prentice, though it did not appear in
my list.

FAMILY ALAUDIDA.—(page 108).

The rare birds of this family that have been met with, are the
Crested Lark, and the Short Toed Lark ( Calandrella Brachydactyla)
which was brought to Mr. Saville in 1886, and shot by Mr. Fleet
at Well’s Court, Blean. I give this on the authority of
Mr. Saville.

FAMILY FRINGILLIDZ.—(page 109).

The Finches are not only numerous in species, but abundant
in numbers, and destructive of most farm produce ; hence, greatly
persecuted by the farmers. The Common Sparrow, as a representa-

91

tive of the Family, continues too numerous, in spite of the price
placed upen his head. A few years ago, Naturalists (who should
certainly have known better) were pleased to write to the daily
papers to denounce the farmers for destroying the Sparrows; they
taking the part of the persecuted bird, and even praising it as a
useful friend to the Agriculturalist, in destroying the larve of
insects that fed upon his crops. I do not underrate the use of the
old parent birds as insect destroyers, while the young are unfledged ;
but as it is then only that they are animal feeders, it is obvious
that for the greater portion of their lives they are graniverous,
and the young birds, as soon as they leave the nest, are equally
destructive. I believe the Sparrow, from its constant association
with human haunts, has learned several pernicious habits, that
render him the most destructive of the finches. He has a great
liking for the nectar secreted by flowers; just when the flower is
ripe for the fructificating pollen. At such times, instead of the
visits of the Bee and the Moth, the flower is visited by the
Sparrows. Hence we find crocuses and polyanthuses, and cherry,
gooseberry and currant blossoms, are pecked off by the birds,
merely that they may sip the nectar. In this way, the Green
Linnet is even more destructive than the Sparrow. When the
orchards are in full bloom, I have known the ground beneath the
trees quite white with the blossoms thus picked off, and I have
shot the birds and opened their crops, and found them entirely
filled with the ovules of the flowers.

The Hawfinch cannot be considered common, but it is, I
believe, more numerous than is generally suspected, being a very
shy bird. It occasionally is shot in our cherry orchards in
summer ; and found devouring holly berries in winter.

The Goldfinch is less destructive of farm produce, and most
useful in destroying thistle seeds: but though met with in
tolerably large flocks, is not so abundant as remember it. This,
I believe, is owing to the bird catchers. The Siskin is also
getting scarce for the same reason. The curious Crossbill has
frequented this neighbourhood, and the very rare Parrot Crossbill
I have to record, but the exact locality is unknown.

The Linnets and Redpolls have occasionaly visited our
neighbourhood in great numbers, when there has been much
turnip seed about, but they migrate to places wherever it is most
grown.

THE ICTERIDA AND STURNIDA.—(page 110).

The Red Winged Starling is quite a tropical bird in
appearance, and indeed is an American bird, but has been
obtained from the neighbourhood of New Romney.

92

Another rare visitor, the Rose-coloured Pastor, was shot by
Mr. Hammond at St. Albans, Kent, in 1887, and another specimen
has been obtained from Wye. The Pastor is a very beautiful bird,
very Jay like in appearance, and like the former bird, is only an
accidental visitor from foreign lands. With regard to the Common
Starling, it has very much increased in Kent of late years.
During the autumn of 1888, immense flocks of these birds were
met with in the marshes of the Stour Valley. At sunset they
departed in flocks towards their roosting place, a low ash wood
near the marshes, where they alighted in such numbers that they
bowed down the trees with their weight, and the noise they made
might be heard nearly a mile off; they appeared to feed on the
daddy-long-legs that were hatching out in great numbers.

FAMILY CORVID.A.—(page 111).

At the head of this Family stands the Chough, which appears
in my list only on the authority of Dr. Boys, who mentions it
among the Kent birds in his list, in the History of Sandwich. It
must have been extinct as a Kent bird for many years. It is
doubtful even if the bird alluded to by Shakespeare, in a well
known passage, was the Chough; but it is not improbable that
it survived along the inaccessible crags of the Dover Cliff; at any
rate, it is not a little remarkable that the Arms of the See of
Canterbury shew three Choughs. The present Archbishop
Benson said, when he came from Cornwall, that he came from the
home of the Chough to find him engraved on his Coat of Arms at
Canterbury.

The Raven is becoming almost as rare as the Chough in these
parts ; and the Carrion Crow is scarce in the eastern parts of our
district. The Grey Crow, or Hooded Crow, is aregular Winter
visitor, not only a familiar bird to the visitor of the sea shore, but
abundantly distributed in the Stour Marshes. The Rooks have of
late taken up their abode in this Parish, why or wherefore they
never came before, I cannot imagine, there being a toll of elm trees
on the Glebe, next the Church, which the late Rector kept most
carefully secluded; and he was most anxious to get a Rookery.
However, the Rooks mever came till just after his death, a few
years ago. With the new Rector came the Rooks, though they do
not receive half the protection they would have formerly enjoyed.

I have a word to say for the Magpie, so persecuted by
sportsmen and farmers, that it is a wonder he is not exterminated.
True, he will rob the hen of her brood, and appears insatiable in
his appetite for a time, but it is only while rearing their young
that they are so destructive; at other times they are great
destroyers of mice and insects.

93

The rare visitor, the Nutcracker, was obtained near here as
late as the year 1885. It has been recorded before in Kent, but
not of late years.

THE FAMILY HIRUNDINIDA.—(page 111).

The Swallow, House Martin, and Sand Martin are among the
Summer visitors we cannot dispense with. It is very usual in the
country to confound the Swallow with the House Martin; the
latter, building in preference under the eaves of the house, have
been so frequently driven out of house and home by the House
Sparrows, that they have decreased in numbers in these parts. I
have had a particular instance of this in my own residence. My
house has a parapet with corbels beneath, that have been a favorite
resort for the House Martin. Some forty years ago, to keep them
from the lower corbels, a net was nailed up, leaving for the birds
only the gable which was lined with these niches. The birds not
only occupied the whole of the gable, but strove to build beneath
the net, in the lower parapet. The net has now been gone some
years, but the House Martins have gradually decreased, from the
Sparrows almost invariably occupying the nests as soon as they are
constructed, and this in spite of the fact, that I have taken the
part of the Martins against their enemy, and shot every Sparrow
I could, that molested their nests. It is owing to this action of
the Sparrows, that we often find such late broods of Martins,
which perish, being deserted at the time of the migration of the
old birds.

Sand Martins, on the contrary, have increased of late.
Swifts are tolerably abundant, and find a nesting place in the
chalk cliffs and tall church towers, Canterbury Cathedral among
the number.

I have noted the Alpine Swift, which is recorded as having
been met with at Dover, in 1830; and Kingsgate, in 1832.

The Goat Sucker is met with occasionally in the wooded
districts, and is more common, perhaps, than is generally supposed,
owing to its nocturnal habits. JI came across one a short time
since in a small coppice, where it appeared to be roosting on the
ground, it took a very hasty and uncertain flight in the broad
sunshine.

The Cuckoo, of which family we possess only the common
one, is very numerous in my neighbourhood, where it frequents
the woods and marshes, but seems to prefer the more open parts,
where white thorn bushes are abundant; but though so common,
it is so exceedingly shy, and leads snch a roving life that it is very
difficult to watch its habits. It frequently makes use of the

94

Hedge Sparrow to rear its young. I have met with it also in the
Spotted Fly Catcher, Reed Warbler and Pied Wagtail’s nests. I have
often wondered if they return to their old haunts, like some other
migratory birds, and 1 fancy they do. I have found them yearly
in the same coppice soon after their arrival. They are incessant in
their song by night as wellas by day. Ihave heard it asserted that
they accommodate the size and marking of the egg, to that of the bird
in whose nest they deposit it. I have great doubts about this; the
Cuckoo lays a small egg compared with the bird. It certainly
carries its egg in the beak, when depositing it in other birds’
nests. Why they should stammer so at the latest part of the
season, I never could make out or hear any explanation of. I do
not think the young birds sing at all the first season; they are
often met with in the middle of September, when they are often
taken for Hawks. And why should they simulate the Hawk in
appearance; is it of any use in creating a turmoil among the
small birds, while it seizes on their nests ?

UPUPID..—(page 111).

The Hoopoe has frequently been met with in my neighbour-
hood, often found in the marshes and uplands bordering the
Stour, and generally in the Autumn, and young birds are generally
those recorded. I have noticed its flight as peculiar, being a
series of jerks and swoops. It is so marked in its appearance as
to attract the eye, and generally gets shot soon after its appearance.

ROLLER.—(page 111).

This interesting stranger has been met with occasionally in
East Kent, one specimen being obtained only last year; it is quite
an accidental visitor, being a native of Africa.

BEE EATER.—(page 111).

I have never seen this bird, and have but one notice of it.

KINGFISHER.—(page 112).

A bird generaily distributed along the banks of the Stour, too
frequently killed for its beauty. In winter, it will come near
dwellings, though generally a shy bird. I shot one on one occasion
from my dressing room window, it flew on to a tree overhanging a
small pool in my orchard. -

FAMILY PICIDAl.—(page 112.)

The Green Woodpecker, which is the commonest bird of the
family, often frequents the cherry orchards, and seems to have a

95

partiality for ants and their eggs, the specimens shot about here
invariably showing by their bills, that they had been engaged
among the ants. The Great Spotted Woodpecker is decidedly a rare
Kent bid; the Wryneck is one of our common summer visitors,
reaching us in March and April; it is partial to old pollard, willow,
and ash trees, which abound in my neighbourhood, its note is
peculiar, like the sound of sharpening a saw with a file.

FAMILY COLUMBIDA.—(page 112.)

We have all the British representatives of the family except
the Rock Dove. The Ring Dove, Columba Palumbus, is here called
the Wood Pigeon, and has increased of late. The Stock Dove is not
nearly socommon. The Turtle Dove, very numerous, frequenting
the seed turnip fields, and pea fields in great numbers.

A NEARLY ALLIED FAMILY, THE PTEROCLIDZ.
(Page 112.)

The Pallas’s Sand Grouse, one of our remarkable Visitors, has
come over in considerable numbers to Britain during the last
two years; although but a few of them have been met with in
Kent, in other parts they have bred, and been rigidly protected ;
they appeared in Kent in 1859, 1863, and again in 1888.

THE ORDER GALLINA.—(page 112.)

We have one specimen only recorded of the Red Grouse, which
must have been quite an accidental visitor. The Common Pheasant
and the ringed variety among the preserved lands.

The Red-legged Partridge has very much increased in East
Kent of late ; it is detested by the sportsman, as it keeps running,
seldom getting up within shot, spoiling the dogs and the sportsman’s
temper. J can remember the time when it was never met with in
this or the adjoining parishes. It goes also by the name of the
French Partridge, and the notion that it occasionally crosses over
from France, is strengthened from the following circumstance. On
the 13th of November, 1884, Gisby (an old boatman and sportsman,
of Ramsgate) informed my friend, the late Mr. Hillier, that he, Gisby,
while out in his boat, saw 22 Partridges, which flew so near him that
he could sce they were red-legged, coming over the water from the
French coast, and seemed very tired. I also remember meeting
a number of these birds about this neighbourhood, when they had
not been known or seen about, earlier in the season, this being in
October, and they were so tired that they were easily hunted down.

The Common Quail is exceedingly irregular in its visits to
Kent, and is never met with in any great numbers, some years it is
entirely absent,

96

FAMILY RALLIDAl.—(page 113).

We have occasionally met with the Spotted Crake, and the
Baillon’s Crake, both rare birds. Water rails are tolerably abundant
and excellent eating.

FAMILY OTIDIDA.—(page 118).

Both the Great Bustard and Little Bustard have been met with
in few numbers and at rare intervals. The Great Bustard was last
seen in this district in 1883, when two specimens were met with, the
male at Rolvenden and the female near Wye, and were both sent to
Mr. Gordon to stuff; one older specimen was in the Dover Museum
from the Plomley collection, and another in the Canterbury Museum,
which it is believed was shot at Whitstable. Specimens were
obtained also, in 1850, from Lydd and New Romney.

The Little Bustard—But few specimens of this rare bird are
recorded from our district; one, now in the Rev. B. Austen’s
collection, was killed some years ago, in St. Nicholas Marshes.
Another specimen from the Plomley collection is in the Dover
Museum.

FAMILY (&DICNEMID.—(page 113).

But one representative of this family exists in the British Isles,
the Stone Curlew, or Thick Knee, a rare bird which I have known
to have been recorded of late. A specimen of the Stone Curlew
was shot at Ash; when last met with, it was found on that
extraordinary accumulation of stones, known as the ‘‘ Lydd Beach.”
This is not only the home of many rare birds, but is a perfect
wilderness, while a fauna and flora is found no where else to be
met with in the South Eastern Corner of England. The beach,
which has been accumulating round Dungeness for many centuries, is
upwards of three miles in width at its broader part, a stony desert
relieved here and there by large ponds, and a sort of oasis, surrounded
by swamp and tall bull rushes; the resort of numerous species
of wild fowl and sea birds; the beach still preserves the ridges,
marking the lines of the former recession of the sea, and crowned
in the most ancient ridges with a stunted vegetation of brambles
and briar bushes, while lichens and moss have consolidated the
pebbles. Nearer the shore the loose beach, yielding to the steps of
the explorer, makes the walking exceedingly laborious, and few,
save the Coast guard men, cross it; and they make use of a sort of
snow shoe, known by the local name of ‘“ baxters,” on which they
skate along the beach. ‘lhis isolated and unfrequented spot is
now however invaded by the Iron roads, the Railways, and the
last retreat of the wild bird is thus threatened.

97
FAMILY CHARADRIIDA!.—-(page 113).

The Cream Coloured Courser.—This very rare bird was
obtained by Mr. William Hammond in 1785, the particulars of
which are recorded in the second edition of Yarrell’s British Birds.
It is a native of Africa, and therefore only an accidental visitor to
the British Isles. The Dotterel is now rarely met with, and is a
summer visitor,

The Ringed Plover is frequently called the Dotterel, in Kent,
frequenting the Sandy shores of Kent in shoals. The Kentish
Plover should be found in greater abundance, but like many of our
wading birds it is annually diminishing in number, chiefly I believe
from being disturbed in its breeding places. The Golden Plover is
only a winter visitor in Kent, and is the commonest species next to

the Lap Wing.
FAMILY SCOLOPACIDA.—(page 114).

This numerous family is well represented along our coasts and
marshes, but many are visitors, seeking breeding places elsewhere.
The Avocet is now a very rare bird, and nearly extinct as far as Kent
is concerned ; all the recorded specimens having been obtained many
years ago. The Grey Phalarope is also very rare. I have only one
record of the Red Necked Phalarope, and the same may be said of
Temmick’s Stint. A specimen of the Black Winged Stint was in
the Canterbury Museum, obtained some years ago from this
neighbourhood, but I have no other record of it.

The Common Redshank still breeds in the Stour Marshes, but
the Greenshank does not breed with us, unless it still haunts
Romney Marsh. The Knot has been obtained from Lydd Beach in
the summer time.

The Ruff appears of late to be very rare in Kent.

The Sandy flats of Sandwich Bay and Muddy shore near the
mouth of the Stour (which now finds an exit for its waters in
Pegwell Bay) is the Winter resort of most of the Scolopacide, and
deserves more than a passing notice. From this place most of the
rare birds recorded by Mr. Boys were obtained; the spot is so
frequently resorted to by the cockney sportsmen, who visit
Ramsgate, that the birds have become very wary and few venture
within gun shot, though they alight in spots surrounded by the sea
at high water, and may be seen in flocks at such places. The
Sandwich bay is flanked by a large expanse of sand hills, the mouth
of the Stour, by mud flats at places covered with bushy masses of
the Sea Purslane, Atriplex portulacoides, and Suda Marina.
An island, formed by the river, would prove a safe shelter for the
birds, were it not frequented by wild fowlers in boats, but it is not

98

easy of access, and on it may generally be found some of the wading
sea birds; this Island is only covered by water at spring tides, and
is a perfect paradise of interesting plants and animals for the
naturalist. Pegwell Bay has a large expanse of mud flat, some two
miles in length and nearly the same in width at low water, these
parts being the resort of hundreds of Sea Gulls, Terns, Sandpipers,
Curlews, and Dunilins.

The Greenshank appears only as a visitor. The Dunlin or Ox
Bird is very common, frequenting the banks of the Stour from
Grove Ferry to Pegwell. Curlews frequent our coasts in great
numbers, but are very wary, and are in consequence seldom shot.

The Great Snipe has been frequently met within our marshes,
though it must still be reckoned a rare bird; it is perhaps ofttimes
confounded with the Common Snipe, but when flushed it does not
utter the scape cry, so universally the case inthe Common Snipe. I
have no record of the Brown Snipe, but the Sabine’s Snipe was
obtained from near here some few years ago, and is in Mr. Delmar’s
collection. Although ornithologists consider this a mere variety of
the Common Snipe, it differs so materially in plumage, and different
specimens agree in respect of plumage, that I venture to retain it as
a good species. Among the Common Snipe we find a slight
differerence in size and plumage, due I believe to sex and period of
the year. The Wood Sandpiper appears only occasionally, the
specimen in Mr. Delmar’s collection was obtained from Fordwich,
some years ago.

FAMILY LARIDA).—(page 115).

The Sandwich Tern, as its name implies, is found, or was found,
at Sandwich in 1784, by Mr. Boys, and was named after him,
Sterna Boyii. It was subsequently found in many other parts of
Britain, and stated by Dr. Plomley to breed on the shingle banks
at Lydd. It is still occasionally met with at Sandwich and Lydd.
These being ocean birds, it is difficult to assign to them any exact
locality, and the frequency of their occurrence is not so easy to
determine. The Gulls, mostly immigrants, are somewhat in the
same category, excepting those which I have before noticed as
breeding here.

Bonaparte’s Gull (Larus Philadelphia). This interesting
addition to our fauna, I have on the authority of Lord Clifton, of
Dumpton, Thanet, who writes:—‘‘ There can be no reasonable
doubt as to Bonaparte’s Gull; English writers are most meagre in
their descriptions of the species, so I went to the fountain head for
my information, Dr. Elliott Coue’s work, published by the United

ne lgti tf «<<

Op ap ors ee oe

eR

99

States’ Survey Department. English writers ignore the adult
winter plumage, but Coue describes it minutely, and thus proved
that my bird had attained full adult winter plumage in every thing
but the beak, legs, tip of tail, and lesser wing covers. A notice of
this bird appears in Zhe Field Newspaper, April 4th, 1888. The
Little Gull was obtained from Rainham; it is a very rare bird.
The Great black backed Gull, is an occasional winter visitor at most
of our Sea Coasts.”’

I am not sufficiently acquainted with the Skuas to make any
remarks upon them; they are now placed under the sub-family
Stercorartine.

FAMILY PROCELLARIIDA!.—(page 116).

The Stormy Petrel is occasionally met with near land, otherwise
its home is far away on the ocean. The Fork Tailed Petrel is in
Mr. Ullyett’s list, and recorded by Mr. Gray.

FAMILY ALCIDA!.—(page 116).

The Razor Bill: one specimen of this curious bird was obtained
alive in this parish, some few years back, it was brought down out
of a shoal flying over head, by a shot which appeared only to have
stunned the bird ; it fell from a great height, and was brought to me
alive. It was placed on a piece of wood floating in a tub of water,
it did not attempt to fly away, and seemed rather amazed, but did
noteat, and died on the third day. It wasa young bird, and must have
been migrating, but the bird is rarely met with in Kent. The
Guillemot is a resident, and breeds in the Dover Cliffs and at
St. Margaret’s Bay, and has increased rather of late; some of the
adventurous boys and sailors in the neighbourhood, used to be let
down by ropes from the top of the Cliff, to secure their eggs. The
Ringed Guillemot is also met with in the same locality. Mr. Gordon,
of Dover, insists that this is a distant species, although we are
taught by the authorities to the contrary. The Black Guillemot
(a young bird) has been met with by Mr. Hammond.

FAMILY COLYMBIDAl.—(page 117).

The Great Northern Diver is met with occasionally in severe
weather, chiefly off Whitstable. I have known it in the River Stour,
and the same may be said of the Black Throated and Red Throated
Divers.

FAMILY PODICIPIDA.—(page 117).

The Grebes, with the exception of the Dabchick, are Northern
birds that visit us only occasionally, and then the visitors are almost

100

invariably young birds. The rare Eared Grebe I met with in 1875 ;
it was caught in a duck pond near the yard at North Court, and
brought me alive; it was a young bird, it lived only a few days, and
I gave the specimen to Dr. Gulliver, of Canterbury—this was in
February. The Sclavonic Grebe was shot near here in the Stour,
January, 1885, and was likewise a young specimen of the first year.

FAMILY PELECANIDA.—(page 117).

The Cormorant is only a visitor to our shores, though plentiful
more to the west. I have no note of the occurrence of the Shag.
The Gannet is met with occasionally off the coast.

THE FAMILY OF ARDEID&.—(page 117).

Some of these that were once often met with are, alas, now but
seldom seen, the Bittern becoming scarcer every year; the Heron,
although protected in its breeding quarters, is barely able to
maintain its numbers; of the Little Bittern, a rare visitor, we have
one recorded from this neighbourhood, killed in Mr. Delmar’s pond.
We have one Heronry, at Chilham Castle, which is known to have
been in existence for the last 120 years; they build here in lofty
Beech and Ash trees, and they make their nests in the highest
branches, nearly 100 feet from the ground; at present there are
about 70 birds in the breeding season. The birds never breed on
the ground, or even alight on the ground near the trees; if any of
the young birds fall to the ground from their nests, they are
abandoned by the old birds, and they never try to recover food that
has fallen; the Rooks will sometimes take up their abode near
them. There are no large Hawks strong enough to cope with
the Herons, and they are not disturbed in their nesting places, so
they ought to increase greatly in numbers. It is thought that
150 birds may be found after the hatching, but a great many must
be killed, as they do not increase.

They arrive about the middle of February in their breeding
quarters, or later if the weather is cold; they rear their young about
the end of August, and only a solitary one or two may be seen from
time to time during the winter. The Heron sits about three weeks,
and the young keep their nests for about the same period; they lay
about 4 or 5 eggs. I have obtained these particulars from the
keeper. The Purple Heron is recorded from Lydd, and the Night
Heron from the same place, and one from Minster in 1852 ; also the
American Bittern is recorded from East Keut, in 1854; all are
accidental visitors.

FAMILY CICONIIDA!.—(page 118).

The White Stork, which was found at Rainham in 1884,
appears the only specimen that has been obtained of late years,

101

but it is in Mr. Boys’s list. And the still rarer Black Monk is
recorded from Lydd Beach, and Queenborough specimens are in
the Dover Museum. I am indebted to Mr Gordon for the
information respecting them.

THE FAMILY PLATALEIDA.—(page 118).

The Spoonbill, which of late has been a rare visitor to this
country, has been obtained from the Wingham Marshes by
Mr. Hammond, and a few years ago a specimen was shot in the
Sittingbourne district. According to Yarrell, Holland is this bird’s
favourite summer resort, and it has been found as far South as the
Cape of Good Hope.

FAMILY ANATIDA.—(page 118).

As might have been expected, this large family are represented
in this neighbourhood by a very large proportion of the species
that have been found in Britain. This is not so much the case
because Kent has been their breeding place, as from the fact that
they have been driven here from many quarters in very severe
weather.

The mouths of the Thames, the Medway, and the Stour, and
the sheltered inlets of the Kentish Coast, have afforded the requisite
shelter from the storms of the Northern parts of England, and the
Eastern Counties that border on the North Sea.

The Geese visit us in flocks most winters, and the most common
species is the Bean Goose: the Grey Lag Goose, which is considered
to be the origin from which our domestic race is derived, is not
nearly so common here as the previous species, according to my
observation. The Pink-footed Bean Goose, I doubt not, has frequently
been confounded with the Bean Goose, to which it bears a general
resemblance. J obtained one in 1887; I find it is not noticed
by any other authorities.

The White-fronted Goose is a regular visitor, next to the Bean
Goose the most abundant.

The Barnacle Geese seldom visit the inland waters, and are
mostly found at Sea.

The Brent Goose is another common winter visitor.

The Bewick’s Swan is the wild swan generally met with, but
only occasionally.

The Whooper Swan is still more rare. The Mute Swan is
so often kept in ornamental waters, and so frequently strays away
that it is often shot, and presumed to be wild.

102
The Ruddy Sheld-Duck I have but one record of, in late years.

The Gadwall I have put down with a ? as I can find no record
of it of late.

The Shoveller is now very rarely met with.
The Long-tailed Duck is very rare indeed as a Kent bird.

The Eider Duck was in the Canterbury Museum, I believe
from the neighbourhood.

The King Eider is several times recorded.

The Common Scoter—I believe Scoters seldom visit the
rivers, but are generally to be met with off Herne Bay and
Whitstable.

The Mallard generally breed in our Marshes, and I have known
many specimens that were hybrids with the Common Domestic
Duck; a curious small White Mallard was shot here last winter.
A Mallard constructed her nest on the top of a hay stack, near here ;
a curious place to choose. I have known them also build in arable
fields some distance from water.

ADDENDA.

Since writing my notes on the birds, a fine male specimen of
the Kite (Iflvus ictinus) has been killed in the neighbourhood, and
is in the possession of J. C. Kay, Esq., of Godmersham.

Rose coloured Pastor has been met with in immature plumage
at Godmersham, in 1888. Since which, Mr. Hammond writes to
the Zoologist, suggesting that they were bred in the district.

At this date, June, 1889, we have some Golden Orioles at
Preston, near here.

PE SCRIPTION OF; THEsrEABULATED
EMSteor THE Ba ps. OF
EAS T° Teaser.

It will be advantageous to economise space, and I will
therefore give the particulars that will explain the plan I have
here adopted.

The column on the left gives the generic name and the common
or English name of the bird, after the fourth edition of Yarrell’s
British Birds, under the families placed in the order there adopted.

In the next column the frequency of their occurrence in
respect of the district of East Kent is given:

Cs standing for Common.

MC. = », Moderately Common.
R. PA », Rare.

VR. 5 », Very Rare.

In the next column the birds are marked as regards their
sojourn as—
R. Resident.
m. Migratory, with respect to the district.
av. Accidental Visitors.

The authorities in the next column are —
wor. W.0O. Hammond, Esq., J.P., S. Alban’s, Nonington.
ca. Charles Gordon, the Curator of the Dover Museum.
wap. The Rey. William Baldock Delmar, of Elmstone.
BA. The Rev. Benjamin Austen, of Walmer.
ee. Mr. George Gray, Taxidermist, Dover.
uu. Henry Ullyett, Esq., a published list of Folkestone

Birds.

P. The Plomley Collection, now in the Dover Museum.
B. Boys’ published list in his History of Sandwich.
ep. The Author’s own noted list.

Under the next column for remarks the present name of the
bird is given where Mr. Howard Saunders’ new list differs from
the fourth edition of Yarrell’s, and particulars of rare birds as to
dates and locality where known.

N.B.—Reference has been made in some cases to the birds in
the Canterbury Museum, many of which have been shot within
the district, but all record of them is for the most part lost, and
the birds there are not in a satisfactory condition. Here refers to
Stourmouth and neighbourhood,

TABU LAM EAD. LES o

OF

>THE BIRDS OF EAST KENT. #<

Frequency. [Sojourn.

Authority.

NAME.

Family
Falconide.
Haliaétus albicilla ..
White-tailed Eagle
Pandion haliaétus
Osprey
Falco peregrinus
Peregrine Falcon
Falco subbuteo
Hobby
Falco vespertinus
Red-footed Falcon
Falco esalon
Merlin
Falco tinnunculus ..|1
Kestrel
Falco cenchris
Lesser Kestrel
Astur palumbarius ..
Gos Hawk
Accipiter nisus
Sparrow Hawk
Milvus ictinus
Kite
Buteo vulgaris -
Buzzard
Buteo lagopus ;
Rough-legged Buz:
Pernis apivorus
Honey Buzzard
Circus wruginosus
Marsh Harrier
Circus cineraceus
Montagu’s Harrier

S|
4

| WBD.
| BA.

&
=)

Bl.
fe

REMARKS.

3 specimens met
with in ’85 & ’86

Thanet & Rain-
ham Creek.

Breeds in Dover
Cliffs.

Fredville and
Sandling Park

Two in 1889 at
Stourmouth

One specimen
taken at Dover

Fredville.
Getting scarce.

Very scarce in-
deed of late.

Near Deal in
1882 and 1886.

Not of
years.

late

—

a

NAME.

Family
Strigide.
Strix aluco .
Tawney Owl
Asio Otus

Long-eared Owl
Asio occipitrinus ..

Short-eared Owl
Nyctea scandiaca
Snowy Owl
Aluco flammea
Barn Owl

Family
Laniide.
Lanius excubitor
Great Grey Shrike
Lanius collurio
Red-Backed Shrike

Family
Muscicapide.

Muscicapa grisola ..
Spotted Flycatcher

Muscicapa atricapilla
Pied Flycatcher

Family
Oriolide.
Oriolus galbula
Golden Oriole

Family
Turdide.

Turdus viscivorus
Missel Thrush

Turdus musicus
Song Thrush

Turdus iliacus ate
Redwing

Turdus pilaris Se
Fieldfare

Turdus merula ate
Blackbird

Turdus torquatus ..
Ring Ousel

R.

1

—

REMARKS.

Found near
Faversham,

Strix flammea

Occasionally.
Specimens ob-
tained here in

Common here.
Wingham.

A regular
visitor.

Near here.

Has nested near
Elmstone,

I have known
of its breeding
here.

In large flocks
in Winter here.

Scarce of late.

106

Frequency. | Sojourn. Authority.

NAME. } 1 S REMARKS.
slSlalElalslalElSlelaiSlmlala|s
Family
Cinclide. :
Cinclus aquaticus .. 1 1 1 At River, near
Dipper Dover. |
Cinclus melanogaster 1 1 1 One shot at
Black-bellied Dipper eaaterees
Family
Sylviide.
Accentor modularis ..| 1 1 ae Ws Ba WA a Wa
Hedge Sparrow
Erithacus rubecula 1 1 TRL RT et Pet 5 Eat |} 1
Robin
Daulias luseinia elt 1 1}1/1)1})1/1)1)1)1 | Patlomela
Nightingale —_
Ruticilla suecica ake 1 1 Margate, Sept.,
Blue Throat Warbler eae
Ruticilla titys she 1 1 Hii 1 Chiefly about
Black Redstart ee
pape y Be io 1 1 1/2) 1} 1)1) 1/141) Diigcarce of tate.
edstar
Saxicola rubicola .. 1 1 1/1 1 1 1
Stone-chat
Saxicola rubetra pe 1 1 tia LUPE Lal
Whinchat
Saxicola ananthe ..\1 1 AD) PAE ee ea
Wheatear ; 3
Hypolais icterina .. 1 1/1 Eythorne, 1848.
eee Warbler Pt eo
Acrocephalus arundi-
naceus we 1 1} 1 Wingham,1882.
Great Reed Warbler
Acrocephalus streperus| | 1 1 1 Libt 1} 1 1 |About Wingham
Reed Warbler fag the fel:
Acrocephalus phrag- lowing.
mitis i! SENS Wal i TS eT Va ea pp La
Sedge Warbler
Acrocephalus aquaticus 1 1 1 : In the Dover
Aquatic Warbler oma
Acrocephalus navius .. 1 1 1}1 pee 1) Seameaieeary:
Grasshopper Warbler ‘
Sylvia rufa (cinerea) | 1 1 1j/1/1}1l}/1)/1J1)1)1
Whitethroat

serena a

NAME.

Sylvia curruea é
Lesser Whitethroat
Sylvia salicaria
Garden Warbler
Sylvia atricapilla
Black Cap
Sylvia orphea ats
Orphean Warbler
Phylioscopus sibilatrix
Wood Wren
Phylloscopus trochilus
Willow Wren
Phylloscopus collybitor
Chiffchaff
Regulus cristatus
Golden-crested Wren
Regulus ignicapillus. .
Fire-crested Wren
Melizophilus undatus
Dartford Warbler

Family
Troglodytide.

Troglodytes parvulus
Wren

Family
Certhide.
Certhia familiaris
Tree Creeper

Family
Sittide.
Sitta casia ..
Nuthatch

Family
Paride.
Acredula caudata
White-headed long
tail Titmouse
Acredula rosea ;
Long tailed Tit.
mouse

Frequency. Authority.
io) 3 . g . . b .
3| ala FIS|ElslSlmlala/e
1 SL La | 1
1 Lain OP TPA a li)
1 LTTE Ts Oat VT a Ug
1
1 1}1/}1 Do alee
1 11) ol a Fa Wis OY Us
1 1}1/}1 1/1 1
1 LIE TS OT GT Ten
]
]
1 T/1/1}1}1}1}1]1}1
1 ae aL 1)1/1)1
1 Le eee ete | 1} 1
1 1
1 RL TD ht

REMARKS,

Dover Museum.
From Kent.

Whitfield, near
Dover, 1884.

Guston, March,
1887.

Killed nr. Dover
Castle. Inthe
Collection of
C. Prentice.

1/1]1/1| With us it is

not found all
the Winter.

_———_————__—_.

108

Frequency. | Sojourn. Authority,
NAME. ; : : FS Ue Re REMARKS.
o/SlalElalsialElSlElalSiEla/a/é
Parus maqor.. wan 1 | 0s) PE ede tad
Great Titmouse
Parus ceruleus sana Pe Os Ws fag es ests)
Blue Titmouse
Parus ater .. ake 1 L}1)1 1/1 1 | Now called
British Coal-Titmouse } i Hectlorenicie.
Parus palustris A 1 1}1
Marsh Titmouse
Panurus biarmicus .. 1 1 1 Shot some years
Bearded Titmouse a neens
Family
Ampelide.
Ampelis garrulus .. 1 1 Maer 1 1
Waxwing
Family
Motacillide.
Motacilla lugubris 1 1 ai 1) a) ae
Pied Wagtail
Motacilla alba As 1 1 1
White Wagtail
Motacilla melanope ..| \1 1 Pia\1 1) 1) 1) 1 | 4 Suphurea
Grey Wagtail oF
Motacilla flava ae 1 1)i)\1 Ge Gia
Blue-headed Yellow
Wagtail
Motacilla Ravi peal 1 Dd Te a ee a
Yellow Wagtail
Motacilla viridis... 1] 1 Deal, 1889.
Grey-headed Wagtail
Anthus trivialis He 1 l ile |
Tree Pipit
Anthus pratensis ..| 1 1 ey1\t 1/1}1)1)] 1 | Tit Lark.
Meadow Pipit
Anthus obscurus ..| | 1 1 1}1 A
Rock Pipit
Anthus Richardi .. 1 1 1 1
Richard’s Pipit i
Family
Alaudide.
Alauda arvensis Ealel 1 ee LL ee a aE
Sky Lark

109

Frequency. | Sojourn. Authority.
NAME. j See) iS ‘ { | REMARKs.
A/S] -/8)s|/SlefelslBl4i6]5 a
ODIAl\BIFIRI/AlSAIFlISIFI RA/olelalala
Alauda arborea ws i 1} 1 DP | 1 AS tate Ls (pl Conies in Spa
Wood Lark a aas
Alauda cristata Se 1 Rainham.
Crested Lark
Calandrella _brachy- Shab ag wheat
dactyla at Wells Court,
im ie ean, 1886
Short-toed Lark (Saville)
Family
Emberizine.
Plectrophanes nivaiis An occasional
Snow Bunting aie
Plectrophanes lapponi-

GLA ee
Lapland Bunting
Emberiza scheoniclue ;
Reed Bunting
Fimberiza miliaria
Common Bunting
Enmberiza citrinella ..

Yellow Hammer
Emberiza hortulana ..
Ortolan Bunting .
Emberiza cirlus

Cirl Bunting

Family
Fringillide.
Fringilla celebs
Chaffinch
Fringilla montifrin-
gilla ;
Mountain Finch
Passer montanus
Tree Sparrow
Passer domesticus
House Sparrow
Coccothruustes vulgaris
Hawfinch

—

a

don ; itisnow
called
Caleartus L.

A constant resi-
dent.

| Dover, W.Gor-

Called Nib
Lark.

Bramling.

Often mistaken
for the com-
mon Sparrow.

Too common.

Only occasion-
ally.

Coccothraustes chloris | 1 Mie
Greenfinch Tiana:
Carduelis elegans Not common of
Goldfinch re
Carduelis spinus A
Siskin Chrysomitris.

NAME.

Linota linaria
Mealy Redpoll
Linota rufescens me
Lesser Redpoll
Linota cannabina ..
Linnet
Linota flavirostris ..
Mountain Linnet
Pyrrhula Europea ..
Bullfinch
Loxia curvirostra
Crossbill
Loxia pityopsittacus. .
Parrot Crossbill

Family
Icteridez.
Agelaus pheniceus
Red-winged Starling

Family
Sturnide.
Sturnus vulgaris
Starling
Pastor roseus A
Rose-coloured Pastor

Family
Corvide.
Pyrrhocorax graculus
Chough
Corvus corax
Raven
Corvus corone
Carrion Crow
Corvus cornix
Grey Crow
Corvus frugilequs ..»
Rook
Corvus monedula ..
Jackdaw
Pica rustica ..
Magpie
Garrulus glandarius. .

Jay

REMARKS.

Twite.

Much less fre-
quent of late.

Elmstone.

East Kent.

St. Alban’s,
1887. Wye.

Dun ©
Hooded C.

M11

NAME.

Nucifragacaryocatactes
Nutcracker

Family
Hirundinide.

Hirundo rustica
Swallow

Chelidon urbica
House Martin

Cotile riparia i.
Sand Martin

Family
Cypselide.
Cypselus apus
Swift
Cypselus melba a
Alpine Swift

Family
Caprimulgide.
Caprimulgus Europeus
Goat sucker or
Nightjar re
amily
Cuculide.
Cuculus canorus
Cuckoo

Family
Upupide.
Upupa epops

_ Hoopoe

amily
Coracidee.
Coracius garrula..
Roller

amily
Meropide.
‘ops apiaster
_ Bee-Eater

Frequency. | Sojourn. Authority
Sieur cS aaa
SlalflalalalelsielalsiBlala|s
kel 2S A a)! tal a a
ly | 1 et |
1 1 CETL liyA ae:
1 1 1}1}1/1}1]1 1/1
1 1) [eee lL) eee
1; [oe 1) ieee
1 1
1 1) [aes 1/1/1]1
1 1| Peale aha ers
1 1 TIM SEM al 1
1 1]1}1
1 1a
|
|

REMARKS,

At Herne,’85, in
Mr. Wilmot’s
possession.

Decreasing in
numbers.

Increasing in
numbers.

ig i ate

ani ury
Cathedral.

Kingstone’1832,
Dover, 1850.

Not frequent
here.

Very common.

1885—1887,
Stourmouth.

River, Dover,
Kent, 1888.

Kingsgate, 1829
Lydd, 1844.

Frequency.

NAME. REMARKS.

ca.

| wp.

VR.

| Mc.

‘S)

Family
Alcedinide.
Alcedo ispida
Kingfisher

Family
Picide.
Geeinus viridis afi 1
Green Woodpecker
Dendrocopus mayor .. 1
Great spotted
Woodpecker
Dendrocopus minor ..\ | 1
Lesser. spotted
Woodpecker
Lynx torquilla acl ee
Wryneck

Family
Columbide.
Columba palumbus ..|1
Ring Dove
Columbus enas a 1
Stock Dove
Turtur communis ..\ 1
Turtle Dove

Family
Pteroclide.
Syrrhaptes paradoxus
Pallas’s Sand Grouse

Family
Tetroonide.
Lagopus scoticus
Red Grouse

Family
Phasianide.
Phasianus colchicus ..| 1
Pheasant
Caccabis rufa mallet
Red legged Partridge
Perdiz cinerea sali
Partridge
Coturniz communis .. 1

Quail

aL 1| 11} 1 | Getting scarce.

In th ded
1)1]1) )1)111 ee

1 Ie HE

Lydd, 1859.
Romney, 1863.
Isle of Thanet,
1888-9.

Knowlton, shot
by Mr. W.
Hammond.

sal | Se

1} 1- 1] 1] 1] 1|Znereasing img

WL 1 Pays as al

Only occasion-
1 fe ‘1863, ’87)

believed to

arrive from
France.

NAME.

Family
Rallide.

Crex pratensis es

Land Rail
Porzana maruetta
Spotted Crake
Porzana Bailloni.
Baillon’s Crake
Rallus aquaticus
Water Rail

Gallinula chloropus ..

Moorhen
Fulica atra ..
Coot

Family
Otidide.

Otis tarda
Great Bustard

Otis tetrax
Little Bustard

Family

CGdicnemide.
Bdienemus scolopax. .

Stone Curlew, or
Thick knee

Family

Charadriide.

Cursorius gallicus
Cream-coloured
Courser

Eudromias morinellus

Dotterel

Aigialitis hiaticula ..

Ringed Plover

| Aigialitis cantiana ..

Kentish Plover

Charadrius pluvialis . .

Golden Plover
Squatarola Helvetica

Grey Plover
Vanellus vulgaris

Lapwing

Leal Neale os (6
SO/ALMI/FETs| Ala
1 1
1 1
1
i 1
1 ft
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 it
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
ata 1 1{/1)1)1

1138

Frequency. } Sojourn. Authority.

REMARKS,

Stourmouth.

Hythe.

Lydd, 1850,
Romney, 1859,
3 in Kent, ’80.

1884, Whitstable
and Thanet.

Romney Marsh,
Pegwell, Ash.

St. Alban’s,
1785.

Called Dotterel.

Scarce lately,

Constant Win-
ter visitor.

A Winter visi-
tor.

| | Common resi-

dent, breeding
in the marshes.

NAME.

Strepsilas interpres ..
Turnstone

Hematopus ostralegus
Oyster catcher

Family
Scolopacide.
Recurvirostra avocetta
Avocet
Himantopus candidus
Black-winged Stint
Phalaropus fulicarius
Grey Phalarope
Phalaropus hyperboreus
Red-necked Phala-
rope
Scolopax rusticula ..
Woodcock
Scolopax major
Great Snipe
Scolopax Sabini
Sabine’s Snipe
Gallinago celestis ,.
Common Snipe
Gallinago gallinula ..
Jack Snipe
Tringa alpina
Dunlin
Tringa minuta
Little Stint
Tringa Temmincki
Temmick’s Stint
Tringa subarquata
Curlew Sandpiper
Tringa striata
Purple Sandpiper
Tringa Canutus
Knot
Calidris arenaria
Sanderling
Machetes pugnax
Ruff
Totanus hypoleucus ..
Common Sandpiper

114

Frequency. | Sojourn. Authority.

: el] ja ;
=|] |e] e|4|%[2/8|E]2]€|5] «
Cele a ela alae

: , 1/1 1)1}1

i yal 1}/1/1 1
1
1 1 ne sb ail or Wanahee
1 1 1 1
- 1} Jalajafajajafa
1 Lewes) 4
1 1 1
: Le el 1 | a
t Veal har) 1; a
1 1 “108 Bra eT
1 1 pal 1
1 1} {1

1 Lee. | 21 1

t Se LER GRe Meee

1 1}1]1 1

1 1) yar} 1 1

1 1} ee | 1 1
J 1 Giaja) |viaa

REMARKS,

Sandwich and
Whitstable.

Formerly, in
Romney Marsh.

Formerly, in

Canterbury
useum,
from Kent.

Dover, 1861.

Now Gallinago
m.

A specimen in
Mr. Delmar’s
collection.

Called Ox-bird.

Rainham Creek. ;

In Summer at
Lydd. '

Sandwich.

Not lately.

Deen eS Ee

NAME.

Totanus ochropus ..
Green Sandpiper
Totanus glareola
Wood Sandpiper
Totanus calidris
Redshank
Totanus canescens
Greenshank
Totanus fuscus
Spotted Redshank |
Limosa Belgica :
Black-tailed Godwit
Limosa lapponica .
Bar-tailed Godwit
Numenius arquata ..
Common Curlew
Numenius pheopus .
Whimbrel
Family
Laride.
Hydrochelidon nigra. .
Black Tern
Sterna anglica
Gull-billed Tern
Sterna cantiaca
Sandwich Tern
Sterna fluviatilis
Common Tern
Sterna minuta ae
_ Lesser Tern
Sterna dougalli
Roseate Tern
Sterna caspia
Caspian Tern
Larus Philadelphia ..
Bonaparte’s Gull
Larus minutus ‘
Little Gull
Larus ridibundus :
Black-headed Gull
Larus canus ..
Common Gull
Larus argentatus
Herring Gull

Frequency.

|
ale

c
- | MC.

— | Gp.

REMARKS.

From Fordwich,
in Mr. Delmar’s
collection.
Breeds in Ash
Level.

Obtained at
Lydd.

Dover and
Lydd

Limosa Mela-
nuvia
(Yarrell)

Obtained by
C. Gordon,
June, 1885.

From Lydd.

Lydd and Sand-
wich.

Said to have
been met with
by Col. Cox.

From the Chan-
nel Plomley
collection.

Isle of Thanet,
Lord Clifton.

From Rye and
Rainham.

A Winter visi-
tor generally.

NAME.

Larus fuscus..
Lesser Black- hacked
Gull
Larus marinus
Great Black- hacked
Gull
Larus glaucus
Glaucous Gull
Larus Leucopterus
Iceland Gull
Rissa tridactyla
Kittiwake
Sub-Family
Stercorariinse
Stercorarius catarr-
hactes
Great Skua
Stercorarius pomator-
hinus
Pomatorhine Sie
Stercorartus crepidatus
Richardson’s Skua

Family
Procellariide.
Puffinus Anglorum ..
Manx Sheerwater
Cymochorea leucorrhoa
Fork-tailed Petrel
Procellaria pelagica .
Storm Petrel

Family
Alcide.

Alca torda
Razorbill

Uria troile
Guillemot

Uria lacrymans
Ringed Guillemot

Uria grylle ie
Black Gaiticmot

Mergulus alle
Little Auk

Frequency.

1 1
1 1
1
1
i 1
1
1 1
1 1
1
1
1 1
1
1 1
1 1
1
1

— | wep.

Authority.

i REMARKS.
es Ne
AlS|Hlalals
1) |1}1)1) 1) sanawien.

1) hy 1 Occasionally.
Rye.
1} 1 | Often in Kent.
Lydd.
1}1 Dover.
1 1
Teale en ae Dover Bay.
Now + |
1/1 Oceanowlroma,
Lae a Occasionally.
t
1/1/}1/)1|At zare inter-—
vals. ,
1/1 1/1 Breeds in Dover
1 cliffs.
Although con-
sidered a
variety of U.T
Te) dye

117

Frequency. } Sojourn. Authority.
NAME. a a _| REMARKS.
3 3 = & a\a a 5 Slelal|s = alalS
Fratercula arctica .. 1 1 1 1/1
oly
Colymbide.
Colymbus glacialis ..| \1 1 1}1 1}1
Great ‘Northern
Diver
Colymbus arcticus .. 1 1 Ta 1}1]|1]| 1) Sandwich and
Black-throated a pea
Diver
Colymbus septentrio- 1 1}1 ce a
nalis
Red-throated Diver
Family
Podicipidide.
Podiceps Cristatus .. 1 1 1}1 LiL in
Great Crested Grebe aawltets
Podiceps Griseigena. . 1 1 1 vara.
: Red-necked Grebe aga
Podiceps auritus .. 1 1 1.| 1 | Beogemouth,
Sclayonian Grebe ep easirene
Podiceps nigricollis .. 1 1 1 Stourmouth,
Eared Grebe ;
| Podiceps fruwatilis ..\ 1 1 1}1})1]1]1}]1] 1) 1) 1 | Little Grebe.
Dabchick
Family
Pelecanide.
Phalacrocorax carbo ..| | 1 1 1 tits Ne puadiice
Cormorant occasionally
met with.
Sula bassana. . 5 Ea 1 1 1|1]1| 1 | Sandwich Bay.
Gannet
Family |
Ardeide.
Ardea cinerea +8 1 VP) 1) 1g hd] 011d ee Renate
Heron ham Castle.
Ardea purpurea... 1 1}1]1 Killed at Lydd,
__ Purple Heron
y q Minster, 1882,
Nyeticorax griseus .. 1 Li Sora

Night Heron

118

NAME.

Ardetta minuta
Little Bittern

Botaurus stellaris
Bittern

Botaurus lentiginosus
American Bittern

Family
Ciconiidee.
Ciconia alba .. os
White Stork
Ciconia nigra
Black Stork

Family
Plataleide.
Platalea leucorodia ..
Spoonbill

Family
Anatide.
Anser cinereus
Grey Lag Goose
Anser albifrons
White-fronted Goose
Anser segetum
Bean Goose
Anser brachyrhynchus
Pink-footed Bean
Goose
Bernicla brenta
Brent Goose
Bernicla leucopsis
Barnacle Goose
Bernicla Canadensis. .
Canada Goose
Chenalopexr Aigypt-
taca .. BA
Egyptian Goose
Cygnus Musicus
Whooper Swan
Cygnus olor ..
Mute Swan
Cyguus Bewicki
Bewick’s Swan

Frequency.

_

—

pt

a

Ss

—_

Sojourn.

jn[3
PlélalSle

1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1} 1

1

1

1

1

1

1
1 1] 1
1 1

1} 1

1

—_

Authority.

—"

Elmstone. In
Mr. Delmar’s
collection.

Stourmouth,
G.D.

Canterbury, ’54,
as recorded by
Yarrell.

1884, Rainham
Creek,

1846, Lydd and
Queenboro.

Wingham,
W. Hammond,

Dover.

Stourmouth,
1887. ;

Preston, Jan., —
1887 D.

Stourmouth.

Not of late.
Beachborough,
W.O.H.,
probably not
truly wild.
Yarrell.
Stourmouth,

Probably an
escape from
confinement.

Wingham,
W.O.H.

119

Frequency. | Sojourn. Authority.
NAME. ; ; ; A REMARKS.
ofElalElala|<[E/S|ela/slala/a/é
Tadorna casarca sc 1 1 Romney Marsh,
Ruddy Sheld Duck =
Tadorna cornuta 1 1 1 1}1
Sheld Duck
Anas boscas .. eli 1 ONE) TE || STATE sa Ua Fai White specimen
Mallard Feb.,'69, GD.
a eae is 1 1 1g i he = :
adwall none met now.
ped ee i 1 1) hb Eh) eaters
oveller
Dafila acuta .. lee ye 1 1 by h{t
Pintail-duck
Querquedula crecea ..| 1 1 x 1s (Ta a i
Teal
Querquedula circia .. 1 1}1 1 1/1/1
Garganey
HMareca penelope ...| 1 1 ey 2 5 2 eI OO
igeon
Fuligula ferina ea Lit ae
Pochard
Fuligula marila =...) {1 1 1 it De eee,
Scaup Duck EY j E
Fuligula cristata ..| |1 1 1 1 Lie
: To a Dock 1874, 82, 89,
Clangula glaucion ..| |1 1 Lt 1 iO gy | wana e
Golden-eye
Harelda glacialis .. 1 1}1 ce ae
Long-tailed Duck
Somateria mollissima 1 1 Mi wee
Eider Duck ; :
leaded eh, |:1 Lids) PT Famers
ng Eider
. Edemia nigra el cle 1 1 1
Scoter
Bdemia fusca 1 1/1 Ly i a | eee
Velvet Scoter
Mergus serrator ..| |1 Mesh Ach] Wye dgh Ah. | Seen
Red-breasted Mer-
ganser
Mergus meganser .. 1 ipl |. 1 Di Lieb | Secemes
_ Goosander
Mergus albellus aps 1 1 1 OA A ee aa

Smew

120

XIX.

LIFE HISTORY OF A PLANT OF DAUCUS CAROTA
(The Wild Carrot)
OBSERVED DURING 1885—6,
BY

MR. J. REID, F.R.C.S. Eng.

The plant was found growing in the garden of the Observer
at Canterbury. It had apparently been introduced from the
seed of a wild specimen thrown with other wild flowers, ona
border adjoining the entrance to the garden from the house.

In the Autumn of 1885, amidst the general check and decay
of vegetation, there was noticed a seedling growth that arrested
attention by the fresh green colour and beauty of its foliage. It
formed a radiating crown or disc of elongated, finely divided,
bipinnate leaves, much resembling the first growth of Spiraea
Jjilipendula. An umbelliferous plant was suspected, but such a
development of the radical or basic leaves had never been
witnessed before, in association with the growth of a plant of
this order; such plants, in the wild state, being generally found
with very few, or none, of the primary leaves, which probably
are destroyed or diminished by the ravages of rabbits, or other
animals, and by other injuries in the winter and early spring
months. The plant was not treated as a weed, but allowed to
declare itself by its natural and also a protected growth. After a
certain amount of growth, the winter approaching, the plant came
to a stand still; became of a duller colour, and appeared to diminish
somewhat in the expansion of its leaves.

As the Spring influences of 1886, which were however much
delayed, commenced, renewed vigour was shown in the plant by
some increase of the disc leaves, and an extension of the verdant
ring. After a time the axis pushed up, and stem leaves appeared,
when the suspicions of the Autumn were made certain, by the
foliage declaring the well-known characters of the wild carrot.
Through the latter part of April, and during May, the vegetative
growth was most vigorous; not only did the central stem ascend
vertically, and throw out its lateral stems, but other stems arose
obliquely from the angles of the basic leaves, radiating around the
central axial growth. The whole plant, from the base upwards,
was expanded in a cupola-form, that was somewhat raised in the
upper part ; whilst the green, finely-cut, fern-like, feathery foliage
gave a light, elegant aspect to it. It was indeed a prominent

121

beauty in the garden, and became still more so as the flower heads
appeared; so much so, as to attract the eye of every visitor. The
root-leaves had now faded and shrivelled away, the flower buds
began to appear at the ends of the stems and their branches; each
gracefully set in its softly sprayed involucre. The terminal flower-
bud of the axis was much the largest, and was the first to expand
for blooming.

On June the Ist, when the axial umbel was about to bloom,
the umbel at that time being rather raised in the centre, with a
convex curve to the edge, a first measurement of the whole plant
was taken, in order to observe if any arrest occurred in growth, at
the periods of inflorescence.

The height of the central stem from base to top 8 ft. 61
Gi mmnbel was Gt ies care EEG a are

The cross measurement of the greatest fulness
of the dome in two directions at right 3 ft. 6;
angles to each other from one lateral bloom aici
RG bes OUCE Wasi ne: ass 5 « wb sateen ce's,0 2

The general form of growth, previous to this measurement,
had been noticed to be altering, by the advance of the axis being
diminished; and it was conjectured that the maximum might
have been attained. However, it will be seen afterwards, that
this was a period when the proportionate growth between stem and
branches was changed, though the whole plant continued to grow.

The flowers of the main branches of the axis, and of the
terminal umbels of the basic stems, which may be taken as allies
of the main branches of the central stem, did not open until those
of the central umbel were passing off. Then was the full beauty
of the plant witnessed, exhibiting 34 white flower heads, gracefully
fringed by the green of tinely-cut bracts, and set at stated intervals
over the dome of fern-like foliage ; each at the same time showing
a small purple centre, marking the solitary coloured blooms in the
centre of the umbel.

It was now remarked that various insects, not commonly
noticed in the garden, but recognized as frequenting umbelliferous
flowers in the open fields, visited the blooms.

A little before this period when the umbels of the primary
branches were maturing for blossoms, a peculiar movement in the
end of the branches was noticed. ‘The aspect of the border where
the plant grew was opened to the E. and was screened by a wall,
and a little way from the wall by higher buildings from S. to
N. on the W. side, so that by 2 p.m. or 2.30 p.m., the plant was

122

in shade. About two hours after this withdrawal of the direct
light of the sun, it was noticed that the flower-head, together with
a certain portion of the supporting stalk, bent inward to the centre;
giving a relaxed and languid appearance to the growth. This
condition continued throughout the evening and night, but had
entirely disappeared the next morning. This drooping towards the
axis of the plant, and contrary to the line of gravitation, on the
oblique direction of the branch that a withered part would follow,
was a daily constant movement during the time named; and indicated
some vital action required under the exigency of the temporary
conditions of development. The plant was visited at the return of
light, in the early dawn, before the sun had risen, or direct rays
could fall upon it. The flower-buds were then rising from the
depending position, and continued gradually to move back towards
the original place. Under the daily occurrence of this double
movement of drooping and recurving, the stalk acquired at the
part affected by the bend and lift back, a permanent double flexure ;
which on the death and drying up of the skeleton of the plant, in
the Autumn, was still quite conspicuous; the curves were free
and open; the one towards the umbel being less so than the lower
one. It may be here observed that a quality of infexion appears
to be a character of the plant, as noticed in the contraction of the
long rays of the bracts upon the centre of the receptacle, when the
fruit is forming, after the blossom; and, as may be seen in the
entire skeleton of the plant after death, when the limbs bend
inwards upon the axis with a long sweeping curve. In the latter
part of the life of this specimen, when the sunny aspect had
diminished, and the shady-side had increased, a general slope of the
whole growth occurred towards the sunlight; but at the time of
this intermitting movement alluded to, the general growth was
uniform and even in its dome-like form.

On July 27, 1886, the lateral branches of the axis had
advanced in growth above the central stem. The second series of
blooms were passing off; therefore, as the 1st measurement had
been taken when the 1st bloom was fading, it was thought to be a
good period to take a second measurement, for comparison with the
first : —

The height of the central stem was now........ . .4ft. din.
The extreme lateral extent, taken as before, was... .dft. 5in.
That is, whilst the centre was growing a foot,.the other parts, the
primary branches with the off-sets, had-grown about two feet.

There was no increase upon ‘this growth shown by subsequent
measurement.

A sort of general stock was now taken of the plant. Wind

123

and rain had somewhat disturbed the growth, and its uniform shape
had been interfered with. The number of blooms taken in series
were—

Ist Series.— 1. The Central umbel that had completed the stage
of blossom, and was forming the fruit.
Then there followed
2nd Series.— 8 Primary lateral umbels, on branches of the
ascending axis.
26 Primary umbels on stems or branches springing
— from the crown of the plant; these formed
84 the 2nd Series of blooms, and were fading.
2 of these, however, had been destroyed when
— the stems had formed 10 flower buds and

32. had been broken off at the base.
The branchlets produced a 8rd Series of
3rd Series.—22. blooms, which numbered 22 on the8 branches

of the axis, the number of branchlets
varying from 2 to 3 on a branch.

108—86. On the 24 radical laterals that were unin-
jured, as many as 6 branchlets were found
on some of these laterals; a few were very
attenuated, but all reached the floral
margin of growth. The 8rd Series of
blooms, smaller than the 2nd, commenced
blooming July 25th.

A 4th Series of still smaller flower buds was
formed on a second set of branchlets,

4th Series.—75. which numbered 75; this total did not
— include 6 of this growth noticed on the
Petal. oi. os 216. two destroyed side branches.

The total number of flowering umbels therefore produced and
perfected was 216. This remarkable number, in comparison with
what is usually observed in relation to the blooms of the wild
flower, under the ordinary casualties of its life, is due in great
measure to the better preservation and development of the basic
or collateral stems of the central one, in the natural field growth,
few or none of these seem to exist.

Observation was now unavoidably suspended for three weeks.
On the 24th of August, the fourth series of inflorescence was in
full bloom. The time had been passed in the development and
maturing of the seed, the general vegetative growth having been
nearly stationary. The large umbel of the axis was now removed
for the purpose of examining the fruit.

Several circumstances noticed in the development of the plant,
such as the free vegetative growth, the unusual dimensions, the

124

great number of umbels matured, and the constricted access of
light, suggested that there might have been an undue strain upon
its potent energy, and that the fruit produced would be found
greatly defective and much diminished. For this reason, and as a
matter of general interest, a comparison was made with specimens
growing in the wild state, in open ground, under the best natural
circumstances, and producing the finest umbels. Umbels of the
axis were taken from the best specimens found in the neighbour-
hood, and from the variety marztima on the Lizard Peninsula,
Cornwall, where the plant was abundant and vigorous.

It will not be necessary to go into the details of this analysis
beyond giving an account of the method pursued, and mentioning
some of the general results.

A, Garden grown specimen.

In the general method adopted in examining this and the
other specimens, the surface of the umbel was noticed as in
some degree indicating the degree of ripeness of the seed.
The number and condition of the bracts were observed as
apparently bearing some relation to the productive potency of
the umbel or umbellules. The umbellules were separated
into series from without inwards, as nearly as could be, in
successive rings, and the seed of each was separately divided
into good and bad, the fully developed mericarp was taken as
good, the imperfect, shrivelled, or injured, as bad. When the
two mericarps advanced very little beyond the floral state of the
ovary, and remained united and inseparable, they are reckoned
one bad seed.

Resvtts oF ANALYsIS oF A.

There were 12 ridges in the stem of the umbel: 11
terminated in pedicles or rays of the umbellules, with bracts
at the base, 1 ended in a ray without a bract, and was placed
nearer the 2nd than the 1st ring; 38 of these bracts were
bipinnate and 8 pinnate. The umbel was concave on the fruit
surface, the outer row of umbellules had the surface turned
inwards, and somewhat downwards, towards the centre.

The umbel was composed of 71 umbellules,
which produced a total of ...... 3,614 seeds.
Of these there were good ....,. 1,911 ,,
‘ Dyadetas tks. L703" *,,
Thus the good exceeded the bad by 208.
The relative proportion was 26°91 to 23°98.
In the outer rings of the umbellules more good seed was
eu than bad; in two, however, the bad exceeded the
good.

125

B.—Umbel of the variety maritima, consisted of 42 umbellules.

This produced a total of ......,... 2,109 seeds.
Of these there were good.......... Ahi eae
if bad ae! ste etudBre 5

The good seed exceeded the bad by 1,433.
The proportion of good to bad was as 42°14 to 8-04.

C.—Umbel of wild plant in neighbourhood was formed of
58 umbellules.

This produced atotal of ......... . 3,229 seeds.
Of these there were good.......... 2.667 '}5

Giving an excess of good over bad of 2,105 seeds, or a
proportion of 45°98 to 9°68.

Thus the prevalence of good seed was in the order of C.B.A.
The results, though of an approximate character, sufficiently show
that this handsomer and more fully developed plant, under the
circumstances of its life, was behind the relative productive
standard of the naturally grown and more mutilated ones. It
should be noted that the umbel in each case was taken from the
part where the greatest vital energy is said to exist, the axis.

It only remains to record that the plant died in October,
having lived about a year. As it faded the branches curved
inwards upon the axis contracting to more than half its former
expansion. A one-sided inclination of the whole plant towards
the side of the greatest amount of direct light was also noticed.

XX.

WOODLICE, CENTIPEDES, AND SNAKE
MILLIPEDES.
BY
MR. G. S. SAUNDERS, F.L.S.
Read AprRIL 14th, 1887.
The paper was illustvated by Diagrams and Microscopie slides.
Though I have joined these creatures together in the title of
this paper, I have not done so with any intention of suggesting

that the Woodlice are nearly allied to the others, for such is not
the case; but rather to show their differences, as many persons

126

may think that they have a close relationship. They really belong
to quite different classes, and the large class containing the Spider’s
Mites and Scorpions are placed between them; neither however are
insects, as it is popularly supposed that they are.

The Woodlice belong to the crustacea, the class which also
contains the lobsters, crabs, shrimps, &c. The Centipedes and
Snake Millipedes to the Myriapoda, so they are by no means closely
allied, although they do bear some resemblance to one another.
The Woodlice are placed in the order Isopoda, so called because
their feet are of uniform size; many members of this order are
aquatic. The terrestial ones, which are commonly known as
Woodlice, Sowbugs, or Slaters, are divided into six genera, which
together contain about 17 species. They all bear a great
resemblance to one another, but differ in various slight particulars ;
some species have the power of rolling themselves up into a ball,
when disturbed, others have not. This habit is not confined to the
members of one genus, for in more than one, some species roll
themselves up, others cannot. A very common, and I suppose our
largest species, (Armadillo Vulgaris), when rolled up forms a
perfect sphere, all its legs and antenne being completely hidden
beneath its scaly jointed covering. Woodlice are most frequently
found under rubbish, boards, stones, &c., which have lain on the
ground for some time.

One very small species, which measures only one eighth of an
inch in length, (Platyarthus Hoffmanseggii) (the length of its name
will make up for its want of size), is quite white, and perfectly
blind ; it is found not unfrequently in ants’ nests. According to
Sir John Lubbock, the ants do not take the slightest notice of
them, though it is certain they sanction their presence, or they
would kill them, for all unauthorised interlopers are at once
killed. Sir John suggests that these woodlice may act as scavengers.
This species 1 believe is only found in ants’ nests. At one time
woodlice were supposed to be possessed of considerable medicinal
virtue ; ‘‘ Wine of millipedes,” which was considered a medicine of
great value, in certain complaints of the liver and kidneys, was
compounded of crushed woodlice infused in wine. The body of a
woodlouse is composed of thirteen joints, the first seven of which
bear legs, the legs are composed of six joints, and terminate in a
single claw. Beneath the six joints which are not provided with
legs is placed the breathing apparatus, which consists of branchie.
They are protected by plates which fold over them. The head is
furnished with a pair of small compound eyes, and two pairs of
antenne ; one pair, however, is very small, consisting of three or
four minute joints; the other is of considerable length, and each
antennee is composed of 7 or 8 joints. The structure of the mouth

127

is rather complicated, but is well adapted for gnawing vegetable
substances. Without figures itis difficult to describe it intelligibly.

The female lays eggs which she carries about with her, in
what is known as the thoracic pouch, which is formed by certain
plates which grow from the base of the legs. The young, when
hatched, occupy the same position for some time. They much
resemble their parents in form, but have only 6 pairs of legs and
are quite white. Woodlice are often very destructive in gardens
and greenhouses, particularly in mushroom beds and melon pits ;
even in orchard houses they are a great nuisance, for they do not
disdain ripe peaches, in fact, it is difficult to say what they will-not
eat in the way of vegetable ‘produce. A few years ago a very good
crop of strawberries, in Canterbury, almost entirely failed owing to
the attacks of these ‘pests, who gnawed the fruit, and even opened
many of the seeds. They are very destructive also in hot-houses,
particularly among orchids, they hide in the moss around the plants,
and feed on their young fleshy roots. Woodlice appear to share
the same feelings as Insects, and I am afraid those of some of the
higher animals, in having a great dislike to cleanliness and water ;
nothing suits them better than an untidy garden, or a badly kept
hot-house. In pits and hot beds, where they often hide themselves
between the earth and the walls, or woodwork, the best way of
destroying them is to pour boiling water into their haunts. When
they take up their abode among the moss in pots, where plants are
growing, they may be trapped by cutting apples or potatoes in
half, and then, slightly scooping them out, lay them with the
hollowed part downwards in the pot, and the woodlice will creep
under them. They should be examined every morning. Small
garden pots partly filled with dry moss witha small piece of apple,
potato, or cheese, at the bottom, and laid on their sides, form good
traps.

The Centipedes as I have already mentioned belong to the
Myriapoda ; the British species are quite harmless and very small,
compared with the tropical species, some of which are a foot in
length and their bite is at times very venomous.

The Myriapoda.—The class to which the Centipedes and Snake
Millipedes belong, is divided into four orders, but it is only with
the first two which we have to deal with. The Chilopoda or
Centipedes, so called on account of the first pair of legs having
been modified, so as to form a pair of mandibles; and the
Chilognatha or Snake Millipedes, which have comparatively weak
jaws. The centipedes may easily be distinguished from the latter,
not only by examination of the head, but by the legs—they have
only one pair to each joint of the body; whereas the snake
millipedes have two pairs. All the latter, in spite of the number

128

of their legs, move very slowly, while many of the centipedes are
very rapid in their movements. The centipedes are all carnivorous.
Our commonest species (Lithobius forficatus), which may be found
almost everywhere under rubbish, stones, brickbats, &c., is about
one inch in length, not including the antenne and legs, its body is
composed of sixteen joints, each of which bears a pair of legs.
The head is provided with a pair of tapering antenne, each of which
is composed of about forty joints ; just beneath these organs are
the compound eyes ; the mouth isa somewhat complicated structure.
The chief feature, however, is the foot jaws, which serve the purpose
of a pair of mandibles ; these are formidable looking weapons, and
terminate in a strong perforated sharp fang, in each of which is a
poison gland. When the creature uses these weapons, the poison
is injected into the wound, through the orifice in the point of the
fang. This species is one of those which moves very rapidly ; any
small insect which it takes a fancy to, would have but a poor
chance of escaping unless it could fly, for the instant the jaws
touch it, its fateis sealed. Another common species—the Luminous
Centipede (Geophilus longicornis)—is interesting on account of
emitting light at certain times. This species, though formed much
in the same manner as the species just described, is a very different
looking creature, its length is about 23 inches, and it is not more
than 3/5 of an inch in width, so that it isa remarkably long, narrow
creature ; its body is composed of a great number of joints, each
joint is provided with a pair of legs, the last pair in the males are
much longer than the others, and have much the appearance of a
pair of antenne. These creatures move in a very slow tortuous
manner, and seem to glide along rather than walk, for their legs
are so small that they are not noticed. At certain times, (generally
in the Spring and Autumn), supposed to be their breeding seasons,
these centipedes emit a phosphorescent light, and they often leave
an illuminated trail behind them on the ground, some few inches,
and occasionally 2 or even 3 feet in length, when they roam about.
Persons are often surprised to see a streak of phosphorescent light
on a pathway, and wonder what can be the cause, for unless careful
search be made, the author will not be discovered.

The female lays her eggs, nearly fifty in number, together in
a cluster, in a cell which she forms in the earth; in this cell she
remains coiled round the eggs until they are hatched ; the period of
incubation extends over a fortnight, or three weeks. These
centipedes are not considered by many persons to be entirely
carnivorous, and they certainly have been found under circumstances
which seem to show that they do not at all times confine themselves
to animal food; although the organs of their mouth are found just
the same as those of the undoubtedly carnivorous species, and
poison fangs can be of no use to avegetarian. Butin spite of their

129

great number of legs, these creatures move very slowly, and it is
quite possible that if their supply of ordinary food falls short, they
might feed on any roots which came in their way.

The division Chilognatha of the Myriapoda, or Snake Millipede,
contains a number of species which are very destructive to the roots
of plants. These creatures are sometimes called False Wireworms,
which however is a very bad name, as they are not related in any
way to wireworms, and do not bear much resemblance to them.
They are all long, narrow, nearly cylindrical creatures, composed of a
number of smooth, horny joints; each joint of the body, except the
last two, is furnished with two pairs of legs, notwithstanding
which thev crawl very slowly. The different species vary in length
considerably, the largest are about an inch in length, others are
scarcely half that size; when disturbed they generally curl
themselves round into a ring. Their heads are provided with a
pair of slightly clubbed antenne, consisting of six joints ; their eyes
are far from prominent, but can easily be distinguished under a
magnifying glass; their jaws are weak, and not fitted for biting
hard substances, and the foot-jaws of the centipedes are entirely
wanting. Some species, Julus terrestris and Julus Londinensis, are
of a dark brownish lead colour, and are about an inch in length.
Another species, Julus Guttatus (the spotted snake millipede), is
about half an inch long, and is of a glossy pale yellow colour, with
a bright crimson spot on each side of nearly all the joints of the
body. The female snake millipedes deposit their eggs in the earth;
the young when first hatched have only three pairs of legs, and
their bodies consist of only seven or eight joints ; these however,
and the legs, gradually increase in number ; they do not arrive at
maturity until they are two years old, during which time
they change their skins several times. These creatures may
be found at the roots of plants, under rubbish, stones, &c.,
they are at times very injurious in gardens and green-
houses, as they feed on the roots of strawberry plants, pansies,
lilies, and other bulbs, anemones, &c., beans, peas, cabbages,
potatoes, carrots, &.; they are also fond of ripe strawberries, a by
no means favourable trait in their character. They are very
difficult pests to get rid of, living as they do at the roots of plants,
where no insecticide can reach them. Some persons have
recommended laying nitrate of soda, or soot, around the plants, and
then watering them thoroughly, but it is doubtful if this be of
much use; burying small bundles of damp, but not wet moss, or
laying small pieces of slate, tiles, or cabbage leaves, on the ground
near the plants, are useful, for the snake millipedes are fond of
creeping into, or under such things for shelter. When kitchen
garden ground is much infested, the best thing is to Fallow it for
some months, keeping it free from weeds, and the surface broken,

1380

so that the birds may get at them. A good dressing of gas or hot
lime towards the end of the fallow would be useful, and would no
doubt kill any which were left in the soil, as they would be much
weakened by their long fast. Laying straw, spent tan, &c., under
strawberry plants when the fruit is ripening, cannot but encourage
these creatures. In greenhouses they may be trapped in the
manner recommended for catching W oodlice.

XXI.
ON THE PROBABILITY OF FINDING COAL IN KENT,

BY
GEORGE DOWKER, F.G.S.

READ DECEMBER 8, 1887.

Mr. Dowker, in this paper, alluded to the boring in search of
coal strata now going on at Dover, and remarked that the large
consumption of coal in England, together with the quantity
annually exported, had led to serious apprehensions that the
avaiable supply in this country might be exhausted; and many
eminent Geologists had been examining the question, with a view to
find out fresh sources.

He drew attention to a remarkable paper, by the late Mr. Godwin
Austen, read before the Geological Society in 1845, accompanied by
amap. His observation and theoretical considerations led him to
believe that: the coal measures of Northern France and Belgium
were continued beneath the secondary beds of the 8.E. of England ;
and he showed, upon well considered theoretical grounds that a
large portion of the present coal fields of England, France, and
Belgium, were once continuous, and that the present coal fields
were mere fragments of a great original deposit ; and inferred that
a line of disturbance forming the great anticlinal of the Ardennes,
by which the Belgian coalfield had been tilted up and brought to
the surface was continuous to the Mendips and Somerset coalfields.
And tracing out the great basin in which these coal beds were
situated, drew a hypothetical line passing under the London Basin,
in which he supposed they might be found not far beneath the
surface. -

Mr. Dowker then traced out by deep well sections of Kentish
Town, Harwich, Calais, Tottenham Court Road, Richmond, and
others, proving that in all these cases the secondary beds beneath

131

the gault were wanting, or thinned out, and the bottom of the
wells rested on beds; in all probability of Paleozoic or primary
rocks. Thus to the North of the Thames in the Eastern Counties,
Mr. Godwin Austen’s surmises were proved to be correct. South
of the Thames, Mr. Dowker drew attention to the great Sub-
Wealden boring in 1872, about which some £6,000 was spent, and
a depth of 1,841 feet reached without getting to the bottom of the
Oxford clay, when the undertaking was abandoned; proving,
however, that the secondary rocks were here met with in unusual
thickness.

Mr. Dowker recorded his observations on the Boulonnais area,
which he visited with several members of the Geologists’ Associa-
_ tion, and under the guidance of the most distinguished Geologists
of Northern France, in 1878, and explained the position of the
coal there met with.

Lastly, he gave particulars of the deep borings in Kent that
have recently been made, viz., at Chatham Dock-yard, to a depth
of 965 feet, and all the secondary beds betoken the lower green-
sand down to the Oxford clay were wanting, the latter being
pierced to a depth of 20 feet.

Also the deep boring at the Convict Prison, East Cliff, Dover,
which penetrated to a depth of 931 feet. Below the gault,.63 feet
in lower greensand, and the remaining 50 feet in Wealden beds.

He stated that we may conclude, with certainty, that the
primary rocks underlie the Northern parts of Kent at a less depth
than 2,000 feet, and therefore coal measures will probably be met
with. But the sections given seem to show that the overlying
beds are thinnest towards the North East, and he concludes that the
Isle of Thanet would probably be a more favourable site for the
proposed boring.

The chance of finding carboniferous limestone was, however,
not finding coal. And the coal measures rested on beds so distorted
that they were probably in ridges beneath the London Basin, and it
was impossible to predict where the boring would strike the under-
ground strata. The probability that the coal measures had thinned
out or been denuded was also touched upon. The conclusion being
that such was not the case to any considerable extent in the area.

Mr. Dowker’s remarks were illustrated by numerous maps and
sections, which were some of them furnished by Mr. Toply, of
the Geological Survey ; and, in preparing the paper, all available
sources of information on the subject, derived from the voluminous

132

proceedings of the Coal Commission and the various papers on the
subject published by the Royal Coal Commission, the-proceedings
of the Geological Society and the Geologists’ Association had been
consulted. The paper being chiefly intended as a popular account
of the subject, some time was devoted to elementary geological
facts.

Works Consvxren.

‘Coal Commission Report,” vol. 1, 2, 3.

Dixon, ‘‘Geology of Sussex,” New Edit., 1887. Rupert
Jones.

‘‘ Popular Science Review,” vol. xi., p. 225. Prestwich.

J. C., “Engineer,” vol. xxvii. Prestwich, on Channel Tunnels.

‘‘ Memoir on the Weald.” TZopley.

‘‘ Guide to the Geology of London.” W. Whitaker, 1875.

‘‘ Note on the Surface Geology of London.” Whitaker, 1867.

“Geology of the Straits of Dover.” TZopley, Q. J. of
Science, 1872.

‘‘ Memoirs of the Geological Survey,” vol. iv. Wahztaker, 1872.

“‘ Geological Papers,” 8.C., England. 2it/on, Marten, Buck-
land, 1828-36.

“Q.J. of Geology Society,” vol. xii. Godwin Austen.

Ditto, vol. ix. Godwin Austen, on ‘‘ Upper Boulonnais.”

Ditto, vol. xl., p. 24. /udd, ‘‘ Nature and Relation of J.D.
under London.”

Ditto, vol, xlii., p. 26. Whitaker, on ‘‘Some Borings in
Kent.”

Ditto, vol. xliii., p. 177. ditto ditto

Prestwich on Kentish Town Borie.

Proceedings of Geologists’ Association :—

Vol. iv., p. 35, 7. Gunn, ‘“‘On the probability of finding coal
in the Eastern Counties.”

Vol, vi. p. 87, Professor Gosslet, ‘* Memoirs on the
Boulonnais.”’

Vol. i.. pp. 120-287, Professor Morris ‘‘ On Coal.”

Vol. v., p. 389, ‘‘ Lancashire Coal Fields.”

Vol. v., p. 89, Sollas, ‘‘ Geology of the Bristol District.”

Vol. ii., p. 241, Woodward, ‘‘ On Coal.”

Vol. ix., p. 228, ‘‘ Notes on the Paleozoic Rocks of Belgium,”’
Geologists’ Assocration. ‘‘The Geology of Belgium, and
the French Ardennes. Professor Gosslet, Bonny, £.
Van der Brocck, and W. Topley, 1885.

se
i . :

133

XXII.

ON THE OCCURRENCE OF MANGANESE IN SOME
GRAVEL BEDS UNDER BIGBERRY Woop,
NEAR CAN TERBURY,

BY
CAPTAIN McDAKIN.

READ 9TH FEBRUARY, 1888,

Although the district of the Lower Tertiaries, the Upper and
Lower Cretaceous, and Wealden formations, comprised between
Ramsgate and Hastings may be considered rich in fossils, the
minerals are few.

Chalcedony and crystals of Quartz occur in cavities of flints
and fossils. Calcite in dividing septa of Septaria, and rock
fissures ; Selenite in the London and Gault clays; Pyrites in all
the local formations, replacing vegetable remains in the London
Clay, and as curious shaped nodules in the Lower Chalk. Also a
variety of pyrites, called Markasite, in the same formation ;
Allophane, near Woolwich ; Websterite, as a grey earthy alumi-
nous mineral, probably formed by the decomposition of pyrites and
clay; Heavy Spar, or sulphate of Barytes in the Weald and
London Clay; Amber cast up on the coast at Pegwell Bay; and
Jet, but recently brought to our notice by Mrs. Cole, having been
found near Battle Abbey ; and lastly Glauconite, the green mineral,
giving the distinctive colouring to the Green-sands, both of the
Cretaceous and Eocene formations: these form a list of those
minerals that occur in any quantity. In addition we have several
iron ores ; the silicious ironstones of the Woolwich beds, and some
very remarkable beds capping the escarpment of the North Downs,
the clay ironstone of the Weald, and bog iron ores; and recently
I have found Manganese in sufficient quantity to include it in the
list of our minerals. Like iron, it is very generally present in
small quantities. Its colouring power is so great that its presence
may be detected when existing in a very minute quantity, either
by the blowpipe or wet analysis. It is frequently associated with
iron and phosphorus in the bog ores, and with a peculiar blue
mineral Vivinanite, found coating stones and the sides of fissures
in rocks, and even vegetable remains, in appearance reminding
one of the bloom on the fruit of the Blackthorn or Sloe,

The chemist Rulong found four per cent. of Manganese

134

(Mn, O,) in the ashes of the Sweet Flag, Acorus calamus ; and
Frescenius eleven per cent. in the ashes of the Beech, Fagus
sylvatica.

We do not always find it in the ashes of these plants, but
they appear to have the power of appropriating it when it happens
to be in their vicinity.

The Manganese to which I specially refer I found in an
irregular layer in the gravel under Bigberry Wood, near Canter-
bury, at about 12 feet from the surface, and 200 feet above sea
level. From its dark colorI at first thought it was some form of
organic matter, or iron reduced to the protoxide by vegetable
matter. The latter is probably the key which unlocks to us the
meaning, and shows the cause of its occurrence. The vegetation,
living and dying on the marshy flats and in the shallow pools,
gives off vegetable acids as well as carbonic acid.

These acids dissolve the iron and manganese contained in the
surrounding beds, the organic matter having previously reduced
them to a condition of lower oxide, and on becoming once more
oxidised are again precipitated as the Red oxide of Iron and Black
oxide of Manganese.

Manganese occurs sometimes in very unexpected places. The
dredging operations of the Challenger expedition carried on in the
abysmal depths of the ocean, brought up nodules of Manganese from
twelve thousand feet. These were associated with calcareous
Foraminifera and siliceous Radiolaria, mixed with an exceedingly
fine clay, coloured red by oxide of iron, and sometimes of a choco-
late tint from manganese oxide.

Dr. Geikie says, that this deposit, covering the floor of the
ocean in its greatest depths, is one of the most singular features of
recent discovery. It sometimes incrusts bits of pumice, bones, &c.
The nodules possess a concentric arrangement not unlike those of
calculi. That they are formed on the spot, and not drifted from a
distance, is clear from their containing abysmal organisms, and
enclosing more or less of the surrounding bottom, whatever its
nature may happen to be. Mr. Buchanan has recently found
similar manganese concretions in some of the deeper parts of
Loch Fyne.

In the slates now worked in a quarry above Beltws-y-Coed, in
North Wales, I found cavities filled with a soft earthy brown
mineral containing a large quantity of Manganese; this had
probably the same submarine origin as the nodules found by deep
sea dredging.

These facts give us an enlarged interest in connection with the

135

mineral, but its occurrence in our own immediate neighbourhood in
larger quantity than has been before noticed, is in a local sense
most remarkable, and I trust not unworthy of the notice of our
Society.

Wad, a hydrated oxide of Manganese, has been found at
Etchingham, in Sussex (about twelve miles S.E. of Tunbridge
Wells). A specimen is shown in the British Museum (table case
12, H). It has been suggested thatthe Manganese found in the
Canterbury gravels may have been brought with the drift gravels
from the interior of the Weald. I have found fragments of the
Lower Greensandstone in these gravels, carried by the same
translating force, but I do not think it possible that so friable a
mineral as hydrated oxide of Manganese could have escaped the
grinding of the gravel masses when we only find such hard
survivors as the cherty limestone and silicious ironstone.

I think from the amount of Manganese found in the ashes of
plants, such as the Beech and Sweet Flag, on the authority before
quoted, that living vegetation has played an important part in
gathering this mineral from the surrounding land where it had
past into solution by means of the acids generated by the decay of
vegetable life, to be again deposited as the hydrated peroxide of
Manganese accumulated at the bottom of shallow pools and
covered by the gravels at the close of the glacial period.

XXIII.

SOME REMARKS ON THE LOWER GREENSAND,
ATTRIBUTING THE CONTINUOUS FORMATION
OF GLAUCONITE TO THE POTASH SET FREE
BY DECAYING VEGETATION,
BY
CAPTAIN McDAKIN.
Reap Marcu &th, 1888.

In the Lower Greensand the fossils represent a marine state
of existence except those that must have been borne seawards by

the ancient river, that formed the estuarine deposits of the Weald,
representing the wreckage of a vanished continent.

The numerous specimens of drift wood occurring at the
junction with the superimposed Gault have had their woody fibre
largely replaced by phosphate of lime; in some specimens that I
have examined only six per cent. of carbon remaining instead of

136

fifty, the quantity of carbon contained in most woods, this having
been replaced by forty per cent. of phosphate of lime. The source
of the phosphates is probably the highly fossiliferous over-lying
Gault clay.

We have here an instance of action and results similar to the
circulation of blood in the animal, building up bone and muscle ;
and also to the circulation of sap in the vegetable, producing woody
fibre; for circulating water passing through these beds has caused
animal matter to be replaced by pyrites, and the carbon of the
wood by phosphate of lime.

In the laboratory of nature the chemical changes take place
so slowly and in such dilute solutions that the chemist may well
say that he has not the time, however much he may have the
inclination, to study them. We are too apt to forget that
substances which we regard as insoluble, such as sulphate of
barytes and tricalcic phosphate, as well as silica, are soluble in the
water that is slowly but constantly passing through the rocks. It is
in this manner that pebbles have been formed in the vesicles of old
lavas, thus composing amygdaloid traps; and zeolites have been pro-
duced inside cavities in bricks forming part of the structure of ancient
baths. In the same manner we find crystals in the drusic cavities
of flints, showing how water carrying mineral matter in solution
has passed through the very surface and substance of the flint. I
believe in this sense it is no figure of speech to say that stones
grow, and in a double sense it may be taken that they grow both
larger and smaller.

Underneath some of our railway arches we may see stalactites
that have grown by the percolation of water, five or six inches
in five and twenty years, but the very water that has caused them
to grow by bringing lime in solution may dissolve them away
again when it has no more lime to bring. Indeed it may be said
that in nature there is nothing so constant as change. The very
mountains may be increasing or diminishing in height through
chemical changes going on in their interiors as well as from other
causes.

In this manner, from the interchange of mineral particles
carried on in a continuous circle of changes between organic and
inorganic atoms, those cherty bands of limestone in the Lower
Greensand may have been formed, not necessarily under the sea,
but after the beds became land, though not the conventional dryland
that we so often hear about and which so seldom exists.

Mr. G. Dowker, F.G.S., in an able paper read before the East
Kent Natural History Society, some years ago, ascribes the forma-
tion of flint in veins and bands to similar causes, and gives as an

137

example a green-coated flint surrounded by a banded tabular flint,
showing that the first formed flint must have been in existence as
a nodule before it received its green coat, and after having become
coated with glauconite it was surrounded by the after growth of
tabular flint. This example of the green-coated flint leads to the
consideration of the mineral that has given, from its colour, the
distinguishing name to the Greensands, although the particular
specimen just mentioned is geologically far distant from the forma-
tion which constitutes the lower cretaceous rocks.

The mineral Glauconite is chemically a protosilicate of iron
and potash, and is found coating grains of sand and filling the
cavities of foraminifera, asin the greensands of the lower Tertiaries ;
coating flints especially at the base of the Thanet sands, but is absent
from the black, white-coated flints of the chalk; showing again in
the Upper Greensand ; oveurring in a very brilliantly green-
coloured bed with cubical pyrites in the upper Gault clay, present-
ing a charming mixture of green and gold. And lastly forming a
conspicuous feature of the Folkestone beds of the Lower Greensand,
some of the largest particles being found in the bottom bed of the
Folkestone series with grains of quartz, jasper, Lydian stone, &c.

As the geological mind is by nature and habit an
enquiring mind, so the question arises what is glauconite ?
Chemistry answers, a protosilicate of iron and potash. There is
plenty of silica and iron in the surrounding beds, but whence the
potash? Have we not the answer in drift wood, we find
mineralised in the same beds, and also in the Tertiary beds where
glauconite gives its colour to the sands ?

The wood in decomposing reduced the iron to its lower oxide,
the potash also set free at the same time, would combine with the
soluble silica, and protoxide of iron, to form the protosilicate of
iron and potash. This combination having taken place, we find a
mineral, like green glass, not readily acted upon even by boiling
concentrated acids, but still decomposed by the mysterious power
of the vegetable soil, and potash once more appropriated by trees
and plants. This has been recognised in America, where the
glauconitic earths have been used as a dressing for land. Thus the
powers of nature might be typified by the serpent masticating its
own tail, for the operations of chemical actions taking place
within the rocks complete their circle of changes in the upper life
of the vegetable world, and though the colour may be but a mere
resemblance, it is remarkably the same.

The beautifully wooded scenery of Saltwood, Sevenoaks,
Dorking, and the whole range of the Lower Greensand hills,
bearing a wealth of woodland beauty, testifies to the name not
having been ill-chosen or misplaced.

NOTES.

XXIII.— Preliminary Report of the Sub-Committee on Meteorology
on the Temperature of the River Stour.

Armrp sy Mr. H. Dean.
May, 1880.

With the view of giving effect to the intentions of the
Committee of the British Association appointed to arrange an
investigation of the seasonal variations of temperature in Lakes,
Rivers, &c., in various parts of the United Kingdom, in conjunction
with the Societies sending delegates to the above Association, the
Committee of the East Kent Natural History Society wrote for,
and procured, a copy of ‘‘ Directions to Observers,” together with
a thermometer and Observation Book, from John Gunn, Esq.,
F.R.S. and G.S., Edinburgh, and appointed a Sub-Committee to carry
out the instructions contained in the Secretary’s letter of November,
1888. They were fortunate in securing the willing services of an
associate of their Society, Mr. Henry Dean, of 35, St. Peter’s
Street, Canterbury, by whom the observations now to be reported
on were made.

The observations commenced on the 18th December, and have
been continued day by day to the present time, a period of five
months, and will continue to be made throughout the year.

The river, in which the observations are taken, forms the
Western Branch of the Stour which flows through Canterbury, and
empties itself into the sea at Pegwell Bay, near Sandwich, about
15 miles distant. The depth of water is about two feet in the
ordinary state of the river, increasing to three feet or more when
the river isin flood. The direction of the stream is from 8.W.
to N.E. The banks are low and shaded with trees.

In accordance with the directions received from the Secretary
of the Committee, the observations were taken at 9 a.m. regularly,
day by day, always at the same place, and within five minutes
walk from Mr. H. Dean’s house. Remarks on ‘State of River
and Weather” are entered in the Observing Book at the same
time. The following are some of the results noticed :—-

In December, as a general rule, the temperature of the water
was higher than that of the air; but there were exceptions, ¢.g., on
the 19th December the temperature of air and water was nearly

189

the same, viz., 438°, the wind at the time was W.S.W., and the
weather clear and fine. It was the same on the 24th December.
The greatest difference in the temperature of air and water was on
the 25th (Christmas Day), when that of the air was 35°, and of the
water 44°°3. Onthe 1st January, 1889, the difference is more
remarkable, viz., air 30°°6, water 40°, and the same was the case
on the day following, viz., air 29°, water 38°°5, with the wind
N.E., and weather fine. A sudden rise of temperature occurred on
the 8th January, when that of the air was 39°-8, and of the
water 38°:2, somewhat colder than the air; the wind South and
the weather fine. The same was the case the day following, viz.,
air 45°, water 41°°5.

Asarule the temperature of the water has not increased so
rapidly as that of the air. On the 5th May, for instance, the air
was 69° and the water 57°:2; the same on May 9th, viz., air 62°,
water 57°. In February, with snow on the ground, the tempera-
ture of the air varied from 25°°8 to 34°°8, and that of the water
from 34°-6 to 39°°5, the wind at the time being E. to N.E.

Speaking generally, it is observed that with the wind South
or 8.W., and rain falling, the temperature of air and water differ
only one or two degrees.

XXIV.—White Rhinoceros Horn.—By T. T. Hitrier, M.R.C.S.,
Eng.

FEB. 10, 1887.

A letter was read announcing that Mr. Hillier had secured a
horn of the white rhinoceros, which had been found at Ramsgate
in a deposit of Romano-British date. The Romans believed in the
power of shavings from these horns to show the presence of poison
in the wine cup: and the Chinese have the same belief at the
present day.

XXV.—Recent Fall of Rock at Niagara Falls—Communicated by
W. P. Marsnatt, Esa.

Mr. J. Reid read a short note relating to the great fall of rock
that had recently occurred at Niagara, which was illustrated by
approximate sketch maps, showing the present state of the Niagara
Falls, and the state two hundred years ago, which is the earliest
records known, from a visit of Father Hennepin. The communica-
tion had been received from Mr. W. P. Marshall, of Birmingham,
who in 1884 had visited and well studied the condition of the
Falls, and by his engineering knowledge had been able justly to

140

produce, in the two sketch maps, a faithful comparison of the
present state with the past record. It was shown and described
how the greatest change in the Falls has been in the centre of the
great Fall between Goat Island and the Canadian side, where the
bulk of the water passes over; and the edge of the cataract has
worn back, it is considered, fully 200ft. in the 200 years at that
point. A rock island that existed 200 years ago off the Canadian
side, corresponding to the present Terrapin Rock Isle, off the Goat
Island, has been swept away. The Table Rock that fell fifty years
ago, formed a portion of a larger projection of Father Hennepin’s
time, from the Canadian side, somewhat N.W. of the Rock Isle
that had been destroyed. The fall that had just taken place
adjoined the cliff near the former position of the Table Rock to
South. The Gull island, which was a large island within the
memory of living people, is now so nearly gone that it is quite
overlooked, unless specially looked for with an opera glass. The
Terrapin Rock has greatly diminished ; a large prospect-tower upon
it had to be removed on account of the breaking away of the rock.
The greatest force of the stream is in the centre, past Gull Island,
and impinging on the Canadian shore where Table Rock was; and
where the course of the stream has to be turned at right angles.
The next object to disappear will be Terapin Rock and Gull
Island. The centre of the Table will cut its way back, probably,
with increasing rapidity, from the deepening of the channel
forming a trough at the centre leading to a still greater and greater
force of water to wear away the rock at that part.

XXVI.—Local Foraminifera.—By Cotonet Horstey.

At the same time, Colonel Horsley exhibited microscopic
slides of Foraminifere, which he had gathered on the shore at
Broadstairs at one of the Summer Excursions.

XXVII.—Lvening devoted to Exhibits.

MARCH 10, 1887.
Colonel Cox.—Rare fresh water shells from Island of Hainan.
Amongst those named were Dipsas plicata (Leach), Unio Cumingii
(Lea), Hyrva elongata Anadonta gibba (Benson).

Mr. W. E. Goulden.—Seaweeds from Cherbourg, well mounted
but unnamed.

Microscopic Slides, Colonel Horsley.—Foraminifera—Broad-
stairs, Mediterranean, West Indies. Mr. J. Fielding. —Rock
Sections—ersantite, showing Pleochroic, crystals of Biotite,
Oligoclase, Felspar, Dichroism of Hornblende, Orthoclose Felspar,
Leucite Dolorite, polarisation of Leucite, shewing cross hatching.

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Mr. Dowker.—Water lily intercellular spaces (Polar), sections, of
elevated ridges in front of leaf, feather grass ; of Psamma arenaria,
of Phalaris arundinacea, of stem of Ribes nigrum, of horn of
African Rhinoceros, Drosera rotundifolia and Anglica.

Original impressions of the nature-printed Ferns, which were
printed by Bradbury Evans, were exhibited by Mr. W. E. Goulden ;
and Mr. 8. Harvey gave a description of the method of printing
them from the direct impression of them taken upon copper sheets.

XXVIII.—Summer Excursions and their Results.

The Society this Summer continued the more general excur-
sions of its members that were resumed in 1885, after a lapse of
several years, during which period limited excursions of a few
members only had been made in the immediate neighbourhood of
Canterbury. It has been considered advisable to put together
under one head some of the chief and more interesting results and
observations arising from these meetings. June 16th, 1887.—
Excursion was made to Kastwell Park and neighbourhood, under
Mr. H. Dean’s guidance. A thorough observation of the plants in
flower at the time, chiefly in the direction of the Wye Downs, was
made, and a list subsequently drawn up by Mr. J. Fielding, and
added to the Registry of the Society. The spring season having
been much delayed, many of the earlier and other spring flowers
were blooming with the later ones, and even the summer series;
crategus oxycantha was seen in full blossom with Sambucus nigra.
July 6th.—The excursion, mainly botanical, was to the Sandhills,
near Sandwich, and thence to Deal. The plants observed were
chiefly aquatic in the bordering dykes. Zypha augustifolia was an
object of marked interest. The plant was in a condition of early
inflorescence ; the light grey tips of the styles bedecked the dark
downy mass of the lower part or female portion of the spike,
whilst the upper separate portion with the male blossom was of a
dull sulphur colour from the anther valves charged with pollen.
It needed only a tap or vibration of the stem to cause a cloud of
the yellow pollen to be set loose and be wafted by the breeze over
the dyke. Convolvulus soldanella, orobanche caryophyllacea, and
hottonia palustris, flowers of the district were noticed, but were
passing off. A Dredging Excursion was made in August at
Whitstable, under the direction of Mr. 8. Saunders. Sept. 21st.
The last excursion was made to view some new geological features
that had been revealed in the lower strata of the chalk in the deep
railway cutting at Etching Hill, recently made for the Elham
Valley Railway. Mr. G. Dowker, F.G.S., who had first noticed
the peculiarity, demonstrated the section to the party from a point
of vantage above the tunnel. An apparent absence of the lowest
beds as known in the district, together with several extraordinary

142

contortions (notably one, a complete inversion) of the lower chalk
and chalk marl beds were pointed out. It was mentioned that
these ‘‘creeps,”’ as they are elsewhere named, might be explained
by the differential movements and sliding of the chalk in this part
over the underlying gault, a process due to the immense quantity
of underground water present in the chalk at the depth exposed by
the cutting. The district has a peculiar interest in relation to its
water storage, since close to the village of Etching is the upper
Nailbourne source of the lesser Stour, and in less than a mile,
through a gap in the hills, Postling Church is reached, and, close
by it, the Eastern arm of Great Stour commences, and pours in a
permanent stream from the bottom of the chalk. The physiography
of the district, from the hill above tunnel and cutting, was viewed
and dwelt upon in relation to its denudation as shown by curving
valley rounded hills with gaps and wide stretching views beyond.
Blocks of ironstone from the Paddlesworth beds above the chalk
were next examined and searched for fossil remains, and between
Acryse and the Elham Mill a pit was entered which showed a
section of the sands that cap the high ground. These sands,
which have been correlated with those of the well-known Lenham
pipes, were originally referred by Prestwich to the Crag; after-
wards on stratigraphical and lithological grounds, Whitaker classed
them with the Oldhaven beds, and they are mapped as such. In
1886, however, on the paleontological evidence from the Lenham
beds, Clement Reid placed them as probably homotaxeous with the
base of the Coralline crag; if the westward extension of the crag
should be confirmed the point will be one of great interest.

XXIX.—Presence of Falcaria Riviri in Hast Kent.—By G. Dowxer,
F.G.S.

OcToBER 13, 1887.

Specimens of the plant were exhibited. It was found growing
in the parish of Preston, near Wingham. It is a rare visitor in
the British Isles, and has only been noticed on one other occasion
in Kent by the Rev. — Moore, near Birchington-on-Sea, of which a
notice appears in the ‘‘ Journal of Botany” for August. It was
conjectured by the Editor, Mr. Britten, that it had been introduced
with some foreign seed of clover, as it appeared in corn fields. It
is a curiously leaved umbelliferous plant, that would generally be
noticed by any botanist as distinct from any of the numerous
umbelliferse found in this country. Mr. Dowker found it in strong
erowth, and in some quantity in a pea field in the month of
August this year, and had previously observed it in the same field
thirty years since, but had not noticed it in the interval, so this
plant may at least seem pretty well established. It does not seem
to perfect its seed, which may account for its not spreading.

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143

When Mr. Dowker discovered it thirty years ago, he could not
obtain any information about it, though applying to good authority.
It now is more easily identified through the Editor of the “Journal
of Botany.” The plant is perennial, and has a deep penetrating
tap-root, as Mr. Dowker found when removing specimens for his
garden, where it still flourishes. He mentioned another foreign
umbelliferous plant, Ammi majus, which he found a few years ago,
near Sandwich, but had not heard of its appearance since. Mr.
Dowker mentioned, his having met with the following umbelliferss
in East Kent :—Trydrocotyle vulgaris, Sanicula Europza, Astrantia
major (garden specimen), Eryngium maritinum, Apium graveolens,
Helosciadium nodiflorum and inundatum, Petroselinum sativum
(cultivated land) and segetum, (Egopodium podagraria (in gardens),
Carum carui (probably escaped from cultivated ground), Sium
latifolium and augustifolium, Pimpinella saxifraga and magna,
Bupleurum tenuissimum, but not rotundifolium, Cnanthe fistulosa
and crocata, (Ethusa cynapium, Feniculum vulgare, Silaus
pratensis, Crithmum maritimum, Angelica sylvestris, Peucedanum
officinale, Pastinaca sativa, Heracleum sphondylium, Scandix
pecten, Bunium flexuosum, Cheerophyllum sylvestre and temulum,
Caucalis anthriscus, infesta and nodosa, Daucus carota, Conium
maculatum, Coriandrum sativum, Smyrnium olusatrum. Cicuta
virosa had not been met with.

At the same time, other exhibits were made by Mr. Sidney
Harvey, of the Spectrum of the Electric Spark obtained from a
Wimshurst machine; by Mr. W. P. Mann, two forms of Polaris-
cope and accessory objects; by R. E. Thomson, Esq., Kenfield
Hall, amongst other objects, the matured male and female plants
of the Japanese Hop (an annual), and specimen of a cultivated
grass, Triticum, said to be the sire of our wheat; by Miss Kings-
ford, seeds of the Lemon germinating in sound fruit.

XXX.—The Progressive Development of the Ear through the Animal
Series up to Aves.

By J. Ren, F.R.C.S., Eng., (illustrated by Diagrams and
Drawings).
NOVEMBER I0, 1887.

Mr. J. Reid made a communication on the structural character
of the organ of hearing as developed in the animal series so far as
seems at present to be determined. The course of observation
extended from the group czlenterata to aves, comprehending a range
in which the simpler qualities of sound are conjectured to be chiefly
concerned, though finally reaching the margin where the compound
and finer qualities were beginning to be discriminated. The
character of the auditory organ as an apparatus, receiving,

144

modulating, and analysing, the sonorus vibrations before transmission
to the appreciating centre, was pointed out as a condition that
produced more remarkable gradations of development throughout
the animal series, than the corresponding organ dealing with
vibratile action, the eye, which directly conveyed the actual state
of the rays of light, and was consequently more uniformly
constructed. This difference gave rise to a particular interest in
the survey of its structure. The gradations of form were not
strictly in accordance with the degrees of development upon which
the classification of animals were generally founded, but depended
upon fluctuations in adaptation, and accommodation to the
circumstances and period of life, specially in the earlier part of the
series, that gave many variations and intermissions in the
progressive advance.

By the aid of many diagrams the earliest indications of the
simple organ were demonstrated in Hydrozoa in medusal forms and
acalepha, onwards through the groups Vermes, Mollusca, and
Tunicata. It was shown that midst many variations there were
fundamental principles of construction that were so persistent, that
from their existence, the possession of an auditory organ and the
sense of hearing could be predicated of the animals. This simple
form consisted of a closed cavity containing solid grains, in contact
with certain sentient bodies to which the filament of a special
nerve were distributed. This early type, in certain limited variety,
seem to obtain with animals leading a comparatively tranquil life
in a confined area of space and medium. Considerable details were
given in connection with these groups ; and the relation and develop-
ment, collaterally associated, of the nerve system were entered into
here as in subsequent groups. More marked changes were
shown in the next group that was observed, Arthropoda. Many
variations in the primary type were pointed out as associated with
a changed character in the circumstances of life. The closed sac
had an opening communicating with the external element, air or
water, as the case might be ; and in insects, the chamber contained
air and was fitted with a vibrating membrane stretched across an
opening that communicated the vibration to the special apparatus
within.

The observations extended from the invertebrate to the verte-
brate animals, in which the structures and organs, generally,
advance in perfection and complexity, and present more varied and
finished forms than heretofore, in conformity to more active and
vigorous life under increased requirements and extension of space
in movement. The simple form of the organ is changed, and there
is no recurrence to it; constrictions extensions and additions take
place, but the fundamental principles abide in the structure; the
alterations mainly aiding the power of dealing, at first, with the

——— eC

145

tension, conduction, and collection of sound. Subsequently a
peculiar arrangement of structure is added with a spevial nerve
supply that is adapted to appreciate more delicate characters in the
composition of sound demanded by the increasing variations in
vocal utterances connected with the extension, form, and develop-
ment of the animal kingdom. A third addition, yet further, takes
place, in adaptation to a change of medium in which the animal
lives, as the hitherto more aquatic becomes mixed with the terres-
trial and aerial, or confined to the two latter, and also in accordance
with the progressive development and variations of the vocal
power of other creatures. In the first change the simple otocyst is
enlarged into the vestibule or vestibular sac with its divisions,
called the utriculus and sacculus ; to the former are added curved
channels termed the Labyrinth. These changes in several of their
variations were demonstrated in detail, and shown to occur mainly
in fishes. The gradual advance of such alterations was particularly
dwelt upon, as well as the gentle gradations, by which the transi-
tion from one class to another is made. In the next group,
Reptilia, the advance, incident to the mixed life, on land and in
water, or simply terrestrial, was shown by the gradual formation
from the sacculus of the vestibule, of that peculiar arrangement for
the appreciation of the more delicate character of tones in sound,
to which the name Cochlea is applied. The commencing develop-
ment of the third addition, the formation of an air chamber, with
extended communications, fitted with an exposed membrane stretched
across an external orifice, and brought into relation with the
vestibule by a column (columella) of bone, the whole arrangement
entitled the tympanum, was pointed out. Lastly, the great advances
in all these additions, the greater finish in the structure, and the
fuller adaptation thereby to the increasing demands for appreciation
of tones in sound were shown in the group aves.

XXXI.—On Time, as a Geological Factor.—By A. 8. Rem, M.A.,
G8.

roth JANUARY, 1888.

The author pointed out the proneness to speculative theories
exhibited in the childhood of the individual, of a nation, of a
science; the question ‘‘Why’’? always preceding the question
“What” ? He showed how a misconception of the part played
by Time accounted for early geological errors. Taking an example,
he pointed out how an erroneous idea of the age of the world had
prevented, for a long time, any doctrine of uniformity being
tenable. He then showed how an inability to grasp the immensity
of geological time, as contrasted with historical periods, tended to
the production of speculative theories to account for the apparent
‘‘crowding” of events. Another liability to error lay in the

146

frequent close proximity of geological records, which in reality are
the results of causes acting at very distant periods of time; and
the possibility of taking in, at a glance, effects which had been
produced at times incalculably distant. Illustrative examples were
given. The difficulty that the human mind has in forming a
conception of prolonged length of time, was dwelt upon, and
illustrations of the meaning of ‘‘a million years”? were given.
The doctrine of uniformity was then enunciated, and a series of
calculations given with respect to the dates of denudation and
accumulation, &c., and the possible and probable periods of time -
represented by the stratified rocks; the same question was then
viewed from its physical aspects. The ‘‘ sensuous representation
of time,’’ presented to the mind by geological phenomena, was
brought out by striking examples; and, finally, the author con-
trasted the story of the origin of our scenery, as set forth in
accordance with the theory of known denuding agencies, acting
through long periods of time, with the same story, as given in
accordance with speculative theories concerning Titanic outbursts
and former cataclysms.

XXXII.— On the Unity of Natwre—By the President, Srpyzy
Harvey, F.C.S.

oth FEBRUARY, 1888.

On occupying the Presidential Chair for the first time,
Mr. Harvey gave a short but lucid address on the above subject,
showing that in the operations of nature there are no clearly
and definitely marked divisions as there are in the sciences. In
illustration he alluded to the wonderful forces at work to produce
a tiny flower, and showed that to understand its life history we
must have a knowledge of geology, mineralogy, physics, chemistry,
and indeed of every branch into which science is divided. He
then referred more particularly to chemistry, alluding to the
wonderful progress it had made in recent times, especially as a
useful science applicable to Arts and Science. Most surprising
results have been recently obtained in the production of organic
compounds by synthesis, and he mentioned especially the production
of indigo and glucose in 1887,

XXXIII.— On the leading Theories and Present Knowledge mn
Meteorology. —By G. 8. Saunpers, F.L.S.

12th ApRIL, 1888. :

The paper dealt with the subject in its popular and scientific
phases. In the former, the errors and more practical approxima-
tions on the variations of weather were alluded to, whilst in the

147

latter the great advances which had been made towards more exact
and reliable theories on the sources of the fluctuating changes of
atmospheric conditions during recent years, were pointed out and
explained by clear details of the methods pursued. The meaning
and value of the terms Isobar, Cyclone, Anti-cyclone, Wedges, and
V shaped depression, were well demonstrated, and made more
intelligible by several good diagrams, and the relations of these
conditions in influencing the character of the weather were
explained.

XXXIV.— Summer Excursions and their Results.

17th May, 1888.

Mr. G. Dowker, F.G.S., Director.—The district taken was
that of Sandgate and Hythe. Geology was the chief feature of
observation, and at the various cuttings and quarries passed on the
way, the beds extending from the lower chalk through Greensand
gault, Folkestone, Sandgate, and Hythe beds were examined and
considered by the party. A good section that was new was met
with at the cutting close to the Sandling Junction Station.

14th JUNE, 1888.

Mr. H. Dean, Director.—Challock Lees and Eastwell were
selected. The excursion was chiefly botanical; the plants observed
chiefly related to the woods passed through. A list was made to be
added to the Registry of the Society. Atropa Belladonna was just
in bloom and flourishing in the old habitat where the Society had
observed it 30 years before.

16th AucusT, 1888,

G. Dowker, F.G.S., Director—The object again chiefly
botanical; the route to Wingham, Dearson Woods, Wenderton,
Preston, Elmstone, and Stourmouth. A list of 125 plants observed
was added tothe Registry. The escarpment of the Thanet beds over
the lesser Stour at Wenderton and the Roman burial place at
Dearson were pointed out.

13th SEPTEMBER, 1888,

Captain McDakin, Director.—The object, shore hunting for
Zoophytes around Shakespeare Cliff, and for other observations by
the Cliff walks.

148

XXXV.—(1) ‘‘ Subjects for Original Observations by the
Society ; (2) ‘‘ The Alliance and Similarity of Chemical
and Vital Forces” ; (8) ‘‘ Various Exhibits.”

11th OCTOBER, 1888.

(1). A Report from Mr. A. 8. Reid, the Delegate of the
Society to the Conference of Corresponding Societies of Natural
History, at the recent meeting of the British Association, held at
Bath, was read. It was agreed by the Members present that the
East Kent Natural History Society should take up the work
recommended by Mr. Reid on the three following points :—
a). “‘ Preservation and Recording of Ancient Monuments ”’;
(4). ‘‘ Recording the Temperature of Rivers and Estuaries” ;
(c). ‘* Photography of Important Geological Sections.”

(2). At the same meeting the President gave an opening
address on the commencement of the Session, taking for his
subject ‘‘The alliance and similarity of Chemical and Vital
Forces.”

(8). Many exhibits were contributed and explained; R. E.
Thomson, Esq., Kenfield Hall, alone sending 18, of which may be
mentioned :—Various deformed and twin fruits; white resin from
Araucaria Imbricata; needle spined leaves of Picea Bracteata, a
rare species which first bore fruit in England in the Pinetum at
Kenfield ; Coix Lachryma, the grass producing the pearl-like
grains called ‘‘ Job’s Tears,’”’ in seed and bloom; various specimens
of cut-leaved Alder, Beech, and Maple; wasp nest from inside a
roof; hornet’s nest from a large tree; Lily of the Valley in full
fruit; Miss Kingsford sent slug-worms and crysalids of Tenthredo,
or Selandria cerasi; Mr. G. Dowker, malformation of Osier caused
by puncture of Gall-fly.

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