TRANSACTIONS OF THE Ghinburgh Naturalists’ Field Club pI. b/ Sort shadows flit across the wintry sky, And dawn is breaking thro’ the mists of night, As Spring returns, robed in immortal light, To bid the darkness and the tempest fly. Sweet, o’er the meadows and the valleys, lie A thousand smiles, to charm our longing sight, As Hawthorn buds appear in virgin white, And fields are clad in Primrose panoply. Oh, woodlands fair! oh, valleys decked with gold! We fain would linger ’mong the blooming flowers, Where myriad songsters on the branches sing, And all their music, with its joy untold, Now thrills impassioned thro’ the vernal bowers, To welcome thee, oh, fair eternal Spring! —Minniz M‘KzEan. TRANSACTIONS OF THE Ghinburgh Aaturalists’ Field Club SESSIONS 1881-86 [ Pe. ay : y: Se ue Ss aN ie 3 a a: Q 8) Wi VOLUME IT. Printed for the Club by WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS MDCCCLXXXVI se CONTENTS. SESSION 1881-82. PAGE Intrropuctory Note, ‘ i I. How we Spent the 30th July 1879 in ide Wilds of Wilnomsas and North-west Badenoch. MrS. GrigvE, . 3 II. Note on the Habits of the Laie Flycatcher (Muscieapa etiein), Mr A. B. HERBERT, ‘ 8 III. Bones and Shells taken from a Kaiten male on paahiepith during 1881. Mr T. B. Spracur, 3 12 IV. The probable Effects of a change of Mewubanta on the Flora of a Country. Mr W. Tarr Kinnear, : 14 VY. Notes of a Botanical Ramble in the Saentis aisbriek, Baaecand! August 1881. MrG. Brrp, . - F 19 List of Animal Parasites shown by Mr J. Srurson, - - 23 VI. The Haunts and Habits of the Crossbill (Lowia cwrvirostra). Mr A. Craic,jun., . 24 VII. Note on the Wall-Creeper (Tichodroma Phamiciuterah ay a Be other Birds observed on a Visit to Switzerland. Mr A. B. HERBERT, . : : 30 VIII. Note on the Mouth- ~organs of Tnscéts,, The SECRETARY, : - 33 TX. Mimetic Plants. MrJ. Linpsay, . : : 33 X. Acotyledons, Monocotyledons, and Tiioctyledina fies Morph- ology and Physiology. Mr W. Lunnig, . : 39 XI. Note on the Roosting of the Peregrine Falcon on the Spire of St Mary’s Cathedral, Edinburgh. Mr R. Stewart, S.S.C., 44 SESSION 1882-83. I. Notes on the Nomenclature of British Mosses. Mr J. Watcort, 45 II. On a Specimen of Gyracanthus obtained from the Carboniferous Limestone series at Burgh Lee. Mr T. Stock (Communicated), 50 ANNUAL BusINEsSs MEETING, . £ 52 III. Restalrig Church: A Monograph. Mr de A. Doveras Woon, : 53 IV. Some Notes on Remains of the Great Auk or Garefowl (Alca impennis, LZ.) found in excavating an ancient Shell-Mound in Oronsay. Mr 8. GRIEVE, - : : - : : : 58 vi XIII. Contents. . On a Specimen of the Poisonous Lizard of Mexico (Heloderma horrida, Weigmann). Mr R. J. Harvey Gipson, M.A., . Bees and Bee-Culture. Mr A. B. HERBERT, . List of a few Ferns and Fern Varieties collected Hea - in the parish of Kilmalcolm, Renfrewshire, 1881-82. Mr STEWART ARCHIBALD, . Note on the ened lowering of the Male Wowers as aes charis alsinastrum. Mr W. Tarr KINNEAR, . . The Haining, Selkirk: with Notices of its (Gee) Top- ography, and Natural History. Mr J. Linpsay, . Pitlochry and its Bird-Life. Mr A. Crate, jun., . The Pentland Skerries. MrT. M. CRUICKSHANK, . . An April Trip to South Ronaldshay. Mr R. THomson, LL. B, . A Gossip about Pets. Mr R. Srrwakt, $.S.C., c - . Shap Spa and its Surroundings. Mr J. Waxcor, . Specimens of Lizards from 8. America. Mr P. B. Gres, M. A., . A Day’s Ramble in the Northern Part of the Island of Aah, Mr W. I. MacApaw, F.C.S., F.1.C., . On the Cathcart Ether Freezing Microtome. Mr Auex. FRAZER, M.A., . Notes on Spring Vegetation as observed at ‘Morntabaide: Mr G. L. Brown, . Geological Notes on a few of tite) Meetaehis Miss Civitan! OpituaRy NOorIcE, SESSION 1883-84. . The Hirundines. Mr A. B. HERBERT, é : : ; . Note on a Rabbit killed by a Weasel. Mr R. Stewart, 8.8.C., Ill. A New Method of taking Impressions of Leaves. Mr J. Turn- BULL (Communicated), . The Stoat or Ermine Weasel (Mustela watiice Mr R. Scor SKIRVING, . Concerning capa and ‘Selaginellas : Past Hee Present. Mr J. Linpsay, . The Sylviide or Warblers. Mr aN Crate, Sune or . On the Structure and Pollination of the Flower of Calista zebrina. J. M. MAcFARLANE, D.Sc., . Note on the Mounting of Microscopic Oijectsa in Mntolomtide of Naphthaline. Mr W. I. MacApam, F.C.S., F.I.C., . The Structure and Habits of Carnivorous Plants, Mr A. D. RICHARDSON, . . Note on the Nest of the Reeds Wetblse (Salteairia castnedinabeal Mr A. B. HERBERT, . Some American Plants worth Nefiees Mr M. Kina, 3 ; . Note on the Westward Migration of the Flora and Repuliae Fauna of the European Continent, as evidenced on the Main- land of Scotland, &. Mr S. Grrevn, ‘ Animal and Vegetable Symi lonleeot or Consortism. Mr zB RATTRAY, M.A., B.Sc., 62 62 114 118 119 127 162 172 ne ait XIV. Contents. The Nuthatch (Sitta ewropea). Mr A. B. HERBERT, Meretines oF Microscopic SECTION, ANNUAL Business MEETING, SESSION 1884-85. . Field-Naturalists. Mr A. B. Herpert, President, . Note on the Distribution of Honey-Glands in Pitchered iaeceane orous Plants. Mr J. Linpsay, . Note on the Appearance of the Saury Fike in the Forth, Mr ia B. Hersert, President, . The (aramenen Buntings (Bnthebicnden). Mr A, Gaara, Ses . The Hymenomycetes. Mr A. B. STEELE, . . On Yews, with special Reference tothe Fortingall Yew. Mr i Linpsay, . Who were the se Tasteerpieects of the Bieileaonnd parted Caisteal-nan-Gillean, on Oronsay? Mr S. Grieve, : Sketch of the Geology of the Pentlands. Mr J. HENDERSON, . Diatoms, Mr J. Rarrray, M.A., B.Sc., ; p . Note on the Genus Lemium Mr M. Kine, . List of the Less Common Plants gathered at the ‘Excursions during 1884, with Localities. The SECRETARY, . Note on he Squirrel (Sciwrus ewropeus). Mr J. THomson Cae municated), : MEETINGS OF Micnosoorrs Sworion,— Improved Forms of Ether'and Imbedding Microtomes. Mr ALEx. Frazer, M.A. (with Illustrations). Photo-Micrography. Mr Wm. Forean. ANNUAL Business MEETING, SESSION 1885-86. . Opening Address. Mr S. Grieves, President, . . The Organic Causes of the Coloration of Water, ee Mr J. Rattray, M.A., B.Sc., . . The Red Deer (aor elaphus). . Mr S. toa Presiients . On the Structure and Pollination of the Flowers of Sarracenia. J. M. Macrartane, D.Sc., F.R.S.E., . The Rarer Birds of Stobo. Mr J. THOMSON (Coannmanany . The Fungus Foray in Roslin Glen. Mr A. B. STEExE, : Diaeovery of the Water-Spider (Argyroneta aquatica) near Balerno. Mr A. B. Herpert, . List of the Less Common Plants pale - the Ntasine during 1885, with Localities. The} Szcrerary,! . On the Objects and Methods of Meteorology. Mr ALEx, Pease M.A, . Veronicas i in the Nyaehbouhood if Hdiavare Mr M. Kina, . The Ring and Water Ousels: their Homes and Habits. Mr A. Craie, jun., Vii 184 186 187 189 200 202 202 211 218 227 234 238 250 254 257 260 265 269 273 278 286 288 294 297 298 299 300 304 viil Contents. XII. Notes on Marine Excursions— I. Granton. Mr J. Linpsay, ; : ; : ; : II. Joppa. Mr J. Aunan, . XIII. Natural Endo-skeleton and Exo- suelétan of Aertenibad Bull- ae (Ceratophrys cornuta). Mr D. KNIGHT, . : 4 - XIV. Abnormal Growths on Root of Taxodium disticlunt Mr H. FRASER, 6 : - ; 9 3 - 5 MEETINGS OF Miagnosoorre SECTION,— . i : On the Progress of Microscopical Research. The PRESIDENT. Notes on Microscope Objectives. Mr W. Foraan. The Tongue of the Blow-fly in relation to its Food. Mr J. D, Murray. On an Improved Form of Centering Nosepiece, for use with Brooke’s Double Nosepiece for Microscope. Mr A. Frazer, M.A. On a Simple Form of Self-centering Turntable for Ringing Microscopic Specimens. Mr A. Frazer, M.A. On an Improved Sliding Nosepiece and Adapter for the Microscope. Mr J. M. TURNBULL. ANNUAL Business MEETING, INDEX, : : E ; ; : p Lists oF MEMBERS, 1881-86, 318 319 337 339 1x 6 TRANS Edinburgh | ——— ! i} Introductory Note,. ‘ . i I. How we spent the 30th July 1879 in the Wilds of Kilmonivaig and North-west Badenoch.—Mr §. Grieve, - Note on the Babits of the Spotted Flycatcher (Muscicapa grisola). —Mr A. B. Herbert, i Bones and Shells taken from a Kitchen-midden on Inchkeith during 1881.—Mr T. B. Sprague, . The probable effects of a change of Elevation on the Flora of a Country.—Mr W. Tait Kinnear, . Notes of a Botanical Ramble in the Saentis district, Switzer- land, August 1881.-—-Mr G. Bird, List of Animal Parasites shown by Mr J. Simpson, III. jrinted t PAGE | JUN 4889 ACTIONS OF THE Aaturalists’ Field Club SESSION 1881-82 * iat \ UML ate ON ‘NG 4 x s 2 Me CONTENTS. 1 VI. The Haunts and Habits of the Crossbill (Loxia curvirostra).— Mr A. Craig, jun , VII. Note on the Wall-Creeper (Ticho- 3 droma Pheenicoptera) and a few other Birds obse1ved on a visit to Switzerland.—Mr A. B. Her- 8) bert, VIII. Note on the Mouth- round of Ta sects —The Secretary, IX. Mimetic Plants.—Mr J. aa: X. Acotyledons, Monocotyledons, and Dicotyledous: their Morphology and Physiology.—Mr W. Lundie, XI. Note on the Roosting of the Pere- grine Falcon on the Spire of St Mary's Cathedral, Edinburgh. —Mr R. Stewart, f 2 List of Members, 1881-82, 12 14 23 | for the Club BY WILLIAM BLACKWOOD MDCCCLXXXII & SONS Z af 33 axe ye PAGE 24 30 33 33 39 a Dit NoGAeOFAk, O-N: 8: INTRODUCTORY NOTE. a Edinburgh Naturalists’ Field Club was instituted in 1869 for the practical study of Natural History in all its branches. For a number of years the work of the Club was carried on by a series of field-meetings only—held princi- pally during the months of May, June, and July. It was then thought that it would be for the interests of the Club to hold a series of evening meetings during the winter months, at which papers béaring on the work of the Club in the field and otherwise might be read and discussed. At the annual meeting of the Club in November 1879, it was agreed to hold such evening meetings, which were at once arranged for, and met with a large measure of success. The resolution to publish Transactions not having been adopted till November 1881, it has been thought desirable to put on record a list of the papers read, and objects in Natural History exhibited, at the meetings during the two previous Sessions. SESSION 1879-80. “Colonsay.” By Mr Symington Grieve. “ Recollections of Sutherlandshire.” By Mr Arch. Craig, jun. “A collection of British Mosses” made by Mr Grieve during 1879. VOL. I. A bd Introductory Note. “A small collection of British Birds and their Eggs.” By Mr Craig, jun. “A collection of British Butterflies.” By Mr Moffat, Secretary. “Duddingston and Trinity College Church plates, and a series of old Communion Tokens.” By Mr W. Ivison Macadam. “Notes on the rarer plants of the Lomonds and Pentlands, with specimens.” By Mr P. B. Gibb. “Qn Mosses: illustrated with diagrams.” By Mr Moffat, Secretary. “ Note on the breeding of the Siskin in Scotland.” By Mr Arch. Craig, jun. “The Cliffs and Caves of Colonsay, and some things they teach regarding Britain, past, present, and future.” By Mr Symington Grieve. “ The first decade of the Club, and how to render its work more profitable.” By Mr John Walcot, President. “The Natural History of Islay.” By Mr R. Scott Skirving. SESSION 1880-81. “Dumfries and Criffel.”. By Mr John Walcot, President. “The Scenery and Bird-life of Glen Urquhart, Inverness-shire : with specimens.” By Mr Arch. Craig, jun. “Notes on a Botanical Trip to Ben Lawers in August 1880; illustrated with specimens of the plants gathered.” By Mr George Bird. “Tnsects.” By Mr Moffat, Secretary. “Remarks on a Floral Plan of Ben Lawers.” By Mr John Sadler. “ Craigmillar : a Reminiscence—Historical and Descriptive.” By Mr T. A. Douglas Wood. “British Ferns: their Structure and Classification. Illustrated by a collection of British Ferns and by microscopic preparations.” By Mr John Lindsay. “The use of the Spindle and Whorl by the fishing classes of Scotland.” By Mr W. Ivison Macadam. “Glen Lyon: its Scenery and Antiquities—embracing notices of its curious circular forts.” By Mr Arch. Craig, jun. “Some characteristics of the study of Natural Science.” By Mr John Walcot, President. The interest of the meetings during 1880-81 was much enhanced by the admirable series of preparations shown under the microscope by Mr James Simpson. I—HOW WE SPENT THE 30th JULY 1879 IN THE WILDS OF KILMONIVAIG AND NORTH-WEST BADENOCH. By Mr SYMINGTON GRIEVE. (Read Oct. 20, 1881.) | you can do with climbing and plenty hard walking, and wish to spend a pleasant holiday among the mountains, our advice is—visit Moy Farm. You reach it by taking the train to Kingussie on the Highland railway, and thence the Fort William coach, which passes Moy, and always waits a few minutes to change horses and let the passengers have some refreshment. We have made this place our headquarters more than once when away for a holiday. But we shall only write of one memorable day’s outing, when the writer had with him two companions. We took the coach as it was going from Fort William to Kin- gussie, and about nine o’clock in the morning were set down at the entrance to Aberairder Glen. The weather was magnificent; the scenery almost unequalled for beauty. The hum of insects and the song of birds, the sound of the rippling waters breaking against the shores of Loch Laggan, and the tumultuous roar of mountain tor- rents, betokened that all nature was revelling in the sunshine of another day. No wonder that we felt able for any amount of fatigue when we had such surroundings—especially when braced by the exhilarating mountain air of Badenoch. The rugged path took us up past Aberairder Farm, and into the glen among woods of Birch, Oak, and Hazel. ‘The branches of the trees hung with festoons of beautiful Mosses, one of the most attractive being Anéi- trichia curtipendula, Brid., which was in fine fructification ; while under foot were dense cushions of Racomitrium heterostichum and R. lanuginosum, Brid., variegated here and there with patches of Iceland and Reindeer Moss (Cetraria islandica and Cladonia rangi- jerina). And occasionally we came across the cone-shaped heaps of dried and broken twigs that marked the formicarias of the wood ant (Formica rufa). These little insects, always busy, may sometimes prove of use to the naturalist if he wishes to prepare the skeleton of a bird, fish, or any small animal. He has only to leave the dead body on one of the8e ant-hills, and he will find his + Transactions of the [Sess. object very soon attained, and the work done as well as if the speci- men had been placed in the hands of the most skilful taxidermist. Emerging from the wood, we enter upon a stretch of moorland and morass, and here find the Cloudberry (Rubus Chamemorus, L.) ; and after a hard walk at last reach Loch Cor Arder, which nestles in a deep dark corrie with tremendous cliffs at its upper end, which vary in height from 1400 to 1600 feet. ‘The whole scene was im- pressive,—the silent grandeur of the mountains that towered above us to such a height, and yet seemed so near; the dark waters of the loch, the one moment calm, the next furrowed by a sudden gust of wind; while the breeze wailed as it passed along the face of the cliffs, seeming to betray the presence of some great unseen spirit. The wild flowers that dotted the beach bordering upon the shores of the loch attracted our attention, and the beautiful white blooms of the hairy Alpine Mouse-ear Chickweed (Cerastium alpinum, L.) and the cream-coloured corollas of the Mossy Saxifrage (Saxifraga hypnoides, L.), blending with the darker background of moss and rock, lit up to some extent the sombre picture. The time had now arrived for lunch, and appetised by the exer- tions we had undergone, combined. with the pure air that acted as the best of tonics, we sat down upon a knoll, the grass on which was interlaced with the trailing stems of the common Club-moss (Lycopodium clavatum, L.); and as we rested we watched the wary but voracious Trout rising on the surface of the loch, as they pur- sued the unsuspecting flies that either glided along close to the water or rested upon the transparent element, from whose bosom they had so shortly before sprung into life. Our repast ended, we got up our fishing-rod and soon captured some dozens of nice Trout, —very lively on the line, but small in size, most of them averaging about ten to the pound. The best flies, we found, were those with Teal Drake wings and orange worsted bodies, with a spiral band of gold tinsel—hooks ordinary loch size. When we started upon our excursion, it was our intention, after reaching Loch Cor Arder, to return the way we had come, and get the coach back to Moy as it went westwards in the afternoon; but tempted by the weather, we determined to ascend through a gully named Aberairder Window to the summit of Creag Meaghaidh (pronounced Craig Megey), a moun- tain 3700 feet in height. To climb this gully—which presents the appearance of its having been the place where two mountains were rent asunder, and the intervening chasm partially filled in with their débris—was rather difficult and dangerous. The ascent is very steep, and over loose rocks that are poised against each other in such a way that to move one caused a sympathetic movement among others; and one false step might mean broken limbs, or something even worse. But we made the ascent of 1500 feet with- out mishap—the only unpleasant experience met with being the 1881-82. | Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 5 effluvia that emanated from the carcasses of sheep that had fallen from the ledges of the cliffs, and testified, by their shattered ap- pearance, to the dreadful fall to which they had been subjected. Near the summit we came upon a patch of Moss Campion (Silene acaulis, L.), but only got a few specimens in flower; and a little higher up the Parsley Fern (Allosorus crispus, Bernh.) is met with in great abundance—some of the plants growing up through the half melted snow. At last we reach the ledge, and find that the sides of the Window are formed by the opposite cliffs of the upper part of the chasm. The lintel is awanting, but the ledge is composed of masses of rock that have here fallen in a kind of ridge across the gully ; and behind this there is a deep basin, which is always filled with snow. To cross its immaculate surface seemed rather hazard- ous, as a descent into its depths would have cooled our ardour; so it did not astonish us that our companions were inclined to hold back. But having had an opportunity of testing its bearing powers the previous day, we were able to assure them there was no danger, and at length the advance was begun. We at once discovered that the snow was only soft on the top, while underneath was quite hard ; and all fears were so soon forgotten that we indulged in the delightful but unusual pastime of a snowball fight on the 30th July. It was in Loch Cor Roy, which lies at the foot of a great cliff about the third of a mile to the north-west of this, that we caught some specimens of the Salmo alpinus, or Alpine Char, on a previous occa- sion. ‘This rare fish is found in very few other lochs in Britain, and the specimens now in the British Museum are from Loch Cor Roy. Having crossed the snow-basin, we continued a short distance westwards, then turning abruptly to the left began to ascend the shoulder of the mountain to the south-east, with the object of reach- ing the top of the cliffs that rise out of the corrie in which lies Loch Cor Arder. But when we approached the brink, intending to look over, the abyss seemed so dreadful that we shrank back from the attempt. We had been at this spot at various times, but had never seen it so clearly in all its loneliness. The contrast only served to impress upon us the impossibility of conveying an adequate idea of the change that comes over the scene in time of storm, when the mountain is wrapped in a thin mist that gathers more densely in the hollows, and the white vapour that fills Cor Arder is wrought into weird and fantastic forms by the wind, which hisses like a myriad of vipers as it dashes over the cliff, causing the mist to seethe as if it were the steam rising from a caldron ; while from far down in the hidden depths of the corrie rise the sounds of the dashing waters of miniature cascades, like the cry of a multitude in distress, that conjure up within the mind a purga- torial picture well worthy of a place in Dante’s Inferno. It was now nearly four o’clock in the afternoon, and as we are to 6 Transactions of the [Sess. ascend to the top of the mountain we must be on our way ; so turn- ing our backs upon the corrie we face westwards, and proceed for about half ‘a mile over ground that gradually ascends, leading to- wards the Sappers’ Cairn, that crowns the highest elevation. The whole heath was blackened by the frosts, while the snow that had lain all winter was still to be found in patches; and to the north side of the ridge was a great drift that rested on the upper part of a small glacier, whose face, exposed to the sun, had been melted out into small grottos that might have been the vestibules to a fairy palace. But we had no time for examining those strange sights, worthy of hyperborean regions; the cry is, “ First to the top!” and we push panting on, and, notwithstanding our effort, fail to make up on one of our companions, who had got a consider- able start; but, with a final rush, we touch the cairn, and out of breath gladly sink down upon one of the large stones that compose its base. It took us a few moments to recover from our exertion ; but when we were able to look around us, the view that met our gaze from the position, 3700 feet above sea-level, was magnificent and impressive. The sun, sinking towards the west, was casting across the glens the dark shadows of the mountain outlines, that ever seemed to be ascending as the orb of day went lower in the firmament. But at various points the oblique rays struck the waters of some Highland loch or small mountain tarn, transforming its dark surface into the appearance of a sheet of burnished gold ; while the lower hills were irradiated with the beautiful hue of blue that told of the bursting bloom of the Heather (Calluna vulgaris). In every direction the mountains rose up from glens in all the glory of their ruggedness, displaying upon their sides variegated colours that were the shadow of the corrie or the tints of Heath, Moss, or Heather; while here and there the white streak that looked like a line of white quartz-rock defined the course, and marked the cascades, of the foaming torrent. Away to the south, from east to west, could be seen the mountains of the southern Highlands, with Ben Cruachan raising its mighty peak like a hoary sentinel. To the north, almost beneath our feet, under the precipitous cliff crowned by the summit of Creag Meaghaidh, lay the Lochan Uaine ; and beyond were the wilds of Kilmonivaig and_ bleak Corryarrick, where Prince Charlie and the clans fortified them- selves in 1745. The background to this view was the snow- crowned head of Mealfourvounie; and in the far distance we thought we could distinguish the top of Ben Wyvis. To east or west we could almost see across Scotland. In the one direc- tion were the mountains that line either side of Strathdee, while in the opposite was the massive brow of Ben Nevis, and far down in the hollow at its foot the glittering waters of Loch Eil—the bold outlines of the mountains of Ardnamurchan and Ardgour, standing 1881-82. ] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 7 out against the sky, completing the picture. But while gazing in admiration on this scene we forget that time goes on, and that we have a long walk ere we arrive at our destination. We have hardly started before our attention is attracted by a very dark patch of ground, which we find studded over with dwarf plants of the Starry Saxifrage (Saxifraga stellaris, L.) without any flowering stems, the flowers being imbricated among the leaves; while alongside grows the Dicranum Starkii, W. & M., with its hoary diaphanous foliage. We now turn to the south along the shoulder of the mountain, and go almost in a straight line for about three-quarters of a mile, when we come upon a tract where the soil was composed of finely broken quartz; and here we found perhaps the rarest plant of this district —the Alpine Stitchwort (Stellaria cerastoides, L.), which, with its trailing stems and white flowers, was in striking contrast with the ground we had just come over. The descent from this point, which is about 3000 feet above sea-level, was very rapid, and we pro- ceeded down along the right bank of a burn that falls into Moy Water until we arrive at the junction of the two streams at about an altitude of 2000 feet. This part of our journey we found the best for botanising, for here we got the mountain form of the Scurvy-Grass (Cochlearia officinalis, L.), the Alpine Meadow-Rue (Thalictrum alpinum, L.), the Least Willow (Salix herbacea, L.)—the smallest native shrub found in Britain. The Yellow Mountain Saxifrage (Sawifraga aizoides, L.) was growing on the wet rocks of the burn, while on the banks that rose on either side grew large plants of the usual form of the Starry Saxifrage (Saxifraga stellaris, L.); and here also among the rocks grew the Dwarf Cud-weed (Gnaphalium supinum, L.), and the largest plants we have ever seen of the Fir Club-moss (Lycopodium Selago, L.) From the junc- tion of the two streams the descent was more gradual for about half a mile, but over very rough and boggy ground, that greatly taxed our exhausted energies. The only plants of special interest that we met with were the rather rare Moss, Oligotrichum hercyni- cum, DC.), the Alpine Club-moss (Lycopodium alpinum, L.), and the Alpine Lady’s Mantle (AlchemiWa alpina, L.) which grows in the crevices between the granite boulders all the way down, along the edges of the bed of Moy Water, until it joins the river Spean. In the bog at one place there is a patch of thick peat from which large tree-stumps project, and mark the site of part of the old Caledonian Forest; but it does not appear that more than clumps of these trees existed, as most of the hillsides are devoid of peat, and very bare. We had gone nearly two miles farther on our way before we found any other plants worth noting, but in a boggy part of the moor we got the two rarer varieties of Sundew (Drosera intermedia, L., and D, anglica, Huds.) These plants are most inter- esting from their carnivorous powers, and have been the subject of 8 Transactions of the [Sess. most careful study by the late Dr Charles Darwin. They are easily erown in a saucer filled with wet Moss, if it is placed in a situation where the air is humid. The hairy appendages with which the leaves are furnished have a minute globule of mucilage at the- point of each, and the unwary fly or other insect that comes in contact with these at once adheres, and gradually is absorbed by the plant. The setting sun was gilding the mountain-tops, and the shades of night were falling upon the lower ground, when at last we arrived in sight of our destination. A few minutes more and we were receiving a kindly welcome from those who thought some accident had befallen us, or that we had lost ourselves.! » The decrease from 22 to 13 and from 13 to 4 species is very great; but that it is not singular may be understood from our own observa- tions on Colonsay and Oronsay, for there we find only two varieties of reptilia—namely, the Slow-worm (Anguis fragilis) and the Green Lizard (Zootoca vivipara), and no amphibia. It is possible that the absence of Snakes, and such common forms of amphibia as the Toad 170 Transactions of the [Sess. and Frog, may indicate that they are of a later type than the two reptilia we now find existing on the islands ; but more probably they were slower migrants to Western Europe, and did not reach the west of Scotland until Colonsay and Oronsay were insular. There is, we think, some evidence of this in the fact that the common Viper is abundant on Jura and Islay, the nearest land to Colonsay and Oron- say; but if we find the Viper on the former, why should we not find it upon the latter? This question, we confess, is not so easily answered ; but it appears to us that the probability is, that as these reptilia could only reach Colonsay and Oronsay while the land connection lasted, the moment that connection was severed by a depression of the in- tervening land, which was then covered by the sea, they were com- pletely isolated and shut off from the posterior migrations of reptilia that either travelled westwards slower, and had not reached the west of Scotland, or only came into Britain after Colonsay and Oronsay, with the Western Isles, had become isolated at the first post- glacial period of land depression. But how are we to account for the presence of the Viper in Jura and Islay, and its absence from Colon- say and Oronsay, at the present time, if, as we have every reason to suppose, the first post-glacial period of land depression was a great one, submerging the islands to at least 150 feet above the present sea level?, This is a most important and interesting question, and we think it can only be answered by supposing that from the time of this depression Colonsay and Oronsay, from the depth of the in- tervening sea, have continued insular, while Jura and Islay, at the time of the second post-glacial upheaval, became once more an integral part of the mainland of Scotland, which enabled the Viper, and possibly other reptilia and amphibia, to have access to those islands. If this is so—and we think there is good reason to believe it—the flora and reptilian fauna of Colonsay and Oronsay have a peculiar in- terest to the student. We have been asked, Why confine your paper to the flora and reptilian fauna, and not rather take the mammalia, to prove the theory you advance as to the migration of animals to Colonsay and Oronsay ? and this, no doubt, is a very pertinent question. We may answer it as regards the flora, by reminding you that, with few ex- ceptions, there was little probability of the plants that represent the vegetation of Colonsay and Oronsay having reached those islands previous to their occupation by man except by a land connection, though possibly a few seeds might be introduced by such agencies as wind and birds. Yet, speaking generally, the flora would require to reach the islands during a period of land attachment with the main- land of Scotland. With regard to the reasons why we should choose the reptilia in preference to the mammalia, we must ask you to bear in mind that most of the forms of the latter were able to swim, and that the evidence regarding the impossibility of their not being able 1883-34. ] Edinburgh Naturalists’ Freld Club. 171 to reach Colonsay and Oronsay at a later time, supposing that they had not arrived in those islands during the time of a land connection with the mainland, would be more difficult to prove to the satisfac- tion of most persons than that a Slow-worm or a green Lizard could not get over the intervening stretch of ocean. The swimming feats of some animals are remarkable, and perhaps none more so than the Red-Deer, which, though now extinct on many of the islands round our shores, still has left a record of its presence at one time on almost all of them, in its remains. The evidence obtained during a series of excavations in ancient deposits on the islands of Colonsay and Oronsay leads us to believe that, in all probability, numbers of the mammalia at one time found there, but now extinct on those islands, originally reached them during a period of land attachment with the mainland. But it would lengthen out our subject too much to enter upon our reasons for that conviction. We must now ask you to join with us in briefly reconsidering the probable physical changes that Western Europe has undergone since the close of the last glacial period. In imagination, suppose your- selves standing upon an eminence that enables you to survey at one glance the tract of land—now partly sea—that intervenes between the west of Scotland and the western shores of the Continent, and stretch back in thought into the immense period of time that has elapsed since the last ice age. You will see (after the ice melted from the littoral zone, and retired up the mountain sides, where it remained in immense glaciers) what is now the bed of the German Ocean be- coming dry land, and the ground taken possession of by the arctic- alpine flora, which ever pressed westwards, followed rapidly, as the climate ameliorated, by alpine, sub-alpine, and littoral plants, all in quick succession pressing to the new home they were in search of in the country of the setting sun. As with the plants, so with the animals—all are rushing west to take possession, as soon as the con- ditions exist that enable them to live. The climate gradually be- comes warmer and warmer, each recurring season, until it is like that which now exists in the south of Europe. This continental period has lasted a long time, when there are sudden and violent changes that alter the position of land and sea, causing Britain and Ireland to become insular, some of their outlying elevations becoming islands. This submersion has the effect of drowning out almost the whole of the lowland flora, and kills many of the alpine and arctic-alpine plants, from a withdrawal of the suitable conditions for life. The fauna has to flee from the plains before the rising waters, and take refuge on the bare mountain sides, where many animals die from want of food. Another long period elapses, and the plant and animal life have got settled down into their new circumstances, the fittest sur- Viving ; when an upheaval takes place, and Britain and most of the adjoining islands once more become continental, though the land oe Transactions of the [ Sess. attachment is only a narrow neck that stretches across near where the present Straits of Dover exist. Across this narrow isthmus came another migration of plants and animals to invade Britain, and they gradually spread westwards and northwards to habilitate and occupy the vast tracts of lowland country that had recently risen from the sea, and which were only partially supplied with vegetable and animal life from the remains of the previous migration that had taken refuge on the hills at the time of the great submersion of the land just re- ferred to. Some time elapses,—the country that was submerged has recovered from the effects of the sea,—and the hills and valleys are clad with trees, and from a waste there has risen a paradise, when once more there are violent convulsions of the earth—some upheavals, but many subsidences—and the connecting isthmus with the Con- tinent disappears beneath the waves. JBritain and Ireland, with the adjoining elevations, once more become islands, and when at last Mother Earth settles down into quietude, the present levels and contour have been attained by the British Isles. Some have sup- posed this convulsion of nature to be the same as the Deluge, but we confess we cannot throw any light upon the subject, so leave it to our theologians, who will find it a difficult point to settle. In dis- cussing the subject before us, we have tried to describe what are the probable changes that have taken place in the relations of sea and land in Western Europe since the last ice age, but we would advise every one to avoid accepting them as definite conclusions until they have verified the evidence for themselves. We need not try to con- tinue this stretch of thought further, as it would be hopeless. For though it may be profitable and instructive to look back upon the past,—whether it be as regards the physical history and changes of a country, or the introduction of its flora and fauna,—we cannot grope into the darkness of the future as we have been doing into the dim- ness of the bygone ages, so must leave it alone. XII—ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE SYMBIOSIS OR CONSORTISM. By Mr JOHN RATTRAY, M.A, B.Sc., F.BS., ScottisH MARINE STATION, GRANTON. (Read March 27, 1884.) AutHoucH the highest animals are readily distinguishable from the highest plants, the two kingdoms approximate so closely in their — most lowly organised members, that no sharp line of demarcation can be definitely laid down between the two groups of organisms. 1883-84. | Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 173 The points of distinction—to all of which there are found excep- tions of more or less importance—that are generally stated are as follows :-— (1) Animals are endowed with locomotive power. This same power, however, is found in the case of the reproductive cells of many of our lower plants, such as Ulva, Pandorina, &c., these cells existing as zoospores or zoogonidia, which are provided with actively motile cilia, enabling them readily and rapidly to change their place; and the male reproductive cells or antheridia of even higher Vascular Cryptogams, such as Ferns and Horsetails, are similarly provided with locomotive organs. (2) Animals possess irritability. This is also exhibited by plants, such as the well-known Sensitive Plant (Mimosa sensitiva), the leaves of which suddenly droop if subjected to mechanical, chemical, or electrical stimulii—vapour of chloroform, for example, producing drooping of longer continuance than a similar effect brought about by mere mechanical irritation. The stamens, too, of the Barberry are sensitive to mechanical stimulation. They are jointed to the receptacle, and, when touched, move inwards towards the centre of the flower. A reverse movement takes place in the case of the stamens of Rock Rose (Helianthemum), when similarly affected : these, in the normal, unstimulated condition, are erect, but hy gently squeezing the outside of the flower, a movement away from the pistil occurs. (3) Plants possess cellulose in the walls of their constituent cells. This substance is chemically an isomer of starch (C,H ,O;), and, although not occurring widely in the Animal Kingdom, it seems identical with the “tunicin” found in the tests of Ascidians; while the amyloid and saccharine matters which are so conspicuous vege- table products are also “ of very wide, if not universal, occurrence in animals” (Hux.), being represented by the glycogen of the liver. lt is, however, a well-known fact that the combustion odour of feathers, or other animal products, is markedly different from the odour given off by burning wood, and here we have a general dis- tinction of importance between the two kingdoms. _ (4) In plants generally there is a preponderance of the ternary compounds of carbon, although of vegetable protoplasm nitrogen is also an important constituent, nitrogenous food being necessary for the full complement of seed in such insectivorous plants as Pin- guicula, Nepenthes, and others. Animals, on the other hand, abound in quaternary or quinary carbon unions—the albumen, so well seen in the white of egg, possessing a constitution indicated, accord- ing to some, by the formula C,,,H,,)N,,0,.5,; while hemoglobin, or the red colouring matter of blood, is perhaps one of the most complex of all organic bodies, being represented, according to Preyer, by the formula CgogHogo.Ny5,FeS3O0y;9; the fact that iron (Fe) is 174 Transactions of the [Sess. essential in the hemoglobin of blood, as well as in the chlorophyll of plants, being a remarkable point of affinity between these very important and very active organic products. (5) Most animals possess a distinct alimentary tract, which, al- though not found as a definite elongated digestive tube in vegetables, is still represented by the pitchers of Sarracenia, Darlingtonia, and Nepenthes. These perform all the functions of a stomach, being specially constructed for the capture and digestion of insects, as cock- roaches, &e.; while the glands found in them function in the same way as the gastric glands of the most highly developed mammalian stomach, by secreting a vegetable gastric juice. Moreover, these pitchers are epidermic involutions of leaves, just as the primitive archenteron of an animal gastrula is in many cases an invagination of an original epiblastic wall of cells. (6) All plants except the Fungi and a few highly organised yet parasitic Phanerogams, such as Lathrwa, possess green colouring matter or chlorophyll, the function of which is the decomposition of carbonic acid (CO,) in sunlight, and the fixation of carbon with liberation of oxygen, so that organic matter, such as starch, is formed by plant agency out of such simple inorganic bodies as carbonic acid and water; while even Fungi like Penicillium can form organic constituents “out of ammonium tartrate, sulphate, and phosphate dissolyed in water,” although these Fungi may in most cases directly assimilate proteinaceous substances contained in the bodies of the plants or animals which they attack,—the Saprolegnia of Salmon disease removing the rich albuminous products of its host, no less than the Peronospora of Potato blight. Animals, on the other hand, are, for the most part, incapable of elaborating organic compounds out of their simple inorganic com- ponents, in virtue of an absence of chlorophyll, so that we have here to deal with a reciprocal action between the two organic king- doms. Yet the existence of green animals is well known; and the list of Alga-bearing animals, as given by Professor Lankester and Dr Karl Brandt, includes organisms of very different grades— Infusoria, Foraminifera, Radiolaria, Coelenterata, Ctenophora, Vermes, Crustacea, Mollusca, Bryozoa, and Echinodermata, It is to be re- marked, however, that greenness in animals need not be due to the existence of chlorophyll as such. There would seem, indeed, to be other green pigments developed chiefly for protection,! and not of the same physiological significance as chlorophyll,—pigments which have sometimes received special names, according to the animal in which they have been found. Thus we have the Bonellein of 1 In the same way Grasshoppers (Acridiide) tend to be protected by their colour ; and the orthopterous Phasmide—the “ walking-leaf” and “stick” insects—curiously mimic leaves and pieces of branches. Of such protective resemblances there are many illustrations in organic nature. 1883-84. | Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 175 Bonellia viridis, the Anthea green of Anthea cereus, the Crustacea green of Palemon viridis, and the Pentacrinin of Pentacrinus—this last named pigment changing from a green to a purple hue on acidi- fication. Yet green pigment of functional value equivalent to chlorophyll is apparently sometimes developed by true animal pro- toplasm ; while, on the other hand, greenness in animals may be due to the existence of green or greenish-yellow plant organisms existing inside the animal tissues, in which case we have the curious phe- nomenon of an animal and a plant agreeing to live together, and, as we shall see below, “reciprocally accommodating” one another from a physiological standpoint. These organisms are said to be Sym- biosists, Commensalists, or Mutualists. It is at this stage to be remarked that of this association of one organism with another we find many illustrations, differing at once in kind and in degree. The simplest type is perhaps represented by cases where the guest is external and the host is entirely passive. Thus we find Diatoms epiphytic on Algze; Lichens, Algz, or Mosses, on trees; Algze epizoic on Snails, or even on the more active Cyclops and Daphnia; while the list of Seaweeds found growing on other Algz is a very large and comprehensive one, although the precise kind of this association—whether wholly or partially epiphytic or wholly or partially parasitic—is not in all cases clearly determined. In addition to the fact of association of plant with plant, we find similar associations of animal with animal. Thus the Commissioners on the Fisheries of New South Wales, in a report published in December 1883, remark that “the very young fry of Trachurus trachurus have a most extraordinary and ingenious way of providing for their safety and nutrition at the same time. They take up their quarters inside the umbrella of the large Medusee, where they are safe from their ene- mies, and are, without any exertion on their part, supplied with the minute organisms which constitute their food, by the constant current kept up by the action of the curtain-like cilia of the animal.” In Fol’s ‘ Recueil Zoologique Suisse,’ vol. i. (1883), pp. 65-74, a similar association of Caranx ‘melampygus and Crambessa palmipes is re- corded from the Mauritius. Annelid tubes, too, have been found surrounded by the corallum of Poritide and other coralline zoophytes. On the other hand, there are associations of organisms in which both host and guest are active and mutually beneficial to one another, as in the case of Anthea, Lichens, &c., to be referred to below. The distinction between Commensalists and true parasites, such as the Dodder, Peronospora and other Fungi, Teenie, Trachine, Oxyuridz, &c.—all of which exercise a deleterious function upon ~ their host—was first drawn by Van Beneden, who explained the phenomenon of Commensalism by a “sympathy” existing between host and guest. But, more recently, Mr Geddes (‘ Proc. Roy. Soc.,’ Lond., 1879), by submitting a number of green Convoluta Schultzii 176 Transactions of the [Sess. to the direct influence of sunlight, has demonstrated that oxygen gas is evolved in large quantities (45 to 55 per cent), and that starch is abundant in the green cells, so that the action is equivalent to that of vegetable chlorophyll; while he has also given reasons for believing that, in cases of consortism, we have illustrations of an ideal, complex existence on the lines of mutual or reciprocal physiological accommo- dation. L. Macchiati, too (‘ Bull. Soc. Entomol. Ital.” 1883), has asserted that certain Aphides (Siphonophora malvz and S. rosze) lose — their colour when subjected to darkness, and believes that this coloration is due to chlorophyll, although its physiological action re- mains as yet undetermined. It is not necessary, however, that Algz thus associated with animals should be green. It is well known that the green colour of chloro- phyll is often masked by other hues present in the cells, producing, for example, such shades as the brown of Diatomacee, or the olive of Fuci and Laminarie, or again the red of Florides. So we find in marine Sponges bluish-green Oscillatorize, and in Radiolaria certain yellow bodies of ovoid outline, which Prof. Huxley first named “yellow cells.” The views that have been held regarding these yellow cells may be summarised as follows :— (1) Johannes Miiller believed that they were concerned with the reproduction of the Radiolarians—a conception which he subsequently abandoned. (2) Haeckel (‘Die Radiolarien, p. 136) maintained that they represented the liver cells of the simple saccular liver of Amphioxus, and were accordingly functionally secretory cells, or simple digestive | glands ; but at a later period they were found to contain starch, and he thereupon regarded them as related to the function of nutrition of the Radiolarians (‘Amylum in d. gelben Zellen d. Radiolarien,’ Jena, Zeitschrift 1870, p. 582). (3) Cienkowski, in 1871, enunciated the belief that they were parasitic Algze, resting this view on the three considerations that their number varies in the same species, and that after the death of the Radiolarian they are capable of multiplication, and of passing through encysted and amceboid phases. (4) Richard Hertwig, in 1876, maintained that the yellow cells, being developed from the protoplasm of the Radiolarian, acted as storehouses of reserve food material, as the starch in a Potato tuber, as the albumen of a seed, or as the adipose tissue of an animal does; but in 1879, after observing that the yellow cells were absent in some species, and that the origin of their nuclei from Radiolarian nuclei was improbable, he regarded them as parasitic Algve. (5) Huxley, in 1877 (‘ Anat. Invert. Anim., p. 90), speaking of the same “celleeform bodies,” remarks that ‘‘the possibility that they — may be parasites must be borne in mind.” (6) Dr Karl Brandt, in 1881 (“ Untersuchungen an Radiolarien,” — 1883-84. ] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 177 ‘Monats. Akad. Wiss. Berlin’), adopted the parasitic view taken up by Cienkowski, for the following reasons :— (a) The yellow cells survive two months after the death of the Radiolarian host. (6) They agree in widely different families—e.g., in Radiolaria and some Actinic. (c) They appear first in the outer part of the colony of Collozoum, and gradually make their way inwards. (d) Their nuclei stain more deeply with carmine than Radiolarian nuclei. (e) Their limiting membrane consists of cellulose, becoming blue after treatment with an acid and iodine. (f) All yellow cells have a chlorophyll-like pigment nucleus and a starch-like product of assimilation, that assimilation product being of two kinds—either (a) starchy, vacuolated, colourless, or pale-blue granules, coloured violet or blue-violet by iodine, and not doubly refractive; or (8), compact, irregular, reddish or violet, doubly re- fractive granules, upon which iodine produces no change—( Brandt in Pfluger’s ‘Archiv., 1883). (7) Mr Geddes (‘Proc. Roy. Soc. of Edin.,’ 1881-82, pp. 382, 383) has stated the subjoined grounds for regarding the yellow cells of Radiolarians as algoid in their nature -— (a) They survive in dead Radiolarians, and have encysted and amceboid states. (6) Their mode of division is algoid. (c) Starch is present in them, as noted by Haeckel. (d) Their cell walls consist of true cellulose, as made out by first ‘preserving the animal in alcohol, then macerating for some hours in ‘weak KHO, which is thereafter neutralised by weak acetic acid, and finally treating with weak iodine and strong H,SO,. (e) Their yellow colour becomes green on treatment with alcohol, and is identical with the pigment of Diatoms. (7) There is a copious evolution of oxygen during sunshine, as referred to below. Brandt has named these parasitic yellow algoid-cells Zoozanthella, and has asserted that they represent the resting-stages of various marine Algw, belonging chiefly to the class Melanophycee (‘ Mt. Zool. Stat. Neapel.,’ 1883); and again (Pfluger’s ‘ Archiv.,’ 1883), that “if large quantities of the green cells be treated with filtered water, they usually become zoospores provided with two cilia ante- riorly, having their pigments arranged in parietal plates, and possess- ing starch in their interior.” As bearing on the important physiological inferences that are to be drawn from such cases of consortism, the experiments of Geddes on the evolution of oxygen in sunshine are very valuable. They are as follows :— 178 Transactions of the [Sess. Organism experimented on. Algee. Oxygen gas evolved. Collozoum inerme . ; . Present Appreciable. Velella . : : : : as 21 to 24 per cent. Anthea cereus var. plumosa 6 32 to 38 per cent. Do. var. smaragdina Absent None (greenness is not algoid). Ceriactis aurantiacus . . Present Much, Do. ; . Absent None, Aiptasia chameleon 5 . Present Much. Helianthus troglodytes a * Actinia cari. . Absent None. »» Mesembryanthemum . Sagartia parasitica . Cerianthus c } Red Gorgonia verrucosa . a “A White Gorgonia verrucosa . Present Appreciable—physiological var- ieties. Mr Geddes’s inferences from his experiments are these :— (1) The starch of the Algw, when dissolved, passes out into the animal tissues by exosmosis: the animal at the same time possesses much amylolitic ferment capable of converting starch into sugar. (2) When the Algz die they are digested by the animal, and so act as a food supply. (3) When alive the Alge remove CO, and nitrogenous waste, thus performing an intracellular renal function—the abundance of these substances probably accelerating, at the same time, their powers of multiplication. (4) The Algz evolve oxygen, which in time accelerates the vital pro- cesses of the animal, and so functions as stationary hemoglobin in the blood—a substance that has also been found by Prof. Lankester sta- tionary in the tongue muscles of Mollusca, &c.—(‘ Brit. Assoc.,’ 1871, p. 140.) (5) Since free Diatoms and Seaweeds evolve from 40 to 70 per cent of oxygen, whereas not more than 25 per cent is got from con- sortial Alge, it follows that the animals use up part of the oxygen as it is being formed. (6) There is reason to believe that consortism is favourable in the struggle for existence—inasmuch as Anthea cereus with Alge is the most common of Sea Anemones, while Radiolaria with yellow cells are more common than those without these structures. (7) Consortism is important in the economy of nature, “ for, since the Radiolarians, and doubtless also, at least to a large extent, the Foraminifera, are thus chiefly maintained, and since they serve as nutriment, directly or indirectly, to most of the higher pelagic animals, the apparently disproportionate abundance of animal life in the open sea becomes no longer enigmatical.” It is also to be borne in mind, however, as has been pointed out by Hooker, that in arctic and antarctic regions in particular, the Diatomacee, which abound in enormous numbers, afford in a large degree food-material to the surface animals of these regions. 1883-84. ] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 179 Dr Karl Brandt, in 1883 (‘Mt. Zool. Stat. Neapel.’), enunciated the same physiological inferences as Mr Geddes reached, stating— (1) that the assimilation products of living yellow cells partly serve the animals; and (2) that possibly assimilation is more rapid when the Alga is inside the animal, because an abundance of CO, is got from the animal—the former of these propositions being based on the action of iodine on Collozoum, small starch granules having been observed in the protoplasm of that organism. These granules were chiefly found on the outer surface of, or in close proximity to, intact yellow cells, and they agreed with the starch granules found in the yellow cells. As to the action of the oxygen that is evolved by the symbiotic Algze, as affecting the movements of the associated animals, diverse views have been adopted by Mr Geddes and Dr Brandt. The former believes that in sunlight this oxygen causes the animals to move their tentacles as if they were subjected to mild stimulation— too protracted hyper-oxygenation of Radiolarians, however, resulting in sickness or death. Brandt (‘Mt. Zool. Stat. Neapel.’ 1883) maintains— (a) That Algee-bearing Actiniz, when brought from diffuse to direct sunlight, suffer no irritation ¢f the temperature ts not allowed to rise. (b) That Actiniz heated from 26° to 36° C. move more actively, whether the heat be derived directly from sunlight or whether it be artificial heat; and that the same result follows whether Alge are present or absent. (c) That Algze-bearing Anthozoa are killed in direct sunlight, not by the oxygen produced, but by heat. (d) That all Algie-bearing Actinie throw off a number of cells when heated to 30° or 35° C., and that the yellow cells so extrava- sated are capable of development or assimilation. Of the three classes of green animals, then,—namely (1), those con- taining green pigment which is not chlorophyll, ¢.g., Bonellia; (2) those containing chlorophyll in symbiotic Alge, eg., Anthea, Radiolaria, &e.; and (3) those provided with intrinsic chlorophyll, such as Hydra and Spongilla,—the latter class still remains shortly to be considered. Various observers have considered the green corpuscles of Hydra and Spongilla, and the results at which they have arrived may be stated thus :— (1) Professor Semper of Wurzburg (‘Animal Life ’—“ Interna- tional Scientific Series,” p. 73) regards the occurrence of these green bodies in animal tissues as a case “either of parasitism or of a com- munity of two organisms so different as an animal with true tissues and organs and a one-celled plant.” (2) Dr K. Brandt holds the same views as Semper, and bases his belief in their algoid nature on the following considerations :— (a) The green bodies consist of hyaline protoplasm, are provided with a nucleus and curved chlorophyll granule, and are capable of division. The green bodies were isolated by pressure, and their 180 Transactions of the [Sess. colour was found not to be of a uniform green hue, but to be modified by the presence of hyaline protoplasm. The nucleus was observed by use of hematoxylin as a staining agent. On the other hand, Professor E. Ray Lankester has found, by use of picro-carmine, that no nucleus is determinable. (b) The green bodies survive isolation. (c) Though isolated, they develop starch in sunlight. With reference to this, Professor Lankester points out that it need not imply the existence of symbiotic Algz, as it would only prove that “a bit of protoplasm, with its associated envelope or cap of green sub- stance, can retain its vital activity, just as a piece of an Amceba can ;” and again, Dr Brandt “does not state that he observed starch grains in association with the chlorophyll corpuscles, when observed in fresh living cells of Spongilla (or of Hydra).” Moreover, “ by removing the chlorophyll corpuscles from the mass of surrounding protoplasm, Dr Karl Brandt has found a method by which the product of the activity of the chlorophyll corpuscle may be, as it were, forced to remain in the corpuscle, there being no surrounding protoplasm to take it up and operate further upon it. Hence, possibly enough, we get a deposit of starch grains in the isolated corpuscle, which would never occur in the normal condition, since the product of assimilation is in that condition rapidly diffused, and so removed from the chlorophyll corpuscle ”—it may be, to appear as amylum in vacuoles in the ad- joining protoplasm of the animal cell.—(‘ Quart. Jour. Mier. Sci.,’ April 1882.) (2) Specimens of green bodies from Hydra were taken in and retained by Paramecium, whereas the green bodies of Spongilla were digested or expelled by Infusors. To this Lankester replies that, “had Dr Brandt’s view been confirmed, the green corpuscle ought to have multiplied in its new host ;” and even then, this need not indi- cate any independent nature: they may still be but “parts of the protoplasm of the cell in which they are normally found.” (e) The green bodies, on the supposition of their morphological independence, have received from Dr Brandt specific names: those from Hydra are ealled Zoochlorella conductrix, and those from — Spongilla, Zoochlorella parasitica. The facts, however, which are referred to by Professor Lankester—namely, (1) that a cellulose wall is absent from the green corpuscles; (2) that their form is varied ; and (3) that their green colour may be absent when an irregular angular corpuscle is seen—militate against their being regarded as independent organisms. (f) Dr Brandt, finally, has observed—(1) that Radiolarian colonies do not digest foreign bodies when Algve (i.¢., yellow cells) are present, as he succeeded in keeping them alive in filtered sea-water; and (2) that Spongilla containing green bodies lived in filtered water, but died when removed into a half-darkened spot, and he therefore con- ee ee ee 1883-84. } Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 181 eludes that the life of the Spongilla depends on the action of the green bodies. In addition to the destructive criticism given by Professor Lan- kester of Dr K. Brandt’s inferences, Mr Geddes adds— (a) That the green bodies of Spongilla and Hydra are quite unlike any Algz hitherto described, but closely resemble the chlorophyll granules of plants, both in form and mode of division. (b) That the indigestibility of chlorophyll is quite in keeping with the retention of the green bodies of Hydra which were taken in by Parameecium. (c) With reference to Brandt’s sixth position, while admitting the truth of his statements, he adds that “they constitute an extraordin- arily slender foundation for the doctrine of ‘symbiosis.’ Many Radiolarians can be easily observed to digest foreign bodies; every Sponge, whatever its colour, requires great quantities of thoroughly pure water to keep it alive; while, of course, every one who has worked with living Radiolarians must have felt the necessity of transferring them, when he wished to prolong their life, from the impure water of the ‘ Auftrieb,’ teeming as it is with dead and dying Crustaceans, fragments of Siphonophores, and all manner of other impurities, to pure water.” (3) The general conclusion at which Professor Lankester arrives “is, that the green or “chlorophyll corpuscles ” of Spongilla and Hydra are equivalent to the chlorophyll bodies of plants, and that they are no more symbiotic Algz than the “green corpuscles in the leaf of a Buttercup.” He accordingly concludes, and his conclusion is endorsed by Mr Geddes, that true chlorophyll may be formed by animal organisms. It is also pointed out that certain angular fragments which are present alongside of the normal chlorophyll bodies in Hydra, as noted by Kleinenberg and Lankester, are inexplicable on the symbiotic theory of Semper and Brandt; and it is further re- marked that the angular corpuscles in pale Spongille become green by exposure to sunlight. The green corpuscles of Spongilla are for the most part concavo-convex, and sometimes a very large one is found with green colour around its outer margin: they are non-nucleated, and are capable of division. Keller (‘ Zeit. f. Wiss. Zool.,’ vol. xxx.) first detected amylum vacuoles in Spongilla cells near these corpuscles, treatment with iodine producing a beautiful violet colour, which disappeared after the action of KHO, although this coloured substance remained insoluble in absolute alcohol or in water; and it has also been determined that osmic acid (dilute), followed by picro-carmine, produces a red coloration, so that albuminoid material may be present. This starchy solution need not be “identical with vegetable starch. . . . At the same time, it cannot be denied that the probability of the endogenous nature of the chlorophyll corpuscles, and of their non- parasitic character, is greatly increased by the demonstration of the 182 Transactions of the [Sess. fact that the Sponge cell is capable of forming amyloid substance, and depositing it in vacuoles in large quantities.” It has, moreover, been suggested that this amylum is in some way related to the formation of winter gemmules, to which they may act as a store of food- material, being “ most abundant in specimens of Spongille which are actually breaking up and dying down at the incoming of winter” (Lankester, ‘Quart. Jour. Micr. Sci.’ 1882). In connection with this, the ingenious suggestion of the mechanics of sinking or floating of Radiolarians, given by Mr Geddes, is worth noting: “The starch formed during the morning’s exposure to sunshine would increase the specific gravity of the Radiolarian, and so sink it; while its digestion and oxidation would again lighten it,” and so cause the animals to float nearer and nearer to the surface of the water. The analytic method adopted by Dr Geza Entz (‘ Biol. Centralbl.,’ 20th Jan. 1882) for demonstrating the independent nature of some consortial Algz is especially interesting. He has succeeded in remov- ing green bodies from Infusors, and has traced their development to adult algoid genera—Palmella, Gloeocystis, and Pleurococcus ; while he has, conversely, observed the entrance of spores of these animals into Infusors. About the same time, Professor Percival Wright (‘ Nature,’ Feb. 1882) also recorded the entrance of Chlorochytrium and other algoid spores into the bodies of animals, having previously (in 1877) suggested a possible relationship to the Lichen-gonidial theory. Finally, Dr Brandt (‘Mt. Zool. Stat. Neapel.,’ vol. iv., 1883) has pointed out curious changes of colour observable in the case of con- sortial Algz found at different depths. Thus yellowish-green or yellow forms occur in surface animals like Radiolaria, brown forms are found in animals occurring at a slight depth, while red types occur in Phytozoa procured from still greater depths, such as Sponges. In dealing with the great family of Lichens, so abundantly distri- buted over every stone and tree, we have again to face commensal problems, although it is only in recent years that the complete rela- tionships of the associated organisms have been fully and securely established. Thirty-five years ago Tulasne sowed Lichen spores, and believed that he detected gonidia forming on the fungoid hyphe. This same conception was originally held by De Bary in his ‘ Mor- phology and Physiology of Fungi,’ where he remarks that a lateral branch of the hypha becomes shut off by a wall, and requires chloro- phyll, so forming a gonidium capable of subsequent subdivision ; although in his ‘Handbook of Physiological Botany’ (p. 291) his views become modified, Lichens being regarded as the complete fructifying states of plants hitherto called Alge, or as typical Algz that become “ Lichens” because of the Fungus. The original view of Tulasne was also adopted by Berkeley (‘ Introd. Crypt. Bot.,’ p. 273), and followed by Thwaites. But the researches of Schwendener (‘Ueber die Algentypen der Flechtengonidien,’ 1869) first demon- 1883-84. | Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 183 strated that in a Lichen a consortial association is found,—that the Lichen is, in fact, made up of Algze (=gonidia) belonging to various families (Chroococcaces, N ostocacere, Palmellaceze), which agree to act as hosts to ascomycetous Fungi which are never found alone, although the Algze are capable of existing in a free state, and, when free, of developing normally—that is, of forming zoogonidia or swarm cells, as was first observed by Famintzin and Baranetsky. According to Schwendener, then, the Algze are merely disturbed in their mode of life, although not destroyed, by the Fungi becoming associated with them, At the same time, however, it is to be borne in mind, as Mr Geddes has suggested, that while the Fungus undoubtedly must obtain its organic food from its tolerant chlorophyllaceous host, by exosmosis of its starch, so that host may derive subsidiary aid from the Fungus by obtaining endosmotically advantage from the nitro- genous waste protoplasmic products of the hyphe,—just as the sym- biotic philozoon is subsidised by similar nitrogenous waste of its eon- sortial animal organism, or as insectivorous plants like Nepenthes, ’ Sarracenia, or Pinguicula are benefited by the nitrogenous products of insect digestion, or sometimes of insect decay, This Schwendenerian doctrine of the constitution of Tieiers has been corroborated by the subsequent synthetic experiments of Bornet (“Recherches sur les Gonidies des Lichens””—‘ Ann. des Sci. Nat., t. xvii, 1873), and Stahl (‘Beitriige zur Entwickelungs-geschichte der Flechten,’ i, ii, 1877). The former investigator experimented with the common brown-coloured Lichen so abundant on stones about the upper margin of our tidal belt—namely, Parmelia parietina —and found that when Parmelia spores were sown alone, they ramified less and formed no chlorophyll, and that when Proto- coccus was sown alone, it formed no hyphe; but when the spores of Parmelia were sown with Protococcus, a Lichen (Parmelia parietina) was the issue. Stahl, in like manner, synthetically produced the Lichen, Endocarpon pusillum, which bore perithecia and spermogonia. It may be further remarked that the final shape which a Lichen as- sumes may depend on the gonidia (ze. the Algsz), as in Ephebe, or on the hyphz, as in Usnea—the latter being the usual type; and that the gonidia and hyphz may be equally mingled, when the Lichen is said to be “homoiomerous,” or the gonidia may be confined to a single layer, as in Sticta, in which case “ heteromerous” Lichens are the result. Mr George Murray has drawn a very interesting parallel between certain consortial relationships found in Physophorid Ccelenterates, such as Velella, and in Lichens. In the former, Algze occur in the _ gonophores or reproductive bells, which have been found to be cap- able of surviving longer—that is, of succeeding better in the struggle for existence—than gonophores devoid of Alge. So hymenial _gonidia—that is, gonidia found in the reproductive cups of such Lichens as Dermatocarpon and Polyblastia—are formed from the VOL, I. N 184 Transactions of the [Sess. thallus gonidia of the Lichen, and are cast out along with the spores of the Fungi, so that when these spores germinate, the hyphe again enclose the gonidia. In this way, in both the animal and the Lichen, there is a provision by which the symbiotic Algz are brought into the closest possible relationship with the reproductive cups, and every facility is offered for the continuance of the association through the successive generations. The hymenial layers of the apothecia may be exposed, as in gymnocarpous Lichens, or there may be an encircling perithecium, as in angiocarpous Lichens, and the spores which form in asci by free cell-formation escape by a small orifice at its extremity, that escape being effected by rupture of the ascal wall, brought about by swelling resulting from the penetration of moisture to the hymenium.—(‘ Encye. Brit., 9th edit., Art. “ Parasitism.”) The only other point that may be noted in connection with Lichens is that their multiplication is sometimes effected by soredia, in which case one or several gonidia become surrounded by definite hyphe, the gonidia divide, and the cortex of the parent ruptures, so that the soredia escape, and finally develop into a new Lichen. ‘This type of multiplication is, from a symbiotic standpoint, closely correlated with the contemporaneous escape of fungoid spores and gonidia from the hymenial region of the reproductive cups of Lichens, and in a similar way corroborates the intimacy of the association of the algoid and fungoid constituents—an association which is capable of being pro- longed through many generations without the production of any manifest pathological changes on either side. XIV.—THE NUTHATCH (SITTA EUROPADA). By Mr A. B. HERBERT, PresrpeEnt. (Read March 27, 1884.) Tus pretty bird, with its peculiar and amusing habits, has always been a favourite with me from my youth. The male and female are much alike in colour, the back and head being of a delicate ash shade, approaching to pale blue ; the under parts cloudy white, with a slight roseate tint and marks of brown. Meyer’s illustration before you gives a very fair idea of the bird. It is an extremely rare bird in Scotland, and I expect also in the north of England, for had one of such colours and habits been common in Yorkshire, it would not have escaped the acute observation of Waterton. It is very — local in its habitat, for on the west side of my native town of Coven- try, especially in the old avenue at Allesley Hall, I seldom failed 1883-84. ] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club, 185 to see them when I wished; while on the eastern side of the town they were seldom met with. Of late years, however, I am happy to say they have become far more common in Warwick- shire, and on my annual visit there I invariably notice them. When at school I learnt to imitate the singular call-note of the Nuthatch so exactly, that I could often induce it to answer me. The food of the Nuthatch consists of nuts and filberts, cater- pillars, insects, berries, hard seeds, and beech-nuts. Bewick men- tions it as also fond of picking bones; and a lady friend in Hert- fordshire who is in the habit of throwing Indian corn down for her poultry, informs me that she has frequent and welcome visits from a Nuthatch, which fixes the grains of Maize in the rough bark of a tree and pecks them to pieces. In the autumn nuts form the principal and most attractive food of the Nuthatch, and the method of extracting the kernel is at once quite unique and interest- ing. I was always careful in England to have some nuts left on my bushes for the especial use of the Nuthatch, and never tired of noticing his proceedings. The nut was carried by the bird to the stem of a tree having rough bark, and inserted, with the point of the nut outwards, in a fissure of the bark. The bird would then creep round the nut with his peculiar short jumps till he had a good position for the attack, usually with his head downwards. I think it would be in vain for it to attempt to break a nut by the mere use of the cervical sinews; but making his neck rigid and in a line with his body, with the beak at right angles, and the sharp claws as a fulcrum, the bird for the time assumes the form of a small pick or hammer, and pegs away with all his weight and might at the pointed end of the nut, where the shell is thinnest, and the noise of this pretty hammer I have heard at a considerable distance. It has been stated that the bird can in this way penetrate the hardest nut, but this is not strictly true, for I have more than once seen it fail, and well remember, as a boy, carrying one of these failures for some time in my pocket, with numerous marks of the bird’s bill on the pointed end. I never knew it break a nut which con- tained no kernel, and I suppose the hollowness of the sound would at once indicate that its labour would be unproductive. I once saw the rough bark of an Elm near some Beeches entirely studded in every _ erevice with the shells of beech-nuts, evidently the work of the Nut- hatch. The late Rev. W. T. Bree of Allesley records an instance of one of these birds being caught in a common brick-trap ; and so per- sistent was it in hammering the bricks in its efforts to escape, that when found the point of its bill was quite worn away. I also heard of one being placed in an ordinary cage, which kept up a continuous attack on the woodwork for hours, till some one remarked that he feared he was making his coffin, which proved only too true, as in the morning the poor bird was found dead in the cage. But though 186 Transactions of the [Sess. Nuthatches are very impatient of restraint when captured at matur- ity, they will become quite tame if taken young and brought up by hand. They are most amusing pets, running over their owner in all directions, up and down his body and limbs, poking their bills into seams and holes as if in search of food upon some old or rent tree, and uttering during the time a low and plaintive ery. The Nuthatch flies from tree to tree in short spasmodic jerks, and its mode of progression on the trees is very dissimilar from that of the common Creeper (Certhia familiaris). The latter uses its stiff tail as a support in climbing; the Nuthatch never does, but, clinging with its tenacious claws, it creeps by short jerks forwards and backwards and sideways with the greatest facility. The nest of the Nuthatch is often a hole made by the Woodpecker; and if the orifice is too large to be readily defended, the bird plasters part of it up with mud, and a hole thus diminished is always a safe find of a Nuthatch-nest to bird-nesting boys. These birds seem to have very little fear of mankind, and to be utterly regardless of his near approach, for they will hunt over the stems of trees for food and break nuts while an onlooker stands only a few yards away. I much regret that this bird, which remains with us in England throughout the year, is almost unknown in Scotland. We should all welcome its cheery note and amusing habits on our summer excursions. It has a wide range on the Continent. Two years ago, during a walk before breakfast at Thun, in Switzerland, I saw seven or eight of them; and I noticed one also at Lauter- brunnen, so that in that vicinity it cannot be a rare bird. There are many familiar rural spring sounds in England which one misses on coming to Scotland. I would instance the “chaff” of the Chiff chaff, the laugh of the Yaftle, the charming and varied melody of the Nightingale, the plaintive whine of the Wryneck, the purring murmur of the Turtle, the shriek of the brilliant Kingfisher, and the whistle of the pretty Nuthatch, all of which would probably be heard at the end of April in the course of a five-mile walk in Warwickshire. At this meeting the Rev. R. F. Colvin read a short paper on the Palms of India, which was illustrated by specimens obtained from the Royal Botanic Garden. MEETINGS OF MICROSCOPIC SECTION. Ata meeting of the Club, held on the 26th October 1883, it was agreed to hold a series of meetings, during the winter months, for practical work with the microscope. Five such meetings were held, f a i ‘ 1883-84. ] Edinburgh Naturalists’ Field Club. 187 which met with great acceptance, and were most numerously at- tended. At the first meeting, Dr J. M. Macfarlane was chosen Presi- dent of the section, and the following is a sketch of the work done at the meetings : The method of cutting and staining vegetable sections, and mount- ing the same in Glycerine Jelly, Acetic Acid, and Canada Balsam, was demonstrated by Dr Macfarlane and Mr A. D. Richardson; and Mr John Heggie showed and explained the extraction, preparation, and mounting of molluscan palates. At the fifth meeting of the section, Mr A. Frazer, M.A., optician, submitted a short paper descriptive of the various methods of micro- metrical measurement. It was explained that the process is essen- tially the same as that followed in measuring the length of any substance by means of a foot-rule. The process was illustrated in a variety of ways. The construction of stage and eye-piece micrometers having been explained, the method of using them was demonstrated by measuring a blood corpuscle. It was also shown that the most convenient method of micrometrical measurement is that of using a stage-micrometer in conjunction with a camera-lucida. The action of the camera-lucida having been explained, Beale’s method of using a sheet of paper divided into squares of a determined micrometrical value was also demonstrated, and the size of a blood corpuscle measured when its image was thrown upon the intersecting squares. A short discussion followed, in which Mr Forgan, Mr Charles Fraser, and others, took part. ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING. Tue Annual Business Meeting of the Club was held on the evening of the 29th November 1883. The Secretary and Treasurer pre- sented a brief report of the work done during the previous Session ; and also submitted his Financial Statement, which was approved of. The various Office-hearers were elected, and the list for Session 1883- 84 stands as under, viz. :— President.—A. B. HEerBerr. Vice-President —P. B. Grsz. Council. T. B. Spracue. RoBert THOMSON. JoHN WALCOT. JoHN Heacir. GEORGE Brrp. SYMINGTON GRIEVE. Cuas. F. RoBERTSON. Roperr STEWART. Gro. L. Brown. W. Tait KINNEAR. Dr L. Dospin. . CHAS. FRASER. Secretary and Treasurer.—ANpREW Morrar. Auditors.—Atrex. Marurson; J. A. Bropie. 188 Transactions of the Edin, Nat. Field Club. (Sess. 1883-84. The Financial Statement showed an income, including balance from previous year, of £57, 11s. 5d., and an expenditure of £32, 14s. 44d., leaving a balance in favour of the Club of £24, 17s. 04d. The following meetings were held during Session 1882-83—viz. : Evening Meetings—27th Oct. 1882, First Evening Meeting; 23d Noy., Annual and Second Evening Meeting; 22d Dec, Third Evening Meeting; 25th Jan. 1883, Fourth Evening Meeting; 22d. Feb., Fifth Evening Meeting; 22d March, Sixth Evening Meeting ; 13th April, Conversazione, Field Meetings—24th Feb., Arniston ; 21st April, Roslin; 28th April, Ratho; 5th May, Straiton; 9th May, East London Street, Edinburgh; 12th May, North Berwick ; 19th May, Linlithgow; 26th May, Glencorse ; 2d June, Gosford ; 9th June, Arniston ; 16th June, West Linton ; 20th June, Salisbury Crags; 23d June, Winchburgh; 30th June, North Queensferry ; 4th July, Blackford Hill; 7th July, Balerno; 14th July, Inchkeith, and Dredging in the Firth; 18th July, Blackhall; 8th Sept., Colin- ton; 15th Sept., Morrison’s Haven,—in all, 27 meetings, with an ageregate attendance of 991, which gives an average of nearly 37 at each meeting. During the Session, 10 names have been withdrawn from the roll, and 46 new names have been added, making a net increase of 36. OFFICE-BEARERS, 1883-84. ee President.—A, B, HERBERT. Vice-Vresident—P, B, Gres, M.A. Gouncil, T. B. Spracus, M.A., F.R.S.E. Ropert Stewart, S.S.C. JOHN HEGGIE. Dr L. Dopsrn. Cuas. F. Rogpertson. JOHN WALCOT. W. Tarr KINNEAR, SYMINGTON GRIEVE. Rozsert THomson, LL.B. Gero. L. Brown. GEORGE Brrp. Cuas, FRASER, Honorary Secretary and Treasurer—ANDREW MoFFAr. Auditors —ALEXANDER Martueson, M.A., W.S.; J. A. Bropie. LIST OF MEMBERS, 1883-84. Original Members marked thus*. Honorary Members. ; Brown, Rosert, Ph.D., F.L.S., London. Epwarp, THomaAs, Banff. Grieve, Davin, F.R.S.E., 1 Lockharton Gardens, Slateford. Pracu, Cuas. W., A.L.S., 30 Haddington Place. Corresponding Wembers. - ARCHIBALD, STEWART, Kilmalcolm. BRoTHERSTON, ANDREW, Kelso. CruicksHANK, T. M., South Ronaldshay. Hosxirk, CHARLES P., Huddersfield. Hossack, B. H., Craigie Field, Kirkwall. t| | hi 1 ie i x List of Members, 1883-84. Ordinary Adams, William, 15 Hope Park Ter. Aitken, D. Percy, 5 Grosvenor Cres. Aldis, Harry G., 71 South Clerk St. Alexander, Miss Maggie, 25 Gillespie Crescent. Alexander, Robert, 4 Abbey Street. Allan, John, 15 Rosefield Avenue, Portobello. Allardice, C. B., 5 Polwarth Cres. Amoore, J. S., 7 Abercromby Place. Anderson, Miss A. J. R., 3 Howard Place. Anderson, Miss 8S. A., 3 Howard Place. Annandale, David, 5 George Square, Banks, Wm., Janefield, Colinton. Bashford, W. T., Argyle House, Portobello. Beale, Geo., Dean Public School. Bird, George, 63 Haymarket Terrace. Bogie, James, 5 Marchhall Crescent. Bonnar, Wm., 54 Castle Street. Brodie, J. A., Tweed Villa, Bon- nington. Brotherston, G. M., 18 St John Street. Brown, George L., Millburn House, Morningside. Brown, Miss L. G., Bellsmill House. Bryden, Mrs, 72 Great King Street. Bryden, Miss, 72 Great King Street. Carr, T. F. Robertson, Berwick-on- Tweed. *Colvin, Rev. R. F., Teviothead, Jed- burgh. Cotton, Miss Maria, 26 Mayfield Terrace. Cowan, Charles Wm., Valleyfield, Penicuik. Coyne, R. A. F. A., 21 Archibald Pl. Craig, Archibald, jun., 16 Blacket Place. Craig, Mrs J. B., 18 Queen’s Cres. Crawford, Wm. C., M.A., 1 Lock- harton Gardens, Slateford. Cunningham, Miss, 2 Haddington Place. Cunningham, William, 6 Inverleith Gardens. Cunningham, Mrs Wm., 6 Inverleith Gardens, iembers. Dawson, John D., M.A., 5 Bellevue Street. Dickson, Professor Alexander, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.L.S8., 11 Royal Circus, Dobbin, Leonard, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., 4 Oxford Street. Dobie, Miss Jessie, 7 Sciennes Hill. Donaldson, James, 9 Claremont Ter. Drummond, A. P., M.B., C.M., 30 Broughton Place. Duncan, Esdaile, Dean Public School. Eddington, Alexander, 9 Montrose Terrace. Edmunds, Arthur, 9 Fettes Row. Edmunds, Edmund, 9 Fettes Row. Eld, Thos. W., 2 Ramsay Gardens. Ewart, James, 1 Dundas Street. Farquharson, Thos. Ker, Roseville, St Catherine’s Place, Grange. Ferguson, John, 15 Brighton Place, Portobello. Forbes, Miss, Langside, Glasgow. Forgan, William, 3 Warriston Cres. Foulis, James, M.D., 34 Heriot Row. Fraser, Charles, 13 Greenhill Place. Fraser, Mrs, 13 Greenhill Place. Fraser, Hugh, Leith Walk Nurseries. Fraser, Miss Minnie, 1 Marchmont Road. *Fraser, P. Neill, Rockville, Murray- field. Frazer, Alex., M.A., 7 Lothian St. Galloway, James, St Fillans, Trinity. Geddes, Patrick, F.R.S.E., 81a Princes Street. Gibb, Philip B., M.A., 14 Picardy Place. Gloag, David, 1 Royston Terrace. Gouthwaite, Miss, 13 Woodburn Terrace. Gray, Arch., Bank Street. Gray, Jos. T., M.A., 21 Tantallon Pl. Grieve, Miss Amelia, Salisbury View, Dalkeith Road. Grieve, Somerville, Salisbury View, Dalkeith Road. Grieve, Symington, 7 Queensberry Terrace. Grinsell, Miss, 13 Royal Crescent. Groom, Miss, Downie Terrace, Cor- storphine. List of Members, 1883-84. xi Groves, Charles H., M.D., Forthland House, Trinity. Hall, George, 4 Marchhall Road. Hall, Miss, 4 Portgower Place. Hardie, William, Belleville, Dalkeith Road. Hately, W., 12 Bruntsfield Place. ‘Heggie, John, 2 Watt Terrace. Henderson, John, Phrenological Museum, Chambers Street. Henderson, Miss, 6 Carlton Terrace. Herbert, A. B., 13 Polwarth Terrace, Hogg, Andrew, 94 George Street. Honeyman, Robert, 94 West Bow. Hume, Elliot, 8 Lauriston Lane. Hume, William, 1 Lothian Street. Hunter, James, Minto House. Hutchison, Mrs, 22 Manor Place. Hutchison, Robert, F.R.S.E., 29 Chester Street. Jefiers, 8., 18 Duncan Street. Jenner, Charles, F.R.S.E., Easter Duddingston Lodge. King, Mark, 120 Pitt Street, Leith. Kinnear, W. Tait, 5 Crichton Street. Knight, Donald, Museum of Science and Art. Kynoch, Miss, 2 Darnaway Street. Laughton, William, Auchmill, Aber- deen. Law, Mrs John, 41 Heriot Row. Ligertwood, George C., M.A., 9 Spot- tiswoode Street. Lindsay, John, 24 Dryden Street. Lindsay, Thomas, 5 East Hermitage Place, Leith. Livingstone, Matthew, 108 Gilmore Place. Logan, Alex. W., Bank of Scotland, Crieff. Lorimer, Miss, 16 Mayfield Terrace. Lundie, William, 5 George Square. MacAdam, Stevenson, jun., 11 Hast Brighton Crescent, Portobello, MacAdam, W. Ivison, F.C.8., F.I.C., 6 East Brighton Crescent, Porto- bello. MacAlpine, A. N., B.Sc., 10 Spring Gardens, MacAlpine, Mrs A. N., 10 Spring ‘a Gardens. _ M‘Donald, W., M.A., Pennyland, Thurso. Macfarlane, J. M., D.Sc., 3 Bellevue Terrace, ; M‘Glashen, Robert L., 1 Brandon St. M‘Intosh, James, 42 Queen Street. M‘Intosh, Mrs James, 42 Queen St. Mackay, Miss, 69 Northumberland Street. M‘Kean, James, 11 Sylvan Place. Marshall, John Arch., 41 Minto St, Marshall, Robert, Lasswade., Matheson, Alex., M.A., W.S., 137 Princes Street. Melvin, Alex., 23 Marchmont Cres. Miller, Rev. Robert, M.A., 15 Thirl- stane Road, Hast. Miller, R. K., 4 Bonnington Ter, Miller, Peter, 8 Bellevue Terrace. Milne, John, 27 Dundas Street. Milne, John K., Kevock Tower, Lass- wade. Milne, Mrs, Kevock Tower, Lass- wade, Mitchell, John L., 106 Princes Street. Moffat, Andrew, 2 King’s Place, Leith Walk. Monteith, James, Street. Morham, Robert, 2 Bright Crescent. Murray, A., 41 Lothian Street. Murray, J. D., 68 Haymarket Ter. Nesbit, John, 162 High Street Portobello. Nisbet, Miss, 21 York Place. Ogilvie, Miss, 18 Buckingham Ter. Oliver, Geo. W., Royal Botanic Garden, Oliver, John S., 12 Greenhill Park, Peacock, Thomas R., Abbotsford Cottage, 5 Dalkeith Street, Joppa. Philip, James, 5 Argyle Place. Pillans, Hugh H., 12 Dryden Place. Pillans, Miss, 12 Dryden Place. Pottage, John C., 117 Princes St. Potts, George H., Fettes Mount, Lasswade. Purves, A. P., W.S., 102 George St. Purves, Samuel, 70 Haymarket Ter. Ranken, William, 11 Spence Street, Rattray, John, M.A., B.Sc., Marine Station, Granton, Richardson, A. D., Royal Botanic Garden. Robertson, C. F., 54 Blacket Place. Robertson, George, Lothian Road Public School, Robertson, Rev. J. M., 60 Blacket Place. Russell, John, 6 Thirlstane Rd., East. Scott, Miss, 50 Lauder Road, 20 Cumberland ? Xli Shaw, JohnO., Beauly, Victoria Park, Trinity. Simpson, Jas., Anatomical Museum, Park Place. *Skirving, R. Scot, 29 Drummond Place. Smith, Alexander W., 4 West Castle Road. Smith, James, 2 Caledonian Place. Smith, Miss, 34 Dublin Street. Smith, Miss B. H., 11 Pilrig Street. Smith, Mrs Geo,, 25 Hast Claremont Street. Sprague, T. B., M.A., F.R.S.E., 29 Buckingham Terrace. Sprague, Mrs T. B., 29 Buckingham Terrace, Steele, Adam, 10 Comely Bank. Steele, Miss, 16 Upper Gray Street. Stewart, James R., 10 Salisbury Rd. Stewart, Mrs James R., 10 Salisbury Road. Stewart, Miss, 53 Lothian Street. Stewart, Robert, 8.8.C., 8 Atholl Place. Sutherland, John, 4 Caledonian Rd. Suttar, John, Dispensary, Royal Infirmary. Taylor, Charles, Pinkhill Nurseries, i ALA uf un r palin List of Members, 1883-84. Taylor, William, M.D., 12 Melville Street. Terras, James, 34 Findhorn Place. Thomson, Rev. A. B., Geneva. Thomson, Miss H. B., 98 Lauriston Place. Thomson, Robert, LL.B., 6 Shand- wick Place, Turnbull, J. M., 19 So. St David St. Turner, Daniel, 24 George Street. Usher, Andrew, Blackford House. Walcot, John, 50 Northumberland Street. Walcot, Miss, Street. Walker, David, 2 Bellevue Terrace. Walker, Wm. F., 5 Restalrig Ter. Wardlaw, Geo., 14 St John’s Hill, Watt, Adam, 13 St John Street. White, John, 22 Manor Place. Wilson, Miss Helen, 7 Coates Place. Wilson, James T., Restalrig House. Wilson, Miss Katie, 2 Archibald PI. Wood, Alex., 13 St Andrew Street. Wood, T. A. D., Viewforth, Brun- stane Road, Joppa. Wright, J. C., 20 Royal Crescent, Yule, Robert, 6 Mansfield Place. Ziegler, John, 47 George Square, 50 Northumberland fe 7) 11939 Vel & TRANSACTIONS OF THE ' -Cdinburgh Haturalists Field. Club SESSION 1884-85 = CONTENTS. Hi ‘ - PAGE I, Field-Naturalists—Mr A. B. Herbert, President, i 189 II. Note on the Distribution of Honey-Glands in Pitchered Gineotiv- orous Plants.—Mr J. Lindsay, . : 200 TL. Note on the Appearance of the eres Pike in the Forth. — Mr ’ Er A. B. Herbert, President, . 3 ; " 202 IV. The Commoner Buntings (mberizide), _Mr A. Craig, jun, H 5 202 V. The Hymenomycetes. —Mr A. B. Steele, ; 211 VI. On Yews, with special reference to the Fortingall ravi _Mr rt Bs Lindsay, : 218 VII. Who were the early Inhabitants of the Shell - mound named j be f ; Caisteal-nan-Gillean, on Oronsay ?— —Mr S. Grieve, ; ‘ : 227 _ ‘VII. Sketch of the Geology of the Pentlands.—Mr J. Henderson, . ; 234 oe Ix. Diatoms.—Mr J. Rattray, M.A., B.Sc.,. : : 3 : z F 238 _ XX. Note on the Genus Lamium. _Mr M. King, P 250 List of the Less Common Plants gathered at the Excursions during 1884, with Localities.—The Secretary, . 254 I. Note on the Squirrel (Sciwrus ewropceus)—Mr i Thomson (iti: municated), , ; 7 c ‘ . 5 : : : 257 Meetings of Microscopic Bettion: x é ; 3 . : E 3 260 Improved Forms of Ether and Imbedding Microtomes. — Mr Alex. Frazer, M.A. (with Illustrations). Photo-Micrography.—Mr Wm. Forgan. Annual Business Meeting, . . . Hina ’ ‘ a . 265 List of Members, 1884-85, Pe We a rete es ot a, ee. SUL Printed for the Club BY ~ WILLIAM BLACKWOOD & SONS MDCCCLXXXV I—FIELD-NATURALISTS. By Mr A, B, HERBERT, Presrpent, (Read Nov, 27, 1884.) By your favour, I once more have the honour of appearing as Presi- dent of your Club, and I have much pleasure in again congratu- _ lating you on our continued prosperity. We were never so - numerous a body as at the present time, and we will hope that we Shall keep pace with the times in intellectual progress and develop- _ ment. The principal innovation we have made during the past _ year was the institution of winter meetings for microscopical work, L and it is gratifying to know that these meetings, under the able _ presidency of Dr Macfarlane, so efficiently supported by many other members, have been well attended and most successful. Our summer excursions were also numerously attended and much enjoyed. ‘There is, as I trust there ever will be, one pre-eminent characteristic of our Club—namely, the good-fellowship and un- _ alloyed harmony prevailing amongst us, which I attribute in no _ small degree to the humanising and genial influence we derive from admitting lady members to the Club, some of whom are excellent field-naturalists. By “‘field-naturalists,” in the general acceptation of the term, we understand those lovers of nature who take delight in observ- ing the habits and instincts of animals, the beauties and varieties _ of our flora, the formation and stratification of the rocks, and the yast wonders of the mineral kingdom; and we add also those _ who, by the aid of the microscope, investigate the minute forms of _ animal and vegetable life, and by careful scientific research eluci- _ date many important discoveries. _ Some comprehensive minds acquire knowledge in many branches _ of natural history, but the majority are content with taking up one _ or two subjects, and making these a hobby or speciality,—and I _ would here remark that a man who has no hobby in life connected _ with objects of nature is, in my opinion, one not to be envied; for _ of what a large amount of pleasure and innocent gratification is he not deprived in his daily walks or drives! A wealthy manufacturer _ recently told me that by sticking too closely to business in early life, _ and not observing natural objects and occurrences around him, he ‘Was convinced he had deprived himself of an endless amount of real enjoyment. Half a century ago, a person seen gazing for any I. 1) 190 Transactions of the [Sess. length of time at a bird or insect, or gathering and examining a weed, or breaking rocks and stones, was looked upon rather as a naturalist with the three last letters omitted, or, as they say in Scot- land, “ daft” ; but now happily all this is changed, and any one pur- suing these inquiries in the present age is not considered absolutely insane. It is true he may, under certain circumstances, run the risk of being considered a poacher, as occurred to a gentleman well known to many of us last summer. He wished to ascertain some details respecting the habits of birds near the Pentlands, and for this purpose, in Izaak Walton’s words, he “prevented the sun- rising,” and just at dawn found himself suddenly confronted by a sturdy keeper, who exclaimed, with an air of evident disappoint- ment, ‘ Oh, it’s you, is it! why, I have been watching you for the last half hour through the mist, in the hope that I was about to nail a poacher.” é I purpose in these remarks to consider field-naturalists and their work, and to take as types of a class Gilbert White and Charles Waterton; and if I were to name a living author whose example we should do well to follow, it would be pre-eminently Sir John Lub- bock, for it is impossible for any one to read his recent remarks on insects without being forcibly impressed by the indomitable pa- tience and perseverance which characterised his researches, and how, in order to ascertain with accuracy any particular fact, he closely watched for hours and days the actions of the creatures who were then the subjects of his investigations. The discoveries and theories of Darwin would well occupy a whole evening or more, and may perhaps appropriately form the subject of some future president’s address. Frank Buckland, too, has written much that is novel and instructive. The first book I ever purchased with my scanty pocket-money, when nine years old, was a very minute and portable edition of ‘The Compleat Angler,’ often at that time perused in many a pic- -turesque spot beside a midland stream, while waiting for a nibble by Perch or Gudgeon. My second purchase, a few years later, was White’s ‘ Natural History of Selborne,’ which I well remember I read with great delight and interest. It was kept under the school-desk on a ledge constructed for a slate, whence it could be furtively slipped out and placed open over a Latin dictionary, and perused, as Hood expresses it, “ by stealth ’twixt verb and noun.” There were three other boys at the same desk who heartily joined me in notices of natural objects, and we were in the habit of dis- cussing any incident which occurred in our half-holiday rambles, often referring to White’s ‘Selborne’ for confirmation of our remarks. I have met with all these three boys in after-life, and with the same good-fellowship which existed at school. One is now a dean; another a rector ; and the third, a quiet but plucky boy, afterwards ' + 1884-85.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. IgI led a body of Highlanders up the heights of Alma, and was “winged” in the Indian mutiny,—an event, he says, much re- gretted, because it obliged him ever after to play cricket with only one arm. He became aide-de-camp to the Queen, and a C.B., and now stands: high in the service, and has recently written an autobiography in two portly volumes, designated ‘The Life of a Soldier.’ But he was ever mindful of his happy school-life, and I see in his book he refers to our kind-hearted master, and mentions me as one of the companions of his youth. Gilbert White was born in 1720 at Selborne, a village near Wol- mer Forest, a secluded and picturesque spot in the eastern corner of Hampshire. Wolmer is a corruption of Wolfmer, in the same way that we have Cranmer and Hogmer, all after animals since become extinct in these islands,—namely the Wolf, the Crane, and the Hog or wild Boar. After a school career at Basingstoke, White became a student at Oriel College, Oxford, where he gradu- ated in 1743. He was elected a Fellow of his College in the next year, and was one of the senior proctors of the University in 1752. I need scarcely remark that he was always an ardent lover of nature. He was curate of Farringdon for eighteen years, when he accepted the same office in his native village of Selborne, where in patient observation and careful recording of facts and phenomena in natural history, he passed the remaining years of his tranquil and uneventful life. He was often offered Church preferment, which would have added much to his pecuniary emoluments; but this he always declined, from his strong attachment to his native village and its surroundings, and felt that he should better consult his happiness by remaining the quiet, unassuming, but very observant country curate, than by going to a populous locality where his favourite pursuits could not be followed. And we well believe he was right, for had he accepted the offered preferment, White’s ‘Selborne’ would never have been written, to become, as it has, the charm and delight of future generations. There is no portrait existing of Gilbert White. He is described by one of his parishioners as a little, slim, prim, upright man: another says he was thought very little of till he was dead and gone, and then he was thought a great deal of; that he was a quiet old gentleman, with very old-fashioned sayings ; that he was extremely kind in giving presents to the poor, and that he used to give a number of poor people a goose each every Christmas. He died at Selborne unmarried in 1793, and his last illness must have been of short duration, for there is a certificate of death signed by him as curate on the 10th June, and he died before the expiration of that month. He suffered at times from deafness, and he laments this affliction, in a letter dated 1774, thus: “ Frequent returns of deafness incommode me sadly, and half disqualify me for a natural- 192 Transactions of the [Sess. ist ; for when these fits are upon me I lose all the pleasing notices and little intimations arising from rural sounds ; and May is to me as silent and mute, with respect to the notes of birds, &e., as Aug- ust ;” and he quotes Milton’s words— “Wisdom at one entrance quite shut out.” The well-known ‘Natural History of Selborne’ was first pub- lished in 1789. It consists of a series of letters extending over a period of twenty years, the first letter being written when White was about forty-five years old. The letters were addressed to Thomas Pennant and the Hon. Daines Barrington,—written with so much enthusiasm, painstaking accuracy, and simplicity of style, that White’s ‘Selborne’ became, what it still remains, one of the standard popular favourites, ‘ without which no English library is complete.” The edition in two volumes is the most perfect and charming one which has been published: it is edited by the late Frank Buckland. The illustrations of those picturesque spots so often mentioned by White—as the Hanger, the Plestor, and the rocky lane—are beautifully executed; but I consider many of the illustrations of birds are not so true to nature as those of Yarrell or Bewick. After White’s death his house became for many years the charming residence of Professor Bell. The Plestor or Pleystow, in the centre of the village, signifies a playing-place or play- ground. In the midst of the Plestor stood in old times a vast Oak, with a short squat body and huge horizontal arms, extending almost to the extremity of the area. This venerable tree, sur- rounded with stone steps and seats above them, was, we are told, the delight of old and young, and a place of much resort in summer evenings, where the former sat in grave debate, while the latter frolicked and danced before them. I have never visited Selborne, but it is spoken of by Buckland as a very pretty place—a perfect type of English woodland scenery and country life. It can be reached from London in two hours by rail, and a five-mile walk or drive from Alton station; and the vil- yi lage is very little altered since White’s time. I wish it were within easy reach of our Club. White’s style of writing is clear, concise, painstaking, and accu- rate, and he is most careful always to distinguish the record of a 3 fact as the result of his own observation from what has been com- ~ municated to him by others. The naturalist’s calendar contained in White’s work is most copious and useful : it is a record of occur- rences noticed by White in Hampshire, and by William Markwick in Sussex, placed in two columns, and records the arrival and de- | parture of migratory birds, the dates of nidification of these and — others, the appearances of insects, and the dates of flowering of many of our wild plants, It is remarkable that the dates of the ar- — i — ne —- a Ss & Be’ as = fz Pr Ez HE: 1884-85.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 193 rival of our summer migrants are all much earlier than our experi- ence here would lead us to expect, making, of course, due allow- ance for the difference in latitude—though 500 or 600 miles is really not a matter of much time to a Swallow, whose rate of flight must be fully equal to that of the fastest express train. White gives the Sand-martin, March 21; the Swallow, March 26; and the House-martin, March 28. White had peculiar views on migration, and never quite aban- doned the idea that some of the Swallow kind hibernated here. I will give two brief extracts in confirmation of this. Speaking of the House-martin, he says: ‘I see by my Fauna of last year that young broods came forth as late as September 18. Are not these late hatches more in favour of hiding than migration?” Again he says, addressing Mr Pennant: “I quite agree with you that though most of the Swallow kind may migrate, yet that some do stay behind and hide with us during the winter.” It would occupy too much of our time to give many extracts from White’s writings. I will therefore give you only two— one illustrative of his graphic and easy style, and the other where he puts his thoughts into verse. The first is his description of the nest of the Harvest-mouse (Mus messorius)—and we must re- member that he was the first to call the attention of natural- ists to this, the smallest of British quadrupeds, as a distinct species. He says :-— * Two of them, in a scale, weighed down just one copper halfpenny, which is about the third of an ounce, so that I suppose they are the smallest quad- rupeds in this island. A full-grown Mus domesticus weighs one ounce lump- ing weight, which is more than six times the mouse above.” ‘‘ One of the nests of these’ small mice I procured this autumn, most artificially platted, and composed of the blades of wheat ; perfectly round, and about the size of a cricket-ball ; with the aperture so ingeniously closed that there was no discovering to what part it belonged. It was so compact and well filled that it would roll across the table without being discomposed, though it contained eight little mice, which were naked and blind. As this nest was perfectly full, how could the dam come at her litter so as to administer a teat to each? Perhaps she opens different places for that purpose, adjust- ing them again when the business is over: but she could not possibly be contained herself in the ball with her young, which moreover would be daily increasing in bulk. This wonderful procreant cradle, an elegant in- stance of the efforts of instinct, was found in a wheat field suspended in the head of a thistle.” As a specimen of White’s verses, I give you— » 1 give y THE NATURALIST’S SUMMER-EVENING WALK. *¢ When day, declining, sheds a milder gleam, What time the May-fly haunts the pool or stream ; When the still Owl skims round the grassy mead, What time the timorous Hare limps forth to feed. 194 Transactions of the [Sess.. Then be the time to steal adown the vale, And listen to the vagrant Cuckoo’s tale ; To hear the clamorous Curlew call his mate, Or the soft Quail his tender pain relate ; To see the Swallow sweep the dark’ning plain Belated, to support her infant train ; To mark the Swift in rapid giddy ring Dash round the steeple, unsubdued of wing : Amusive birds! say, where your hid retreat, When the frost rages and the tempests beat? Whence your return, by such nice instinct led, When spring, soft season, lifts her bloomy head ? Such battled searches mock man’s prying pride, The God of Nature is your secret guide ! While deep’ning shades obscure the face of day, To yonder bench, leaf-sheltered, let us stray, Till blended objects fail the swimming sight, And all the fading landscape sinks in night ; To hear the drowsy Dorr come brushing by With buzzing wing, or the shrill Cricket cry ; To see the feeding Bat glance through the wood; To catch the distant falling of the flood ; While o’er the cliff th’ awakened Churn-owl hung, Through the still gloom protracts his chattering song ; While, high in air, and poised upon his wings, Unseen, the soft enamoured Woodlark sings : These, Nature’s works, the curious mind employ, Inspire a soothing melancholy joy : As fancy warms, a pleasing kind of pain Steals o’er the cheek, and thrills the creeping vein ! Each rural sight, each sound, each smell combine ; The tinkling sheep-bell, or the breath of kine ; The new-mown hay that scents the swelling breeze, Or cottage chimney smoking through the trees. The chilling night-dews fall: away, retire, For see the Glow-worm lights her amorous fire.” I thus conclude my remarks on Gilbert White, and will now proceed to the consideration of the life and writings of Charles Waterton. Of Charles Waterton we know far more than we do of Gilbert White, because he published an autobiography, and it is a very interesting and amusing one. And he also has a good biographer in Mr Norman Moore. He was born on the 3d June 1782, and in the year 1837 he thus describes himself :— ‘©T was born at Walton Hall, near Wakefield, in the county of York, some 55 years ago. ‘This tells me I am no chicken; but were I asked how I feel with regard to the approaches of old age, I should quote Dryden’s translation of the description which the Roman poet gives us of Charon— ‘ He seemed in years, yet in his years were seen A vernal vigour and autumnal green.’ In fact, I feel as though I were not more than 30 years old. Iam free from rheumatic pains, and so supple in the joints that I can climb a tree with the utmost facility. I stand six feet all but halfan inch. On looking at myself 1884-85.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 195 in the glass, I can see at once that my face is anything but comely: con- tinual exposure to the sun and to the rains of the tropics has furrowed it in places, and given it a tint which neither Rowland’s Kalydor nor all the cosmetics of Belinda’s toilet would ever be able to remove. My hair, which I wear very short, was once of a shade betwixt brown and black: it has now the appearance as though it had passed the night exposed to a November hoar- frost. I cannot boast of any great strength of arm, but my legs, by much walking and frequently ascending trees, have acquired vast muscular power ; so that on taking a view of me from top to toe, you would say that the upper part of Tithonus was placed on the lower part of Ajax; or, to speak zoolog- ically, were I exhibited at a horse-fair, some learned jockey would exclaim, ‘He is half Rosinante and half Bucephalus!’ By giving this description of myself, it will prevent all chance in future of the nondescript’s portrait in the ‘ Wanderings’ being taken for my own.” This latter remark requires some explanation. Waterton had often severely criticised the very defective manner in which the skins of animals are stuffed for our national museums ; and to show that a skin may be so prepared as to resemble almost anything, he stuffed a monkey’s or some other skin so that it bore some faint resemblance to a human being, and this “nondescript,” as he terms it, was figured in the ‘ Wanderings,’ and a worthy Yorkshire baronet, on taking up the book and showing the frontispiece to his friends, said, ‘Dear me, what a very extraordinary-looking man Mr Waterton must be!” Waterton and all his family for genera- tions were strong adherents of the Romish Church, and after a few years at a preparatory school near Durham, he went to the Jesuit college at Stonyhurst, and always looked back upon the time he spent there with a feeling of great respect and veneration for the Fathers of the Church who were his preceptors. He tells us that at college he soon became noted for his knowledge of the habits and instincts of animals, and was by common consent considered rat-catcher, fox-taker, and foumart-killer to the establishment. He says — “Moreover, I fulfilled the duties of organ-blower and football-maker with entire satisfaction to the public. I was now at the height of-my ambition. I followed up my calling with great success. The vermin disappeared by the dozen; the books were moderately well thumbed; and, according to my notion of things, all went on perfectly right. The day I left the Jesuit college was one of heartfelt sorrow to me.” At Stonyhurst there are boundaries marked out for the students which they are not allowed to pass, and just outside the boundary was a very extensive labyrinth of Yew and Holly trees. This place was a great attraction to Waterton, as it was a chosen place for animated nature. He says :— ‘Birds, in particular, used to frequent the spacious enclosure, and many a time have I hunted there the Foumart and Squirrel. I once took a cut through it to a neighbouring wood, where I knew of a Carrion-crow’s nest. The prefect missed me, and judging I had gone into the labyrinth, gave chase 196 Transactions of the [Sess. without loss of time. After eluding him in cover for nearly half an hour, being hard pressed I took down a hedgerow. Here he got a distant sight of me; but it was not sufficiently distinct for him to know for a certainty that I was the fugitive. I luckily succeeded in reaching the outbuildings which abutted on the college. I had just time to enter the postern gate of a pig- sty, when, most opportunely, I found old Joe Bowren bringing straw into the sty. He was more attached to me than to any other boy, for I had known him when I was at school in the north, and had made him a present of a very fine terrier. ‘I’ve just saved myself, Joe,’ said 1; ‘cover me up with litter.’ He had barely complied with my request when in bounced the prefect. ‘Have you seen Charles Waterton?’ said he, quite out of breath. My trusty guardian answered, in a tone of voice which would have deceived any one, ‘Sir, I have not spoken a word to Charles Waterton these three days, to the best of my knowledge.’ Upon this the prefect went his way, and when he had disappeared I stole out of my cover strongly perfumed.” After leaving college Waterton spent some time on the Continent, and it was when sailing from an English port that the following incident occurred, which speaks well for Waterton as a generous- hearted man, and capable of using his good sense with promptitude on an emergency. A Scotch brig, bound for Vigo, was sailing from the same port at the same time as the vessel containing Waterton, and he learned from one of the sailors that the mate of the brig was in a conspiracy to murder the captain and run away with the vessel. Waterton questioned the sailor very minutely, and satisfied himself that the captain of the brig was in imminent danger; and he determined, if possible, to thwart the rascal’s design. So he committed the sailor's statement to writing, and enclosed it in a bottle, then hailed the captain of the brig soon after leaving the port, and threw the bottle on the quarter-deck. The captain took it below, and soon returned on deck and made a very low bow to express his gratitude for the timely warning. Waterton made four voyages to America, and afterwards wrote the ‘Wanderings’—a very interesting work to naturalists, and which brought him into much public notice. He greatly delighted in observing the habits of birds, and other animals new to him, in the primeval forests of Demerara. He afterwards wrote an auto- biography, extending over a large portion of his long life, and subsequently his ‘ Essays on Natural History.’ These essays are to a student of nature most attractive reading, for Waterton had opportunities of carrying out his observations which few possess. Walton Hall, near Wakefield, his ancestral home, is situated on an island in a picturesque lake, the access to the house being by a drawbridge. All animals, with one notable exception, were strictly protected ; and from the windows, with the aid of a telescope, he could notice the habits of the wild-fowl on the lake, and the various other creatures under his protection,—and the result of these ob- servations form the subjects of the Essays. Waterton’s descriptions 1884-85.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 197 are always graphic and simple, and his style pleasing; and it has been remarked that his Essays may very appropriately take their place beside White’s ‘Selborne.’ The exceptional animal to which Waterton would give no protection, but with which he carried on war to the knife, was the common Brown Rat—an animal, as we know, not indigenous to these islands. Waterton asserts with great confidence that the same vessel which brought over William III. brought also the Hanoverian or Norway Rat, and he looked, as a Catholic and naturalist, on both arrivals as unmitigated evils.1 Waterton was very severe in his criticism of Audubon’s account of the Passenger-pigeon, endeavouring to show that the latter’s statement of the enormous congregation of these birds was a gross exaggeration. But after an assemblage I once witnessed of our common Starling, I can believe much of Audubon’s essay. There is a place in my native county where the public road is separated from a small lake by a narrow belt of plantation, and at this part of the lake is a large bed of reeds—a favourite roosting-place for Starlings in the winter. Some years ago, about Christmas, I was passing this spot at sunset, on a calm evening, when, all at once, I heard what I supposed to be a rush of wind through the trees, and immediately a black cloud seemed to come over, making it very perceptibly darker. I looked up, and the sight which I then wit- nessed was one never to be forgotten. A cloud was indeed passing over, but it was not one of vapour, but a very dense one of Starlings, and the noise, as I supposed of wind, was made by the wings of the birds as they rose from the reeds. Above and all around me in the air, covering a large area, there was nothing to be seen but Starlings, and I can say with perfect truth that they darkened the air. No doubt we have all seen such large flocks, but this was evidently all the flocks from the country round met together, and it would be impossible for me to form at all an adequate estimate of numbers ; and after witnessing this, I could not help thinking Audubon’s account of the Passenger-pigeon might not be so improb- able or impossible as Waterton would wish us to believe. Waterton on some questions in Natural History takes up a position which to my mind is untenable, though I should maintain on the whole that he was a most careful and accurate observer. He always denied the utility—nay, the existence—of the oil-gland in birds ; and his reasoning on the subject is to me very unsatisfactory. I imagine no one can watch carefully the habits of our common Duck without being convinced that Waterton was wrong. Daily do I observe my beautiful little Call-drake pinch this gland with 1 From information which has recently reached us, it appears that the Norway Rat has been unfortunately allowed to gain a footing in New Zealand, and is treating the indigenous New Zealand Rat as it did our Black Rat, ren- dering its extermination almost a certainty. 198 Transactions of the [Sess. his mandibles, then preen his feathers, and roll his brilliant green head on the gland; and I cannot believe that these acts are with- out effect on the plumage, Waterton’s strong attachment to the Reh Church is manifest in almost all his writings ; and he never forgave Oliver Cromwell for breaking down the drawbridge at Walton Hall, and firing musket-balls into the old oaken gates. He tells us these balls are still there ; and that Cromwell, not being able to get in, car- ried off everything, in the shape of horses and cattle, which his men could lay their hands on. Waterton occasionally uses strong language when he speaks of controversial theology. He says he would rather run the risk of going to hell with St Edward the Confessor, the Venerable Bede, and St Thomas of Canterbury, than make a dash at heaven in company with Harry VIII., Queen Bess, and Dutch William. It was a matter of extreme regret to Waterton, as it is to many of us, that all rare birds which appear here should be at once slaughtered and become specimens for our museums, and that we should now have to visit Holland to see the true habits of the Stork, or roam through Germany to enjoy the soaring of the Kite. Itis now about forty years ago since I stood at the Devil’s Bridge in Wales, and watched for some time the graceful gyrations of this splendid Hawk: I fear it would be difficult now to see one in all the Princi- pality. And when recently, at Basle, a Stork flew by my bedroom window to his nest on a housetop, and was seen afterwards walking about in a field close to some peasants, it was, I confess, with a feeling of shame that I thought of our treatment here of these and so many other beautiful birds. One of Waterton’s visits to South America was undertaken mainly to procure the wourali poison with which the natives poison their arrows, and which, it was supposed, from its peculiar pro- perties, might prove an efficacious remedy for those dreadful mala- dies, tetanus and hydrophobia. His experiments with this on three quadrupeds showing manifest symptoms of rabies were successful in two cases, failing in one; and Waterton was very desirous of trying the effect on a human being—offering to travel any distance to administer it, if telegraphed for. It is unfortunate that he was never able to ascertain its efficiency in this respect, for in the only instance in which he was summoned, the patient died before his arrival. Both White and Waterton had observed that, in their respective localities, the Rooks in the several rookeries had some favourite resort for roosting in the winter. In the neighbourhood of Sel- borne, White tells us, they retired for the night to the beechen woods of Tisted and Ropley. Waterton says that in his neighbourhood they roosted in the woods of Nostell Priory. In Warwickshire they 1884-85.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 199 go to the woods of Combe and Packington; and on the south side of Edinburgh, where there are many small rookeries, I believe they go to Dalkeith, for I have often observed them coming from that direction about sunrise. One of Waterton’s favourite birds was that most useful but per- secuted bird the Barn-owl, for which he had constructed a nest in a ruined tower. He afterwards increased the number of nests to four, and, at the time he wrote, he hoped to have nine broods of these birds on his property. He says: “This pretty aérial wan- derer of the night often comes into my room on wing so soft and silent that he is scarcely heard. He takes his departure by the same window at which he had entered.” Waterton observed that these most valuable birds brought a mouse to their young every twelve or fifteen minutes. In his protection of the Barn-owl, Waterton found a warm sympathiser in his friend and correspon- dent, Alfred Ellis of Belgrave, in Leicestershire—all bird-life being protected there, as it was at Walton; and I chance to know, from some of his nearest relations, that there could scarcely be a more truly humane and kind-hearted man than the owner of Belgrave. At Walton Hall there is a very extraordinary instance of the power of arboreal growth. Near the ruins of a mill a millstone seventeen feet in circumference had been left for some years, and a Nut-tree grew through the centre hole. Waterton would not have this disturbed, and the tree grew year after year till it filled up the hole in the centre, and then gradually began to raise the stone from its bed; and when Waterton wrote, the stone was eight inches above the ground, and entirely supported by the tree, which had grown to the height of twenty-five feet, and bore excellent fruit. Strangers often inspected this curiosity, and Waterton re- marks that he never passed without its reminding him of poor old John Bull with a weight of eight hundred millions of pounds round his galled neck. It was a great pleasure to Waterton to walk with visitors over his domain, especially to such as took an interest in bird life, and show them the numerous living creatures under his protection,—not forgetting the hole in the old gateway with pen- dent ivy over it, which he constructed for the Barn-owl to rear her annual brood; or the twenty-four holes in the same erection made by him for the twenty-four pairs of Starlings which annually built there. Waterton was a thorough enthusiast in his study of nature. Some years ago, on inquiring of an intimate friend of his what he was doing, he told me that information had reached Walton that a quadruped new to science had been discovered on the lower Nile, and that Waterton had at once started for Egypt to see it. He was most courageous under pain. He once had his finger shattered by a gun accident, and he gathered together the shattered tendons, 200 Transactions of the [Sess. bound up the same, and then bled himself. He was a strong advo- cate for phlebotomy in all cases of fever, and always carried a lancet. He says he had been bled 110 times, in 80 of which he performed the operation on himself. Waterton’s marriage was a very happy one, but unfortunately his wedded life was of short duration, for his wife died soon after giving birth to his only child. It was remarked that he never spoke a word to any one for a week after her decease. The old Squire, as he was called, died at Wal- ton Hall in 1865, at the venerable age of 83, from the effects of an accidental fall while walking with a friend. He was, by his own desire, buried in a picturesque spot between two grand old Oaks on his estate, where in the previous year he had erected a plain stone cross. I need scarcely add that he was much and deservedly respected and beloved. Gilbert White’s writings are so universally known and appreci- ated, that they require no eulogium from me; but Waterton’s are not so extensively read as they deserve. In both cases they are the productions of true field-naturalists, and well worthy of close perusal. My remarks on these two eminent field-naturalists have necessarily been of a sketchy character, for in an address of this kind it is impossible to do adequate justice to them. They had much in common—much that was diverse. The one, the quiet, patient, and benevolent country curate, carefully recorded everything interest- ing in animal life which he saw around him: the other, a more enterprising spirit, sought adventure and information in the prim- eval forests of South America. Both were thoroughly imbued with a love of nature, and a desire to see greater kindness and humanity practised in our treatment of animals; both were generous to the poor, and active in relieving distress. I venture to think we may derive much benefit and advantage from a more intimate study of the lives and writings of Gilbert White and Charles Waterton. II—NOTE ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF HONEY-GLANDS IN PITCHERED INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS. By Mr JOHN LINDSAY. (Read Nov, 27, 1884.) Ar the close of Mr Richardson’s paper on “ Carnivorous Plants,” read before the Club last session, it was remarked regarding these plants that “even more startling facts than any yet discovered 1884-85.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 201 may some day be brought to light.” It was then little thought, doubtless, that one such discovery would soon be made, and by a member of this Club. I refer to the interesting fact, just made _ known by Dr Macfarlane, that in the genus Nepenthes—the well- known Pitcher-plant—not only is honey secreted by the inside of the lid and the mouth of the pitcher, as we already knew, but the outer surface of the pitcher, as well as that of the lid, also possesses honey-glands. Further, the whole so-called “leaf,” or expanded lamina, including the thong-like prolongation of the midrib to the end of which the pitcher is attached, may be regarded as a complete insect-lure, seeing it also is found to be studded with honey-secreting glands, thus presenting to unwary insects a long but pleasant pas- sage to the cavity of the pitcher below. The stem, too, was found to possess glands for honey secretion—in some species to a greater extent than in others. On the Curator of the Royal Botanic Garden drawing Dr Macfarlane’s attention to the viscid nature of the fluid secreted by Nepenthes when flowering, it was found that this also was a honey secretion, and glands were discovered to be present on the upper epidermis of the sepals. Dr Macfarlane then made a minute examination of the other three genera of pitchered in- sectivorous plants at present in cultivation—viz., Sarracenia, Dar- lingtonia, and Cephalotus—with the result that substantially the same condition of things was found to subsist in them all. The Pitcher-plants may thus be regarded as ingenious mechanisms for first attracting insects, in order to receive their aid in fertilisation ; and next, for the capture of these insects, and their subsequent appropriation for purposes of nutrition. This discovery is the more noteworthy, seeing that Sir Joseph Hooker has written an elaborate monograph of the genus Nepen- thes ; and it might naturally have been concluded that, when such an accurate and painstaking observer had wrought out the subject by making it a special study, it would have been practically ex- hausted. Only a year ago, however, Professor Dickson was the first to notice the “attractive” glands in the rim of Nepenthes, which he has named “ marginal glands”; and this is now followed by the discovery here noted. Dr Macfarlane intends shortly to publish the results of his investigations; but it seemed to be a fitting thing to notice the matter here, though already pretty widely known to a circle of scientific friends, and to congratulate Dr Macfarlane on his important and interesting discovery. 1 A résumé of this subject appeared in ‘Nature’ for February 1885; and it also formed the basis of two papers read by Dr Macfarlane before the Royal Society of Edinburgh in June and July of the present year, and which will be found in that Society’s Transactions, 202 Transactions of the [Sess. III.—NOTE ON THE APPEARANCE OF THE SAURY PIKE IN THE FORTH. By Mr A. B. HERBERT, PRESIDENT, (Nov. 27, 1884.) Mr Hereert brought under the notice of the Club the appear- ance in the Forth at Queensferry of that peculiar fish, the Saury Pike or Skipper (Scomberesox sawrus), and exhibited several speci- mens sent by Mr Walter Meek, the resident engineer of the Forth Bridge, who found one had darted with such force into one of the bolt-holes of the iron plates of the bridge that it was un- able to extricate itself; and a few days afterwards large shoals of them were observed, and many captured. Mr Herbert stated that their visits to the Forth occur at very irregular intervals, several years sometimes intervening, but these visits are always autumnal. The fish dart with wonderful rapidity along the surface, and often when pursued throw themselves out of the water for some dis- tance, in this respect much resembling the habits of the Flying- fish, They are about 14 inches long, with sharp-pointed jaws, and are much esteemed as food, the flesh being firm and of good flavour, with very little bone except the line of vertebre. : IV.—THE COMMONER BUNTINGS (EMBERIZIDA)). By Mr ARCH. CRAIG, Jun. (Read Dec. 26, 1884.) Comparep with the Warblers treated of last session, the Emberizidz or Buntings must be acknowledged to hold only an inferior place in the estimation of naturalists, contrasting as they do in many ways to the advantage of the. former and their own prejudice. Apart altogether from the fact that our commoner species are, to all intents and purposes, non-migratory, thus losing, in a measure, the charm which always seems to be inseparable from birds which travel long distances to incubate in our ungenial climate, they labour under the more important disadvantage—to us at any rate —of being comparatively songless, in that respect being the very antithesis of our little Warbler friends. Music of a sort they un- doubtedly indulge in; but, with every desire to make the most of their abilities in the direction of melody, and give them the benefit of every doubt, it cannot be affirmed with truth that their efforts - 1884-85.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 203 attain to the dignity of a song. Such music as they possess is of the melancholy order, pretending to no variety—the same few notes, with a prolonged one to end up with, being repeated again and again with monotonous frequency. In addition, mimicry would not appear to be a feature of their character, and in many other minor points they fall far short of several orders of birds in point of interest. Having thus briefly recapitulated their drawbacks, let us now turn to the more pleasing side of the subject, and attempt to point out their good qualities and claims to our favourable consideration. In general form they are rather stout, with well-marked plumage, having in common shortish but strong bills of a conical structure, which, from their formation, are admirably adapted for removing the husks of grain and seeds, which form their staple diet. Inside the upper mandible on the palate is a little hard projection which materially assists the birds in shelling the grain—a propensity which, if all tales are true, some members of the tribe indulge in to no limited extent, this questionable conduct having frequently the effect of rousing the wrath more or less always slumbering in the bosom of that long-suffering martyr, the British agriculturist. While speaking of this, it may safely be asserted that there is almost no animal or bird, however destructive, which has not ‘some redeeming trait of character—in the self-same way that the blackest villain shows on oecasion a gleam of purer nature than might have been expected to emanate from such a reprobate. So the Buntings, although injurious to grain, offer a goodly compensa- tion by devouring large numbers of beetles and other insects which, _ but for the joint efforts of our feathered fauna, would, if unchecked, do infinitely more harm to crops and other produce, in an insidious and unpreventable manner, than whole armies of “ granivore.” Although previously designated as non-migratory, strictly speak- ing this is not absoluely true, as partial migration takes place even among the species which at all periods of the year may be observed somewhere in our islands; and it is believed that many of the flocks which collect in autumn cross to the Continent during winter, and that the numbers of the native species are reinforced once more in spring—but whether by the same flocks who departed, or not, it would be impossible to determine with accuracy. Of the ten species described in Newton’s Yarrell, I shall only bring under your notice four, the remaining six being so uncom- mon that, save for chance wanderers, they may be said not to visit Scotland. The names of the four are— Corn-Bunting, . : : Emberiza miliaria. Reed-Bunting, . : 5 Emberiza scheniclus, Yellow-Bunting, .. : : Emberiza citrinella. Snow-Bunting, . é Plectrophanes nivalis, 204 Transactions of the [Sess. To commence with the Corn-Bunting: this bird is the largest of his order, and certainly the least numerous in North Britain, although found more or less in all arable parts over the island. Information has reached me from several gentlemen in different districts of Scotland that, whereas in the particular localities in which they live this species was at one time very plentiful, now it has, with the exception of a few pairs scattered up and down, almost entirely disappeared,—some among them attributing this ex- tinction to the gradual cultivation and draining of the land, which has swept away many of the old ditches and moist places that used to border the tilled portions, and which they aver this Bunting was fond of frequenting. This may or may not be the correct solu- tion, but it at any rate contains a strong element of probability, as you will often notice that, during the breeding season, where such ditches skirt the fields, this Bunting is on most occasions found inhabiting their vicinity. In the South of England, where it seems to be most numerous, the numbers are annually thinned by bird- catchers, who net them, along with Skylarks, to supply the food market. This hateful custom, which panders to a low gormandis- ing taste, is, I am happy to say, except perhaps in a very few instances, confined to the southern portion of the island—and I feel confident you will all agree with me in devoutly wishing that the day is far distant when our countrymen of Scotland will be infected by such useless and cruel practices. Surely Providence has sup- plied us with quite a sufficient variety of food to permit of any palliation for those whose desire for change causes them to connive at the wanton destruction of our innocent little birds. In our own locality of Edinburgh the Corn-Bunting may generally be seen in summer near the road which runs by the side of the Braid Burn from the foot of Liberton Brae to the Blackford Quarry, and also in or near the irrigated meadow at Peffer Mill, now traversed by the Suburban Railway. Once observed, it cannot be mistaken for any other species, the peculiar harsh note alone amply indicating its presence. This note, which is nothing more nor less than what would be termed in Lowland Scotch a “skraugh,” is his utmost effort at a love-song ; but what it lacks in beauty is fully made up for by the patient manner in which the bird will continue for lengthened periods of time reiterating this dismal ditty to cheer his mate engaged hard by in nesting duties. Who knows but this rudimentary dirge may be just as pleasing in the ears of the female Corn-Bunting as the finer melody of the Nightingale is supposed to be in those of his partner. On a calm day the note is carried to long distances ; and as proof of this, and also of the steady per- sistence with which the bird will remain seated at or near the same spot during the nesting period, I may mention that last summer, having occasion to pass and repass a certain field in the 1884-85.] Ldinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 205 country often as frequently as five times a-day, for ten days in succession, I noticed one particular Bunting always perched on a wire fence. When within three to four hundred yards of his haunt the note was quite audible, and notwithstanding the many times of passing he was never absent once, and never in any case fifty yards distant from a certain point which he had made his headquarters. If we can learn no other lesson from this bird, it at least inculcates upon us the merit of patience. A further peculiarity which dis- tinguishes it from other small birds is one which, to observe, it is necessary that the spectator be in close proximity. As he rises from his perch he almost always allows his legs to dangle straight down, and flies off in that manner until, once fairly on the wing, he raises them up in the mode common to most species. A wall, a fence, the top of a small tree, or tall plant, are favourite points of vantage. The nest is placed, as a rule, on or quite close to the ground, among long grass or other rank vegetation ; and though, on the whole, it is not what might be termed a shy bird, yet at times it is easily frightened from its position on the approach of an intruder. The Reed or Black-headed Bunting is much more clearly defined in plumage, the male in his nuptial dress having a beautiful jet- black head and throat, which forms a marked contrast to the white collar round his neck. In old birds the black and white are much clearer than in less matured examples, in the latter the purity of colouring being marred by the presence of dirty brownish feathers, which mingle with the black and white. In winter the black of the head becomes of a brownish tint, the points of the feathers being of that colour, whereas in spring the ends wear off and reveal the black which forms the groundwork. The female has no black head, but instead it is of a reddish- brown hue, and in place of the white cravat, the feathers at the back of the neck are a dingy grey; otherwise in general appear- ance it resembles the male. Moist and swampy places are its natural habitat—the sides of rivers, ponds, lakes, especially _ where there are reeds and long coarse herbage. In the Highlands it is very common in those wet areas where rivers separate into various smaller branches before falling into lochs, and which locali- ties are usually studded with clumps of Alder and Saugh trees. In tufts of coarse grass or among reeds it builds its nest, and displays occasionally great alarm when one inadvertently approaches too near the site. Some writers indeed assert that it feigns lameness, like the Lapwing, and resorts to other devices to draw off the inter- loper ; but for my own part I never saw it do anything that could be construed into such actions, though it is most likely to be true, considering the experience of those upon whose authority the statement is published. It is not always safe to credit every VOL, I, P 206 : Transactions of the [Sess. curious tale of extraordinary action in bird life, yet at the same time it is hardly just to condemn everything in that way that we may not happen to have ourselves observed, as both birds and animals sometimes perform manceuvres that it may not be the lot of an observer to notice in a lifetime. Indeed, it is beyond dispute that exigencies may arise when they are forced out of their ordi- nary rut into adopting tactics, in the interests of self-preservation, that are, as a general rule, foreign to their natures. The following device, however, is undoubted: when a person advances too near the nesting-ground to be pleasant, the bird—sometimes the male, and sometimes the female—takes up a prominent position on the top of a bush or bunch of rushes, and continues chirping to attract attention, at the same time exhibiting great reluctance to move to any distance, although closely approached. The individual, unless previously imposed upon, naturally jumps to the conclusion that the nest is very near at hand to the place where the bird is perched; but it is needless to say that such is not the case, and that this performance is only a ruse to deceive him as to its whereabouts. Its vocal powers are not extraordinary, but are superior to those of the last. The song, so-called, consists of a few notes strung together, and ending, as usual with the Buntings, with a longer note; but having regard to the somewhat uninviting surroundings of its habitat, it is rather pleasing than otherwise, there being a certain plaintiveness of tone that accords well with those precincts, In all its actions it is lively, and has none of the heavy lumpiness, so to speak, that pertains to the Corn-Bunting. During winter numbers collect in bands, and seem for the time being to forsake their natural sphere and roam about the country, visiting stack- yards and other unlikely places. One New Year’s Day lately I was rather surprised to see a large flock in a district where I never anticipated encountering them—namely, a wide stretch of high- lying muirland, midway between Leadburn and the foot of the Moorfoot Hills, bearing the classic name of Cockmuir. If any present are acquainted with that delightful spot, they will doubt- less incline to the belief that the being there at all at such an inclement season of the year showed a decided want of sense in both birds and man, as it may safely be affirmed, without fear of contradiction, that it would be difficult to discover a bleaker or more “ God-forgotten” tract of country in all the lowlands of Scot- land. They were in company with Yellowhammers, Greenfinches, and Chaffinches ; but what they were obtaining in the edible way was not very easy to determine, unless it were the seeds of coarse grass, or perchance aquatic insects in the bogs. The Reed-Bunt- ing may be seen in suitable localities all over Scotland, but would appear to shift about a good deal from one district to another during winter—the supply of food, no doubt, regulating its movements. 1884-85.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 207 We come now to the Yellow-Bunting, and concerning it little ' need be said, as most people are well acquainted with the bird under its more popular names of Yellow-yite and Yellow-yorlin. It is one of our commonest, but at the same time most beautiful, species. Go where you will in the country, you are sure to meet it, except in very bare and wild districts, where cultivation does not exist nor trees flourish. But even to these secluded regions it some- times penetrates. In a previous paper two years ago, I took occa- sion to mention the superstitions that used to exist in connection with it, so need not recur to them again, except to express the hope that the rising generation may be blessed with a little more sense on that subject than seemed to be possessed by our fore- fathers, to whom this innocent creature was a positive béte-noir. Some quarters abound with it, and none more so than the parish of Stobo, in Peeblesshire. By Tweedside, and all along the high- road, which is margined with fine hedges, it is conspicuous in summer time, as it flits from side to side when disturbed by passers-by, or, taking up its stance on some prominent twig or neighbouring tree, it essays to execute the ever-recurring notes that pass muster with it for song. The sad character of the chant is in reality its only merit, and although monotonous to a degree, it somehow strikes upon one’s sense of hearing with a pleasing effect; and if, as an adjunct, the day be warm and bright, it has a tendency to increase in us that soothing sort of lethargy that seems to take possession of one’s frame when in the open air on a genial summer day. Its abundance is apt to cause its being overlooked by the generality of folks, but among our commoner native birds we can pretend to few that surpass it in quiet beauty of plumage, which, without being too gaudy, has yet enough of brightness in its component parts to make it an object worthy our notice. A parallel instance to this might be given in the case of the Chaffinch, or, to descend lower in the scale, in that of the House-Sparrow. An old male of the latter species is by no means so despicable in his pure country garb as his sooty and saucy relation in our large cities: in fact, under those different conditions they hardly look like the same bird. When seated, the Yellowhammer has a habit of shaking its tail up and down, not from side to side, as is the ordinary _ practice of other birds, and at the same time utters a sharp, harsh _ note, which would appear to indicate that although seemingly occu- pied solely in enjoying itself, it has a quick eye to detect danger, as well as for the main chance, its lucky numeral on those occasions, _ like that of the human order, being “Number One.” The adult males, from their extra colouring, are easily distinguished from the females; but the young cocks at first bear a strong resemblance _ to the old hens, until, in the spring succeeding that in which they were hatched, the pure yellow of the head and breast becomes so 208 Transactions of the [Sess. prominent as to prevent confusion between the sexes. The curious scribbled egg is unfortunately too well-known an object to every bird-nesting youth. The old but now almost obsolete idea of the origin of these strange markings is founded, according to Yarrell and other naturalists, upon the belief that his Satanic majesty— in a fit of unwonted generosity, no doubt—presents the Yellow- Bunting every May with half a drop of his own blood, and hence the dark-purple streaks on the egg. To comment upon such idiotic nonsense would, of course, be waste of time. The nest is placed on, or very near, the ground; but instances have occurred when the usual order of things has been departed from—the most singular of which that I am personally aware of being lately com- municated to me by a friend, Mr John Thomson of Stobo, Peebles- shire. The following is a sentence from his letter: ‘Several years ago I found a Yellowhammer’s nest built in a stack of oat- straw in the stackyard here [Stobo], containing four or five eggs: the outer material of the nest was all of straw, to assimilate with its surroundings.” It is not unusual for birds to accommodate themselves to existing circumstances where their more natural habitats cannot readily be procured, but this was a case where their ordinary sites were easily attainable, and on that account the choice of situation was all the more exceptional and interesting. The same gentleman also mentions seeing upwards of thirty feeding together in a field during winter, no other species being near. This, however, is not so worthy of record as his remark about the nest, although he is correct in saying that, while gregarious, they almost always mix with other birds, such as Greenfinches, Shilfas, &c., and rarely appear in such numbers entirely by themselves. The last and most important on our list is the Snow-bBunting. This most attractive species is a migrant, and visits our islands during winter, leaving latitudes in and near the Arctic Circle for that purpose. Instances have been recorded of its remaining to nest in this country, but only in mountain solitudes such as the Grampians and similar elevated ranges; and though it is quite possible that some few are constant residents in Scotland, these undoubtedly form the exception, and not the rule. Desultory examples occur almost every summer, and a communication has lately reached me from a friend who observed a pair in June on Craig Na, a precipitous rocky hill in Glen Urquhart, Inverness- shire; but though convinced they were breeding, he could not discover the nest. During winters of unusual severity, im- mense flocks descend on the sea-shores, and scatter in bands over the muirs and upland districts. These bands again divide into small parties, and may be seen hunting about the same localities, until the occurrence of a sudden storm causes them to reunite, and descend to the verge of cultivation in the hope of finding a supply tae) CR Bead gary it! = : 7 = 1884-85.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 209 of food, which the deep snow on the hills denies to them for the time being. Single birds and pairs may be noticed on those occasions in the low grounds, quite close to houses, and also in farm-yards, hunger having forced them from their ordinary haunts to make common cause with Sparrows and suchlike—a levelling of rank that suggests a union of patricians and plebs. During the very severe storm of January 1881, a friend and myself noticed a pair feeding on the road at the end of the Windy-Goul nearest Duddingston. .They seemed devoid of all fear, and not to be the least embarrassed by the numbers of people constantly passing and repassing, but continued picking up something from amongst the snow on the road—most likely grain that had fallen out of the nose-bags of cab-horses, of whom, as the loch was “ bearing,” there had been a good many during the week conveying parties to the skating. The true sphere in which to observe the Snow-Buntings in their glory is on the wild and lonesome Highland muirs—those dreary solitudes which during winter are wellnigh devoid of other bird life, and which are as destitute of human beings. To one who has penetrated to such scenes, and experienced the oppressive stillness and desolation that pertains to them, a flock of Snow- Buntings comes as a sudden relief to the depression begotten by the surroundings. The intense enjoyment with which they seem to welcome the icy gusts that blow along the heights has some- thing infectious in its character, and rouses in the beholder a species of excitement that defies the cold and disagreeableness of the situation, which at another time would be simply intolerable. As blast follows blast, they fly from point to point in a compact mass, never at any great height above the ground; and on the occasion of a lull, down they settle on the ground, to be again set in motion by the recurrence of the gale. Their mode of squatting is most abrupt, and so sudden as to have no appearance of any preconcerted arrangement on the part of the birds, although such can hardly be the case, as the entire flock collapse so unitedly at one and the same moment, as sufficiently to disabuse our minds of any such conclusion. They circle round and round with the most eccentric gyrations, striking off at a tangent, only to double back when least expected—presenting at one moment a brown surface to the eye, from the backs being most prominent, but at the angle of turning the colour changes instantaneously to that of pure white, consequent on the lower parts being exposed as they veer round. While engaged in these evolutions they chirp to each _ other in clear sweet notes, that are much more musical than any produced by the three afore-mentioned species; but although the males are said to soar somewhat higher in the scale of melody during summer time, yet, so far as this country is concerned, these few chirps may practically be said to embrace their entire répertozre. 210 Transactions of the [Sess. Unlike mankind, the blinding snow-drift has apparently no terrors for them; and at those dismal moments when the bewildered traveller curses his ill-luck, and heartily wishes he had never left the safety of his cheery fireside, the Snow-Bunting seems happier and more lively than at any other time. A favourite resort after a storm is one of those upland crofts which can boast of a stack or two of corn; and in such spots they may be seen alighting in a flock, sometimes on the stacks, or on the ground close by, often clinging to the sides of the former after the manner of Sparrows, and no doubt doing their best to diminish the already too scanty stock of the crofter by swallowing his grain. On the average, however, they do not consume so much of the latter commodity as do the other Buntings, grass-seeds forming their chief food—oats and suchlike being only resorted to as a special pitce de résistance when their usual viand fails them. The plumage to which we in Scotland are most accustomed is of a reddish-brown chestnut colour in the upper parts, beautifully diversified by darker feathers, while the under portions are chiefly white, with a brownish band across the chest, much more marked in the male than in the female. The tail and wings, the latter rather long and pointed, are composed of pure white and dark-brown feathers, almost black in some cases, the former showing to most advantage during flight, or when the bird first alights. A great deal might be written concerning this species. Its beauty of plumage ; its welcome arrival at a season when bird-life is, in comparison with summer, almost nil; its friendly and harm- less nature,—all these might be enlarged upon with advantage : but as time would not permit of that, allow me to conclude with the remark, that should any one, possessing the requisite amount of interest in ornithology, ever have the chance of visiting the Snowflake in its happy hunting-grounds, let me adjure him to permit no preconceived ideas of cold, danger, or physical exertion to interfere with that opportunity, as the pleasure derived from a near prospect of the birds will be ample recompence for any dis- comfort experienced while in their quest. — (Stuffed specimens were exhibited of the four Buntings above described.) 1884-85.] Edinburgh Naturalists’ Field Club. 211 V.—THE HYMENOMYCETES. By Mr A. B. STEELE, (Read Dec, 26, 1884.) Tue Hymenomycetes, of which our common Mushroom may be taken as a type, belong to the primary division Sporifere, or spore-bearers, of the order Fungi. By their complexity of organi- sation and economic value, they form the most important of the six families of this order. Although they occupy a very humble rank in the scale of organised existence, possessing none of the foliaceous or floral appendages of the phenogams, yet they are remarkable for their strangeness of form and beauty and variety of colour. Their rapidity of growth, as well as their tendency to a circular form, is extraordinary. The strange power of lumin- osity in the dark which some species possess still remains a mys- tery, and must have been a fertile source of superstition in the past. The change of colour produced when cut or bruised, and the man- ner in which the wounds are healed, resembling more the char- acter of animals than of plants, are striking phenomena among species of this family. They germinate without cotyledons ; and being without chlorophyll, they cannot decompose carbonic acid, and accordingly take up their nourishment from organic compounds. They exhale carbonic dioxide and inhale oxygen, like animals. No sexual organs, however, have been definitively discovered in these plants. Though comparatively simple in structure, they possess organs more or less complex. Most of them are com- posed of a mycelium or vegetative structure, a volva, ring, stem, pileus, and hymenium or fructifying structure bearing spores. Spores are to Fungi what the seed is in vegetables of a higher order. They are the reproductive organs. They are so minute that they cannot be seen with the naked eye; and their number is so vast at a certain period of a Mushroom’s life, as to make it appear as if their union formed the whole hymenium, which is found then covered with a fine dust resembling the pollen of flowers. The spores, so long as they are adherent to the hymenium, are free, and supported by filaments which rest on small projecting bodies called basidia. At maturity the basidia project at the surface of the hymenium. Lach basidium is composed of a single cell, round, ovoid, or elongated, which bears at its summit one or several filaments called spicules or sterigmata, at the extremity of each of which is a single spore. (This was discovered in the species Coprinus comatus as far back as 1780.) Each basidium bears four filaments or sterig- 212 Transactions of the [Sess. mata, and each sterigma a spore. This number varies in some genera. Besides basidia, there may be noticed at the fructi- ferous surface of Mushrooms projecting cells, round, oval, or elon- gated, which are called cystidia or antheridia. The latter name has been given to them by botanists, who look upon them as organs destined to fertilise the spores and perform the réle of anthers in phenogams. The spores can be seen with the naked eye when they are accumulated in great numbers on the same surface. This is managed by placing the fructiferous surface of a Mushroom on a glass or piece of paper: after some hours lift the plant, and the place will be found stained by a dusty matter entirely composed of spores. Agarics and Boleti leave traces of a very exact drawing of the fruitful surface. It requires millions of these minute bodies to cover the surface of a square inch. Single spores are so small as to escape the sense of touch, but when abundant they have the feeling of fine dust. They are composed of a single very delicate cell containing a fluid holding granulations in suspension. They are oval, elliptic, or spherical in shape, according to the species. In most Mushrooms they are smooth. Whether the envelope of the spore is simple or com- pound is still in doubt. Spores are of various colours, and on this fact Fries founded his principal subdivisions of the Agarics. In the Coprini the young spores are roseate or ashy grey, turn- ing at maturity to a deep black. The gills follow their mode of coloration. The colour of the hymenium, however, is not de- pendent on the spores, several Agarics having the gills coloured and the spores white. Spores of certain species have a peculiar taste and colour. Mushrooms have been classed as agamic plants: some botanists, however, assert that they have discovered male and female organs. The cystidia or antheridia—seen only in the higher Fungi—are supposed to be male organs; but as nothing has been discovered in them resembling either pollen or the liquor contained in the grains of pollen, it is improbable that these bodies are organs of fecundation. They are not arranged like stamens, nor as the spores themselves are in the basidia. They are awanting, too, in a great many species. ‘From the researches of Professor Oersted on Agaricus variabilis, it appears,” says Carpenter, “that the true generative process in the Agarics and their allies is carried on in the mycelium, and that which has hitherto been considered as their fructification is really a mass of gemme like the urns in Mosses and the ‘thece of Ferns, which are products of the sexual union which takes place in the earlier stages of these plants.” It would seem, therefore, that the discovery of the process by which the spore is fertilised remains yet to be made. Germination begins in the spores of some species immediately after quitting the sporophore. 1884-85.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 213 In Agarics and Polypori growth does not start till some time after their emission, A time of rest seems necessary before germination begins to operate, and if placed in suitable conditions, vegetation is then not slow to show itself. We see at first, coming from one or two projections opposite to the spore, a filament or radicle, which soon divides and multiplies into branches more or less numerous, and almost invariably white. These cross each other, intermingle, and form what is called mycelium, or white of Mushroom. On the mycelium there’soon appears, when the conditions are favourable, the Mushroom proper, which, from its birth, has generally a globu- lar or ovoid form, but as it increases it gradually assumes the form which characterises the species to which it belongs. The embryo Mushroom is surrounded with a membranous or hairy covering, which afterwards disappears. One or two membranes more or less persistent, called the volva and ring, protect the young plant till its complete development. The ring is somewhat similar to the calyx and petals of the higher plants, and is probably a place of shelter for the spores, which are perhaps fecundated before they are detached from the cap. Bulliard says the young Mushroom bursts through the volva and detaches itself from the ring sometimes with a noise as loud as that of a pistol. Cold destroys neither mycelium nor spores, and a dry heat of upwards of 100° does not kill the germinating faculty of the spores of most species. Mycelium and spores remain often latent for years until circumstances intervene to favour their development. Kept in a dry spot, the spawn retains its vegetative property for a long period. Gardeners state that they have kept it for several years, and then put it in beds, and quantities of Mushrooms have been produced. When once the Mushroom, however, has begun to develop, either intense cold or heat kills it. Very few species of fleshy consistence can resist the frosts of winter or the ardent heat of a dry summer. Mushrooms require a degree of temperature and moisture of certain definite limits in order to develop, and germination takes place only at fixed times of the year. Spores placed in unfavourable conditions _ do not germinate while these continue. In my garden the tufted _ Agaric has sprung up every autumn successively for the last five years, but this year germination has failed, owing perhaps to the _ dryness of the season. Mushrooms are composed of interlaced fibres forming a net-like tissue, whose round or elongated cells communicate with external agents by means of minute pores. By these absorption and ex- _ halation are performed. They have no proper vessels, like pheeno- gams, for the circulation of sap. In these cells, of which the whole tant’ is composed, the nutritive fluids are contained, whose circu- - lation, almost insensible, is performed by a sort of capillary attrac- tion. The fluids penetrate by endosmose and are expelled by 214 Transactions of the [Sess. exosmose. By the double process of absorption and elimination the phenomena of nutrition, assimilation, growth, and by-and-by of reproduction, are accomplished. At maturity the plant gives forth seeds like other vegetables, and their emission immediately arrests development. Some species arrive at maturity in a few hours. Thunderstorms favour their appearance, Mushrooms being found after such storms in places where there were no traces of them the day before. Coprini are very ephemeral, withering after a day’s existence. Fleshy species last from six to twelve days, and some of the Polypori live for several years. In discriminating species, the chief points to be attended to are the form of the gills, their mode of attachment to the stem, their colour, and more especially the colour of the spores. The colour of the pileus, the form and characteristics of the stem, are so variable often in the same species as to mislead and perplex the student, The preservation, too, of Fungi is exceedingly difficult— some fade so rapidly, melting almost before your eyes. Even the tough species, when cut into sections and dried, become unrecog- nisable in a few weeks. A fairly satisfactory plan of preserving the beauty of these interesting plants (which I hit upon rather late, however, for the most of my collection this autumn) is to dip them in melted paraffin. Care must be taken not to allow the paraffin to get too hot, and so injure the specimens by burning ‘them. To get a thin and equal coating all over your specimen, the process must be carefully done. Some specimens now exhib- ited have been preserved in this manner for about two months, and if kept in a dry spot, it is reasonable to expect that they will remain in this condition for years. This autumn I collected nearly forty species round Edinburgh. In the Meadows I gathered Coprinus comestus, Agaricus campestris, A. cristatus, A. foenisecii, and A.rimosus. On Arthur’s Seat I found, besides, A. albocyaneus, A. umbelliferus, A. dealbatus, A. ceraceus, Hygrophorus psittacinus, Lepiota excoriatus, and Boletus luteus. In Corstorphine Woods, Agaricus fascicularis, A. cinnamomeus, A. variabilis, A. dryophilus, A. semiglobatus, A. radicatus, Hygropho- rus conicus, H. virgineus, and Lepiota granulosus. In Greyfriars’ Churchyard I got Coprinus micaceus and Agaricus cortiles; and in gardens and nurseries in town I found Coprinus aliamentarius, Agaricus pratensis, A. velutipes, and Lactarius rufus, besides others I have not been able to identify. The uses of the Hymenomycetes, though perhaps not of great importance, are both numerous and varied. Many species of this family are employed as food. The Dutch, who think that the devil gets the best of everything in this world, call them the devil’s bread. Only one species, Agaricus campestris, the common Mushroom, is looked upon with favour in this country, and yet it is 1884-85.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 215 the only edible one that is rejected in Italy. Three varieties of this Mushroom are cultivated in France—the white, grey, and blonde. The white is preferred, the blonde not being considered so tender, and having less perfume. The grey has a stronger taste, but blackens sauces. The finest variety of this species, however, is a native of the Swan River district, Australia, Another variety, Agaricus pratensis, is not quite so good as the common Mush- room. All these yield good ketchup. A. prunulus—the Mouceron of the French, and the origin of our word ‘ Mushroom”—is much prized in Rome. It is dried and sold through Italy as “Funghi di Genoa.” A, deliciosus, the Orange-milk Agaric, is as good as its name implies. A. procerus, the Parasol Mushroom, or Snake Agaric, is a favourite with mycophagists, and yields the finest ketchup. This and another allied species, A. rachodes, are sold together indiscriminately in the London markets. A. comatus, very plentiful at our doors, is eaten when young, and used for making ketchup. Lactarius volunum, the Warden-pear Agaric, and the “ Brétling” of the Germans, is very common in the Highlands, and resembles lamb’s kidney in taste, being very delicious even when eaten raw. Cantharellus cibarius or Chanterelle, so called from its fancied resemblance to a cock when crowing, is the finest of all the esculent Fungi. It smells like ripe Apricots, and is served as a récherché dish at the Freemasons’ Tavern on high festivals. Boletus edulis is cut in thin slices, and sold in the chief towns on the Continent in every shop where meal and peas are sold. It is believed to be the Smélus of the Romans, who got it from Bithynia. It resembles the taste of our common Mushroom, and is still more delicate. In Hungary it is made into soup when fresh, and the Russians dry and string it for winter use. Hydnum repandum, the Vegetable Oyster, is common in woods. When eaten raw, it is peppery to the taste, but when cooked is much prized. It has the flavour of oysters when stewed. It is also dried for winter use. Clavaria coralloides, Hercules’ Club, is also good eating. Indeed, all the Clavarie are edible. Mrs Hussey relates that two species of Russulee—h/eterophyllus and vescus— were not only relished but easily digested by a consumptive patient who was scarcely able to endure food of any kind, but who partook of them as often as found during the whole season. Vit- telini, in his ‘Funghi Mangerecci,’ mentions Russula heterophylla as being ‘more delicate than the true Orange Mushroom. These and many others yield excellent food both to rich and poor, and most of them have their habitats in our immediate neighbourhood. But there exists a strong prejudice in this country against using Mushrooms for food, and perhaps its existence is not without reason. Unskilful collectors are apt to mistake nearly allied species, or to gather edible species that are past maturity—for it 216 Transactions of the [Sess. is known that species which are wholesome in the morning may become deleterious by the evening. We see examples of the ignorance displayed in discriminating good from bad species nearly every season, and unfortunately often attended by most disastrous results. No later than 7th October last the ‘Times’ correspon- dent at Boulogne wrote thus :— ‘*The cook at a school in the Gironde having gathered a quantity of Mush- rooms in the vicinity, served them to the boys, thirteen in number, for breakfast. The whole of them were seized with most violent pains. Several doctors attended them, but in vain. Eleven of the children have died, and the rest, with the usher, are lying in a critical condition. In cooking this treacherous food, it is generally believed that if a silver coin placed in the same pan is not discoloured, the Mushrooms are wholesome. The test was resorted to on this occasion, but signally failed. Two little girls were poisoned at Arras through a similar misadventure; and a further case took place near Lyons, when a whole family were attacked—father, mother, and five children. Two of the children have died, and the remaining sufferers are in a precarious condition.” Dr Badham proved the silver-spoon test to be useless, as the kitchen-fire will sometimes extract the deleterious property. A more general knowledge, therefore, of the esculent Fungi is most important, and would tend not only to prevent such accidents in the future, but to increase a substantial food-supply. In many countries of Europe they are the only food-supply of the peasants during a part of the year; and in Terra del Fuego, and some dis- tricts of Australia, they are the staple food of the natives.1 Mush- rooms have also a place in Materia medica. The Polypori are used in the cure of phthisis and consumption, and as styptics ; and also as a moxa by the Laplanders, whose dandies perfume themselves with the scent of Agaricus odorus. In semi-barbarous countries they are still believed to act as aphrodisiacs. In the industrial arts they claim some attention. Prussian blue and prussic acid are obtained from Mushrooms; Polyporus sulphureus is used for dyeing ; Agaricus atramentarius for making ink; Polyporus fomen- tarius in the manufacture of amadou or German tinder, which, before water-beds were invented, had superseded the chamois- leather as a more elastic mattress for invalids. It is still manu- 1 The following are the chief constituents of Mushrooms :— In 100 parts. eat pb Water, . i ; ; ( 90.0 14 175 Albuminoids, &e., . : ; 5.0 0 350 Carbo-hydrates, &c., ‘ : 3.8 0 266 Fat, . ‘ : A : . 0.7 0 49 Mineral matter, ; : . 0.5 0 35 100.0 16 O <5 1884-85.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 217 factured into warm winter hats and chest-protectors. The most fashionable likus worn by the Fijian ladies are made of a Fungus —probably one of the Sapballs. Polyporus betulinus, when cut into strips and rubbed with pumice-stone, is made into razor- strops. Polyporus ignarius is pounded and used as snuff by the Ostyacks on the Obi. Some species are put to strange uses. In Kamtschatka and Corea, Agaricus muscarius, or False-orange or Fly Agaric, is decocted with the runners of Epilobium angustifolium, or the berries of Vaccinium uliginosum, and made into a highly in- toxicating liquor. Greville says that the most powerful effect is produced by drying this Fungus and swallowing it without masti- cation. The natives personify this Fungus, and allege that they are only obeying its behests when they commit suicide or other crimes under its influence. Monkhamorr, a strong drink used by the Russian peasants, is also extracted from this Mushroom ; and among the Tartars this drink is an element in their worship. Poly- porus sacer is worshipped in New Guinea and the west coast of Africa. Many of them are also highly destructive. Polyporus destructor, the common Dry-rot Fungus, known in Germany as Hausschwamm, and the Meruleus lachrymans in this country, are well known. ‘The spawn diffuses itself through the substance of the timber, and rapidly destroys it. At the Forestry Exhibition held in Edinburgh this summer, seven or eight edible species of Fungi from Japan were exhibited, and a large Fungus collection by the natives of British Guiana, with the note that this is entirely a new study in British Guiana. Before concluding, I should like to draw attention to the im- portance given to this branch of botany by other Field Clubs. The Essex Field Club have yearly forays for Fungi, and most interest- ing excursions they seem to be. At their October excursion this year thirty new species were found in the same localities that had been gone over carefully the previous season. The Woolhope Field Club had also their Fungus excursion in the beginning of November last, and found many very interesting kinds, although the past dry summer had not been favourable to their growth. The members dined together afterwards, and partook of Hydnum re- pandum and Cantharellus cibarius, both of which were generally appreciated. These facts show the increasing importance attached to this branch of Natural History, and ought to convince us as a Field Club of the necessity of making at least one excursion every season for the prosecution of the study of Fungi. 218 Transactions of the [Sess. VI—ON YEWS, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE FORTINGALL YEW, By Mr JOHN LINDSAY. (Read Jan, 29, 1885.) Tue Yew tribe (Taxinez) has been relegated by systematic botan- ists to a sub-order of the Conifere. The Common Yew (Taxus baccata) belongs to the Dicecia Monadelphia of the Linnean system. The leaves are in two rows, dark shining-green above, much paler below; branches dense and spreading; branchlets slender and drooping ; male catkin axillary ; female cone inconspicuous, con- sisting of a few minute scales, with a terminal, erect ovule on a fleshy disc, which enlarges into a scarlet fleshy cup containing a single brown oval seed. The “solitary Yew” is a tree familiar to all, and is found distributed throughout Europe, growing at various elevations up to 4000 feet. The stem is short and straight; the head pointed or pyramidal-shaped until the tree begins to decay, when it presents a rounded appearance. The leaves, as is well known, are poisonous to cattle browsing on them; and several cases are also on record of children having died from their effects, when administered as a vermifuge. It is said, however, that if cattle are accustomed to the use of the leaves, by a small quantity being mixed in their food, they can by-and-by partake of them alone with impunity. The seed contained in the scarlet disc is also reputed to possess poisonous properties ; but the cup itself is sweet and innocuous, children being very fond of plucking and eating this bright-red berry. No insect subsists on any part of the Yew except the fleshy cup, the sweetness of which attracts Wasps and like visitants. The wood of the Yew is not subject to insect depredations, and is very hard, flexible, and of great durability. It is a common saying, in some parts of England, that a Yew post will outlast an iron one; and the wood has been found in bogs in Ire- land, where it may have lain for centuries, yet remaining as fresh and sound as when growing in full vigour. It is a very fine-grained wood, as many as 280 annual rings, according to Loudon, being sometimes found in a piece not more than twenty inches in diameter. As will be noticed presently, it was at one time in much request for bows; and by a statute of King Henry VIII. it was enacted that “ bowyers” should import the wood for the purpose of making the best bows, owing to the difficulty of procuring it at home in sufficient lengths or quantities for that purpose. The Yew does not grow very rapidly, but what it lacks in this respect is amply compensated for by the great age which in many cases it attains. Ry , ¥ P 1884-85.) Edinburgh Naturalists’ Field Club. 219 At one time this tree, as well as the Holly, was often found in gardens clipped into the fantastic geometrical shapes which the fashion of the day demanded. Evelyn gives a long and melancholy list of the dangerous properties of the Yew, some of which, however, he frankly says he does not believe ; yet he quaintly and cautiously adds: “To prevent all funest accidents, I commend the tree only for the usefulness of the timber, and hortulan ornament.” The Trish Yew (Taxus baccata fastigiata) is a well-known native variety, first found near Florence Court, in Ireland. That the common Yew is a native may surely be conceded, and yet, strangely enough, this has sometimes been disputed, though it is undoubtedly the oldest tree found in Britain. A safe rule has been laid down by an eminent forester, that ‘all those trees which propagate themselves freely from seed without our agency, and which are known to have existed in our country before the earliest records, are indigenous to it.” The Yew fulfils both of these conditions. Many trees are found, for instance—especially in the north of England—growing . in inaccessible places, where they must of necessity have been of spontaneous growth. That it has existed “before the earliest records” will appear in the sequel, as we proceed to speak more particularly of what is known as the Fortingall Yew. Amongst the numerous Yew-trees in this country which are noteworthy because of their appearance or antiquity, the well- known specimen still growing in the churchyard at Fortingall, Perthshire, is certainly the most remarkable. The following, though of less note, are yet interesting, either because of their vast proportions, their age, or their historical associations. In the New Forest, as well as in the Forest of Dean, a number of Yews still survive whose youth stretches back to the time of William the Conqueror. In Tisbury Churchyard, Dorsetshire, a rather unique specimen is found, its trunk being 37 feet in circumference, the interior hollow, and with a rustic gate to admit visitors. In Buck- land Churchyard, near Dover, there is another with a trunk 24 feet in circumference, which presents a strange appearance from the contorted shape it has assumed while growing. On the estate of the Marquess of Bath, in Wiltshire, there is a grand specimen, known * to be upwards of 1000 years old, which is 50 feet high, and with a head 50 feet in diameter. The Brabourne Yew, in Kent, is de- scribed in Evelyn’s ‘Silva’ (1665) as a gigantic ruin, with a trunk 60 feet in circumference ; but of this monster growth not a vestige is now remaining. = observer, Side view (Ralfs and W. Smith)—.e., surface of valve next observer, There can be no doubt that the terms having reference to the con- necting zone and valves are those which are most natural, and which will ultimately gain the acceptance of all. In habit, as in form, great variations occur in this interesting group. In very many instances the individual frustules are met with in a free condition, but in others stipitate and concatenate or ramose forms are to be found. It is hardly necessary to note that the form of any chain, whether straight or curved, will depend on the figure of the component frustules; but it may be men- tioned that both the degree and nature of the attachment of adjoin- ing frustules vary within wide limits. Thus in some cases the union is so slight that one frustule can glide over the other (e.g., Bacillaria) ; while in others the junction surfaces are dentated or provided with excrescences and pits, in order to effect a more complete connection. The nature of the attachment, moreover, may be temporary or permanent. In the former case the free forms be- come adherent by one extremity, but no special connecting medium exists ; while in the other there may be a nodule or pedicel for fixation. This stipes, again, may branch either in a dichotomous manner, as in Gomphonema, or irregularly, as in Licmophora; but its length is a matter of secondary importance, as it is found to vary in any species according to the inherent vigour of the species or the nature of the external influences to which it is subjected. 240 Transactions of the [Sess. Instead of possessing a simple or compound pedicel or stipes, many Diatoms—which Ehrenberg included under the name “ Lacer- nata ”—are embedded in a gelatinous substance ; and since numer- ous frustules are often embraced in this covering, frondose appear- ances are the result. These frondose forms may be either mem- branous, filiform, or filamentous and ramulose, — differences in thickness and in expansion being at the same time often clearly recognisable. Reinhardt! remarks that the modes of formation of the pedicel of stipitate species and of gelatinous colonies present phenomena analogous to those found in palmellaceous Algz, inter- calation of cell-walls being sometimes found in Mastogloia, in which outer gelatinous and inner more consistent layers are to be recognised, a pedicel being the result of local mucilaginisation of the outer layer. Within the muco-gelatinous envelope the dis- position of the frustules may be either regular, as in Schizonema —a not uncommon marine genus—or irregular, as in the marine Dickieia. In the determination of species, the flaccid or rigid con- sistence of the fronds, the character of the branching, and the nature of the union of the ramuli into fascicles, are important. The siliceous substance which is incorporated in the cell-walls of living Diatoms varies very greatly in its amount in different genera. In some cases, such as Rhizosolenia and Thalassiosira, it is very deficient, the wall being even in a quas? flaccid condition ; and, generally speaking, there is less siliceous matter in filamentous than in free forms, and less in tubular processes than in the walls of the frustule bearing these processes. The silex is associated with organic matter, and, according to Frankland, with iron as silicate or protoxide—a circumstance which explains the occurrence of a brown colour when Diatoms are moderately heated, the prot- oxide absorbing oxygen and becoming brown peroxide. In addition to the siliceous lamina, various. other membranes or cell-tunics have from time to time been recorded, and among these it is interesting to recall (1) the soft primordial membrane enclosing the cell contents; (2) Nageli’s third tunic, or mucila- einous layer, inside the primordial layer ; and (3) Kiitzing’s third or cement tunic, extending often over a considerable part of the frustule outside the siliceous coat. This laye¥ is to be regarded, according to Kiitzing, as equivalent to the connecting matter of the frustules when these occur in union; while Frankland believes that the stains on whose existence it was established are attribut- able to the oxidation of iron salts in chemical union with silica. On the other hand (4) Shadbolt’s third tunic, which has been said to be sometimes “ cellular,” and to present markings different from those of the siliceous valves below it, was regarded as horny, somewhat pliant, and possessing a certain amount of elasticity, so 1¢Sitzungb. Versamml, Russ. Naturf, u. Aertze.’ Odessa: 1883. 1884-85.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 241 as to enable it to return to its original condition when bent or rolled up. With regard to the character of the siliceous lamina, Nigeli has spoken of it as extra-cellular, while Meneghini has maintained that the silica must permeate some form of connective or organic membrane. Smith,! on the other hand, has held that by macerating the frustules in acid, the cell membrane partly or wholly becomes detached from the valves, and has thereby de- duced that the siliceous coat is an independent structure. The sculpturing of the valves is often of the most elegant and beautiful description. It may appear in the form of distinct ribs or costa, of more or less minute and well-defined dots or puncta, of stripes or strie of very variable arrangement, or of “cells” or areole. More than one kind of marking may occur on one and the same valve; and the ornamentation may cover the entire frustule or may leave certain areas unaffected. The real nature of the various types of sculpturing thus indicated has been very variously stated. A point has sometimes been ascribed to a depression, sometimes to an elevation, and sometimes to a conden- sation or thickening of the siliceous matter. The cost have in some instances been attributed to furrows, in others to ridges, and in yet others to canals or to incomplete internal partitions or septa. The strie are in some cases resolvable into dots or puncta, and are called moniliform ; but in others they cannot be so resolved, and are said to be continuous. Recently Dr Flégel,? from a series of microscopic sections of frustules which he has been able to procure, stated the following general conclusions :— The marking is caused— (I.) By sharply projecting wall thicknesses— (a2) on the inner surface of the membrane, e.g., Achnanthes (transverse striz), Isthmia (valves) ; (8) on the outer surface of the membrane, e.g., Isthmia (girdle band). (II.) By chambers within the membrane— (a) with distinct openings— (i) on the outer surface of the cell, and closed in- wards, e.g., Triceratium, Coscinodiscus ; (ii) on inner surface, chambers large, e.g., Pinnularia. (8) Without distinct openings, but of considerable size— (i) with smooth chamber-walls, e.g., Coscinodiscus centralis ; (ii) with nodular thickened chamber -walls, e..g., Eupodiscus. (y) Closed on all sides and extremely small, approaching the limit of discrimination, eg., Pleurosigma, Navi- cula lyra, Surirella. 1¢ Ann. Nat, Hist.,’ 1851. 2 ¢ Jour. Roy. Micr. Soc.,’ 1884, 242 Transactions of the [Sess. Strasburger, Abbé, Weiss, Prinz, van Ermengem, Errera, Deby, Grunow, Stephenson, Slack, Morehouse, Miiller, Wells, Schumann, Pfitzer, Hallier, Borscow, Walker-Arnott, Dippel, Max Schultze, Burgess, Kitton, Cox, and van Heurck have, among others, recently expressed opinions on this most difficult problem, but of these the conclusions arrived at by Cox and van Heurck need alone be selected, in contrast to those of Fligel above quoted, as indicative of the great difficulties that are encountered in the solution of this com- plex question. Dr J. D. Cox! infers generally—(1) That the Diatom shell is usu- ally formed of two laminz, one or both of which may be areolated, and may be strengthened by ribs which have been described both as cost and as canaliculi. (2) That the normal form of the areole is circular, but that these, if crowded, become hexagonal or sub- hexagonal. (3) That the areole are pits or depressions in the inner surface of one of the lamin, so that when two lamine are applied together, the exterior surfaces of the shell are approxi- mately smooth, and the cavities are within. (4) That the apparent thickening on the exterior of the lines bounding the areole in some species (Eupodiscus argus) is not in contravention of, but is in addition to, the formation above described. (5) That however fine the dotted markings of Diatom valves may be, the evidence from the colour of the spaces between the dots, and of the dots them- selves, supports the conclusion that they follow the analogy of the coarser forms, in which both fracture and colour are found to prove that the dots are areolz and the weaker places in the shell. Dr van Heurck? has, on the other hand, stated his general con- clusions as follows :— (I.) The valves in the Cryptoraphidiex generally consist of two layers— (a) The lower single lamina, with more or less delicate punctations on its inner face. (It could not be determined whether the punctations completely traversed the lower layer, or. only pro- ceeded to a certain depth.) (8) The upper lamina varies— (i) It forms alveoli, usually closed from above, in Triceratium favus and Coscinodiscus oculus- inidis. (ii) The alveoli are open above in Eupodiscus argus. (iii) In some cases the upper layer may entirely disappear (Triceratium intricatum), the various stages in this process being traceable in dif- ferent species. 1 ‘Jour. Roy, Micr. Soc.,’ Dec. 1884. 2 «Synop. d. Diat, d. Belgique,’ pp. 35-37. 1884-85. ] Edinburgh Naturalists’ Field Club. 243 (II.) The valves in the Pseudoraphidieze and Raphidie present the same structure as those in the Cryptoraphidiee ; but the alveoli, though much smaller, may be observed in some genera of Raphoneis, Pleurosigma, &c., by the use of Smith’s medium. (IIL) The beads of Diatoms are formed by alveoli and stria, and often by the walls of the alveoli. The general inference arrived at by Professor Smith as to the nature of the valvular sculpturing was, that it was all reducible to modifications of a ‘“ cellular tissue,” analogous to that which is so manifest in the cases of Triceratium and Isthmia. In the conflu- ence of the component “cells” of this “tissue” along certain lines, he found an explanation of the appearances generally known under the designation of “costz” or unresolvable striz. The longitudinal band or raphe, which has been made the basis of a system of classification by Professor H. L. Smith, was regarded as a strand of condensed or more solid silex, its median and terminal spots or nodules being but expansions of that band of a similar character, and both being designed for the purpose of giving greater firmness to the frustule, so as to enable it more effectively to resist the external ‘pressure to which it might be subjected. The fact that, as a result of pressure, the internal protoplasmic contents never escaped at the raphes or noduli, and that when fractured no disposition to break at this region was manifested, were, moreover, adduced as proofs that no perforations of the valve existed here. The genera Pinnularia, Navicula, and Gomphonema, among others, may be cited as affording good examples of nodulated valves ; while the genus Stauroneis is provided with a transversely elongated central nodule to which the special name of “stauros” has been applied. On the other hand, a simple, bare, or unorna- mented area on diatomaceous valves has been designated by Smith a “ pseudo-nodule.” In contrast to the views which have just been noted, it is inter- esting to recall the circumstance that Ehrenberg regarded the valvular puncta as in many cases real pores ; these, he believed, played the part of apertures of exit for the pedal organs, which might be few or many, and which were supposed by him to be essential to explain the locomotion of living frustules. Similarly this observer regarded the striz and cost as in many cases real jisswres, which were supposed to possess the double function of serving at once as exit-channels for the ova and as means for bringing the internal protoplasmic substance in close contact with the external medium. Kiitzing also maintained the belief that valve-pores existed, and that through them the muco-gelatinous mass so prominent in 244 Transactions of the [Sess. Schizonemz and other frondose forms was extravasated. Schleiden, on the other hand, regarded the longitudinal band as a cleft, but the median and terminal nodules as thickened areas of siliceous matter. This conception has also been held by Siebold and Niigeli, who regarded the nodules as minute monticules or eminences ; but it was rejected by Professor Bailey, who found by dissolving the siliceous substance of the valves with hydrofluoric acid—the objective of his microscope being protected by a slip of mica fixed by means of Canada balsam—that the nodules and longitudinal band were the last to disappear, and that they must accordingly be looked upon as the thickest regions. The true nature of the striz, as well as of the more clearly defined bands and valve nodules, was disputed by the earlier observers, as well as by those of the present day. By some they were regarded as depressions, by others as elevations—various arguments having been adduced in support of both hypotheses. Structures in the Diatom valve called “ vittee” were believed by Kiitzing to possess a very special function, and were employed by him in naming a subsection of the group—the “ Vittate.” Smith, however, held that these appearances were not special organs, but mere modifications in the outline of the valve, which was simply inflected at the positions in question. The “ canali- culi,” so often referred to by Professor W. Smith, were, on the other hand, regarded by him as inter-lamellar channels or hollows intervening between the siliceous coat and the internal membrane, and formed by undulating flexures of the epidermal envelope, their function being supposed to be the conveyance of the nutriment which was believed to enter from without—through pores existing along the line of suture—to the surface of that membrane. A considerable amount of discussion has recently taken place on the question of the value of the external markings of Diatom valves, from a systematic point of view. Ehrenberg regarded the number of striz or coste as constant in a given space on the valves of members of the same species ; while Smith maintained that the striae were constant in frustules originating from the same embryo, though they might vary in those from different embryos. Castracane,' by the application of photo-micrography to this ques- tion, concludes generally (1) that the number of striz is constant in frustules of the same species, though these are of different size and outline; (2) that the strie are not always of absolute specific value, being in a few cases irregular, but that they are so when regularly disposed; (3) that in a series of valves origin- ating from different sporangial frustules belonging to the same 1 « Atti, Accad. Pontif. Nuovi Lincei,’ vol. xxxi., ser. vi.: May 26, 1878. 1884-85. ] Edinburgh Naturalists’ Field Club. 245 species, the variation in the number of stria never exceeds one- fifth ; and (4) that there is never any difference in number in species originating from the same stock. Dr Wallich?! had pre- viously, in 1877, expressed the general conviction that though the total number of striz on the valves of a Diatom may be almost constant in every valve of the same species, the number on any fractional part of any valve (e.g., on the thousandth of an inch) would vary in proportion to the size of the valve. To the opinion of Castracane just quoted both Kitton and Pro- fessor H. L. Smith? have offered objections, and among these perhaps not the least important, from a practical point of view, is that pointed out by Smith — namely, the multiplication of species which must follow its adoption ; although it ought always to be borne in mind that, by basing their limits on broader and firmer principles, their number should, if practicable, be reduced, while the very diverse character of the striz in Stauro- neis gracilis, and its sporangial frustule, Stauroneis phenicenteron, is referred to as an extreme case proving the unimportance of the deductions. Nevertheless in the description of any given frustule, the position of the striz, whether radiate or parallel, their moniliform or confluent nature, and their occurrence over the general surface of the valve or only over certain more or less definitely circum- scribed areas of it, should be noted, as well as the presence or absence of a median raphe, the existence or non-existence of central and terminal nodules, and the figure and position of the surface areole. So far the valves. The cingulum or connecting membrane can- not be regarded as of essential importance, but it is often present in some degree of prominence. In circular and discoidal Diatoms it presents the form of a continuous ring—e.g., in Coscinodiscus radiatus, a form not uncommon in the littoral areas of the Firth of Forth. In oblong frustules, again, such as Navicula, it has an oblong or navicular outline. In not a few cases it presents an elegant sculpturing either in the form of areolation or striation, as in Isthmia and Achnanthes. In general, however, the propor- tion of siliceous matter present in it is, as above noted, less than in the valves. In size it varies very much, being very small in Pleurosigmez, while in some instances it is distinctly larger at one extremity than at the other—eg., in Gomphonema. The mode of its development, and of its behaviour during the temno- genetic process, has not in all cases been clearly determined.? 1 Month. Mier. Jour.,’ vol. xvii. p. 61 : 1877. 2 ¢ Amer, Micr. Month. Jour.,’ vol. ii. pp. 221-223: 1881. 3 See, however, Flégel’s results in ‘Jour. Roy. Micr. Soc.,’ 1884, p. 676 et seq. 246 Transactions of the .. (Sess, The contents of the diatomaceous frustules consist of the follow- ing distinct structures: (1) the soft, mucilaginous, yellowish-brown or orange-brown endochrome or “‘ gonimic substance” of Kiitzing ; (2) a distinct central nuclear body, which is probably, as indicated by Schleiden, the point at which, as in other organisms, fissiparous division originates, and which, according to Niigeli, is either pri- mary (¢.e., active) or secondary (7.c., inactive), and includes a distinct nucleolus; and (3) translucent globules, which, on the whole, are definite and constant in position, and occupy less space than that taken up by the nucleus. These globules, according to Smith and Kiitzing, are fatty or oily, and have been looked upon by Kiitzing as equivalent to the starch of higher vegetables ; while, on the other hand, Ehrenberg regarded them as the male reproductive organs of the living frustules, the vesicles in the vicinity of the nucleus being regarded as “stomach sacs.” Objec- tions were, however, soon raised to this polygastric view, among which may be noted the circumstance that colouring matter could not be detected to be carried along towards the middle, where these sacs should lie. The mucilaginous endochrome may be either diffused irregularly in the interior of the cell, or may form parietal layers or plates, or be more aggregated towards the centre, or it may be disposed in lines radiating from the nucleus. The green colouring matter is concealed by a buff-coloured substance called “ phycoxanthin.” ? Whether the mucilaginous contents of Diatom cells come into actual contact with the external medium cannot yet be said to be clearly decided, owing to the great difficulty experienced in determining the minute structure of the cell walls. That such a contact does occur along sutures between the opposed valves, or between the valves and cingulum, has, however, been asserted by several observers, especially by those who maintain that the movement of the frustules in their watery medium is due to cilia. To account for the movements of living Diatoms, which are often of an extremely interesting and are always of a puzzling character, various hypotheses have been advanced, but-no satisfactory ex- planation of the phenomena has yet been forthcoming. Free as well as concatenated frustules may move, and even fixed forms some- times exhibit such characteristics. The motion in many cases con- sists of a series of jerks in a given direction. These are followed by a pause, and the frustule then returns to its original position by a series of jerks in the opposite direction, and in the movement an obstacle is not avoided. As, however, other undoubted vegetable or- ganisms are capable of locomotion, the phenomenon cannot be looked 1 Sachs’ ‘ Text-Book of Botany,’ 2d ed., p. 260. 1884-85.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 247 upon as indicative of an animal nature. Ehrenberg has ascribed the motion to the existence of a snail-like foot projecting from the central pore or umbilicus, but no such structure can be detected by the eye. Niigeli, in 1853, denied the existence of special locomo- tive organs, and declared that the motion was due to the attraction and emission of fluids which were necessary for the maintenance of the nutritive processes. The fluids in question were supposed to be unequally distributed over the surface, and to be sufficiently powerful to overcome the resistance of the water. By further sup- posing that one-half of the cell admitted while the other emitted currents, and that a regular alternation of these processes took place at the two halves, the alternate forward and backward movements were explained. Hogg, in 1855, attributed the motions to cilia, while Smith ascribed them not to any external organs, but to exosmotic and endosmotic processes occurring simultaneously, and at the extremities of the frustules. This view has been accepted by Rabenhorst ; but another probable cause had already been pointed out by Wenham, and accepted by Siebold, namely, the undulations of an external membrane, which, however, may not have been clearly recognised by any observer. An ingenious suggestion has recently been made by Engelmann,! namely, that the unseen gase- ous molecules escaping from the Diatom cell cause the movement, he having found in Bacteria a means of demonstrating under the microscope the evolution of oxygen by the living frustules. O'Hara, in 1882, again accepted the general explanation previously ad- vanced by Wenham; while still later, 1883, Hoge attributed the movements to contractile prehensile filaments. In the same year, van Ermengem? ascribed them to thermo-dynamical, and, perhaps, electro-capillary forces ; while Adams* has even speculated on the occurrence of cilia lining the surface of the enclosed vegetable matter, which might bring about the results observed. This view, however, can hardly be looked upon as tenable, the hypotheses ascribing the movements to cilia, to osmotic or other physical pro- cesses, to the undulations of an external membrane, or to the escape of gaseous molecules, being much more probable. The velocity of the movements of Diatoms varies very greatly. Some advance at the rate of about one-third of an inch per minute, while others do not pass over more than one fifty-fifth of an inch in the same space of time. Between these numbers many other speeds have been recorded. The methods of multiplication hitherto observed among Diatoms are (1) fissiparous division or temnogensis; (2) conjugation; and 1 ‘Bot. Zeit.,’ 1881, p. 441 et seq. 2 «Bull. Soc. Belg. Micr.,’ vol. ix. pp. 41-43. 3 ¢ Amer, Month. Mier. Jour.,’ vol. iv. p. 59. 248 Transactions of the [Sess. (3) sporular multiplication. In the first of these processes, the nucleus divides, then the soft protoplasmic substance, and finally a wall is formed along the divisional plane, in connection with which the siliceous matter for the valve of each daughter frustule is deposited. As a result of conjugation, according to Smith, two parent frustules may give rise to one or two sporangia; or the valves of a single frustule may separate, and the contents increase so as to form two sporangia, or in other case finally condense into a single sporangium. In the case of sporular multiplication, which has been regarded as sufficient to account for the enormous multi- tudes of some species,—the other modes of multiplication explaining the rarity of others,—the protoplasmic contents break up into a number of sporules, which form the starting-points of new frustules. Examples of this have been observed by O’Meara, Castracane, and others. The exact nature of the so-called auxospores has been disputed. By Pfitzer they are looked upon as the starting-point of a new descending series of forms, being produced only after any given species has been reduced to its minimum size by successive temnogenetic processes. This interpretation of their function thus implies that increase of the silicified cell-wall does not take place during or subsequent to fission. But Smith has given figures of frustules that go to show that such increase may go on; and the belief has been held by some that the auxospores are more pro- perly abnormal structures, to be regarded rather as the expiring phases of the Diatom than as the means of inaugurating a new and vigorous series of forms. From the geological point of view, Diatoms play an important réle. Their habits as marine or fresh-water may be made use of in determining the exact mode of origin of geological deposits; while the enormous banks of frustules in course of formation, found in recent times by Hooker in the Antarctic Ocean, and more lately by the naturalists of the Challenger,! go to show how these great deposits may have originated. The persistence of some genera and species from Carboniferous or even Silurian times to the present day is noteworthy. It is of great importance to observe that Diatoms sometimes occur on the surface of the sea in enormous masses, and give a characteristic tinge to the ocean water. This is not unfrequently the case with Rhizosolenize and Thalassiosira, isolated speciniens of which not unfrequently occur in the Firth of Forth; and such aggregations are of importance from the fact that they may influence the formation of deposits at the mouths of rivers, of sediment in harbours, and so on. It may be interesting to append a short list of some of the species of Diatoms which have recently been observed floating on 1* Proc. Roy. Soc. of London,’ vol. xxiv. p. 533. <1 Woe 1884-85.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 249 the surface of the waters of the Firth of Forth.t They include specimens of— A, RAPHIDIE. Pleurosigma strigosum. Surirella ovalis. Thalassiotrix nitzschioides, 2, ies COC, CRYPTORAPHIDIE®. " formosum. : : ‘ " fasciola. Coscinodiscus concinnus. Cocconeis scutellum, " centralis. Navicula aspera. " radiatus, " distans. " fimbriatus. " digitoradiata, " excentricus, " interrupta, " minor, " convexa. " polyacanthus, " tumida. " perforatus. Amphiprora _ striolata, Biddulphia aurita, " vitrea, " granulata. B, PSEUDORAPHIDIES. Raphoneis amphiceros. Auliscus sculptus. Actinocyclus crassus. ! Ralfsii. Actinoptychus undulatus. " belgica, Hyalodiscus stelliger. Rhabdonema minutum. Cheetoceros boreale. " arcuatum. " decipiens. Diatoma minimum. " ineurvum. Nitzschia sigma. Melosira suleata, " constricta. Syndendrium diadema. " punctata. Rhizosolenia styliformis. " closterium. Thalassiosira Nordenskiéldii. Dimeregramma minus, Cerataulus turgidus. Species of frondose forms, such as Schizonema Grevilii, are not uncommon in the tidal belt. They often occur attached to various Alge, such as Polysiphoniz and Ceramia, and not unfrequently bear other Diatoms on the sides of their muco-gelatinous filaments, such as Synedra gracilis, Rhipidophora elongata, Grammatophora marina, Amphitetras antediluviana, Kc. Various fresh-water species have also from time to time been noted, among which may be mentioned the following :— A. RAPHIDIEZ. Navicula amphisbzena. | Gomphonema geminatum. Amphora ovalis. | " acuminatum. Cymbella scotica, | Cocconeis Thwaitesii. u helvetica. Pleurosigma attenuatum. B, PSEUDORAPHIDIE®, " lacustre. Epithemia gibba. Navicula elliptica, un turgida. 1The classification of Diatoms at present generally accepted is that by Professor H, L. Smith, and may be found in the ‘ Lens,’ vol. i., 1872. It is based on the character of the raphe on the siliceous valves. 250 Transactions of the [Sess. Fragilaria capucina. ' Diatoma elongatum. Eunotia arcus. | " " var. B. Synedra splendens. | " vulgare. n ulna. | Nitzschia linearis. Tabellaria flocculosa, " sigmoideze. Licmophora flabellata (marine). Grammatophora marina (marine). Denticula ocellata, Isthmia nervosa (marine), " tenuis. . Cyclotella operculata. C. CRYPTORAPHIDIES. X—NOTE ON THE GENUS LAMIUM. By Mr MARK KING. (Read Feb, 26, 1885.) Tue Natural Order of the Labiate, in which the genus Lamium is found, is one of the best marked and most easily recognised of all the botanical groups. The Labiates are,confined to the temperate regions of the earth, their number diminishing towards the tropics and either pole. The Lamiums, or Dead-nettles, are perhaps the best-known plants of the Order,—indeed they are so familiar to all, that they are frequently passed by with, it may be, a single glance ; and yet, like many of their humble neighbours, they possess a most interesting structure, and well repay any labour which may be spent in their study, as is evidenced by the remarks upon the - fommon Dead-nettle in Sir John Lubbock’s most readable book on the ‘Fertilisation of Wild Flowers.’ Although mainly following Hooker, in his last edition of the ‘Student’s Flora of the British Islands ’—(the latest and best arrangement of our native plants)— I may state that I have given some attention to the genus Lamium, and would desire to add my own remarks from observation of the living plant from time to time. Perhaps the most striking family resemblance in the Zamiums is found in the whorled inflorescence, with the leafy bracts, these latter being often three ox four times as large as the leaves. The generic name is probably derived from the Greek word for a throat, in allusion to another well-marked characteristic — namely, the throat-like corolla. There are at least five species of Lamium indigenous to, or thoroughly estab- lished in, this country, and of these fowr may be considered as generally distributed over Britain. The genus is conveniently divided into annual and perennial plants,—the annual forms being Lamium purpureum, L. intermedium, and L. amplexicaule ; while 1884-85.] Edinburgh Naturalists’ Field Club. 251 the perennials are L. album, with its ally L. maculatum, and L. Galeobdolon. Yet this division is not constant, for all the annual specimens now exhibited are biennial plants—that is, all have lived over the winter, and are now in their second year’s growth, if indeed not older. In mild seasons I find L. amplexicaule invari- ably biennial, but L. purpureum is less persistent. The following are the characteristic features of L. purpureum: leaves petioled cordate crenate, whorls crowded, corolla-tube shorter than calyx, bracts crowded with bases not overlapping, stem decumbent below. This species has further been divided by some botanists into four or five varieties, but these all partake less or more of the character just given of the type. L. intermedium, again, is a somewhat anomalous species, rare and local, though very abundant where it does occur. The history of this plant, as a separate species, is noticed by the late Mr F. M. Webb, in an article in the ‘ Transac- tions of the Botanical Society,’ 1877, entitled “On Plants in the British Herbarium at the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh.” Mr Webb says: “It was before the Society on 12th May 1836 that Mr N. Tyacke read a paper, and illustrated it by specimens, to show that a Lamiwm, not uncommon in some parts of Scotland, was L. intermedium of Fries ; and we possess specimens of his gathered in the Edinburgh neighbourhood and in the Hebrides during that year.” It is added that this plant “had previously been amal- gamated—rather than confounded—with L. incisum.” My own observations of this plant, in its growing state, agree well with Hooker’s description, and I venture to give the result of these observations—viz., Leaves petioled orbicular cordate crenate, whorls sub-terminal crowded, calyx slightly hairy, teeth spreading in front much larger than the tube. The plant is intermediate in character between L. purpureum and L. amplexicaule, but ap* proaches very nearly the sub-species L. purpureum var. hybridum, though differmg from it in having the corolla-tube longer than the calyx. It is not a very easy plant to determine, contrasting in this respect with L. amplexicaule, which is a well-marked species. The specific name amplexicaule, or “stem-embracing,” refers to the mode of growth of the bracts or floral leaves. The following are its characteristic features: Leaves petioled cordate reniform cren- ate, bracts sessile lobed with upper small bases overlapping and lower large not overlapping, calyx much longer than capsule, teeth with long white hairs. The popular name of the plant, Henbit Dead-nettle, is explained by some authorities to refer to the serra- tures of the leaves, which appear as if cut by fowls. The popular names of plants, however, are often obscure in their origin, as well as frequently misleading. This plant, L. amplexicaule, has been introduced into North America, and has a very wide geographical range. 252 Transactions of the [Sess. To treat now shortly of the perennial forms. There are, first, L. album, the white Dead-nettle. This species seldom varies in habit or general appearance, thus forming a marked contrast to its purple relative, which sports, as above remarked, into several varieties. Both the white and the purple forms may be found in flower nearly the whole year round, and it becomes an interesting question how these insect-fertilised plants, with such as Gorse, Butcher’s-Broom, Daisy, and Dandelion, when flowering in winter, can be fertilised at a season when the number of insects about is small indeed. The difficulty is found to be met by self-fertilisation in this case, the anthers discharging their pollen in the bud before the flower is opened, as in the so-called “cleistogenous” flowers. A plant of L. album, gathered in bud in the last week of December, showed the stamens ‘‘ completely curved down and brought into contact with the bifid stigma—the pollen being at that time freely discharged from the anthers.” This mode of fertilisation in winter-flowering plants which are normally insect-fertilised, is one worth testing in order to place it on a still broader basis of fact. In the two last editions of Hooker’s ‘ Student’s Flora,’ L. album is stated to be “rare and local in Scotland and Ireland.” In all the localities in the east of Scotland which I have visited, I have found this plant always abundant, though by the botanists of the West of Scotland it is reckoned a rare plant. I have been favoured, on this point, with the following remarks from Mr R. Turner, a Vice-President of the Natural History Society of Glasgow: “ As to the Dead-nettle (Lamium album), the plant is not at all common in the Glasgow district. Our former local authorities—Hopkirk, Patrick, and Hennedy—state in their Floras that it is frequent ; but my own impression is, that ‘rare and local’ is a much better term. I have hardly ever seen it in any of the localities mentioned by Hennedy, and where it does occur it exists in no great abun- dance. I do not recollect seeing it anywhere about the Firth of Clyde, or indeed along the West Coast at all. To the north of the Firth of Clyde it is almost unknown, and it is certainly far from common in the counties of Wigtown, Dumfries, and Kirkcudbright. Even so far south as Lancashire, it is, I believe, scarce. I have observed it in a few stations in the interior of the counties of Lanark and Renfrew; but it does not in the least approach, even in the places where it occurs, the profusion which it attains in some eastern counties, as in Roxburghshire for instance, about Kelso, where it makes every hedge-bank and waste place beautiful in early summer. I observed a year or two ago, in our Royal Botanic Gardens here, a label resting lonely on a plot for botanic students bearing the words ‘Zamium album, and not a single plant anywhere. It does not seem to take kindly with our soil or climate, and is a rarity compared with L. intermedium, Fries, 1884-85. ] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 253 which is frequent in the district.” That it is indigenous, however, is generally conceded. On the other hand, L. maculatum is not accepted as indigenous anywhere in the British Islands. Though closely allied to L. album, the calyx and corolla of this species are different, the flowers fewer, the leaves more wrinkled and with the white spots or blotches from which it derives its specific name. About ten years ago a seedling was raised from the plant in the neighbourhood of London, having yellow foliage, and named L. maculatum aureum, and this form has been since extensively used in carpet-bedding, and for front lines to flower-borders. In rich soil, however, it reverts to the original type, and by no treatment with suitable soil will it then return to the golden form. Seed- lings from the species exhibit all the varieties of yellow, green, and spotted foliage. The last perennial species is L. Galeobdolon—a plant rejoicing in the popular names of “ Yellow Weasel-snout” (from the Greek specific name) and “ Archangel.” It is not found native farther north than Cumberland. Two localities are given for it in the ‘Flora of Edinburgh,’ somewhat wide apart—viz., Lomond Hills and Dunglass; but “introduced” is added. The specimen ex- hibited was gathered near Airthrey Castle, Stirlingshire. Mr Turner informs me that it appears to have become naturalised in one or two stations in the neighbourhood of Glasgow. This plant has been hustled about a good deal by botanists in their different classifications, but seems to have settled now amongst the Lamiums. Unlike the White and Purple Dead-nettles, which, as already remarked, may be found in flower almost the whole year round, the Yellow Dead-nettle flowers only from the middle of April to the middle of June. Its bold and finely-cut foliage has suggested its use as a bedding-plant. I may add, in conclusion, that I have found the perennial Lami- ums, as a whole, much more constant in habit then their annual congeners. VOL. I. ‘ s 254 Transactions of the [Sess. XI.—LIST OF THE LESS COMMON PLANTS GATHERED AT THE EXCURSIONS DURING 1884, WITH LOCALITIES. By Mr ANDREW MOFFAT, Sercrerary. Art the meetings of 27th November and 26th December 1884, and 26th March 1885, the Secretary read a series of notes on the less common plants gathered at the excursions of 1884; but as the list of the plants, with their localities, is the only part of the notes of permanent interest, that alone is given here. The following list being strictly confined to the plants gathered at the Club’s excur- sions in 1884, is not to be considered. as exhaustive jn respect to the rarer plants to be gathered within an easy distance of Edin- burgh. Another list, it is hoped, will be contributed to the next number of the Transactions, giving those plants gathered at the excursions of 1885, where these differ from those of 1884. In this list I have followed the arrangement of Hooker's ‘Student’s Flora,’ which is also that of the ‘ London Catalogue of British Plants.’ Ranunculus hederaceus L. Ditches near West Linton. Ranunculus Lingua L. Duddingston Loch. Ranunculus sceleratus L. Duddingston Loch. Trollius europeus L. Caribber Glen, and banks of the Avon near Canal aqueduct at Manuel. Chelidonium majus L. Near Manuel; a garden escape. Glaucium luteum L. Seashore near Cockburnspath. Corydalis lutea L. Near Manuel; a garden escape. Viola lutea Huds. Near West Linton; variety with purple flowers very abundant. Silene inflata Sm. var. puberula. Borders of fields near Long- niddrie station. Lychnis Viscaria L. Samson’s Ribs. This very rare plant owes its continued existence in this locality to the inaccessible rocks on which it grows. It is still found abundantly on the south of Blackford Hill, but in more accessible places: now that this hill is about to be opened to the public, the likelihood is that it will soon disappear from the Blackford locality. Cerastium arvense L. Found sparingly on the Links at Gos- ford. Stellaria glauca L. Duddingston Loch. Arenaria verna L. This local plant was gathered abundantly on the rocks at the Windy-Goul, Queen’s Park, and other rocks on the south of Arthur’s Seat: it is also found on Blackford Hill. 1884-85. ] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 2r5 Geranium sanguineum L. Very abundant on Gosford Links, the patches of which would cover several acres. To see this splendid plant in full flower in the month of July would well repay a visit. Geranium sylvaticum L. In Caribber Glen; very plentiful. Euonymus europeus L. Foot of Pease Dene, Cockburnspath. Genista anglica L. Tynehead. Trifolium arvense L. (Queen’s Park. Astragalus hypoglottis L. Gosford Links; plentiful. Vicia sylvatica L. This rare plant was gathered abundantly on the cliffs on the side of the Lyne, near West Linton, Lathyrus macrorhizus Wimm. On the roadside from West Lin- ton to Dolphinton. Rubus saxatilis L. Banks of the Lyne above West Linton. Rubus cesius L. Roadside between Cockburnspath and Pease Bridge. Potentilla Comarum Nestl. Marshes near Bavelaw and foot of Black Hill, Currie. Potentilla reptans L. Gosford Links. Agrimonia Eupatoria L. Gosford Links. Saxifraga tridactylites L. Wall-top between Gosford and Aber- lady. ; Saxifraga granulata L. Gosford Links. Saxifraga hypnoides L. Banks of the Lyne above West Linton. Sedum villosum L. In a bog by the roadside between West Linton and Dolphinton. Drosera rotundifolia L. In a bog near Bavelaw. Hippuris vulgaris L. Duddingston Loch. Astrantia major L. Well established in a partially disused road leading from Caribber Glen to Canal aqueduct; a garden escape. Sanicula europea L. Caribber Glen. Conium maculatum L. Inchcolm. Plants growing most luxuri- antly nearly 6 feet high. Sium angustifolium L. In ditches at the foot of the road leading from Longniddrie station to the beach at Gosford. CEnanthe crocata L. Same station. Ligusticum scoticum L. A very local plant: was gathered on Inchcolm, and at the mouth of Pease Burn, Cockburnspath. Caucalis nodosa Scop. Queen’s Park on the bank between Samson’s Ribs and railway. Linnza borealis Gronoy. In a fir wood on the Bavelaw Burn 3 miles from Balerno station. : Linnza borealis has been known in this locality for about fifteen years, and was probably introduced to it some few years before that 256 Transactions of the [ Sess. time. It is now thoroughly established, and no fitter station than this could have been chosen for the plant. By the assistance of a friend, I was enabled to discover another locality for the plant, about two miles distant. It was first noticed as a British plant by Professor James Beattie, jun., in an old fir wood at Inglismaldie, on the borders of Kincardine, in 1795. Valeriana dioica L. In a bog between West Linton and Dol- phinton. Valeriana officinalis L. Caribber Glen. Dipsacus sylvestris L. Inchcolm. Centaurea Scabiosa L. Found near the seashore half a mile east from North Berwick. This somewhat rare plant is known to occur from Gosford to North Berwick; and the only other locality from which I have obtained specimens is on the other side of the Firth, directly oppo- site—viz., Kilconquhar. Eupatorium cannabinum L. Pease Mill, and near railway sta- tion at Cockburnspath. Inula dysenterica L. Foot of road leading from Longniddrie station to beach. Antennaria dioica Br. Between West Linton and Dolphinton. Filago germanica L. Queen’s Park. Doronicum Pardalianches L. Caribber Glen; naturalised. Hieracium aurantiacum L. Side of railway between Manuel and Causewayend ; an escape. Oxycoccos palustris Pers. In a marsh by the side of Slipperfield Loch, West Linton. Pyrola minor Sw. Fir plantation by the side of Bavelaw Burn. Erythrea Centarium Pers. Gosford Links. Menyanthes trifoliata L. Slipperfield Loch West Linton. Symphytum officinale L. Near Caribber Glen. Myosotis sylvatica Hoffm. Banks of Lyne above West Linton. Cynoglossum officinale L. Gosford. Hyoscyamus niger L. Inchcolm, Solanum Dulcamara L. Gosford. Verbascum Thapsus L. Inchcolm. Scrophularia vernalis L. Gosford; an escape. Primula vulgaris Huds. var. caulescens, North Berwick. Primula farinosa L. In a bog between West Linton and Dol- phinton. This, the only Scottish station for this plant, I have visited annually during the last eight years, and have always found the plant plen- tiful. The only chance of extermination is the draining of the bog and the encroachments of agriculture, of which there are evident signs. In view of its extermination in this locality, I am happy to state that our President is taking means to have it introduced into similar habitats in the Pentlands. 1884-85.] Edinburgh Naturalists’ Field Club. 257 Orchis incarnata L. Gosford Links. Habenaria viridis Br. Gosford Links. Listera cordata Br. Fir wood on Bavelaw Burn near Balerno, Neottia Nidus-avis L. Caribber Glen. Galanthus nivalis L. Arniston ; naturalised. Milium effusum L. Caribber Glen. Melica nutans L. Caribber Glen. Melica uniflora Retz. Caribber Glen. Aspidium angulare Willd. Pease Dene. Botrychium Lunaria Sw. On a mound midway between West Linton and Dolphinton, in great abundance. AXII—NOTE ON THE SQUIRREL (SCIURUS EUROPAUS). By Mr JOHN THOMSON, Srozo, (Communicated by Tu Secretary, March 26, 1885.) ‘THoucH now so common in most parts, the Squirrel, as is well known, was at a period not go very remote unknown in Scot- land, having been introduced from England only in the early part of the present century. In the parish of Stobo, Peeblesshire, where the following observations were noted, the animal seems to have made its first appearance about the year 1825. A forester who had lived in the district for the better half of a century related to me that, about the year just mentioned, while engaged one day with his assistants in the woods, their curiosity was aroused by the sight of a strange little creature, which ran up a tree in making its escape. One of the men, whose proclivities tended towards natural history, but who was unaware of the leaping powers of the animal, climbed up the tree with an eye to its capture, but it is almost needless to remark that his somewhat quixotic attempt was not crowned with Success. It is more than probable that this individual specimen was among the first of its order to arrive in the district, Few quadrupeds are more pleasing, amusing, and interesting in their habits ; yet to see the Squirrel in the full enjoyment of life, a little stealth is necessary, because if you come within his range of vision, his actions are restrained, and, though you may not think so, his eye is always upon you. When you come upon one unobserved, and watch him for a little, his movements are seen to be much more lively and sportive: he frisks and gambols along the 258 Transactions of the [Sess. branches, pries into crevices in quest of hidden food, ventures out almost to the extremity of very slender twigs, sits up on his hind lees, and throws himself into a variety of curious attitudes. Should another Squirrel come upon his feeding-ground, the speed and agility displayed in the ensuing chase is most wonderful, and probably exceeds what any one unacquainted with his powers would imagine him capable of. In the food on which the Squirrel subsists there is considerable variety. Fir-cones, beech-nuts, acorns, and haw- thorn-berries are staple articles of diet; young shoots of the Spruce Fir are also frequently gnawed through, to enable him to eat out the heart of the small buds which grow around the stem of the shoot; and, unfortunately for his own preservation, his somewhat omniv- orous appetite leads him even to attack the bark of trees. The different species of Pines are those generally attacked, and, in some instances, serious injury is done to the tree. In an old wood I once saw many large Scotch Firs with long strips of bark eaten off from the upper part of their trunks, and on some of the trees there | were bare patches six or eight feet long, and about half a foot broad. The occasional indulgence of this taste marks out the Squirrel as an animal to be destroyed; and in the interests of forest preservation there is, I own, a necessity for keeping their numbers within certain limits. But that is all that requires to be done, for when in moderate numbers, any injury inflicted will, I think, only be of trifling consequence. About October the Squirrels leave the large pine-woods, where, during the summer, the most of them have been rearing their offspring, and spread themselves into more open ground. Clumps and groves are then visited, and excursions made from these to strageling trees in search of food. At this season they may often be seen on the ground feeding on the seeds and nuts which have fallen from the trees. When they arrive at a spot where food is ‘abundant, a halt is made, and should a suitable abode for the night be near, in the shape of a few Fir trees, residence is there taken up. If such a spot be in the vicinity of dwellings, the Squirrel very soon, if unmolested, becomes so familiar as to sit on the ground and eat with composure while you are looking at him six or seven yards off. When moving forward, where the trees stand some dis- tance apart, much caution is used to ensure safety. The nearest tree ig made for at full speed, and when that is reached, a survey is made all around to see that no danger threatens. Then, with- out ascending the tree, off he starts to the next. If pursued, the Squirrel does not seek refuge in the nearest tree if it be small, but pushes on to a larger. At times, however, he would seem to be more venturesome, for one was brought to me by a person who killed it out on a hill. If hunted from tree to tree, some notable leaps are taken from the point of one branch to another; and I 1884-85.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 259 remember to have seen one jump from the summit of a tree to the ground, a height of about forty feet. It was not in the least stunned, as might have been expected, but ran off at once along the ground. A very pleasing exhibition of parental affection and instinct of the Squirrel on behalf of its young came under my notice a few years ago. While proceeding along a footpath which led through a wood, I observed one coming along the ground towards the path a short distance in front of me. By its peculiar motion and slow pace, I saw that there was an interruption to its progress, which became manifest when it emerged from the grass and crossed the path. It was carrying a young Squirrel in its mouth. Arriving at the base of a good-sized tree, it began to ascend; but to do so while thus encumbered proved to be no easy matter. The diffi- culty was, however, surmounted ; for when I got up to the tree and obtained a near view of the pair, the old Squirrel had quitted its hold, and the young one, with its fore-legs round its parent’s neck, clung closely to its breast. Thus relieved, the heroic creature very soon reached the summit of the tree, crossed by leaps to several others, and finally settled in a large Spruce Fir. A high wind, which was blowing at the time, had most probably shaken the young Squirrel from its nest. On another occasion, after a gale in winter, a nest was found one morning on the ground, blown from a tree, and on its being overturned a Squirrel bolted from it. It may be imagined that the poor Squirrel was greatly dismayed at the downfall of his habitation, but he showed commendable coolness in retaining the benefit of its shelter as long as he could. Enjoying comparative immunity from attacks of predatory birds and animals, having generally at all times a supply of food at hand to meet his wants, and possessing powers which enable him to roam and gambol at ease in his own peculiar haunts, the Squirrel seems to pass a happy, joyous existence. ach creature has been provi- dentially and benevolently endowed with instincts which are in sympathy with its mode of life, but all have not capabilities alike to enjoy the latter. In this respect the Squirrel seems to stand on a higher pinnacle than many others. At this meeting Mr Grieve made a few extempore remarks on the occurrence of the Pine-marten in Scotland. 260 Transactions of the [Sess. MEETINGS OF MICROSCOPIC SECTION. Six meetings for practical work with the microscope were held during the Session under the presidency of Dr J. M. Macfarlane, all of which were numerously attended. At the first meeting (6th November 1884) a demonstration on the structure and mode of preparation of the glands of Nepenthes was given by Dr Macfarlane and Mr A. D. Richardson. The second meeting (5th December 1884) was devoted to a description of various forms of microtomes, with a demonstration of the methods of cutting sections, by Mr Alexander Frazer, M.A., optician. The following is a brief notice of improved forms of ether and imbed- ding microtomes, as submitted by Mr Frazer :— IMPROVED FORMS OF ETHER AND IMBEDDING MICROTOMES. The apphance illustrated in fig. 1 is part of a microtome in which the Cathcart method of freezing is adopted, and by which sections are cut by the knife of Williams’ (Swift’s) microtome. Experience having shown that the Williams’ knife is an exceed- ingly good form of section-cutter, and that the Cathcart method of freezing is very convenient, the present instrument has been —— r} Fie. 1. designed to combine the advantages of the knife and the method of freezing already mentioned. A detailed explanation of the instrument is hardly necessary. A stout brass tube is fixed to the frame, which is the body of the instrument, and which sup- ports a small insulated zinc plate, upon the under side of which a spray of ether impinges as in the Cathcart microtome. The frame also supports a glass plate, which is slightly below the level of the zine freezing-plate, and upon this glass plate the Williams’ tripod ‘ i 1884-85.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 261 knife slides in the usual manner, The knife is not shown in the figure. The microtome shown in fig, 2 is designed for objects which are imbedded in paraffin or other medium previous to cut- ting. The instrument consists of the usual cylinder, piston, and screw—the novel point in its construction being, that the upper part on which the section-knife slides is provided with glass rails similar to those used in the Cathcart microtome, and that the instrument is made to be fixed to the table by a separate clamp, and not by means of a screw which presses one part of the micro- tome from the other when binding it to its support. At the third meeting (9th January 1885) a lecture was delivered by Mr A. N. MacAlpine, B.Sc., on “'The Woody Tissue of Plants : its Arrangement in Root, Stem, and Leaf, and its Detection ”—the lecture being illustrated by the lantern. At the fourth meeting (5th February 1885) Mr Alexander Frazer drew the attention of members to the construction of Brooke’s double nose-piece for the microscope, and explained the adjustment of the same; while Mr A. D. Richardson gave a demonstration on double-staining, which was much appreciated by the members, and furnished matter for some discussion. At the fifth meeting (6th March 1885) a further explanation of double-staining, with an exhibition of double-stained objects, was made by Messrs Richardson and Henderson ; while Dr Macfarlane made a communication on ‘ Recent Advances in the History of Cell-Formation.” The sixth and concluding meeting (6th April 1885) was occupied by a demonstration on Photo- Micrography, by Mr William Forgan. The following is Mr Forgan’s explanation of the process :— PHOTO-MICROGRAPHY. The term Photo-micrography means the production of enlarged photographic pictures of microscopic objects by means of a micro- 262 Transactions of the [Sess. scope and a photographic camera, Another term, Micro-photog- raphy, has a different meaning, and is applied to the production of photographic pictures of large objects on a microscopic scale,— small enough, in fact, to enable a microscopic object-glass of medium power to see the whole of the picture in the field of the microscope at one time. It is, however, only with Photo-micrography, the first of the above terms, that I am to deal just now. Three things are essentially necessary to enable any one to produce good Photo-micrographs. These are—(1) A competent knowledge of photography ; (2) a considerable knowledge of micro- scopic manipulation; and (8) good apparatus, especially good microscope object-glasses. As to the first of these, I have had an experience of over a dozen years, more or less. As to the second, I have had a large and varied experience with the microscope for over thirty years, and during that period I have seen and handled object-glasses by nearly every European maker of any note. As to the third, I have at present a very excellent series of glasses, about eighteen in number, extending from a four-inch up to Powell & Lealand’s famous water-immersion one-eighth. I merely mention these facts to show that Iam not a novice in the management of the apparatus I am about to show you. In the production of Photo-micrographs, the first thing to do is to have the camera and the microscope both firmly mounted on a board. That now before you is about 3 feet 6 inches long, and about 10 inches broad, by an inch thick to give it strength and stability. It might with advantage be longer and a little broader. The small camera, you will notice, is mounted at one end of the board, on a platform raised about two inches above it. This is done to cause the centre of the focusing screen of the camera to coincide with the optical axis of the microscope when the latter is bent back to allow its tube to enter the camera. The camera before you is that known as quarter-plate size—that is, the size of the sensitive- plate is 44 inches by 3}. ‘This plate is generally large enough for the purpose. If larger pictures than can be had in this way are wanted, it is only necessary to have enlarged pictures printed direct from negatives of that size. The camera has a pretty long bellows, enabling it to be drawn out about 18 inches. The micro- scope used is a plain one, with a very delicate fine adjustment, and rack-and-pinion coarse adjustment. This latter is almost an essential requisite in Photo-micrography, if ease and com- fort in manipulation are desired. The microscope used has a very large tube, more than 1} inch in diameter. This gives, with the length of camera used, a large field, and enables the light to fill the whole of the plate except the corners. The microscope is connected with the camera by means of a conical hood of double thickness of black calico, which is attached to the camera at the a 1884-85.] Edinburgh Naturalists’ Field Club. 263 larger end—the smaller end being drawn over the end of the microscope tube and tied with a string. Both the camera and the microscope are attached to the board by means of small brass bolts and screws, and both can be shifted along the board either way by means of a narrow central opening,—the opening for the microscope being on the board itself, and that for the camera in the top of the platform on which it stands. The lamp I use is a small microscope lamp, with a half-inch wick. I find this lamp gives sufficient illumination, even for very high powers. For powers up to half-inch, the ordinary bull’s-eye condenser in front of the lamp gives quite enough light to enable one to work with short exposures ; and when using higher powers, an achromatic condenser is used to further concentrate the light. I never use the microscope with the eye-piece in. Without the eye-piece I get a sharper, better-lighted picture, and therefore a quicker exposure. Of course, the magnification in the camera is correspondingly less. With this camera, for instance, fully drawn out, the magnifying power, tested with Smith & Beck’s micrometer and Zeiss’s quarter-inch objective, is only 125. The image on the sensitive plate is, however, without the eye-piece, much finer and sharper. When you have few object-glasses, it may be necessary sometimes to use an eye-piece to bring up the power to what you want; but it is much better to do without the eye-piece, if possible. A great deal has been said and written about the non-coinci- dence of the chemical or actinic and the visual foci of microscopic object-glasses. I do not find in practice that I experience any difficulty on that ground. My glasses were all chosen for their good qualities as microscopic objectives simply, and with no view whatever to their use for photography. I have never required with any of them to apply any correction for the actinic focus. I simply get as sharp a focus on the camera screen as I can with powerful magnifiers, and I can be absolutely certain that I shall get a correspondingly sharp photographic negative. This will not apply, however, to object-glasses with only one combination. My experience is, that glasses of that description do require correc- tion for the chemical focus. I use an ordinary piece of ground-glass to focus the image of the object in the camera in the first instance, and to get the light nicely in the centre of the screen; but this is far too coarse for the final adjustment, and when finally adjusting the focus I put in a screen formed of a piece of plain glass, one side of which has been daubed slightly over with glazier’s putty, and then spread over the glass with long strokes by the forefinger ; or a similar piece of glass which has been rubbed over slightly with virgin-wax, —then the glass is slightly heated to melt the wax, and rubbed in 264 Transactions of the [Sess. the same way to spread it over the glass. The film in both cases must be very thin, and just sufficient left on the glass to see that it is there and no more, With microscopic objects that polarise well, polarised light is of very great assistance in Photo-micrography. It brings the various markings into greater contrast—differentiating them in such a way that they are much more easily photographed, and give better results. The exposure in such a case is, however, much more prolonged. What would require, with transmitted light, say fifteen seconds, with polarised light requires five minutes. The demonstration I propose to give you to-night is to photo- micrograph the palate of the Whelk, and to do so by polarised light. After placing the slide on the stage of the microscope, and fixing it in the position I wish it to be, I place the lamp in position,—and this must be carefully adjusted as to the height of the flame, as it also must be placed in the optical axis of the object-glass, or as nearly so as may be. I then place the bull’s-eye condenser at the distance of its own focus from the lamp, and between it and the stage. I place the polarising prism under the stage, and on the top of the prism I place a selenite, giving a blue tint, as I wish to produce a strong colour in the object. The analysing prism is, of course, placed over the object-glass. The glass I shall use is a Zeiss’s “aa,”— what is termed on the glass itself a th. It gives one of the flattest fields I have ever seen in any glass, and the most beautiful definition to the very margin of the field. I place the microscope- tube in the hood in the front of the camera, and tie it on. I should perhaps have mentioned before that the tube should either be lined with black velvet or receive a coating of dead black by mixing lamp-black in lacquer and painting the inside of the tube with one coat and setting fire to the spirit. One coat is enough if the mixture is thick enough. This leaves a fine dead black surface, and not a glossy one as when more than one coat is given. The only thing now to do is to see that the illumination is exactly in the centre of the optic axis. To do this, remove the focusing screen and look through the camera and microscope tube. If the image of the flame is seen in the centre of the tube, all is well; but if not, the lamp must be altered in such a way as to accomplish this end. No pains must be spared in doing this, as upon it depends entirely whether your negative will be a success or a failure. It is very easy to do with low powers, but when using high powers and an achromatic condenser, it is sometimes a matter of ten minutes’ work to get the light right in the optic axis. When that is accomplished, and the apparatus firmly secured to the board, and the light fairly in the centre of the screen, you may at once proceed to expose the plate. As I am using now polarised light, I shall give this object—although ln ite alia a ee ot et 1884-85.] Edinburgh Naturalists’ Field Club. 265 I use a low power—an exposure of five minutes. [The plate was then exposed and developed in the presence of the meeting; and, although it was not carried so far as printing density, turned out a perfect success. | I think the above explanation affords all the necessary and essential information to enable any of the members who wish to try it to start work. Yet to every beginner there are innumerable difficulties starting up before they acquire the necessary skill and dexterity from practice. If any such are members of this Society, I only add that I shall be too pleased to give them every help and advice they may require, so far as in my power. At the meetings several members exhibited interesting micro-- objects; Mr Forgan distributed a number of beautiful photo- micrographs ; and unmounted preparations were given to the mem- bers present to be mounted at home—the proper methods to be followed in mounting being in each case indicated. The objects distributed included preparations from the following :— VEGETABLE. Aérial root of Orchis, Leaf and stem of Hoya carnosa. Bryopsis plumosa, with Diatoms in | Stem of Xanthochymus, situ. Root of Pandanus graminifolius, Stem of Selaginella cesia, Peziza tectoria, Petiole of Nymphea alba. Stemonitis fusca. Stem of Pinus sylvestris (double- | Fucus vesiculosus. stained), | Callithamnion Rothii, ANIMAL, Kidney, liver, and tongue—human and other—stained and double-injected, The Annual Conversazione on 17th April took largely the form of a microscopic exhibition ; and as an interesting record of what was then shown, a copy of the Programme distributed on that evening will be found at the end. ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETINGS. Tue Annual Business Meeting of the Club for Session 1884-85 was held on the evening of the 24th October 1884. The Secretary and Treasurer submitted his Statements, which were approved of. At this meeting an alteration of the Laws was made, to the effect that there shall be three Vice - Presidents, instead of one 266 Transactions of the [Sess. as formerly. The various Office-bearers having been elected the list for 1884-85 stood as under, viz. :— ? President.—A. B. Hrerevert. Vice-Presidents. P. B. Giss, M.A. | T. B. Spracun, M.A., F.R.S.E. | J. M. Macraruang, D.Sc. Council. JOHN WALCOT. SYMINGTON GRIEVE. GeorGE L. Brown, CHARLES FRASER. RospeRT THOMSON. GeorGce Birp. Ropert STEWART, Dr L, Dopsin. Joun Ratrray, M.A. B.Sc. ARCHIBALD CRAIG., Jun. W.I. MacApam,F.C.S., F.I.C. ALEXANDER Frazer, M.A. Honorary Secretary and Treasurer.—Anprew Morrat. Auditors.—Atex. Marueson, M.A., W.S.; J. A. Bropre. The Financial Statement showed an income, including balance from previous account, of £69, 13s. 54d., and an expenditure of £44, 2s. 43d., leaving a balanee of £25, 11s. 1d. in favour of the Club. During the past Session there had been held 32 meetings, of which 12 were indoor meetings and 20 were field meetings, with an average attendance of 50. The following is a detailed list of the meetings—viz.: Ordinary Evening Meetings, 1883—26th Oct., 29th Nov., 27th Dec.; 1884—24th Jan., 28th Feb., and 27th March. Microscopic Mectings, 1883—6th Dec.; 1884—3d Jan., 31st Jan., 6th March, and 3d April. Conversazione—8th April, 1884. Field Meetings, 1884—23d Feb., Arniston; 15th March, Arthur Seat ; 22d March, Shore at Granton; 29th March, Hailes Quarry ; 3d May, Sections on Suburban Railway; 10th May, North Ber- wick ; 17th May, Sections on Suburban Railway (second excursion) ; 24th May, South Ferry and Forth Bridge Works; 31st May, Crichton to Tynehead; 7th June, Caribber Glen; 11th June, Restalrig Church and Neighbourhood; 14th June, Dolphinton to West Linton; 21st June, Gosford; 25th June, Duddingston ; 28th June, Cockburnspath for Pease Dene; 5th July, Balerno; 12th July, Inchcolm; 19th July, Colinton and the Pentlands; 26th July, Currie and the Pentlands; 6th Sept., Joppa Quarry. During Session 1883-84, 16 names of members were withdrawn from the roll, and 60 new members added, making a net increase of 44 and a total ordinary membership of 190. [It having been thought advisable to bring the record of the proceedings of the Club up to the present date (October 1885), the Statement embodying these, read at the Annual Business Meeting for Session 1885-86, is here given. | 1884-85.] Edinburgh Naturalists’ Field Club. 267 The Annual Business Meeting of the Club was held on the evening of October 23, 1885—Mr A. B. Herbert occupying the chair. The usual Statements by the Secretary and Treasurer were laid before the meeting, and unanimously approved of. By the Financial Statement, it was shown that the total income for Session 1884-85, including a balance from last account, was £81, 2s., and that the expenditure was £51, 3s. 5d., thus leaving a surplus at that date in favour of the Club of £29, 18s. 7d. The meetings held during the Session were 30 in number—13 of these being indoor meetings, and 17 field meetings, with an average attendance at all the meet- ings of 54. The following list gives the dates of the indoor meet- ings, and the dates and localities of the field meetings, viz.:— Inpoor Meerines: (1) Ordinary Evening Meetings, 1884—Oct. 24, Nov. 27, Dec. 26; 1885—Jan. 29, Feb. 26, March 26. (2) Microscopic Meetings, 1884—Nov. 6, Dec. 5; 1885—Jan. 9, Feb. 5, March 6, April 2. (3) Annual Conversazione—April 17, 1885. Firtp Meetines, 1885: Feb. 21, Arniston; May 2, Scottish Marine Station, Granton; May 9, North Berwick; May 16, Haw- thornden and Roslin; May 23, Dalhousie; May 30, Dysart and Wemyss ; June 3, Blackford Hill; June 6, Midcalder; June 13, North Queensferry ; June 17, Craigmillar ; June 20, West Linton ; June 27, Caribber Glen; July 1, Union Canal; July 4, Inchkeith (with Dredging in Forth); July 11, Aberlady; July 25, Balerno ; Sept. 26 (“Fungus foray ’’), Roslin. The election of Office-bearers for Session 1885-86 was next pro- ceeded with, and the following is the complete list, as then adjusted, viz. :— President.—SyMINGTON GRIEVE. Vice-Presidents. T. B. Spracus, M.A., F.R.S.E. | J. M. Macrarzans, D.Sc. | A. Frazur, M.A, Council. JOHN WALCOT, JoHN Rattray, M.A., B.Sc. WILLIAM ForGan. JOHN ALLAN. ARCHIBALD CRAIG, Jun. WILitaM Bonnar. Grorcr L. Brown. W. I. MacApan, F.C.S., F.1.C. | Joun HenprErson. CHARLES FRASER. A. D. RICHARDSON. A. B. STEELE. Honorary Secretary and Treasurer.—Anprew Morrat. Auditors.—Joun A. MarsHatt, C.A.; Hueu H. Pinans. The membership of the Club for Session 1884-85 stood at the close as follows: 26 names were withdrawn from the roll, and 50 new members were admitted, giving a net increase of 24—which, added to the ordinary membership of 190 for the previous Session, makes a total at the present date of 214. Owing to the steady 268 Transactions of the Edin. Nat. Field Club. [Sess. 1884-85. increase in the membership of the Club, it had become imperative to leave the old place of meeting at No. 5 St Andrew Square, and to find more commodious rooms, which have now been secured at No. 20 George Street. After the disposal of the business, several members threw out various hints for the better conduct and greater efficiency of the Club, in view of the new departure which had thus been made. The meeting closed with a hearty and unanimous vote of thanks, on the motion of Dr Macfarlane, to the retiring . President, Mr A. B. Herbert, for the keen interest he had taken in all the affairs of the Club during the three years he had been in office, as well as for the valuable contributions he had made to its ‘Transactions’ in the very interesting papers read from time to time. ERRATA ON ART., “THE HYMENOMYCETES.” Tue following list of errata was received too late for correcting the text of the above-named paper—viz. : Page 212, line 28, for “colour” read ‘‘ odour.” », 214, ,, 30, for ‘‘comestus” read ‘‘comatus.” », 214, ,, 37, for “cortiles” read “ tortilis.” » 214, ,, 38, for ‘‘aliamentarius ” read ‘‘ atramentarius.” » 215, ,, 17, for ‘‘volunum” read ‘ volemus.” », 215, ,, 26, for ‘‘ Smilus” read * Suillus.” » 215, ,, 39, for ‘ Vittelini” read ‘‘ Vittellini.” », 217, ,, 14, for **Monkhamorr” read ‘‘ Moukhamorr.” », 217, ,, 20, for ‘‘Meruleus” read ‘‘ Merulius,” Programme atl Pla af A teangements FOR THE CONVERSAZIONE AND MICROSCOPTHOC" SOIREE Loinburgh Waturalists’ Ficld Crub. —_+- 18350 1-9 -- ——_ FREEMASONS’ HALL, GEORGE STREET, FRIDAY, 17th APRIL 188s. Fjj™eFHT Hl OETECTOEO—n————— oO PPP LPP PP PPL PLL PROGRAMME OF BAND Music. @berture, . . ‘The Wild Huntsman,” . Rudolf Mersy. Selection, . : . Robert Bruce,” . , . Bonnisseau. alts, ; , : “* Marien,” ; ‘ ; Gung l. Selection, . ‘ : “ Falka,” : : . Chassaigne. alts, : : . Estudiantina,” . ; . Waldteufel. Selection, . : “William Tell)”. ; . Rossini. Meals, : ‘ “ Hypatia,” : . MM. Osterlere. “Gop SAVE THE QUEEN,” RUDOLF MERSY, Leader. ax _— o°* nod a | + mem |\ 7 ‘1 Wavy, ‘'g GIAV, a 2°) € Bt OL 6 *cO ~ 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Gaeta 5h ‘NVOUOT pus UTSVUg ‘Oo sassayy Ag (OG ‘OL 2222 S16) suamaoady ordoosouorpy fo uaa.1og! ULAUDT UO UoUrquyam (6 224 08°L) 22809 pun way —uooy paging | “Sury cowooreg ayy Aq | “NOILISIAXY adONsouLoddg ‘sl[nog iq Ag *NOILVTOOUIN §,90uq 10 NGGUOG NUAINWT <— NO NOWISINX] ‘9 WAV, °q qtavy, ‘% WAVY, [a ee eg ec ae #0 oa Or 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 ‘8 HIAV, "ULOJ}B LL ‘6 UAV, | t S. PLAN OF EXHIBITION ~-HALL. eS ApS HORRY Veet sh Ps AND THEIR ARRANGEMENT. (The Microscopie preparations on Tables I.-IV. are lighted by electric lamps provided by Mr J. Mitchell.) TABLE I.—Preparations 1-10 illustrate Root-structure, and Protoplasmic Move- ments in Root Hairs, exhibited by Mr A. D. Richardson. Preparations 11-21 illustrate the Gland-structure of Nepenthes and Cephalotus —plants suited for catching and digesting flies—exhibited by Dr J. M. Mac- farlane. TABLE II.—Preparations 1-5 show various organs of the Spider, exhibited by Messrs J. L. Murray and Purves. Alongside preparation 1 are—Water-Spiders from Luffness Links, exhibited by Mr Archibald Gray ; Spiders’ Nests, exhibited by Mrs Clapperton and Mr Purves. Preparations 6, 7 show grouped Diatoms and arranged slide of Butterfly Scales, exhibited by Mr Turnbull. Preparations 8-10 illustrate Mouth-Organs of Insects, exhibited by Mr J. Lindsay. Preparations 11-20 form a series of Human Parasites, exhibited by Mr Alex. Frazer, M.A. TABLE III.—Preparations 1-5 are Marine Diatoms and other Algz, exhibited by Mr J. Rattray, M.A., B.Sc. Preparations 6-9 are the Teeth (Odontophore) of rare British Molluscs, exhibited by Miss M. M‘Kean. Preparation 10 shows the appearance of a Coal-Miner’s Lung who has been af- fected with Anthracosis, exhibited by Mr Philip J. White. Preparation 11, shown by Zeiss microscope, Mr J. Donaldson. Preparation 12 is a section of Doleritic Rock, shown by polarised light, exhibited by Mrs Clapperton. Preparation 13 shows Circulation of the Protoplasm and green Chlorophyll Granules in Cells of the Leaf of Anacharis, exhibited by Mrs Dowell. Preparations 14-16 are objects seen under polarised light, exhibited by Messrs Forgan, C. Fraser, and Hume. Preparations 17, 18 are Zoophytes preserved in the expanded state, exhibited by Dr Henderson. Preparation 19 shows Moving-spores of a Water-weed (Pleurococcus), exhibited by Councillor Walcot. Preparation 20 is a section of Black-Pepper Stem, exhibited by Miss Cadell. 4 TABLE IV.—Preparation 1 is a Double-stained section of Stem, exhibited by Mr J. Henderson. Preparations 2 and 3 are Crystals viewed by polarised light, exhibited by Messrs Wardlaw and John G. Patterson. Preparation 4 shows Head-parts of the ‘‘ Water-boatman” insect (Notonecta), exhibited by Mrs Bryden. Preparations 5 and 6 illustrate the Structure of the Fore and Hind Leg of the Water-Beetle (Dyticus), exhibited by Messrs Bird and Symington Grieve. Preparations 7 and 8 are Barbadoes Polycistinze and Moth Scales, shown by dark- ground illumination, exhibited by Mr Heggie. Preparations 9-12 show Traube’s Cells, and forms of Vegetable-cell growth, ex- hibited by Mr A. N. M‘Alpine, B.Sc. Preparations 13 and 14 are injected Animal Tissues, exhibited by Mr Hume. Microscope 15 shows electrical decomposition of Water into its constituent ele- ments, exhibited by Mr Mitchell. Preparation 16 is a Foraminiferous Gathering, exhibited by Mr J. Allan. TABLE V.—Exhibition of British Lepidoptera, by Mr H. G. Aldis; and of East Indian Lepidoptera, by Mr G. M. Brotherston. TABLE VI.—Collection of Fossils from tae Edinburgh Rocks, exhibited by Mr John Henderson. Fossils, exhibited by Mrs Clapperton. Coloured Plates of two Great Auk Eggs, and Litho. Plate of Bones found in a Shell-Mound at Oronsay, exhibited by Mr Symington Grieve. TABLE VII.—Specimens illustrative of Scottish Ornithology, exhibited by Mr Bird. Sterna of Birds and Har-bones of Mammals, exhibited by Messrs D. Knight and P. J. White. West Indian Birds, exhibited by Mr J. H. Eld. New Zealand Apteryx, exhibited by Mr J. Ferguson. Australian Birds, and Blind Fish from Kentucky Caves, exhibited by Mr P. J. White. General Bird Collection, exhibited by Messrs Aitken and Fraser, and Mrs Clapperton. TABLE VIII.—Challenger Expedition Specimens, and Living Animals from the Scottish Marine Station, exhibited by Dr John Murray. Demonstration on Photo-Micrography, by Mr Forgan. Exhibition of Electrical Apparatus, by Mr Mitchell. TABLE IX.—Exhibition of Scientific Instruments and Microscopic Appliances, by Messrs Alex. Frazer and Hume. There will be exhibits of Rare Plants from the Edinburgh neighbourhood by Mr Archibald Gray and others. In the Small Side-Hall Dr Foulis will ‘exhibit on a screen the Circulation of Blood ' ina Frog; and Mr Falconer King will give a demonstration on Spectrum Analysis. At 9.15 Messrs C. Fraser and Forgan will give a Lantern Demonstration of Micro- scopic Specimens in the Large Side-Hall. OFFICE-BEARERS, 1884-85. President. A, B. HERBERT, . Vice- Presidents. P. B. Grp, M.A. | T. B. Spracus, M.A., F.R.S.E. J. M. Macrarztane, D.Sc, Council. Rogpert THOMSON. GeEoRGE L, Brown. GEORGE Brrp. CHARLES FRASER, RoBert STEWART. JoHN Ratrray, M.A., B.Sc, Dr L. Dost. ARCHD. CRAIG, JUN. JoHN WaALcoT, W. Ivison MacApam, F.C.S., F.LC. SYMINGTON GRIEVE. ALEXANDER FRAzER, M.A. Honorary Seeretarp and Treasurer. ANDREW Morrat. Auditors. ALEXANDER MatnHeson, M.A., W.S.; J. A. Bropir. PLS Te OF MEMBER S2eree4ess. Original Members marked thus*. Honorary Members. Brown, Ropert, Ph.D., F.L.8., London. Epwarp, THomas, Banff. GRiEvE, Davin, F.R.S.E., 1 Lockharton Gardens, Slateford. Peacu, Cas. W., A.L.S., 30 Haddington Place. Corresponding Members. ARCHIBALD, STEWART, Carroch, Kirriemuir, BROTHERSTON, ANDREW, Kelso. CrouicksHANK, T. M., South Ronaldshay. Hopxkirk, CHARLES P., Huddersfield. Hossack, B. H., Craigie Field, Kirkwall. XIV 10 Ordinary Adams, William, Royal Bank, St Andrew Square. Aitken, D. Perey, 5 Grosvenor Cres. Aldis, Harry G., 29 Collins Place. Alexander, Miss Maggie, 25 Gillespie Crescent. Alexander, Robert, 4 Abbey Street. Allan, John, 15 Rosefield Avenue, Portobello. Amoocre, J. S., 7 Abercromby Place. Anderson, G,. R., 12 Argyle Crescent, Portobello. Archibald, Jas., 13 Clifton Terrace. Arthur, Charles, Royal Infirmary. Ashburner, Major, 7 George Street. Bashford, W. T., Argyle House, Portobello. Bathgate, John, 8 Wardie Avenue. Beale, George, Dean Public School. Bird, George, 63 Haymarket Terrace. Black, William, 8.8.C., 3 Hill St. Bobrinsky, Count Alexis, Cramond House. Bogie, James, 5 Marchhall Crescent. Bonnar, Wm., 54 Castle Street. Briglman, Francis, 1 Livingstone Pl. Brodie, J. A., Tweed Villa, Bon- nington. Brotherston, G. M., 18 St John Street. Brown, George L., Millburn House, Morningside. Brown, J. K., 5 Saxe-Cobourg PI. Brown, Miss L. G., Bellsmill House. Bryden, Mrs, 72 Great King Strect. Bryden, Miss, 72 Great King Street. Cadell, Miss, 22 Gillespie Crescent. Carr, T. F. Robertson, Berwick-on- Tweed, 30 Clapperton, Mrs Wm., 9 Strathearn Road. *Colvin, Rev. R. F., Teviothead, Jed- burgh. Cotton, Miss Maria, Terrace. Cowan, Charles Wm., Valleyfield, Penicuik. Coyne, R. A. F. A., 21 Archibald PI. Craig, Archibald, jun., 16 Blacket Place. Craig, Mrs J. B., 18 Queen’s Cres. 26 Mayfield List of Members, 1884-8 oe Members. 40 60 Crawford, Wm. C., M.A., 1 Lock- harton Gardens, Slateford. Cunningham, Miss, 5 Duncan Street. Cunningham, William, 6 Inverleith Gardens. Cunningham, Mrs Wm., 6 Inverleith Gardens. Dawson, John D., M.A., 5 Bellevue * Street. Dickson, Professor Alexander, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.L.8., 11 Royal Circus, Dobbin, Leonard, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., 4 Oxford Street. Dobie, Miss Jessie, 83 Mayfield Road. Donaldson, James, M.B., C.M., Loch- maben, Dowell, Mrs, 13 Palmerston Place. Dowell, Miss, 13 Palmerston Place. Duncan, Esdaile, Dean Public School. Edmunds, Arthur, 9 Fettes Row. Edmunds, Edmund, 9 Fettes Row. Eld, Thos. W., 2 Ramsay Gardens. Ewart, James, 1 Dundas Street. Farquharson, Miss, Roseville, Catherine’s Place, Grange. Farquharson, Thos. Ker, Roseville, St Catherine’s Place, Grange. Ferguson, John, 15 Brighton Place, Portobello. Forbes, Miss, Langside, Glasgow. Forgan, William, 3 Warriston Cres. Foulis, James, M.D., 34 Heriot Row. Fraser, Charles, 13 Greenhill Place. Fraser, Hugh, Leith Walk Nurseries. Fraser, Mrs, 13 Greenhill Place. Fraser, Miss Minnie, 1 Marchmont Road, *Fraser, P. Neill, Rockville, Murray- field. Frazer, Alex., M.A., 7 Lothian St. Galloway, James, St Fillans, Trinity. Gay, David, 2 Windsor Street. Gibb, Philip B., M.A., 14 Picardy Place. Gilchrist, James, 17 Manor Place. Gloag, David, 1 Royston Terrace. Gouthwaite, Miss, 13 Woodburn Terrace. Gray, Arch., Bank of Scotland Ho., Bank Street. Gray, Jos. T., M.A., Parkside. St 80 90 100 110 List of Members, 1884-85. Gray, Mrs Robert, Bank of Scotland House, Bank Street. Grieve, Miss Amelia, Salisbury View, Dalkeith Road. Grieve, Somerville, Salisbury View, Dalkeith Road. Grieve, Symington, 7 Queensberry Terrace. Groom, Miss, Downie Terrace, Cor- storphine. Grosert, Robert, 23 Marchmont Cres. Groves, Charles H., M.D., 36 Inver- leith Row. Hall, George, 4 Marchhall Road, Hall, Miss, 4 Portgower Place. Hardie, William, 1 Fingal Place. Hately, W., 12 Bruntstield Place. Hay, Miss, 1 Ardmillan Terrace. Hay, Miss Maggie, 1 Ardmillan Terrace. Heggie, John, 2 Watt Terrace. Henderson, John, Phrenological Museum, Chambers Street, Henderson, John R., M.B., C.M., Scottish Marine Station, Granton. Henderson, Miss, 6 Carlton Terrace. Henry, C. F., 1 Brandon Terrace. Herbert, A. B., 13 Polwarth Terrace, Hogg, Andrew, 94 George Street. Hume, Elliot, 8 Lauriston Lane, Hume, William, 1 Lothian Street. Hunter, James, Minto House. Hurry, Miss, 56 India Street, Hurry, R., 56 India Street. Hutchison, Mrs, 22 Manor Place. Hutchison, Robert, F.R.S8.E., Chester Street. Jeffers, 8., 18 Duncan Street. Jenner, Charles, F.R.S.E., Easter Duddingston Lodge. Kennedy, Adam, 63 Haymarket Ter. Key, Rev. D. Ritchie, M.A., 31 Gayfield Square. King, J. Falconer, Minto House. King, Mark, 120 Pitt Street, Leith. Knight, Donald, Museum of Science and Art. Kynoch, Miss, 2 Darnaway Street. Laing, Jas. H. W., M.A., B.Sc., 59 Forrest Road. Laughton, William, Auchmill, Aber- deen. Law, Mrs John, 41 Heriot Row. Ligertwood, George C., M.A., 9 Spot- tiswoode Street. Lindsay, John, 24 Dryden Street. 29 120 130 140 XV Lindsay, Thomas, 5 East Hermitage Place, Leith. Livingstone, Matthew, 108 Gilmore Place. Lorimer, Miss, 16 Mayfield Terrace. MacAdam, W. Ivison, F.C.S., F.LC., 6 East Brighton Crescent, Porto- bello. MacAlpine, A. N., B.Sc., 10 Spring Gardens. MacAlpine, Mrs A. N., 10 Spring Gardens, Macfarlane, J. M., D.Sc., 3 Bellevue Terrace. M‘Glashen, Robert L., 1 Brandon St. M'‘Gregor, Miss, 4 Marmion Terrace. M‘Gregor, Miss Maggie, 4 Marmion Terrace. M‘Intosh, James, 42 Queen Street. M‘Intosh, Mrs James, 42 Queen St. Mackay, Miss, 69 Northumberland Street. M‘Kean, James, 3 Warrender Park Terrace. M‘Kean, Miss Minnie, 2 Inverleith Terrace. Marshall, John Arch., 41 Minto St. Marshall, Ralph, 1 Lorne Terrace. Matheson, Alex., M.A., W.S., 137 Princes Street. Melvin, Alex., 40 Warrender Park Road. Miller, Rev. Robert, M.A., 15 Thirl- stane Road, East. Miller, R. K., 13 Lennox Street. Miller, Peter, 8 Bellevue Terrace. Milne, John K., Kevock Tower, Lass- wade, Milne, Mrs, Kevock Tower, Lass- wade, Mitchell, John L., 106 Princes Street. Moffat, Andrew, 28 Lutton Place. Monteith, James, 20 Cumberland Street. Morham, Robert, 2 Bright Crescent. Murray, Chas. G., 68 Haymarket Terrace, Murray, J. D., 68 Haymarket Ter. Murray, Wm., 8 Clifton Terrace. Nesbit, John, 162 High Street, Portobello. Nisbet, Miss, 21 York Place. Ogilvie, Miss, 18 Buckingham Ter. Oliver, John 8., 12 Greenhill Park. Peacock, Alex., 9 M‘Laren Road. Peacock, Miss, 9 M‘Laren Road, Xvi 150 Peacock, Thomas R., 9 M‘Laren Rd. 160 1 0 Philip, James, 5 Argyle Place. Pillans, Hugh H., 12 Dryden Place. Pillans, Miss, 12 Dryden Place. Potts, George H., Fettes Mount, Lasswade. Purves, Samuel, 70 Haymarket Ter. Ranken, William, 11 Spence Street. Rattray, John, M.A., B.Sc., Marine Station, Granton, Reid, Andrew, Lixmount Terrace, Trinity. Richardson, A. D., Royal Botanic Garden. Robertson, C. F., 54 Blacket Place. Robertson, George, Lothian Road Public School. Robertson, Rey. J. M., Stirling. Russell, John, 6 Thirlstane Rd., East. Sewell, Philip, Royal Botanic Garden. Shaw, JohnO., Beauly, Victoria Park, Trinity. Simpson, Jas., Anatomical Museum, Park Place. Skinner, Jas., 21 West Maitland St. *Skirving, R. Scot, 29 Drummond Place. Smith, Alexander W., 4 West Castle Road. Smith, Miss, 34 Dublin Street, Smith, Mrs Geo., 25 East Claremont Street. Smith, R. C., 26 Pitt Street. Sprague, T. B., M.A., F.R.S.E., 29 | Buckingham Terrace. Sprague, Mrs T. B., 29 Buckingham | Terrace. Stalkartt, Mrs, 14 Melville Terrace. Steele, Adam, 10 Comely Bank. Steele, Miss, 16 Upper Gray Street. Stevenson, William C., Leadervale Trinity Road. Stewart, James, 8 Morningside Ter. ? | 190 200 210 214 CALA & JUN List of Members, 1884-85. | 180 Stewart, James R., 10 Salisbury Rd. Stewart, Miss, 53 Lothian Street. Stewart, Robert, 8.S.C., 21 Warris- ton Crescent. Stewart, Mrs Robert, 21 Warriston Crescent. Storrie, James, 5 Bowhill Terrace. Sutherland, John, 4 Caledonian Rd. Suttar, John, Dispensary, Royal Infirmary. Taylor, Charles, Pinkhill Nurseries. Taylor, Wm., M.D., 12 Melville St. Terras, James, 34 Findhorn Place, Thomson, Rey. A. B., Geneva. Thomson, Miss H. B., 98 Lauriston Place. Thomson, Robert, LL.B., 6 Shand- wick Place. Todd, Frederick, 29 Brougham St. Turnbull, George, 16 Thistle Street. Turnbull, J. M., 6 Rose Street. Turner, Daniel, S.L., 24 George St. Usher, Andrew, Blackford House. Walcot, John, 50 Northumberland Street. Walker, David, 2 Bellevue Terrace. Walker, Wm. F., 5 Restalrig Ter. Wardlaw, Geo., 14 St John’s Hill. White, John, 22 Manor Place. White, Miss, 1 Cumin Place. White, P. J., 25 Castle Terrace. Wilson, Miss Helen, 1 Lennox St. Wilson, James T., Restalrig House. Wilson, Miss Katie, 2 Archibald Pl. Wood, Alex., 4 Avondale Place. Wood, T. A. D., Viewforth, Brun- stane Road, Joppa. Wright, J. C., 20 Royal Crescent. Wright, Thomas, 16 Broughton St. Young, David E., 22 Rosehall Ter. Yule, Robert, 6 Mansfield Place. Ziegler, John, Sunnyside, Corstor- phine, 6 JUN 4889 PART V. TRANSACTIONS a Grinburgh Haturalists’ Field Clad SESSION 1885-86 CONTENTS. : Opening Address.—Mr S. Grieve, President, . The Organic Causes of the Coloration of Water, &e. —Mr J. Rattray, M.A., B.Se., . . The Red Deer (Cervus elaphus). —Mr 8. ‘Grieve, President, : . On the Structure and Pollination of the Flowers of Sarracenia. — J. M. Macfarlane, D,.Sc., F.R.S.E., . . The Rarer Birds of Stobo. ” Mr J. Thomson (Communicated), | : . The Fungus Foray in Roslin Glen.—_Mr A. B. Steele, . Discovery of the Wee euet (Argyroneta aquatica) near Balerno. ; —Mr A. B. Herbert, . . . List of the Less Common Plants gathered at the Excursions during Ss 1885, with Localities—The Secretary, . é vise On Pav Objects and Methods: of Meteorology. Mr “Alex. Frazer, A. eee Ok, Veronicas in the Waiethourheva of Edinburgh. _ ur M. King, XI. The Ring and Water Ousels: their House au Fait. “has A. Craig, jun, . = XI. Notes on Marine Excursions— I. Granton._Mr J. Lindsay, . : Z . 5 : 7 : ; a Joppa.—Mr J. Allan, - XIII. Natural Endo-skeleton and Exo-skeleton of American Bull-frog (Ceratophrys cornuta)—Mr D, Knight, XIV. 35 a Growths on Root of Fab cie distichum. — Mr H. raser, . Montings of Microscopic Section, . ; : ‘ ‘ x On the Progress of Microscopical Research.—The President, Notes on Microscope Objectives.—_Mr W. Forgan. The Tongue of the Blow-fly in relation to its Food.—Mr J. D. Murray. On an Improved Form of Centering Nosepiece, for use with Brooke's Double Nosepiece for Microscope. Mr A. Frazer, M.A. On a Simple Form of Self-centering Turntable for Ringing Microscopic Specimens. Mr A. Frazer, M.A. On an Improved Sliding Nosepiece and Adapter for the Microscope. Mr J..M. Turnbull. Annual Business Meeting, Index, . _ List of Members, 1885-86, Printed for the Club BY WILLIAM BLACKWOOD & SONS : MDCCOLXXXVI : ; z > IL—OPENING ADDRESS. By Mr SYMINGTON GRIEVE, PReEsrpENT. (Read Nov. 20, 1885.) Tue first duty I have to perform is to express my thanks for the honour you have conferred upon me, in making me your President for the coming year. I feel deeply that you have placed me in a position of considerable difficulty, as I cannot expect to fulfil the duties of President in the same satisfactory way they have been done by the accomplished Naturalist whose term of office has just expired. Iam sure each of you will join with me in expressing to him our grateful thanks for the manner in which he has striven to promote the interests of the Club, which has progressed in member- ship and usefulness by strides and bounds during the last three years. I hope he, and other past Presidents, may long be spared to attend our meetings, and to manifest the interest they have ever shown in the welfare and prosperity of the Club. Having elected me to the honourable position of presiding at your meetings, it will be my earnest desire to try and increase their usefulness. I think it is possible that we may devise a more systematic way of working, so that in all we do, it may be with the object of studying some special subject or subjects in a more thorough and searching way than we have done in the years gone by. You will notice I use the word “ we,” for unless you are, each of you, willing to unite earnestly in doing your best to aid the Council in trying to inaugurate more systematic modes of investiga- tion, they cannot hope or expect to attain the satisfactory results they would like. We must rely upon each of you feeling an individual responsibility, and doing your utmost to make our meet- ings and publication a success. With the advantages we now possess, it will be a shame to us if we allow our powers to lie dormant, and the opportunity to pass without striking out into new branches of study. To some extent the Council have provided for the occasion, and have agreed to relieve our able Secretary of the arduous task of arranging for the papers to be brought before our meetings. However, it seems to me that this is only a beginning; for it must now devolve to a great extent upon the members of the Club to keep up a continual supply of material in the way of papers for the Council to choose from. I trust the time is not far distant when you will emulate VOL, I. £ 270 Transactions of the [Sess. each other as to whose contributions will prove most worthy of being read, and that each will covet the honour, and that it will be accepted as a token of no small attainments when a paper is selected for our meetings. For systematic work, we must appoint standing committees for each of the following subjects—namely, Fauna, Flora, Geology, Archeology, and Microscopy; and it will be the duty of the members of such standing committees to find out the subjects on which each member of the Club has special knowledge, or which they propose to study. Having found out this, it will be the effort of each committee to direct, aid, and encourage members in their studies, so that in time they may write papers for the meetings of the Society. I feel sure if each of these committees was started under the care of an energetic convener, they would together do splendid work, and promote our best interests as a scientific Club. From my own standpoint, I think the sooner they are started the better for the Club. We have good proof of this in the success that has attended the meetings of the Microscopic section under the presidency of Dr Macfarlane, and I trust we are only at the begin- ning of that success. It has long been my belief that nothing would do more to popularise and make the work of this section even more interesting than it has been, than the reflection of magnified living organisms upon a screen, when the life-history, structure, and habits of such organisms could be studied and explained. I can conceive of no more profitable lessons from the book of Nature than we might thus receive in this hall. I understand there are certain difficulties in the way of minute objects being clearly reflected upon canvas ; but from what I have seen at our meetings, I think sufficient success has been attained to enable us to use this mode of illustrating a sub- ject with great advantage, even though every detail of the picture is not brought out as clearly as we would like. Besides, when such difficulties cross our path, it should inspire us with a fresh resolu- tion to do our best to overcome them; and in a Club like this, we have an opportunity of illustrating the old adage that “ two heads are better than one.” I hope these difficulties will soon be satis- factorily solved, and that we shall then acquire microscopic apparatus that will enable us to enhance the attractiveness of our meetings, and open up some pages of what is to a large extent, to many of us, a sealed book. The Field Club, to be of real use to its members, must be an educational institution, and we must always have many schemes at work, so as to develop the enthusiasm of every member in a greater or less degree. Without enthusiasm, the Club will gradually decay and die. When I think of the thorough training and splendid equipment that some of you possess, combined with first-class opportunities, I almost feel ashamed thus to address you. But J] 1885-86. ] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 271 cannot shut my eyes to the fact that it is you who are thus equipped who must bear in the future, as you have done in the past, the burden of working the Club so as to make it a success. It is to you that those of us who have been less fortunate in our oppor- tunities or training look for assistance, encouragement, and help. The younger members expect you to take them by the hand, and trust to your kindness to point out to them those special subjects that they may study with advantage; and no one knows better than I do how well and earnestly you have been endeavouring to afford this aid. Let me say to those of you who have abstained from joining our active work, that if you desire special knowledge you must not hesitate to ask questions, and ever be ready to sup- ply us with information when you can. I feel sure I am asserting a fact when I say there is no one in this room without some special knowledge or experience that would be valued by us, if we could only discover it. I suppose there is no way to find out these things except by getting each member to volunteer information for our meetings. Long papers with elaborate details will be quite unnecessary ; the narration of daily experiences or observa- tions, stated as simple facts, is all that is required. So much for our Winter Meetings: but need I remind you that these are only auxiliaries to our actual Club work, and should be used for recording the observations and discoveries that have been made in the field. The name “ Naturalists’ Field Club” makes my mind stretch in fancy from these stone walls to breezy braes with wimpling burns, or to rugged mountain-sides with their wild cas- cades. In our cities we live like caged birds, hedged in with the anxieties, worries, and cares of the struggle for existence. Can any one wonder that sometimes the tired-out machinery of our nature requires to be reinvigorated by breathing the pure air of heaven ; or that the aspirations of the sons of freedom rise within us, and, as Scotia’s children, make us seek for health upon the heaths and mountains of our native land. Alas! neglect, languor, . and want of determination are rapidly performing their work ; and unless we are up and doing to claim and protect our rights, we will lose our privileges. From time immemorial our heaths and hills have been the happy hunting-grounds for health for all our citizens ; but for years past, gradually one part and then another of our moorlands have been closed to the public, and ere long we may find that nothing but the dusty roads are left to us. It is time we were moving in this matter; if we delay much longer it will be too late. Fortunately Professor Bryce, a countryman of our own, has become alive to the dangers of losing the Scottish mountains and heaths as a sanatorium for Britain, and for some years has been endeavouring to get Parliament to pass his “ Scottish Mountains Access Bill.” He has had to fight most of the battle 272 Transactions of the [Sess. himself, and I for one feel that he has been fighting for us. I say then, let us help him, and in every possible way give him our support. I think I hear some of you say in amazement, ‘ What can we do?” Well, my view is, we can do a great deal. In the first place, we can stir up public opinion as a Club; we can try to interest every Field Club and Natural History Society in Britain, and do our best to get them to combine to support Professor Bryce. But, what is more, we have over two hundred members who can influence their friends in favour of this Bill, and the effect of such efforts will be great in stirring up a healthy agitation to promote the end in view. We wish to invade no man’s privacy ; and to do damage to property is the last thing we desire. In Scotland there is no law of trespass, and I trust never will be. We must respect the lawful rights of others as we value our own, but we must have our heritage. During the past summer I had the privilege of forming one of a party of members of the Botanical Society who visited the mountains at the head of Glen Lyon, and I wish I could only express to you the enjoyment we all had. Might it not be possible to inaugurate such excursions in connection with our Club? Itis a matter for the consideration of the Council, as it would enable our members to get wider experience than can be obtained by merely working in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh. It would also help to bind us together in closer friendship, and tend to promote and encourage united investigation. And now regarding next summer’s excursions, may I suggest that each of you should think over the subject during the coming winter, and be ready to propose places for the Club to visit next season. For several years a number of lists with the names of places were sent in, but these have gradually been dwindling in numbers, with the result that the work of drawing up the list of excursions has of late mostly devolved upon the Council. It would be a decided advantage if places could be visited to which as a Club we have not yet been. We might perhaps attempt excur- sions that would enable those interested in the various branches . of study we take up to thoroughly enjoy themselves in their own particular investigations. Some might require to take lone walks, others again might find all they required within a short distance of the starting-point ; but one feature of our excursions might be, to have each day a fixed rendezvous at which we could all meet in the evening. The longer walks would enable our members to be- come acquainted with all the “rights of way” within a consider- able radius of the Modern Athens, and thus help to preserve them as public paths. There is upon the table a little book with a red cover that I trust may place on record for all time coming what are at present undisputed rights of way over the Pentland Hills. It has been written by our fellow-townsman Mr W. A. Smith, and 1885-86. ] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 273 the map supplied gratuitously by another of our citizens, Mr Bartholomew. In conclusion, let me urge upon you all to use your best efforts to proclaim from one end of the city to the other, and if possible far beyond its boundary, the advantages to be derived from the membership of the Field Club. With more members we would have greater resources, be able to make our meetings more attrac- tive, and do better work. The meagure of prosperity that has attended the Club within the last few years may well encourage us for the future ; and need I remind you that “nothing succeeds like success.” II.—THE ORGANIC CAUSES OF THE COLORATION OF WATER, Etc. By Mr JOHN RATTRAY, M.A., B.Sc. (Read Nov. 20, 1885.) Tue explanations that have been given of unusual colours of water, snow, hail, &c., may be arranged in four periods, more or less distinct from and independent of one another—viz.: (1) The theocratic, or period of wonder; (2) the hippocratic, or period of doubt; (3) the naturalistic period ; (4) the cosmic period. To the first of these periods must be assigned the opinions held by the ancient Greek and Roman classics, who, from the time of Homer, referred such phenomena as are now familiarly known as _blood- rain to the direct intervention of the gods, in modifying the ordi- nary course of the laws of nature. To the second Cicero probably belongs, as by him supernatural interference was, for the first time, doubted, and an attempt was made to obtain a physical explana- tion. Peiresc founded the third period, and Cladni the fourth. Prior to Cladni, various remarkable occurrences had taken place; but in not a few cases precision is not to be found in the stories that have been recorded. Thus, rivers had suddenly become red without previous red rain—e.g., in Picenum, 323 B.c. In the summer of 586 A.p., a similar event occurred in the Gulf of Venice ; while Pliny records that a lake in Babylon remained red for eleven days. Dew, rain, snow, and hail had been observed to fall of a red colour; a blood-like moisture, according to Livy, had covered the statues even of the gods and of implements of war. Red snow and hail had fallen, and instances of the occurrence of places suddenly covered with a blood-like mucilage were not unknown. - But in all 274 Transactions of the [Sess. these cases the fall from the atmosphere had taken place before the observations were made ; and no evidence existed that the appear- ances were atmospheric, and not terrestrial. On the other hand, on several occasions the atmosphere had previously been observed to be filled with red-dust particles before the red rain fell—for ex- ample, at Bagdad in 929, and at Rome in 1222. But it was not till the beginning of the seventeenth century that true interpretations began to be forthcoming. A shower of blood- rain occurred at Aix in 1608, which greatly alarmed the people, whose frenzy was still further increased by the clergy. Peiresc, however, soon offered a simple explanation. He had observed that Butterflies were then very abundant, and that after the escape of the imago from the pupa state a droplet of red juice remained, and produced a red speck. These specks were found to occur in places accessible to Butterflies, but where no rain had fallen, and inquiry revealed that occurrences reported earlier might be similarly inter- preted. The explanation became generally accepted ; and for the first time insects were looked upon as possessing a new and pecu- liar property. Swammerdam, while journeying in France about the middle of the seventeenth century, also observed, and was alarmed at, certain blood-coloured water which he met with. He examined it, how- ever, and found the cause to be the presence of a small Water-flea (Daphnia pulex). Schuyl? similarly explained a similar phenome- non which had excited the inhabitants of Leyden. The observations thus instituted during the seventeenth century were continued with still greater zeal during the eighteenth. In °1700, Romberg directed attention to the reddening produced by the cases of Bees in the vicinity of bee-hives; and in 1711, Hilde- brandt, from observations made in Sweden, corroborated the influ- ence exerted by insects. Westphal, in 1716, observed red spots on plant-leaves in the vicinity of Delitzsch and Wittenberg ; and not being able to regard these as due to insect products, he laid himself open to the charge of being occupied with alchemist ex- perimental theories, by asserting that the appearance was the re- sult of dew, coloured red by the presence of sulphurous matter. In 1746, a phenomenon on a larger scale, and one demanding a new explanation, was recorded by Gonsag in California. He believed that springs occurred in the sea, as at flood-tide the water, for an extent of half a mile, was of a bluish-red hue. A chemical action was here believed to be taking place between the spring and sea water. Linneus attributed blood-rain to the presence of a small animalcule, Monoculus pulex, which was similar to the Cyclops quadricornis found in similar conditions in Sweden by Agardh. So early as 1646, a chemical examination of red rain had been 1 «Bibel der Natur,’ p. 40. 1885-86.] Ldinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 275 made at Brussels ; but Dr Rau made another such research at Ulm in 1755, and his results entirely disproved the sulphur theory, and established the presence of organic bodies. It is also important to note that instances have been recorded of red water resulting from the fine dust emitted during volcanic activity ; and that, at sea, the bleeding of large animals, such as Sharks and Sword-fish, may cause red discoloration. De Saussure,! in 1760, found the cause of the colour of red rivers to be sometimes pollen ; while in France, in 1797, Girod Chantran found a pond filled with water of a car- mine colour, which he attributed to the presence of a species of Volvox (V. lacustris)—an infusor, which he has named, but not described. During the nineteenth century, the investigation of this curious subject was still prosecuted with zeal. Persoon, in 1801, examined certain red mucilaginous specks observed on damp ground, and found the cause to be a fungus, which he described as Thelephora sanguinea, and which was later described by Fries as Phylacteria crustacea, and still later, by Agardh, as an alga, Palmella cruenta. Andreossy, in Lower Egypt, and Ehrenberg, in the Astrakhan Steppe, found a red-coloured “ Salz-lage,’—the colouring matter being in the salt, and fading on drying. In 1815, the inhabitants of South Prussia were, like the ancient classics, astonished by the presence of red, violet, and green patches in the water of the lake of Lulotin; and, in consequence of the unusual occurrence, were not slow to predict misfortunes soon to come. Klaproth? examined this water chemically, and found the cause to be an albuminoid-like vegetable mucilage, peculiarly tinged by an indigo dye, and attributable to the decomposition of vegetables during harvest. The transition from green to violet was caused by the presence of more or less oxygen. Scoresby,’ in 1820, noted the occurrence of green and blue stripes in the sea around Greenland, and covering about one-fourth of its surface. These he attributed to the presence of small animals (=small medusoid spherules, } to 3 inch long), of which he calculated 64 to be in a cubic inch. About the same time, Captain Ross was engaged in the study of red snow, which he found very abundantly in the mountains of Baffin’s Bay. This colouring substance, which had been ascribed to the ejectamenta of birds, was examined by Bauer, Wollaston, Thénard, Brown, Hooker, Sprengel, Agardh, De Candolle, Cladni, and others; and by all, save Cladni, it was declared to be of a vegetable nature. The systematic position—whether algoid or fungoid—of this new organism was uncertain, and various 1 ¢ Voyage dans les Alpes.’ 2 ‘Beitrage z. chem. Kenntniss d. Min.,’ vol. vi, p. 96. 3 ¢ Account of the Arctic Regions,’ vol. i. 276 Transactions of the [Sess. synonyms were given for it, such as Uredo nivalis (Bauer), Pal- mella nivalis (Hooker), Protococcus kermesinus (Agardh), Spherella nivalis (Sommerfeld), Lepraria kermesina (Wrangel), &c. Fantastic explanations of the origin of these bodies were soon forthcoming. By some the sun was supposed to contribute a peculiar life-giving principle to the snow; while by others the red bodies were re- garded as foreign, and as being, in the first instance, collected on its surface by the wind, and then further aggregated by the melting of the snow. That each of these bodies could develop further on the surface of the snow was regarded as very pro- bable. By others, again, the “so schwer zu erweisende Generatio primitiva’’ was maintained; while by yet others their fungoid rather than their algoid nature was regarded as the more probable. The account thus given, from a naturalist’s point of view, was combated in 1819 by Cladni, who ascribed the redness of snow to the presence of meteoric dust, and who deprecated the manner in which this had been overlooked by Bauer and others. Cladni even believed that in red snow from South Switzerland he detected pyr- oxene, or augite-like substances. The orange-coloured snow which Scoresby had seen in the neigh- bourhood of Greenland was regarded by him as not unlikely of specific difference from the red snow noticed by Captain Ross. In the green sea-water, red spots which seemed to correspond with ap- pearances of a similar kind in various places inshore were seen. These spots were believed to be caused by the presence of very many small acephale—which, however, seemed to be devoid of swimming organs—and to these the redness of the snow was ascribed ;! but no further investigations were made in connection with them. In the province of Padua, in Italy, the presence of blood-coloured spots excited much curiosity about the year 1824. Sette investi- gated the cause of these, and found it to be the presence of a red filamentous fungus, which he named Zoogalactina inebrosa, and re- ferred to as a hitherto unknown genus. Only a year later De Can- dolle made further observations on the red colour of a lake in South Switzerland, the unusual hue being well known to the fishermen in that neighbourhood. Engelhardt, Haller, and others had also ob- served the appearance, and arrangements had been made to pro- secute a chemical analysis. De Candolle found the colour to be due to the presence of a yet undescribed species of Oscillatoria, which was described as O. rubescens ; while the chemical analysis revealed the presence, among other things, of red and green resin- ous materials, mucilage, an alkali, and iron-oxide. With respect to the Oscillatoria, an interesting observation was made, namely, that during sunshine they rose to the surface of the water, while 1‘Edin. New Phil. Jour.,’ 1828; ‘Ann, d. Sci. Nat.,’ 1829, p. 218. 1885-86. ] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 277 at sunset they sank, and it was suggested that the evolution of gas might have something to do with the movement.! As a result of a chemical examination of meteoric masses carried out by Zimmermann in 1821, after an appearance of blood-rain, the coloration was ascribed to a peculiar substance of doubtful nature, which was named Pyrrhin. The importance of the red colour produced by adding silver nitrate to amber containing organic matter was also pointed out by physicists ; while Hermbstiidt and Berzelius were inclined to recognise the existence of a transitory substance in sea-water, produced by the decomposition of organic bodies. Witting,” on the other hand, regarded the redness to be the result of the union of carbo-hydrates with water. To G. von Esenbeck the somewhat poetical idea held by some, that in the atmosphere a workshop of living forms was to be met with, appeared trivial; while the operation of certain physical factors referred to by others was to be kept under due bounds. All the blood-like appearances were to be looked upon as due to siliceous earth, or even oxide, or to grains of pyroxene and augite. F. von Esenbeck, brother of the observer last noted, again re- cognised the part played by infusoria in producing the red colour of water, and the organism believed to be the direct cause was named Enchelys sanguinea. Its colour was due to the presence of an in- ternal, brownish-red, granular mass; the ends of its body were transparent, the anterior being truncated and the posterior pointed. Ehrenberg now recorded the effect produced by Oscillatoria major, or a nearly allied species, in colouring water; while Bory sometimes observed, by aid of the microscope, a circulation of the colouring matter in the filaments. At Cairo, in Egypt, Ehrenberg, in 1823, found red spots which he ascribed to a fungus, Sarcoderma sanguineum ; while the small fungus, Geocharis nilotica, was also found in a highly coloured condition on the banks of the Nile. At Siut, in Upper Egypt, in 1821, stagnant water was found to be coloured red by Spheroplea annulina, Ag. While in 1823, the Red Sea, near Tor, was tinged by, for the most part, dark-red organisms, which proved to be Oscillatorize enclosed in mucilage, and were named Trichodesmium erythreum. Again, in Siberia, in 1829, Ehren- berg found a marsh coloured red by the presence of an infusor, Cercaria viridis (Miiller). In the sea, especially in tropical or subtropical localities, the existence in clear blue water of streaks of green or brownish-red colour occurring in the same locality are not unfrequent. The existence of floating masses of living Diatoms especially bring about this appearance—e.g., Rhizosoleniz, Chzetocerotide, and 1 “Mem. de la Soc. de Phys. et d’Hist. nat. Genéve,’ vol. iii. p. 30; Ehrenberg in ‘ Poggend. Ann d. Phys. et Chemie,’ p. 130. 2 © Archiv. d. Apothek. Vereins in nordl. Deutschl.,’ Bd. ix., p. 215. 278 Transactions of the [Sess. Coscinodisci; while it cannot be doubted that the presence of often brilliantly coloured crustacean larve aid in producing the same result. The fact is no less significant, that although these streaks are often apparently on the very surface in daylight, careful appli- ances will fail to collect them. If, however, the collecting-net be sunk some fathoms, an abundance of material of the desired kind will be procured. It is also important that, with due precautions, these floating masses may—for example, in the vicinity of an iso- lated rock—be made the means of arriving at an approximate idea of the velocity of ocean currents, about which so little, it must be acknowledged, is yet known with precision. JII—THE RED DEER (CERVUS ELAPHUS). By Mr SYMINGTON GRIEVE, PReEsIpEnt. (Read Nov. 20, 1885.) Ir has been most difficult for me to decide upon a subject for my address to you to-night. I am well aware that you naturally ex- pect me to discourse to you upon some theme that will prove of general interest, and it has been in that very fact that my principal difficulty has arisen. Most of the localities at which I have carried on investigations are so distant from Edinburgh, that I suppose very few of you have visited them; and without having been there, it can hardly be expected that you should have that special inter- est which makes one an enthusiastic listener even when a subject is somewhat dry. It is therefore not without considerable doubt in my own mind that I have resolved to read to you to-night some notes on Red Deer, suggested by incidents and observations made during a trip to the Deer-forest of the island of Rum, one of the Hebrides, in July 1884. I need not tell you of our voyage to Rum in the good steamer Hebridean, as many a voyage of greater length, and accompanied by more stirring adventures, has been told before. Suffice it to say we arrived at Loch Screresort early one morning, and were soon landed at a substantial stone quay, from which we found our way to Kinloch, the proprietor’s house, situated about half a mile distant, at the head of the loch. When we got time to look about us, we found that Kinloch was situated at the entrance to a valley that stretched away westwards for some miles. To the south the cluster of grand mountains that make Rum such a conspicuous object in the landscape from most points of the western mainland and islands, reared up their heads to 1885-86. ] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 279 heaven. It is this south-eastern corner of Rum that is the Deer- forest, though the Deer find their way more or less all over the island. The greater part of Rum is let as a sheep-farm, and dur- ing the summer the proprietor puts a number of sheep also into the forest, as there is sufficient grazing for both them and the Deer; but in the winter time the sheep are withdrawn. I was several days on the island, climbing the mountains and wandering over the Deer-forest, without having seen even one of these ani- mals; and I naturally began to think that there must be some mistake about the Deer. I mentioned my doubts to some of the inhabitants, who assured me that I would yet see plenty of the big game, and added that I must have been near many of them without having discovered their presence. On the sixth day after landing I arranged with a shepherd to ascend Aisge-meal (pro- nounced Askzval), the highest and most inaccessible peak of Rum. We attempted the ascent from the eastern side, a point from which the shepherd had never reached the summit before; but by assisting each other from ledge to ledge, we at last found ourselves at the top. We were taking a rest on the sharp ridge after our climb, and were scanning the depths of the vast corrie that lies immediately to the west of Halival and Aisge-meal. I expressed to my companion the intense joy I felt at having an opportunity of looking on such rugged grandeur, and casually remarked on the absence of Deer in such a likely spot for them to frequent. He at once said, ‘‘I am sure there are plenty of Deer in the corrie, but they will be lying down.” He then began to halloo at the top of his voice, and in a minute or so said to me, “See, there they go!” But though I looked in the direction he pointed out, I at first could see nothing but the rugged mountain-side, with patches of verdure and masses of broken rock. At last I saw one Stag spring up from the ground, and, watching him closely, observed that he joined some others, and then I noticed in front of them quite a procession of Hinds. This was my first view of the wild Deer of Rum. It was a distant one, however, as we were at an altitude of 2659 feet, while the Deer were at least half a mile off, and were on ground not more than 500 feet above sea-level. The next day I had a much closer acquaintance with one of the mon- archs of the forest, and I cannot say I felt quite at ease when we met. I had been fishing one of the numerous tarns, and, with the intention of testing the fishing capabilities of another, had just started to cross an intervening ridge of rising ground. I had only got a short distance on my way when suddenly there sprang up, from a slight hollow in front of some rocks, a splendid Stag with antlered head. The wind was rather high, and was blowing in my face, so the Stag had neither heard nor scented my approach until Iwas almost upon it. When it first rose it turned its head to- 280 Transactions of the [Sess. wards me; then instinctively it put itself in an attitude of defence, and stood at bay. I made a slight advance, waving my fishing- rod in front of me, but instead of running away the brute seemed rather inclined to advance, and I expected the next moment to have a fight for life. If it did charge, I felt the mounted fishing- rod would be next to useless as a weapon of defence; and as the antlers of the deer were free of velvet, I knew the consequences might be rather serious for me. To run was out of the question, so I stood my ground and kept waving the fishing-rod in front of me. Gradually this had the desired effect, for the Stag moved slowly off to the left a few yards, stopped, had another look at me, then leisurely scrambled up the rugged ascent a short distance, and turned round once more. Something about my appearance seemed to make him decide not to prolong our meeting, and to my intense relief he made a sudden dash over the crest of the hill, and was out of sight. I followed, and presently caught sight of him rushing down the glen with several Hinds in his company. After this I had no unpleasant rencontres with the Deer, but saw num- bers of them every day during my excursions. Pennant, who visited Rum in July 1769, mentions that the Stags are sometimes attacked by Eagles and killed. He says: “These animals [the Red Deer] once abounded here, but they are now re- duced to eighty by the Eagles, who not only kill the Fawns but the old Deer, seizing them between the horns and terrifying them till they fall down some precipice and become their prey.”* One would almost doubt the accuracy of such a statement were it un- supported, even though Pennant is such a trustworthy authority ; but the following notice of an attack upon a Stag by an Eagle which appeared in the ‘Scotsman’ newspaper for 11th December 1884, seems to my mind to give the best possible reason for credit- ing Pennant’s statement. A Strathglass correspondent says :— «« A few days ago a singular struggle was witnessed on the lower portion of Corrie-Mor, at a short distance above Glassburn House, between a large and powerful Eagle and a finely antlered Stag. The king of birds was watched for some time as he hovered about on high above a herd of Deer, which ap- peared to possess particular attractions for him. The noble bird was slowly descending as he majestically sailed round in his aerial circles, and by degrees getting nearer to his coveted quarry. At last reaching the striking distance, he suddenly came to a halt in mid air, and, poising himself on outspread wings, he seemed for a few seconds perfectly motionless. Then, like a bullet from a rifle, he swooped down, and in an instant his powerful talons were firmly fixed in the back of a fine large Stag. The monarch of the glen plunged about in the wildest possible manner, evidently in great terror and pain, the Eagle holding on grimly, belabouring the Stag’s sides all the while with heavy blows from its wings, and, when opportunity offered, making 1¢A General Collection of Voyages and Travels.’ By Thomas Pennant, Esq. London: 1772. Vol. iii., p. 313. COB Os eee rrl—C SES”, tt te? hi 1885-86. ] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 281 desperate darts with its beak at the eyes of the frightened Deer. By this time the poor Stag’s brown sides were red and gory, and, notwithstanding its frantic efforts, he could not disengage himself from his strong and cruel foe. At last, seeming to discover that his antlers could reach his savage enemy, he commenced raking fore and aft with them in the most vigorous manner, until he managed to send the Eagle sprawling in the heather. The Stag had gallantly freed himself; but he had not bounded far when his fierce assailant, recovering from his discomfiture, was again on the wing, and in full chase, and in a few seconds down he came again, and firmly fixed his powerful claws in the Deer’s haunches, so far back as to be out of reach of the antlers. Again the struggle was renewed, the Hagle meanwhile tearing at the victim’s flesh with his strong bill, and burying his talons still deeper into his haunches. The poor Stag was now very much exhausted, and was evidently getting the worst of it, as he could not touch the Eagle with his antlers. At this junc- ture, as if in despair, the Stag commenced to tumble about, throwing him- self on the ground, and rolling over down-hill; but still the Eagle seemed incapable of letting go its tenacious grip. The Stag then put his head down between his fore-legs, throwing himself clean over—heels over head—seyeral times. It was indeed a wild, a wonderful, and a most unusual sight. The Stag’s efforts were at last successful, and getting clear of his murderous enemy, he galloped off. “