'/^aHaaa, ^gyi '-^'^ ':'f;^-•^:■R^/^FA^>|^ ^"^^, -. -^ /v '^ 'i^f^mmrs i A ^. ^ _ --N ^' ■ .\^Ar^r'^^'\r\r\' ] ^^ f^ r, r. r\ ,^ ^rif^ MeSSSi mf\f\, ■l" a e._ f^ ^^m^fMh^^'^ ^^:%iv^A.^P .^-^^^^^^ '^^'k'^^':.;^r^-^A' ItOJmM mmi W hA^0Ai'3fe^;. A, :b^^^^%^M ^^S^*' R^A^^- 1 TEANSACTIONS OF THE tfbiiikrgl] i^atwralists' Jfiefo Clut Soft shadows flit across the wintry sky, And dawn is breaking thro' the mists of night, As Spring returns, robed ia immortal light, To bid the darkness and the tempest fly. Sweet, o'er the meadows and the valleys, lie A thousand smiles, to charm our longing sight, As Hawthorn buds appear in virgin white, And fields are clad in Primrose panoply. Oh, woodlands fair ! oh, valleys decked with gold ! We fain would linger 'mong the blooming flowers. Where myriad songsters on the branches sing, And all their music, with its joy untold, Now thriUs impassioned thro' the vernal bowers, To welcome thee, oh, fair eternal Spring ! — Minnie M'Kean. TEANSACTIONS OF THE ^Miiburglj IliitEraiisb* Jficllr CIiil) SESSIONS 1881-86 VOLUME I. USRART NEV/ YORK BOTAr'x'lC/'k.L GARDEN ^rintclj f0r tl^e Club bg WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS MDCCCLXXXVI Mel. I Z' \ \ CONTENTS. SESSION 1881-82. PAGE Introdtjctoky Note, 1 I. How we Spent the 30th July 1879 in the Wilds of Kilmonivaig and North-west Badenoch. Mr S. Grieve, .... 3 II. Note on the Habits of the Spotted Flycatcher (Miiscicapa grisola). Mr A. B. Herbert, 8 III. Bones and Shells taken from a Kitchen-midden on Inchkeith during 1881. Mr T. B. Sprague, 12 IV. The probable Effects of a change of Elevation on the Flora of a Country. Mr W. Tait Kinnbar, . .... 14 V. Notes of a Botanical Ramble in the Saentis district, Switzerland, August 1881. Mr G. Bird, ....... 19 List of AnimaL Parasites shown by Mr J . Simpson, ... 23 VI., The Haunts and Habits of the Crossbill {Loxia curvirostra). Mr A. Craio, jun., 24 VII. Note on the Wall-Creeper {Tichodroma Phcenicoptera) and a few other Birds observed on a Visit to Switzerfand. Mr A. B. Herbert, 30 VIII. Note on the Mouth-organs of Insects. The Secretary, . . 33 IX. Mimetic Plants. Mr J. Lindsay, 33 , X. Acotyledons, Monocotyledons, and Dicotyledons : their Morph- ology and Physiology. Mr W. Lund IE, . . . . . 39 XI. Note on the Roosting of the Peregrine Falcon on the Spire of St Mary's Cathedral, Edinburgh. Mr R. Stewart, S.S.C, . 44 i SESSION 1882-83. I^ Notes on the Nomenclature of British Mosses. Mr J. Walcot, 45 II. On a Specimen of Gyracanthus obtained from the Carboniferous Limestone series at Burgh Lee. .Mr T. Stock (CommMmicaietZ), 50 Annual Business Meeting, 52 III. Eestalrig Church : A Monograph. Mr T. A. Douglas Wood, . 53 IV. Some Notes on Remains of the Great Auk or Garefowl {Alca inipennis, L. ) found in excavating an ancient Shell-Mound in Oronsay. Mr S. Grieve, 58 V VI Contents. V. On a Specimen of the Poisonous Lizard of Mexico [Heloderma horrida, Weigmann). Mr R. J. Harvey Gibson, M.A., . 62 VI. Bees and Bee-Culture. Mr A. B. Herbert, .... 62 VII. List of a few Ferns and Fern Varieties collected chiefly in the parish of Kilmalcolm, Renfrewshire, 1881-82. Mr Stewart Archibald, 78 VIII. Note on the continued Flowering of the Male Flowers of Ana- charis alsinastrum. Mr W. Tait Kinnear, .... 81 IX. The Haining, Selkirk : with Notices of its Antiquities, Top- ography, and Natural History. Mr J. Lindsay, . . . 82 X. Pitlochry and its Bird-Life. Mr A. Craig, jun., ... 87 XI. The Pentland Skerries. Mr T. M. Cruickshank, . . . - 97 XII. An April Trip to South Ronaldshay. Mr R. Thomson, LL.B., 97 XIII. A Gossip about Pets. Mr R. Stewart, S.S.C, .... 97 XIV. Shap Spa and its Surroundings. Mr J. Walcot, . . .104 XV. Specimens of Lizards from S. America. Mr P. B. Gibb, M.A., . 107 XVI. A Day's Ramble in the Northern Part of the Island of Arran. Mr W. L MacAdam, F.C.S., F.I.C., 107 XVII. On the Cathcart Ether Freezing Microtome. Mr Alex. Frazer, M.A., 112 XVIII. Notes on Spring Vegetation as observed at Morningside. Mr G. L. Brown, 114 XIX. Geological Notes on a few of the Excursions. Miss Craigie, . 115 Obituary Notice, 118 SESSION 1883-84. I. The Hirundines. Mr A. B. Herbert, 119 II. Note on a Rabbit killed by a Weasel. Mr R. Stewart, S.S.C, 127 III. A New Method of taking Impressions of Leaves. Mr J. Turn- bull (Communicated), . 129 IV. The Stoat or Ermine Weasel {Mustela erminea). Mr R. Scot Skirting, 130 V. Concerning Lycopods and Selaginellas : Past and Present. Mr J. Lindsay, 136 VI. The Sylviidse or Warblers. Mr A. Craig, jun., . . . 143 VII. On the Structure and Pollination of the Flower of Calathea zebrina. J. M. Macfarlane, D.Sc. 150 VIII. Note on the Mounting of Microscopic Objects in Monobromide of Naphthaline. Mr W. L MagAdam, F.C.S., F.LC, . . 151 IX. The Structure and Habits of Carnivorous Plants. ' Mr A. D. Richardson, 151 X. Note on the Nest of the Reed- Warbler {Salicaria aruiidinacea). Mr A. B. Herbert, 162 XI. Some American Plants worth Notice. Mr M. King, . . .163 XII. Note on the Westward Migration of the Flora and Reptilian Fauna of the European Continent, as evidenced on the Main- land of Scotland, &c. Mr S. Grieve, 166 XIII. Animal and Vegetable Symbiosis or Consortism. Mr J. Rattray, M.A., B.Sc, . . 172 Contents. vn XIV. The Nuthatch {Sitta cioropcca), Mr A. B. Herbert, Meetings of Microscopic Section, Annual Business Meeting, 184 186 187 SESSION 1884-85. I. Field-Naturalists. Mr A. B. Herbert, President, . . .189 II. Note ou the Distribution of Honey-Glands in Pitchered Insectiv- orous Plants. Mr J. Lindsay, 200 III. Note on the Appearance of the Saury Pike in the Forth. Mr A. B. Herbert, President, 202 IV. The Commoner Buntings {Emherizidw). Mr A. Craig, jun., . 202 V. The Hymenomycetes. Mr A. B. Steele, 211 VI. On Yews, with special Reference to the Fortingall Yew. Mr J. Lindsay 218 VII. Who were the early Inhabitants of the Shell-mound named Caisteal-nan-Gillean, on Oronsay ? Mr S. Grieve, . . 227 VIII. Sketch of the Geology of the Pentlands. Mr J. Henderson, . 234 IX. Diatoms. Mr J. Rattray, M.A., B.Sc 238 X, Note on the Genus Lamium. Mr M. King, .... 250 XI. List of the Less Common Plants gathered at the Excursions during 1884, with Localities, The Secretary, . . . 254 XII. Note on the Squirrel (Sciurus europceus). Mr J. Thomson {Com- rmcnicatcd), .......... 257 Meetings of Microscopic Section, — 260 Improved Forms of Ether and Imbedding Microtomes. Mr Alex. Frazer, M.A. (luith Illustrations). Photo-Micrography. Mr Wm. Forgan. Annual Business Meeting, 265 SESSION 1885-86. I. IL III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIIL IX. X. XL Opening Addi-ess. Mr S. Grieve, President, ... The Organic Causes of the Coloration of Water, &c. Mr J Rattray, M.A., B.Sc, The Red Deer (Cervus elaijhus). Mr S. Grieve, President, On the Structure and Pollination of the Flowers of Sarracenia J. M. Macfarlane, D.Sc, F.R.S.E., .... The Rarer Birds of Stobo. Mr J. Thomson {Communicated), The Fungus Foray in Roslin Glen. Mr A. B. Steele, Discovery of the Water - Spider {Argyroneta aquatica) near Balerno. Mr A. B. Herbert, List of the Less Common Plants gathered at the Excursions during 1885, with Localities. The Secretary, On the Objects and Methods of Meteorology. Mr Alex. Frazer M.A., Veronicas in the Neighbourhood of Edinburgh. Mr M. King, The Ring and Water Ousels ; Craig, jun., . their Homes and Habits. Mr A 269 273 278 286 288 294 297 298 299 300 304 viii Contents. XII. Notes on Marine Excursions — I. Granton. Mr J. Lindsay, ' . 312 II. Joppa. Mr J. Allan, . . • 315 XIII. Natural Endo-skeleton and Exo-skeleton of American Bull-frog {Ccratophrys cornuta). Mr D. Knight, 317 XIV. Abnormal Growths on Root of Taxodium distichum. Mr H. Feasee 318 Meetings of Miceoscopic Section,— 319 On the Progress of Microscopical Eesearch. The President. Notes on Microscope Objectives. Mr W. Porgan. The Tongue of the Blow-fly in relation to its Food. Mr J. D. Murray. On an Improved Form of Centering Nosepiece, for use with Brooke's Double Nosepiece for Microscope. Mr A. Frazer, M.A. On a Simple Form of Self-centering Turntable for Ringing Microscopic Specimens. Mr A. Frazer, M. A. On an Improved Sliding Nosepiece and Adapter for the Microscope; Mr J. M. TURNBULL. Annual Business Meeting, 337 Index, 339 Lists of Membees, 1881-86, . . . • ' • • • i-^^ 03nAUT BOTANICAL GARDEN TEANSACTIONS. INTRODUCTORY NOTE. nnHE Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club was instituted in 1869 for the practical study of Natural History in all its branches. For a number of years the work of the Club was carried on by a series of field-meetings only — held princi- pally during the months of May, June, and July. It was then thought that it would be for the interests of the Club to hold a series of evening meetings during the winter months, at which papers bearing on the work of the Club in the field and otherwise might be read and discussed. At the annual meeting of the Club in November 1879, it was agreed to hold such evening meetings, which were at once arranged for, and met with a large measure of success. The resolution to publish Transactions not having been adopted till November 0/ 1881, it has been thought desirable to put on record a list 0. of the papers read, and objects in Natural History exhibited, r at the meetings during the two previous Sessions. SESSION 1879-80. " Colonsay." By Mr Symington Grieve, " Recollections of Sutherlandsliire." By Mr Arch. Craig, jun. '■'■ A collection of British Mosses " made by Mr Grieve during 1879. VOL. I. A 2 Introductory Note. "A small collection of British Birds and their Eggs." By Mr Craig, jiTn. '' A collection of British Butterflies." By Mr Moffat, Secretary. " Duddingston and Trinity College Church plates, and a series of old Communion Tokens." By Mr W. Ivison Macadam. " Notes on the rarer plants of the Lomonds and Pentlands, with specimens." By Mr P. B. Gibb. " On Mosses : illustrated with diagrams." By Mr Moffat, Secretary. " Note on the breeding of the Siskin in Scotland." By Mr Arch. Craig, jun. ^' The Cliffs and Caves of Colonsay, and some things they teach regarding Britain, past, present, and future." By Mr Symington Grieve. " The first decade of the Club, and how to render its work more profitable." By Mr John Walcot, President. « qi The Natural History of Islay." By Mr E. Scott Skirving. SESSION 1880-81. " Dumfries and Criffel." By Mr John Walcot, President. " The Scenery and Bird-life of Glen Urquhart, Inverness-shire : with specimens." By Mr Arch. Craig, jun. " Notes on a Botanical Trip to Ben Lawers in August 1880 ; illustrated with specimens of the plants gathered." By Mr George Bird. " Insects." By Mr Moffat, Secretary. "Eemarks on a Floral Plan of Ben Lawers." By Mr John Sadler. " Craigmillar : a Eeminiscence — Historical and Descriptive." By Mr T. A. Douglas Wood. '■'■ British Ferns : their Structure and Classification. Illustrated by a collection of British Ferns and by microscopic preparations." By Mr John Lindsay. " The use of the Spindle and Whorl by the fishing classes of Scotland." By Mr W. Ivison Macadam. " Glen Lyon : its Scenery and Antiquities — embracing notices of its curious circular forts." By Mr Arch. Craig, jun. *' Some characteristics of the study of Natural Science." By Mr John Walcot, President. The interest of the meetings during 1880-81 was much enhanced by the admirable series of preparations shown under the microscope by Mr James Simpson. I.— HOW WE SPENT THE 30th JULY 1S79 IN THE WILDS OF KILMONIVAIG AND NORTH-WEST BADENOGH. By Mr SYMINGTON GRIEVE. {Ecad Oct. 20, 1881.) TF you can do with climbing and plenty hard walking, and wish ■^ to spend a pleasant holiday among the mountains, our advice is — visit Moy Farm. You reach it by taking the train to Kingussie on the Highland railway, and thence the Fort William coach, which passes Moy, and always waits a few minutes to change horses and let the passengers have some refreshment. We have made this place our headquarters more than once when away for a holiday. But we shall only write of one memorable day's outing, when the writer had with him two companions. We took the coach as it was going from Fort William to Kin- gussie, and about nine o'clock in the morning were set down at the entrance to Aberairder Glen. The weather was magnificent ; the scenery almost unequalled for beauty. The hum of insects and the song of birds, the sound of the rippling waters breaking against the shores of Loch Laggan, and the tumultuous roar of mountain tor- rents, betokened that all nature was revelling in the suusliine of another day. No wonder that we felt able for any amount of fatigue when we had such surroundings — especially when braced by the exhilarating mountain air of Badenoch. The rugged path took us up past Aberairder Farm, and into the glen among woods of Birch, Oak, and Hazel. The branches of the trees hung with festoons of beautiful Mosses, one of the most attractive being Ayiti- trichia curtipendula, Brid., which was in fine fructification ; while under foot were dense cushions of Racomitrium heterostichum and R. lanuginosum, Brid., variegated here and there with patches of Iceland and Reindeer Moss [Getraria islandlca and Gladonia rangi- ferlna). And occasionally we came across the cone-shaped heaps of dried and broken twigs that marked the formicarias of the wood ant [Formica rufa). These little insects, always busy, may sometimes prove of use to the naturalist if he wishes to prepare the skeleton of a bird, fish, or any small animal. He has only to leave the dead body on one of these ant-hills, and he will find his 4 Transactions of the [Sess. object very soon attained, and the work done as well as if tlie speci- men had been placed in the hands of the most skilful taxidermist. Emerging from the wood, we enter upon a stretch of moorland and morass, and here find the Cloudberry {Rubus ChamcBmorus, L.) ; and after a hard walk at last reach Loch Cor Arder, which nestles in a deep dark corrie with tremendous cliffs at its upper end, which vary in height from 1400 to 1600 feet. The whole scene was im- pressive,— the silent grandeur of the mountains that towered above us to such a height, and yet seemed so near ; the dark waters of the loch, the one moment calm, the next furrowed by a sudden gust of wind ; while the breeze wailed as it passed along the face of the cliffs, seeming to betray the presence of some great unseen spirit. The wild flowers that dotted the beach bordering upon the shores of the loch attracted our attention, and the beautiful white blooms of the hairy Alpine Mouse-ear Chickweed [Cerastium alpinum, L.) and the cream-coloured corollas of the Mossy Saxifrage [Saxifraga hypnoides, L.), blending with the darker background of moss and rock, lit up to some extent the sombre picture. The time had now arrived for lunch, and appetised by the exer- tions we had undergone, combined with the pure air that acted as the best of tonics, we sat down upon a knoll, the grass on which was interlaced with the trailing stems of the common Club-moss [Lycopod'mm clavatum, L.) ; and as we rested we watched the wary but voracious Trout rising on the surface of the loch, as they pur- sued the unsuspecting flies that either glided along close to the water or rested upon the transparent element, from whose bosom they had so shortly before sprung into life. Our repast ended, we got up our fishing-rod and soon captured some dozens of nice Trout, ■ — very lively on the line, but small in size, most of them averaging about ten to the pound. The best flies, we found, were those with Teal Drake wings and orange worsted bodies, with a spiral band of gold tinsel — hooks ordinary loch size. When we started upon our excursion, it was our intention, after reaching Loch Cor Arder, to return the way we had come, and get the coach back to Moy as it went westwards in the afternoon ; but tempted by the weather, we determined to ascend through a gully named Aberairder Window to the summit of Creag Meaghaidh (pronounced Craig Meggy), a moun- tain 3700 feet in height. To climb this gully — which presents the appearance of its having been the place where two mountains were rent asunder, and the intervening chasm partially filled in with their debris — was rather difficult and dangerous. The ascent is very steep, and over loose rocks that are poised against each other in such a way that to move one caused a sympathetic movement among others ; and one false step might mean broken limbs, or something even worse. But we made the ascent of 1500 feet with- out mishap — the only unpleasant experience met with being the 1 88 1 -82.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 5 effluvia tliat emanated from the carcasses of sheep that had fallen from the ledges of the cliffs, and testified, by tlieir shattered ap- pearance, to the dreadful fall to which they had been subjected. Near the summit we came upon a patch of Moss Campion [Silene acauUs, L,), but only got a few specimens in flower ; and a little higher up the Parsley Fern [Allosorus crispus, Bernh.) is met with in great abundance — some of the plants growing np through the half- melted snow. At last we reach the ledge, and find that the sides of the Window are formed by the opposite cliffs of the upper part of the chasm. The lintel is awanting, but tlie ledge is composed of masses of rock that have here fallen in a kind of ridge across the gully ; and behind this there is a deep basin, which is always filled with snow. To cross its immaculate surface seemed rather hazard- ous, as a descent into its depths would have cooled our ardour ; so it did not astonish us that our companions were inclined to hold back. But having had an opportunity of testing its bearing powers the previous day, we were able to assure them there was no danger, and at length the advance was begun. We at once discovered that the snow was only soft on the top, while underneath was quite hard ; and all fears were so soon forgotten that we indiilged in the delightful but unusual pastime of a snowball fight on the 30tli July. It was in Loch Cor Roy, which lies at the foot of a great cliff about the third of a mile to the nortli-west of this, that we caught some specimens of the Salmo alpimis, or Alpine Char, on a previous occa- sion. This rare fish is found in very few other lochs in Britain, and the specimens now in the British Museum are from Loch Cor Roy. Having crossed the snow-basin, we continued a short distance westwards, then turning abruptly to the left began to ascend the shoulder of the mountain to the south-east, with the object of reach- ing the top of the cliffs that rise out of the corrie in which lies Loch Cor Arder. But when we approached the brink, intending to look over, the abyss seemed so dreadful that we shrank back from the attempt. We had been at this spot at various times, but had never seen it so clearly in all its loneliness. The contrast only served to impress upon us the impossibility of conveying an adequate idea of the change that comes over the scene in time of storm, when the mountain is wrapped in a thin mist that gathers more densely in the hollows, and the white vapour that fills Cor Arder is wrought into weird and fantastic forms by the wind, which hisses like a myriad of vipers as it dashes over the cliff", causing the mist to seethe as if it were the steam rising from a caldron ; while from far down in the hidden dej)ths of the corrie rise the sounds of the dashing waters of miniature cascades, like the cry of a multitude in distress, that conjure up within the mind a purga- torial picture well worthy of a place in Dante's Inferno. It was now nearly four o'clock in the afternoon, and as we are to 6 Transactions of the [Sess. ascend to the top of the mountain we must be on our way ; so turn- ing our backs upon the corrie we face westwards, and proceed for about half a mile over ground that gradually ascends, leading to- wards the Sappers' Cairn, that crowns the highest elevation. The whole heath was blackened by the frosts, while the snow that had lain all winter was still to be foimd in patches ; and to the north side of the ridge was a great drift that rested on the upper part of a small glacier, whose face, exposed to the sun, had been melted out into small grottos that might have been the vestibules to a fairy palace. But we had no time for examining those strange sights, worthy of hyperborean regions ; the cry is, '' First to the top ! " and we push panting on, and, notwithstanding our effort, fail to make up on one of our companions, who had got a consider- able start ; but, with a final rush, we touch the cairn, and out of breath gladly sink down upon one of the large stones that compose its base. It took us a few moments to recover from our exertion ; but when we were able to look around us, the view that met our gaze from the position, 3700 feet above sea-level, was magnificent and impressive. The sun, sinking towards the west, was casting across the glens the dark shadows of the mountain outlines, that ever seemed to be ascending as the orb of day went lower in the firmament. But at various points the oblique rays struck the waters of some Highland loch or small mountain tarn, transforming its dark surface into the appearance of a sheet of burnished gold ; while the lower hills were irradiated with the beautiful hue of blue that told of the bursting bloom of the Heather [Calluna vulgaris). In every direction the mountains rose up from glens in all the glory of their ruggedness, displaying upon their sides variegated colours that were the shadow of the corrie or the tints of Heath, Moss, or Heather ; while here and there the white streak that looked like a line of white quartz-rock defined the course, and marked the cascades, of the foaming torrent. Away to the south, from east to west, could be seen the mountains of the southern Highlands, with Ben Cruachan raising its mighty peak like a hoary sentinel. To the north, almost beneath our feet, under the precipitous cliif crowned by the summit of Creag Meaghaidh, lay the Lochan Uaine ; and beyond were the wilds of Kilmonivaig and bleak Corryarrick, where Prince Charlie and the clans fortified them- selves in 1745. The background to this view was the snow- crowned head of Mealfourvounie ; and in the far distance we thought we could distinguish the top of Ben Wyvis. To east or west we could almost see across Scotland. In the one direc- tion were the mountains that line either side of Strathdee, while in the opposite was the massive brow of Ben Nevis, and far down in the hollow at its foot the glittering waters of Loch Eil — the bold outlines of the mountains of Ardnamurchan and Ardgour, standing 1 88 1 -82.] EdinburgJi Naturalists' Field Chib. 7 out against the sky, completing the picture. But while gazing in admiration on this scene we forget that time goes on, and that wo have a long walk ere we arrive at our destination. We have hardly- started before our attention is attracted by a very dark patch of ground, which we find studded over with dwarf plants of the Starry Saxifrage {Saxifraga stellaris^ L.) without any flowering stems, the flowers being imbricated among the leaves ; while alongside grows the Dicranum Starkii, W. & M., with its hoary diaphanous foliage. We now turn to the south along the shoulder of the mountain, and go almost in a straight line for about three-quarters of a mile, when we come upon a tract where the soil was composed of finely broken quartz ; and here we found perhaps the rarest plant of this district — the Alpine Stitchwort [Stellaria cerastoides, L.), which, with its trailing stems and white flowers, was in striking contrast with tlie ground we had just come over. The descent from this point, which is about 3000 feet above sea-level, was very rapid, and we' pro- ceeded down along the right bank of a burn that falls into Moy Water until we arrive at the junction of the two streams at aboiit an altitude of 2000 feet. This part of our journey we found the best for botanising, for here we got the mountain form of the Scurvy-Grass {Cochlearia officinalis^ L.), the Alpine Meadow-Eue [Thalictrum alpinwn, L.), the Least Willow [Salix herbacea, L.) — the smallest native shrub found in Britain. The Yellow Mountain Saxifrage [Saxifraga aizoides, L.) was growing on the wet rocks of the burn, while on the banks that rose on either side grew large plants of the usual form of the Starry Saxifrage (Saxifraga stellaris, L.) ; and here also among the rocks grew the Dwarf Cud-weed [Gnaphalium supinum, L.), and the largest plants we have ever seen of the Fir Club-moss [Lycopodium Selago, L.) From the junc- tion of the two streams the descent was more gradual for about half a mile, but over very rough and boggy ground, that greatly taxed our exhausted energies. The only plants of special interest that we met with were the rather rare Moss, Oligotrichum hercyni- eum, DC), the Alpine Club-moss [Lycopodium alpinum, L.), and the Alpine Lady's Mantle [Alchemilia alpina, L.) which grows in the crevices between the granite boulders all the way down, along the edges of the bed of Moy Water, until it joins the river Spean. In the bog at one place there is a patch of thick peat from which large tree-stumps project, and mark the site of part of the old Caledonian Forest ; but it does not appear that more than clumps of these trees existed, as most of the hillsides are devoid of peat, and very bare. We had gone nearly two miles farther on our way before we found any other plants worth noting, but in a boggy part of the moor we got the two rarer varieties of Sundew [Drosera intermedia., L., and D. anglica, Huds.) These plants are most inter- esting from their carnivorous powers, and have been the subject of 8 Transactions of the [Sess. most careful study by the late Dr Charles Darwin. They are easily grown in a saucer filled with wet Moss, if it is placed in a situation where the air is humid. The hairy appendages with which the leaves are furnished have a minute globule of mucilage at the point of each, and the unwary fly or other insect that comes in contact with these at once adheres, and gradually is absorbed by the plant. The setting sun was gilding the mountain-tops, and the shades of night were falling upon the lower ground, when at last we arrived in sight of our destination. A few minutes more and we were receiving a kindly welcome from those who thought some accident had befallen us, or that we had lost ourselves.-^ A refresh- ing wash, and a cosy tea, soon made us forget our fatigues, and then we all joined in recalling to each other the incidents and adventures of a memorable day in the Wilds of Kilmonivaig and North- West Badenoch.^ II.— NOTE ON THE HABITS OF THE SPOTTED FLYGATGHER (MUSGIGAPA GRISOLA). By Mr A. B. HERBEKT. {Read Oct. 20, 1881.) This bird was evidently a great favourite with Gilbert White of Selborne, who aptly designates it " that most mute and most familiar bird ; " for though it is said to occasionally ntter a faint warble, it has no claim to being a song-bird, and its usual note is a sharp call-note, or perhaps, more properly, cry of alarm, which is generally accompanied by a quick opening and closing of the wings as it sits on some post or dead branch on the look-out for flies and other insects ; and as regards its familiarity, the nest is most commonly placed in a tree trained against our dwellings or garden walls, and I know scarcely any bird which has less fear of mankind. Flycatchers come to us early in May, and leave in August or early ^ Some years ago an English gentleman was lost in this district among the mountains for several days, and at last found his way into Glen Roy, where he received the necessary aid. 2 In addition to the Mosses mentioned, we also got the following : Webera nutans, Schreb. , two varieties; W. Liidwigii, Spreng. , var. elata, Schpr. , growing at spring on north side of tlie summit ; Hi-yum alpinum, L. , lax form ; Grim- mia Hartmanni, Schpr. , abnormal, and dwarf leaf-points distorted ; Dicranum faicatum, Hedw. ; Philonotis fontana, L. 1 88 1 -82.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 9 in September. They are so very local in their habits that they are seldom seen more than about 200 yards from their nesting-place. An instance of this peculiar habit may be observed in the Dean Cemetery, where they breed regularly. You may go to the eastern part of the cemetery again and again and never see them ; but within a hundred yards of the western entrance they are always to be found in the summer months, and their sharp staccato note greets you there at once. As far back as my memory extends, I have been a close observer of the habits of these interesting summer migrants ; for when I was a child, a pair of Flycatchers had their nest year after year in the same branch of a Banksian Rose trained round my bedroom window, and I am quite convinced that the same birds or their young return annually to the same spot for nidification, and somehow there is always associated in my mind with these favourite birds the rich perfume from the clusters of white bloom of the Banksian Eose. ••<. My principal object in writing these remarks on the Flycatcher is to contradict in the most emphatic manner an editorial note to a popular edition of White's ' Selborne,' where this very useful bird is most unjustly libelled as a destroyer of Bees ; and I much fear the erroneous impression conveyed by this note has been the death of many a poor innocent Flycatclier. I had frequently observed the birds follow a Bee, seize it, and then settle on the gravel walk and beat it to death ; but I felt sure the bird with its short beak dare not do this to a ivorlcer Bee on account of its sting, and tliat it must be feeding on the stingless drones — and I determined to ascertain this fact beyond the possibility of doubt. So the next time I saw the bird thus occupied, immediately it settled on the walk I threw a clod of earth and made it relinquish its prey. This I did at various times, and always with the same result — viz., that, as I expected, the insect was invariably a drone, and not a worker Bee. Now the time when the Flycatchers require these fat drones for their young is after the swarming season is over, and then the workers themselves are turning out and destroying the drones, which are no longer necessary in the economy of the hive ; and therefore the birds are assisting the workers instead of destroying them, and are consequently friends, and not enemies, to the bee- keeper. I need scarcely mention that now, 20th October, there are no drones in our bee-hives. Men should hesitate before publishing as facts in Natural History the results of superficial and careless observation. If the writer above referred to had reasoned on the improbability of a short- billed bird catching stinging Bees with impunity, and followed up his investigations, he would not have promulgated this erroneous statement, which, I have no doubt, has been copied into other works, I once saw a Sparrow take a drone from the landing-board 10 Transactions of tJie [Sess. of a hive ; but Sparrows are not enemies to Bees, and I venture to suggest that the Mantuan swain was in error when, in the 4th Georgia, he mentions the Swallow as a destroyer of Bees. Virgil's remark may be literally translated thus — " The bloody-breasted Swallow bears away in her beak the Bees while on the wing, sweet morsels for her merciless young." And I am confirmed in my view by the following remark from a correspondent in the last number of the ' British Bee-Keeper's Journal.' He says : " I saw a Swallow fly up to another which was sitting on a telegraph whe, and put something into its mouth, and then go away ; the other almost immediately dropped what it had received. Noticing that it looked large, I went and examined it, and found it to be a large drone." A writer in the * Field Naturalists' Magazine ' for 1834 also states that, having observed some Swallows seize Bees in passing his hives, he shot them, and on opening them found that although they were literally crammed with drones, there was not a vestige of a working Bee. The Blue Tit [Parus cceruleus) has also been accused of killing worker Bees, but I very much doubt whether any of our short-billed birds dare attack a stinging Bee. Having mentioned the subject of Bees, it may be interesting to manj^ of our members to know that a new Bee to this country has recently been introduced from Cyprus, and called the Cypriote Bee. I saw lately a hive of these near London, and they are extremely pretty insects, and very industrious — much smaller and lighter in colour than the Ligurian or Italian Bees, now so common in our apiaries. The owner of these Cypriotes had them in a bar-framed hive, and kindly took out several frames with the insects clustering on them for my inspection ; but I am sorry to say he gave them a bad character for irritability, and for using their stings at the slightest provocation, being almost as bad in this respect as the little vicious Egyptian Bees. But to return to the subject of my note. The Flycatcher is most usefal in destroying many insects which are injurious to vegetation, and I will mention one species in particular. We often see a white Cabbage Butterfly flitting about, apparently in a most innocuous manner, over a bed of Cauli- flowers or other plants of the Brassica tribe. But watch the insect closely, and if a female, you will observe her settle first on one plant, and then on another, at short intervals. Examine at once the spots where she settled, and you will find small white eggs depos- ited on the leaves. These soon become green grubs, which injure and disfigure the plants — in many instances, where the grubs are numerous, rendering the plants unfit for human food. Now, if you have our friend the Flycatcher in the garden, the Butterfly's career is usually cut short before it has time to do much mischief Her eye is upon it as it comes " over the garden wall," and it is soon seized, its wings bitten off and carried away by the wind, and the 1881-82.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 11 body swallowed or taken to tlie nest. Entomologists may say the insects should be allowed to live ; but many of us will be of opinion that they should at any rate be kept within reasonable bounds, as nature intended, by the birds, and that we prefer the vegetables minus the grubs. Much as I like and value the Flycatchers, truth compels me to admit that they will occasionally give their young a few Red Currants ; but considering the great service they render to the gardener, I never grudged them these, and it is only very rarely that they deviate from their habit of being purely insectivorous. A pair of Flycatchers had their nest for many years in the same fork of a Pear-tree in my garden. There was another nest in an Apricot-tree against the wall, too near the ground to be safe from cats, so in the winter I cut out half a brick higher up to make a suitable nesting-place for my feathered friends on their arrival in the spring. But to my surprise, before the migrants arrived a Eobin took possession of the hole, and had young nearly fledged when the Flycatchers appeared. As soon, however, as the Robins flew, I cleared out the nest, and had the satisfaction of seeing the Flycatchers rear their young in the same hole that summer, and for many consecutive summers afterwards. Many curious places have been chosen by these birds for nidification— for instance, one in the ornamental crown top of a lamp in the office of the Woods and Forests, Whitehall, London ; another in the stove of the late President of the Horticultural Society, who noticed that during incubation, when the thermometer indicated a higher temperature than 72°, tlie bird often left the nest for a considerable interval ; and I once saw a nest on the top of a Cactus in our vicar's con- servatory in England. This Cactus was of very irregular growth, and there was a cavity just under the Flycatcher's nest, in which a Wren built her nest, and the two birds reared their respective young ones in close contiguity in perfect amity. In conclusion, I will merely remark that if these rough notes should in some degree prevent the destruction of birds so useful to both gardeners and farmers, and so interesting in their habits to ornithologists, my object will be attained ; and I trust many will hesitate before they give credence to an accusation so unjustly made against our " most mute and most familiar " little friend, the Spotted Flycatcher. 12 Transactions of the [Sess. III.— BONES AND SHELLS TAKEN FROM A KITCHEN- MIDDEN ON INCHKEITH DURING 1881. Exhibited by Me, T. B. SPRAGUE. {Oct. 20, 1881.) Mr T. B. Sprague exhibited a number of bones and shells he had collected from a kitchen-midden on Inchkeith. The midden is situ- ated on the high ground at the back of Battery No. 2, recently erected on the island, and a good section of it is exposed by the trench which surrounds the battery. The midden is composed principally of shells of the common Limpet [Patella vulgata) and Periwinkle [Littorina littorea), exactly similar to those which are at present found in great quantities upon the rocks of the island. There were also some shells of Purpura kqnllus, and two fragments of Crabs' claws [Cancer Pagurus). The bones collected by Mr Sprague are chiefly those of the grey Seal and of various sea-birds, such as the Solan Goose. There are 148 bones (or portions of bones) of the grey Seal — including 6 rami (no two of which are a pair), 10 humeri, 23 vertebrae (one only of which belonged to an adult animal), 15 fragments of skull, and 22 ribs ; and there are 117 bones (or fragments of bones) of birds. There is one rib of Sheep, 16 fragments of marrow-bones of ruminants — all of which had been broken, apparently for the purpose of extracting the marrow — and one fragment of a large bone of some large animal (Horse ?). One of the bones, a fragment of a Seal's rib, bore a mark which may possibly have been caused by a dog's tooth ; and one of the bones evidently belonged to an individual that was wounded by a flint-headed arrow, but escaped and lived for a considerable time afterwards, before it was actually captured. Professor Turner, who has seen the bones, points out that the ten humeri of Seal belonged to at least six different individuals, of which only one was mature, and suggests that Inchkeith was probably a favourite breeding-place of the Seal at the time the bones accumulated. Mr Sprague stated that in the centre of the midden he found the remains of a fireplace or hearth formed of fi'agments of rock ; and he exhibited two frag- ments of the bones of some ruminant animal, which were rounded at the ends, and appeared to have been used as some kind of rude implement. He did not find any arrowheads or stone implements ; but the midden, of which he only explored a small portion, appeared to cover a considerable extent of ground, and probably would re- ward the labours of other investigators. In the ' Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland ' for 1 88 1 -82.] Edinburgh Naturalists^ Field Club. 13 11th March 1872, there is an accovmt by Mr David Grrieve of a kitchen-midden on Inchkeith examined by him in the year 1870. He says : " The locality is within a gunshot of the landing-pier on the east side, and in the slope or talus inclining from the cliffs to the beach." The bones obtained by him were portions of skull and a cervical vertebra of grey Seal ; eleven bones of Sheep ; one bone of Pig; seven bones of Ox {Bos) ; cannon-bones, parts of jaw, and several teeth of Horse ; jaw-bones and other bones of Eabbit ; also many portions of bones, chiefly of Sheep and Ox (some split). The shells found were^ — Littorina littorea, Patella vul- gata, Buccinum imdatum, Ostrea edulis, Tapes pullastra, Purpura lapillus, Pecten varius, and Pecten maximus. Mr Grieve states that the Rabbit burrows and is in a wild state on the island at present. On Mr Sprague's visit to the island no traces of the Eabbit were to be seen, and it was stated that it had been ex- terminated by the workmen engaged in building the fortifications upon the island. On comparing the lists of bones and shells found by Mr Grieve with those found by Mr Sprague, a very marked difference is observed. Almost all the bones found by the former were those of domestic animals, whereas in those found by the latter a very small number of bones belonged to domestic animals, and the great majority to the grey Seal. Mr Grieve does not appear to have found any bones of birds, whereas Mr Sprague found a large niimber of bones of sea-fowl of different kinds. It seems to be a fair inference that the kitchen-midden examined by the former is of a much later date tlian that examined by the latter — or, at all events, that it was accumulated by men further advanced in civilis- ation, and whose animal food was furnished more by their own domestic animals than by sea-birds and beasts. This conclusion is supported by the shells. Mr Grieve found shells of the Oyster and Scallop, whereas the shells found by Mr Sprague consisted entirely of Limpet and Periwinkle, and other shells which can be obtained in great abundance upon the rocks at low water. Some kind of dredg- ing apparatus is essential to procure the former ; and it seems a fair inference that the men who accumulated the kitchen-midden examined by Mr Sprague had no dredging apparatus svich as must have been possessed by those who accumulated Mr Grieve's kitchen-midden, and to that extent they were in a lower stage of civilisation. 14 Transactions of the [Sess. IV.— TEE PROBABLE EFFECTS OF A CHANGE OF ELEVA- TION ON THE FLORA OF A COUNTRY. By Mk W. TAIT KINNEAE. {Eead 22d Bee. 1881.) The object of the present paper is to throw out a few suggestions as to the results which upheaval or depression might produce on the flora of the district where these operations take place. It must not be forgotten, however, that there are other powerful agencies at work. Man has cut down enormous spaces of forest-land, and has drained huge swamps, thus hastening the work of extermination and introducing new plants. Seeds from distant countries are de- posited in ballast-heaps, and often spread far and near, to the injury of native plants. But most effectual of all, we notice that every plant seems tied down more or less strictly to certain conditions of existence, which in most cases it cannot go beyond. When these conditions change slowly or quickly, it is evident that if the same flora is to remain at that locality, it must adapt itself to the altered conditions : if not, then it must be exterminated by those better fitted to exist there. The processes of upheaval and depression entail so many changes with them, that it is reasonable to think that in past time they have had some effect in modifying our present flora. Any process that changes the habitats of plants must affect the plants themselves. Upheaval changes the marsh into the plain, and the plain into more or less hilly ground. The effects of upheaval are different in different parts of the world. Thus a few hundred feet added to some of the mountains of this country would develop conditions suitable to the growth of an alpine flora. A depression of two thousand feet without a decrease of temperature would exterminate the greater part of an alpine flora from Britain. If, however, a de- crease of temperature accompanied the process of depression, no material effect would take place, for the alpine flora would descend towards the coast. High mountains in the tropics present an epitome of the different zones of vegetation to be found as the traveller moves northwards from the tropics. Agassiz has the following remarks on this point : " The climatic effects of different levels of altitude upon the growth of animals and plants is the same as that of different degrees of latitude ; and the slope of a high mountain in the tropics from base to summit presents in a condensed form an epitome, as it were, of the same kind of gradation in vegetable growth that may be 1 88 1 -82.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 15 observed from the tropics to the arctics." Nature affords several effective means for the distribution of seeds, — either by currents of air or water, birds, or furred animals ; so that if elevation should go on in the tropics, the means are at hand to furnish a flora which shall succeed a tropical flora that cannot ascend beyond a certain limit. To this sub-tropical flora would succeed one characteristic of temperate regions, should circumstances permit. Depression going on to a sufficient extent would produce in a country possess- ing different degrees of elevation a series of islands ; so that if we find a series of islands possessing a similar flora, it is reasonable to think that they may at some previous tinie have been united. A converse process of upheaval going on in an archipelago would convert a number of islands into a continuous belt of land, so that in this case the conditions are favourable for the appearance of a uniform flora. We find at the present day that the means which nature employs for scattering seeds over a large extent of the earth's surface pro- duce effective results. A high wind will scatter the seeds of plants that have lived on hilly ground over the marsh, meadow, and sea- shore. The seeds of maritime plants must often be carried far inland ; while it is needless to speak of the effects which sea-cur- rents produce in conveying seeds from one part of the globe to the other. Thus there is every chance given for an intermixture of plants belonging to different habitats. But in reality, do we, as a general rule, find the marsh plant growing alongside the agrarian weed, or the littoral plant with that of the wood ? Speaking broadly, we do not. If, then, the plants characteristic of lowland districts will not grow in the sea-marsh, what will happen should a tract of level country be turned into a sea-swamp ? If the change be sudden, then there is no doubt but that maritime plants will speedily exterminate all the others. But if the change be very gradual, then there is great reason to think that some, if not all, of the plants which grew on the open level grou.nd may gradually adapt themselves to the new conditions of life. In this way varieties may arise. Some plants would seem to be able to defy extermination. There are several cosmopolitan genera which no change of climate would cause to become extinct. Polygonum amphibium grows in ponds and on dry land. Some plants in this country range from the sea- shore to alpine limits, while others would seem to take a leap from the sea-shore to the mountain, or vice versa. It follows, then, that should the marsh be suddenly elevated and di-ained, those plants which can grow both on moist ground and on dry would not become extinct. Again, the mari- time plants which in this country are found at alpine limits would still continue to exist, even though the sea-line were rapidly ele- vated. To account for the fact of Cochlearia officinalis, Armeria 16 Transactions of the [Sess. niaritima, and Plantago maritima growing at the sea-shore, and then, after an interval, on bleak mountain-tops, is not an easy task. It cannot be said that the conditions of existence at alpine limits are those next favourable for these plants to those conditions in which they live at the sea-shore. Nor do we think the hypothesis that these plants were once universally distributed between the two spots is correct, for it does not seem to us consistent to think that a plant about to be run down in the struggle for existence could retreat to two habitats so entirely distinct. A large number of instances could be given in which we find that the species belonging to a single genus occupy different habitats. Thus in the genus Carex we have species living on the sea-shore, the marsh, and dry ground. The genus Veronica has species to be found in marshy, semi-marshy, dry, and mountainous ground. Other instances will occur to every one. How is it that two plants, the differences between which the botanist only can determine, occupy two habitats so entirely distinct from each other ? Should not two species so similar to each other be able to live one in the habitat of the other? Take two common plants, Veronica Becca- bunga and V. hederEefolia : will the difference between them in the matter of letif-form, or minute difference in the flower, account for the one growing in the marsh and the other on the wayside ? We are inclined to think that it will not. It is a fact that it is a difScult matter to acclimatise alpine plants in gardens ; and it has been proved that the best means of doing so successfully is to save seeds from those alpines which have previously managed to thrive. It is found that the plants which spring from these seeds are better fitted to grow well than the plants from which they were derived. A similar process may go on in nature. Suppose we have two marshes where one plant grows. Suppose also that the one spot very gradually becomes dry land, either through the gradually filling up of the marsh by its own decayed vegetation, or by the drainage, owing to some upheaval, being altered. As we have supposed the change to proceed slowly, there is every reason to think that the plant in question will be able to thrive until the character of its former habitat is entirely changed. Differences in the flower may come about by the unconscious selection by means of insects which have not before visited it. During all this time the same plant may be growing in the marsh which was not in a process of transition into dry land. There is no doubt but that the large number of species belonging to one genus that live under identical conditions may be owing to the variation of one or two original species, through the influence of the struggle for existence. But it seems to us that when we find two species nearly identical with each other inhabiting spots entirely different in character, the cause of this must be owing to some such process as that just 1 88 1 -82.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 17 mentioned. Besides, the researches of Bendant and Plateau have proved that it is possible to accustom fresh-water species to live in the sea, and marine species to live in fresh water. The experi- ments of Schmawkewitch show that "by greatly increasing the saltness of the water, the crustacean Artemia salina became trans- formed in the course of a few generations into the totally dissimilar species Artemia Mulhauseni ; while by the converse process he succeeded in transmitting the latter back again into the former. A stiU more extraordinary circumstance followed the dilution until it was perfectly fresh of the salt water in which Artemia salina lives, for in the course of a few generations the character of that species became so changed that they finally assumed those of a different genus, Branchipus." Can we draw an analogy ? Any two of these crustaceans may have been derived from the other 1;^ the medium in which they lived being altered by natural means, and not by artificial methods as in the experiments. Similarly, one species existing in a habitat in a gradual state of conversion into another may become eventually specifically different from the same plant, which may still exist in some remote part in its original state. Upheaval of tlie sea-bottom in the direction of currents flowing from continents will tend to extend the flora of that continent — at least, of the parts opposite the spot where upheaval has taken place. Thus the Bermudas, lying 800 miles east of the coast of Virginia, and placed in the track of the Gulf Stream, have not a single indigenous plant. They are all similar to those found on the opposite coast of America. A contrary case is that of the Mauritius, lying off the east coast of Africa, which has not a single plant similar to those on the opposite African shore, owing to the fact that no currents are said to run between the two spots. One tropical plant, at least, is known to have been found in a germinating condition on the southern shores of England ; and two American plants, the Anacharis and Mimulus, have lately taken a strong hold in this island. The time during which man has studied nature in an intelligible manner has been so short, that there is no wonder we have not learned wlience many of our native plants have come, and what links in the chain of life have been broken. The direc- tion of sea-currents must be dependent in some measure on the distribution of the land. The present distribution of land and water has not always existed ; and to cite one case only, the de- pression of the land-surface of Britain before the deposition of the Chalk must have been very great. Equally as great is the height to which the secondary rocks of the Alps have been upheaved. If the theory of the Weald be correct, then we once had a river running through Britain as large as the Ganges, and therefore draining a large part of land now covered by the Atlantic Ocean. As islands lying off tlie coast of a continent generally possess a VOL. I. B 18 Transactions of the [Sess. flora similar to the latter, especially if currents run between the two, a cessation of the currents may lead in time to the flora becoming specifically, though not generically, distinct. As the work of upheaval or depression cannot be going on every- where at the same time, it follows that if we find the character of one habitat changing, the plants which grew on it may retire to others which are not changing, provided that means are present for the efiectual transmission of seeds. This migration would be most effectually accomplished among seeds with a pappus, while pond-weeds whose seeds sink to the bottom might have some difficulty in spreading. The principle of migration, if the word is suitable for plants, finds a fitting analogy in paleontology. Be- tween the Chalk and the Eocene there is an enormous break both in geological time and fossil contents. This is correctly explained by supposing that the mammals living at the time of the Weald migrated elsewhere, upon the great depression of land-surface pre- vious to the deposition of the cretaceous rocks, and returned during Eocene times, previous to which a great process of upheaval took place. Australia at the present day has several forms akin to those of Mesozoic times, as the bivalve Trigonia, the Port Jackson Shark, and the Burramunda [Ceratodus Fosteri), all of them gener- ically akin to species long extinct in our islands, which must have betaken themselves thither when they could no longer keep up the struggle for existence here. It is a fact well known to botanists that some alpines are not restricted as to their range of altitude. On the west coast of Scot- land they descend to sea-level. In mountainous districts they are also found almost on a level with the sea-shore, especially if streams running down from higher grounds are present. This fact may either be owing to the excessive rainfall of the west coast, or from the fact that the soil at the sea-shore is the same as that within alpine limits, as all the rocks of the Highlands are metamorphosed Lower Silurians, except the patches of Cambrian rocks in the ex- treme north. From which it is evident that a very considerable depression would not cause some of our alpines to become extinct in certain parts of Scotland, where the moisture and soil are the same as that on mountain-summits. We do not, however, find alpines growing on the sea-coast in the east of Scotland, although the seeds must be carried to sea-levels in some places ; and it would be a curious matter to inquire into, and to ascertain whether, if we had a rainfall on the west coast equivalent to that on the east, and a soil resulting from the disintegration of carboniferous rocks instead of Lower Silurians, we should still find alpines de- scending to the sea-shore. Very probably they would not. 1 88 1 -82.] Edinburgh NaUiralists Field Club. 19 v.— NOTES OF A BOTANICAL RAMBLE IN THE SAENTIS DISTRICT, SWITZERLAND, AUGUST 1881. By Mr GEOEGE BIRD. {Read Dec. 22, 1881.) It is proposed in this paper to give a few notes of a recent trip to Switzerland, with special reference to a botanical ramble in the Saentis district. I was accompanied by our friend and fellow- member, Mr J. C. Keller,! who, while spending his vacation in his Swiss home, kindly undertook to make me acquainted with sonie of the interesting features of his native mountains. Our headquarters during our stay were at Eheineck, in the canton of Appenzell. This flourishing and important village is prettily situated on the banks of the Ehine, which forms at this point the boundary between Switzerland and Austria. The buildings of which Rheineck is composed are substantial edifices, forming several handsome streets, with remarkably pretty suburbs stretching on either side. The industries of curtain and embroidery manufactures are carried on extensively, and the sound of busy shuttles may be heard issuing from many of the larger structures as one passes along. To the rear the ground rises at a considerable incline ; farmhouses and mansions are scattered thickly on every available space, and the banks which slope towards the river are occupied by orchards, where immense quantities of fruit are raised, and where the Vine is cultivated to a great extent. The views from the higher grounds command comprehensive stretches of exquisite mountain scenery ; the Lake Constance — a splendid sheet of water fifty miles in length — lying to the left, while the intervening valley was richly culti- vated with Maize and other products. We botanised in this neighbourhood, examining all the plants that were in flower ; and though we were rather late in the season for the flora generally, what were got were interesting and abundant, none, however, being considered rare, nor differing much from our own flora. The weather was exceedingly warm, and a very noticeable feature was the number of insects to be seen. The Crickets especially were very active, and filled the air with a continual chirping ; while Butterflies of beautiful hues flitted about in greater numbers than one is accustomed to see them with us. A very conspicuous plant everywhere on the roadsides was the Chicory [Cichorium Litybus), 1 We are sorry to have to record that Mr Keller died on the 10th January 1882. 20 Transactions of the [Sess. its blue composite flowers rendering it quite an object of beauty. It seemed generally diffused over Switzerland, at least on the lower levels. In the marshy spots, where reeds were growing very high and rank, the White Water-Lily [Nymphcea alba) was uncommonly plentiful. Having become familiarised with the plants of the district, we completed our arrangements for a ramble on the Saentis, which is the principal mountain-range in the canton of Appenzell. The altitude is from four to eight thousand feet ; the highest point — the Saentis itself — being 8215 feet, or about twice the elevation of our highest mountain in Scotland, — Ben Nevis. As a convenient starting-point we made our way to the town of Appenzell, and on a bright and sunny morning at six we commenced our excursion. Our road followed for some miles the side of a stream which wound down the valley, the rich grassy verdure being clothed with num- bers of our prettiest meadow plants, and bordered by a good deal of small wood, such as Alder, Willow, Ash, and Plane. As we advanced, the valley gradually narrowed, — the mountains towering up on om- left, while on our right a beetling crag, rising steep and high, closed in the river, now a much smaller though still impetuous stream. Far up on the mountain-slopes nestled many a solitary cottage, with its cattle and goats grazing in the adjacent ground. As yet the plants we had met with differed but little from those of a lower level. We had passed large quantities of Aconites, and had picked up Alchemilla alpina (the Mountain Lady's Mantle), one of our favourite Highland plants. Steadily pursuing the path which carried us to the more open pastoral mountain-tops, our plant examination became more interesting. Among the first good " finds " was the Swiss Ehododendron, a purely alpine species. It grows in the form of a bush, and its richly tinted blossoms render it highly attractive. In many parts it is found in great abundance. Thus, in the case of one mountain which we afterwards explored, it literally clothed the rocks, just in the same way our Whin does with us. The Swiss themselves are particularly partial to this plant, and regard it as typical of the alpine region. One of their charming songs commemorates its virtues. The prevailing character of the rocks in the Saentis district is limestone, which, being peculiarly liable to weathering, the moun- tains assume very various conformations, according to the action of the elements upon them. In some cases they presented rounded tops and smooth slopes, while in others there were jagged ridges with abrupt precipices extending for long distances. In many parts frowning chasms, terrible almost to approach or look down, separated one mountain from another; and as you picked your steps along the face of the ridge, an immense depth below inspired a feeling of sublimity and grandeur. It required very careful 1 88 1 -82.] EdinbiirgJi Naturalists Field Club. 21 work searching for plants in such circumstances ; but wlien any good thing was found, one felt rewarded for the trouble. Towards the afternoon we reached Meglis-alp (altitude 4800 feet), a halting-place where pedestrians find tolerably good accommodation at a reasonable rate. This inn or tavern is surrounded by a few other humble huts, principally inhabited by herds who tend the goats and cattle, or are occupied in making cheese. It is the custom to send the cattle to graze in the higher grounds during the summer, and Meglis-alp is one of those pasture-spots where ample herbage and good shelter can be found. The cattle have generally a deep-sounding bell attached to their neck, so that the tinkling of these bells falls not unpleasantly on the ear at every motion of the animal. The moun- tains in the vicinity of Meglis-alp are very lofty, and almost inac- cessible unless to practised climbers. Without, therefore, attemj^ting anything hazardous, we penetrated far up the valley lying between the hills, where vegetation often lingers when the ordinary season is past. In this way we had the gratification of meeting with Soldanella montana, Primula farinosa, &c. It was also interesting to observe in abundance, where some snow had recently melted, strong and vigorous patches of our common marsh-plants, Caltha l^alustris and Veronica Beccabunga. The following morning we rose at one o'clock to continue our ramble to the summit of the Saentis. It was still dark, and by the aid of a lantern we filed out of the valley, up the face of the hill, following a zigzag path, and round the ridges. The road was steep and difficult for some distance, and rendered still more so owing to the uncertain light ; but it was pleasant to feel the cool air, instead of the beating sun we usually experienced during the day. The configuration of the rocks was very wild and grand, with great depths below, and snow-fields in the distance. Very fre- quently there were immense fissures and cracks — unmistakable evidence of what atmospheric influences and water can do in break- ing up, disintegrating, and altering even the " everlasting hills." This was one of the most distinct features of these alpine solitudes. The top of the mountain was composed of a huge cone, the actual surface being rather limited. On all sides it was steep. We were curious to know what flora we should find at these altitudes. There were certainly more plants than one meets with on the top of any of our Highland mountains, most of them species which were gathered at a lower level, though the higher ones were much stunted in growth. A very pretty Cerastium [G. latifoUum) whit- ened the rocks with its snowy petals, having a habitat much like our Ben Lawers variety. The turquoise-blue Myosotis alpestris was very conspicuous, though only an inch high. On the ledges Saxifraga Aizoon secured an existence by clinging to the inter- 22 Transactions of the [Sess. stices of the rock; and Silene acaulis (Moss Campion), with its pink cup-shaped florets, flourished on a grassy slope, giving it a distinct colouring, and, together with a bright yellow Cinquefoil [Potentilla aurea), enlivened these lofty retreats. A good inn afforded shelter and refreshment on the summit, and was largely taken advantage of, both by visitors who had ascended overnight and by those arriving at all times during the day. On commencing our descent, it was still early, so we devoted the day to a leisurely return to Meglis-alp, examining anything of geological interest, picking up many good plants, and enjoying the magnificent alpine views which were every now and again dis- closing themselves. Leaving the ordinary track, we took what looked a much more direct way of getting down, but in so doing we brought upon ourselves an amount of hard work we did not quite expect. We were not long in finding that in this case appearances were certainly deceptive ; and as it seemed a formidable task even to regain the road again, it was resolved to persevere in the direc- tion we had chosen. I can scarcely give a clearer idea of the kind of footing we had, than by suggesting that one of the mountains had but recently been broken up into fragments, and the pieces, varying from some tons' weight each to a few pounds, had been tumbled down the sides of the valley, and allowed to sort them- selves. This extended for some miles, so that it was a continual scramble from one rock to another, the edges of the stone affording a difficult footing. When we did reach the bottom, however, it was not without a thrill of satisfaction, and, looking back, we could in a greater degree realise the power of the physical forces at work whereby these rocks were arranged as we now find them. We had evidently been following what was the bed of an alpine torrent, which in the spring carried the ice and melted snow from the higher elevations, and it was stupendous in all its bearings. On the following days the weather still kept very favourable, enabling us to continue our excursion to neighbouring mountains, but the altitude of these being considerably lower, the alpine flora was not so characteristic. The subjoined list contains the rarer plants collected, omitting the commoner species, which were iden- tical with those of our own flora ; and I am indebted to Mr Eobert Lindsay, of the Royal Botanic Garden, for his kind assistance in determining several of the plants in this list : — Achillea atrata. Alchemilla alpina. Allium lanceolatum. II pedemontanum. Allosoi'us crispus. Anemone alpina. Ti trifoliata. Asplenium viride. Aster alpinus. Astrantia minor. Campanula barbata. It alpina. II Traclielium. II rapunculoides. Cerastium latifolium. Chrysanthemum alpinum. i88i-82.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 23 Cystopteris fragilis. Dianthus siiperbus. Dryas octopetala. Epipactis latifolia, Erigeron alpinuni. Geiitiana acaulis. M asclepiadea, II bavaiica. M campestris. II excisa. M Pneiimonanthe. II Saponaria. Globularia cordifolia. Gymnadenia conopsea. Gypsophila prostrata. Hutchinsia alpina. Myosotis alpestris. Nigritella angustifolia, Paris quadrifolia. Parnassia palustris. Pedicularis verticillata. Poa alpina. Polygonum viviparuni. Polysticlium Loncliitis. Potentilla maculata. II aurea. Primula farinosa. Ranunculus alpestris. II II var. Ber- tolonii. II montanus. Rhododendron hirsutum. Rumex scutatus. Saxifraga Aizoon. II aizoides. II II var. auran- tiaca. II ccesia. II diapensioides. II muscoides. II rotundifolia. II stellaris. Scutellaria alpina. Serratula tinctoria. Soldanella montana. Thlaspi rotundifolium. Vaccinium Vitis-Idrea. Veronica urticttfolia. At the meeting of tlie 22d December 1881, the following series of animal parasites was shown under the microscope by Mr James Simpson : — Pediculus capitis (from the Australian savage). Braula c;eca (from the Queen Bee). Colpocephalum sub-asquale (from the Crow). Docophorus ocellatus (from the Crow). II aquilinus (from the Golden Eagle). Trichodectes subrostratus (from the Cat — first specimen recorded in Britain). II scalaris (from the Ox). II Equi (from the Horse). Hasmatopinus sp. (from the Mouse). II sp. (from the Buffalo, India). II Suis (from the Pig). II spinulosus (from the Rat). Nirmus cameratus {, ? (from the Capercaillie). Lipeurus sp. c? 9 (from the Caper- caillie). II pelagicus (from the Fulmar Petrel). Nycteribia sp. 6 (from the Flying Fox). Mites. Dermaleichus chelopus 9 (from the Blue Titmouse). II bifidus 6 9 (from the Blue Titmouse). Glyciphagus plumiger 6 9 (very rare). II sp- 9 (probably a new- species). 24 Ti'aiisactions of tlie [Sess. VI.— THE HAUNTS AND HABITS OF THE CROSSBILL (LOXIA CUBVIROSTBA). By Mr ARCHIBALD CRAIG, Jun. {Read Jan. 26, 1882.) This very curious bird is of much commoner occurrence in various parts of Scotland than is generally supposed, which may be accounted for in part by its chiefly inhabiting the dense Fir forests of the north, — its general quiet habits also rendering it at times a matter of some difficulty to discover its whereabouts. The district where the species most abounds is Strathspey, particularly in the plantations around Castle Grant, where, by the way, they used to be denominated the " American Bird " by the youth of the neighbourhood. But besides that locality, numbers have occurred at different periods of the year in the woods of Dulsie, near Elgin, in the Fir forests of Ross-shire, Sutherlandshire, Dumfriesshire, Peeblesshire, and also in Glen Urquhart, Inverness-shire. Judging from accounts contained in works on ornithology, its numbers must have vastly increased in Scotland of late years ; but there can be little difficulty in accounting for that circumstance, when we take into consideration the great extent of country now planted with Firs, which in the early part of the present century was barren muirland or rough hillside ; so consequently the birds, finding a sufficient supply of food, remain all the year round, in place of migrating to foreign lands. Numerous instances are on record of their sudden appearance in various parts of England, where they were quite unknown previously — as far back even as the year 1254, also during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and at various other periods,- — for information as to which, reference may be made to Yarrell's or Morris's ' British Birds.' In the former work will be found a quaint description in old English of a flock which visited Kent in 1593, but which it is unnecessary to quote here. A still older mention of the Crossbill is contained in a fanciful superstition from the German, translated and versified by the poet Longfellow, and appearing in his poems under the title of "Legend of the Crossbill." The conception is a strange one, savouring slightly of absurdity ; yet, however fantastic and unreal the idea may appear to the reader, the subject is hardly one to be commented upon in a paper like this, and certainly of too solemn a nature to be turned into ridicule. Other instances might be quoted to show that its presence in many parts of Great Britain has been noticed from time 1 88 1 -82.] Edinburgh NaUiralists Field Chtb. 25 to time during several centuries ; but as they may all be gathered from the standard works on natural history now in use, with these few introductory remarks we may turn more particularly to the habits and outward appearance of the bird itself. With the exception of the short season of incubation, Crossbills are almost invariably observed in flocks, especially during autumn and winter, although at times solitary individuals are met with in most unlikely places. The numbers composing the flocks vary very much, ranging from little bands of five or six up to largo companies of sixty or seventy, the latter including both the old birds and the young of the year, whereas the smaller lots are most likely to be the parents with their own offspring alone. A good deal of uncertainty exists as to the times of breeding. In mild seasons many nest in February, which is just about a month earlier than the earliest of our native birds, such as the Eavenand Eook. But again, many seem to postpone operations until May or June. The reasons for this variation are not easy of solution, Au open winter and early spring may no doubt induce them to pair a little sooner than they would feel inclined to do in a cold backward season, when the stock of food wherewith to feed the young would naturally be scarcer ; but, on the other hand, it is confidently asserted by those who have studied their habits that the birds found in May and June are second broods, which is probable enough, as many species rear two and even three successive families in a season. Without further opportunities for closer observation, it would be premature to ofler an opinion as to which suggestion is the correct one. They are very affectionate to each other, and not much addicted to quarrelling, their principles being usually those commended in the psalm regarding brethren dwelling in unity. Yet, notwithstanding their general love of peace, a few overstep the bounds of discretion now and again, more particularly a short time prior to the pairing season. They may be seen occasionally fighting furiously in the air, screaming harshly the while — whether animated by jealousy or the mere fondness for testing their strength would be difficult to decide. As a rule, however, they may be said to agree admirably, and do not seem to attack other birds, although frequently accompanied by parties of Siskins, Eedpolls, Tits, &c. In the late autumn the former birds more frequently join the Crossbills than at any other time of the year, probably " with an eye to the main chance " — it being very evident that they take advantage of the Crossbill's superior facilities for breaking open the cones to pick out the seeds from the half-opened ones left by the larger birds, without which assistance it would be rather an arduous task for them to extract any, especially when the cones are firm and unburst. While on the subject of food, it would be as well to explain 26 Transactio7is of the [Sess. shortly the interesting process by which the Crossbill contrives to pick up a living out of such apparently dry substances as Fir cones. In the case of the Larch cones, the bird usually cuts them off with its powerful bill much in the same way that a pair of scissors is used, then transfers the cone to its feet as you may have seen a Parrot hold a stick in its cage. But as the mode of procuring the seed can be better explained on the larger Spruce cone, I shall take it as an example. If the cone is not too big, the bird snips it off also, holding it against the branch with its claws ; but should it prove too heavy, it hangs on back downwards after the manner of a Tit or Siskin. In either case the mode of procedure is similar. The under mandible has a sidelong motion as well as the up-and- down action possessed by all birds, so that being the case, it has an extra purchase over the cone, as will be seen presently. It inserts its bill underneath the scale of the cone, and moves the lower jaw to the side, at the same time opening its mouth, which double action has the desired effect of raising up the sheath. That done, it pushes out its long worm-like tongue and pulls the seed into its mouth, letting drop the thin papery-looking substance on the end of which the seed is placed. This operation is performed in far less time than it takes to tell, and it is marvellous how soon a strong old bird can finish a cone. The end of the tongue is furnished with a sharp bony appliance somewhat resembling a " scoop " in structure, which materially assists the bird in extracting the seed. From this slight description can be understood the use of the twisted mandibles, which, in place of being a deformity or malformation, as the old naturalists maintained, is a wise provision of nature to enable the bird to procure its food easily. In fact, an ordinarily constituted bill would be next to useless ; and as it has hard work to do, Providence has endowed it with an extra-powerful organ to accomplish its purpose. The upper mandible crosses sometimes to the right and sometimes to the left ; but it is quite a mistake to suppose that the manner of crossing is a distinguishing mark of the sex, each sex having the bill twisted in both directions. Some have the mandibles more crossed than others — not neces- sarily old birds, be it remarked, as young ones frequently show the twist to an extraordinary degree. Taken on the average, the bills of the greater proportion show the crossing to much the same extent, although there are exceptions to this as to every other rule. In connection with this peculiarity, Dr Bechstein, in his interesting volume on ' Cage Birds,' relates a foolish superstition prevalent in some parts of Germany, such as the Black Forest and Thuringia. He states that the country people hold the Crossbills in great regard, and often keep them in cages, not so much for the purposes of pleasure as from the idea that the poor birds attract diseases from the human frame to their own bodies, and in that 1 88 1 -82.] Edinburgh Nat7tralists Field Club. 27 way are supposed to be unfailing specifics in the cases of ej)ilepsy and apoplexy, both of which afflictions are common among birds deprived of their liberty. The insane idea is carried still further, as they firmly believe that the specimens which have the upper mandible crossed to the right side attract only the diseases peculiar to men, and those whose bill crosses to the left are kind enough to transfer to themselves the complaints of the opposite sex. Foolish ideas with reference to the habits and faculties of birds are not confined to Germany, however, the more illiterate of our own countrymen retaining beliefs whose extreme silliness would be ludicrous, were it not lamentable to think that such could exist in an enlightened age like the present. As previously stated. Crossbills usually travel about the woods in flocks ; and so fearless and apparently careless of danger are they on many occasions, that a person may climb up the same tree on which the birds are feeding, and by exercising a little caution may approach within a few feet of them, thus obtaining opportu- nities of a closer observation than can be had of most other species. It would appear from this that the presence of man has not the same terrorising effect on this species that it has on most other birds, but this must not be taken as an invariable rule by any means, as at times they are unusually restive and difficult to approach. To speculate on the cause of this vigilance would almost be useless. The most probable explanation appears to be that on these occasions the birds are about to shift their quarters, and consequently, like other species previous to migrating, do not seem inclined to settle down for any length of time in one place. Other and simpler causes may be at work to account for their restlessness, such as fear caused by being shot at, the close prox- imity of Hawks or Owls, &c. But the effects of these do not last long, as, after being fired at, they often return in a few minutes to the vicinity of the spot just vacated. When feeding, they speak to each other in a low chuckling sort of note almost without cessation, but when on the wing they utter a clear ringing sound quite unmistakable to any one acquainted with the notes of birds. The song of the male is peculiar, and rather low in the tone, but at the same time audible a long way off' in calm weather, from the fact of his taking up a prominent position on the top of a tree when vocally inclined, and in that way the sound is not intercepted by the thick branches. His musical abilities do not rank very high, but notwithstanding are not unpleasant to the ear, and, what is of more importance to the songster, are evidently appreciated by his feminine friends. The females are said to sing also, which is not unlikely, as in a number of species the song is not confined entirely to the male, — the Bull- finch, for instance, being an example in point. One peculiarity 28 Transactions of tJie [Sess. which I have noticed in the Crossbill while in confinement is his warbling with his mouth shnt, the only indication of his being so employed (saving the sound) being the puffing out at the throat, accompanied with a tremulous motion of the body, and a more apparent movement of the tail. In this case the sound ekes out at the sides of his bill ; but when uttering the sharp call-note, or singing loudly, the mouth is opened in the usual manner. Whei'e trees are high, Crossbills seldom come low down except in winter, but at that time of year they often sit on the ground and pick out the seeds from the fallen cones, besides alighting on dykes or fences, should there happen to be any near at hand. It is, indeed, a pleasant sight, and one possessing especial charms for the naturalist, to observe a flock alight on the snow-covered ground ; the bright red plumage of the males, and the scarcely less beautiful green hues of the females, standing out in fine con- trast to the pure and dazzling whiteness of the surroundings. On these occasions they are apt to fall an easy prey to predatory boys, whose propensities for stone-throwing and other acts of cruelty to dumb creatures are matters of sufficient notoriety to need no com- ment. The Crossbill is an eminently foolish bird, so far as ideas of self-preservation are concerned, and when engaged dissecting a cone will sustain a running fire of missiles with equanimity, until a well-directed stone arouses it to a sense of its danger, when, alas ! it is too late to escape. Although it would hardly be imagined to be the case, they live admirably in confinement, and with a little care and attention can be readily tamed, so as to come out of their cage when called, sit upon and feed out of the hand, and so on. In fact, few wild birds {not even the Siskin or Bullfinch) make themselves so quickly at home when in captivity. Some have powers of imitation, and can copy the songs of other birds, such as Canaries and Goldfinches, kept within their hearing ; but that remark is only applicable to very young birds, old birds not being so apt when their natural note has been confirmed. This faculty, however, is no great rarity, being possessed in a greater or less degree by many birds, notably Starlings, Blackbirds, Chaffinches, and particularly Bullfinches. It is a curious circumstance, and one which must strike every one who has taken the trouble to look into the matter, that many species whose own songs are the reverse of melodious make the best imitators ; and again, those whose natural melody is very sweet seem unable to acquire the notes of any other bird to anything like the same extent. This is amply illustrated in the case of the Starling and Bullfinch, and others might be instanced. The plumage of the Crossbill is rather perplexing, as at different seasons of the year, and at different ages, the birds show a variety 1 88 1 -82.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 29 of colours, causing a great disparity even in one flock The young of both sexes are alike at first, speckled, and look like an ex- aggerated specimen of a hen Siskin ; but after moulting some turn green, and others red or carmine-coloured. Females ap- jjarently do not vary so much as males, being of a uniform greenish-grey tint, varying in intensity according to the season ; but the latter are found donning a great variety of shades. Some are very bright red, and others have the red subdued with an admixture of yellow and green. The age of the bird and the time of year in which it was born, no doubt, influence the plumage considerably. For instance, one born in February ought to be better plumaged in autumn than one born in May : perhaps, also, the weather may have some effect. Birds in a cold, wet, and back- ward season can hardly be so brightly j)lumaged as in a warm and genial year ; so in judging of the plumage of the Crossbill, we must take all these little items into consideration. Notwithstand- ing the variations exhibited, none are of so marked a nature as to lead an ornithologist to mistake a Crossbill for any other species, the shape of the head and formation of the mandibles being suffi- cient for identification. The common Linnet [Linota cannabina) is another example of a bird assuming a variety of garbs, giving rise in this case to a varied nomenclature slightly puzzling to the young student of ornithology. Country people, in spite of their opportixnities, are in the great majority of cases very ignorant concerning bird-life, and are convinced in their own minds that the grey, brown, rose, and whin Linnet are different species, whereas they are identical. Young naturalists should be very chary of accepting as fact the opinions of country people, as their notions are generally crude, and very often erroneous. The only other point now to be touched on is the construction of the nest. Being usually well hid in a thick Spruce, it is not so often found as would be imagined, considering the great numbers of birds hatched every season. It is composed of small twigs of the Larch, and lined with grass, moss, and fibrous matter, and on the average is rather large, and inartistically constructed. One which I had the good fortune to discover possessed the unusual peculiarity of a semi-roof made of lichen-covered twigs, probably added with an idea of sheltering the young. This formation would seem, however, to be quite exceptional. While wandering through the thick Fir plantations, such as exist in many parts of the High- lands, one often comes quite unexpectedly upon an open space surrounded on all sides by trees, probably in former times the site of an old sawmill or forester's cottage long since decayed, and leaving no trace behind save the grass-grown outlines of its foundations. In such a spot the Crossbills love to congregate on a warm sunshiny day, flying at intervals across the open space, — 30 Transactions of the [Sess. their constant chirping betokening a sense of supreme happiness and want of care to which human beings are entire strangers. So far as a short paper is concerned, the more important features of the species have been mentioned ; and as time would not permit of further description, I shall only beg leave to say in conclusion, that among the many examples of the feathered race to be found in Great Britain, few are more curious or interesting than the Crossbill ; and I feel certain that, should opportunity occur, any one who spent an hour or two in watching their quaint habits or in listening to their peculiar song, would not consider the time devoted to such a purpose as wasted. VII.—NOTE ON THE WALL-CREEPER {TIGHODROMA PHCENI- COPTERA) AND A FEW OTHER BLRDS OBSERVED ON A VISIT TO SWITZERLAND. By Mr A. B. HERBERT. {Read Jan. 26, 1882.) If tourists are asked on their return from Switzerland whether they noticed any rare birds there, the usual reply is that they scarcely saw a bird m the country. I do not know how it may be in the spring and early part of summer, but in the autumn, when the country is most frequently visited by British tourists, there is undoubtedly a paucity of bird life. I had the pleasure of spending about a month in that charming and interesting coun- try in August and September last, and in crossing France by rail, the only rare birds noticed en route were Buzzards [Buteo vulgaris), and these, though now extremely rare in Britain, are by no means uncommon in France. You see them soaring about on buoyant wings, or stationed on posts and other prominent places near the railway. They feed on small mammalia and reptiles ; and not being themselves fit for human food, seem to be left unmolested. By a Frenchman, however, with gun in hand, birds of almost all kinds, great or small, flying or sitting, are slaughtered indiscrimi- nately, and eaten. One of my friends called on a Frenchman who had a small quadrangular coiTrtyard, in which were a few evergreens, and on two opposite sides of the enclosed space were nets so arranged that, by pulling strings, the whole court could be made a bird-trap. My friend was shown the catch of the day, 1 88 1-82.] Edvibiirgh Naturalists' Field Club. 31 put aside for cooking, and among many Sparrows, Greenfinclies, and ChaflSnches, he observed two Wrens, a Titmouse, and a Kobin. This is the kind of slaughter not uncommon in France, and we cannot therefore wonder that the country is as a whole so uninter- esting to ornithologists. When, however, we reflect that our Hur- lingham is still an aristocratic and fashionable resort, and that a dish of Dunstable Larks forms a dainty enire at our epicurean civic and other feasts, we must not be too severe in condemnation of the cruel practices of our Gallic neighbours. A rather curious incident occurred on my railway journey across France. A Hawk, about the size of our Sparrow-hawk, but with plumage much the colour of a Woodcock, kept up parallel with the train, and about fifty yai"ds distant, for many miles. When we passed through plantations or in cuttings, we temporarily lost sight of him, but on emerging, there he was still continuing his flight near the train ; and I have a strong impression that he had found by experience that the train disturbed small birds, which, in their flight, became to him an easy prey. I am convinced that this long-continued flight near the train was not accidental and with- out an object. The only other bird at all rare seen by us in France was a beautiful male Golden Oriole, and these birds, we know, are occasional visitants to Britain, and would breed here if left unmolested. They are sometimes seen near Paris. The birds noticed by us in Switzerland which are rare in Eng- land were the Black Kedstart [Phoenicara Tit/iys), the Nutcracker [Nucifraga caryotactes), and the Snow-Bunting [Emherlza nivalis). The Black Redstart in habits much resembles his congener, our common Redstart. The Snow-Bunting we saw in large flocks near the top of Pizz Langard, in the Engadine, at about 9000 feet ele- vation. The Nutcracker is a large bird, with a flight much like our Jay, and is common in many of the Pine woods, but close observation of it is difficult amongst the dense Fir trees. In the Upper Engadine, at an elevation of 6000 feet, this bird is frequently met with among the Cembra Pines near the glaciers of the district, and it is known at once, as it flies from tree to tree, by the con- spicuous white tip to its tail. The plumage is brown, spotted with white. It is a migratory si^ecies, feeding on worms, insects, fruits, nuts, and seeds of Pines, and raps the trees to alarm the insects, after the manner of our Woodpeckers. We were unfortu- nate in not meeting with the alpine Accentor, a bird by no means uncommon in Switzerland, and much like our Hedge - Sparrow, except that its plumage is lighter and prettier ; and instead of building in hedges, it forms its nest and lays its bright blue eggs in holes and fissures of the rocks. The bird, however, which most riveted our attention, and which is quite unknown here, was the beautiful Wall-Creeper [Tichodroma 32 Transactions of the [Sess. Phcenicopterd). I first saw this bird at Clmr, in the Grisons can- ton. I was standing at the hotel door on the 28th August, when a bird flitted by me which at once aroused my attention and curi- ositj^, as it was clearly one I had never before seen. Its peculiar jerking flight in the bright sun and clear Swiss atmosphere dis- played its delicate grey body and brilliant crimson wings to the greatest advantage. The wings have white spots on them, and the tail is black tipped with white. It settled against the hotel, and, clinging with its claws to the perpendicular wall, traversed the whole length of the building with a creeping lateral motion, which reminded me of our Nuthatch, and probed with its sharp- pointed bill all the interstices between the stones in its search for ' spiders and their eggs, to which it is particularly partial, spread- ing out very frequently its pretty and unique crimson wings. So intent was the bird on its occupation that it allowed us to approach close, and watch and admire it for some time. I could not find any one there to tell me the name of the bird, beyond that it was called the " Specht," which I thought might be synonymous with our word " spectre," from the light colour of the bird; but it appears the word " Specht " is used in Germany to denote both the Wall-Creeper and also the Woodpecker. Afterwards, on visiting the museum at Lucerne, I saw many stuffed specimens of this interesting subject of our observation, and ascertained the correct specific name. A few days afterwards, while walking from Airolo on our return from the Italian lakes over the St Gothard Pass, and at a very high ele- vation— indeed just as we were entering the clouds — another of these pretty birds flew over my head, and settled in a fissure in a rock, where I feel sure it had a nest, but the precipitous nature of the rock forbade my great desire to examine the spot. The Wall-Creeper is, I find, strictly European, and is found in mountainous districts in all the middle and southern portions of the Continent, and frequents the naked and precipitous parts of the most elevated mountains, among which it is seen flitting from crevice to crevice in search of food. It does not use the tail as a support, as our common Creeper and Woodpeckers do, but clings with its tenacious claws unaided to the rough rocks, in the same manner as our Nuthatch does to the rough bark of trees. It moults twice in the year, in spring and autumn. The two sexes are much alike in markings, excej^t that after the spring moult the male assumes a black patch on the throat. Crimson, I need scarcely remark, is a very uncommon colour in the plumage of our indigenous birds. I can call to mind only three which have this shade, and it is solely on their heads — viz., the EedpoU, the Goldfinch, and the Woodpecker. With the Wall-Creeper, however, crimson is the predominant colour ; and its habit of so frequently expanding its beautiful' wings as it creeps along the walls and rocks renders it a most attractive object, even 1 88 1 -82.] EdinbiirgJi Naturalists Field Club. 33 to those who are not ornithologists. I strongly advise any mem- ber of our Club who may have the pleasure of travelling in Swit- zerland to keep a sharp look-out for these brilliant birds. I cannot think they are very rare, as during our short tour I saw two alive, and many stuffed specimens in the Lucerne museum. VIII.—NOTE ON THE MOUTH-ORGANS OF INSECTS. By Mr ANDREW MOFFAT, Secretary. {Bead Jan. 26, 1882.) * The object of this note being solely explanatory of a series of microscopical preparations which was exhibited in illustration of the various forms of the mouth-organs of insects, it is not thought desirable to reproduce it here. The mouth-organs of the following insects, among others, were shown — viz. : Telephorus dispar, Blatta orientalis, Forficula auricularia, Acheta domestica. Apis mellifica, Bombus terrestris, Vespes vulgaris, Musca vomitoria, Eristalis tenax, Khingia campestris, Pieris Bi'assica?. IX.— MIMETIC PLANTS. By Mr JOHN LINDSAY. {Read Feb. 23, 1882.) There is no more interesting chapter in Natural History than that which treats of the outward resemblances found to subsist between genera or species far removed from each other in natural relationship. The term popularly adopted to describe this curious phenomenon is not entirely satisfactory, but it is the simplest which has as yet been suggested. Mimicry, or the power of imitation, is, in the general acceptation of the word, a voluntary act, with no serviceable end, as a rule, in view, and which, being voluntary, can be assumed or laid aside at pleasure. But when applied, as in this instance, to plants or animals, the term " mimicry " must be taken in a metaphorical sense to express an external appear- VOL. I. c 34 Transactions of the [Sess. ance unlike tliat belonging to its own class, and like that of another class, — such resemblance, further, being ostensibly adapted to sub- serve some useful purpose, whatever that purpose may be. This phenomenon has hitherto been investigated to a much greater extent in the Animal Kingdom than amongst plants. Mr H. W. Bates, who first introduced the subject to public notice, and subse- quently Mr Alfred E. Wallace, have both been diligent workers in this interesting field, and many curious facts have already been brought to light. It may perhaps tend to a clearer understanding of the subject in hand — viz., mimetic resemblances in plants — if a glance is taken at some of the analogous conditions which obtain in the Animal Kingdom. Among the many ways by which quadrupeds, birds, and insects are believed to maintain their existence is that of concealment by obscure or imitative tints or colours. On this theory an explana- tion is given of wild Babbits always having grey or brown tints ; of arctic animals possessing white fur; of desert animals being desert-coloured ; and of the desert birds of Asia and Northern Africa — such as the Stonechats, Larks, and Quails — being tinted and mottled to resemble the soil of the districts where they are found. Taking an example or two from the birds of our own country, we at once call to mind the Ptarmigan, with its white plumage in winter and its pearly-grey summer dress, harmonising with the lichen-covered stones where it is generally found. The Woodcock is a still better example of imitative tints, in the browns and yellows of fallen leaves being reproduced in its plumage, and rendering its resting-place under trees such a safe one. But these resemblances are perhaps found to their greatest extent in the insect world. Mr Wallace, in his ' Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection,' tells us that "in the tropics there are thou- sands of species of insects which rest during the day, clinging to the bark of dead or fallen trees ; and the greater portion of these are delicately mottled with grey and brown tints, which, though symmetrically disposed and infinitely varied, yet blend so com- pletely with the usual colours of the bark, that at two or three feet distance they are quite undistinguishable." And he remarks further, that these tints of the bark or leaf are not only reproduced in the wings of many insects, but that " the form and veining of the leaf, or the exact rugosity of the bark," are also imitated. The ex- amples of the so-called " Walking -leaf " and "Walking-stick" insects are so familiar, that a passing reference to them will be sufficient. Such resemblances, however, though undoubtedly something more than mere curious coincidences, are not the only phenomena claiming our attention here. The mimicry of animals which has its fittest counterpart in that of plants is not so much a likeness 1 88 1 -82.] Edinburgh Nahiralists Field Clnb. 35 in colour or tint — though that also is found — as in outward appear- ance. It is at once a resemblance to an entirely different groiip, and a want of resemblance to closely allied groups ; so that it has been well remarked that such imitators "appear like actors or masqueraders dressed up and painted for amusement, or like swindlers endeavouring to pass themselves off for well-known and respectable members of society." Examples of this kind of imita- tion exist particularly amongst the Lepidoptera, where we find that they not only mimic each other, but also other insects, as Bees and Wasps ; and at least one tropical Moth is said to resemble closely a Humming-bird. There are fourteen or fifteen species of the Sesiida? or " Clear-wings " in this country, and each is named after some other insect whose uniform it wears. Exactly the same kind of simulation is found to exist amongst Beetles ; and Mr Bates further mentions a Caterpillar which at first sight startled him, and deceived even his practised eye, by its close re- semblance to a poisonous Viper. Were this paper treating of the mimicry of animals, and not that of plants, much might have been added on this fascinating subject ; but any wishing to pursue it further will find much to interest in Mr Wallace's book already mentioned. Having thus prepared the way, we will now pass on to observe some instances of this same law of mimicry amongst plants. Mimicry in plants may be divided into two kinds : it may either be general — that is, of the whole habit or mode of growth ; or it may be special, consisting in the development of so:ne particular organ or part, as the leaf, the flower, the seed or fruit, and even the odour. Examples of the first kind — viz., of resemblances in habit — and of foliage resemblances in the second, are perhaps the most numerous, and may be treated of together, leaving out of sight, for the present occasion at all events, flower, fruit, or other resem- blances. It is well known that there are plants in every Natural Order which might easily be taken as belonging to some other Order. The late Mr W. Wilson Saimders of Reigate repeatedly exhibited at the soirees of the Linna^an Society paired specimens of mimetic plants belonging to entirely different Natural Orders, yet resembling one another in their habit and general appearance to so extraordinary a degree, that even a good botanist, it is affirmed, might well have been excused for passing them over as identical. It is a fact familiar to many, that Sir William Hooker once figured and de- scribed a New Zealand Veronica (F. tetragona), without fruit or flower, as a Conifer. Dr Hooker, in his ' Flora Antarctica,' draws and describes a most singular species of Caltha (C Dioncefolia), the leaves of which are almost an exact reproduction of those of the well-known " Venus's Fly-trap." Again, such an authority as Kunze pronounced a Cycad {Stangeria 2^«r«c?oa:a), after an ex- o 6 Transactions of the [Sess. amination of the nature and venation of the leaf, to be a Fern. On comparing some of the weird - looking American Cacti with the African Euphorbias, they are found to be wonderfully alike. The curious thing here is, that both the columnar or branched and the globular forms of Cacti have their representatives in the Euphor- biacefe. But let us take a few illustrations from plants nearer liome. One example is the rare Menziesia ca^rulea, which is so like the Crowberry {Empetrum nigrum) that the one may easily be mistaken for the other. The Equiseta, or Horse-tails, it has been remarked, find their echoes in the Hippuris, which is a flower- ing-plant. Dr M. C. Cooke, in his ' Freaks and Marvels of Plant- Life,' figures a composite plant {Azorella Selago) which is extremely like a Lycopod. A similar example is Thujopsis la^tevirens, a Conifer, compared with such a Lycopod as Selaginella Lyallii. Two Rosaceous plants — Alchemilla alpina and Potentilla alche- milloides — have their foliage identical ; as have also Eumex san- guisorbfefolia, belonging to the Polygonea?, and Sanguisorba offic- inalis, one of the Rosacea. Many familiar names, suggesting like similarities, will readily recur to memory — as Polygonum Convolv- ulus, Solanum jasminoides, Arenaria serpyllifolia, and so on. A curious Veronica (F. salicornioides) has lately been introduced from New Zealand by Isaac Anderson Henry, Esq. of Woodend. The plant — of which tliere are several specimens in the Royal Botanic Garden— has never yet flowered in this country, and there- fore doubts have been entertained as to its really being a Veronica, though on that point competent judges are quite satisfied. Its striking similarity to a Conifer may be easily seen on comparing it with Cupressus Lambertiana or Dacrydium Franklinii, both belong- ing to the Coniferae. Again, we saw above two forms of Cacti repro- duced in two Euphorbias; but a still more striking example of mimet- ism is furnished by three shrubs, two of them possessing a varie- gated form, and all three, in the normal type, nearly identical, though presumably with no genetic relationship. One is Osmanthus illici- folius, a member of the Oleaceae or Olive family ; the second is Desfontainea spinosa, belonging to the Loganiaceaa ; and the third is the Common Holly [Ilex aqidfoliiis) — N. 0. Ilicinefe. To give but one illustration more : there are two plants which are so like dwarf Palms, that in nearly every nurseryman's catalogue — and indeed in some works of much greater pretensions — they are classed under that heading. Yet neither is connected with the Palmje. One is Carludovica palmata, belonging to the Pandanaceee or Screw Pines ; and the other is Curculigo sumatrana, a Hypoxidaceous plant, allied to the Amaryllids. Let us place each of these plants alongside of a Palm leaf. Carludovica palmata may be paired with Livistona chinensis, the one seeming to be a variety of the other, and each as decidedly Palm-like in habit as its neighbour. Curculigo sumatrana 1 88 1 -82.] EdinburgJi Naturalists Field Club. 37 may have for partner Cocos flexuosa, in its juvenile stage. This form the Palm preserves for about the first three years of its growth, when the more mature leaf assumes a pinnate character. The two plants are so identical, that one may readily be led astray re- garding them. These illustrations may suffice as evidence in proof of the statement, that there are to be found amongst plants, as well as in the Animal Kingdom, similarities of outward appearance between groups naturally far removed in many instances from one another. Such abnormal departures fi-om the ordinary type ought to be kept in view by geologists when naming fragmentary speci- mens of fossil plants. What, then, we may now ask, is the reason for one plant thus assuming the appearance of another ? — and how is the resemblance brought about? It cannot all happen by mere chance, for n9,ture never works in that haphazard fashion. As a partial answer to the latter question, such resemblances among quadrupeds, birds, and insects — whether to other living creatures or to inanimate objects — have been accounted for by the theory of natural selection and the " survival of the fittest." But, of course, a deeper cause must exist in some occult law of their being, which we may never be able to comprehend. Then as to wliy such resemblances exist, — by a large induction the conclusion has been arrived at, that in the Animal Kingdom, at all events, such mimetism, whether of form or colour, or both, seems to afibrd protection from enemies, either where the habits of the " mimic " expose it to special danger, or where it is not sufficiently endowed with more effective means of escape. We hesitate before applying a similar reason for the existence of mimicry in plants. For what, it may naturally be asked, does the plant gain in the way of protection ? — or what does it require protection from? The only instance where this reason for the phenomenon has been hazarded is in the case of the Menziesia ceerulea already mentioned — a plant as yet found in Scotland only on the Sow of Athole, in Perthshire, and but sparingly there. As the Crowberry grows very abundantly beside it, the remark has been made that the rare plant is thus protected " from the rapacity of botanists " ! Passing over the problem, then, as to why these resemblances exist in the Vegetable Kingdom, by simply saying that these forms are the best suited for the requirements of the plant, and asking next liow they have come about, the following theories have been advanced. As one explanation, we have the law of consanguinity or heredity put forward, — though, remembering the widely separated families in which the resemblances have been found, this plainly cannot meet all the requirements of the case. Again, similarity of conditions has met with some favour as an operat- ing cause. Resemblances in habit are, no doubt, often due to similar 38 Transactions of the [Sess. conditions of soil and climate. And when long generations are conceded in order to adapt a plant to its environment, one can easily understand how the change from the normal type might be great indeed. This explanation is, however, at best a partial one, and does not at all account, besides, for resemblances in special organs, as in fruit or flower. Hybridisation has been adduced as probably a concurrent cause ; but this theory is naturally beset with so many difficulties, that it has not met with much favour. The last resource has been to take refuge in the pre-Darwinian doctrine of Design as an answer to the whole diiSculty, and to suppose, with Mr A. W. Bennett, that there is in all this some purpose *' not in every case for the immediate advantage of the individual species, but in furtherance of some plan of general har- mony which it may take centuries of unwearied and laborious toil before we discover the key by which we may be able to unlock it." This idea seems at first blush a very plausible one ; but a little reflection soon shows that it is most unsatisfactory as an explana- tion, for it simply defers any attempt at a solution to a very indefinite period. We cannot expect that the conclusion here arrived at will receive general acceptance ; and it is to be hoped that some other interpretation of the mystery which will meet all the necessities of the case will by-and-by be forthcoming. By the Mndness of Mr Sadler, Curator, Royal Botanic Garden^ Edhiburgh, the following plants were exhibited in illustration of the above paper : — Menziesia cserulea, Empetrum nigrum, Thujopsis Ijetevirens, Selaginella Lyallii, Potentilla alchemilloides, Alchemilla alpina, Veronica salicomioides, Dacrydium Franklinii, Osmanthus illicifolius, Ilex aquifolius, . EricacesB. Empetraces3, Coniferce. Lycopodiaceas Rosacece. Rosacege. Scrophulariacece. Conifers. Oleacese Ilicinea3, :\ (Green and variegated forms of both shrubs.) Curculigo sumatrana, . Cocos flexuosa, . Carludovica palmata, . Livistona chinensis, . Hypoxidacese. Palmae. Pandanaceas Palmse. i 1 88 1 -82.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 39 Cereus niger, ..... Cactacere. ) Euphorbia sp., ..... Eupliorbiaceai. ) ( Columnar form. ) Mammillaria Dolichocentra, . . Cactacese. \ Euphorbia melliformis, . . . Euphorbiacete. \ (Globular form.) X.—AGOTYLEDONS, MONOCOTYLEDONS, AND DICOTYLE- DONS: THEIR MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY. By Mr WILLIAM LUNDIE. (EeadFeb. 23, 1882.) The two questions discussed were — (a) What are the distinctive characters by which these three groups are recognised? [b) On what grounds did Jussieix claim for this classification the title Natural ? Q. I. The distinctions are of two kinds, — morphological, i.e. such as have reference only to form ; and physiological, i.e. such as have reference to function. The morphological distinctions become quite apparent when we contrast the Fern, the Lily or Palm, and the Rose, as representatives of the three groups. The absence of what would represent the aerial stem of the Rose, the peculiar form of the frond, and the total want of anything resembling a flower, are characters which strike tis as peculiarly characteristic of a Fern. Again, the branching of the stem in the Rose, its woody character, the number of floral envelopes (two — calyx and corolla), the number of parts (five) in each, and the character of the embryo, clearly separate it from the Lily or Palm, which have an unbranched stem (caudex), a single floral envelope of six parts (Lily), and a single cotyledonary embryo ; while none of these characters are possessed by the Fern. The physiological characters are equally marked, and are connected with the functions of nutrition and reproduction. The nutritive organs are those by which the life of the plant is maintained, and consist, in the lower forms of vegetable existence, of a thallus, and, in the higher forms, of root, stem, and leaf. The reproductive organs, on the other hand, are those by which the species is perpetuated, and consist of spores in the lower forms, and of a flower and fruit in the higher. The greatest diversity in those 40 Transactions of the [Sess. nutritive organs is to be found among Acotyledons. This class includes such organisms as the Alga3, Fungi, and Lichens, whose nutritive organs consist of a single cell, or of an expansion of cellu- lar tissue — the thallus ; but in the higher forms of Acotyledons, such as Mosses, Ferns, Club-mosses, «S;c., structures resembling in general form and function the root, stem, and leaf, are distinctly marked, which thus approach the Monocotyledon and Dicotyledon type. The greatest differences are seen when the structure of the stem and leaf of each of these three classes is compared. The structures themselves are composed of the same elements, but differ in the mode of their arrangement. Eoughly, we distinguish in the stem of a Dicotyledon, such as a Maple or Pine, three portions, — an outer bark portion, an inner wood, and a central pith portion. More strictly, however, the bark consists only of the outer layer of cells, which have become corky, within which lies a green cellular rind. Between this green cellular rind and the jDith lie what are termed the Fibro-Vascular Bundles, consisting for the most part of wood and bast, the latter lying exterior to the wood. A transverse section of the rhizome of a Fern exhibits an arraiagement of these bundles in the form of an irregular circle, while in that of a Cane or Palm they are scattered irregularly in the abundant pith ; and in the Maple, Pine, or Eose they arrange themselves in collateral wedges, so that the wood forms a circular band, which broadens each year, enclosing a central pith, and coated externally by the perij^heral bark. As a rule, bark is only present in Dicotyledons. Its absence is a characteristic mark of Monocotyledons, The vena- tion of the frond of the Fern is forked ; in the Monocotyledon, par- allel ; and in the Dicotyledon it is reticulated. Two other points of distinction need only be mentioned, as they give rise to terms of no uncommon occurrence. The first is that of the growing point [punctum vegetationis), and the consequent development of the stem; and the other is derived from the character of the root. In certain Acotyledons (not, however, universally) the growing point consists of a single apical cell, from the repeated subdivisions of which stem, roots, &c., originate, and hence they are spoken of as Acro- gens; while Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons are distinguished as Endogens and Exogens respectively. From the character of the root, these three were again distinguished as Heterorhizal, Endo- rhizal, and Exorhizal respectively. But the chief peculiarities of these three groups lie in their repro- ductive organs. In Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons reproduction is effected by what are termed Flowers, hence^the name Phanero- gams applied to these two classes. In contradistinction to this, Acotyledons, which have no such conspicuous flowers, have been termed Cryptogams, a term which refers to its hidden or secret method of fertilisation. Dicotyledons are generally distinguished by 1 88 1 -8 2.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Chib. 41 the possession of two outer floral envelopes, the calyx and corolla, of four or five parts each, marked generally by a difference in colour, the calyx as a rule being green. These surround the essential organs of the flower, the stamen and pistil or pistils, which are generally correlated in number to the parts of the calyx and corolla. In Monocotyledons, as a rule, there is no difference between calyx and corolla — at least, as regards colour. There is one floral envelope of six parts, in two alternating whorls, of which the three outer may be taken to represent the calyx, while the three inner repre- sent the corolla. The various parts of the flower represent a ter- nary arrangement, quite distinct from the quinary or quaternary arrangement of Dicotyledons. These two may be contrasted by setting side by side their typical floral formulas, thus — Dicotyledons, . . 5 S. 5 P. 5 A. 5 G. Monocotyledons, . . 3 + 3 P. 3 -f 3 A. 3 G. • It is, however, in the character of the embryo that the essential distinction in the reproductive organs lies. Within the coat of the seed, such as the Pea or Bean, representing Dicotyledons, are two hemispheroid masses placed face to face with each other. These are the cotyledons or seed-leaves, the primary nutritive organs, being in fact storehouses of nourishment for the young embryo. Dicotyledons, as the name implies, possess two of those seed-leaves, while Monocotyledons possess only one. Acotyledons is a ques- tionable term, inasmuch as it indicates a negative character. It denotes the absence of cotyledons — reproduction, as already stated, being effected by spores. In its higher forms it presents the pecu- liar reproductive phenomenon of an *' Alternation of Generations." This is well seen in a Fern, from the spore of which a prothalliinn is produced which leads an independent life. From this prothallium tlie reproductive organs, antheridia and archegonia, are developed, which, by a true process of fertilisation, in turn give rise to the spore-bearing Fern. G. II. These three groups, founded on the primitive nutritive organs in the seeds, represent the natural classification of Jussieu ; and it is not a little interesting to trace the varioiis steps by which he arrived at such a classification, and its claim to the title " Natural." The honour of distinctly defining what a true classi- fication of the Vegetable Kingdom should be, is due to an English- man, John Eay (1703). He maintained that a true classification of the vegetable forms of life is one which exhibits a gradation from the lower forms to the higher, and thus becomes the expression of the plan observed in nature in the creation of living things. From this, it would appear, arose the term " natural," conti-asting with other classifications which were termed " artificial." Ray, how- 42 Transactions of the [Sess. ever, left it to be more fully developed by a Frenchman, Antoine Laurent de Jussieu. Born at Lyons in 1748, and educated at Paris under his uncle Bernard de Jussieu, he was, when compara- tively young, appointed to the office of Demonstrator in the Jardin des Plantes. In attempting to classify the plants of the garden according to the artificial classification then in use, he became thoroughly dissatisfied with it, and was led to consider what a true classification ought to be. When he discovered Eay's definition of a classification, he entirely adopted it, and worked it out to greater perfection than Eay himself had done. He found that, though the true aim of a classification had been reached, there was considerable diversity of opinion as to the means of arriving at such a classification. The aim of this classification being to arrange the vegetable forms in allied species, their principle was, " That species which are dissimilar should not be brought close together, nor should species that are similar be kept apart." This gave rise to the question, " What is to determine similarity or dissimilarity ? " The advocates of the artificial classification selected each a certain organ arbitrarily, and classified according to the similarity or dissimilarity of that organ. They differed greatly as to the organ which they selected. Andreas Cgesalpinus (1583) chose the character of the fruit ; Dr Morrison of Aberdeen (1670), the character of flower and fruit; Tournefort (1684-1700), the character of the corolla; and last of all, Linn^us (1778), the character of stamens and pistils. Jussieu held that it should be determined by natural distinctions alone, and was the first to lay down the principle that affinity could only be deter- mined by correspondence in structure. This is a natural deduction from the axiomatic truth, " If any two plants be alike in every point in their structure, then these two are identical." Hence he defined a species to be, " Individuals which are very much alike in all their parts, retaining their resemblances from generation to generation." " Those species," he said, " are to be associated which correspond in the greater number of their characters ; but one constant is of more importance than several inconstant char- acters." For example, the stamens and pistils are more constant characters than either the calyx or corolla, either or both of which may be absent, and hence of greater value as a basis of classifica- tion. It was this fact that made the classification of Linneeus of more permanent worth than any other artificial classification. But Jussieu, in order to establish a gradation, had to discuss the relative values of the constant structures, — " the determination of which," Lindley says, " is the pivot on which the operation of any systematist must turn." He pointed out that the relative value of any structure must depend upon the function which that structure performs ; and that as the existence of a plant depends on its 1 88 1 -82.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 43 vegetative or nutritive organs, these must possess the highest relative vahie, and will afford characters of a primary distinction. Next in importance he placed the organs with which the plant cannot dispense if its race is to be preserved — viz., those of repro- duction, since nutrition is antecedent to and finds its ultimate end in reproduction or the perpetuation of its species. In this way Jussieu was led to adopt the primary nutritive organs — the cotyledons — as the structures which present the highest relative value, and whose structural differences, being of primary import- ance, afford the first and best characters on which to base a classifi- cation. Acotyledons, Monocotyledons, and Dicotyledons are thus founded on those characters of the embryo which are of the widest distinction, and yet exhibit a gradation from the lower forms to the higher, conforming to the principle of a natural classification enunciated by Eay, The simplest and lowest types of structure in the vegetative organs is to be seen among the Cryptogams or Acotyledons, where, in many cases, a single cell carries on both the functions of nutrition and reproduction ; while, a stage higher, we have cells combined to form a tissue — the Thallus. The highest differentiation of cells, and the most complex nutritive process in the embryo, is observed among Dicotyledons ; while in Monocotyledons it represents an intermediate stage. In illustration of the above paper, the following preparations were shown under the microscope — viz. : 1. Transverse section of Acer of the first, second, and third year's growth, and one or two abnormal forms, — all representing Dicotyledons. 2. Transverse section of Sugar-Cane, Euscus, and Dracfena, representing Monocotyledons. 3. Transverse section of Pteris (Fern) ; apical longitudinal sec- tion of Chara, showing growth ; Prothallium of a Fern with antheridia and archegonia, — all representing Acoty- ledons. Besides these, there were hand-specimens to show their morpho- logical characters. 44 Transactions of the Edin. Nat. Field Club. [Sess, 1881-82. XL— NOTE ON THE BOOSTING OF THE PEREGRINE FALCON ON THE SPIRE OF ST MARY'S CATHEDRAL, EDINBURGH. By Mr EGBERT STEWART. {Head Feb. 23, 1882.) I THINK it may be interesting to the members of the Chib to learn that for some time past a Peregrine Falcon has regularly taken up its night quarters on one of the small ornaments near the top of the spire of St Mary's Cathedral. I first noticed the bird as it came along Melville Street, and on this, as on all subsequent occasions, it flew on a level with the tops of the houses until it reached the Cathedral, when a few steady strokes of its wings enabled it to occupy its high perch. The ornament referred to is not protected in any way, and it is as astonishing to consider how it managed to retain its footing during the recent storms, as it is to find it there at all. L— NOTES ON THE NOMENCLATURE OF BRITISH MOSSES. By Me JOHN WALCOT, President. {Bead Oct. 27, 1882.) The Moss plant, in its perfect state, consists of roots, stem, leaves, fruit-stalk, and seed-vessel. These parts vary more or less in size, colour, shape, and condition ; and the earnest student must make himself familiar with all these varieties, if he would make any real progress in the knowledge of Moss life. Several distinct pecu- liarities mark off the Moss plant from other parts of the vegetable kingdom. Its leaves have no footstalk, and are attached at their lower edge to the stem ; some of them are serrated at the margin, but none of them are divided and compound, as those of many other plants are. Their surface is free from everything like hairiness ; they do not decay and fall off from the stem, and, as a result of this enduring character, do not remind us of our frailty and destiny as do the falling leaves of other plants, for they may be kept for months, and even years, and retain the power of reviving when placed in water. In the early stage of his studies, the student's attention will be sure to be arrested by the singular fact that the slender stem, called the seta, on the summit of which the seed-vessel rests, in some Mosses projects from the summit of the plant, and in others from the side of it. This distinct peculiarity has very properly been fixed upon as the first means of division. All Mosses are classed under the terms Acrocarpi and Pleurocarpi, — the one ac- curately describing fruit from the summit, the other fruit from the side. In later synopses a third term, Cladocarpi, has been adopted to describe some plants whose fruit-stalk, being on short lateral branches, appears to be lateral, though in reality it is terminal. The capsule, or seed-vessel, of the Moss plant, as a rule, possesses a small lid called the operculum, a beautiful fringe about the mouth called the peristome, and a thin covering or veil over the upper part of it which is called the calyptra. In Moss life, as well as in other things, this general rule has its ex- ceptions. A few Mosses have no operculum ; a few others have no peristome, while of those which have it, in some the circle of fringe is single, in others it is double. Tliese exceptions have been made the bases of other divisions which are as accurately expressed as those which are based upon the position of the seta. Hence in the progress of nomenclature we have the following : VOL, I. D 46 Traitsactions of tJie [Sess. Astomi, without a mouth ; Gymnostomi, nated at the mouth ; and Peristomi, with a fringe at the mouth. Under this last division there are two others — Aploperistomi, with a single circle of fringe ; and Diploperistomi, with a double circle. From such facts as these, it is obvious that in the early stages of study it will be a comparatively easy thing to assign Moss plants their proper position in the system of nomenclature. With so many easily recognised characteristics and clearly defined distinctions, the student may arrange his treasures, and store them away in safety till he can secure the time necessary for more minute examination, and for endeavouring to discover the grounds of their generic and specific names. In considering the origin of family and generic names, we soon find out that they cannot be traced to any one part of the plant exclusively. The generally accepted nomenclature can be traced up to many sources. Some parts of the plant, as, for instance, the organs of fructification, supply a greater number of names than others ; but this honour does not belong to them alone. Modern authors of distinction have done a great deal to change and modify the names. They have designated some in a more scientific manner, and have distributed one or two of the largest families under other titles, but they have not abandoned the older titles altogether : these are retained as the general designations, under which those newly invented are arranged. Considerable differences exist in the modern synopses, and at present it is impossible to say whether any one of them will supersede the older arrangements and names. The object aimed at in the present paper requires that we should mainly refer to those names which have become familiar to us through standard authors. This nomenclature proceeds along two general lines, distinct from and unlike each other. I. One proceeds upon the acknowledged existence of some pecu- liarity in the plant itself, — either in its habit, or nature, or organs of fructification. HypnacefB, the largest family, derives its name from a supposed natural property to induce sleep. It is probable that this property consists rather in their soft and feathery character than in any chemical virtue. If so, there are other Mosses that might claim the same title with equal right. Why the one class has been chosen and the other not, we cannot say ; but let no one complain of this. The feathery Mosses afford an elysium of delight to the eye and to the touch. On their down-like bed the most skeleton forms of human life may rest in ease and comfort. The names of some genera are taken from their habit of growth — as those called Fontinalis, which grow in streams, and probably those called Splachnum, which chiefly grow on the fa3ces of animals. Others derive their names from a peculiarity of the fruit-bearing stalk 1882-83.] EdinburgJi Naturalists Field Cliih. 47 [seta], as Funaria hygrometrica, which in dry weather becomes so twisted that it resembles a piece of rope. Many others derive their names from some peculiarity in the veil [calyptra), as Poly- trichum, many-haired, hairs lying flat on the calyptra as if it were thatched. Also Orthotrichum, straight-haired, the upper part of the calyptra being covered with hairs all projecting ujDwards. This same principle of designation is freely adopted in later synopses, where you find the names Atrichum, Antitrichum, and Oligo- trichum. Another name, Glyphomitrium, describes a calyptra furrowed or sculptured ; and the name Encalypta describes the seed-vessel as within the calyptra, and hidden by it, and hence is known by the name Extinguisher-moss. Other Mosses derive their names from differences existing in the j^^ristome, and include a greater number than any other family does. We need not wonder at this, for the peristome exerts an important influence in the propagation of the plant. It not only affords protection to the spores when tlie lid falls off, but disperses them when they are matured. This deli- cate and sensitive part of the plant is wonderfully fascinating. When once the beauties of the peristome open to the mind, the desire to investigate them becomes wellnigh irresistible. The seg- ments of which this fringe is composed conform to a singular law of numbers, the number being either four or a multiple of four, — never less than four, never more than sixty-four, and never includ- ing any intermediate numbers excepting sixteen and thirty-two. Of the plants which derive their names from this source, we men- tion Dicranum (forked teeth), Cinclidotus (teeth with lattice-work at base), Tortula (twisted teeth), and all those which in the older and in the more recent nomenclature end in some form of the Greek word odous, a tooth — as Amblyodon, Ceratodon, Cyrtodon, Didy- modon, Orthodontium, Leucodon, Leptodon, and Zygodon. These examples suffice to show that all muscologists have regarded the peristome as possessing a strong claim to furnish names for the plants. II. The second general principle which has been observed in designating Mosses is altogether different from that we have con- sidered. That described something about the plant itself; this has its origin in the human element as it is related to the plant, — either identifying the plant with the person who was fortunate enough to discover it, or acknowledging eminent service in the study of muscology, or doing honoiir to those who have expressed generous sympathy with those who have pursued this branch of science under difficulties. Hence some of the choicest Moss plants, in the names they bear, perpetuate the memory and service of distinguished men. There are at least ten of this class. Three of these repre- sent Britain, one America, one Flanders, and five Germany. The 48 Transactions of the [Sess. three Britons are George III., tlie Rev. Joseph Dalton, and Sir William Hooker. The Mosses known by the name Georgia boast of a name derived from a monarch whose reign is conspicuous in British history. The main facts of George III.'s character and reign may not be estimated alike by us all ; but all will rejoice that the cares of his anxious life were relieved by botanical studies, and that his royal influence was sometimes exerted to encourage those who, under difficulties, were devoting their energies to the study of botanical science. The knowledge of these facts is adapted to quicken our sympathies with the monarch, and to deepen our interest in the history of his life. The Rev. Joseph Dalton is the only clergyman who had the honour of having his name embalmed in the older nomenclature of British Mosses. Not a little that is favourable may be inferred about him from the fact that this honour was conferred upon him by Hooker and Taylor, and that Sir Wil- liam Hooker named his son Joseph Dalton Hooker. This honoured man, we may hope, was not less efficient as a minister of the Gospel, because he was a distinguished botanist. The study of plant life is not incongruous with the study of the Scriptures, or with faithful service in the kingdom of Christ. He who knows most of the great works of God in nature, possesses an unfailing fund of illustration by which he may impressively enforce the highest duties and privileges of men. Side studies relieve the pressure of professional toil, and strengthen for its patient endurance. If we linger over the third British name, Sir W. J. Hooker, we shall be excused by the eminence he attained, and by the value of his contributions to botanical literature and research. It was a fortunate circumstance that this Norwich-born lad possessed such a love of nature, that the energies intended for trade were diverted from it and consecrated to the study of plants. He was persuaded to do this by Sir J. E. Smith, to whom he applied for the name of a rare Moss. One circumstance occurred very early in his history which gave promise of a great life, because it revealed the exist- ence of greatness in youth. When about twenty-four years of age, he was returning from Iceland, laden wdth specimens of its plants which he had collected there, and with many drawings and notes respecting them which he had made. In a storm all these treas- ures were lost, and his life was placed in great jeopardy. The great sorrow which Sir Isaac Newton experienced was tasted by him, though from a different cause and under different circum- stances. But by a toil which knew no fatigue, by a memory such as few possess, and by an elasticity of spirit which rose above every discouragement, he succeeded in reproducing all that part of his work which was of special value to botanical science. Can we be surprised to learn that, shortly after accomplishing this great eat, he began to collect a herbarium which became celebrated as 1882-83.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Chib. 49 the finest in Europe? or to find him associated in special work with such men as Taylor and Greville and Berkeley, who at that time were in the zenith of their fame ? Hooker's power of work was something altogether unique, and extended over a long period. Monuments of his toil still have a conspicuous and enduring char- acter : they are the pyramids of botanical literature, and having them before our minds, we are not surprised at the honours which were heaped upon him in his professional life. From the Chair of Botany in Glasgow, he rose to the directorship of the celebrated gardens of Kew, and afterwards was decked with the garland of knighthood, which he wore with modesty and grace, amidst a large circle of congratulating friends. The plant selected to bear his distinguished name is worthy of it : Hookeria lucens is well known to every muscologist, and is a special favourite, as under the micro- scope it is exquisitely beautiful. The American continent is represented in the subject we are now considering by only one name, but that name is a " tower of strength." John Bartram flourished from the beginning of the eighteenth century, nearly to the time of Hooker's birth in 1785. He belonged to the good old-fashioned, drab-suited, broad-brimmed Quakers. He had a passion for plants from his youth, which mani- fested itself not only in searching for them and examining them, but in planting and nursing them. It was said of him by a friend that he would ride fifty or a hundred miles to get a new plant. This fact shows what metal he was made of. He who does not cheerfully endure fatigue, and hunger, and self-denial, if needs be risk, in this work, is not worthy the name of a botanist. It was on the banks of a river near Philadelphia that Bartram founded his garden, which really was the first botanical garden in America. He planned it, laid it out, and filled it with plants chiefly collected by himself. This self-taught man literally made the world wonder at his success. The great Linneeus said of him that he was the greatest natural botanist in the world — a testimony which we may readily accept, coming as it does from such an authority. George III. appointed him as " American Botanist" to himself — an appoint- ment which conferred as much honour on the monarch in giving it as it did on the man who received it. This man, Bartram, has fallen asleep, but his spirit and energy have been perpetuated in others. He goes marching on through the wide world. The tastes he gratified, the pleasure he imparted, the knowledge he diffused, and the successes he achieved, were all as so much choice seed cast into the soil of national life, and which to after generations have yielded a golden harvest. I cannot now give particulars respecting the six continental names abeady mentioned : they are the names of men whose memo- ries will be cherished by muscologists to the end of time. Some 50 Transactions of the [Sess. one has said of J. G. Hedwig that he was the prince of musco- logists ; but this might be said also of Necker and of Weissius, of Timm, of Grimm, and of Buxbaum, — they were princely in their gifts, in their workings, and in their successes. Dr Buxbaum's passion for work led him to spend months at a time in the forests, and on the mountains of Jena, and resulted in his being entrusted with the care of the Koyal Gardens of St Petersburg by the Czar of Russia. Opportunity was thus secured for prosecuting that careful work in Eussia, in Turkey, in Siberia, and Astrakhan, with which his name is inseparably connected. It was Linneeus who consecrated to his memory that singular little Moss, Buxbaumia aphylla. IL—ON A SPECIMEN OF GYRACANTHUS OBTAINED FROM THE CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE SERIES AT BURGH LEE. By Mr T. STOCK. {Communicated Oct. 27, 1882.) I HAVE much pleasure in giving, at your Secretary's request, a short accouait of the GyracanthuSj obtained during our pleasant excursion to Straiten. Large and well-preserved fragments of the skeleton of sharks are exceedingly rare in carboniferous rocks. JSTevertheless, we know from the spines and teeth that the waters of that age were tenanted by an abundant selachian fauna, of which perhaps the most for- midable genus, both from its numbers and its size, was Gyracan- thus. The late Messrs Hancock and Atthey, the eminent Northum- brian ichthyologists, have contributed some of the most important observations yet made on that fish, and the Burgh Lee specimen is confirmatory of their conclusions. From the scattered though abundant material at their disposal they sought to establish the following points : 1, That certain Gyr acanthus spines are paired, and most probably pectoral spines. They grounded this on the fact that the apical extremity in many specimens had lost its point, and was worn down smoothly at an angle, and that this wear was always on the side opposite to the point of attachment. Fm-ther, they observed that in these specimens there was some lateral as well as antero-posterior curvature — that there were right and left spines. Moreover, they found " large flat triangular bones frequently associated with the spines, measuring sometimes 8-| inches X 6| inches wide at the widest part," which they re- 1882-83.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 5 1 ferred as carpal bones to the slioulder girdle. 2, They referred to the skin certain patches of minute tubercles. Turning now to the large fragments from Burgh Lee, we find that there are the remains of two spines, one of them measuring 16 inches in length, the other a mere fragment of 4 inches. They lie with very little post-mortem disturbance. The apices nearly touch in the same plane, the bases are widely divergent, and between them are the re- mains of the carpal bone, so-called, of Messrs Hancock and Atthey. This bone is triangular; its longest measurement is 6| inches, its broadest probably 4| inches : a little bit is broken off from one edge, but it is very nearly perfect. It presents the same appearance of loose texture as seen in the Northumberland speci- mens, and is undoubtedly the same bone. One or two detached bones have likewise occurred to me in the Wardie Shales. It is therefore satisfactory to find this bone so intimately associated with the spines (in a specimen which has undergone scarcely any disturbance), that any doubt lingering in one's mind, caiised by the presence of such an extensive ossification in a usually cartilaginous skeleton, has no excuse for being any longer entertained. The larger and nearly perfect spine has a short base of attach- ment, and the area of attachment at the back of the spine is not symmetrically divided, but has a greater development on one side than on the other, giving the spine the appearance of being twisted. This, the lateral curvature, I suppose, of Messrs Hancock and Atthey, is evidently due to its being a paired spine. The same specimen, too, is much worn at the apex. The wearing begins 3J inches downwards from the broken-off point, passes gradually into a deeply excavated groove, which again passes into a smooth terminating area, from which all traces of ridges and tubercles have disajDpeared. This wear is, as in the Nortliumbrian specimens, on the anterior aspect of the spine. The evidence is therefore cumulative, that we have here the remains of the pectoral region of a large shark. The two spines are of the species known as Gyracanllius tuherculatus, Ag., and they do not differ from each other in the slightest degree in size or ornament. They are, however, right and left, as was to be expected. A glance at any part of the specimen (in the proper plane) behind the spines, reveals the presence of the dermal tubercles. They are a good deal scattered. Whether they were found on other parts of the animal than the fin is uncertain, though probable. One finds patches of them occasionally with no spines near. They certainly, however, formed a dense coating on the surface of the fins, as a beautiful specimen in my Wardie collection sliows. At this meeting a series of fossil sections, including transverse 52 Transactions of the [Sess, and longitudinal sections of the spine of Gyracanthus, were shown under the microscope by Mr James Simpson. Mr G. M. Brotherston also exhibited a number of British Butterflies, and made some re- marks as to their localities. ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING. The Annual Business Meeting of the Club was held on the even- ing of the 23d November 1882. The Secretary and Treasurer's Statements were submitted to the meeting, and office-bearers were elected for the Session. After the election of President, Vice-Presi- dent, Secretary and Treasurer, and four Councillors, in room of those retu-ing, the office-bearers for Session 1882-83 will stand as under, viz. : — President.— A. B. Herbert. Vice-President. — P. B. Gibb. Arch. Craig. James Simpson. John Lindsay. Hugh H. Pillans. Council. T. B. Spkague. John Heggie. Chas. F. Robertson. W. Tait Kinnear. Robert Thomson. George Bird. Robert Stewart. Dr L. Dobbin. Auditors. — Alex. Matheson ; J. A. Brodie. Secretary and Treasurer. — Andrew Moffat. The financial statement showed an income, including balance from previous year, of £47, 3s. 2|d., an expenditure of £23, 10s. 4|d., leaving a balance in favour of the Club of £23, 12s. lOd. At this and the previous evening meeting in October, the Secretary read extended reports of the meetings held during 1881-82 ; but owing to the available space being required for other communications, it has been deemed advisable only to reproduce the introductory paragraph here : — The following meetings have been held during 1881-82, viz. : Evening Meetings — 20th Oct. 1881, First Evening Meeting; 23d Nov., Annual and Second Evening Meeting ; 22d Dec, Third Evening Meeting; 26th Jan. 1882, Fourth Evening Meeting; 23d Feb., Fifth Evening Meeting ; 7th April, Conversazione. Field Meetings, viz. : 18th Feb., Arniston (1st excursion) ; 25th Feb., Ar- niston (2d excursion); 29th April, Straiten; 6th May, Cm-rie ; 13th May, Auchendinny; 20th May, Borthwick Castle; 27th May, St David's ; 3d June, Pressmennan ; 7th June, Craigmillar ; 10th June, West Linton ; 17th June, Caribber Wood ; 21st June, Liber- ton ; 24th June, Leslie ; 28th June, Pioyal Botanic Garden ; 1st July, Peebles ; 8th July, Balerno ; 19th July, Blackball ; 22d July, 1882-83.] Edinbitrgh Naturalists Field Chib. 53 Gullane ; 9th Sept., Colinton ; 16th Sept., Musselburgh, — m all 26 meetings, with an aggregate attendance of 848, or an average of over 32 at each meeting. As compared with Session 1880-81 with the same number of meetings, the Session just closed shows an increase in the aggregate attendance of 225. During the past year, 1 1 members have withdrawn their names from the roll, and one has died ; 34 new members have been added to the roll, making a net increase of 22 members. As showing the progress of the Club, it may be well to state that in 1873 the published list showed a mem- bership of 69 ; in 1878 the number had fallen to 60 ; in 1879 it was 64 ; in 1880, 69 ; in 1881, 88 ; and in 1882, 110. At this meeting a rule was adopted by which Corresponding Members would be admitted to the Club. In connection with the Secretary's Keports, Miss Craigie -pre- pared a series of notes on the geological features of some of the localities visited, which were read at the March meeting, and which will be found in their place. IIL—RESTALRIG CHURCH— A MONOGRAPH. By Mr THOMAS A. DOUGLAS WOOD. {Read Nov. 23, 1882.) The village of Restalrig is very ancient : its date is uncertain. The Parsonage is known to have existed as far back as the death of Alexander III., which took place in 1286. Its former names were Lestalrig, Listalrike, and Lochsterrock. The owner of the barony used to take the same name. It would seem that at an early period it was an independent parish lying between Dudding- ston and Leith, and the hamlet was at the same time the seat of a not inconsiderable establishment, being in the honourable position of kirk-town of South Leith. From early records we find that in 1296 Adam of St Edmunds, the parson of the parish, swore fealty to King Edward of England ; and during the siege of Leith in 1560, Holinshed states that "the Lord Gracie, lieutenant of the Inglis armie, ludged in the town of Lestalrike, in the dean's house, and the most pairt of their demilances and horsemen lay in the saym towne." The church itself is believed to be also of ancient origin, as it was celebrated for the tomb of St Triduana, a noble virgin who came from Achaia in the fourth century along with St Rule, and died here. It i;sed to be resorted to by many pilgrims, and numbers of miracles were believed to be accomplished by its aid, especially in the healing of the eyesight. 54 Transactions of the [Sess. As already referred to, the lands belonged to a family bearing the same name in the early period of its existence. They passed, however, about the fourteenth century, to the Logans, through mar- riage, in the reign of Robert I. , whose descendants held them till 1604, when they were sold to Lord Balmerino, secretary to James VL, whose descendants in turn possessed them till the Stuart rebel- lion, when they were confiscated, and handed over to the Bute family in 1746. These Logans seem to have figured somewhat conspicuously in the annals of history, and to one of the earliest of their branches does Edinburgh owe its large share in the manage- ment of the Leith Docks — indeed the superiority over Leith itself. It might, therefore, be not uninteresting to refer shortly to some of the principal events in their history. The name Logan appears first in the documents of the realm about the twelfth year of Alex- ander II.'s reign. The principal family of the name was given of Lastelrig, commonly called Lasterrick. Sir Eobert married a daughter of Eobert IL, and he granted in May 1398 a charter to the city of Edinburgh while he was Admiral of Scotland, allowing it the exclusive right to certain waste places in the vicinity of the harbour of Leith for the erection of quays, wharves, shops, and granaries. In 1413 he made another one, this time restricting the Leith folks from carrying on any trade, or keeping inns for strangers, thereby giving to the city the whole monopoly of trade. In 1421 he acted as one of the hostages for James I. In 1441 we find that one John Logan, a son or grandson of the former, was made High Sheriff of Edinburgh by James II. The superiority of Eestalrig was sold to Mary of Lorraine in 1555. The last to whom Eestalrig belonged seems to have been a scapegoat. In some of the early traditions he is described as a " profligate and debaussit man." In 1580, by marriage to a daughter of Sir P. Home of Fast Castle, he became its proprietor. On account of outlawry for participation in a highway robbery, he hid himself here in 1596. In the same year he sold his estate of Nether Gogar to Logan of Coatfield, and, as we have seen, the barony of Eestalrig to Lord Balmerino in 1604. It seems he was in a way implicated in the famous Gowrie con- spiracy, although his complicity was not found out till after his death, which took place in 1606. Two years thereafter, a man, George Sprott by name, was tried, found guilty, and executed for his share in the conspiracy, and the evidence on which the convic- tion stood was merely a letter found in his possession written by Gowrie to Logan. Although noAV dead, the authorities, according to an old law, gave orders for the exhumation of his bones, which were duly brought into Court to receive sentence of confiscation and outlawry. Many people of the name of Logan changed it, although they were unconnected with the family, so great was the ignominy attached to it. A younger son fled to France, where he joined the 1882-83.] Edinbicrgh Naturalists Field Club. 55 army. Having a quarrel with Garson, a favourite of the kiuf^'s, they fought it out, resulting in the death of the Frenchman. Hav- ing to quit the country immediately thereafter, in case he should suffer death for his deed, young Logan once more arrives in Scot- land. He was obliged to live a quiet, obscure, and retired life, on account of the stain on his name. Few could be found will- ing to associate themselves with him. Tradition asserts that it was he who, while so living, became acquainted with Tibbie Fowler of the Glen, immortalised in Scottish song, and, in spite of her father's objections, succeeded in cai'rying her off as his prize. It seems a house stood in the Shirra Brae, opposite the Coalhill, up to 1840, but was then removed, that was pointed out as the one in which they afterwards lived. James III. seems to have taken a great fancy for this retired nook, for he established a collegiate apart from the old parsonage, and endowed it along with Lasswade. The establishment consisted of, besides the church, a " ludging " for the dean, and " chambers or manses with yardis and lands " for his prebendaries. James IV. augmented it by the addition to the foundation of eight preben- daries, who were endowed with the rights of titles in various parts of the country. James V. finished what was left uncompleted by the father, when he appointed a dean, nine prebendaries, and two singing-boys, the whole being dedicated to the Virgin and Trinity. In the year 1661 the following was the rental of the parish, as given in a return sent to Government : " The Fruits of the Deanery of Restalrig as it pays presentlie and commonlie their divers yiers bygane, with the parochin of Lesswaide and Glencorss — 25 chal- ders, 8 bolls, 2 firlots oats ; 8 chalders, 6 bolls, 2 firlots bear ; 2 chalders, 13 bolls, 1 firlot wheat ; 1 chalder, 3 bolls, 2 firlots rye ; along with £43, 6s. 8d. Scots." The manse and glebe were feued for the yearly sum of £47, 6s. 8d. Scots. Somewhere near the year 1490, if not in it, the church of South Leith was built, and through time many of the inhabitants of the village began to go there ; but it was not till the year 1560, when the first General Assembly met after the Eeformation, that an Act was passed condemning the church at Restalrig, and pro- hibiting service therein. The words of the Act read as follows : " Finds that the ministrie of the Word and Sacrament of God, and the assembly of people of the haill parochin of Restalrig, be within the Kirk of Leith, and that the Kirk of Restalrig, as a monument of idolitrie, be razed and utterly casten doun and destroy it." The name of John Knox is the first adhibited to this Act, and those of David Lindsay, minister, Andrew Lamb, and Patrick Boyman, are appended as representatives of Leith. It would seem that the wishes of the Assembly were soon to be gratified, for we find the following notice in the " Diurnal Occurrents " of 1571 : " The Lords 56 Transactions of the [Sess. and Captain of the Castle causit big ane new port at the Nether Bow, within the auld port of the samyne, of aisler wark in the maist strengthene maisoner : and tuik to big the sayme with all the aisler stanis that Alexander Clark had gaderit of the Kirk of Kestalrig to big his hous with." The Legislature themselves passed a statute in 1609, the 25th chapter of which runs thus : " Understanding that the Kirk of Restalrig is ruinous, and that the Kirk of Leith has been the place of the convening of the parochines of Eestalrig the space of fyftie ziers past, as alswa that it is most commodious, pairt in respect that the toun of Leith is the greatest pairt of the said parochin, whilk kirk notwithstanding has never yet been erected in ane paroch kirk." Further on the Act proceeds to declare " that the said Kirk of Leith be ane paroch kirk, and ordains to be repute, and called heirafter the paroch kirk of Leith, and all the inhabitants of Eestalrig to resort thairto as unto thair paroch kirk as they have dune in tymes past ; and that the beneface par- sonage thairof, gleib and manse pertaining thairto, shall be always desponit to the minister serving the cure at the said Kirk of Leith in all tyme coming : and that the said Kirk of Eestalrig be sup- pressed and extinct from henceforth and for ever." The choir only now remains of this once famous and important edifice. It is of the Early English Gothic description, and, though small, is very neat and clean. It can scarcely date further than the fourteenth century. Its roof is high, and very beautifully decorated. On its walls are monuments to Dr Andrew Wood, and Louis Cauvin, the founder of the hospital at Duddingstone, whose remains lie just outside the door. It was rebuilt and renovated in 1836, through the instrumentality of Dr Chalmers and the Church Extension Committee, according to plans executed by William Burns, Esq. It was arranged that the second minister of South Leith should always occupy the pulpit on the Sabbath at least once a-day. Since, however, Dr Mitchell has been appointed, and the dual charge ceased, he has contrived to make the villagers assist in maintaining, if not altogether maintain, a minister of their own. In 1557 John Knox wrote of Mr John Sinclair, then the Dean of Eestalrig, afterwards Lord President of the Court and Bishop of Brechin, as possessing so impartial a bearing to others that some thought him '' not far from the kingdom of God." For himself, he thought " that as he was blynd of ae e'e in his body, he had lost baith in his saul." The burying-ground is very interesting. It is kept, as many of the old country churchyards are, in a fairly tidy manner, — the cus- tom of having the graves kept level with the borders, however, not being yet introduced. The sexton and beadle — a man over eighty years — is intelligent, a hale old man for his years, and very com- municative, relating stories regarding the families whose grounds 1S82-83.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. 57 he kept. At the time Episcopacy was overthrown in Scotland, the burying-ground was extensively used as a place of sepulture for the families and deposed clergy of the order, on account of a pro- hibitory notice issued against the reading of a service in the city and suburban burial-grounds. For this cause Alexander Rose, the last Established Episcopal Bishop, was in 1720 interred here. The monument over his grave has recently been renewed, and he is rep- resented in full size, wearing his mitre, and having his crosier in his hand. Here lie the remains of Lord Brougham's father and family, and, as previously mentioned, of Louis Cauvin, the founder of the Hospital at Duddingston ; Lord Wood, a senator of the Court of Jus- tice ; and the recently deceased Dr Andrew Wood's ground is here. I must not, before closing, forget to mention a curious mausoleum annexed to the church, and which may at one time have been part of the old edifice. According to our friend the beadle, this is called the Earl of Moray's vault, who succeeded to the possession of the lands. There is at this time nothing to be seen inside save a stone, bearing to be in commemoration of the Lady Mary of Eestalrig. It is half broken, and owing to the darkness of the place the whole inscription cannot be followed. From a description of this curious place I have been privileged to read, belonging to the Architectural Association of Edinburgh, it would seem that the biiilding of it is ascribed to Sir Robert Logan, who died in 1441 ; and the opinion is expressed there, that from its antique form it might date much further back, and was perhaps a private chapel of St Triduana her- self. The roof is ornamental in character, the same as the church, and is supported by a very massive carved pillar. There once stood somewhere near the site of St Margaret's Station, at the junction of a cross-road leading to Holyrood, a well dedicated to St Margaret. It was protected by a handsome arch, supported by two columns. From this pure spring the monks were supplied with water. In course of time, however, the build- ing was demolished and the well almost covered up, to enable the station there to be erected. A few years ago, through the exer- tions of the late Dr David Laing and the Society of Antiquaries, the well was removed and the water conducted to the Queen's Park, and now stands enclosed by a gate a little south of the Palace, on the road to St Anthony. Having long had a desire to visit Restalrig, that desire has not till very lately been gratified. My visit over, curiosity which had previously been aroused was whetted, and I felt that I must for myself dip into its history. What information I obtained I jotted down as notes for my own use, and I have now ventured to give them to you, in the hope that I may be imparting to some such an interest in a church so close to their own dwellings as may induce them to pay a visit, however short, to that village. 58 Transactio7is of the [Sess. IV.— SOME NOTES ON BE MAINS OF THE GREAT AUK OR GAREFOWL {ALGA IMPENNIS, L.\ FOUND IN EX- CAVATING AN ANCIENT SHELL-MOUND IN ORONSAY. By Mr SYMINGTON GRIEVE. {Read Nov. 23, 1882.) It may be perhaps rather difficult for some of you to understand that any special interest can attach to what appear to be such un- interesting objects as the few bones now before you. But they are worthy of notice because they belong to a bird whose history, if carefully written, would read like a romance ; and the pen of the ready writer could put down in black and white the story of some scenes in the life of the race that, told with pathos, might bring tears of sympathy from hearts of stone. The last of the Great Auks has, we believe, lived and died, end- ing its existence at the hands of its ruthless and oftentimes cruel enemy, mankind ; and now the remains of this bird are prized because so rare, especially those that have been, found in Britain. What are now before you we obtained from an ancient shell-mound on the island of Oronsay, one of the Southern Hebrides, during the month of June 1881 ; and as this is only the second place where such remains have yet been found in Scotland, they have excited some interest, and having been brought under the notice of the Fellows of the Linneean Society, London, they have had them figured, along with a woodcut of the shell-mound,^ I have also to submit a woodcut ^ of the Great Auk, which I have carefully compared with the stuffed skins of the bird in the British Museum, London, as also with those in York Museum, and it is a most accurate picture, and decidedly superior to any other figure of the Great Auk that I know of. It may be as well to mention that it is stated that some remains of this bird were found in a cave near the sea -coast of county Durham ^ a few years since ; and through the kindness of Mr John Hancock, Newcastle-on-Tyne, who examined all the remains from this cave, we have ascertained that only one bone of the Great Auk was found, and that was an upper mandible. 1 " Notice of the Discovery of Remains of the Great Auk or Garefowl (Alca impennis, L.), on the island of Oronsay, Argyllshire," by Symington Grieve. 'Linntean Society's Journal' — Zoology, vol. xvi. pp. 479-487, and Plate IX. 2 Woodcut which appeared in ' The Century,' August 1882. 3 'Natural History Transactions of Northumberland and Durham,' vol. vii., Pt. 2 (1880), pp. 361-364. 1882-83.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Chib. 59 This is the first instance of the occurrence of any remains of this bird in England that we have heard of. But it is to be hoped that further search in both England and Scotland may yet recover from the shell-mounds, kitchen -middens, and cave - dwellings of the ancient inhabitants of our country more bones that belonged to this interesting and extinct bird. We can hardly expect to find any- thing like a complete skeleton in the European region that it in- habited, though such have been obtained from mummy Great Auks found in the frozen deposits of guano on Funk island, off the coast of Newfoundland ; ^ but it is worthy of note that almost all the remains of this bird that have been found in the European shell- mounds are duplicates of the same bones of its body, which were those that were thickest and hardest, such as the lai-ger bones of the wings and legs. It is probably to this that we owe their pre- servation, as they were best able to resist the ravages of time and ex2:)osure. The habits of the Great Auk appear to have led it to frequent those isolated situations where, under ordinary circumstances, it would be free from molestation by man, as its want of the power of flight made it so helpless when on land. It is unfortunate that, perhaps owing to this instinctive retirement from places of human existence,^ we know really so little regarding it. One of the best descriptions that we have is that by Martin, who, writing of St Kilda, says : " The sea-fowl are first the Gairfowl, being the state- liest as well as the largest sort, and above the size of a Solan Goose, of a black colour, red about the eyes, a large white spot under each, a long broad bill ; it stands stately, its whole body erected, its wings short, flies not at all ; lays its ^^^ upon the bare rock, which, if taken away, she lays no more for that year. She is whole-footed [web-footed], and has the hatching spot upon her breast — i.e., a bai-e spot from which the feathers have fallen off with the heat in hatching ; its ^^^ is twice as big as that of a Solan Goose, and is variously spotted — black, green, and dark. It comes without regard to any wind, appears the first of May, and goes away about the middle of June." The Great Auk appears to be first mentioned as occurring in the American region by Sebastian Cabot ^ in 1497 or 1498, and it was soon greatly valued as food by the early voyagers to those waters, as it could scarcely fly, and was so stupid or fearless, when on shore, that it allowed itself to be driven on board the vessels in immense numbers, by merely stretching sails or planks of wood ^ 'Annals of Natural History,' third series, Pt. 14. 'Proceedings of Zoological Society, London,' 10th November 1863. 2 'A Voyage to St Kilda, May 29, 1697,' by M. Martin, Gent. Pub- lished in London, 1753, p. 27. ^ 'Hakluyt's Voyages,' vol. iii., 1810 (Sebastian Cabot). 6o Transactions of the [Sess. from the ships to the shore ; and we need not wonder that it has been exterminated, especially when we remember that the female birds only laid one ^^^ each year. For a long period the Great Auks, or Penguins as they were called in the American locality, were so numerous that mariners frequenting those seas depended upon them as the principal source of provision for their ships ; and it is probably not much more than a century since the merchants of Bonavista used to sell these birds to the poor people by the hundred-weight instead of pork. Our knowledge of what were its breeding-places may be defec- tive ; but it seems the following are historically well attested, — viz., St Kilda, Faroe, and the three Garefowl Eocks off the coast of Iceland. Then we have to go west to the east coast of North America, where, in the neighbourhood of Newfoundland, it was met with on Funk and many other islands, also on some of the islands in the Bay of St Lawrence, and at Cape Breton ; while another station on the same coast at which it probably occurred was Cape Cod — and this seems to have been near the southern limit of the region in which the bird lived. We find it gradually diminished in numbers at all the American breeding-places, until, finally, early in the present century, it altogether disappeared ; and although we have one or two notices of its being observed in American waters between the years 1830 and 1852, when the last notice occurs, it does not appear that any of these occurrences are fully authenticated by those who report them. In the European region it lingered a few years longer ; and it is not difficult to recount its recorded occur- rences during the present century, but we shall only refer to a few of these. Its last authenticated occurrences in British waters are as follows : Two specimens, a male and a female, were killed at Papa-Westray, one of the Orkney islands, during the year 1812. The skin of the female bird was so destroyed that it was unfit for stufiing ; but that of the male bird is now in the British Museum, and is the finest skin they possess. Early in the summer of 1821 a specimen was caught alive at St Kilda ; and coming into the hands of Mr Maclellan, a tacksman of Glass or Scalpa, one of the Northern Hebrides, it was by him given to the Eev. John Fleming, D.D., minister of Flisk, afterwards Professor Fleming of the New College, Edinburgh, on the eve of his leaving Glass in the yacht of the Commissioners of Northern Lighthouses, 18th August of that year.^ This bird was fed on fresh fish, and allowed occasionally to sport in the water, with a cord fastened to its leg to prevent escape. Unfortunately it got away when the yacht was near the entrance to the Firth of Clyde, as it was being allowed to take its usual bath.^ There appears to be some evidence that this bird afterwards 1 'ProceedingsoftheSociety of Antiquaries of Scotland,' vol. ii.,N. S.,p.441. 2 ' Edinburgh Philosophical Journal,' vol. x., 1824. 1882-83.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 61 died, and that its body was cast asllore at Gourock.^ Of all the specimens, perhaps more has been written about this one than any other, but we have no space for a longer notice. In May 1834, two Great Auks were captured near the entrance to Waterford harbour, and one of these is now preserved in the Museum of Trinity Col- lege, Dublin, but the other was unfortunately destroyed, through the ignorance of its captors.- This is j^robably the last authentic recorded occurrence of this bird on the British coasts ; but it is stated that two were seen in Belfast Bay during 1845,^ — and this is worthy of note, as, if it is correct, it is a year later than the date at which the last Great Auks were killed on Eldey, off the coast of Iceland.^ It is recorded that several Great Auks were, from time to time, seen or caught on the French side of the English Channel ; Ibut they were all observed early in the century.^ A dead bird is said to have been found near Fredericksstad, in Norway, during the winter of 1838.^ The station, however, at which Great Auks lingered longest was Iceland, where they had several rocky skerries on which to breed that were difficult of access from the stormy sea with which they were surrounded. But by a volcanic subsidence that occurred in 1830, their principal breeding- station, named the Geirfuglasker, situated off Reykjavik, disappeared beneath the waves, and imme- diately afterwards a colony of these birds appeared at Eldey, a skerry which lies much nearer the main island ; and it was here that a number of specimens were got, until what is believed to have been the last pair of living Great Auks were killed at the beginning of June 1844,^ and their intestines and other internal organs are now preserved in the Royal Museum, Copenhagen.* But what became of their skins, bones, and other remains, appears to be unknown.^ As far as we have been able to ascertain, the known remains of the Great Auk may be totalled as follows : skins, 72 (or 74 '?) ; skele- tons, 9 ; number of birds represented by detached bones, 90 (or 1 'Birds of the West of Scotland,' R. Gray (1871), pp. 441-453. '^ Thomson : ' Birds of Ireland,' vol. iii. p. 238. 3 Ibid., p. 239. * "The Garefowl and its Historians," in 'Natural History Review,' 1865 (Prof. Newton). ^ 'Degland Ornithologie Eur.,' vol. ii. p. 529. Also M. Hardy's 'Cata- logue des Oiseaux de la Seine-Inferieure.' 6 " The Garefowl and its Historians," in 'Natural History Review,' 1865, p. 469 (Prof. Newton). 7 Mr J. WoUey's Researches. 'Ibis,' vol. iii. (1861) p. 392. ^ 'Proceedings of Royal Society, Edinburgh,' 1879-80, p. 679 (Robt. Gray, Esq.). • Videnskabdige Meddeleser, 1855, Nos. iii. -vii. Prof. Steenstrup's Paper, p. 78. VOL. I. E 62 Transactions of the [Sess. 93 ?), calculating the remains" obtained from Funk island by Pro- fessor Milne as representing 50 birds ; eggs, 67. We hope these few notes may have proved interesting ; and if within any of you there has been aroused an interest in this extinct bird, we shall have ample excuse for having extended them rather beyond what we intended. v.— ON A SPECIMEN OF THE POISONOUS LIZARD OF MEXICO {HELODEBMA HORBIDUM, WEIGMANN). Exhibited, with Remarks, by Mr R. J. HARVEY GIBSON, M.A., November 23, 1882. The Heloderm is a native of the hottest part of Mexico, bordering the Gulf of Tehuantepec. It is further limited in its distribution to the dry parts of that region, being entirely unknown on the Mexi- can Gulf side. It is nocturnal and terrestrial. Its saliva, which is copious and of gluey consistence, is poisonous to small animals. The teeth, like those of poisonous serpents, are perforated by a canal distinct from the pulp cavity, but no special poison-gland has been discovered in connection with the teeth. Its hide is of extreme beauty, being of a creamy buff, with dark brown markings arranged in a definite pattern. The fact of its possessing poisonous powers, taken along with its known preference for eggs as food, gives rise to the question. What use is the poison to the animal ? It has been long known that human saliva, if concentrated, possesses poisonous properties ; and the recent researches of M. Gautier of Paris have demonstrated the existence of sulpho-cyanide of potas- sium in saliva, of the young especially. It is of considerable in- terest to find that man is not alone in this peculiarity, while, in addition, it suggests a possible explanation of the origin of poison- glands generally. The specimen will shortly be mounted in the Science and Art Museum, to which it has been presented by Mr Patrick Geddes — by whose courtesy Mr Gibson was enabled to show the specimen to the club. VI.— BEES AND BEE CULTURE. By Mr A. B. HERBERT, President. [Read Dec. 22, 1882.) These insects, and their instincts and habits, have from remote ages engaged the thoughts and consideration of many eminent 1882-83.] Edinburgh Naturalists' Field Club. Gi naturalists, and volnmes upon volumes have been written respect- ing them. I propose to treat the subject thus, — first, glancing at Bee literature, and the natural history of Bees ; then their various species, both indigenous and introduced, and the habits of the in- sects ; then to enumerate some of the flowers most frequented by them ; afterwards to consider their enemies ; and afterwards their natxiral and artificial habitations, combined with such general re- marks as may occur to me. Among the early writers on the subject we have Aristotle, born 381 years before the Christian era ; Virgil, born seventy years be- fore Christ ; and Pliny the elder, who lived about the time of our Saviour ; and afterwards a learned Spaniard, Columella, who wrote his ' De Ee Eustica ' in the first century. Virgil wrote very fully on Bees, and I will give a few literal translations from the Fourth Georgic. He says : " First, a proper station must be sought for the Bees, to which winds have no access ; and let lizards with speckled backs be kept far away from the rich hives ; and woodpeckers, and other birds, and the swallow, whose breast is stained with blood, — for these birds create great havoc, and in their beaks bear away the Bees while on the wing, sweet morsels for their merciless young. But let clear springs and pools edged with green moss be near, and let green cassia, and far-smelling wild thyme, and strong-scented savory, and beds of violet, be near the spring." He also mentions, as favoiirable to the insects, " the glowing crocus, the gummy lime, and the purple hyacinth ; " and he states that " the life of a Worker-Bee is not prolonged beyond the seventh summer." But if he had said the seventh month, he would have been far nearer the truth. Virgil also tells us tliat, while their king is safe, all live in perfect harmony ; but on his death they dissolve their union : that he is their guardian, — they buzz around him, and in vast numbers protect him. He also states that Bees often take up little stones to steady them in their flight, as unsteady vessels do in a rough sea. This, no doubt, is in allu- sion to the balls of pollen carried by the insects in the peculiar cavities in their hind legs. It is pretty clear that Virgil knew but little of the true natural history of Bees, or the internal economy of the hive, and was not even aware that the principal Bee was a female, for he speaks of her throughout as a king : and as there were no glass hives in those times, his remarks were restricted to the results of external observations. But Virgil had observed that there were two species of Bees then, as now, in Italy, — namely, our common black Bee [Apis melUfica), and the Italian or Ligurian, or, as it is often designated, the Alp Bee [Apis Ligiistica) ; and he very truthfully mentions the latter as the preferable species, where he says " there are two sorts of bees — one glowing with refulgent spots of gold, and conspicuous by its glittering scales ; 64 Transactions of the [Sess. and this is the better species." It is clear that these remarks apply to the bronze colour of the anterior folds of the abdomen in the Ligurian, which is the distinguishing characteristic of the species. Coming down to a later period, we have Tusser, — old Tusser, as he is called, — who lived in the sixteenth century, and wrote * The Five Hundred Points of Good Husbandry,' who has a curious couplet on the position of beehives. He says : — " Set hive on a plank, not too low, on the ground, Where herb with the flowers may compass it round ; And boards to defend it from north and north-east. From showers and rubbish, fi'om vermin and beast." And again, we have Bees mentioned several times by Shakespeare. We all know Ariel's song in the "Tempest"; and also where he says, so graphically and concisely — ' " So work the honey-bees, — Creatures that by a rule of nature teach The art of order to a peopled kingdom." Again, the Scottish poet of nature. Thomson, very pleasingly writes, in the * Seasons ' : — " Here their delicious task the fervent Bees In swarming millions tend. Around, athwart, Through the soft air the busy nations fly. Cling to the bud, and with inserted tube Suck its pure essence, its ethereal soul ; And oft, with bolder wing, they soaring dare The purple heath, or where the wild thyme grows, And yellow load them with the luscious spoil." The oldest book I possess on the subject is dated 1721, and is entitled, ' The True Amazons ; or. Monarchy of Bees,' by Joseph Warder ; and in this are quotations from a book by a Mr Purchas, dated 1656, and bearing the curious title of '■ The Theatre of Politi- cal Flying Insects.' Warder gives, with all seriousness, directions for bringing dead Bees to life, by holding them in your warm hands, or putting them in a perforated tin box in the trousers' pocket ; but I need scarcely remark that the Bees so operated upon were simply cases of suspended animation through cold. I have revived hundreds, probably thousands, in the same manner, either by holding them in my hands or putting them in a small perfor- ated zinc tea-infuser in my trousers' pocket, without knowing that Joseph Warder had adopted a precisely similar practice a century and a half ago. The first symptoms of returning animation in chilled Bees is a slight quivering of the antennee ; then a movement of the folds of the abdomen in breathing ; then the insect gets on her legs, moves her head about to see where she is, and lastly, before taking flight, wipes her eyes and each of her antenna3 with her fore-feet. It is interesting to watch this return to life and activity 1882-83.] Edmbiirgh NatiLvalists Field Club. 65 in a few minutes from apparent death. I have observed that wlien the Bee's tongue or proboscis is protruded, the insect is dead be- yond the power of Mr Warder or any one else to revive ; but that so long as the tongue is retained between the mandibles, there is hope of recovery by warmth. The dedication of Warder's book to Queen Anne is quaint and amusing. He compares the devotion of the queen's subjects to that of the Worker-Bees for their queen, and reasons from analogy that the monarchical is the only proper form of government. The next writer I will mention is Wildman, the author of a treatise on the management of Bees, dated 17G8. This work was published by subscription, and among the sub- scribers are several Edinburgh men — namely, Dr Black, George Clerk, Dr Ferguson, and others. Wildman also wrote a very ex- cellent account of the natural history of Wasps. There are 'two cases on record of Bees swarming on human beings — one of them mentioned by Wildman. The particulars of these cases I will give when I come to speak of swarming. The works of recent date on our subject in this country, the Continent, and America, are so numerous, that I must content myself with merely mentioning some of the authors' names, such as Huber, Eeaumur, Schirach, Dzier- zon, Bevan, Nutt, Chesshire, Eoot, Langstroth, Tegetmeyer, Petti- grew, our townsman John Lowe, Sir John Lubbock, Cowan, and last, but by no means least in importance, Mr Abbott of Fairlawn, near London, the able and obliging editor of the 'British Bee Journal,' and the author of " Leaflets for Cottagers," and other very useful and inexpensive works. Mr Abbott's indef\^tigable exer- tions in inculcating humanity towards Bees, and giving valuable information, are fully appreciated by all who have the pleasure of his acquaintance. In the summer of 1881 I spent some hours with him amongst his beehives most enjoyably and profitably; and it was there that I saw for the first time the newly imported Bees from the island of Cyprus. In noticing Bee literature, it is extra- ordinary to think how much we owe to a blind man for our inti- mate knowledge of the natural history of the insect. I refer, of course, to that estimable man, Francis Huber, who hved to the venerable age of 81, and died in 1831. His work, written origi- nally in French, but translated into English, is undoubtedly one of the most scientific and best treatises we possess. Huber was fortunate in having that greatest of earthly blessings, a devoted and affectionate wife, and when he became totally blind he used her eyes and reasoned upon what she saw ; and most of his remarks have been repeatedly confirmed by subsequent writers. The account of his matrimonial engagement is romantic and interesting. When quite young, and attending a dancing academy, he formed an ardent attachment to a daughter of M. Lullin, a member of the syndic of the Swiss Republic ; and during his engagement, which 66 Transactions of tJie [Sess. was of seven years' duration, he on one occasion lost his way on a journey, and suffered so much from exposure to cold, &c,, that his eyesight was seriously affected, and it became only too evident to himself and his immediate friends that ere long he would be entirely deprived of sight ; and M. Lullin strongly opposed the marriage of his daughter to a man so afflicted. Huber, too, had some fear lest the object of his affection should coincide with her father's views, and endeavoured to conceal from her the extent of ]iis calamity. Huber, in fact, had not sufficient faith in the affec- tion and devotion of this noble-minded girl. When she found out he had tried to conceal from her how utterly blind he was becom- ing, she reproached him for his distrust of her — probably the only time she ever reproved him — telling him that there was now the greater reason why they should be united, as he would require that assistance and those innumerable attentions which a devoted wife alone could supply ; that she should soon be of age, and would then be her own mistress, and they would be married. And most admirably did she prove her devotion. She became his right hand in everything, his amanuensis, entering heartily into all his scientific researches ; and in order that, when she could not accom- pany him, he might not be deprived of his accustomed walks, she stretched strings for his guidance along the paths he usually frequented. She died many years before Huber ; and he remarks that so long as she lived he never knew to the full extent how great a calamity it is to be blind. Such was this amiable and accomplished woman, Maria Aimee, the wife of Francis Huber. In concluding this part of my subject, I may mention that one of the best simple and practical books on Bees is Mr Cowan's ' Bee- keeper's Guide Book,' published at the moderate price of Is. 6d., which has now run through several editions. We will now proceed to the consideration of the natural history of the Hive-Bee ; and this I will state as concisely as possible. An ordinary good stock of Bees in the summer consists of one queen or mature female, about 500 drones, and 20,000 workers. Swarms of Bees are now frequently advertised to be sold by weight ; and I may mention that it takes about 5000 Worker-Bees to weigh a pound. The queen is the only Bee which lays eggs ; and it is said she will lay as many as ' 2000 in twenty-four hours. My own opinion is that this is a slight exaggeration, for it is at the rate of 83 per hour ; and though I have often seen the queen laying eggs much quicker than one a minute, I have observed that after lay- ing a score or so she usually pauses for a time — and it is when she is resting in this manner that you see a group of workers round, with their heads all towards her, apparently caressing her by touches with their antenuce, and offering her food from their tongues (see Illustration). She also spends much time in walking over the combs The Queen or Mother Bee stirrouuded by workers with their heads towards her, as she can be seen at any time in an Observatory Hive, and as exhibited in a glass Hive to the Eoyal Visitors at the British Bee-Keepers Association at Kilburn, by Messes. Abbott Brothers, of Southall. 4 i 1882-83-] EdinbiirgJi Naturalists' Field Chib. 6y to find suitable cells which have not already brood or honey in them ; and she invariably puts her head into a cell before laying in it. The queens are usually hatched in large cells placed vertically on the edge of the comb, and it takes 17 days from the laying of the egg till the queen emerges a peifect insect from the cell. A drone takes 24 days, and a worker 21 days. The queen is much longer in the body than the workers, has longer legs, and is pro- vided with a sting, but which is seldom used except in a combat with a rival queen. I have had a queen in my hand several times, but never knew her attempt to sting. She never leaves the hive except on her hymeneal flight, which occurs a few days after leav- ing the cell, or when she leads out a swarm. The drones are the males, are much larger than the workers, and have no stings ; and none of these survive the winter. They begin to hatch out in April or May, and are destroyed by the workers about August. The workers are females, but incapable of reproduction — in fact, immature queens ; for it is now considered an established truth, that when a hive is by any accident deprived of its queen, a worker grub, a few days old, is selected, its cell enlarged, and by giving it a peculiar food it emerges a perfect queen. The workers are provided with what is called a honey-sack, into which the honey is drawn up from the nectary of the flowers, and ejected through the tongue or proboscis into the cells. The cells containing drone grubs are larger than those for worker grubs, and both kinds of cells are used as receptacles for honey ; and it is clear the queen must know what kind of eggs she is laying, as she does not deposit a worker egg into a drone cell, or vice versa. The workers are also provided with small sacks or cavities in their hind legs, which they fill with pollen. The use of the antennae of Bees is a subject which lias engaged the close attention and observation of many scientific Bee-keepers, and especially of Sir John Lubbock ; and it seems, I think, highly probable, that they are delicate and highly sensitive organs of sense to which we have no strict analogy in our own constitution. That they are feelers, we can have no doubt. But are they not much more than this ? May not the insect through them be made aware of atmospheric changes, or of vibrations in the air caused by sound, or possibly may they not convey to the insect a sensation resembling our sense of smell? These are questions we cannot solve ; but we are quite certain they are most important organs, though their exact uses we cannot define. If you notice closely a worker leaving the hive, you will often see that before taking flight she wipes her antennas with her fore-legs, as though it were of the first importance that these organs should be perfectly free from the smallest particle of dust or other extran- eous matter. I have hundreds of times observed the workers do this, but have not seen it remarked in any publication. 68 Tra7isacti07is of the [Sess. We will now consider tlie various species of Bees, both indigen- ous and introduced. As a honey-gathering Bee for any useful pur- pose, we have really only one native species, the common black Bee, Ajiis mellifica. We have certainly many species of beautiful Humble Bees, such as Bomhus muscorum, Bomhus lapidarius, and Bomhus terrestris, and others ; but these only gather enough honey to feed their brood, and only a few of the females survive the win- ter, and emerge in the spring, to become the founders of nests, and in this respect their habits are very similar to those of Wasps. Eegarding Honey-Bees which have been introduced into this country in recent years we have now several species, — the Ligu- rian or Italian, or, as it is sometimes designated, the Alp Bee, the Egyptian Bee, the Cypriote Bee, and the Carniolan Bee. All these are so nearly allied to our own species that they will cross and pro- duce hybrids, and these hybrids are fertile, so that cross-bred Bees are now by no means uncommon wherever Bees are kept, I have a strong opinion that neither the Egyptian nor the Cypriote Bee will eventually be favourites with Bee-keepers. They much resemble each other, being of a very light colour, and smaller than our Bees, very active, and, I believe, prolific breeders ; but the disposition of both is far from amiable. My friend Mr Lowe had some years ago a hive of Egyptians near the Dean Bridge, but if you even walked in front of the hive there was some danger of being stung ; and when I was at Fairlawn in 1881, Mr Abbott kindly ojDened a frame hive of Cypriote Bees to show me the queen and drones of the species, and though I had a Bee-veil on, I found I had to keep my hands very firmly in my pockets to keep free from stings. I look, however, on Ligurians, as evidently Virgil did, as an improvement on our own, and in these respects, — that they are prettier insects, having the anterior rings of the abdomen of a pale brown colour ; they are more active, and unquestionably more prolific, and as honey-gatherers quite equal if not superior to otir own Bees. It may probably be found that hybrids between our own and Liguri- ans are the best of all. With regard to the prolific nature of these hybrids, I will mention a fact which came under my notice this year. In May I had one straw hive of black Bees ; a neighbour had a similar hive of hybrids, — both, I think, equally strong in numbers. My hive threw off one swarm only on the 15th June ; my neighbour's, on the other hand, threw off one swarm on the 30th May, a second on the 10th June, and a third on the 16th of the same month : moreover, the first swarm of the 30th May sent off other three swarms, so that in July, while of black Bees there were only two stocks, of hybrids there were seven. To me one of the most interesting sights connected with Bee- keeping is the process of swarming — that is, the queen leading out a swarm to form a new colony ; and this always takes place when 1882-83.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. 69 there are young queens being reared, one of which will be able to take the place of the old queen who had left. As perhaps many of our members may have never witnessed the process of swarming, I will give a brief account of my own swarm last June, — for, though I have hived perhaps over 100 swarms, I had never before actually seen the queen leave the hive on these occasions, and I much wished to do so. I knew the Bees were ready to swarm. There are manifestations of this well known to Bee-keepers ; and after several wet days, the morning of the 15th June opened with bright sunshine, so about 10 o'clock I posted myself close to the hive, and kept a sharp look-out, and happily had not been long there before I saw the queen walk out of the hive, pause for a few moments on the landing-board, and then take flight. To my surprise, a full minute or more elapsed before the rush of Bees to the mouth of .the hive took place : then out they came, as they always do, with that helter-skelter speed, as one writer describes it, as though their lives depended on their expedition ; and as you watch the living stream tumbling over each other in their haste to get out, you wonder how the hive could possibly hold so many. The air was then full of them, and they seemed to be long in finding their queen, and so tired with flying that they settled thickly over the grass, on the wall of the garden and house, and great numbers on myself, and it was impossible to move without treading on some. However I saw the queen not far from me walking up the wall, and soon there was the joyous hum, so well known to Bee-keepers, as the Bees all rose and congregated round her in a dense mass on the wall. I then placed my bar-framed hive above the cluster of Bees, with one edge resting on the wall, and the other supported on a stake from the ground, and successfully hived them. The custom of " ringing Bees " by beating the shovel with the poker when a swarm has issued was very general in my younger days, and is still practised in many rural districts in England, from an idea that the Bees would not settle unless this were done. Two reasons have been assigned for the custom, — one, that you gave your neighbours notice that you had a swarm on the wing, and so were at liberty to follow them ; another, that it was an imi- tation of thunder, and that during an impending storm the Bees would be more ready to settle and get under shelter. It is gener- ally considered lawful, both here and in England, to follow a swarm on to your neighbour's projDerty to hive them, and such is the universal custom, but whether you are strictly within the law is somewhat doubtful. A circumstance occurred last summer in Eng- land which seemed likely to bring this point to an issue. A swarm belonging to a Mr Thomson settled in his neighbour's garden, such neighbour being one of the fair and gentle sex, though the latter quality was not very apparent in this instance, for seeing the clus- 70 Transactions of the [Sess. ter on the tree, she procured a large tub of water, and drowned the entire swarm. Then came a very strong remonstrance from Mr Thom- son, but the only reply he received was that " she neither wanted- Mr Thomson nor his Bees in her garden, and what was more, she would not have them." This was followed by a lawyer's letter demanding compensation for destruction of property, and it ended in the lady paying what was considered an equivalent for the value of the swarm, to avoid litigation. So the law upon the point is still unsettled ; but the British Bee-Keeper's Association have resolved, when another case arises, to obtain a legal decision on the point, entertaining scarcely a doubt that such decision will be in accordance with what is the universal custom. There are two instances on record of swarms of Bees settling on human beings, and these may perhaps interest you. The first is mentioned by Mr Lombard ; the second by an old English Bee- keeper named Tliorley, in the year 1717, and recorded in Wildman's book. Lombard says : — ' ' A young giii of my acquaintance was greatly afraid of Bees, but was completely cured of her fear by the following incident. A swarm having left the hive, I observed the queen alight by herself at a little distance from the apiary. I immediately called my little friend that I might show her this im- portant personage. She was anxious to have a nearer view of her majesty, and therefore, ha^dng first caused her to draw on her gloves, I gave the queen into her hand. Scarcely had I done so when we were surrounded by the whole Bees of the swarm. In this emergency I encouraged the trembling girl to be steady and to fear nothing, remaining myself close to her, and cov- ering her head and shoulders with a thin handkerchief. I then made her stretch out her hand, which held the queen, and the Bees instantly alighted on it, and hung from her fingers as from the bi-anch of a tree. The girl, ex- periencing no injury, was delighted above measure at the novel sight, and so entirely freed from fear that she bade me uncover her face. The spectators were charmed at the interesting spectacle. I at length brought a hive, and shaking the swarm from the child's hand, it was lodged in safety without inflicting a single sting." This is Thorley's account of a somewhat similar occurrence : — "In the year 1717 one of my swarms settled among the twisted branches of a Codlin tree, and not to be got into a hive without help, my maid-servant, being in the garden, offered her assistance to hold the hive while I dislodged the Bees. Having never been acquainted with Bees, she put a linen cloth over her head and shoulders, to secure her from their stings. A few of the Bees fell into the hive, and some on the ground, but the main body upon the cloth which covered her garments. I took the hive out of her hands when she cried out that the Bees were got under the covering, and were crowding up towards her breast and face, which put her into a trembling posture. \\1ien I perceived the veil was of no further service, she gave me leave to remove it. This done, a most affecting spectacle presented itself to the view of all the company, filling me with the deepest distress and concern, as I thought myself the unhappy instrument of drawing her into so imminent hazard of her life. Had she enraged them, all resistance would have been vain, and nothing less than her life would have atoned for the offence. I spared not to use all the arguments I could think of, and used the most 1882-83-] EdiiiburgJi Naturalists Field Club. 71 affectionate entreaties, begging her with all earnestness in my power to stand her ground, and keep her present posture ; in order to which I gave her en- couragement to hope for a full discharge from her disagreeable companions. I began to search amongst them for the queen, they ha\dng now got in a great body upon her breast, about her neck, and up to her chin. I immedi- ately seized her from the crowd, with some of the commons in company with her, and put them together into the hive. Here I watched her for some time, and as I did not observe that she came out, I conceived an expectation of see- ing the whole body quickly abandon their settlement : but instead of that, I soon observed them gathering closer together, without the least signal of de- parting. Then I immediately reflected that either there must be another sovereign, or that the same was returned. I directly commenced a second search, and in a short time, with a most agreeable surprise, found a second or the same. She strove by entering farther into the crowd to escape me, but I reconducted her with a great number of the populace into the hive. And now the melancholy scene began to change into one infinitely more agreeable and pleasant. The Bees, missing their queen, began to dislodge and rapair to the hive, crowding into it in multitudes, and in the greatest hurry imagin- able, and in the space of two or three minutes the maid had not a single Bee about her, neither had she so much as one sting." Artificial swarms are now frequently made either by driving- from straw skeps, or where frame-hives are used, by taking a few frames containing brood-comb from a full hive, and putting them into an empty one. These processes are fully explained in the cheap leaf- lets published by the British Bee-Keeper's Association. The titles of the leaflets published at a halfpenny each are as under, and they are most useful publications : " Making an Apiary," " Managing an Apiary," " Quieting Bees," " Bee Entomology," " Transferring," " Feeding," " Ligurianising," " Driving Bees," " Making Artificial Swarms," and " Fixing Comb Foundations." Some years ago I assisted my friend Mr Lowe to drive a stock of Bees : it was a Liginian colony which he wished to send to London. The process is simple. We reversed the straw hive, placed an empty hive on the top, put a cloth round the junction of the two hives, then drummed on the inverted hive to alarm the Bees, which hur- ried with their queen up into the empty hive, where they clustered. This we did in the evening, and the same night the Bees in the new hive were despatched to London, and the old hive, full of brood and a few workers, restored to its former place. The practice of ligurianising stocks of black Bees is now carried on extensively — /.e., substituting a Ligurian queen for a black one. These queens are bred here, and also imported for sale at 6s. or 8s. each. The old queen is removed, and the Ligurian, with a few of her subjects, confined in a perforated zinc cage placed in the hive. It would not do to put the new queen in without this precaution, as she would probably be at once destroyed. But when the workers miss their queen, and the scent from the hive has penetrated well into the cage, the workers, on the cage being opened, welcome the new queen, and treat her as they would their own. She then be- 72 Transactions of tlie [Sess. gins of course to lay Lignrian eggs, and as the old black Bees die off, the hive becomes in a few months a pure Lignrian "colony, and this practice has enabled us to form a very good idea of the dura- tion of life of a vporker Bee, the average of vs^hich is found not to exceed a few months. It may be well to enumerate a few of the flowers most frequented by Bees. I will merely mention some of the most important. In the early spring the Crocus and Willow are perhaps the first, and much pollen is procured from these, and also from the blossoms of fruit-trees. Raspberry and Gooseberry blossoms seem great favour- ites with Bees, and Turnip flowers, and all the Brassica tribe ; then Eibes, Lime, Arabis alpinus, Limnanthes Douglasii, Wallflower, Mignonette, White Clover, Melilotus leucantha ; and in the autumn Heather, Ivy, Garden Balsam, &c. A full list of Bee flowers is given in a recent number of the ' British Bee JournaL' One fact may not be generally known, namely, that a Bee, when gathering honey, does not go promiscuously from one flower to another — for instance, from White Clover to Mignonette. If she begins on Mignonette, she goes to no other flower till she returns to the hive. You can notice this at any time, and I have no doubt your observations will confirm my statement. We will now glance at some of the enemies of Bees. You are aware, from the paper I wrote last year on the Flycatcher, that I do not consider our small birds as enemies to Bees. That beautiful bird the Bee-eater [Merops apiaster) is always spoken of as a great destroyer of them, but it never visits Scotland, and is an extremely rare visitant to England, where unfortunately its attrac- tive plumage soon renders it a specimen for our museums. It is possible its long bill may enable it to kill Worker-Bees with im- punity. Wasps are great enemies to Bees. I have known weak colonies entirely destroyed by them. Mice will sometimes in AA'inter, when the Bees are almost helpless, make sad havoc with the combs, but the entrance of the hive ought never to be suf- ficiently large to admit them. Snails in their shells sometimes crawl into a hive, and the Bees, not being able to eject them, with propolis fix the edges of the shell to the floor-board, and the mol- lusc is suffocated, and so hermetically sealed that its remains can- not be deleterious or offensive. The Wax Moth is an enemy, for the larvse do great injury to the combs ; and the Death's-Head Moth is also mentioned as doing much mischief in hives, but this splen- did Moth is seldom seen in Scotland. By far the greatest enemies the Bees have are unquestionably human, or more properly inhuman, beings, who, not content with taking a portion of the honey the in- sects have stored, still dig holes in the garden, in which sulphur is burned, and the hive placed over the fumes, and the whole colony suffocated, and the dead and dying buried out of sight. We will 1882-83.] Edinburgh Naturalists Field Club. yi) sincerely hope that this unmitigated and unnecessary barbarity will soon be an action of the past, for now wherever Bee-societies are established, there are always members who will willingly, on being allowed the insects for their trouble, drive them for the cottager, instead of destroying them, and even pay him some trifle for the Bees so driven. The. places selected by Bees in their wild state for habitations are hollow trees and holes in rocks ; and I have known many in- stances where swarms have located themselves under the tiles or slates of houses, and remained there for years ; and I once hived a swarm in Wiltshire, which issued from a disused chimney. Some cousins of mine, who settled in Illinois forty years ago, established their apiary in the following manner : — Having discovered a strong colony of Bees in a hollow tree, they in the evening plugged up the entrance, sawed off the top, and afterwards the root, and then shouldered the portion containing the Bees, and stuck it upright in their garden, and as swarms issued hived them in the usual way. How different is the state of things now in Illinois, for tliat state is quite in the van of Bee-culture, the only weekly publication on the subject in the world being published at Chicago. Various materials have been, and still are, used in the construc- tion of hives. Virgil mentions the bark of trees, and the slender Willow twigs twisted together. In Northern Africa hives in gene- ral use are made of earthenware, very like our drain-pipes, one end being blocked up, and a small hole left in the other : these are stacked one upon another, so that a number of hives would occupy a small space. Straw and wood are, however, the common materials used in all temperate climates, and it is still an open question which is preferable. Straw is a good non-conductor of heat, but not so durable as thick wood ; and now, with all advanced Bee-keepers, wood seems to be preferred. I have often thought that cork, or wood with a cork lining, would be very suitable, cork being a good absorbent of moisture, and good as a non-conductor ; and I see hives with a cork lining have very recently been advertised for sale. In a recent number of the Journal, mention is made of a hive of plaster of Paris, the invention of a Scotchman, a Mr Paterson of Struan, who says Bees winter well in it, and that it is a panacea for all winter troubles in this climate. The forms in which hives have been constructed are almost end- less, depending much on the system adopted — such as the colla- teral one of placing boxes beside each other, on a level, with com- munication from one to the other, or piling them vertically as supers or nadirs. Warder tells us that a Mr Gedde was the first man in this country who made hives of wood, and he was granted a patent for his invention by King Charles II. Nutt's collateral bee-boxes were much used in England thirty 74 Transactions of the [Sess. years ago, and were patented, but they were unnecessarily com- plicated, and very costly — their principal merit being, that with them honey could be taken on the depriving system without de- stroying the Bees, and this was a great advance on Bee-keeping at that time ; but all modern hives now give facilities for this practice. Afterwards Stewarton brought out his octagonal boxes placed one upon another on the storifying principle, and these are still exten- sively used, but there is here also the objection of expense ; and, moreover, when you have several stories in a hive, there must necessarily be much valuable time wasted by the insects in going up to deposit the honey. The Giotto hive, the invention of an Italian, is much used in that country, and has been introduced here. It consists of a number of frames, like sections of a square box placed longitudinally, and held together by iron pins and nuts ; but it is too cold for this climate, and can never be so workable as a bar-framed hive. A writer in the ' Bee Journal ' of Oct. last speaks of it thus : "I unhesitatingly say, from my experience of about a dozen Giotto hives, that they are unworkable, are virtually fixed, — ■ and if you want to utterly disgust any one with Bee-keeping, recom-