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TKANSACTIONS
OF THE
EPPING FOREST AND COUNTY OF ESSEX
NATURALISTS' FIELD CLUB.
(ESSEX FIELD CLUB.)
Vol. II.
TRANSACTIONS
OF THE
EPPING FOREST & COUNTY OP ESSEX
NATURALISTS' FIELD CLUB.
(ESSEX FIELD CLUB.)
EDITED BY THE HONOEAKY SECEETAKY.
VOLUME II.
Febkuaky 26th, 1881, to January 28th, 1882.
THE AUTHORS ONLY ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE STATEMENTS AND
OPINIONS CONTAINED IN THEIR RESPECTIVE PAPERS.
PUBLISHED BY THE CLUB,
BUCKHUEST HILL, ESSEX.
1882.
. LONDON :
PEINTED BY WEST, NEWMAN AND CO.,
HATTON GAEDEN, E.G.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
I. Is Vaneam polychloros the prototype of V. Urticce ? A Query
suggested by the Aberrant Form of a specmien of
V. Urticce of pohjchloro^ type. By William Whitk.
(With a woodcut.) 1
Discussion. By the President, and A. G. Butler, F.L.S.,
F.Z.S •!
II. The Evohition of Fruits. By Prof. Q. S. Boulger, F.L.S.,
F.G.S 8
III. The Blackwater Valley, Essex. By W. H. Dalton, F.G.S.,
of H. M. Geological Survey. (With a Plate.) 15
IV. The Developmental Characters of the Larvae of the Noctuffi
as determining the Position of that Group. By Eaphael
Meldola, F.C.S., V.-P.E.S., &c. (With 2 woodcuts.) .. 19
V. Stone Implements from the Neighbourhood of Chelmsford,
Essex. By Henry Corder. (With a Plate.) 29
VI. Note on some ancient Bronze Implements ("Socketed
Celts") from the Neighbourhood of Little Baddow,
Essex, By Henry Corder 31
VII. The First Night's " Sugaring " in England.— A Eeminiscence
of Epping Forest in 1843. By James English 32
VIII. On the Formation of a Local Museum. By J. E. Harting,
F.L.S., F.Z.S., Member of the British Ornithologists'
Union ^^
IX. Infusoria: What are they? Theii' Collection and Investi-
gation. By W. Saville Kent, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.E.M.S. 44
X. Keport on the Excavation of the Earthwork known as
Ambresbury Banks, Epping Forest. By Major-General
A. Pitt-Rivers, F.R.S., President of the Anthropological
Institute. (With 3 Plates.) 55
vi Contents.
I'AUK
XL On the Origin and Distribution of the British Flora ; with
an Appendix on the River-basins of Essex as Natural-
History Provinces. By Professor G. S. Boulgek, F.L.S.,
F.G.S. (With a Plate.) 69
XII. On the Land and Fresh-water Mollusca of the District
around Colchester : A Contribution towards a List of the
Fauna of Essex. By Henry Laver, M.E.C.S., F.L.S. . . 88
XIII. The Galls of Essex : A Contribution to a List of the Insect
Fauna of the County. By Edward A. Fitch, F.L.S. ,
Secretary to the Entomological Society. (With 50 wood-
cuts.) 98
XIV. The Mammalia of Essex : A Contribution towards a List of
the Fauna of the County. By Hexry Laver, M.R.C.S.,
F.L.S. lo7
XV. A Preliminary List of the Hymenomycetal Fungi of Epping
Forest: A Contribution to the Botany of the County. By
M. C. Cooke, M.A., LL.D., A.L.S., and James L. English. 181
XVI. The Presidential Address. Delivered by Raphael Meldola,
F.R.A.S., F.C.S., at the Annual Meeting, January 28th,
1882 192
Journal of Proceedings at Ordinary, Field, and other
Meetings i — Ixxxviii
Index to Journal of Proceedings Ixxxix
Errata xcii
Appendix. — Report of the Council and Balance Sheet for
1881, Catalogue of the Library, List of Members, dire.
ILLUSTKATIONS.
PLATES.
PACE
PAGE
I. Section of the Blackwater Valley, Essex 18
II. Stone Celt from the Neighbourhood of Chelmsford, Essex. . . 30
III. Plan of Ambresbury Banks, Epping Forest 58
IV. Imaginary Section through Eampart of a Camp. Section
through Rampart of Ambresbury Banks 60
V. Fragments of Pottery found in the Rampart of Ambresbury
Banks 62
VI. Map of the Rivers of Essex, and the Natural-History
Provinces based on them 80
Sand-pipes in the Chalk at Grays Thurrock, Essex xiv
WOODCUTS.
PAGE
Vanessa Urticce of polycJiloros type 1
Structure of larvae of Noctuse and Geometry 21
Cecidomyia RamniciiU 121
Ceuthorhynchus snlcicollis 122
Ceciduinyia Trifolii '• 123
Ulmarice 124
Diastrophus Rtibi 124
Rhodites Roses 125
,, Eglanterice 125
,, Rosarum 125
Cecidomyia Rosarum 126
Asplwndylia PimpinelUe 126
Hormomyia Millefolii 127
Urophora Canlui 128
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viii Illustrations.
PAGE
Cecidomyia Veronicas 129
Bt/r.an« 129
Aulax Glechomce 130
Biorhiza aptera • 1^2
Aphilothrix radicis • • • • 1^^
corticis 1^^
Sieboldii 134
Tiigoymspis megaptera 134
Andricus noduli 135
Cynips Kollari 135
Aphilothrix gemmce 136
solitaria 136
glohuli 137
autumnaUs 137
coUaris 137
caUidoma 138
,, alhopunctata 138
Andricus terminalis 139
injiator 139
Biorhiza renum 140
Andricus curvator 140
Dryophanta scutellaris or D. foUi 141
,, divisa 141
,, agania 141
Neuroterus numismatis 142
lenticularis 143
fumipennis 143
Iceviusculus 144
ostreus 144
Spathegaster haccarum 145
tricolor 145
alhipes 145
,, vesicatrix 146
Andricus ramuli 146
,, quadrilineatus 147
Nematus gallicola 147
Cecidomyia clausilia 148
N.ematus viminalis 149
Cystidia of Coprinus ai'atu!^ Ixiv
APPENDIX.
REPOKT OF THE COUNCIL AND BALANCE SHEET FOR 1881;
CATALOGUE OF THE LIBRARY;
LIST OF MEMBERS, &c.
Corrected to March 25th, 1882.
ESSEX FIELD CLUB,
BUCKHURST HILL.
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REPORT OF THE COUNCIL FOR THE YEAR 1881.
[Read at the Second Annual General Meeting, held at
Buckhurst Hill, January 28th, 1882.]
The Council has great jjleasure in announcing the continued and
increasing prosperity of the Essex Field Club since its formation in
January, 1880. Enthusiastic views as the future of tlie Society were
often met by gloomy forebodings as to the difficulties of steering such an
association through the the second year of its existence, when the
attraction of novelty had perhaps worn off before any real and lasting
work had been accomplished, and before the Society had earned its title
to respect and to steady and hearty support. It may safely be asserted
that the Club has left such dangers well in its wake, or rather that it has
never encountered them ; and the rapid increase in its numbers and the
intelligent interest taken in its proceedings have been constant and very
gratifying experiences during the year 1881.
Since the last Keport (which gave a summary of the work of the
Society up to 31st December, 1880), 102 ordinary members and 5 honorary
members have been elected, of whom 3 have compounded for their annual
subscriptions ; 14 members have resigned ; 1 has been removed for non-
payment of subscription, and the Council records with great regret the
loss of two original members by death — Sir Antonio Brady and Mr.
Walter Weston. Short obituary notices of these gentlemen will be given
by the President in his annual address.
The census of the Club at the end of the years 1880 and 1881 was
therefore as follows : —
1880. 1881.
Honorary members 4 9
Life members 7 10
Ordinary members 213 295
224 314
Showing a net increase of 1)0 members during the past year. This result
may be taken as an index of the rapid rise of the Club in public esteem,
and there seems to be no reason for believing that the supply of candi-
dates for admission into the Society is exhausted. Satisfactory as the
roll now is, the annual income is not enough to publish well-illustrated
' Transactions ' to the full extent desired — an increase of (say) 100 sub-
scribers to the funds of the Club would enable the Council to print half
iv Appendix.
or two-thirds more matter, and so give each individual member a higher
return for his or her subscription than at present, while the Society
would more thoroughly fulfil one of its most useful and permanently
valuable functions. An inspection of the list of members will show
that the Club is surely, although perhaps somewhat slowly, making its
way among the inhabitants of parts of Essex remote from the head-
quarters. All well-wishers of the Society will desire to see this class of
members largely increased. The Club should have representatives in
every parish in the county, and remembering the very small subscription
asked from members living outside the radius of 15 miles from head-
quarters, it is manifest that such members will eventually receive even
more than a fair equivalent in the shape of publications for their expen-
diture.
A deputation, consisting of the President and Treasurer, and Mr. John
Spiller, waited upon Mr. Parkes, the Chairman of the Great Eastern
Eailway Company in July last, when the latter very kindly granted the
important concession as to fares payable by members attending the
meetings, which has been taken advantage of on many occasions, and
which cannot fail to be of great utility both to the Society and to the
members. The best thanks of the Society are due to the Directors for
their kindness, and to Mr. J. Robertson, Superintendent of the line, for
his many courtesies in connection therewith.
Three parts of the ' Transactions ' have been published during the year,
comprising (with the reprinted rules and list of members) 188 pages of
letterpress, and six plates, one being coloured. The Council early saw
the necessity of the ' Transactions ' being sent out by an exi^erienced
printer, and the two parts produced by Messrs. West, Newman, & Co.
leave little to be desired as regards appearance and general accuracy.
The desire of the Editor has been to give full and faithful records of the
popular as well as of the scientific work of the Society, — how far this
desire has been fulfilled it is for our critics to decide. As intimated in
the account of the Grays Meeting, the Society is indebted to our President
and to our members Messrs. J. SpiUer and G. C. Harcourt for the
autotype plate accompanying that report, and the special thanks of the
Council and members are due to our honorary member, Major-General
Pitt-Rivers, for his generous donation of £12 to defray cost of the chromo-
lithographed plate of the objects found in the rampart of Ambresbury
Banks.
The attendances at the meetings have been good, in spite of unfavour-
able weather on several occasions. Twelve ordinary meetings have been
held during the year, at which 420 members have been present, gi%ing
an average of 35, with 102 visitors. Six field meetings were organised,
224 members having attended, or an average of 37, about 130 visitors
having also been present. Three field meetings were held in conjunction
with other Societies — the Geologists' Association, the Hertfordshire Natural
History Society, and with the subscribers to the Essex and Chelmsford
Appendix. V
Museum. The best thanks of the Club are due to the following gentlemen,
who, in the kindest way, gave their valuable services as "conductors " at
these meetings: — G. H. Birch, Esq., F. Chancellor, Esq., Professor
Morris, Henry Walker, Esq., T. Fisher Unwin, Esq., W. Saville Kent, Esq.,
Professor Boulger, Dr. Cooke, Worthington G. Smith, Esq., Dr. "Wharton,
Mr. James English, Dr. Braitlnvaite, and E. M. Holmes, Esq. On the
occasion of the visit to Chigwell, on June 25th, the members were most
hospitably entertained at Oakhurst, by the Kev. W. Linton Wilson and
Mrs. Wilson. The Et. Eev. the Lord Bishop of St. Alban's kindly gave
the Club permission to wander through the grounds and woods of
Danbury Palace, and we have to thank the Kev. James Francis for
permission to meet in his school room at Waltham, Kev. K. H. Brenan
for a similar courtesy at Grays, and T. W. Wakefield, Esq., T. M. Gepp,
Esq., Kev. T. P. Bridges, Edmund Durrant, Esq., Dr. Priest, Hy. Corder,
Esq., and many other gentlemen, for aid afforded in organising these
excursions. The Council also desires to thank the editors of the following
newspapers, who have published from time to time reports of the
meetings, and in other ways contributed to the success of the Club by
making it widely known throughout the county: — The 'Essex Times,'
' Chelmsford Chroniclej' ' Essex Weekly News,' ' Essex Herald,' ' Waltham
Abbey TelegrajDh,' and ' Woodford Times.'
After the careful report of General Pitt-Kivers, and the details given in
the 'Proceedings,' but little remains to be said resjjecting the excavation
at Ambresbury Banks. The Council cannot but congratulate the members
on the good results which were obtained from the first scientific investi-
gation undertaken by the Club. The success of such researches, of
course, mainly depends uj)on the skill and care with which they are
planned and conducted. The Society was particularly fortunate in
enlisting the co-operation of an eminent and experienced Archaeologist in
the work. General Pitt-Kivers took a lively interest in the exploration
throughout, and the Council cannot too strongly emphasise its deep sense
of the value of his ready aid and sympathy. To Mr. D'Oyley also hearty
acknowledgments are due. He took the greatest possible care in the
matter, and was always ready to render all the help in his power. Mr.
D'Oyley has kindly offered to act on future occasions as the Honorary
Surveyor to the Club. The thanks of the Society should also be rendered
to those gentlemen who, at considerable expenditure of time, attended as
watchers at the excavations, and so rendered possible an accurate account
of the objects found. The Council proposes to commence work upon the
Loughton Camp as early as practicable in the spring, and also, if
possible, to make further researches at Ambresbury in order to clear up
some doubtful points. Of course, considerable funds will be required,
and the Council confidently asks for liberal contributions towards a work,
the successful accomplishment of which cannot fail to be of great advan-
tage to the Club, as well of very considerable interest not only to members,
but to all who take a pleasure in the discovery of reliable information
"vi Appendix.
respectinf^ the early history of the county and the wider questions
involved in the facts which are gradually being revealed by means of such
methods of inquiry concerning the non-historic periods in the life of the
human race.
At the York meeting of the British Association the following members
of the Club were honoured by being appointed a Committee to report
upon this Loughton earthwork: — General Pitt-Kivers, Mr. E. Meldola,
and Mr. W. Cole (Secretary). The Council can only hope that the second
work may be at least as successful as the first, and that the Committee
may be enabled to present a satisfactory report at the Southampton Con-
gress of the British Association.
The Library has been growing steadily during the year, and it speaks
well for the generosity of the members that almost all the books upon the
shelves have been gratuitously presented, the only exceptions being a few
volumes of ' Transactions,' &c., which have been acquired by exchange or
purchase. The numerous scientific periodicals also which month by
month have been laid upon the Library table, w^e owe to the kindness of
several members, four of these journals only being received in return for
the ' Transactions ' of the Club. The Council recommends to the mem-
bers generally this convenient method of benefitting the Society. There
seems to be no reason why the Beading Boom should not, in this way, be
constantly supplied with the best jDeriodical literature of science without
any charge upon the general funds. The Librarian will be most happy
to give information and advice to any one who may wish to act upon the
suggestion in the future.
That the Club is beginning to take an honourable position among the
older scientific Societies throughout the country is evidenced by a reference
to the list of those with which it exchanges publications. The Council
takes this opportunity of acknowledging the readiness with which the
request to become thus associated has been responded to. The object in
view has been to open relations with the leading Society in each county,
and it is proposed to judiciously extend the " Exchange List " to counties
which are still unrepresented, as opportunities may arise. In thickly
populated districts it has been found desirable to include two or more
Societies in the scheme, the subjects of study being more specialised than
is the case in agricultural counties. The policy of presenting the
' Transactions ' to the London Chartered Societies and a few of the chief
scientific journals will be continued, but in no case will the number of
copies presented or exchanged be allowed to exceed 100. A list of
Societies, &c., to which publications are presented is appended to this
report.
The number of books borrowed during the year has been very small,
but it is hoped that as the Library increases in value and extent, the mem-
bers will recognise the advantage of using it more frequently. A catalogue
is in preparation, and when issued it will no doubt stimulate the ckcula-
tion of the volumes, which at present number 150.
Appendix. vii
The heartiest thanks of the Club are due to those who have kindly
presented books, pamphlets, periodicals, &c., and whose names will be
found from time to time in the ' Journal of Proceedings.' Some of the
volumes are of considerable and increasing value, and it is only necessary
to add that the greatest possible care will be taken of all works entrusted
to the keeping of the Librarian, who hopes to have a busy year in
receiving additions to the Library, and circulating them among the
members.
The Museum has also made some progress, although the additions to it
have not been so numerous as to the Library. Early in the year the
Council voted a sum of £36 15s. towards fitting up the rooms. About
£83 of this amount has been so expended, but before much can be done
in the very desirable work of collecting a series of the natural productions
of Essex, a very considerable sum must be expended in the purchase of
cabinets and cases. Attention has been more than once drawn to this
matter at the meetings of the Society, and we have the benefit of a paper
by Mr. Harting, which very clearly points out the line we should take and
the methods to be employed in establishing a local museum. The Council
must impress upon the members the desirability of aiding in every way
in their power the growth of the collections. In this work almost every
one can help, with but a small expenditure of money, and it may be
pointed out to beginners and novices that no surer method is possible of
acquiring a definite and useful knowledge of natural history than by
judiciously collecting specimens under the guidance of some more ad-
vanced student in the same department. It is intended to issue some
detailed instructions as soon as possible. Pressure of other matters con-
nected with the Society has delayed the appearance of these hints, but it
is hoped that they wiU be issued by the summer, and that an immediate
result will be apparent in the extent of the Museum treasures.
The finances of the Society are not quite so satisfactory as could
be wished, owing mainly to the number of subscriptions still unpaid. In
the great majority of cases, no doubt, this neglect of the first duty mem-
bers owe to the Society is the result of thoughtlessness, but the Council
cannot too strongly appeal to the backward members to remedy this state
of things. The repeated sending out of letters of application entails
considerable expense, which is so much money wasted, and a more serious
consequence is that non-compliance with the rule that all subscriptions
are payable in advance on January 1st in each year throws upon the
officers of the Society an amount of ufksome and very unpleasant work,
which it is not right that they as volunteers should be called upon to
perform. Ill-health, necessitating an absence from England during tha
winter months, obliged Mr. H. J. Barnes to resign his office as Treasurer
in the autumn. To Mr. Barnes, as its first Treasurer, the Society owes
its best thanks, and the Council is sure that the members generally will
echo the wish that he may return in the spring completely restored
to health. Mr. K. L. Barnes very kindly undertook to act as Treasurer
viii Aj^pendix.
until the general meeting, and the Council begs gratefully to acknowledge
his valuable services.
The President attended the Conference of Scientific Societies held at
York during the meeting of the British Association, as one of the delegates
of the Essex Field Club. Little was done beyond appointing a Committee
to take steps to have the Conference of Delegates recognised by the
Council of the British Association, and resolving that a circular should
be sent to the various local Societies, pointing out the work undertaken by
the Committees of the Association, and the valuable aid which might be
given by these Societies in that and other scientific work.
The thanks of the Society are again due to Miss Jane Cole and Mr. H.
A. Cole for the use of rooms for meetings, and also for the sole use of the
two rooms used as a library and museum.
LIST OF SOCIETIES, ETC., TO WHICH THE
' TRANSACTIONS ' ARE PRESENTED.
Aylesbury, Buckinghamshu-e Architectural and Ai-chaeological Society.
Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society.
Naturalists' Field Club.
Berwickshire Naturalists' Club.
Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society.
Bristol Naturalists' Society.
Bury St. Edmunds. Suffolk Institute of Archaeology and Natural History.
Cambridge Philosophical Society.
University Library.
Canterbury. East Kent Natural History Society.
Cardiff Naturalists' Society.
Chester Society of Natural Science.
Chichester and West Sussex Natural History and Microscopical Society.
Colchester. Essex Archseological Society.
Natural History Society.
Devizes. Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Society.
Dublin. Koyal Geological Society of Ii'eland.
. Trinity College Library.
. University Biological Association.
Dulwich College Science Society.
Dumfries -shire and Galloway Scientific, Natural History and Antiquarian
Society.
Eastbourne Natural History Society.
Ajypendix. ix
Edinburgh. Advocates' Library.
Botanical Society.
Geological Society.
Glasgow, Geological Society of.
, Natural History Society of.
, Philosophical Society of.
Hackney Microscopical and Natural History Society.
Hereford. Woolhope Naturalists' Field Club.
Huddersfield. Editors of ' Naturalist.'
Leeds. Editor of ' Journal of Conchology.'
. Yorkshire Naturalists' Union.
Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society.
Lewisham. West Kent Natural History, Microscopical, and Photographic
Society.
Liverpool Geological Society.
Literary and Philosophical Society.
Naturalists' Field Club.
London and Middlesex Arclueological Society.
London. Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland.
British Museum.
Entomological Society,
Geological Society.
Geologists' Association.
Guildhall Library.
Linnean Society.
Quekett Microscopical Club.
Eoyal Microscopical Society.
Eoyal Society.
Scientiiic Club.
South, Entomological Society.
West, Scientific Association.
Zoological Society.
Editor of 'Annals and Magazine of Natural History.'
'Antiquarian Magazine.'
' Antiquary.'
' Field.'
' Gardeners' Chronicle.'
' Gardeners' Magazine.'
' Geological Magazine.'
' Grevillea.'
' Journal of Botany.'
' Land and Water.'
'Nature.'
'Popular Science Eeview.'
' Science Gossip.'
' Scientific Roll.'
' Zoologist.' B
5i Appendia^.
Manchester Field Naturalists' and Ai'clueologists' Society.
Geological Society.
Literary and Philosophical Society,
Newcastle-on-Tyne. Tyneside Naturalists' Field Club.
Newcastle, Staff. North Staffordshire Naturalists' Field Club.
New Cross Microscopical and Natural History Society.
Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists' Society.
Northampton Natural History Society.
Norwich Geological Society.
Nottingham Literary and Philosophical Society.
Ottawa Field Naturalists' Club.
Oxford. Bodleian Library.
Perthshire Society of Natural Science.
Plymouth Listitution and Devon and Cornwall Natural History Society.
Salem, Mass. Essex Institute.
Sherborne. Dorset Natural History and Antiquarian Field Club.
Stroud. Cotteswold Naturalists' Field Club.
Taunton. Somersetshire Archaeological and Natuial History Society.
Truro. Eoyal Listitution of Cornwall.
^Yalthamstow Microscopical and Natural History Society.
Watford. Hertfordshu'e Natural History Society and Field Club.
XI
CATALOGUE OF THE LIBRAEY.
LIBEAKY KEGULATIONS.
1. — Books may be borrowed by Members only, on application to the
Librarian, at such times as the Rooms occupied by the Society are open
to Members.
2. — The title of every book borrowed shall be entered in the Library
Register, with the signature of the borrower.
3. — No Member may borrow more than one volume at a time, without
the permission of the Council, and certain books (marked thus * in the
Catalogue) may only be consulted at Head-quarters.
4. — No book may be retained longer than one month, but a Member
may borrow the same volume for a further period, if no other application
for it be made.
5. — All books shall be returned at the last Ordinary Meeting of each
Session, and the issue shall not be resumed until the first Ordinary
Meeting of the following Session.
6. — No map, plate, drawing, manuscript, or unbound pubhcation, may
be borrowed without the permission of the Council, but current numbers
of periodicals, transactions, &c., will be laid upon the Library table, and
back numbers of the same may be referred to on the premises, if
necessary.
7. — Any Member failing to return a book on the application of the
Librarian, or returning a book damaged or defaced, shall be Hable for its
value; and if it form part of a work, for the value of the whole work
rendered imperfect.
Books marked thus * do not circulate.
Adams, H. G. Beautiful Butterflies. 8vo. London. [N. D.]
Amekican Entomologist. 2nd series. 8vo. New York, 1880.
Anon. [Defoe.] The History of the Great Plague in London. [Con-
taining references to Epping Forest.] 8vo. London, 1832.
Anon. Enghsh Forests and Forest Trees, Historical, Legendary, and
Descriptive. 8vo. London, 1853.
Anon. (" Stonehenge.") British Rural Sports. 14th edition. 8vo.
London, 1878.
Anon, The Wild Flowers of Repton. 8vo. London, 186G.
xii Appendix.
Antiquakian Itixekary. 3 vols. 8vo. London, 1815 — 16.
Arch/Eological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. Memoirs
illustrative of the History and Antiquities of Wiltshii'e and the City
of SaHsbury. 8vo. London, 1851.
Berkeley, Eev. M. J. Fungi. See Cooke, Dr. M. C.
BiNGLEY, Eev. W. Memoirs of British Quadiupeds. 8vo. London,
1809.
Botany, Journal of. New series. Vol. x. 8vo. London, 1881.
BowERBANK, J. S. A History of the Fossil Fruits and Seeds of the
London Clay. 8vo. London, 18i0.
Brady, Sir A. See Davies, William.
Brightwell, Miss. A Life of Linngeus. 8vo. London, 1858.
*Britton, John. The History and Description of Cassiobury Park,
Hertfordshire, the Seat of the Earl of Essex. Folio. London, 1837.
Brown, Capt. T. The Book of Butterflies and Moths. ^ 16mo. London,
1843.
. See White, Eev. G.
Buckinghamshire Architectural and Arch^ological Society. Eecords
of Buckinghamshire. Vols. iii. — iv. 8vo. Aylesbury, 1870.
BucKLAND, Frank. Curiosities of Natural History. 2nd series. 12mo.
London, 1860.
■ . The Natural History of British Fishes. 8vo. London, 1880.
Buckler, G. Twenty-two of the Churches of Essex, architecturally
described and illustrated. 8vo. London, 1856.
Buffon. The Natural History of Quadrupeds. 8vo. London, 1804.
Chichester and West Sussex Natural History and Microscopical
Society. Eeports and Papers. 8vo. Chichester, 1877 — 82.
C0LEJLA.N, Eev. W. H. Flora Hertfordiensis. See Webb, Eev. E. H.
CooKE, G. A. Topographical and Statistical Description of the County
of Essex. 24mo. London. [1802—10.]
CooKE, Dr. M. C. A Fern Book for Everybody. 8vo. London. [N. D.]
. One Thousand Objects for the Microscope. 8vo. London,
1869.
. Eust, Smut, Mildew, and Mould : An Introduction to the Study
of Microscopic Fungi. 4th edition, revised and enlarged. 8vo.
London, 1878.
. The Woodlands. (Natural History Eambles.) 8vo. London,
1879.
, and Eev. J. M. Berkeley. Fungi ; their Nature, Influence,
and Uses. 2nd edition. 8vo. London, 1875.
CooKESLEY, T. H. See Eichter, Prof. T.
CoyroN, Charles. The Complete Angler. See Walton, Isaac.
Cox, Eev. T. Magna Britannia ; or Topographical, Historical, Ecclesi-
astical, and Natural History of Essex. 4to. London, 1720,
Appendix. xiii
Crampton, Kev. J. The Lunar World. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1863.
Crouch, E. A. An Illustrated Introduction to Lamarck's Conchology.
4to. London, 1827.
Darwin, Dr. C. The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the action
of Worms, with Observations on their Habits. 5th thousand (cor-
rected). 8vo. London, 1881.
. See Weismann, Dr. A.
Davies, G. C. See Walton, Isaac.
Davies, William. Catalogue of the Pleistocene Vertebrata, from the
neighbourhood of Ilford, Essex, in the Collection of Sir A. Brady.
With an Introduction by Sir A. Brady, and a Description of the
Locality, *c., by Henry Woodward and William Davies. 8vo.
London, 1874. (2 copies.)
De Fonblanque, C. a. Five Weeks in Iceland. 8vo. London, 1880.
De Quatrefages, a. The Human Species. 2nd edition. 8vo. London,
1879.
Derham, Eev. Dr. W. See Kay, John.
Dorset Natural History and Antiquarian Field Club. Proceedings.
Vols, i.— iii. 8vo. Sherborne, 1877—79.
Edinburgh Geological Society. Transactions. Vols. i. — iii. Edin-
burgh, 1870—80.
Ellis, Sir H. See Norden, John.
English, J. L. A Manual for the Preservation of the larger Fungi
(Hymenomycetes) in their natural condition. Also a new process for
the Preservation of Wild Flowers. 8vo. Epping, 1882.
Entobiological Society. Proceedings. 1871 — 80. 2 vols. 8vo.
London, 1872—81.
Entomologist. Vols. ii. — xiv. 8vo. London, 1864 — 81.
Entomologist, Weekly. 3 vols. 8vo. London, 1863.
Entomologist's Monthly Magazine. Vol. xvii. 8vo. London, 1880 — 81.
Essex Field Club. Transactions. Vol. i. 8vo. Buckhurst Hill,
1881. (2 copies.)
Essex Institute. Bulletin. Vol. xii. 8vo. Salem, Mass., 1881.
Farn, a. B. See Greene, Eev. J.
Flower, W. H. An Introduction to the Osteology of the Mammalia.
8vo. London, 1870.
*Gerarde, John. The Herball, or Generall Historic of Plantes, gathered
by John Gerarde, of London, Master in Chirvi^gerie ; very much
Enlarged and Amended by Thomas Johnson, Citizen and Apothe-
carye of London. Folio. London, 1636.
Gibbs, John. A First Catechism of Botany. New and enlarged edition.
8vo. Chelmsford. [N. D.] The Symmetry of Flowers. lb.
Gibson, G. S. The Flora of Essex. 8vo. London, 1862.
xiv Appendix.
Glasgow, Natural History Society of. Proceedings. Vol. iv. 8vo.
Glasgow, 1881.
Glasgow, Philosophical Society of. Proceedings. Vol. xii. 8vo.
Glasgow, 1881.
Graves, George. The Naturalist's Pocket-Book, or Tourist's Com-
panion. 8vo. London, 1818.
Gray, Dr. J. E. See Turton, Dr. W.
Greene, Eev. J. The Insect Hunter's Companion. 3rd edition,
revised and extended by A. B. Farn. The chapter on Coleoptera by
E. Newman. 8vo. London, 1880.
Grose, Francis. County Antiquities. Essex. 4to. London. [1783 — 84.]
Harting, J. E. A Handbook of British Birds. 8vo. London, 1872.
. British Animals Extinct wdthin Historic Times. 8vo. Lon-
don, 1880.
. Our Summer Migrants. 2nd edition. 8vo. London, 1877.
. Pvambles in search of Shells, Land and Fresh-water. 8vo.
London, 1875.
The Ornithology of Shakespeare. 8vo. London, 1871.
Havard, Henry. The Heart of Holland. Translated by Mrs. Cashel
Hoey. 8vo. London, 1880.
Hayes, Isaac. An Ai'ctic Boat Journey. Edited by Dr. Norton Shaw.
8vo. London, 1860.
Hoey, Mrs. C. See Havard, Henry.
HoRE, J. P., and Edward Jex. The Deterioration of Oyster and Trawl
Fisheries of England : its Cause andKemedy. 8vo. London, 1880.
Humphreys, Noel. The Genera of British Moths. 8vo. London.
Illustrated Scientific News. New series. Vol. i. 8vo. New York,
1881.
Ingpen, Abel. Manual for the Butterfly Collector. 2nd edition. 24mo.
London, 1849.
Jardine, Sir W. The NaturaHst's Library. MammaHa, 1 vol. Ento-
mology, 5 vols. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1833—1840.
Jex, Edward. Deterioration of Oyster and Trawl Fisheries. See
Hore, J. P.
Johnson, Thomas. See Gerarde, John.
KiNGSLEY, Kev. C. Glaucus ; or the Wonders of the Shore. 6th edition.
8vo. London, 1878.
Knaggs, Dr. H. G. The Lepidopterist's Guide. New edition. 5th
thousand. 8vo. London. [N. D.]
Land and Water. [Files of this Journal from 1880 may be consulted.]
Lankester, Dr. E. See Ray, John.
Appendix. xV
LiNDLEY, John, An Introduction to Botany. 4th edition. 2 vols. 8vo.
London, 1848.
Lord, W. B. Crab, Shrimp, and Lobster Lore. 8vo. London, 1867.
McLachlan, K. Instructions for the Collection and Preservation of
Neuropterous Insects. 8vo. London, 1873.
Manchester Gteological Society. Transactions. Vol. xv. 8vo.
Manchester, 1880.
Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society. Proceedings. Vols.
xvi. — xix. 8vo. Manchester, 1877 — 80.
. Memoirs. 3rd series. Vol. vi. 8vo. London, 1879.
Martyn, Thomas. Gardener's and Botanist's Dictionary. See Miller,
Philip.
Meldola, Eaphael. See Weismann, Dr. A.
Midland Naturalist. Vol. iv. 8vo. London and Birmingham, 1881.
*Miller, Philip, and Thomas Martyn. The Gardener's and Botanist's
Dictionary. 2 vols, in 4. Folio. London, 1807-
MoLEswoRTH, Miss C, and Miss E. A. Ormerod. The Cobham Journals.
Abstracts and Summaries of Meteorological and Phenological
Observations. 8vo. London, 1880. (2 copies).
Moore, Norman. See Waterton, Charles.
''MouFFET, Thomas. Insectorum sive Minimorum Animalium Theatrum.
Folio. London, 1634.
*" . The Theater of Insects, or Lesser Living Creatures. Folio.
London, 1658.
Murray, Andrew. Economic Entomology. Aptera. 8vo. London,
1881.
Natural History Society of Northumberland, Durham, and Newcastle-
upon-Tyne, and Tyneside Naturalists' Field Club. Transactions.
Vols. i. — vii. 8vo. London and Newcastle, 1867 — 80.
Naturalist. Vols. i. — ii,, vi.— vii. 8vo. London, 1851 — 52, 1856 — 7.
. New series. Vol. vi. 8vo. Huddersfield, 1881.
Nature. Vols. i. — ii., v. — ix., xix. — xxiv. 8vo. London, 1870,
1872—74, 1879—81.
Nave, Johann. A Handy Book to the Collection and Preparation of
Fresh-water and Marine Algfe, Diatoms, Desmids, Fungi, Lichens,
Mosses, &c. Translated and edited by Rev. W. W. Spicer. 8vo.
London, 1869.
Newman, Edward. See Greene, Eev. J.
Nicholson, Dr. H. A, Introduction to the Study of Biology. 8vo.
Edinburgh and London, 1872.
NoRDEN, John. Speculi Britanniae Pars : An Historical and Choro-
graphical Description of the County of Essex. 1594. Edited from
the Original MS. by Sir Henry Ellis. {Camden Society.) 4to.
London, 1840.
xvi Appendix.
North Staffordshire Naturalists' Field Club. Reports, 1878 — 80.
Svo. Newcastle, 1879—81.
Ogbourxe, Elizabeth. The History of Essex, from the Earliest Period
to the Present Time. 4to. London, 1814.
Ormerod, Miss E. A. A Lecture on Injurious Insects. 8vo. London,
1882.
. A Manual of Injurious Insects. 8vo. London, 1881.
. The Cobham Journals. See Molesworth, Miss C.
PoNTEY, William. The Forest Pruner, or Timber Owner's Assistant.
3rd Edition. 8vo. London, 1810.
Pritchard, Andrew. A History of Infusoria, Living and Fossil. 8vo.
London, 1845.
Quekett Microscopical Club. Journal. Vols. iv. — v. 8vo. London,
1874—79.
Ramsay, A. C. The Physical Geology and Geography of Great Britain.
2nd edition. 8vo. London, 1864.
Ray, Johx. A Collection of Curious Travels and Voyages. 8vo.
London, 1693.
. Correspondence. Edited by Dr. E. Lankester. {Ray Society).
8vo. London, 1848.
. Select Remains, &c. Edited by Rev. Dr. W. Derham. 8vo.
London, 1760.
. The Wisdom of God manifested in the Works of the Creation.
4th edition. 8vo. London, 1704.
Relhan, Richard. Flora Cantabrigiensis. 3rd edition. Svo. Cam-
bridge, 1820.
Rennie, James. A Conspectus of the Butterflies and Moths found in
Britain. 16mo. London, 1832.
RiCHTER, Prof. T. Plattner's Manual of Qualitative and Quantitative
Analysis with the Blowpipe. From the last German edition.
Edited by T. H. Cookesley. Svo. London, 1875.
Ridley, Miss M. S. A Pocket Guide to British Ferns. Svo. London,
1881.
Riley, Dr. C. V. The Colorado Beetle. Svo. London, 1877.
Robinson, John. The Flora of Essex County, Massachusetts. Svo.
Salem, 1880. Notes on the Woody Plants of Essex County, Massa-
chusetts, lb., 1879.
Royal Microscopical Society. Journal. Vol. iii. 2nd series. Vol. i.
8vo. London, 1880—81.
Science Gossip. Vols. i. — xvii. Svo. London, 1865 — 81.
Scottish Naturalist. Vol. v. Svo. Edinburgh and London, 1879 — 80.
Appendix. xvii
Shaw, Dr. (x.. and J. F. Stephens. General Zoology ; or Systematic
Natural History. 26 vols. Hvo. 1800—26.
Shaw, Dr. N. See Hayes, Isaac.
Smith, John. Ferns, British and Exotic. 8vo. London, 1866.
Somersetshire Arch^ological and Natural History Society. Pro-
ceedings. Vol. xxvi. Svo. Taunton, 1881.
Spicer, Kev. W. W. See Nave, Johann.
Stainton, H. T. June : A Book for the Country in Summer Time. Svo
London, 1856.
Stephens, J. F. General Zoology. See Shaw, Dr. G.
. The Nomenclature of British Insects. 2nd edition, Svo.
London, 1833.
Symons, J. Synopsis Plantarum Insulis Britannicis indigenarum. 8vo.
London, 1798.
Taylor, Dr. J. E. Flowers: their Origin, Shapes, Perfumes, and
Colours. Svo. London, 1878.
and Others. Notes on Collecting and Preserving Natural
History Objects. Svo. London, 1876.
*TopsELL, Edward. The History of Serpents ; or the Second Book of
Living Creatures. Folio. London, 1658.
TuRTON, Dr. W. Manual of the Land and Fresh-water Shells of the
British Islands. New edition, by Dr. J. E. Gray. Svo. London,
1857.
Tyneside Naturalists' Field Club. Transactions. See Natural
History Society of Northumberland, Durham, and Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
Walker, Henry. Saturday Afternoon Eambles round London, Eural
and Geological. Svo. London, 1871.
. The Glacial Drifts of Muswell Hill and Finchley. Svo.
London, 1874.
Walton, Isaac, and Charles Cotton. The Complete Angler. New
Illustrated edition, with Notes, by G. C. Davies. Svo. London,
[N. D.]
Walton, Izaac. The Compleat Angler ; or the Contemplative Man's
Eecreation. 1653. (Reprint.) Svo. London, 1872.
Warner, Kichard. Plantfe Woodfordienses. Svo. London, 1771.
(2 copies.)
Waterton, Charles. Natural History Essays. Edited by Norman
Moore. Svo. London, 1876.
Watford Natural History Society, and Hertfordshire Field Club.
Transactions. 2 vols. Svo. Watford and London, 1S7S — 80.
Webb, Eev. E. H., and Eev. W. H. Coleman. Flora Hertfordiensis.
12mo. London, 1849,
C
xviii Appendix,
Weismanx, Dr. A. Studies in the Theory of Descent. Translated and
edited by Raphael Meldola. With a Prefatory Notice by Dr. C.
Darwin. 8vo. London, 1882.
"Westropp, H. M. Pre-historic Phases ; or Introductory Essays on Pre-
historic Archaeology. 8vo. London, 1872.
White, Eev. G. The Natural History of Selborne ; to which are added,
the Naturalist's Calendar, Miscellaneous Observations, and Poems.
A new edition. ^ 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1825.
. The Natural History of Selborne ; with Observations on
various parts of Nature, and the Naturalist's Calendar. Edited by
Capt. T. Brown, otli edition. 8vo. London, 1835.
White, William. History, Gazetteer, and Directory of the County of
Essex. 2nd edition. 12mo. Sheffield, 1863.
Wiltshire Aech^iological and Natural History Society. Magazine.
Vol. xix. 8vo. Denizes, 1881.
Wood, Eev. J. G., and Theodore Wood. The Field Naturalist's Hand-
book. 8vo. London, [N. D.]
Wood, Searles V. A Monograph of the Crag Mollusca. Part. i. Uni-
valves. (PalcBontograplucal ^ciety.) 4to. London, 1848.
Wood, Theodore. Field Naturalist's Handbook. See Wood, Rev. J. G.
Woodward, Henry. See Davies, William.
Zoologist. Vols. xxi. — xxii. 3rd series, vols. i. — v. 8vo. London,
1863—64, and 1877—81.
Pajiphlets. Vol. i. Waltham Abbey. 8vo.
Contents :
Maynard, John. The Parish of Waltham Abbey ; its History and
Antiquities. London, 1865.
Winters, William. History of the Lady Chapel adjoining the
Abbey Church of Waltham Holy Cross. Waltham Abbey, 1875.
. Visitors' Handbook of the Ancient Town of Waltham Holy
Cross. 2nd edition. Ih., 1877.
Pamphlets. Vol. ii. Waltham Abbey. 8vo.
Contents :
Winters, William. Biographical Notes on John Foxe, the Martyr-
ologist. Waltham Abbey, 1876.
. Select Passages in the Life and Eeign of Harold, the last
of the Saxon Kings. Ih.
. Ecclesiastical Works of the Middle Ages. Ih., 1877.
. Annals of the Clergy of Waltham Holy Cross. Ih., 1880.
Pamphlets. Vol. iii. Geology. 8vo.
Contents :
Brigg, John. The Industrial Geology of Bradford. Leeds, 1874.
Clark, J. E. Eecent Shell Deposits. {Nat. Hist. Journ., 1879.)
Dalton, W. H. a Brief Sketch of the Geology of Colchester. {Essex
Stand., 1875.)
. Note on the Eange of the Lower Tertiaries of East Suffolk.
{Bep. Brit. Assoc, 1880.)
Appendix. xix
Pamphlets. Vol. iii. Geology. 8vo. {Continued).
Content)) :
Dalton, W. H. Subsidence iii East Essex. {Geol. Mar/., 1876.)
. The Blackwater Valley, Essex. (Trans. Essex Field Club,
1881.)
Falconer, Dr. H. On the species of Mastodon and Elephant
occurring in the Fossil State in Great Britain. (Quart. Journ.
Geol. Soc, 1857.)
FoRDHAM, H. G. On the Importance of Kecording Erratic Blocks,
(Trans. Herts. Nat. Hist. Soc, 1881.)
Geological Survey of the United Kingdom. Catalogue of Publi-
cations. London, 1878.
Kamsay, a. C. On the Eecurrence of Certain Phenonema in
Geological Time. (Rep. Brit. Assoc, 1880.)
EiCKETTS, Dr. C. The Cause of the Glacial Period, with reference to
the British Isles. Birkenhead, 1875.
SwANSTON, William, and Charles Lapworth. On the Silurian
Rocks and Graptolites of County Down. (Proc Belfast Nat.
Field Club, 1876—77.)
TiDDEMAN, R. H. Second Report of the Victoria Cave Exj)loration
Committee. (Re}}. Brit. Assoc, 1874:.)
Walker, Henry. A Day's Elephant Hunting in Essex. (Trans.
Essex Field Club, 1880.)
. Whitaker's Geological Model of London. (Geol. Mag.,
1873.)
Whitaker, William. List of Works on the Geology, Mineralogy,
and Palaeontology of Wales (to the end of 1873). (Rejj. Brit.
Assoc, 1880.)
. List of Works on the Geology of Hertfordshire. (Trau^.
Watford Nat. Hist. Soc, 1876.)
. Note on the Red Crag. (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, 1877.)
. On Subaerial Denudation, and on Cliffs and Escarpments
of the Chalk and the Lower Tertiary Beds. (Geol. Mag., 1867.)
. On the CHft'-sections of the Tertiary Beds west of DiepjDe in
Normandy, and at Newhaven in Sussex. (Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soc, 1871.)
* *
Unbound pamphlets, serial publications, d'c, which are not available
for circulation, are )iot included in this Catalogue.
XX
LIST OF OFFICERS AND MEMBERS.
[Corrected to March 25th, 1882).
OFFICERS.
patron.
H.R.H. The DUKE of CONNAUGHT & STRATHEARN, K.G.
{Ranger of Epping Forest.)
RAPHAEL MELDOLA, F.R.A.S., F.C.S., F.I.C.
EDWARD A. FITCH, F.L.S.
RIGHT HON. LORD RAYLEIGH, F.R.S.
N. F. ROBARTS, F.G.S.
REV. W. LINTON WILSON, M.A.
(i^t^tx Pemkrs of Coiuuil.
WILLIAM J. ARGENT.
HENRY J. BARNES, F.C.S. (BeiHn).
RICHARD L. BARNES, F.C.S.
WILLIAJM C. BARNES.
PROF. G. S. BOULGER, F.L.S., F.G.S.
E. N. BUXTON, J.P., Etc. {VercJerer of Epping Forest).
JOHN T. CARRINGTON, F.L.S.
ROBERT MILLER CHRISTY.
REV. JAMES FRANCIS, M.A.
GEORGE J. GODWIN.
HERBERT GOSS, F.L.S., F.G.S.
GEORGE C. HARCOURT.
FRANCIS GEORGE HEATH.
J. P. HORE.
ARTHUR LISTER, J.P., F.L.S.
REV. THOMAS W. PEILE.
NATHANIEL POWELL, J.P.
HILDEBRAND RAMSDEN, M.A., F.L.S., F.R.M.S.
W. G. S. SMITH.
CHARLES THOMAS, F.G.S., F.R.M.S.
T. FISHER UNWIN.
Appendix. xxi
ANDKEW JOHNSTON, J.P., D.L. {Verderer of Epping Forest),
The Firs, Woodford, Essex.
WILLIAM COLE, Laurel Cottage, Buckhurst Hill, Essex.
BENJAMIN G. COLE, Laurel College, Buckhurst Hill, Essex.
'^thmximx.
ALFRED LOCKYER, Stanley Road, Woodford, Essex.
HONORARY MEMBERS.
Date of Election.
Jan. 10, 1880. Browne, Charles, M.A., Barrister-at-law, Honorary
Counsel, 2, Stone-buildings, Lincoln's-inn, W.C.
„ 22, 1881. Cooke, M. C, M.A., LL.D., A.L.S. {President of the
Hackney Microscopical Society), 146, Junction-road, N.
„ 10, 1880. Darwin, Charles, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., L. and E., F.L.S.,
F.G.S., &c., Down, Beckenham, Kent.
„ 22, 1881. Harting, J. E., F.L.S., F.Z.S., 22, Regent's-park-road,
N.W.
Feb. 25, 1882. Kent, W. Saville, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.R.M.S., Aston
House, 87, St. Stephen's-avenue, Shepherd's-bush, W.
„ 25, 1882. Morris, Professor John, M.A., F.G.S., 15, Upper Glou-
cester-place, Dorset-square, N.W.
,, 22, 1881. FiT'r-Biw'&F.s,Maiov-Genexsi\,F.B..^. {President of Anthro-
pological Institute), 4, Grosvenor-gardens, W.
Jan. 22, 1881. Smith, Worthington, G., F.L.S., F.R.H.S., M.A.I., 125,
Grosvenor-road, Highbury, N.
„ 22, 1881. Walker, Henry, F.G.S., 30, Leamington-road-villas,
Westbourne-park, W.
,, 10, 1880. Wallace, Alfred Russel, F.L.S., F.Z.S., Nutwood-cot-
tage, Frith-hill, Godalming, Surrey.
„ 10, 1880. Whitaker, William, B.A., F.G.S., &c.. Her Majesty's
Geological Survey, Jermyn-street, S.W.
\X11
ORDINAEY MEMBERS.
{Orifjinal Members, registered under Rule VI., are denoted thus * ;
Life Members are indicated thus f. Where no county or postal letter is
added, Essex is understood. It is particularly requested that early notice
of any change of Address be sent to the Honorary Secretary, in order to
avoid miscarriage of letters and publications.)
Date of Election.
* Adams, Herbert J., Roseneath, London-road, Enfield, N.
May 2i), 1880. Alcock (Miss), The Hall, Sunnyside, Chingford.
Alcock (Miss), Ada, The Hall, Sunnyside, Chingford.
Allen, Willia:m, at 3, Liverpool-terrace, Canning Town, E.
Argent, W. J., Nightingale- villas, Wanstead.
* Babington, C. C, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., &c. (Pro-
fessor of Botany, University of Cambridge), 5, Brookside,
Cambridge.
Oct. 1, 1881. Baker, Garrad, High-street, Chelmsford.
* B.\rglay (Mrs.), H. F., Woodford.
Feb. 25, 1882. IBaring, T. C, M.P., J.P., D.L., &c.. High Beach,
Loughton.
* Barnes, Charles E., Oak Hall, Buckhurst-hill.
* Barnes (ISIiss), Clara, Oak Hall, Buckhurst-hill.
* Barnes, Henry J., F.C.S. (Berlin), Oak Hall, Buckliurst-
hiU.
Jan. 22. 1881. Barnes (Mrs.), Oak Hall, Buckliurst-hill.
* Barnes, E. L., F.C.S. , Oak Hall, Buckliurst-hill.
* Barnes, W. C, Oak Hall, Buckhurst-hill.
Mar. 26, 1881. Baxter, George H., Carlton-house, Leytonstone.
Nov. 26, 1881. Bentley, Edward J., Bank of England, and 33, Marquess-
road, Canonbury, N.
May 28, 1881. Bentley (Miss), ]\Lldeline, 33, Marquess-road, Canon-
bury, N.
* Benton, George A., Ray-house, Woodford.
* Blllups, T. R., M.E.S., 4, Swiss-villas, Coplestone-road,
Peckham, S.E.
Mar. 26, 1881. Bird, W. H., 2, Norfolk- viUas, Buckhurst-hill.
Feb. 26, 1881. Black, Charles, Palmerston-road, Buckhurst-hill.
Apl. 30, 1881. Bliss, Henry, " Woodbury," Snaresbrook.
Aug. 13, 1881. Boreham, W. Wakeling, J.P., F.R.A.S., &c., The Mount,
Haverhill.
* BoscHER, E., M.E.S., Bellevue-house, Twickenham.
Appendix. xxiii
June 2G, 1880. Boulger, Professor G. S., F.L.S., F.G.S., ' P- .
fe-'^ifivSji.^
r
-t r sil|:^^ it, P ■ •• \ i
rf \
¥■
f«-
f J*
rM',, •!><.
r
e-
v^.
3 -i
.Y
»]*■
"* >--\- ;-\-:'
|!^^ --•>:
/>.
known as Ambresbury lUinks, Epphyj Forest. 59
wliicli was bare of trees, and which afforded a good section
of the earthwork, and the cutting was commenced on May
30th, 1881. (See 'Journal of Proceedings.') The excavation
occupied about nine working days, and was carefully executed
by four or five men in the employ of Mr. Cuthbert, contractor,
Loughton. The section was 12 feet wide, extending from
the foot of the silting of the interior slope to about 13
feet beyond the counterscarp ; it included the removal of the
rampart within those bounds down to the old surface line
and the excavation of all the silting of the ditch, as well as
the small outer rampart beyond the ditch, which at this
place is only very slightly marked. The excavations were
very carefully watched in relays by members of the Club
during the nine days that the work lasted, including the
President (Mr. Meldola), Mr. W. Cole (Hon. Secretary),
Mr. W. D'Oyley (Hon. Surveyor), Mr. H. A. Cole, Mr. Alfred
Lockyer, Mr. H. J. Barnes, Mr. N. F. Kobarts, Mr. T.
Fisher Unwin, Mr. W. Hodge, the Eev. Linton Wilson,
Mr. F. H. Varley, and myself.
As it has been thought advisable by the Club that the
programme which I drew up for the guidance of the directors
of the excavations — being the result of previous diggings,
and therefore possibly of use to future explorers — should be
recorded, it is here inserted, together with the imaginary
section accompanying it : —
" Let A, B, c, L, Fig. 1, Plate IV., be the original shape of
the rampart ; and l, d, e, f the original shape of the ditch.
Then by denudation in the course of ages the outline will
have assumed the line, g, m, n, i, w, the amount of denudation
depending of course on the nature of the soil, the time, and
various other causes. You will not have the advantage of a
chalk soil in which the lines of demarcation of the different
deposits are much more clearly defined than in most soils,
and therefore you will have to look out sharply for them. Li
the references to the section I have named the different jjarts
which are important in describing the positions in which the
relics are found, as the evidence of date entirely depends
upon that. A trench should be commenced well behind the
(30 lleport on the exjcavatiuii of the Karthicork
foot of the interior slope at s, as wide as you please, say ten
feet, digging down to t, v, so as to be well below the old
surface line g, l, z, which m your soil will probably only be
marked by a little white decayed matter representing the old
turf. Whatever is found in the hochj of the rampart, a, m, n, l,
and especially on the old surface line a, l, must be of the date
of the construction of the camp or earlier ; but things found
in the silting of the interior slope, m, g, a, may be of various
dates subsequent to the construction of the camp, the age of
an object thus found depending upon its proximity to the old
foot of the interior slope a. This is- a very important point
to notice, as any mistake between the hodij of the rampart
and the silting would give an entirely false idea of the date.
" In like manner the ditch should be dug in spits down
from the top. What is found in the upper spit is quite
recent ; the second spit older ; and things of the date of the
camp will be found only in the bottom spit.
"It will be found that the point i, marking- the 'present
centre of the bottom of the ditch, is always to the outside of
the old bottom, k, — perhaps 3 or 4 feet, according to
circumstances, but always outside, — more silting having
gone fi-om the rampart into the ditch than into the interior.
I have had sometimes to dig down as much as 3 feet
below G before finding the old surface line. The old surface
in this place must have been very uneven at the time the
rampart was made."
Fig. 2, Plate IV., is a section, by Mr. D'Oyley, through
the centre of the cutting at Ambresbury Banks, showing the
seams in the rampart and ditch, and the position of each
object found. As the position of the objects in a vertical
plane is all that is necessary to take notice of, everything is
projected in this section. Each object as it was found was
numbered, put into a small pill-box, ticketed on the spot,
and marked on the section. At the conclusion of the exca-
vations the entire collection was sent up to me for comparison
with similar objects found in the ramparts of other camps.
The following were the objects found : —
No. 1. An outside flint flake with bulb of percussion, and
Trans. Essex Field/ Chhb. VoLKPlate IV.
< Q
_: :s:
ul cc cc
a; o- Cr
6 a: d >
Z O UJ h-
-S^'
k
r-^.
•h ^ s 1 1 1
O o f'^ ^> f^H ^^ f^
c3
i N S
m ^ -» O
o < < ^ :r z
5
^ d q ^
^^:S
I
fc
I
n
:i
known as Ambresbury Banks, tlpinni) Forest. 61
another with one bulb and one facet. Found in the silting of
the interior slope.
No. 3. One flint chip and piece of pottery, too much worn
for identification. From the body of the rampart.
No. 5a. Piece of the rim of a pot, red on the outside and
grey in the interior, Avithout any grains of quartz or sand in
its composition ; the sides of the pot 0-40 inch thick, the rim
projecting about 0-24 inch, and 0-34 inch deep. This might
be Romano-British. Found in the silting of the interior
slope at a spot where marks of burnt earth and charcoal
indicated that a fire had been hghted at the foot of the
interior slope when the rampart was intact. A representation
of this fragment is shown in the chromo -lithograph, Fig. 1,
PL V.-^
No. 6. Piece, apparently, of pottery, resembling No. 3 in
texture, but too much worn for identification; it had no
grains of quartz in its composition. Found in the body of
the rampart on the old surface line.
No. 7. Fragment of pottery about 1-25 inch square and
0-36 inch thick, brick-red on one side, which is the outside,
and dark brown in the interior of the substance and in the
inside of the pot; it has no grains of quartz in its com-
position. On the inside are striations, which might perhaps
be the marks of the lathe turning on a potter's wheel, but
the outside is uneven and shows no such marks. Found in
the body of the rampart on the old surface line.^ This frag-
ment resembles fragments found at Cissbury Camp, near
Worthing, and beheved to be British or Eomano-British, the
red-brick colour distinguishing it from No. 5.
2 [The Society is indebted to the author for this costly plate. General
Pitt-Eivers, being of opinion that the objects found were typical of the
kind of relics likely to be exhumed from similar earthworks, very
generously added the cln^omo-hthograph to the Eeport for the information
of future camp-explorers. The fragments themselves, with the other
specimens described in the paper, wih be deposited in the Museum of the
Corporation of London, at the Guildhall.— Ed.]
- On further examination I am inclined to doubt whether these
striations imply lathe turning, as the scratches are not perfectly parallel
to one another.
62 Report on the excavation of the Karthicork
No. 8. Fragment of rim, about 2 inches by 1| and 0*40
inch thick ; it has large grains of white and grey quartz, and
red, grey and black pebble, in its composition ; it is dull red
on the outside and inside of the pot, and brown in the
interior of the substance ; the thickness of the pot is only
slightly enlarged at the rim to about 0-42 inch, and the rim
is a different shape from No. 5. It is hand-made, very uneven
on its surface, and the rim rudely formed. Such a piece of
pottery might safely be pronounced of British manufacture.
Found in the body of the rampart on the old surface line.
See the chromo -lithograph plate. Fig. 2, PL V.
No. 10. One flint flake or chip with bulb of i)ercUssion and
one facet, and fragment of pottery about 2 inches by 1^ and
0*32 inch thick ; brick-red on the outside and inside, and dark
brown or black in the interior of the substance ; no grains of
quartz. Kesembling No. 7 in quality ; no marks of lathe.
British or Eomano-British. Found in body of rampart on or
near the old surface line. See Fig. 3, PI. V.
No. 12. Fragment of rim 1| inch by 1 and 0*44 inch
thick; dull red outside and inside, and red-brown in the
interior of the substance ; no grams of quartz in its com-
position, of smooth pasty texture ; the rim projects more
than No. 8, but is less evenly formed than No. 5. It is
hand-made, and must be British. From the body of the
rampart.^ Fig. 4, PI. V.
No. 13. A piece of much-corroded iron, about 2 inches
long and 0*50 inch thick. Found in the silting of the ditch,
about 2f feet beneath the surface, but too high up to be
necessarily, or even probably, of the age of the construction
of the camp.
No. 14. Piece of pottery, about 1 inch square and 0.18
inch thick, with small grains of sand in its composition, both
thinner and harder than that found in the rampart, but much
weathered ; probably wheel-turned. It is of a uniform red-
brown colour throughout, and was found 3 feet beneath the
^ [On or near the old surface line ; exact position unknown. Found by
Mr. Fisher Unwin in examining the earth just thrown into the cart by the
workmen digging out the old surface line sj^it. — Ed.]
7}y//M EsKc.t lu-hl Chih Vb/Jf. I 'lalp\.
Fig4N«l2
X..^..
""■v^.
^
.>^
\6ZW?>
R^.S.V"K)
f
J
Fig.l.:N^5^-
FRAGMENTS OF POTTERY FOUND IN THE RAMPART OF AMBRESBURY BANKS
known as Amhreshunj Banks, Epping Forest. 63
surface in the silting of the ditch, but too high up to be
necessarily of the age of the construction of the camp.
No. 15. Fragment of pottery, about 1 inch round and much
weathered, 0-38 inch thick, brick-red on one side, the outside
and the rest black ; resembling some of the fragments found
in the rampart. Found in the bottom of the ditch.
No. 16. A fragment of pottery, 0-68 inch thick, red on
both sides and dark in the middle ; too much weathered to
enable any idea to be formed of its shape, bnt resembling
No. 12 in composition. Found near bottom of ditch. In the
same spot was also found a small fragment of a rim,
1-25 inch by 0-25 inch, and 0-24 inch thick ; it appears
to have been more evenly formed than some of the pieces in
the rampart, but was unevenly baked, being red-brick on
both sides and black in the middle; perhaps lathe-turned.
Such a fragment might be Komano-British.
Besides the above there has been sent to me another
fragment without any number, If inch by 1 inch and
0-34 inch thick. This was found near the marks of fire
at the foot of the interior slope of the rampart, and therefore
probably deposited there subsequently to the construction of
the rampart. It is brick-red on the outside, and black on the
inside and in the middle ; it contains fragments of quartz and
sand ; it is harder than the fragments found in the rampart,
and has distinct marks of lathe -turning in the interior or
concave side. See Fig. 5, PL V. It is remarkable that
this, the only fragment which can with certainty be ])vo-
nounced to be lathe-turned, should be found in a position to
lead to the inference that it may be of later date than the
rampart ; the only other piece which showed any indication
of lathe-turning, and that doubtfully, being No. 7 (No. 5a.
Fig. 1, the fragment which has the most evenly-formed rim,
was found near the same spot as the fragment represented in
Fig. 5, and was also in the silting of the interior slope). Grains
of quartz or pebble do not necessarily indicate any period, as
both the Romans and the Normans made pottery of this kind,
but harder and better baked than the specimens under con-
sideration. The rude construction of the pottery found in
64 Report on the excavation of the Earthwork
rampart is shown by the difference of colour in the interior
of the substance. This is due to imperfect baking, and
impKes a primitive condition of the art. Up to what period
liand-made pottery was used in this country we have no
means of knowing ; but where the fragments are entirely
hand-made it is reasonable to suppose it to be of early date.
The two kinds of pottery found here — the smooth quality,
with or without large grains of quartz, and the rough and
sandy quality, often red-brick colour on the outside — have
been found by me associated together in other camps ; they are
British or Komano-British, that is, British before or after the
Eoman Conquest. There is no ornamentation on any of the
fragments found at Ambresbury Banks which would enable
one to fix the date more precisely. Judging by their quality
none of the pieces are Koman or Norman, and no fragment
of Samian ware has been found. A single fragment of
Samian pottery on the old surface line beneath the rampart
would have determined the entrenchment to be Eoman.
Although a few flint flakes have been found in the rampart
they are not in sufficient number to prove with certainty that
they were in use at the time of the construction of the
rampart ; they may have belonged to the soil, and have
been turned up with it. They are usually much more
plentiful in those camps which belong to the Bronze Age,
for there can be little doubt that they were used late into the
Bronze Age, if not more recently ; and this fact alone appears
to me to imply that this camp is more recent than the
Bronze Age.^
The excavation of the silting in the ditch showed that it
had originally been triangular in its section and pointed at
the bottom, the escarp rising at an angle of 45°, and the
counterscarp probably at the same angle, though now flatter ;
it was 22 feet wide at the top and 10 feet deep, and it has
since silted up 7 feet from the bottom. The present centre
of the ditch is novv^ about 2 feet to the outside of the old
^ Although a considerable number of flints were sent to me for
examination, the majority, ^Yith the exception of those here named, were
natural forms, and showed no evidence of human agency.
known as .inibrcshuri/ JJanks, Eppmr/ Fureat. G5
centre, and the present crest of the rampart has gone back
some feet towards the interior owing to the greater denudation
of the superior slope. The rampart must originally have
been about 10 feet high above the old surface line ; it is now
7 feet high, and the relief above the bottom of the ditch must
have been 20 feet. The base of the silting of the anterior
slope may be estimated at about 16 feet, and there is some
indication in the seams of the old interior slope ; but this
measurement is uncertain, as is often the case in British
ramparts. I have not usually found the bottoms of the
ditches of British camps pointed. At Cissbury, Caburn, and
Sleaford, there were fiat bottoms along which the people
might traverse, whereas in the earthwork improperly named
Caesar's Camp, near Folkestone, but Norman in its origin,
both ditches were pointed like the present one ; but we have
no sufficient evidence as yet for determining whether there
was any persistency in the form of ditches in British times.
I have always assumed, however, that where the old sides of
the ditches are found to stand at an angle of stability of 45°,
as in the present case, it indicates that the entrenchment was
intended to be more or less a permanent work. I should
mention that my information as to the form of this ditch is
derived entirely from Mr. D'Oyley's reliable section and from
his verbal account of it, and not from personal observation,
as I had left the camp before the bottom of it was excavated.
Whilst excavating the ditch the gentlemen present were
struck with the number of rounded and apparently selected
pebbles, 2 to 3 inches in diameter, which turned up in the
silting near the bottom, and which led them to the conjecture
that they must have been imported for use as sling- stones.
This observation is the more valuable on their part from the
fact that they were not aware at the time that like results
had been obtained from other camps. In the Kentish and
Sussex camps, I had found and recorded the discovery of
similar pebbles in the ditches of works, facts which in those
cases were the more noticeable owing to the soil being chalk,
and so, therefore, not a pebble-producing formation. The
pebbles in these places had been imported from the distant
H
ijd Tieport on the cxcaration of the Earthwork
sea-sliore, whereas at Ambresbury they were probably
obtamed from Tertiary deposits close by. This independent
observation, however, confirms the impression that slings
were in common use by the defenders of these camps.
In conclusion I have only to add that, although at the
request of the Council I have written the paper from the
materials which have been furnished to me, it is to those
gentlemen who have so diligently conducted the explorations
the credit of this investigation is due : to Mr. Meldola, with
whom the investigation originated ; to Mr. W. Cole, the
Honorary Secretary, by whom all the arrangements have
been made ; and more particularly to Mr. D'Oyley, the
Honorary Surveyor to the Club — to whose excellent plans
and sections on this no less than on former occasions the
Society is indebted for the means of recording with accuracy
the result of its labours. To these gentlemen my acknow-
ledgments are due, not only as an honorary member of the
Society for their contributions towards the matter in hand,
but in a special manner for their courtesy to me in supplying
the data and correcting the omissions which this paper may
have contained.
If I am asked whether I consider the results of the investi-
gation are conclusive, I can only reply that, within certain
limits, the age of the entrenchment appears to have been
fixed. I have on other occasions found it necessary to make
three or four cuttings into the ramparts before satisfactory
results could be obtained. If it be the wish of the Essex
Field Club to settle the question whether the camp, being a
British one, was erected before or after the Roman Conquest,
further excavations can alone decide the ^Doint ; but I think
the Committee of Exploration may fairly be congratulated
upon having, with the slender means at their disposal,
achieved so much, having solved by means of a single section
a large portion of the problem which has exercised the best
wits of the neighbourhood h-om the days of Camden to our
own time.
[As the excavated soil was removed it was carried to a
spot a few yards from the scene of operations, and there
known as Ambresbunj Banks, Kppimj Forest, 67
"clamped" for measurement. The desiccating action of the
atmosphere soon rendered it friable, and as the clayey
agglutinated lumps broke up, objects previously hidden in
masses of earth could be more readily detected. Consequently,
in the operations of carrying back the soil to the ramparts,
the workmen lighted upon several pieces of broken pottery
and two or three flint flakes, which were faithfully preserved
and given into Keeper Butt's care, and by him duly handed
to the Hon. Secretary. In this collection there are four or
five pieces of pot of considerable size, as well as several
smaller fragments, all presenting characters similar to the
specimens enumerated in General Pitt-Rivers's Eeport. The
larger shards may be thus described : —
a. Piece of Pottery irregularly triangular in shape, with a
slight curvature inwards; about 2-75 in. long, by 1'7 in.
wide, and 0-45 in. thick. Brick-red for about one-third of its
thickness on the convex or outside, and very superficially so
on the concave side, where the colour is not so rich and the
surface probably less fired. Interior substance blackish
brown, coarse in texture, with small angular fragments of
pebble intermixed. Apparently a fragment of a vessel of
considerable size.
b. Irregularly- shaped piece of pot, about 2-4 in. from
corner to corner, by 2 in. broad, and 0*4 in. thick, with a
slight curvature towards the inner or less-fired surface.
Colour and texture in all respects like "«." On the convex
surface are to be noted a few almost obsolete striations,
similar to the markings referred to by General Pitt-Rivers in
his description of No. 7 (page 61).
c. Small rimmed pot-shard, 1*2 in. by 0-8 in., about
0*40 in. thick at the rim, and about 0-25 in. at the thinner
part. The rim is sloped- off towards the outside at an angle
of about 45°. The colour is black throughout, except on the
outer surface, where a very superficial brown-red tinge
obtains. Texture somewhat harder than "a" and "i," and
very different in character. Small fragments of quartz and
grains of whitish pebble are abundantly intermixed.
d. Small fragment, 1*2 in. by 0*85 in., and 0-4 in. thick-
Colour and texture similar to "c(" and "/>."
68 Excavatiun of hjurt/itcork, A)i}hresbunj Banks.
Various very small fragments like 'Wt" and "6," and one
corresx^onding in texture with " c," were found with the above.
Two flakes may be recorded — one [e) of light-coloured flint,
with indistinct bulb of percussion and three facets ; the other
(./) of darker flint, with good bulb and four facets : both
specimens are about 1-5 in. long, and abruptly truncated
at the end where the flaking-blow had been given.
It is much to be regretted that these specimens were not
found in situ, so that their exact positions could have been
marked upon the section ; but it is almost certain that they
came from well within the body of the rampart, judging
from the positions in which they were discovered in the
" clamped" excavated soil. The Editor has therefore thought
well to describe them here, as tbey appear to afford valuable
confirmatory evidence of the results obtained during the
actual excavations. — Ed.]
G9
XI. On the Origin and Distribution of the British Flora.
With an Appendix on the Eiver-basins of Essex as
Natural-history Provinces.
By Professor 0. S. Boulger, F.L.S., F.G.S.
[Kead at the Field Meeting held at Danbury, August 13th, 1881.]
Last week will be memorable in the amials of British
botanical science. Ten days ago I stood by the open grave
of Hewett Watson, who devoted the genius and labour of his
life to the elucidation of the geographical relations of British
plants ; and two days later appeared the eighth edition of
Professor Babington's Manual, — a work that, in its critical
discrimination of allied forms, has during the last thu'ty-
eight years ably reflected the advance of Botany in England.
The work of these two men is related to the two divisions
of the subject on which I am about to address you. First, I
wish to trace the origin of our flora by comparing it with
other assemblages of plants ; and secondly, I wish to sketch
the distribution of its constituents through the British Isles.
The most unobservant traveller cannot fail to notice the
difference between the plants of one district and those of
another. If it may not have fallen to his lot to contrast the
luxuriance of a tropical jungle with the barren tundras of
Arctic Siberia, or the pastures of our temperate plains with
the pine forests of Scandinavian mountain-slopes, or the
stunted birches and willows of their summits, he will have
seen near his own home that the flowers of the field are not
those of the wood, and that those of the sea-shore are not
those of the river-banks.
Such experience leads us all at first to put down the
distribution of plants as the effect of differences of climate —
using the word in a broad sense ; nor can it be denied that
climate is a most important factor in the problem. You will.
70 On the Origin and Distnbution of the Ihitinh Flora.
however, I tliink, understand me when I say that cHmate
rather determines what shall not grow m a given locality —
what shall be exterminated if it attempt to grow — than what
shall grow ; if I remind you that plants do not always flourish
most in their native home, as witness the familiar instance of
the luxuriance of our English watercress and white clover in
New Zealand, and that many plants do not occur native in
climates admirably suited to them. In considering the causes
which have led to our British flora being what it is, we must
undoubtedly bear in mind that ours is an insular climate.
There being more moisture in the air the extremes of both
heat and cold are moderated, and our climate is better suited
to herbaceous perennials than to annuals ; but the recent
separation of our islands from the continent causes thek
flora to be in the main an extension of that of Gennany,
altogether different from those "insular floras," rich in
endemic or peculiar types, which characterise "oceanic"
islands. The theory of evolution shows us that the real key
to geographical distribution is to be found in the community
of origin of allied forms, and their subsequent dispersal.
The subject was first reviewed from this standpoint by Mr.
Bentham in 1.869. -^ He then pointed out that the vegetation
of the globe must always have been separable into three
gi'eat latitudinal zones, — the northern, the tropical, and the
southern. The subsequent migrations of plants seem to
have tended rather from north to south and from east to
west than in the reverse directions.^ In explanation of the
1 In liis Presidential Address to the Linnean Society.
2 Sir Joseph Hooker, in liis Addi'ess to the Geographical Section of the
British Association at York, 1881, alludes to a lecture, by Mr. Thiselton
Dyer, " On Plant Distribution as a field of Geographical Eesearch " ('Pro-
ceedings of the Koyal Geographical Society,' vol. xxii., 415, 1878), which I
have not seen, wherein he argues that " the floras of all the countries of
the globe may be traced back at some time of their- history to the northern
hemisphere," Sh Joseph also refers to Count Saporta's essay, entitled
" L'Ancienne Vegetation Polaire," in the ' Comptes Eendus', of the Inter-
national Congress of Geographical Science for 1875, which also I have not
seen. " Starting from Buflon's thesis, that the cooling of the globe having
been a gradual process, and the Polar regions having cooled first, these
On the Orif/i?! and DistrUmtion of the Jhitish Flora. 71
first of these lines of passage Mr. Darwin has suggested^ that
the northern forms existing in their own homes in greater
numbers, owing to the greater extent of Lind in the north,
have attained a higher stage of perfection or dominating
power; but Dr. Asa Gray's^ botanical confirmation of the
truth of Bishop Berkeley's dictum that "westward the
course of empire takes its way" remains at present an
ultimate fact.
In seeking for the geological origin of our existing floras it
seems of little use to travel backwards beyond the Cretaceous
period. The flora of the Jurassic consists mainly of ferns,
conifers and cycads, the oldest known dicotyledon being a
species of poplar [Populus jyrlmeva), found in beds of Middle
Neocomian age at Kome, in North-west Greenland;^ the
flora of this locality consisting in the main, however, of
ferns and conifers, among the latter being the genus Sequoia.
At the neighbouring locality of Atane a totally distinct flora
is found,'' in beds belonging to the Upper Cretaceous, and
including, with few cycads, sequoias, and other conifers, a
predominance of dicotyledons ; among which are a fig, two
magnolias, and plants apparently belonging to the orders
must have first become fit for organic life, Count Saporta proceeds to
assume that the termination of the azoic period coincided with a cooHng
of the waters to the point at which coagulation of albumen does not take
place, when organic life appeared in the water itself The Polar area
was the centre of origination of all the successive phases of vegetation that
have aj)peared on the globe, all being developed in the north ; and the
development of flowering i^lants was enormously augmented by the intro-
duction during the latter part of the secondary period of flower-feeding
insects, which brought about cross-fertilisation."
^ ' Origin of Species,' chap, xii., p. 340, in ed. 6.
4 'Darwiniana.'
5 Professor Nordenskjold, in a lecture to the Koyal Swedish Academy,
given in the ' Geological Magazine,' November, 1875, p. 529 ; and Professor
Oswald Heer, in 'Plora fossilis Arctica,' Zurich, 18G8 — 1875. For these
and other references to the geological part of my subject I am indebted
to an article on " The Cretaceous Flora," by Professor Morris, 'PojDular
Science Keview,' 1876, pp. 40 — 59.
*■' Nordenskjold, loc. cit., and Dr. E. H. Scott, ' Geol, Mag.,' February,
1872, p. 71.
72 ())i the OrU/in and Distribution of the British Flora.
ProteacecB aud Lef/iiminosa. At La LouviereJ in Hainault, in
clays belonging to the period of the Gaiilt, is a flora consisting
of conifers and cycads, like those of Kome and Folkestone ;
whilst at Aix-la-Chapelle,^ in sands of Upper Chalk age,
we have a far different assemblage of j)lauts, including,
with the ferns, Aspleniiim, Lygodium and Gleichenia ; with
Sequoia and other conifers, species of screw-pine and nume-
rous FroteacecB (amounting to nearly 70 species out of 200),
some belonging to such genera as Banksia, Dryandra and
Leucospennum, which are now confined to Australia and the
Cape. With these are Eucalyptus, fig, bog-myrtle, willow,
poplar, oak, and beech. In the lignites of the Dakotah group,^
on the plains of Eastern Kansas and Nebraska, a remarkable
flora has been discovered, embracing such forms as poplar,
willow, birch, oak, bay, cinnamon, liquidambar, magnolia,
tulip-tree, maple, and plum ; and in New Zealand,^" in beds
also of Cretaceous age, we have the beech, with many repre-
sentatives of the Myrtacea, and of genera still existing in
that country. Professor Lesquereux is of opinion" that the
existing arborescent flora of North America originated in the
Dakotah group, and subsequently migrated to Europe. In the
London clay, at Slieppey, we have fruits of Proteaceous
7 Coemans, ' Mem. de I'Acad. roy. de Belgique,' tome xxxvi.
« Lyell, ' Student's Elements of Geology,' 1st ed., p. 278, Morris, op. cit.,
pp. 49 — 51, and the numerous papers there quoted.
9 Admirably described and discussed by Professor Lesquereux, ' The
Cretaceous Flora,' Washington, 1874.
10 Dr. Hector, ' Trans. New Zealand Institute,' vols. ii. and vi.
" Op. cit, and ' Geol. Survey of Montana,' 1871, p. 314. Note also
Mr. De Eance's remarks in the geological appendix to Sir George Nares'
' Narrative of a Voyage to the Polar Sea ' : — " In the overlying American
Eocenes occur types of plants occurring in the European Miocenes and
still n\ing, pro\ing the truth of Professor Lesquereux's postulate that the
plant types appear in America a stage in advance of their advent in
Europe. These plants point to a far higher mean temperature than those
of the Dakotah group." " This," adds Mr. A. R. Wallace (' Island Life,'
p. 183), " is very important as adding further proof to the view that the
climates of former periods are not due to any general refrigeration, but to
causes which were subject to change and alternation in former ages
as now."
On the Orvjin and Distribution of the British Flora. 78
plants; and at Bournemouth this group occurs, with figs,
bays, and Papilioiiaceo}, the whole presenting a subtropical
and somewhat Australian aspect. It is, however, the
luxuriant and wide-spread flora of the Miocene period that
has chiefly forced upon geologists the question of climate in
the past. At (Eninghen, in the North of Switzerland, we
have a flora including 465 species, of which 166 are trees
and shrubs, half of them being evergreens. They comprise
sequoias, cinnamons, tulip-trees, and many other American
genera, together with maple, ash, plane, oak, and poplar. ^'^
At Breslau, at Dantzic, at Bovey Tracey, and in the Island
of Mull, Ave have some of the same forms ; ^^* but even in
70° of north latitude, on the west coast of Greenland, is a
flora of a but slightly more northern character, including
evergreens, a walnut, a plum, vines, and a magnolia ;^^
whilst in Spitzbergen, more than 8° further north, occur
water-lilies and swamp-cypress with pines and sequoias ;"
and even in Grinnell-land, within 8^° of the Pole, occur elms,
guelder-roses, the Norway spruce, and the swamp-cypress.^^
The most satisfactory explanation of these wide-spread
indications of a warm climate in north temperate regions is
the theory, so ably advocated by Mr. Alfred Russel Wallace,
in his most suggestive ' Island Life,'^*^ of the lower elevation
of the land within the arctic circle, and the access of warm
currents from the Indian Ocean through the Red, Caspian
and White Seas, and from the Pacific, to Polar regions.
During the same period Professor Heer's valuable maps, in
his ' Primeval World of Switzerland,'^^ indicate continuous
land from North-west Africa through Spain, and the Bay of
12 Lyell, op. cit., pp. 190—198; Wallace, op. cit., p. 177; and Heer,
'Flora Tertiaria Helvetia.' ^'^* Heer, 'Miocene Baltische Flora';
Pengelly and Heer, 'Phil. Trans.,' 1863; Duke of Argyll, 'Quart. Journ.
Geol. Soc.,' 1851 ; LyeU, op. cit., pp. 214— 2'23.
1-^ Heer, 'Fossil-Flora von Alaska,' 1869; 'Flora fossilis Arctica';
Lyell, op. cit., p. 215.
1^ Heer, op. cit.
15 Wallace, op. cit., pp. 177—179.
16 Wallace, op. cit., pp. 183—192.
17 Translated by Mr. W. S. Dallas, London, 1876.
I
74 (hi the Origin and Distribution of the British Flora.
Biscay to the British Isles, to the importance of which I
shall presently again allude.
Mr. Wallace has, I think, brought forward sufficient argu-
ments to enable us to conclude that these geographical
changes would prevent the recurrent glacial periods neces-
sitated by Dr. Croll's hypothesis fi-om having more than the
local effect in the Flysch deposits between Switzerland and
Vienna, and the ice-scratched boulders in the upper Miocene
of Turin. ^® Directly, however, we pass to the Pliocene a
cooling of the climate seems to have taken place, as seen in
the pines and alders of the Cromer forest bed,^^ and the
presence of the Arctic willow [Salix polaris) and the dwarf
birch (Betula nana) in the clay deposit overlying the sub-
tropical miocene lignite at Bovey Tracey.^'^ The glacial
periods probably then commenced with elevation which would
cause a southerly extension of the ice and cold, driving the
Miocene flora southwards. The more temperate species could
then cross the Tropics along the chain of the Andes, and
from the Caucasus through the Himalayas and the moun-
tains of Aracan and Java to the north of Queensland.
Probably, at a still earlier period, a migration had taken
IDlace along this last line, not only to Tasmania, but to New
Zealand, the more modern flora of West Australia being
then shut off by a central sea.^^ The period of elevation was
18 Wallace, op. cit., pp. 171, 172.
i'-" Eev. Gr. Henslow, in " The Origin and Present Distribution of the
British Flora," Trans. Watford Nat. Hist. Soc, vol. ii. (1879), p. 138.
20 Henslow, loc. cit., and Lyell, op. cit., p. 221.
21 " Thus the plants of Fuegia extend northward along the Andes,
ascending as they advance. Australian genera reappear on the lofty
mountain of Kinibalu in Borneo ; New Zealand ones on the mountains
of New Caledonia ; and the most interesting herbarium ever brought
from Central Africa, that of Mr. Joseph Thomson, from the highlands of
the lake districts, contains many of the endemic genera, and even species
of the Cape of Good Hope. Nor does the northern representation of the
south temperate flora cease within the tropics ; it extends to the middle
north temperate zone; Chilian genera reaiopearing in Mexico and Cali-
fornia ; South African in North Africa, in the Canary Islands, and even
in Asia Minor ; and Australian in the Khasia Mountains of East Bengal,
in East China, and Japan." — Sir Joseph Hooker's Addi'ess to the
Geographical Section of the British Association (York, 1881).
071 the Origin and Distrihutluyi of the British Flora. 75
followed by one of great depression, reducing Great Britain
to an archipelago, in which only alpine plants would survive.
Then followed a second continental period, readmitting the
flora of Europe to the British Isles, but so rapidly succeeded
by depression to present levels that, reckoning the flowering
plants and ferns of Great Britain at l'J:25, only 970 had time
to reach Ireland.^^
As we travel eastwards from the Mediterranean, through
the Levant, Caucasus, Persia, the Himalayas, China, and
Japan, we find the traces of the retreating American Miocene
flora more and more numerously. The fan-palm, the plane-
tree, and the walnut of the East, and the magnolias of the
Himalayas, China, and Japan, have the meaning of their
distribution still more strongly brought out by the discovery
of a tulip-tree in Central Cliina.^^
Mr. Bentham points out^* that the northern flora has
undergone a specialisation into three secondary floras, the
Arctic-Alpine, theTemperate, aiid the Mediterraneo- Caucasian.
The first of these, common in some degree to the Old and
New World, has been driven into every latitude, surviving on
the mountains when glacial gave way to warm conditions,
often on their southern slopes. The Temperate flora consists
largely of genera common to every longitude, easterly exten-
sions of American groups, such as the deciduous trees ;
whilst the Mediterraneo-Caucasian, comprising six-sevenths
of the species of Europe, and bounded by the deserts of
Africa and Arabia, but having outliers on the mountains of
Tropical Africa, may represent the remnant of the flora of
Europe previous to the Arctic-Alpine and American Miocene
invasions.
Whilst we are not concerned with the Tropical flora, that
of the disconnected lands of the Bouth has an important
bearing on our present subject. In the West of Europe is a
22 Hewett Watson, cited by Mr. Wallace, op. cit., id. 320.
23 Moore, ' Journal of Botany,' 1875, p. 225 ; Oliver, ' Natural History
Eeview,' 1862; and W. T. T. Dyer, article "Distribution," Eneyclop.
Britan., 9th ed., vol. vii. (1877), p. 287.
2^ Op. cit., summarised by Dyer, op. cit.
76 On the Orif/in and Distribution of the British Flora.
group of plants, including the gorses, broom, and allied
plants, Lobelias, Gladiolus, Sibthorpias, and heaths, which are
" more nearly allied to corresponding Cape species than they
are to each other." The severity of the winter checks the
extension of these plants to the East ; and they seem to have
travelled from Natal to Abyssinia, and from thence to the
Cameroons and the Atlas Mountains. This migration may
have taken place x^artly as a return current at the close of a
glacial period ; but it would seem more probable that some
of these plants, now confined to Portugal, the Asturian
Mountains of the north of Spain, and Ireland, are the relics
of a still earlier migration, probably Miocene. Ireland may
not have been so entirely submerged in glacial times as Great
Britain.
The earliest botanical work of Mr. Hewett Watson was a
pamphlet entitled ' Outlines of the Geographical distribution
of British plants,' printed in 1832, in which he groups our
flora under eight types of distribution, namely, British,
English, Intermediate, Scottish, Highland, Germanic, At-
lantic, and Local or doubtful. At the Cambridge meeting
of the British Association, in the following year. Professor
Edward Forbes, with his characteristic acumen, stated in-
dependently conclusions almost identical. ^^ The plants of
Watson's British, English, Intermediate, and Scottish tyi^es
Forbes grouped under the name of Germanic. Those termed
by Watson " Germanic " plants, found in the East and South-
East of England, and mainly affecting a limestone or chalky
soil, he termed Kentish ; whilst of the seventy species con-
stituting Watson's Atlantic group he separated eleven, namely,
six species of Saxifrage, two heaths, Arbutus, Menziesia,
Arabisciliata, occurring in Ireland, under the name of
Asturian, fi-om then- nearest continental habitat ; terming
the remainder Armorican, from their affinity to the flora of
Normandy and Brittany. Disregarding the accidentally
associated Kentish group, and putting on one side the Local
25 Aftervrards elaborated into his memoir ' On the connexion between
the existing Fauna and Flora of the British Isles and the Geographical
Changes which have affected their Area.' — Mem. Geol. Survey, vol. i. 336.
On the Origin and Distribution of the British Flora. 11
and doubtful species, we may well adopt Forbes's title of
Germanic, wliicli applies to 1059 out of 1425 British species,
since tlieir extension into Scotland, or their exclusive occur-
rence in the higher latitudes of that country, are questions
of secondary importance as compared with their continental
distribution. For the Highland type, including 120 species,
we may use the more general term of Arctic- Alpine, retain-
ing the names Asturian and Armorican for two other types or
subfloras.^^ With the exception of two or three waifs from
America, ^^ the whole British flora occurs on the Continent of
Europe, as we might expect, considering the reijent geological
date of the separation of our islands. Though, however, the
time which has elapsed since this separation has not been
sufficient for local forms of specific importance to originate,
it is quite possible that a minute study of what are known to
botanists as critical species, such as the aquatic Fiammculi,
the brambles, roses, hawkweeds, and willows, may disclose
varieties that are not only peculiar to the British Islands, but
to particular districts. ^^ If then we wish to investigate the
distribution of plants within the limits of Great Britain, we
2*^ The revised classification will therefore be as follows : —
Germanic (1186) :—
Species
British
532
English (including Forbes's Kentish)
536
Intermediate ......
37
Scottish
81
Arctic-Alpine
. 120
Armorican
59
Asturian
11
Doubtful
49
Total No. of species on Watson's estimate . . 1425
27 These are Eriocaulon septangulare, a North American species found
in Skye, the Hebrides, and from Antrim to Connemara ; and Spiraiithea
(jemmiimra, also a United States plant, which occurs in County Cork.
28 No doubt the closer comparison of English critical forms with those
of the Continent will prove that many, if not all, occur in both districts ;
still it can hardly be doubted that the distribution-areas of segregates will
prove more limited than those of aggregates. This line of inqniry, which
requires considerable acumen, is as yet almost untouched.
78 0)1 the Origin and Distribution of the British Flora.
require a scientific division of the country into provinces.
This I have attempted, so far as England is concerned, in a
paper recently published by the Geologists' Association.^^
"We could hardly have a better guide to critical botany than
Professor Babington's ' Manual ' ; and for the systematic
examination of the plants of our county we are fortunate in
possessing Mr. Gibson's ' Flora of Essex.' In the ai^pendices
to this work Mr. Gibson compares the Essex list with those
of plants found in the adjacent counties ; and similar tables
are given for Middlesex in Messrs. Trimen and Dyer's Flora
of that county. Unfortunately the subdivisions adopted by
Mr. Gibson are not the natural lines of watershed dividing
the river basins. These undoubtedly afford the most scientific
boundary lines, and in the botanical map of England in my
paper, to which I have just alluded, Essex falls partly into
three provinces — (1) the basin of the Thames and the South-
East, including in this county the valleys of the Lea, the
Boding, and the Marditch ; (2) East Anglia, to which
belong the valley of the Black water, in which we now are,
that of the Colne and the Stour, and that of the Crouch;
and (8) a small district near Saffron Walden drained by the
great Ouse. Whilst I should not be sorry if our Club were
the means of adding to the four British species peculiar to
Essex, I should be still more glad to hear of the rediscovery
of any of those plants which Mr. Gibson enumerates as lost,
and shall be fully satisfied if my remarks are the means of
directing the attention of a small number to the geographical
relations of our plants. ^*^
s'J " On the Geological and other causes that affect the Distribution of
the British Flora," Proc. Geol. Assoc, vol. vi., No. 9.
80 Among the authorities to which I have been specially indebted are
Mr. J. G. Baker's ' Botanical Geography ' (1875) ; Mr. Bentham's Presi-
dential Address for 1869; Professor Morris's article, "The Cretaceous
Flora" (1876) ; Professor Lesquereux's work with the same title (1874);
Mr. Wallace's ' Island Life ' (1880) ; the various works of Professor Heer,
and of Mr. Watson ; Professor Forbes's essay ; Profossor Dyer's article
"Distribution" in the 'Encyclopedia Britannica' (1877) ; and Professor
Henslow's paper, with the same title as the present one, in the Watford
Society's Transactions for 1879. I have not yet seen Count Saporta's
On the Origin and Distribution of the British Flora. 79
Appendix.
On the Eiver-Basins of Essex as Natural-History
Provinces.
[Bead September 24th, 1881.]
Plate VI.
At the request of our Secretary I have drawn a sketch-map
of our county, divided, for purposes of Natural-History in-
vestigation, into provinces and subprovinces according to the
river-basins, and have added the following explanations : —
Essex falls into three Provinces : those of (A) the Thames
and South-east, (B) East Anglia, and (C) the East Fen and
Secondary. Besides the narrow strip of land in the south of
the county which drains directly into the Thames, in the first
province are included that part of the county which drains
into the Lea, the Boding, the Pym, the Ingrebourne, and other
smaller streams. I may here remark on the difficulty I have
found in obtaining accurate information as to mhior streams.
Those who live on their banks are ignorant of then' names
and of their courses. Like too many of the natural features
of the country, they are beneath the notice of the county
historian, and the writers of topographical articles and the
draughtsman of small-scale maps think the brook that flows
on for ever of less importance than such transitory accidents
as noblemen's seats or parks, and accordingly omit it
altogether, or, worse still, record it inaccurately. It would be
a service to our society, and to the best interests of Essex, if
some local member would draw up a thorough account of the
topography of these small streams, the position, character
and altitude of their sources, the area they drain, and their
gradients. The article on Essex in the new edition of the
L'Ancienne Vegetation Polaire' (1877), or Professor Dyer's lecture in the
Proceedings of the Eoyal Geographical Society for 1878. Of course Sir
Joseph Hooker's valuable Address to the Geographical Section of the
British Association at York was delivered subsequently to this lecture
of mine.
80 (hi the Origin and Distribution of the British Flora.
' Encyclopaedia Britannica ' affords hardly any information
on the natural features of the county, and the drainage is
barely alluded to in Mr. Gibson's ' Flora of Essex.'
I propose to divide the county into seven Sub -Provinces,
viz. : 1, the Lea and Stort; 2, the Roding ; 3, the Crouch ; 4,
the Black-water; 6, the Colne ; 6, the Stour ; 7, the Brook. Of
these the first two come within Province (A), that of the
Thames and its tributaries. From the direction of its mouth
and delta- deposits it seems that, were the sea-bed elevated,
the Crouch, with its tributary the Eoach, wonld unite with
the Blackwater rather than with the Thames. I therefore
class it in Province (B) East Anglia. The Eiver Lea rises in
the Chiltern Hills in Bedfordshke ; flows south-east through
Herts, the eastern two-thirds of which is drained by it and its
tributaries, of which the Maran and the Beame are each
about eleven miles in length. It then flows south to the
Essex boundary near Roydon, where it receives the waters of
the Stort, separates us from Herts down to a little below
Waltham Cross, and then from Middlesex down to its outfall
into the Thames at Bow Creek. Its total course is about fifty
miles ; but I have no information as to the acreage drained
by it and its tributaries in Essex. The Stort rises within the
Essex boundary between Little Chishall and Langley Mills,
reaches the boundary between Stanstead Mountfitchet and
Birchanger, and forms the boundary for the greater part of
the remainder of its course to Roydon, receiving at Stanstead
a stream (name?) from Chickuey, giving its name to Bishop's
Stortford, receiving the Pincey brook from Hatfield Forest
near Harlow, and a Hertfordshire stream from the neighbour-
hood of Sawbridgeworth above Burnt Mill Station. Its total
course is nineteen miles. Below Roydon the Lea receives the
Cobbin River from between North Weald and Nasing, and
from Middlesex Salmon's Brook from Enfield Chase and
other streams from Hadley, East Barnet, Finchley, and
Southgate, from Highgate and Hornsey (at Tottenham), and
formerly the Hackney Brook at Old Ford. The Roding rises
at Brook End near Easton, flows south by many villages to
which it gives a name to Chipping Ongar, receiving a tributary
Trane^ Eysex FMd Club. VolKPlate VI.
c ^
v\
B^
^^G^ SHIRE
l>* CIlLslu
XL.ChishcM VVenaLc'n
LdFts
\\ fi'' CfiestcrlSrS. „
Vi Lit ji/ /\
, 'V\1jcoe .
O
/■^ +
(PP
ley End
^Lanx^
. VendorL
\^^ewpor(/ +/
OvuKTttjn
/,
^
\»
CTtttey
PC
'K
Jl . CroLu,^
VoLi-LOfe
"^ -^ ' B..R.3
-f-
«s^a /?
\+Pi-uttUwell
^
c^^
Sow Creek R-iver 7)l •<*'V "^"^
'h
+ Stifforci
Gnrays
-s. ThAJLfrock
Slacven.
Moutli o£ the Hiaines
Scale : 6\ vni-les to Otic Inch
aS.B.dj,!
On the Orif/in and f )i.strlhutwn of the liritisJi Flora. Hi
stream (name ?) from North Weald, then flows south-west to
Chigwell and Woodford, and finally south-east past Ilford
into the Thames at Barkhig Keach. Near Ilford it receives
two streams from Hainault Forest, the upper of which seems
to bear the name of Alder sbrook. The entire course of the
Eoding is stated by Gibson as 37 miles, and by the Ordnance
Survey as 33 miles, the area it drains being 317 square miles.'^^
The Pym or Bourne rises at Stapleford, flows past Havering-
atte-Bower, Komford, and Dagenham, into the Thames at
Halfway Eeach. Next come three streams of doubtful
nomenclature. One flowing west of Upminster and Eainham
is marked " Ingreburn" in the ' Encyclopaedia Britannica' ;
the second flows from between North and South Ockendon to
the east of Eainham ; and the third flowing from Thorndon
Hall to Stifford and Purfleet is marked Ingrebury in Mr.
Gibson's map, but flows past a hamlet named Childerditch.
The name Ingrebourne probably belongs to the last. The
Eiver Eoach, made up of streams from Hadleigh and Prittle-
well and from above Eochford, flows mainly between Foulness
and Wallasea Islands. Its basin, with that of the Crouch,
includes 181 square miles. The latter river rises near Little
Bursted, less than three miles from the sources of the Childer-
ditch stream and the Wid, a tributary of the Chelmer, and
flows eastward^ having a course of 15 miles. It is doubtful
if the name Blackwater is properly applied to more -than the
estuary of the great series of streams which drain 434 square
miles out of the 1648 which Essex contains. In accordance
with this view, the Ordnance Survey gives it a length of only
6 miles, as against Mr. Gibson's 46. The stream which rises
near Wimbish, and runs by Bardfield and Shalford to Pan-
field, ought, at least so far, to be known as the Pant.
According to the best local authorities the stream should not
be called Blackwater until it reaches the village of that name,
half-way between Coggeshall and Braintree. The Survey
gives the length of the Pant as twenty- eight miles. Below
Kelvedon Mill, the Blackwater receives a stream there known
•^1 [It may be remarked that the name of the river is always spelled
"Rhodon" in Warner's 'Plantw Woodfordienses.' — Ei>.]
K
82 On the Origin and Distrilmtion of the Britifih Flora.
as Oyn's Brook. It rises north of the railway, in the parish
of Feering, and is known as Domsey Brook until it enters
East Thorpe. Thence it flows through Massing and Inworth
to its confluence. Another small rivulet enters the Black -
water near here, on the same (left) hank. Eising on Tiptree
Heath, in the parish of Messing, it flows north-west through
Grreat Braxted and Inworth to the hridge below Gray's Mill,
Kelvedon. At Rivenhall End another stream enters the
Blackwater on the other side from Cressing. It is known as
Cressing Brook, and lower down as Rivenhall Brook. Near
Witham the Blackwater receives on its right bank a large
tributary from Bardfield and Braintree. This is known as
the Podsbrook, or below Braintree as the Brain, and, flowing
past Black and White Notley, is inaccurately marl^ed as the
Blackwater in Mr. Gibson's map. The Blackwater enters
the Chelmer navigation at Maldon. The Chelmer rises south
of Debden, flows past Thaxted to Tittey, where it receives on
the right bank a stream from between Chickney and the main
source, to Dunmow, below which it receives a tributary from
Lindsell and Stebbing, and so on to Chelmsford, where it
receives the Cann. The Cann rises near Great Canfield and
High Roothing, and flows- past Good Easter and Chignal
St. James to the Warren Farm, where it receives on its right
bank a tributary (the name of which is unknown, but which
might well be termed Roxwell Brook) that rises near Clerks,
between Blackmore and Shellow, and flows through Roxwell.
Nearer Chelmsford the Cfinn receives on its left bank a tiny
stream from Brick Chignal, and on its right the important
stream, the Wid. The Wid rises near Thorndon Hall,
Brentwood, flows to Mountnessing, where it receives another
stream partly from Navestock, and partly from Blackmore
and Doddinghurst (name ?), on to Margaretting, Widford,
and its confluence w^ith'the Cann. The length of the Wid is
stated at thirteen and that of the Cann at ten miles. Below
Chelmsford the Chelmer receives, at Little Baddow, two
affluents on opposite banks ; on the north or left bank one
from Holt's Chantry; on the south one from Preston,
Haningfield and Sandon ; and lower down the more important
On the Oyiijin and DUtrlhution of the J British Flora. 88
River Ter. The Ter rises near Felsteacl, flows on to FairsteacT,
where it receives a stream from Black Notley, and to Terhng,
to which it gives a name, its com'se to its affluence being
twelve miles. The entire length of the Chelmer to Malclon
is stated by Gibson, probably accurately, as thirty-four, by
the Survey as twenty-nine, miles. The estuary of the
Blackwater receives four principal streams, two from the
south from Woodham Mortimer and Haseleigh, and on the
north one from the Tothams and the Lime Brook from the
Tolleshunts.
• The district south of the high road from Snorehani to
Bradwell, drained by rivulets running to Danesey Flats,
I consider as part of the valley of the Crouch ; but the
twenty-four square miles north of the river-mouth, classed
apart by the Survey as "small streams," including Virley
and Salcot Marsh, I group in the Blackwater Basin. Mersea
Island falls most naturally, perhaps, into the Colne district.
The Colne Basin includes 407 square miles, and the length
of the river — which rises near Bumpstead and Birdbrook, and
passes E.S.E. by Yeldham, Hedingham, and Halstead, to
Colchester and Mersea Island — is thirty-six miles, according
to Gibson, and, probably in fact, but only twenty-four
according to the Survey. At Colne Engaine it receives, on
its south or right bank, a stream from Weather sfield and
Gorsfield, and lower down, on its left bank, one from
Pebmarsh. Below Greenstead an affluent enters it from
Several Hall, and above Fingrinhoe, opposite Wivenhoe, it
receives the Roman River. This stream rises between Earl's
Colne and Great Tey, and is first known as Tey Brook ; flows
past Aldham, where it is called x\ldham Brook, to Stan way,
below which it bears the name of Roman River, and near
Abberton receives the Layer Brook from above Layer Marney.
The fifty-three square miles between Colchester and Walton
mapped by the Survey as drained by such streams as those
from Bromley and ]3entley, and the Holland Creek, I place
in the Colne sub-province ; but the neighbourhood of Oakley
and Wicks belongs to the Stour drainage.
This latter river rises in the south-west of Suffolk, on the
Si (hi the Origin and Distrilmtion uf the British Flora.
Cambridgeshire border, and flows eastward to Wixoe, where
it begins to form the boundary between Suffolk and Essex.
Its di'ainage-area is variously stated at 430 or 407 square
miles, most of which is in Suffolk, and its length as 45 or 55
miles : probably the smaller number is the true one in each
case. Its chief tributaries are the Suffolk rivers, Brett,
Boxford, and Orwell, but from Essex it receives four small
streams : one above Sudbury, from Ovingten, Wickham
St. Paul, and Belchamp Water ; another below Bures, from
Pebmarsh ; a third at Neyland, fi*om West Wood Green ;
and, below Langham, one from Boxted Heath.
In the seventh and last sub-province, the Brook rises
between Debden and Ugley, and flows northward, receiving
the water from Debden Lake, through Quendon, Newport
(where it receives a stream from Arkesdon), Wendon (where
it receives another, also on its left bank, from Chishall and
Wendon Lofts), and Audle}^ End, where it receives the
Slade, to Chesterford, where it leaves the county. The Slade
rises between Hadstock and Little Chesterford, and flows
under the town of Saffron Walden. The Brook is a tributary
of the Cam or Granta, and is spoken of hy both these names.
Probably Granta is merely a scholastic form of the name
Cam, as Isis has been coined at the sister University. The
main stream of the Cam rising in North Hertfordshire is
sometimes terined the PJiee. The question as to which of
these sources and streams is the main river is, like that
between the Chui'n and the Thames Head Brook, one of no
real importance or i^ossible solution. Such being the prin-
cipal watercourses of the county, my sub-provinces depend
upon their watersheds, as follows : —
Suh-procince 1 — Lea and Stort. From 7, by line from
Little Chishall to Langley, Piickliug, Ugley, and Henham-
on-the-Hill ; fi'om 2 and 4, by this line continued to Broxted,
Little Canfleld, White Boding, High Laver, North Weald,
Epping, High Beach, Walthamstow, Wanstead, East Ham,
and North Woolwich.
Suh-province 2 — Boding ajid Small Thames ajjiuents. From 4,
by line from Broxted, through Easton Park to High Easter,
On the < h't'i/i'ii ioid Distrihution of the lUitis/i blora. 85
Good Easter, Sliellow Bowells, Stonclon Massey, Navestock,
South Weald, Brentwood, and Thorndon Hall; and from 3,
by this Ime continued to Langdon Hills, Vange, and along
the high road to tlie river at Southend, including Canvey
Island.
Sub-province 3 — Crouch. From 4, by a line from Heron-
gate, Thorndon Hall, to Billericay, Downham Green, Hill-
house, Woodham Ferrers, Norton Cold, and along the high
road to St. Peter's Church, Bradwell.
Sub-proi'ince 4 — Blackwater. From 7, by a line from
Henham-on-the-Hill to Debden and the county boundary
near Cut Bush, Ashdon. From 5 and 6, by a line from
Bumpstead to Weathersfield, High Garret, Marks Hall,
Little Tey, Messing, Inworth, Primrose Hill, Tolleshunt
Knights, Hyde Farm, Great and Little Wigborough.
Sub-province 5 — Colne. From 6, by a line from Broad
Green, Bumpstead, to Ridgwell, Little Yeldham, Crouch
House, Catley Green, Garlands, Counters Cross, Highfield,
West Wood Green, Ardleigh, Bradfield House, Wicks Cross,
Stone Cross, and Great Oakley.
Sub-province 6 — Stour, and Sub-province 7 — Brook, are thus
already defined.
As compared with Mr. Gibson's divisions, my sub-province
1 comes in his 1, 3, and 4 ; my 2 in his 1 (very little), 3, 4,
and 5 ; my 3 in his 5 and 6 ; my 4 in his 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, and 7 ;
my 5 in his 1 (very little), 2, 7, and 8; my 6 in his 1, 2,
and 8 ; and my 7 entirely in his 1 .
Thus, making another much urged alteration, viz., substi-
tuting abbreviated names for initials, Mr. Gibson's localities
for Clematis Vitalba will run, when re- arranged, as follows : —
1 ?— 2. Little Warley, Hind. Tilbury, Newb. Southend,
Ibbot. Komford, Ibbot. — 3. Rochford, Ibbot. — 4. Chelmsford,
Broomfield, Boreham, Pi(j(j. Kelvedon, Rivenhall, Varen.
Maldon, Ibbot. — 5. Halstead, llent. Copford, Bab. Col-
chester, Gam. — 6 ? — 7. Common in the Walden district,
Gibs.
To recast the whole of this valuable work in the manner
thus i)roposed would be a labour of considerable difficulty.
86 On the Origin and Distribution of the British Flora.
In conclusion, I have to acknowledge my indebtedness to
E. M. Christy, Esq., of Saffron Walden, and E. G. Varenne,
Esq., of Kelvedon, for many valuable local corrections. I
have thought it useful to append a table of the rivers and
then- tributaries, giving lengths where known. R. =^ entering
on right bank ; L. on left. [ ] square brackets signify that
the stream is not in Essex. " " inverted commas denote
provisional names.
Lea. 50 miles.
[R. Maran. 11 m.]
[R. Beame. 11 m.]
L. Stokt. 19 miles.
L. "Chickney Brook."
L. Pincey Brook.
[R. " Sawbridgeworth Brook."]
- L. Cobbin River.
[R. Salmon's River.]
[R. " Hadley Brook."]
[R. "Hornsey Brook."]
[R. Hackney Brook.]
RoDiNG. 33 miles.
R. " North Weald Brook."
L. Aldersbrook.
L. "llford Brook."
Pym or Bourne.
" Upminster Brook."
" Rainham Brook."
Ingrebourne.
Crouch. 15 miles.
R. Roach.
Chelmer. 34 miles.
R. " Tittey Brook."
L. "Lindsell Brook."
R. Cann. 10 miles.
R. " Roxwell Brook."
L. " Brick Chignal Brook."
R. WiD. 13 miles.
L. " Doddinghurst Brook."
071 till! () riff hi and Dlstrihntkm of the Ih'ithh Flora. 87
L. " Holt's Chantry Brook."
E. " Haningfield Brook."
L. Ter. 12 miles.
L. " Fairstead Brook."
L. Blackwater or Pant. 28 miles.
L. 03m 's or Domsey Brook.
L. " Tiptree Brook."
R. Rivenliall or Cressino- Brook.
R. Brain or Podsbrook.
R. " Woodliam Mortimer Brook."
R. " Haseleigh Brook."
L. " Totliam Brook."
L. Lime Brook.
CoLNE. 36 miles.
R. " Gosfield Brook."
L. " Pebmarsli Brook."
L. " Greenstead Brook."
R. Roman River, Tay, or Aldham Brook.
R. Layer Brook.
Stour. 45 miles.
R. " Belchamp Water."
R. '' Bm-es Brook."
R. " Nayland Brook."
[L. Brett. 17 m.]
[L. Boxford.]
[L. Orwell and Gipping. 32 m.]
Brook or Granta.
L. " Arkesdon Brook."
L. " Wendon Brook."
R. Slade.
Addenda and Corriijenda to p. 80. — Line 13, after " Bed-
fordshire " add " in.Seagrave Marsh, near Dunstable" ; 1. 17,
after '' Roydon " add " and Hoddesdon "; 1. 20, after " fifty "
add "live"; 1. 23, after "Mills" add "near Clavering ";
1. 2 from bottom, after "Easton" add "above Little
Canfield."
88
XII. On the Land and Fresh-water Mollusca of the
District around Colchester ; a contribution towards
A LIST OF THE FaUNA OF EsSEX.
By Henry Layer, M.E.C.S., F.L.S.
[Eead September 24th, 1881. J
The distribution of the Mollusca of a district depends so
miicli on its geological features that no excuse is needed in
prefacing an account of the Conchology of Colchester by
giving its geological conditions. The town itself, south of
the Eiver Colne, is situated on sands and gravels, and the
same soil is continued for five miles from that river in the
southerly district, and also for four miles to the west of the
town, as well as for two miles on the east. Beyond this
distance, in the latter direction, there are clays, sands, and
gravels of the Tertiary formations. Southwards the sands
and gravels are succeeded by London Clay, and westwards by
Boulder Clay and Brick Earths, as at Copford, w^here are the
well-known brick pits and the remarkable deposit of Shell
Marl. North of the town, after crossing the river valley,
London Clay appears again, and continues until the Stour is
approached, when sand is the prevalent formation.
From this short sketch it will be seen that geologically the
district is one from which many moUuscan forms will be
wanting. There is an entire absence of bog, and on the
wdiole the district may be considered di-y ; but it is fairly
timbered, and contains a few woods, principally composed of
oak. The greater part is under the plough, and there are no
commons worth mentioning. With all these unfavourable
conditions, I think the following list will prove that we are
richer in species than might have been expected,^
1 [The number of species enumerated by Mr. Laver within his district
is 75, compared with 121 species given by Jeffreys in ' British Conchology '
as the total number of Land and Fresh-water Molluscs at present in-
habiting Great Britain. — Ed.]
On the Land and b'rcsh- water Mollnsca, d-c. 89
The Colchester district is watered by three rivers, the
Colne and Blackwater wholly in Essex, and the Stour dividing
this county from Suffolk. Its boundaries are a line drawn
from Bures, through Coggeshall to Maldon, on the west side,
and on the east, south, and north the sea and rivers form its
confines.
The names and arrangement adopted in the paper are in
accordance with Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys' ' British Conchology.'^
SPHiERimiE.
Sph^rium corneum, Linn. — As is usually the case, this is
abundant in all the streams and ponds which are suitable.
I find it most variable, but I cannot satisfy myself that we
possess more than one of the varieties named by Jeffreys.
Var. fiavescens occurs in the most rapid parts of a brook
two miles south of the town.
S. LAcusTRE, Miill. — Occurs in many ponds, on gravel as
well as clay, and it is surprising how they manage to exist in
the stagnant and filthy water of some ponds.
Var. Brochoniana. — This form I find in the remains of the
moat of an old manor house at Birch, on Boulder Clay.
PismiuM AMNicuM, MuU. — Although usually so common, I
cannot say that I find it abundantly ; perhaps I have not the
knack of searching for it.
P. FONTiNALE, Drap. — In the marshes of the Colne, &c.,
but not abundantly. I do not think we have any of the
named varieties, but I find the shell to be very variable.
P. pusiLLUM, Gmelin. — Very abundant in shallow roadside
ditches which are dry for months at a time. This also is a
variable species, some specimens being nearly round, i.e.,
more ventricose than usual.
P. NiTiDUM, Jen. — I do not find it abundant, but stillthe
river meadows generally seem to have some in most of the
ditches at one part or other. The long grasses growing in
2 'British Conchology, or an account of the Molhisca which now
inhabit the British Isles and the surrounding seas.' Vol. i. Land and
Fresh-water Shells. London, 18G2.
L
90 On the Land and Fresh-water Molliiscd
the water beside the dhnkhig-places for cattle I find most
productive.
I consider this to be a most unsatisfactory family, and
question very much whether it will not be necessary to reduce
the number of species to three, and call the others varieties.
■
Unionid.i:.
Unio pictorum, Linn. — -I have seen shells of this species
from the river at Cogge shall, but I have never taken it
myself. They were the ordinary form, and I do not think
it occurs elsewhere within my boundaries.
Anodonta cygnea, Linn. — In every stream and many
ponds.
Var. radiata. — In almost stagnant ponds ; at Bromley
Lodge vei-y large specimens occur, but I think the shells are
thinner than in the normal form.
A. ANATiNA, Linn., appears to me to be only a variety of
the above. The intermediate forms are many, and I think
it is only a question of food. I have stocked a suitable pond
with anatina, and hope one day to note the result.
Neritid^.
Neritina fluviatilis, Linn. — Plentifully on stones in all
our streams. The markings are very varied.
Paludinid^e.
Paludina contecta. Millet. — In the IStour the specimens
are very large, but I do not find it to be an inhabitant of any
other stream.
BYTmNiA tentaculata, Linn. — Very frequent in both run-
ning and still waters. The most abundant fossil at Co^Dford.
B. Leachii, Sliepp. — Occurs in the same habitats as the
last species, but is much less abundant.
Valvatid^.
Valvata pisciNALis, Miill. — Frcqucnt in all our streams,
and in the fossil state at Copford in great plenty.
of the District aronnd Colchester. 91
V. CRisTATA, Miill. — I find this species is more frequently
an inliabitiint of ponds than V. piscinalis. It occurs every-
where throughout the district, and is one of the shells chosen
frequently by a Caddis-worm to form its case.
Planorbis lineatus, Walker. — I have seen shells said to
have been found in the Stour within my boundaries, but
have never taken the species myself.
P. NiTiDus, Miill. — Occurs in many parts of the district
both in slow streams and ponds, but it is not frequent.
P. NAUTiLEus, Linn. — No doubt is frequently passed over
from its small size. I find it sometimes very abundantly in
ponds at West Bergholt. Var. criUata occurs in the same
spots, and is, I think, one of our most beautiful shells.
P. ALBus, Miill. — Abundant where it occurs, but occasionally
for years it seems almost to die out in some ponds. It is
found on all soils : also in brackish water on the marshes
near Wyvenhoe Park.
P. spiRORBis, Miill. — Very abundant. I have found several
distorted specimens in which the whorls are more or less
separated or displaced.
P. VORTEX, Linn. — Not quite so abundant as the last
species, but found all over the district.
Var. compressa. — Occasionally in the marshes of the Colne.
P. CARiNATUS, Miill. — I find this snail more frequently in
the marshes by the rivers and brooks than in stagnant
ponds. It is said never to be plentiful, but I once found a
shallow pond near Ardleigh Crown swarming with it.
P. coMPLANATUs, Limi. — Common throughout the district.
P. coENEus, Linn. — I never find this mollusk in ponds
unless they are in the marshes and connected with the
rivers ; there they are fairly plentiful. The largest speci-
mens I have seen were reared in a soft-water butt, at
Wormingford.
P. coNTORTus, Linn. — Common in our rivers and ponds of
stagnant water in many parts of the district.
Physa hypnorum, Linn, — Very local and rare. An occasional
92 On the Tjcnid and F resh-water Mollusca
one may be found in the Colne. In a ditch rnnning into this
river near Sheep-pen Bridge at times it is very plentiful; hut
often for months this ditch is dried up, and then I do not
know where to find the snails.
P. FONTixALis, Linn. — Frequent in all the brooks and
streams.
LiMN.EA PEREGEA, Miill. — Everywhere.
Var. ovata. — I have never found this form except in the
Colne and Stour. Some specimens are very large and not
unlike L. auricidarla.
Var. (icuminata. — I find this also in the same localities as
the last.
Yar. maritima. — Occurs in considerable numbers in the
brackish, almost salt, water of the ditches near Wyvenhoe
Park, in company with P. a I bus.
Var. scalanformis. — Frequent in the small drains of one
meadow near Birch Hall. There are all the intermediate
stages between the normal forms and those in which the
whorls of the shell are nearly separated.
L. AURicuLARiA, Liuu. — In the Stour and also in the Colne,
but the intermediate forms between L. pere/ the Countij. 181
Ulmace.e.
Ulmus campestris, 8m. Leaves. The galls mostly occur
at the ends of twigs on elm bushes or stubs ; they consist of
much thickened and distorted bunches of leaves, and vary in
size from that of a walnut to a fair-sized apple ; when fresh
they are yellowish green with rosy reflections, and contain a
quantity of bluish black mucilaginous liquid, which is
liberated with the Aphides when the mature gall splits. The
old brown galls are very conspicuous on elm hedges in winter,
but they are fitful in appearance, in some years (as 1881)
being very abundant, while in others (as 1879 and 1880)
they are almost entirely absent. ScmzoNEUEA lanuginosa,
Hartig.
Ulmus campestris, Sm. Leaf. These galls occur as
pedunculate, smooth galls, attached by their thin end to the
upper surface of the leaf, somewhat resembling a filbert in
size and shape ; they change colour, often to a beautiful
bright yellow, earlier than the unafiected leaves. They occur
singly, but I have rarely found double specimens ; unhke the
previous species these galls generally occur on trees ; they
are much rarer than .S. laniujinosa, but in some years are by
no means uncommon. The gall-makers are mature in autumn.
Tetraneura Ulmi, De Geer.
Amentace^.
Fagus sylvatica, L. Leaf. The gall is a hard, pyriform,
or somewhat conical, smooth projection from the upper side
of the leaf, but also showing through and firmly attached, so
that it falls only with the leaf; it is about the size of a
cherry-stone, and there are seldom more than one or two on
a leaf. The white larva pupates within the gall during
winter. Hormomyia Fagi, Hartig.
Fagus sylvatica, L. The small, hairy, tubular galls occur
on the upper side of the leaf, only showing a slight convex
projection on the under surface ; they are greenish at first,
but speedily change to brown or reddish brown in colour, and
then fall from the leaf, leaving a white, circular, basal scar
132
The Galls of Essex ; a Contribution to a
behind (when mature they fall at the least touch). There
are generally eight or ten galls on a leaf, occurring on each
side of the midrib, mostly in the angle of a side vein. The
larva lives in the gall throughout the winter, pupating therein
in the spring. Hormomyia piligera, H. Loew.
QuERcus EoBUR, L. Root-
lets. The galls when single
are about as large as a hazel
nut, but they generally occur
in confused masses of five or
six together. The galls are
soft when recent, but soon be-
come hard and woody ; they
are round, oval, or reniform^
pyriform when confluent, and
contain from three to nine
thin-walled, oval larva- cells,
which are yellowish on the
inside. The galls are mature
in the autumn, and the apte-
rous, ant-like gall-flies emerge
therefrom throughout the win-
ter. BioRmzA APTERA, Fabricius (Fig. 16) [agamous form of
Andricus (Biorhiza) terminalis] .
QuERcus EoBUR, L. Root. This gall generally occurs just
below the surface, where the roots leave the trunk, and is
mostly considerably larger than the preceding. It is round,
rough, hard, and woody, varying in colour with the surrounding
soil from light yellow or reddish to almost black ; it somewhat
resembles a truffle. In section the gall shows numerous oval
larva-cells embedded in its parenchyma. The gall is mature
in autumn, and the gall-flies emerge therefrom in April.
x\pHiLOTHRix RADicis, Fabricius (Fig. 17) [agamous form of
Andricus noduli] .
QuERcus RoBUR, L. Bark. The gall is tooth- or rather
nail-like in shape, and is found deeply embedded in the
trunks of old oaks, frequently on the bark encircling the spot
where a large branch has been removed on old poHards.
Fig. 16. Biorliiza aptera.
List of the Insect Fauna of the County.
133
When young it is a smooth, succulent, rounded, greenish gall ;
but when mature it is hard, brownish, really obconical in
shape, but on the surface presenting a circular convex lid
Fig. 17. Aiiliilothrix radicis.
which falls off when mature, showing the pierced, circular,
apical, woody septum of the gall surrounded with numerous
small, circular punctures, this just below the surface of the
bark. The galls are single-celled,
but generally occur gregariously ;
they are mature in autumn, and
the gall-flies emerge therefrom in
early spring. ApmLOTURix corticib,
Linne (Fig. 18) [agamous form of
Andricus gemmatus, Adler] .
QuERCUs RoBUR, L. Bark. Small
acorn-like, red or brown galls occur-
ring in clusters on the young off-
shoots of oak- stubs or the smaller
¥m. 18. Aphilutlirix corticis.
134
The Galls of Easex ; a Cuntrihutiun to a
branches of trees. Tliey are hard, conical, single-celled
galls, coarsely furrowed on their basal two-thirds. They
never occur singly, and when fresh the galls are deep red in
Fig. 19. Aphilothrix Siehohlii.
colour, which tint they lose after the emergence of the insect.
The galls are mature in September, and the gall-flies emerge
therefrom in April or May. Aphilothrix Sieboldii, Hartig
(Fig. 19) [agamous form of Andricus testaceipes] .
QuERcusEoBUR, L. Stem. The
galls are soft, succulent and berry-
like, occurring on the trunks of
young oaks. They are spherical,
pea- sized, bright red or yellowish,
and single- celled. The galls,
which mature very quickly, really p^j. 20. Trii
occur on the stem-buds of the
oaks in the spring ; they soon shrivel up and disappear after
the emergence of the gall-fly, which takes place in June.
Trigonaspis megaptera, Panzer. (Fig. 20).
QuERcus RoBUR, L. Twig. Little, glabrous, oval swellings
are frequently noticeable on the bark of oak-twigs, more
especially when pierced by the gall-flies ; these are the galls
of Andricus nodali. This single-celled gall also occurs on
igonaspis meDaptera.
List of the Insect Fauna of the County.
135
the young shoots and leaf-
petioles ; it is mature in
summer, and the gall-fly
emerges therefrom in Au-
gust to October. Andricus
NODULi, Hartig. (Fig. 21).
QuERcusEoBUR,L. Bud.
The smooth, spherical,
hard, yellowish brown, bul-
let gall of C. KoUari is now
well known everywhere. It
is dark or yellowish green
when fresh, and occurs on
the terminal and axillar
buds of the young twigs
often in clusters of three
or four together. In section
the gall, which varies from
one -half to an inch in dia-
meter, shows a thick, loose-
celled parenchyma with a
radiate appearance sur-
rounding one hard-walled,
small, round larva-cell. The
galls mature in autumn,
and the gall-flies emerge
therefrom in September
and October, and through-
out the following spring ;
the galls do not fall from
the twigs upon the emerg-
ence of the tenants, but
frequently persist even for
years. Cynips Kollari,
Hartig. (Fig. 22).
QuERcusRoBUR,L. Bud.
The artichoke gall of the
oak is about the size of a
Fig. 21. Andricus nodvli.
Fig. 22. Cynips Kollari.
136
The Galls of Essex ; a Contribution to a
nut or small walnut, and greatly resembles the fruit of the
hop (strobile), or a miniature artichoke. It mostly occurs in
the leaf-axils, and consists of a much compressed, woody
axis, to which the hairy, brownish green, elongate scales are
Fig. l2S.^Aphilotkrix gemma.
attached; these enclose a hard, chocolate-brown, pear-shaped,
single-celled inner gall, which is about one-third of an inch
in length. The gall is mature in autumn, when the inner
gall falls to the ground ; the gall-fly emerges therefrom in
spring, but occasionally from one- or two-year-old galls. It
is commonly found on oak-stubs or young trees. Aphilothrix
GEMMiE, Linne. (Fig. 23).
QuERcus KoBUR, L. Bud. The
gall is a small, woody, spindle-
shaped growth in an axillar bud ;
it is reddish brown in colour
and thickly covered with similarly
coloured pubescence ; at the apex
is frequently a smaU conical papilla,
and in some instances there is a
short, thick foot-stalk at the base.
The gall is single-celled, and is
mature in autumn, when the gall-fly emerges therefrom.
Aphilothrix solitaria, Fonscolombe. (Fig. 24).
QuERcus EoBUR, L. Bud. This gall is more conspicuous
than any other of the smaller autumnal bud-galls, on account
Fig. 24.
Aj) Idlothrix no li to ria .
List (>f the tusevt Fauna of the Coiintij.
187
Fig. 25. ApJulotlirlx glohuU.
of its bright green colour. It is
spherical, with a small apical
papilla, and its surface is covered
with inconspicuous raised articula-
tions. The gall is sessile in the ter-
minal or axillar buds ; it somewhat
resembles a miniature melon. The
gall retains its green colour until
mature in late autumn ; the gall-
fly emerges therefrom in spring.
Aphilothrix globuli, Hartig (Fig.
25) [agamous form of Andricus
inflator] .
QuERcus EoBUR, L. Bud. This
gall somewhat resembles that of
A. f/Iobidi, but is purplish green in
colour, and in shape and size
greatly resembles a grain of wheat ;
it is sessile, but more deeply seated
in the bud than the above-men-
tioned species, and is by no means
so easily seen, although common.
The gall is single-celled, and occurs
singly in the autumn ; it is mature
in October, and the gall-fly emerges
therefrom in April. Aphilothrix
AUTUMNALis, Hartig (Fig. 26) [aga-
mous form of Andricus ramuli] .
QuERcus KoBUR, L. Bud. The
unopened oak-buds are frequently
seen to be pierced with a small
circular hole ; if on touching the
apex a small, woody, brown, smooth,
ovate gall is palled out, we have the
inconspicuous gall of A. collaris. It
is almost impossible to find the
galled buds until after the escape
of the fly, when they appear to Fm. 27. Apliilothnx collaris.
R
Fig. 26.
Apli ilothrix autumnalis.
T
138
The Galls of Essex ; a Contrihution to a
be not uncommon. The gall is single-celled, and matures
apparently throughout the summer, when the gall-fly emerges
therefrom. Aphilothrix collaris, Hartig (Fig. 27) [agamous
form of Andricus curvator] .
QuERcus EoBUR, L. Bud. This most remarkable gall is
in size and shape much like a barley-corn, but is green in
colour, frequently quartered with red raised stripes, and
occurs on a loiig, but very thin foot-stalk, though sometimes
7 /
Fig. 28. J^jJiilothrix calUdomu.
almost sessile. It is developed from the axillar buds, and is
single -celled ; it matures in summer and autumn; the gall-
fly emerges therefrom in spring. Aphilothrix callidoma,
Hartig (Fig. 28) [agamous form of Andricus cirratus] .
QuERcus EoBUR, L. Bud. This
is the most conspicuous of the bud-
like galls. It occurs on the twigs
of the oak- stubs in the spring, and
is somewhat oviform in shape, of
about the size of an orange pip ; it
is green, purplish or whitish green,
in colour, commonly covered with
short, whitish, longitudinally placed
spots ; its surface is smooth, and it is sessile in the bud, the
bud-scales scarcely showing ; there is a well-marked papilla
at the apex. The gall is single-celled ; it falls from the twig
to the ground in May or June, and the gall-fly emerges
therefrom in November. Aphilothrix albopunctata, Schlecht-
endal. (Fig. 29.)
Fig. 29.
Aphilothrix albopunctata.
List of the Trisect Fauna of the Count >/.
139
QuERcus EoBUR, L. Bud. The well-known oak-, or King
Charles', apple, is a spongy textured, whitish or rosy, almost
spherical gall, occurring commonly on the terminal huds in
May and June; it varies in size, from that of a pea to a
im
Fig. 30. Andricus terminalis.
medium-sized apple. The gall is many-celled, and is mature
early in June, when the gall-flies emerge therefrom. Andricus
TERMINALIS, Fabricius. (Fig. 30.)
QuERcus EoBUR, L. Bud. This gall has the appearance
of a terminal swelling of the young oak shoots, but is truly a
bud gall, although axillar
buds and leaves are produced
from its surface. In section
the gall shows the surround-
ing woody growth, with an
elongate apical cavity, at the
base of which we find the
single, brown, ovate larva-
cell. The gall is mature
in spring, and the gall-fly
emerges therefrom in June.
(Fig.^31.)
QuERcus EoBUR, L. Leaf. Small, reniform, green or red,
succulent, but not soft, galls, occurring on the under side of
the side veins and midribs of the leaf, from which, when
mature, they are very easily detached. They occur in
Fig. 31. Andricus inflator.
Andricus inflator, Hartig.
140
The GaUs of Essex : a Contribution to a
Fig. 32. Biorhiza renum.
numbers on a leaf, but eacii gall
is single-celled. The galls are
mature and fall from the leaf in
autumn ; the gall-flies emerge
therefrom in June. Biorhiza
RENUM, Hartig (Fig. 32) [aga-
mous form of Trigonaspis me-
gaptera] .
QuERcus EoBUR, L. Leaf.
Early in the year some oak
leaves are occasionally noticed
to curl up and become consi-
derably shortened ; if examined
it will be noticed they have a
spherical, smooth, green, pea-
sized swelling at their base;
frequently the whole leaf is
galled, and two, three or more
galls are confluent. In section
this succulent gall exhibits a
moderately thin walled cavity,
which contains two thin, small,
brown, cocoon-like larva-cells,
separated by a very thin sep-
tum. Certain specimens of this
gall might be taken for a bud-
gall, but if closely examined the
midrib of the leaf is generally
noticeable. The galls are mature in spring or early
summer, and do not fall from the twig ; the gall-flies
emerge therefrom in June or July. Andricus curvator,
Hartig. (Fig. 33.)
Quercus Eobur, L. Leaf. The common cherry-gall of
the oak is a succulent, spherical, smooth, green or rosy
gall, of about the size of a cherry ; it occurs on the
under side of the oak leaf, generally singly, but sometimes
three to five are found on one leaf. It is single-celled,
gathered before mature the gall shrivels considerably ;
Fig. 33. Andncua curi'iitor.
List of the Insect Fauna of the County.
141
it ripens in September or October, and the gall-flies emerge
in late autumn. Dryophanta scutellaeis, Olivier, or
Fig. 34. Dryophanta HcuteUaris or D.folif
D. FOLii, Linne (Fig. 34) [agamoiis form of Spathegaster
Taschenbergi] .
QuERcus RoBUR, L. Leaf.
This gall is almost spherical,
slightly depressed at the top
and bottom, glossy, smooth,
yellowish or reddish in colour,
and occurs mostly in numbers
on the under side of the leaf.
It is about the size of a tick
bean, and is single-celled, but
the larva-cell is very large
relatively to the size of the
gall. This peculiarity and its
much harder consistency dis-
tinguish it at once from the
previous species, of which it
is only about half the size,
and is much more gregarious
than D. smitel Jan's (foUi). The
galls occur in summer, and are
mature in early autumn, but Fig. 35. Dryophanta divisa.
35a
142
The Galls of Essex ; a Contribution to a
they do not become detached from the leaf. The gall-fly
emerges from the gall in October and November. Dkyophanta
DivisA, Hai'tig (Fig. 85) [agamous form of Spathegaster
^'ERRUCOSA] .
QuERcus RoBUR, L. Leaf. Galls very similar to those
last described are frequently fomid on the under side
of the oak leaf, but only singly, and they are not smooth,
but mostly covered with irregular nodules. In section
they also exhibit very thin walls to the larva-cell, and
are generally considerably smaller than the galls of
D. divisa, and are not so brightly coloured. The gall
is mature in early autumn, and the gall-flies emerge
therefrom in October. Dryophanta agama, Hartig (see
Fig. 35rt), sexual form unknown.
QuERcusRoBUR, L. Leaf. The
common " silk button" galls oc-
cur in numbers on the under
side of the leaf, to which they
are attached by a very minute
foot-stalk; the gall is round,
with a depression in the centre,
and its surface is covered with Fig. 36. Neuroterm numismatis.
smooth, silky, brown hair ; hence
its poj)ular name h-om its resemblance to a brown, silk-
covered button. When mature it has a diameter of about
the eighth of an inch ; it falls to the ground in the autumn,
and the larva feeds and grows in the single larva-cell
throughout the winter ; the gall-fly leaves the gall in March.
Neuroterus numismatis, Olivier (Fig. 36) [agamous form of
Spathegaster vesicatrix] .
QuERcus RoBUR, L. Leaf. These galls occur in numbers
on the under side of the leaf as almost flat, circular discs,
yellowish in colour, but their upper surface is covered with
short, reddish-brown, stellate hairs. They are commonly
known as the " oak spangles." The galls fall from the leaf
in autumn. When mature they measure about one quarter
of an inch in diameter ; the larvpe feed and change to pupae
during winter, and the gall-flies emerge from the galls in
List of the Insect Fauna oj the Countij,
148
March. Neuroterus lenticularis, Olivier (Fig. 37) [agamous
form of Spathegaster baccarum] .
Fig. 37. Neuwterua lotticularis.
Quercus Robur, L. Leaf. This spangle-gall greatly re-
sembles the common spangle-gall last described, but in shape
it is raised from the sm-face
of the leaf at its margins ;
it is reddish or pm-plish in
colour, and does not gene-
rally occur in such im-
mense numbers on a leaf.
The gall-fly emerges Irom
the fallen gall in March.
Neuroterus fumipennis,
Hartig(Fig. 38) [agamous
form of Spathegaster tri-
color] .
Quercus Robur, L. Leaf. Another closely -allied spangle-
gall. It differs from the common species in shape, and in
being smaller and of a more yellowish or cream-colour ; it is
a concave disc, with a small raised knob in the centre. The
accompanying figures of
Fig. 38. Neu)'oteru>i fumiijeniiis
an imaginary section of
each of these three closely-
allied spangle galls will
help in their differentia-
tion. In Fig. 39, a. repre
<^^-^
M,
13.
Fig. 39.
sents N.fumipennis, i3. .V. Iwvmscaliis, and y. N. lenticularis.
lU
The Galls of Essex: a Contribution to a
Fig. 40. Neurotcnis Iceviusculiis.
This species, like its con-
geners, emerges fit'om the
gall in March or April.
Neuroterus l.i:viusculus,
Schenck (Fig. 40 1 [aga-
mous form of Spathe-
GASTER ALBIPES.]
QUERCUS EOBUR, L.
Leaf. This small gall is
attached to the mid or
side ribs of the leaf on
its under side. It is egg-
shaped or oval, smooth,
hairless, yellow or brown-
ish, and often covered with
bright red or purplish
spots ; when matm'e it is
about one -tenth or one-
eighth of an inch in length.
The young gall is enclosed
in a thin membrane, which
splits lengthwise, and the
scar on the leaf- vein is readily observable after the fall of
the mature gall in early autumn. It is single-celled,
with a relatively large cavity ; the gall-fly emerges there-
from in November or December. Neuroterus ostreus,
Hartig (Fig. 41) [agamous form of Spathegaster apri-
LINUS] .
Quercus Eobur, L. Leaf and male flowers. The common
"oak currant" gall is a smooth, sappy, green (fi-equently
more or less red on the catkin specimens), translucent,
spherical gall of about the size of a large pea ; it
occurs on the under side of the leaf (where it is con-
texturate with it above, exhibiting a well-defined, convex,
succulent swelling of the surface) and on the catkins,
generally four or five specimens on a single leaf or
catkin. It has a single larva-cell, which is small; the
gall grows very quickly, and the gall-fly emerges therefrom
Fig. 41. Neuroterus ostreus.
List of the Insect Fauna of the Conntij.
145
in June, just before the catkins fall. Spathegastek baccarum,
Linne. (Fig. 42.)
Fig. 43. Sixitlmi aster tricolor.
Fig. 42. Spathecfaster haccarum.
QuERcus RoBUR, L. Leaf. This gall resembles green
leaf-specimens of the former species
{S. haccarum) in every respect, ex-
cept that its surface is thickly
covered with fine, soft, whitish
hairs. The gall is mature in early
summer, and the gall-fly emerges
therefrom in July and August.
Spathegaster tricolor, Hartig.
(Fig. 43.)
QuERcus EoBUR, L. Leaf. The
small gall of this species occurs at
the margin of the young leaf,
generally near its base. It is
smooth, oval, and yellowish, some-
what resembling a white mustard
seed, except in shape (which is
more oval). The gall, which is
single-celled and thin-walled, is
mature in spring, and the gall- ^..^^^ ^^ Spatlmimter aJhipes.
fly emerges therefrom in June.
Spathegaster albipes, Schenck. (Fig. 44.)
s
146
The Galls of Essex ; a Contrihution to a
Fig. 45. Spathegaster vesicatrix.
QuERcus RoBUR, L. Leaf. This iucouspiciious blister-
gall occurs as a circular swelling of the leaf on both sides.
The mature gall is about
one -eighth of an inch
across, by about one-
twentieth thick, and is
yellow in colour, but is
green, like the leaf, when
immature ; on the upper
side radiate striations are
frequently noticeable. The
gall is mature in spring,
and the gall-fly emerges
therefrom in June. Spathe-
gaster VE SIC ATRix , S chlech -
tendal. (Fig. 45 j.
QuEEcusRoBURjL. Male
flowers. In May and June
we often notice, as it were,
small locks of sheep's wool
in the oak trees, where no
sheep could get. These
are the galls of A. ramuIL
The gall is really a hard,
woody , irregularly- shaped
mass, consisting of many
confluent larva-cells ; but its whole small surface is covered
with this thickly-matted, yellowish-white, woolly growth, so
that the mass is often as large as a walnut or small apple.
The gall is attached to a catkin ; it is mature in June, and is
many-celled, the gall-flies emerging therefrom in June and
July. Andricus ramuli, Linne. (Fig. 46.)
QuERcus RoBUR, L. Male flowers. Small, oviform, rarely
almost spherical, smooth, but more or less deeply ribbed
longitudinally according to their stage of maturity, brown,
greenish-brown or reddish, succulent galls, occurring in some
numbers on a catkin-stem ; they are mostly sessile, but
occasionally have a short footstalk, which rarely is found
Fig. 46. Andricus ramuli.
List of the hisect Fauna of the Comity,
147
considerably leiigtlieiied. The gall is single-celled, and when
mature in June falls with the catkin, hut the gall-tly does
not emerge therefrom until the succeeding spring. Andricus
QUADRiLiNEATus, Hartig. (Fig. 47.)
l"
Fig. 47. Andricu^^ quadriliueatus.
Salix alba, L. Leaf. The bean- shaped galls on the leaf
are very common, and generally well known. They are oval
or bean-sha]3ed, and occur four or five in
a row on each side of the midrib (with
which, however, they have no con-
nection), but sometimes only singly;
the galls are thick and fleshy, projecting
both from the upper and under surface
of the leaf, but more so from the under
side ; here they are generally green or
whitish-green and pubescent, above they
are bright red. Only one larva lives in
a gall, eating the fleshy walls to a mere
shell, when it bites a hole through and
falls to the ground, where it pupates in
a thick brown cocoon. The sawfly ap-
pears in May and September, being
double - brooded. Nematus gallicola,
Westwood. (Fig. 48.)
The galls of this species occur com-
monly on Salic fra(/llis, L. ; those on
S. Caprea, which are similar, but not so Nematus J
/
Fig. 48.
148
The Galls of Essex ; a Contribution to a
\
\
\
A
\
yd
fleshy and thick, probably belong to a closely-allied, but
distinct species.
Salix alba, L. Leaf. The margins
of the leaves are twisted and consider-
ably thickened. This j)seudo-gall is the
work of the larva of Cecidomyia clausilia,
Bremi. (Fig. 49.)
Salix alba, L. Terminal leaves. The
willow " rose-gall" is too well known to
need detailed description, but it is more
than probable that we have t^svo or three
closely-allied species whose respective
galls are not clearly differentiated. The
common form is the well-known tuft of
terminal leaves or leaf-rosette which is
so conspicuous an object at the end of
the twigs of our common pollard and
other willows, especially so on the bare
twigs during winter. The gall consists
of an imbricate mass of shortened, sessile,
and crowded leaves ; in the centre is a
small, hard, inner gall, which contains
one or more larvae of the gall-gnat ; the
larvae pupate within the gall in spring,
and the imagos emerge therefrom in May or June. Ceci-
domyia RosARiA, H. Loew. Similar galls occur on S.J'rwjilis,
S. Caprea, and other w^illows.
Salix Capeea, L. Twigs. More or less globular, woody
swellings of the twigs of this sallow are frequently noticeable :
these are commonly the work of the gall-gnat mentioned
below, but more rarely of a sawfly ; these latter most com-
monly occur on older twigs than the former. More than one
larva occur in the galls ; they pupate therein in thin brown
cocoons in April, and the sawflies emerge therefrom in May
and June. Cryptocampus pentandr.e, Ketzius.
Salix Caprea, L. Twigs. The commonly found hard,
woody, irregular, and variable swellings of the twigs of the
sallow and other willow species are the work of gall-gnats.
Fig. 49.
Cecidomyia clausilia.
List of the Insect Fauna of the County.
149
These galls are multilocular ; the larvae pupate in the gall,
and the images emerge therefrom in May. Cecidomyia
Salicis, Schrank.
Salix Caprea, L. Leaf. Small, hard, pustular galls,
occurring on the side veins of the leaf, often in considerable
numbers ; they are about the size of a small hemp-seed when
single and mature ; are conical in shape, projecting both on
the upper and under side of the leaf; are hard and woody,
and pale greenish in colour. The gall is single-celled, but
we very commonly find large numbers confluent together ;
sometimes the gall takes the form of a much-thickened, hard
midrib, extending the whole length of the leaf, and occupying
half its extent ; often yellowish or red in colour. Such galls
are frequently left attached to the twigs during winter, and
then show the numerous small round holes from which the
larvffi have emerged ; they leave the galls in autumn and
pupate in the earth, the flies appearing in May. Hormomyia
CAPREA, Winnertz.
Salix Caprea, L. Leaf. Eound, hairy, green, rarely
reddish, thin -walled, succulent galls, occurring on the under
side of the leaf, attached only at
one point, and showing as a dis-
coloured spot above. In rare cases
the gall is produced on the upper
side of the leaf, and then is smooth
and rosy. Each gall is tenanted
by a single larva, which eats a
small circular hole through, and
quits it in September ; it pupates
in a cocoon in the earth, and the
sawfly appears in May or June.
Nematus viminalis, Linne. (Fig. 50. )
We probably have other "pea"
gall-makers in the county, but
these closely- allied Nemati and their distinctive galls are but
indiflerently known in this country. The sallow " rosette "
galls are also probably distinct from those above referred to,
as occurring on 8. alba, S. fnujilis, &c.
Fig. 50. Nematus vimiiuiUs.
150 The Galls of Essex; a Contribution to a
PoPULus NIGRA, L. Leaf-stallv. The petioles of the leaves
are swollen iuto pea-sized, hollow galls, which split when
mature, and liberate the aphidious tenants. Pemphigus
BURSARius, Hartig.
PopuLus NIGRA, L. Leaf-stalk. The galls on the petioles
are twisted into a spiral form, and are not so thick and
discoloured as the above-mentioned species. Pemphigus
spiROTHEc^, Koch.
Conifers.
Abies communis, L. Bud. The "pine-apple" galls on our
common spruce are best known in then* old woody condition,
as they remain on the tree for some time after the Aphides
have quitted them.. When fresh the gall resembles a small
green cone, as it consists of a mass of short, fleshy, ovate,
imbricate leaves at the base of a young branch; these enclosed
cavities open when the gall is mature, and liberate the
Aphides in early summer. Adelges Abietis, Linne.
Taxus baccata, L. Terminal leaves. At the end of a branch
we often find a rosette of crowded and somewhat shortened
leaves. The gnat larva lives within the bases of the leaves,
and pupates therein in spring ; the gall-gnats emerge from
the " artichoke" galls in June. Cecidomyia Taxi, Inchbald.
Gr amine JE.
Triticum repens, L. Top shoot. In autumn or winter
we find the imbricate, closely-sheathed leaves of a top shoot
converted into a more or less cylindrical hard gall, which
tapers towards both ends, attaining a length of from one to
one and a half inch. In this country one of the parasitic
Eurytomidffi (Chalcidid^e) has been given as the gall-maker,
which is undoubtedly a Dipteron, and is probably Lonch^ea
parvicornis, Meigen.
TAst of the Insect Fauna of the County. 151
Synopsis of Species.
Part II. Entomological Arrangement.
Hymenoptera. Cynipid^.
Ehodites, Hartig.
R. Eglanteri^, Hart. Gall on Uosa. Common.
R. Rosarum, Gir. Gall on liusa. Generally distributed,
but not common.
R. RoSiE, L. Gall on Rosa. Very common.
AuLAx, Hartig.
A. Glechom^, Hart. Gall on Giechouia. Birdbrook, Burn-
ham, Widford.
A. Rhceadis, Hart. Gall on Papaver lihwas. Hockley.
A. HiERAcn, Bouclie [Sahaudl, Hart.) Gall on Hieracinm,
Steeple Bumpstead, Danbury, Tliundersley.
Xestophanes, Forster.
X. PoTENTiLL^, Vill. Gall on Fotentilla. Danbury, Epping
Forest.
Diastrophus, Hartig.
D. RuBi, Hart. Gall on liuhus. Generally distributed, but
not common.
Andricus, Hartig.
A. GEMM^, L. Gall on Quercus. Common.
A. GLOBULi, Hart. Gall on Quercus. Hadleigli, Hazeleigh,
Hockley, Mundon.
A. iNFLATOR, Hart. Gall on Quercus. Generally distributed,
but not common.
(A. RADicis, Fabr. Gall on Quercus. Maldon, Rayleigli.
iA. NODULi, Hart. Gall on Quercus. Common.
A. SiEBOLDi, Hart. Gall on Quercus. Birdbrook, Maldon,
Rayleigli, Thundersley.
A, coRTicis, L. Gall on Quercus. Maldon, Rayleigh.
152 The Galls of Essea- ; a Contribution to a
(A. coLLARis, Hart. Gall on Qiwrcus. Maldou, Kayleigh.
(a. curvator, Hart. Gall on Qiiercus. Common.
A. AUTUMNALis, L. Gall on Qiiercm. Maldon, Eayleigli.
A. RAMULi, L. Gall on Quercus. Generally distributed, but
not common.
A. cALLrooMA, Gir. Gall on Quercus. Maldon, Rayleigh.
A. soLiTARius, Fonsc. Gall on Quercus. Maldon.
A. QUADRiLiNEATUs, Hart. Gall on Quercus. Loughton,
Maldon, Rayleigh, Woodford.
A. ALBOPUNCTATUs, Schlecht. Gall on Quercus. Maldon,
Rayleigh.
A. osTREus, Gir. Gall on Quercus. Generally distributed,
but not common.
Cynips, Linne.
0. KoLLARi, Hart. Gall on Quercus. Very common.
Trigonaspis, Hartig.
T. MEGAPTERA, Pauz. Gall on Quercus. Epping Forest,
Mundon, Woodham.
T. RENUM, Gir. Gall on Quercus. Birdbrook, Burnham,
Cricksea, Danbury, Maldon, Rayleigh, Widford.
BioRHizA, AVestwood.
jB. TERMiNALis, Fabr. Gall on Quercus. Very common.
iB. APTERA, Fabr. Gall on Quercus. Maldon, Rayleigh.
Dryophanta, Forster.
D. FOLii, L. [scutellaris, Oliv.). Gall on Quercus. Generally
distributed, but not common.
D. DivisA, Hart. Gall on Quercus. Generally distributed,
and common.
D. AGAMA, Hart. Gall on Quercus. Hockley, Maldon.
Neuroterus, Hartig.
(N. lenticularis, Oliv. Gall on Quercus. Very common.
iN. BACCARUM, L. Gall on Quercus, Very common,
List of the Insect Fauna of the Countij. 153
JN. FUMiPENNis, Hart. Gall on Quercus. Common.
(N. tricolor, Hart. Gall on Quercus. Eayleigh.
N. L^viuscuLus, Sclienck. Gall on Quercus. Maldon,
Rayleigh.
^N. ALBiPEs, Sclienck. Gall on Quercus. Maldon.
(N. NUMisMATis, Oliv. Gall on Quercus. Very common.
In. vesicatrix, Sclileclit. Gall on Quercus. Maldon.
Hymenoptera. Tenthredinid^..
Nematus, Jurine.
N. GALLicoLA, Westw. {ValUsnieru, Hart.). Gall on Salix.
Very common.
N. ViMiNALis, L. (pedunculi, Hart.). Gall on Salix. Gene-
rally distributed, but not. common.
Cryptocampus, Hartig.
C. PENTANDR^, Retz. {lueclullarius , Hart.). Gall on Salix.
Maldon.
Lepidoptera. Tineid^.
Laverna, Curtis.
L. DEcoRELLA, Stepli. Gall on Epilobium. Generally distri-
buted, but not common.
DiPTERA. CeCIDOMYID^.
Cecidomyia, Meigen.
C. BURSARiA, Bremi. Gall on Glechoma. Birdbrook, Widford.
C. ? CLAusiLiA, Bremi. Gall on Salix. Maldon.
C. CRATiEGi, Wtz. Gall on Cratcegus. Very common.
C. Galh, H. Loew. Gall on Galium. Birdbrook, Maldon,
Rayleigh.
C. FOLioRUM, H. Loew. Gall on Artemisia. Grays (W. F.
Gwinnell). See ' Proc. Essex Field Club,' ii., pp. xvi., xx.
C. Persicari^e, L. Gall on Poly ijonum. Burnliam, Canewdon,
Cricksea, Maldon ; Canvey, Foulness and Wallasea
Islands.
C. PLicATRix, H. Loew. Gall on Rubus. Maldon.
C. ? Pruni, Kalt, GaXl on Prmius. Maldon.
T
154 The Galls of Essex; a Contribution to a
C. Ranunculi, Bremi. Gall on Ranunculus. Maldon.
C. RosARiA, H. Loew. Gall on Salix. Common.
C. RosARUM, Hardy. Gall on Bosa. Maldon.
C. Salicis, Schrank. Gall on Saliv. Generally distributed,
and common.
C. SiSYMBRii, Schrank. Gall on Barbarea, &c. Birdbrook,
Romford.
C. Taxi, Inclibald. Gall on Taxus. Greensted, Maldon.
C. Trifolii, F. Low. Gall on Trifolium. Maldon.
C. Ulmari^, Bremi. Gall on Spircea. Steeple Bumpstead,
Maldon, Rayleigh, Woodham AValter, Widford.
C. Urtic^, Ferris. Gall on Urtica. Very common.
C. Veronica, Vallot. Gall on Veronica. Birdbrook, Danbury,
Loughton, Maldon.
DiPLosis, Loew.
D. botularia, Wtz. Gall on Fraxinus. Birdbrook, Maldon.
D. Buxi, Lab. Gall on Buxus. Birdbrook.
-D. LoTi, DeGeer. Gall on Lotus, &c. Epping Forest, Maldon.
ASPHONDYLIA, LoeW.
A. PiMPiNELL^, F. Low. Gall on Pinipinella, &c. Maldon.
A. Sarothamni, H. Loew. Gall on Sarothamnus. Brentwood,
Epping Forest, Mountnessing.
HoRMOMYiA, Loew.
H. CAPRE^, wtz. Gall on Salix. Maldon, Rayleigh.
H. CoRNi, Gir. Gall on Cornus. Helions Bumpstead.
H. Fagi, Hart. Gall on Fagus. South Benfleet.
H. MiLLEFOLii, H. Loew. Gall on Achillea. Maldon.
H. piLiGERA, H. Loew. Gall on Fagus. Danbury, Epping
Forest.
Oligotrophus Tanaceticolus, Karsch (possibly H. MUlefolii,
var.). Gall on Tanacetum. Maldon.
Lasioptera, Meigen.
L. RuBi, Heeger. Gall on Biibiis. Birdbrook, Burnham,
Canewdon, Colchester, Maldon, Ongar, Rayleigh, Wid-
ford, Woodham,
List of the Insect Fauna of the County. 155
DiPTERA. MyCETOPHILID^.
SciAKA, Meigen.
S. TiLicoLA, H. Loew. Gall on Tilia. Maldon, Woodham
Mortimer.
DiPTERA. TrYPETID^.
Urophora, Eobinean-Desvoidy.
U. Cardui, L. Gall on Cirskuu. Maldon, Eayleigli, Canvey
and Wallasea Islands.
U. soLSTiTiALis, L. Gall on Centaurea. Birdbrook, Danbury,
Kayleigli.
DiPTERA. MUSCID^.
LoNCH^A, Fallen.
L. PARVicoRNis, Meig. ? Gall on Triticum. Maldon, Eayleigli.
COLEOPTERA. CuRCULIONIDiE.
Ceuthorhynchus, Schonherr.
C. ASSiMiLis, Paykull. Gall on Sinapis. Common.
C. suLcicoLLis, Gyll. Gall on Brassica. Very common.
Gymnetron, Sclionherr.
G. BECCABUNGiE, L. Gall on Veronica. Eainham (T. E. Billups).
MiARus, Schonherr.
M. CAMPANULiE, L. Gall on Campanula. Danbury.
Mecinus, Germar.
M. PYRASTER, Herbst. Gall on Plantago. Eainham (T. E.
Billups).
Hemiptera. Aphidid^.
Brachycolus, Buckton.
B. Stellari^, Hardy. Gall on Stellaria. Maldon.
ScHizoNEURA, Hartig.
S. LANUGINOSA, Hart. Gall on Uhius. Generally distributed,
and common.
156 The Gulls uf Essex.
Pemphigus, Hartig.
P. BURSARius, Hart. Gall on Populus, Generally distributed,
but not common.
P. spiKOTHEC.E, Koch. Gall on Populus. Heybridge, Maldon,
Eayleigli.
Tetraneura, Hartig.
T. Ulmi, DeGeer. Gall on Ulmus. Generally distributed,
but not common.
Adelges, Vallot.
A. Abietis, L. Gall on Abies. Common.
[The whole of the cuts of Oak-galls illustrating this
paper were kindly lent by Messrs. West, Newman & Co.
The Editor is indebted to Miss Ormerod for the cuts of
Cecidomym Ranunculi and Ceutlwrhynchus sulcicolUs. The
remaining blocks were engraved expressly for this paper.
—Ed.]
157
XIV. The Mammalia of Essex ; A Contribution towards
A List of the Fauna of the County.
By Henry Layer, M.R.C.S., F.L.S.
[Read December 17th, 1881.]
The Rev. Richard Lubbock, in commencing his account of
the Fauna of Norfolk, remarks that a sketch of the Mam-
maha of a county " may be comprised within a narrow
compass — species grow gradually scarcer and scarcer. When
we look at the trim fences and high cultivation of great part
of this district (Norfolk), a wide stretch of imagination is
necessary to carry the mind back to days departed, when the
urus, the bear, and the wolf ranged the forest, or traversed
the marsh, pursued by hunters nearly as savage as them-
selves."^ Our own county of Essex was, we are sure, the
home of these same wild animals, the urus, the bear, and the
wolf, and we may also place with them the wild hog, red deer,
and roebuck, as creatures which have been the unfortimate
victims of that rigorous cultivation mentioned above, which
is found to be necessary to the sustenance and happiness of
the higher creature, man. Cultivation and enclosure have
been carried in Essex to greater completion than in most
parts of England, and with the exception of Epping Forest
there is no extensive tract of woodland in the county. Our
wild and predaceous animals have in consequence been
diminished or exterminated, earlier than in more favoured
spots, where forests, mountains, and marsh have protected
them and delayed that extinction which is inevitable before
many years have expired.
It is, I think, a good idea to take stock, if I may be allowed
the expression, of our diminishing fauna before the dying out
of any more of our wild animals occurs ; and in another
1 [' Observations on the Fauna of Norfolk, and more particularly on the
District of the Broads.' By the late Eev. Richard Lubbock, M.A., Rector
of Eccles. Norwich, 1845. New Edition, 1879.— Ed.J
158 The Mammalia of Kssex ; a Contribution towards a
manner it may be useful, by dii-ecting attention to the various
mammals remaining to us, especially as the class Mammalia
is a branch of Natural History the study of which is almost
entirely neglected in this country.
Ask any countryman, or even any well-educated person
living in the country, how many species of mice there are m
Britain, and not one in ten thousand will be able to answer
the question. Even amongst those paying some attention to
Natural History, nearly the same ignorance prevails ; birds,
butterflies, and moths, occupying their interest, generally to
the exclusion of other and equally attractive subjects.
It is not surprising that the beautiful branches of Natural
History are attractive to amateur students, but why is it that
the mammals are so neglected ? It may be that they are not
found everywhere, as are butterflies and birds, and that they
are more difficult to capture and preserve. On the other
hand, these species are not so numerous, and any trouble and
care expended on them will be quite as profitably employed
as in the pursuit of more favoured creatures, for the study of
Nature in her various forms is ever an unfailing source of
pleasure to those whose minds are fortunately endowed with
a taste for enquiry into her laws.
" I am not vain enough to suppose that I can add much to
the zoological knowledge which is yearly becoming more
general amongst us. Yet it is from local Faunas — from notes
made by different observers in various districts as to the
fi'equency or scarcity of species in the counties in which they
reside — that the master naturalist must build up his system
for a nation. The humblest attempt therefore is not without
its portion of utihty." These are the opinions of the Eev.
E. Lubbock, in the preface to his Norfolk Fauna, and the
words must serve as my apology for presenting the following
remarks to my brother naturalists.
The order and classification adopted is that of the authors
of the last edition of Bell's ' British Quadrupeds,' ^ which is
the standard work on the subject.
2 [' A History of British Quadrupeds, including the Cetacea.' By
Thomas Bell, F.E.S., F.Z.S., &g. Second edition, revised by the author,
List of the Fauna of the (Jountij. 159
Cheiroptera. Vespertilionid^. .
ScoTOPHiLus NOCTULA. TliG Great Bat. — This Bat, the
largest of the British Cheiroptera, occurs here commonly.
It is said to have a shorter period of activity than most of
the order, but my experience is, that it comes out of its
winter haunts in March if the season is favourable, and
continues on the wing until late in October ; it is to be seen
flying over the river and this town, and in fact all through
the valley of the Colne, in abundance, until quite the end
of the month, in suitable seasons. The latest period at
which I have obtained a specimen was on the 10th of
November. I never find any other species hybernating
with it ; hollow trees appear to be its favourite resting-places,
but I know a few spots where it may always be found resting
between chimneys and the walls of houses. I think it is
one of our most beautiful bats, the rich brown fur, smoother
and finer than velvet, contrasting well with the black wings.
In flight it is like the swift, rapid and high, and it well
merits Gilbert White's name altivolans. ^
ScoTOPHiLUs pipistrellus. Tlic Common Bat. — This Bat,
a small edition of the noctule, is here, as elsewhere, the
Bobert F. Tomes, and Edward E. Alston. London, 1874. In the original
manuscript Mr. Laver had prefixed short specific diagnoses to his
remarks upon each species, but the Editor has expunged these as being
unnecessary : the generic and specific characters are admirably given in
Bell's work, which should, of course, be in the hands of all students of
our native Mammalia. A considerable amount of information on the
habits and food of some of our mammals will be found in Mr. Harting's
paper on "Forest Animals," ' Transactions,' i. 74. — Ed.]
3 [See 'Natural History of Selborne,' Letters XXIL, XXVL, and
XXXVI. Sir William Jardine remarks : — " The British fauna is indebted
to Wliite for the first notice of this species ; it is locally distributed, and
although not common generally is found in numbers together, so many
as 185 having been taken in one night from the eaves of Queen's College,
Cambridge. It was first described by Daubenton under the name of
' La noctule,^ which name Latinised was afterwards continued, and is
prior to White's name of VespertiUo altivolans, which we regret has not
been retained, as it is so characteristic of the habits of the species."-
—Ed.]
160 The Mammalia of Essex : a Contrllnition towards a
commonest of the order, aiDpearing earlier and retiring later
than any other, and it is the sj)ecies most frequently seen
by day. It is on the wing in mild seasons nearly up to
Christmas, when it finally retires for its winter sleep,
choosing almost invariably holes in and about buildings for
its home. The flight, unlike that of its larger relative, is
low, and well described by its common name, " Flitter
Mouse"; the sheltered sides of buildings or hedges being
favourite hunting-grounds, no doubt in consequence of its
food, gnats and small insects seeking the same protection
fi'om the wind.
Vespertilio Nattereri. Keddish-grey Bat. — This easily
distinguished species is reputed to be rare ; in this district,
however, it is one of our commonest bats. Houses and
buildings are favourite hiding-places in summer ; and in
winter, cellars, caverns (as under Colchester Castle), and
such i^laces, are generally chosen. Occasionally bats are
brought to me late in autumn, drawn up in the buckets of
our deepest wells, and three out of four being of this species
I have good reasons for beheving that the crevices in the
brickwork of the wells are occasionally chosen as hybernacula.
I hear the peculiar note of this bat, during its evening flight,
more fi-equently than any other in the streets and gardens of
Colchester.
V. Daubentonii. Daubenton's Bat. — This also is not a
rare bat in this district. It has one character by which it
may be distinguished easily : the wing membrane extends
only to the distal extremity of the tibia, leaving the foot
free, instead of the membrane being continued to the root of
the toes, as is usually the case in other species. Daubenton's
bat has been well described as an aquatic species ; its habit
of haunting water, either stagnant ponds or running streams,
flitting with rapid vibrations of the wings a very few inches
from the surface, and apparently spending most of its time
of flight there, makes the description " aquatic " a just one.
Their usual habitats when at rest are in buildings. In
winter I find them, as did Yarrell, under our castle at
Colchester. Some that I have endeavoured to keep appeared
List of the Fauna of the County. 161
delicate, and soon died; perhaps they required aquatic
insects, or it may be they could not bear confinement. The
whole family appear equally unfitted for close confinement,
and I find great difficulty in keeping bats alive for any
considerable length of time.
V. MYSTAciNus. Whiskercd Bat. — This, again, is much
more common than is generally believed ; I have no diffi-
culty in finding all that I have required for the purposes of
study. Its flight is very similar to that of the Pipistrelle ;
like that bat it hawks under the shelter of a hedge or row of
trees, and I have no doubt is constantly passed over by those
seeking it as the commoner species. Buildings appear to be
its usual habitat.
Plecotus auritus. Long-eared Bat. — There is no diffi-
culty in distinguishing this common bat : the remarkable
ears, as long as the body, cause it to be unmistakable. There
is no animal in existence, so far as I know, with ears in this
proportion, except a long-eared bat, P. homochnms, which
occurs in the Himalayas, and it is questionable whether this
latter is a true species ; if it is only a variety, then the
animal under consideration is, in respect of ears, unique.
Although the ears are so large, they do not strike one as
being so disproportionate as those of the lop-eared rabbit,
which are really small by comparison. Plecotus auritus is
very common in the Colchester district, and usually has its
haunts in buildings, although I have had them brought me
from liolloAV trees. It is a mild and gentle creature, and not
difficult to tame. It is the bat most frequently caught in
houses, having entered the room by the open window, often
much to the consternation of female members of the
household.
Barbastellus Daubentonii. The Barbastelle. — I have
found this bat early in April flitting slowly, and in an
apparently purposeless manner, near the ground, under
the protection of a plantation ; and this style of flight is one
means by which it may be distinguished. Its dark colour
makes it appear much larger than it really is ; and now that
I have learned to recognise it I do not consider it so rare as
u
162 The Mammalia of Essex ; a Contribution towards a
it is usually believed to be, although I cannot call the
Barbastelle a commou bat. The ears of the preceding
species were remarkable for their size : these for the manner
in which they are united across the forehead of the animal ;
and this is a character which assists us to recognise it, espe-
cially if we bear in mind that this bat's fm- is darker than
that of any other British species. It is very solitary in its
habits, and haunts trees principally. I have never seen it
except away from the towm, and I find it useless to search
for where I have seen it flying the previous night.
Cheiroptera. Ehinolophid^.
Ehinolophus ferrum-equinum. Greater Horse-shoe Bat.
— This bat is stated — in both editions of ' Bell's Quadrupeds,'
and also in ' Cassell's Natural History ' — to occur at Colchester.
I believe that some mistake was made by Yarrell with regard
to the locality of his specimen ; the animal is so distinct in
flight, and so unmistakable in the hand, that I do not think
I am in error in affirming that neither of the horse-shoe bats
occurs in this district. They are plentiful in the western
counties, and I know many places in which I have seen both
species in abundance.
Insectivora. Erinaceid.e.
Erinaceus Europ^us. Hedgehog. — This well-known
animal is common everywhere, in spite of the constant
persecution of game preservers. There can be no doubt it
occasionally helps itself to an egg, or a young partridge or
pheasant ; but its depredations in this respect are quite com-
pensated for by the good it does in destroying grubs, slugs,
and insects. Taken altogether it may be considered as a very
harmless and useful little creature. I know no animal that
so soon becomes tame and familiar when in confinement.
Insectivora. TALPiDiE.
Talpa Europ^a. Common Mole. — This useful animal is
very common in all parts of the county, although in every
district it is subjected to great persecution, as the farmers
List of the Fauna of the County. 163
object to its burrowing and casting up mounds in their
pastures and newly- sown fields. I am not aware of any
other mischief done by this creature in Essex, except, it may
be, that it disarranges and blocks up the land-drains by
burrowing under them. In other parts no doubt considerable
mischief has arisen by this industrious little miner boring
through embankments made to keep out water, necessitating
every means being taken to keep down its numbers. The
hillock which covers the nest of the mole is generally made
in a hedge or wood, but sometimes in the open field ; it may
usually be known by its size being so much greater than the
ordinary "mole-hill." The j^oung are from three to six in
number, and are produced in the spring ; they are born
naked, but grow very rapidly. When young they are able to
fast a considerable time ; 1 have had some brought me alive
that were taken out of the nest the day before, and of course
had been without food for many hours, a privation which
would have been speedily fatal had they been full-grown. I
have purchased of one mole-catcher (who works in company
with his brother) in one season fifteen hundred fresh skins ;
and this will give some idea of the enormous number destroyed
by an able man. There is in this district a family of mole-
catchers, the greatest masters of their art I have ever known :
at any time they will produce living specimens on having a
few hour's notice. Their name is " Watch'em" (watch them),
a nick-name no doubt given them in consequence of their
trade. They are hereditary mole-catchers, the family having
followed this trade for more than 150 years.
Insectivora. HoRicroiE.
SoREx VULGARIS. Couimon Shrew.— The colour of this
animal varies very much, hardly two specimens being of exactly
the same shade. It occurs commonly in all parts of the
county, but is more frequently heard than seen : like all the
rest of the family it is very pugnacious, rarely two meeting
without a fight resulting, and their shrill war shrieks are
often audible in hedge or coppice as evidence of these
encounters,
164 The Mammalia of Essex ; a Contribution toicards a
SoREx PYGM.EUS. LessGi' Slirew. — There can be no doubt
of the specific distinctness of these two shrews {Sorex vuhjaris
and S. p!/!/mcFus), and the most easy character to distinguish
them is the comparative length of tail. I find them both
equally common, either as captured specimens or as dead on
the paths in autumn. The colour of the tips of the teeth is
not an important point, as it varies much with age ; but I
think the hair on the lower parts of S. i)]j()maus will be
generally found to be a clearer white than is the case in
-S'. vuhjaris.
SoREx FODiENs. Water Shrew. — This interesting little
animal occurs in all parts of the county in suitable localities,
usually preferring shallow stagnant waters to quickly running
streams ; but it is found occasionally at some distance from
water. It is amusing to watch its hunting for food in the
half-dry marsh ditches, and I have seen it very commonly
in those about Paglesham and Wallasea Island. It is an
expert swimmer, but seems to prefer running about under-
neath the water, and this it does as freely and with as
great apparent comfort as on dry land, using its long snout
to turn over any substance which may hide its prey. Its food
consists principally of beetles, their larvae, and other insects,
as well as fresh-water Crustaceans.
Sorex TPmifer (the Oared Shrew), formerly considered
distinct, is only a dark specimen of S.fodiens, according to
the latest authorities.
Carnivora. Ursid.e.
Meles taxus. The Badger. — This animal, so well known
to most of us by the accounts we have heard from persons of
a previous generation, is well-nigh extinct in this country,
where fifty years since it was very common : clearance of
woods, diminution of hedges, and excessive game preserving,
are the most effective causes of this extermination ; and
game preserving, as now carried on, will, I fear, not only
blot out the poor badger, but every other animal called
vermin, by ignorant game-keepers and their masters, whether
useful or not. Within the last year two badgers have been
List of the Fauna of the Counti/. 165
taken in the Colchester district, and quite recently one was
caught hetween Colchester and Harwich, at Bentley ; hut
these individuals were, I fear, our last survivors of a race
which gave much sport to our ancestors, or, perhaps we should
say, gave opportunity for the exhibition of much brutality.
In my younger days I saw a few baitings, but it certainly did
not strike me that any great amount of suffering was inflicted
on the badger ; the dogs, especially those new to the work,
gave unmistakable evidence that they did not hke the
badger's jaws.
Carnivora. Mustelid.e.
LuTRA VULGARIS. Couimon otter. — This animal also, in
Essex, is becoming rare, not on account of the value of our
coarse fish on which it lives, but in consequence of the ease
with which it may be taken in a steel trap, and so be made
into a "specimen" to adorn the hall wall, — a horrible
" stuffed" effigy of its former graceful self. It has occa-
sionally appeared lately in the Colne River, close to this
town, and several have unfortunately been destroyed at Ford
Street. It occurs also in the Stour, Chelmer, Blackwater,
and Lea. It is certainly one of our most interesting and
graceful animals when swimming in its native streams. It
is astonishing that so large an animal is able to slip into the
water so quietly, not making half the wake that a rat does ;
but so it is, and anyone who is fortunate enough to see a
mother and family playing in clear water, as I have more
than once, will I am certain agree with me that it is one of
the most interesting sights possible. Otters are usually
nocturnal in their habits, like the rest of the family, and I
have heard an old gentleman say that when the ground was
covered with snow he tracked an otter for miles in its passage
from pond to pond where it had travelled during the night.
This occurred in Dengie hundred, at a time when ponds
containing fish, or at all events eels, were much more common
than now, and when almost every field had its pond.
MusTELA VULGARIS. Comiiion Weasel. — A character suffi-
cient to enable one at a glance to distinguish this animal
from the stoat is afforded in the coloration of the tail, which
166 The Mammalia of Essex ; a Contrihution towards a
is of the same reddish browu tmt as the upper surface of the
body. An additional distinction is found in the usually
smaller size of the weasel, a character, however, which is
not invariable, as I have seen weasels quite the average stoat
size, and full-grown stoats as small as undersized weasels.
This is another of the so-called " vermin," and the weasel is
destroyed whenever met with, — a great mistake, in my
opinion, as its prey consists principally of the smaller
mammals. Its food is not, however, confined to these, as I
have found beetles, lizards, slow-worms, and other small fry
in the stomachs of those I have examined. I believe it is
very rare for the weasel to interfere much with game ; and
even if it did much damage in this respect, it could never
cause half the jealousies, quarrels, and miseries produced by
the excessive preservation of game. In some parts of England
it is, when small, called a " mouse-hunter," and well it
deserves this name. When chasing a mouse it keeps to the
scent as well as the best fox-hound, and seems quite regard-
less of onlookers. I have said " keeps to the scent ; " perhaps
I ought to have said it never passes over the scent, even
when in full gallop. The manner of its chasing a mouse, in
all cases that I have observed, is by making casts diagonally
across the mouse's track ; and this plan of hunting, I have an
idea, is not confined to the weasel. In spite of persecution
this little animal is common in all parts of Essex, on the
marshes especially so ; and there I have found evidences in
casts that it is not unfi-equently eaten by herons.
MusTELA Erminea. The Stoat. — This bloodthirsty, active,
and destructive member of a specially bloodthirsty family,
is very common throughout Essex, persecution on aU sides
appearing to have little infl.uence on its numbers. Its food and
habits are similar to those of the weasel, but I fear I cannot
defend it from the charge of being very destructive to game.
Although mice and such small creatures contribute to its
o
sustenance, still I think the larger mammals, as hares,
rabbits, and rats, are its favourite prey, which it chases by
scent, as most who have lived in the country will have had
opportunities for observing. Hares and rabbits, after being
List of the Fauna of the County. 167
chased for some distance, appear to resign themselves to
their fate without further efforts to escape ; whether they are
paralysed by fear or exhaustion, or both, I am not sure, but
they certainly sit still and allow the little hunter to attack
them without attempting to defend themselves except by
screams. In winter, in this country, I have often observed
the change to white to have occurred, but more frequently
the change is not complete, some red marks still remaining
on the head or shoulders. The number of young is about
four or five, and more playful little creatures than a family
of young stoats it would be difficult to find.
MusTELA puTORius. Tlic Polecat. — This destructive animal,
both to poultry and game, is becoming very rare in Essex, in
many districts being quite extinct, even in spots where a few
years since I remember it as being pretty frequently met
with. There is very little difference in appearance between
the dark ferret and the polecat, and the probability is that
the ferret is simply a domesticated polecat, but domesticated
in a warmer climate than ours ; and this, no doubt, accounts
for the greater susceptibility to cold in the domesticated
animal. A part of this tenderness is doubtless due to the
warmer conditions under which ferrets are reared ; for I
always found my ferrets, which were reared in an open pig-
stye, were not the shivering creatures one usually sees, and
I often observed them tumbling and rolling in the snow
apparently without discomfort. The food of the polecat is
as varied as is that of the other members of this family, and
also includes fish, frogs, and other reptiles, according to some
authorities.
Martes foina. Common Marten. — This very graceful
creature is now I fear extinct in Essex,^ but as it is exclu-
sively nocturnal it may have escaped notice. In its habits it
differs from the other members of this family, they almost
universally confining their hunting manoeuvres to the ground ;
but the marten climbs trees with more than the agility of the
^ [The last recorded Essex specimen of the Marten was killed in
Epping Forest in 1858. See ' Transactions," i. 95. — Ed.]
168 The Mammalia of Essex ; a Contribution towards a
squirrel, and preys principally on birds, which it surprises
when roosting. It also differs in not giving out the disgusting
odour we usually associate with this family, and which has,
amongst our native members, its greatest development in
the polecat. Accounts of captures . of martens are very
unsatisfactory, as we cannot feel sure which of our two native
species (if species they are) is referred to ; but I think the
species under consideration is the one intended by Lubbock
in his ' Fauna of Norfolk,' first published in 1845. He says
" it still is occasionally found in Essex."
Caenivora. Canid^.
VuLPEs vulgaris. Commou Fox. — It is quite unnecessary
to give any specific account of this fortunately common
member of our fauna, as it is so well known by sight to
almost every one. I say " fortunately common," and may it
long remain so, being the object of a sport which does so
much to bring all classes together, encourages the breeding
of horses, trains our young men as fearless riders, and does
not make its votaries selfish and suspicious, as is the case in
shooting, fishing, and most other sports. As far as I know
the pursuit of the fox and its preservation are the causes of
no damage to anything except a little poultry and game ; but
the advantages are so manifest that we must be content to
give these in exchange. So long as there are woods in the
country, and the present condition of agriculture gives no
reason to suppose they will be destroyed, so long will there
be foxes, unless the game preserver takes to using strychnine,
and so destroys the sport of the many for a day or two's
grand battue diuing the year ; but I hope we may never see
this. Many anecdotes are related of the sagacity of this
animal, but I need not go into them, as the fox's cunning is
proverbial.
Carnivora. Phocid^.
Phoca vitulina. Common Seal. — This seal occurs sparingly
on all parts of the coast, but it is not seen every year, and in
fact the seals that have been taken on the Essex shores can
List of the Fauna of the County. 169
only be considered as stragglers. It has been killed in the
Blackwater, in the mouth of the Thames, and elsewhere ; but
one great difficulty and source of error in consulting records
of the capture of Phocidae is that one can rarely be certain
of the species, in consequence of the specimens having seldom
been examined by competent naturalists.
Cystophora cristata. Hooded Seal.— In 1B47 a specimen
of this seal was taken in the Orwell, and is now preserved in
the Ipswich Museum. As the Orwell empties into Harwich
harbour I think we are entitled to place this animal in our
Essex fauna, although its normal habitat is within the
Arctic circle. The above two species are the only seals that
I am able to give as visiting the Essex coast without any
doubt, but I do not see why the Grey Seal {Halichmms gnjphus)
should not occur, as one of its breeding- stations, the Fame
Islands, is on the Northumberland coast ; it is a common
species in the Hebrides and Shetland, and has been taken in
the Isle of Wight.
EODENTIA. SciURID^.
SciURUs VULGARIS. Common Squirrel. — This elegant and
active little animal is so well known that very little need be
said about it. It occurs in all parts of the county in suitable
spots — that is, where there are woods. It is almost omnivorous
in its tastes ; birds' eggs and insects are occasionally eaten,
but vegetables are its main support. In the early spring,
when the beech is coming into leaf, I have noticed as many
as six squirrels busily feeding m one tree on the young shoots,
biting off and throwing down the leaves, and only consuming
the stalk — that is, the young branch. In the autumn I have
seen squirrels strip off the loose bark from dead branches,
and carefully scrape out with their teeth the fangus fre-
quently found in such situations. Whenever I have seen
this going on I have noticed the position adopted for feeding
is not the usual one ; instead of sitting on its haunches, the
squirrel almost invariably hangs head downwards. It is
said to hybernate, but I much question whether it does so
as a rule. It may occasionally take a prolonged sleep, but
X
170 Tlie Mammalia of Essex ; a Contrihutioji towards a
I never knew the weather so cold that I could not find a
squirrel on the move, if it were properly looked for.
EODENTIA. MyoXID.E.
Myoxus ayellanarius. Dormouse. — The Dormouse occurs
in those parts of Essex where oaks and nuts flourish, and
where there is sufficient woodland or overgrown hedges to
protect it. It was formerly very common on the roadside
at Berechurch, but after the severe winter of 1860 the
numbers were greatly diminished. I found many nests in
the bushes with dead occupants. This creature is one of
the best examples of a hybernating quadruped in this country,
and as a rule I think the winter sleep is taken underground,
the bush nest not being used for that purpose ; at all events
in many instances I find them deserted. If the mouse is
disturbed in its bush nest, it is extraordinarily quick in its
movements amongst the boughs, making a great contrast to
the apparently stupid sluggish creature one usually sees in
confinement. The food of Dormice is very similar to that of
squirrels, but I have occasionally taken them devouring the
'* sugar " I had placed on tree trunks for the purpose of
attracting moths at night.
EODENTIA. MuRm.E.
Mus MiNUTus. Harvest Mouse. — This very beautiful and
active little creature occurs in all parts of Essex, in the
winter time being found in corn-stacks, especially those
placed in the fields, and I think most fi-equently in oat-ricks.
I never discovered more than a dozen in one rick, although
others have informed me that they have been found abun-
dantly in such situations. As a pet it is very interesting,
and rarely quiet day or night. They are very peaceable all
through the winter, and any number may be kept together,
but in the spring fighting goes on until all, or nearly aU, the
males are destroyed and eaten, for they are dreadful cannibals.
But on the whole I can strongly recommend them as pets;
they are sweet, not at all mousy in odour, and very amusing
in their ways. The longest time I have had them in con-
List of the Fauna of the County. Ill
tineinent is over two years, but I never could make tliem so
tame as my pets of the next species [Mm sulcatirus).
In-doors they do not become torpid, nor when living in corn-
ricks. I have never found any young in corn-ricks, although
they are said to breed there, and I consider their breeding-
season is entirely confined to the summer months. This
habit perhaps helps to prevent them becoming the pests
some of the other mice undoubtedly are to the farmer and
gardener.^
Mus sYLVATicus. Wood Mouse.— This gentle little creature
and delightful home pet is one of the most destructive of its
race; in fields, gardens, or plantations, uewly sown peas or
corn, or recently planted bulbs or shrubs, are especial objects
of its attention. It is rarely found in houses, barns, or ricks,
preferring much the shelter of a hedgerow or wood. I
generally have some of these mice in confinement, and they
are very friendly one with the other, so that as many as you
please may be kept together, even if they are quite strangers.
This herding together seems natural to the Wood Mouse,
fourteen or fifteen, and even more, may sometimes be dug out
of one burrow. They seem also to work together in storing
provisions, the bunches of growing barley or other corn
showing plainly where the storehouse has been ; but nothnig
in the way of vegetable food seems to come amiss to this
very abundant mouse. Albinos are occasionally taken, and
the colour of different specimens varies considerably in shades
of red. Of all our native mice this is most easily tamed ;
an occasional specimen is m.ore than usually h'iendly, and
may be made to come into the hand within a month of
capture. I have never succeeded in rearing the young of
either this or the harvest mouse in confinement.
5 [This little animal, with the exception of Sorexjnjgmceus, the smallest
British mammal, was first noticed as an inhabitant of this country by
Gilbert Wliite (Letters X. and XII.) He gave Pennant a description of
the tiny nest in his own inimitable style, and adds, " This wonderful pro-
creant cradle, an elegant instance of the efforts of instinct, was found in
£t wheat-field suspended in the head of a thistle."— En.]
172 The Mammalia of Essex ; a ContHhation towards a
Mus MuscuLus. Common Mouse. — Who does not know
this foul- smelling, but nevertheless pretty little beast? It
abounds everywhere, n,nd has followed man to all parts
of the world. Houses, buildings, and corn-ricks are its
favourite haunts, and it does not occur in this country
except in their vicinity. Its original home certainly was
not in Britain.
Mus RATTUs. Black Rat. — This, our oldest rat, was
abundant before the advent of the Brown Rat, called by
Walton and others the " Hanoverian." It is now almost
extinct, but still occurs about the docks and East End of
London. These may not be native examples, and probably
the race is kej^t up by escapes from the vessels in the docks
in the neighbourhood. The Black Rat is easily known from
the Hanoverian Rat by the slenderness and length of the
tail, and by the mouth appearing to be so far under the nose.
In habits and feeding there is much in common between the
two species, but yius rattus in buildings confines itself to the
upper parts and roof, and Mus decmnanus to the basements
and drains.
Mus DEcuMANUs. Hanovcriau or Norway Rat. — This pest,
although placed amongst our native animals, did not make
its appearance in England until the earlier part of the
eighteenth century, doubtless brought hither by means of
merchant vessels from some southern country. Pennant
says from the East Indies,^ and he remarks with prophetical
intuition, " It has quite extirpated the common kind [Mus
rattus) wherever it has taken- up its residence ; and it is to
be feared that we shall scarcely find any benefit by the change
— the Norway rat having the same disposition, with greater
abilities for doing mischief than the common kind." At the
time when the name " Norway Rat " was applied to it, it was
not known in Norwav at all. It was called the " Hanoverian
^ [" I suspect that this rat came in ships originally from the East
Indies ; a lai'ge brown species being found there called IkDidicotei^, which
burrows underground. Barbot (Churchill's Coll. Voy. 214) also mentions
a species inhabiting the fields in Guinea, and probably the same with
this." Pennant, ' British Zoology,' i. 117, (4th Edition, 177G.)— Ed.]
List of the Fauna of the County. 173
Rat " from its having arrived in this country about the same
time as the Hanoverian Sovereign ; no doubt this was a
witticism of our Jacobin fellow-countrymen. Its fecundity,
cunning, and omnivorous habits enable it to defy all efforts
made to extirpate it, and the destruction wrought by game-
preservers on so-called vermin, by getting rid of its natural
enemies, is a great help to its continuous abundance in many
districts. In the light soils of this neighbourhood (Colchester)
every hedge has its colony, especially where game -preserving
is carried out. There are few animals that fight more des-
perately for life when driven into a corner ; all fear seems
entirely to have forsaken the unfortunate beast, which
appears determined to sell its life as dearly as possible, and
few of its natural enemies will attack the Hanoverian Rat
under these circumstances. I never saw cats even attempt
it, they preferring to seize the rat whilst running ; and
almost every cat has its own peculiar method of doing so.
One I remember, always with her foot turned the rat over
on its back, caught it by the throat, and at the same time
fell on her side and gave one violent kick ; the result was
immediate death to the unfortunate rat. Other cats throw
them over their heads after having bitten them through the
heart, and others again simply hold them in their mouths
until the rats are dead. But in what way soever the cat
seizes them she always takes care to avoid their formidable
incisor teeth, and at the same time drives her canines into
some vital spot. The town rat is very cautious and most
difficult to trap, and his country cousin quickly takes
warning after a few have been caught, and most adroitly
avoids all snares and gins in the future.
RODENTIA. ArVICOLID^.
Arvicola amphibius. Water Rat. — Bell, quoting Water-
house, says, " The animals comprising this family (Arvicolidae)
have all the essential characters of the Murida), but differ in
having rootless molars and in the form of the lower jaw."
There are other characters given, but rootless molars seem
174 The Mammalia of Essex ; a Contribution towards a
the great and easily distinguishing feature separating
Muridfe and ArvicoUdae. The Water Kat, for its size and
numbers, does less damage to man than any other member
of the family, its prmcipal food being aquatic vegetables,
and it only takes what man can well spare. Occasionally,
when they are abundant and the weather is severe, they do
a little mischief to osier beds, but the injury they inflict
on the farmer is so small as not to be worth consideration.
The little animal is common in all parts of Essex, wherever
there are sluggish streams or stagnant water in sufficient
quantity to hide it. It will be well to bear in mind that it is
sometimes quite black in colour, and has been described (by
Macgillivray, ' Nat. Lib.' xvii. 257) under the name of
Arvicola ater, but this is merely a variety. This dark variety
has occasionally been mistaken for the old English Black Rat
(Musrattus), and many of the supposed appearances of the
latter animal can thus be explained.
Arvicola agrestis. Common Field Vole. — Bell says that
A. agrestis may always be distinguished by the character of
its second upper molar, which has five cemental spaces,
whereas the same tooth in A. arvalis (which has not yet been
found in Britain), as in all the other European voles, presents
four spaces. This vole abounds sometimes to such an extent
as entirely to destroy the herbage, and from the quantity it
consumes (in confinement I have known one eat six drachms
of clover in twenty-four houi-s) one can quite understand
the devastation caused by it when existing in numbers. Not
only is herbage eaten, but, according to Bell, " many years
since the plantations of young oaks in New and Dean
Forests were destroyed." Its insatiable appetite compels it
to be abroad at all seasons of the year and all hours of the
day, but I have noticed those I have kept in confinement to
be more active towards and during the evening. I never
could make them very tame, and they appeared to me to be
rather stupid. The nest is usually placed amongst the roots
of the grass, sometimes under fallen timber. The young are
from four to six in number, and there are generally three or
four broods in a year. Weasels, owls, and kestrels are their
List of the Fauna of the County. 175
greatest enemies, the Short-eared Owl [Otus brachyotos)
being a great destroyer of them.^
Arvicola glareolus. Ked Field Vole or Bank Vole. — This
vole is by no means common in Essex, according to my
experience, although the first recorded specimen as British
was described by Yarrell from an Essex example ( ' Proc.
Zool. Soc' 1832). I have seen a specimen from West
Bergholt and another from Layer-de-la-Hay, and I daresay
more might be found if observers would carefully examine
those voles they meet with. The habits of A. ylareolus
appear to be similar to A. ayrestis, but I think they are never
found in such damp situations as the Field Vole. The only
character to be entirely depended on to distinguish them is
in the teeth. Colour, length of tail, and brush at the end of
tail are uncertain marks in such a variable family, so that I
would advise no one to trust any of these singly in the
identification of specimens.
RODENTIA. LePORID^E.
Lepus timidus. Common Hare. — I shall say little about
this animal, as it must be so well known to everyone. It
occurs in all parts of the county, and is, from its manner of
feeding, a great pest to the corn-grower and gardener. Hares
vary much in weight : in this county from seven pounds to
^ [A passage occurs in the last edition of Yarrell's ' British Birds '
which illustrates these observations of Mr. Laver. Speaking of the
Short-eared Owl, the author remarks (Vol. i., 165) : — " But undoubtedly
tield-mice, and especially those of the short-tailed group, or voles, are its
chief objects of prey, and when these animals increase in an extraordinary
and unaccountable way, as they sometimes do, so as to become extremely
mischievous, owls, particularly of this species, flock to devour them.
Thus there are records of " a sore plague of strange mice " in Kent and
Essex in the year 1580 or 1581, and again in the county last mentioned
in 1648. In 1754 the same thing is said to have occurred in Hilgay, near
Downham Market, in Norfolk, while within the present century the Forest
of Dean, in Grloucestershire, and some parts of Scotland, have been simi-
larly infested. In all these cases owls are mentioned as thronging to the
spot and rendering the greatest service in extirpating the pests." ' History
of British Birds,' by William Yanell. 4th Edition. London, 1872.— En.]
176 The Mammalia of Essex ; a Contribution towards a
eight pounds is the average, but I once saw a female turn the
scale at ten pounds and a half.
Lepus cuniculus. The Rabbit. — This destructive creature
is veiy common in all parts of Essex, and requires little
to be said about it ; its food, habits, and appearance being
familiar to all dwellers in the country. But it may not
be so well known that occasionally specimens occur which
in colour are quite black, and this without, as I believe,
any admixture of tame blood.
RUMINANTIA. CER^^DiE.
Cervus elephas. Red Deer or Stag. — I fear this beau-
tiful animal must be considered extinct in this county,
unless there should be a lingerer in Epping Forest, where
Bell in his ' British Quadrupeds ' says a few were found down
to the present century.^
Cervus dama. Fallow Deer. — This animal was very early
introduced into Britain, of which it is not therefore a
true native ; but as it exists in many parks in this county
in a semi-domesticated condition, I have thought fit to
introduce it into the list of our fauna. I see occasional
mention of deer in Epping Forest ; this species is the one
probably meant. It is to be hoped that the managers of
this lovely haunt of the Londoners will take steps to protect
the few there, and so add to the attractions of the woods. ^
Cetacea.
The order Cetacea is one of the most difficult divisions of
Mammalia for practical study, especially for naturalists who
8 [Eed Deer existed in Epping Forest as late as the year 1827. See
' Proceedings,' i. xlvii. — Ed.]
9 [The Fallow Deer still lives in the Forest in a wild state in very con-
considerable numbers, and the specimens exhibit abnormal characters,
perhaps tlie result of long isolation and inter-breeding. Mr. Harting is
studying the subject, and he has promised to bring it before the Club at
no very distant date. — Ed.]
List of the Fauna of the Count ij. Ill
are not able to make excursions to those seas where the
different forms are most common. The discrimination of
species is rendered additionally puzzling in consequence of
each author on the subject adopting a classification and
nomenclature of his own, or at all events giving names to
varieties which other students may consider to belong to the
typical species. In the foregoing orders of Mammalia I
have been able to give the results of my own observations,
but here, of course, I must depend on records only, and shall
claim as belonging to our Essex fauna any cetaceans taken
in our rivers or on our coasts. Many of these records
are quite useless from the want of a correct description of
the animal. The terms "Bottle-nose," "Fin-back," and so
on, being evidently often very loosely and inaccurately
applied, and of no assistance in identifying the true name of
the captures, I have been obliged to pass over many observa-
tions from inability to recognise the species recorded. As
might be expected from its size, the Eiver Thames appears to
have been very productive in species, and the records are the
more valuable as the species have generally been identified
by competent naturalists, as a result of the ease of access to
London.
MySTACOCETI. BAL^NOPTEKro^.
Bal^enoptera musculus. The Eorqual. — This whale, one
of the largest animals, has occurred on our coasts several
times. One was taken in the Thames in May, 1859 ; and in
the ' Zoologist' for 1849, p. 2620, is recorded the capture of
a " finner whale" at Grays, of the length of 58 feet, and a
girth of 30 feet : judging by these dimensions it was probably
an example of this species.
B. EOSTRATA. Lcsscr Eorqual. — This is one of the best
marked and most easily distinguished species of the family,
and at the same time one of the most common on our coasts.
It has occurred in the Thames several times, John Hunter
describing, in the ' Philosophical Transactions' for 1787, one
from this river ; another was also recorded and figured in the
' Zoologist ' for 1843, p. 33, and is now preserved in the British
Museum.
y
178 The Mammalia of Essex : a Contribution towards a
Odontoceti. Physeterid^.
Physeter macrocephalus. Sperm Whale. — This troi^ical
whale has occasionally wandered to the shores of this island ;
and it is recorded that in 1788 six were found dead on the
Kentish coast, and a live one ran ashore in the Thames at
the same time. Dale also mentions one caught in the
Thames, and hrought ashore at Blackwall.
Hyperoodon rostratus. Common Beaked Whale. — This is
the best known s^Decies of the family of ziphioid whales,
which are distinguished by possessing one or two pairs of
teeth, situated in the lower jaw only. It appears to come
into British waters regularly in the autumn, and specimens
are killed almost every year on some parts of the coasts of
this island. John Hunter records one captured m the
Thames above London Bridge in 1783 ; and another, no
doubt of this species, is figured in Dale's 'History of Harwich
and Dovercourt,' as having been captured in the Blackwater
estuary.
Odontoceti. Delphinid^.
Orca gladiator. Grampus. — John Hunter records the cap-
ture of three specimens of this savage and destructive animal
in the River Thames towards the end of the last century ; and
in the British Museum is the skull of a specimen taken on
the Essex coast, as recorded in the 'Zoologist' for 1873,
p. 3429. Some years since I saw two whales, which had been
killed in one of the creeks of the Blackwater, which I have
no doubt were of this species, but no record was kept of them,
and I do not recollect what became of their bones ; probably,
as usual, they went for manure.
Phocena communis. Porpoise. — Who does not know this
merry and active creature ? It occurs everywhere on our
coasts, and is as frequently seen during stormy weather as at
any other time, apparently revelling in the tempestuous
waters. It is so common that I have not thought it necessary
to give any records of capture.
Delphinus delphis. Common Dophin. — I have not been
able to find a record of the occurrence of this common
List of the Fauna of the Countij. 179
cetacean on any part of our Essex coast; but I feel certain
that it ought to be in our list. Perhaps someone with better
opportunities than myself will be able to give an instance of
its capture.
D. TURsio. Bottle-nosed Dolphin. — This generally reputed
rare animal has occurred twice within my own observation.
One occurred a few years since off Harwich, the specimen
being about 10 feet long ; and the other was shot in the
Colne a few months since, as I recorded in the ' Zoologist'
for 1882, p. 147. This specimen, like the last, was a female,
and was about 8 feet long. In 1829 one was taken in the
Thames below the Nore, and its skeleton is in the museum of
the College of Surgeons. In most of the drawings of the skull
of this animal the teeth are represented as truncated ; this is
no doubt the result of wear, and is incidental to age ; but in
both those individuals examined by me the teeth were sharp,
and slighly directed inwards and backwards. The stomachs,
in both cases, were empty, except that they contained a large
number of the ear-bones (otoliths) of the Gadida3 : I recog-
nised those of cod, haddock, and whiting. I fancy this is one
of the most easy to kill of the family ; I have known one
caught by a cod-hook m the lip and killed ; and the one in
the Colne succumbed to a charge of small shot.
From the above list it will be seen that I claim for Essex
a total ^ forty mammals, besides the three doubtful ones, —
the common marten [Mustela foina), grey seal {HaUchcerus
gryphus), and red deer {Cervus elej^has). There are probably
some other members of the order Cetacea which ought to be
included in this Catalogue.
Those I have mentioned belong to the following orders : —
Cheiroptera . . . . 7 species.
Insectivora
Carnivora .
rodentia
ruminantia
Cetacea
5
8
12
1
1
40
>>
180 The Mammalia of Essex.
I have had no opportunity for comparing a list of the
Faunas of the adjoining counties, excepting that of Norfolk,
by the Kev. Richard Lubbock, published in 1845, and he
records only thirty-four mammals ; but the authors of the
last edition of Bell's 'British Quadrupeds' describe a total of
seventy-three as occurring in the British Islands. Consider-
ing the cultivated and enclosed condition of many parts of
Essex, I think the catalogue of forty mammals compares
very well with the list for the whole of Britain, especially
when we remember that several cetaceans and seals are in
all probability only absent by reason of deficient observation,
and may be eventually recorded as members of the Essex
Fauna when more attention is paid to the scientific study of
our Mammalia.
181
XV. A Preliminary List of the Hymenomycetal Fungi of
Epping Forest ; A Contribution to the Botany of the
County.
By M. C. Cooke, M.A., LL.D., A.L.S., &c., and
James L. English.
[Kead November 26th arid December 17th, 1881.]
[This list of the Fungi of the family Hymenomycetes,
occurring within the Forest Districts, is intended only as a
prodromus of the more extended and exhaustive catalogue to
which we may look forward as the result of the persevering
labours of our botanical members and others. It enumerates
all the species of the family (338 in number) yet identified
with certainty as growing within the prescribed district,
which lies on both sides of the line separating Provinces I.
and 11. of Professor Boulger's sketch map of the County
(Plate VI.). The hst has been compiled by Dr. Cooke [" C."]
from his notes of personal visits to the Forest, and from
materials furnished as the result of many years' observation
by Mr. English, of Epping [" E."] , with the addition of a
few species noted by Mr. Worthington G. Smith. The
indication of precise localities is purposely avoided, as being
almost useless ; fungi are very capricious and evanescent in
their places of growth, slight local changes often resulting in
the appearance of species in new stations, or in the destruction
of old and well-known habitats. The word "Epping" ap-
pended to Mr. English's records must be taken with rather a
wide interpretation : it includes the woods near the town of
that name, with Monk Woods, Theydon Woods, &c.,— in
short, the northern section of Epping Forest.
The list will doubtless be considerably extended as the
Cryptogamic flora of Essex is more thoroughly investigated;
but it is thought best to print it as it stands, to serve as an
indication of the riches of the Forest, and as a guide to
182
Prelwiinary List of the Hymenomycetal
visitors at our " Fungus Forays." Supplemental lists will
be published from time to time as materials accumulate, and
authenticated records of new gatherings will always be
gladly received by the Editor for that purpose.
Most of the species mentioned are described in Dr. Cooke's
'Handbook of British Fungi' (1871) or in the volumes of
' Grevillea' (1872 et seq.), and coloured figures of many are
given in the latter periodical and in Cooke's ' Illustrations of
British Fungi' now in course of publication. — Ed.]
Agaricus (Amanita) Phalloides, Fr. Common (C.)
Mappa, Fr. Epping (E.)
VERNUS, Fr. Highbeach (C.)
MuscARius, Fr. Monks Wood (C.)
PANTHERiNus, Fr. Higlibeacli (C.)
ExcELsus, Fr. Monks Wood (C.)
RUBESCENS, Fr. Commou (C.)
VAGINATUS, Fr. Common (C.)
STRANGULATus, Fr. (W. G. Smith.)
Agaricus (Lepiota) procerus, Fr. Loughton (C.)
RHAcoDES, Fr. Epping (E.)
ExcoRiATUs, Schseff. Epping (E.)
AcuTESQUAMosus, Wm. Epping (E.)
cRisTATus, Fr. Eppmg (E.)
,, GRANULOSUS, Fr. Common (C.)
Agaricus (Armillaria) melleus, Fr. Common (C.)
,, MuciDus, Fr. Highbeach (C.)
Agaricus (Tricholoma) sejunctus, Sow. Highbeach (C.)
GAMBosus, Fr. Epping (E.)
nictitans, Fr. (W. G. Smith.)
GRAMMOPODius, Bull. Epping (E.)
FULVELLUS, Fr. (W. G. Smith.)
ACERBUS, Fr. Epping (E.)
usTALis, Fr. Monks Wood (C.)
CoLUMBETTA, Fr. Eppiiig (E.)
civiLis, Fr. Epping (C.)
VAcciNus, Fr. Epping (E.)
FLAVOBRUNNEUS, Fr. Moiiks Wood (C.)
5J
JJ
>>
>J
)}
J>
J>
J>
>>
Funiii of l^ppimi Forest. 183
Agaricus (Tricholoma) albobrunneus, Fr. Epping (E.)
TERREUS, Fr. Epping, &c. (C.)
RUTiLANs, Scliseff. Eppiiig (E.)
SAPONACEUs, Fr. Monks Wood (C.)
CARNEUS, Fr. Epping (E.)
RESPLENDENS, Fr. Epping (E.)
iMBRicATUs, Fr. Epping (E.)
PERSONATUS, Fr. Epping (E.)
NUDUS, Fr. Lougliton (C.)
,, suBPUL\rERULENTUs, Fr. Epping (E.)
Agaricus (Clitocybe) infundibuliformis, Fr. Common (C.)
CYATmFORMis, Fr. Epping (E.)
FLACciDus, Sow. Highbeacli (C.)
nebularis, Fr. Epping (E.)
ericetorum, Fr. Lougliton (C.)
maximus, Fr. Epping (E.)
FUMosus, Fr. Epping (E.)
dealbatus, Fr. Epping (E.)
BRUMALis, Fr. Highbeacli (C.)
metachrous, Fr. Epping (E.)
BELLus, Fr. Lougliton (C.)
ODORUS, Fr. Epping (E.)
LACcATus, Fr. Common (C.)
PHYLLOPHiLus, Fr. Eppiiig (E.)
ELixus, Sow. Epping (C.)
Agaricus (Collybia) radicatus, Fr. Common (C.)
VELUTIPES, Fr. Highbeacli (C.)
FusiPES, Bull. Lougliton (C.)
MACULATUS, Fr. Higlibcach (C.)
BUTYRACEus, Fr. Moiilvs Wood (C.)
ciRRHATUs, Schum. Lougliton (C.)
TUBERosus, Bull. Moiiks Wood (C.)
MUsciGENus, Fr. Highbeacli (C.)
DRYOPHILUS, Bull. Louglltoil (C.)
Agaricus (Mycena) purus, P. Lougliton (C.)
GALERicuLATUs, Scop. Comiiion (C.)
POLYGRAMMUS, Bull. LoUglltOU (C.)
LACTEUs, Pers. Epping (E.)
>5
i t
>)
>J
J>
)5
5>
>J
55
55
55
55
55
55
55
55
55
55
55
55
55
55
55
55
55
J)
J>
184 Preliminanj List of the Hymenomycetal
Agaricus (Mycena) elegans, Fr. Loughton (C.)
ALCALiNUs, Fr. Loughton (C.)
GALOPUS, Fr. Eppiug (E.)
EPiPTERYGius, Scop. Lougliton (C.)
Agaricus (Omphalia) Fibula, Fr. Loughton (C.)
,, PYxiDATUs, Bull. Eppmg (E.)
Agaricus (Pleurotus) spongiosus, Fr. Eppmg (C.)
DRYiNUS, Fr. Eppmg (E.)
osTREATus, Fr. Eppmg (E.)
pETALoiDEs, Bull. Eppmg (E.)
cmoNEUs, Pers. E^Dprng (E.)
Agaricus (Annularia) cretaceus, Ph. Eppmg (E.)
Agaricus (Pluteus) cervinus, Fr. Loughton (C.)
,, uMBROSus, Fr. Epping (E.)
Agaricus (Entoloma) prunuloides, Fr. Monks Wood (C.)
RHODOPOLius, Fr. Epping (E.)
siNUATUs, Fr. Loughton (C.)
sericeus, Fr. Highheach (C.)
GRisEo-CYANEus, Fr. Epping (E.)
NrooRosus, Fr. Monks "Wood (C.)
Agaricus (Clitopilus) prunulus, Fr. Epping (C.)
,, ORCELLA, Fr. Epping (E.)
Agaricus (Nolanea) pascuus, Fr. Loughton (C.)
,, piscioDORUs, Fr. Epping (E.)
Agaricus (Claudopus) variabilis, Fr. Loughton (C.)
,, EuosMus, Fr. Epping (E.)
Agaricus (Pholiota) squarrosus, Fr. Epping (C.)
radicosus, Bull. Epping (E.)
ADiposus, Fr. Epping (E.)
spectabilis, Fr. Epping (E.)
MUTABiLis, Schaeff. Epping (E.)
Agaricus (Inocybe) geophyllus, Fr. Common (C.)
,, RiMOSus, Bull. Epping (E.)
,, PYRioDORUs, Pers. Epping (E.)
Agaricus (Hebeloma) fastibilis, Fr. Epping (E.)
Agaricus (Flammula) decipiens, Sm. Epping (C.)
spUAiosus, Fr. Epping (C.)
GUMMosus, Fr. Epping (E.)
>»
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
Fungi of Epping Forest. 185
Agaricus (Flammula) carbonarius, Fr. Epping (E.)
„ ALNicoLA, Fr. Epping (C.)
,, HYBRiDus, Fr. Epping (C,)
Agaricus (Naucoria) semiorbicularis, Bull. Loughton (C.)
,, MELiNoiDES, Biill. Highbeach (C.)
Agaricus (Galera) tener, Schseff. Common (C.)
,, ovALis, Fr. Highbeach (C.)
,, HYPNORUM, Batsch. Loughton (C.)
Agaricus (Tubaria) furfuraceus, P. Epping (E.)
Agaricus (Psalliota) campestris, L. Epping (C.)
,, pratensis, Schseff. Epping (E.)
,, iNUNCTUs, Fr. Epping (C.)
Agaricus (Stropharia) jeruginosus, Curt. Loughton (C.)
WoRTmNGTONii, Fr. Highbeach, Ep-
ping (C.)
oBTURATus, Fr. Eppiiig (E.)
SQUAMosus, Fr. Loughton (C.)
semiglobatus, Batsch. Common (C.)
Agaricus (Hypholoma) sublateritius, Schseff. Common (C.)
FAscicuLARis, Huds. Common (C.)
UDus, P. Loughton (C.)
STOREA, Fr. Epping (C.)
lacrymabundus, Fr. Loughton (C.)
APPENDICULATUS, Fr. Louglltoil (C.)
Agaricus (Psilocybe) eric^us, P. Loughton (C.)
SEMiLANCEATUS, Fr. Commou (C.)
sPADicEus, Fr. Common (C.)
FcENiSEcii, Fr. Common (C.)
Agaricus (Psathyra) conopileus, Fr. Loughton (C.)
Agaricus (Pan^olus) separatus, Fr. Monks Wood (C.)
,, FiMiPUTRis, Fr. Loughton (C.)
RETiRUGis, Fr. Loughton (C.)
CAMPANULATUS, Fr. LoUglltOU (C.)
spmNCTRiNus, Fr. Monks Wood (C.)
Agaricus (Psathyrella) disseminatus, Fr. Loughton (C.)
COPRINUS ATRAMENTARIUS, Fr. LoUghton (C.)
„ coMATUs, Fr. Epping (E.)
„ ovATUS, Fr. E^Dping (E.)
>>
55
55
55
5)
55
55
55
z
>>
J5
186 Preliminary List of the Hymenomycetal
CoPRiNus NivEus, Fi. Common (C.)
MicACEUs, Fr. Common (C.)
DELiQUEscENs, Fr. Epping (E.)
picACEUs, Fr. Hainault Forest (C.)
ARATus, B. & Br. Monks Wood (C.)
PLicATiLis, Fr. Epping (E.)
RADiATus, Fr. Loughton (C.)
CoRTiNARius (Phleg.) laegus, Fr. Loughton (C.)
PURPURASCENS, Fr. Higlibeacli (C.)
decoloratus, Fr. Epping (C,)
GLAucopus, Fr. Higbbeacli (C.)
CoRTiNARius (Myx) elatior, Fr. Common (C.)
RiEDERi, Fr. Loughton (C.)
coLLiNiTus, Fr. Epping (E.)
CoRTiNARius (Ino) alboviolascens, Fr. Highbeach (C.)
,, vioLACEUs, Fr. Epping (E.)
,, SOLARIS, Fr. Epping (E.)
CoRTiNARius (Derm.) ochroleucus, Fr. High Beach (C.)
TABULARis, Fr. Epping (E.)
ORELLANUS, Fr. Eppiug (E.)
ANOMALus, Fr. Epping (E.)
DEcuMBENs, Fr. Eppiug (C.)
SANGUINEUS, Fr. Epping (E.)
ciNNABARiNus, Fr. Mouks Wood (C.)
,, ciNNAMOMEUs, Fr. Mouks Wood (C.)
CoRTiNARius (Telam.) hinnuleus, Fr. Epping (E.)
CoRTiNARius (Hyd.) decipiens, Fr. Loughton (C.)
,, RiGENS, Fr. Epping (E.)
Paxillus involutus, Fr. Common (C.)
Hygrophorus eburneus, Fr. Highbeach (C.)
Gossus, Fr. Monks Wood (C.)
L^Tus, Fr. ( Houghto7ii, B.) Loughton (C.)
pRATENSis, Fr. Epping (E.)
viRGiNEUs, Fr. Epping (E.)
CoLEMANNiANUs, Blox. Epping (E.)
CERACEus, Fr. Epping (E.)
cocciNEus, Fr. Epping (E.)
GONicus, Fr. Epping (E.)
>>
Fungi of Eppim/ Forest. 187
Hygrophorus psittacinus, Fr. Epping (E.)
,, CHRYSODON, Fr. Mouks AVood (C.)
,, MiNiATUs, Fr. Monks Wood (C.)
GOMPHIDIUS GLUTINOSUS, Fr. Eppiiig (E.)
Lactarius blennius, Fr. Monks Wood (C.)
TORMiNosus, Fr. Epping (E.)
TURPis, Fr. Epping (E.)
CONTROVERSUS, Fr. Epping (E.)
TRiviALis, Fr. Epping (E.)
PYROGALus, Fr. Epping (E.)
CHRYSORRHGEUS, Fr. Epping (E.)
DELiciosus, Fr. Epping (E.)
iNSULSus, Fr. Epping fE.)
GLYCiosMus, Fr. Epping (E.)
FULiGiNosus, Fr. Epping (E.)
voLEMUM, Fr. Epping (E.)
CAMPHORATus, Fr. Epping (E.)
QUIETUS, Fr. Monks Wood (0.)
piPERATus, Fr. Loughton (C.)
VELLEREus, Fr. Lougliton (C.)
PALLiDus, Fr. Monks Wood (C.)
RUFUs, Fr. Loughton (C.)
MiTissiMUs, Fr. Lougliton (C.)
suBDULcis, Fr. Lougliton (C.)
SERiFLUUs, Fr. Lougliton (C.)
RussuLA NIGRICANS, Fr. Commoii (C.)
ADUSTA, Fr. Loughton (C.)
FURCATA, Fr. Loughton (C.)
ROSACEA, Fr. Epping (E.)
viRESCENS, Fr. Epping (C.) .
.F(ETENS, Fr. Epping (C.)
OCHROLEUCA, Fr. Monks Wood (C.)
LEPiDA, Fr. Epping (E.)
DEPALLENS, Fr. Mouks Wood (C.)
FELLEA, Fr. Highheach (C.)
INTEGRA, Fr. Monks Wood (C.)
ALUTACEA, Fr. Eppiug (E.)
CYANOXANTHA, Fr. Loughton (C.)
188 Preliminary List of the Hymenomycetal
EUSSULA HETEROPHYLLA, Fr. LoUgllton (C.)
EMETicA, Fr. Lougliton (C.)
DECOLORANS, Fr. Eppiiig (E.)
FRAGiLis, Fr. Common (C.)
ciTRiNA, Gillet. Common (C.)
LUTEA, Fr. Highbeach (C.)
cuTEFRACTA, Cooke. Lougliton (C.)
Cantharellus cibarius, Fr. Lougliton (C.)
„ AURANTiAcus, Fr. Lougliton (C.)
,, TUB^FORMis, Fr. Lougliton (C.)
Nyctalis parasitica, Fr. Lougliton (C.)
,, asterophora, Fr. Epping (E.)
Marasmius peronatds, Fr. Lougliton (C.)
,, URENS, Fr. Epping (E.)
„ ramealis, Fr. Lougliton (C.)
,, oreades, Fr. Epping (E.)
„ ROTULA, Fr. Lougliton (C.)
j, HuDSONi, Fr. Wanstead (C.)
,, Fusco-PURPUREus, Fr. Epjping (E.)
„ ANDRosACEUs, Fr. Lougliton (C.)
,, EPiPHYLLus, Fr. Lougliton (C.)
Lentinus LEPiDEis, Fr. Epping (E.)
,, cocHLEATus, Fr. Eppiug (E.)
Panus stypticus, Fr. Lougliton (C.)
,, TORULosus, Fr. Epping (E.)
Lenzites betulina, Fr. Common (C.)
Boletus elegans, Sclium. Lougliton (C.)
FLAvus, Fr. Epping (E.)
CHRYSENTERON, Fr. LoUghtOH (C.)
subtomentosus, Fr. Epping (C.)
BOviNus, Fr. Epping (E.)
piPERATUs, Fr. Epping, Hainliault Forest (C.)
PACHYPus, Fr. Epping (C.)
RUBiNus, Sm. Epping (E.)
EDULis, Fr. Highbeach (C.)
scABER, Fr. Highbeach (C.)
^sTivALis, Fr. Epping (E.)
LURiDUs, Fr. Highbeach (C.)
Fungi of Epping Forest. 189
Boletus satanas, Fr. Epj)ing (E.)
ERYTHROPus, Fr. Moiiks Wood (C.)
cALOPus, Fr. Epping (C.)
FiSTULiNA HEPATicA, Fr. Epping (C.)
PoLYPORus ScHWEiNiTzii, Fr. Eppiiig (E.)
RUFEscENs, Fr. Epping (E.)
PERENNis, L. Epping (E.)
SQUAMosus, Huds. Epping (C.)
piciPEs, Fr. Epping (E.)
VARius, Fr. Epping (C.)
ELEGANS, Fr. Epping (E.)
LuciDus, Fr. Epping (E.)
iNTYBACEus, Fr. Epping (E.)
GiGANTEUs, Fr. Epping (E.)
suLPHUREUs, Fr. Epping (E.)
iMBRicATus, Bull. Epping (E.)
ADUSTUs, Fr. Lougliton (C.)
c^sius, Fr. Hainault Forest (C.)
ADiPosus, B. & Br. Epping (E.)
HispiDus, Fr. Epping (E.)
cuTicuLARis, Fr. Epping (E.)
DRYADEus, Fr. Epping (E.)
BETULiNus, Bull. Epping (E.)
FOMENTARius, Fr. Epping (E.)
iGNiARius, Fr. Epping (E.)
ANNOsus, Fr. Lougliton (C.)
VERSICOLOR, L. Common (C.)
vAPORARius, Fr. Common (C.)
Trametes mollis, Fr. Epping (C.)
,, GiBBosA, Fr, Epping (E.)
D^DALEA QUERCINA, Fr. Eppillg (C.)
coNFRAGosA, Fr. Higlibeacli (C.)
UNicoLOR, Fr. Epping (C.)
Merulius corium, Fr. Epping (C.)
,, TREMELLosi.'s, Fr. Epping (E.)
Hydnum repandum, Fr. Epping (C.)
,, ERiNACEUM, Fr. Epping (E.)
,, zoNATUM, Fr. Epping ^E.)
»>
190 Preliminary LiM of the Hymenomycetal
Hydnum ferruginosum, Fr. Eppiiig (E.)
,, ciRRHATDM, Fr. Eppiiig (C.)
SiSTOTREMA CONFLUENS, Fl". Eppillg (E.)
Radulum fagineum, Fr. Epping (C.)
,, quercinum, Fr. Epping (C.)
Craterellus cornucopiodes, Fr. Loughton (C.)
„ cRispus. Higlibeach (C.)
Thelephora caryophyll^a, Fr. Loughton (C.)
CLAVULARis, Fr. Epping (E.)
ANTHocEPHALA, Fr. Hainault Forest (C.)
LAciNiATA, P. Loughton (C.)
MULTizoNATA, Berk. Epping (C.)
CRISTATA, Fr. Epping (E.)
CRUSTACEA, Schum. EjDping (C.)
Stereum hirsutum, Fr. Common (C.)
SPADICEUM, Fr. Epping (E.)
puRPUREUM, Fr. Highbeach (C.)
RUGosuM, Fr. Epping (E.)
SANGuiNOLENTUM, Fr. Loughton (C.)
Hymenoch^te rubiginosa, Lev. Epping (E.)
,, TABACiNA, Lev. Epping (E.)
AuRicuLARiA mesenterica, Fr. Epping (E.)
Peniophora quercina, Fr. Loughton (E.)
CoRTiciuM serum, Fr. Epping (C.)
L-a:vE, Fr. Common (C.)
puteanum, Fr. Epping (C.)
SEBACEUM, Fr. Epping (E.)
,, CELLARE, P. Epping (C.)
Clavaria flava, Sch^ff. Monks Wood (C.)
FASTiGiATA, Fr. Epping (E.)
ciNEREA, Fr. Epping (E.)
CRISTATA, Fr. Epping (E.j
AUREA, Sch^ff. Epping (E.)
IN.EQUALIS, Fr. Epping (E.)
^t:rmiculata, Fr. Epping (E.)
coRALLoiDEs, L. Mouks Wood (C.)
RUGosA, Fr. Wanstead (C.)
FusiFORMis, Sow. Epping (C.)
5>
J)
5>
Fungi of Epping Forest. 191
Clavaeia pistillaris, L. Monks Wood (C.)
Calocera viscosa, Fr. Epping (E.)
,, CORNEA, Fr. Epping (E.)
Typhula phacorrhiza, Fr. Walthamstow (C.)
Tremella foliacea, Fr. Epping (C.)
,, mesenterica, Fr. Epping (E.)
ExiDiA GLAND LiLosA, Fr. Lougliton (C.)
The above list includes the species enumerated by Sowerby
as having been found in this neighbourhood. In many genera
the enumeration is known to be very imperfect, but this may
be accounted for by the fact that until recently no definite
record was kept, and only well ascertained species have been
inserted under the impression that accuracy is preferable,
even though it is secured by brevity. A first catalogue is
usually an imperfect one, since it is limited to the observation
of one or two individuals ; but, with such a basis, it will not
be difficult to extend it year by year, and to ultimately secure
a moderately complete catalogue of the larger Fungi of the
Forest district. To this end it is hoped that any well-
authenticated occurrence of additional species will be com-
municated to the Secretary. — M. C. C.
192
XVI. The Presidential Address ; Delivered by Kaphael
Meldola, F.R.A.S., F.C.S., at the Annual Meeting,
January 28th, 1882.
Ladies and Gentlemen,
The grateful task of congratulating you upon the
completion of another annual cycle once more devolves upon
me. Whilst fully sensible of the honour which you have
conferred upon me by electing me for the third year to the
Presidential Chan-, I cannot but rejoice to think that our
Society has now assumed such proportions that I may con-
fidently look forward to seeing, at no very distant period, my
present position filled by some gentleman having more direct
claim to your consideration both as a local resident and a
working naturalist. The duty of acting for another year the
part of a nurse towards this Club, whose birth and growth I
have watched with such interest, will, however, give me even
more gratification than heretofore, since our ranks are filling
with that class of members whose support we most value,
and our publications show that we have commenced work in
earnest.
During the past year our Society has had several resign-
ations, and two deaths ; but, notwithstanding this, we now
number some 314 members as compared with 224 in our
last year's list. The deaths we have to deplore are those of
Mr. Walter P. Weston and Sir Antonio Brady.
Mr. Weston was well known as a student of our native
Lepidoptera and Coleoptera, the Tortrices being his special
objects of study. He also added considerably by his labours
to our knowledge of the insects inhabiting oak-galls, whilst
his activity as a general entomologist is borne witness to by
his numerous contributions to the pages of the ' Entomologist.'
Our late member died of consumption at a comparatively
early age, and although I had not the pleasure of knowing
The Presidential Address. 193
him personally, liis friends were unanimous in testifying to
liis amiable disposition ; and we cannot but express our
sorrow at having lost a promising member who, had he been
spared, would doubtless have taken an active part in the
work of the Club.
At the meeting held on December 17tli it was my painful
duty to have to announce the death of Sir Antonio Brady ;
and as it is proposed to publish a special memoir of our
deceased member, whose memory is still green among us,
I will not at present give any account of his scientific work,
but will simply put upon record the deep regret which the
removal of this genial elephant-hunter of the Koding Valley
has caused to all those who numbered him among their
friends, and whose death will be felt most severely by our
Club, in which he took such active interest, as well as by the
scientific world in general.
The Essex Field Club is now so well launched on its
career that I do not propose to dwell at any length upon our
past or future work. My appeal to our own members to support
us by their scientific contributions has, I am happy to see,
borne fruit. During the year we have published three Parts
of 'Transactions,' with the 'Journal of Proceedings,' and to
these we may, I think, justly point with some pride, as
evidence of our activity and as a guarantee of future exertion.
Looking back to the line of work as laid down in my
Inaugural Address of February 28th, 1880, I cannot but feel
gratified to think in how short a period we have commenced
to realise the position therein traced out. We have received
this year several most valuable contributions to the lists of
the County Fauna and Flora, and in the next part "of our
* Transactions ' we shall have the pleasure of seeing Mr.
Henry Laver's lists of the Mammalia and Mollusca, Mr.
Fitch's excellent paper upon the Essex Galls, and Dr. M. C.
Cooke's list of the Hymenomycetal Fungi of the Loughton
District. The papers published during the year are, if I may
say so, typical of the class of subjects which our Society
claimed at the outset as proper to the studies of a Field Club.
Thus in Natural History we have Mr. White's suggestive
2 A
194 The Presidential Address.
query as to the ancestry of Vcmessa Urticce, reprinted in exteiiso
in the 'Entomologist' for August, 1881; Mr. Enghsh's
contribution to the history of "sugaring" for moths; and
Mr. Saville Kent's admirable sketch of the Infusoria. In
the department of Botany our energetic member Prof. Boulger
has dealt with the larger problems of the evolution of h'uits,
and the origin and distribution of the British flora. In
Geology we have been the means of gi^^ng publicity to Mr.
Dalton's paper on the Blackwater Valley — a paper which is
to be valued not only on account of its intrinsic interest, but
because it has given us an opportunity of justifying an appeal
to those officers of H. M. Geological Survey who have worked
in our county, to enrich our ' Transactions ' with some of their
observations.
Our labours in the field of pre-historic Archeology demand
more than a passing notice. Interesting " finds " of flint and
bronze weapons have been exhibited and described by Mr.
Henry Corder. The excavation of the ancient earthwork
known as Ambresbury Banks has been so far successful that
we are now able to state conclusively that this camp is of
British construction. But although we have thus far dis-
pelled the mystery enshrouding one of these Forest Camps,
it must not be sui)posed that our investigations, commenced
under such fortunate circumstances, are by any means com-
pleted. At least one other section through the Ambresbury
earthwork will be desirable in order to obtain, if possible,
more definite evidence as to the precise period of its erection,
as stated in the report published in the last part of om*
'Transactions.' We have further to congratulate ourselves
that the exploration of the Loughton camp, which we lio]3e
to undertake in the course of the ensuing summer, has been
considered a task worthy of recognition by the British
Association, that body, at the jubilee meeting held in York,
having appointed for this purpose a committee composed of
members of our Club. I have no doubt but that the necessary
funds will be forthcoming when an appeal is made to our
members at large.
My review of this, our first extensive undertaking in the
The Presidential Address. 195
way of archaeological research, would he most seriously
incomplete did I fail once more to remind you how much we
owe to the skill and generosity of the eminent President of
the Anthropological Institute, General Pitt-Eivers, who has
not only directed our efforts and drawn up the account which
is now in the hands of all our members, but has presented us
with the coloured plate which graces Part 5 of our ' Trans-
actions,' and adds so much to the value of the re^Dort.
There is no occasion for me to take up much more of your
time this evening with other business matters ; these have
been stated fully in the Council Eeport, and I have to make
a large demand upon your patience when I enter later into
the scientific portion of my Address. I may just remark
that our Museum has received valuable additions from Mr.
Wilham White, Mr. James English, Mr. Henry Cole, and
Mr. Harcourt. All our meetings, both field and ordinary,
have been remarkably well attended, and we have had the
pleasure of joining with the Geologists' Association, with the
subscribers to the Chelmsford Museum, and with the Hert-
fordshire Field Club, in excursions to Grays, Chelmsford,
and Epping Forest respectively.
The public lectures which we commenced last session in
connection with the Club have been discontinued on account
of the great amount of extra work which they threw upon our
excellent Hon. Secretary, and because of the insufficient
support which we received in the neighbourhood.
Although my time is limited I cannot lightly pass over my
obligations to my friend Mr. William Cole, for the zealous
and able manner in which he has performed those most
arduous duties which he has so generously taken upon him-
self, and in the execution of which he has so considerably
lightened the gratifying and honourable tasks which I have
had the pleasure of fulfilling on your behalf during the past
year. Nor can we fail to acknowledge the valuable services
of our Librarian, Mr. Alfred Lockyer, whose energetic efi'orts
are so ai^parent in the excellent state of our small but
growing library. Our Treasurer, Mr. Henry J. Barnes, had
unfortunately to leave us before the expiration of the year,
196 Tlie Presidential Address,
but bis brother, Mr. Eicliard L. Barnes, has most kindly
and efficiently been carrying on his duties for him during his
absence.
Summing up the results achieved during the second year
of oui' existence, we have every reason to be satisfied with
oiu- position. We may at first have aj)peared to be aiming
rather high in asphing to the rank of the County Club, but
our present list of members shows that we are justified in
laying claim to this title. We have mustered our scientific
forces farther afield, and we hope during the approaching
season to gather fresh strength from the farthermost limits
of our County.
As the prosperity of our Club has liapx3ily rendered un-
necessary anything more than a general sketch of our
labours, I have thought it best to establish a precedent for'
maintaining the activity of the Presidential Chair by oflering
for your consideration a memoh* upon a special biological
subject, and to this I will at once proceed without further
delay.
[The President then read the first part of an exhaustive
essay on ' ' The Phenomena of Cj^clical Propagation in the
Animal Kingdom." This memoir will be printed as a separate
paper in the next volume of the 'Transactions.' — En.]
JOUKNAL OF PROCEEDINGS
AT
ORDINARY, FIELD, AND OTHER MEETINGS.
Saturday, February 26th, 1881. — Ordinary Meeting.
[Before the commencement of the official business of the Meeting,
the Rev. W. Linton Wilson, M.A. (one of the Vice-Presidents of the Club)
in a kindly speech presented the Honorary Secretary with a handsome
silver salver and a purse, on behalf of some members of the Club, as a
friendly memento of his labours in the foundation and first year's work
of the Society. The salver is inscribed as follows: — "Presented to
William Cole, Esq., by some of the members of the Epping Forest and
County of Essex Naturalists' Field Club, in recognition of his services in
connection with that Society, February 26th, 1881." Mr. Cole in a short
speech warmly thanked his friends and colleagues for their kindly
feelings towards him, and for their generous appreciation of his efforts
to found a Naturalists' Society in Essex which should be worthy of their
fine but much-neglected county. He had received so much ready help
from scientific and other friends that the work of calling the Club into
being had been a very delightful task, and he felt that success was certain
if equal energy and enthusiasm were shown in the future.]
The thirteenth Ordinary Meeting was held at the head-quarters of the
Club, 3, St. John's Terrace, Buckhurst Hill, at seven o'clock, the
President, Mr. Raphael Meldola, in the chau\
Lettere of thanks for election as Honorary Members from Dr. M. C.
Cooke, J. E. Plarting, Esq., Major-General Pitt-Rivers, Worthington
Smith, Esq., and Henry Walker, Esq., were read by the Secretary.
Donations of books, pamphlel^s and periodicals (exclusive of "Ex-
changes") were announced from Miss Cole, Mr. B. G. Cole, Mr. P. F.
Copland, Mr. W. H. Gomm (15 vols.), Mr. J. E. Harting (9 vols.), Mr.
W. S. Simpson, Mr. W. Swanston, Mr. C. Thomas, Rev. F. A. Walker,
and Mrs. Yeates. Mr. Heathfield presented one of Smith and Beck's
" Universal Microscopes " ; Mr. Gomm tluree exhibition boxes; the Rev.
F. A. Walker some specimens of sponges, &c., from Hunstanton ; and
Mr. Meldola some skins of British birds. A vote of thanks to the donors
was passed by acclamation. Upwards of twenty of the principal
VOL. II. (I
ii Journal of Proceed mja.
Provincial Natural History Societies sent copies of their Transactions in
exchange with the Club.
The following were elected members of the Club : — Messrs. C. Black,
B. E. Hutchinson, B. Pratt, J. L. Eeid, and A. H. Tozer.
The President informed the Meeting that, at the Council held that
evening, the following gentlemen had been chosen as a Sub-committee to
conduct the exploration of the Ancient Camps in Epjiing Forest : —
The Officers, t'.r q^cio ; Mr. D'Oyley {Hon. Surveijor), Mr. Thomas, Mr.
Fisher Unwin, Mr. Eobarts, and Eev. W. Linton Wilson. The Council
requested the names of other members to act on the Committee ; and
Messrs. H. A. Cole, James English, and F. H. Varley were nominated so
to act.
The Secretary exhibited, on behalf of the Eev. F. A. Walker, some
specimens of " Petrified Oak " from the stone-quarries, Isle of Portland,
and some large pieces of calcareous incrustations, or slabs of stalagmite,
caused by the percolation of water over the surface of limestone rocks,
and called by the guides ''congealed water''''; also from the Isle of
Portland.
Professor Boulger remarked the idea that these slabs of stalagmite were
really composed of hardened water was gravely held in many places. In
the South of Ii-eland he had once pointed out some slabs to a limestone-
burner, asking him why he did not put them into his kiln, as they would
make excellent lime. From the man's replies it was e%ident he feared
that the congealed water would put his fires out ! (Laughter.)
Sir J. Clarke Jervoise sent up a plan of some earth-works in the Holt
Wood, near Horndean, Hants, which he thought would be interesting in
connection with the Forest Camps explorations. He also sent some
pieces of flint, concerning which he wrote as follows : — " Near the camps
in Holt Wood is a cu-cular earth- work with high banks and a ditch ; there
is a pond in one part, pitched with flints, and on the mound and all about
the sides of the pond the ground is strewed with reticulated ' Pot-boiler '
flints (see Tylor's 'Early History of Mankind'). I happen to have
specimens indoors, which I send. The late Mr. Albert Way gave me
credit for being the first to discover the use of these flints, which have
been heated and cooled rapidly in the operation of boiling food before
earthenware that would stand the fire was discovered. We find them in
heaps, generally near water. School-boys call them milk-stones. I once
found a flint celt lying upon a heap of 'pot-boilers.' " *
* " There is Eui-opean sYidence of the art of stone-boiling Moreover, the
quantities of stones, evidently calcined, which are found buried in our own country,
sometimes in the sites of ancient dwellings, give great probability to the inference which
has been drawn from them, that they were used in cooking. It is true that their use
may have been for baking in under-ground ovens, a practice found among races who are
stone-boilers, and others who are not. But it is actually on record that the wild Irish,
of about 1600, used to warm their milk for drinking with a stone first cast into the fire
(J. Evans, in ' Archaeologia,' vol. xli.j." — 'Eesearches into the Early History of Mankind
and the Development of Civilization,' by Edward 13. Tylor, D.C.L., F.R.S. 3rd Ed.
(1878), p. 2G8.— Kd.
.Journal of l'roceedin(/s. m
Mr. Worthington Smith sent an original MS. description of two new
species of Agarlcm in the handwriting of EUas Fries, the great Swedish
botanist. Mr. Smith wrote :— " As far as I know, the plant refen-ed to m
the first description has not been found elsewhere than in Epping Forest
by myself. Fries, as you see, named the plant ' Agaricm (Strojyharia)
Worthimitonii,' after me. The second description is the original one of a
new species sent on by me to Fries. He named it 'Agaricm [Kntoloma)
Sau)ider>iii,' after my friend Mr. W. Wilson Saunders, who lighted on it."
Prof. Boulger said he hoped the Club would carefully collect and
preserve such relics. In his own researches into the history of Botany
he had often found how useful it was to be enabled to identify a hand-
writinp.
Mr. EngHsh exhibited some flowers and leaves of plants beautifully
preserved with their natural forms and colours by his process, which he
had improved since his communications to the Club. Full details will be
given in his book, now preparing for publication.
Mr. Letchford sent up a specimen of Gordius aquaticm to the Secretary
for identification. He had found it whilst moving some damp earth in
transplanting a rose-bush.*
Mr. W. Cole called attention to a letter from Dr. C. R. Bree, of
Colchester, which appeared in the ' Standard ' for January 28th, respecting
the Hawfinch (Coccothraustes vulgaris) in Essex. After referring to the
fact that the bird was more numerous this season than he ever remembered.
Dr. Bree went on to say, "When first discovered in Epping Forest by the
late Mr. Doubleday, the Hawfinch was pretty well confined to that locahty
as a breeding-place, at least so far as general knowledge went. Since then
it has gradually come to breed all over the country. I have known it as
a breeder in this neighbourhood for the last ten years. Ambrose, the
local birdstuft'er here, tells me he has had upwards of thirty this year.
There are more than twenty now in his shop. He says they come
from all parts of the neighbourhood. One boy caught seven in a garden
near the river, and they can now be had aUve. Naturalists will, I am
happy to say, endorse my statements as to other parts of the kingdom.
Unfortunately it is an easy bird to catch in bad weather." In a private
letter to the Secretary, dated February 1st, Dr. Bree adds, "Henry
Doubleday, of Epping, discovered this bird breeding there. It was not
loiown generally, or there would not have been many left. As stated in
my letter to the ' Standard,' I have known of its breeding near Colchester
for the last ten years. It has occurred during the late severe weather in
* The Gordiacea, or hair-worms (sub-kingdom Annuloida), are parasitic in their earlier
stages in the perivisceral cavities of the bodies of various insects. When sexually
mature they leave their " hosts," and deposit their ova in water or moist earth. The
popular name is expressive of their excessively elongated form, and as they are often
found in water or in puddles after heavy rain, it is a vulgar notion in some parts that
they are the living embodiments of horse-hairs which, falling into the water, have been,
by a process of " abiogenesis," transformed into worms 1 Mr. Letchford's specimen was
fully eight and a half inches long, and of the thickness of ordinary packing-thread. It
lived for several weeks in a vessel of water.— Ku.
iv Journal of Proceedings.
all the \'illages round. It is a shy bird, and does not appear until forced
by hunger."
Mr. English said that, in his opinion, the great habitat of the Hawfinch
in Essex was Epping Forest. He had seen flocks of two hundred to
three hundred at one time. They fed principally upon the seeds of the
hornbeam {Carpinm), and in winters hke the present, when hornbeam-
seeds were scanty and the weather very severe, they spread over the
country to villages and gardens in search of food.
Mr. H. J. Barnes said that a friend of his had a living specimen of the
Hawfinch caught during the late frost, in Victoria Park, South Haclmey.
Mr. W. White read a paper entitled, " Is Vanessa polycMows the
prototype of V. JJrticm ? A query suggested by the aberrant form of a
specimen of V. UrticcB oi polychloros type" [Transactions, ii., 1]. Mr.
V/hite exhibited specimens in illustration of his paper, and the President
also brought up some British and foreign species of the genus Vanessa,
for the purpose of emphasizing some critical and extended observations
upon Mr. White's essay.
Professor Boulger gave a careful and lengthy exposition of his views on
that difficult question, "The Evolution of Fruits" [Transactions, ii., 8],
illustrating his observations by specimens and drawings on the black-
board.
Hearty votes of thanks were passed to Mr. White and to Prof. Boulger
for their communications.
At the Conversazione Mr. C. Oldham exhibited a series of crag-fossils
from Walton-on-the-Naze, Essex, and a white aberration of the Hedge-
Sparrow {Accentor modularis) from Wlsbeach St. Mary's, Cambridgeshire.
Saturday, March 26th, 1881. — Ordinary Meeting.
The fourteenth Ordinary Meeting was held at the head- quarters at
seven o'clock, the President in the chair.
Donations of books and pamiDlilets (exclusive of exchanges with various
Societies) were announced from Mr. B. G. Cole (2 vols.), Mr. W. H. Dalton,
and Miss E. A. Ormerod, and thanks voted to the donors.
Mr. A. Lockyer announced that the Library and Museum had been
furnished, and that various gifts and aid had been afforded by Messrs.
P. Copland, A. Lockyer, and H. A. Cole.
The following persons were elected members of the Club : — G. H.
Baxter, W. H. Biixl, F. Cory, M.D., L.K.C.P., F.R.G.S., &c., A.G.Challis,
W. H. Edinger, F. G. Harrison, Clermont Livingston, M.E.S., George
Perry, Mrs. Perry, Henry Spring, and A. J. Yorston.
The President exhibited some specimens of the small destructive beetle,
Hylurgus piniperda, which had been sent to him for identification. They
had been confined in a glass tube fitted with a cork, and they had eaten
their way out into the open air, completely destroying the corlc.
Journal of Proceedings. v
The Eev. F. A. Walker, B.D., F.L.S., communicated two papers
entitled, "Hunstanton and its neighbourhood in 1878" and "Hunstanton
and its neighbourhood as visited in 1880." These were voluminous
papers, giving details of the Architecture and Archaeology of the village,
with notes on the Natural History of the Coast, &c.
Mr. W. H. Dalton communicated a paper entitled, "The Blackwater
Valley, Essex" [Transactions, ii., 15] . The paper was illustrated by
the exhibition of a large coloured diagram, of which Plate I. is a reduced
copy.
On the motion of Mr. Meldola a cordial vote of thanks was accorded to
the authors.
The President then gave by word of mouth the exposition of his views
with regard to the development of the Noctuce embodied in his paper,
" The Developmental Characters of the Larvcs of the Noctuce, as deter-
mining the position of that Group" [Transactions, ii., 19] . The speaker
demonstrated portions of his subject by means of drawings on the black-
board, and Mr. W. White brought up for exhibition a fine collection of
"preserved" specimens of caterpillars for the purpose of illustrating
Mr. Meldola 's remarks.
The Kev. W. Linton Wilson, in thanking Mr. Meldola, congratulated
him on the method and perspicuity of his remarks, and hoped that the
President's example might prove an incentive to others to bring before the
Club the results of their studies and observations.
Mr. W. Cole also hoped that some of their entomological friends would
follow the line of investigation so admirably sketched out by Mr. Meldola.
He would caution intending observers that the earliest stages in the lives
of caterpillars were often extremely transient. In many cases it would
even be necessary to dissect out in glycerine the embryonic larva from the
hatching egg, and examine with a low power of the microscope.
Mr. White said that the paper was highly suggestive of good work to
be done by the earnest Lepidopterist in tracing out, with scientific methods
and motives, the life-history of even the commonest and presumably the
best-known species. He was convinced that most interesting facts would
result from a series of careful observations, particularly if attention were
directed to the very early forms of the caterpillars mentioned by Mr. Cole.
The President, in returning thanks for the kind reception of his paper,
made some announcements of Field Meetings and other matters, and said
he could not refrain from congratulating the Club and all who valued the
integrity of their fine old Forest on the fact that the Great Eastern
Railway Company had, in deference to pubhc opinion very widely and
strongly expressed, withdrawn the objectionable clauses relating to the
projected line through the Forest from their Bill then before Parliament.
(This announcement was greeted with loud and protracted cheering.)
The Hon. Secretary was very glad to say that most of the principal
Natural History Societies in and around London had, at his suggestion,
joined the Essex Field Club in protesting aiid petitioning against the
vi Journal of Proceedinr/s.
Railway ; but the labour and credit of organizing the successful opposition
to this atrocious Bill had in great measure fallen upon and belonged to
their colleague, Mr. Francis George Heath, and he was sure the Club
would accord that gentleman a very hearty vote of thanks for his spirited
exertion in the cause. Mr. Fisher Unwin heartily seconded the motion,
but warned lovers of the Forest that in all probability the snake was but
scotched, not killed. Vandalism was evidently rampant in certain high
places, and attempts to destroy the Forest would still be made.
The vote was unanimously passed, amid cheers.
At the Conversazione various fossils were exliibited (and presented to
the Club) by Mr. A. Tozer ; a very curious instance of fasciation in the
common garden " Sweet- William " [Dianthus) was shown by Mr. Oldliam.
It had appeared two years running in plants in his garden at Woodford.
Mr. Letchford showed under the microscope specimens of the fine
Infusorian, Bowerhankia imbricator ; and Mr. English brought up a case
of si^ecimens of preserved Funpi, intended for the forthcoming Fisheries
Exhibition at Norwich. The collection comprised thirty-nine species,
many of considerable rarity and interest. In view of the Club's visit to
Waltham Abbey, Mr. Unwin exhibited his collection of views of the Abbey
Church and Town. Mr. Waller, of Tottenham, sent specimens of mosses
from Epping Forest, including Dulcranum glaucum in fruit, which he
considered to be a rare event.
Saturday, April 2xd, 1881. — Field Meeting.
In view of the doubtful quality of the weather to be anticipated at the
early season of the year, it was decided to hold the first Field Meeting at
Waltham Holy Cross, Mr. George H. Birch, M.R.I.B.A. (Hon. Sec. to the
London and Middlesex Archaeological Society) very kindly oli'ering his
valuable services as cicerone at the Abbey. The bulk of the members
travelled by train from Liverpool Street Station to Waltham, others by
road in a drag from Buckhurst Hill ; and the united parties assembled at
the Abbey-gates at about four o'clock, between seventy and eighty in
number. The visitors were met at the Church by our learned Conductor,
our members Dr. Priest and Mr. W. T. Wakefield, Rev. F. Johnstone,
Mr. Churchwarden Gardener, Mr. W. Winters, F.R.H.S., and other local
gentlemen. Much regret was expressed at the enforced absence, through
iUness, of the Rev. J. Francis, M.A,, the Vicar, who had taken great
interest in the proposed Meeting.
The company having assembled in the nave of the grand old building,
Mr. Birch commenced a chatty description of the Church, explaining its
architectural features and dwelling upon the historical memories still
lingering around the fane of "Harold infelix" — our last English king.
He pointed out that but a comparatively small fragment of the original
had lasted to our times, but doubtless the part in which they then were
Journal of Proceedin(/8. vii
was of Harold's age. The Church built by Harold was consecrated
about 1059 ; that was known to be the case because the names of
the Archbishop and Bishops who attended the ceremony were all
preserved, and the dates of their episcopates were known. Edward the
Confessor and his Queen were also present at the consecration of the
Church. From 1059 until 1177 no very great alteration took place in the
Church ; but at the latter date Henry the Second altered Harold's
foundation altogether, by making it for monks instead of seculars. The
large monastic buildings necessary for the accommodation of the abbot
and monks which existed to the north of the Church were then erected ;
but he fancied that at that time there must have been some slight
alteration made in the Church itself in regard to ornamentation — it
occurred to him, from the existence of some chevrons, that they were then
rather displeased with the baldness and plainness of some of the work
and tried to improve it. It would be as well if those present would try to
realise what the Church had been. It was just probable that in 1177 the
original choir of Harold was extended farther to the east. Alluding to
the Lady Chapel, Mr. Birch described it as a very beautiful little building,
and said that the architectural work of the Chapel was almost unique in
its sort; he knew very little work like that in England. Eeferring to
other points in connection with the Church, Mr. Birch said that the
existing tower at the west end was built in 1558. The baptismal font was
the ancient one. It was composed of a beautiful block of Purbeck marble ;
but the shape had been altered, so that its present form was modern.
Under Mr. Birch's guidance a thorough inspection of the Church was
made, both inside and out. The only large tree in the churchyard is an
Elm, supposed to be 300 or 400 years old ; it measures 22 feet round the
base, and 20 feet round the centre of the trunk, the height from the
ground to the head being 12 feet ; the main limbs were lopped off, but the
tree is still living. The Abbey-grounds were visited, and on the north-
east side of the churchyard, in Mr. King's garden, an ancient groined
building called the "Potato Cellar," from its present ignoble use. Mr.
Birch said in regard to this room that he did not think it was originally a
chapel, as it ran from north to south ; he thought that it was a portion of
the Abbot's house or hospicium. As to the fact of the room being now
unlighted by windows, there were traces of the wall having been disturbed,
and it might very likely have been originally lighted by lancet windows ;
but Mr. Winters pointed out a ring which still remains in the centre of
the groined ceiling, from which a lamp may have been suspended.
The Vicar had most kindly placed his private school-room at the
disposal of the Council, and in it a kind of temporary Museum had been
gathered together, chiefly by the exertions of Mr. Wakefield and Dr.
Priest. The objects were very well displayed in the well-furnished room.
Amongst other things Mr. Wakefield exhibited some coins found at
Waltham Abbey ; a series of 17th century tokens from Waltham, Col-
chester, and other Essex towns ; seals, d'c. ; also a long and valuable series
viii Jon/mai of Proceedings^
of Greek, Koman and English coins ; a large selection from his collection
of fossils ranging from the Silurian to the Newer Pliocene formations ; and
a very massive microscope, made many years ago by Powell and Lealand,
and presumed to be one of the two largest instruments in existence.
The Rev. J. Francis showed some reHcs belonging to the Abbey, discovered
at the time of its restoration in 1860 ; Dr. Priest some skulls and bones of
Deer, Bison, &c., found, while digging the foundations of the New Powder
Mills, in the peat-beds which extend over most of the marshes near the
town ; they were exhumed from the depth of ten or twelve feet, a number
of other bones and horns of Deer, &c., being found at the same time, which,
are now in the British Museum ; also a flint axe, and various drawings
and engravings of the Abbey. Mr. Winters, F.R.H.S., brought up a
copy of the foundation charter of the Church of Waltham, dated 1062,
containing names of lordships and witnesses to the grant ; a representation
of the great east window of the parish Church of St. Margaret's in West-
minster, which window was removed from Waltham Abbey at the time of
the dissolution ; autograph of Dr. T. Fuller, author of ' Church History '
and ' History of Waltham Abbey,' who was a Vicar of the i^lace ; fac-
simile of the Domesday Book, and deeds relating to Waltham. Mr.
Fisher Unwin exhibited a large number of interesting plates and drawings
of Waltham Abbey and the Eleanor Cross at Waltham Cross, and some
old county histories ; Mr. Walter Crouch a series of jjrints illustrating
the architectural details of the Abbey, and the ancient market stocks ;
Mr. Corder some flint implements found near Chelmsford. Other objects
were shown, and, all being carefully labelled and explained by Dr. Priest
and Mr. Wakefield, the whole formed a very interesting collection.
The members and major portion of the visitors sat down to "high tea"
at the " Cock Inn," excellently served by Mr. and Mrs. Giles. After tea
a meeting was held in the "temporary Museum," the President occupying
the chair. He expressed his pleasure in bidding welcome, on the part of
the Council, to those present at that their first Field Meeting of the
season, and hoped it would be the first of a series of equally successful
meetings and a good omen of the future (Applause). The Chairman then
introduced Mr. Birch, who gave some further details concerning the
Abbey Church, commencing his paper by observing that, in the present
age, facts which had been believed in for generations were subjected to
searching criticism, to discover flaws and to raise doubts. It was not his
intention to raise any doubts then. He would ask them to accept as a
fact that Harold really lived and was buried at Waltham Abbey, and by
thus begging the question he would dispose of a quantity of matter with
which they had little to do in describing the building in question, which
was anciently known to pious worshippers as the Church of the Holy
Cross at Waltham. Harold was not the real founder of this famous
Abbey. To discover who that founder was, we must transport ourselves
to a good half century previous to Harold's time. About the year 1000
there was a great religious enthusiasm. That year was devoutly
Journal of Proceedinf/s. ix
believed to be the end of the world, and the last swell of that great
wave of enthusiasm had not entirely subsided when the miraculous cross
which was brought to Waltham and deposited in the church erected there
was discovered. It was a miracle-working age, and no wonder that a
miraculous crucifix was found under-ground, possessing extraordinary
virtues, and demanding extraordinary devotion on the part of the faithful.
Tovi, who lived in tlie time of King Canute, was the first to set aside a
portion of his land for the purpose of building a church at Waltham.
After To\d's death the lordship of Waltham seemed to have reverted to the
Crown, and subsequently Harold enlarged Tovi's foundation for two
priests to one for a dean and twelve canons. The regular clergy or the
monks had not then attained the footing in England which they afterwards
did. We did not during several succeeding reigns hear of any alteration
in Harold's Church, which was consecrated in 1059. The founder himself
had been found under a heap of slain, and had been laid to rest in the
choir of his own Church. A wonderful tale of how Harold had escaped,
and had had several subsequent adventures and admitted that he was
Harold, had been invented ; but that legend could not bear the test of
historic research. In the year 1177 an important change took place at
the church at Waltham, when Henry the Second enlarged Harold's
original foundation. Henry's work was probably limited to the choir, of
which nothing now remains, and to the conventual buildings, of which
fragments do remain. In 1242, in the time of Henry the Third, we hear
of the Abbey Church of Wakham being consecrated, proving that some
alteration had been made in the east end of the Church ; that the altar
had been moved, thus causing the choir to require re-consecration. There
is thus very little doubt that Harold's choir had been pulled down, and a
more magnificent choir built. He believed that, in making excavations at
the east end of the present Church, foundations were discovered on the
north side for a long distance in a line with the present walls, pro\dng
that the choir was a very long one, probably nearly the same length as
the nave. There was found no wall on the south side to correspond with
that found on the north side ; the foundations on the south side had been
entirely removed. Afterwards a beautiful Lady Chapel was built on the
north side of the nave. From the character of the work of the Chapel,
one would imagine that it was early 14th century ; but he thought that it
was a little later than that, and dated from about 1340. No alteration of
any magnitude was subsequently made until the dissolution, after which
time as much trouble was taken to demolish as had pre\'iously been taken
to build. During the reign of Philip and Mary the central tower was
blown up with gunpowder. In the 18th century and early in the present
all sorts of barbarities were inflicted on the Church, the roof being
lowered and two galleries erected at the west end, and the whole area
filled with high pews. The present improved state of the Church was due
to the work of Mr. Burges, the Architect of the restoration in 1859—60. A
few fragments of the domestic buildings of the Abbey even now existed.
h
X Journal of Proceedings.
There was on the side of the Lea a fine pointed archway, built of masonry
largely repaired with red bricks. He believed that in the beginning of the
present century a good deal more of that gateway existed ; some of it fell.
The old Abbey-walls extended for a considerable distance, and a few of those
present, he dared say, went into that beautiful little building now called
the potato-house. That, as far as he could make out, must have been a
portion of the Abbot's house, guest house, or hospicium. Even in its
Ijresent degraded and dilapidated condition, it was a beautiful specimen
of ancient monastic buildings. The destruction of the central tower of
the Church of course necessitated the erection of another for the bells,
and in 1556 the present tower at the west end was built. He would just
say, in regard to Harold, that good men's deeds lived after them, and the
massive w^alls of the Church which Harold had erected remained to test
the fact of the sur\ival of the good ; and good it was, though there might
be a difference of opinion in these days as to the utility of a religious
foundation. Harold's name was a memory dear to many, and would be
so as long as bravery was held in good repute and misfortunes were
pitied. (Applause.)
A considerable discussion arose on some points touched upon in Mr.
Birch's paper, in which Kev. W. Linton Wilson, Mr. Godwin, Mr. Eobarts,
Mr. Fisher UnA\"in, and Mr. Friswell took part. In replying to these
questions and observations, ^h\ Birch said there were no remains
whatever of Earl To\'i's Church, which was founded about a. d. 1000, and
which must have been very small, as the foundation was for only two
priests. As to the date of the bridge, wliich hes a Httle to the north of
the Church and wliich had been regarded as of contemporary date, he
thought it must have been built about the 15th century, as it had a four-
centred arch, which did not appear in England till about that time.
With regard to the pillars being decorated with spiral lines and che\Tons,
the description of Harold's Church spoke of Harold adorning his building
with plates of metal gilt, and Dr. Freeman as well as Fuller had fancied
that brass must have been let into those flutings. All who knew anything
at all about brass knew that it was not malleable, like lead ; it had to be
cast, and therefore brass could never have been put into those che^'rons
and flutings. However, in making an examination of the pillars that
day, he (Mr. Birch) had noticed marks of rivets, and it certainly occurred
to him at the time that Dr. Freeman was not after all so very far wrong.
The question was, whether some copper-gilt or other metal might not
have been so inserted. As to the stone of which the Church was con-
structed, he thought it was Carnac, and there would be no difficulty in
accounting for its transportation to Waltham — it was probably brought
up the Thames and the Lea. It was not Caen stone, which was not
introduced into England until a later period.
A very hearty vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Birch for his valuable
dissertation and the assistance given during the meeting ; also to the Eev.
J. Francis for the use of the room, and to Dr. Priest and Mr. Wakefield
Joiinial of Vroceedmtjs. xi
for their exertions, on which the success of the meeting had so much
depended. After a short Conversazione, the members made their way
home, in companies, some by rail, some by road ; whilst a select band
chose rather a walk across the valley, and through the Forest to Buckhurst
Hill, Woodford, and Chigwell.
Satukday, April 30th, 1881. — Ordinary Meeting.
The fifteenth Ordinary Meeting was held at the head-quarters at
7 o'clock, the President in the chair.
Donations of books, pamiDhlets, and periodicals, &c. (exclusive of
"Exchanges") were announced from Mr. B. G. Cole (2 vols.), Mr. W.
Cole (16 vols, and numerous pamj)hlets, &c.), Mr. P. Copland (9 vols.,
with the 'Zoologist' and 'Journal of Botany,' monthly), Edinburgh
Geological Society (3 vols.), Mr. G. S. Gibson, Mr. J. E. Harting (3 vols.),
Mr. A. Lockyer (3 vols.), Mr. G. H. Lockyer, Mr. F. T. Lockyer, and Mr.
W. White (pamphlet and map). A unanimous vote of thanks to the
donors was passed.
The following gentlemen were elected members of the club : — Charles
A. B. Brooker, Henry BHss, Frederick W. Cory, M.K.C.S., F.M.S., &c.,
John Chambers, M.K.C.S., &c., Eev. Albert Hughes, M.A., Thomas King,
J. W. Lawson, G. C. Locket, Eev. A. Gray Maitland, F.R.G.S., Benjamin
Newling, M. Whiteley Wilhams, F.C.S., F.I.C.
On the motion of the Secretary, it was agreed that Mr. James Fletcher,
President of the Ottawa Field Naturalists' Club, who was about to visit
England, should be admitted to the full privileges of membership during
his stay in this country.
The Secretary said that Mr. W. H. Dalton, F.G.S., had asked him
whether any member could record Cydostoma elegans as now Uvhuj in
Essex. Mr. Dalton wrote: — "I have found it, and so has Mr. Christy,
abundantly in very modern alluvium and spring-peat, but never living,
and I fear it is extinct. Query, from what cause I have found
Cydostoma in peaty alluvium at Eivenhall (Witham, Essex), and Worm-
ingford (Nayland, Suffolk) ; and Mr. Eowe, of Felsted, sent me a very
recent looking specimen from surface-soil there, but I never could hear of
it living in Essex. The chalky boulder-clay is quite calcareous enough
for it, but there may have been some slight alteration of environment to
extinguish it lately. Adiatina acicula, supposed to be rare, is very
common in South Essex. A good habitat for the dead shells {Hibernice
didu !) being ant-hills in grass-land [Formica Jiava or rufa). The same
heap should be looked over frequently, as the shells are worked out by rain
to the surface."
Mr. Walter Crouch (who brought up some fine specimens of Cydoiftomu
for exhibition), said he had never found the shell in Essex either living
or dead, nor had he heard of specimens being found in the county. It
xii Journal of Froceedin(js.
was a well-known species, common on chalky soils, and he had seen it in
Kent, Sussex, Surrey, Wiltshire, and on the limestone in Derbyshire, &c.
It evidently prefers, and most likely requires, challv or lime for its opera-
tions. He suggested that search should be made at Purfleet or Grays,
on the chalk, for the mollusc.
The President said it was clear from Mr. Dalton's and Mr. Christy's
observations that Cyclostvma had once lived in Essex, possibly finding
suitable conditions in the chalky boulder-clay ; and he suggested the
possibihty that the disappearance of the species was due to the removal
of the chalky clay by superficial denudation and other causes.
Mr. H. J. Barnes exliibited some shells of a species of Ostraa found in
large quantities in digging a new sewer at Leyton at a distance of about
twenty feet from the surface.
Mr. H. Corder exliibited, and read some notes on, tln-ee Neohthic
Implements from the neighbourhood of Chehnsford [Trans, ii. 29.] He
also exhibited and explained some ancient Bronze Implements ("Socketed
Celts "), found two years ago in a field near Little Baddow, Essex [Trans.
ii. 31] , and some bones of Pleistocene Mammalia from the brick-earth,
Chelmsford.
Mr. James English read a paper entitled " The First Night's ' Sugaring '
in England : a reminiscence of Epping Forest in 1843 " [Trans, ii. 32.]
Mr. Meldola said he was sure Lepidopterists would read with pleasure
Mr. English's chatty account of the earliest application of a process to
which they owe a revolution in the extent and beauty of theu' collections.
One interesting fact appeared to be clearly established by the use of the
method of " sugaring," and that was the possession of an organ of
smell by Lepidoptera and other insects. He suggested that it would be
an important experiment to remove the antenna of moths, and see if
they found then- way to " sugar" when thus mutilated. In the course of
conversation Mr. EngUsh expressed his beUef that moths would not come
freely to sugar when the trees were infected with honey-dew, and that the
circumstance explains one at least of the causes of the uncertainty of
sugaring as a mode of collecting.
A unanimous vote of thanks was passed to the authors for their
papers.
At the Conversazione Mr. J. S. Morten exhibited, under the microscoj)e,
some specimens of parasites belonging to the genera Avfja.^, Trichodectes,
and Hcematopinuii ; Mr. -J. D. Cooper two Flint Spear-heads and a Knife
from the Ancient Indian Burial Mounds near BeHze, Central America ;
and Mr. W. Cole a series of Noctuce for the purpose of illustrating
Mr. English's paper.
Journal af Froceedimjs. xiii
Satukday, May 14th, 1881. — Field Meeting.
ExcuKsioN TO Gkays Thukkock, Essex. Conductors: Pkofessok John
Morris, M.A., F.G.S., and Henry Walker, Esq., F.G.8.
[For the Geological x>ortioiiH of this report the Editor /.s indebted to the
kindness of Mr. Walker, who supplied the admiraUe resume embodied
in the folloicimj payes.]
This being an excursion in conjunction with the Geologists' Association,
the members of the two Societies assembled in very considerable numbers,
leaving Fenchurch Street Station by the 2.25 p.m. train. The route for
almost the entire distance lies across the gravel and alluvial flats of the
Thames Valley. The wide and shallow tributary valleys of the Lea and
the Eoding, as they were successively passed, were well seen. During the
remainder of the journey the nearer features southwards are the levees
confining the Kiver Thames within its modern artificial channel, whilst
beyond is seen the bold and natural horizon formed by the chain of hills
stretching from Greenwich to Erith, the southern limit of the valley along
that line. On nearing Purfleet, the western outcrop of the small area of
chalk which is found in South Essex begins to be visible. On nearing the
station, and looking to the left-hand side of the railway, an old chalk-pit,
abandoned now to the botanist and entomologist, reveals both the chalk
and the Thanet sand, the latter capping an isolated mass of the former.
Past the station the bare sides of the great conical mound of Thanet
sand, having a high angle of rest, and being a very conspicuous object
from the Erith side of the river, is close at hand. The remaining tlu-ee
or four miles of the journey lie along the West Thurrock Marshes, but on
the left the presence of the chalk skirting the railway is told by its
characteristic contours.
Alighting at Grays, the party received some notable reinforcements, and
the united forces, considerably exceeding one hundred in number, were
conducted by Mr. Walker to the high road leading to Stifi'ord. Here the
extent and position of the three southern chalk-pits are well seen ; the
East Pit ; the Central Pit (appropriated for the manufacture of whitening) ;
and the Western Pit, occupied by the South Essex Waterworks Company.
Attention was called to the flooded condition of the Eastern Pit, the floor
having been worked down to the level of the springs, and the pumping
being temporarily suspended. The sides show the green-flint bed lying on
the surface of the chalk, and the Thanet sand above. The islands below,
overgrown at the surface with vegetation, but revealing on their bare
sides a sharp dip of their component strata, were here the subject of some
cautionary remarks ; their real character as spoil-heaps, or " tips "' of
Thanet sand and gravel, has not always been recognised, even by geological
visitors. A descent to the central pit was then connnenced. On the way
one of the Greywethers or Sarseu-stones, for which Grays has long been
notable, was found lying on the unworked surface of the chalk, at a spot
xiv Journal of Proceedinys.
where the Thanet sand had been breached, and was the subject of an
exposition from Professor Morris. Its surface showed the mammillated
appearance so frequently found in these concretions. (Some very large
and characteristic examples are to be seen in the adjacent village, near the
wharf of the Grays Chalk Quarries Comj)any.) The Professor pointed
out that these rounded appearances were not due to the wear and tear of
transport. A thin flake examined by the microscope would show the
sandstone to be composed of subangular quartz grains, and not of these
grains rounded. Looking at the range of the Bagshot and Thanet sands,
which at one time extended all over the valley of the Thames, he was
incHned to consider these Greywethers as derived from the indurated base
of the latter ; the softer sand had been carried away by denudation.
On reaching the floor of the pit, wliich is excavated one hundied feet
into the chalk, the party examined the fine vertical sections which are
there exposed, consisting of upper chalk, with green-flint bed, Thanet
sand (in some places twenty-five feet in thickness), and High Terrace
Thames Valley drift. Some of the "sand-pipes" here are sixty and
seventy feet in depth, partially filled, in some instances, with gravel, and
in others with Thanet sand. Sir Antonio Brady, who was present, called
attention to one of the more remarkable, which had penetrated below a
horizontal band of flint without disturbing it. Mr. Walker gave a
general account of the structure and composition of the rocks here
exposed ; the chalk, with its marine organic remains, more especially its
sponges, corals, " sea-urchins," moUusca and fishes (a large number of the
curious palatal teeth of Ptyclwdus and other sharks were shown sub-
sequently) ; the Thanet sand, marine but unfossiliferous, near London ;
and the "High Terrace Thames Drift" of Professor Prestwich and Mr.
Wliitaker (the "Marine Gravel" of Mr. Searles Wood). Prof. Morris
followed with a comprehensive re^dew of the history and former range of
the chalk, Thanet sand, and other Eocene beds now missing below the
gravel, especially descanting upon the great physical changes which had
taken place in the face of Euroj^e (such as the elevation of the Alps), in
the interval denoted by the absence of the Woolwich beds, Oldliaven
pebbles, London clay, and Bagshot sand. Keferring to the Green-flint
bed (the "Bull-head bed " of the workmen), Professor Morris called atten-
tion to the well-marked concentric structure of many of the flints,
probably owing to the presence of iron, which tends to this arrangement.
The solvent action of carbonated waters, which formed the "i^ipes," was
also seen, the Professor said, in the undulating surface of the chalk, as
traced by the course of the green-flints. The depressions in this line
were therefore posterior to the elevation and desiccation of the sea-bed.
With regard to the absence of Woolwich beds and London tertiaries which
once overlay the Thanet sands, he pointed out that the Woolwich beds
were found about a mile further inland, at the village of Stifford, and he
would suggest to the Essex Field Club an examination of them at that
spot, inasmuch as the only instance of a certain shell of the Woolwich
Journal of Proceedings. xv
and Eeading beds obtained north of the Thames had been found tliere.
He thought the Chib might do good service to geology by carefully
investigating the strata referred to at Stifford.
At the conclusion of Professor Morris's remarks Mr. J. Spiller, F.C.S.
(Treasurer of the Photographical Society), took a photograph of the
group, and also obtained some negatives of the sections exposed in the
workings. A print from one of these, produced by the Autotype Company,
is given as a plate* accompanying this report. The photograph shows
one of the larger "pipes" in the chalk at Grays. The view is in the
South Central Chalk-pit, and the "pipe" is seen in shadow in the left
foreground of the picture — a wide and irregular- shaped cavity traceable
down to the floor of the pit, a distance of more than ninety feet vertical,
and containing deposits from the overlying Thanet sand and high-level
drift gravel.
Other " pipes," in a less advanced stage of erosion, are shown in the
centre and to the right of the picture.
The abandoned Western Pit, in which the South Essex Water Company
obtain their supply, was then \dsited. In the engine-house Mr. Walker
stated that, in 1860, the chalk had been worked to the level of the springs
in this pit over an area of some sixty-five acres, when attempts to go
deeper led to the discovery of an abundant supply of pure water and the
formation of the Company. The water passing over the gauge every
twenty-four hours was found to exceed 1,200,000 gallons, and even with
five engines at work it became necessary to brick-up fissures, so as to keep
the water down. Mr. Prestwich, in accounting for this volume of water
in an area where the superficial pervious beds do not exceed five miles in
extent, extends the receiving ground to the area of the Kentish chalk, as
well as to the northern chalk area which begins beyond Bishop's Stortford
and Dunmow ; considering that the Thames, which opposite Greenhithe
and Dartford is not, even at high tide, more than fifty or sixty feet in
depth, would not intercept all the springs. f The daily quantity now
yielded is about 1,300,000 gallons, of which 600,000 gallons is pumped to
waste to avert inundation. Owing to the low level to which the chalk has
been worked, the water is found near the surface, the engine-house floor
being seventeen feet above Ordnance datum, and the water in the well
varying from that line to eight feet below it.
This old chalk-pit would seem to^be a capital hunting-ground for both
entomologists and botanists. There is plenty of undergrowth and chalk-
loving plants, the Clematis vitalha being notably luxuriant ; but the
claims of the geologists were so imperative that no time was allowed for
herborizing. In the sections of the Thanet sand an abundance of the
^e>*
* Our members will be pleased to learn that we owe this interesting and instructive
record of a pleasant meeting to the kindness of the three following gentlemen, who
reimbursed our Treasurer for the cost of the plate in the manner following : — Mr.
Meldola, £2 2s.; Mr. John SpiUer, £1 Is.; and Mr. Harcourt, 10s.— Ed.
i • Report of Water-springs at Grays.' Privately printed, 1860,
xvi Jo2irnal of Proceediniis.
burrows of Fossorial Hymenoptera were noticed, and Mr. W. F. Gwinnell
gathered from the Artemisia vulgaris (mugwort), growing on a large
ballast-heap to the north of the engine-house, a reddish gall, which
eventually turned out to be new to Britain. [See Proceedings, May 28th.]
The steep ascent to the high ground between the northern and southern
pits was then commenced. At the summit a wide view of the landscape
and its geological features, especially southwards over the Thames, is
obtained. The character and origin of the scenery was described with
much eloquence by Professor Morris. On the north was seen Laindon
Hill (388 feet), where the Bagshot sand caps the London clay ; the
Tertiaries covering the country as far as the eye could reach. At the
same elevation, on the opposite side of the Thames, a widely different
development of the rocks was seen. Owing to the continued uprise of the
beds towards the Weald, the chalk, which on the Essex side of the valley
is brought to the surface by an arch limited to the Thames Valley, soon
becomes in Kent the surface rock of the district, rising at Knockholt to
780 feet. From the height at Grays, the wooded Tertiary outhers which
diversify the comparatively treeless chalk country were pointed out ;
Swanscombe, with its capping of London clay, and Cobliam Mount,
capped with Oldliaven pebbles, being prominent examples. The geological
causes of the survival of some of the older features of the country and the
destruction of others were instructively described by Prof. Morris ; and
with tliis exposition the afternoon's pleasant series of sermons in stones
may be said to have terminated. Prof. Morris had to leave for town, and
Mr. Walker gracefully expressed, on behalf of all present, the great
pleasure and profit they had derived from his teachings in the field that
afternoon.
It was found to be impossible to carry out the intention of visiting tha
brick-earth beds at Little Thurrock ("Globe Cement Company's Works,"
permission to \'isit which had been kindly given by C. J. Mander, Esq.) ;
and shortly afterwards the members of the Club, with many of the
Geologists' Association, including the genial Secretary, Dr. Foulerton,
F.G.S., wended their way back to Grays, and sat down to tea at the
"King's Arms Hotel," served in capital style by Mr. Cuming; albeit
there was not room for all at the Inn, and many had to seek accommodation
elsewhere.
The President afterwards said that he thought such a juvenile Asso-
ciation as theirs might congratulate itself uiDon having been associated
\d\h such a veteran body as the Geologists' Association. He was rather
glad that they had not been able to carry out their full programme,
because this might serve for an excuse for joining again with the
Association to finish off the beds at Little Thurrock. (Cheers.) Their
thanks had been expressed to the veteran geologist who had left (Professor
Morris), and it was now his pleasant duty to express their thanks to their
worthy conductor, Mr. Walker, for his admhably-rendered ser\dces. He
very much regretted that time had left them with only a very few moments
Journal of Proceedinf/s. xvii
to attempt anything in the way of discussion. Many geologists had left,
but he saw they had with them Sir Antonio Brady. He was afraid, how-
ever, that it was too late for any real discussion.
Mr. Walker, in replying, said he wished to mention one or two facts
which had not yet come under their notice. The reference to the
Geologists' Association in connection with the Essex Club was very
satisfactory to him ; he was an early member of the Association, and was
always glad to bear testimony to the work which it had done, especially
as it was one of the oldest of the London amateur Natural History
Societies — older even than the Quekett Club, for which precedence had
been claimed. None of them who met for out-door work in Natural
History could be ignorant of the great work of propagandism which was
carried on by the Geologists' Association. He was exceedingly glad of the
muster that day, because in these days the interdependence of the sciences
had gained such a recognition that no man could safely restrict his
enquiries to one branch. Therefore it was desirable that the faunists
and others who were not geologists should become so as soon as possible.
And as their excursions took them some twenty or thirty miles out of town
at a time, it was economy of time and opportunity to observe in more
than one department of Natural Science. In the field that day they could
pursue Entomology, and they could find many interesting plants, as well
as study Geology. He apologised for the curtailment of the programme,
and stated that he had been down there twice rehearsing the excursion.
He had been all over the fields at Little Thurrock, and had found there
about twelve feet of false-bedded sands, the most beautiful example of
that phenomenon near London ; he thought that it beat even that at
Finchley. There they saw stereotyped in permanent form what was
going on in the Thames to-day — shallow- water deposits pitched down at
a low angle, and then denuded subsequently. They would have a very
good chance at Grays of noticing how the Thames once flowed in a valley
parallel to that in which it now flows. The false-bedded sands and the
elephant beds lay in an inland trough, a good half-mile from the Thames,
and the southern rim of that trough was just before you got to the present
bed of the Thames. There were the two cuttings side by side— two
troughs cut into the chalk. This accounts for the remains in the old
trough — the deposit of elephants and so on. The Thames had a way of
changing its course, and if we had not embanked it in these latter days it
would very soon have shown us that it did so. But we had now
imprisoned it and made it a canal. He did not Imow, he said, v/hat they
had done to deserve a second lecture ; he would conclude by thanking
them, and by saying that his reward had been the sincere interest with
which every member had entered into an examination of the phenomena
before them. They did not come out for a pic-nic, but to enrich their
minds. The man who learned his Geology simply from books was a very
poor thing, as they knew ; but the man who came out to study in the
field, as they had done, made acquisitions which could be gained in no
c
xviii Journal of Procenlinr/s.
other way. They were privileged to have with them Sir Antonio Brady,
the veteran elephant hunter in Essex. His work was historic — (cheers), —
but happily he himself was not yet historic.
Sir- Antonio Brady, after expressing the pleasure he had derived from
the meeting, and from seeing and hearing his old friend. Professor Morris,
discussed at considerable length the various theories which had been put
forth to solve the geological problems which they met with in the deposits
of the Thames Valley.
Mr. Wortliington Smith, F.L.S., said he had been to West Tilbury by
an earlier train than the main party, and had walked over the country to
Grays, managing to find four flakes of Paleolithic age in the high gravels ;
he had previously found the butt-end of an implement and several flakes
in the high gravels capping the chalk at Grays Thurrock. INIr. Smith
referred to the numerous "Dane-holes," some ojaen and others filled in, at
Hangman's Wood.* He said these places were doubtless shafts dug in
NeoHthic times in quest of the layers of flint found in the chalk, and were
comparable with the pits at Cissbury Camp, Worthing, examined by
General Pitt-Eivers (' Ai'chajologia,' xlii., 27). Mr. Smith had at different
times found numerous flakes of Neolitliic age round these pits, and indeed
had lighted upon some that morning. He strongly advised that the pits
should be investigated by the Essex Field Club, and reported upon. The
rustics in the neighbourhood sometimes descend these places by the aid
of ropes.
* These remarkable relics at Little Thurrock and elsewhere have been somewhat
perfunctorily noticed by various antiquarian wi-iters from Camden downwards. An
account of them, with a gi'ound-plan of one of the pits, is given in Pahn's ' Stifford and
its Neighbourhood,' p. 93, and the same author's ' More about Stifford,' p. 38. From the
latter work we quote the following description, communicated by Mr. E. Lloyd Williams,
of Grays : — " Hangman's Wood is a small wood, partly in the parish of Little Thurrock
and partly in Orsett. At the south of this wood and on the Chadwell boundary are traces
of numerous pits, which at some time or other must have existed there. Most of them
are now completely filled u^) or fallen in, but six are still open, thi-ee of them almost in
the same state as when originally made. The f onnation of such as are still comparatively
perfect, and from which it may fauly be conjectured that the others now closed were not
dissimilar, is very cui'ious. A perpendicular shaft of about thi'ee feet in diameter, and
like that of an ordinary well, descends to a depth of about seventy-five or eighty feet, the
lower twenty feet or thereabouts of which pass thi'ough the chalk stratum, there reached
at a depth of about sixty feet. At the foot of the shaft on each side large chambers are
cut out of the challv, rather oval in shape, with the arching slightly pointed, and the
floor tolerably flat; though in one instance there appears to have been left intentionally
a rude kind of bench of chalk. The measurements of these chambers vary, but their
height, as a rule, is about sixteen feet, length aboiit twenty feet, and width about
fourteen or fifteen feet in the widest part." Mr. Williams conjectures that there must
be nearly fifty of the pits in close contiguitj-. In Swanscombe and Darenth Woods, in
Kent, there are similar pits, and the recent remarkable subsidences on Blackheath are by
some considered to be due to the presence of these " Dane-holes," the shafts of which have
been only partially filled in. No sufficient examination in the light of recent archreo-
logical researches has been yet made of these workings ; and we hope the Club wiU
adopt Mr. Worthington Smith's suggestion, and institute a practical enquiiy into their
nature and probable origin at no distant date. — Ed.
Journdl of Proceed in(/-'^. XIX
Cordial votes of thanks were passed to Mr. Clianner, the Secretary of
the "Gray's Chalk Quarries Company," to Mr. Anson, the Engineer, and
Mr. rhilcox, the Superintendent of the Works, for facilities afforded to the
meeting. Mr. Philcox brought up a number of interesting fossils from the
chalk, including the palatal teeth of fishes, EcUhii, &c.
Mr. Cole tendered his best thanks to the Kev. R. H. Brenan, M.A.,
Vicar of Grays, for the courtesy with which he had placed his school-room
at the disposal of the Council for the discussion of the day's observations,
and regretted that time would not allow them to take advantage of his
ready kindness.
The 7.58 train took the members up to town, and one of the most
numerously-attended and successful meetings since the Club's formation
appeared to have been enjoyed by all present.
The brief bibliography of the Geology of Grays, prepared by Mr. Walker
for our programme, is reprinted here as an aid to students : —
MAPS.— London and its Environs (Geological Survey Map), 1873. Or
Sheet 1, S.W. (included in the above).
LITERATUEE.— Prof. John Morris, M.A., F.G.S., &c.— 'On a Fresh-
water Deposit containing Mammalian Eemains, recently discovered
at Grays, Essex'. Mag. Nat. Hist., Vol. ix., 261 (1836), and
Series 2, Vol. ii., 539.
Prof. R. Owen, F.R.S., &c. — 'Notice of the Occurrence of
Remains of Megaceros Rihernicus and Castor Europceus in Brick-
fields of Ilford and Grays Thurrock.' Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc, iv., 42.
W. B. Dawkins, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S.— ' On the Age of the
Lower Brick-earths of the Thames Valley.' Quar. Jour. Geol.
Soc, xxiii., 91.
A. Tylor, F.G.S. — 'On Quarternary Gravels.' Quar. Jour. Geol.
Soc, XXV., 57. Also issued separately by Geol. Assoc.
Proc. Geol. Assoc, ii., 29, 230, 245. (Contains List of il/a/uwtaZirt
found at Grays.)
Prof. John Morris, M. A. — ' On the Occurrence of Greywethers at
Grays.' Geol. Mag., iv., 63.
Prof. Prestwich, M.A. — 'Report of Water-springs at Grays.'
Privately printed, 8vo, London, 1860.
Do. — 'On Sand-pipes at Grays Thurrock.' Geologist, iv., 258.
W. Whitaker, B.A., F.G.S.— Memoirs Geol. Survey, iv., 36, 72,
349. ' Chalk and Thanet Sands.'
Do. — 'Guide to Geology of London and the Neighbourhood.'
(Geological Survey Memoir.) 'River Drifts,' chap. 6. Third
Edition. Price Is.
Searles V. Wood, F.G.S.—' On the Newer Pliocene of England,'
with Map Sections, &c. Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc, xxxvi., pp. 457 — 528.
XX Jonrudl of ProceedLitijs.
Saturday, May 28tii, 1881. — Okdixahy Meeting.
The sixteenth Oixlinary Meeting was held at the head-quarters at seven
o'clock, the President in the chair.
Donations of books or pamphlets (exclusive of exchanges) were
announced from Miss M. Bentley (6 vols.), Dr. Chambers (4 vols. foUo),
Mi\ J. E. Harting, Mr. Fisher Unwin, and Mr. W. AVliite. A unanimous
vote of thanks to the donors was passed.
The Librarian announced that during the recess the Library would be
open for the exchange of books every Thursday evening from seven to
nine o'clock.
The following were balloted for and elected members of the Club : —
Miss Madeline Bentley, Samuel D. Chppingdale, John Collingridge,
George Corbie, G. S. Gibson, J.P., F.L.S., D. G. F. Macdonald, J.P.,
LL.D., C.E., &c.. Major Munro, Burnett Tabrum, J. Smyth Till,
Mrs. Warburg, and George Weller, M.R.C.S.
Mr. Eughsh exliibited some flowers preserved by his process, illus-
trative of the advance he was still making in working out the practical
details.
Mr. W. Cole said he thought the members would be pleased to hear
that, at the Grays Meeting, an addition to the fauna of Essex had been
made. Mr. W. F. Gwinnell pointed out to him a reddish gall upon the
mugwort {Artemisia vulgaris), which he had failed to recognise ; but on
submitting specimens to then- Vice-President, Mr. Fitch, that gentleman
had pronounced it to be a gall, new not only to Essex, but to Britain —
made by one of the Gall-gnats (Cecidomyidffi), Cecidomyia folioruni,
H. Loew. I\Ir. Cole could do little more than announce the fact, but
hoped that some information respecting the insect and its gall would
shortly be forthcoming. The Club was promised a complete list of the
Galls of Essex, with biological notes, by Mr. Fitch, which it was hoped
would give an impetus to the collection and study of these interesting and
obscure productions.
Mr. Henry Walker said that, whilst on the subject of galls, he might
call attention to one which he held in his hand, and which he had found
plentifully when taking shelter under some trees at Buckhurst Hill during
the storm that afternoon. They were the production of an Aphis known
to entomologists as Fenqihiuus bursariiis. The presence of the insect, by
some hritating but Httle understood process, leads to the formation of
large hollow swellings on the petioles of the leaves of the Lombardy
Poplar. On cutting open the galls the apterous larv£e and full-grown
Aphis can readily be obtained, and with a little care the winged forms
could be bred from the infested petioles of the poplar.
The President stated that the members of the Club present at the last
meeting would probably remember that, in connection with Mr. English's
remarks upon "sugaring" for moths, he had suggested the experiment of
Journal, of ProceediiKjs. xxi
removing the antennae of moths, and seeing whether they found their way
to sugar when thus mutilated. The object of this experiment was to test
the function of the antenna3 as organs of smell. Since the last meeting
he had met with a paper recently published by G. Hauser (Zeit. fiir wiss.
Zool., vol. xxxiv., 1880, pp. 367—408), in which such experiments had
actually been conducted, and which went to support the views advocated.
In all the Orthoptera, Pseudo-Neuroptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera, and in
many Lepidoptera, Neuroptera, and Coleoptera, a strong nerve had been
discovered arising from the cerebral ganglion and passing into the
antenna3. A terminal sensory organ with which the nerve-fibres are
connected, and accessory organs formed by the pits or cones filled with
fluid are described. The author gives detailed descriptions and figures of
these organs in the orthopteron, Calopterus Italicus. The function was
investigated by cutting ofi' the antenna of insects which had previously
been tested by turpentine, carbolic acid, &c. Insects thus mutilated
exhibited no repugnance to these odours, nor did they rush to food.
The Secretary read an extract from a letter received from Mr. K. M.
Christy respecting the occurrence of Cydoatonia elegans in Essex [Pro-
ceedings, II., xi] . Mr. Christy had found the shells in considerable
abundance in a deposit of alluvium at Chignal St. James, near Chelms-
ford. Last year, and again this spring, he found several dead shells a
few inches below the surface in a railway-cutting close to Saffron Walden,
but has not found any living specimens yet. The occasion on which he
made his nearest approach to finding it living was one day at the end of
last August, when he happened upon plenty of the animals in a wood
called the "Eivy Wood," just on the other side of Linton, and also in
abundance beside the road right into the town. Now as Linton is built
on the very boundary between Cambridgeshire and Essex, he might fairly
say that he had found living Cyclostoma elegans only a few hundred yards
outside our own county, and before the summer closed Mr. Christy was
hopeful of being enabled to report the occurrence of the animal in Essex.
Another shell he very much desired to find in Essex was Helix puinatia.
Mr. Meldola exhibited the larva of a species of Them (either T.Jirmata
or T. oheliscata) the body of which was neatly and tightly packed with
cocoons of some species of ichneumon-fly. The flies had hatched out,
and he hoped at a future meeting to give the name of the species.
Mr. Harting presented to the Club a copy of his paper in the ' Popular
Science Review,' on the occurrence of the Roe Deer in England, and, in
doing so, he hoped the members would do all in their power to investigate
the characters and history of the Deer now existing in Epping Forest.
He pointed out that there were great differences between the horns of the
Epping specimens and the normal horns of the ordinary Fallow Deer ;
and it would be of interest to endeavour to explain this modification, and
to ascertain whether these animals were the descendants of Deer imported
into the Forest, or whether they formed the remnant of the ancient breed
of Deer surviving from remote times.
xxii Journal of Proceedintja,
Mr. D'Oyley said that there had been no miportation of Deer, and
quoted the opinion of the late Mr. Grimston, a gentleman well acquainted
with the Forest, that these were the descendants of animals which had
inhabited the woods from time immemorial. In answer to a question
from Mr. Harting he stated that, for some time after birth, the fawns
were black, except at the neck, where some white appeared. This fact,
Mr. Harting pointed out, was quite abnormal in the Deer-tribes.
Luffman, the head keeper in the Forest, had told him that he had heard
his grandfather say that Deer had been brought into the Forest ; but he
(Mr. Harting) did not place implicit reliance upon this, because he had
been similarly informed with respect to the Deer in Lord Leconfield's
park. These, he had been told, had been brought by Lord Leconfield's
father fi^om Windsor ; but, on writmg to his lordship to enquire, he was
informed that the fact was the other way— that some of Lord LecoufiekVs
Deer had been sent to Windsor.
Mr. Meldola observed that the history and nature of the Forest Deer
were subjects well within then- scope, and he hoped careful enquiries and
observations would be made in the matter.
A paper, " On the Formation of a Local Museum," was read by Mr.
Harting [Transactions, ii., 36] .
The President, in proposing a vote of thanks to the author, said that he
agreed almost entirely with what Mr. Harting had said eto well, and he
had ah-eady given expression to similar ideas on a former occasion. He
thought the Society could not be too decided in excluding the proverbial
stuffed crocodile and foreign objects of doubtful origin, nor too strongly
urge upon its members the ad\isability of gi\ing a complete and accurate
record w-ith every specimen which they might present to the Museum.
The best and most useful specimens would be those collected by them-
selves in their own districts. He thought the Society should restrict the
specimens to objects found in Essex, except perhaps objects which might
be called educational and which served to illustrate in various ways the
flora and fauna of the county. He would di'aw the line at what were
commonly called antiquities. The Essex Ai^cha^ological Society dealt
with these, and he would suggest that, if the Essex Field Club preserved
antiquities at all, they should be only such as came faMy within the class
called pre-historic. He thought their Museum should be as much as
possible educational. It should have two sides; the somewhat deeper
scientific aspect represented by ha\ing as complete a series as possible of
aU local animals, plants, fossils, and minerals ; but it should also have a
popular educational side. For the latter there should be diagrams showing
the typical structure of plants and anunals, and examples of dissections
and other preparations to aid the real student. Great advance had
recently been made in the mode of conserving and exliibiting many objects,
and when they saw the progress Mr. English had made in preserving Fungi
and flowering plants, he thought that a collection of plants, &c., preserved
by those methods would be a valuable thing in the proposed Museum.
Journal of Proceed inqfi. • xxiii
Mr. Kobarts and Mr. Fisher Unwin suggested that the Library should
be confined to works of scientific, local, or topographical interest. The
President fully agreed, and thought the Librarian should be authorised to
decline with thanks works which were not of scientific value ; but that
the Club should accept all books of scientific interest, whether local
or not.
Mr. Walker referred to the beautiful drawings and preparations
contained in the late Mr. Andrew Murray's collections at the Bethnal
Green Museum, as being typical of what they would wish to see in their
own Museum.
Mr. Wall, F.G.S., said we had nothing in this country to vie with the
Museums of Melbourne and Sydney as educational Museums. At
Melbourne Prof, von Miiller had arranged a collection which would bear
comparison with any Museum in the world for educational value. He
quoted his own experience during his travels as emphasising what had
been urged with regard to the great value of local Museums, and the
knowledge of, and taste for, various branches of Natural History which
they were likely to promote.
The next business upon the agenda paper was, "Exhibition and
Description of Flint Flakes."— Mr. Worthington Smith, F.L.S., F.E.H.S.,
&c."
Unfortunately Mr. Smith was detained in London; but he sent a
collection of Flakes, and at a short notice the President undertook to
fill his place by giving a general idea of the lines of argument which had
led them to state positively that there had been a Stone Age. Flint
"flakes" and other implements were continually being brought under
their notice, and many members of the Club had come to him with
questions which showed that they were entirely unaccustomed to that
simple mode of interpreting facts which had led to the belief in the
existence of a Stone Age in this and in other countries. That a Stone
Age had existed was shown by a variety of proofs. The evidence was not
obtained from any single specimens, nor was it based upon an isolated set
of facts, but there was a consensus of e\idence. Mr. Meldola thought
that a few general remarks upon this interesting subject might be useful,
as serving to prepare the way for those more special pajiers which they
hoped to get from Mr. Worthington Smith and other members of the Club
who were doing detailed work in this field.
Passing on to the consideration of the various kinds of evidence, the
President first called attention to the peat-bogs of Denmark, in which the
data were chronological ; there was clear evidence of a succession in time.
At a certain depth were found fossil Pines associated with stone imple-
ments of undoubted human workmanship. At a later age — a less depth
— there were fossil Oaks, with implements of bronze ; and at still later
date the Beech was found in association with weapons of iron. Tlius
from one locality they had evidence of the use successively of stone,
bronze, and iron. But of course that did not mean that at any given
xxiv Journal of Proceedinf/s.
period the whole of the human inhabitants of Europe were using stone
exchisively, at another period nothing but bronze, and at another period
only iron. As pointed out by Sir John Lubbock, these ages no doubt
overlapped, and stone might have been in use in one country at a period
when bronze had found its way into a neighbouring country. The
remains found in the peat-bogs simply indicated three successive stages
of civilisation in one district, but there was no reason whatever for
beheving that each stage was absolutely contemporaneous with a
con-esponding stage tliroughout the whole of Europe. Then there was
evidence of another kind furnished by the well-lmown refuse-heaps or
"kitchen-middens" found on the shores of the Baltic, consisting of great
mounds of shells which appear to have been cast away as refuse by the
people of the Stone Age. In these heaps were found none but stone
implements ; they belonged without doubt to the Stone Age, and no
metallic weapon of any kind had ever been found in them. Facts of this
sort of course w^ent to show that the use of stone preceded that of metal,
which required greater sldll and knowledge in order to work it, and they
further went to support the view that our ancestors were of a more
barbarous type than their successors, and not, as is often stated, that man
has been degraded from a more ci^^.lised state.
The Stone Age had been divided into two periods, the Neolithic or
Newer Stone Age, and the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age. The first
evidence of man's advent upon the earth, as afforded by these worked
flints, according to the generally-received opinion, showed that he
appeared about the time of the last glacial epoch which came on at the
close of the great Tertiary Period of geologists. Of late years some
authorities had stated that worked flints had been found in strata of
inter-glacial or possibly of even pre-glacial age. The evidence had been
much disputed, but he (the President) was glad to see that Prof. Eamsay,
the Du-ector- General of the Geological Survey, in the last edition of his
' Physical Geology and Geography of Great Britain,' had unhesitatingly
accepted Mr. S. B. Skertchley's statement that he had found flint
implements in brick-earth beneath the Chalky Boulder-Clay near Brandon,
in Sufl'olk. So far as he himself was concerned, the President saw no
a priori reason for refusing to accept the evidence of man's enormous
antiquity — an antiquity which might extend back to pre-glacial times and
even as far back as the Miocene Period. The implements of the Old
Stone Age were of a much ruder type than those of the Neolithic Period,
but that they were both of human workmanship would not for a moment
be doubted by anyone who would examine them fairly and intelligently.
Paleolithic implements were found in association with animals now
extinct, and their enormous antiquity was further proved by the great
elevations at which the flints were sometimes found above the existing
rivers. By means of diagrams drawn on the black-board, Mr. Meldola
then showed the manner in which valleys were hollowed-out by river-
action, deposits of alluvium and gravel being left at different elevations
Joiirnal of Proceedmjs. xxv
as the denuding action of the river went on, so that the lower beds of
alluvium were of course formed much later than the higher beds. The
association of flint implements with the remains of extinct Mammalia in
the high-level gravels brought them face to face with the most ancient
evidence of the existence of man. Whether that period represented the
actual appearance of man upon the globe was of course another question.
He thought that most probably it did not, because the mere intelligence
required to work a flint must have taken ages to develop. M. Boucher de
Perthes, in 1847, was among the first to call attention to the occurrence
of flint implements associated with remains of the Mammoth in the high-
level beds of Abbeville, on the Kiver Somme ; and his observation, like
many other new observations in Science, was allowed to remain for long
unheeded ; but the matter had at length been inquired into, and it had
gradually become established that the human makers of these Palaeolithic
weapons were contemporaries of the Mammoth and other extinct animals.
There was yet another class of evidences. In many limestone countries
water charged with carbonic acid had eaten away large caves in the lime-
stone. These caves, many of which were probably pre-glacial, had served
as storehouses for the debris left in remote ages, and these remains had
there become cemented up and were waiting to be read as records of the
past. In some of these caves the whole chronological data had been pre-
served ; and we had the whole series, from post-Eoman to pre-Koman,
down to the ages of iron and bronze, and lastly to the Neolithic and
Palasolithic Periods. The occurrence in these caves of the same animals
that were found in the high-level gravels showed that the caves were also
of Paleolithic age. In the South of France, in a cave belonging to a
period intermediate between the two Stone Ages, there had been found a
fragment of a Mammoth's tusk, with a figure of this animal carved upon
it by the hand of Palfeolithic man, and also the drawing of a Eeindeer on
a portion of the antler of this animal, together with other pre-historic
works of rude art. A more convincing proof of the co-existepce of Man
with the Mammoth could not possibly be given. Palasolithic implements
were somewhat rare, and were generally found at considerable depths in
ancient river gravels ; Neolithic implements were much more commonly
distributed, and were found either actually on the surface of the ground
or at a slight depth beneath it. Their esteemed honorary member. General
Pitt-Kivers, had opened some of the ancient hill-forts at Cissbury, near
Worthing, Sussex, and there he appeared to have found a flint-implement
manufactory, as there were hundreds of implements in all stages of
manufacture, and flakes scattered about in profusion. A similar manu-
factory had been recently discovered near Crayford, in Kent. The
conclusion seems to be that these implements had been objects of barter,
and that factories had been established at certain places where the chalk
had been tunnelled into for the purpose of getting out the flints. Mr.
Meldola then explained how worked flakes could be distinguished from
merely accidental scaliugs or fractures, all of them having what is known
d
xxvi Journal of Proceedimjs.
as a "bulb of percussion," and illustrated his remarks by specimens
taken from those sent by Mr. Worthington Smith which had been found
in the area of the British Camp near Ightham, Sevenoaks, Kent.
Mr. Kobarts, F.G.S., cautioned the members of the Society against
supposing that there was any very distinct line between the Palaeolithic
and the NeoHthic Ages. The Paleolithic implements, which were roughly
formed, were so far mixed with the Neolithic, for a reason which he would
give later on, that when they found Palaeolithic implements they must
not conclude — from that, at all events — that then- age was very great.
Implements which were not polished, which were little more than flakes,
would naturally be made by hunters or by people who wanted implements
in a hurry. And often they might expect that, in the summer season,
when a hunter came across the then mainland — now the German Ocean —
into Great Britain, he would leave a small deposit of implements, which,
when found, might be considered Paleolithic. And they must not con-
sider that Neolithic implements were all done with after bronze was
introduced. Bronze would have been an article of luxury and used by
the chiefs, whereas the rank and file would not have been able to use
bronze weapons, but must have been content with stone ones. In all
probability stone implements were used even long after the introduction
of u'on. Then again we had almost contemporaneous evidence of the
manufacture of stone implements — at all events they were manufactured
in America as late as the middle of the 16th century. Flint implements
were then made by the Indians at Montreal, whereas a couple of hundred
years afterwards they were utterly unknown, and when dug up— had it
not been known by certain memoranda made by a voyager that there had
been that camp of Indians there — they might have been put down to a
period hundi'eds or even thousands of years previously. Another point
to be taken into consideration was this : it must not be taken that the
engravings on the bones were always engravings of contemporaneous
animals. There was considerable probability that they were of the
nature of totems which descended from father to son, as they did among
the American Indians ; and there was a probabihty that, instead of these
figures being pictorial representations of animals living at the time —
although they would have been that in the first place — they were simply
the designs of chiefs, and might thus have kept to the Mammoth, though
the Mammoth had then no existence. He would add to the manufactories
the President had named one which he had not mentioned : the holes
known as Grimes's Graves, which were in aU probability made to get into
good strata of flints — flints which would work easily. As supporting the
theory that flint implements were objects of barter, Mr. Eobarts mentioned
that they were found in considerable numbers in places destitute of the
stone from which they were made ; and certain stones had been carried
all over Europe, and might be traced almost to one particular spot where
the factory was. As to the tiuestion of difticulty in distinguishing the
worked flints, he said that they might get doubtful flakes and be uncertain
Journal of Proceediiuis. xxvii
about them ; but directly they got a manufactured one the signs would be
so clear that there could be no difficulty in saying whether it was natural
or artificial. Mr. Ilobarts concluded by stating that he had found what
he believed to be a very good flake in the brickfield at Honey Lane, and
he thought that if the members of the Society would work that field they
might obtain good results.
Mr. Henry Walker said, if he understood the drift of Mr. Robarts's re-
marks at the commencement, it was really to minimise the antiquity of man.
Mr. Robarts — Not at all.
Mr. Walker said he thought he detected in the speaker's reference to
the Hochelaga implements of the 16th century a following of the line
which Professor Dawson had taken since he had become a "reconciler."
But a Stone Age was to be found in our own days without going back two
hundred years. He held that there was an enormous gap between the
Palaeolithic and Neolithic Ages in Western Europe, as evidenced by the
excavation of valleys and other great physical changes, and especially by
the great change in the fauna. With regard to the social condition of
Paleolithic man, he thought it was a great mistake to look upon him as
a savage. Those who had read Darwin's ' Voyage of the Beagle' would
recollect the author's description of certain native tribes in South America
who might properly be so designated. They wore no clothing, had no
habitations, they fed on worms, and lay down on the bare ground in all
weathers. Now Pala3olithic man was more than this. He was at least a
manufacturer ; he made implements, and for all we know to the contrary
might have had a social and tribal polity. He had left no structures*
behind him, and his habitations were probably wattles. The country had
been submerged since the time of Paleolithic man, as was shown by the
beds of alluvial gravel which overlie the beds containing the old
Mammalia. It was remarkable how the once-despised gravel had come
to the front lately in geological enquiries. Everywhere now the talk was
about the gravels, their age, and conditions of deposit. The reason why
the gravels were found in the valleys was obvious. In times of flood and
submergence everything on the surface was liable to be washed down to
the lower levels, and hence the valleys had become the repositories and
museums of the drift of the landscape. They must make up their minds
to hear more and more of the gravels and their contents, for they would
long continue to be the geological topic of the day. With regard to the
so-called " Dane's holes," it was agreed by the best observers that they
were artificially made, and had served as places of refuge, perhaps when
the old Norse pirates were ravaging the shores of the Thames.
Mr. Robarts explained that he did not wish to throw any doubt upon
the great age of man. On the contrary, he believed man was here at the
Glacial epoch. His remarks went only to the manner in which the
different periods overlapped each other.
Mr. Meldola — If he were here at the Glacial epoch he must have been
here at least two hundred and forty thousand years ago. (Laughter.)
XXVlll
Journal of Proceedings.
Votes of thanks were passed to Mr. Worthington Hniith for his gift of
the series of "flakes" to the Museum, and to Mr. Meldola for his
interesting impromptu lecture. The meeting then resolved itself into the
usual Conversazione, at which the Kev. F. A. Walker sent for exhibition
some specimens of "banded flints" from the chalk formation at Christ-
church, Hants ; and Mr. R. M. Christy sent some flint implements,
including eight from Canada, one from the Bartlow Hills, three more or
less perfect implements from Cissbury, one from South Downs, and a
number of curious flint chips from Cissbury Hill, where similar ones may
be obtained by the bushel; also a few gun-flints, to show that the
manufacture of flint had lasted to these days.
Monday, May 30th, 1881, and following Days.
Report on the Club's Exploration of Ambresbury Banks,
Epping Forest.
At the Field Meeting held on July 3rd, 1880, the President suggested
that the scientific exploration of the two ancient earth-works, known as
Ambresbury Banks and the Loughton Camp, would be a fitting and
worthy task for the Club to undertake. The suggestion was warmly
received by the members present, and General Pitt-Rivers very readily
promised his valuable aid and advice in the matter. As detailed in the
Report of the Ordinary Meeting on October 30th, 1880, permission to
make the necessary excavations was granted to the Club by the Epping
Forest Committee of the Corporation of London, and under date October
12th a circular to the members was issued by the Honorary Secretary,
making a strong appeal for funds to carry on the works, the cost of which
would be too great to be defrayed out of the ordinary income of the
Society. In response to that appeal the following sums were subscribed
by the members of the Club named : —
Forest Camps Exploration Fund.
Subscriptions, 1880 and 1881.
Brady, Sir Antonio
Burney, George .
Buxton, E. N. . .
Buxton, Su' Fowell
Buxton, T. F. V. .
Carrington, J. T. .
Christy, R. M. .
Cole, William . .
Copland, Mrs.
Copland, P. . .
Copland, P. F. .
Crouch, Walter .
Darwin, Charles .
Dunning, J. W. .
£
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
0 10
1 1
0 5
1 1
0 5
0 10
1 1
1 1
0
0
0
0
0
0
(5
0
0
0
0
6
0
0
Fawcett, W. . .
Fitch, E. A. . .
Gardner, Prof.
Godwin, George J.
Goss, Herbert . .
Gould, F. C. . .
Grut, Ferdinand .
Harcourt, G. C. .
Heathfield, E. . .
Hore, J. P. . . .
Howard, W. D. .
Jervoise, Sir J. C.
Johnston, Andrew
Jones, D. B. . .
£ s.
0 10
1 1
0 10
0 10
1 1
0 10
1 1
0 5
0 10
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
0 0
d.
6
0
6
6
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Journal (if Proceedin^li
Thuhsday, July 21st, 1881.— Field Meeting.
A )-eunion of the Club was held on this day in Epping Forest, for the
purpose of meeting the members of the Hertfordshire Natural History
Society, and showing them some of the most interesting features of the
Essex woodlands. The weather was charming, but, owing partly to the
day of meeting being an inconvenient one for city men, and partly to
the fact that many members of both Societies were away from home, the
attendance was not so large as is usual on these occasions. The presence
and assistance of two well-known naturalists had been hoped for, but
professional engagements prevented their attendance at the last moment.
About forty members of the two societies were present, including several
ladies. The members of the Hertfordshire Club came by train from
their county town to Waltham Abbey, and thence by coach to the "Wake
Arms," the appointed rendezvous, under the conduct of one of the
Secretaries, Lieut. Croft, E.N., F.L.S., arriving about one o'clock. Our
own members reached the spot in detachments, some strolling over through
the woods from the various forest villages, and others took train to
Theydon Bois, and rode or walked up to the "Wake Arms." After
pleasant greetings and a hasty luncheon, the united parties made for
Monk's Woods, stopping occasionally to botanize, to examine and
determine some doubtful insect, or to fish up in Uttle bottles the
microscopic inhabitants of the forest ponds and ditches. The late rain
and the bright gHnt of the sunshine enhanced the fresh beauty of the
beechwoods, and many were the expressions of pleasure and surprise
from those who thus made their first acquaintance with the Forest.
Although our looked-for experts were unable to attend, we were not
without skilled assistance; indeed we had with us some very good
observers, and the flora and fauna of the woods were fairly well
investigated during our somewhat hurried peregrinations. The Hert-
fordshire contingent had with them their well-known botanical member,
Mr. Bates Blow, while the Microzoa and Protophyta were registered by
Mr. T. W. Phillips. With our Club were several amateur entomologists
and botanists, and our visitor, Mr. James J. King (representing the
Glasgow Natural History Society) was very busy among his own
particular pets— the Neuroptera. In Monk's Woods the beautiful rose
willow {Epilohium angustifolium) was gladly welcomed in full bloom as
an old friend, and the abundance of the " stag's-horn " club-moss {Lyco-
jwdium clavatum) struck many of our visitors as a notable circumstance.
In boggy places were seen that favourite of the biologist, the carnivorous
Drosera, and the pretty AnagalUs tenella (bog pimpernel); whilst in
shady places the Httle bell-flower {Campamda hedemcea) lifted its heart-
shaped leaves and delicate blue corollas from its damp bed of Spluuinum
moss. By one large pond, near High Beach, grew the two bullrushes
{Typha latifolia and amiusti folia), and in the pond itself were found
several species of Chara, notably Cham translucens. Here Mr. PhilHps
/
X
lii
Journal of Proceedint/s.
recorded the following low forms of vegetal life as the result of his
dippings: — AhGJE, Pediastrum biradiatnm and species of Spirogijra;
Desmids, Clostenum lunula and others ; Diatoms, Meridion circulare
(abundant), Synedra ulna, S. capitata, Navicula serians, N. crassinervia,
Gomphonenia stipitatum, and Fragillaria striatula. In the woods the
entomologists were much astonished at the extreme abundance of the
yellow-underwing moth {Triplicena pro)iuha). Literally hundieds of
these common but very handsome moths were disturbed as the party
wandered through the woods, the insects taking a sharp flight of a few
yards, flashing out a gleam of colour and then settling again, then- dull
mottled fore-wings concealing the gayer tints, and so rendering their
detection amongst the greys and browns of the dead leaves and mosses
a very difticult task.
The usual butterflies of the Forest were often noticed. By way of a
sample, Mr. Lockyer netted a lovely fresh Goneptenjx Ehavini, Satyrus
^Sgeria, and a curious dark form of Polyommatus pldceas. Flitting about
us were to be seen the " gatekeeper " {Satyrus Titho)ius), common " blues,"
and in the sedgy open places in the woods the "common skipper"
{He; plucoptenDf, Ste. Not
uncommon.
Elipsocua unipunctatus, Miill.
Very common.
E. hyaVuius, Ste. Very common.
Cleon diptenun, Linn.
Platetruni depressiun, Linn. Com-
mon.
jEschna cyanea, Miill. Common.
JE. grandb, Linn. Very common.
Pyrr]io>iO)iui jnudnni, Harr. Very
common.
Ayrion cyatliiyeruin, Charp. Very
common.
SLsyra fuscata, Fab. Occurred
near Loughton.
Hemerohius eleyans, Ste., var. Mar-
sliami, Ste. Obtained by beating
the bushes that skirted a pond
near Loughton.
Hemewbius viicans, Oliv. Very
common all over the Forest.
The var. fuscinervis, Schn., also
occurred.
H. Huiiiuli, Linn. Common.
Cliry.sopa alba, Linn. Constantly
being beaten out of the bushes,
&c.
C. asjyersa, Wesm. Uncommon.
C. voitralis, Cur. Uncommon.
Coniopteryx Tinei/orniis, Cur.
C. aleyrodifoDiiis, Ste.
^Pa)io)pa cononuni.s, Linn. Com-
mon.
P. Gernianica, Linn. Common.
Grammotaulius atomarius, Miill.
One specimen occurred at a
ditch near High Beach.
Limnophilus affinis, Cur. Not un-
common.
L. centralis. Occurred every-
where.
L. spars^is. Very common.
Mr. PhiUips was the only member of the party who diligently collected
Microzoa, but he reported that the forest-ponds were very productive,
especially near High Beach. His list of the contents of his bottles and
tubes is as follows : —
Journal of Proceedhufs. xliii
Stentor nifier. l Metopidia s'p.'? (no f^izzard visible,
Melicerta ringeiu.
Vaf/inicola cryfitdllina.
Gotliurnia imberbis.
Trachelim olor.
ArceUa viihian'.^.
Candona luceihs.
Bi'achionus pala.
B. urceolaris.
possibly a male of M. lepadelhi).
Enjylotcs jjdtelhi.
Colepx liirtns.
ActiiiopJirys Sol.
Eufilena viyidis.
E. acm.
Pliacus triqueta.
Pandorina mornm.
High Beach having been visited, and the view over the valley of the
Lea into Hertfordshire and Middlesex duly enjoyed, the whistle was
vigorously sounded to gather together the dissociated elements of the
party ; and a delightful ramble through tangled brake and thicket
brought the members to our ancient Camp, where Mr. Cole pointed out
and explained the recent excavations and their results. After a thorough
inspection of the site of the Camp, the return signal led the party back to
the " Wake Arms," where a substantial "high tea" awaited us. Time
did not permit of much talk. The Eev. W. Linton Wilson, M.A., took
the chair, and in a genial speech cordially welcomed our Hertfordshire
colleagues. Lieut. Croft, F.L.S., as Secretary of the Herts Club, expressed
the pleasure of his members at their first incursion into Essex; many had
that day seen Epping Forest for the first time, and he was sure they were
both surprised and pleased. He hoped this pleasant reunion of the two
societies, so closely united in purpose and constitution, would become an
annual affair. The presence of ladies at the meetings was a feature
cordially welcomed by both clubs, and he was sure all had reaped the
benefit of the regulation in the graceful assistance rendered by their lady
members at the tea-tables. Soon after tea the Hertfordshire detachment
mounted their coach en route for Waltham, and the members of the Essex
Club wandered through the woodlands to Loughton and Theydon Bois in
the cool calm evening of a perfect summer day.
Monday, August 1st, 1881. — From Epping to Theydon Gaknon, Essex.
[In the circular announcing the previous Field Meeting it was intimated
that " On Bank Holiday some members will meet at Epping Station on the
arrival of the 10.13 train from Fenchurch Street, for a country ramble.
Those intending to join should communicate with the Secretary.'" The
Secretary and Librarian loere duly in attendance, but only three other
members put in an appearance. However, tliis triad included the botanical
skill and local knoioledge of Prof. Botilger and Mr. English, and a very
pleasant and profitable day was spent. The foUoicing sketch of the ramble
is from Prof. Boulgefs notes, supplemented by a few observations by Mr.
English and the Secretary.—Ei).]
As our small but enthusiastic party left the Epping Station, the first
object of botanical interest to attract our notice was the rest-harrow, of
xliv Journal of Proceedhu/s.
which the sjiiny variety {Ononis campestris) only prevails thereabouts.
The common elm at this locality is a remarkably small-leaved form, the
leaves on young and vigorous shoots being diminutive ; and during the
whole day Quercus pediinculata was the only form of oak we met with.
Plunging into the luxuriant vegetation of a rough sloping bank of waste-
land by a green lane we speedily came upon much of interest ; quantities
of flea-bane {PuUcaria dysenterica), meadow-sweet {Spircea Ulmaria) with
its characteristic gall, the result of the "house holdings" of a small gall-
gnat called Cecidomyia Ulmaria, an oak stump with its twigs much
affected with both the Devonshire or marble gall (the work of Cynips
Kollari) and the very curious artichoke gall [Apliilotlirix yemmce, L.,
C.fecwidatrix, Hart.), the result of the distortion of the leaf or flower-bud
of the oak by the insect. Other plants noticed were some fine examples
of thistles {Onopordon Acantliium and Carduus palustris), red campion
{LycJniis dizirna), tufted vetch {Vicia cracca), willow herbs, and St. John's
worts. The handsome teasels {Bipsaciis sylvestris) with several pairs of
connate leaves, forming pitchers crammed with animal matter, suggested
some remarks on accidental and purposive structures ; whilst as they were
just in flower, they also illustrated the artificial nature of the classification
of inflorescences into centrifugal (in which the central flower opens first)
and centripetal (in which the order of development is the reverse, the
lower flowers opening first) ; in the teasel tribe {Dipsacacece) many
examjiles occur, as in D. aylvestris, of a combination of both forms of
development. Convolvulus sepitim, generally preferring cultivated ground,
was, however, plentiful, as also was the bittersweet {Solanum Dulcamara) ;
whilst in fruit were noted the pepper wort {Lepidium campestre), cuckoo-
pint {Arum maculatum), black bryony {Tamus communis), and cleavers
{Galium Aparine), the abundance of which last afforded a practical
exemplification of one mode of seed-dispersal, the curious little rough
fruit with its hooked bristles clinging in hundreds to our clothes as we
forced our way through the thick herbage. The large compound umbels,
hollow or "fistular" stems, and pinnately-di\dded leaves with large basal
sheaths, of fine specimens of Angelica sylvestris (suggesting to our
entomologists larvcs of Eupithecia) and the cow-parsnip {Heracleum
Sphondylium) illustrated the order Umhelliferce. We leave the "siding"
to pass through Steward's Green, as it is called, — a long green lane, which
seems to possess some interest to the entomologist and botanist. Here
we encountered the centaury {Erythrcea centaurium), Hypericum hirsutum,
and a remarkably small-flowered Epilohium parvijiorum, which were
"bagged" previous to the "interval for refreshment." The bittersweet
was luxuriating in a j)ond by which stood some sycamores, free from the
fungus Phytisma, and covered with theii- winged "samaras." The
" Theydon Oak," growing by a pond not far from the Inn, is now a mere
wreck, and was estimated at twenty-six feet girth and to be not less than
three centuries in age. The party then plunged into Theydon Garnon
or Coopersale Forest, dense with holly and hornbeam, and apparently
Journal of Proceedinys. xlv
part of the ancient Forest of Essex. Hard by was a meadow locality for
adder's-tongue (OpJiiofjlossum) and Orchis Mario, known well to Mr.
English, round the borders of which some splendid plants of Equisetum
were growing. Keturning to the Forest, we crossed a bog where the
white-rot (Hydrucotyle vuliiare) abundantly illustrated a dei)arture from
the normal foliage of umbelliferous plants, and here a few sj)ecies of FiDipi
were noted, liuasula vesca, with its rosy pileus ; Marasniius urcns, a
poisonous species with a very pungent odour ; A(jaricus fuHcipen and A.
ajjpendiculatus — common, but welcome when other forms are not to be
found. Here also we met with Stereum inirpureuin, an unusual sight at
this season of year ; usually the plant is only found in perfection during
the winter time. Passing onward through a rushy swamp, which in
spring is always gay with flowers, notably Galtha palustris, we cross the
new road to Gayne's Park and enter the fields known as the " Lawns,"
where in days gone by Mr. English tells us the larvcs of the burnet moth
{Z y (jcBtia JilipenduJa) used to swarm, and where at early morn the vagrant
cuckoos could be seen feasting on the unsuspecting caterpillars. From
the "Lawns" we enter the fine woods, which, although contiguous, are
known by the several names of Gaynes Park Woods or "Birchen Copse,"
Hawk's Hill and Ongar Park Woods. Having previously noted Bartsia
eu-Odontites and the yellow rattle {RJiinantiius crista-galli), we now come
upon a third of the semi-parasitic Scrophulariads, the cow-wheat
{Melampyrum pratense) ; and in a ditch, then dry, near the site of the
"Centre-tree" (now a thing of the past, but the seven rides or "wonts"
converging still mark the spot), was abundance of the skull-cap
(Scutellaris yalericulata), with the wood pimpernel and the money- wort
{LysimacJria nemorum and Numviularia). Here Mr. English, from a well-
remembered spot, obtained abundance of the rose-bay {Epilobium
angusti folium), E. Jiirsutuvi, E. paluHtre, and E. obscunuii being also
noted during the day ; whilst their graceful ally, the enchanter's night-
shade {Circcea lutetiana) was abundant. On the trunks of the oaks we
noticed many specimens of the fine moth, the "black arches" [Liparis
monacha), and one or two of Epunda viminalis ; whilst among the
butterflies the fresh Gonepteryx Rhamni, some Vanessidce, "gate-keepers,"
" blues," and " skij)pers" were welcomed as very old friends. The alders
yielded many specimens of a remarkable stalked gall on the upper side of
the leaves, the work of one of the Phytopi or gall-mites (perhaps
Ce2)h(iloiieuni jrustidatwii, Bremi.) ; and on the majiles were thousands of
the reddish leaf-galls of another mite {Gepludoneum myriadeion), and the
wild roses bore "bedeguars" in abundance. Taking theEj^ping ride, one
of the seven, we descended the hill, noting the fungus Lactarius pipeiuitus
on the banks, regained the Coopersale Forest, and then made for the
gravel-pits. Here Hottonia palustris, we were told, had once been
common, but had aj^parently been exterminated by the gravel-digging.
But we found a nice SpJiaymtm bog, containing abundance of a plant
somewhat rare in South Essex, — Menyaiithes trifoliata, — the eathory
xlvi Journal of Proceedings.
petals of which will aiford a problem in another season for the local
Darwinians. Round about was abundance of the historic needle-whin
{Ge)iista AnpUca), and this spot afforded an agreeable finish to the day's
botanizing. Among the other plants noticed during the day were,
AdtiUea ptarmica, Hypericum perforatum, humifusum, and pulchrum,
Epilohium Idrsutum and obscurum, Geranium dissectum, the two pretty
legume bearers, Lotus major and corniculatus ; and our note-books
contained entries of more than one hundi'ed plants. After witnessing
the "polo" play on Epping Plain, and examining Mr. English's old-
fashioned garden of hardy plants, his preserved Funcji and other
specimens, we betook ourselves to the station, which we left in a heavy
fall of rain and — a somewhat crowded condition.
Satukday, August 13th, 1881. — Field Meeting and Ordinary Meeting.
A Visit to Chelmsford and Danbury.*
It afforded the Council great pleasure to hold a Field Meeting in
conjunction with the subscribers to the "Essex and Chelmsford Museum,"
as tending to promote those feelings of good-fellowship and mutual
encouragement which should prevail between societies having objects so
much in common — the diffusion of a taste for the study of Science and
increasing the opportunities for intellectual recreation in the county.
Mr. Edmund Durrant, Hon. Secretary to the "Museum," took great
interest in the affair, and to his kind exertions much of the success of the
meeting was due.
The weather was not so genial as could be wished. On the Friday
preceding the meeting the rain came down hea\'ily all day, and made the
prospect of Saturday anything but cheering. Saturday itself opened dull
and tlireatening, and later on it fulfilled its threat by an occasional
shower, which, however, did very little to disturb the day's enjoyment.
Still it was a chilly day, and the lowering skies did not show the country
at its best. The untoward weather had the effect of keeping at home a
great many members of the Essex Field Club who would otherwise have
gone to Chelmsford, but, nevertheless, a fair number assembled at
Liverpool Street Station in the morning, and went down to the county-
town by the 10 a.m. express train. The Club was for the first time
enabled to take advantage of the concession of the Directors of the Great
Eastern Eailway Company, by which members are allowed to purchase a
return-ticket at a single fare from the Liverpool Street, Buckhurst Hill,
Woodford, or Stratford Stations, to any given station on the railway in
* The Proprietors of the 'Essex Times,' the ' Essex Weekly News,' the 'Chelmsford
Chronicle,' and the ' Essex Herald ' sent representatives to this Meeting, and the several
newspapers for the week ending August 20th contained lengthy and excellent reports of
the same. The two first-mentioned papers printed Mr. Chancellor's memoir in cxtenso.
—Ed.
Journal of Proceedin(/s. xlvii
the neighbourhood of which the Chib might from time to time hold either
Field or Ordinary Meetings.
On reaching Chelmsford a move was quickly made to the " Saracen's
Head Hotel," in the High Street, the appointed head-quarters for the day.
After a short stay there, and not a few pleasant introductions and hand-
shakings, the company — now considerably augmented by fresh local
arrivals — proceeded across the road to St. Mary's Church, Mr. F. Chan-
cellor (Architect to the Diocese), — who, thanks to a long and loving study
of its architectural and antiquarian details, is perhaps better qualified for
the task than any other man in Essex, — having kindly undertaken to act
as their "guide, philosopher, and friend," in connection with the
inspection of that ancient and stately edifice. Taking his stand under
one of the noble arches of the tower, Mr. Chancellor read an elaborate
paper upon the Church, giving its history from 1424 up to the present
time, and lucidly explaining its architectural features and its points of
historical and antiquarian interest. We much regret that the limits of
these rej)orts, and the scheme of the Club as mainly a Natural History
Society, precludes the insertion of this valuable paper in its entirety.
Mr. Chancellor began by referring to the very meagre records of the
ancient history of Chelmsford. There could be no doubt that a Church
existed there from very early times, and it might fairly be presumed that
the structure was one of some importance ; but, except what might have
been used in the shape of old materials in the building of the walls of the
present edifice, no remains of it are extant. Doubtless the old Church,
which partook probably of the Norman character, was utterly annihilated
by the townsfolk when they determined upon re-building of their parish
Church in 1424. That John De Vere, twelfth Earl of Oxford, whose
family was possessed of the "Old Black Boy," and who probably made
Chelmsford a halting-place and an occasional residence in his journeys
to and from Hedingham Castle to London, aided in the work of rebuilding
the Church, was proved by the fact of his shield, charged with the mullet,
being carved in the spandril of the west door of the tower, and by his
crest, the boar, being introduced in the apex of the arch of the same door.
This latter corresponded with the carved boar which formed part of the
ceiling of an apartment in the "Old Black Boy." The Bouchiers, the
Mountneys of Mountnessing, the Beauchamps, the Nevilles, the Mow-
brays, and the Warners of Great Waltham, all undoubtedly contributed
to the re-edification of the building, for their arms decorated the roof,
and were emblazoned in the east window. Although all that remained of
the old structure was the tower, the south porch, and a few other frag-
ments in the aisles and chancel, they were sufiicient to prove the care
taken in its building. The tower was one of the strongest and most
enduring pieces of workmanship in the district. It had withstood the
storms of four centuries with scarcely an impression made upon its
massive walls, and, unless damaged accidentally or wantonly, it would
last for as many centuries more. In 1424 the Perpendicular style had
xlviii Journal of Proceedmis.
established itself throughout the country, and the new edifice was erected
wholly in that style ; and although some of the details were poor and
somewhat debased, there was still an air of magnificence about the old
tower which was sufficient of itself to stamp its architect as a master of
his art.
Mr. Chancellor gave a minute description of the tower as it was left by
its architect in 1424, but in 1749 misfortune came; the sapient townsmen
thought that the effect of the whole building would be increased by a
spire, and that wretched apology for one which still crowned and dis-
figured the tower was erected.
After speaking of the bells and reproducing the quaint poetical inscrip-
tions upon them, Mr. Chancellor said that, next to the tower, the south
porch demanded attention. Consisting of two stories, it was a more
imposing feature than usual ; the room over it had for many years
been utiUzed as a depository for vdlls, and probably had always been used
for the transaction of ecclesiastical business. It now contained the
library left by the late Dr. Knightsbridge. The external appearance of
the porch was at present destroyed by the " abominably hideous projection
containing the staircase." A highly-enriched niche, which probably con-
tained a sculptural representation of the crucifixion, surmounted the
archway. The body of the Church, consisting of the nave and aisles, was
almost totally destroyed in 1800, when the roof fell in, and but a few
fragments remained of the original work. The plan of this part of the
structure was the same as at present, except the recent additions of the
north aisle and transept, as the new walls were erected upon the old
foundations, such parts of the old structure as were sound being worked
into the new edifice. The arches were doubtless the same as at present,
but they carried a clerestory of a very imposing character. The west end
of the north aisle was the most important fragment left of this portion of
the building of 1424. Fortunately the roof remained and served as a key
to that of the nave. The noble effect of even these few fragments com-
pelled them to pause and endeavour to realise the grandeur of the old
structure in its original glory, with its massive oaken roof spanning both
the nave and aisles, enriched undoubtedly with sliields and banners in
all the tintings of herakby, and possibly with its mouldings revelling in
a sea of gold and red and blue. A noble clerestory enriched with painted
glass lighted up the whole building, bringing out by the reflected lights
the depths and shadows of the old oak framing, the lofty arches of the
tower fonuing a fitting entrance to the goodly structure, and the long vista
terminating in the richly-painted window of the chancel.
On the 17th of January, 1800, the whole of the roof fell with a
tremendous crash, carrying with it the greater part of the nave- walls,
and rendering necessary a re-edification of nearly the whole of the struc-
ture. For this purpose it appears an Act of ParHament was required.
The inhabitants, as in 1424, set to work in good earnest — would that their
zeal had been better rewarded ; but unfortunately at that time Gothic
Journal oj L'roceedin(/s. xlix
architecture was not appreciated, its beauties were ignored by those who
ought to have upheld them, and he could not endorse the opinion of a
recent historian who said that the present Church was " a monument of
liberahty and taste." The liberality of the inhabitants was undoubted,
and was well worthy of emulation, but the taste in which the work was
executed was most questionable.
For three hundred years, — extending from the commencement of the
16th to the commencement of the l'.)th century, — although surrounded by
the most exquisite examples, our ancestors appeared to have been insen-
sible to the charms of Gothic architecture, and to have ridiculed it in
every conceivable manner ; brighter days had dawned upon them, and
Gothic architecture, like a Phoenix, had risen from her ashes and was
re-asserting her power over the length and breadth of the land.
The monuments in a Parish Church frequently form the chief materials
for the history of the place ; and in the small and unpretending Village
Church, where the surrounding lands have passed from father to son for
generations, we find the most magnificent specimens of these memorials ;
but in a town, where exchange of property is more frequent and where
the family monuments are left without natural protectors, they are
destroyed or mutilated without remorse. Considering the wealth and
power of the neighbouring lords, there could be no doubt that formerly
many memorials existed of those who once held sway over the district,
but they were all gone, and three brassless stones alone remained as
representatives of the early monumental history of the fabric. The
oldest monument was that to Thomas Mildmay, of the date of 1571,
which bears a very quaint Latin inscription. Upon one of the walls of
the north chancel aisle was an interesting inscription on a brass tablet,
compiled, he believed, by the late Archdeacon Mildmay, which set forth the
names of those members of the Mildmay family who lay buried either in
the old Mildmay vault or in the precincts of the Church, together with the
dates of the burials. Mr. Chancellor referred to the imiDrovements which
had been effected since 1867 in the removal of the galleries ; the addition
of a second north aisle and the north transept ; the remodelling of the
chancel by the construction of a new east window ; the addition of a
clerestory and new roof ; and concluded by saying that the party had
travelled round, over, and he might almost say under the Church, and he
believed that he had directed attention to every part of it to which any
interest was attached. Hidden from view in the walls of the Church
itself, or on the bookshelves of great public libraries, much information
might still exist, and if any person would undertake the task of tho-
roughly searching old records and volumes, many curious facts might be
discovered, and much light thrown upon the character of the original
structure, at the existence of which he had only been able to glance.
The paper was listened to with great interest and attention throughout,
and after a thorough inspection of the Church — not forgetting the remains
of the Kuightsbridge library, now fast hastening to decay by reason of
9
1 Journal of Proceedings.
neglect, vermin and damp — the company walked to the Museum in Bridge
Street, under the guidance of the Rev. E. E. Bartlett, M.A.,the Honorary
Curator, and Mr. Edmund Durrant, the Honorary Secretary. The
Museum contains some interesting objects, notably a general collection of
shells and specimens of Roman and other pottery found in Essex. But
the paucity of local specimens, and the absence of proper labels, detract
very much from the value of the contents of the Museum. Mr. Bartlett
gave a brief but interesting sketch of the history of the institution, and
did all in his power to render the %dsit a pleasurable one.
^lany of the Members of the Club were most hospitably entertained at
luncheon by Messrs. Durrant, Chancellor, Baker, and other townsfolk.
About half -past one o'clock there was again a gathering at the " Saracen's
Head," from whence the party was carried in drags and other conveyances
through pleasant lanes and by smiling corn-fields, jjast Great Baddow
and Sandon, over Wood-hill, and so to the Bishop's Park. As we rode
through Great Baddow, attention was called to the fine " Copper Beeches "
{Fanus sylvatica var. purpurea), in one of the park-hke gardens. Tall
l^lants of Typha angwtifoUa were esijied in a pond by the roadside, and
the sj)ectacle of large jDatches of the handsome Lijthrum SaUcuria gave
rise to a discussion on the tri-morphism in the structure of the flower of
that plant, which was so thoroughly investigated by Darwin. Mr. John
Gibbs (a well-known Chelmsford botanist) remarked that he was sure he
had found all the three forms in his own neighbourhood.*
At Sandon a short halt was made to give an opportunity for the
inspection of the quaint Httle Church of St. Andi'CAv, which is believed to
be of great antiquity. Here were some gigantic elms by the Church
gate — a row of massive and venerable trees that have skhted " God's-acre "
for centuries. One fine pollarded specimen [Ulmus ca)npestris, With., var.
vulgatissima, Miller) was measured by Professor Boulger, and found to
* On Septembei- 3rd, Mr. Gibbs wi-ote : — " On Monday last I took a walk in search of
Lythnnn Salicaria, and in a ditch bordering a lane between Chelmsford and Writtle, I
gathered 33 twigs from different plants. On examining them, I found 12 long-styled, 16
mid-styled, and 5 short-styled, so that I was not after aU in error when I said that all
thi-ee forms are to be found near Chelmsford."
Mr. Gibbs has also handed to the Editor a list of native floweidng plants, obsei-ved by
himself in the neighbourhood of Chelmsford, 374 in number, which will best foi-m the
subject of a separate communication. He remarks that " the list does not include
sevei-al plants, natives of other parts of England, and in cultivation here, as lucerne
(Medicago sativa). Tragopogon porrifoUus is only found on the banks of railways, to
which places the winged monospermous fruits are believed to have been conveyed by
wind. Several species included in my list may have been destroyed by the removal of
woods, of which many acres have been cleared since I observed Epilobium angustifoUum
and Paris quadrifolia gi-owing in them. There are, however, many plants not included,
especially Cyperacea, and probably several species of Pofamogeton. (Enantlie Phellan-
drium has been very luxuriant this year in ponds and ditches near Chelmsford, and ■
being a very poisonous UmbeUif er it may possibly cause the death of cattle, who are not
botanists enough to distinguish it from the "Water Parsnep, when taken from ponds
and left upon the land by men who are not better botanists than the cattle." — Eu.
Journal <>f Proceediuffs. li
have a circumference of more than 20 feet. In the fissures of the brick-
work of the Church, the pretty ivy-leaved toadflax (IJnaria Cymbalaria)
grew freely. Springing from the tower above us was a tree (which the
villagers declare to be an elder), probably the result of the growth of a
seed conveyed tkither by a bird.
The chief features of interest in the Church were pointed out by Mr.
Chancellor. It contains a remarkably perfect pulpit, dating from the
time of Henry the Eighth. In design and execution it is like a very fine
example of perpendicular work, and of it Mr. Chancellor remarked that
he did not know of another in Essex which was so perfect, so complete,
and in design so beautiful. The chancel arch came in for a great deal of
notice. It is evident that a narrower chancel arch at one time existed, —
probably Norman,— and it is well known that the Norman chancel arches
in Essex churches were often very narrow. The present arch has been
formed by cutting away the narrower arch and so enlarging it. Over the
centre, facing the altar, is a curious arched recess, the purpose of which
was not explained, though it looks as if it had been intended to hold an
image. A few words were also devoted to the small pieces of coloured
glass inserted in the east window, which Mr. Chancellor deemed to be
probably original, and attention was called to the centre shield, bearing
the device of the St. Clere family, monuments of whom are in Danbury
Church. Greater interest still was shown when the speaker directed
attention to what is known as a " leper window," or " low side window,"
as to the purpose of which archaeologists are divided. One theory is that
these windows were contrived to allow of the administration of the
Sacrament to the lepers, who were not allowed inside the church.
Another is that they were intended to permit the sacristan to hold the
bell outside and ring it at the consecration of the elements, to convey to
the village information of the performance of the rite. The point was
freely discussed at a late meeting of the Essex Archasological Society, and
is yet far from settled. Mr. Chancellor described the tower of the church
as a very fine specimen of the many brick towers constructed in this
county in the time of Henry the Seventh and Henry the Eighth. And
he added, in words that would make the builders of to-day blush, if a
man with the power to blush could be a nineteenth-century builder, that
the brickwork was extremely good, " as all the brickwork of that time
was." Attention was also called to some curious mural brasses, one of
them with the date obliterated, bearing a quaint inscription to the
memory of " Patrick Hearn Clark, late parson of this parish of Sandon."
Leaving Sandon, the party followed the road which winds up the
Danbury heights, through charming country, the prospect of which
widened as the elevation increased, giving fine glimpses of sylvan
scenery. Mr. Gibbs pointed out a bank by the roadside, on the rising
ground quitting Sandon, as a station for Claytonia perfoUata, Don, a
North American plant, sometimes found in a semi-wild state. Mr. Gibbs
states, " It was in May, 1858, that my friend, the late Mr. Edward
Hi Journal of Proceedi7u/s.
Copland told me that his son, who was then ill and soon afterwards died,
had found such a plant in the previous August. I therefore went in
search of it and found it in the place where it has grown ever since. As
Mr. Copland flattered himself that he had made an addition by his dis-
covery to our list of native plants, I never told him wlte,t I afterwards
learned from the cottager who occupied the garden bounded by the hedge
under which this interesting plant grows : — that the Bishop's gardener
had given him some seeds of American annuals which he sowed, and that
the Claytonia in particular had overrun the ground and finally established
itself by the wayside."
Arriving at the Bishop's Park at Wood-hill, the " traps " were dismissed
with instructions to the drivers to " wait at the ' Griffin ' " until the after-
noon's ramble was over. With great courtesy the Bishop of St. Alban's
had readily accorded permission to the members to stroll through a
portion of the park, at the same time expressing his regret that the fact
of his daughter's marriage with the Duke of Ai'gyll taking place on that
day would prevent him from having the pleasure of offering them the
hospitality of the Palace. The saunter through the grandly timbered
park with its picturesque clumps of oak, beech, and elm, its glades and
avenues and charming pieces of ornamental water, was thoroughly
enjoyed by all. In the ponds were noticed the white water-lily {Nymphcea
alba), Myosotis ^JoZnsfr/s, Mentha hirsuta, the graceful Alisina Plantago,
and the deliciously fragrant sweet-flag {Acorns Calamus). Mr. Jaggs, the
park-keeper, called attention to a fine oak tree {Q. pedunculata), with
leaves curiously variegated, but bearing acorns invariably producing
normal plants. Professor Boulger (who acted throughout the afternoon
as " botanical conductor," and of whom it was good-humouredly asserted
by one of the party that, in the language of the motto to ' Notes and
Queries,' he proved himself the most " learned, chatty, and useful " of
guides) was disposed to attribute the variation to the presence of a
parasitic Alga in the cells of the leaves. The variation is contagious but
not hereditary in some ivies, and regret was expressed that the tree did
not stand in the midst of a grove of oaks, in order that it might be seen
whether the disease would be communicated to them. Near this was a
small slip of ^\^llow brought by Mrs. Campbell from the tomb of Napoleon
I., at St. Helena, and now growing healthily and vigorously in the Essex
park. In the walk through the woods several other interesting plants
were noticed, particularly Riiscus aculeattis, the only British monocoty-
ledon with a woody stem ; this also grows on Banbury Common and at
Little Baddow, so plentifully as to leave no doubt as to its being a true
native. Piloted by Mr. T. M. Gepp, who appeared to be familiar with
every inch of the ground, the party made its way through the woods,
halting to be let through a gate here, and having to clamber over a fence
there, from the park to
" The decent Church that tops the neighbouring hill,"
which is built within the bounds of the ancient camp. This is one of the
Journal of Proceedings. liii
highest points in Essex, and from it a magnificent view was obtained in
all directions over the surrounding country. Several of the gentlemen of
the party ascended the tower, the scene from which amply repaid the
awkwardness of a part of the climb — that through the belfry, to wit,
which might well dismay unpractised climbers. The air was not too
clear, and the mist hid some of the more distant points, only lifting a
little to allow of a perplexing uncertain glimpse, and then closing and
blotting all out. But though bright sunshine would doubtless have made
the prospect much grander, it was yet a very fine one. In the distance
was the town of Maldon, and southwards lines of light showed the course
of the river Crouch and the mouth of the Thames, and those visitors
whose acquaintance with Essex and its many scenic beauties was limited,
were charmed with the outlook and were even ready to admit how little
the county deserves the commonly bestowed stigma of tameness.
In the building itself Mr. Chancellor's descriptive powers and archi-
tectural lore were again called into requisition to amuse and instruct the
visitors. Danbury Church, dedicated to St. John the Baptist, contains,
as was pointed out to the visitors, memorials of the days of the Crusaders
not to be exceeded, it is said, by any others of the kind in the kingdom,
not even by those in the Temple Church. The carved benches and stalls
in the chancel, and the beautiful stone altar screen, are the work of the
modern artificer on the occasion of the restoration of the Church some
years ago ; but the piscina and part of the sedilia speak of ancient days,
and portions of the building are of very old date. The building has been
twice injured by lightning, once in 1402, concerning which Hollingshed
states in his ' Devil of Danbury ' — " Vpon Corpus Cliristi day, in the
yeare 1402, the third of Henry the Fourth, at evensong time, the Devill
entred into this Church, in the likeness of a Gray frier, and raged
horribly, playing his parts like a Devill indeed, to the great astonishement
and fear of the parishioners ; and the same houre with a tempest of
whirlewind and thunder, the top of the steeple was broken downe, and
halfe of the chancel scattered abroad." And again, on 5th February,
1749-50, lightning struck fire to the spire and about 20 feet of it was
burnt. Under low arches in the walls of the aisles are three recumbent
figures of cross-legged knights carved in wood, which are undoubtedly
effigies of three crusaders of the St. Clere family, the former lords of the
parish. The feet of each figure are supported by a lion, and every lion
and every man is in a different position — a fact which is considered by
certain learned antiquarians to be emblematic of the manner of their
deaths. The crossed legs of the effigies go to show that the warriors
whom they represent were crusaders of the days of Eichard or Edward I.
The body of one of these crusaders was discovered about 100 years ago
by some workmen who were digging a grave. It was encased in a leaden
shell with two outer coftins, and was found to be in a good state of preser-
vation, this being due to the influence of a liquor in which it was lying.
Leaving the Church, an inspection was made of the ancient camp,
liv Journal of Proceedim/s.
under the direction of Mr. E. Corder. Nothing definite can be gleaned
from the pages of local historians as to the date or intention of this
earthwork. There is a rude plan of the camp in Morant's ' History of
Essex,' but very few details are given, and even local tradition is almost
silent, a vague notion that it is a military fortification of some kind only
obtaining in the district, and apparently some people admit feeling a
certain amount of scepticism as to its being a camp at all ! But there
can be little doubt upon that point — in moi^e than one place the form of
the rampart is abundantly evident, and the glacis well-defined. In the
absence of careful surveys and measurements, and a scientific exploration
of the ramparts themselves, it would not be wise to hazard any statement
with respect to the probable date of the work. It is evidently well worthy
of study, and it is very desirable that some effort should be made to clear
up the doubts which attach to it.
Time did not admit of any extended " prospecting " m the neigh-
bourhood by the naturalists of the party. Danbury seems to be as well
fitted as any place in Essex for the researches of the biologist. Mr.
Corder stated that the j)ark is a good place for birds, and that they are not
disturbed. The old trees harbour Brown and Barn Owls, Green Wood-
peckers and Nuthatches. Hawfinches build in the park and other wooded
parts of Danbury Hill. Mr. W. D. Cansdale, then residmg at Witham,
who was of the party, stated that " although from an entomological point
of view Danbury might not be entitled to rank on an equality with other
insect hunting-grounds in the county, yet the large number of species that
have been taken there from time to time sufficiently indicate that if well-
worked the district would prove to be a very productive one. The parish is
well studded with woodland, with several commons, in and tlirough which
the entomologist can thread his way with tolerable ease. The underwood
consists principally of oak, hornbeam and birch, with a fair supply of
sallow. The wild Clematis is plentiful, a certain guarantee that many
species may be found which are seldom met with m districts where that
plant does not occur."
The visitors noticed the pretty cornfield alien. Geranium pyrenaicum, in
the hedgerows, and Verbena officinalis (the favourite plant of the Druids),
found bordering the pathway near Danbury Church, was jokingly put
forward as an evidence of the British origin of the camp. Bryonia dioica
in fruit was a conspicuous object in the hedges. Professor Boulger, who
has made .a special study of our native elms, pomted out Ulmus montana,
Smith, var. nitida, Syme, on the second line of " ramparts." Mr. Corder
alluded to some interesting plants knowTi as occurring in the neighbour-
hood. On the commons he said were to be found Drosera rotundifolia and
the bog pimpernel {Anagallis tenella), and that in a certain spot grew a few
plants of the pretty maiden pink [Dianthus deltoides) which appears not to
be found wild elsewhere in Essex.* On Woodliam "Walter Common ferns
* Gibson in the ' Flora,' gives only one station — " on a ■wall at Witham, probably
an escape. This is truly wild at Hildersham (Cambridge), beyond the borders of this
county, but has not yet been so found in Essex." — Ed.
Journal of Proceedinffs. Iv
are numerous. Osmunda was once abundant but is now probably extinct.
Nephrodlum {Lastrea) Thehjpteris, Convallaria iiuijalis, Erica Tetralix,
and alders and buckthorns also grow there.
Halting at a field gate on the way back to the " Griffin," Professor
Boulger read a paper " On the Origin and Distribution of the British
Flora" [Transactions, ii. 69] . A very cordial and unanimous response
was made to the request of the President, seconded by Mr, H. Walker, that
thanks should be voted to the author for his admirable essay.
Much regret was felt that time would not admit of a visit to Sir Brook
Bridges' woods, permission and facilities to visit which were kindly given
by Mr. T. M. Gepp.
Upon returning to Chelmsford at about six o'clock, the company sat
down at the " Saracen's Head," to one of the " high teas " now so well
known to members, admirably served by Mr. Fuller.
At the close of the repast Mr. Meldola proposed, in a few well-chosen
words, votes of thanks to those who, by their kind aid, had so much
enhanced the success of the meeting : — to the Bishop of St. Albans, the
Rev. R. E. Bartlet, Mr. E. Currant, Mr. Chancellor, Rev. T. P. Bridges,
Rev. S. T. Gibson, Mr. Gepp, Professor Boulger, Mr. H. Corder, and
others who had in various ways given valuable assistance. He was very
glad on the present occasion to see that they had among them so large a
number of their colleagues of the " Chelmsford Museum," and he hoped
that this mutual arrangement might hold good for many future meetings.
At the same time they must not forget to return their most cordial
thanks to those members of the Museum who had been good enough to
receive and entertain them in the very kind and hospitable manner they
had done that day. [Applause] .
Mr. John Spiller, F.C.S., said, as that was the first occasion on which
the members of the Essex Field Club had been able to come and go by
rail on easier terms than usual, he should like to include among those to
whom votes of thanks were given the Directors of the Great Eastern
Railway Company. [Hear, hear.] As a Londoner he was glad to find
that the Great Eastern Railway Company had, so to speak, recognised
the Society, and that its members would, in future, be able to travel by
rail to their various meetings on more advantageous terms than persons
who were not interested in scientific pursuits. About tlu-ee weeks ago a
Deputation, of whom he was one, waited on the Directors, and were most
kindly received by Mr. Parkes, the Chairman, and when he had heard
what they had to urge on behalf of this, their local scientific Society, he,
on behalf of the Duectors was good enough to accord them the privilege
they asked for. He thought, therefore, that when they were passing these
votes of thanks they should include in them thanks to the Chairman and
Directors of the Great Eastern Railway for the concession they had
granted them. [Hear, hear.]
The votes of thanks having been carried by acclamation, Mr. Durrant
briefly responded on behalf of the Museum, assuring the members of the
Ivi Journal of Proceedimjs.
Field Club that it had been a very great pleasure to the members of the
Museum to welcome them in that town. [Applause.]
Mr. Chancellor said he was exceedingly obliged to them for the kind
vote of thanks they had passed to him. All he could say was that it had
been to him a labour of love, and it had been a great pleasure to him to
meet the gentlemen belonging to a Club which was considered, perhaps, to
trench somewhat on the manor of the Essex Ai-chasological Society. He
had been on the Council of the Archaeological Society since it started, and
he could only say he was very pleased to welcome fresh labourers. Essex
had been somewhat barren of archaeologists. He did not care whether
they came from inside or outside their Archaeological Society, and he was
pleased at all times to forward their views, and to explain, as far as his
information would allow him, anything that came in his way. [Applause.]
The meeting then resolved itself into the Eighteenth Ordinary Meeting
of the Club, the President taking the Chair.
The following were elected members : — W. Wakeling Boreham, J.P.,
F.R.A.S., Edward Bro^^^l, Rev. L. Cockerell, M.A., Edmund Durrant,
(Hon. Sec. Essex and Chelmsford Museum), Frank L. Emanuel, F. H.
Forward, G. W. Gould, G. T. Jones, M.D., &c., G. Alan Lowndes, J.P.,
D.L., &c., D. H. Neale, Henry Spicer, B.A., F.L.S., F.G.S., Mrs. S.
Warburg.
The President read the " Report on the Excavation of the Earthwork
known as Ambresbury Banks, Epping Forest," which had been drawn up
by General Pitt-Rivers, F.R.S. [Transactions, ii. 55.]
The plans and sections of the camp (enlarged for the occasion by Mr. H.
A. Cole), and photographs of the works by Mr. J. Spiller were exhibited, as
was also the coloured plate of some of the objects found, which the author
proposed to publish in the ' Transactions ' at his own expense.
The Rev. W. Linton Wilson, as a member of the Committee of
Exploration, proposed that a very hearty vote of thanks should be
passed to General Pitt-Rivers for the excellent report he had prepared
and for his liberal donation of the coloured plate to illustrate the same.
The plate would cost about £12, and was therefore a very handsome
present to the Club.
Mr. Henry Walker warmly seconded the proposal. They had very
successfully arrived at the conclusion that the Camp was British, —
either ante-Roman or post-Roman, — but after all it occurred to him
they had not invalidated the tradition that the work was associated
with the British Queen Bodug, whom all had read of under the Latinised
name of Boadicea.
The vote of thanks was passed by acclamation.
The President hoped that the Club would not allow the work so well
begun to drop. The county of Essex appeared to be particularly rich
in these early earthworks. He considered that they could investigate
these without in any way trenching upon the jDrovince of their colleagues
the Essex Arishgeological Society, inasmuch as in them they were
Journal of Proceedwrfs, Ivii
mainly dealinj]; with pre-historic periods. He hoped that at least next
year they might be enabled to commence a similar excavation at the
Loughton Camp, and a subscription would be started for that pur-
pose at once. The camp they had visited that afternoon on Danbury
Hill should also be well kept in mind — -no one appeared to know any-
thing about it, and he was afraid many local gentlemen were somewhat
sceptical as to the existence of a camp there at all. That also should be
a matter for future investigation, and he confessed that he would very
much like to see the Club with its shovels and picks at work on those
ramparts. [Laughter and applause.]
Mr. Chancellor said that the late Lord Braybrooke, who took great
interest in earthworks, visited the mounds at Woodham. He (Mr.
Chancellor) spent the whole day with him there, and his Lordship came
to the conclusion that these mounds were erected merely for the pro-
tection of cattle in flood time. He hoped the Club might be enabled to
investigate one of these mounds. At Ashington, where a great battle was
fought, there was a mound and evident traces of earthworks of some age.
Mr. Chancellor also referred to the Eoman camp at Bradwell, which was
investigated by the Archfeological Society, and which was proved to have
been a walled camp, with circular towers at the angles.
The President asked if any excavation had been made at Danbury.
Mr. Corder said that he had lately heard of some so-called Eoman
remains having been found there.
Prof. Boulger remarked, that in almost every place he had visited, the
name of which ended in " bury," he had recognised earthworks.
Mr. Fitch mentioned the Barrow Hills, between Heybridge and Gold-
hanger. It was there that the great battle of Maldon was fought, the
bloodiest battle before the Conquest. Some thirty or forty years ago
they were diminished and a number of bones were then found.
Mr. Chancellor, at the close of the meeting, proposed a vote of thanks
to Mr. Meldola, which was seconded by the Kev. C. B. Hamilton, and
carried unanimously.
During the meeting Mr. Fitch exhibited a fine living larva of the
Death's Head Moth (Acherontia atropos) found near Maldon feeding ujjon
the Bitter-sweet {Solanum dulcamara).
Saturday, September 24th, 1881. — Ordinary Meeting.
The Nineteenth Ordinary Meeting of the Club was held at the Head-
quarters, Buckhurst Hill, at seven o'clock, the President in the chair.
Donations of books, pamphlets or periodicals (exclusive of exchanges)
were announced from Messrs. H. J. Barnes, Walter Crouch, H. G.
Fordham, A. Lockyer, K. Meldola, and Miss E. A. Ormerod. A unanimous
vote of thanks to the donors was passed.
The following were elected members of the Club : — James W. Cook,
h
Iviii Journal of Proceedim/s.
Bernard T. HalforcL B.Sc, Charles J. Leaf, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.K.M.S.,
F. H. Meggy, Mrs. Marshall, F. G. Newman, Frederick Oliphant, George
Eees, Simeon Warburg, and Compton Warner.
Mr. Lockyer announced that Mr. Fletcher, President of the Ottawa
Naturalists' Field Club, would be happy to send specimens of Canadian
plants to any member wishing to study them.
The Secretary called attention to the work which is being done by the
Essex Bee-keepers' Association, and distributed some copies of the
prospectus and rules of that Society.
Mr. B. G. Cole exhibited a specimen of Abraxas Ulmata, taken by
himself in Bury Wood, Epping Forest, last July. He had not previously
heard of the occurrence of the moth in the Forest. Mr. Cansdale
informed him that the species had been taken at St. Osyth, Essex. He
also exhibited a remarkably small specimen of Liparis auriflua (the
Gold-tailed Moth), taken at large near Loughton, in July last. This
dwarf was less than half the normal size of the species.
Mr. H. A. Cole exhibited and presented to the Museum two worked
flints which he had recently found. The most perfect one was from
Great Parndon, Essex. Near that village he had come upon a heap of
stones which had been picked off the neighbouring fields. This heap
contained a considerable number of ordinary glacial fossils, Gryphea,
Echinns, lumps of lime-stone, &c., with chalk-flints and fragments of
rock of various kinds. On carefully searching the heap he had found a
flint bearing evident marks of human workmanship. Judging from its
form it had probably been hafted to a handle and used as an adze in
agricultural operations. The specimen had been shown to Dr. Evans and
General Pitt-Eivers. The second flint Mr. Cole had picked up in the
Epping New Eoad, near High Beach, from a heap of gravel by the road-
side, wliich had probably been dug from the Forest pits close by. The
celt was a very rude one, and was quite white upon its surface, an appear-
ance probably due to aqueous action, the soluble particles ha^dng been
removed by the infiltration of w^ater through the body of the flint, while
the insoluble portions had been left in a finely divided state, and conse-
quently reflected white light.
The President said that those disposed to hunt for these interesting
relics of a time long past might take a hint from these finds of Mi-. Cole.
The last remnants of the " Stone Age "' were to be found scattered over
the surface of the country in ploughed fields, &c., and as stones were
often gathered by farmers from the fields, it might be profitable to
submit the spoil-heaps to a rigorous examination when found in suitable
localities.
J\Ir. W. Cole showed several species of Coleoptera, including the scarce
Kose-beetle, Gnorimus nobills, which he had found on bramble blossom in
Lodge Bushes, 'Epping Forest, in July last. He also exhibited some
specimens of Essex insects, Hymenoptera, Diptera, Coleoptera, &c., sent
by Mr. Billups to illustrate the modern methods of preparing insects for
Journal of Pnireeipersa and nemoralis ; and Mr. Oldliam some
specimens of sand strata from Ipswich.
Saturday, October 1st, 1881. — Annual Cryptogamic Meeting, and
Ordinary Meeting.
[il/r. Worthington Smith lias kindly allowed us to use the humorotis
report of our Meeting, loritten hij Jam for the ' Gardeners' Chronicle ' of
October 8th, 1881. A few necessary additions and alterations have been
inserted, but in the main the report is in Mr. Smith's own words. The list
of Mosses, Hepaticce, and Lichens, is given on the authority of Mr. E. M,
Holmes, F.L.S.—Ed.]
Journal of Proceediuffs. Ixi
To Mr. Malcolm McLean, (lardener to J. Wliatman, Esq., Vinters
Park, Maidstone, belongs the honour of sending the champion fungus of
the year for exhibition at our Annual Fungus Meeting. His name and
address should be preserved in the archives of fungology for ever. A
letter preceded the fungus stating that it was very big, that it had grown
at the base of a Scotch Fir, and had only once before been seen in
Vinters Park. The request to send the fungus up was at once complied
with, and it came in an enormous deal box (now a spacious and luxurious
rabbit-hutch) painfully carried by two men. On opening the box a
delectable fragrance poured out, and on removing the shavings a stupen-
dous specimen of the rare and edible Sparassis crispa was seen — such a
specimen as had probably never before gladdened the eyes of any fun-
gologist. A common size for S2)arassis is that of an orange, or possibly
a small round melon, but here was an example of massive and cyclopean
proportions — three feet six inches round, ten inches high, and with a
solid rooting base six inches deep. As far as the writer knows, such
another specimen has never been seen or even dreamed of "in tale or
history." It was no easy matter to get this fungus to Loughton, but
after all the rooting portion had been cut away it was divided into two
pieces, and dropped into a couple of large open fish-baskets. These
baskets the writer took by hand to Liverpool Street, very much in the
style of an itinerant street vendor of sponges, with a very large stock-in-
trade. The first person met at the station was Dr. Spurrell, who, with
quick geologic eye, took the cream-coloured, sponge-like masses for a
series of magnificent examples of teeth of Elephas primi genius, which
indeed they very much resembled; but the ambrosial fragrance, so
different from that pertaining to elephant's teeth, soon advised him of the
true nature of the treasure. Two fungologists carried the fish-baskets to
the " Crown " Hotel, and lovingly placed the Sparassis in the room set
apart for the exhibition of the day.
This second " Fungus Foray " of our Club, in welcome contrast to the
first, was held under very favourable meteorological conditions : the day
was such as one would have chosen — warm, bright, and delightful. Seen in
the brilliant sunshine, the woods of Epping Forest presented some
charming features of colour and form, and the special objects of our
search were abundant, although a few species were perhaps a little passe,
the fungus season, at least in the Forest, having opened somewhat earlier
than usual. The band of experts invited by the Secretary to act as
leaders and advisers was remarkably comprehensive. Dr. M. C. Cooke
was one of the first fungographers to arrive at Loughton, accompanied by
Dr. H. T. Wharton ; soon after Dr. Braithwaite was on the spot, with Mr.
W. W. Reeves, Dr. Spurrell, Mr. Worthington Smith, ]\Ir. A. Heath, Mr.
J. A. Johnson, and many other professional or amateur botanists.
Seventy members and friends had sent in their names as deshing to be
present, but more than a hundred persons actually attended. Mr.
English's local knowledge was very useful, and Mr. E. M. Hohnes being
Ixii Journal of Proceedimis.
also with the party, Cryptogamic Botany in all its branches was well
represented.
The section of the Forest searched included the district of High Beach,
Great and Little Monk Woods, and the Woods near Theydon Bois. The
gatherings were very large, and in the presence of such a band of accom-
plished botanists very few species went unnamed. The ladies of the
party set out their spoils in open baskets with moss and fern, thereby
revealing the wealth of colour and beauty that is to be found in the com-
monly despised mushrooms. Many of the baskets would \\e in appearance
with the finest bouquets, and they afforded hints for the decoration of
rooms at seasons when flowers are not abundant, for an hour's gathering
would furnish a collection of brilliantly coloured forms with which an
artist might be enra]Dtured.
Hygrophorus ehurneus was very abundant, a white and sticky species,
said to be edible ; a close ally and " consort " of this plant was also
frequent in H. cossiis : the latter is much more glutinous, its top is slimy,
and the whole plant is rich in the potent odour of the he-goat, or — to
those who are not fortunate enough to know this odour — the scent of the
larva of the Goat Moth {Cossus ligniperda). The viscid tops of the speci-
mens of H. cossu.'i were covered with dead flies, at first probably attracted
by the odour and then caught and suffocated by the gluten. Some of the
younger members claimed these Fungi as undoubtedly " carnivorous
plants " ; they carefully placed them in their baskets, determined (they
said) to look for and find pepsine, distended fungus-cells, and digestive
cavities ! Another handsome ally is H. chrysodon : this was once or twice
met with ; the plant is named " chrysodon " from its fancied resemblance
in colour to the beautiful golden-greenish stone named "• chrysolite ^ One
gentleman found a vegetable beaf-steak, FistuUna hepatica ; and another
botanist, who had gathered one the day before, brought it to the Forest
cut up in slices between bread in the form of sandwiches. This was an
inveterate fungus-eater, for he even dispensed with mustard, and secured
the necessary pungency by the insertion of thin slices of the fiery Lac-
tarius piperatus. We cannot all go to such lengths ! One or two speci-
mens of the gorgeous vermilion-coloured Cortinarius cinnabarinus were
found with many examples of its handsome, but more soberly tinted ally,
G. cinnamomeus. Agaricus rubescens was very frequent ; this plant is
commonly said to be edible, although Mr. Berkeley cautiously omits any
reference to its esculent qualities. Dr. Wharton stated that this plant is
not only good for food, but is excellent for its production of a refined and
appetising ketchup, not so rich as that pecuHar to the mushroom, but a
delicate nepenthe, fit for the gods. The beautiful " consort " of Agaricus
ruhescens was present in A. jxintherinus, perhaps as edible as the last, but
seldom or never changing to sienna-red when broken or bruised. The
golden-yellow edible Chantarelle, Cantharellus cihai'ius, was frequent ; so
also was its duller-coloured but more elegant ally, C. tubaformis.
Russulas, so called because many of the species are red in colour, were
Journal of Froceediwjs, Ixiii
extremely abundant and very ditHcult to determine ; some are very tender,
some very tough ; some fleshy, others ahnost woody ; some with an
inseparable cuticle, others with a separable one ; some white and some
red under the cuticle ; some mild and innocent, some so intolerably
pungent that if placed on the tongue, the skin of that delicate organ will
speedily peel ofl' with a blister, and (like Ruysida emetica) show red
underneath ! The lovely but untouchably glutinous Arjaricm mucidus^
generally so frequent on the High Beach beeches, was this year nowhere
to be seen. The Falstaffean Doletns eduUs was common, as well as B.
ehr]iHenteron and P>. sitbtomentosus. The milk mushrooms, Lactarii, were
abundant ; the poisonous, livid, Lactarius Uvidii.i, was everywhere ; L.
quietus, so mild that none need fear his quietus from consuming it, was
also very common ; " odour oily — like bugs," writes Mr. Berkeley ; other
authorities say the odour is " mealy, like recent farina." Perhaps the
" mealy-bug " was in view, but this is not stated ! Boletus scaher, grey,
ugly, sticky, and vile.to the sight, albeit an edible species, was to be noted
almost everywhere ; and B. luridus was frequent, rapidly changing to
blue when cut or broken — a pretty toy for the ladies, quickly poisonous to
some people, but a delicious viand to the indurated hippogastrous fungo-
phagist. We must not, however, weary our readers by attempting a
catalogue of all the species met with ; a list of the forest Hymenomycetes
as far as at present ascertained, is given in this part of the ' Transactions ' ;
most of them are common in the woods every autumn, and many were
recorded in the account of last year's fungological ramble [Proceedings,
i. xlviii.]
Many of the visitors were struck with the beauty and luxuriance of the
golden Peziza aurantia, growing in large patches in and about the road
ruts and newly-cut water-courses, particularly in Fairmead Bottom and
near Golding's Hill.
But one remarkable fungus certainly demands a special paragraph in
our records, viz., Coprinus aratus. This is probably a rarity, and has not
been seen by the writer for the last twenty years. Mr. Berkeley first
found it " in a hollow tree." It was one of the first Fungi to attract our
notice when commencing the observation of the Cryptogamia, growing
twenty years ago at the bottom of a dung-heap in Nottinghamshire.
Coprinus aratus is one of the larger, deliquescent, fugitive species ; it
grows to be six inches high, stem tapering upwards, very hollow and
fragile, a top from three to five inches across, tender, and breaking to
pieces with a touch. It lives less than a day, and in decay it curls up
into beautiful volutes, and distils itself away into drops of black and
tumid ink. Dr. Wharton had the pleasure of discovering the specimen
in Monk Wood, which was, alas ! but a rum, suffering from a dread and
fatal mycoclysm ; however, the remnants were brought carefully home
for the microscopic examination of the cystldia. As these organs (con-
cerning the exact nature of which much difference of opinion prevails,
although Dr. Cooke states that the evidence seems to be in favour of the
Ixiv
Journal of Proceedmr/s.
view that cystidia are barren conditions of the ordinary spore-bearing
structures or basidia) are more developed in C. aratus than in any other
sjDecies yet examined, an ilkistration is here given, for the loan of which
we are indebted to the courtesy of the Editor of the ' Gardeners'
Clironicle.' The ordinary cells of the plant are seen at the base of the
figure — a basidium with its four spores on the right, and two of the
gigantic cells, termed cystidia, occuj^y the body of the illustration. It is
a curious fact that all the cystidia in the specimen examined grew on the
gills close to the insertion of the stem, and none were to be found towards
the edge of the cap ; they may have dropped to the ground from this
part of the plant with the falling spores.
X 400
Cystidia of Coprinus aratus.
The other classes of Cryptogamia were attended to by Dr. Braithwaite
and Mr. E. M. Holmes. We have no report from the former gentleman,
but Mr. E. M. Holmes has furnished the Secretary with the follomng lists
of Lichens, Mosses and Scale-Mosses met with during the day, and has
kindly deposited the specimens on which the lists are founded in the
Club's Museum for future reference. The area of collecting was in the
Journal of ProceeiUiK/s.
Ixv
neighbourhood of the " Green Ride," from Staples Hill to Monk Wood,
and more particularly in the latter place.
LiCHENES (named in accordance with Rev. W. A. Leighton's
Flora of Great Britain,' 2nd Edition) : —
On old
Lichen
Caliciinu Iii/perelluni.
trunks, Monk Wood.
Claduia rancjiferiiui.
Cladoiiia pyxidata.
Evernia jminastri'
Parmelia olivacea.
Fdnnclld plujaodeti.
F. saxatiliH. Monk Wood.
Fertusarid co>iuiiuiiis. MonkWood.
Lecidea {GriJfitJiii) tricolor. Monk
Wood.
Hepatic^ (named in accordance with Dr. Cooke's 'British Hepaticte') : —
Foaaombronia pusilla. On the
Jungermaimia albicans.
J. ventricosa.
LopJiocolea bidentata.
L. heterophylla. Monk Wood.
Musci (named in accordance with
Mosses,' 2nd Edition, 1881) :—
Weissla cirrhata.
Dicraiiella heteronuilla. Monk
Wood.
Dicranum majus.
D. palustre.
Cavipylopns Jiexuosus. Monk
Wood, in fruit.
C. pyriformis.
Leucobryuni r/lauciLm. Monk
Wood.
Fleuridium )iitiduin. On banks
of stream crossing Green Ride,
near Debden Slade ; also in
Monk Wood.
banks of the stream crossmg
the Green Ride near Debden
Slade.
the ' London Catalogue of British
Mnium lioDinm.
Tetrapliix pe Unci da.
Folytvichum formosum. Monk
Wood, &c.
Neckera complanata. Growing
with Hypiium cupressiforme.
Thuidium tamariscinum.
E urh y nch in m my oh uro ides .
Plaqiothecium undulatiuu. Monk
Wood.
Hypmim cuprcssiformc.
H. pui'um.
Hylocomium splendeiis.
Owing to the attractions of the Fungi the Phanerogamia were but little
noticed, the only plant gathered worth recording being Gnaphnliuin xylva-
ticiim, which was growing j)lentifully in the open gravelly ground near
Monk Wood. Mr. Saville Kent was with us, ready to afford information
to the student of minute life in the searching of ponds and ditches, but
no report of captures has reached us. Mr. Kent found some forms of the
dubious Myxomycetes, concerning the fungoid or infusorial nature of
which so much discussion has recently taken place.
As dusk began to fall the large party made towards the " Crown "
Hotel, Loughton ; everyone being furnished with ample stores of speci-
mens. Arrived at the Inn, the bags and boxes were carefully emptied and
the Fungi ranged in due order in the room set apart for the exliibition,
and then came the usual Club tea.
After tea the 20th Ordinary Meeting of the Club was held, the
President in the Ciiair.
Ixvi Journal of Pi'oceedim/s.
The followinji; were elected members : — Messrs. Garrad Baker, Frederic
Chancellor, F. K. Harold, F.S.S., F. H. Hempleman, F. J. V. James,
Charles A. Onley Marsham, J.P., G. H. Eaynor, M.A., and W. H. Stead.
On the motion of the President a cordial vote of thanks was passed to
the distinguished botanists who had so kindly acted as leaders and
advisers during the day.
On the circular calling the Meeting, a short addi-ess, to be entitled
" Half-an-hour with the Fungi of the Loughton District," had been set
down to Dr. Cooke. He said, however, that when he promised to give
that address it was before a sad calamity fell upon him, which had pre-
vented him for some months from paying any attention to affairs in which
the mind or hand had to be engaged. Under other circumstances he
should have been extremely happy to have carried out his promise, and to
have read a paper. But as that was the first time for two or three months
on which he had attempted to address an audience, they would accept
that as an ajDology for not carrying out to the full extent the promise he
gave. He had intended to give a resume of such Fungi as he knew to be,
or such as had been recorded to have been found around Loughton, or in
Epping Forest. He had thought that such a list, if rendered complete, as
it could be, would be a very useful one to be included in their ' Trans-
actions,' since no list, so far as he knew, of the Fungi of Essex, had ever
been collated or published. Dr. Cooke then referred to several" Fungi
noted by Sowerby as found in the Forest, and called attention to a paper
contributed by Mr. English to the ' Transactions ' of the Essex Field
Club. He intended to ^vrite out a list of the Forest species, and submit it
to an early meeting of the Society. After referring particularly to several
of the more remarkable species, Dr. Cooke went on to urge that the
Forest should be systematically scoured ; if everybody in that room were
to set about the work for twelve months what a number of new species
they would have, or if not new species, yet species that were only hitherto
known as occurring upon the Continent. Do not let them think that
there were fewer Fungi in Epping Forest than in Herefordshire, or in any
other part of England. He believed there were as many, and that as
long a list could be made out, and he doubted not that at least two-
thirds of English species — and more — could be found in the Essex Wood-
lands. [Applause]. In mentioning the species peculiar to the Forest, Dr.
Cooke inadvertently omitted the lovely, but sticky, little Agaricus Worth-
uigtonii, so named by Elias Fries, in honour of the writer of this record,
and of Epping Forest. A. Worthingtonii is peculiar at present to the
Forest, and long may it remain so : the original Friesian MS. description
IS in possession of the Club.
Mr. Worthington Smith followed with some remarks upon special
Forest species, and some elementary hints as to the modes to be adopted
in identifying Fungi ; then Dr. Braithwaite spoke of the mosses of Epping
Forest, and of mosses in general, and how to find and study them. Mr.
E. M. Holmes had brought with him some excellent diagrams illustrating
Journal of ProceedbKjs, Ixvii
most of the largest families of British Mosses, as well as some type speci-
mens, which were on exhibition, and which are now deposited in the
Museum of the Club. He also exhibited specimens demonstrating the
principal groups of British Lichens, and explained the leading charac-
teristics of each. He expressed himself as being somewhat disappointed
with the lichens he had mot with in that day's excursion, and believed
that those who wished to explore the Lichen Flora of the county must go
farther afield. A number of rare lichens had been found by Mr. E. G.
Varenne, in the neighbourhood of Kelvedon, and he felt sure that a very
good Hst might be made out if Essex were systematically searched. So
far as his experience went it was of little use to look for lichens within
twenty miles of London. The immense volumes of smoke sent up by the
great city seemed to influence the atmosphere (probably being carried by
the prevaihng winds) to that distance. The existence of lichens in a
healthy state on trees indicated a pure moist air. Lichens also liked wind
and light, consequently the trees on the outskirts of woods were generally
better clothed with them than those in the interior. These facts seemed
to militate against the Algal-Fungus (or Schwendenerian) theory of
lichens ; since Fungi as a rule shun the light, and moreover they are with
few exceptions ephemeral plants, while lichens are of very slow growth
and endure for many years. Fungi might be noticed in abundance in the
immediate neighbourhood of London, but lichens could not be found in a
perfect or healthy condition within many miles of that city. It was true
that Leeanora galacUna might be found on Kew Bridge or on walls in the
Caledonian Koad ; but it speedily disappeared and became replaced by
mosses. It was a remarkable fact that hardly any lichenologists believed
in the Schwendenerian hypothesis, although it was accepted by several
vegetable physiologists of high repute. It was very instructive to observe
the stages in the growth of lichens in the course of a walk from London
towards the country. First the gonidial (or algal ? ) state was met with
on trees, and then evidently the same plant showed an imperfect thallus,
and at last the perfect thallus and the fructification were met with at a
sufficient distance from town. If the lichen be a compound of fungus
and alga, it is the alga that appears nearest to London, and not, as might
be supposed, the fungus. Mr. Holmes had observed this development in
the case of Lecidea canencem in the course of a walk from Chislehurst to
Chelsfield. But although the list of lichens in Epping Forest was certain
to be a meagre one, the Moss Flora would probably well repay examination,
judging from the specimens met with during the day.
The party then adjourned to the exhibition room, where an hour or so
was agreeably and instructively spent in examining and determining the
large number of Fungi there displayed. Part of the gigantic Sparaxsis
had mysteriously disappeared {vide ' Gardeners' Chronicle ' ), but enough
remained to allow many mycologists to carry ofi slices as mementos of
our Fungus Foray of 1H81.
Ixviii Journal of P ror^ffb'.uff.t .
Saturday, October 29th, 18S1. — Ordinary Meeting.
The 21st Ordinary Meeting was lield at the Head-quarters at seven
o'clock, the President in the Chair.
Donations of books or pamphlets were announced from Messrs. E.
Brown, S. N. Carvalho, B. O. Cole, E. Meldola, and Miss M. S. Ridley.
Various specimens for the Museum were contributed by Messrs. English,
Travis, White, and E. M. Holmes, F.L.S. A unanimous vote of thanks
to the donors was passed.
The following persons were balloted for and elected members of the
Club :— Lord Eustace Cecil, M.P., Sir H. J. Selwin-Ibbetson, Bart., M.P.,
Miss Marian Ridley, and Edward Unwin.
The President announced that at the York Meeting of the British
Association, the Report on the Excavations at Ambresbury Banks had
been read, and that subsequently the Secretary had received the following
communication from Prof. Bonney : —
" British Association for the Advancement of Science,
" 22, Albemarle Street, W.,
" 13th October, 1881.
" Sir,
" I am directed by the General Committee of the British Asso-
ciation for the Advancement of Science, to transmit to you the following
Copy of a Resolution, which was adopted by the Committee at the last
Meeting of the Association, and to request your attention thereto : —
" TMt Mr. R. Meldola, General Pitt-Rivers, and Mr. Wm. Cole, he a
Committee, for the purpose of investigating the ancient earthwork in
Epping Forest, known as Loughton Camp; and that Mr. W. Cole be
the Secretary.
" I have the honour to be,
"Your very obedient Servant,
" T. G. BONNEY, Secretary.
" To W. Cole, Esq."
He thought that the Club might be congratulated on receiving this
recognition of its work at the hands of such an influential body as the
British Association, and he hoped it would prove an incentive to the
members to support the Society in the course of action it had struck out
for itself.
Three communications stood for discussion upon the Agenda paper ;
Mr. Fitch asked permission to take his essay first as he had to return to
Maldon that evening. The paper, entitled "The Galls of Essex,"
[Transactions, ii. 98] , was then read by the author. Mr. Fitch illus-
trated his memoir during its delivery by the exhibition of various coloured
plates contained in Dr. Adler's essay and other German publications, and
by references to his own extensive collection of galls and gall-making
insects, with their inquilines and parasites, which he had brought with
him, and which was on view in one of the meeting rooms.
Journal of Proceedinrfs. Ixix
Tlie l^resident, at the conclusion of the paper, said he was sure all the
members of the Club would agree with him that they were much indebted
to their Vice-Prosident for his admirable treatment of a subject which
presented so many points of interest to thfm all, and one which Mr.
Fitch had for many years made a special study. In addition to the
important list of the galls of their county, the author had given a most
valuable introduction containing a resmne of the different theories of the
cause of galls which had been propounded ;" and he (the President) felt
sure that a subject which appealed to so many different classes of their
members — to their zoologists, botanists, and general biologists — would be
warmly taken up. The President thought that the best compliment they
could pay to Mr. Fitch would be to discuss the subject thoroughly ; and
in inviting observations upon it he felt confident that the author would
be only too glad to reply to any questions that might be put to him.
A long discussion then took place with reference to various points in the
history of galls touched upon in the paper.
Dr. Pearce took exception to Sir James Paget' s opinion that there was
an analogy between the growth of galls on plants and the morbid pro-
cesses exhibited in many diseases of the human subject, but before
considering that point, he wished, as a new member of the Club, to
express the pleasure with which he had listened to Mr. Fitch's jmper ; he
had never heard a more complete bringing together of a multitude of facts
and observations than that which the essayist had presented to them that
night. Pieturning to the allusion in the paper to the inoculation of the
human system with the several " viruses " — such as variola, vaccina,
cancer, syphilis, and other inoculable and constitutional diseases — he
understood the essayist to state that the formation of galls in the vege-
table kingdom bore a resemblance to the action of the said viruses in the
animal system. In his (Dr. Pearce's) opinion a distinct line must be
drawn between the two classes of phenomena ; and while there was some
dispute amongst biologists as to whether galls were due to the mechanical
UTitation of the egg, or to the introduction with it of some stimulating
fluid by the insect which tended to produce the galls, there was still no
real analogy between their production and the results following an inocu-
tion with animal virus. On a tree the egg of a gall insect might be
immediately productive of a morbid growth — a gall limited to a given
spot, and not affecting the life or disturbing the general condition of the
plant. In the case of inoculating, whether with variola (small-pox) or
vaccina (cow-pox), a process of fermentation is set up, permeating and
affecting the whole system — giving evidence of its existence after the lapse
of a certain fixed number of days, by tlie appearance in vaccina of a
vesicle at the seat of inoculation, or, as in the case of variola, developing
on every part of the surface of the body hundreds of vesicles, which ulti-
mately become pustules. He further remarked that there did not reason-
ably appear to be a resemblance between galls in the vegetable kingdom
and certain skin diseases incident lo the gt'iius homo, children more
Ixx Journal of Proceedings.
especially. These he thought partook of a vegetative or fungoid, para-
sitical nature, and were clearly distinct in their origin and development
from true galls produced by insects.
]Mr. Letchford called attention to the very remarkable chemical sub-
stances found in abundance in the tissues of many galls. These
substances appeared to exist in the sap of the trees, but became concen-
trated in the galls, and seemed to be a necessary concomitant of tlieir
growth.
Mr. Henry Walker gave some details as to the morphological structure
of galls, and alluded to the appearance of the Devonshire or " Marble-
gall " {Cijnips Kollari), near London, within living memory. Many years
ago the late Frederick Smith put a large quantity of these galls into
Highgate Wood, and he thought it was possible that the rapid spread of
the marble-gall might have had some connection with that circumstance.
Mr. Walker also called attention to the bearing of the very remarkable
observations of Dr. Adler as to the existence of di-morphism in galls
upon the current theories of evolution.
Mr. Meldola stated that there had always appeared to him one difficulty
in connection with the mechanical theory of galls which he would be glad
to see explained. He did not wish his remarks to be considered in
any way critical, but he could not help feeling that there was an objection
which Mr. Fitch would perhaps throw some light upon. In accordance
with what he would call the purely mechanical theory of galls these
growths were caused by the presence of the egg of the insect laid in the
leaf-tissue or other part of the plant, and acting as a local irritant. He
could easily understand how on this ^dew differently formed galls might
result from the irritating action of eggs laid in different parts of the
plant, but he could not see how on this theory it was possible to account
for the fact that on the leaves of the same plant a large number of insects
could each give rise to a differently formed gall. It had been proved that
the egg continued to grow for some time within the gall, but this did not
appear to him sufficient to explain the fact mentioned. A different form
of egg, and a different rate of growth for each species, was assumed,
but this was so far only an assumption ; experimental and observational
proofs were required in order to demonstrate conclusively that there
existed a connection between the form and rate of growth of the egg
and the form of the gall. As to the points raised by Mr. Walker,
Mr. Meldola said that he had lately been working at them, and hoped
to address some remarks upon the subject to the Club at the Annual
^Meeting.
In reply, Mr. Fitch stated, with reference to Dr. Pearce's remarks,
that Sir .Tames Paget, in making his comparisons, had expressly noted
the great contrasts between the pathology of animals and plants.
From his own point of view also it was by no means intended to
institute a comparison between the special viruses which we know are
capable of being artiticially introduced into the human body, or with
Journal of Proceedings. Ixxi
our own specific diseases. We must remember that the sap-flow in
plants is by no means analogous to the circulation of the blood in animals,
and there is an absence of the complex nervous system. A nearer analogy
might be traced in the known specific action of various blisters and
irritants, or in the production of local abscesses, festers, or like simple
humours, from the inflammation set up by the irritating presence of
some foreign substance. Mr. Fitch said that although a firm believer
in the mechanical oval and larval irritation theory, he thought it pro-
bable that the application or removal of pressure, the stimulated growth
to throw off the foreign substance introduced, and other secondary
causes, also came into play. He had referred to the production of
warts, and to make a rough comparison he would instance a hairy
wart in which we found an excessive development of cuticle and an
increased development of the vascular secretory structure, with the
exudation of an abundant quantity of fluid, causing the extra growth
of hairs ; compare this with the familiar " Kobin's pin-cushion," or
Bedeguar gall of the rose, where we had excessive development and
thickening of cambium tissue and bark with an increased afflux of
nutritive matter, resulting in the enormously developed growth of
leaves, remembering that the so-called " hairs " with which the gall
is covered are really leaves abnormally developed, with scarcely any
parenchyma between their fibro-vascular bundles. Dr. Pearce must
also remember that we are not yet by any means fully acquainted
with the relationship between the formative stimulus (mechanical or
otherwise) and the supporter of the stimulus ; this also answered, or
rather failed to answer, our President's question as to why the galls,
quite constant in themselves, which occur in exactly similar situations
should exhibit such varied forms. Our present knowledge was not able
to give a ready solution to this involved problem, but we know that
there are still many well-known but ill-explained facts in both animal
and vegetable pathology. Mr. Fitch expressed a hope that some of the
structural botanists in the Club would turn their attention to these
important and interesting points.
The analogy between the various skin diseases in the human subject
attributable to fungoid presence, and the numerous varied and well-
marked fungoid vegetable galls, alluded to by Dr. Pearce, stood on a
similar footing, but with a more perfect concatenation. The subject of
the useful chemical properties, remarked upon by Mr. Letchford, was of
true commercial importance, and deserved more attention in this country
than it at present received. The tannic and gallic acids were undoubtedly
more concentrated in the substance of certain oak-galls than in the oak
bark itself ; but why we should annually import from £70,000 to £80,000
worth of galls for tanning purposes, while our own large crop of oak
marble-galls is unmarketable except for the manufacture of rustic
baskets and similar trinkets, requires further explanation. Chemical
analysis hardly warrants this neglect of our native galls. Mr. Fitch
Ixxii Journal of Proeeedings,
added that the question jjut by Mr. Walker, as to whether in the Cynipidae
alluded to we had a case of evolution per saltnm, opened a very wide field
for discussion, and one which had better perhaps be deferred or left in
the able hands of the President. He would however observe that the
dimorphic theory really only implied travelling on a double line of rails
instead of a single one. The dimorphic forms were both constant in
themselves ; but the tendency to variation, the break of unity in habits,
and the jDroduction of a temporary new form, were remarkable facts, and
well deserved every attention from the biologist.
At the close of the discussion a hearty vote of thanks was accorded to
Mr. Fitch for his valuable paper.
Sir T. Fowell Buxton, Bart., communicated the following : —
" Notes on the Occurrence of a Honey Buzzard {Pernis apivorus) in
Epping Forest.
" I think it worth while to mention and record that I yesterday and
again this morning (Saturday, September 24th, 1881), saw a Honey-
Buzzard in the Forest. It rose from a bush of beech close to my feet,
and flew with rather a heavy flight to an oak about twenty yards off,
where it remained for a few seconds. On examining the bush I found it
swarming with wasps, which began to fly out on my touching the bushes.
I then found pieces of wasps' comb lying on the ground outside the bush,
and the dead leaves scattered around.
" This morning (September 24th), on approaching the spot, we again
saw the bird flying over the trees away from us. Much more of the
wasps' comb was lying about, and a large cavity could be seen under the
branches where the nest had evidently been scratched up, and the
contents strewn around. The branches of the bush showed no signs of
mjury, as they would have done had any man disturbed the nest. The
account of the bn-d in Gould's ' British Birds,' leaves no doubt that the
name is correctly given. The spot was about thirty yards from and above
the spring, E.S.E., on the Woodiedon Hill.
" The bird was again seen, by Mr. Andrew Johnston and myself, on
September 2oth during the afternoon, as it was rising from the same
wasps' nest as before. It was thus seen on three days consecutively. I
hope the place will not become so well known as to risk its being trapped.
" On \dsiting the spot on the 28th the Buzzard seemed to have left the
place, but the remains of the wasps' nest were clearly visible at the side of
the hole, grubbed up by the Buzzard as I suppose."
Under date October 19th, Sir Fowell Buxton adds : —
" On coming to Norfolk, I find from Mr. J. H. Gurney, of Northrepps
(near Cromer), and others, that there have been noticed some twelve or
more of this species, as well as common Buzzards. He has tlii'ee alive
which have been caught in this neighbourhood (Cromer), and some have
been picked up dead on the shore near Yarmouth. Mr. Gurney believes
that all the larger Hawks are young birds of this year."
Mr. R. M. Christy, of Saliron Walden, sent the following under date
October 26th, 1881 :—
Jdifnial of ProceediiKifi. Ixxiii
"Notes ox thk Occuiuiknck of thk Honey Bu/zaud [P. apivoras) at
Great Chestekford, and at Saffron Walden, Essex; and of a
Common Buzzard {Biiteo vulgaris) in Shortorove Park, Saffron
Walden.
" It appears that a considerable number of the larger birds of prey
have been killed this autumn during their southward migration.- No less
than three Buzzards (two Honey Buzzards and one Common Buzzard)
have been shot within a short distance of this town, and, iJuough the
kindness of our member Mr. J. Travis, to whom two of them were sent
for preservation, I am enabled to give the following short account of
them :— The first Honey Buzzard was shot, as briefly recorded in the
' Field,' in the Kectory Garden at Great Chesterford, on September 26th
last, by Mr. G. Ernest, a son-in-law (?) of the Rev, E. Seymour Randolph,
the clergyman there. According to his account the bird rose from near
a large wasps' nest, but that it had been feeding on either the wasps or
their grubs I very much doubt, as Mr. Tra\ds and I, on examining the
contents of its stomach-, found nothing of the kind. The substance we
met with was not in a very recognisable condition, but it ap})eared to
consist principally of the remains of grasshoppers, with small beetles,
and probably some other insects intermixed. The bird is, I think, a
young male ; the body was coated thickly with fat ; the sides were brown,
and the legs and cere bright yellow. The plumage is of an almost uniform
reddish brown colour, scarcely varied except by some darker bars across
the tail, and a whitish tip to each of the feathers in it. There is also a
greyish tinge on the feathers in front of the . eye. This bird is certainly
the most un-hawk-like of all our Falconida3. The head and beak are
small ; the latter being very neatly formed and sharp, and nearly black
in colour. The wings are small even for a Buzzard, and the claws weak
and very slightly hooked. The sternum does not exhibit any noticeable
peculiarity when compared with that of other Buzzards, though the keel
is rather deeper. Its structure generally is well adapted to its necessities
and mode of life.
" Of the other Honey Buzzard I can give but little information. It
was shot about the same time as the one above referred to, by one of Lord
Braybrooke's keepers, near the aviary at Audley End. As it is now being
stuli'ed in London for His Lordship's collection I do not know its age or
sex, but it is stated to have been rising from a wasps' nest when shot at
and liilled.
" The Common Buzzard was shot by one of the keepers in Short Grove
Park, close to Saffron Walden, about the 5th or 6th of October ; it is a
handsomely plumaged male bird, which Mr. Travis has mounted. In its
stomach I found the remains of a rat, and there was more of the same
substance in the crop, from which Mr. Travis had previously taken a
couple of Field-mice.
" While upon the subject of Hawks, it will, I think, be as well to give a
few particulars which Mr. Travis has been good enough to furnish ine
with concerning several which have been shot in this neighbourhood in
years gone by, and which have ne\ev been recorded, or only very inade-
quately.
'• The first of these is a Honey Buzzard which was seen several times
about a certain spot near Littlebury Green, one September about tive
years ago, and was at last shot by Mr. Newman, of Strethall Hall, bailiff
to Mr. Edmund Emson, in whose possession it now is. When shot it was
as usual engaged upon a wasps' nest. It seems to have been an old male
bird, with bright yellow irides, and its cheeks ashy coloured, but otherwise
much the same in i)lumage as the one already described.
h
Ixxiv Journal of Proceedings.
"Forty years ago Mr. Travis himself, then a resident close to the
aviary at Audley End, was sitting at breakfast one morning during the
last half of September, when he saw a large hawk fly by, and, following
it immediately with his gun, soon shot it as it sat upon a tree. No par-
ticulars seem to have been preserved with respect to it, but it was probably
an old bird, as Mr. Travis remembers having noticed the bright yellow of
its eye as it lay upon the ground. Shortly after, perhaps a week or a
fortnight, a man named Colman, a brickmaker, shot another almost
exactly at the same spot. Mr. Travis stuffed them both ; the first is now
in Lord Braybrooke's fine collection, but the second has been sent to the
North of England. Mr. Travis further says that nearly fifty years ago
another was shot at Newport, but that no\v-a-days individuals are exceed-
ingly few and far between in this district. He also wishes me to mention
that three years ago he stufi'ed for Lord Braybrooke, in whose collection
it now is, a splendid Kite which had been trapped by Chandler, the head-
keeper, on the edge of Pounce Hall Wood, about a mile from Saffron
Walden.
" As aheady mentioned, a most unusual number of the larger hawks,
principally Honey Buzzards, have been killed since the middle of Sep-
tember— three numbers alone of the ' Field,' which appeared lately,
making mention of about fifty ; some in the northern counties, but by far
the greater number in the eastern counties, Essex, Norfolk and Suffolk,
— while many more are doubtless only recorded in local newspapers and
other ephemeral publications. It seems that Buzzards and many of the
other Hawks are only summer visitants to this country and that they are
generally seen at the times of their spring and autumn migration — rarely
during the spring, as they then mostly go north by some other route ;
but in the autumn they are more frequently observed, because both old
and young birds are mo^ing, and for some reason or other their path
then lies through England. It would be interesting to have the opinion
of our member Mr. Harting, or some other competent person, on the
cause of their api^earance this autumn in such very unusual numbers.
"I am but too well aware that it is perfectly useless to make a merely
verbal protest against the shooting of these interesting and much abused
bu'ds, which are so rapidly being exterminated for purely selfish reasons,
or no reason at all. In most cases they are killed by ignorant game-
keepers, though, in the case of the Honey Buzzards, which have come in
for such particularly rough usage this year, there can surely be no hawks
which are less destructive to game. If we wish to do anything in this
matter we must agitate for a serviceable ' Wild Birds' Protection Act,'
framed by practical ornithologists, and not by game-preserving landlords,
or mere lawyers, unacquainted with the necessities and facts of the case.
The present act is incaj^able of effecting much good in a matter in Avhich
all lovers of Nature are so deei:)ly interested ; it can be evaded with little
fear of detection, and it leaves our raptorial birds at the mercy of the
landowners to be destroyed at all stages of their life in the supposed
interests of their selfish pleasures. Although scarcely a year old it has
already been amended by another Act, and even now it is practically little
better than the tlu'ee miserably inoperative jneces of legislation it was
intended to supersede and improve. I rejoice to hear that there is one
district in Essex at least where such a i^leasing and harmless bird as our
Honey Buzzard may show itself without fear of being shot down : long
may the Conservators of Epping Forest enforce and extend their enlight-
ened protection of the innocents."
Mr. W. \\liite recorded the occurrence of another Honey Buzzard in
Essex. The bird was caught on the morning of 24th September, 1881,
Journal of Proceedimjs. Ixxv
on the farm of Mr. E. J. Benton, at Aveley, near Purfleet. John Peters,
foreman to Mr. Benton, noticed the bird in a hedge, and, with the aid of
a stick, succeeded in securing it. Peters afterwards found a wasps' nest
in the hedge a few feet from the spot. The bird was kept a captive for
three or four weeks, and fed chiefly on bread moistened with milk, but it
pined away and died, in consequence it would seem of a lack of proper
nourishment, as evidenced by the emptiness of the crop when examined.
Mr. Benton had kindly presented the specimen to the Club, and it was
then in Mr. English's hands for preservation. The specimen appeared
to be a young female. Another Honey Buzzard was seen on Mr. Benton's
farm on the same day, and has been several times noticed since. On one
occasion it was being mobbed by wood-pigeons. On the 25th October it
appeared in company with some carrion crows.
The Secretary read some extracts from a letter received by him from Sir
Thos. Fowell Buxton, in which the writer asked whether the Club could
use its influence in preventing the slaughter of all birds by keepers. No
shooting is now allowed by the Conservators in Epping Forest, and on
his own land Sir Fowell had allowed no killing of raptorial birds for
years past. It will be very interesting to observe the effect of this pro-
hibition after some time, and it would add greatly to the value of the
experiment if the same rule could be enforced throughout the valleys of
the Koding Eiver and Cobbin Brook.
The consideration of Sir Fowell Buxton's proposal was deferred until a
future meeting of the Society. Votes of thanks were passed to Sir Fowell
Buxton, to Mr. Christy, and to Mr. White, for their communications.
The meeting then resolved itself into the usual Conversazione, at which,
in addition to Mr. Fitch's collection of galls and gall- wasps, Mr. E. M.
Holmes exhibited and presented to the Club some typical specimens of
British Mosses ; Mr. Travis a rabbit's head, showing abnormal growth of
the incisor teeth ; and he presented to the Club the curious nest of a Nut-
hatch, described in the ' Transactions,' i. 69. Mr. English exhibited and
presented a Kestrel from Epping Forest, and some specimens of the
Wood Cud-weed {Gnaplialium sylvaticum) from Monk Wood ; Mr. W
White a collection of chalk fossils from the " Globe " quarries, at Little
Thurrock, Essex, and some coal-period fossils ; and Mr. Oxley and Mr.
Letchford exhibited under the microscope various forms of Infusoria,
including Lijninias ceratophylUi and Steplinnoceros Eiclioniii and others.
The objects found during the excavation of Ambresbury Banks were
exhibited, together with the large plans prepared for General Pitt-Kivers's
lecture on the Camp before the British Association at York.
Jxxvi Journal of Proceedings.
Satukliay, November 26th, 1881. — Ordinary Meeting.
The 22ncl Ordinary Meeting was held at the Head Quarters at 7 o'clock,
the President in the Chair.
The sjiecimen of the Honey Buzzard referred to by Mr. Wliite, at the
last Meeting, was exhibited, preserved in admirable style by Mr. English.
The thanks of the Club were voted to Mr. Benton and Mr. White for
this very welcome donation to the Museum.
Mr. Eobarts and Mr. Letchford were chosen Auditors of the Treasurer's
accounts.
The following were elected mem-bers of the Club : — Messrs. E. .J.
Bentley, James Douglas, C. T. Pearce, M.D., J. C. Shenstone, F.R.M.S..
and C. Greville WilHams, F.R.S., E.C.S.
The Secretary said that the Council had considered the question of the
proposed Tramways in the Forest, but had deferred passing any special
resolution pending the receipt of further information as to the exact
route the tramways proposed to take. He pointed out that the plans
must be deposited by the 30th November, and they would then be in
possession of positive information as to the parts of the Forest intended
to be cut up in the interests of a few private speculators. He thought
they might assume, remembering the very active opposition to the
Eailway Scheme of last year, that the Society would be opposed to any
tampering with the Forest, especially in the northern section. The
southern part was unhappily being rapidly delivered over to the
pubHcans, sho"v\'men, and roughs, but they both as individuals and as
a Society ought to do all they could to preserve the northern parts
from desecration. Beyond a mere claim of justice and fau-ness, he
thought that they had a very clear legal ground on which to stand.
The Epping Forest Act was perfectly explicit. It was there laid down
that Epping Forest was to be so preserved that it should retain foi'
ever its character as a um'sf. The ground had been secured to the
public at an immense cost, and he thought that they would be only
acting in accordance with their own feehngs, and he might say also in
agreement with the feehngs and requirements of the bulk of intelligent
Londoners, and within the clear meaning of the law, in demanding that
the Forest should be kept as a piece of untouched woodland, without
encroachments or innovations by tramways, railways, hotels or other
forms of speculation. [Applause.]
The President said that being so interested in the Forest, they had of
course a clear right to express an opinion on a matter so nearly affecting
the welfare of the district. "When they had more definite information to
go upon he hoped the weather would be a little more favourable, and that
members would muster strongly, so that the whole subject might be
thoroughly discussed.
Journal of ProceedinfjH. Ixxvii
In commencing the scientific business of the evening, the President
directed attention to the specimens of Fungi from the Forest, fifty species
in all, which had been preserved for the Club's Museum by Mr. English,
in fulfilment of an order from the Secretary. They were capital speci-
mens, and would form a nice nucleus for a collection of the Fungi of
Essex, which he hoped ere long to see in their Museum.
The Kev. W. Linton Wilson read the following note on some Tadpoles
which he had had in his Aquarium since the early summer, and which
were still true tadpoles, not having changed into frogs : —
" On June 25th last year the Club did me the honour to hold a meeting
at Oakhurst, Chigwell. On that occasion I had a number of tadpoles of
the Common Frog in a bell-glass. They were very lively and well, living
in the broad daylight among starwort, duckweed, ivy-leaved duckweed,
and water crowfoot, and accompanied by fresh- water mussels, snails,
newts, boatmen, beetles, a good many larvae, shrimps, and mites. Some
of them had already developed their hind legs, others were not so forward.
" I am writing on the 7th of January, 1882, and many of those tad-
poles are still tadpoles, and little tadpoles too !
" They ought of course long ago to have developed true lungs, to have
absorbed their fish-like gills, to have produced first the hind legs, and
then a fortnight later the fore legs, and finally they ought to have
absorbed their tails. Then they would have continued to live as frogs,
and left the water, to return to it only occasionally. They have not
grown, they have not developed. And I am inclined to think that one or
two of them that had at one time put forth a little bud for their hind
legs, gradually absorbed it again and returned to the first tadpole stage.
" In order to try whether a change of condition would induce any
further growth or development, on the 1st of December I removed four
of them to a vessel having a sloping bottom so arranged that the
animals could get out of the water if they chose to do so. In a fort-
night they were all dead. The remainder continued to live in the
bell-glass.
" The glass has always had an abundant supply of floating weed,
and an island of cork. But the water has been about four inches
from the top, and has remained unchanged since June Tith, except
that on the 1st of December we added four or five gallons of well-
water to it, to make up the loss by evaporation."*
Mr. Lockyer remarked that he recollected seeing, when at Oakliurst, in
June last, a very thick growth of duck-weed on the top of the water in
the aquarium, and he suggested that this dense growth might have inter-
fered with the well-being of the little animals, perhaps by shutting olf
the necessary supply of free atmospheric air.
Mr. W. Cole called attention to the fact, possibly bearing upon the
subject then under discussion, that frogs (very small ones) were often seen
in gardens free from water, and so surrounded by walls that it was difficult
to see how they could have wandered in from any neighbouring pond.
He suggested, as a possible solution, that under certain conditions the
whole larval life of the creature might be passed within the egg, the
* An instance of retarded development in tadpoles of the Smooth Newt (LfSjfofriVoK
punctatus) is recorded by Mr. G. T. Hope in ' Zoologist ' for April, 1882 (vol. vi. 3rd ser.
152.) The facts note. I by ^ir. Hope arc very similar to those observed by Mr. Wilson. — Ed.
Ixxviii Journal of Proceedmr/s.
aquatic free larval stage being conseriuently altogether suppressed.* It
was well known that in certain species of Batrachia, as for instance the
Surinam Toad {Pipa Americana), the eggs are carried about by the female
until hatched into young toads, and the tadpole stage is passed within
the egg. And an American species of Tree-frog (Hylodes) lays its eggs in
the axils of leaves, where only a few drops of water could at any time
collect.
The President said that he had listened to Mr. Wilson's observations
with very great interest. The phenomenon described he had long believed
to occur, but Mr. Wilson's was the first direct evidence on the point he
had met with. He entered into a full explanation of the bearing of the
instance observed upon the known facts with respect to the development
of some species of Urodela, in which the larval form is a perfect animal
(Axolotl) and one capable of reproduction, but which, under certain con-
ditions, becomes transformed into a creature formerly placed in quite
another genus {AmhJij stoma). It was very interesting to find in our native
species of Batracliia a tendency to retain permanently the larval form,
and he hoped Mr. Wilson would institute some experiments to discover, if
possible, the nature of the conditions leading to this abnormal retardation
of development. From Mr. Wilson's account he gathered that the tad-
poles could not land, and he would suggest that possibly free access to
land so as to be enabled to breathe air was necessary for the development
of the lungs, and consequently, by correlation of growth, for the appear-
ance of the perfect animal.
Mr. Wilson promised to make some experiments as suggested. His
own impression was that plentiful and suitable food was necessary for due
development. The water in the bell-glass had evaporated to about half ;
it was clear and healthy, of a brown colour like a dark tojDaz ; the weeds
were bright green and in vigorous growth. But he fancied that the want
of plentiful and varied food had so far discontented the tadpoles that
they had neglected their proper functions and failed in their duty to
Nature ! As an instance of the adaptability of Batrachians to varied
conditions, he might mention that in years gone by he had seen, in a dry
stone quarry, pale yellow slender newts shrivelled and dried up to an inch
and-a-half in length, bones and all, and yet alive ; the same newts that
in a wet season, when the stone quarry stood three feet in water, were of
a dark fine colour, and wriggled their graceful way through the rocky
pools, active and well, measuring seven or eight inches in length. f
* Since the above meeting Mr. Meldola lias reminded me that in the Eui'opean Land-
Salanianders (which are ovo-viviparoiis) the larv?e, when born, have sometimes lost their
external branchiie, and that in Salamandra atra the entire branchiate stage is passed
within the body of the mother. As, however, these Urodela are normally ovo-viviparous,
while the Anoura are oviparous, the fact does not much aid my suggestion, and I am
bound to say that I am not able to point to any positive confirmatory observations. I
shall be very glad of information. — W.C.
t A valuable discussion of the whole subject will be found in Mr. Meldola's translation
of Dr. Weismann's ' Studies in the Theory of Descent,' London, Sampson Low,
Marston and Co., 1882. Vol. ii. pp. 555— 633.— Ed.
Joiininl of Proreedim/s. Ixxix
Mr. J. A. Finzi exliibited under the microscope some young larvae of
Noctuae, whicli he had mounted in balsam in order to test the statements
contained in Mr. Meklola's paper [Trans, ii. li).] Many species in the
newly-hatched stages were found to bo very geometriform, and this was
especially well shown in the case of the larva of the pretty moth Gosmia
The President made some remarks upon the interesting nature of the
facts demonstrated by the specimens Mr. Finzi had shown them, and he
hoped that their entomological members would work at the subject.
Mr. B. G. Cole exhibited, as an instance of the extreme mildness of
the weather, a fine specimen of the Copper Butterfly {Polyonunatiis
PJtheas) which he had caught flying near Fairmead Bottom on November
18th. Mr. W. Cole remarked that on the same day he had noticed twelve
or fifteen sp)ecies of common wild plants in vigorous bloom.
Mr. F. H. Varley exhibited two specimens of the " Swallow-tailed "
Butterfly (Fapiliu MacJiauit) bred from puptb found attached to the
stems of an Umbelliferous plant (possibly Feucedanuin) growing near the
banks of the Thames between Southend and Tilbury, Essex, in October,
1868. Five pupae were found, three of which emerged as butterflies in
April of the following year.
The President remarked that these specimens were of great interest,
as they were veritable Essex " swallow-tails." The members were well
aware that the insect still bred in the fen districts of Cambridgeshire and
elsewhere, but it was thought to be extinct in Essex. It was a curious
fact that in this country the butterfly was very rarely seen far away
from its congenial fen-lands, but on the Continent it was a common
garden insect in many places, and occurred in perfectly dry districts.
Mr. W. Cole called attention to a statement by the late Edward
Newman, that P. Machaon was found commonly as near London as
Tottenham, in the early part of this century. Mr. Newman wrote in his
'Natural History of all the British Butterflies,' published in 'Young
England,' that when at school at Tottenham [probably before 1812]
he had found the beautiful caterpillars of the butterfly feeding upon
rue. A member of the Club, Mr. G. H. Eaynor, had recorded the
occurrence of Machaon at Maldon, in ' Entomologist ' for October, 1872
(vol. vi. 223). It was caught by Mr. Gutteridge, Surgeon, in Maldon,
about the beginning of August, 1872. The writer adds : — " It does not
seem possible that the insect could be a bred one escaped, as there is
but one entomologist in the town who does not plead guilty to having
had any Machaon pup® this year. The marshy nature of the sur-
rounding district renders it not improbable that Machaon may breed
regularly in some sequestered nook near here." In a letter to the
Secretary, dated November 12th, 1881, Mr. Eaynor comments upon
this : — " I had only just gone to live at Maldon then, and did not
know much about the Essex marshes, which I have since examined
more thoroughly. I do not now think it probable that Machaon breeds
Ixxx Journal of Proceed imja,
near Malclon, although it may have done so some years since." Mr.
Cole added that the value of Mr. Varley's specimens lay in the fact
that, as the pupcP were obtained in their natural habitat, the insects
must have bred there, and were not the result of an importation by
some enthusiastic lepidopterist.
Mr. English remarked that between the years 1848 and 1850, the late
Mr. Doubleday turned out a number of PapiUo Machaon in parts of the
Epping Forest district, as well as GaUimarpha dominula, but the butterfly
did not establish itself.
The Secretary read some extracts from a letter received from Mr. E. ]\I.
Christy, concerning the earlier stages of P. Machaon, which he had
observed in Wicken Fen, Cambridgeshire. "It is strange that the eggs
are more easily procured than the caterpillars. They are little shiny
white, semi-transparent globules, and are deposited singly on the leaves
of the Peucedanum palmtre, or Hog's Fennel, growing so abundantly in
the fens. When about a quarter of an inch long the caterpillar is almost
black, with a large white spot on its back about the centre of its body.
It is also very much bigger at one end than the other. At its various
moults it gradually becomes more and more like the brightly striped,
black and green, full-grown caterpillar."
A "List of the Hymenomycetal Fungi of Ejiping Forest," was com-
municated by Dr. M. C. Cooke [Transactions, ii. 181]. The list
enumerated 199 species.
Mr. English remarked that his own researches would enable him to
largely increase the list, and he promised to prepare a catalogue of those
species he had himself gathered in the Forest districts, and send it to the
Secretary.
Mr. J. Travis, of Saffron Walden, communicated the following records
of a few rare birds caught in Essex, received by him recently for preser-
vation : —
(1) Eed-neckei) Phalarope {Phalaropus Ityperhoreus), taken October
14th, 1881, on the lake at Debden Hall, near Saffron Walden. An old
male in winter plumage.
(2) Eared Grebe [Podiceps auritus), taken at the same time and place
after an hour's chase on the lake. A young male bird in poor condition.
Its stomach contained a rounded and flattened mass of feathers — presum-
ably its own — mixed with remains of small fish.
(3) Cormorant {Phalacrocorax Carlo). Two young specimens taken
by Mr. H. Webb, Streetly Hall, near Wickham, on September 7th.
(1) Buffon's Skua {Le.stris Butf'ouii). A specimen was picked up in an
extremely emaciated condition near Wimbish, about the beginning of
November, 1881. [From a subsequent letter from Mr. Travis.]
The thanks of the Society were returned to the authors, and the usual
conversazione concluded the Meeting.
Journal of ProccediiK/a. Ixxxi
Satuuday, Decembeh 17th, 1881.— Okijinauy Mioetixg.
The 28rd Ordinary Meeting of the Club was held at the Head Quarters
at seven o'clock, the President in the Chair.
Donations of books ^vere announced from Mr. B. G. Cole (2 vols.), and
Miss J. Combs. Mr. English presented to the Museum ten species of
Fungi belonging to the genera Poli/jjorus, Dcedalea, Tmiaetes, and
Stereum, preserved by his well-known process ; Mr. F. H. Vailey thu two
specimens of Papilio Machaon referred to at the last Meeting ; and Mr.
Harcourt intimated his intention of presentmg a collection of the
Flowering Plants of the Forest, then being preserved by Mr. English.
Cordial votes of thanks were passed to the respective donors.
Mr. E. E. Green and Mr. E. CI. Varenne were elected members of the
Club.
In accordance with the Eules the President announced that the following
vacancies had occurred in the Council : — Dr. Aveling (resigned), Mr.
Copland (resigned), Mr. Andrew Johnston (nominated as Treasurer), and
Mr. B. G. Cole (nominated as Assistant Hon. Secretary).
To fill the seats so rendered vacant, the following members were pro-
posed : — Mr. H. J. Bai-nes (on vacating office as Treasurer), Professor
Boulger, F.L.S., F.G.S., Mr. Arthur Lister, J.P., F.L.S., and the Eight
Hon. Lord Eayleigh, F.E.S. (Prof, of Experimental Physics at the
University of Cambridge).
To fulfil the requirements of Eule III., the following members of
Council agreed to retire, but offered themselves for re-election : — Mr.
Godwin, Mr. Harcourt, Mr. E. L. Barnes, and Mr. Eobarts.
As Officers for 1882 the following gentlemen were nominated : —
President, Eaphael Meldola, F.E.A.S., F.C.S. (Vice-President of Entomo-
logical Society) ; Treasurer, Andrew Johnston,. J. P., D.L. (late High
Sheriff of Essex) ; Secretary., William Cole ; Assistant-Secretary , B. G.
Cole ; Librarian, Alfred Lockyer.
The Secretary, on behalf of the Council, gave notice of his intention to
move at the Annual Meeting the following additions to the several Eules
mentioned : —
In Eule I., after title of Club, to add. the words '^ and its sJiort title sliall
he 'THE ESSEX FIELD CLUB'"; in Eule III., after the word
" Secretary " in Clause i., and tliroughout the Eules, to add the words
" Assistant Secretary " ; at the end of Eule VII. to add the words " and
the names of Members so in arrear may be suspoided in the rooms of
tJte Club'" ; at the end of Eule XI. to add the words " and Members not
so resigniny sluill be liable for the subscription for (be year next ensuiny.''^
The Council thought it unwise, at present at least, to alter the legal
title of the Club, but the above addition would perhaps meet the objection
which had been raised in some quarters, that tlie full title of the
I
Ixxxii Joitrnal of Pwceediiuja.
Club was too local, inasmuch as the operations of the Society embraced
the whole county.
Before the commencement of the scientific business of the evening the
President alluded in feeling terms to the death of an honoured original
member of the Club, Sir Antonio Brady, F.G.S., who died on Monday
morning, December 12th, at his residence, Maryland Point, Stratford, at
the age of 70. He was sure he was but expressing the desire of all mem-
bers of the Society in suggesting that a letter of condolence should be
sent to the family expressive of their respectful sympathy, and their deep
sense of the loss geological science and the county generally had sustained
by the death of their distinguished member. He might add the Secretary
had suggested that the Club should publish in the ' Transactions' a short
memoir of Sir Antonio, accompanied, if possible, by a portrait. To thus
record departed worth was in his (the President's) opinion a very com-
mendable custom, and one which obtained in many Societies, especially
on the Continent, and he thought they might well initiate it in their own
Club.
The resolution was passed unanimously.
Mr. White exhibited an aberration in a specimen of Thecla Quercus
(the " purple hair-streak butterfly "). The specimen was a female, and
on the dark purplish brown disc of the fore wings two or three blotches
of an orange colour were clearly traceable, suggesting a relation of affinity
with another well-known butterfly of the same genus, — Thecla Betula, —
the female of which has a large orange patch on the fore wings. Mr.
White thought that such instances of departure from type were well
worthy of careful attention, as by the aid which they afford in elucidating
the least apparent cases of affinity, and in determining more exactly the
" cousinship " of species, they always yield some evidence of value to the
evolutionist. He thought that from an examination of the specimen
they might fairly conclude that Thecla Quercvs was a younger form of
butterfly than its sloe-feeding ally. He also exhibited a collection of
British species of Sesiidae or " Clear- wing " Moths, in order to show the
close general resemblance in many cases between these delicate creatures
and other insects which possess special means of defence, such as bees
and wasps.
In most of the species of the family the scales upon the wings, so
characteristic of the order Lepidoptera, are almost entirely absent, but
one of Mr. White's specimens of Sesia fucifonnis which he had bred from
the pupa, still retained some scales. These scales generally fall oft' readily
when the insect flies. One section of the family (the genus Macroglossa
for example) has wings densely clothed with scales, and the President
pointed out the interest attaching to the specimen exliibited as showing
that the " clear-wing " character was a later development, tending to the
advantage of the creature in assimilating its appearance to the well-pro-
tected Hymenopteia, whilst its origin from a densely scaled form was
indicated by the tiansitoiy rettntion of scales in the recently jDerfected
Journal of Proceedin/fs. Ixxxiii
moth. The President also stated, with reference to tlie ab 'rration of T.
Quercm exhibited by Mr. White, that the orange patch on the wing, as
possessed by T. Bctiihe, was a very common kind of ornamentation in
the genus Thecla and its aUies ; he was therefore disposed to think that
this form of marking was the oldest, and that Mr. White's insect was an
example of a partial case of reversion to a former character.
In the discussion which ensued Mr. English and Mr. B. G. Cole both
stated, as the result of their ex]3erience in breeding He>i from
the caterpillar, that the possession of scales upon the wings of the fresh
imagos was a very variable cliaracter, not one-third of the brood having
them, but in some exceptional instances the clothing upon the wings was
quite dense.
Mr. English communicated a list of the Fungi of Epping Forest, sup-
plemental to that received from Dr. Cooke at the last meeting. [The
species of the Family Hymenomycetes noted by Mr. English are incor-
porated in the list published in the ' Transactions,' ii. 181] .
Mr. English enumerated 312 species of the larger Fungi, belonging to
the following Orders :— Agaricini (188), Polyporei (-18), Hydnei (8),
Auricularini (16), Clavariei (10), Tremellini (3), Hypogtei (1), Phalloidei
(2), Trichogastres (D), Myxog&stres (8), Nidulariacei (3), Elvellacei (21).
The author thought that the lists presented — Dr. Cooke's and his own-
were but tentative, and did not record anything like the number of species
actually existing in the Essex . woodlands. For instance, in the order
Agaricini, or gill-bearing Fungi, he had recorded 188 species, but in all
probability future work would double this number, for in the extensive
sub-genus Tricliolo ma only 21 species had been observed yet in the district,
whilst the number of British species amounted to about 60. Very little
attention had been paid to the Mijcena group; it consisted mostly of
small delicate plants, such as were represented in the Club's collection by
Mycena lactea ; here Mr. English could record only six species although
more than 70 had been catalogued as British. In the genus Cortuuirim
he could only give the names of 15 species with certainty, but he had
observed at least three times that number, most of them not yet deter-
mined, and the known native species exceeded 100. He was confident
that the record of 11 species of Hyurophorm should be doubled. From
some unknown cause during the last two years the Hy(jrophori had been
remarkably scarce, only four or five species having been seen. Many
species of this genus could not be overlooked ; for instance, H. virgineu.s,
a fungus of pearly whiteness, with gills running down the stem, loved to
grow in open grassy spots by the forest sides, and was always a striking
object. Then H. miniatus, with a brilliant crimson and orange pileus and
gills, grows in heathy places partly covered with bracken, with its com-
panion H. ceraceus, the latter of a beautiful clear yellow. At the same
times and places the botanist could meet with H. p.-ir charge, or to destroy or disturb
the Feres Nature inhabiting the same."
He thought that this resolution expressed with exactness their position
as a Natural History Society, with relation to this really serious question,
and he hoped that the members generally would give the matter of the
preservation of the essential natural features of the Forest their earnest
attention, and state their wishes with regard to the drawing up of the
Petition.
The Honorary Secretary made some remarks upon the subject. The
Society had been accused of selfish motives, and of a desire to keep the
Forest as " a happy hunting ground " for the botanist and entomologist.
He thought that the charge was very unfair. Their desire was but to see
the Epping Forest Act carried out in its true spirit. It was generally
agreed that the great value of the district consisted in the fact that it was
a piece of primeval woodland, with the exception of New Forest, almost
the last remnant of the vast forests which once covered England, and
" fed alike the vassal and his lord." If once such schemes as those
under consideration were sanctioned, this quietude, charm, and value of
the woods would vanish, never to return. The place would be gradually
given over to the speculator, publican, and swing proprietor ; and in
twenty years' time the woods would become a mere park, relegated to the
tender mercies of the more uneducated sections of the community, to the
destruction of all that made it valuable in the eyes of the true philan-
thropist, he who could and would look forward to the time when the
existence so near London of a piece of true untouched nature would be
of inestimable value in the moral and physical education of millions yet
unborn. He hoped that all intelligent Londoners, whether " naturalists "
or not, would consider the question carefully, and speak out emphatically
while yet there was time. No parts of the woodlands were more than
two miles from a railway station, and to sanction such vulgarities as
tramways through a Forest was but to wealdy bow to a mistaken and
mischievous agitation, fomented by a few interested speculators caring
more for commissions, percentages, and " bar -takings " than for the
true and permanent interests and wishes of intelligent citizens.
Some suggestions were made by Dr. Pearce, Messrs. Gould, Warner,
and Eoss ; and the resolution was passed unanimously, the President,
Secretary, and Council being empowered to prepare and present petitions
to the Conservators and to Parliament, and to take measures to enlist the
co-operation of the various Natural History Societies in and around
London in the matter.
A proposal of Sir T. Fowell Buxton, relative to the- preservation of the
FercB Nuturce in the County of Essex, was on the agenda paper ; but the
full consideration of the question was postponed, the members present
Ixxxvi Journal of Proceedings.
thinking it would be better to devote an entire evening to a subject so
important.*
A paper entitled " The Mammalia of Essex," by Mr, Henry Laver
F.L.S., was read by the Secretary [Transactions, ii. 157].
A long discussion on various details connected with the natural history
of our native quadrupeds was carried on by the President, Dr. Pearce,
Messrs. English, Gould, Cole, Lockyer, Warner, and others. The pugna-
cious habits of the shrew, which it was suggested might account for their
being so commonly found dead on paths, etc., in autumn ; the white
colour of the stoat in some winters; the question of "vermin," and the
assumed right of gamekeepers to destroy all animals under that name ;
the former existence of red deer in the Forest, and other matters were
referred to. Mr. English exhibited a photograph of a remarkable aberra-
tion in colour in the connnon squirrel ; the specimen (which was quite
" piebald" ) had been taken in the Forest in 1858, and was now in the
possession of an inhabitant of the hamlet of Ivy Chimneys, near They don.
Mr. Warner called attention to the fact that the otter was still found
in the Lea Kiver. A female weighing thirteen and-a-half pounds was
shot in the private fishery belonging to Mr. E. J. Eastwood, King's
Weir, Cheshunt, on November 20th, 1878, and was recorded in the
' Times.' Mr. Eastwood had informed him that in 1881, he (Mr.
Eastwood) saw three in the same water, and that a very large one had
lately been seen in the mill-stream adjoining, belonging to the Govern-
ment Powder Factory, at Waltham Abbey, by some of the men employed
upon the premises.
A cordial vote of thanks was passed to Mr. English and Mr. Laver for
their communications.
It was announced that the Annual Meeting would take place on the
28th of January. Part 5 of the ' Transactions,' containing 88 pp. of
letterpress and four plates, was on the table. The usual conversazione
concluded the meeting.
Saturday, January 28th, 1882. — Ordinary and Annual General
Meeting.
The 24th Ordinary Meeting was held at the Head Quarters, at seven
o'clock, the President in the Chah.
The Librarian announced the donation of a volume to the library by
Mr. B. G. Cole, and that two volumes of the ' Transactions of the
Watford Natural History Society' had been acquired by purchase.
* The matter above referred to, together with the general question of Forest manage-
ment from the Natural History point of view, came on for discussion at the meeting of
the Club held on February 25th, 1882. A full report has been prepared, and will be
issued in the next part of ' Transactions ' as an Appendix to Vol. iii., and also in a
separate pamphlet form for distribution, — Ed.
Journal of Proceedmiia fuciformi^y
Ixxxiii.
Cole, H. A., on worked tiints from
Parndon and High Beach, Iviii.
Cole, W., presentation to, i ; on
observing larva, v. ; on tramways
in Epping Forest, Ixxvi, Ixxxv ;
on retarded development of
Batrachia, Ixxvii ; on Papilio
Machaon, Ixxix.
Cooke, Dr. M. C, on the Fungi of
Epping Forest, Ixvi.
Coprinus aratu^ from Epping
Forest, Ixiii ; cystidia of, Ixiv.
Council for 1882, Ixxxi, Ixxxvii.
Crouch, W., on Cyclostoma elegana,
xi ; on museum specimens, lix ;
on the Mollusca of the Boding
Valley, lix.
Cyclical propagation, Ixxxviii.
Cyclostoma eleyan>^, xi, xxi.
Dalton, W. H., on Cyclostonui ele-
gans, xi.
Danbury, visited, xlvi ; the church,
liii ; ancient camp at, liv ; notes
on the natural history of, liv.
Deer of Epping Forest, xxi, xxii.
Dene-holes at Grays, xviii.
Diiuitliiis, fasciation in, vi.
Diatoms; Desmids and Algie from
Epping Forest, xlii.
D'Oyley, W., on the deer of Epping
Forest, xxii.
JJulcranuni yUtuaim in fruit, \i.
Elm, large, at W'altham Abbey,
vii.
English, J. L., on hawfinches, iv ;
on adaptation in IliDitoiculus
aqua tills, xl ; on Seaia fucifoniiis,
Ixxxiii ; on the Fungi of Epping
Forest, Ixxxiii.
m
xc
Index.
Epping Forest and Great Eastern
Railway, v. ; deer of, xxi, xxii ;
excavation of Ambresbury Banks,
xxviii ; visited, xli, Ix ; Algae
desmids and diatoms from, xlii ;
Neuroptera from, xlii ; Microzoa
from, xliii ; Hepatic®, lichens
and mosses from, Ixv ; Fungi of,
lx\a, Ixxxiii ; proposed tramways
in, Ixxvi, Ixxxiv, Ixxxvii.
Epping to Theydon Garnon, xliii.
Essex and Chelmsford Museum, 1.
Essex, rare buds in, Ixxx.
Fasciation in DiantJms, vi.
Field Meetings : Waltham Holy
Cross, vi ; Grays Thurrock, xiii ;
Camp exploration, xxviii ; Chig-
well, xxxiv ; Epping Forest, xli ;
Epping to Theydon Garnon, xliii ;
Chelmsford and Danbury, xlvi ;
Annual Cryptogamic Meeting, Ix.
Fitch, E. A., on analogies, causes
and growth of galls, Ixx.
Forest Camps Exploration Fund,
xxviii, Ixxxviii.
Fries, E., MS. of, iii.
Fungi of Epping Forest, lx\-i,
Ixxxiii.
Fungus Foray, Ix.
Gall new to Britain, xvi, xx.
Galls in relation to the animal
kingdom, Ixix, Ixx ; causes and
growth of, Ixx.
Geologists' Association, joint field-
meeting with, xiii.
GiBBS, J., on tri-morphism of
Lythrum Salicaria, 1 ; flowering
plants in neighbourhood of
Chelmsford, 1 ; introduction of
Claytonia perfoliata into Essex,
li.
(})iorimus nohiJU, l\dii.
Gordiacea, life-history of, iii.
Gordius aquaticus, iii.
Grays Thurrock, visited, xiii ; biblo-
graphy of the geology of, xix.
Great Baddow, visited, 1.
Great Eastern Railway and Epping
Forest, v ; concession as to fares,
xlvi, Iv.
Harting, J. E., on the deer of
Epping Forest, xxi.
Hawfinch in Essex, iii ; food of, iv.
Hedge Spai'row, white aberration
of, iv.
Hepatic£e from Epping Forest, Ixv.
Herts Natural History Society,
joint field-meeting with, xli.
Holmes, E. M. : Hepatic®, Lichens
and Mosses from Epping Forest,
Ixv ; on Lichens, Ixvii.
Honey Buzzard and Common Buz-
zard in Essex, Ixxii, Ixxiii, Ixxiv.
Hunstanton and its neighbourhood
in 1878 and 1880, v.
HylurgiDi piniperda, iv.
Inflorescences, classification of, xli v.
Jervoise, Sir J. C, on "pot-boiler"
flints, ii.
King, J. J., on Neuroptera from
Epping Forest, xlii.
Lea River, Otters in, Ixxxvi.
Lepidoptera, organs of smell in, xii.
Letchford, R., on galls, Ixx.
Leyton, Ostrcea from, xii.
Lichens, from Epping Forest, Ixv ;
distribution, etc., of, Ixvii ;
Schwendenerian theory of, Ixvii.
Liparis aurijiua, dwarf specimen
of, Iviii.
Loughton Camp, investigation of,
Ixviii.
Lythrum Salicaria, tri-morphism
in structure of flowers of, 1.
MELDOLA,R.,on Cydostoma eleyans,
xii ; on organs of smell in insects,
xii, XX ; on museums, xxii ; on the
Stone Age, xxiii ; on the causes
and growth of galls, Ixx ; on
retarded development of Batra-
chia, Ixxviii ; on Papilio Machaon,
Ixxix ; on Sesia and Thecla,
Ixxxii.
Microzoa from Epping Forest, xliii.
Mildness of winter, 1881, Ixxix.
MoUusca of the Roding Valley, lix.
Morris, Prof. J., on the geology of
Grays Thurrock, xiv, xvi.
Mosses from Epping Forest, Ixv.
Museum, donations to, i, Ixxxi ;
arrangement and management
of, xxii.
Neuroptera from Epping Forest,
xlii.
Oak with variegated leaves. Hi.
Officers for 1882, Ixxxi, lxxx\-ii.
Ordinary Meetings, i, iv, xi, xx,
xxxix, Ivi, Ivii, Ixvi, Ixviii, Ixxvi,
Ixxxi, Ixxxvi.
Ostrcea from Leyton, xii.
Otters in River Lea, Ixxxvi.
Index.
XCl
Papilio Machaon in Essex, Ixxix ;
early stages of, Ixxx.
Parndon, Great, worked flints from,
Iviii.
Pearce, Dr. C. T., on galls, Ixix.
Pemphigus hursarius, xx.
Pernis apivorus in Essex, Ixxii,
Ixxiii, Ixxiv.
Phillips, T. W., on Microzoa from
Epping Forest, xliii.
" Pot-boiler" flints, ii.
Presentation to the Hon. Sec, i.
Protection of birds, Ixxv.
Ranunculus aqua t His, xl.
Raynob, G. H., on Papilio Machaon,
Ixxix.
RoBARTS, N. F., on the Stone Age,
xxvi.
Rules, additions to, Ixxxi.
Sand-pipes in chalk at Grays, xiv.
Sandon, visited, 1 ; church at, li.
Sesia fuciformis, Ixxxii.
Smell, organs of, in insects, xii, xx.
Smith, W. G., on Agaricus Worth-
ingtonii, iii ; on Dene-holes, xviii ;
report of Fungus Foray, Ixi.
Sparassis crispa, gigantic specimen
of, Ixi.
Squirrel, aberration in colour of,
Ixxxvi.
Stone Age, the, xxiii ; evidences
of, xxiii, XXV ; divisions of, xxiv,
. xxvi.
Tadpoles, non - development of,
Ixxvii, Ixxviii.
Thecla Quercm, aberration of,
Ixxxli.
Thera, affected by ichneumons, xxi.
Theydon Garnon, visited, xliii.
Tramways in Epping Forest, Ixxvi,
Ixxxiv, Ixxxvii.
Travis, J., on rare birds in Essex,
Ixxx.
Unwin, T. F., on the history, etc.,
of Chigwell, xxxiv.
Vice-Presidents for 1882, Ixxxviii.
Walker, H. : Report of field-meeting
at Grays Thurrock, xiii ; on the
geology of Grays, xiv, xv, xvii ;
on galls, XX, Ixx ; on the Stone
Age, xxvii.
Wall, P. W., on museums, xxiii.
Waltham Abbey, visited, vi ; de-
scription of, vi ; history of, viii ;
Lady Chapel at, vii, ix ; large
elm at, vii.
Warner, C, on Otters in River
Lea, Ixxxvi.
White, W., on observing larvae, v ;
on Honey Buzzards in Essex,
Ixxiv ; on an aberration of Thecla
Quercus, Ixxxii.
Wilson, Rev. W. L., on retarded
development of Batrachia, Ixxvii,
Ixxviii,
Winter, mildness of in 1881, Ixxix.
xcii Errata.
EEKATA.
Page 12 line 3 (from bottom), for Penjcjince read Peririyiue.
„ 27 ,r ' 14 „ or „ on.
,, 125 ,, 1 , „ Xenophanes Potentilla read Xesto-
plianes Potentilla.
„ xviii ,, 14 and 46 ,, '^Dane-holes'' read ''Dene-holes.'"
„ xxxii ,, 17 (from bottom) ,, side read site.
,, xxxiv heading, ,, July ,, June.
„ xxxix lines 4 and 5. A curious error has crept in here ; the founder
of " Fahlop Fair " was Daniel Day, a block and pump maker,
of Wapping. The author of ' Sandford and Merton ' was
Thomas Day, of Stapleford- Abbots, near Abridge, Essex. — En.
Plate iv. fig. 2. The horizontal scale is ten times too great ; the reader is
requested to strike off a cipher from each number ;
the vertical scale is con-ect.— Ei-.
WEST, NEW3IAN AND CO., PRINTERS, 54, HATTON GARDEN, LONDON, E.C.
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