Transactions Illinois State Academy of Science Volume 106 (2013) Illinois State Academy of Science Founded 1907 Affiliated with the Illinois State Museum Visit us on the web at http://ilacadofsci.com/ ISSN 0019-2252 Printed by authority of the State of Illinois Springfield, Illinois Transactions Information Transactions Editor Executive Secretary Teresa (Tere North) terenl956@gmail.com Robyn Meyers rmyers@museum. state, il.us Officers President Secretary David Horn Millikin University dhorn@millikin.edu Gilles Kouassi Western Illinois University gk-kouassi@wiu.edu President-Elect (term begins after 2015 Annual Mtg.) Gary Bulla gabulla@eiu.edu Treasurer R. Edward DeWalt edewalt@inhs.uiuc.edu Division Chairs / Section Editors Agriculture Engineering & Technology Vacant Vacant Anthropology & Archaeology Lesa Davis Northeastern Illinois University lcdavis@neiu.edu Environmental Science Melissa Chan Southern Illinois University Edwardsville pchan@siue.edu Botany Judy Parrish Millikin University jparrish@millikin.edu Health Sciences Vance McCracken Southern Illinois University Edwardsville vmccrac@siue.edu Cell, Molecular, & Developmental Biology Tom Fowler Southern Illinois University Edwardsville tfowler@siue.edu Microbiology Vance McCracken Southern Illinois University Edwardsville vmccrac@siue.edu Chemistry T.K. Vinod Western Illinois University TK-Vinod@wiu.edu Physics, Mathematics, & Astronomy Casey R. Watson Millikin University crwatson@millikin.edu Computer Science Jim McQuillan Western Illinois University jm-mcquillan@wiu.edu Science, Mathematics, & Technology Education Kelly Barry Southern Illinois University Edwardsville kbarry@siue.edu Earth Science Jim Riley Eastern Illinois University jdriley@eiu.edu Zoology Travis Wilcoxen Millikin University twilcoxen@millikin.edu LuES 1 HER T.MERTZ library MAY 2 7 2014 NEW YORK -BOTANICAL GARDfm http://ilacadofsci.com/ Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science (2013) Volume 106, pp. 1-2 received 12/12/12 accepted 5/7/13 First Occurrence of the Bankclimber Plectomerus dombeyanus (Valenciennes, 1827) (Mollusca: Unionidae) in Illinois Jeremy S. Tiemann1*, Kevin S. Cummings1, and John E. Schwegman2 ‘Illinois Natural History Survey, Prairie Research Institute, University of Illinois, 1816 South Oak Street, Champaign, IL 61820 22626 Riverpoint Lane, Metropolis, IL 62960 ^Correspondence: jtiemann@illinois.edu ABSTRACT Presh-dead specimens of the freshwater mussel Bankclimber Plectomerus dombeyanus (Valenciennes, 1827) were discovered in the Il¬ linois portion of the Ohio River near America, Pulaski County, Illinois, at river mile 970 (37.12104N, 89.11468W) during the summer of 2012. The specimens were deposited in the Illinois Natural History Survey Mollusk Collection, Champaign (INHS 42354 and INHS 42977). While reported from elsewhere in the Ohio River basin, these specimens represent the first time the species has been recorded in Illinois. The Bankclimber Plectomerus dombeyanus (Valenciennes, 1827) is a freshwater mussel (Mollusca: Unionidae) that typically has a thick, rhomboidal shaped, moderately in¬ flated shell and obtains lengths up to 150- mm (Parmalee and Bogan, 1998; Williams et al., 2008). Its periostracum is greenish brown to brown and darkens to black with age, and its nacre is usually deep purple (Parmalee and Bogan, 1998; Williams et ah, 2008). Plectomerus dombeyanus has been described as a “mud-loving” species that “delights in sluggish flowing water” (Call, 1895). The animal inhabits medium to large rivers, oxbow lakes, and lowland ditches, and is found in clay, mud, sand or rocky substrates (Oesch, 1984; Williams et ah, 2008). It occurs along channel mar¬ gins in sluggish to moderate current, but can be found buried in steep slopes a con¬ siderable distance from the main channel (Oesch, 1984; Williams et ah, 2008). Plectomerus dombeyanus is commonly found in Gulf drainage streams from the Alabama River west to eastern Texas, in¬ cluding the lower Mississippi River to its confluence with the Ohio River (Parmalee and Bogan, 1998; Williams et ah, 2008). The species was first reported from the Ohio River basin in 1981, when two live individuals were discovered in Kentucky Lake, Trigg County, Kentucky (Pharris et ah, 1984). Since then, P dombeyanus has expanded its range throughout the lake (Parmalee and Bogan, 1998; Cicerello and Schuster, 2003), and has been found downstream of the Kentucky Dam in the Tennessee River (JES pers. obs). The Bank¬ climber also has been collected at three locations in the Kentucky portion of the Ohio River mainstem: 1) in 1982, a relict specimen at river mile 944, near Paducah, McCracken County (Ron Cicerello, Ken¬ tucky State Nature Preserves Commission, retired, pers. comm.); 2) in 1996, a fresh- dead specimen at river mile 784, which is at its confluence with the Green River, Henderson County (Watters and Myers Plaute, 2010; Ohio State University Divi¬ sion of Molluscs, Columbus, Bivalve Col¬ lection #58992), and 3) in 2012, two live individuals at river mile 935 (Heidi Dunn, Ecological Specialists, Inc., pers. comm.). However, the animal has not been listed as part of Illinois’ native mollusk fauna (e.g., Cummings, 1991; Cummings and Mayer, 1992; Cummings and Mayer, 1997; Tiemann et ah, 2007) until now. One fresh-dead 48-mm specimen was discov¬ ered in the Ohio River at river mile 970 (37.12104N, 89.11468W) near America, Pulaski County, Illinois, on 27 June 2012 by JES (Figure 1). Another fresh-dead specimen (44-mm) was recorded from the Figure 1. Bankclimber Plectomerus dombeyanus (INHS 42354) from the Ohio River at river mile 970 (37.12104N, 89.1 1468W) near America, Pulaski County, Illinois. First Occurrence of the Bankclimber Plectomerus dombeyanus (Valenciennes, 1827) Mollusca: Unionidae) in Illinois Jeremy S. Tiemann, Kevin S. Cummings, and John E. Schwegman 2 same site on 15 August 2012 by JST and KSC. These specimens represent the first time P. dombeyanus has been recorded in Illinois. The specimens were deposited in the Illinois Natural History Survey Mol- lusk Collection, Champaign (INHS 42354 and INHS 42977). The means by which the animal is expand¬ ing its known range is unknown. Pharris et al. (1984) suggested that P. dombeyanus might be expanding its range by either ar¬ tificial transportation (e.g., fish stockings) or as a result of habitat alterations from impoundment construction. The fish host for P. dombeyanus is unknown at this time. Pharris et al. (1984) also pointed out that their discovery of P dombeyanus in the Tennessee River occurred before the Ten- nessee-Tombigbee connection occurred. Watters and Myers Flaute (2010) stated the Meyers Pool of the Ohio River proba¬ bly represents the northernmost extent of the species. Given that the Ohio River is at the extreme northern limits of the species’ range, and Williams et al. (1993) listed the species as currently stable throughout its range, we do not recommend Plectomerus dombeyanus for state-listing in Illinois. LITERATURE CITED Call, R.E. 1895. A study of the Unionidae of Arkansas, with incidental reference to their distribution in the Mississippi Valley. Transac¬ tions of the Academy of Sciences of St. Louis 7(l):l-65. Cicerello, R.R. and G.A. Schuster. 2003. A guide to the freshwater mussels of Kentucky. Ken¬ tucky State Nature Preserves Commission Sci¬ entific and Technical Series Number 7. 62 pp. Cummings, K.S. 1991. The aquatic Mollusca of Illinois, pp. 429-439 in L.M. Page and M.R. Jeffords, eds. Our living heritage: The biologi¬ cal resources of Illinois. Illinois Natural Histo¬ ry Survey Bulletin 34(4):357-477. Cummings, K.S. and C.A. Mayer. 1992. Field guide to freshwater mussels of the Midwest. Illinois Natural History Survey, Manual 5. 194 pp. Cummings, K.S. and C.A. Mayer. 1997. Distri¬ butional checklist and status of Illinois fresh¬ water mussels (Mollusca: Unionacea). pp. 129- MS in K.S. Cummings, A.C. Buchanan, C.A. Mayer, and T.J. Naimo, eds. Conservation and management of freshwater mussels II: initia¬ tives for the future. Proceedings of a UMRCC Symposium, 16-18 October 1995, St. Louis, Missouri. Upper Mississippi River Conserva¬ tion Committee, Rock Island, Illinois. 293 pp. Oesch, R.D. 1984. Missouri naiads: A guide to the mussels of Missouri. Missouri Department of Conservation, Jefferson City. 270 pp. Parmalee, P.W. and A.E. Bogan. 1998. The fresh¬ water mussels of Tennessee. University of Ten¬ nessee Press, Knoxville. 328 pp. Pharris, G.L., J.B. Sickel, and C.C. Chandler. 1984. Range extension of the freshwater mus¬ sel, Plectomerus dombeyanus, into the Tennes¬ see River, Kentucky. Nautilus 98(2):74-77. Tiemann, J.S., K.S. Cummings, and C.A. Mayer. 2007. Updates to the distributional checklist and status of Illinois freshwater mussels (Mol¬ lusca: Unionidae). Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science 100(1): 107- 123. Watters, G.T. and C.J. Myers Flaute. 2010. Dams, zebras, and settlements: the historical loss of freshwater mussels in the Ohio River main- stem. American Malacological Bulletin 28(1- 2):1-12. Williams, J.D., M.L. Warren, Jr., K.S. Cummings, J.L. Harris, and R.J. Neves. 1993. Conservation status of freshwater mussels of the United States and Canada. Fisheries 18(9):6-22. Williams, J.D., A.E. Bogan, and J.T. Garner. 2008. Freshwater mussels of Alabama and the Mobile Basin in Georgia, Mississippi, and Ten¬ nessee. University of Alabama Press, Tuscalo¬ osa. 908 pp. Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science (2013) Volume 106, pp. 3-4 3 BOOK REVIEW - 2003 - #1 Book: The Moon in the Nautilus Shell: Discordant Harmonies Reconsidered, From Climate Change to Species Extinction, How Life Persists in an Ever-Changing World by Dr. Daniel Botkin 449 pp. Oxford University Press, New York, NY, $22.12, ISBN 978-0-19-991391-6 Reviewer: Richard B. Brugam, Department of Biological Sciences, Southern Illinois University, Edwardsville, IL 62026 REVIEW Dan Botkin, the author of The Moon and the Nautilus Shell, is an ecologist whose icono¬ clastic ideas may make some environmen¬ talists uncomfortable. Dr. Botkin has had a long career solving environmental prob¬ lems. He helped to develop JABOWA, a very successful early computer-based forest growth simulation. He also has had close contact with the paleoecology community so he has a view of ecology on a geological time scale. He has written extensively on environmental topics working as a sort of “free-lance” environmental problem solv¬ er while based as a professor at UC Santa Barbara. The Moon and the Nautilus Shell is partly a memoir and partly a discussion of his ideas about nature and people’s place in it. Botkin’s main argument is that the idea of “Balance of Nature” is not supported by science even though it is a commonly held paradigm among environmentalists. Some of the book is devoted to an academ¬ ic discussion of the origins of the balance of nature paradigm and arguments against it. Botkin believes that equilibrium models of nature will ultimately fail because the earth is dynamic. Throughout geological history, life has responded to environmen¬ tal change without any possibility of equi¬ librium. Botkin believes that there is no natural equilibrium but that life responds opportunistically to these changes. The lo¬ gistic growth/carrying capacity model that we all learned in introductory ecology class is inadequate to describe nature. Even the landscape that the early American natural history explorers found was not in a natural equilibrium because it was managed by the people who were already living there. This realization presents a problem for ecolog¬ ical restoration. To what state should we restore a landscape if everything is always changing? Dr. Botkin argues for a paradigm shift from an equilibrium view of nature to a dynamic view. A large portion of the book is devoted to a consideration of the impact of the dy¬ namic view of nature on environmental management. The “Balance of Nature” model is deeply embedded in the environ¬ mental movement. Rachel Carson explic¬ itly invoked the Balance of Nature in her two masterpieces, The Sea Around Us and Silent Spring. In Silent Spring she argues that the indiscriminant use of pesticides disturbs the balance of nature to the per¬ il of humankind. Botkin believes that it is still important to protect the environment against human damage, but good data is important in environmental decision-mak¬ ing. Good data does not support a natural equilibrium. He has a great story of being called in to enhance salmon runs in Oregon and finding that no one had good counts of salmon in the important rivers. He cites numerous other examples where good data falsifies the application of equilibrium the¬ ory to environmental problems. He argues that the Balance of Nature is a soothing concept with no basis in fact and he pro¬ vides many examples where equilibrium models failed to support good management decisions. The controversial part of The Moon and the Nautilus Shell begins with Botkin’s applica¬ tion of his theory to modern environmen¬ tal problems. His consideration of global warming and its impacts will surprise many environmentalists. He believes that global warming is occurring, but is skeptical about whether it is human caused. As a computer modeler, he questions the projections of the global climatic models that are so import¬ ant in predicting future climate change. He argues that a dynamic view of ecosystems suggests that living things have endured large climatic changes in the past without loss. The climatic warming at the Paleo- cene/Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM) was as great as or greater than that pre¬ dicted for our future. Also, at the end of the last glacial period, the Younger Dryas period was a 1,300 year long return to gla¬ cial climates. This period began and ended suddenly (probably in less than 100 years). However, both of these climatic changes oc¬ curred at times of large ecosystem change. The PETM resulted in increased speciation among mammals and caused extinctions of marine foraminifera. The close of the latest glacial age resulted in the extinction of many large mammals in North America. It is unclear whether this change resulted from human colonization of North Amer¬ ica, from the climatic stress of the Younger Dryas or from both events acting together. This evidence from the paleoecological re¬ cord would seem to suggest that Botkin is wrong about the impacts of global warming on living systems. However, his emphasis on the dynamism of earth’s environment in contrast with a static equilibrium model is, I believe, correct. Botkin argues that concern about mitigat¬ ing global warming diverts our resources from more immediate problems. He ex¬ plicitly mentions that he is not interested in overturning the advances of 50 years of en¬ vironmentalism. He says that he does not mean to challenge Aldo Leopold’s “Land Ethic.” Environmentalism is still relevant. However Botkin says that we need to se¬ lect among environmental issues and work on the ones that are solvable with current knowledge and methods. He also argues that, ultimately, solving the basic problems of the environment will allow us to meet the challenges of global warming. He lays out a series of problems that will resonate with environmentalists. He is most concerned about 1) sustaining the diversity of life on earth, 2) a sustained population of humans and 3) a continuation of human civilization. He provides a list of attainable goals which Book: The Moon in the Nautilus Shell: Discordant Harmonies Reconsidered, From Climate Change to Species Extinction by Daniel Botkin Reviewer: Richard B. Brugam 4 include providing energy to society with the fewest negative effects, greatly reducing habitat destruction, and controlling inva¬ sive species. Dr. Botkin suggests that we can best solve these problems by abandoning an inappropriate faith in the balance of nature and equilibrium thinking and replacing it with a clear scientific understanding of the dynamism of nature. In summary, The Moon and the Nautilus Shell is a thought provoking book that of¬ fers an alternative to the equilibrium think¬ ing that dominates our ideas about nature. Dr. Botkin offers a rational alternative to the “Balance of Nature” that may be helpful in thinking about modern environmental problems. Some of his conclusions may disturb environmentalists but his theory is strongly supported by evidence. His ideas offer no less than a new direction for the environmental movement. Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science (2013) Volume 106, pp. 5-8 received 2/7/13 accepted 8/3/13 Does Pollen Supply Limit Seed Set of Baptisia bracteata ? Chris E. Petersen, Sally Jo Detloff, Sophie K. Shukin and Barbara A. Petersen College of DuPage, Glen Ellyn, IL 60137 ABSTRACT Baptisia bracteata is a perennial legume native to tallgrass prairie that flowers early in the growth season and produces a relatively low seed set compared to a taller sympatric congener, B. alba. This study tested for evidence that B. bracteata is pollen limited. The study site was a reconstructed tallgrass prairie located in northeastern Illinois. Experimental treatments included a control, and two hand-pollination treatments, one where pollen transfer was limited to the same plant and the other where pollen was taken from other plants. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to test the effect of treatment on two indicators of pollination success of a plant, i.e., arcsine Vxi transfor¬ mations of pods inflated/flower and seeds matured/flower. LoglOfFlower count/plant +1) provided a covariate in both ANCOVAs, while likewise transformed counts of a seed predator, Apion rostrum, provided a second covariate to seeds matured/plant. Based on ANCOVA, pollination treatment did not affect the number of pods inflated/flower or seeds matured/flower. Flower count/plant showed a significant effect in both comparisons. A. rostrum, which synchronizes its life cycle to B. alba, did not affect seeds matured/flower of B. bracteata. Using Spearman Rank Correlation, flower count/plant was positively related to seeds matured/plant, indicating the importance of inflo¬ rescence size to seed set. Count of A. rostrum/ plant was significantly correlated to pods inflated and seeds matured per plant. Factors not eliminated as affecting seed set of B. bracteata were resource limitations and pre-dispersal seed predation by A. rostrum. INTRODUCTION Environmental factors linked to low seed set include pollen limitationpl, re¬ source scarcities", and pre-dispersal seed predationsp (pl,spCariveau et al., 2004; plCoupland et ah, 2005; "Fulkerson et ah, 2012; pl,"Haig and Westoby, 1988; pl- spHainsworth et ah, 1984; spLanger and Rohde, 2005). Pollen supplies may be in¬ adequate due to shortages or unreliability of pollinators particularly in extreme or highly disturbed environments like those in alpine, upper latitude (Fulkerson et ah, 2012), fragmented (Holzschuh et ah, 2012), or urban locations (Pellissier et ah, 2012). Environmental factors caus¬ ing low pollen supply may select for more apparent optical traits, such as a larger inflorescence, and more attractive floral scents. However, subsequent greater pol¬ lination success may result in seeds that a plant cannot support to maturity due to resource limits (Haig and Westoby, 1988) and the attraction of consumers (Adler and Theis, 2012; Ehrlen et ah, 2012). Baptisia bracteata Muhl. ex. Ell. (Cream Wild Indigo = B. leucophaea) is native to tallgrass prairie of the Midwest (Swink and Wilhelm 1994). The perennial le¬ gume produces a low seed set compared to its sympatric congener, B. alba (L.) Vent (White Wild Indigo = B. leucantha ) (Haddock and Chaplin, 1982; Petersen and Wang, 2006). B. bracteata blooms during May, a month before B. alba, with little overlap in blooming period. Unlike the taller B. alba which can exceed lm in height, B. bracteata rarely exceeds 0.3m. Each B. bracteata consists of subterranean rhizomes from which up to several dozen aerial shoots emerge to form a concentric cluster. Racemes bearing yellow flowers, arch outward from the cluster. Flowers last about 4 days, with 2 days spent in a staminate phase, followed by 2 days in a pistilate phase (Haddock and Chaplin, 1982). Self pollination can occur as polli¬ nators, primarily Bombus spp., move down an indeterminate raceme. Pods inflate from pollinated flowers. Each pod bears an average of 18 to 19 ovules from which more than half can be expected to initiate seeds (Haddock and Chaplin, 1982; Pe¬ tersen and Wang, 2006). Pod maturation is complete by August and seeds disperse as pods dehisce. The cause of low seed output by B. bracte¬ ata compared to B. alba is unknown, but has been hypothesized to be explained by pollen scarcity (Haddock and Chaplin, 1982), limited resources, and avoidance of a seed predator (Haddock and Chaplin, 1982; Petersen and Wang, 2006). The ob¬ jective of our study was to determine if B. bracteata is pollen limited by examining if hand-pollination could increase pollina¬ tion success. Complicating factors considered in the experiment were size of inflorescence and pre-dispersal seed predation. Plants with larger inflorescences are typically presumed to have the resources be able to produce a larger seed set, although this may not always be the case in light of pre-dispersal seed predators (Ohashi and Yahara, 2000). The major pre-dispersal seed predator in our study area located in northeastern Illinois, is Apion rostrum Say (Coleoptera: Apionidae). Overwintering weevils oviposit into pods as they inflate. The resulting larvae consume seeds as their only source of nutrition. The adult stage is reached by August, with the new generation of weevils dispersing as pods open. METHODS The study took place during 2012 in the 7.1 ha, reconstructed Russell Kirt Tallgrass Prairie located on the campus of College of DuPage, IL. The prairie plot, reconstruct¬ ed beginning in 1984, is characterized by the grasses big bluestem ( Andropogon gerardii Vitman), prairie dropseed ( Spo - robolus heterolepis Gray), and Indian grass ( Sorghastrum nutans (L.) Nash), plus some 1 50 species of forbs to include B. bracteata. The prairie plot was burned during March of 2012 after a six-year period in which it was not burned. A concentric cluster of B. bracteata was assumed to be one individual based on in¬ spection of excavated B. bracteata not used in the experiment. Plants were selected randomly as they flowered during May. Flowers of plants in the control treatment Does Pollen Supply Limit Seed Set of Baptisia bracteata ? Chris E. Petersen, Sally Jo Detloff, Sophie K. Shukin and Barbara A. Petersen 6 were not manipulated, while those of the other treatments were hand-pollinated us¬ ing paint brushes. A “selfing” treatment involved introducing pollen to a stigma where pollen came from racemes of the same cluster, while in a “crossing” treat¬ ment, pollen was introduced from racemes of other clusters. These treatments did not limit pollen from contrary sources, but did permit examination of how supplemental pollination from a source could change pollination success. Hand pollination was repeated a week apart as to include flowers as they developed along indeterminate ra¬ cemes. Due to the availability of individ¬ ual B. bracteata, sample sizes were 18 for both a control and a selfing treatment, and 17 for a crossing treatment. Counts taken were flowers/plant, pods inflated/plant, pods matured/plant, seeds matured/pod, and A. rostrum/ pod. Counts of seeds matured/plant and A. ros¬ trum/ plant were pro-rated from the total number of ripe pods of a plant in the case when some ripe pods were damaged and contents could escape. Pollination success was quantified by pods inflated/flower and seeds matured/flower. All statistical summarization was done using Statistica (StatSoft, 2001). Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was performed on pods inflated/flower (IP/F), with flow¬ er count/plant entered as covariate, and also on seeds matured/flower (S/F), with counts of flowers/plant and A. rostrum/ plant as covariates. In the ANCOVA in¬ volving weevils, plants were eliminated from analysis if all ripened pods had holes from which weevils could have escaped prior to sampling. Prior to analyses, pods inflated/flower (IP/F) and seeds ma¬ tured/flower (S/F) of a plant were arcsine Vxi transformed, and counts of flowers/ plant were logl0(x + 1) transformed to meet assumptions of parametric analy¬ sis (Zar, 1984). Counts of A. rostrum/ plant also were log10(x + 1) transformed, but remained skewed (1.114 among all treatments). Hence, parametric analysis involving weevil counts is possibly spuri¬ ous because of this violation. Preliminary analyses involving IP/F and S/F indicated that the “pollination treatment X flower” interaction was not significant ( P = 0.758) and that the “pollination treatment X flower count/plant X A. rostrum count/ plant” interaction was not significant (P = 0.649), respectively, satisfying homogene¬ ity of slopes. Due to failure in meeting assumptions of parametric testing with plant counts of weevils and seeds, Spearman Rank Cor¬ relation was used to test for relationships between plant counts of flowers and seeds matured, A. rostrum and pods inflated, and A. rostrum and seeds matured. The first contrast provided insight if a partic¬ ular size of inflorescence could have ad¬ vantage in seed set, and the last two how components of reproductive yield may attract the weevil to B. bracteata plus the potential effect of weevil abundance on seed yield. RESULTS Table 1 summarizes data from pollination treatments. Pollination treatment had no effect on pods inflated/flower, and also seeds matured/flower, although in both cases, flower count/plant did (Tables 2 and 3). With the absence of a treatment effect, group data were pooled to illustrate the relationship of flower count/plant to seeds matured/plant (Figure 1). Plants with a larger inflorescence showed a higher seed output (rs = 0.489; df = 51; P<0.05). A. ros¬ trum count/plant was positively related to inflated pod count/plant (rs = 0.679; df = 41; P<0.05) and seeds matured/plant (rs = Table 1. Summary (sample mean ± standard error) of select reproductive parameters and weevil infestation according to treatment. Sample size =18 unless noted otherwise by sub¬ script. Treatment Variable Control Selfing Crossing Flower count/plant 105.1 ±32.8 97.9 ±25.1 61.9 ± 21.717 Pods inflated/plant 36.2 ± 12.4 47.1 ± 16.4 34.3 ± 19.417 Pods inflated/flower count 0.39 ± 0.086 0.38 ± 0.07 0.45 ± 0.071? Seeds matured/plant 44.9 ±21.4 62.2 ± 30.0 65.2 ± 27.81? Apion rostrum count/plant 15.3 ± 8.0|S 21.0 ± 10.9 n 17.8 ± 11.7,,. Table 2. Results of ANCOVA showing the effects of pollination treatment (control, selfing, crossing) and flower count/plant on pods inflated/flower. Symbol: F = flower count. Effect df MS F P L°g10(F/plant ±1) 1 22.19 129.03 <0.001 Pollination treatment 2 0.215 1.25 0.296 Error 50 0.172 Model vs. SS Residual r2 0.72 Note: Univariate Tests of Significance for arcsineVpods inflated/flower; Sigma-restricted parameter¬ ization; Type III decomposition. Table 3. Results of ANCOVA showing the effects of pollination treatment (control, selfing, crossing), flower count/plant, and weevil count/plant on seeds matured/flower. Symbols: F = flower count, A = Apion rostrum count. _ Effect df MS F P L°gI0(F/plant +1) 1 5.38 21.91 <0.001 Log10(A/plant + 1) 1 0.27 1.08 0.307 Pollination treatment 2 0.43 1.75 0.192 Error 28 0.25 Model vs. SS Residual r2 0.63 Note: Univariate Tests of Significance for arcsineVpods inflated/flower; Sigma-restricted parameter¬ ization; Type III decomposition. Does Pollen Supply Limit Seed Set of Baptisia bracteata ? Chris E. Petersen, Sally Jo Detloff, Sophie K. Shukin and Barbara A. Petersen 7 Figure 1. Scatter plot showing the relationship between counts of flowers/plant and seed matured/plant for Baptisia bracteata. 0.496; df = 41; P<0.05). DISCUSSION We did not find evidence that B. bracteata is pollen limited. Hand-pollination did not result in higher pod inflation/flower or seeds matured/flower. In view of the higher ovule to seed initiated ratio of B. bracteata found in an earlier study (Pe¬ tersen and Wang, 2006), it is possible that seed set of the species is resource limited and cannot develop all pollinated ovules. Others have proposed that plants, in effect, bet hedge resource availability, where they produce more ovules during an average year than can be expected to develop into mature seeds (Burd et al., 2009; Fulkerson et al., 2012). Under occasional conditions of higher resource availability, these plants can mature more seeds. As our study only involved one season; any bet hedging could not be assessed. Pre-dispersal seed predation has also been proposed to be a selective force that influ¬ ences reproductive characteristics of plants including the timing of flowering (Elzinga et al., 2007; Kolb et al., 2007; Tsvuura et al., 2011). However, the earlier flowering time of B. bracteata compared to B. alba, unlike¬ ly would have deterred A. rostrum from synchronizing its lifecycle around the latter. The weevil appears quite adaptive to ex¬ ploiting species of Baptisia around the Mid¬ west and South (Evans et al., 1989; Horn and Hanula, 2004). The additive charac¬ teristic of lower seed set, whether explained genetically and/or by resource limitations, may enable B. bracteata to escape the brunt of seed predation. Hence, a divergent flow¬ ering period and initiating fewer seeds than B. alba may actually promote seed set of the cream wild indigo over time. In our study, A. rostrum appeared attracted to B. bracteata based on the positive rela¬ tionship of the weevil count/plant to in¬ flated pod count/plant. More pods have the potential to produce more seeds, explain¬ ing the positive correlation of A. rostrum count to seeds matured/plant. However, the latter relationship was not negative as would be predicted if seed production was severe. Nonetheless, seed predation has been shown to be highly variable over time (Kolb et al., 2007), to include that by A. ros¬ trum (Petersen et al., 2010), necessitating longer-termed study focusing on the rela¬ tionship between B. bracteata and B. alba. High error values in the reproductive and weevil infestation measurements of B. brac¬ teata (Table 1) may also reflect the small sample sizes available in our study. Future study should include larger populations of the Baptisia congeners to reduce errors that can affect statistical comparisons. LITERATURE CITED Adler, L. S. and N. Theis. 2012. Advertising to the enemy: enhanced floral fragrance increases beetle attraction and reduces plant reproduc¬ tion. Ecology 93:430-435. Burd, M., T. Ashman, D. R. Campbell, M. R. Du- dash, M. O. Johnston, R. M. Knight, S. J. Ma¬ zer, R. J. Mitchell, J. A. Steets, and J. C. Vamosi. 2009. Ovule number per flower in a world of unpredictable pollination. Am. J. Bot. 96:1159- 1167. Cariveau, D., R. E. Irwin, A. K. Brody, L. S. Gar- cia-Mayeya, and A. von der Ohe. 2004. Direct and indirect effects of pollinators and seed predators to selection on plant and floral traits. Oikos 104: 15-26. Coupland, G. T., E. I. Paling, and K. A. McGuin- ness. 2005. Floral abortion and pollination in four species of tropical mangroves from north¬ ern Australia. Aquat. Bot. 84:151-157. Ehrlen, J., A. Borg-Karlson, and A. Kolb. 2012. Selection on plant optical traits and floral scent: Effects via seed development and antag¬ onistic interactions. Basic Appl. Ecol. 13:509- 515. Elzinga, J. A., A. Atlan, A. Biere, L. Gigord, A. E. Weis, and G. Bernasconi. 2007. Time after time: flowering phenology and biotic interac¬ tions. Trends Ecol. Evol. 22:432-439. Evans, E., C. C. Smith, and R. P. Gendron. 1989. Timing of reproduction in a prairie legume: seasonal impacts of insects consuming flowers and seeds. Oecologia 78: 220-230. Fulkerson, J. R., J. B. Whittall, and M. L. Carl¬ son. 2012. Reproductive ecology and severe pollen limitation in the polychromic tundra plant, Parrya nudiaculis (Brassicaceae). Plos One 7:1-8. Haddock, R. C. and S.J. Chaplin. 1982. Pollina¬ tion and seed production in twophenologically divergent prairie legumes ( Baptisia leucophaea and B. leucantha). Am. Midi. Nat. 108: 175- 186. Haig, D. and M. Westoby. 1988. On limits to seed production. Am. Nat. 131:757-759. Hainsworth, F. R., L.L. Wolf, and T. Mercier. 1984. Pollination and pre-dispersal seed pre¬ dation: net effects on reproduction and inflo¬ rescence characteristics in Ipomopsis aggre¬ gate. Oecologia 63:405-409. Holzschuh, A., J. Dudenhoffer, and T. Tschar- ntke. 2012. Landscapes with wild bee pollina¬ tion, fruit set and yield of sweet cherry. Biolog¬ ical Conserv. 153:101-107. Horn S. and J. L. Hanula. 2004. Impact of seed Does Pollen Supply Limit Seed Set of Baptisia bracteata ? Chris E. Petersen, Sally Jo Detloff, Sophie K. Shukin and Barbara A. Petersen 8 predators on the herb Baptisia lanceolata (Fabales: Fabaceae). FI. Entomol. 87:398-400. Kolb, A., J. Ehrlen, and O. Eriksson. 2007. Eco¬ logical and evolutionary consequences of spa¬ tial and temporal variation in pre-dispersal seed predation. Perspect. Plant Ecol. Evol. Syst. 9:79-100. Langer, V. and B. Rohde. 2005. Factors reducing yield of organic white clover seed production in Denmark. Grass Forage Sci. 60:168-174. Ohashi, K. and T. Yahara. 2000. Effects of flower production and predispersal seed predation on reproduction in Cirsium purpuratum. Can. J. Bot. 78:230-236. Pellissier, V., A. Muratet, F. Verfaillie, and N. Machon. 2012. Pollination success of Lotus corniculatus (L.) in an urban context. Acta Oecol. 39:94-100. Petersen, C. E. and W. Wang. 2006. Congener host selection by the pre-dispersal seed pred¬ ator, Apion rostrum (Coleoptera: Apionidae). Gt. Lakes Entomol. 39:68-74. Petersen, C. E., A. A. Mohus, B. A. Petersen, and B. A. McQuaid. 2010. Multiyear study of fac¬ tors related to flowering phenology and repro¬ ductive yield of Baptisia alba in Northeastern Illinois. Trans. Ill. State Acad. Sci. 103:109-117. Swink, F., and G. Wilhelm. 1994. Plants of the Chicago Region, 4rth ed. The Indiana Acade¬ my of Science, Indianapolis, IN. StatSoft. 2001. Statistica AX 6.0. 2001. StatSoft, Tulsa, OK. Tsvuura, Z., M. E. Griffith, R. M. Gunton, and M. J. Lawes. 2011. Predator satiation and re¬ cruitment in a mast fruiting monocarpic forest herb. Ann. Botany 107: 379-387. Zar, J.H. 1984. Biostatistical Analysis, 2nd ed. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, USA. Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science (2013) Volume 106, pp. 9-12 received 1/17/13 accepted 8/12/13 The Effects of Tower Structure and Weather Conditions on Avian Mortality at Three Television Towers in Central Illinois Lisa A. Lundstrom1, David Joseph Horn1*, and Angelo P. Capparella2 'Department of Biology, Millikin University, 1184 W. Main St., Decatur, IL 62522, USA 2School of Biological Sciences, Campus Box 4120, Illinois State University, Normal, IL 61790, USA ^Correspondence: dhorn@mail.millikin.edu ABSTRACT Avian mortality has been documented at television towers and other constructed lighted structures for over 1 50 years, and it is estimated that 6.8 million birds are killed annually in the United States and Canada as a result of communication towers. Tower structure (lighting, height, and guy wires) and weather conditions (wind direction, cloud cover) play a large role in mortality rates. We examined the effects of tower structure and weather conditions on mortality at three television towers in central Illinois (WAND, WBUI, and WILL). For¬ ty-three searches were conducted between August and November 2006-2009 with a total of 415 birds from 14 families found. Most birds found were of Family Parulidae (66%), Family Emberizidae (9%), and Family Turdidae (9%). The WILL tower accounted for 96% of the total birds killed. The high mortality observed at the WILL tower may be due to the tower’s steady and flashing red lights as opposed to the flashing white lights on the WAND and WBUI towers. We found that more birds were killed following nights with winds from the north and >50% cloud cover. Most studies of tower collisions have focused on tower structure rather than weather conditions; however, the combination of tower lighting and weather may play a substantial role in avian mortality. INTRODUCTION Avian mortality associated with artificial lighting on human structures is thought to be a significant source of human-caused bird death (Evans 2007). The most recent mortality estimate at communication tow¬ ers is 6.8 million birds per year in the Unit¬ ed States and Canada; about 50% greater than the current estimate by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Longcore et al. 2012). Past studies have found that almost 95% of all birds that collide with lighted structures are neotropical migrants, par¬ ticularly Family Parulidae (i.e. warblers; Longcore et al. 2013). The main factors associated with tower kills are tower struc¬ ture (lighting, height, and guy wires) and weather conditions (Longcore et al. 2008; Gehring et al. 2009). Artificial lighting affects the behavior of many plant and animal species, particular¬ ly at night (Rich and Longcore 2006). Spe¬ cies can be attracted to, or disoriented by, sources of artificial light through positive phototaxis (Verheijen 1985; Longcore and Rich 2004). This behavior in birds has been documented at communication towers for over 50 years as a result of the lighting sys¬ tems required by the Federal Aviation Ad¬ ministration (FAA) (Gehring et al. 2009). Standard FAA lighting normally consists of a combination of steady and flashing red lights, although some towers use white lights instead. Previous studies have found that nocturnally migrating birds would fly around standard FAA lights of communi¬ cation towers until the lights were turned off (Cochran and Graber 1958; Avery et al. 1977). While the exact cause of this attraction is unknown, it is thought that migrating birds use both visual cues, such as stars, as well as an internal magnetic compass to navigate, and the artificial lighting some¬ how interferes with this (Gauthreaux and Belser 2006). For example, laboratory tests have suggested that the internal magnetic compass may be wavelength-dependent, with birds showing good orientation un¬ der white and green lights (Wiltschko and Wiltschko 1995) and disorientation under red light (Wiltschko et al. 1993). In the presence of lighted towers, birds generally follow a circular, curvilinear flight pattern, and will continually circle around them until they collide with some part of the tower or its guy wires, or suc¬ cumb to exhaustion and can no longer fly (Gauthreaux and Belser 2006). In an ex¬ amination of the role of tower height and guy wires on avian mortalities, Gehring et al. (2011) found that there are 54 — 86% fewer fatalities at medium height, guyed towers (116 — 146 m) than at tall height, guyed towers (>305 m) and that guyed towers account for 16 times more bird fatalities than towers of the same height without guy wires. While birds can collide with towers on clear nights, previous studies have found that larger numbers of birds are killed on fall nights with heavy cloud cover, north¬ erly winds, and a low cloud ceiling when they do not have the stars to navigate by (Avery et al. 1977; Seets and Bohlen 1977; Larkin and Frase 1988; Kruse 1996). These conditions force birds to fly at lower alti¬ tudes within the range of towers, exposing them to tower structure risks. We examined how the number of birds killed at one class of communication tow¬ er, tall television towers, was influenced by tower structure as well as cloud cover and prevailing winds during fall migration. While there have been many studies on the effects of tower structure, fewer studies have examined the role of specific weather conditions on the number of bird colli¬ sions (although see Longcore et al. 2012). We predicted that birds would experience the greatest mortality during nights with >50% cloud cover and predominantly northerly winds. By understanding the effects of weather and tower structure on mortality, we can make recommendations on ways to reduce avian mortality at tele¬ vision towers. METHODS We conducted our study at three television The Effects of Tower Structure and Weather Conditions on Avian Mortality at Three Television Towers in Central Illinois Lisa A. Lundstrom, David Joseph Horn, and Angelo P. Capparella 10 Table 1. Characteristics of three television towers and the landscape that surrounded each in central Illinois. Chacteristic WILL WAND WBUI Tower Variables Tower Height 282 ma 379 m 390 m Number of Wires 27 24 24 Guy-Wire Length 6202 m Not determined6 5538 m Number of Flashing Lights 3 13 13 Number of Steady Lights 12 0 0 Light-Pulse Frequency 30/min 40/min 40/min Light Color Red White White Construction Color Red/White Steel Steel Landscape Variables Ground Elevation 210 m 209 m 208 m Distance to Water Source 5.7 km 4.1 km 4.1 km Distance to City 9.7 km 8.9 km 8.9 km a Tower height and ground elevation were obtained from http://www.fccinfo.com. b The exact guy- wire length could not be determined; however, the tower construction of WBUI and WAND is nearly identical. Therefore, we expect the guy-wire length to be similar. towers in central Illinois between August and November 2006 — 2009. The location of the towers were as follows: 1) WAND-TV tower, Macon Co.: Whitmore Twp. (T17N, R3E, SI 1), ca 2*4 mi. NE Oreana; 2) WBUI- TV tower, Macon Co.: Whitmore Twp. (T17N, R3E, SI 1 ), ca 2 mi. NE Oreana; and 3) WILL-TV tower, Piatt Co.: Willow Branch Twp. (T18N, R5E, S67/8), ca 5lA mi. W Monticello. The towers were searched for carcasses on mornings following nights with four weather conditions: 1) >50% cloud cover and northerly winds, 2) >50% cloud cover and non-northerly winds, 3) <50% cloud cover and northerly winds, and 4) <50% cloud cover and non-northerly winds. Nights were classified using hourly weath¬ er observations from http://www.wunder ground.com. To determine which morning to look for birds, we a priori selected days to search at the beginning of the fall sea¬ son. To balance the number of searches by weather condition category, we did addi¬ tional searches specific to those categories by monitoring conditions the previous eve¬ ning and searching for birds that morning. Searches began at dawn to reduce carcass loss to scavengers (Crawford 1971). At each of the three television towers, we first searched the paved and grassy areas just outside the tower facility. We then en¬ tered the facility and searched around the tower, including the roof. The areas under the guy wires were searched after harvest by walking straight paths from the tower base to the base of the three sets of guy wires and back, encompassing approximate¬ ly 5 m to each side of the guy wires. Not searched was the extensive area between the guy wires. The area searched was sim¬ ilar between towers. However, because of differences in when crops were harvested, some towers may have been searched more extensively than others on certain visits. Nevertheless, the similarity in height and guy wire lengths among the towers should not result in significant bias in the number of dead birds found at each tower (Table 1). Carcasses that were not decomposed, based on the recession of the eyeballs, were trans¬ ported to Millikin University for identifica¬ tion and further processing. For each bird collected, the date; tower; species; colors of the iris, maxilla, mandible, tarsi, and toes; and any other general remarks were record¬ ed. Birds collected were deposited at the J.W. Powell-D. Birkenholz Natural History Collection at Illinois State University. We collected characteristics of each tower that could influence collision frequency. These included tower height, number of wires, guy-wire length, number of lights, light-pulse frequency, light color, tower col¬ or, ground elevation, and distance to near¬ est water source and city. Distance charac¬ teristics of each tower were measured using an Opti- Logic Laser Rangefinder. We determined whether the number of dead birds collected per night was equiva¬ lent among our four weather categories us¬ ing a chi-square test. A P- value of <0.05 was considered statistically significant. RESULTS Tower characteristics varied among our three towers (Table 1). In particular, tower height and lighting differed between WILL, WAND, and WBUI. Forty-three searches were made between August and November 2006 — 2009. We found 415 birds from 14 families at the three towers, with the most birds from Family Parulidae (Table 2, n= 272). The WILL tower had the most kills («=397), followed by WAND (n=14), and WBUI (n= 4). We recorded two kills with greater than 50 birds, the first on 4 October 2006 with 275 birds found, and the second on 28 October 2009 with 60 birds found. We found that the number of birds killed was not equivalent in each of our four weather categories (Fig. 1 , X2=33.3, P<0.05). The majority of our birds were found fol- Table 2. The number of birds found from each of 14 familes at 3 television towers in central Illinois from 2006-2009. Family Number of Fatalities Parulidae 272 Turdidae 38 Emberizidae 38 Vireonidae 23 Regulidae 13 Troglodytidae 6 Cardinalidae 5 Icteridae 5 Mimidae 5 Certhiidae 2 Picidae 2 Tyrannidae 2 Unidentified 2 Cuculidae 1 Sturnidae 1 The Effects of Tower Structure and Weather Conditions on Avian Mortality at Three Television Towers in Central Illinois Lisa A. Lundstrom, David Joseph Horn, and Angelo P. Capparella 11 350 -o 300 c I 250 40 "S 200 £ o 150 h. 0) | 100 * 50 0 Fig. 1. The number of fatalities differed among weather conditions. More birds were founc following nights with >50% cloud cover and northerly winds compared to other condi¬ tions (X2 =33.3, P<0.05). £50% cover and £50% cover and <50% cover and <50% cover and north winds non-north winds non-north winds north winds Weather Condition lowing nights with >50% cloud cover and northerly winds, with 304 individuals col¬ lected (73%). The nights that accounted for the second highest number of birds collect¬ ed were nights with >50% cloud cover and non-northerly winds, with 98 individuals collected (24%). DISCUSSION Sixty-six percent of the birds found were members of Family Parulidae (i.e., war¬ blers). Longcore et al. (2013) combined mortality data from previous studies to es¬ timate mortality by species, and estimated that of the over 5,200,000 birds recorded, Family Parulidae accounted for 3,075,659 (58.4%). While a smaller percentage than ours, warblers had the highest mortality of any family- specific category. Both of our large kills occurred at the WILL tower, which has steady and flashing red lighting. Gauthreaux and Belser (2006) compared bird flight patterns near towers with steady and flashing red lights, towers with only white strobes, and a control tow¬ er, which was unlit. They found that birds flew in straight paths over the control area, while birds flew in curvilinear paths and congregated near lighted towers. Between the two lighting categories used, they found that birds congregated in much higher numbers at towers lit with steady and flash¬ ing red lights than towers lit with white strobes, although the white strobes did have an effect on flight patterns. Gehring et al. (2009) examined mortality rates between towers similar in construc¬ tion, with different lighting systems. They attempted to determine whether mortality rates differed among towers equipped with flashing lights of various types and col¬ ors only versus towers equipped with the FAA standard combination of steady and flashing red lights. They found that more birds were killed at towers with steady and flashing red lights compared to towers with only white, flashing strobes; red, strobe-like lights; and red, flashing, incandescent lights (Gehring et al. 2009). Thus, the steady and flashing red lights on the WILL tower may explain why we observed 96% of our total kills at that location. A correlation has been documented be¬ tween tower height and mortality rates for towers with the same lighting scheme (Longcore et al. 2008; Gehring et al. 2011; Longcore et al. 2012). Our shorter tower experienced greater mortality than the two taller towers combined, but it had a differ¬ ent lighting scheme and more guy wires. The WILL tower has more guy wires per group and a combination of steady and flashing red lights, while the WBUI and WAND towers have fewer guy wires per group and flashing white lights. Studies have found that avian mortality increases with the number of guy wires present, but guy wires correlate with height (Longcore et al. 2008; Gehring et al. 2011). While our shorter tower (by 93 m) had more guy wires, it was only one more guy wire per group than each of the other two towers. Given the dramatic effect recorded for solid versus flashing lights (Gehring et al. 2009) and small difference in guy wire number, it is most likely that the lighting system of the WILL tower had a larger effect on mortality rates. We found that more birds were killed fol¬ lowing nights with >50% cloud cover and northerly winds, with our two largest kills occurring under these conditions at WILL. Longcore et al. (2008), through a meta-anal¬ ysis of over 20 towers, found that the largest kills occurred on nights with heavy cloud cover in the presence of a combination of steady and flashing red lights. This suggests that while both weather and lighting play a large role separately, it is the combination of the two that may be most important. While previous studies have reported high¬ er kills following nights with heavy cloud cover (Avery et al. 1977; Crawford 1981; Larkin and Frase 1988), examinations of the combination of cloud cover and wind direction could be tested more rigorously. Most of our birds (73%) were found fol¬ lowing nights with >50% cloud cover with the presence of northerly winds. This sug¬ gests that northerly winds in addition to heavy cloud cover create the most deadly conditions. However, in our study an ad¬ ditional 24% of birds were killed on nights with heavy cloud cover and non-northerly winds. Previous studies have concluded that while more birds are killed following nights with northerly winds than nights with non-northerly winds, overcast nights consistently experience mortality events regardless of wind direction (Avery et al. 1977; Crawford 1981; Larkin and Frase 1988). Our estimates of mortality should be con¬ sidered minimum values, as there were some possible sources of error in our study. We began our searches at dawn to lower the impact of scavengers, which can greatly reduce the number of carcasses (Crawford 1971). However, it is possible some car¬ casses were taken before we were able to collect them. We did not search the area be- The Effects of Tower Structure and Weather Conditions on Avian Mortality at Three Television Towers in Central Illinois Lisa A. Lundstrom, David Joseph Horn, and Angelo P. Capparella 12 tween the guy wires, and thus, some birds will have been missed. In addition, we did not determine searcher efficiency. Finally, differences in harvest times between both tower sites and seasons meant that some towers were searched more extensively than others on some visits. There are three main solutions to reduce avian mortality at television towers. The first would be to reduce tower height, as mortality risk increases exponentially with height (Longcore et al. 2012). The second solution is to reduce or eliminate the num¬ ber of guy wires. Since guy wires account for the majority of bird kills due to the circling behavior of birds in the presence of tower lights, removing them could re¬ duce collision rates (Brewer and Ellis 1958; Kruse 1996), but it is not possible for towers > 300 m (Longcore et al. 2012). Thus, while these two solutions will lower mortality rates, they are unlikely to happen, especial¬ ly for towers that are already constructed. The third solution is a change in tow¬ er lighting systems. Gehring et al. (2009) mainly suggested the removal of non-flash¬ ing red lights leaving only the flashing red strobe, but recommended a color change to white strobes as well. Taylor (1981) re¬ corded a drastic reduction in fatalities at a Florida tower when the lighting system was changed from steady and flashing red lights to white strobe lights. Arnold and Zink (2011) suggest that while millions of birds are killed by collisions, not only with communication towers but with other constructed structures, it may not have a significant effect on population trends. However, mortality rates are not the same for all species (Longcore et al. 2013). Longcore et al. (2013) found that some species, including U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Birds of Conservation Concern, are suffering losses of several percent of their estimated population size. Because of the differences in mortality rates between species, Longcore et al. (2013) suggest per species estimates are undertaken for all hu¬ man-caused sources of avian mortality. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We thank the television stations for giving us permission to conduct this research. We thank the Illinois Department of Natural Resources for providing salvage permits. We thank R. Buis, K. Collins, M. Huschen, J. Gibson, C. Matthews, Q. Murray, and J. Partlow for their assistance collecting data. Funding for this study was provided by the Champaign County Audubon Society, De¬ catur Audubon Society, and the Millikin University Fund for Ornithological Re¬ search. LITERATURE CITED Arnold, T.W. and R.M. Zink. 2011. Collision mortality has no discernible effect on pop¬ ulation trends of North American birds. PLoS ONE 6(9):e24708. doi:10. 1371/journal. pone.0024708. Avery, M., P.F. Springer, and J.F. Cassel. 1977. Weather influences on nocturnal bird mor¬ tality at a North Dakota tower. Wilson Bull. 89:291-299. Brewer, R. and J.A. Ellis. 1958. An analysis of migrating birds killed at a television tower in east-central Illinois, September 1955-May 1957. Auk 75:400-414. Cochran, W.W. and R.R. Graber. 1958. Attrac¬ tion of nocturnal migrants by lights on a television tower. Wilson Bull. 70:378-380. Crawford, R.L. 1971. Predation on birds killed at TV tower. Oriole 36:33-35. Crawford, R.L. 1981. Weather, migration and autumn bird kills at a north Florida TV tower. Wilson Bull. 93:189-195. Evans, W.R. 2007. Response of night-migrating songbirds in cloud to colored and flashing light. North American Birds 60:476-488. Gauthreaux, S., Jr. and C. Belser. 2006. Effects of artificial night lighting on migrating birds. Pages 67-93 in Ecological consequences of ar¬ tificial night lighting (C. Rich and T. Longcore, Editors). Island Press, Washington D.C., USA. Gehring, J., P. Kerlinger, and A.M. Manville II. 2009. Communication towers, lights, and birds: successful methods of reducing the fre¬ quency of avian collisions. Ecol. Appl. 19:505- 514. Gehring, J., P. Kerlinger, and A.M. Manville II. 2011. The role of tower height and guy wires on avian collisions with communication tow¬ ers. J. Wildlife Manage. 75:848-855. Kruse, K. 1996. A study of the effects of trans¬ mission towers on migrating birds. Thesis. University of Wisconsin, Green Bay, USA. Larkin, R. and B. Frase. 1988. Circular paths of birds flying near a broadcasting tower in cloud. J. Comp. Psychol. 102:90-93. Loncore, T. and C. Rich. 2004. Ecological light pollution. Front. Ecol. Environ. 2:191-198. Longcore, T., C. Rich, and S.A. Gauthreaux. 2008. Heights, guy wires, and steady-burning lights increase hazard of communication tow¬ ers to nocturnal migrants: a review and me¬ ta-analysis. Auk 125:485-492. Longcore, T., C. Rich, P. Mineau, B. MacDonald, D.G. Bert, L.M. Sullivan, E. Mutrie, S.A. Gauth¬ reaux Jr., M.L. Avery, R.L. Crawford, A.M. Manville II, E.R. Travis, and D. Drake. 2012. An estimate of avian mortality at communica¬ tion towers in the United States and Canada. PLoS ONE 7(4):e34025. doi:10.1371/journal. pone.0034025. Longcore, T., C. Rich, P. Mineau, B. MacDonald, D.G. Bert, L.M. Sullivan, E. Mutrie, S.A.Gauth- reaux Jr., M.L. Avery, R.L. Crawford, A.M. Manville II, E.R. Travis, and D. Drake. 2013. Avian mortality at communication towers in the United States and Canada: which species, how many, and where? Biol. Conserv. 158:410- 419. Rich, C. and T. Longcore. 2006. Ecological con¬ sequences of artificial night lighting. Island Press, Washington, D. C. Seets, J. W. and H.D. Bohlen. 1977. Comparative mortality of birds at television towers in central Illinois. Wilson Bull. 89:422-433. Taylor, W.K. 1981. No longer a big killer. Florida Naturalist 54:4-10. Verheijen, F.J. 1985. Photopollution: artificial light optic spatial systems fail to cope with incidents, causations, remedies. Exp. Biol. 1985:1-18. Wiltschko, W., U. Munro, H. Ford, and R. Wiltsc- hko. 1993. Red light disrupts magnetic orien¬ tation of migratory birds. Nature 364:525-527. Wiltschko, W. and R. Wiltschko. 1995. Migra¬ tory orientation of European Robins is affected by the wavelength of light as well as a magnetic pulse. J. Comp. Phys. A 177:363-369. Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science (2013) Volume 106, pp. 13-14 received 8/6/12 accepted 2/28/13 Examining the Causes of Rarity for the Odonata of Illinois Miranda R. White and Paul V. Switzer Dept of Biological Sciences, Eastern Illinois University, Charleston, IL 61920 ABSTRACT Odonata (dragonflies and damselflies) play an important role in habitat management and conservation, but our understanding of the causes of commonness versus rarity in this group is limited. In this study we examined the causes of rarity for the Odonata of Illinois. Using S-ratings for conservation status and published habitat classifications for Illinois odonates, we investigated whether habitat type (lotic versus lentic) or habitat specificity (whether they were limited to a specific type of aquatic habitat) was related to commonness. We found that lotic species and habitat specialists were more likely to be rare than lentic and generalist species. More information, however, is needed on the distributions and natural histories of Illinois odonates if we are to more fully understand the causes of rarity in this important group. INTRODUCTION Odonata are considered ‘flagships’ for the conservation of insects (Corbet, 1999). Of the 5,680 extant species of Odonata (Kalk- man et al., 2007), the International Union for Conservation of Nature states that one in ten species are threatened, while 35% are defined as data deficient (Clausnitzer et al., 2009). The status of Odonata may be tightly linked to their habitats; because their lar¬ vae are aquatic, the degradation of many aquatic habitats can decrease the number of successful individuals (Olsvik and Dolmen, 1992; Bossart and Carlton, 2002; Korkea- maki and Suhonen, 2002; Clausnitzer et al., 2009). Consequently, odonate species may be good indicator species for the quality of aquatic habitats (e.g. Briers and Biggs 2003). The purpose of this current study is to iden¬ tify the habitat factors that may be correlat¬ ed with species commonness for Odonata in the state of Illinois. As with studies on other taxa (Goerck, 1995; Bevill and Lou- da, 1997; Yu and Dobson, 2000; Manne and Pimm, 2001) or on Odonata in other regions or at other spatial scales (Korkea- maki and Suhonen, 2002; Kalkman et al., 2007; Clausnitzer et al., 2009), we address this goal by comparing the likelihood that rare and common species fall into different categories. Specifically, we compare the likelihood of Odonata in Illinois to be lentic versus lotic or generalists versus specialists. MATERIALS AND METHODS The list of Odonata for Illinois, as well as their state conservation status (“S- Rat¬ ings”), was obtained from the Illinois State Museum (www.museum.state.il.us). The taxonomy we used was the most current available according to the North Ameri¬ can Odonata list maintained at the Pugent Sound Museum (www.pugetsound.edu). The state status ratings ranged from SI to S5, with Sl= critically imperiled with five or fewer occurrences, S2= imperiled in state with 6 to 20 occurrences, S3= rare or uncommon with 21 to 100 occurrences, S4= secure in state, and S5= demonstrably secure in state (www.natureserve.org). In order to obtain an adequate sample size for analyses, we created two categories, with SI, S2 and S3 representing the rare/uncom¬ mon species and S4 and S5 representing common species. For our analyses, we only wanted to include the species with breeding populations within the state. Accordingly, vagrant species, which are given an S-rating of SRF, SR, and SR/WL, were omitted from all analyses. We classified habitat in two ways. First, the individuals were classified as lotic or lentic. Second, we classified them as specialist or generalist. We defined specialist as a species described as only in either the lotic or lentic habitat, or required certain vegetation (e.g. spatterdock for Rhionaeshna mutata). Gen¬ eralist was defined as a species that could be found in both lentic and lotic with no specific vegetation requirements. Our clas¬ sifications were determined using recent field guides for Odonata including Curry (2001), Lam (2004), Abbott (2005), Bea¬ ton (2007), and Paulson (2011). In the case of discrepancy among our sources (which occurred for only 3 species out of 136), we used Paulson (2011) or Lam (2004) because their field guides encompassed the majority of the Eastern United States. The frequencies of uncommon/rare versus established species of Odonata were com¬ pared between suborders (Anisoptera - dragonflies and Zygoptera - damselflies), habitat specificity, and primary habitat using chi-square analyses. In order to take phylogeny into account, we conducted an additional set of analyses in which the aver¬ age S-Ratings were compared between hab¬ itat type and specificity (using a Wilcoxon test) for those genera in which some mem¬ bers fell in both categories. For example, we would compare average S-ratings between Aeshna species which occupied lotic versus lentic habitats or were generalists versus specialists. All analyses were performed using StatView version 5.0, Abacus System. Nonparametric statistics took ties into ac¬ count when appropriate. RESULTS We first compared the proportion of spe¬ cies in the uncommon/rare category to the proportion of common species between the suborders Anisoptera and Zygoptera (Table 1). Although a trend existed for Anisoptera to have a higher proportion of species in the uncommon/rare category than Zygoptera, the trend was not statistically significant (y2= 1.2, df=l, P= 0.26). However, because of this trend, in the remaining analyses we conduct analyses with suborders both com¬ bined and separate in order. There were significantly more uncommon/ rare odonate species that primarily inhab¬ ited lotic habitats than lentic habitats (\2= 7.8, df=l, P= 0.0053). Conducting the anal¬ yses within suborders, Anisoptera had a significantly higher proportion of uncom¬ mon/rare species that primarily inhabited lotic habits (^2= 11.0, df =1, P= 0.0009), Examining the Causes of Rarity for the Odonata of Illinois Miranda R. White and Paul V. Switzer 14 Table 1. The number of rare/uncommon species over the total number of Illinois Odonata species in that habitat category (percentage given in parentheses). Numbers given for both the entire order and individually for each suborder. Generalist Specialist Lotic Lentic Odonata 23/52 (44%) 56/84 (67%) 38/52 (73%) 41/84 (49%) Anisoptera 15/35 (43%) 42/58 (72%) 27/32 (84%) 30/61 (49%) Zygoptera 8/17 (47%) 14/26 (54%) 11/20(55%) 11/23 (48%) whereas Zygoptera did not (x2= 0.22, df = 1, P= 0.66). For habitat specificity, we found no signif¬ icant difference between the proportion of habitat generalists and specialists between uncommon/rare and common taxa for all Odonata (x2= 6.6, df=l, P= 0.10). How¬ ever, when assessing suborders, specialist Anisoptera were significantly more likely to be uncommon/rare than generalist Anisop¬ tera (y2— 8.0, df=l, P= 0.005). No significant pattern for habitat specificity was found for Zygoptera (y2= 0.22, df=l, P= 0.66). Analyzing patterns within genera, we found a borderline-significant trend for generalist species to have a higher average S-Rating of Odonata than specialist species (8/12 gen¬ era had a higher average S-rating for gener¬ alists than specialists; specialist = 2.9 ± 1.05, generalist^ 3.6 ± 1.36; Wilcoxon Z= -1.73, P= 0.08). No significant trend was found within genera relative to primary habitat, although the sample size of appropriate genera was small (4/5 genera had a high¬ er average S-rating for lentic species than lotic; lotic= 2.5 ± 1.15, lentic= 1.4 ± 2.89; Wilcoxon Z= 0.94, P= 0.34). DISCUSSION We found that lotic odonates in Illinois were more likely to be uncommon/rare than lentic species, a result also found by Korkeamaki and Suhonen (2002) for odo¬ nates in Finland. This pattern may be be¬ cause the survival of lotic populations is lower (Korkeamaki and Suhonen, 2002), perhaps due to degradation of some lotic habitats (Olsvik and Dolmen 1992). How¬ ever, the type of habitat (i.e. lotic or lentic) was often shared by all the species within a genus. Thus, it is possible that the con¬ nection between habitat type and rarity is affected by a groups evolutionary history instead of, or in addition to, the habitat characteristics (Kunin and Gatson, 1993). Our within-genus analysis yielded a trend toward lotic species being more rare, but so few genera had species with both habitat types that statistical significance was un¬ likely to be achieved. Our results also indicate a relationship be¬ tween habitat specificity and rarity. In the case of habitat specificity, both the over¬ all analyses and the within-genus analysis suggested that specialist species were more likely to be rare than generalist species, a result that is again consistent with the re¬ sults of Korkeamaki and Suhonen (2002). However, Anisoptera had a higher propor¬ tion of species falling into the specialist cat¬ egory than Zygoptera; therefore, the impact of evolutionary history cannot be ruled out. In conclusion, we found that habitat type and specificity seem to be related to a spe¬ cies’ commonness. Our analyses are nec¬ essarily dependent on current S-ratings for these species, and such ratings are at least partially dependent on documented oc¬ currences for each species. Such informa¬ tion on Odonata is lacking in many parts of the world (Clausnitzer et al„ 2009), and this is certainly true for some regions of Illinois. Clearly, better documentation for the species distributions within Illinois is necessary and this additional information may alter the patterns (or lack of pattern) found in our study. Because Odonata are useful in nature management and conser¬ vation (Olsvik and Dolmen, 1992; Corbet 1999; Kalman et al., 2007), it is imperative that biologists continue to investigate why certain odonate species are less common than others. Future studies should focus on gaining additional, detailed information on the natural history and distribution of Illi¬ nois’ Odonata, so that more detailed anal¬ yses on factors influencing their common¬ ness can be conducted. In addition, long term studies on the odonate communities of particular habitats, particularly those that are changing over time, would prove very useful. REFERENCES Abbott, J.C. 2005. Dragonflies and Damselflies of Texas and the South-Central United States. Princeton U. Press, Princeton, NJ. Beaton, G. 2007. Dragonflies and Damselflies of Georgia and the Southeast. U. Georgia Press, Athens, GA. Bevill, R.L., and Louda, S.M. 1999. Compari¬ sons of related rare and common species in the study of plant rarity. Conserv. Biol. 13: 493- 498. Bossart, J.L., Carlton, C.E. 2002. Insect conser¬ vation in America: Status and perspectives. Amer. Entomol. 48: 82-92. Briers, R.A. and Biggs, J. 2003. Indicator taxa for the conservation of pond invertebrate diversi¬ ty. Aquatic Conserv: Mar. Freshw. Ecosyst. 13: 323-330. Clausnitzer, V., Kalkman, V.J., Ram, M., Col- len, B., Baillie, J.E.M., Bedjanic, M., Darwall, W.R.T., Dijkstra, K.D.B., Dow, R., Hawking, J., Karube, H., Malikova, E., Paulson, D., Schutte, K., Suhling, F„ Villanueva, RJ., von Ellenrie- der, N., Wilson, K. 2009. Odonata enter the biodiversity crisis debate: The first global as¬ sessment of an insect group. Biol. Conserv. 142:1864-1869. Corbet, P.S. 1999. Dragonflies: Behavior and ecology of Odonata. Cornell University Press: New York. Curry, J.R. 2001. Dragonflies of Indiana. Indiana Academy of Science, Indianapolis, IN. Goerck, J.M. 1997. Patterns of rarity in the birds of the Atlantic forest of Brazil. Conserv. Biol. 11:112-118. Kalkman, V.J., Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.D.B, Orr, A.G., Paulson, D.R., and Tol, J.V. 2007. Global diversity of dragonflies (Odonata) in freshwater. Hydrobiologia 595: 351-363. Korkeamaki, E., and Suhonen, J. 2002. Distribu¬ tion and habitat specialization of species affect local extinction in dragonfly Odonata popula¬ tions. Ecography 25: 459-465. Kunin, W. R„ and Gatson, K. J. 1993. The biolo¬ gy of rarity: Patterns, causes and consequenc¬ es. TREE 8: 298-301. Lam, E. 2004. Damselflies of the Northeast. Bio¬ diversity Books, Forest Hills, NY. Manne, L.L., and Pimm, S.L. 2001. Beyond eight forms of rarity: Which species are threatened and which will be next? Anim. Conserv. 4: 221-229. Olsvik, H., and Dolmen, D. 1992. Distribution, habitat, and conservation status of threatened Odonata in Norway. Fauna Norv. Ser. B 39:1- 21. Paulson, D. 2011. Dragonflies and Damselflies of the East. Princeton U. Press, Princeton, NJ. Yu, J., and F.S. Dobson. 2000. Seven forms of rar¬ ity in mammals. J. Biogeography 27: 131-139. Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science (2013) Volume 106, pp. 15-21 received 4/22/13 accepted 8/17/13 Estimating Occupancy of Trachemys scripta and Chrysemys picta with Time-Lapse Cameras and Basking Rafts: A Pilot Study in Illinois, USA Robert D. Bluett1 and Bradley J. Cosentino2’3 'Illinois Department of Natural Resources, One Natural Resources Way, Springfield, Illinois 62702, USA e-mail: bob.bluett@illinois.gov department of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences, University of Illinois, 1102 S. Goodwin Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA department of Biology, Hobart and William Smith Colleges, 300 Pulteney Street, Geneva, New York 14456, USA e-mail: cosentino@hws.edu ABSTRACT We evaluated time-lapse cameras aimed at man-made basking rafts (camera traps) by estimating probabilities of occupancy and detec¬ tion for Trachemys scripta and Chrysemys picta at 15 isolated ponds or wetlands in three regions of Illinois. Evaluation of camera traps relied on comparisons with hoop nets and published accounts of relative abundances of target species. After accounting for imperfect detection, occupancy probabilities for C. picta were 0.75 (SE = 0.18) using hoop nets and 0.91 (SE = 0.09) using camera traps. Occupancy probabilities for T. scripta were 0.96 (SE = 0.42) using hoop nets and 0.71 (SE = 0.17) using camera traps. The most-supported model of detection with camera traps included region and date of survey for both species, whereas the top model of detection with hoop nets in¬ cluded region and trap effort for both species. Regional differences in occupancy and detection for both survey methods were consistent with reports of relative abundances of target species. Daily rates of detection with camera traps varied during the 20-day sampling period, but in a predictable manner described by a single covariate (date of survey). Environmental variables were uninformative for predicting detection probability. Costs of labor and travel were lower (at least half) for camera traps than hoop nets, which required three or more surveys per site given observed rates of occupancy and detection. Camera traps require more evaluation, but show promise as an effi¬ cient, relatively inexpensive, and minimally invasive method to assess presence-absence of species of freshwater turtles that bask aerially. Key words: camera trap; basking; occupancy; Trachemys scripta; Red-eared Slider; Chrysemys picta; Painted Turtle; Illinois INTRODUCTION Camera traps are useful tools for studies of wildlife ecology (Cutler and Swann 1999). Applications are now commonplace be¬ cause of technological improvements to cameras, reasonable costs, and innovative approaches for analyzing data (O’Connell et al. 2011; Cox et al. 2012). Logistical advantages are another attractive feature. For example, camera traps can collect data during a long period of time with few vis¬ its whereas capture devices require regu¬ lar checks to uphold standards of animal welfare. Few herpetological studies have em¬ ployed camera traps because heat- and motion-sensitive triggers tend to perform poorly for cold-blooded, slow-moving and often diminutive subjects (Dorcas and Peterson 2012). Exceptions include ob¬ servations of Gopher Tortoises ( Gopherus polyphemus; Boglioli et al. 2003), Timber Rattlesnakes ( Crotalus horridus; Sadighi et al. 1995) and Grassland Earless Dragons ( Tympanocryptis pinguicolla; McGrath et al. 2012). Camera traps have also been used to study nesting ecology of croco- dilians (Hunt and Ogden 1991; Kermeen and Lemnell 2000) and freshwater turtles (Doody and Georges 2000; Geller 2012). We evaluated camera traps for detecting patterns of presence-absence of freshwater turtles that bask aerially. If successful, the method could be applied economically at large spatial scales to estimate geograph¬ ic distribution, habitat needs, population trends, and metapopulation processes via occupancy modeling (e.g., Rizkalla and Swihart 2006; Cosentino et al. 2010). We compared camera traps to hoop nets by estimating probabilities of occupancy and detection for two species ( Trachemys scripta , Red-eared Slider; Chrysemys pic¬ ta, Painted Turtle) in three regions of Illi¬ nois. Our objectives were: 1) identify and correct causes of camera malfunctions, 2) evaluate protocols for placement of rafts, 3) determine whether detection proba¬ bilities were similar for camera traps and hoop nets by testing the hypothesis p > 0.5 for each species with both methods, and 4) evaluate effects of region, date of survey, capture effort, and environmental variables on detection probabilities. We chose a threshold of p > 0.5 because both target species are common in much of the state (Phillips et al. 1999). Comparison of survey methods allowed “soft validation” of camera traps (Rodda 2012). We discuss attributes of these and other survey meth¬ ods relative to costs and statistical con¬ straints for estimating occupancy at large spatial scales. MATERIALS AND METHODS Study areas. Richardson Wildlife Foun¬ dation is located in Lee County near West Brooklyn, Illinois, USA. Managers of this private, 719-ha property have restored much of the area, including 24 wetlands. We randomly chose seven of these wet¬ lands for our study; an eighth was sampled because Emydoidea blandingii, an endan¬ gered species in Illinois, had been encoun¬ tered there earlier in the year. Individual wetland areas varied from 0.81-4.73 ha; all had emergent vegetation (e.g., Typha latifolia, Scirpus spp.) around their perim¬ eters and submergent vegetation (e.g.. Pot- Estimating Occupancy of Trachemys scripta and Chrysemys picta with Time-Lapse Cameras and Basking Rafts: A Pilot Study in Illinois, USA Robert D. Bluett and Bradley J. Cosentino 16 amogeton spp.) in open-water areas. For brevity, we designate this area as “North”. Our second study area (“Central”) was a 23 -ha private property located near Springfield, Illinois. The area was devel¬ oped for aquaculture and fee fishing but currently is idle. We chose four of 11 man-made ponds based on similarities in size (0.15-0.44 ha) and presence of natural rather than concrete shorelines. Creeping water primrose ( Ludwigia peploides) grew near margins of ponds. Our last study area (“South”) was in Union County near Ware, Illinois. This 12-ha private property has a man-made pond (0.12 ha) and two man-made wetlands (0.11-0.21 ha), all of which were used for our study. The pond was bordered by turf on one side and for¬ est on the other; wetlands were bordered by native grasses and small trees ( Salix sp. and Acer sp.). Features used for basking at our study areas included bare shoreline, deadwood, floating mats of vegetation, and concrete rubble. Equipment. Tops of rafts were construct¬ ed from exterior plywood (Length [L) = 120.7 cm; Width [W] = 28.4 cm; Depth [D] = 1.9 cm). We drilled two 2.54 cm-di- ameter (Diam) holes in the top, which were centered and 10.2 cm from each end. Two cedar boards (D = 2.54 cm; W = 15.2 cm [nominal dimensions]; L = 120.7 cm) were cut at a 22.5° angle along one edge, which was affixed to the top of the raff with exterior screws and polypropylene glue to create two wooden ramps. We sta¬ pled a piece of charcoal-colored pet-resis¬ tant screening (New York Wire, Mt. Wolf, Pennsylvania, USA) to the top and wood¬ en ramps to provide a good purchase for turtles climbing aboard the raff. A piece of high-density R-10 insulation (D = 5.1 cm) was cut, trimmed, and affixed to the bot¬ tom of each raff with foam-board adhesive (PL300; Henkel Corp., Rocky Hill, Con¬ necticut, USA) for flotation. Two wire ex¬ tensions (19-guage hardware cloth; 1.27 X 1.27-cm mesh; W = 25.4 cm; L = 95.3 cm) were affixed to tops of wooden ramps with poultry staples (L = 1.9 cm). When raffs were deployed, ends of extensions dipped 2-4 cm beneath the water line to assist tur¬ tles attempting to climb aboard raffs. We left enough room under the staples so wire extensions could be folded over the top of the raff for transport. During deployment, we used two elastic cords (L = 55.2 cm) to secure each lower corner of the wire ramp on one side of the raff to that on the op¬ posing side. Approximate cost for all ma¬ terials was $10 US per raff; two fiberglass fence poles (Diam = 1.27 cm; L = 1.82 m; $5 US each) were used to anchor raffs in place. To monitor each basking raff (Fig. 1) we used Timelapse Plantcam™ (Wings- capes®, Alabaster, Alabama, USA) with four- megapixel resolution. We set cam¬ eras to take high resolution photos (2560 X 1920 pixels) at three-hour intervals be¬ tween a daily wake-up time of 0900 h and daily sleep at 1600 h (i.e., 0900, 1200 and 1500 h). Cameras were set to imprint pho¬ tos with lapse interval, location, date, and time. Focus distance was set to infinity. Each camera was mounted approximately 1.25 m above the surface of the water on a piece of metal conduit (Diam =1.9 cm; L = 3 m) located 2 m from the leading edge of the raff. We used a ladder to mount cam¬ eras and adjust the field of view to capture the entire basking raff. Where needed, we used a post driver constructed from metal conduit (Diam = 2.54 cm; L = 1 m) with an end cap to anchor mounting poles in hard substrates. Cost of camera, mounting pole and memory card was approximately $90 US. For comparative data to time-lapse camer¬ as, we captured turtles at each pond using two single-throated hoop nets (D = 0.61 m) with 3.8 X 3.8-cm mesh. Each hoop net cost $68 US. Bait (fresh fish changed daily) was suspended in a mesh bag tied to the hoop farthest from the throat. Sampling methods. Given our objectives, we modified protocols during the study to optimize performance of camera traps. At Central, we used a crossover design to evaluate models as decoys on basking raffs (Red-eared Slider, Safari Ltd., Miami Gardens, Florida, USA). Decoys did not appear to increase detection rates, so we quit this practice at other sites. At Cen¬ tral, two ball-and-joint camera mounts crept out of position during sampling. Later, we secured cameras in position by running a cable tie through two apertures on the back of the case and anchoring the fastened cable tie to the mounting pole with electrical tape. At Central, we po¬ sitioned raffs perpendicular to and 2 m away from shore. At other sites, water was too shallow to deploy our gear effectively Fig 1. Chrysemys picta basking on a man-made raff and photographed with a time-lapse camera in Lee County, Illinois, USA, 2011. Estimating Occupancy of Trachemys scripta and Chrysemys picta with Time-Lapse Cameras and Basking Rafts: A Pilot Study in Illinois, USA Robert D. Bluett and Bradley J. Cosentino 17 at this distance, so we chose positions with deeper water regardless of distance from shoreline. At Central and South, we used two camera traps in each pond or wetland, placing them in quarters of the water body chosen randomly beforehand. At both locations, this restriction caused place¬ ment of two rafts where they were shad¬ ed by trees much of the day. We decided random placement of rafts within a water body was untenable, and use of two cam¬ era traps per wetland was unnecessary. At North, we used one raft per wetland, plac¬ ing it opportunistically in full sunlight and open water deep enough for our gear (>40 cm). Camera traps were deployed 13 May through 1 June 2011 (Central), 15 June through 4 July 2011 (South) and 10 through 29 August 2011 (North). At Cen¬ tral, hoop nets were set at each camera station (2 per pond) on 11 May 2011 and 2 June 2011 and checked the next day. We used the same protocol at South, but checked nets on three occasions (14 June, 6 July and 7 July 2011). At North, we set two nets per wetland and checked them twice (9 and 10 August 2011). We used a drill to apply unique marks to marginal scutes of turtles captured in hoop nets. To avoid bias, a consultant with extensive herpetological experience (J. G. Palis, Palis Environmental Consulting, Jonesboro, Illinois) was hired to identify turtles in photographs using diagnostic features of heads, limbs, tails and carapac¬ es. Individuals that could not be assigned confidently to species were classified as unknown. We obtained data for weather variables (maximum temperature, total evapora¬ tion, total precipitation, total solar radia¬ tion) from meteorological stations of the Illinois Climate Network (http://www. isws.illinois.edu/warm/datatype.asp) at DeKalb, Illinois (North), Springfield, Il¬ linois (Central), and Carbondale, Illinois (South). Statistical analyses. We used occupancy modeling to estimate detection probabil¬ ities for camera trap and hoop net surveys at our study wetlands (N = 15). The pro¬ gram PRESENCE (v. 3. 1 ) was used to build single-season models of detection prob¬ ability (p) for each species and sampling method based on repeated surveys within wetlands (MacKenzie et al. 2006). Sepa¬ rate model sets were constructed for each sampling method. For camera trapping, a repeated survey was defined as all photos taken on a single day in a single wetland (North = 3 photos; Central and South = 6 photos). All wetlands were surveyed for 20 days. For trapping, a repeated survey was defined as a group of hoop traps in a single wetland open for one night. We surveyed wetlands for either two (North and Central) or three (South) days. Data for a third survey at wetlands in North and Central regions were coded as missing observations. All 15 wetlands were used in the analysis for C. picta , whereas only wetlands from the Central and South re¬ gions (N = 7) were used for T. scripta, as this species is generally not found in Lee County (B.J. Cosentino, unpublished data) and was not detected in North wetlands during our study. Covariates were used to model variation in p among sites. We expected significant variation in abundance among regions, so we included an effect of region on p in all models. For camera trapping, we also evaluated models that included date of survey, maximum air temperature, total evaporation, total precipitation, and total solar radiation. For hoop nets, we evalu¬ ated models that included date of survey, trap effort, and maximum air temperature. Trap effort was calculated as the number of trap-hours for each wetland. For both camera trapping and hoop nets, we lim¬ ited models of p to include only a single covariate beyond the inclusion of an effect of region. Occupancy probability (T) was held constant in all models because of the limited number of wetlands in our study. We used the Akaike Information Criteri¬ on corrected for small sample size (AICc) to rank the relative support of models for each combination of species and sampling method (Burnham and Anderson 2002). For each model, i, we estimated AICc differences (AAICc = AICc. - minimum AICc) and Akaike weights (w;). Models were considered to have competitive sup¬ port when AAICc < two. RESULTS For C. picta, we captured 23 individuals (0.70 individuals/survey) at nine wet¬ lands (naive T = 0.6) using hoop nets, and Table 1. Sampling effort, daily detections, and numbers of basking turtles observed with camera traps at 15 sites in Illinois, USA, 2011. Site No. cameras Daily defections (presence) and no. Trachemys scripta Chrysemys picta of turtles observed3 Unidentified emydids Days No. turtles Days No. turtles Days No. turtles South 2 20 249 2 2 12 27 South 2 20 142 0 0 14 40 South 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 Central 2 10 58 8 14 6 6 Central 2b 0 0 0 0 0 0 Central 2C 12 23 4 9 0 0 Central 2 15 65 11 25 9 10 North 1 0 0 20 296 9 10 North 1 0 0 15 49 0 0 North 1 0 0 20 197 1 1 North 1 0 0 17 62 0 0 North 1 0 0 5 5 0 0 North 1 0 0 20 273 5 5 North 1 0 0 12 21 0 0 North 1 0 0 16 1 16d 0 0 “Observations of turtles are not independent; the same individual could have been photographed on multiple occasions during a day and on multiple days during a sampling session bOne camera inoperable for 9 days cOne camera inoperable for 2 days dA portion of the basking raft (<25%) was out of view for 10 days after water level dropped; daily detections unaffected (all positive) Estimating Occupancy of Trachemys scripta and Chrysemys picta with Time-Lapse Cameras and Basking Rafts: A Pilot Study in Illinois, USA Robert D. Bluett and Bradley J. Cosentino 18 Table 2. Mean detection probabilities of Chrysemys picta and Trachemys scripta using camera traps and hoop traps in three regions in Illinois, USA. Species Trap Type Region Mean Detection Probability SE C. picta Camera North 0.78 0.01 Central 0.38 0.02 South 0.04 0.00 C. picta Hoop North 0.56 0.02 Central 0.58 0.04 South 0.13 0.01 T. scripta Camera Central 0.62 0.03 South 1.00 - T. scripta Hoop Central 0.69 0.01 South South 0.78 0.03 Table 3. Model selection statistics for detection probability of Chrysemys picta and Tra¬ chemys scripta using camera traps and hoop traps in 15 isolated ponds and wetlands in Illinois, USA. Main effects are included for each model. Summary statistics for each model include the relative difference between model AICc and AICc for the best model (AAICc), Akaike weights (w.), the number of parameters estimated (K), and twice the negative log-likelihood (-21). Species Trap Type Model AAICr U) K 21 C. picta Camera R + D 0.00 0.98 5 255.28 R + T 8.43 0.01 5 263.71 R + Ev 12.04 0.00 5 267.32 R 14.90 0.00 4 272.24 R + S 15.16 0.00 5 270.44 R + P 15.37 0.00 5 270.65 C. picta Hoop R + Ef 0.00 0.39 5 36.22 R 0.08 0.38 4 39.09 R + D 2.04 0.14 5 38.26 R + T 2.85 0.09 5 39.07 T. scripta Camera R + D 0.00 0.98 4 63.49 R + T 7.54 0.02 4 71.03 R + Ev 14.74 0.00 4 78.23 R + S 17.20 0.00 4 80.69 R 22.65 0.00 3 88.26 R + P 23.59 0.00 4 87.08 T. scripta Hoop R 0.00 0.50 3 20.11 R + Ef 1.03 0.30 4 17.66 R + T 2.87 0.12 4 19.50 R + D 3.43 0.09 4 20.06 R = Region, D = Date, T = Temperature, Ev = Evaporation, P = Precipitation, S = Solar Radiation, Ef = Trap Effort counted 1069 individuals (3.56/survey) at 12 wetlands (naive T = 0.8) using camera traps (Table 1); in the latter case, some indi¬ viduals were undoubtedly counted multiple times during the 20-day survey period. Af¬ ter accounting for imperfect detection, oc¬ cupancy probabilities for C. picta were 0.75 (SE = 0.18) using hoop nets and 0.91 (SE = 0.09) using camera traps. For T. scripta, we captured 45 individuals (2.65 individu¬ als/survey) at 6 wetlands (naive T = 0.86) using hoop traps, and we counted 537 indi¬ viduals (1.79/survey) at 5 wetlands (naive T = 0.71) using camera traps (Table 1). After accounting for imperfect detection, occu¬ pancy probabilities for T. scripta were 0.96 (SE = 0.42) using hoop nets and 0.71 (SE = 0.17) using camera traps. With a few exceptions, mean daily de¬ tection probabilities were high (> 0.5) for both methods and species (Table 2). The most-supported model for detection with camera traps included region and date of survey for both species (Table 3). Mean daily detection probabilities were greatest at North for C. picta and South for T. scripta (Table 2). Detection probability increased over time for C. picta (Fig. 2; beta estimate = 4.49, SE = 1.11) and T. scripta (Fig. 3; beta estimate = 11.56, SE = 2.47). At South, we detected T. scripta during every sampling occasion with camera traps (Fig. 3). Using hoop nets, the most-supported mod¬ el of detection probability included region and trap effort for C. picta and region for T. scripta (Table 3). However, trap effort was included in a competitive model for T. scripta (Table 3). Mean daily detection probabilities were equally high at North and Central for C. picta and South for T. scripta (Table 2). Detection probability was related positively to trap effort for both spe¬ cies (beta estimates: C. picta = 1.42, SE = 1.03; T. scripta = 0.73, SE = 0.56). Environ¬ mental variables were generally uninforma¬ tive for both camera traps and hoop traps. DISCUSSION Estimates of occupancy are robust because they account for imperfect detection of tar¬ get species (Mazerolle et al. 2007). As a rule of thumb, p > 0.5 is desirable while p > 0.15 is acceptable (MacKenzie et al. 2006; O’Connell et al. 2006). By these standards, camera traps and hoop nets performed Estimating Occupancy of Trachemys scripta and Chrysemys picta with Time-Lapse Cameras and Basking Rafts: A Pilot Study in Illinois, USA Robert D. Bluett and Bradley J. Cosentino 19 1 0.9 0.8 it 07 2 5 0.6 o | 0.5 o B u 9 0.4 o> Q 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ North ■ Central A South ,aaaaAAAAAAAAAAAAAA* - r — i 1 i 1 r— T 1 1 — i 1 i — i 12345678 9 101112 13141516171819 20 Day Fig. 2. Relationship of predicted detection probability of Chrysemys picta to date of sur¬ vey (1-20). Julian dates for surveys were 13 May through 1 Jun 2011 for Central, 15 Jun through 4 Jul 2011 for South, and 10 through 29 Aug 2011 for North. ■ Central A South Day Fig. 3. Relationship of predicted detection probability of Trachemys scripta to date of sur¬ vey (1-20). Julian dates for surveys were 13 May through 1 Jun 2011 for Central and 15 Jun through 4 Jul 2011 for South. similarly for detection of target species. Our data did not provide a direct test of the value of camera traps for describ¬ ing spatial aspects of population ecology. However, we obtained a qualitative check on performance by comparing our results to reports of relative abundances of target species. Red-eared Sliders are rare or ab¬ sent in northern Illinois, but abundant in the southern part of the state (Smith 1961; Readel et al. 2008). Painted Turtles occur throughout Illinois, but are more common in North than South (Dreslik and Phillips 2005). Thus, strong support for region in occupancy models was encouraging. We suspect regional differences in detection probabilities for camera traps also reflected our refinement of protocols. Presumably, this contributed to greater detection of C. picta at North, where we had one camera and three photos per wetland per day, than Central or South, where we had two cam¬ eras and six photos per wetland per day. In keeping with our protocol at North, we rec¬ ommend placing one camera trap in deep (> 40 cm), open water with full sunlight most or all day when sampling small (< 5 ha) bodies of water. Environmental variables were uninforma¬ tive in models of detection with camera traps. This seems counter-intuitive, but we note varying degrees of support for effects of ambient conditions on basking behavior (Crawford et al. 1983; Enge and Wallace 2008; Selman and Qualls 2011). One possi¬ bility is that temporal differences in basking behavior were masked by overriding effects of acclimation to basking raffs during the 20-day surveillance period. Our protocol of setting two hoop nets per wetland for two or three trap-nights affect¬ ed detection of target species. This was not surprising, as observed rates of occupancy and detection suggested three or more sur¬ veys per site were best for sampling T. scrip¬ ta and C. picta with hoop nets (MacKenzie and Royle 2005). Thus, hoop nets would have required at least twice as many trips (one to set gear and three to tend it) as cam¬ era traps (one to set gear and one to retrieve it). Savings on labor and travel must be weighed against costs of gear because hoop nets retrieved from one site after sampling could be deployed at four more during a 20-day period. Variability caused by sampling methods can be problematic for occupancy modeling, which assumes rates of detection are con¬ stant among sites and visits unless hetero¬ geneity is described by covariates (Pollock et al. 2002). Camera traps allowed collec¬ tion of data simultaneously and consistent¬ ly among sites and visits. This is a clear advantage over manual methods of sam¬ pling. For example, timing of visits to tend capture devices (and accrued effort) often varies with numbers of turtles processed earlier in the day. Camera traps also avoid heterogeneous rates of detection caused by multiple observers (e.g., differences in ex- Estimating Occupancy of Trachemys scripta and Chrysemys picta with Time-Lapse Cameras and Basking Rafts: A Pilot Study in Illinois, USA Robert D. Bluett and Bradley J. Cosentino 20 perience or acuity), behaviors of target spe¬ cies (e.g., differences in flushing distances), and other methodological sources of bias. Our rate of non-identification (6.2%) was similar to Lindemans (2000) surveys with spotting scopes (4.5%) at a site where Grap- temys spp. and T. scripta dominated the assemblage. Gooley et al. (2011) identified 63% of emydid turtles to genus and 55% to species during visual surveys whereas Enge and Wallace (2008) identified 41% of turtles to genus and 58% to species. We suspect ability to identify species with photographs taken by camera traps would also vary with complexity of assemblages and subtlety of diagnostic traits of members. Therefore, we recommend using eight-megapixel camer¬ as marketed after we purchased our gear (e.g., Wingscapes® TimelapseCam 8.0™). Other suggestions include securing camer¬ as to mounting poles to maintain position¬ ing (see methods section), using cleansers designed specifically for plastics when treating clear ports on camera housings, and possibly raising the height of cameras to obtain a better field of view of rafts. Por¬ tions of rafts were not visible when water levels changed > 25 cm after cameras were positioned; this could be problematic for some applications (e.g., tidal and possibly lotic habitats). Our study appears to be the first to use camera traps to detect freshwater turtles in aquatic settings. This was possible, in part, because we used time-lapse triggers to ob¬ tain simultaneous estimates of presence-ab¬ sence for T. scripta and C. picta at multiple sites. Use of basking rafts was not innova¬ tive (e.g., Alvarez 2006), but provided an effective and standard means of attracting turtles into range of cameras. Camera traps need more evaluation, but show promise as an efficient, relatively inexpensive, and minimally invasive method to assess pres¬ ence-absence and other traits of turtles that bask aerially. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We thank Jeane Boosinger, Terry Moyer and Dan Woolard for access to their properties. Dan Woolard and Mark Alessi assisted with sampling. Two reviewers provided helpful comments. Activities were funded by the Illinois Department of Natural Resources, authorized by state law (515 Illinois Com¬ piled Statutes 5/20-100), and complied with standards of animal welfare adopted by the American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists. LITERATURE CITED Alvarez, J.A. 2006. Use of artificial basking sub¬ strate to detect and monitor pacific pond tur¬ tles ( Emys marmota). Western North Ameri¬ can Naturalist 66:129-131. Boglioli, M.D., C. Guyer, and W.K. Michener. 2003. Mating opportunities of female Gopher Tortoises, Gopherus polyphemus, in relation to spatial isolation of females and their burrows. Copeia 2003:846-850. Burnham, K.P., and D.R. Anderson. 2002. Mod¬ el selection and multimodel inference: a prac¬ tical information-theoretic approach. Second edition. Springer, New York, New York, USA. Cosentino, B.J., R.L. Schooley, and C.A. Phillips. 2010. Wetland hydrology, area, and isolation influence occupancy and spatial turnover of the painted turtle, Chrysemys picta. Landscape Ecology 25:1589-1600. Cox, W.A., M.S. Pruett, T.J. Benson, S.J. Chia- vacci, and F.R. Thompson III. 2012. Develop¬ ment of camera trap technology for monitor¬ ing nests. Pp. 185-210 In Video Surveillance of Nesting Birds. Ribic, C.A., ER. Thompson III, and P.J. Pietz (Eds.). Studies in Avian Biology (no. 43), University of California Press, Berke¬ ley, California, USA. Crawford, K.M., J.R. Spotila, and E.A. Standora. 1983. Operative environmental temperatures and basking behavior of the turtle Pseudemys scripta. Ecology 64:989-999. Cutler, T.L., and D.E. Swann. 1999. Using re¬ mote photography in wildlife ecology: a re¬ view. Wildlife Society Bulletin 27:571-581. Doody, J.S., and A. Georges. 2000. A novel tech¬ nique for gathering turtle nesting and emer¬ gence phenology data. Herpetological Review 31:220-222. Dorcas, M.E., and C.R. Peterson. 2012. Auto¬ mated data acquisition. Pp. 61-68 In Reptile Diversity: Standard Methods for Inventory and Monitoring. McDiarmid, R.W., M.C. Fos¬ ter, C. Guyer, J.W. Gibbons and N. Chernoff (Eds.). University of California Press, Berkeley, California, USA. Dreslik, M.J., and C.A. Phillips. 2005. Turtle communities in the upper Midwest, USA. Journal of Freshwater Ecology 20:149-164. 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Resource use of five sym- patric turtle species: effects of competition, phylogeny, and morphology. Canadian Journal of Zoology 78:992-1008. Mackenzie, D.I., and J.A. Royle. 2005. Design¬ ing occupancy studies: general advice and al¬ locating survey effort. Journal of Applied Ecol¬ ogy 42:1105-1114. Mackenzie, D.I., J.D. Nichols, J.A. Royle, K.H. Pollock, L.L. Bailey, and J.E. Hines. 2006. Oc¬ cupancy Estimation and Modeling. Elsevier, Inc., Boston, Massachusetts, USA. Mazerolle, M.J., L.L. Bailey, W.J. Kendall, J.A. Royle, S.J. Converse, and J.D. Nichols. 2007. Making great leaps forward: accounting for detectability in herpetological field studies. Journal of Herpetology 41:672-689. McGrath, T., D. Hunter, W. Osborne, and S.D. Sarre. 2012. A trial use of camera traps detects the highly cryptic and endangered grassland earless dragon Tympanocryptis pinguicolla (Reptilia: Agamidae) on the Monaro Table¬ lands of New South Wales, Australia. Herpeto¬ logical Review 43:249-252. O’Connell, A.F. Jr., N.W. Talancy, L.L. Bailey, J.R. Sauer, R. Cook, and A.T. Gilbert. 2006. Esti¬ mating site occupancy and detection probabil¬ ity parameters for meso- and large mammals in a coastal ecosystem. Journal of Wildlife Management 70:1625-1633. O’Connell, A.F., J.D. Nichols, and K.U. Karanth (Eds.). 2011. Camera Traps in Animal Ecol¬ ogy: Methods and Analyses. Springer, New York, New York, USA. Phillips, C.A., R.A. Brandon, and E.O. Moll. 1999. Field Guide to the Amphibians and Rep¬ tiles of Illinois. Illinois Natural History Survey Manual 8. Illinois Natural History Survey, Champaign, Illinois, USA. Pollock, K.H., J.D. Nichols, T.R. Simons, G.L. Farnsworth, L.L. Bailey, and J.R. Sauer. 2002. Large scale wildlife monitoring studies: statis¬ tical methods for design and analysis. Envi- ronmetrics 13:105-119. Readel, A.M., C.A. Phillips, and M.J. Wetzel. 2008. Leech parasitism in a turtle assemblage: effects of host and environmental characteris¬ tics. Copeia 2008:227-233. Rizkalla, C.E., and R.K. Swihart. 2006. Com¬ munity structure and differential responses of aquatic turtles to agriculturally induced habitat fragmentation. Landscape Ecology ■ Estimating Occupancy of Trachemys scripta and Chrysemys picta with Time-Lapse Cameras and Basking Rafts: A Pilot Study in Illinois, USA Robert D. Bluett and Bradley J. Cosentino 21:1361-1375. Rodda, G.H. 2012. Statistical properties of tech¬ niques and validation. Pp. 197-203 In Reptile Diversity: Standard Methods for Inventory and Monitoring. McDiarmid, R.W., M.C. Fos¬ ter, C. Guyer, J.W. Gibbons, and N. Chernoff (Eds.). University of California Press, Berkeley, California, USA. Sadighi, K., R.M. DeGraaf, and W.R. Danielson. 1995. Experimental use of remotely-triggered- cameras to monitor occurrence of timber rat¬ tlesnakes ( Crotalus horridus). Herpetological Review 26:189-190. Selman, W., and C.P. Qualls. 2011. Basking ecol¬ ogy of the yellow-blotched sawback ( Grapte - mys flavimaculata), an imperiled turtle species of the Pascagoula River system, Mississippi, United States. Chelonian Conservation and Biology 10:188-197. Smith, P.W. 1961. The Amphibians and Reptiles of Illinois. Illinois Natural History Survey Bul¬ letin 28. Illinois Natural History Survey, Urba- na, Illinois, USA. 21 22 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science (2013) Volume 106, pp. 23-26 received 3/19/13 accepted 8/31/13 Changes Due to Fire Suppression in a Quercus velutina Lam. (Black Oak) Savanna at Sand Ridge State Forest, Mason County, Illinois Loy R. Phillippe, Paul B. Marcum, Daniel T. Busemeyer, William E. McClain, Mary Ann Feist, and John E. Ebinger Illinois Natural History Survey, Champaign, Illinois 61820 ABSTRACT Sand savannas in which Quercus velutina Lam. (black oak) dominated were common in the major sand deposits of Illinois. Most, how¬ ever, are now dry sand forests that have been extensively degraded by fire suppression and invasion by native woody and exotic species. Degraded dry sand savannas, that are presently dry sand forests, are a dominant community of ridges and slopes on large stabilized dunes at Sand Ridge State Forest, Mason County, Illinois. In the community examined Q. velutina, with an importance value of 143.5, averaged 321.1 stems/ha, and accounted for 78% of the total basal area. Quercus marilandica Muench. (blackjack oak) was second followed by the exotic Pinus strobus L. (white pine) and Carya texana Buckl. (black hickory). Based on aerial photographs this dry sand forest had an open overstory in the early 1940s. Presently this community has a canopy exceeding 90% cove. INTRODUCTION In the prairie-forest interface of the prairie peninsula of Illinois the presence of prairie, savanna, woodland, and forest was deter¬ mined largely by environmental factors, in¬ cluding extent and intensity of fire, climate, water bodies, and topography (Transeau 1935, Anderson 1991, Ebinger and Mc¬ Clain 1991, Abrams 1992). Other contrib¬ uting factors important on a local level in¬ cluded soil texture, drought frequency, and browsing by large herbivores (Nuzzo 1986). Savanna communities were extremely common in the landscape of Illinois in the 1800s, and are generally defined as having overstories of scattered, open-grown trees and a grass-dominated ground layer (Cur¬ tis 1959, Bray 1960, Nuzzo 1986, White and Madany 1978). Journals of many early trav¬ elers and settlers recount the open park¬ like landscape in much of the state (Bourne 1820, Engelmann 1863, Vestal 1936). Gov¬ ernment Land Office (GLO) survey records also indicate that many “forests” were actu¬ ally savanna and woodland communities based on distance of witness trees to corner posts (Cottam and Curtis 1949, Clements 1958, Hutchison 1988). Furthermore, many present day old-growth forests retain a few open-grown “wolf trees” with low branch¬ es and branch-scars, and fire scares, indi¬ cating they were formerly part of an open landscape (Curtis 1959, Ebinger and Mc¬ Clain 1991). European man cleared most “black soil” savannas in Illinois soon after settlement. These savannas, with few trees, thinner sod, and often drier soil, were easier to cultivate with wooden plows of the settlers than the dense, thick prairie sod. The few remaining “black soil” savanna communities are ex¬ tensively degraded due to a massive influx of exotic species and canopy closure due to fire suppression and subsequent woody in¬ vasion of native species. In contrast, sand savanna communities are still relatively common in the northern half of Illinois on major sand deposits. These deposits are mostly on outwash plains that resulted from erosional events associated with Wis¬ consin glaciation (Willman and Frye 1970, King 1981). Gleason (1910), and more re¬ cently Jenkins et al. (1991), Coates et al. (1992), McClain et al. (2002), and Phillippe et al. (2009) studied the structure and com¬ position of the Illinois River sand deposit woodlands, while Rodgers and Anderson (1979) studied the presettlement vegeta¬ tion of Mason County. Mostly modified by human activity, a few nature preserves and other good quality natural areas remain on these extensive sand deposits. The present study was undertaken to determine the woody overstory and understory species composition and structure of a degraded sand savanna at Sand Ridge State. DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY SITE Sand Ridge State Forest is located in north¬ western Mason County about 21 km north¬ west of Havana and just west of Forest City, Illinois (parts of townships T22N R7W and T23N R7W). This 3,035 ha (11.7 sq. miles) state forest, with initial land purchases starting in 1939, lies within the Illinois River Section of the Mississippi River and Illinois River Sand Area Natural Division in Mason and Cass counties (Schwegman 1973, Willman 1973). These deposits were formed about 14,500 years ago when glacial moraines and ice dams were breached. The resulting Kankakee Torrent carried exten¬ sive deposits of sand and gravel from glacial lakes in northeastern Illinois and adjacent Indiana. Most of this sand and gravel was deposited when the waters of the Kankakee Torrent slowed upon entering the broad lowlands of the Illinois River. Winds re¬ worked these deposits, creating the pres¬ ent dune and swale topography (Willman 1973). The original reason for purchasing the land for what is now the Sand Ridge State Forest was to stabilize soil on abandoned farm¬ land, develop a wood product industry, and set land aside for recreation (Andrews 2004). During the early years, and into the 1950s, pine plantations were established, mostly on old pastureland and abandoned cultivated fields, but also in dry sand prai¬ ries and sand savannas. Presently, 1,012 ha of pine plantations exist with most of the remainder in oak-hickory dry sand forest and savanna (Andrews 2004). Sand Ridge State Forest has a continental climate with warm summers and cold win¬ ters. Based on weather data from Havana, mean annual precipitation is 96.0 cm, with May having the highest rainfall (11.3 cm). Mean annual temperature is 10.8°C with the hottest month being July (average of 24.6°C), and the coldest January (average of -5.0°C). Frost-free days range from 140 to 206, averaging 173 days (Midwestern Regional Climate Center 2004). Soils are Changes Due to Fire Suppression in a Quercus velutina Lam. (Black Oak) Savanna at Sand Ridge State Forest, Mason County, Illinois Loy R. Phillippe, Paul B. Marcum, Daniel T. Busemeyer, William E. McClain, and John E. Ebinger 24 primarily excessively drained Plainfield and Bloomfield sands (Calsyn 1995) that form the dune and swale topography known as the Parkland Formation (Willman and Frye 1970). METHODS During late summer of 2004 a 100 m by 300 m section of the state forest was surveyed by dividing the area into 48 contiguous quadrats 25 m on a side. This 3 ha area was located on a large stabilized dune having an east/west orientation, the centerline of the transect running along the ridge of the dune (Nl/2 NW1/4 NE1/4 S4 T22N R7W). The GPS readings for the line transect at 0 m (40.39064°N/-089.89060°W), and at 300 m (40.39064°N/-089.89420°W) were re¬ corded and marked with permanent metal stakes. All living and dead-standing woody individuals >10.0 cm dbh were identified and their diameters recorded. From this data, living-stem density (stems/ha), basal area (m2/ha), relative density, relative dom¬ inance, importance value (IV), and average diameter (cm) were calculated for each spe¬ cies. Determination of the IV follows the procedure used by McIntosh (1957), and is the sum of the relative density and rela¬ tive dominance (basal area). Dead-standing density (stems/ha) and basal area (m2/ha) was also determined. Multiple stemmed trees (coppice) were recorded as sepa¬ rate individuals. Nomenclature follows Mohlenbrock (2002). Woody understory composition and densi¬ ty (stems/ha) were determined using nest¬ ed circular plots 0.0001, 0.001, and 0.01 ha in size located at 15 meter intervals along randomly located east-west line transects within the study area (48 plots). Four addi¬ tional 0.0001 ha circular plots were located 7 m from the center points of each of the 48 plot centers along cardinal compass di¬ rections (240 plots). In the 0.0001 ha plots, woody tree seedlings (<50 cm tall) and shrubs and vines were counted; in the 0.001 ha circular plots small saplings (>50 cm tall and <2.5 cm dbh) were recorded; and in the 0.01 ha circular plots large saplings (2.5-9.9 cm dbh) were tallied. Changes in overstory cover within the state forest was measured using aerial photo¬ graphs from 1939, 1957, 1969, 1988, and 1998 that were digitized to determine the extent of woody encroachment (trees and large shrubs). These photographs were borrowed from the University of Illinois Map Library and scanned with a Microtek ScanMaker. A total of 20 stratified random¬ ly located 5 ha circular plots (100 ha total area), representing approximately 20% of the study sites, were interpreted and then digitized using ARC/INFO. RESULTS Eleven tree species were encountered in the overstory (Table 1). Quercus velutina Lam. (black oak) dominated all diameter classes with the 10-29 cm diameter classes accounting for more than 50% of all tallied individuals, with only three stems/ha great¬ er than 60 cm dbh. This species had an IV of 143.5, averaged 321.1 stems/ha, averaged 23.6 cm dbh, and accounted for 78.1% of the total basal area. Quercus marilandi- ca Muench. (blackjack oak), second in IV (34.7), was mostly restricted to smaller di¬ ameter classes, averaged 111.6 stems/ha, and averaged 16.5 cm dbh. The remaining species were mostly in the 10-39 cm diame¬ ter classes, Carya texana Buckl. (black hick¬ ory) averaged 26.3 stems/ha, while Pinus strobus L. (white pine) averaged 26.1 stems/ ha. Coppice stems accounted for about 16% of the stems encountered. Quercus velutina accounted for the majority, averaging 27 coppice trees/ha with 57.7 stems/ha, and accounted for about 10% of the total basal area on the site (Table 2). Dead-standing individuals averaged 24.6 stems/ha with a basal area of 1.01 m2/ha, nearly all being oaks. Quercus velutina av¬ eraged 15.6 dead-standing stems/ha while Q. marilandica accounted for nearly all of the remainder. Most of the dead-standing individuals were in the lower diameter classes. A few dead-standing Q. velutina ex¬ ceeded 40 cm dbh. The woody understory averaged 15,200 seedlings/ha, 1,775 small saplings/ha, and 295 large saplings/ha (Table 3). Seedling density was relatively high, but the major¬ ity was shrubby species. Quercus velutina and Carya texana accounted for nearly all tree seedlings. Because of the relatively few saplings, the woody understory was open. Again, Q. velutina and C. texana account¬ ed for the majority of individuals (Table 3). Woody shrubs that were important in the understory included, Rubus allegheniensis Porter (common blackberry), Rhus aromat- ica Ait. (fragrant sumac), Toxicodendron radicans (L.) Kuntze (poison ivy), and Cor- nus drummondii C. A. Mey. (rough-leaved Table 1. Densities (stems/ha), diameter classes, basal areas (m2/ha), relative values, im¬ portance values and average diameters of the woody species at Sand Ridge State Forest, Mason County, Illinois. Other species include: Carya tomentosa (Poir.) Nutt., Diospyros virginiana L., Juniperus virginiana L., Pinus banksiana Lamb., Pinus sylvestris L„ Prunus serotina Ehrh., Ulmus americana L. Diameter Classes (cm) Total Basal Rel, Den. Rel. Dom. Av. Species 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60+ Stems/ ha Area m2/ha I.V. Diam. (cm) Quercus velutina 145.3 107.7 37.7 20.7 6.7 3.0 321.1 16.995 65.4 78.1 143.5 23.6 Quercus marilandica 92.0 17.0 2.3 0.3 - - 111.6 2.601 22.8 11.9 34.7 16.5 Pinus strobus 12.7 8.7 2.7 2.0 - - 26.1 1.243 5.3 5.7 11.0 23.0 Carya texana 20.0 3.3 1.7 1.0 0.3 - 26.3 0.849 5.4 3.9 9.3 17.9 Others (7 spp.) 5.7 - - - - - 5.7 0.080 1.1 0.4 1.5 - Totals 275.7 136.7 44.4 24.0 7.0 3.0 490.8 21.768 100.0 100.0 200.0 Table 2. Density (#/ha) of coppice trees and stems, coppice stems per tree, average basal area (m2/ha) of coppice stems, and the average diameter (cm) of coppice stems at Sand Ridge State Forest, Mason County, Illinois. Species Trees (#/ha) Stems (#/ha) Stems/tree Basas Area (m2/ha) Avg. Diameter (cm) Quercus velutina 27.0 57.7 2.1 2.721 23.4 Quercus marilandica 9.0 19.3 2.2 0.540 17.9 Carya texana 1.7 3.3 2.0 0.099 17.1 Totals 37.7 80.3 3.360 Changes Due to Fire Suppression in a Quercus velutina Lam. (Black Oak) Savanna at Sand Ridge State Forest, Mason County, Illinois Loy R. Phillippe, Paul B. Marcum, Daniel T. Busemeyer, William E. McClain, and John E. Ebinger 25 Table 3. Density (individuals/ha) of woody understory species in a woodland com¬ munity at Sand Ridge State Forest, Mason County, Illinois. (*exotic species) Species Seedlings Small Saplings Large Saplings Quercus velutina 3750 575 100.0 Carya texana 2850 600 85.0 Prunus serotina 250 250 20.0 Quercus marilandica 250 25 30.0 Carya tomentosa 150 125 17.5 *Pinus strobus 150 25 17.5 Juniperus virginiana - 100 15.0 *Pinus sylvestris - - 5.0 Ulmus americana - - 2.5 Celtis occidentals - - 2.5 Rubus allegheniensis 2250 - - Rhus aromatica 1850 - - Toxicodendron radicans 1650 - - Cornus drummondii 1600 50 - Rubus occidentalis 300 - - Ribes missouriense 100 - - Viburnum prunifolium 50 - - * Lonicera maackii - 25 - Totals 15200 1775 295.0 dogwood) (Table 3). Woody exotic shrubs were uncommon with Lonicera maackii (Rupr.) Maxim. (Amur honeysuckle) oc¬ curred in a few plots. In approximately 60 years the sand savanna at Sand Ridge State Forest became a closed forest. Based on an analysis of 1939 aerial photographs approximately 50.18% of the study area was covered by trees and large shrubs. Canopy cover increased dramati¬ cally by 1957 to 68.96%, followed by an in¬ crease of 78.66% by 1969, 88.08% by 1988, and 89.50% by 1998. Woody encroach¬ ment is most obvious where pine planta¬ tions were introduced in the 1940s and 1950s. The cover in 1939 lacked introduced conifers, and only the native Juniperus vir- giniana (red cedar) was present. Conifers were not observed in the 50 sites digitized from the 1939 aerial photographs, but they were found in 35 of the 50 digitized sites in the 1998 photographs. DISCUSSION The woody plant communities at Sand Ridge State Forest are very different today compared to the early 1800s, mostly due to the planting of pines and reduced fire fre¬ quencies followed by the total absence of fire in recent decades (Taft 1997). In preset¬ tlement times repeated fires were probably responsible for maintaining an open savan¬ na with a sparse woody understory (Ebin¬ ger and McClain 1991, McClain and Elz- inga 1994). The larger trees maintained an open-grown appearance with low branches and branch-scars. A few large, open-grown trees were still present in the study plots. Because of fire and droughty conditions, most of this present day forest was origi¬ nally savanna communities with numerous prairie openings. Presently, occasional fires and droughty conditions have allowed the perpetuation of oak species. Quercus velutina is repro¬ ducing with numerous seedlings and sap¬ lings in the understory (Table 3). Quercus marilandica, in contrast, has a very low rate of reproduction. The large number of seedlings, saplings, and small diameter trees of Carya texana suggests this species will increase in importance (Table 3). As canopy closure continues, shade-intoler¬ ant oaks may not effectively reproduce. Carya texana, a fire-sensitive but relatively shade-tolerant species, could become the dominant understory species and became more common in the lower diameter class¬ es, particularly if management fires are not introduced on a regular basis. Woody exotic species are common in Sand Ridge State Forest. At least 10 species of pine were planted in the 1940s and early 1950s, and many pine plantations are pres¬ ent (Maier 1976, Andrews 2004). The most commonly planted species was Pinus stro- bus. A few rows of this introduced exotic species were present in our study plots, in¬ dicating this species was also planted in na¬ tive hardwood forests and savannas. Small¬ er individuals, plus occasional seedlings indicate that this species is reproducing. Using GLO survey records, Rodgers and Anderson (1979) described the presettle¬ ment vegetation of Mason County. They found that tree density averaged 7.44 trees/ ha with an average basal area of 1.19 m2/ha in savanna communities. Quercus velutina was, by far, the dominant woody species, accounting for more than half of the IV. Quercus marilandica was second in IV fol¬ lowed by various Carya (hickory) species. The many small diameter witness trees re¬ ported in the GLO survey indicate that the relatively shade-intolerant oaks and hick¬ ories were reproducing, and were replac¬ ing themselves in savanna, woodland, and closed forest communities (Rodgers and Anderson 1979). Most forests studied within the Illinois Riv¬ er sand deposits were closed canopy dry sand forests located on dune deposits where Quercus velutina and Q. marilandica were usually the leading dominants along with a few hickory species. Carya texana occa¬ sionally replaced Q. marilandica as second in IV in those forests (Jenkins et al. 1991, Coates et al. 1992, McClain et al. 2002). These forests probably represented sand savannas that have become closed forests due to fire suppression and woody species invasion (Considine et al. 2013). This study at Sand Ridge State Forests suggests that a combination of increased fire frequency, se¬ lective timber harvest, and possibly grazing will be necessary to restore and maintain the savanna communities that were once characteristic of this site.the 1998 photo¬ graphs. ACKNOWLEGEMENTS The authors thank John Wilker, Natural Areas Program Manager, Illinois Depart¬ ment of Natural Resources, for his help and advice. The Illinois Department of Natural Resources, Wildlife Preservation Fund and the Illinois Department of Transportation supported this project. LITERATURE CITED Abrams, M.D. 1992. Fire and the development of oak forests. BioScience 42:346-353. Anderson R.C. 1991. Presettlement forest of Il¬ linois. pages 9-19. in G.V. Burger, J.E. Ebinger, and G.S. Wilhelm (editors). Proceedings of the Oak Woods Management Workshop. Eastern Illinois University, Charleston, Illinois. Andrews, K. 2004. Forest Treasures. Outdoor Illinois. December 2004:2-5. Bourne, A. 1820. On the prairies and barrens of the west. American Journal of Science and Arts 2:30-34. Bray, J.R. 1960. The composition of savanna veg¬ etation in Wisconsin. Ecology 41:721-732. Calsyn, D.E. 1995. Soil survey of Mason Coun¬ ty, Illinois. Soil Report 146, University of Illi¬ nois Agricultural Experiment Station, Urbana. ix+211 pp. Clements, D.B. 1958. Public land surveys-histo- ry and accomplishments. Survey and Mapping 18:213-219. Coates, D.T., S.E. Jenkins, J.E. Ebinger, and W.E. McClain. 1992. Woody vegetation survey of Barkhausen Woods, a closed canopy sand for- Changes Due to Fire Suppression in a Quercus velutina Lam. (Black Oak) Savanna at Sand Ridge State Forest, Mason County, Illinois Loy R. Phillippe, Paul B. Marcum, Daniel T. Busemeyer, William E. McClain, and John E. Ebinger 26 est in Mason County, Illinois. Erigenia 12:1-6. Considine, C.D., J.W. Groninger, C.M. Ruffner, M.D. Therrell, and S.G. Baer. 2013. Fire histo¬ ry and stand structure of a high quality black oak ( Quercus velutina) sand savanna. Natural Areas Journal 30:10-20. Cottam, G. and J.T. Curtis. 1949. A method for making rapid surveys of woodlands by means of pairs of randomly selected trees. Ecology 30:101-104. Curtis, J.T. 1959. The vegetation of Wisconsin. The University of Wisconsin Press. Madison. 657 pp. Ebinger, J.E. and W.E. McClain. 1991. Forest succession in the prairie peninsula of Illi¬ nois. Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin 34:375-381. Engelmann, H. 1863. Remarks upon the caus¬ es producing the different characters of veg¬ etation known as prairie, flats, and barrens in southern Illinois, with special reference to observations made in Perry and Jackson coun¬ ties. American Journal of Science 86:384-396. Gleason, H.A. 1910. The vegetation of the inland sand deposits of Illinois. Bulletin of the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History 9:21-174. Hutchison, M. 1988. A guide to understanding, interpreting, and using the Public Land Survey field notes in Illinois. Natural Areas Journal 8:245-255. Jenkins, S.E., J.E. Ebinger, and W.E. McClain. 1991. Woody vegetation survey of Bishops Woods, a sand forest in Mason County, Illi¬ nois. Transactions of the Illinois State Acade¬ my of Science 84:20-27. King, J.E. 1981. Late Quaternary vegetation- al history of Illinois. Ecological Monographs 51:43-62. Maier, C.T. 1976. An annotated list of the vas¬ cular plants of Sand Ridge State Forest, Mason County, Illinois. Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science 69:153-175. McClain, W.E. and S.L. Elzinga. 1994. The oc¬ currence of prairie and forest fires in Illinois and other Midwestern states, 1679 to 1854. Erigenia 13:79-90. McClain, W.E., S.D. Turner, and J.E. Ebinger. 2002. Vegetation of forest communities at the Sand Prairie-Scrub Oak Nature Preserve, Ma¬ son County, Illinois. Transactions of the Illi¬ nois State Academy of Science 95:37-46. McIntosh, R.P. 1957. The York Woods. A case history of forest succession in southern Wis¬ consin. Ecology 38:29-37. Midwestern Regional Climate Center. 2004. http://mcc.sws.uiuc.edu Mohlenbrock, R.H. 2002. Vascular Flora of Illi¬ nois. Southern Illinois University Press, Car- bondale, Illinois, xi+490 pp. Nuzzo, V.A. 1986. Extent and status of mid- west oak savanna: presettlement and 1985. Natural Areas Journal 6:6-36. Phillippe, L.R., J.L.Ellis, D.T Busemeyer, W.E. McClain and J.E. Ebinger. 2009. Vegetation survey of Tomlin Timber Nature Preserve, Mason County, Illinois. Erigenia 22:36-44. Rodgers, C.S. and R.C. Anderson. 1979. Preset¬ tlement vegetation of two prairie peninsula counties. Botanical Gazette 232-240. Schwegman, J.E. 1973. Comprehensive plan for the Illinois nature preserves system. Part 2. The natural divisions of Illinois. Illinois Nature Preserves Commission, Rockford, Illinois. map+32 pp. Taft, J.B. 1997. Savanna and open woodland communities. Pages 24-54. in M.W. Schwartz (editor). Conservation in highly fragmented landscapes. Chapman and Hall, New York. Transeau, E.N. 1935. The prairie peninsula. Ecology 16:423-437. Vestal, A.G. 1936. Barrens vegetation in Illinois. Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science 29:29-30. Willman, H.B. 1973. Geology along the Illinois waterway - a basis for environmental plan¬ ning. Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 478. Urbana. 48 pp. Willman, H.B. and J.C. Frye. 1970. Pleistocene stratigraphy of Illinois. Illinois State Geologi¬ cal Survey Bulletin 94:1-204. White, J. and M.H. Madany. 1978. Classification of natural communities in Illinois. Pp. 310-405 in Illinois natural areas inventory. Technical report. (J. White, Editor). Illinois Natural Ar¬ eas Inventory, Urbana, Illinois. Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science (2013) Volume 106, pp. 27-34 received 2/23/13 accepted 8/27/13 Freshwater Mussels (Bivalvia: Unionidae) of the La Moine and Spoon Rivers, Illinois Joshua L. Sherwood1*, Alison Price Stodola1, Sarah A. Bales1, and Timothy W. Spier2 'Illinois Natural History Survey - Prairie Research Institute, University of Illinois, 1816 South Oak St., Champaign, IL 61820 department of Biological Sciences, Western Illinois University, 1 University Circle, Macomb, IL 61455 ^Correspondence: jsherwo2@illinois.edu ABSTRACT Understanding the distribution of current mussel communities within a basin is the initial step towards conserving these imperiled an¬ imals. Two basins in which little were known of the current mussel communities are the La Moine and Spoon Rivers in western Illinois. The mussel communities were sampled at 87 locations within these two basins between 2009-2011 and historical mussel communities served as a comparison within these basins. The current samples produced 1,171 live mussels representing 21 species from the La Moine River basin and 1,291 live individuals representing 21 species from the Spoon River basin. Forty- three species have been collected from the Spoon River basin since 1892. The La Moine River basin has not been sampled as thoroughly as the Spoon and only 25 species have been documented from this basin since the first samples in the late 1980 s. INTRODUCTION Freshwater mussels (Bivalvia: Unionidae) are a crucial component of freshwater ecosystems (Howard and Cuffey, 2006; Vaughn and Hakenkampf, 2001). They improve water quality by removing sus¬ pended sediments from the water column (Howard and Cuffey, 2006), and filtering microscopic organisms and detritus from the water (Strayer and Smith, 2003). Due to their sessile feeding habits and relative inability to escape disturbances (e.g., pol¬ lutants and sedimentation), mussel popu¬ lations may be an indicator of the ‘health’ of water bodies (Williams et al., 1993). Thus, lack of mussels in a stream may indicate poor water quality. In addition, mussels also are a food source for various vertebrates (Diggins and Stewart, 2000; Shively and Vidrine, 1984; Williams et al., 2008). Eastern North America still has some of the most diverse freshwater mussel popu¬ lations in the world, even though popula¬ tions throughout the North America have declined drastically over the past century (Bogan, 1993; Williams et al., 1993). Of the approximately 300 species historically found in the United States, only 70 spe¬ cies are considered stable (Williams et al., 1993). The rivers of Illinois once provided habitat for 80 species of mussels, but these rivers have seen a decline in mussel pop¬ ulations similar to the decline world-wide (Cummings and Mayer 1997). Of the 80 historical species, 17 are no longer found alive in Illinois (6 due to extinction) and 29 species are listed as endangered, threat¬ ened or as a species of special concern (Ti- emann et al., 2007; Cummings and Mayer, 1997; Illinois Endangered Species Protec¬ tion Board, 2011). The goal of our study was to provide doc¬ umentation of the freshwater mussel spe¬ cies present in the Spoon and La Moine River basins. Through past surveys, a total of 41 species have been documented from the Spoon River basin and 23 species have been documented from the La Moine Riv¬ er basin (Tiemann et al., 2007). The num¬ ber of live species in these basins appear to be declining, and since 1969, only 20 species have been found alive in the Spoon River basin and only 16 in the La Moine river basin (Cummings and Mayer, 1997; Tiemann et al., 2007). The current status of the missing species is unknown, and neither basin has been surveyed in recent years. The last mussel survey of the Spoon River basin was in 1971 (Starrett, unpub¬ lished); the La Moine River basin was last surveyed between 1989-91, but only in McDonough and Hancock counties (Baumgardner, 1995. METHODS The La Moine and Spoon River basins drain approximately 8300 km2 of land between the Mississippi and Illinois Rivers in west¬ ern Illinois (Figures 1 and 2). These rivers are of similar length and drainage area (La Moine: 203 km, 3,497 km2. Spoon River: 260 km, 4,805 km.2), and empty into the La Grange Pool of the Illinois River (IDNR, 2001; IDNR, 1998). Both rivers flow pri¬ marily through the Galesburg Section of the western forest-prairie natural division, although the headwaters of the Spoon Riv¬ er rise in the western section of the Grand Prairie Division (Schwegman, 1973). Sites were selected throughout the La Moine and Spoon River basins based on the following criteria: 1 ) historical data was available for the site, 2) the site was part of the Illinois Department of Natural Re¬ sources and Illinois Environmental Protec¬ tion Agency Intensive Basin Survey, 3) or because there was a lack of data from that portion of the stream. At each site, a four-hour timed search method was implemented. While timed searches are not appropriate for assessing population density, abundance, or precise changes over time, they are appropriate for preliminary surveys and detecting species’ presence at a site (Strayer and Smith, 2003). At most sites, based on site-specific con¬ ditions, live individuals and shell material were collected by hand-grabbing and visual sampling. Due to high water restrictions at three sites, mussels were collected using a brail (Sites 45, 46, and 47, Table 1). A hap¬ hazard sampling design was implemented during sampling, and an effort was made to sample all available habitat types. Follow¬ ing the four-hour search, live individuals were identified to species and total lengths (mm) were measured. The nomenclature employed in this report follows Turgeon et al. (1998), except for recent taxonom¬ ic changes to the gender ending of lilliput ( Toxolasma parvum), which follows Wil¬ liams et al. (2008). One representative of Freshwater Mussels (Bivalvia: Unionidae) of the La Moine and Spoon Rivers, Illinois Joshua L. Sherwood, Alison Price Stodola, Sarah A. Bales, and Timothy W. Spier 28 Figure 1. Map of sampling locations in the La Moine River basin. each species was kept from each location and sent to the Illinois Natural History Survey (INHS) Mollusk Collection for species confirmation. If only shell material was collected for a species, the shell was classified as recent dead (periostracum present, nacre pearly, and soft tissue may be present) or relict (periostracum erod¬ ed, nacre faded, shell chalky) based on condition of the best shell found. The remaining live individuals were returned to the stream. Historical mussel sampling data was compiled for both basins to compare current mussel communities to past communities. Much of the historical data for both basins was gathered from the INHS Mollusk Collection, as well as Cummings and Mayer (1997) and Tiemann et al. (2007). Additional Spoon River basin data was found in Strode (1892) and an unpublished INHS survey per¬ formed by W.C. Starrett in 1 97 1 . Further La Moine River basin data were compiled from a survey of the La Moine River basin across McDonough and Hancock counties from 1989-1991 (Baumgard¬ ner, 1995). RESULTS Forty- seven sites were sampled from the La Moine River basin (Figure 1, Table 1) and 40 sites from the Spoon River basin (Figure 2, Table 3). From the La Moine River basin, 1,169 live individuals were collected representing 21 species (Table 2) during 177 person hours of sampling. Twenty-four of the 47 sites sampled in the La Moine River basin produced live individuals. Wabash pigtoe ( Fus - Table 1. Sample locations in the La Moine River basin. Site Date Stream Location Latitude Longitude 1 10- Aug-10 Baptist Creek 4.3 mi S LaHarpe, 2850E bridge 40.521 -90.957 2 10-Jun-10 Bronson Creek 1.8 mi NW Plymouth, 2900E bridge 40.311 -90.941 3 6-Jul-10 Camp Creek 5.7 mi SSW Fandon, 50N Bridge 40.288 -90.789 4A l-Sep-09 Camp Creek 3.4 mi S Fandon, 800E Bridge 40.320 -90.755 4B 10- Aug-10 Camp Creek 3.4 mi S Fandon, 800E bridge 40.320 -90.754 5 3-Sep-09 Camp Creek 3.4 mi N Industry, 1525E bridge 40.376 -90.619 6 5- Jul- 10 Cedar Creek 0.6 mi NNW Camden, IL Route 99 bridge 40.162 -90.774 7 9-Aug-10 Cedar Creek 6.3 mi SE Augusta, Fluntsville Rd bridge 40.302 -90.754 8 5- Jul- 10 Cedar Creek* 4.8 mi WNW Camden, 250E bridge 40.174 -90.857 9 31 -Aug- 10 Drowning Fork 2.5 mi SW Bushnell, 1700N bridge 40.529 -90.542 10 3-Jul-10 Drowning Fork* 2.0 mi WSW Bushnell, 1900N bridge 40.542 -90.541 11 14-Aug-09 E. Fork LaMoine River 6.4 mi W Colchester, Rt 136 bridge 40.410 -90.912 12 31 -Aug- 10 E. Fork LaMoine River 1.7 mi WNW Colchester, 1100N bridge 40.434 -90.824 13 17-Sep-09 E. Fork LaMoine River 1.8 mi NNE Colchester, 700E bridge 40.449 -90.776 14 13- Aug-09 E. Fork LaMoine River 1 .4 mi N Macomb, Glenwood Park 40.480 -90.671 15 31 -Aug- 10 E. Fork LaMoine River 4 mi SW Bushnell, 1800E bridge 40.512 -90.561 16 23-Sep-09 E. Fork LaMoine River 3.6 mi SW Bushnell, 1650N bridge 40.521 -90.560 17 3-Jul-10 E. Fork LaMoine River 4.3 mi E Good Hope, Waco Rd bridge 40.559 -90.592 18A 3-Jul-10 Farmers Fork 3.7 mi WSW Bushnell, 1700N bridge 40.528 -90.569 18B 31 -Aug- 10 Farmers Fork 3.7 mi WSW Bushnell, 1700N bridge 40.528 -90.569 19 10-Jun-10 Flour Creek 5.6 mi ESE Plymouth, Flour Creek Rd bridge 40.260 -90.822 20A 15-Sep-09 Grindstone Creek 4.6 mi S Fandon, 800E bridge 40.302 -90.754 20B 9- Aug- 10 Grindstone Creek 4.6 mi S Fandon, 800E bridge 40.302 -90.754 21 12- Aug-09 Grindstone Creek 3.9 mi WSW Industry, E 1 200th St bridge 40.311 -90.678 22 3-Sep-09 Grindstone Creek 0.7 mi W Industry, 350N bridge 40.329 -90.620 23 12-Jul-10 Kepple Creek 2.9 mi SSW Bushnell, 2000E bridge 40.513 -90.524 24 2-Jul-10 La Harpe Creek 2.8 mi S La Harpe, 2750Ebridge 40.544 -90.974 25A 2-Jul-10 La Harpe Creek 7.5 mi NE Carthage, 1950N bridge 40.480 -91.020 25B 10- Aug-10 La Harpe Creek 7.5 mi NE Carthage, 1950N bridge 40.528 -90.569 26 15-Oct-lO La Moine River 4.2 mi SE Ripley, La Grange Lock Rd 39.981 -90.581 27A 11 -Oct- 10 La Moine River 5.7 mi N Camden, Guinea Rd bridge 40.235 -90.782 27B 29-Aug-ll La Moine River 5.7 mi N Camden, Guinea Rd bridge 40.236 -90.782 28 9-Sep-10 La Moine River 4.4 mi E Plymouth, 75N Bridge 40.294 -90.836 29A 7-Oct-lO La Moine River 3.6 mi N Plymouth, St. Mary's Rd bridge 40.344 -90.914 29B 29-Aug-ll La Moine River 3.6 mi N Plymouth, St. Mary's Rd bridge 40.344 -90.914 30 9-Sep-10 La Moine River 7.9 mi NNW Plymouth, 1420E bridge 40.403 -90.953 31 24-Aug-10 La Moine River 5.4 mi ENE Carthage, 1800E bridge 40.459 -91.050 32A lO-Oct-10 La Moine River 5.2 mi SW La Harpe, 2300N bridge 40.532 -91.041 32 B 30- Aug- 1 1 La Moine River 5.2 mi SW LaHarpe, 2300N bridge 40.532 -91.041 33 4- Jul- 10 La Moine River 1.6 mi NNW La Harpe, Route 94 bridge 40.605 -90.983 34 15-Oct-lO La Moine River 7.0 mi WSW Beardstown 39.982 -90.548 35 15-Oct-lO La Moine River 7.5 mi WSW Beardstown 39.982 -90.559 36A 2-Jui-10 Little Creek* 3.4 mi S La Harpe 2300N bridge 40.534 -90.965 36B 10-Aug-ll Little Creek 3.4 mi S LaHarpe, 2300N bridge 40.534 -90.965 37 29-Jun-10 Little Missouri Creek 3.1 mi S Camden, IL Route 99 bridge 40.109 -90.768 38 6- Jul- 10 Missouri Creek 4.0 mi SE Camden, Avery Rd bridge 40.111 -90.719 39A 6-Jul-lO Missouri Creek 3.1 mi SW Camden, Missouri Creek Rd bridge 40.124 -90.815 39B 9- Aug- 10 Missouri Creek 3. 1 mi SW Camden, Missouri Creek Rd bridge 40.124 -90.815 40 10-Aug-10 Rock Creek 4.8 mi ENE Ferris, 2200E bridge 40.483 -91.081 41 2- Jul- 10 Rock Creek* 4.9 mi NE Carthage, 2250E bridge 40.468 -91.072 42 25-Aug-09 Spring Creek 4. 1 mi NW Macomb, Spring Lake Park 40.503 -90.724 43 6- Jul- 10 Stony Branch 5.6 mi WNW Rushville, Rattlesnake Ranch bridge 40.152 -90.661 44 31-Aug-10 Troublesome Creek 3.5 mi S Colchester, 600E bridge 40.375 -90.792 45 30-Sep-09 Troublesome Creek 4.9 mi WSW Fandon, 450N bridge 40.349 -90.851 46 1 -Sep-09 Troublesome Creek 1.9 mi. NE Fandon, 875E bridge 40.390 -90.740 47 A lO-Jun-10 Williams Creek 4.6 mi E Augusta, Williams Creek Rd ford 40.237 -90.863 47 B 9- Aug- 10 Williams Creek 4.6 mi E Augusta, Williams Creek Rd ford 40.532 -91.041 conaia flava ) was the most common species in the La Moine River basin, comprising 15.3% of all live individuals. Plain pocketbook ( Lampsilis cardium) and pistolgrip ( Tritogonia verrucosa ) made up 12.7% and 1 1.9% of live individuals, respectively. No species found in the La Moine River basin were represented by shell material only, at least one live individual was found for each species. Freshwater Mussels (Bivalvia: Unionidae) of the La Moine and Spoon Rivers, Illinois Joshua L. Sherwood, Alison Price Stodola, Sarah A. Bales, and Timothy W. Spier 29 Table 2. Species and number of live freshwater mussels found at each site in the La Moine River basin. Only sites where live individuals or shell material were found are listed. Numbers indicate the number of live individuals found, D represents only freshly deceased shells collected and R indicates only relic shell material found. _ Species Common Name Site 1 3 4B 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 18A 18B 19 20A 20B 22 23 Subfamily Ambleminae Amblema plicata threeridge D R Fusconaia flaw Wabash pigtoe D 4 17 10 40 21 6 17 60 Quadrula pustulosa pimpleback D 1 12 41 9 18 14 1 1 Quadrula quadrula mapleleaf 1 R 2 4 3 30 5 2 1 1 Tritogonia verrucosa pistolgrip D 2 5 5 9 4 6 10 Uniomerus tetralasmus pondhorn 4 4 1 D D Subfamily Anodontinae Lasmigona complanata white heelsplitter R 2 D D 1 1 1 1 1 2 R D 3 23 D Pyganodon grandis giant floater D 6 1 2 D 11 19 D Strophitus undulatus creeper 1 D D 5 1 7 30 13 4 7 14 2 21 Utterbackia imbecillis paper pondshell D 1 Subfamily Lampsilinae Lampsilis cardium plain pocketbook 22 1 9 43 71 11 3 7 Lampsilis siliquoidea fatmucket 6 11 5 Lampsilis teres yellow sandshell 1 2 Leptodea fragilis fragile papershell R D D 2 D 1 2 R 1 3 Ligumia subrostrata pondmussel 1 2 9 D 1 2 10 2 6 Obliquaria reflexa threehorn wartyback Potamilus alatus pink heelsplitter R Potamilus ohiensis pink papershell R Toxolasma parvum lilliput D D D 23 D 1 5 D 64 2 D Truncilla donaciformis fawnsfoot Truncilla truncata deertoe 2 2 2 Total Live Individuals Collected 0 2 6 0 4 4 39 2 41 119 120 151 63 14 41 169 0 17 72 0 0 Live Species 0 2 4 0 1 1 4 2 11 8 10 12 7 5 7 7 0 6 7 0 0 Live + Fresh Dead Species 0 3 6 1 2 1 9 8 12 10 10 12 8 5 8 7 2 6 8 1 1 Total Species 1 3 7 0 2 1 9 9 12 10 11 12 9 5 8 8 0 6 9 0 2 Site Species Common Name 24 25A 25B 27B 28 29A 29B 30 31 32A 32B 36B 37 38 39B 40 42 44 45 47B Total Subfamily Ambleminae Amblema plicata threeridge 1 R 1 Fusconaia flava Wabash pigtoe 1 1 2 R 179 Quadrula pustulosa pimpleback 1 1 D 6 D 1 106 Quadrula quadrula mapleleaf 1 1 6 1 D 1 12 2 73 Tritogonia verrucosa pistolgrip 2 3 2 75 8 8 R 139 Uniomerus tetralasmus pondhorn D R R R R 9 Subfamily Anodontinae Lasmigona complanata white heelsplitter D 1 1 4 3 22 D D 7 4 4 D 81 Pyganodon grandis giant floater 1 1 6 3 50 Strophitus undulatus creeper D D 1 9 12 127 Utterbackia imbecillis paper pondshell 1 1 10 13 Subfamily Lampsilinae Lampsilis cardium plain pocketbook 1 D 1 R 1 1 R R 149 Lampsilis siliquoidea fatmucket 1 R 23 Lampsilis teres yellow sandshell 1 1 3 3 D 23 D 1 35 Leptodea fragilis fragile papershell 1 1 9 D 5 2 D R R D 27 Ligumia subrostrata pondmussel D R R 33 Obliquaria reflexa threehorn wartyback 1 3 4 Potamilus alatus pink heelsplitter 1 R 1 Potamilus ohiensis pink papershell R 1 1 Toxolasma parvum lilliput 1 3 3 R D R D D 3 D 105 Truncilla donaciformis fawnsfoot 3 2 5 Truncilla truncata deertoe 2 8 Total Live Individuals Collected 0 6 5 11 23 2 132 13 1 3 35 0 0 0 0 0 36 16 22 0 1169 Live Species 0 6 3 8 9 1 14 5 1 1 5 0 0 0 0 0 5 3 5 0 21 Live + Fresh Dead Species 2 6 4 8 9 5 15 7 3 2 5 0 1 1 0 2 6 3 6 2 21 Total Species 2 6 5 8 9 6 15 7 3 3 6 2 1 2 1 4 9 6 6 5 21 Freshwater Mussels (Bivalvia: Unionidae) of the La Moine and Spoon Rivers, Illinois Joshua L. Sherwood, Alison Price Stodola, Sarah A. Bales, and Timothy W. Spier 30 In the Spoon River basin, 1,291 live individuals of 21 species (Table 4) and shell material of an additional 8 species were collected in 160 person-hours of sampling. Live individuals were found at 34 of the 40 Spoon River basin sites. L. cardium was the most common species found in the Spoon basin and accounted for 21% of live individuals. F. flava accounted for 14% of live individuals and the white heelsplitter ( Lasmigona complanata) accounted for 13%. No threatened or endangered mussel species were collected alive during this survey although relict shells were collected. A relict shell of the state endangered snuffbox ( Epioblasma triquetra ) was found at Spoon River site 24. Relict shells of three state threatened species, slippershell mussel ( Alasmidonta viridis), spike ( Elliptio dilatata ) and black sandshell ( Ligumia recta), were also found in the Spoon River basin. Historical mussel data for the La Moine River basin was divided into four time periods. The survey completed by Baumgardner (1995) was supplemented by additional INHS data and are the ear¬ liest samples known from the La Moine River basin, herein desig¬ nated as “pre-1991.” Surveys during this time period recorded 13 live species from the La Moine River basin, as well as shell material of 4 additional species (Table 5). Surveys completed between 1991- 2000 entirely consisted of INHS collection data and also produced 13 live species, 3 of which were not found live in the previous time Table 3. Sample locations in the Spoon River basin. Site Date Stream Location Latitude Longitude i 16-Jul-10 Cedar Creek 3.5 Mi SSE Berwick, 147th St bridge 40.758 -90.529 2 16-Jul-10 Cedar Fork 4 mi SE Berwick, 90th Ave bridge 40.760 -90.468 3 16-Jul-10 Negro Creek 4.2 mi NE Roseville, 105th St bridge 40.750 -90.587 4 19- Jul- 10 W Fork Spoon River 2 mi E Elmira, Rt 93 bridge 41.181 -89.788 5 19-Jul-10 E Fork Spoon River 4 mi SW Bradford, 1300E bridge 41.161 -89.735 6 20-Jul-10 Coopers Defeat Creek 1.8 mi NE Modena, 1300E bridge 41.150 -89.735 7 20- Jul- 10 Camp Creek 4 mi SSE Wyoming. 1300E bridge 41.009 -89.735 8 20- Jul- 10 Prince Run 2 mi N Princeville, 22300N bridge 40.960 -89.772 9 21 -Jul- 10 Indian Creek 3.5 mi SW Wyoming, 450N bridge 41.041 -89.834 10 21 -Jul- 0 Walnut Creek 4.6 mi NW West Jersey, 2350E bridge 41.062 -89.995 11 21-Jul-10 French Creek 4 mi NW Yates City, 2000E bridge 40.809 -90.062 12 21 -Jul- 0 Court Creek 1.5 mi W Dahinda, 1600E bridge 40.930 -90.139 13 2 1 -Jul- 10 North Creek 5 mi ENE East Galesburg, 1700N bridge 40.962 -90.210 14 22-Jul-10 Brush Creek 4 mi E Abingdon, 600N bridge 40.801 -90.318 15 22- Jul- 10 Haw Creek 3.5 mi SW Maquon,400N bridge 40.772 -90.222 16 22-Jul-10 Littlers Creek 2 mi NW Rapatee, 1300E bridge 40.736 -90.200 17 22- Jul- 10 Haw Creek 3 mi S Knoxville,950E bridge 40.850 -90.261 18 23- Jul- 10 Negro Creek 6.3 mi E Roseville, IL 1 16 bridge 40.731 -90.545 19 23-Jul-10 Swan Creek 2.5 mi SE Greenbush, 1500E bridge 40.685 -90.502 20 2 -Aug- 10 Coal Creek 4 mi SE London Mills, 1 100E bridge 40.658 -90.233 21 2- Aug- 10 Cedar Creek 3.5 mi SW London Mills,3400N bridge 40.691 -90.336 22 3-Aug-10 Spoon River 2 mi W Wyoming, Rt 17 bridge 41.063 -89.795 23 3- Aug- 10 Spoon River 2.5 mi SE Dahinda, Rt 150 bridge 40.908 -90.087 24 3- Aug- 10 Spoon River 5 mi NE Maquon, Hwy 1 7 bridge 40.857 -90.110 25 3-Aug-10 Spoon River London Mills, 2nd St bridge 40.714 -90.266 26 4- Aug- 10 Turkey Creek 1 mi SE Blyton, 900N bridge 40.557 -90.261 27 4- Aug- 10 Put Creek 3 mi S Blyton, 2300N bridge 40.524 -90.269 28 4-Aug-10 Shaw Creek 1.5 mi NW Marietta, 325E bridge 40.520 -90.381 29 5-Aug-10 Barker Creek 1.8 mi S Marietta, 250E bridge 40.471 -90.393 30 5-Aug-10 Big Creek 2 mi SW Bryant, 1650E bridge 40.459 -90.133 31 5-Aug-10 Tater Creek 1.5 mi NW Duncan Mills 40.347 -90.213 32 26- Aug- 10 Spoon River 0.5 mi E Ellisville, Rt 17 bridge 40.627 -90.302 33 30- Aug- 10 Spoon River Elmore, Mill Rd bridge 40.957 -89.977 34 30- Aug- 10 Spoon River 0.8 mi ENE Maquon, 650N bridge 1 40.808 -90.134 35 30- Aug- 10 Spoon River 3.5 mi NW Smithfield, 2350N bridge 40.532 -90.311 36 1 -Sep- 10 Spoon River Bernadotte 40.403 -90.325 37 1 -Sep- 10 Spoon River 3 mi S Lewistown, Waterford Rd bridge 40.337 -90.130 38 22-Sep-10 Francis Creek 4.5 mi NW Ipava, E Holler Rd bridge 40.399 -90.383 39 24-Sep-10 Big Creek 3.3 mi W Lewistown, Co Rd 14 bridge 40.398 -90.216 40 25-Sep-10 Put Creek 5.8 mi WNW Cuba, Co Rd 2 bridge 40.527 -90.291 period. Shell material of Utterbackia imbecillis, which had not been previously recorded, was also found in this time period. The number of live species collected from the La Moine River basin increased to 18 from INHS surveys between the years 2001-2009. In this survey, 21 species were found live. Overall, 25 species have been documented from the La Moine River basin. The mussels of the Spoon River basin have been studied more thor¬ oughly than those in the La Moine River basin. The Spoon River basin historical data was divided into seven time periods. The first were samples performed by W.S. Strode between 1892-1912. In this time period, 36 species were collected from the Spoon River basin, all of which were represented by live individuals (Table 6). Surveys done in 1949 by J.M. Reed (INHS data) found only 14 species, also all represented by live individuals. Since 1957, the number of live species found in the Spoon River basin has ranged from 17 (1990s INHS surveys) to 21 (2000-2009 INHS surveys and W.C. Starrett 1971), but has remained relatively constant. In this survey, 21 spe¬ cies were found live. From over 100 years of sampling, a total of 43 species have been collected as either live individuals or shell mate¬ rial from the Spoon River basin. Freshwater Mussels (Bivalvia: Unionidae) of the La Moine and Spoon Rivers, Illinois Joshua L. Sherwood, Alison Price Stodola, Sarah A. Bales, and Timothy W. Spier 31 Table 4. Species and number of live freshwater mussels found at each site in the Spoon River basin. Only sites where live individuals or shell material were found are listed. Numbers indicate the number of live individuals found, D represents only freshly deceased shells collected and R indicates only relic shell material found. Threatened or endangered species indicated next to species name (SE = State Endangered, ST - State Threatened). _ Site Species Subfamily Ambleminae Common Name 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Amblema plicata threeridge R R R Elliptio dilatata (SE) spike R R R Fusconia flava Wabash pigtoe 14 19 R 11 33 8 12 5 7 Pleurobema sintoxia round pigtoe 1 10 3 Quadrula metanevra monkeyface 1 Quadrula pustulosa pimpleback 2 4 23 4 14 D 4 Quadrula quadrula mapleleaf 7 Tritogonia verrucosa pistolgrip 1 7 1 Uniomerus tetralasmus pondhorn 1 1 Subfamily Anodontinae Alasmidonta viridis (ST) slippershell mussel R R Anodontoides ferussacianus cylindrical papershell D R 10 6 25 4 16 1 D Lasmigona complanata white heelsplitter 1 D D 7 2 133 2 D D 7 2 4 3 R Lasmigona compressa creek heelsplitter 3 2 6 D 9 D D D 4 2 Lasmigona costata flutedshell Pyganodon grandis giant floater D R 6 Strophitus undulatus Subfamily Lampsilinae creeper 3 2 1 1 1 7 12 1 D 1 3 2 5 1 D Actinonaias ligmentina mucket Epioblasma triquetra (SE) snuffbox Lampsilis cardium plain pocketbook 3 1 45 D R 42 8 12 15 3 D 3 22 Lampsilis siliquoidea fatmucket D 5 1 9 R 2 6 2 1 1 1 1 14 Lampsilis teres yellow sandshell Leptodea fragilis fragile papershell D D D D D Ligumia recta (SE) black sandshell Obliquaria reflexa threehorn wartyback Potamilus alatus pink heelsplitter Potamilus ohiensis pink papershell Toxolasma parvum lilliput 1 D D D R 1 1 1 D Truncilla donaciformis fawnsfoot Truncilla truncata deertoe Venustaconcha ellipsiformis ellipse Total Live Individuals Collected 8 24 1 9 87 10 6 165 61 92 64 18 4 1 38 21 6 20 54 0 Live Species 4 5 1 2 8 1 1 4 6 8 8 3 2 1 6 6 4 6 8 0 Live + Fresh Dead Species 6 8 2 4 10 2 1 5 7 10 8 3 5 4 6 8 4 6 8 3 Total Species 6 8 2 4 12 3 6 5 9 14 8 3 5 4 6 8 4 6 8 4 Site Species Common Name 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 39 40 Total Subfamily Ambleminae Amblema plicata threeridge R 1 D R R R R R R R 1 Elliptio dilatata (SE) spike R R R R R R R Fusconia flava Wabash pigtoe 23 D 6 28 R 19 14 D 188 Pleurobema sintoxia round pigtoe 1 7 13 2 D 27 3 R 67 Quadrula metanevra monkeyface 3 2 14 91 3 D 34 D D 148 Quadrula pustulosa pimpleback 17 1 2 19 R 1 31 16 2 R 1 140 Quadrula quadrula mapleleaf 2 3 19 1 5 1 D D 3 8 2 1 D 2 52 Tritogonia verrucosa pistolgrip 12 D 1 1 4 27 Uniomerus tetralasmus pondhorn D D D 2 Subfamily Anodontinae Alasmidonta viridis (ST) slippershell mussel R R Anodontoides ferussacianus cylindrical papershell R Lasmigona complanata white heelsplitter 1 R R 1 63 Lasmigona compressa creek heelsplitter 1 3 2 1 1 R 1 D 2 D D 172 Lasmigona costata flutedshell D D 27 Pyganodon grandis giant floater R R R Strophitus undulatus creeper 11 D R R 6 Subfamily Lampsilinae Actinonaias ligmentina mucket R R R R R Epioblasma triquetra (SE) snuffbox R R Lampsilis cardium plain pocketbook 13 6 34 D 3 D 2 D D 3 59 1 3 R 3 278 Lampsilis siliquoidea fatmucket R R R 1 R D 1 R 45 Lampsilis teres yellow sandshell R R Leptodea fragi lis fragile papershell 2 D D 1 D D D D D D D D 1 D 4 Ligumia recta (SE) black sandshell R R Obliquaria reflexa threehorn wartyback 1 1 Potamilus alatus pink heelsplitter D D Potamilus ohiensis pink papershell 1 1 4 6 Toxolasma parvum lilliput D D D D 4 Truncilla donaciformis fawnsfoot 1 1 D 2 Truncilla truncata deertoe 1 1 Venustaconcha ellipsiformis ellipse R R R R R Total Live Individuals Collected 85 14 66 179 9 0 6 4 0 3 0 5 182 43 9 2 6 6 0 1291 Live Species 10 6 6 10 4 0 2 3 0 2 0 3 11 6 4 2 3 3 0 21 Live + Fresh Dead Species 10 11 9 11 6 3 5 5 3 7 2 8 13 10 8 4 5 5 0 23 Total Species 13 14 12 16 6 6 5 8 3 7 3 9 18 12 13 10 7 6 1 30 Freshwater Mussels (Bivalvia: Unionidae) of the La Moine and Spoon Rivers, Illinois Joshua L. Sherwood, Alison Price Stodola, Sarah A. Bales, and Timothy W. Spier 32 Table 5. Comparison of current and historical mussel species collected from the La Moine River basin. “L” indicates species found alive and “X” represents only shell (dead or relict) of species found at time of collection. pre-1991 1991-2000 2001-2009 2009-2011 Species Common Name (Baumgard¬ ner & INHS) (INHS Data) (INHS Data) Current Survey Subfamily Ambleminae Amblema plicata threeridge L L L L Fusconia flava Wabash pigtoe L L L Megalonaias nervosa washboard X Quadrula nodulata wartyback X Quadrula pustulosa pimpleback L L L Quadrula quadrula mapleleaf L L L L Tritogonia verrucosa pistolgrip L L L L Uniomerus tetralasmus pondhorn L L L L Subfamily Anodontinae Anodonta suborbiculata flat floater L Lasmigona complanata white heelsplitter L L L L Pyganodon grandis giant floater L L L L Strophitus undulatus creeper L L L L Utterbackia imbecillis paper pondshell X L L Subfamily Lampsilinae Actinonaias ligamentina mucket X Lampsilis cardium plain pocketbook X L L L Lampsilis siliquoidea fatmucket L L L Lampsilis teres yellow sandshell L L L Leptodea fragilis fragile papershell L L L L Ligumia subrostrata pondmussel L L Obliquaria reflexa threehorn wartyback L Potamilus alatus pink heelsplitter L L Potamilus ohiensis pink papershell L L Toxolasma parvum lilliput L L L L Truncilla donaciformis fawnsfoot L Truncilla truncata deertoe L L Total Species 25 Total Live Species Total Species 13 17 13 14 17 17 21 21 DISCUSSION Based on the historical data available for the Spoon River basin, many species have been extirpated from this drainage within the last century (Strode, 1892). Forty-three are known historically, yet only 21 have been collected alive within the last decade (Table 6). The loss of species in this basin should be no surprise, since the majority of mussel species in United States and Cana¬ da are extinct, endangered, threatened, or of special concern (Williams et al., 1993). The historical collection data we have avail¬ able suggests that many species were lost between 1912 and 1949 (Table 6), although this is simply speculation. The historical data available for the La Moine River basin indicates that 25 species were present at one time, although we do not have data for this basin before the late 1980’s. The Spoon and La Moine River ba¬ sins are similar in size, location, and pres¬ ent mussel communities, thus we believe that there were likely more than 25 species present in the La Moine River basin in the early 1900’s, despite the lack of any shell material. Records from the Spoon River basin show that 12 species have not been collected, in any form, after 1990 (Table 6). It is possible that shell material from these species has been completely eroded, buried or washed downstream. We found that the current mussel com¬ munities of the La Moine and Spoon River basins are similar to each other and consist primarily of common, widespread mussels found throughout Illinois. Seventeen mus¬ sel species are common to both the Spoon and La Moine River basins, all of which are considered stable in Illinois (Cummings and Mayer, 1992). Species with either fed¬ eral or state conservation status were only represented in our surveys by relict shell material, and it is unlikely that viable pop¬ ulations exist in the Spoon or La Moine River basins at this time. Although species’ loss has occurred in these basins over time, both basins still maintain over 20 live spe¬ cies of mussels. Within each watershed, particular streams appear to support exceptional diversity in this geographical context. In the La Moine River basin, we collected more than ten live species at several sampling locations in the East Fork La Moine and La Moine River, just downstream of its confluence with the East Fork La Moine River. In the Spoon River basin, we found the greatest species diversity within the mainstem and its larger tributaries (e.g., Cedar, Indian, and Walnut Creek). Conversely, we found several head¬ water streams in the La Moine River basin containing only shell material. While mus¬ sel diversity often increases with stream size (Strayer, 1983), the absence of live mussels with shell material present may indicate that these headwater species can no longer persist here. It is unclear at this time wheth¬ er this is due to current water quality issues, lack of habitat or if their decline was caused by past water quality issues and these trib¬ utaries are too far from stable populations for these species to recolonize. A simi¬ lar pattern has been in observed in other Midwestern systems (Myers-Kinzie et al., 2001), and the documentation of headwa¬ ter species’ loss may be an important issue to consider in the future. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to acknowledge and thank those people that assisted with the many aspects of this project. Diane Shasteen pro¬ vided critical sampling assistance as well as technical expertise. Others who pro¬ vided sampling help for this project were A.J. Berger, Brandon Cheek, Jeff Gersch, Andrew Klinsky, Hunter Ray, A.J. Repp, Jen Schwab, Jeremy Tiemann and Rachel Vinsel. Funding for these surveys was pro- Freshwater Mussels (Bivalvia: Unionidae) of the La Moine and Spoon Rivers, Illinois Joshua L. Sherwood, Alison Price Stodola, Sarah A. Bales, and Timothy W. Spier 33 Table 5. Comparison of current and historical mussel species collected from the Spoon River basin. “L” indicates species found alive and “X” represents only shell (dead or relict) of species found at time of collection. Threatened or endangered species indicated next to species name (FE = Federal Endangered, SE = State Endangered, ST = State Threatened). 1892- 1949 1957 1971 1990s 2000- 2010 1912 2009 Species Common Name (Strode) (Reed) (Matteson) (Starrett) (INHS) (INHS) Current Survey Subfamily Ambleminae Amblema plicata threeridge L L L L L L L Cyclonaias tuberculata (ST) purple wartyback L Elliptio crassidens (ST) elephantear X Elliptio dilatata (ST) spike L X X X L Fusconia flava Wabash pigtoe L L L L L L L Megalonaias nervosa washboard L Plethobasus cyphyus (SE) sheepnose L Pleurobema sintoxia round pigtoe L L L L L L L Quadrula fragosa winged mapleleaf L Quadrula metanevra monkeyface L L L L L L L Quadrula nodulata wartyback L Quadrula pustulosa pimpleback L L L L L L L Quadrula quadrula mapleleaf L L L L L L Tritogonia verrucosa pistolgrip L L L L L L L Uniomerus tetralasmus pondhorn L L Subfamily Anodontinae Alasmidonta marginata elktoe L Alasmidonta viridis (ST) slippershell mussel X X Anodonta suborbiculata flat floater L Anodontoides ferussacianus cylindrical papershell L L L L L Arcidens confragosus rock pocketbook L Lasmigona complanata white heelsplitter L L L L L L L Lasmigona compressa creek heelsplitter L L L L L Lasmigona costata flutedshell L L X X X Pyganodon grandis giant floater L L L L L L L Strophitus undulatus creeper L L L L L L L Utterbackia imbecillis paper pondshell L Subfamily Lampsilinae Actinonaias ligamentina mucket L L X X Epioblasma triquetra (SE) snuffbox X Lampsilis cardium plain pocketbook L L L L L L L Lampsilis higginsi (FE) Higgins eye L L Lampsilis siliquoidea fat mucket L L L L L L Lampsilis teres yellow sandshell L L L L X X Leptodea fragilis fragile papershell L L L L L L L Ligumia recta (ST) black sandshell L L X X Obliquaria reflexa threehorn wartyback L L Obovaria olivaria hickorynut L X Potamilus alatus pink heelsplitter L X L X Potamilus capax (FE) fat pocketbook L Potamilus ohiensis pink papershell L L L L L L L Toxolasma parvum lilliput L L L L L Truncilla donaciformis fawnsfoot L L L L L Truncilla truncata deertoe L L L Venustaconcha ellipsiformis ellipse X X Total Species 43 Total Live Species 36 14 20 21 17 20 21 Total Species 36 14 21 26 19 25 30 vided by the Illinois Department of Natu¬ ral Resources Wildlife Preservation Fund, the Illinois Smallmouth Alliance, and the US Fish and Wildlife Service, State Wild¬ life Grant (T-53-D-1, Investigating Mussel Communities in Illinois Streams). LITERATURE CITED Baumgardner, J.A. 1995. A survey of the fresh¬ water mussels (Bivalvia: Unionidae) of the Upper La Moine River Basin. Master Degree Thesis, Western Illinois University, Macomb, IL. 130 pgs. Bogan, A.E. 1993. Freshwater bivalve extinc¬ tions (Mollusca: Unionidae): a search for caus¬ es. American Zoologist. 33(6): 599-609. Cummings, K.S. and C.A. Mayer. 1992. Field guide to freshwater mussels of the Midwest. Illinois Natural History Survey Manual 5. 194 pp. Cummings, K.S., and C.A. Mayer. 1997. Distri¬ butional checklist and status of Illinois fresh¬ water mussels (Mollusca: Unionacea). Pp. 129-145 in K.S. Cummings, A.C. Buchanan, C.A. Mayer, and T.J. Naimo (eds.). Conserva¬ tion and management of freshwater mussels II: Initiatives for the future. Proceedings of the UMRCC Symposium, 16-18 October, 1995, St. Louis. Upper Mississippi River Conservation Committee, Rock Island, Illinois. 293 pp. Diggins, T.P., and K.M. Stewart. 2000. Evidence of large change in unionid mussel abundance from selective muskrat predation, as inferred by shell remains left on shore. International Review of Hydrobiology 85(4): 505-520. Howard, J.K. and K.M. Cuffey. 2006. The func¬ tional role of native freshwater mussels in the fluvial benthic environment. Freshwater Biol¬ ogy. 51: 460-474. Illinois Department of Natural Resources. 1998. Spoon River Area Assessment, Volume 2: Wa¬ ter Resources. 68 pp. Illinois Department of Natural Resources. 2001. La Moine River Area Assessment, Volume 2: Water Resources. 69 pp. Illinois Endangered Species Protection Board. 2011. Checklist of Endangered and Threatened Animals and Plants of Illinois. Illinois Endan¬ gered Species Protection Board, Springfield, Illinois. 18 pp. Myers-Kinzie, M.L., S.P. Wente and A. Spacie. 2001. Occurrence and distribution of fresh¬ water mussels in small streams of Tippecanoe County, Indiana. Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science 110: 141-150. Schwegman, J.E. 1973. Comprehensive plan for the Illinois nature preserve system. Part 2. The natural divisions of Illinois. Illinois Nature Preserves Commission, Springfield. 32 pp. Shively, S.H., and M.F. Vidrine. 1984. Fresh-wa¬ ter mollusks in the alimentary tract of a Mis¬ sissippi Map Turtle. Proceedings of the Louisi- Freshwater Mussels (Bivalvia: Unionidae) of the La Moine and Spoon Rivers, Illinois Joshua L. Sherwood, Alison Price Stodola, Sarah A. Bales, and Timothy W. Spier 34 ana Academy of Sciences 47:27-29. Strayer, D. 1983. The effects of surface geology and stream size on freshwater mussel (Bival¬ via, Unionidae) distribution in southeastern Michigan, USA. Freshwater Biology 13:252- 264. Strayer, D.L. and D.R. Smith. 2003. A guide to sampling freshwater mussel populations. American Fisheries Society Monograph 8. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, MD. 110 pages. Strode, W.S. 1892. The Unionidae of the Spoon River, Fulton County, Illinois. The American Naturalist. 26(306): 495-501. Tiemann, J.S., K.S. Cummings, and C.A. Mayer. 2007. Updates to the distributional checklist and status of Illinois freshwater mussels (Mol- lusca: Unionidae). Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science. 1 00( 1 ): 107- 1 23. Turgeon, D.D., J.F. Quinn, A.E. Bogan, E.V. Coan, F.G. Hochberg, W.G. Lyons, RM. Mik- kelsen, R.J. Neves, C.F.E. Roper, G. Rosenberg, B. Roth, A. Scheltema, F.G. Thompson, M. Vecchione, and J.D. Williams. 1998. Common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the United States and Canada: mollusks. 2nd edition. Special publication 26. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda Maryland. 526 pp. Vaughn, C.C. and C.C. Hakenkamp. 2001. The functional role of burrowing bivalves in fresh¬ water ecosystems. Freshwater Biology. 46: 1431-1446. Williams, J.D., M.L. Warren Jr., K.S. Cummings, J.L. Harris, and R.J. Neves. 1993. Conserva¬ tion status of freshwater mussels of the United States and Canada. Fisheries. 18(9):6-22. Williams, J.D., A.E. Bogan, and J.T. Garner. 2008. The freshwater mussels of Alabama and the Mobile Basin of Georgia, Mississippi, and Tennessee. University of Alabama Press, Tus¬ caloosa, Alabama. 908 p. Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science (2013) Volume 106, pp. 35-37 received 1/26/13 accepted 9/17/13 The Effects of the Herbicides Aminopyralid and Glyphosate on Growth and Survival of Dipsacus laciniatus (Dipsacaceae) Rosettes with Different Taproot Diameters Rachel Damos and J.A.D. Parrish Millikin University, Decatur, IL ABSTRACT Cutleaf teasel ( Dipsacus laciniatus ) is invasive to native flora in the northeastern United States. We compared the effectiveness of control by the herbicides aminopyralid (Milestone®) and glyphosate (Roundup®). We expected plants with smaller taproot diameters to be more susceptible to the herbicides, and aminopyralid to be more effective than the more general herbicide, glyphosate. We transplanted 228 plants into pots in the Millikin greenhouse and divided them into three groups according to taproot diameter. We randomly assigned plants of each size into three treatment groups to be sprayed with aminopyralid, glyphosate, or water only. Ten weeks after treatment, we dried and weighed all plants. All plants treated with aminopyralid died. Plants treated with glyphosate had higher survival with larger taproots. We conducted a second experiment to determine if aminopyralid was successful at half the concentration and again, all plants treated with aminopyralid died. Future studies could further decrease aminopyralid concentrations and test aminopyralid in the field. INTRODUCTION Dipsacus laciniatus, commonly referred to as cutleaf teasel, is an invasive monocarpic perennial in the Midwestern United States (Glass 2009) that has become a threat to native species (Solecki 1991, Huenneke and Thomson 1994) and is categorized as a noxious weed (USDA 2008). Teasel ex¬ ists as a basal rosette for at least two years (Werner 1975) that reaches a diameter of approximately 30 cm which is effective in shading nearby growth. When conditions are optimal (Vitalis et al. 2004), a flower¬ ing stalk grows from the rosette and can produce 1,300 to 33,500 seeds (Bentivegna 2006). Between 28-86% of the seeds germi¬ nate, and 6% are still viable after three years (Bentivegna and Smeda 2011). Seeds are dispersed easily by means of mowing, bird feces (Werner 1979), and vehicular traffic (Solecki 1991). Its well-defined taproots reach depths of 75 cm with diameters of 5 cm (Werner 1975). As a common roadside plant, teasel has a competitive advantage because it can tolerate high levels of road¬ side contamination (Beaton and Dudley 2004). As teasel abundance increases, develop¬ ment of an effective and inexpensive con¬ trol method has become more essential. Methods include mowing, digging up the taproot, burning, and herbicides. The effec¬ tiveness of mowing is limited, as it must be completed mid-growing season, after the flowering stalk has bolted from the rosette, but before the seeds are viable (Dudley et al. 2009). Digging up the taproot is effective, but is unrealistic to use on large popula¬ tions of teasel because it is too labor inten¬ sive (Glass 2009). Burning teasel is not an effective method because teasel rosettes re¬ sist fire (Solecki 1991). A prairie fire is actu¬ ally beneficial to teasel because many other plants will die in the fire, decreasing the competition for teasel, which forms dense monocultures that are green early and late in the growing season. Natural control through insects, fungi, mites, viruses, and nematodes has been studied but further re¬ search is still necessary (Sforza 2004, Rector et al 2006). Further studies are also neces¬ sary on herbicide use as a control method for teasel, because results have been incon¬ sistent (Werner 1979, Glass 1991, Dudley et al. 2009; Zimmerman et al. 2013). We decided to further investigate herbicide use. We chose to study glyphosate, the ac¬ tive ingredient in widely used herbicides with low toxicity to mammals (Appleby 2005), such as Roundup®, because previous studies with glyphosate have shown in¬ consistent results of success (Werner 1979; Glass 1991; Zimmerman et al. 2013). We also included aminopyralid, the active in¬ gredient in Milestone® in our study because of its specificity. Our first objective was to determine if there is a relationship between taproot diameter and ability of rosettes to survive herbicide treatment. We hypothe¬ sized that there would be a positive relation¬ ship between survival rates and increasing taproot diameter. Our other objective was to compare success of a general herbicide (glyphosate) and a specific herbicide (ami- nophyralid). As indicated on the herbicide labels, Milestone® is specifically formulated to target invasive broadleaf species, where¬ as Roundup® gives broad-spectrum control. Therefore, we hypothesized that aminopy¬ ralid would be more effective at killing tea¬ sel rosettes than glyphosate. METHODS From 15 September 2010 to 28 October of 2010, we collected and measured the diameter of 228 teasel rosettes from two collection sites in Illinois, the barrow pit on East Boyd Road, Macon County, and a field between Clinton Lake and 1700 East Road, DeWitt County. We transferred ro¬ settes into 4L pots in the greenhouse of Leighty-Tabor Science Center on Millikin University’s campus. All rosettes were giv¬ en at least two weeks to recover from trans¬ planting shock. On 18 November 2010, we split the rosettes into three groups of 57 according to taproot diameter: small (0.1 cm - 1.0 cm), medium (1.5 cm - 2.5 cm) and large (> 3 cm). With¬ in each size group, we randomly assigned rosettes to three treatments; sprayed with aminopyralid (n = 19), sprayed with gly¬ phosate (n = 19), or sprayed with tapwa- ter (n = 19). We calibrated two backpack sprayers and prepared the treatments by the recommended rate on the herbicide labels. We prepared one sprayer with 114 mL of glyphosate and 3.79 L of tapwater and the other sprayer with 3 mL of aminopyralid and 3.79 L of tapwater. We added 5 mL of Dawn® dishwashing liquid as a surfactant for each solution. We applied herbicide 36 The Effects of the Herbicides Aminopyralid and Glyphosate on Growth and Survival of Dipsacus laciniatus (Dipsacaceae) Rosettes Rachel Damos and J.A.D. Parrish until the rosette leaves were covered, but not dripping. Then we randomly placed all rosettes on three benches in the green¬ house to prevent positional effects. After 12 days, we quantified the damage to each rosette using a five-point damage scale. Ten weeks after the treatments, we dried and weighed the above ground rosettes and the roots. For a second experiment, beginning 28 Jan¬ uary 2011, we split our remaining unused 57 rosettes into small (0.1 cm - 1.5 cm) and large (> 1.6 cm) according to taproot diameter. Our sample size would have been low had we used three groups, as in the first experiment. Within each size group, we randomly assigned rosettes to be sprayed with Milestone® or to serve as a control (no spray). We used a previously calibrated sprayer to apply half the recommended rate of aminopyralid. The protocol for the rest of the second experiment followed that of the first experiment. We used the same methods for statistical analysis in both experiments. We used a 3(sizes) x 3(treatments) x 2(plant parts) on SPSS to compare the herbicide treatments among the sizes for both rosettes and roots and multiple t-tests to compare means within treatments or sizes. Since we used multiple t-tests, we used P < 0.03 for sig¬ nificance. RESULTS In the first experiment, a visual inspection at 12 days showed glyphosate appeared to be the more effective herbicide. Rosettes were green only in the center, while rosettes sprayed with aminopyralid were merely curled. However, after 10 weeks, many of the rosettes sprayed with glyphosate had re¬ covered. There were significant differences in biomass of the rosettes (Fig. 1) and the roots (Fig. 2) among treatments at all sizes. The control group had the highest biomass for roots and rosettes whereas aminopyra¬ lid had the lowest. There were also signifi¬ cant differences among size groups in each of the treatments (Fig. 1 and 2). Roots and rosettes that started out largest had the highest ending biomass. There was not a significant difference between large roots treated with glyphosate and large roots in the control group. All other t-tests between treatment groups of the same size class¬ es showed significant differences for both roots and rosettes at P < 0.03. All controls survived while none sprayed with amino¬ pyralid survived. In rosettes sprayed with glyphosate, the survival rate increased as the taproot diameter increased (small 64.7%; medium 77.8%; large 82.4%). 12 Control Roundup Milestone ■ Small ■ Medium ^ Large Herbicide Treatment Figure 1. Dry weights ± 2 SE for Dipsacus lac¬ iniatus above ground rosettes 10 weeks after treatment. General Linear Model (3x3x2) on SPSS showed statistically significant differences among means for both herbicide treatments and taproot diameters ( P < 0.001). 30 25 —.20 toO £15 Ilo *5 O 0 ■ Small ■ Medium ^ Large Control Roundup Milestone Herbicide Treatment Figure 2. Dry weights ± 2 SE for Dipsacus lac¬ iniatus roots 10 weeks after treatment. General Linear Model (3x3x2) on SPSS showed statis¬ tically significant differences among means for both herbicide treatments and taproot diameter (P< 0.001). In the second experiment with half the rec¬ ommended concentration of aminopyralid, treatments were significantly different from controls for both roots and shoots at P < 0.03 (Fig. 3 and 4). Again, all controls sur¬ vived and none sprayed with aminopyralid survived. DISCUSSION We expected plants with smaller taproot diameters to be more susceptible to the herbicides, and aminopyralid to be more effective than glyphosate in controlling tea¬ sel. Both hypotheses were supported. Gly¬ phosate was not effective at killing rosettes, 18 16 Control Milestone Herbicide Treatment Figure 3. Dry weights ± 2 SE for Dipsacus lacin¬ iatus above ground rosettes from second experi¬ ment with half the recommended concentration of Milestone® (aminopyralid). General Linear Model (2x3x2) on SPSS showed statistically significant differences among means for both herbicide treatments and taproot diameters ( P <0.03). Herbicide Treatment Figure 4. Dry weights ± 2 SE for Dipsacus lac¬ iniatus roots from second experiment with half the recommended concentration of Milestone® (aminopyralid). General Linear Model (2x3x2) on SPSS showed statistically significant differ¬ ences among means for both herbicide treat¬ ments and taproot diameters (P < 0.03). supporting results of an earlier field study (Zimmerman et al. 2013) and contradict¬ ing two earlier studies (Werner 1979; Glass 1991). There was a positive relationship between survival rates of rosettes sprayed with glyphosate and increasing diameter of taproot. Aminopyralid was effective at all taproot diameters at the recommended rate and at half the recommended rate. We determined survival rates by dry weights of teasel rosettes. In each exper¬ iment, some of the large roots were still present even when rosettes were dead. Al¬ though we weighed these roots, we doubt they were capable of producing healthy new rosettes, because the roots showed signs of decay. The taproots were rubbery and the epithelial layer was gone or not secured to the root. The Effects of the Herbicides Aminopyralid and Glyphosate on Growth and Survival of Dipsacus laciniatus (Dipsacaceae) Rosettes Rachel Damos and J.A.D. Parrish 37 Herbicide labels suggested that effects of the herbicides would occur within two weeks. After 12 days, damage was more apparent in rosettes sprayed with glyphosate than ro¬ settes sprayed with aminopyralid. Howev¬ er, over time, many of the rosettes sprayed with glyphosate recovered, while all the rosettes sprayed with aminopyralid died. Visual damage at 12 days was not predic¬ tive of survival rates. Many rosettes treated with glyphosate recovered, although in a deformed state. Further study over a longer duration is needed to determine whether those rosettes would be able to flower and produce seeds. An effective teasel control strategy should cause little disturbance to the surrounding habitat. Herbicides often damage native, non-target species (Werner 1979; Glass 1991). Application of herbicides to rosettes in late fall or early spring may reduce ef¬ fects on non-target species when most oth¬ er plants are not photosynthetically active but teasel is (Bentivegna and Smeda 2008, Dudley et al. 2009). Since aminopyralid is effective on teasel at half the recommend¬ ed rate, it may not be as harmful to native species, especially because it targets species such as teasel. With this specificity and low concentrations necessary for effective con¬ trol, the treatments could be applied at any time of the year. When our teasel rosettes were transplanted, some of the surrounding vegetation was also transplanted, resulting in inadvertent inclusion of other species in the pots. In the second experiment, after rosettes in the treatment group died, oth¬ er species in the pots continued to grow. Future studies should test lower concen¬ trations of aminopyralid in the field and directly test its effects on non-target native vegetation. Our results provide support for aminopyralid use as an effective control agent for cutleaf teasel. LITERATURE CITED Appleby, A.P. 2005. A history of weed control in the United States and Canada - a sequel. Weed Science 53:762-768. Beaton, L.L. and S.A. Dudley. 2004. Tolerance to salinity and manganese in three common roadside species. International Journal of Plant Sciences 165:36-51. Bentivegna, D.J. 2006. Biology and management of cut-leaved teasel ( Dipsacus laciniatus L.) in central Missouri. M.S. thesis. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri, p. 67. Bentivegna, D.J. and R.J. Smeda. 2008. Chem¬ ical management of cut-leaved teasel ( Dipsa¬ cus laciniatus ) in Missouri. Weed Technology 22:502-506. Bentivegna, D.J. and R.J. Smeda. 2011. Cutleaf teasel ( Dipsacus laciniatus ): Seed development and persistence. Invasive Plant Science and Management 4:31-37. Dudley, M.P., J.A.D. Parrish, S. Post, C. Helm, and R.N. Wiedenmann. 2009. The effects of fertilization and time of cutting on regener¬ ation and seed production of Dipsacus lac¬ iniatus (Dipsacacae). Natural Areas Journal 29:140-145. Glass, W.D. 1991. Vegetation management guidelines: cut-leaved teasel ( Dipsacus lacinia¬ tus L.) and common teasel ( Dipsacus sylvestris Hubs.). Natural Areas Journal 11:213-214. Glass, W.D. 2009. Vegetation management guideline cut-leaved teasel ( Dipsacus laciniatus L.) common teasel ( Dipsacus sylvestris Huds.) Available online . Huenneke, L.F., and J.K. Thomson. 1994. Po¬ tential interference between a threatened en¬ demic thistle and an invasive nonnative plant. Conservation Biology 9:416-426. Rector, B.G., V. Harizanova, R. Sforza, T. Wid- mer, and R.N. Wiedenmann. 2006. Prospects for biological control of teasels, Dipsacus spp., new target in the United States. Biological Control 36:1-14. Sforza, R. 2004. Candidates for the biological control of teasel, Dipsacus spp. In: J. M. Cul¬ len, D. T. Kriticos, W. M. Lonsdale, L. Morin, and J. K. Scott editors. Proceeding of the XI international symposium of biological control of weeds. CSIRO Entomology, Canberra. Pp. 155-161. Solecki M.K. 1991. Cut-leaved and common teasel ( Dipsacus laciniatus L. and D. sylvestris Huds): profile of two invasive aliens. Pp. 85-92 in B.N. McKnight, ed., Biological Pollution: the Control and Impact of Invasive Exotic Species. Indiana Academy of Science, Indianapolis. [USDA] U.S. Department of Agriculture. 2008. The PLANTS Database. Available online Werner, P.A. 1975. Predictions of fate from ro¬ sette size in teasel ( Dipsacus fullonum L.). Oecologia 20:197-201. Werner, P.A. 1979. The biology of Canadian weeds: 12 -Dipsacus sylvestris Huds. Pp. 134- 145 in G. Mulligan, ed., The Biology of Cana¬ dian Weeds, Contributions 1-32. Information Services, Agriculture Canada, Ottawa, Ontar¬ io. Vitalis, R., S. Glemin, and I. Olivieri. 2004. When genes go to sleep: the population ge¬ netic consequences of seed dormancy and monocarpic perenniality. American Naturalist 163:295-311. Zimmerman, L.M., N.M. Mentzer, J.L. Forrest, and J.A.D. Parrish. 2013. The effects of her¬ bicide treatment, life history stage, and appli¬ cation date on cut and uncut teasel, Dipsacus laciniatus (Dipsacacae). Natural Resources 4: 170-174. Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science (2013) Volume 106, pp. 39-46 received 6/24/13 accepted 9/21/13 Vascular Flora of the Sand Ridge State Forest, Mason County, Illinois Paul B. Marcum, Loy R. Phillippe, Daniel T. Busemeyer, William E. McClain, Mary Ann Feist, and John E. Ebinger Illinois Natural History Survey, Champaign, Illinois 61820 ABSTRACT The vascular plants of Sand Ridge State Forest, Mason County, Illinois, were surveyed between 2002 and 2006. This extensive forest tracts is the largest area of sand dominated plant communities owned and managed by the state of Illinois [3,035 ha (11.7 sq. miles)]. Dry sand forest and degraded dry sand savanna dominate the state forest along with a few dry sand prairies, ponds, and extensive cultural communities. The many anthropogenic-influenced areas include extensive pine plantations, a trail system exceeding 43 km, along with camping, picnicking, and other recreational sites. A total of 554 vascular plant species in 104 families were documented in the state forest, mostly with voucher specimens, though nearly 460 species were reported by earlier botanists, including some species that lack vouchers and could not be verified by the present study. A total of 141 non-native species (exotics) were found, mostly in the cultural communi¬ ties, while two endangered species, Astragalus distortus Torr. & Gray (bent milk vetch) and Lesquerella ludoviciana (Nutt.) S. Wats, (silver bladderpod) were recorded along with one threatened species, Cyperus grayoides Mohlenbr. (sand prairie flatsedge). Active management will be needed to maintain and restore the quality of the plant communities at the Sand Ridge State Forest. INTRODUCTION Wind-blown sand deposits from glacial outwash are common in the northern half of Illinois. The result of erosion events as¬ sociated with Wisconsian glaciation (Will- man and Frye 1970, Schwegman 1973, King 1981), these deposits account for nearly 5% of the states land surface. The most exten¬ sive of these sand regions are along the Kankakee River in northeastern Illinois, and the Illinois River in Mason and Cass counties in the central part of the state (Gleason 1910, Schwegman 1973, Willman 1973). The most extensive sand deposits owned and managed by the State of Illinois are at Sand Ridge State Forest in northwest¬ ern Mason County. This 3,035 ha (11.7 sq. miles) area contains numerous natural areas, including two state nature preserves (McFall and Karnes 1995). Since the early studies of Gleason (1910) the present au¬ thors and their associates have published a few articles concerning the composition of the vegetation of Illinois sand deposits, including detailed studies of four nature preserves within or near Sand Ridge State Forest. Because of its size and continuity we decided to determine the vascular plant species composition of Sand Ridge State Forest. This study significantly increases the data base of vascular plants of the area, provides additional information about en¬ dangered and threatened plant species, and adds to our ability to ' manage the botanical resources of this state forest. STUDY AREA History Early settlers of the Mason County sand region tried to make a living off the hilly, sandy soils in the northwestern part of the county. Time proved that these deep sandy soils could not sustain agricultural crops, and by the early 1930’s many homesteads were abandoned. Initial land purchases for Sand Ridge State Forest began in 1939 for the purpose of stabilizing soil of abandoned farmlands, developing a wood product in¬ dustry, and setting land aside for public rec¬ reation. From the 1940s into the 1950’s, pine plantations were established on old pasture- land and abandoned cultivated fields, but also in dry sand prairies scattered through¬ out the forest. Presently, 1,012 ha of mar¬ ketable pine plantations are present while most of the remainder is dry oak-hickory sand forest and degraded dry sand savanna (Andrews 2004). Besides being managed as a sustainable forest, numerous recreation features have been added, including more than 43 km of trail, picnicking, camping, skiing, archery, and horse-back riding facil¬ ities (Andrews 2004). Physiography Sand Ridge State Forest is located in north¬ western Mason County about 21 km north¬ east of Havana, and just west of Forest City, Illinois (parts of townships T22N R7W and T23N R7W). This 3,035 ha (11.7 sq. miles) state forest lies within the Illinois River Section of the Mississippi River and Illinois River Sand Area Natural Division (Schwe¬ gman 1973). Much of the Sand Ridge State Forest is located on hilly ground, actually a dune and swale topography created by strong westerly winds after the sand was deposited but before being stabilized with vegetation. Climate Central Illinois has a continental climate with warm summers and cold winters. Based on weather data from Havana mean annual precipitation is 96.0 cm, with May having the highest rainfall (1 1.3 cm). Mean annual temperature is 10.8°C with the hot¬ test month being July (average of 24.6°C), and the coldest January (average of -5.0°C). Frost-free days range from 140 to 206, with the average being 173 days per year (Mid¬ western Regional Climate Center 2004). Geology and Soils The extensive sand deposits on the terrac¬ es of the Illinois River in parts of Putman, Marshall, Woodford, Peoria, Tazewell, Mason, Menard, Cass, Morgan, Scott, and Greene counties were formed during the Kankakee Torrents about 14,500 years ago (Willman 1973). At that time the Kankakee sand deposits of northeastern Illinois were formed when glacial lakes drained after gla¬ cial moraines and ice dams were breached, resulting in the Kankakee Torrent. The Il¬ linois River sand deposits were formed when these waters of the Kankakee Torrent slowed on entering the broad lowlands of the Illinois River below present day Henne- Vascular Flora of the Sand Ridge State Forest, Mason County, Illinois Paul B. Marcum, Loy R. Phillippe, Daniel T. Busemeyer, William E. McClain, Mary Ann Feist, and John E. Ebinger 40 pin (Willman and Frye 1970, King 1981). These windblown sand deposits, common¬ ly referred to as Parkland Sands or The Parkland Formation, consist of dunes and sheet-like deposits between and bordering the dunes (Willman and Frye 1970, Calsyn 1995). The Parkland Formation is usually found on terraces along major river valleys in the northern half of Illinois and consists of medium-grained sands that are sorted by wind from the underlying glacial out- wash. These sands were reworked by wind creating their characteristic dune and swale topography. Dunes 6 to 12 meters high are common and occasional dunes are 30 me¬ ters high. Some dunes have migrated onto the bluffs and uplands to the east of the riv¬ er terraces. Plant Communities Dry Sand Forest: Forests are generally de¬ fined as communities dominated by trees having nearly closed overstories with more than 80% cover (Nuzzo 1986, White and Madany 1978). In these forests the soils of the sand deposits commonly had an A hori¬ zon with some accumulated leaf litter, the ground cover had some prairie species but native shade-tolerant forest species were more common, while prairie bunch-grass¬ es were rare except in forest openings. The dune and swale topography plus other nat¬ ural fire breaks limited the frequency and severity of fires within dry sand forests. Bishops Woods Natural Area, a dry sand forest located in the southern part of Sand Ridge State Forest, was surveyed in 1990. This forest had an average density of 247.5 stems/ha (>10 cm dbh) and an average bas¬ al area of 16.1 m2/ha (Jenkins et al. 1991). Quercus velutina (black oak) dominated with an importance value (IV) of 144.9 (possible 200), averaged 150.1 stems/ha, and had an average basal area of 13.50 m2/ ha. Cary a texana (black hickory), Q. maril- andica (blackjack oak), and C. tomentosa (mockernut hickory) were the other com¬ mon species in the overstory. Post-settle¬ ment fire exclusion has increased the acre¬ age of sand forest at the expense of sand savannas (White and Madany 1978, An¬ derson and Brown 1986, Anderson 1991, Abrams 1992). Dry Sand Savanna: Savanna communi¬ ties are defined as having overstories of scattered, open-grown trees and a ground cover dominated by grasses (Curtis 1959, Bray 1960, White and Madany 1978, Nuz¬ zo 1986). The soils in dry sand savannas are sandy with little or no A horizon; the ground cover is composed of prairie spe¬ cies with dominant bunch-grasses mostly less than 1 m tall; while the canopy was dominated by Quercus velutina with a cov¬ er that averaged between 10 and 50%. Dry sand savannas were associated with dune and swale topography which probably lim¬ ited the severity of fires (White and Madany 1978, Anderson and Brown 1986, Ander¬ son 1991, Abrams 1992, McClain and Elz- ingal994). Recent studies by Phillippe et al. (2013) in¬ dicate that sand savannas in which Quercus velutina was dominant, were common in the major sand deposits of Illinois. Most, however, have been extensively degraded by fire suppression and invasion by native woody species. Many are now dry sand forests that lack, or have a greatly reduced abundance of characteristic ground layer species. Degraded dry sand savannas, that are presently dry sand forests, are a dom¬ inant community of ridges and slopes on large stabilized dunes at Sand Ridge State Forest, Mason County, Illinois. In the com¬ munity examined Q. velutina dominated with an IV of 143.5 (possible 200), aver¬ aged 321.1 stems/ha, and had an average basal area of 17.0 m2/ha. Quercus maril- andica was second followed by the exotic Pinus strobus (white pine) and Carya tex¬ ana. Based on aerial photographs from the early 1940s this dry sand forest had an open overstory with only about 50% canopy clo¬ sure (Phillippe et al. 2013). Dry Sand Prairie: Common in pre-settle¬ ment times, these prairies were found on the upper slopes and ridges of dunes and other dry areas throughout the Illinois Riv¬ er sand deposits. In this community the soil lacks a dark A horizon and grasses, most of which were bunch-grasses, were mostly less than 1 m tall. This community, in the absence of recurring fires, developed into a dry sand savanna community (White and Madany 1978). Gleason (1910) was proba¬ bly the first to quantify the species compo¬ sition of the Mixed Consocies of the Bunch- Grass Association, which corresponds to the dry sand prairie community of White and Madany (1978). As described by Glea¬ son (1910) this association was dominated by native bunch-grasses and sedges with most of the remaining species restricted to areas of bare soil between bunch-grasses. These secondary species were divided into ecological groups based on their habit and structure: large perennials and shrubs that competed with the bunch-grasses; mat- plants; interstitial herbs that were most¬ ly annuals and were restricted to the bare sand between the bunch-grasses; and par¬ asitic herbs. Henry Allan Gleason Nature Preserve, lo¬ cated near the northwestern edge of Sand Ridge State Forest near the small village of Goofy Ridge, contains a small mature dry sand prairie. This small prairie remnant was dominated by dry sand prairie species (Mc¬ Clain et al. 2005). Schizachyrium scoparium (little bluestem) was the leading dominant with an IV of 84.6 (200 possible), followed by Tephrosia virginiana (goat’s-rue), Opun- tia humifusa (common prickly pear), Am¬ brosia psilostachya (western ragweed), and Dichanthelium villosissimum (hairy panic grass). Also, a few mature dry sand prairies, 2 to 5 ha in size, exist within the degraded savanna communities at Sand Ridge State Forest. Dominant species on two of these prairies were nearly identical. Schizachyri¬ um scoparium had an IV of 40.1 (possible 200) on Quiver Prairie and 35.7 on Burns Prairie. Tephrosia virginiana, Opuntia hu¬ mifusa, Ambrosia psilostachya were among the top five species on both prairies, while another common grasses was Dichanthe¬ lium villosissimum (Ebinger, unpublished data). Cultural: This community class includes areas that were created by human distur¬ bance. The many anthropogenic-influenced areas include extensive pine plantations, an extensive trail system, along with camping, picnicking, and other recreational sites. Also, a few ponds have been constructed, some which appear to be natural, but prob¬ ably represent watering holes created for wildlife. METHODS Sand Ridge State Forest was visited more than 15 times in 2003 to 2006 to study the floristic composition of sand prairie and sand forest communities. From 2006 to 2012, occasional trips to the state forest Vascular Flora of the Sand Ridge State Forest, Mason County, Illinois Paul B. Marcum, Loy R. Phillippe, Daniel T. Busemeyer, William E. McClain, Mary Ann Feist, and John E. Ebinger 41 have been made to visit new areas. Voucher specimens were collected, identified, and deposited in the herbarium of the Illinois Natural History Survey, Champaign, Illi¬ nois (ILLS). Determination of non-native (exotic) species followed Mohlenbrock (2002) and Gleason and Cronquist (1991), nomenclature follows Mohlenbrock (2002), community classification follows White and Madany (1978), and information about threatened and endangered species follows Illinois Endangered Species Protection Board (2011). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Flora A total of 554 vascular plant species in 104 families were documented from the Sand Ridge State Forest. Of these, 1 1 were fern or fern-allies in eight families, 12 gymno- sperms in three families, 401 dicots in 80 families, and 130 monocots in 13 families. The plant families with the most taxa were the Poaceae (78 species), Asteraceae (72 species), Fabaceae (31 species), and Cyper- aceae (28 species) (Appendix I). Rare Species Only three rare species were found in the state forest: Astragalus distortus and Les- querella ludoviciana are listed as state en¬ dangered while Cyperus grayoides is listed as threatened in Illinois. Astragalus dis¬ tortus (bent milk vetch) has recently been rediscovered along a roadside in the state forest. This species is now known from only seven small populations in Illinois, all from disturbed habitats in the Illinois River sand deposits (McClain & Ebinger 2003). Cyper¬ us grayoides (sand prairie flatsedge) is rela¬ tively common at the Henry Allan Gleason Nature Preserve where it is a dominant spe¬ cies in an active blow-out community (Mc¬ Clain et al. 2005). Also, it was encountered in low numbers at Burns Dry Sand Prairie Natural Area. Lesquerella ludoviciana (sil¬ very bladderpod) is a common species of stabilized blow-out communities at Henry Allan Gleason Nature Preserve (McClain et al. 2005). It was first discovered in Illinois at that site in 1904 by H. A. Gleason (Jones and Fuller 1955). Exotic Species A total of 141 species (25.6% of the flora) are non-native (exotic). These exotic species commonly colonize all anthropogenic-dis¬ turbed habitats. The most notable of these aggressive species affecting Sand Ridge State Forest are: Alliaria petiolata (garlic mustard), Elaeagnus umbellata (autumn olive). Festuca arundinacea (tall fescue), Lespedeza cuneata (sericea lespedeza), Lon- icera x bella (showy fly honeysuckle), Lonic- era maackii (Amur honeysuckle), Lonicera morrowii (Morrows honeysuckle), Phalaris arundinacea (reed canary grass), Pinus stro- bus, Rosa multiflora (multiflora rose), and Saponaria officinalis (bouncing bet). These exotic species, if not controlled, will contin¬ ue the degradation of the plant communi¬ ties at the Sand Ridge State Forest. Present¬ ly, the few remaining good quality dry sand prairies will need fire, and probably brush removal to decrease exotic species and con¬ trol woody encroachment. Also, the com¬ bination of increased fire frequency, selec¬ tive timber harvest, and possibly grazing will be necessary to restore and maintain the savanna communities that were once characteristic of this site. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors thank John Wilker, Natural Areas Program Manager, Illinois Depart¬ ment of Natural Resources, for his help and advice. The Illinois Department of Natural Resources, Wildlife Preservation Fund sup¬ ported this project. LITERATURE CITED Abrams, M. D. 1992. Fire and the development of oak forests. BioScience 42:346-353. Andrews, K. 2004. Forest Treasures. Outdoor Illinois. December 2004:2-5. Anderson R. C. 1991. Presettlement forest of Il¬ linois. pages 9-19. in G. V. Burger, J. E. Ebinger, and G. S. Wilhelm (editors). Proceedings of the Oak Woods Management Workshop. East¬ ern Illinois University, Charleston, Illinois. Anderson R.C. and L.E. Brown. 1986. Stability and instability in plant communities following fire. American Journal of Botany 73:364-368. Bray, J.R. 1960. The composition of savanna veg¬ etation in Wisconsin. Ecology 41:721-732. Calsyn, D.E. 1995. Soil survey of Mason Coun¬ ty, Illinois. Soil Report 146, University of Illi¬ nois Agricultural Experiment Station, Urbana. ix+211 pp. Curtis, J.T. 1959. The vegetation of Wisconsin. The University of Wisconsin Press. Madison. 657 pp. Gleason, H.A. 1910. The vegetation of the inland sand deposits of Illinois. Bulletin of the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History 9:21-174. Gleason, H.A. and A. Cronquist. 1991. Manu¬ al of vascular plants of northeastern United States and adjacent Canada. Second Edition. The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, New York, xxv+910 pp. Illinois Endangered Species Protection Board. 2011. Checklist of endangered and threatened animals and plants of Illinois, Springfield, Il¬ linois. Jenkins, S.E., J.E. Ebinger, and W.E. McClain. 1991. Woody vegetation survey of Bishop’s Woods, a sand forest in Mason County, Illi¬ nois. Transactions of the Illinois State Acade¬ my of Science 84:20-27. Jones, G.N. and G.D.Fuller. 1955. Vascular plants of Illinois. The University of Illinois Press, Urbana, and the Illinois State Museum, Springfield (Museum Scientific Series, Vol. VI) King, J.E. 1981. Late Quaternary vegetation- al history of Illinois. Ecological Monographs 51:43-62. Maier, C.T. 1976. An annotated list of the vas¬ cular plants of Sand Ridge State Forest, Mason County, Illinois. Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science 69:153-175. McClain, W. E. and J. E. Ebinger. 2003. The ge¬ nus Astragalus (Fabaceae) in Illinois. Transac¬ tions of the Illinois State Academy of Science 97:11-18. McClain, W.E. and S.L. Elzinga. 1994. The oc¬ currence of prairie and forest fires in Illinois and other Midwestern states, 1679 to 1854. Erigenia 13:79-90. McClain, W.E., L.R. Phillippe, and J.E. Ebinger. 2005. Floristic assessment of the Henry Allan Gleason Nature Preserve, Mason County, Illi¬ nois. Castanea 70:146-154. McFall, D. and J. Karnes (editors). 1995. A di¬ rectory of Illinois Nature Preserves. Volume 2, Illinois Department of Natural Resources, Springfield, Illinois. 327 pp. Midwestern Regional Climate Center. 2004. http://mcc.sws.uiuc.edu Mohlenbrock, R.H. 2002. Vascular Flora of Illi¬ nois. Southern Illinois University Press, Car- bondale, Illinois, xi+490 pp. Nuzzo, V.A. 1986. Extent and status of mid-west oak savanna: presettlement and 1985. Natural Areas Journal 6:6-36. Phillippe, L.R., P.B. Marcum, D.T. Busemeyer, W.E. McClain, and J.E. Ebinger. 2013. Changes due to fire suppression in a Quercus velutina Lam. (black oak) savanna at Sand Ridge State Forest, Mason County, Illinois. Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science 106:1-4. Schwegman, J.E. 1973. Comprehensive plan for the Illinois nature preserves system. Part 2. The natural divisions of Illinois. Illinois Nature Preserves Commission, Rockford, Illinois. map+32 pp. White, J. and M.H. Madany. 1978. Classification of natural communities in Illinois. Pp. 310-405 in Illinois natural areas inventory. Technical report. (J. White, Editor). Illinois Natural Ar- Vascular Flora of the Sand Ridge State Forest, Mason County, Illinois Paul B. Marcum, Loy R. Phillippe, Daniel T. Busemeyer, William E. McClain, Mary Ann Feist, and John E. Ebinger 42 eas Inventory, Urbana, Illinois Willman, H.B. 1973. Geology along the Illinois waterway - a basis for environmental plan¬ ning. Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 478. Urbana. 48 pp. Willman, H.B. and J.C. Frye. 1970. Pleistocene stratigraphy of Illinois. Illinois State Geologi¬ cal Survey Bulletin 94:1-204. APPENDIX I Vascular plant species encountered and collected at Sand Ridge State Forest, Ma¬ son County, Illinois are listed alphabetical¬ ly by family under the major plant groups. An asterisk indicates non-native (exotic) species (*), but also includes a few native species that are planted in the sand areas and out of their natural range in Illinois. Collecting numbers are preceded by the initial of the collector’s name: (B) Daniel T. Busemeyer, (E) John E. Ebinger, (F) Mary Ann Feist, (M) Paul B. Marcum, and (P) Loy R. Phillippe. Voucher specimens are deposited in the Illinois Natural History Survey herbarium (ILLS). The Illinois Nat¬ ural History Survey herbarium (ILLS) and the University of Illinois herbarium (ILL) were also searched for past collections from Sand Ridge State Forest. Specimens were discovered that were collected by the fol¬ lowing individuals: John K. Bouseman, Vir- ginius H. Chase, Irene M. Cull, F. C. Gates, Steven R. Hill, Alfred C. Koelling, Chris T. Maier, Maison, Kenneth R. Robertson, Julian A. Steyermark, and David Voegtlin. C. T. Maier (1976) collected extensively at Sand Ridge State Forest in 1974-75, and his collections have the designation (Maier 1976) in the list. Most of these citations are vouchers, but a few could not be located at ILL. PTERIDOPHYTA ASPLENIACEAE Asplenium platyneuron (L.) Oakes - B1817 DENNSTAEDTIACEAE Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn - P37120 DRYOPTERIDACEAE Cystopteris protrusa (Weatherby) Blasdell - B1816 Dryopteris carthusiana (Villars) H.P. Fuchs - P37136 Woodsia obtusa (Spreng.) Torr. - M2860 EQUISETACEAE Equisetum hyemale L. - (Maier 1976) ONOCLEACEAE Onoclea sensibilis L. - (Maier 1976) OPHIOGLOSSACEAE Botrychium dissectum Spreng. - (Maier 1976) Botrychium virginianum (L.) Sw. - P37147 OSMUNDACEAE Osmunda claytoniana L. - B1839 THELYPTERIDACEAE Thelypteris palustris Schott - B1838 GYMNOSPERMAE CUPRESSACEAE Juniperus virginiana L. - P36479 PINACEAE *Pinus banksiana Lamb. - M2673 *Pinus densiflora Siebold & Zuccarini - (Maier 1976) *Pinus echinata Mill. - M3 160 *Pinus resinosa Ait. - P37183 *Pinus rigida Mill. - M2645 *Pinus strobus L. - P37175 *Pinus sylvestris L. - P36481 *Pinus thunbergii Parlatore - (Maier 1976) *Pinus virginiana Mill. - (Maier 1976) *Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirbel) Franco - (Maier 1976) TAXODIACEAE *Taxodium distichum (L.) Rich. - B1844 ANGIOSPERMAE - DICOTYLEDONAE ACANTHACEAE Ruellia humilis'Nutt - F2719 ACERACEAE Acer negundo L. - B1630 Acer saccharinum L. - M2674 Acer saccharum Marsh. - M2822 AMARANTHACEAE Amaranthus albus L. - B2088 *Amaranthus hybridus L. - (Maier 1976) Froelichia floridana (Nutt.) Moq. - M2629 Froelichia gracilis (Hook.) Moq. - M2803 ANACARDIACEAE Rhus aromatica Ait. - P36767 Rhus glabra L. - F2803 Rhus hirta L. - B1845 Toxicodendron radicans (L.) Kuntze - P37138 APLACEAE Cryptotaenia canadensis (L.) DC - (Maier 1976) *Daucus carota L. - M2871 Osmorhiza longistylis (Torr.) DC. var. villicaulis Fern. - B1699 *Pastinaca sativa L - (Maier 1976) Sanicula canadensis L. - M2655 APOCYNACEAE Apocynum cannabinum L. - P37161 ASCLEPIADACEAE Ampelamus albidus (Nutt.) Britt. - (Maier 1976) Asclepias amplexicaulis Small - P36766 Asclepias hirtella (Pennell) Woodson - P36956 Asclepias incarnata L. - (Maier 1976) Asclepias syriaca L. - F2806 Asclepias tuberosa L. - F2790 Asclepias verticillata L. - B2112 Asclepias viridiflora Raf. - (Maier 1976) ASTERACEAE * Achillea millefolium L. - B1856 Ageratina altissima (L.) R. M. King. 8c H. Rob. - M2659 Ambrosia artemisiifolia L. - P37121 Ambrosia psilostachya DC. - P37172 Ambrosia trifida L. - P37123 Antennaria neglecta Greene - (Maier 1976) Antennaria parlinii Fern, ssp .fallax (Greene) Bayer 8c Stebbins - B1664 * Arctium minus Schk. - M3 167 Arnoglossum atriplicifolium (L.) H. Rob. - P37143 Artemisia campestris L. - (Maier 1976) Aster ericoides L. - M2866 Aster lanceolat us Willd. - B2117 Aster lateriflorus (L.) Britt. - B2117 Aster oblongifolius Nutt. - E28250 Aster ontarionis Wieg. - (Maier 1976) Aster oolentangiensis Riddell - M2853 Aster pilosus Willd. - M2819 Aster sagittifolius Willd. - (Maier 1976) Bidens bipinnata L. - M2675 Bidens frondosa L. - B2095 Brickellia eupatorioides (L.) Shinners - M2835 *Carduus nutans L. - (Maier 1976) Chrysopsis camporum Greene - F2780 Cirsium altissimum (L.) Spreng. - M2867 Cirsium discolor (Muhl.) Spreng. - P37140 *Cirsium vulgare (Savi) Tenore - (Maier 1976) Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronq. - M2832 Coreopsis lanceolata L. - B1722 Coreopsis palmata Nutt. - Bouseman s.n. Erechtites hieracifolia (L.) Raf. - P37160 Erigeron annuus (L.) Pers. - (Maier 1976) Erigeron strigosus Muhl. - F2778 Eupatoriadelphus purpureus (L.) R.M. King 8c H. Rob. - M2870 Eupatorium altissimum L. - M2868 Eupatorium perfoliatum L. - (Maier 1976) Eupatorium serotinum Michx. - P37139 Euthamia graminifolia (L.) Nutt. - (Maier 1976) *Elelianthus annuus L. - (Maier 1976) Vascular Flora of the Sand Ridge State Forest, Mason County, Illinois Paul B. Marcum, Loy R. Phillippe, Daniel T. Busemeyer, William E. McClain, Mary Ann Feist, and John E. Ebinger 43 Helianthus divaricatus L. - (Maier 1976) Helianthus hirsutus Raf. - M2658 Helianthus occidentalis Riddell - M2852 Helianthus pauciflorus Nutt. - (Maier 1976) * Helianthus petiolaris Nutt. - M2631 Helianthus strumosus L. - M2795 Helianthus tuherosus L. - M2872 Heliopsis helianthoides (L.) Sweet - (Maier 1976) Hieracium longipilum Torr. - (Maier 1976) Hieracium scabrum Michx. - P37124 Ionactis linariifolius (L.) Greene - (Maier 1976) Krigia virginica (L.) Willd. - B1667 Lactuca canadensis L. - M2842 Lactuca floridana (L.) Gaertn. - P37142 *Lactuca serriola L. - (Maier 1976) *Leucanthemum vulgare Lam. - (Maier 1976) Liatris aspera Michx. - (Maier 1976) * Matricaria discoidea DC. - B1828 Pseudognaphalium obtusifolium (L.) Hilliard 8c Burtt. - M2837 Ratibida pinnata (Vent.) Barnh. - M2858 Rudbeckia hirta L. - F2787 Senecio plattensis Nutt. - P36749 Solidago altissima L. - B2090 Solidago canadensis L. - M2863 Solidago gigantea Ait. - (Maier 1976) Solidago juncea Ait. - (Maier 1976) Solidago nemoralis Ait. - M2833 Solidago speciosa Nutt. - Maier (1976) Solidago ulmifolia Muhl. - M2864 *Taraxacum officinale Weber - B1633 *Tragapogon dubius Scop. - B1723 *Tragapogon pratensis L. - (Maier 1976) Vernonia missurica Raf. - (Maier 1976) Xanthium strumarium L. - (Maier 1976) BERBERIDACEAE Podophyllum peltatum L. - (Maier 1976) BETULACEAE * Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn. - (Maier 1976) Betula nigra L. - B1840 BIGNONIACEAE Campsis radicans (L.) Seem. - (Maier 1976) *Catalpa speciosa Warder - P37135 BORAGINACEAE *Buglossoides arvense (L.) I. M. Johnston; - B1693 *Cynoglossum officinale L. - (Maier 1976) Hackelia virginiana (L.) I. M. Johnston - M2653 Lithospermum canescens (Michx.) Lehm. - B1660 Lithospermum croceum Fern. - P36740 Lithospermum incisum Lehm. - (Maier 1976) Mertensia virginica (L.) Pers. - (Maier 1976) Myosotis verna Nutt. - B1736 BRASSICACEAE *Alliaria petiolata (Bieb.) Cavara 8c Grande - B1676 *Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. - B1726 Arabis canadensis L. - P36747 Arabis glabra (L.) Bernh. - B1694 *Barbarea vulgaris R. Br. - M3 174 *Brassica nigra (L.) Koch - (Maier 1976) *Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medic. - B1666 Descurainia pinnata (Walt.) Britt. - (Maier 1976) Draba reptans (Lam.) Fern. - B1628 Erysimum capitatum (Dougl.) Greene - B1665 *Hesperis matronalis L. - (Maier 1976) *Lepidium campestre (L.) R. Br. - (Maier 1976) *Lepidium densiflorum Schrad. - P36746 Lepidium virginicum L. - B1730 Lesquerella ludoviciana (Nutt.) S. Wats. - E27791 Rorippa palustris (L.) Besser var .fernaldiana (Butters 8c Abbe) Stuckey - P37155 Rorippa sessiliflora (Nutt.) A. Hitchc. - B1830 *Sisymbrium altissimum L. - (Maier 1976) * Sisymbrium loeselii L. - M3 171 *Sisymbrium officinale (L.) Scop. - (Maier 1976) *Thlaspi arvense L. - M3 175 CACTACEAE Opuntia humifusa (Raf.) Raf. - P36755 CAESALPINIACEAE Cercis canadensis L. - (Maier 1976) Chamaecrista fasciculata (Michx.) Greene - M2663 Gleditsia triacanthos L. - (Maier 1976) Gymnocladus dioicus (L.) K. Koch - M2625 Senna marilandica (L.) Link - (Maier 1976) CALLITRICHACEAE Callitriche heterophylla Pursh - M3 180 CAMPANULACEAE Campanulastrum americanum (L.) Small - M2687 Triodanis perfoliata (L.) Nieuwl. - B1834 CANNABINACEAE * Cannabis sativa L. - Robertson 1301 CAPPARACEAE Polanisia dodecandra (L.) DC. - M2635 CAPRIFOLIACEAE *Lonicera x bella Zabel - P37129 *Lonicera maackii (Rupr.) Maxim. - B1690 *Lonicera morrowii Gray - B1659 Sambucus canadensis L. - P37130 Symphoricarpos orbiculatus Moench - (Maier 1976) * Viburnum opulus L. - M2799 Viburnum recognitum Fern. - M2800 CARYOPHYLLACEAE *Arenaria serpyllifolia L. - B1682 * Cerastium fontanum Baum. - (Maier 1976) *Cerastium semidecandrum L. - B1683 *Dianthus armeria L. - M2620 *Holosteum umbellatum L. - B1625 Paronychia canadensis (L.) Wood - M2652 Paronychia fastigiata (Raf.) Fern. - M2855a *Saponaria officinalis L. - F2813 Silene antirrhina L. - B1829 *Silene pratensis (Spreng.) Gordon 8c Gren. - B1837 Silene stellata (L.) Ait. f. - M2654 *Stellaria media (L.) Cyrillo - B 1717 CELASTRACEAE Celastrus scandens L. - B1708 Euonymus atropurpureus Jacq. - (Maier 1976) CERATOPYLLACEAE Ceratophyllum demersum L. - B2106 CHENOPODIACEAE *Chenopodium album L. - Koelling 649 *Chenopodium ambrosioides L. - (Maier 1976) Chenopodium standleyanum Aellen - M2665 Cycloloma atriplicifolium (Spreng.) Coult. - M2632 *Kochia scoparia (L.) Roth - (Maier 1976) *Salsola tragus L. - E28134 CISTACEAE Helianthemum bicknellii Fern. - M3158 Helianthemum canadense (L.) Michx. - B1737 Lechea tenuifolia Michx. - (Maier 1976) CONVOLVULACEAE *Ipomoea hederacea (L.) Jacq. - M2621 lpomoea lacunosa L. - (Maier 1976) CORNACEAE Cornus drummondii C.A. Mey. - P36790 Cornus florida L. - (Maier 1976) Cornus obliqua Raf. - M2798 Cornus racemosa Lam. - B1826 CORYLACEAE Corylus americana Walt. - P37153 CUCURBITACEAE Sicyos angulatus L. - (Maier 1976) CUSCUTACEAE Cuscuta cuspidata Engelm. - (Maier 1976) EBENACEAE Diospyros virginiana L. - M2824 ELAEAGNACEAE *Elaeagnus umbellata Thunb. - B1669 EUPHORBIACEAE Acalypa rhomboidea Raf. - (Maier 1976) Acalypha virginica L. - M2820 Chamaesyce geyeri (Engelm.) Small - Hill 28809 Chamaesyce maculata (L.) Small - B2086 Vascular Flora of the Sand Ridge State Forest, Mason County, Illinois Paul B. Marcum, Loy R. Phillippe, Daniel T. Busemeyer, William E. McClain, Mary Ann Feist, and John E. Ebinger 44 Chamaesyce nutans (Lag.) Small - B2089 Croton glandulosus L. - F2800 Crotonopsis linearis Michx. - M2626 Euphorbia corollata L. - F2786 * Euphorbia marginata Pursh - (Maier 1976) Poinsettia dentata (Michx.) Kl. & Garcke - P37165 FABACEAE Amorpha canescens Pursh - M2804 Amorpha fruticosa L. - F2789 Amphicarpaea bracteata (L.) Fern. - M2857 Apios americana Medic. - M3 161 Astragalus distortus Torr. 8c Gray - (Maier 1976) Baptisia bracteata Ell. - M3 191 Crotalaria sagittalis L. - Chase 18444 Dalea Candida (Michx.) Willd. - (Maier 1976) Dalea purpurea Vent. - (Maier 1976) Desmodium glutinosum (Muhl.) A. Wood - M2657 Desmodium illinoense Gray - M2642 Desmodium paniculatum (L.) DC. - M2818 Desmodium sessilifolium (Torr.) Torr. 8c Gray - M2851 *Glycine max (L.) Merr. - (Maier 1976) *Kummerowia stipulacea (Maxim.) Makino - P37168 Lespedeza capitata Michx. - P37179 *Lespedeza cuneata (Dum.-Cours.) G. Don - B2115 *Medicago lupulina L. - B1684 *Medicago sativa L. - P37154 *Melilotus albus Medic. - F2815 *Melilotus officinalis (L.) Pallas - F2814 *Robinia pseudoacacia L. - B1733 *Securigera varia (L.) Lassen - (Maier 1976) Strophostyles helvula (L.) Ell. - M2634 Strophostyles leiosperma (Torr. 8c Gray) Piper - M2843 Tephrosia virginiana (L.) Pers. - M2841 * Trifolium hybridum L. - (Maier 1976) * Trifolium pratense L. - M3172 *Trifolium repens L. - M3 169 * Vida villosa Roth - B1729 *Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. - Steyermark 68854 FAGACEAE Quercus x bushii Sarg. - E281 12 Quercus marilandica Muench. - M2667 Quercus velutina Lam. - P37171 FUMARIACEAE Corydalis micrantha (Engelm.) Gray - B1678 Dicentra cucullaria (L.) Bernh. - F2528 GERANIACEAE Geranium carolinianum L. - P36792 GROSSULARIACEAE Ribes missouriense Nutt. - P36482 *Ribes odoratum Wendl. f. - (Maier 1976) HAMAMELIDACEAE *Liquidambar styraciflua L. - B2116 HYDROPHYLLACEAE Ellisia nyctelea L. - B1680 HYPERICACEAE Hypericum gentianoides (L.) BSP - (Maier 1976) Hypericum mutilum L. - B2102 * Hypericum perforatum L. - B1855 Hypericum punctatum Lam. - M2650 Hypericum sphaerocarpum Michx. - Cull s.n. JUGLANDACEAE Carya ovalis (Wangenh.) Sarg. - B2114 Carya texana Buckl. - B1850 Carya tomentosa (Poir.) Nutt. - F2820 Juglans nigra L. - B1721 LAMIACEAE Agastache nepetoides (L.) Ktze. - M2671 Hedeoma hispida Pursh - (Maier 1976) Hedeoma pulegioides (L.) Pers. - Maison s.n. *Lamium amplexicaule L. - M3170 *Leonurus cardiaca L. - M2874 Lycopus americanus Muhl. - B2094 Lycopus virginicus L. - B2101 Monarda fistulosa L. - (Maier 1976) Monarda punctata L. - F2797 *Nepeta cataria L. - (Maier 1976) Physostegia virginiana (L.) Benth. - E30369 Prunella vulgaris L. - (Maier 1976) Pycnanthemum pilosum Nutt. - (Maier 1976) Scutellaria lateriflora L. - B2092 Scutellaria leonardii Epling - M3 156 Stachys tenuifolia Willd. - Cull s.n. Teucrium canadense L. - P37177 LAURACEAE Sassafras albidum (Nutt.) Nees - M2670 LYTHRACEAE Rotala ramosior (L.) Koehne - B2099 MAGNOLIACEAE Liriodendron tulipifera L. - B2116 MALVACEAE Callirhoe triangulata (Leavenw.) A. Gray - M2641 *Sida spinosa L. - P37125 MELASTOMACEAE Rhexia virginica L. - M2646 MENISPERMACEAE Menispermum canadense L. - P37137 MOLLUGINACEAE *Mollugo verticillata L. - P36765 MORACEAE * Maclura pomifera (Raf.) Schneider - M2876 *Morus alba L. - B1711 Morus rubra L. - (Maier 1976) *Morus tatarica L. - P36789 NYCTAGINACEAE *Mirabilis nyctaginea (Michx.) MacM. - B1727 OLEACEAE *Syringa vulgaris L. - B1670 ONAGRACEAE Circaea lutetiana L. - P37146 Gaura biennis L. - M2617 Ludwigia alternifolia L. - M2647 Ludwigia palustris (L.) Elliott - B2098 Oenothera biennis L. - P37122 Oenothera clelandii W. Dietr., Raven, 8c W.L. Wagner - P36957 Oenothera laciniata Hill - M2633 OXALIDACEAE Oxalis fontana Bunge - M2862 Oxalis stricta L. - B1718 Oxalis violacea L. - P36754 PHRYMACEAE Phryma leptostachya L. - M2656 PHYTOLACCACEAE Phytolacca americana L. - M2618 PLANTAGINACEAE Plantago aristata Michx. - M2813 *Plantago lanceolata L. - M3 173 * Plantago patagonica Jacq. - P36751 Plantago rugelii Decne. - M2619 Plantago virginica L. - B1687 PLATANACEAE Platanus occidentalis L. - M2875 POLEMONIACEAE Phlox bifida Beck - P36484 POLYGALACEAE Polygala polygama Walt. - (Maier 1976) Polygala sanguinea L. - M2649 POLYGONACEAE Antenoron virginianum (L.) Roberty 8c Vautier - P37145 *Fagopyrum esculentum Moench - (Maier 1976) *Fallopia convolvulus (L.) A. Love - P37252 Fallopia cristata (Engelm. 8c Gray) Holub - M2640 Fallopia scandens (L.) Holub - M2873 Persicaria amphibium (L.) S.F. Gray - (Maier 1976) *Persicaria cespitosa (Blume) Nakai - P37131 Persicaria coccinea (Muhl.) Greene - (Maier 1976) Persicaria hydropiperoides (Michx.) Small - B2105 Persicaria pensylvanica (L.) Small - P37134 Persicaria punctata (Ell.) Small - P37132 Polygonella articulata (L.) Meisn. - Hill 28805 Vascular Flora of the Sand Ridge State Forest, Mason County, Illinois Paul B. Marcum, Loy R. Phillippe, Daniel T. Busemeyer, William E. McClain, Mary Ann Feist, and John E. Ebinger 45 *Polygonum aviculare L. - (Maier 1976) Polygonum tenue Michx. - M2827 * Rumex acetosella L. - B1734 *Rumex crispus L. - F2819 Tracaulon sagittatum (L.) Small - (Maier 1976) PORTULACACEAE Claytonia virginica L. - B1698 *Portulacca oleracea L. - B2085 Talinum rugospermum Holz. - P36764 PRIMULACEAE Androsace occidentals Pursh - B1627 Lysimachia lanceolata Walt. - F2810 RANUNCULACEAE Anemone caroliniana Walt. - (Maier 1976) Anemone cylindrica Gray - M3 189 Anemone virginiana L. - M2854 Aquilegia canadensis L. - B1661 Ranunculus abortivus L. - B1688 RHAMNACEAE Ceanothus americanus L. - B1862 *Rhamnus cathartica L. - B21 13 ROSACEAE Agrimonia gryposepala Walk. - P37148 Agrimonia parviflora Sol. - B2103 Agrimonia pubescens Wallr. - P37150 Fragaria virginiana Duchesne - B1663 Geum canadense Jacq. - P36778 Malus ioensis (Wood) Britt. - B1841 *Potentilla norvegica L. - M3 186 *Potentilla recta L. - B1857 Potentilla simplex Michx. - B1701 Prunus americana Marsh. - (Maier 1976) Prunus hortulana Bailey - B1629 * Prunus persica (L.) Batsch - (Maier 1976) Prunus serotina Ehrh. - B1685 Prunus virginiana L. - B1636 *Pyrus communis L. - (Maier 1976) Rosa Carolina L. - P36786 *Rosa multiflora Thunb. - M2805 Rosa palustris Marshall - F2808 Rubus allegheniensis Porter - B1706 Rubus flagellaris Willd. - (Maier 1976) Rubus hispidus L. - B1705 Rubus occidentals L. - B1689 Rubus pensilvanicus Poir. - M3163 RUBIACEAE Cephalanthus occidentals L. - (Maier 1976) Diodia teres Walt. - M2636 Galium aparine L. - B1686 Galium circaezans Michx. - F2807 *Galium pedemontanum (Bellardi) All. - B1858 Galium pilosum Ait. - M2651 RUTACEAE Ptelea trifoliata L. - B1728 Zanthoxylum americanum Mill. - B 1631 SALICACEAE Populus deltoides Marsh. - B1732 Salix amygdaloides Anderss. - B1731 Salix eriocephala Michx. - (Maier 1976) Salix humilis Marsh, var. microphylla (Anderss.) Fern. - B1632 Salix interior Rowlee - Voegtlin 82-69 Salix nigra Marsh. - B2107 SANTALACEAE Comandra umbellata (L.) Nutt. - M2669 SCROPHULARIACEAE Aureolaria grandiflora (Benth.) Pennell - (Maier 1976) * Linaria genistifolia (L.) Mill. - (Maier 1976) Lindernia anagallidea (Michx.) Pennell - M2678 Nuttallanthus canadensis (L.) D. Sutton - B1668 Penstemon pallidus Small - P36748 Scrophularia lanceolata Pursh - B1696 *Verbascum thapsus L. - M3 166 * Veronica arvensis L. - B1671 Veronica peregrina L. var. xalapensis (HBK) St. John - B1836 SOLANACEAE *Datura stramonium L. - (Maier 1976) Physalis heterophylla Nees - F2795 Physalis virginiana Mill. - B1827 Solanum carolinense L. - P36791 *Solanum dulcamara L. - M3 177 Solanum ptychanthum Dunal - P36787 TILIACEAE Tilia americana L. - M3 165 ULMACEAE Celtis occidentals L. - B1635 Ulmus americana L. - M2672 Ulmus rubra Muhl. - M2794 URTICACEAE Boehmeria cylindrica (L.) Sw. - B2110 Parietaria pensylvanica Muhl. - P36745 VERBENACEAE Phyla lanceolata (Michx.) Greene - (Maier 1976) Verbena hastata L. - Cull s.n. Verbena stricta Vent. - F2816 Verbena urticifolia L. - M2690 VIOLACEAE Viola fimbriatula Smith - (Maier 1976) Viola lanceolata L. - B1843 Viola palmata L. - M2856 Viola pedata L. - P36753 Viola pratincola Greene - B1702 * Viola rafinesquei Greene - B1626 Viola sagittata L. - B1842 VITACEAE Parthenocissus quinquefolia (L.) Planch. - M2796 Vitis aestivalis Michx. - (Maier 1976) Vitis riparia L. - B1714 Vitis vulpina L. - M2861 ZYGOPHYLLACEAE *Tribulus terrestris L. - P36794 ANGIOSPERMAE - MONOCOTYLEDONAE COMMELINACEAE Commelina erecta L. - F2781 Tradescantia ohiensis Raf. - P3675 CYPERACEAE Bulbostylis capillaris (L.) C. B. Clarke - P36952 Carex albicans Willd. - M3 183 Carex blanda Dewey - B1709 Carex brevior (Dewey) Mack. - B1849 Carex cephalophora Muhl. - B 1821 Carex davisii Schwein. 8c Torr. - (Maier 1976) Carex festucacea Schk. - B1823 Carex gray i Carey - M3 176 Carex meadii Dewey - M3 190 Carex muhlenbergii Schk. - P36736 Carex pellita Willd. - (Maier 1976) Carex pensylvanica Lam. - B 1713 Carex rosea Schk. - B 17 19 Carex scoparia Schkuhr - M3 181 Carex tonsa (Fern.) Bickn. - B1677 Carex vulpinioidea Michx. - M3 184 Cyperus erythrorhizos Muhl. - (Maier 1976) Cyperus esculentus L. - (Maier 1976) Cyperus grayoides Mohlenbr. - M2684 Cyperus lupulinus (Spreng.) Marcks - F2784 Cyperus schweinitzii Torr. - F2794 Cyperus strigosus L. - B2100 Eleocharis acicularis (L.) Roem. 8c Schultes - (Maier 1976) Eleocharis erythropoda Steud. - P36955 Eleocharis ovata (Roth) Roem. 8c Schultes - P36953 Fimbristylis autumnalis (L.) Roem. 8c Schultes - B2096 Hemicarpha micrantha (Vahl) Pax - (Maier 1976) Schoenoplectus pungens (Vahl) Palla - B2093 DIOSCOREACEAE Dioscorea villosa L. - M3 187 IRIDACEAE *Iris x germanica L. - (Maier 1976) Vascular Flora of the Sand Ridge State Forest, Mason County, Illinois Paul B. Marcum, Loy R. Phillippe, Daniel T. Busemeyer, William E. McClain, Mary Ann Feist, and John E. Ebinger 46 Sisyrinchium campestre Bickn. - (Maier 1976) JUNCACEAE Juncus acuminatus Michx. - P36951 Juncus interior Wieg. - P36763 Juncus tenuis Willd. - M2821 LEMNACEAE Lemna minor L. - B21 1 1 Spirodela polyrhiza (L.) Schleiden - (Maier 1976) Wolffia brasiliensis Weddell - B2109 LILIACEAE * Allium vineale L. - B1835 * Asparagus officinalis L. - (Maier 1976) Polygonatum commutatum (Schult.) A. Dietr. - B1700 Smilacina racemosa (L.) Desf. - B1703 Smilacina stellata (L.) Desf.- E28323 ORCHIDACEAE Cypripedium pubescens Willd. - B1825 Spiranthes cernua (L.) Rich. - (Maier 1976) POACEAE Agrostis gigantea Roth - (Maier 1976) Agrostis hyemalis (Walt.) BSP - B 1831 Andropogon gerardii Vitman - M2638 Andropogon virginicus L. - (Maier 1976) Aristida desmantha Trin. & Rupr. - M2811 Aristida purpurascens Poir. - (Maier 1976) Aristida tuberculosa Nutt. - M2848 *Avena sativa L. - (Maier 1976) Bouteloua curtipendula (Michx.) Torr. - M2826 Bouteloua hirsuta Lag. - M2660 Bromus ciliatus L. - (Maier 1976) *Bromus inermis Leyss. - P37163 * Bromus japonicus Thunb. - (Maier 1976) * Bromus racemosus L. - F2817 *Bromus tectorum L. - B1662 Buchloe dactyloides (Nutt.) Engelm. - M2808 Calamovilfa longifolia (Hook.) Scribn. - M2685 Cenchrus longispinus (Hack.) Fern. - M2676 Cinna arundinacea L. - M2859 * Dactylis glomerata L. - B1720 Danthonia spicata (L.) Roem. & Schultes - B1853 Dichanthelium acuminatum (Sw.) Gould & Clark var. implicatum (Scribn.) Gould & Clark - M2825 Dichanthelium depauperatum (Muhl.) Gould - B1735 Dichanthelium oligosanthes (Schult.) Gould - B1725 Dichanthelium perlongum (Nash) Freckm. - P36735 Dichanthelium praecocius (Hitchc. 8c Chase) Mohlen- br. - (Maier 1976) Dichanthelium villosissimum (Nash) Freckm. - P36739 *Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koeler - P37159 Digitaria filiformis (L.) Koeler - M2869 *Digitaria ischaemum (Schreb.) Schreb. - M2806 * Digitaria sanguinalis (L.) Scop. - (Maier 1976) *Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P. Beauv. - P36954 Echinochloa muricata (Michx.) Fern. var. wiegandii (Fassett) Mohlenbr. - P37157 *Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. - B2082 Elymus canadensis L. - M2688 Elymus hystrix L. - M2816 *Elytrigia repens (L.) Desvaux - (Maier 1976) *Eragrostis cilianensis (All.) Vign. - M2810 Eragrostis hypnoides (Lam.) BSP - (Maier 1976) Eragrostis pectinacea (Michx.) Nees - B2084 Eragrostis spectabilis (Pursh) Steud. - M2839 Eragrostis trichodes (Nutt.) Wood - M2845 *Festuca arundinacea Schreb. - M3 168 Heterostipa spartea (Trin.) Barkworth - B1724 Hordeum pusillum Nutt. - B1681 Koeleria macrantha (Ledeb.) Spreng.- (Maier 1976) Leersia oryzoides (L.) Swartz - B2091 Leersia virginica Willd. - P37152 Leptoloma cognatum (Schult.) Chase - M2683 Muhlenbergia frondosa (Poir.) Fern. - (Maier 1976) Muhlenbergia racemosa (Michx.) BSP - (Maier 1976) Muhlenbergia schreberi J. F. Gmel. - P37127 Panicum capillare L. - B2083 Panicum dichotomiflorum Michx. - P37158 Panicum virgatum L. - M2639 Paspalum bushii Nash - M2630 Paspalum setaceum Michx. - (Maier 1976) *Phalaris arundinacea L. - M3 185 * Phleum pratense L. - F2818 *Poa annua L. - B1715 *Poa compressa L. - M2815 *Poa nemoralis L. - B1695 *Poa pratensis L. - F2799 Poa sylvestris Gray - (Maier 1976) Schizachyrium scoparium (Michx.) Nash - M2829 *Setaria faberi R.A.W. Herrm. (Maier 1976) * Setaris glauca (L.) P. Beauv. - M2809 *Setaria viridis (L.) P. Beauv. - B2087 Sorghastrum nutans (L.) Nash - M2834 Sphenopholis obtusata (Michx.) Scribn. - B1863 Sporobolus clandestinus (Biehler) Hitchc. - M2838 Sporobolus cryptandrus (Torr.) Gray - M2802 Sporobolus vaginiflorus (Torr.) A. Wood - (Maier 1976) Tridens flavus (L.) Hitchc. - M2623 Triplasis purpurea (Walt.) Chapm. - M2847 *Triticum aestivum L. - (Maier 1976) Vulpia octojlora (Walt.) Rydb. - P36751 *Zea mays L. - (Maier 1976) POTAMOGETONACEAE *Potamogeton crispus L. - M3 179 Potamogeton diversifolius Raf. - (Maier 1976) SMILACACEAE Smilax lasioneuron Hook. - P37149 Smilax tamnoides L. - B1704 TYPHACEAE Typha angustifolia L. - B2097 XYRIDACEAE Xyris torta Sm. - M2648 Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science (2013) Volume 106, pp. 47-53 received 5/6/13 accepted 9/27/13 Longitudinal Structuring of Turtle Assemblages in an Altered River in Central Illinois, USA: Implications for Conservation Robert D. Bluett1,2, Wade E. Louis1, Daniel A. Newhouse1, Carl J. Handel, Jr.1, and John H. Kube3 'Illinois Department of Natural Resources, Division of Wildlife Resources, One Natural Resources Way, Springfield, Illinois, 62702, USA Corresponding author; e-mail: bob.bluett@illinois.gov 3305 W. Harris St., Petersburg, Illinois, 62675, USA ABSTRACT Longitudinal gradients in stream conditions affect structuring of assemblages of many aquatic organisms. Common patterns include downstream additions of species and shifts in functional groups. We speculated these patterns would be evident in turtle assemblages of the Sangamon River in central Illinois. Using baited hoop nets, we captured 1,060 turtles during 441 trap-nights along a 357-km reach of the river. Number of species captured increased from two in the fourth stream order (Snapping Turtle, Chelydra serpentina; Spiny Soffshell, Apalone spinifera) to eight in the seventh. Two generalists (Painted Turtle, Chrysemys picta ; Red-eared Slider, Trachemys scrip- ta ) became established near an impoundment in the fifth stream order and were encountered regularly thereafter. Two lotic specialists (Smooth Softshell, Apalone mutica; Ouachita Map Turtle, Graptemys ouachitensis ) first appeared in lower reaches of the fifth stream or¬ der, and another (Northern Map Turtle, Graptemys geographica) in the seventh. Longitudinal structuring calls for basin- wide approaches to conservation because threats such as siltation and pollution can originate in terrestrial settings and accumulate downstream. Key Words: turtle; assemblage; river; lotic; longitudinal; conservation; Illinois; Sangamon INTRODUCTION Longitudinal gradients in stream condi¬ tions affect structuring of assemblages of aquatic organisms. Lor example, diversity of fishes increases from a rivers headwa¬ ters to its terminus (Smith and Kraft 2005). This pattern is caused by addition of species (i.e., few species drop out of assemblages located downstream from their first ap¬ pearance) and is accompanied by shifts in relative importance of members composing assemblages (Sheldon 1968). Exceptions to these patterns are common enough to war¬ rant mention (e.g., Mathews 1986; Palic et al. 2007). However, most debates concern processes driving patterns rather than their tendency to occur in a wide range of eco¬ logical settings (e.g., Naiman et al. 1987; Edds 1993) and taxonomic groups such as fishes, mussels (Haag and Warren 1998), gastropods (Minton et al. 2008) and mac¬ roinvertebrates (Heino et al. 2005). Evidence of longitudinal structuring in assemblages of turtles is sparse. Moll and Moll (2004) supported the concept, but noted difficulty distinguishing effects of longitudinal structuring from climatic, geologic, evolutionary and anthropogen¬ ic influences on distributions of species in the Mississippi River. DonnerWright et al. (1999) found strong relationships between structuring of assemblages and gradients in stream morphology on a 100-km reach of the St. Croix River, including addition of one species near the downstream extent of their study area. Support for longitudinal structuring can also be inferred from dis¬ tributions of individual species of turtles that vary with velocity and depth of wa¬ ter, substrate, availability of basking sites, and other traits that change along a river’s course (Shively and Jackson 1985; Fuselier and Edds 1994; Reese and Welsh 1998; Lin- deman 1999; Riedle et al. 2009; Kornilev et al. 2010). Our study area spanned 357 of 386 km of the main channel of the Sangamon River in four of its seven stream orders. This allowed us to sample assemblages in a wide range of stream conditions to assess longitudi¬ nal changes without confounding effects of other factors that shape distributions of species. Our hypotheses mirrored prevail¬ ing theories: diversity varies positively with stream order; changes in the composition of assemblages are caused by additions of species; and changes in the composition of assemblages are accompanied by shifts in functional groups. Our findings have im¬ plications for conservation of turtles in the Sangamon River, which has been altered dramatically by human activities. MATERIALS AND METHODS Methods We captured turtles in hoop nets (diame¬ ter 60.96 cm; mesh 3.81cm; single throat). Fresh frozen fish (400-600 g) was placed in a nylon-mesh bag attached to the hoop far¬ thest from the throat, which faced down¬ stream when set. We replaced baits daily when we checked nets, recorded the num¬ ber of each species captured and released turtles unharmed. We did not mark turtles because we anticipated too few recaptures for robust estimates of abundance. Sampling occurred from May-September, 2006-2011. We did not sample stream orders 1-3 (Fig. 1) because private owner¬ ship limited access and depths were gener¬ ally too shallow to set nets with openings of throats underwater. We attempted to distribute effort proportionately to length and width of the channel in each of the re¬ maining stream orders. Effort in the fourth stream order was meager, but turtles were likely to encounter our nets in the narrow channel (Fig. 2) and species we captured were typical of streams in the region (Major et al. 2009). Each trapping session consisted of 8-24 nets set for 2-3 nights. Sampling locations within a stream order were chosen oppor¬ tunistically based on ease and legality of Longitudinal Structuring of Turtle Assemblages in an Altered River in Central Illinois, USA: Implications for Conservation Robert D. Bluett, Wade E. Louis, Daniel A. Newhouse, Carl J. Handel, Jr., and John H. Kube 48 the number of species in an assemblage is small (e.g., <15-20; Melo et al. 2003). This was the case in our study area, where we captured all but one species known to occur in lotic habitats of the lower Illinois River basin (Phillips et al. 1999). Collect¬ ing representative samples of assemblages (i.e., proportionate to each species’ relative abundance) is difficult because probabili¬ ties of capture vary among species (Cagle 1942). We acknowledge this problem, but note bias was consistent among stream or¬ ders, allowing for valid comparisons. Study Area The Sangamon River originates in McLean County, Illinois. Its main stem flows 386 km before emptying into the Illinois River (Illinois Department of Natural Resourc¬ es 2000a). This 7th-order stream drains 14,985 km2 (c.a. 10% of the state; Illinois Department of Natural Resources 2001). Figure 1. Stream orders of the Sangamon River in central Illinois, USA. Metrics used to describe assemblages were derived from Krebs’ (1989) calculations for observed species richness (S b ), Horn’s in¬ dex of overlap (R ) and Shannon- Wiener functions for diversity (H’) and evenness (J’). We did not attempt to correct Sobs because estimators perform poorly when Substrates in our study area varied from clay to cobble. Upper reaches were gener¬ ally dominated by gravel or sand and gravel whereas substrates in lower reaches were mostly sand. Banks were incised deeply (1-5 m) and bordered by a narrow, inter¬ mittent riparian corridor along much of the study area (Fig. 3). Figure 2. The Sangamon River is narrow and wadeable in its fourth stream order. access. Some portions of our study area (stream orders 4-5) were accessible only by foot; others (stream orders 5-7) were sampled from a canoe or motorboat. We set nets in diverse habitats representative of each reach (e.g., pools and runs in the open channel and near features such as sandbars, logjams, deadwood and confluences of trib¬ utaries). Figure 3. A reach of the sixth stream order of the Sangamon River in central Illinois, USA. Photo by Chris Young. Longitudinal Structuring of Turtle Assemblages in an Altered River in Central Illinois, USA: Implications for Conservation Robert D. Bluett, Wade E. Louis, Daniel A. Newhouse, Carl J. Handel, Jr., and John H. Kube 49 Our study was the first inventory of tur¬ tles inhabiting the Sangamon River. Based on distributions and habitat preferences (Phillips et al. 1999), we considered nine species to be possible residents: Snapping Turtle ( Chelydra serpentina ), Painted Tur¬ tle ( Chrysemys picta), Northern Map Turtle ( Graptemys geographica ), Ouachita Map Turtle ( Graptemys ouachitensis), False Map Turtle ( Graptemys pseudogeographica), Red-eared Slider ( Trachemys scripta ), East¬ ern Musk Turtle ( Sternotherus odoratus), Smooth Softshell ( Apalone mutica) and Spiny Softshell ( Apalone spinifera). All re¬ cords of map turtles ( Graptemys spp.) and A. mutica were from the Illinois River, so we were unsure about residency in the San¬ gamon. Human activities have altered nearly ev¬ ery aspect of the ecology of the Sangamon River. These changes began in the early to mid- 1800s and were entrenched by the ear¬ ly 1900s (Herget 1978; Illinois Department of Natural Resources 1994, 2000b; Prince 1997). Approximately 28% of the Sangam¬ on Rivers main stem is channelized (Mat¬ tingly et al. 1993). Levees occur along 12% of the rivers channel, with a disproportion¬ ate amount in lower reaches (Mattingly et al. 1993). Crops such as corn and soybeans are pro¬ duced in 76% of the river basin (Illinois Department of Natural Resources 2001). Silt and nutrients carried by run-off from farm fields affect the river (Illinois Envi¬ ronmental Protection Agency 1995; Illinois Department of Natural Resources 2000a) and its fauna (Smith 1971; Schanzle and Cummings 1991). Sub-surface drainage (i.e., tiling) is a common practice (Zucker and Brown 1998) that contributes to nu¬ trient loads (Wiley et al. 1990) and abrupt changes in water levels (Sangunett 2005). An agricultural matrix supports high den¬ sities of nest predators such as raccoons (Procyon lotor; Gehrt et al. 2002). Exotic species are problematic in both terrestrial and aquatic environments [e.g., Amur hon¬ eysuckle ( Lonicera maackii), common carp ( Cyprinus carpio ); Illinois Department of Natural Resources 2000b; Carney 2010], Springfield (population 116,250), Deca¬ tur (population 76,122) and smaller cities along the main stem of the Sangamon River affect its water quality, which is classified as “fair” (Illinois Environmental Protec¬ tion Agency 1995). The main stem of the Sangamon River was dammed in 1922 to provide a municipal water supply for Deca¬ tur. Low-head dams that once occurred at Springfield, Petersburg and New Salem are no longer functional. Impoundments on major tributaries such as Salt Creek, Clear Creek, Sugar Creek, and South Fork of the Sangamon River supply water for cities and power plants. RESULTS We captured 1,060 turtles during 441 trap-nights. Observed species richness in¬ creased with stream order (Table 1), as did diversity (Table 2). Evenness was high in Table 1. Capture effort (no. trap-nights) and observed species richness (Sob ) on four stream orders of the Sangamon River in central Illinois, USA, 2006-2011. ^obs Based on Stream order Effort Based on all captures captures of >2 individuals per 4 16 2 species 2 5 163 6 4 6 124 6 6 7 138 8 8 all stream orders. Community overlap dif¬ fered greatly between uppermost and low¬ ermost stream orders but not adjacent or intervening stream orders (Table 3). Some patterns we observed on reaches within stream orders were noteworthy. One was absence of C. picta and near ab¬ sence of T. scripta (1 capture during 107 trap-nights of effort) in all but the last reach of the 5th stream order we sampled above Lake Decatur; both species were encoun¬ tered regularly in reaches sampled below the lake. We first observed A. mutica and G. ouachitensis in the second-to-last (but not the last) downstream reach sampled in the 5th stream order; both species were rep¬ resented by captures of one individual. We first encountered G. geographica in the last reach of the 7th stream order near the San¬ gamon’s confluence with the Illinois River. DISCUSSION Longitudinal Structuring Patterns of diversity and community over¬ lap were indicative of longitudinal structur¬ ing of assemblages. We did not observe a shift in functional groups, as the number of species with morphological adaptations to flowing water (e.g., flattened carapace) Table 2. Numbers of turtles captured, relative abundances (in parentheses), diversity, and evenness on four stream orders of the Sangamon River in central Illinois, USA, 2006-2011. Stream order Species 4 5 6 7 Total Apalone spinifera 19 (0.679) 238 (0.515) 42 (0.186) 126 (0.366) 425 (0.401) Chelydra serpentina 9 (0.321) 80 (0.173) 13 (0.058) 19 (0.055) 121 (0.114) Trachemys scripta — 129 (0.279) 119(0.527) 113 (0.328) 361 (0.341) Chrysemys picta — 13 (0.028) 15 (0.066) 6 (0.017) 34 (0.032) Apalone mutica — 1 (0.002) 33 (0.146) 31 (0.090) 65 (0.061) Graptemys ouachitensis — 1 (0.002) 4(0.018) 40 (0.116) 45 (0.042) Graptemys geographica - - - 6 (0.017) 6 (0.006) Sternotherus odoratus — — 3 (0.009) 3 (0.003) Total captures 28 (0.026) 462 (0.436) 226 (0.209) 334 (0.315) 1060 Species diversity (H’J 0.628 1.129 1.347 1.543 1.443 Evenness O’) 0.906 0.630 0.752 0.742 0.694 Table 3. Percent change in species diversity, evenness and community overlap among four reaches of the Sangamon River in central Illinois, USA. Percent change among stream orders community descriptor 4-5 4-6 4-7 5-6 5-7 6-7 Species diversity 79.8 114.5 145.7 19.3 36.7 14.6 Evenness -30.5 -17.0 -18.1 19.4 17.8 -1.3 Community overlap (RJ 0.903 0.598 0.080 0.813 0.857 0.870 Longitudinal Structuring of Turtle Assemblages in an Altered River in Central Illinois, USA: Implications for Conservation Robert D. Bluett, Wade E. Louis, Daniel A. Newhouse, Carl J. Handel, Jr., and John H. Kube 50 Table 4. Observed species richness (S ) reported for assemblages of turtles in Midwestern rivers (USA). River Vicinity ^obs Study Mississippi Itasca, MN 2 Moll and Moll (2004) Mississippi Lake City, MN 7 Moll and Moll (2004) Mississippi LaCrosse, WI 7 Moll and Moll (2004) Mississippi Bellevue, LA 7 Moll and Moll (2004) Mississippi Alton, IL 9 Moll and Moll (2004) Mississippi Cape Girardeau, MO 7 Moll and Moll (2004) Mississippi Tiptonville, TN 6 Moll and Moll (2004) Mississippi St. Louis, MO to Cairo, IL 6 Barko et al. (2004) Mississippi Hamilton, IL 6 Anderson et al. (2002) Illinois Havana, IL 7 Paglia (2004) Illinois Havana, IL 7a Moll (1977) Illinois Havana, IL 9 Tucker et al. (2008) Big Muddy Grand Tower, IL 7 Bluett et al. (2011b) Embarras Charleston, IL 6 Douros (2010) Wabash Allendale/Mt. Carmel, IL 5 Pierce (1992) St. Croix Danbury, WI to Stillwater, MN 7 DonnerWright et al. (1999) Des Moines Not specified 5 Vandewalle 8c Christiansen (1996) Missouri Not specified 5 Vandewalle 8c Christiansen (1996) Sangamon Beardstown, IL 8 This study aStudy did not distinguish Graptemys psetidogeographica total of 8 species. from G. ouchitensis; presumably both occurred for a matched those without in each stream or¬ der. “True river turtles” (e.g., G. ouachiten- sis, A. mutica; Lindeman 2000) were absent from the 4th stream order, first appeared in lower reaches of the 5th, and were captured with increasing frequency in higher stream orders. This pattern was consistent with reach-scale studies that found “feathered” rather than sharp limits of upstream distri¬ bution for lotic specialists ( Graptemys spp.; Shively and Jackson 1985; DonnerWright et al. 1999; Killebrew et al. 2002). Detection of S. odoratus in the 7th stream order was not surprising given the species’ preference for slow-moving water (Ernst et al. 1994) and presence in the broader land¬ scapes of the Illinois and Sangamon rivers (Moll 1977; Tucker et al. 2008; Bluett et al. 2011a). Captures of G. geographica in the last reach of the 7th stream order might have reflected a change in suitability of the Sangamon River, proximity to the Illinois River or both. Admixtures of assemblages of fishes are often observed for short dis¬ tances (c.a. 20 km) upstream from the con¬ fluence of a tributary with a larger stream or river (Thornbrugh and Gido 2010). Lake Decatur was a clear “break point” for C. picta and T. scripta. Major et al. (2009) observed a similar phenomenon in streams of west-central Illinois, where C. picta and T. scripta joined C. serpentina and A. spin- ifera near impoundments. Relationships between the dam’s location and our first encounters of A. mutica and G. ouachiten- sis were equivocal, partly because of gaps in sampling. Implications for Conservation We encountered 53% of species of fresh¬ water turtles native to Illinois, and approx¬ imately 17% of those in North America. Species richness in the 7th order of the Sangamon was greater than that reported for all but two Midwestern rivers, both of which are larger than the Sangamon (Ta¬ ble 4). Thus, the Sangamon River is a sig¬ nificant resource despite channelization, isolation from its floodplain, alteration of hydrological regimes, urban development and intensive agricultural production. We conclude altered rivers should not be over¬ looked when developing regional or conti¬ nental strategies for conservation of fresh¬ water turtles. The diverse assemblage we observed in the last stream order of the Sangamon is a prod¬ uct of ecological processes that begin in its headwaters (Saunders et al. 2002; Meyer et al. 2007) and extend past its confluence with the Illinois River (Osborne and Wiley 1992). As with fishes, this widens the scope of turtle conservation to the whole basin as well as reaches and sites (Saunders et al. 2002; Wang et al. 2002; Allen 2004; Cowx and van Zyll de Jong 2004). Past achieve¬ ments suggest this goal is attainable. For example, regulatory provisions of the Clean Water Act of 1972 have reduced point sources of pollution (e.g., untreated sewage, industrial waste), and innovations in agri¬ cultural practices have mediated non-point sources (e.g., silt, nutrients) through wide¬ spread adoption of conservation tillage (Illinois Department of Agriculture 2006), targeted applications of chemicals, and use of pesticides with brief environmental persistence (Yates et al. 2006; Renwick et al. 2008). Positive changes in water quali¬ ty have aided recovery of native fishes and mussels in the Illinois River (Sietman et al. 2001; Pegg and McClelland 2004) and Salt Creek, a tributary of the Sangamon (Retzer 2005). Agricultural policies have benefitted tur¬ tles since 1985, when the Food Securities Act first offered financial incentives to producers who converted highly erodible croplands to permanent vegetative cover for the life of easements, typically 10-15 years [i.e., Conservation Reserve Program (CRP); Gray 2009)]. During 2011, 5,527 ha of cropland in the Sangamon River Ba¬ sin were enrolled in CRP with 1,803 ha protected by permanent easements under the Conservation Reserve Enhancement Program (Illinois Department of Natural Resources, unpubl. data). Restoration of riparian forests, wetlands and stream banks on lands enrolled in CRP is good for tur¬ tles (Burke and Gibbons 1995; Bodie 2001; Moll and Moll 2004; Nowalk 2010; Sterrett et al. 2010) and the broader environment (Haufler 2007; Marshall et al. 2008; United States Department of Agriculture 2010). CONCLUSION Our findings provide a benchmark for evaluating responses of turtle assemblages to changes in environmental quality of the Sangamon River. Monitoring programs should include stream network position (e.g., stream order or link) as a stratum when sampling assemblages of turtles and their environment. Characterizing spatial and temporal attributes of a complex and dynamic ecosystem is a challenging task (Thorp et al. 2006). For example, early reports of longitudinal structuring of as¬ semblages of fishes led to more attempts to document the pattern (Platts 1979). Con¬ firmations, exceptions and variations were Longitudinal Structuring of Turtle Assemblages in an Altered River in Central Illinois, USA: Implications for Conservation Robert D. Bluett, Wade E. Louis, Daniel A. Newhouse, Carl J. Handel, Jr., and John H. Kube 51 noted, as were possible causes (Mathews 1986; Hitt and Angermeier 2006). This fostered an appreciation for spatial and temporal scales, theories to describe rela¬ tionships, models to test them, and integra¬ tion with broader aspects of stream ecology (Lammert and Allan 1999; Grenouillet et al. 2004; Smith and Kraft 2005; Thorp et al. 2006; Parsons and Thoms 2007). Progress in other fields of study will aid chelonian ecologists as they seek causes of longitu¬ dinal structuring and refine strategies for conservation to suit life cycles of turtles. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Partial funding was provided by State Wild¬ life Grant T-10-P, Illinois Department of Natural Resources and U.S. Fish & Wild¬ life Service cooperating. Our activities were authorized by state law (515 Illinois Compiled Statutes 5/20-100) and complied with standards for animal welfare adopted by the American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists. We thank Champaign County Forest Preserve District and private landowners for access to their properties. Robbie Bluett, Zach Morgan, and Tim Kel¬ ley assisted with sampling. Michael Dreslik assisted with data analyses. Andrew Hulin and Lisa Beja prepared maps and conduct¬ ed spatial analyses. Staff from Illinois Natu¬ ral History Survey and Illinois Department of Natural Resources’ Division of Fisheries provided bait. We thank three reviewers for helpful comments. LITERATURE CITED Allen, J.D. 2004. Landscapes and riverscapes: the influence of land use on stream ecosystems. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution and Sys- tematics 35:257-284. Anderson, R.V., M.L. Gutierrez, and M.A. Ro¬ mano. 2002. Turtle habitat use in a reach of the upper Mississippi River. 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Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science (2013) Volume 106, pp. 55-56 received 3/5/13 accepted 10/21/13 Barred Owl Pellet Contents in Michigan 'Dennis A. Meritt Jr. and 2Rikki Eul 'Department of Biological Science, 2School for New Learning DePaul University, 2325 N. Clifton Ave., Chicago IL 60614 ABSTRACT Owl pellets from the Barred Owl were collected and analyzed for prey remains. Twelve small mammals and one invertebrate were iden¬ tified. INTRODUCTION Among the larger owl species in the Mid¬ west the Barred Owl ( Strix varia ) is perhaps the best known because of its easily identi¬ fiable vocalizations. Presence of the owl can be determined by these unique vocaliza¬ tions especially during the breeding season and again at the time of dispersal of young from a nest site. In some locations Barred owls live in close association with human activity, especially in locations where activ¬ ity is centered on summer recreation, and the balance of the year is with decreased human presence (Pers. Obser.). In Michi¬ gan this species has been characterized as widespread and locally common (Postupal- sky et al. 1995). MATERIALS AND METHODS One such location is north of Pentwater, MI (43.7817 N, 86.4331 W) in a mixed ev¬ ergreen and deciduous forest consisting of a variety of oak species, maple, pine, hem¬ lock, and spruce in a barrier dune formation adjacent to Lake Michigan. Through 2005, Barred owls regularly were heard and seen in a several hundred acre protected area. Nesting and rearing of young occurred on a regular basis. On rare occasions recent¬ ly fledged young were observed at close range as they begged for food. Adults not infrequently came to a forest water source and sometimes foraged near it. Adult owls were sometimes observed in the ear¬ ly morning perched over the water. Small fish and woodland amphibians including wood frogs ( Rana sylvatica) and American toads ( Bufo americanus ) were present there. Smith et al. (1983) has reported similar ob¬ servations about foraging and perching. During the early spring of 2005 pellets were collected from an Eastern Hemlock ( Tsuga canadensis ) roost site in this area. A total of fourteen intact pellets were collected. Addi¬ tional pellet remains were present but were not collected due to deterioration. Pellets were dried at 40 degrees C. for seven to ten days without washing, then weighed and measured prior to dissection. Pellet con¬ tents, including hair samples, skeletal parts and invertebrate remains were separated and preserved as dry specimens and cata¬ loged after identification. Identification was made with the aid of a dissecting binocular microscope using available reference skel¬ etal material as well as field guides (Burt, 1948; Burt, 1972; Elbroch, 2006; Knox- Jones and Manning, 1992; Roest, 1986; Tekiela, 2005). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Fourteen intact pellets weighed on average 4 gms (X = 4.01; SD = 2.07). The castings ranged from 40 to 60 mm in length (X = 43.69; SD = 13.56) and between 20 and 50 mm in width (X = 25.61; SD = 10.83). The number of individual animals per pellet av¬ eraged 3 with a range of 1 - 4 (N =13; X = 2.69; SD = 1.54). The number of species per pellet averaged 3 with a range of 1 - 4 (N = 13; X = 2.30; SD = 1.37). A total of one invertebrate and eleven small mammal spe¬ cies were present in the pellets. There was a small amount of unidentifiable plant mate¬ rial in one casting. Prey items are listed in Table 1. Blakemore (1940) in describing thirty six winter collected Barred owl pellets from Minnesota described these as oval in shape; ranging in size from 37-70 mm in length and from 20-27 mm in width. The average length was 54 mm; width 24.5. The average number of food items per pellet was 2.04. The pellets described here were shorter; about the same width and the average num¬ ber of food items per pellet was higher. Wilson (1938) in collections made in co¬ niferous stands at a central Michigan site determined that owl pellets remain whole for eight to ten weeks and then deteriorate. Table 1. Species used as food by Barred owls ( Strix varia ) in Michigan. Common Name Scientific Name Number of Individuals Masked Shrew Sorex cinereus 8 Northern Short-tailed Shrew Blarina brevicaudata 2 Eastern Mole Scalopus aquaticus 2 Short-tailed Weasel Mustela ermine 1 Eastern Chipmunk Tamias striatus 3 Red Squirrel Tamiasciurus hudsonicus 2 Southern Flying Squirrel Glaucomys volans 2 White-footed Mouse Peromyscus leucopus 7 Southern Red-backed Vole Clethrionomys gapperi 1 Meadow Vole Microtus pennsylvanicus 1 House Mouse Mus musculus 2 North American Porcupine Erethizon dorsatum 1 Unidentified Crayfish Cambarus sp. 2 [Mammal Taxonomy according to Burt and Grossenheider 1976] Barred Owl Pellet Contents in Michigan Dennis A. Meritt Jr. and Rikki Eul 56 Further he reported winter regurgitated pellets remain whole for 3 to 5 months. Given the collection site and date of the pel¬ lets reported here it is reasonable to assume that the sampled pellets fell within the 8 - 10 week range and that the site had been in use for some time. The diet of Barred Owls is composed largely of small mammals as reported in a range of studies across North America and reviewed by Snyder and Wiley (1976) as cited in Ma¬ zur and James (2000). A total of 2,234 prey items were represented by 76% mammals, 15.8% invertebrates, 5.8% birds and 2.5% lower vertebrates. Most recently, Livezey (2007) has reviewed and summarized the literature including identification of prey items using six different methodologies. A total of 7,077 samples by composition 71.9% mammals, 10.1% invertebrates, 9.5% birds, reptiles 0.6%, and amphibians 6.0 %. Elderkin (1987) reported winter diets con¬ sisted primarily of small mammals. In this report, mammals represented 92.3% and invertebrates 6.7%. One pellet con¬ tained only the quills of a young North American porcupine as judged by quill size and structure. We found no other published reports identifying this species as food. While the number of pellets in this sample is small the results provide insight to the diet of the Barred Owl at this Michigan lo¬ cation. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Joyce family helped locate and collect the pellets used in this report. Francisco Figueroa assisted with the dissection and identification of prey items. This note has benefited from helpful reviewer comments and suggestions. This is publication No. 12/08/12 from the Center for Studies of Biodiversity at DePaul University. LITERATURE CITED Blakemore, L.A. 1940. Barred owl food habits in Glenwood Park, Minneapolis, Minnesota. The Flicker. 1 2(3):2 1 -23. Burt, W.H. 1948. The Mammals of Michigan. The University of Michigan Press. Ann Arbor, MI. Burt, W.H. 1972. Mammals of the Great Lakes Region. Ann Arbor Paperbacks. The Universi¬ ty of Michigan Press. Ann Arbor, MI. Burt, W.H. and R.P. Grossenheider. 1976. A Field Guide to the Mammals. Peterson Field Guides. Houghton Mifflin Company. New York. Elbroch, M. 2006. Animal Skulls: a guide to North American species. Stackpole Books. Mechanicsburg, PA. Elderkin, M.F. 1987. The breeding and feeding ecology of a Barred Owl ( Strix varia ) popu¬ lation in Kings County, Nova Scotia. Master’s Thesis. Acadia University. Wolfville, Nova Sco¬ tia. Knox-Jones, J„ and R.W. Manning. 1992. Illus¬ trated key to skulls of genera of North Amer¬ ican land mammals. Texas Tech University Press. Lubbock, TX. Mazur, K.M. and P. James. 2000. Barred Owl (Strix varia). The Birds of North America of Online (A. Poole, Editor). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online: http://bna.birds.cor- nell.edu/bna/species/508. Postupalsky, S., Papp, J.M. and L. Scheller. 1997. Nest sites and reproductive success of the Barred Owls (Strix varia ) in Michigan. In: Duncan, J, Johnson, D.; Nicholls, T„ eds. Biol¬ ogy and conservation of owls of the northern hemisphere: 2nd international symposium: 1997 February 5-9; Winnipeg, Manitoba. Gen¬ eral Technical Report NC-190. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Ser¬ vice. North Central Forest Experimental Sta¬ tion: 325-337. Roest, A.I. 1986. Key - Guide to mammal skulls and lower jaws. Mad River Publishing. Eureka, CA. Smith, D.G., A. Devine, and D. Devine. 1983. Observations of fishing by a Barred Owl. Jour¬ nal of Field Ornithology. 54:88-89. Snyder, N.F.R. and J.W. Wiley. 1976. Sexual size dimorphism in hawks and owls of North America. Ornithological Monographs. 20:1- 96. Tekiela, S. 2005. Mammals of Michigan. Adven¬ ture Publications, Inc. Cambridge, MN. Wilson, K.A. 1938. Owl studies at Ann Arbor, Michigan. The Auk. 55(2):187-197. Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science (2013) Volume 106, p. 57 received 5/14/13 accepted 1 1/25/13 New distribution record for Fundulus diaphanous (LeSueur), family Fundulidae in Illinois Karen D. Rivera1, Rebekah L. Haun2,3, Cory A. Anderson2,3, and Susan P. Romano3 'Illinois Department of Natural Resources, Fisheries Division, 2Illinois Natural History Survey, 3Western Illinois University-Quad Cities ABSTRACT While conducting a general survey in a small tributary of the Rock River, two individuals of banded killifish ( Fundulus diaphanous ) were found. This species was sampled during October, 2012, in Rock Island County, Illinois. The banded killifish may be expanding its range to northwest Illinois. FINDINGS The banded killifish is a topminnow that grows to an average length of 75 mm (Smith, 1979). The key characteristics are the dorsal fin origin which is in advance of the anal fin insertion, and the numerous dark vertical bars. The bars contrast sharp¬ ly over a light olive coloration above, and silver below (Figure 1) (Smith, 1979). Figure 1. Banded killifish sampled at Mill Creek, Rock Island County, Illinois, No¬ vember, 2012. Banded killifish typically inhabit shallow cool water with abundant aquatic vege¬ tation (Osborne and Brazil, 2006). This species is an opportunistic feeder, eating a wide variety of aquatic invertebrates in all levels of the water column (Osborne and Brazil, 2006). Vegetation is also important spawning habitat, where they attach their eggs to aquatic macrophytes (Richardson, 1939; Chippet, 2003). The native range of this species is from Newfoundland to South Carolina, west across the northern Great Lake states into the central Dakotas, and as far southwest as central Iowa. In Illinois it was historically found only in the northeastern portion of Lake, Cook, and McHenry Counties (Page and Burr, 1991). The banded killifish is listed as an Illinois threatened species (Illi¬ nois Endangered Species Protection Board, 2011). Two banded killifish were collected in ear¬ ly November of 2012, while the authors were conducting a general survey near the mouth of Mill Creek in Rock Island Coun¬ ty, Illinois. The sample was collected us¬ ing a 120 volt AC electric seine for a total sample time of 53 minutes. Several dippers followed the seine using quarter inch mesh dip nets to collect the stunned fish. Over 10,000 fish were collected during the sam¬ pling, representing 19 species. Common species collected with the banded killifish included sand shiner ( Notropis ludibun- dus), spotfin shiner ( Cyprinella spiloptera ), and emerald shiner ( Notropis atherinoides). Mosquito fish ( Gambusia affinis), known to compete with top minnows, were also abundant (Meffe et al., 1983). Bottom sub¬ strates consisted of 60% sand, 5% gravel, 30% cobble, and 5% boulders. The average width of the stream was 1 1 meters with an average depth of 20 cm. Aquatic vegetation was abundant and consisted mostly of fila¬ mentous algae and pondweeds. It is not known if these individuals are part of a larger population or were relocated from other populations during previous Mississippi River flood events. Based on the size of the individuals (28 mm, 32 mm) they were most likely young of the year. No significant flooding has occurred in the area since 2011 (USGS, 2013), which may indicate that a resident population exists in the Rock Island County, Illinois area. REFERENCES Chippet, lamie D. 2003. Updated COSEWIC status report on the banded killifish, Fundulus diaphanus, Newfoundland population in Can¬ ada. Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. Meffe, Gary K., D. A. Hendrickson, W. L. Minck- ley, and J. N. Rinne. 1983. Factors resulting in decline of the endangered Sonoran topmin¬ now Poeciliopsis occidentalis (Atheriniformes: Poecilidae) in the United States. Biological Conservation 25:135-159. Osborne, D. R. and I Brazil. 2006. Management plan for the banded killifish ( Fundulus diapha¬ nus) in Newfoundland. Fisheries and Oceans Canada, and Newfoundland and Labrador De¬ partment of Environment and Conservation. Page, Lawrence M. and Brooks M. Burr. 1991. Peterson Field Guide: Freshwater Fishes. Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY. Richardson, L. R. 1939. The spawning behav¬ ior of Fundulus diaphanus (LeSueur). Copeia 1939:165-167. Smith, Phillip W. 1979. The Fishes of Illinois. University of Illinois Press, Urbana, IL. United States Geological survey. 2013. USGS national water information system, http:// waterdata.usgs.gov/il/nwis/rt. Accessed 3-29- 2013. 58 ■ Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science (2013) Volume 106, pp. 59-62 received 7/17/13 accepted 1 1/22/13 Induction of Apoptosis to Control Drug-Induced Gingival Overgrowth: An In Vitro Study Hayoung Yu1,2, Seth Chamberlain1,2, Paul Wanda1, Anita Joy2* 'College of Arts and Sciences, 2School of Dental Medicine Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, IL 'Corresponding Author: ajoy@siue.edu ABSTRACT Gingival overgrowth is an adverse effect of several classes of drugs including anticonvulsants, calcium channel blockers and the immu¬ nosuppressant cyclosporine A (CsA). Current treatment options of drug-induced gingival hyperplasia include both nonsurgical and surgical interventions. Surgical interventions have a high rate of recurrence and are not the most appropriate treatment options in immunocompromised patients. The preferred nonsurgical interventions are symptomatic and do not resolve the condition, and as yet, there is no effective, nonsurgical option for its treatment. Gingival tissue is constantly involved in cycles of tissue resorption, remodeling and replacement by apoptotic pathways. Apoptosis and cell clearance are necessary for constant tissue remodeling, and a lack of these processes plays a critical role in gingival overgrowth. We hypothesized that CsA-induced gingival overgrowth can be controlled by the use of specific agents to induce apoptosis. An in vitro cell culture model of gingival cells was overproliferated using CsA to mimic gingival overgrowth, following which, the cells were exposed to either lOOng/ml or 500ng/ml of Cytochrome C to induce apoptosis at 3, 6 and 9 day time points. Cell densities were calculated both pre and post Cyt C treatment. Cells were also immunostained with DAPI to visual¬ ize the nuclei and laser scanning confocal microscopy was used to image and record the features of apoptotic nuclei. Statistical analyses were carried out. Our data indicate that following treatment with Cyt C, cell densities at 3, 6 and 9 day time points showed statistically significant decreases. This study is an important first step in determining if inducing apoptosis could be a viable, nonsurgical method of managing cellular proliferative disorders like drug-induced gingival overgrowth. INTRODUCTION Gingival overgrowth is an undesirable and well recognized side-effect of oral, intra¬ muscular, or intravenous use of various drugs, including phenytoin, phenobarbital, valproate, nifedipine, verapamil and cyclo¬ sporine (Beveridge et al., 1981). Cyclospo¬ rine A (CsA) is a lipophilic, cyclic endeca- peptide, isolated as an antifungal and used as an immunosuppressant. It functions to greatly reduce T-helper cell proliferation during organ transplants, so that the body will accept the foreign tissue successfully (Britton et al., 1982). It has been estimated that 25-80% of patients on a regimen of CsA experience gingival hyperplasia (Lawrence et al., 1994), an overgrowth of gingival tis¬ sue resulting from an inhibition of normal apoptotic pathways. Apoptosis and cell clearance are necessary for constant tissue remodeling, and a lack of these processes plays a critical role in gingival overgrowth. Drug-induced gingival overgrowth begins as an enlargement of the papillary gingiva, which is more pronounced on the labial surfaces and less on the palatal and lingual surfaces (Tyldesley et al., 1984). Although the overgrowth is initially restricted to the width of the gingiva, in extremely se¬ vere cases, the overgrowth can completely extend over and cover the crowns of the teeth. In such extreme cases, the gingi¬ val overgrowth interferes with occlusion, mastication and speech in affected patients (Lawrence et al., 1994). Hyperplastic gingi¬ val tissue readily bleeds on probing, and is much more susceptible to infections (Sey¬ mour and Jacobs, 1992). Current manage¬ ment of drug-induced gingival overgrowth typically is carried out through surgical procedures like gingivectomies. Surgical procedures are associated with inherent risks, including but not limited to, com¬ plications of anesthesia, severe post-oper¬ ative bleeding, prolonged healing periods in immunocompromised patients and in¬ creased risk of infection. Other methods to reduce gingival overgrowth include the use of electrocautery or CO, lasers, but these procedures can be costly and have similar adverse consequences (Hegde et al., 2012). The purpose of the current study was to explore a nonsurgical method to manage CsA-induced gingival overgrowth. We hypothesized that CsA-induced gingival overgrowth can be controlled by the use of specific agents to induce apoptosis. Apop¬ totic cell death is preferred over necrotic cell death, since necrosis is associated with sustained inflammatory cell damage caused when necrosed cells swell and undergo lysis to spew their cytoplasmic contents. When a cell commits “cell suicide” by apopto¬ sis, it undergoes cell shrinkage, chromat¬ ic condensation, nuclear fragmentation and cytoplasmic budding, with a resultant noninflammatory clearance from the tis¬ sue (Potten et al., 2004). The current study used an in vitro cell culture model to test our hypothesis. MATERIALS AND METHODS A commercially available Human Gingival Epithelial Progenitor cell line (HGEP, Zen- Bio, Research Triangle Park, NC) obtained from a single donor was expanded using routine cell culture techniques. Specifically, HGEP cells were aseptically cultured in 12- well plates (Corning Incorporated, Corn¬ ing, NY) using a specialized, progenitor cell targeted, culture medium (CnT-24 media, ZenBio, Research Triangle Park, NC) in a 5% CO, environment at 37°C. Supplements provided by the manufacturer were added to the media as per manufacturers direc¬ tions. Cells were grown until they reached 80% confluency and then subcultured as shown in Figure 1. The subcultured HGEP cells were grown either directly on the bottom of the 12- well plates or onto glass coverslips placed into the 12- well plates till they reached 80% confluency. Cells were then exposed Induction of Apoptosis to Control Drug-Induced Gingival Overgrowth: An In Vitro Study Hayoung Yu, Seth Chamberlain, Paul Wanda, Anita Joy 60 ** _ . loon^rf c*A+