ne Lat were y ve / a! \ Mee leueeatiat r ; oe ee wha te bear Bats he . . ; tottihy . fgets Ag ; . ; tha diale ane - ae ‘ i non tor ¢ haat ree = : ¥ . . 7 Sy ee ree 6 i ror ~“e : : . ; + 2 ¢ pan > (Mar ena PORT : ot ce — ies , Y - Ve ACew Peer ~ a + spans tals eee * = uN: Z cs ; acer yer verre me - ey ; . ; me: 1 6m LA Ae eee ~ 5 " sae stat Mh Sah bn choke’ a Aira Lae ; . he et! as : wee woes a =. 5 ee train ui ron 5 aaa ee Feige ene Pome, = aes = ! yeceyat Pin ea ee er Aan ng oh See bros oe . " , r a ee ee _ ri - 7 a a ee s . Pe eae ar Te The secretary was instructed to mail the three volumes © of Transactions which are to appear shortly, to paid-up members only. It was decided to hold the annual meeting for 1921 at Carbondale some time in the Spring with the hope of hav- ing a field day, and the president was requested to begin arrangements for such meeting. APR 2 i a 10 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE The president was requested to appoint chairmen for the various sections which it might seem advisable to form at the coming meeting. The treasurer presented matters concerning various classes of members and the relation between the State Academy and the A. A. A. S. It was suggested that he publish a list of members whose address is unknown, in hope that some member can supply the information wanted. The following committee was appointed to continue the work of interesting high school science clubs, other science clubs, boards of education, teachers, etc., in the work of the Academy and to suggest to them the desirability of sending delegates to Academy meetings: Charles T. Knipp, Chairman, Urbana. W. G. Waterman, Evanston. R. H. Linkins, Normal. H. 8. Pepoon, Chicago. Adjourned. A. R. CRook, Acting Secretary. Office of the Acting Secretary STATE MUSEUM Springfield, Ill. COUNCIL MEETING On Dec. 27, 1920, President Cowles called a meeting of the council at the University of Chicago to take up several items of business. Those present were Cowles, Ward, Knipp, Waterman and Crook. The names of a number of candidates who had qualified for membership since the Danville meeting were voted upon. The acting secretary reported that Vols. XI, XII and XIII of the Transactions were promised by the printer for delivery before Feb. 1st.* *But one volume has thus far been received. The other two are promised within two weeks. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 11 The treasurer reported that members were promptly pay- ing their dues and thus obtaining the advantage of the reduced rate. Persons who join the Academy now may, upon request of the secretary, receive $7.00 worth of books free as long as the supply lasts. (Transactions, Volumes XI, XII and XIII and “Guide to the Mineral Collections.) All members in good standing will receive three volumes within the next three months and the “Guide” upon request. Vice-President Knipp was appointed to represent the Illinois State Academy on the council of the A. A. A. S. NEXT MEETING The men of science at Carbondale are cordial in their invitation to the Academy and enthusiastic in preparations for the meeting which will be held April 29th and 30th. One full day will be devoted to papers and one to a field trip. The program will deal largely with local scientific prob- lems. Few people who have not visited the region have any idea of its beauty or of its interesting biological and geologi- cal features. A. R. Crook, Feb. 7, 1921. Acting Secretary. Illinois State Academy of Science FOURTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING Carbondale, April 29-30, 1921 The meeting was enjoyed greatly by the sixty-five mem- bers in attendance. The officers of the Academy reached Carbondale the day before the meeting and together with the local committee completed arrangements so that the program of papers and excursions proceeded in good order. Dr. Shryock, president of the Southern Illinois State Normal, welcomed the Academy to Carbondale, and Presi- dent Cowles responded. 12 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE The acting secretary gave some facts concerning the publication of three volumes of Transactions and reported that the volumes had been mailed to all members. The treasurer’s report showed a balance of $704.23, the largest in the history of the Academy. Reports were made by Prof. Cowles for the committee on Ecological Survey and the committee on Legislation. Prof. Barber reported for the committee on Secondary School Science and Prof. Knipp for the committee on High School Science Clubs. Prof. Van Cleave for the committee on Mem- bership read a list of 155 names of candidates, the largest list presented at an annual meeting. Throughout the meeting there were many expressions of appreciation at the happy way in which the presiding officer handled situations indoors and out, and also of regret that the treasurer who had been serving the Academy so skillfully for the last years did not see his way clear to continue in office. The new officers are so modest that the librarian agreed to send out this notice of their election. We wish them the greatest success in their work. Future communication should be addressed as below. NEW OFFICERS For the Year 1921-1922 President, CHARLES T. KNIPP, Urbana. Vice-President, MISS RUTH MARSHALL, Rockford. Secretary, C. FRANK PHIPPS, DeKalb. Treasurer, W. F. SCHULZ, Urbana. (Signed) A. R. Crook, Librarian. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 13 Illinois State Academy of Science FOURTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING Carbondale, April 29-30, 1921 MINUTES After the call to order by President Cowles, an address of welcome was made by President Shryock of the Southern Illinois Normal University and was responded to by Presi- dent Cowles. Reports of committees were then called for. The acting secretary announced the loss to the Academy occasioned by the death during the past year of Miss Grace J. Baird, H. L. Roberts and Secretary Pricer. In a notice of the council meeting held last November sent to Academy mem- bers, expression had been given to the feeling of deep sor- row at the loss of Secretary Pricer who for years had served the Academy faithfully and well. At the request of the council, the librarian took up the work of the secretary’s office in September and pushed it forward as rapidly as possible. The conditions were unusually difficult since there were three volumes to be handled. Manuscripts, illustra- tions and proof were in considerable confusion. Many authors had neglected to label illustrations and in some cases it was difficult to place the photographs with the proper article. Because of the effect of the war on prices the printers losing money did not wish the work, and hence were incredibly slow and careless. The secretary’s office used every possible means to expedite matters and finally all three volumes were mailed to the membership before time of the meeting. During the past year about 155 new names were added to the roll of members—the largest increase during any year of the Academy’s history. The membership now con- tains 554 names. During the last seven months about ten thousand pieces of mail matter have been sent from the secretary’s office. The treasurer submitted his report for the year 1920-1921. (See Treasurer’s Report.) 14 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE The president appointed the following auditing commit- tee: Stuart Weller, Clarence Bonnell and C. E. Mont- gomery. Next in order came the reports of committees. President Cowles reported for the committee on ecological survey as follows: REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON ECOLOGICAL SURVEY, 1920-1921 During the past season, this committee has been rather inactive, except for the work of individual members. The undersigned, with various of his students, has continued the work previously begun in Cook County; most of the townships in this county have now been surveyed, and maps with descriptive texts have been prepared. Prof. Waterman has made a survey of a number of the bog areas in Lake County, and has prepared a preliminary report of this work for the Carbondale meeting. Prof. Fuller and State Forester Miller have made forest studies of an ecological nature in Alexander County, also reported in the Carbondale meeting. HENRY C. COWLES, Chairman. President Cowles also reported that the legislation com- mittee had met the appropriation committee of the State Senate and House, and that there was every reason to be- lieve that the state would continue the publication of the Transactions of the Academy as during the past two years. Prof. Barber reported that the committee on the con- dition of science courses in the secondary schools did not at this time desire to make any report. An extensive report had been presented in Volume XI. Prof. Knipp for the committee on High School science clubs reported sending out letters to High Schools in the southern portion of the state, calling attention to the oppor- tunity of sending delegates to the State Academy meeting. He suggested that this work be continued in other parts of the state. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 15 Prof. Van Cleave for the committee on membership read a list of 155 names of candidates, the largest list presented at any annual meeting. These candidates were voted in. The president appointed the following committees. On nominations: E. R. Downing, W. G. Waterman. On reso- lutions: C. F. Phipps, Miss Isabel Smith and Miss Mabel Sykes. After the business meeting the Academy adjourned to the fine chapel room where, seated upon the platform, after remarks by the president of the school and of the Academy, the members were introduced to the nine hundred students present. Each member rose and stated his name, place of residence and occupation, furnishing a fine illustration of the fact that all parts of the state and a great variety of sciences are represented in the Academy. Each was greeted with applause. After an excellent luncheon together in Anthony Hall, the invitation addresses were delivered in Zetetic Hall on the general subject of nature and man in southern Illinois. The auditing committee reported that they had examined the books of the treasurer and found them to be correct. On motion the treasurer’s report was then adopted. The nominating committee presented the following names for officers for the coming year: President, Chas. T. Knipp, Urbana; Vice-President, Miss Ruth Marshall, Rockford; Secretary, C. Frank Phipps, DeKalb; Treasurer, W. F. Schulz, Urbana; a third member on Publication Committee, Geo. D. Fuller; Committee on Membership, C. F. Hottes, W. H. Haas, W. H. Packard, Stuart Weller. On motion these officers and committees were elected. The committee on resolutions presented the following resolutions in regard to the death of members of the Academy and on motion they were adopted: “The Illinois State Academy of Science has lost three of its members by death during the past year and we take this opportunity to express a word of appreciation of these late members and of their work. We mourn the death of J. L. Pricer who 16 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE for years as secretary gave loyal service to this organiza- tion. We mourn the loss of Miss Grace J. Baird who brought to her botany classes in the Bowen High School, Chicago, a rich scholarship and a deep human interest which made her an ideal teacher. We mourn the loss of H. L. Roberts, teacher of geography at Cape Girardeau, Mo., a member of the Academy for twelve years. He lost his life in Cur- rent River on a research trip in the Ozark mountains. Be it resolved that a copy of the above expressions con- cerning our late friends be spread upon the minutes of this annual meeting of the Academy.” The committee on resolutions next presented the follow- ing appreciation of the hospitality shown the Academy: “The members of the Academy greatly appreciate the hos- pitable reception accorded them by the citizens of the southern part of the state, and realize how much thought and planning has been given toward making this a most comfortable, enjoyable and successful meeting. We hereby desire to express our sincere and grateful thanks to the president and faculty of the Illinois Southern Normal Uni- versity, to the people of Carbondale and Murphysboro for what they have done and are planning to do to make this meeting one of outstanding success. It is hereby resolved that an expression of our appreciation be spread upon the minutes of the meeting, and that a copy be sent to the Pres- ident of the Illinois Southern Normal University.” On motion these resolutions were adopted. President Cowles presented a suggestion by Professor Townsend of the University of Illinois to invite the Illinois Branch of the Mathematical Association of America to meet in connection with the annual gatherings of the State Academy. It was voted to extend an invitation to them to do so. A delightful banquet preceded the evening address by the retiring president—an illustrated lecture on the state park movement. The audience which comfortably filled the auditorium of the church greatly appreciated the lecture. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 17 Two days of interesting excursions followed the papers— an innovation with our Academy. The weather was favorable; the physiographical, geologi- cal, botanical and zoological features were interesting. The citizens of Murphysboro conveyed the company in automobiles to Fountain Bluff, and after several hours tramping over the hills the company were in proper con- dition to enjoy the barbecue so hospitably prepared. The excursion taken to Fern Cliff the following day will long be remembered because of the many interesting scien- tific and scenic features and the hospitality of our hosts. A cordial invitation was received from the president and scientific faculty of Rockford College to hold the next meet- ing in Rockford. A. R. CROOK, Acting Secretary. TREASURER’S REPORT Balance on hand for the year 1919-1920..............0-2eeeeeceeeee $ 56.53 Received from dues (Initiation and Annual)........................ 988.15 A. A. A..S. Dues collected by the Academy................5...... 1,092.59 Received from the sale of Transactions.................ccceeeeceees 24.25 Received for stamps from State Appropriation...................... 75.00 MAREE na oa cice we toca ao Munn s Wet wes ane he caednewscee $2.236.43 EXPENDITURES Paid for stationery. postage and other expenses of officers........... $ 159.27 Paid for bill to Miller Printing Co., for balance on Volume X........ 103.95 RSE SEIMEI Hose ik ow Wide Sens Anaie cn once ew's eae 147.3! a A. Ss: S0r Mee COMER. Wo sacra wr we ene cwecbebaeccebnss 1,092.50 MN GI One Be aiiaed oc da Gee Wa nwo aw Ses sown a wise 7.67 EIIRRSREIRED, Son ee ena ae we Ss ie nia we cian Ue w maliaceun os 21.50 ; $1,532.20 IOUS Bic RS i ER a eee 704.23 Sn INR Se ae eI epctove ore es aw eiaia! Sate wel acaba Fo cw ween ene $2 236.43 - W. G. WATERMAN, Treasurer. We, the undersigned, have examined the above accounts and have checked the amounts against the vouchers. We find the same correct. Signed: STUART WELLER, CLARENCE BONNELL, C. E. MONTGOMERY. Papers of General Interest— Invitation Addresses PAPERS OF GENERAL INTEREST 21 SOME EVENTS IN THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF SOUTHERN ILLINOIS PRoF. STUART WELLER, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO From a geological point of view southern Illinois, along with southeastern Indiana, occupies a basin lying between the Ozark region of Missouri on the west, and the Cincin- ‘nati region on the east. Throughout geological time these two areas have been positive areas, that is regions which have had a tendency to be uplifted at intervals to a greater degree than their surroundings. At times they have been islands completely encircled by the waters of the ancient seas, at other times they have been covered by waters of much shallower depth than the adjacent areas. In discussing the geological history of this area, as of any region, the geologist must draw his inferences concern- ing the succession of events from his field observations upon the rock strata of the earth’s crust. Since geological time is inconceivably long, and since the complexity of geological history is exceedingly great, a consideration of the entire course of the geological history of southern Illinois would consume time far beyond that at my disposal this afternoon. I will, therefore, confine my remarks to a comparatively short time interval, namely that beginning with the Mississ- ippian period and extending to the close of the Paleozoic era. Rock strata of Mississippian age occupy a belt, including the Mississippi river bluffs and the adjacent region to the east for a distance of 15 miles or less, extending from a point in St. Clair County south of East St. Louis, to the valley of Big Muddy river. Strata of the same age occupy another belt extending eastwardly across Union, Johnson, Pope and Hardin Counties, from the Mississippi river to the Ohio, south of the Ozark upland which occupies the northern portion of the counties mentioned. Throughout Mississippian time the southern Illinois basin was occupied by a great gulf-like embayment of the ocean which opened to the south; it was in a way an extension to the north of the ancient Gulf of Mexico. This embayment extended far beyond the limits of the present outcrops of 22 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Mississippian formations, for in large areas these strata are now covered by younger sediments, and elsewhere they may have been removed by the processes of erosion since the time of their deposition. With the more or less rhyth- mic fluctuations of the ocean level during the Mississippian period, the shore line of the basin was constantly under- going change. When the relative level of the ocean was raised, the shore-line advanced inland, just as the shore line of the present Gulf of Mexico would advance if the present ocean level were raised in relation to the land sur- face. At other times the waters of the basin were with- drawn so that it became much contracted in size, and not a few times the waters retreated entirely and the basin be- came a part of the continental dry land. The records of all these changes have been preserved in the rock strata, and from a study of the characters of the rocks themselves, their faunal contents, and the geographic distribution of the several formations, the geologist is able to arrive at some conclusions concerning the geological history. A cursory examination of the Mississippian formations of southern Illinois brings clearly into view two divisions of the system as a whole. The lower portion of the section is made up of a succession of limestone formations, containing some shale or clay layers, but with almost no sandstone strata. The upper portion of the section is made up of a succession of alternating sandstone and limestone-shale formations, giving to the upper and lower divisions of the System distinctly different characteristics. On the basis of the lithologic characters alone the Mississippian System of this basin may be rather sharply differentiated into a Lower Mississippian and an Upper Mississippian Series, and when the evidence of the fossil faunas and the geographic distri- bution of the several formations are considered, such a dif- ferentiation is clearly established. In some recent literature these two divisions of the Mississippian have been called the Iowa Series and the Chester Series. As has been indicated already, the Iowa or Lower Miss- issippian Series is made up almost entirely of a succession of limestone formations, there being but few thin sandstone beds. This succession of formations was largely differen- PAPERS OF GENERAL INTEREST 23 tiated near the middle of the last century, and the forma- tions defined by James Hall, with some few modifications and additions, are recognized to this day. In this Series the formations now generally recognized are as follows, begin- ning with the uppermost one. Ste. Genevieve limestone. St. Louis limestone. Spergen or Salem limestone. Warsaw limestone and shale. Keokuk limestone. Burlington limestone. Kinderhook Group. pe OS PS Lee, oe The oldest unit in this series, the Kinderhook Group, is really made up of numerous local formations, including sandstones, shales, and limestones. Throughout southern Illinois and adjacent regions, where outcrops of these beds are known, they everywhere exhibit a relation of uncon- formity with the underlying strata, a relation which shows that the whole area has been a dry land surface immediately preceding Mississippian time. This condition accounts for the notable heterogeneity of the Kinderhook beds. The per- iod was one of sea advancement during which the basin was bordered by lands from which various sorts of clastic ma- terials were being transported into the sea, in one place mud to form shale, in another place sand to form sandstone, and elsewhere in some sheltered situation where land det- ritus could not reach, limestone beds were accumulated. With the progressive advancement of the shore lines and the gradual submergence of the bordering land areas, the sources of clastic materials were gradually eliminated, and the sedimentary deposits became limestone derived from the skeletons of lime secreting organisms. In Burlington time, while the limestone of that name was being accumulated, the submergence had proceeded so far, as is shown by the distribution of the characteristic fossils of Burlington age, that Ozarkia to the west of the basin was largely or wholly under water, and the shore line at the head of the embayment lay somewhere north of the present site of Chicago. The waters connected with this basin spread 24 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE westward across Iowa and probably reached to the Rocky Mountain region. Cincinnatia was a low lying island or shoal water area. During this time, with no immediate source for terrestrial materials, the sediments accumulating over southern Illinois were largely calcium carbonate of or- ganic origin, along with considerable quantities of colloidal silica which was precipitated from fresh waters entering the basin from rivers. Near the shore line clastic deposits must have been accumulating, but they did not reach to the erea now occupied by southern Illinois. After Burlington time the waters of the Illinois basin underwent a number of withdrawals and readvancements, but the waters of the basin probably had their greatest ex- tension during the Burlington epoch. The Keokuk epoch was initiated by partial withdrawal of the waters of the basin, the northern shore line coming to occupy such a position that terrigenous material in the form of fine mud was some- what extensively deposited as shale beds, as far south as southeastern Iowa and the adjacent parts of Missouri and Illinois, while in Burlington time the sedimentary accumu- lation in these same areas was wholly organic in origin. That part of the basin which is now southern Illinois, how- ever, still remained at such a great distance from the shore lines that limestone accumulations continued uninterrupt- edly through the Burlington and Keokuk time, making it more difficult to separate the strata of these two epochs. In Warsaw time the shore line shifted still farther to the south, and by mid-Warsaw time it occupied a position somewhere between the southern border of Iowa and the city of St. Louis. At this time also, the ocean level was sufficiently lowered to permit the streams of Ozarkia to carry terri- genous material into the sea, so that the Warsaw formation of southern Illinois contains notable shale deposits, espec- ially in the Mississippi river sections, although in southern Illinois, at a greater distance from the shore line, the sedi- mentation was continuously limestone. Following Warsaw time there was a readvance of the northern shore line until the waters of the Illinois basin spread again into northern Illinois, and westward into lowa for an unknown distance, and completely surrounded the PAPERS OF GENERAL INTEREST 25 Ozark land which was sufficiently submerged to prevent any transportation of land detritus by the streams into the sur- rounding oceans. It was at this time that the Spergen lime- stone was being laid down, a formation which is a nearly pure limestone at most localities. In southeastern Iowa this formation lies unconformably upon the underlying beds, but in the southern portion of the basin there is no evidence of any interruption in sedimentation in passing from the Warsaw to the Spergen. If the exact southern limit of the condition of unconformity could be determined, the exact lecation of the southernmost position of the shore line in late Warsaw time could be established. After Spergen time the waters of the Illinois basin again retreated southward to a position essentially the same as that of the pre-Spergen retreat. The evidence for this shifting of the shore line is exhibited in the uncomformable contact of the St. Louis limestone which lies next above the Spergen, or above whatever formation is subjacent. During the post-Spergen retreat the erosion of the surface of what is now southeastern Iowa was unequal, in places the whole of the Spergen was removed, while elsewhere a greater or less thickness of the formation remained.. Where the Sper- gen was wholly removed the St. Louis limestone rests di- rectly upon the Warsaw beds; elsewhere it rests uncom- formably upon the Spergen. In southern Illinois the con- tinuity of sedimentation from Spergen to St. Louis time was not interrupted, a condition indicating the continuous occu- pation of that portion of the Illinois basin by the ocean waters. The southern extent of the post-Spergen uncon- formity seems to be essentially the same as that of the post- Warsaw, and so far as can be determined from data now available, the shore lines of these times occupied about the same positions. Again a fluctuation of the waters of the basin took place in the midst of the period of deposition of the St. Louis lime- stone, this withdrawal, followed by a readvance, being proven by a stratigraphic break in southeastern Iowa with the upper division of the St. Louis limestone resting un- comformably upon the lower portion of the same formation. This interruption is exhibited as far south as Alton, Illinois, 26 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE by a conspicuous brecciated layer in the midst of the St. Louis limestone, but south of the city of St. Louis no break in the record is recognizable. This mid-St. Louis with- drawal, to a position as far south as Alton, was greater than either of the preceding ones had been. At the close of St. Louis time the waters of the basin were again withdrawn, and this withdrawal was even greater than that of the mid-St. Louis, for the unconformity between the St. Louis and the overlying Ste. Genevieve limestone extends as far south as Ste. Genevieve, Missouri. In the Ohio river sections of the Mississippian formations, however, there is no stratigraphic break between these two formations, a condition which shows that the waters of the Illinois basin were not completely withdrawn from the southern part of Illinois at this time. With the readvance of the Ste. Genevieve sea, the waters again occupied much of Illinois and spread westward, north of the Ozark land, to a point at least as far west as Fort Dodge, Iowa, which is 175 miles from the Mississippi river, and the waters may have extended much farther than this for the record is now completely buried beneath younger formations. With each one of these readvances of the waters in Lower Mississippian time, the sea-pattern developed in the Illinois basin must have been essentially similar in its general out- line, although in detail undoubtedly there was much varia- tion, but with the close of the Lower Mississippian, the Iowa series, after the deposition of the Ste. Genevieve lime- stone, the waters were more completely withdrawn than they had been at any time since the opening of the Mississ- ippian. This withdrawal may have been from the entire continental area, although this cannot be certainly asserted. With the opening of Upper Mississippian or Chester time, the oceanic waters again occupied the Illinois basin, but the sea-pattern of this epoch was totally different from that of Iowa time. During the Chester the embayment never extended westward, north of the Ozark land, as it had done in Iowa time, that land area being continuously con- nected to the north, across Missouri and Iowa, with the main land. The Illinois basin of Chester time was limited PAPERS OF GENERAL INTEREST 27 to the area between Ozarkia and Cincinnatia, and the head of the bay, as determined by deep well records, probably did not extend north of the present site of Decatur, Lllinois. The succession of events during Chester time in the basin consisted of a rhythmic series of advances and withdrawals of the waters, with a consequent shifting of the shore lines, similar to those which had taken place during Iowa time. The sediments which accumulated in the basin during this time were very different from those of lowa time when there was little but limestone, for there are extensive sand- stone formations, and much shale is associated with the limestone formations of the series. Where the Chester sec- tion is most complete, in Pope and Johnson Counties, Illi- nois, there is an alternating succession of sandstone and limestone-shale formations, there being eight of these pairs, or sixteen recognized formations in all. Each one of these pairs of formations must represent a separate advance and retreat of the waters of the basin, with the consequent shifting of the shore line of the embayment alternately to the north and to the south. During several of the periods of withdrawal of the waters, the entire area of the basin north of the present Ohio river must have been emergent, forming a part of the dry land surface stretching away to the north, northwest, and northeast. The evidence of such complete withdrawal is the relation of unconformity which exists at a number of horizons between a limestone forma- tion of the series, and the next succeeding sandstone. In general the sandstones must have accumulated in _ proximity to the shore lines. With the advancing sea the waves were constantly working over the accumulations of beach sands, great quantities of which were spread over the shallower portion of the sea bottom. With the advanc- ing shore line a given point would be situated successively on dry land, on the beach, in shallow water, and finally in deeper water at a distance from the shore beyond where the sand was being deposited, where fine mud and eal- careous sediments were accumulating. With the withdrawal of the waters of the basin the reverse process must have taken place. Deeper waters would become progressively shallower and the wave movements of the waters would 28 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE again initiate the distribution of sands over regions which had been limestone-shale depositing areas. These newer sand deposits, however, would soon become a part of the dry land surface where they would be subject to erosion, and a large portion of the materia! would be washed down again into the sea to be reworked by the waves, and eventually the final land surface would be constituted of the limestone strata which had been deposited at some distance off shore. With the next advance of the waters in the basin the cal- careous land surface would become the floor upon which the next succeeding sandstone formation was deposited uncon- formably. It is not clear that every one of the Chester sandstone formations which have been recognized in southern Illinois exhibits a condition of unconformity along its belt of out- crop with the underlying limestone, but the presence of un- conformity or the lack of such a relation at these horizons is indicative of the position of the fluctuating Chester shore lines relative to the present outcropping belt of the for- mations. In the greater withdrawals of the waters of the basin the whole of southern Illinois doubtless became a part of the dry land surface, but in the lesser withdrawals the ex- treme southern position of the shore line was north of the present position of the Ohio river. During the entire suc- cession of events of Chester time, the shifting shore lines must have repeatedly occupied every part of southern Tlli- nois. The original source of the sand which was finally con- solidated in the sandstone formations of the Chester series may have been far away. Rivers draining the country far to the north must have emptied into the Illinois embayment during this time, and the sand and silt transported by them, perhaps from as far away as the Canadian highlands, may have been the original source of much of the material. The Ozark land to the west was probably a low lying region dur- ing much of the time, with sluggish streams which did not bring much land detritus into the basin, and there is no evi- dence that Cincinnatia was ever at any great elevation above the sea. The fact that several of the Chester sandstones become much reduced in thickness to the west is perhaps PAPERS OF GENERAL INTEREST 29 evidence that the streams bringing the sand had their mouths toward the eastern side of the basin, the thicker portions of the formations being nearer the source of supply of the material. One of these formations, which has been named the Waltersburg sandstone, is conspicuously de- veloped in proximity to the Johnson-Pope County line but thins to the east and the west, the lateral extent of the for-. mation in an east west direction along the belt of outcrop, as a conspicuous member of the section, being not greater than forty miles. It is not improbable that this formation may have accumulated as a delta deposit opposite the mouth of a river entering the basin at this particular time in its history. If the suggested interpretation of the succession of Chester sandstones and limestone-shale formations of southern Illinois is the correct one, then it would be ex- pected that this same time interval would be represented by more continuous limestone strata at a distance from the shore line of the Illinois basin. The Chester Series is ex- tensively represented in southeastern Tennessee and north- eastern Alabama by a thick limestone formation which probably represents the whole succession of limestone-shale formations in southern Illinois. Only one thin sandstone member has been recognized in southeastern Tennessee which seems to occupy the position of the Hardinsburg sandstone of the Ohio valley. A similar sandstone which may be the same is present in the Alabama section. With the final withdrawal of the waters of the Chester seas the Mississippian period came to an end and southern Illinois became a portion of a widely stretching dry land area, and remained in that condition for a long period of time. This land surface was sculptured by the action of streams which drained the area, and the whole surface doubtless was covered with a strange vegetation, very dif- ferent from that of the present time. No record of this land life is preserved in our own state, but elsewhere sedi- ments have been preserved, containing many fossil plants, which were deposited during this dry land period in Illi- nois. Finally a change in conditions was inaugurated, and 30 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE there began to accumulate a great series of sediments which were terrestrial in origin rather than marine. These sedi- ments consist of extensive beds of cross-bedded sandstones which are commonly coarser in texture than the Chester sandstones, some beds of which include great numbers of smoothly rounded, white, quartz pebbles which vary in size from one-fourth of an inch to nearly an inch in diameter. These pebble beds or conglomerates are highly character- istic of the Pottsville formation, and are widely distributed in the hills of the elevated country crossing Illinois south of Carbondale. Associated with the Pottsville sandstones and conglomerates there are important beds of shale and more or less thinly bedded sandstones, and also locally some coal beds. The fossil remains which have been preserved in the Pottsville beds are land plants. More or less frag- mentary trunks of the Carboniferous tree, Lepidodendron, are present in many places in the sandstones, and the shales in places contain abundant, well preserved plants, most of which are ferns or fern-like forms. Pottsville formations quite similar to those in southern Illinois are widely distributed in North America. They are present in the sections as far away to the southeast as south- eastern Tennessee, and northern Alabama, and to the south- west they extend into northern Arkansas. The exact con- ditions under which such formations could have accumu- lated are not easy to visualize. The source of the materials in these Pottsville beds, including the vast numbers of white quartz pebbles, is still a mystery to the geologist, and the manner in which they may have been spread so widely upon the land surface is not clear. Doubtless the land was low lying, and broadly meandering streams probably were an agent in spreading the materials. There must also have been estuaries, and broad, shallow basins occupied by waters in which quantities of mud accumulated, in which were buried in places the remains of some of the plants which lived near at hand. There are a few records in southern Illinois of a thin limestone in this Pottsville series containing marine fossils, which bears evidence that once at least, marine conditions spread into southern Illinois in Pottsville time, remaining PAPERS OF GENERAL INTEREST 31 for a short period only. After Pottsville time similar condi- tions persisted in southern Illinois through the period of deposition of the Carbondale and McLeansboro formations. The main coal beds which are so widely mined in southern Illinois are all included in the Carbondale formation. The McLeansboro also contains several thin coal seams, none of which, however, are workable. During all of this time the elevation of the whole of the Illinois basin must have been near sea level. During the intervals of coal formation great swamps covered the area, where the coal plants grew and where the beds of peat accumulated which later became changed to coal. At times these coal swamps were widely distributed and of long duration. At other times the coal swamps were local and of comparatively short du- ration. Between the periods of coal accumulation the basin was sometimes occupied by shallow, marine waters in which shale beds of impure limestones were formed, the marine origin of such beds being established by the presence of the marine fossils which are included in them. Other members of the Carbondale and McLeansboro formations doubtless were terrestrial in origin, similar to much of the sandstone and shale of the Pottsville formation. After the close of Pennsylvanian time there was an ex- ceedingly long period which has left no sedimentary record of the events which transpired, but during this time there was a period of notable deformation of the rocks of the earth’s crust. This deformation resulted in uplift, and locally in the development of great fractures or faults through the rock strata, with differential movement of the blocks adjoining the fractures. The presence of the elevated belt of land across Illinois from the Mississippi to the Ohio river, south of Carbondale, is due to this deformation. The rocks constituting the summits of this range of hills are Pottsville in age, but at Carbondale and throughout the level country north of the hills the same Pottsville strata he many feet beneath the surface. The amount of uplift along this belt must be equal to the difference between the elevation of the summits of the hills and the depth of the same Potts- ville beds beneath the surface, to the north, and must amount to 1000 feet or more. The geology of the belt has 32 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE not been mapped in detail except for a short distance near Shawneetown on the Ohio river, where east-west faulting has been observed, but this faulting may not extend across the State. On the southern slope of the Ozark hills a re- markable series of faults has been mapped in Hardin, Pope and Johnson Counties. The exact time when all of this faulting occurred cannot be determined with certainty. The deformation must have taken place after Pennsylvanian time for the strata of Penn- sylvanian age are involved. The other limit which can be established is determined by the age of the gulf embayment deposits which stretch from the Gulf of Mexico coast line to southern Illinois. These deposits overlie the faulted rocks under consideration in an undisturbed condition. The age of the oldest of the embayment deposits is probably Cretac- eous, so the age of the faulting would fall between the Penn- sylvanian and the Cretaceous, a very long period of time, even to the Geologist. Within these time limits falls the close of the Paleozoic era, a time when much deformation was in progress in many parts of the world, and it is com- monly assumed that the faulting in southern Illinois was accomplished, in the main, at that time. In Hardin County it is significant that associated with the faults are found the remarkable deposits of fluorspar for which southern Illinois is famous, and also there are present in the same region numerous dikes of igneous rocks which penetrate the limestones and other formations of Mississippian and Pennsylvanian age. It is believed that there is some definite connection between the three phe- nomena, the faults, the mineral veins, and the igneous dikes. There is probably a considerable area of southeastern Illi- nois and the adjoining portion of Kentucky which is un- derlain by a great mass of igneous rock. This was in effect the site of a great volcano in the long distant past, most of whose lava was injected into and between the sedimentary rock strata. If any of the lava was ever extrusive on the surface, it has long since been removed by the processes of erosion. Numerous dikes, some of which may have ex- tended to the surface when they were formed, are known to be present, and at least one mass in northern Hardin County, — a PAPERS OF GENERAL INTEREST 33 near Sparks Hill, seems to be an ancient volcanic neck, or outlet. The most western of these dikes which has been observed is in Pope County about one mile west of Golconda. They have been observed at numerous localities in Hardin County, and are known to be present in some of the coal mines near Harrisburg. They have also been observed at many localities in Livingston and Crittenden Counties, Ken- tucky. Doubtless many other dikes are present within this region wholly covered by the surficial mantle rock, some of which may be discovered in the future. The depth beneath the present surface, of the great body of igneous rock with which these dikes must connect, is unknown, for it has never been pentrated either in mining operations or by deep drilling. The presence of such an intrusion is believed to be respon- sible for at least some of the faulting of the region. When the mass was injected into the strata of the crust, the beds overlying it were necessarily bowed up, and in this process of bowing the beds were stretched and great fractures were formed. The amount of movement on opposite sides of these fractures was not the same so that faulting resulted. The faults which were formed during this upbowing pro- cess, however, probably were not the most complicated ones. While the deeply buried molten mass was still very hot and remained in a more or less plastic or viscous condition, the enormous weight of the overlying sediments resting upon it must have had a tendency to squeeze it out laterally so that the original dome would become lower and broader. With the readjustment of the crustal blocks in connection with this settling of certain arch-like segments of the dome, there was a virtual collapse of the strata in certain areas, occas- ioning extremely complicated faulting. The fiuorspar veins of southeastern Illinois are along cer- tain of the faults in the more complexly faulted areas, or in rather close association with faults. The fluorine content of the mineral is a product of igneous rocks and doubtless was originally given off from the igneous rock which pre- sumably underlies the entire fluorspar region. A determi- nation of the actual genesis of the ores as they are found at the present time is complicated by many factors, but Mr. L. 34 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE W. Currier has made numerous observations which tend to prove that the present occurrence of the fluorspar is due to a replacement of crystalline calcite which first closed up the open spaces along fault planes. Not all of the faults of southern Illinois were associated with the deep seated igneous intrusion, for certain of them are far from any known igneous dikes, and there must have been other stresses of the earth’s crust at this time which were relieved by faulting. In general the more continuous faults in southeastern Illinois have a northeast-southwest direction. To the southwest they pass beneath the embay- ment deposits, as has been previously indicated, but it is per- haps significant that the projection of this belt of faulting in a southwesterly direction follows very closely the western border of the area occupied by the embayment deposits, and the suggestion may be offered that this whole embayment area may be the result of a downward dislocation of the crustal block lying southeast of the continuation of the faulting which is exposed across Pope and Hardin Counties, Illinois, but which is hidden to the southwest. Certain structural features as far southwest as northern Louisiana. may possibly be associated with this same line of defor- mation. Coming from the Ozark region west of the Mississippi river there is a belt of faulting which crosses the river in the vicinity of Grand Tower, Illinois. These faults have an east-west or northwest southeast direction, with the down- throw side on the north, and it is not unlikely that the east- ward extension of some portion of this fault belt may be responsible for the uplifted Ozark ridge across southern Illinois. The widespread distribution of the faults of southern Illinois establishes the fact that this area has been, in the geologic past, one of great crustal disturbance. Lines of weakness once established in the earth’s crust repeatedly give way under the accumulating stresses, and it is not unlikely that movements of greater or less magnitude have taken place along certain of these fault lines at intervals since they were first established. It is quite possible that PAPERS OF GENERAL INTEREST 35 the New Madrid earthquake of 1811 was the result of move- ment in some portion of this fault zone. The events in the geological history of southern Illinois which have been mentioned and briefly discussed in this ad- dress constitute only a fragment of the complete history of the region. They are, however, the events which are re- corded in the rock strata which are actually exposed in the region. Many hundreds of feet of strata underlie the whole of this portion of the state, beneath the formations which have been considered, but the history which they record is not so easily or so certainly determinable. There is also a long history since the close of Paleozoic time which is full of events of great interest, but neither this more ancient nor the more modern portion of the story can be considered at this time. 36 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE -THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE OZARKS PROF. FRANK H. COLYER, SOUTHERN ILLINOIS STATE NORMAL UNIVERSITY. LOCATION AND EXTENT. The Ozarks, or the Ozark Ridge, is the name commonly applied to the rugged highland that extends entirely across southern Illinois from the Mississippi to the Ohio river. lt is really a spur, or an eastern extension of the Ozarks of Missouri. This Illinois spur of the Ozarks is located chiefly in the counties of Union, Johnson, Pope and Hardin, but it also extends into the southern parts of Jackson, William- son, Saline and Gallatin counties. The crest of the Ozarks is near the northern boundary of Union, Johnson, Pope and Hardin counties. In Hardin county the crest of the Ozarks is almost exactly on the northern boundary line, but in the case of the other counties the crest is several miles farther south. The Ozarks extend entirely across southern Illinois and have a total length of 75 miles. While the width of the Ozarks is by no means uniform, still its average is not far from 25 miles. SURFACE. From the standpoint of altitude above mean sea level, the so called “mounds” of Jo Davies county is the highest part of Illinois. The highest hill in this region has an ele- vation of 1257 feet, which is nearly 200 feet higher than the highest part of the Ozarks. So far as now known, the highest hill in the Ozarks is William’s Hill in the northeastern part of Pope county. This hill has an elevation of 1065 feet above mean sea level. Bald Knob in Union county is, however, only 40 feet lower, with an altitude of 1025 feet. There are a number of hills in the crest of the Ozarks that have an altitude from 900 to 1000 feet. 1. Weller and Butts: Extract from Bull. No. 41, Ill. State Geological Survey, 1920, pp. 10. PAPERS OF GENERAL INTEREST 37 But mere altitude above sea level is, however, often mis- leading and gives little idea of either the appearance or the importance of a highland. While it is true that the mounds of Jo Davies county do have an elevation almost 200 feet higher than the highest hill of the Ozarks, still the reader must keep in mind that the general level of Illinois in Jo Davies county is twice as great as that in the region of the Ozarks. For instance, the highest hills in Jo Davies county are only from 200 to 250 feet above the general level of that part of Illinois,? while the highest hills in the Ozarks are from 500 to 600 feet above the general level in the southern section of the state. The northern base of the Ozarks at Carbondale, for example, is only 415 feet above sea level, and the southern base of the Ozarks is but little over 300 feet. It is this difference in altitude between the genera! level of its surroundings and the tops of the higher hills in the crest of the Ozarks, rather than mere height above sea level, that makes the Ozarks the most conspicuous highland in Illinois. This difference of 500 to 600 feet between crest and base of the Ozarks gives its streams sufficient power to carve this region into a complex of deep valleys and ravines alternating with high narrow crested ridges or steep sided, irregularly shaped hills. As a whole the Ozarks are in the mature stage of the cycle of erosion; but there are several sections that should not be classed any later than late youth. East of Makanda, in Jackson county, there is a region of considerable size, that has a number of farms on the summit of the Ozarks that are comparatively level. Near the village of Ozark, in Johnson county, there is another region of flat topped hills where the land is comparatively level over a considerable area. There are, no doubt, other regions with similar surface features which can not be regarded as maturely dissected. It is thus seen that the surface of this upland is by no means alike over the entire highland. The chief reasons for these differences of surface are: First, the amount, 2. Ridgeway: Natural Hist. of Ill., Vol. I, pp. 7. 38 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE or degree of stream erosion; second, the character of the rocks immediately beneath the mantle rock; third, the amount and different periods of uplift; fourth, the amount of faulting that occurred during the periods of uplift. The greatest contrast in surface features is to be seen in the region of the Pottsville sandstones and conglomerates, compared with the section occupied by the less resistant limestones and shales of the Mississippian period. The Pottsville rocks are found in the northern part of the Ozarks while the weaker Mississippian limestones and shales are found in the southern section of the same highlands. The Pottsville being largely sandstones and conglomerates. with the cementing material in many cases iron oxide, these rocks are more resistant than many of the limestones and shales of the Mississippian outcrops in the southern part of the highlands. The Pottsville form a continuous strip of land in the southern part of Jackson, Williamson, Saline, and Gallatin counties and extend somewhat less continu- ously along the northern boundary of Union, Johnson, Pope, and Hardin counties. Where the resistant Pottsville rocks are exposed, or lie immediately under the mantle rock, the stream made valleys are characteristically narrow and steep sided, but the hill tops have larger summit areas than the less resistant lime- stone areas farther south. Not all of the Pottsville area has these flat topped hills, but this is characteristic of much of this region. In the southern part of the Ozarks, however, the land is maturely dissected and flat hill top farms are rare. The surface consists of a series of deep valleys with ridges or ir- regularly shaped hills between the valleys. In certain sections, particularly in Hardin county, fault- ing has been responsible for certain surface features. Fault lines often represent places of weakness, where streams can more easily develop their valleys. In Hardin county sev- eral stream courses are thus determined by fault lines. There are certain easily dissolved limestones that have caused the characteristic sink hole and underground drain- PAPERS OF GENERAL INTEREST 39 age surface. There are two such areas in Hardin county, one in the vicinity of Cave in Rock and the other near Rosi- clare. There are other similar areas in Johnson and Pope counties. Some idea of the ruggedness of the Ozarks can be gained by a more detailed statement of the steepness of the slopes in various parts of this highland region. On the Mobile and Ohio railroad from Pomona to Alto Pass, in a distance of four miles, the altitude changes from 403 to 748 feet, while in the next four miles there is a drop from 748 to 449 feet. Again at Ozark on the Paducah branch of the Illinois Cen- tral railroad there is a descent from 668 feet, at Ozark, to 384 feet at Simpson, in a distance of five miles. It should be noted that these are railroad grades and are about the easiest grades that can be found which cross the crest of the Ozarks. Most of the side slopes of the valleys are very much steeper. Slopes of 600 and 700 feet per mile are numerous and in not a few cases slopes of 800 to 1000 feet? per mile are to be found in all regions of strong relief. Much steeper slopes than these are found in restricted areas. In fact one of the characteristic features in many parts of the Ozarks is the bluff or almost perpendicular cliff. In many cases these perpendicular cliffs form the most strik- ing feature of the surface. High bluffs are particularly noticeable in Big Hill at Leo Rock and Fountain Bluff, along the lower course of the Big Muddy, bordering the Mississ- ippi flood plain in the chert hill regions in western Union and northwestern Alexander counties. Other bluff regions, perhaps a little less noticeable, are to be seen along the Cache-Big Bay bottom lands that form the southern bound- ary of the Ozarks. Bluffs are also found along the Ohio river. There are various other situations where bluffs are to be seen bordering even some of the smaller streams in the interior of the Ozark region. Most of these bluffs are due to undercutting of streams, but faulting and weak rock layers underlying stronger rocks are also important causes. Perhaps no better idea of the ruggedness of the Ozarks can be gained than from some quotations from geologists 3. Salisbury: Extract from Bull, No. 41, Ill. State Geological Survey, 1920, Page 43. 40 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE who visited this region and left us their impressions of it. Dr. Salisbury, speaking of Hardin county alone, says, ‘‘In almost every direction from almost any point, hills and ridges alternate with valleys. Most of the valleys are 100 to 200 feet deep, but some of them are as much as 300 feet deep. Such relief alone, of course, does not make a moun- tainous country, but the slopes of many mountain regions are no steeper than many of the slopes of this country.’’! Sixty-nine years ago Worthen, in a more picturesque way, gives us his impressions of the Ozarks: “In the spring of 1851, I undertook to make a reconnaissance of this ridge from the Big Muddy to the Ohio, through what was then an almost unbroken wilderness, and on foot and alone, with hammer in hand, I traversed this wild and picturesque region, reaching the Ohio in eight days after leaving the Big Muddy. The only signs of civilization to be met with then, in this region, was a log cabin now and then, occupied by some squatter family from east Tennessee or North Caro- lina, who imagined themselves entirely secure in this wilder- ness from the encroachments of a higher civilization.’ Worthen’s characterization of this region as “‘wild and pic- turesque” is not altogether out of place today when it is seen from the highest and most rugged parts of the Ozarks. THE SOILS. The soils of the Ozarks are by no means alike in all parts of this highland. The chief differences are largely due to these two causes: First, the ruggedness of the region and the character of the underlying rocks. To the types of soils here given there are many local exceptions. In the western part of the Ozarks, underlaid by the Devonian rocks, the soils often have a large chert content and the surface is one of the most rugged in the entire highland. Here the soils are generally sterile, so much so that certain areas of very steep slopes were almost entirely destitute of timber even in the period of early settlement. The “Pine Hills” in western Union county is an example of this type of soil. 4, Salisbury: Extract from Bull. No. 41, Ill. State Geological Survey, 1920, page 39. 5. Worthen: Geological Sur. of Ill., Vol. III, page 56. PAPERS OF GENERAL INTEREST 4] The second region occupies the northern part of the Ozarks. This is the section where the resistant sandstones and conglomerates are immediately beneath the mantle rock. The soils are mainly a yellowish clay with a considerable intermixture of sand. The soils are light, warm, and well drained, but often of low fertility, and are particularly lack- ing in vegetable matter. In parts of this section the timber growth was never heavy. In the fiat hill top parts of this section the soils are deeper and of higher fertility. The third section includes the southern slopes of the Ozarks. In the limestone sections of this region the soils are the best of any part of the Ozark highland. These soils are of a reddish brown color and where the surface is not too rugged make fine fruit and truck lands. While the soils of the Ozarks are generally poorer than the surrounding low-lands, still it must not be understood that they are not adapted to certain products, particularly when carefully tilled and under proper application of fer- tilizers. Many of these lands are the best fruit lands to be found anywhere in the state. Certain truck crops also do well in these same soils. CLIMATE. Since practically all of the higher hills of the Ozarks have an altitude of less than 1000 feet above mean sea level, their climate is practically the same as that of Carbondale, or any other towns near the base of these highlands. So the climatic data here given are from the records I have made as cooperative observer at the Carbondale station of the United States weather bureau. These data extend over a period of ten years and can be taken as giving a fair notion of the climate of this region. From the Carbondale records it is clear that this southern section of Illinois is subject to great annual extremes of temperature. In a period of ten years, there were only two years that the temperature did not reach 100 degrees, or above; and in these two years only lacking one and two degrees respectively of reaching the hundred mark. The average for the ten years is almost exactly 100. There 42 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE were four years that the temperatures did not get as low as zero and with an average of almost exactly zero for coldest days. In 1912 and 1918 the temperature reached 24 degrees and 18 degrees below zero. These great extremes of tem- perature are due to the inland position of this section and to the fact that the low Central Plain of North America affords no obstruction to either the cold waves from the north or the hot winds from the south. The seriousness of these extremes is seen in the cold waves of 1912 and 1918 when the peach and other tender fruit trees of the Ozark region were seriously “winter killed.” The average mean July temperature for the last ten years is 80.04 degrees ; the mean average for January temperature for the same period is 34.3 degrees. The average date of the first killing frost in the fall is October 25, and the aver- age date of the last killing frost in the spring is April 9. This gives the average period free from frosts, six months and sixteen days. These are very important factors in de- termining the time of year that both fruits and vegetables can be placed on the city markets. But few summer apples reach the northern markets earlier than those from the Ozarks. The temperatures that the fruit and vegetable grower notices most, however, is the suddenness of temper: ature changes, particularly in the spring. A few warm days in March, or early April, often cause the fruit buds to burst into bloom; then comes a sudden cold wave which in one night will change a promising fruit crop to almost a failure. These spring freezes are the temperature changes that the fruit grower dreads most of all. Complete failures of the fruit crops are rare however, particularly of the hardier apples and small fruits. This is especially true in the high- er parts of the Ozarks where the frost drainage is best and where the fruit industry is extensively and scientifically carried on. Even this spring of 1921 there is some fruit in the higher parts of the Ozarks, notwithstanding the fact that on March 24 and April 11 the temperatures were 24 degrees and 26 degrees. Some growers report from 20% to 75% of a crop for the hardier apples, and almost every- where from 50% to 75% of a berry crop. The strawberries are about 50% and blackberries 75%. PAPERS OF GENERAL INTEREST 43 The rainfall of the Ozark region is the heaviest in the state and ranges from 44 to 45 inches per year, fora period of ten years. For Carbondale the average has been nearly 44 inches. In some of the higher parts of the Ozarks it is a little higher, reaching 45 inches. The average distribution of the rainfall by months for a period of ten years is quite uniform, with a slight maximum in March, June, and November, and a little more pronounced minimum in August, September, and October. These figures refer to averages for a period of ten years. Individual years and months show quite different results. For in- stance in 1914 only .92 inches of rain fell in June and .35 inches fell in July, making‘ in all, for a period of two critical months, only 1.27 inches. This rain was largely in slight showers and soon evaporated. The mean monthly tem- perature for July of that year was 83 degrees. or three de- grees above the normal. Again in the year 1916, the rain- fall was only .21 of an inch for July. Again this rain fell in slight showers and was soon evaporated because the mean July temperature of that year was 82 degrees, or two degrees above the normal. In both these years there was serious drouth in the two critical months of July and August, that did serious damage to all crops, particularly summer vege- tables. Small fruits and even the apples and peaches were small, although the quality was otherwise good. Thus the surface, soils, climate, and the composition of the rocks, particularly adapts the Ozarks to the production of fruits and vegetables, where railroad transportation is good. In the other sections stock raising and the produc- tion of timber should be the leading industries, while in cer- tain restricted areas the mining of spar, kaolin, and silica have assumed considerable importance. But perhaps one of the newest and most needed mineral industries is limestone crushing. The limestone crushing industry has al- ready assumed some importance in Union and Johnson counties. Union, Johnson, Pope and Hardin counties have abundant supplies of limestone, although their cherty com- position is a discouraging feature in many localities. 44 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE THE ORCHARD BIRDS OF AN ILLINOIS SUMMER PROF. S. A. FORBES, CHIEF STATE NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY DIVISION, URBANA, ILLINOIS The above paper has been printed by the State as a sepa- rate bulletin. It may be obtained free by writing to Prof. Forbes. In view of the above it was deemed best to save on printing expense and not publish it in our Transactions. PAPERS OF GENERAL INTEREST eo) UNDEVELOPED RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ILLINOIS R. B. MILLER, STATE FORESTER, URBANA Situated as you are in the unglaciated region of Illinois, with a considerable area in each county unsuited by virtue of its slope for agricultural crops, I believe you should con- sider growing to a greater extent a crop which is suited primarily to rough hilly land—namely, the timber crop. A good photograph of many of your valleys will show that the proper division will be corn and truck in the valleys, wheat on land not too steep, orchards on the hillsides and woods at the top of the hills, all determined more or less on the basis of topography and slope. You have also bot- _tomlands which are in drainage projects which have not yet been successfully drained, being subject to periodic over- flow. Men at the lower ends of these ditches are often “flooded out.” I contend that some of these bottomlands might grow a second crop of timber before being needed for agriculture, such rapidly growing species as cottonwood, gum, elm, maple, hackberry and sycamore, so called “‘soft- woods” suitable to supply the veneer factories of this region. Have you thought in connection with the planting of orchards, of the importance of a perpetual supply of timber for baskets, crates and hampers? The citrus growers of Florida use about 12,000,000 boxes annually for the ship- ment of their products, each box taking about five and a half feet of lumber, or say 65,000,000 board feet required. Truck growers of Florida use 13,000,000 more boxes, so that the expansion of the industry may some time be limited by a lack of material for crates and boxes in which to ship the crop. You may reach the same situation in southern Illinois— in fact you have already felt the pinch in the rising prices of veneered material. Shooks for tomato crates and all forms of boxes for berries and melons are rapidly increasing in price, due in large measure to the exhaustion of the local supply of timber. Last fall apple barrels were selling for $1.50 each, a price which made their use almost prohibitive, shippers preferring to use baskets, a much less permanent 46 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE form of package. This means that you cannot ship the fruit so far as you did before and that in place of our getting a barrel of apples at the beginning of winter we have to be satisfied with a basket or two of the fruit. Some of the own- ers of these veneer mills have already told me that they im- port logs from Arkansas and Missouri and other states farther south and that the local supply of logs will not last over five years. Then they must move their mills to the south, nearer the timber, and you will be deprived not only of the cheaper product which you could buy at home but your town will lose a factory employing a great many laborers. You are increasing each year the acreage of orchards and berries and melons, without thinking of where the boxes and crates are coming from to ship this produce to market. Why not devote some of this wet land to the growing of bottomland timber, keep your local mills running, give local people employment and assure the perpetuation of the fruit and truck-growing interests? You have a great tie preserving plant right here in Car- bondale, but only about one per cent. of the ties treated come from your own state or from regions near that plant. Why not look more carefully after the keeping of a supply of beech in these ravines of yours instead of being so anxious to make small patches of corn for a few years and then abandon the land? One man who is a competent judge says that Union County has the best supply of white and: other oaks for railroad ties of any county in the state and yet these woods are allowed to burn over twice a year. IT have been informed that large areas have burned over in Union County in the last two years. A year ago I saw six sepa- rate forest fires burning from the top of Bald Knob in Union County. It cannot be that there is no market for railroad ties because I know that last summer hackberry and maple ties, 7 by 9 inch face, were selling for $1.90 delivered, ma- terial which at one time would have been rejected. Methods of preservation with creosote or zinc chloride make this pos- sible. Red oak and black oak can be similarly treated and made to give good service, while the more valuable white oak can be allowed to grow into saw timber, into ties, and PAPERS OF GENERAL INTEREST 47 into piling and mine props. This is not altogether the fault of the people, although some are careless with fire, but be- cause we have no means of enforcing fire laws. We need a good system of county fire wardens and deputy wardens to enforce the fire laws, along with an educational campaign on the value of fire protection in the woods. Your coal mines need a large amount of timber for props, legs and rip-rap lumber, and could not run long without it. Some one has estimated that it takes three acres of timber to mine one acre of coal. Prices of mine timber are gradu- ally soaring, yet I know of but one company which has look- ed ahead to a time when the supply may be exhausted. Care is needed by these coal companies in their cutting opera- tions, of keeping fire out of young timber and perhaps in time of reforesting some of their waste lands. Preservative treatment of cheaper species may need also to be taken up in the case of mine timbers, to save the slower growing oaks which are needed for the larger timbers. Then there is the subject of idle and waste lands. You have a lot of yellow silt loam soil in southern Illinois, some counties, according to the Soil Survey of Illinois, having as much as 55% of this kind of land. Its loose character makes it very liable to erode and form gullies unless it is very care- fully handled, to keep cover crops and improve its humus content. As the result of considering the land simply a mine, to take all out and put nothing back into the soil, thousands of acres of this kind of land are being rendered - worthless by gullying. The Soil Survey says that some of it should never have been cleared but left in timber, both for the value of such a crop and to prevent the encroachment of these gullies into the more valuable lands. The question of what to do with this idle and waste land is a most press- ing one but we believe that some way should be found of getting it back into timber. It is the 81 million acres of this kind of land in the United States, some of it burned over, that is causing our present shortage of timber in the United States. These are some of your problems, then, as I see them—the need of better fire protection by the woodlot owner; the de- 48 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE votion of wet land to timber crops for the veneer and other industries until it is needed for farming; the keeping of the hills in timber both for its direct and indirect value; the stopping of timber devastation on land which never was or never will be suited to agriculture, thus increasing our acre- age of waste land; and a respect on the part of large com- panies for the surface value of that land as a timber grow- ing proposition, as well as the values which lie beneath the surface, realizing that it may yield a fair profit on the in- vestment. NoTE: This talk before the members of the Illinois Academy of Science and the people of Carbondale was made from lantern slides. Perhaps a more appropriate subject would have been “The Better Care of the Forest Resources of Southern Illinois and the Relation of Those Forests to the Industries and Economic Welfare of the Region.” R. B. MILLER, Survey Forester. SLIDES SHOWN BY MR. MILLER “(UNDEVELOPED FOREST RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ILLINOIS” (FIRST SET) FOREST FIRES. Slides showing fires burning from Bald Knob, Union County, March, 1920. Bad fires reported this last spring and most of the timber burned over every two years. Bald Knob, April 28th. (SECOND SET) GULLYING LANDS. Erosion, forming gullies, on yellow silt loam soil when this has a grade of over 800 feet to the mile. (Weller.) Keeping this covered with trees would prevent this waste. (THIRD SET) THE VENEER INDUSTRY. SHOWING MILLS AT JONESBORO AND COBDEN. Shows that a supply of bottomland timber will always be needed and is vital to the fruit growing industry of the PAPERS OF GENERAL INTEREST 49 region around Anna and Cobden. Increasing prices for tomato crates, berry boxes, hampers and baskets can be counteracted by growing elm, sycamore, gums, maples, etc., on land too wet for agriculture. No slack cooperage plants in the region but barrels shipped in cost $1.50 each when they might be made from veneered staves. Such wet lands might be used for forests and game refuges. (FOURTH SET) TIE TREATING PLANTS. Took up the subject of decay in timber and the use of pre- servatives, like creosote, to make cheap timbers as durable as white oak, thus saving the oak for saw timber, furniture, etc. Showed views in such plants as they have at Carbon- dale and Marion, where ties are treated by the pressure pro- cess. More ties should be grown locally instead of clearing so much bottomland timber. (FIFTH SET) STATE PARK SITES. A set of slides showing ‘‘Fern Cliff,” a beautiful little spot near Goreville, Illinois. We need such places and should acquire them now before their pristine beauty is destroyed. The southern Ozarks abound with these spots for state parks which should be connected up with good roads for tourists, thus showing people what is in this part of the State. We need such places for rest and recreation and for their scien- tific and geologic interest. They will delight the botanist, the geologist, the lover of wild life and the recreationist, and be of lasting value to the State. R. B. MILLER. 90 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE THE LORE OF THE SOUTHERN ILLINOIS OZARKS CLARENCE BONNELL, HARRISBURG TOWNSHIP HIGH SCHOOL, HARRISBURG, ILLINOIS. Almost every natural geographical division of every state has some of its history recorded in song or story. With the exception of Dickens’ rather uncomplimentary reference to Cairo, and a brief story of the adventurous days of flat boats on the Ohio over a century ago in the story of Vir- ginia Rose by E. R. Roe, little or nothing of legend or history concerning the Southern Illinois Ozarks has gotten into literature, either classical or otherwise. This is not for lack of material. The setting is fine and the wealth of story awaits only the imaginative mind. The mound builders left their story in great monuments of earth in which are embedded earthenware water vessels, images, and trinkets. The Kincaid mounds in the bottom lands of southern Pope county, though scarcely touched ex- cept on the surface, have yielded an excellent collection of these. Numerous mounds, large and small, in the vicinity of Shawneetown, abound in pottery of fine design and often of large size. Two water pots found by Mike Robinson, of Shawneetown, but now owned by the Museum of the Ameri- can Indian in New York, show good design. One holds one- half pint less than fourteen gallons, is fifty-nine inches in circumference and sixteen inches high. The other holds over eight gallons. Fragments of hundreds of others have been found scattered over a wide range, but so distributed as to indicate the vicinity of Shawneetown as near the cen- ter of this ancient pottery. One piece owned by Mr. Robin- son is the arc of a circle of a vessel four or five feet in di- ameter at the mouth. Excavations in Shawneetown reveal an ancient Indian village peopled by men who made a less perfect type of pot- tery. Skeletons and implements of war occur here and in more elevated places nearby in great profusion. Plumb bobs of hematite ore, as heavy as iron and of perfect pro- portion, a highly colored earthen-ware whistle, and charm stones of beautiful natural colors are among these. Every PAPERS OF GENERAL INTEREST 51 neighborhood in the Illinois Ozarks has its collection of arrowheads, plows, axes, etc. Some of the many in Mr. Robinson’s collection are as choice as will be found any- where. An old gentleman of Shawneetown, who died a few years ago, had learned the art of shaping flints by pressure and had attained to a fair degree of skill in making arrow- heads. It has been suggested that the salt wells on the Saline river near Shawneetown may have been the reason for the centering of man’s prehistoric activities here just as they became the Mecca for the early white man. But Indian re- mains widely distributed point back to other types of Indians. In southern Saline county, we find rock covered graves having stone lined walls. When the white man came, the Indian population was considerable. Shawneetown gets its name from the Shaw- nees. Not many tales of Indian adventure are told, for these natives seem to have been given to works of peace, though they were “‘not too proud to fight,” for they once met and defeated an encroaching tribe on a battleground in William- son county. ' The early man left no written record, except one. Mag- nificent natural features ;—cliffs, caverns, natural bridges —none of these inspired him to write, with one exception. Near Ozark, at Gum Springs in Johnson county, the outline of a buffalo was cut and marked on a sandstone cliff. This figure is about one-third natural size. The outline and col- oring of the lines resemble those in the supposed Aztec ruins near the petrified forests of Arizona. Mute evidence of a race of builders remains in remnants of the old stone forts— one near Stonefort in Saline county and another north of Makanda. These are protected in front by steep cliffs. On other sides of the semi-circular enclosures, a stone wall ten or twelve feet thick and eight or ten feet high gave protec- tion from foes. Thus the white man found them, only to carry away the sandstone blocks to make chimneys, fire places, and foundations for himself. Today the fragments alone serve to mark the site of the walls. No clew remains to tell who made them or when. 52 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE If the grand old lady of stone, whose features stand out fifteen feet high from shoulder to crown looking from a high promontory of the Eagle Cliff fault line in Saline county, could only speak, she could tell wondrous tales of the men who trod the valleys below during the centuries since the mammoth mired in the muck of the Saline valley just be- yond the southernmost extension of the glacial drift. The early white explorers had objectives farther on. The trappers and hunters came and went. Of why and when the French built Fort Massac, little is known. George Rogers Clark came and went on and we think we know his trail. At least we have marked it with monuments. The Ohio was the natural highway to the south and west and it was easy to go on past the forbidding rocky Ozarks. Yet there were fertile valleys and, in the valley of the Saline near Equality, there were salt wells. Man must have salt, so he came to get it and sometimes to stay. So Equality and Shawneetown date back to a time when Chicago was un- thought of, Equality being the industrial center and Shaw- neetown the fort. All trails and all roads led by the salt wells. Negroes were brought to help in a later day. A bank was established at Shawneetown in 1816 and the building, now used as a residence, still stands. Robbers and horse thieves came with settlements and in- dustry. The famous cave at Cave in Rock in Hardin county was the scene of many acrime. Flat-boatmen mysteriously disappeared in this vicinity. The famous Ford gang and other gangs of outlaws and thieves were thought to have headquarters here. Following is a quotation from a letter written by Mrs. Kate Reynolds Sears of Whitewright, Texas, in answer to a request from me made a few years ago. “Wm. McKay Robinson was the grandfather of the writer, her mother, Mary Thomas Robinson, having been his sixth child, and as a small child I have heard my grand- mother, Mrs. Wm. M. Robinson, who was Rachel Hampton Thomas, tell the story to my listening ears. “The uncle for whom my grandfather had been named had been beheaded and an aunt of my grandmother’s, Aba- PAPERS OF GENERAL INTEREST 53 gal Thomas, who was engaged to be married to Daniel Boone and was on her way at the time to meet and marry him, was taken by the Indians. “In their desperation my great grandparents, with a friend and helper, bundled together what they could carry in a skiff; she, dear heart, was brave of heart but far from strong, as her infant, my grandfather (their eldest) was about four weeks old at the time; but knowing death was in their midst, yes, very near their home, lurked these savage fiends. After night had wrapt the earth in slumber, they carried their little bundles of clothes, bedding and food to a landing on the river and quietly stole away, to the unknown, but, as they hoped and believed, a place of safety. “After much care and dodging (for they often felt they heard the paddle of the enemy’s oar or a murmur of voices not far away) they landed at what is known as Cave in Rock, Illinois, on the Ohio river near Elizabethtown and after wandering around for a time (which seemed an age to the faint little mother) they espied what seemed to be a wash in a hillside or bank. Upon investigation it proved to be a cave and hearing something nearby they crept into this place not knowing what awaited them as they entered. I do not recall just how long the men remained, but only long enough to make the wife and babe as comfortable as they could under such circumstances and then they left them, promising to return in a few days at most.” Then follows an account of how this woman stayed for weeks in this cave living upon roots and berries, always in fear of discovery. Finally, in desperation, she found a wild turkey quill, tore a leaf from her Bible, wrote with blood a note and pinned it to her skirt which she hung on a bush outside to attract a passing boat. This plan succeeded and she was provided with food, but she refused to leave, so the boatmen left her to await the return of her husband who did not get back for more than two months. Moonshiners had their stills in secluded places in the pioneer days. Stillhouse Hollow reminds us of those times, and the old stone for grinding the corn lies near. The first settlers were credulous people as are some of their later day 54 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE descendants. Lover’s leaps, escapes from flood and beast, and unexplored caves with bottomless pits are still subjects of conversation in some sections. Only last week, I found a man who believed that the cave in Eagle Cliff in Saline county had never been explored. I with others have ex- plored and mapped every passage in it, yet once (and only once) when I attempted to refute erroneous statements about this cavern in a local newspaper, I brought down the wrath of an unbeliever, who in his reply said: “We ‘over creekers’ (country people) are somewhat envious when a party of teachers and professors, who were reared in the city, come to explore, and naturally feel that they expect to accomplish more with their brains than we with experi- ence.” This same writer goes on to reiterate his state- ments that this cavern has bottomless pits and unexplored passages and that it connects with the cave at Cave in Rock, some twenty-five miles away. His attitude illustrates well that of many who cling tenaciously to the traditions of the past. Diggings in the floor of sandstone caves and midnight desecration of old graves point back to the time when treas- ure was unsafe. Scarcely any tradition has no basis of fact. Much real history otherwise unrecorded can yet be gleaned from the mouth to mouth stories of the older generation still living. A widespread but dim remembrance of the great New Madrid earthquake of 1911-12 still lingers with some of these people. That all of southern Illinois was violently shaken then cannot be questioned. A descendant of a girl named Elizabeth ————— for whom Elizabeth- town is said to have been named, tells how the earth was shaken there soon after the party of settlers came. An original record, written by one who had been in Illinois in January, 1912, gives the following vivid picture of condi- tions at that time. The spelling and punctuation are given verbatim: Sinsenatte State of Ohio April the 12 - 1812 Dear Brother I now set down to right to you to let you no that I am well hoping that when these lines cum to your view they will find you enjoying the same bless- ing I will further inform you that I have left the Miss- PAPERS OF GENERAL INTEREST 55 isippee through the goodness of God. Altho there is not many of our new England peopple that were able to do that for they had to stay whether they liked the country or not for the people of this country are so kind that they have given the most part of our Yankies a small piece of groun enugh to lay down upon where I left them laying after I rote before Mr Stevens and myself undertook the bilding of a mill which we were to work uppon when Mr. Stephens dyed after that I continued to carry the work on myself until I was taken sick myself then I was obliged to quit it & I lay sick myself with the fever & aguer about Eight months in which time I got re- duced some so I was so for about four months that I could not tell whether they meant to kill me or not but finding me so tuf they quit the notion and so I got of I would mention a little of the situation of the Misippee Country at the present time which is very bad ever since the battle that we had with the Indians at the Wabash which I suppose that you have had an account in the newspapers the Indians have bin very troblison They have kild a grate many this spring But what is much more terrible than the Indians on the sixteenth of December We had a Grate Earth Quake which the Shook the Earth to the senter And Shaking Still con- tinued til I left Kaskaskia which was the twenty first day of Febuary. It has damaged and thrown down almost All the houses down in that county and in many plases the earth has Craked open for a quarter of a mild in length and throwne out vast boddies of sand and water and in several plases there is large tracts of country that is all sunk down and overflowed with water The people are moving out of this country faster than they ever moved into it As time fails me I must right short I wish you to give my sincere respects to that good old mother of mine and also to all of our family as well as yours. Give respects to my young friend in particular to Zebeus tel them all that I want to see them very much but I cant tell when I shall do it Right to me without fail As soon as you receive this write your letter to Maryette in the State of Ohio for I 56 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE think I shal be there in about three weeks and you must not fail of Righting to me for I have not recvd but three letters since I left home and I think you have all forgot me or you would right oftener. Right to me if you have herd anything from my father since I cum away and furthermore let me know if my wife is married or not & so I must conclud by stiling myself your Brother &c A. DILLINGHAM. Stories come to me of an “Underground Railroad” station about four miles southeast of Equality in Gallatin county. Upon a hilltop, stands a large two story frame house con- spicuous for its many large windows. It is a plain rectangu- lar block of a house, with a well pitched roof having a deck something like twelve feet wide running the entire length. Just under the edge of the deck there are windows corres- ponding to the ventilators of a railway car. The gables have large windows. The attic is said to have been reached by a narrow stairway. Along each side of the attic hall just under the sloping part of the roof there are bunks ar- ranged, bunks just as the beds are situated in a Pullman car. One man relates that apparatus resembling stocks were seen in the rubbish of this attic. The story is that it was built between 1838 and 1844 and was owned by Johnny Crenshaw. Some metal ornaments on the house are said to have come from England. Instead of this being an “‘un- derground” station for escaping slaves, so the story goes, this one was once used by a band operating as the automo- bile thieves of today. A free negro or one escaping by flight, if found by this gang, was overpowered and conveyed by night under guard from farther north to this station. Another night journey took him to and across the Ohio river where his word was not accepted in court and where undisputed possession was evidence of ownership. The price that negroes brought in those days was great enough to justify the risk taken by the captors. Some who have owned this house and lived in it tell this story as true. Others who were children in that day and lived only a few miles away claim no knowledge of such use of the property. PAPERS OF GENERAL INTEREST 57 This is explained on the ground that great secrecy was maintained by the owners. True or untrue, here is a story to stir the imagination. The magic change from water mill and spinning wheel to the modern hum of motors and the busy life in coal and spar mine, all coming within a generation, has so woven the realities of the present with the uncertainties of the past that the poet or writer of fiction could create a classic from the setting afforded by the facts and hearsay, recorded and unrecorded, in Southern Illinois. ‘ at yes — 1 - a ¥ a oe + toiigsl, 9 sal i “45%, a = 4 = an ee é 7 a ea y 7. "i “*~ | Papers on Biology and Agriculture PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 61 SOME PLANTS OF THE BOIS FORT INDIAN RES- ERVATION AND VICINITY IN MINNESOTA PROF. ALBERT B. REAGAN, KAYENTA, ARIZONA The Bois Fort Indian Reservation, containing 107,519.43 acres, is situated 140 miles northwest of Duluth, Minnesota, and 38 miles south of Fort Frances, Ontario. It surrounds a beautiful sheet of shallow water of three-fourths of a town- ship in area, known as Nett Lake. Its land is variable in condition of soil and possible fertility. One-half of it is swamp and is known to the Indians as “‘muskeg” land. The non-swamp eastern part is composed of rock ridges of the Couchiching formation, flanked with’ clay land covered with pine and hardwood forest trees. The western part, which is not covered with swamp, is a sandy region. Nett Lake and its tributary streams occupy the east-central part of the reservation and the Little Fork and Nett rivers cross it. The swamp areas are in the jungle state. The dry land is still heavily timbered where not already logged, while wild rice grows in the shallow lake so that it looks like a vast wheat field in summer. As is seen, the region is prac- tically in the virgin state. The same might be said of the region extending southward and eastward to Duluth and Lake Superior and northward to the Arctic Ocean, much of which is composed of lakes and swamps. The tribal timber of the reservation was cut prior to 1909 when the writer became agent of the reserve, and the indi- vidual Indian timber is being logged off now (1921). The individual pine timber was estimated at 17,000,000 feet B. M. and the pulp wood into millions of cords. Below are some of the plants of the region that were identified by the writer as time would permit while he was in charge of the agency there. RANUNCULACEAE (CROWFOOT FAMILY.) Genus Ranunculus. Ranunculus affinis, R. Br. common. Ranunculus affinis, var. validus, Gray. Often seen. Genus Caltha, L. Marsh Marigold. Caltha palustris, L. Common. Genus Aguilegia, Tourn. Columbine. Aquilegia canadensis, L. Wild Columbine. Found everywhere. 62 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE SARRACENIACEAE. PITCHER FAMILY. Genus Sarracenia, Tourn. Side-saddle Flower, Sarracenia purpurea, L. Side-saddle Flower, Pitcher Plant, Huntsman’s Cup. Quite common. PAPAVERACEAE. POPPY FAMILY. Genus Sanguinaria, Dill. Blood-root. Sanguinaria canadensis, L. A very common Indian medicine. It is also used in the jugglery performances of the medicine men. It blooms in April. FUMARIACEAE. FUMITORY FAMILY. Genus Dicentra, Borkh. Dutchman’s Breeches. Dicentra cucullaria, DC. Dutchman’s Breeches. Very common. CRUCIFERAE. MUSTARD FAMILY. Genus Lepidium, Tourn. Pepperwort. Peppergrass. Lepidium virginicum, L. Wild Peppergrass. Abundant everywhere. Much used by the Indians. Genus Sisymbrium, Tourn. Hedge Mustard. Sisymbrium officinale, Scop. Genus Brassica, Tourn. Brassica campestris, L. Escaped from cultivation. VIOLACEAE. VIOLET FAMILY. Genus Viola, Tourn. Violet. Heart’s Ease. Viola sagittata, Ait. Arrow-leaved Violet. Common. Viola palustris, var. Nettlakeis, n. var. Resembles V. palustris, but has a long, slender spur, slightly thickened at the end; spur almost as long as the beardless violets. Viola rotundifolia, Michx. Round-Leafed Violet. Quite common. Viola pubescens, Ait. Downy Yellow Violet. Very common. Viola pubescens, var. Nettlakeis. All petals veined with purple. Seen May 19. at Little Fork R. PORTULACACEAE. PURSLANE FAMILY. Genus Portulaca, Tourn. Purslane. Portulaca Oleracea, L, Common Purslane. Very common. TILIACEAE. LINDEN FAMILY. Genus Tilia, Tourn. Linden. Basswood. Tilia americana, L. Basswood. Very common, trees unusually large.* *Thread, twine, cord and rope are usually made from basswood for many uses now and wholly so in the old times, unless made from the sinew of the moose and deer or from rawhide. The basswood tree of this region, when in bloom, is a beautiful tree. As a further note on the use of basswood: In preparing basswood thread, the inner bark of young sprouts is removed in sheets and boiled in water to which a large quantity of lye from wood ashes has been added. This softens the fiber and permits it to be manipulated without breaking. The unoccupied squaws then employ their time in pulling the bark into shreds and twisting same into twine and the latter into ropes as needed. This twine is the sewing material used in weaving mats, erecting bark houses and tepees and for almost all other household purposes. When put away for future use it is hung up in hanks. GERANIACEAE, GERANIUM FAMILY. Genus Impatiens, L. Balsam. Jewel-weed. Impatiens pallida, Nutt. Pale Touch-Me-Not. Common. PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 63 CELASTRACEAE. STAFF-TREE FAMILY. Genus Celastrus, L. Staff-tree. Shrubby Bitter-Sweet. Celastrus scandins, L. Wax-Work, Climbing Bitter-Sweet. SAPINDACEAE. SOAPBERRY FAMILY. Genus Acer, Tourn. Maple. Acer pennsylvanicum, L. Striped Maple, a common tree. Acer spicatum, Lam. Mountain Maple. Acer saccharinum, Wang. Sugar or Rock Maple.** Acer saccharinum, var. nigrum, Torr & Gray. Black Sugar Maple.** **The sugar maple is a common tree on the reservation. It grows in groves. The trees are scarred by repeated tappings, causing each to be considerably enlarged in the part of the trunk that is subject to the tapping. Many tons of sugar are annually made by the Bois Fort Indians. The sugar-making season comes when the first crow appears, usually about the middle of March, while there is yet snow on the ground. The medicine men give orders and the sugar-making holiday is begun; every one goes to his respective maple grove, which is the place of the sugar-making for that re- spective family and claimed by right of descent, through the mother’s totem. - The first thing on arriving on the ground is to erect the temporary tepees. These are the usual conical frame made of poles leaning together at the top and spreading to the ground all around, and covered with bark or canvas. There is one entrance door and the smoke from the central fire escapes at the top among the loosely fastened poles. Racks are then set up, on which to hang the pots for boiling the syrup, enclosed often in enlarged, elongated bark tepees. The next work is the preparing of sap dishes and sap buckets. Quantities of bark is peeled off from the nearby white birch trees; pieces of the bark are cut and folded into sap dishes and pans, each measuring eight to twelve inches in width, eighteen inches in length, and about six inches in depth. The ends are carefully folded and stitched along the edge with bass- wood fiber, so that it will retain its shape. Several hundred of these dishes are made by each family. Sap buckets are then made from birch bark. These are cut and folded at the corners so as to avoid breaking the bark. The folds are then seamed with pine resin. When completed these buckets are elongated in shape, are supplied with a carrying bale, and are made deep enough to hold one or two gallons. The average bucket measures about six inches across the top, which is round, and eight to nine inches across the elongated bottom; the depth is about nine inches. To strengthen the pail the top and rim are held in place by means of thin strips of wood neatly stitched fast with bass- wood fiber. Mococks or boxes for containing the sugar product are made in the same way and are much the same _ shape. When the preparations are completed, the sap gathering commences. One (or more) small oblique gash is cut in each sugar tree so as to take out the bark and about an inch of the sap wood. Down this gash the sap runs to the bot- tom and trickles downward along the side of the tree. Just below the lower point of the gash a horizontal cut is made in the bark and a downward sloping chip is driven into this cut so that the sap from the cut above runs over it and drips from the end into a sap dish set under the chip to catch the drippings. Twice a day these dishes are emptied into sap buckets and the sap carried to the tepee to be boiled into sugar. The sap is boiled in cans and kettles within the large wigwams or outside under the racks previously mentioned; they have a tradition that before they could get iron kettles, their ancestors used to make kettles of clay with which they boiled sap. As soon as one kettle full is converted into sugar, another kettle full of sap is hung over the fire; as many kettles are used in this pro- cess as the family can obtain. When the syrup begins to granulate, it is poured into wooden troughs where it is stirred and the granulating process completed. Much of the syrup just in the act of granulating is thrown on snow to cool rapidly, forming sugar wax, which is a good substitute for our candy. Sugar cakes are also formed by pouring the syrup into sauce dishes, small eake dishes and the like, when just in the act of granulating. These are re- melted into syrup when needed. Much of the maple sugar is now sold to the whites in cake form, the granulated product being put into mococks for future use. 64 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Besides sugar being obtained from the sugar tree, many things are madé from the hard wood of this tree. One of these is the bowl used in the dice bowl game. This is a large, rather shallow, symmetrical, nicely finished, hem- ispherical bowl. It is made from a large, round nodule of maple root, and is consequently a rare and expensive article for its size. It is fashioned solely with the aid of an ax and a knife. A specimen at hand measures nine inches in diameter at the top and is two inches in depth. It is nearly one inch in thickness at the bottom, but gradually tapers to about one-fourth of an inch at the rim. ANACARDIACEAE. CASHEW FAMILY. Genus Rhus, L. Sumach. Rhus glabra, L. Dwarf Sumach, Rhus copallina, L. Dwarf Sumach. Rhus canadensis, Marsh. Rhus aromatica, Ait. The Sumach is a very common shrub throughout the region. Its bark and berries are much used in the medicine ceremonies of the aborigines, Polygala senega, L. Seneca Sankeroot. It is used as a medicine.* *Of the family Polygalaceae; Milkwort Family. LEGUMINOSAE. PULSE FAMILY. Genus Baptisia, Vent. False Indigo, Baptisia tinctor.a, R. B. Wild Indigo. Very common. This plant was used much in native coloring and as medicine. Genus Lathyrus, Tourn. Vetching. Everlasting Pea. Lathyrus ochroleucus, Hook. Quite common. Lathyrus palustris, L. (?) ROSACEAE. ROSE FAMILY. Genus Prunus, Tourn. Plum, Cherry, Etc. Prunus americana, Marshall. Wild Yellow or Red Plum. Prunus pennsylvanica, L. f. Var. Nettlakea. Pin Cherry. Very common. Prunus virginiana, L. Choke Cherry. Prunus serotina, Ehrh. Wild Black Cherry, Prunus demissa, Walp. The plums and cherries above are very plentiful in the Bois Fort region and are quite extensively used as food. The fruit is eaten fresh and also dried for winter use. When needed for use after being dried, the berry, seed and all, are often crushed and ground up and the whole used as a sort of flour in making soups. Genus Rubus, Tourn. Bramble, Rubus strigosus, Michx. Wild Red Raspberry. A very abundant plant. Its fruit is extensively used by the natives as a food. The fruit is both eaten fresh and dried for winter use. Genus Fragaria, Tourn. Strawberry. Fragaria virginiana illinoensis, Gray. Seen near Flat Rock. Strawberries are much used as food by the Indians. Genus Rosa, Tourn. Rose. Rosa sayi, Schwein. (?) Rosa lucida, L. Common. The buds are occasionally eaten. The root and bark are also sometimes used as medicine. Genus Pyrus, L. Pear. Apple. Pyrus coronaria, L. American Crab-apple. Quite common. Pyrus americana, D. C. American Mountain Ash.* Pyrus sambucifolia, Cham. & Schlecht. Occasionally seen. *When steamed the ash is bent into any form desired by the Ojibwa. Genus Crataegus, L. Hawthorn. White Thorn. Crataegus coccinea, L. Quite common, a PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 65 Genus Amelanchier, Medic. June-berry. Amelanchier canadensis, var. oblongifolia, Torr. & Gray. Shad-bush. Service-berry. Quite common. SAXIFRAGACEAE. SAXIFRAGE FAMILY. Genus Ribes, L. Currants. Gooseberry. Ribes gracile, Michx. Gooseberry. Ribes oxyacanthoides, L. Common. Ribes hudsonianum, Richards. Currant. Common, Ribes floridum, L’Her. Black Wild Currant. Ribes rubrum, L.. var. subglandulosum, Maxim. Red Currant. Common. The currants and gooseberries are used as food by the Indians, both fresh and dried. The roots and bark are also much used as medicine. ONAGRACEAE. EVENING-PRIMROSE FAMILY. Genus Oenothera, L, Evening Primrose. Oenothera rhombipetala, Nutt. Common. In bloom June 30. CUCURBITACEAE. GOURD FAMILY. Genus Sicyos, L. One-seeded Bur-Cucumber. Sicyos angulatus, L. Common everywhere, becoming a pest in the fields. UMBELLIFERAE. PARSLEY FAMILY. Genus Conioselinum, Fisch. Hemlock-Parsley. Conioselinum canadense, Torr. & Gray. Common. Genus Heracleum, L. Cow-Parsnip. Heracleum lanatum, Michx. Common. Much used as greens. Genus Aralia, Tourn. Ginsang. Wild Sarsaparilla. Aralia racemosa, L. Spikenard. Common. Used as medicine by the Indians. One old medicine man cultivates a patch of this plant. CORNACEAE. DOGWOOD FAMILY. Genus Cornus, Tourn. Cornel. Dogwood. “Cornus sericea, L. Silky Cornel. Kinnikinnik. A Chippewa medicine. Also smoked and much used in the various ceremonies of the Northern Indians. Indians also get drunk on the smoke of the plant and the other kinnikinnik, which will be described later. Cornus stolonifera, Michx. Red-Osier Dogwood. CAPRIFOLIACEAE. HONEYSUCKLE FAMILY. Genus Sambucus, Tourn. Elder. Sambucus racemosa, L. Red-berried Elder. Common. Used as food, Genus Virburnum, L. Arrow-wood. Laurestinus. Viburnum opulus, L. Cranberry Tree. High Cranberry Bush. Quite common. The acid fruit is used much in making jelly by the whites. The Indians use the fruit also. RUBIACEAE. MADDER FAMILY. Genus Mitchella, L. Partridge-Berry, Mitchella repens, L. Common. Much used by the Indians. COMPOSITAE. COMPOSITE FAMILY. Genus Bidens, L. Bur-Marigold. Bidens bipinnata, L. Spanish Needles. Too plentiful. Genus Erechtites, Raf. Fireweed. Erechtites hieracifolia, Raf. Fireweed. A very common and abundant weed in burned areas. 66 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Genus Arctium. Burdock. Arctium lappa, L. Common. Probably escaped or introduced with seed. Genus Cnicus, Tourn. Common or Plumed Thistle. Cnicus arvensis, Hoffm. Canada Thistle. Too plentiful. Genus Taraxacum, Haller. Dandelion. Taraxacum officinale, Weber. Common Dandelion. Common. (ERICACEAE) MONOTROPEAE. INDIAN-PIPE FAMILY. Genus Gaylussacia, HBK. Huckleberry. Gaylussacia resinosa, Torr, & Gray. Black Huckleberry. Used as a food. Genus Vaccinium. Blueberry. Bilberry. Cranberry. Vaccinium pennsylvanicum, Lam. Dwarf Blueberry. Vaccinium Canadense, Kalm. Blueberry.* *The blueberries are abundant. Every hill and open space is covered with them. Blueberry harvest is a great time for the Indians. They go far and near and gather them to sell at so much a box. Car loads are gathered and sold to the nearby stores for shipment, buyers often being sent from St. Paul, Minneapolis, Duluth and the nearby towns to purchase them. The natives also now can them white man’s way. Many are eaten fresh and tons of them dried on racks in the sun for winter use. These berries are the most abundant wild fruit of the region. Vaccinium oxycoccus, L. Small Cranberry. Vaccinium macrocarpon, Ait. Large or American Cranberry. Cranberries are very plentiful in the swamp regions and are quite an article of food. Many bushels are also sold by the Indians each year. Genus Arctostaphylos, Adams. Bearberry. Arctostaphylos una-ursi, Spreng. Bearberry. The leaves of this plant are smoked, causing intoxication. The plant is much used in the medicine cere- monies. Genus Epigaea, L. Ground Laurel. Trailing Arbutus. Epigaea repens, L. Trailing Arbutus. Seen on burning near Thomp- son’s homestead. Genus Gaultheria, Kalm. Aromatic Wintergreen. Gaultheria procumbens, L. Creeping Wintergreen. Common on sand ridges near Thompson’s homestead. The “berry” was much used as a food by the Ojibwa. POLEMONIACEAE. POLEMONIUM FAMILY, Genus Polemonium, Tourn. Greek Valerian. Polemonium reptans, L. Common, Polemonium caeruleum, L. Jacob’s Ladder. Common. BORRAGINACEAE. BORAGE FAMILY. Genus Echinospermum, Lehm. Stockweed. Echinospermum floribundum, Lehm. Beggar lice. A pest everywhere. Genus Mertensia, Roth. Lungwort. =~ Mertensia paniculata, Don. Blue Bells. Quite common. SOLANACEAE. NIGHTSHADE FAMILY. Genus Solanum, Tourn. Nightshade, Solanum nigrum, L. Common Nightshade. Common. Used in the medi- cine ceremonies by the Indians. LABIATE. MINT FAMILY. Genus Mentha, Tourn. Mint. Mentha canadensis, L. Wild Mint. Quite common. Genus Stachys, Tourn. Hedge-Nettle. Stachys palustris, L. Nettle. Common, PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 67 PLANTAGINACEAE. PLANTAIN FAMILY. Genus Plantago, Tourn. Plantain. Plantago major.. Common Plantain. Not common, CHENOPODIACEAE. GOOSEFOOT FAMILY. Genus Chenopodium, Tourn. Pigweed. Chenopodium album, L. Pigweed. Common, POLYGONACEAE. BUCKWHEAT FAMILY. Genus Rumex, L. Dock. Sorrel. Rumex altissimus, Wood. Pale Dock. Common. Genus Polygonum, Tourn. Knotweed. Polygonum dumetorum, var. scandens, Gray. Climbing False Buckwheat. THYMELAEACEAE. MEZEREUM FAMILY, Genus Dirca, L. Leatherwood. Moosewood. Dirca palustris, L. Moosewood. Used for withes by Indians. URTICACEAE. NETTLE FAMILY. Genus Ulmus, L. Elm. Ulmus fulva, Michx. Slippery or Red Elm. Rare. Ulmus americana, L. American or White Elm. Quite common, and a large tree. CUPULIFERAE. OAK FAMILY. Genus Betula, Tourn. Birch, Betula lenta, L. Cherry Birch; Sweet or Black Birch. Betula lutea, Michx. f. Yellow or Gray Birch. Betula papyrifera, Marshall. Paper or Canoe Birch. The birches and poplars are the most numerous trees of the reservation and from an Indian point of view are among the most valuable, especially the birches, for from them their birch bark utensils are made.* *Birch Bark Utensils: The bark of the white (paper) birch was used in the old times and is still used for making various convenient small vessels, pails, and trays. When made for permanent use, the parts of the article are firmly sewed together with basswood twine and the edges counter wrapped with the same material. If the article is wished to be made water tight, its seams are sealed with pitch. The following are some of the useful birch bark articles used by the Bois Fort Indians: Mococks (in which wild rice and maple sugar are stored); dishes; sap dishes (used in catching maple sap); rice baskets; buckets; trays and winnowing dishes (used when separating the chaff from the rice.) The CANOE is also made from birch bark. The Ojibwa reached his zenith in manufacture when he made the canoe. It is undoubtedly the most beautiful and light model of all the water crafts ever invented. The frame work is made of white cedar or some other light, durable wood; the ribs are thinned to the right thickness with a drawing knife, and when the desired number are ob- tained, they are steamed, after which they are curved according to the part of the canoe which they are intended to brace. The tops of the ribs are then securely tied to the top plate-piece of the canoe with roots of tamarack, or some other tough tying material; this frame is then placed in a sort of rack and the birch bark put on it so ingeniously and so well sewed together and the seams so well closed with pitch, that the finished canoe is water tight and rides on the water like a cork. Genus Corylus, Tourn. Hazel-nut. Corylus rostrata, Ait. Beaked Hazel-nut. Very common and much used as food by the natives. Genus Carpinus, L. Hornbeam. Iron-wood. Carpinus caroliniana, Walter? American Hornbeam, Blue or Water Beech. 68 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Genus Quercus, L. Oak. Quercus rubra, L. Red Oak. Common. There are other oaks in the region, but were not identified by the writer, though often seen. SALCACEAE. WILLOW FAMILY. Genix Salix, Tourn. Willow. Osier. Salix candida, Willd. Sage or Hoary Willow. Common. Salix balsamifera, Barratt. Common. Genus Populus, Poplar. Aspen. Populus tremuloides, Michx. American Aspen. Very common in loamy sections, but not so common as the poplars. Populus grandidentata, Michx. Occasionally seen. Populus balsamifera, L. Balsam Poplar. Very common in the loamy regions. Populus monilifera, Ait. Cotton Wood. Common along the streams, and occasionally seen inland. There are millions of cords of pulp wood of the Populus species above on the reservation. CONIFERAE. PINE FAMILY. Genus Pinus, Tourn. Pine. Pinus strobus, L. White Pine. Pinus banksiana, Lambert. Northern Scrub Pine. Pinus resinosa, Ait. Red Pine. The pine still standing on the reservation in the fall of 1920 was estimated at 17,000,000 feet B. M. Genus Picea, Link. Spruce. Picea nigra, Link. Black Spruce. Picea alba, Link. White Spruce. Genus Abies, Link. Fir. Abies balsamea, Miller. Balsam or Balm-of-Gilead Fir. Common. Genus Larix, Tourn. Larch. Larix americana, Michx. Tamarack. Practically the whole region just at the swamp line when in the “dry” peaty state is covered with tamarack forest from the Nett Lake region on northward into Canada as far as the writer has been in that dominion. The Ojibwa use the roots of this tree to sew their canoes and also in the strong upper wrappings over the edges of same. Genus Juniperus, L. Juniper. Juniperus sabina, L., var. procumbens, Pursh. Found in the swampy areas. Juniperus virginiana, L. Red Cedar. Found bordering the streams and inland, but usually on higher ground than J. procumbens above.* *It is estimated that there are cedar post timber enough in the region to furnish a billion posts. The pulp wood and the cedar posts are now being floated down the various streams to Canada where the pulp wood is made into paper at the International Falls pulp mills, said to be the largest in the world. There, also, the posts are loaded onto cars and shipped to the States for fenc- ing. Cutting posts and pulp wood is a great industry in this section and will be for many years to come. BROMELIACEAE. PINEAPPLE FAMILY. Genus Cypripedium. Lady’s Slipper. Cypripedium pubescens, Willd. Large Yellow Lady’s Slipper. Common. LILACEAE. LILLY FAMILY. Genus Maianthemum, Wigg. Maianthemum danadense, Desf. A common plant. a PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 69 Genus Uvularia, L. Bellwort. Uvularia perfoliata, L. Occasionally seen. Uvularia grandiflora, Smith. Seen in the rich woods, JUNCACEAE. RUSH FAMILY. Genus Juncus, Tourn. Rush. Bog-rush. Juncus stygius, L. Common around lakes. This plant is used in weaving mats. *It also holds quite a place in the myths of the Ojibwa. TYPHACEAE. CAT-TAIL FAMILY. Genus Typha, Tourn. Cat-tail. Typha latifolia, L. Common Cat-tail. The flags of this plant are used much in mat weaving.* *The Bois Fort Indians have several varieties of mats. These are made from rushes, from cedar bark and from the broad blades of the cat-tail flag. Some of the mats are woven coarse, others fine; they are from six to fifteen feet in length and about a yard in width, and are used for bedding and house and floor coverings. ARACEAE. ARUM FAMILY. Genus Arisaema, Martinus. Indian Turnip. Dragon Arum. Arisaema triphyllum, Torr. indian Turnip. Jack in the Pulpit. A very common plant and much used as medicine by the natives. LYCOPODIACEAE. CLUB MOSS FAMILY. Genus Lycopodium, L. Club-Moss. Lycopodium lucidulum, Michx. Common, — Lycopodium selago, L. Very common. The mosses are abundant in this region, many species, no doubt, being rep- resented. The trees hang with it and the swampy areas are covered with it. Moreover the peat of the region is composed for the most part of moss. rushes and flags.* *The following plants were seen but not identified: Reindeer Moss (Tripe Roche.) The writer was told that this moss was eaten by the Indians in the old times, also that mecose feed on it. Wuab-es-see-pin (Ojibwa name.) This plant resembles the potato. It grows in wet ground. It is mealy when boiled. It is even now occasionally eaten by the natives who eat it with a relish. Stitch-auc-waub-es-see-pin (Ojibwa name.) This is a similar plant to the last named above. It is found throughout the region. It is used as a food by the natives, being boiled. GRAMINEAE. GRASS FAMILY. Genus Setaria, Beauv. Bristly Foxtail Grass Setaria glauca, Beauv. A common pest. Genus Zizania, Gronov. Water or Indian Rice. Zizania aquatica, L. Indian Rice. Water Oats. This is the most import- ant wild food plant in the region. It grows along the swampy borders of streams and in the shallow water of the numerous small lakes of the region from the Great Lakes on westward throughout Minnesota to the Red River valley in that state and on northward into Canada. It belongs to the grass family. It is an annual; flowers monoecious: the staminate and pistillate are both in 1-flowered spikelets in the same panicle. Glumes 2, substended by a small cartilaginous ring, herbaceous-membranaceous, convex. awnless in the sterile, the lower one tipped with a straight awn in the fertile spikelets. Palet, none. Stamens 6. Stigmas pencil-form. A large reed-like water-grass. Spike- lets jointed upon the club-shaped pedicels, very deciduous. Culms 3 to 9 feet high; leaves flat, 2 to 4 feet long (and lie flat on the water when they first emerge; later they stand erect and finally decline at the tips), linear lanceo- late; lower branches are of the ample pyramidal panicle staminate, spreading; the upper erect, pistillate; lower glume long awned, rough; styles distinct; grain linear, slender, 6” long. 70 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE This rice is one of the leading articles of food of the aborigines and was such in the old times.* *The writer became acquainted with this plant at Nett Lake, Minnesota, where he had charge of the Bois Fort Indian Reservation as Superintendent and Special Disbursing Agent from 1909 to 1914. Nett Lake, the lake that bears that name, covers three-fourths of a township in area and is in the shape of a great lobster’s paw with the claws pointing eastward, the major claw being the northern member. It is a very shallow lake, the greater part being less than four feet in depth. In this the wild rice grows in such quantities that the lake looks like a great barley field. The rice does not ripen all at once, so can not be cut like a field of barley. But as the grains drop from the stalk very easily when ripe, it can be pounded off into a canoe with a stick and the green grain still left to ripen. The rice begins to ripen the latter part of August. The Indians then have a secret ceremony and much powowing. Then the chief medicine man gives permission for them to go out and gather rice. With canoes, the Indians go among the rice and beat the heads over the canoe with short clubs. This they keep up till they have a canoe full of rice. Then they go to the village with it. At the village, the rice, which is just past the milk stage when gathered, is parched and scorched in a large iron kettle inclined over the fire so that a squaw can stir it to keep it from burning. By this scorching process the hulls are all burned from the kernels, or are so dried and charred that they can be loosened and removed by the next process. As soon as the scorched rice is removed from the kettle and is cold enough to handle, it is placed in a cylindrical hole in the ground that has been lined with cement or marl from the lake. Then the Indian man of the house gets into this hole and tramps the hulls off with his feet. After the tramping is completed, the chaff, dust and ashes are winnowed from the rice by the women. The product is then sacked and is ready for sale as breakfast food. It sells at not less than 30 cents per pound at the village, and as high as 50 cents in the neighboring cities. This rice makes good gem cakes. It is also used to stuff ducks and other fowls when preparing them for dinners. Orders have come from as far as Salt Lake City for rice for making dressing for ducks for Thanksgiving dinners. In preparing it as breakfast food, it is prepared and cooked the same as white rice and can be cooked in as many different ways. The preferable way, however, is to take a cupful of the rice and pour a cupful of boiling water on it at bedtime and then cover it up so as to keep the steam in and let it set till morning, then put it on the stove and evaporate the remaining water. It is then puffed-rice, and is delicious with sugar and cream. The Ojibwa sometimes boil the excrements of the rabbit with the rice “to season it” and are said to esteem it as a luxury. To make that dish still more palatable, and one of the highest epicurean dishes, they occasionally take a partridge, pick off the feathers, and without any further dressing except pound- ing it to the consistency of jelly, throw it into the rice, and boil it in that con- dition. Genus Hordeum, Tourn. Barley. Hordeum jubatum, L. Squirrel-Tail Grass. Common. EQUISETACEAE. HORSETAIL FAMILY. Genus Equisetum, L- Horsetail. Equisetum pratense, Ehrh. Very common. The Indians eat the tubers of this plant, vile PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 71 A TRIP AMONG THE BIRD ISLANDS OF THE PA- CIFIC COAST OF WASHINGTON Pror. ALBERT B. REAGAN, KAYENTA, ARIZONA One bright morning we left Neah Bay, Washington, for a trip among the Roosevelt island bird reserves skirting the Olympic peninsula. We made for the lighthouse at Tatoosh island as we had mail for the government people there. As we neared it, the sea rose and fell and, with considerable effort, we lowered a boat which finally made shore amid the squawking of birds and the glad welcome of the life saving people. After a few minutes stay in the vicinity of this is- land, we sailed out over the halibut banks where the Indian creator Kwatte is alleged to have killed the destroyer Sub- bus. As we were sailing over the placid waters watching the Indians haul up their fish, our Indian guide said: “We are on sacred waters. This was the home of the great evil one, Subbus, a monster shark-like animal of the sea. Being advised about this beast’s destroying all the fish of the ocean and even swallowing down whole canoe loads of men, canoe and all, Kwatte decided to kill him. So he came to the shores of this peninsula and built a dugout canoe of large size. This he filled with water. Into it he then threw heated rocks till the water was boiling hot. Then he would dip his body into the heated water as long as he could stand it. Again and again he repeated this per- formance. He was practicing in preparing himself to stand great heat; for Subbus, who was very hot inside, was to swallow him. “When he had everything ready and had sufficiently proved himself against heat, he shoved his canoe out into the water. He then put his paddles into it. He also swung his sack of clamshell knives at his side where he could readily get the knives when needed. Then he got into the canoe and paddled out over the ‘banks.’ ” “You know,” continued the guide, “Subbus lay on the bottom of the sea and drew the water down through his mouth with such force while sieving it to get something to eat that a great whirlpool formed from the surface of the 72 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE sea down to his mouth, a maelstrom of monstrous propor- tions. Kwatte knew where the feeding ground was and steered his canoe directly for it. As he proceeded, he sang: “ “Here Iam, Subbus. Here I come. Here Iam. Come, swallow me. Here I come to your mouth. Swallow me.’ “As he neared the swirling waters, his canoe began to swerve first to one side and then to the other; but he kept paddling first on one side and then on the other with well balanced strokes to steady it and keep it in its onward, for- ward movement. At the same time he talked to it telling it to keep steady, not to turn over, but to keep straight ahead with even keel. To the very edge of the great funnel it went. Its prow went forward and projected over the great hollow space above Subbus’ mouth. For a moment it re- mained suspended in mid air. Then it went down endwise, straight down through Subbus’ mouth into his stomach with Kwatte lying snugly in its bottom. He was inside, now, to to do his work, ‘“‘He used the big canoe as a ladder or steps to climb upon. On it he climbed to its top in the huge stomach. Then he began to cut with his clamshell knives, cutting at the inner linings and muscles. From side to side he moved his canoe and cut and cut and cut. The infuriated monster was felt to plunge and pitch in his agony, but he could not get rid of his enemy. At last he made one powerful, terrible lunge. Then he rose to the water’s edge and floated on the surface dead. Kwatte had killed him. Since then it has been safe to fish in these waters.” By this time we were nearing Flattery rocks off the In- dian village of Ozette. As we approached these islands, the suspecting birds gathered over us and soared about, screeching to try to scare us away, being fearful lest we would destroy their young. We proceeded. As we did so the Indian guide assured us that the birds’ screeching was the cryings and wailings of the beings that the rocks had once destroyed. He further assured us that the birds were the returned spirits and that each rock was once a mon- PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 73 strous living being in whose powerful and gigantic mouth even whole canoe loads of people were swallowed down, canoe and all, at a gulp. We neared the island we sought to ascend first, tacking our canoe as we came close to it. The canoemen then shoved the craft up to the foot-rock, which shelved somewhat out to sea from the almost perpendicular wall of the island which extended heavenward over one hundred feet. Then by a “swinging” of the boat backward and forward in a side movement with the waves, we jumped from it onto the foot-rock and briskly scampered up the island before the next wave struck us. Soon we were on top of the island. And such a horrible noise as the birds did make; and who could blame them? From time immemorial their home had been sacked by cruel man. But we were not there for that purpose. The poor birds, however, did not know this. The shrieking of the mothers scared the young and they even jumped off the rocks and perished. We looked over the island and made an estimate of the birds. We also dug up a few of the burrow- ing fowls to be sure that they were denizens of the place. But the birds did not take to our intruding on their do- main. An angry mother petrel spat on us and a sea parrot ruined my coat with her powerful beak while I was trying to photograph her. Leaving this rock we went over to the Indian village and were lucky to encounter a medicine performance of the old type. An old medicine man was dipping his hands in water and doing a crude massage on the sick one. It seemed to be a case of heart trouble. Finally the medicine man took his pocket knife and cut out the skin in a circular ring about as large as a saucer over the heart region. Then he began to suck on the afflicted parts with his protruded lips as the blood besmeared his face. Suddenly he jumped to his feet as he gripped his hands tightly together and exclaimed: “T’ve got the ‘Skukum.’ I’ve got the sick.” He then showed us some hard, black substance of considerable size between his fists. It was something black; but what? This the doctor burned in the room fireplace and the patient was well at once. 74 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE After a half hour’s stay at this village, we left for another group of islands to the southward. At about four o’clock we came to Carrol Islet; and as it had trees on its top we ascended it. Reaching its top, we prepared to stay there for the night. Also one of the Indians took the canoe ashore and dug up some clams; and we had a clam bake for supper. That night we slept in the open air and thought we had the place all to ourselves. But not. The night birds found us, the owls, hawks, petrels and parrots. We were strang- ers. We were trespassing and they were not slow to tell us so. The petrels got so close to us that I caught one of them with my hands. We slept but little till the night birds re- tired at the coming of the dawn. It was eight o’clock before we awoke. To sharpen our appetites after we arose, we went to the northeasternmost part of the island. There we examined some birds’ nests and took a few pictures. Then we de- scended down a ledge as far as we could safely go on the footing at hand. But our desires were not satisfied. Far below us was a ledge in hogback shape extending as a bench out from the main body of the island. This was covered with sea birds and their young. Birds by the hundreds were there. We got a rope from our boat and slid down it to the bench. And such a “Niagara” of birds followed. They swooped off the narrow ridge in one continuous stream. We ventured not on the land projection farther than where we first landed, lest we might cause the young birds to commit suicide by dumping themselves over the cliff. But we got some excellent pictures, both of young birds and of the wor- ried mothers. We then returned to the top of the island again. It had been evident to me that the islands were the jotting remains of promontories and headlands of the coast ad- jacent and I called the attention of my colleagues to the fact, as we were breakfasting. To our surprise, our guide spoke up saying that that was easily explained. He continued: “Our people have a myth which explains the origin of the islands, promontories and headlands as follows: It was long ago when people were animals and animals people, PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 75 Kwatte was then still living on earth. He had his house on the beach near here; but he did not get hardly anything to eat, for the wolves of the region prowled the coast, caught the salmon, ate all the berries, and devoured all the animals of the woods, and gulped down all the fish eggs that floated ashore. What was Kwatte to do? One day the chief of the wolves came along up the coast. He came to Kwatte’s house. Kwatte pretended to be sick. The wolf came in. He made himself at home. Kwatte let him stay. That night he made his bed in Kwatte’s house beside Kwatte’s fire. Soon he was fast asleep. When he had been asleep for a con- siderable time he began to snore. He snored loud. This was Kwatte’s opportunity. He would now ‘get even’ with the wolves; and he would also have some meat to eat. He got his knife; looked at it to see if it was good and sharp; then, finding it in good shape, he went to the mat on which wolf was sleeping and severed that animal’s head at one blow. He then skinned the carcass and hung the skin up above the fireplace to dry. He then stored the meat safely under his bed and went to sleep. “The next morning, bright and early, a wolf came track- ing his chief up the beach. He tracked him to Kwatte’s house. He entered the house. Said he to Kwatte, ‘Did you see Chief Wolf? Kwatte answered, ‘No, Iam sick. I have not been out of my house. I have not seen him.’ ‘But he came to your house. We tracked him here,’ protested the wolf. While Kwatte was talking, the wolf’s slave, the blue jay, _ had gone over to Kwatte’s fire to warm himself. As he was spreading his hands out before the fire, a drop of something fell on the upper surface of one of his hands. At once he perceived it was a kind of oil. He smelled it. At once he recognized it to have the same smell as the smell of his master. He said nothing but went out of the room. The oil had dropped from the skin that was drying. As soon as he was out in the yard, however, he told all the wolves what he had discovered; many wolves had not followed the tracks to Kwatte’s house. The blue jay was crying, mourning the death of his master. The wolves all rushed into the house. Kwatte had anticipated trouble and had hung a basket of 76 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE combs near the door. As the wolves entered he made a quick move, seized the basket of combs, and before the wolves had time to lay hands on him, he sallied forth out of the door past them and into the woods nearby and then down the beach. The whole pack of wolves then followed him in hot pursuit. Time and again they nearly overtook him. But as they were just in the act of seizing him, he would take a comb out of the basket and drop it down on the beach in front of them, thus forming a point of land projecting from the mainland across the beach into the surging surf with some of the isolated teeth jotting up above the waves as islets. The wolves, of course, were compelled to climb over the promontories thus formed. Many of them they climbed over; but finally they gave up the chase. But Kwatte kept running till he had stood up all his combs on the beach.” After we had eaten our breakfast, we started to the Jag- ged Island group. Here we landed and climbed up the jag- ged rocks to the summit of the highest island. There we found many birds of the Cormorant family, also some Murrs. The mother cormorants flew away at our approach; but the murrs stood their ground and tried to protect their young till we even picked up one of them. But the young cormo- rants were a pitiable sight. With wings fluttering and mouths open, they panted, expecting their necks to be wrung. As we were looking at the birds, our guide called our at- tention to the fact that a herd of sea lion were basking in the sun on the farther end of the island we were on. So we hastened to see them. We crawled over the rocks so as to make the least possible noise. I finally got within twelve feet of a large male. He was sitting on his lower extrem- ities like the fabled mermaid, while he was moving his head from side to side as he bellowed continuously. Near him was a female scratching her head with one of her “flippers.” Other males were roaring and shaking their shaggy heads; cubs were playing, and females were basking in the sun. Some one in our crowd “hallooed” and a stampede of lions followed. They rolled, tumbled, slid into the water and were swallowed up by the waves; and nothing was left us but the bare rocks and the frightened birds. PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 77 That afternoon we went on to LaPush and spent the night in the Indian village there. It was on a Sunday, and that evening we went to the Indian “Shaker” meeting, a Christ- ian service of the crudest type. There in a tightly closed room we saw the shakers performing. Candles and a cross were to view. But the services! A big, fleshy woman was chanting, ‘‘Hi, hi, hi’ and all—some seventy, were vigor- ously stamping the floor as they waved their hands in gyra- tory motion, shrugged and contorted their bodies, wried their faces and muscle-trembled in a self-hypnotic condition till the perspiration poured down their practically nude bodies and formed in pools on the floor. And by this per- formance these simple hearted people expect to gain en- trance into heaven? On the following day we visited Point Granville and the rocky islets adjacent. Among the latter is “Split” rock. To our surprise, our remarks about this particular rock brought forth another myth in explanation of its origin from our resourceful guide. Said he: “In the long ago a brother of Subbus lived in Quinaielt lake, and once when Kwatte and his brother Ko- fish were journeying over the earth, the latter ventured out on the lake and was swallowed by Subbus. Discovering what had happened, Kwatte heated all the rocks in the vi- cinity and, constructing a huge pair of tongs, he hurled them into the lake till the water became boiling hot and Subbus floated on top of the water, dead. Kwatte then cut him open and secured Kofish, alive, but wished a moment later that he - had left him to perish, as he had been changed into a hermit crab, the father of all the hermit crabs of our day. Dis- gusted at the sight of his deformed brother, Kwatte hurled the tongs into the deep, tong-end up. They are the split rocks you see. Kwatte then seated himself on that rock yonder facing the setting sun, and, drawing his mantle up over his head in hood-shape, he turned to stone. There over- looking the bay he sits with his face toward the land of the hereafter.” Completing our cruise, we returned to our respective homes, but the memory of what we saw will indelibly re- main. 78 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE The scenery of the region is unsurpassed. Below timber line,except in some prairie districts, one sees and is engulfed in the stately timber. The immense size of the trees strikes awe to the newcomer. Furthermore, the hidden vales and unfrequented hillsides beckon the nature lover to partake of the unmistakable “call to the wild” and its sylvan beauty. To take an ocean trip as we did and visit the hundreds of points and islets that jot above the pounding, surging surf, one sees the broken effort of the land to stay the onward march of the destroying tide. On the islands he sees the homes of thousands of birds, mostly sea species, and hears their warning-fear calls, as his craft moves about here and there. He also sees the sea lion glide off the rocks into the water on his approach. He leaves his boat and climbs about on the stepping stones of the continent. From them he looks out over the deep, blue waters which occasionally take on a tinge of emerald and sometimes a glow of amethyst. He mounts Carrol Islet (275 feet in elevation) in his jour- neying, as we did, and is greeted by a “Niagara” of murrs fleeing from him in their fright. He mounts the highest point on the island and takes in the world about him. To the southward he can discern the dim outlines of Destruc- tion Island with its precipitous coast and “reefs of destruc- tion”; also the low sandy beach and the rugged rocks of the southward curving coast line which extends as far as the eye can see. Added to this view is the almost impenetrable evergreen forest which covers the entire coast; while here and there can be seen curling upward from some settler’s cabin a column of black smoke. To the east in the immediate vicinity-foreground there rises precipitously out of the wav- ing waters the forest clad, benched coast; and farther on the serrated tops of the hills rise higher and higher until their mantle of green gives place to a coverlet of glistening, eternal snow, and the summits of the white-robed, snow- capped Olympic Mountains are lost among the fleecy clouds of the azure blue above. To the west the salmon, sea lion, seal, porpoise, and whale jump and play at the surface of the waving waters, and the ships of the world pass to and fro. On every side all objects are pictured in the most deli- cate tints which seem to magnify them rather than subdue them. PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 79 PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE BOGS OF NORTH- ERN ILLINOIS PROF. W. G. WATERMAN, NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY It is a fact not generally known to the public at large and even to the botanists of the state that in Lake County there are several bogs, small in size but possessing the character- istic vegetation and conditions of similar formations usu- ally found much farther north. While these bogs may have been mentioned in local statements, so far as known to the writer, no technical description of them has appeared in print. This report is based on a superficial survey with the expectation of a more detailed study of environmental con- ditions and a discussion of suggested problems later. So far seven bogs have been located and it is probable that there are others, although the conditions necessary for the production of bogs may be found only in Lake County and not in other parts of the state. These seven bogs are all within the limits of the Valparaiso moraine which is characterized by a soil consisting of clay or gravel, fre- quently containing a large percentage of calcium carbonate, and having an uneven topography, originally with many knobs and kettle holes. Most of these depressions have been included in the drainage systems of the rivers of the region, but a section in western Lake and eastern McHenry Counties on the divide between the Fox and DesPlaines Rivers still contains a few poorly drained or undrained de- pressions, and it is in these that the bogs are found. It is probable that bogs were formerly very numerous, as indi- cated by the many patches of deep peat shown on the soil map of Lake County, although of course peat is formed by swamp vegetation as well as by bog plants. These bogs are interesting, first, as furnishing the only specimens of bog types of vegetation to be found in Illinois, and second, as an illustration of the method by which many of the patches of deep peat have been formed. As these bogs are found in Lake County approximately from ten to twenty miles west of Lake Michigan, the gen- eral climatic conditions are similar to those of Chicago and vicinity, but on the whole probably more extreme, and of 80 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE course the average temperature is colder than that of the rest of the state. The vegetation in these bogs would be ex- posed to cold northwesterly winds on the approach of cold waves, as they are far enough away from the lake to lose any tempering effect from those waters. The vegetation of this region was originally the prevailing Oak Hickory forest of Illinois, so that the patches of tamarack trees found in the bogs make a very striking contrast to the trees inhabit- ing the rest of this region. DESCRIPTION OF INDIVIDUAL BOGS. 1. Cedar Lake Bog.—Cedar Lake is located in Section 32, T. 46 N., R. 10 E. It is about three-quarters of a mile long and half a mile wide and is roughly oval or pear-shaped in outline, with its longest diameter extending north and south. The water is shallow over most of the lake, but ac- cording to local testimony a rather deep basin is found in the north central portion. The shores show evidences of earlier stages of high water, three or four feet above the present level, under which conditions the waters of the lake had an outlet through a channel which apparently passed just northeast of the present railroad station, as its banks can still be traced in a southeasterly direction to another small lake called Mud Lake. The vegetation on the ridges surrounding the lake was originally typical oak hickory forest with large numbers of red cedar trees on the more ex- posed shores. These forests have been almost entirely cleared away with only a very open patch of forest remain- ing on the upland northeast of the lake. The bog lies in the form of a crescent in the north end of the lake. It is separated from the shore on the north by a stretch of shallow water one to two hundred yards across containing grass hummock formation. At either end of the crescent the swampy space is narrow and partakes more of the character of the typical moat of open water which usually surrounds a bog. With the rough apparatus avail- able, there was found to be a depth of at least ten feet of water under the mat in the center of the bog. The bog con- sists of a quaking mat whose framework is made up of the roots of dwarf birch, blueberry, and cranberry with filling of sphagnum moss and also marsh marigold, buck bean, cot- Fig. 1. Young tamaracks on immature bog on Cedar Lake. one nena ee Fig, 2. Very mature bog near Allandale Farm. showing dead and dying tamaracks. Fig. 3. Bog near Volo from the south. showing swamp, oak-hickory remnant on knoll, and tamaracks. Fig 4. Edge of tamarack forest in bog near Volo. Swamp sumach in foreground. Fig 5. Northern portion of bog near Volo, showing mature moat. blueberry heath and tamaracks. Fig 6. Mature bog near Wauconda, showing old shore line, swamp. shrub zone and tamaracks. PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 81 ton grass and other bog plants. There are frequent open- ings in the mat of from six inches to two feet in diameter which contain floating mosses of spirogyra. At the west end of the bog near the Allandale farm is an elongated cluster of young tamaracks containing about fifty trees, none apparently more than fifteen years old. There are also one or two isolated trees of about the same size near the center of the bog. Fig. 1. The bog is of local importance economically because of its annual crop of cranberries. These plants grow luxur- iantly and produce many berries, but on account of the un- stable charav. +r of the mat, many people are afraid of ven- turing on it. Within the last five years at least one horse and one cow have wandered out on the surface of the bog and have gone down in a soft spot and been drowned. From the features described this is apparently a very young or immature bog, and it would be interesting to know whether or not it has increased in extent within the memory of man. Local testimony as to its history is somewhat un- certain but it seems probable that it has not increased much in size in the last fifty years. It is agreed, however, that the tamarack trees appeared rather suddenly about twelve to fifteen years ago. 2. The Allandale Bog.—About five hundred yards west of Cedar Lake and northwest of the Allandale farm is a ket- tle hole of low relief, the center of which contains the re- mains of a small bog. This was artificially drained about ten years ago, but was evidently very mature long before the draining. The bog lies about fifteen feet below the sur- rounding upland, is oval in shape and about two hundred yards in its longest diameter. The substratum on the soil at this depression is peaty but solid, though soft and water soaked in a wet season. The slopes surrounding the depres- sion were originally covered with oak hickory forests and here also a few trees are left on the west side. The land between this depression and Cedar Lake was cleared a num- ber of years ago. In the depression the vegetation is very mixed. There are still standing the dead trunks of several large tamarack trees eight to ten inches in diameter. Fig. 2. 82 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Testimony is lacking as to whether or not these died before the artificial draining of the bog. Ilex verticillata and Pyrus arbutifolia are abundant, and a few clumps of sphagnum have been found on the floor. On the other hand the pres- ence of several more mesophytic families including Osmunda regalis and Aspidium spinulosum, also Solanum dulcamara, and even Maianthemum and one or two small trees, includ- ing oak and mountain ash, indicate that the bog was mature and conditions had become quite mesophytic even before it was drained. 3. Volo Bog.—The depression in which this bog is sit- uated is located near the center of Section 28, T. 45 N., R. 9 E., about one and three-quarters miles northwest of the town of Volo. This depression also is oval with its largest diameter north and south and with two connecting valleys or extensions, one to the southwest and the other curving around to the northwest and west. The depression is ap- proximately three-quarters of a mile in length by one-half mile in width. It is surrounded by ridges of morainal gravel averaging about fifty feet above the floor of the valley, and like Cedar Lake the surrounding slopes show evi- dences of lake erosion at a previous stage of high water. The depression drains from the southwest corner into Sul- livan Lake situated about a quarter of a mile distant. The south end of the depression has a level floor of glacial clay, in one place rising into a hillock about one hundred yards in length by fifty in breadth covered by an open stand of oaks, mostly white and ellipsoid. Fig. 3. This clay floor is covered with water to a depth ranging from one to three feet at different seasons. The vegetation is pronounced tus- sock formation with scattered Betula pumila and occasional clumps of willow. This formation covers approximately one-third of the depression and gives way rather suddenly to a mature tamarack forest bordered by a shrub zone con- sisting of chokeberry and swamp sumach. The latter is es- pecially prominent and forms the largest growth of this shrub which the writer has seen in this region. Fig. 4. The floor of the tamarack forest is still slightly quaking and the undergrowth is made up largely of sphagnum and cran- berry with frequent pitcher plants and some blueberries. PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 83 Passing north through the forest, the pitcher plants, swamp sumach and cranberries gradually decrease and the blue- berries increase. The northern part of this bog originally held a tamarack forest, but the trees have been cut with the exception of a narrow fringe on the east and northeast and the whole northern third is now a blueberry heath of perhaps twenty or thirty acres. Fig. 5. The floor is composed of peat but is rather solid with occasional wet spots, and the dominant types are blueberries and chamaedaphne with occasional ledum and a shrub zone of chokeberry and occasional swamp sumach around the outside. A small pond is reported in the center of the bog but the writer did not have time to ascer- tain its shape, size or other characteristics. On the north- west side of the bog, the swamp formation from the south narrows down and changes decidedly in the character of its vegetation. A belt of shrubs and small trees is found next to the tamarack forest, and between this and the shore is a stretch of equal width covered with sedges and grasses. This extends to the northwest corner of the depression, but the tree zone seems to have been less extensive toward the north consisting mostly of willows and has recently been entirely cut away. The original oak hickory forest of the upland has been almost entirely cut, but there are some patches remaining on the hills to the southwest and northwest as well as the clump previously mentioned on the morainal knoll in the swamp. There was little opportunity to study the environmental factors of this bog, but tests of acidity of the substratum show it to be neutral for the tussock formation and for the old moat on the west, of moderate acidity for the floor of the tamarack forest and of the blueberry heath, and of a slight alkalinity for the morainal slopes. 4. Wauconda Bog.—This bog is situated in the south- west quarter of Section 25, T. 44 N., R. 9 E., on the southern outskirts of the town of Wauconda. The general shape and location of the bog is similar to that of Volo, with a grass 84 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE association on the south, a tamarack forest covering about half of the depression and the remains of a moat on the north. The substratum in general is drier than that of the Volo Bog. The valley sides also show evidences of a previous stage of high water. Several years ago an attempt was made to drain this depression into Wauconda Lake to the north, but it was abandoned because there was not sufficient difference of level to enable the bog to drain into the lake. Fig. 6. The floor of the depression is much drier than that of Volo and the vegetation is more advanced. There is no sign of quaking in the forest floor. The pitcher plants and sphag- num are very few and other more mesophytic plants have come in, including at least three young oaks. Two other tamarack forests were observed to the north- west of Volo Bog, but they have not yet been visited. From reports they seem to be of the same nature as those of the Wauconda Bog. They will be visited as soon as possible and included in the final report. This paper has attempted only to describe the location and general features of the bogs so far discussed and vis- ited. There has been no attempt to discuss the problems presented as there has not been opportunity to observe the necessary data for such discussion. Work along these lines is now being carried on and will be reported later. Two features at least may be noted, first, that these bogs apparently represent very different stages of maturity, ranging from the Cedar Lake bog which is very young, to the adjoining Allandale pocket which is the most mature of those observed. Secondly, the condition of Cedar Lake bog suggests very strongly the probability that it is of rather recent origin—perhaps much later than the end of the glac- ial period. If this can be proved, it will overthrow the present opinion that all of the northern cold bogs are direct relics of glacial invasion. Fig. 1. Young plant with numerous juvenile shoots, Fig. 2. Detail of plant showing branched juvenile shoot. PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 85 NOTE ON JUVENILE LEAVES IN THUJA OCCIDENTALIS Pror. W. G. WATERMAN, NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY The specimen described was obtained in the course of some experimentation on juvenile leaf production in Thuja occidentalis, suggested by some unpublished work by Doc- tor Land of the University of Chicago. Land reported that he was able to produce juvenile (needle) or adult (scale) leaves by varying the moisture condition of the air sur- rounding the young plants. Among the specimens being studied were three plants each about three years old which had been placed in dry conditions. These in some way were overlooked, and when noticed again one was dead, the second nearly so, and on the third about half the branches had died. This third plant was revived simply by furnishing abundant water to the soil in its pot. The dead branches fell off, and new juvenile shoots appeared in many places on the main stem and branches. Fig. 1. It is generally known that the seedling of Thuja consists simply of one elongated tuft of rather soft needle leaves. In the second year this elongates and usually one side branch appears and bears scale leaves. These scale leaf branches increase in numbers in succeeding years but for a number of years the end of the main axis bears the needle leaves, until it is finally lost sight of and presumably fails to con- tinue growth after the tree increases in size. It has been noticed that young shoots coming out at the base of the main stem in conditions of strong shade and moisture will usually be of juvenile type. In this case, juvenile shoots appeared in great numbers on all parts of the plant and one in particular, shown in Figure 2 has branched, but both branches bear juvenile leaves. In observing the specimens collected for this work, it was noted that there was considerable evidence of individual specificity in the production of juvenile shoots, individuals producing them rather freely, when apparently similar individuals under similar conditions produce only scale shoots. The specimen before its partial desiccation had 86 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE shown a notable tendency in this direction, one of its lower adult branches having four side branches tipped with juve- nile shoots. No definite conclusions can be drawn from this observa- tion, but it is interesting to notice that extreme production of juvenile shoots followed resuscitation after at least par- tial killing of the young tree; that the conditions usually regarded as favoring the juvenile shoots were not employed in its resuscitation; and that this plant had always showed an unusual tendency toward the production of juvenile shoots. PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 87 A PRELIMINARY KEY TO SOME FOREST TREE ROOTS Pror. W. B. McDOUGALL, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS During the past several years the writer has had occasion to dig up and examine large numbers of tree roots. It has been necessary also to know what kind of roots were being examined in each case. This sometimes has involved hours of hard work, for in the woods where the roots of numerous trees are intermingled it is sometimes necessery to trace a root for a considerable distance through the soil in order to determine to which particular tree it belongs. It early became apparent, however, that there are characteristic dif- ferences by means of which some kinds of roots may be distinguished from certain other kinds. The recognition of this fact led to an attempt to learn the distinguishing char- acteristics of the roots of the genera that were most fre- quently dealt with, and finally to utilize these characteristics in the construction of a workable key. It is obvious that a key based on the characters of a single member of the plant cannot be so completely satisfactory as one based on the characters of the plant as a whole. This would be true whether we were dealing with roots, stems or leaves. Yet either stems or leaves might be classified into groups on the basis of readily recognized characters and such classifications might prove very useful in case no other members of the plants were available. Likewise it is true of roots that while it would be impossible to identify many plants by the roots alone yet having learned root character- istics it is easy, for instance, to tell that oak roots are not maple roots. The following key and descriptions are offered, then, not as a finished product nor in the hope that it will enable workers to recognize readily all of the roots considered at all times and under all conditions. They are offered rather as a beginning of an effort to differentiate the roots of woody plants and in the hope that since the scheme has proven of use to the writer it may also be of some service to others. It is entirely possible if not probable that in some instances I have failed to fix upon the most dependable 88 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE character and that further study will reveal other char- acters that may be used to greater advantage. It should be said too that the characters as used apply primarily to the superficial layers of soil to a depth of about one foot since the mycorrhizal characters would not apply, as a rule, to the deeper roots. The characters of which most use is made are the pres- ence or absence of mycorrhizal structures, the colors of the root bark and the relative size of the ultimate or smallest branches. The appearances of the various types of mycor- rhizas has been described in a previous paper.! Although living ectotrophic mycorrhizas are usually absent from all trees in late spring and early summer, yet in case of trees which habitually produce mycorrhizas there is nearly al- ways abundant evidence of them in the dead coral-clusters of mycorrhizal roots. The color of the bark that is taken is the color just within the surface after the dirt and the out- ermost surface layer have been scraped away by means of a blunt instrument such as the edge of a garden trowel. The size of the smallest branches of the root systems of various plants varies greatly in different species and is rea- sonably constant. The smallest roots of some trees are very coarse, those of others very fine and those of a third group are intermediate in this respect. An intermediate size of roots does not make a good key character but it has been possible in the following brief key to use this character only in those cases in which the roots are either conspicuously coarse or fine. Other characters that are used in the key are the colors of ectotrophic mycorrhizas, the odor of the roots, the pres- ence or absence of endotrophic mycorrhizal ‘‘beads” and the presence or absence of stiff brown root hairs. The first two of these characters are obvious without any explana- tion while the endotrophic mycorrhizal beads and the thick- walled root hairs have been described in earlier papers.” 1. McDougall, W. B.—On the Mycorrhizas of Forest Trees. Am. Jour, Bot. 1:51-74. 1914. 2. McDougall, W. B.—loc. cit. and Thick-walled root hairs of Gleditsia and related genera. Amer. Jour. Bot, 8:171-175. 1921, — oe PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 89 KEY eee.” SVCOTEMEERS - REVMETIIRTEE oe oe aos . = Sp oa Sea ae ens Rama «dni nc AA—Ectotrophic mycorrhizas infrequent or lacking.......................--- ee WO cn ccdamancuace camenas Carya ovata a - oe Be ee ee Carpinus earolimiana .............-- 2. eh — A NII a lees eral nian rare a Sl m HS Rm ws id es ps i ws Si een weve a Remi ace Cc. C—Mpycorrhizas usually white—Quercus rubra and Q. muhlenbergii.......... = CC—Mycorrhizas usually brown—Tilia americana ...............2.e.ceeeeees 4, We ee ee ee ee eee E. Ee — PAPO: TGC EIEAN PACKINGS. O68 cca cs ccde ute casvedcusddoudvanucmesam at G. 1 er Ee ee. aad ie ss haem ee AS (DIM ANA oo Sola hake cea 5. ee —E PTESEIRS. So Ge cc cine Oe eee acelen CAaAryaA GOOHGrns on ooo ccnwe nn oewes 6. here oP Gio 20 ts Se, I Sa ae eels aanedennene ebesaceates F. F—Ultimate branches fine—Celtis occidentalis ................. 2. cece cece eee 4 FF—Ultimate branches coarse—Aesculus glabra ...............ee cece eee eees 8. G—Endotrophic mycorrhizal beads present ...........-. 2.2 cence eee eeeeee Acer—9. GG—Endotrophic ‘mycorrhizal beads lacking ................ccescccccccceces H. in eet SaGl inti WeHeNe hor ce 3. eo. eee eee ca gu kh kann cine bce cane IL. eS -hrowih, Font naires Jerking: ..2 262550 ssc aces ee ecncececwscrecunea oben K. “Ultimate branches fine—Cercis camademsis .............ccc ccc ceececccccecs 10. ernie. Rarer tae) COATHE Som. 68 oe ee ena oe adic ma muicteinnepint hp we neene J. J—Root hairs numerous—Gleditsia triacanthos ................. cece cence eee 11. JJ—Root hairs not numerous—Gymmocladus dioica...............0cee ee ee eeeee A: B-— Hoots: with oder of walnmis—Juslans “.. 5.2. coca cc ccwaccuswenudssedeecwa 13. a Sa a ee a ene oer re eee L. Eanes Graucies fixe—-Morns: alba - <2. <2 oo. 655 ccs eed acccccdeccceanas 14. Se Stninte pREAHENCS OREN eon sd. cok aa & an oawca de awe coast chee M. es eee ek eens ATSOBG = os eos os cc wk cl ocuccosacWesscucuauccevunaccd 15. MM—Bark brown—Benzoin melissaefolium ...............0ccceeeseececcecees 16. MMM—Bark whitish .................... EME. San ania ele dole a nae eOe 17. 1. Carya ovata (shag-bark hickory)—Ectotrophic my- corrhizas abundant, often yellow but sometimes white or brown. Ultimate branches moderately fine. Growing tips soon becoming brown. Bark distinctly red when scraped. The general appearance of these roots is similar to that of red oak and basswood but they are distinguished from the latter by the red color of the bark. 2. Carpinus caroliniana (blue beech) — Ectotrophic mycorrhizas abundant, usually white. Ultimate branches moderately fine. Growing tips soon brown. Bark yellow when scraped. Distinguished from oak, hickory and bass- wood by the color of the bark. 3. Quercus rubra (red oak) and muhlenbergii (yellow or chestnut oak)—Ectotrophic mycorrhizas abundant, more often white though sometimes brown. Ultimate branches moderately fine. Growing tips soon becoming brown. Bark distinctly brown when scraped. 4. Tilia americana (basswood)—The roots of the bass- wood very closely resemble those of the oaks. It is difficult in most cases to distinguish them. The difference noted in the key is that the mycorrhizas of basswood are more 90 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE often brown while those of the oaks are more often white but it must be admitted that this is not a constant or de- pendable difference. 5. Ulmus americana (American elm) — Ectotrophic mycorrhizas present but usually not abundant, usually light brown in color. Ultimate branches fine. Growing tips whitish but soon becoming brown. Bark brown when scraped. 6. Carya cordiformis (pignut hickory) — Ectotrophic mycorrhizas present but not abundant. Ultimate branches intermediate in size. Growing tips creamy white. Bark creamy white when scraped. 7. Celtis occidentalis (hackberry) — Ectotrophic my- corrhizas present but not abundant. Ultimate branches very fine. Growing tips whitish, usually rather short. Bark yellowish when scraped. 8. Aesculus glabra (buckeye)—Ectotrophic mycorrhizas present but not abundant. Ultimate branches very coarse. Growing tips soon becoming gray. The older bark is easily peeled off in flakes or layers, the outer layers being soft and punky. Bark yellowish, sometimes tinged with pink. 9. Acer saccharum (hard maple), A. saccharinum (sil- vermaple) and A. rubrum (red maple) —Ectotrophic mycor- rhizas lacking. Endotrophic mycorrhizal beads present, usually more abundant and conspicuous in the soft maples than in the hard maple. Ultimate branches intermediate in size. Growing tips remaining whitish for some time. Bark brown when scraped. 10.. Cercis canadensis (red bud)—Mycorrhizas lacking. Ultimate branches fine. Growing tips whitish. Thick- walled root hairs present but not abundant. Bark light tan when scraped. 11. Gleditsia triacanthos (honey locust) — Mycorrhizas lacking. Ultimate branches coarse. Growing tips soon be- coming brown. Thick-walled root hairs very abundant. Bark light brown when scraped. PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 91 12. Gymnocladus dioica (coffee tree) — Mycorrhizas lacking. Ultimate branches coarse. Growing tips whitish but soon becoming brown. Thick-walled root hairs present but not abundant. Bark dark tan when scraped. 13. Juglans nigra (walnut) and J. cinerea (butternut) —Mycorrhizas ordinarily lacking. Ultimate branches in- termediate in size. Growing tips rather dark gray. Roots when broken or crushed having a distinct odor of walnuts. Bark yellow when scraped. 14. Morus alba (white mulberry)—Mycorrhizas lack- ing. Ultimate branches fine. Growing tips yellowish. Bark yellow to orange when scraped. 15. Asimina triloba (pawpaw) — Mycorrhizas lacking. Ultimate branches very coarse. Growing tips dark brown. Bark black when scraped. 16. Benzoin melissaefolium (spice bush)—Mycorrhizas lacking. Ultimate branches coarse. Growing tips light brown. Bark dark brown when scraped. The spice bush never becomes a tree but it is included here because it occurs very abundantly along with the trees considered. 17. Fraxinus americana (white ash) and F. quadrangu- lata (blue ash)—Mycorrhizas lacking. Ultimate branches coarse. Growing tips dull white. Bark creamy white when scraped. 92 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE FOREST CONDITIONS IN ALEXANDER COUNTY, ILLINOIS R. B. MILLER, STATE FORESTER, AND GEO. D. FULLER, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO INTRODUCTION Among the reasons for selecting a portion of Alexander County to exemplify the forest conditions of southern Illinois accessibility is the most important. The Mobile and Ohio railroad traverses the eastern side of the county and the Illinois Central and Missouri Pacific the western edge. The fact that the northern portion has been topographically sur- veyed and mapped in the Jonesboro quadrangle and that a soil survey of the area has been made, although the results have not been published, made a forest survey more practi- cable. A further reason for its study is that both the “Ozark upland,” or hill country, and the alluvial flood plain are well represented. The area included in this preliminary survey is limited to that part of the county included in the Jones- boro quadrangle and extends six miles southward from Union County and 15 miles eastward of the Mississippi, and includes about 82 square miles. Two-thirds of this is up- land and the remainder in the flood plains of the Mississ- ippi and Cache rivers. These plains range in elevation from 332 to 344 feet, while the hills reach an elevation of 800 feet above mean sea level at two or three points. GEOLOGY The eastern and more elevated portion of the area under consideration is immediately underlaid by rocks of Devon- ian age. The most recent are those referred by Savage (1) to the Early Mississippian and named by him Springville Shales. These andthe underlying Devonian shales are known locally as “Calico Rocks” and are thus designated by Worthen (2) in an early account of the geology of the county. They are mostly gray to greenish rocks which on weathering become variegated and mottled in various shades of brown and red. In places in the vicinity of Elco these shales have become strongly silicified and are worked as PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 93 gannister and used in the manufacture of fire-brick. Such mines are to be seen near Cauble School, Sect. 1, T. 14 S., R. 2 W., and near Elco. Below these shales are the sandstones and limestones of the Middle Devonian. The most conspicuous of these is the Clear Creek chert referred by Savage to the Ulsterian or Middle Devonian series. This has a total thickness of 300 feet and consists in large part of layers of more or less de- composed chert or in places in the upper portion of alter- nating layers of chert and limestone. From this formation most of the silicon in Union and Alexander Counties is ob- tained, while portions by decomposition form a white plastic clay or “kaolin.” A silicon mine is now being operated at Delta. A quarry near Tamms exposes a vertical cliff of 180 feet which is largely composed of chert. The Lower Devonian is represented by some limestones of the Helderbergian series seen within our area only in the river cliff between McClure and Gale. They are in contact with other limestones of Silurian age called the Sexton Creek formation. This consists in the lower part of a hard gray limestone in layers 4 to 8 inches thick separated from one another by 2 to 4 inch bands of chert. On the top is a bed of hard, fine-grained pink or mottled limestone in rather thick layers. It is well shown in the east bluff of the river, one and a half miles east of McClure and also along the valley of Sexton Creek. It varies in thickness from 16 to 79 feet. In the northern part of the county there seem to be no rock exposures of formations older than the Sexton Creek limestones, but near Thebes are outcrops of Girardeau lime- stone. This Savage (3) places lower in the Silurian and refers it and the overlying Silurian limestones to the Alex- andrian series because of their exposure in Alexander County. It is a dark, fine-grained, hard, brittle rock and has a total thickness of about 35 feet. The oldest rocks in the county belong to the Ordovician and are the Thebes sandstone and the Kimmswick limestone. The former, a reddish brown arenaceous rock some 75 feet in thickness, is favorably exposed just south of the village 94 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE of Gale along a railway cut. The latter, occurring below the sandstone, is seen along a railway cut about a mile south of Thebes where it has a maximum thickness of more than 82 feet. It is mostly a light colored, coarsely crystalline limestone, its layers varying in thickness from a few inches to 4 or more feet. It is often called ‘‘Cape Girardeau Marble.” TOPOGRAPHY The main lines of drainage are those of Sandy Creek and other small tributaries of Cache River along the east and southeast, Sexton Creek at the southwest and small branches of Clear Creek at the northwest. So complete is the dissec- tion (Fig. 1) that none of the uplands show flat areas more than 14 miles across and only the largest stream has a flood plain or terrace of greater width. In striking contrast the Mississippi flood plain is so nearly level that drainage is very imperfect. SOILS According to the classification adopted by the State Soil Survey the soils of the hill region belong to the upland tim- ber types. The chief material of these soils is a fine wind- blown loess of considerable depth somewhat mingled, par- ticularly upon the steeper slopes, with residual soil formed by the disintegration of rocks in place. This soil is very fine in texture, only moderately fertile,and with slight variations it covers most of the upland area. From its color it has been termed red-brown sandy silt loam. Along the streams, con- stituting the floor of the “Hollows,” it passes to a light brown sandy silt loam. These silt loam soils are readily eroded both by surface washing and by gullying. The soils of the flood plains of the rivers are mostly rather heavy clay loams varying from gray to drab and black. They have a high water-holding capacity and when properly drained are valuable agricultural lands. FOREST TYPES In a report on the forests of Illinois, Hall (4) has recog- nized for the southern portion of the state two classes of forest types, those of the upland and those of the bottom- land. This classification may in general be followed while at the same time it must be recognized that the various PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 95 types and their subdivisions merge into one another by gra- dations that are often almost imperceptible, presenting degrees of difference that are quite impossible to discuss or map in a preliminary survey like the present study. In gen- eral two principal upland types may be distinguished, differ- ing very considerably in response to water supply and ex- pressing this response in varying degrees of density and richness as well as in the tree species present. Distinguish- ing these types by their principal trees, they may be desig- nated as the upland oak and the beech-maple forests. The bottomland forests may be divided into three types termed respectively the streamside, the flood plain or “bottom” and the cypress swamp forests. UPLAND OAK FOREST This is developed upon the hill tops and along the more exposed slopes, particularly where the soil is poor and thin. It is dominated by various species of oak, the black oak, Quercus velutina, being most abundant especially upon the more exposed situations, while the white oak, Q. alba, abounds in more favored situations. There are smaller amounts of the chinquapin oak, Q. Muhlenbergii, of red oak, Q. rubra, and of two or three less abundant oaks. Other less important trees are the sassafras, the shagbark hick- ory, and the persimmon (Fig. 2). BEECH-MAPLE FOREST Upon the sheltered slopes and in the narrower valleys, particularly where the soil conditions are less severe, the oak forest passes into one dominated by beech, Fagus grandi- folia, and the sugar maple, Acer saccharum. In the tran- sition the first noticeable change is the disappearance of the black oak, the increasing number of red oaks and the in- vasion of the sugar maple. In addition to the species men- tioned, there is also found the tulip tree, Liriodendron tulipifera, the black cherry, Prunus serotina, the red oak, Q. rubra, and about two species each of hickory and ash, while among trees of second size the Judas tree, Cercis canadensis, the pawpaw, Asimina triloba, and the hop horn- beam, Ostrya virginiana, are most abundant. On account of the extreme dissection of the upland it has been found to be impossible to indicate upon the map the distinction 96 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE between the two types of forest. In general the oaks are confined to the tops of the ridges and the gentler slopes, while in the ravines and at the bottom of the slopes the beeches and maples are found, hence both types are included under ‘“‘upland forests” (See Map). BOTTOM OR HOLLOW FORESTS These are developed along the major lines of drainage of the upland region in the wider creek valleys often called “hollows” e. g. “Dongola Hollow” and “Happy Hollow.” As these stream terraces and flood plains afford the largest tillable areas in the hill country, they have been almost com- pletely cleared and hence only small fragments of this type remain. It was typically composed of such species as black walnut, Juglans nigra, the elms, Ulmus americana and U. fulva, the sycamore, Platanus occidentalis, the gums, Nyssa sylvatica, Liquidambar styraciflua, and the white ash, Fraxinus americana. STREAM SIDE FOREST This begins with the black willow, Salix nigra, developing at the water’s edge and passes gradually into the bottom forest. The species that may be regarded as characteristic are the willow, the cottonwood, and the river or silver maple Acer saccharinum. In the narrow valleys occupied by the creeks very little stream-side forest is seen on account of the steep gradient, but it fringes the Mississippi and the smaller streams crossing its flood plain, and is found on many of the islands. CYPRESS SWAMP FORESTS The development of this forest is limited to depressions in the lowlands constituting the flood plain of the Miss- issippi River. As indicated by its name, it is characterized by the presence of the bald cypress, Taxodium distichum. Associated with the cypress is the tupleo, Nyssa aquatica, and with the filling or draining of the swamp the soft maple, Acer rubrum, the ash, Fraxinus americana, the pin oak, Quercus palsutris, and other species from the bottom forest appear. GENERAL FOREST CONDITIONS Practically none of the forest is in primitive condition, except small isolated areas on very steep slopes. On the » PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 97 other hand much that has been mapped as forest has been so completely cut over that no merchantable timber re- mains, nor are the trees suitable for fuel sufficiently numer- ous to pay for the labor of cutting and hauling. The major portion of the wooded area is, however, in various stages culled forest (Figs. 3 and 4). The remaining stand often consists principally of small white and black oak with beech, maple and other less important species along the ravines. Where cutting has been done and grazing is not too heavy such pioneer forms as the sumachs, sassafras and persimmon are reestablishing a forest of inferior compo- sition. The general history of timber cutting has been, according to the testimony of those connected with the lumber trade for the past 30 or 40 years, that the tulip was cut first and that its cutting was most active during a decade extending from 1880 to 1890. This was quickly followed by a period during which the more valuable oak was cut, particularly the white oak. As soon as the larger oak was cut the smaller was utilized for railroad ties, and this cutting for ties has continued to the present, receiving a fresh impetus during the past few years during which beech has also been ac- cepted for tie timber. Throughout this period there has been the usual cutting for posts and for fuel in addition to that for lumber. The topography and the forests have exercised a marked influence upon the character of the population. The set- tlers are almost exclusively whites of mixed American stock. Upon the larger valleys along the line of the railroads the farms are moderate in size and the housing and living conditions show the moderate thrift of the small farmer (Fig. 5). Onthe contrary along the smaller streams like the branches of Sandy Creek, Dongola Hollow, Happy Hollow, etc., the farms are very small and relatively unproductive, while the houses and living conditions are decidedly primitive (Figs. 6 and 7). Considerable portions of the wooded uplands are in hold- ings of 200 to 800 acres. These are usually but lightly grazed, the principal object of the owners being to hold 98 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE their land for the timber. This has made “squatting” a common practice in the past and one that has not entirely disappeared. Many deserted squatters’ cabins are to be found in various stages of decay, while a few new ones have been erected during the past half decade and are now oc- cupied. The areas that have been entirely stripped of forest are the broader flood plains such as those of the Mississippi and Cache Rivers, the floors of the “hollows” and creek valleys and the tops of the hills. These have not only furnished the most accessible timber but have offered the only available land for agricultural purposes. The Mississippi flood plain has been very completely cleared, with the exception of some islands, such as Devil’s Island, that are rather inac- cessible and about which levees, such as those protecting the mainland, have not been built. Such islands are largely covered with low flood plain forests. There are also some imperfectly drained areas, such as those of Sections 14, 15 and 22 in Clear Creek Township, that are still covered with a culled cypress forest. The cleared and drained flood plain makes valuable farming lands. The level portions of the “Hollows” or creek valleys are too narrow for anything except decidedly small farms and the soil is generally poor in quality. The cleared hilltops have decidedly small areas of level soil, the water supply is deficient, they are isolated, and al- though the soil is fairly good they cannot afford more than decidedly poor opportunities for general farming. The most notable clearings of this sort are those of Dago and Vick Hills in Sections 4 and 10 of Delta township (see map), and portions of Sections 30, 31, 32 and 36 of the same township. Considerable portions of these areas con- sist of abandoned fields that on account of gullying have proved unsuitable for tillage. The approximately 80 square miles included in this report consists of 2 square miles of the Cache River flood plain, 28 square miles of Mississippi flood plain and 50 square miles of uplands. Of the latter less than one-third has had any attempt at cultivation, and an area of at least 35 square PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 99 miles is unfit for any sort of agriculture. This is mostly in forest and “brush” and its economic utilization presents a series of most troublesome problems. Most of the forest has been culled and very little virgin woodland remains. Many of the cutover hill sides are in forest that shows little tendency towards the production of a valuable stand because it is being grazed and bush fires run through it so often that the most valuable species are killed and it is becoming changed into a black-oak hickory type, since sprouts of these species are more resistant and light conditions favor their introduction. Areas with better standing timber also show the effects of fire and grazing so that little or no reproduc- tion is found (Figure 2). It would be no exaggeration to say that one half of this 80 square miles is quite unsuited for anything except the growth of forests and yet scarcely a square mile is in good productive condition, while no at- tempt is being made to improve its productivity. Further it is evident that similar conditions prevail throughout the most of the hill region of southern Illinois. Woop USING INDUSTRIES A. VENEER INDUSTRY The region under discussion lies between two consuming centers for veneer logs, one at Anna, Jonesboro, Cobden and Alto Pass using about a million and a half board feet every year and one farther south, at Karnak and Cairo, Lllinois. At Karnak we have a very large plant operated by Main Brothers who specialize in material for egg and other crates while at Cairo more “hardwood” logs are worked up into veneers for sewing machines and furniture. The term “veneer” covers wood in thin strips or slices used for berry boxes, hampers, tomato and egg crates, for a cheap form of “package.” Hardwood logs, such as oak, can be put into sawed veneers which are glued over another cheaper wood, as in veneered furniture; or so-called “‘soft- wood” logs, such as elm, sycamore, red and black gum, maple, beech and tulip, can be veneered by the rotary pro- cess for packages which are very essential in the fruit, berry and vegetable trades. There is a good market for both varieties of logs in this region and the bottomlands are 100 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE pretty well combed for “softwoods” for these purposes, such logs being either hauled to the mills or loaded on cars at the railroad. In making sliced or rotary cut veneers from logs they must first be steamed for from 12 to 24 hours, depending upon the species, after being cut up into bolts from two feet to six feet in length. After steaming, the bolt or short log, is spanned in a sort of lathe and turned past a large sta- tionary knife which may take off a continual roll like a sheet of paper or short pieces like these on the sides of hampers. There may be considerable waste in this process, due to twisted grain, splits, frost cracks, seams, knots and other defects in the logs, but with perfect clear logs the number of square feet of veneer which comes off is considerable. Waste material, except the cores, which are used for pulp wood by some mills, may be used to fire the boilers. To un- derstand all of the processes involved it may be necessary to take up the description of the making of different classes of veneered packages. (a) Bushel Baskets to Contain Fruit At present the main wood used for this purpose is black gum as it makes a nice white basket. For the top hoop of the basket oak was formerly used but now good ones are made from black gum, soaked before being bent. To make these hoops, which give strength to the top of the basket and over which the cover fits, logs are sent into the mill in lengths of five feet, two inches. They are split into boards 7% of an inch thick with a band saw, with a kerf of 1/16 of an inch so that there is very little waste. These boards, after slabbing, are run through a machine with a series of small circular saws, like a lathe machine, which splits the boards into strips of the suitable thickness for bending. The main part of the basket, called the “‘web,” is made by hand by laying strips on a circular form and join- ing them at the center. These “webs” are then sent to an automatic machine which turns out about five baskets per minute. Wire handles are also put on automatically from wire in rolls and the basket is ready for the cover. Baskets are dried outside on an open porch and the loss in drying is very small. PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 101 (b) Hampers In the case of hampers which are used for shipping vege- tables such as sweet potatoes, the staves are veneered, each one being 24 inches long. The bottom is made out of two half circular boards joined together with a staple, these bottoms being made out of the “cores” left by the circular veneer machine. It will be understood that when the logs are clamped in the machine and revolved for the taking off of the hamper staves, that a core is left in the center which may be six inches in diameter. These are split with saws and this is the material used for the bottoms of hampers and berry boxes. Hampers are made on automatic machines, the staves be- ing fed into the machine with the two narrow flexible strips which after being stapled will hold it all together. Good operators when speeding up with these automatic stapling machines can turn out 150 hampers per hour. Another form of package turned out by the mills and in large demand for shipping peaches and tomatoes is the popular four basket crate, the baskets nesting in a sort of box made from ve- neered strips, while some turn out small baskets used for shipping cantaloupes and cucumbers. (ec) Egg Crates Main Brothers, Karnak, Illinois, specialize in the manu- facture of egg crates or cases, the woods used for that pur- pose being mostly black gum and cottonwood. Most of the veneer mills find it profitable to have a saw mill in connec- tion so that they can put some logs into lumber, and Main Brothers are large producers of cypress lumber. (Fig. 11.) The Present Tendency in the Package Industry and Necessity of a Local Supply of “Softwoods”’ for Veneer Purposes. Since Southern Illinois is a fruit and vegetable country, we believe it to be very essential for the prosperity of those industries that there should be a local supply of bottomland timber, such as elm, sycamore, cottonwood and gum, for the making of packages for shipping fruit and vegetables. This is a point which we believe those companies adding to their acreage of orchards are not appreciating as they should. 102 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Some of the local veneer mills now see only a five years’ supply ahead of them, which means that when supplies of this kind are shipped from more distant points that the ship- per will have to pay more for them and this will have to be _charged up to the consumer. It is the old story of “Jones, he pays the freight.” There has been a big advance in the price of “knocked down” material for fruit and berry boxes, and barrels have reached such a price that their use for apples is almost prohibitive. This means that more fruit must be shipped in smaller veneered packages and that we will not buy in as large quantities as heretofore—again a greater hardship on the consumer. Col. Greeley cites the fact that the supply of lumber for boxes is getting to be a very serious matter with the citrus growers in Florida. They use 12,000,000 boxes yearly, each requiring about 5% board feet of lumber, while the shippers of garden truck require about 13,000,000 board feet ad- ditional. With the rapid exhaustion of Southern pine this may in a few years work great hardship to the citrus in- dustry. The same thing, we believe, is of importance in Southern Illinois and should lead men who do not need these wet bot- tomland tracts for farming to save them, since growth is rapid and there should always be a good market for the faster growing varieties of wood in the form of logs for veneer. There is also a chance to use such Jands as game refuges without seriously interfering with their devotion to timber growing, a fact which will interest our sportsmen friends whose lakes and ponds have been taken over for agriculture. Some of these bottomland woods in the vicinity of McClure also contain a considerable per cent. of cypress which will always be a valuable species, worthy of encour- agement wherever it occurs naturally. B. SAWMILLS The sawmills in this region may be divided into two main classes, (1) small portable mills which do contract sawing and (2) larger mills, owned by hardwood, coal or veneer companies. (1) Portable Mills. Up the hollows in Alexander County, at quite a distance from the beaten track, you will PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 103 find piles of sawdust and mill refuse indicating the former sites of portable mills, the timber having been “sawed out” and the mill moved to some other place. Again, you will see smoke drifting up from one of these same hollows, or at the mouth of it, which proves to be from one of these portable outfits. Many of these mills have been engaged in sawing beech ties or beech car stock, but in many localities the sup- ply of beech is getting pretty well exhausted. (Fig. 8.) The crew consists usually of four men, an engineer and fireman; a setter, since the mill is usually “hand set’; a sawyer, who is often the proprietor himself; and an “off bearer,” who takes away the boards and edgings. The mill has usually cable or “‘rack and pinion feed” and a circular saw of from 48 to 54 inches in diameter. The output under the best con- ditions would be about 4000-5000 board feet per day. Some- times these men purchase small tracts of timber at so much per thousand feet. Ties are sawed by the thousand feet and it takes about 31 or 32 railroad ties to make a thousand feet of lumber. The passing of the portable mill in such regions is a bad thing for the woodlot owner because it gave him a chance to have lumber sawed for farm buildings or for the market. The fact that there are so few portable outfits means that the timber is becoming exhausted and it is only occasionally that good tracts come into the market by the death of the older class of citizens who believed in saving their timber. (2) Larger Mills. Some of these are found on the Jonesboro quadrangle at Mill Creek, Ware and Vineland and they usually have a more modern equipment and a perma- nent location along a railroad. Some of them are equipped with band saws and haul in logs with auto trucks from bot- tomland tracts which have been purchased. Sometimes they buy land and timber together and after cutting the timber sell the land for farming purposes. Usually they are located on a railroad and can fill special orders for ties or car stock and with considerable land to draw from can build up quite a little community in the small town where they are located, giving work to many laborers and team- sters. Very often veneer companies having a tract of con- 104 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE siderable size will operate a mill back in the woods, sawing up there into lumber any logs which are not large enough or clear enough to be hauled to town to the veneer plant. (Figs. 9 and 10.) C. RAILROAD TIES The production of sawed ties has been mentioned under sawmills, the majority of sawed ties being of beech which go to the creosoting plants for preservative treatment. Hewed ties are made in the hills, mostly of black and white oak or in the bottomland timber after the larger trees have been removed down to a diameter of about twelve inches breast high, the tie men taking trees under this di- mension. In the latter case we found almost any species be- ing taken except cottonwood. The specifications for ties were as follows: No. 1 6” by 6” face 8 feet long. No. 2 6” by 7” face 8 feet long. No. 3 6” by 8” face 8 feet long. No. 4 7’ by 8” face 8 feet long. No. 5 7” by 9” face 8 feet long. Prices received for ties varied from $1.00 to $1.90 de- livered at the railroad, the latter price being paid for a No. 5 tie, without much distinction being made as to species, since most of them are now given a preservative treatment, even white oak. The price paid for hewing in the fall of 1919 varied from 30 cents each for a No. 1 tie up to 50 cents for a No. 5 tie. Two men usually worked together, main- taining a small temporary camp. There are quite a number of smaller trees of inferior species being cut for mine ties and motor ties, such species as mulberry, sassafras, ash, hickory, persimmon and mixed oaks being accepted, some being surfaced on only two sides, the price delivered being about 25 cents each. Hauling of ties is done on wagons, and for a six mile haul teamsters with a team were receiving about 20 cents each and could haul about 25 or 30 larger ties at a load. Taken all around, we may say that the hills of Alexander, as well as Union County, are capable under proper management and protection of producing large quan- tities of ties on land much better suited for timber growing than any other purpose. cat ARATE a oe: wo h my Vv a on 33 oe Ss ok 223 a3 o o cma fea) oe) le: ‘so -owH ogo 2» no a O Moher ss OD go & onal ae g 55 Les | One Bue ow oOo w ous oH GD a2 Oo & = o P| - et ° S | A port 1 ig. F topography of the northern houses confined to the stream i- =| [=] Oo ua Ee 9 oy 4 og Sg = r4 c 3 my) aa Ma rs oo 9 bp wh = & ae oO ad a m8 BS w 3 >) id o | ia) Ss % w Lar— Ht?) ee! ee Me wh, eee a chee Nae ee AES = het uv | Las) he 2 A nant and reproduction Fig. have w | n Ce) a re) - i wh he 0 a =| bs | " : me 2 ~ © Ch oo P- i ~ wet ky <.e wn — ie | o a — = on bas = —i-))) oo ee ~ ~ ~ bP he > 8 > & — a) wow S) =] =] at ~) 7“ 0 al So on A CY) .& bb fay v a= Fig. 4. An upland area that has been cut over and is now occupied by a low scrub. Fig. 5. The border line between the flood plain and hill country in Alex- ander County. Note the cleared and cultivated plain and wooded hills. gles fam sonar Md Fig. 6. A typical squatter’s house and farm quite shut in by forested hills. Fig. 7. The home of the owner of a small farm in Ripple Hollow, Alex- ander County, Illinois. Fig. 8. Type of portable saw-mill used in the region for sawing beech railway ties and lumber. Fig. 9. Logs at a veneer mill in the yards ready to be cut into bolts for veneers. Fig. 10. ss cut into bolts and ready for the preliminary steaming process before being sent to the veneer machines. air seasoning under sheds. PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 105 A FORESTRY POLICY FOR THE FUTURE In discussing a forestry policy for this region we might divide the forested lands into three classes: (1) the smaller woodlots; (2) large tracts held by coal companies, silicon companies, sand and gravel concerns, or coal companies; (3) those timber lands in the bottoms in organized drainage projects which are subject to overflow and may not come under cultivation for ten or twenty years. 1. Woodlots and Their Treatment. Professor Frederick Dunlap, of the University of Mis- souri, at a recent Forestry Conference at the Union League Club in Chicago, mentioned a situation in the southern Ozarks of Missouri which seems to find its counterpart in Alexander County. He described the valleys of the hill country as being narrow so that the farmers in the winter made quite a large per cent. of their living from woods ope- rations, carried on in the hill land. With the timber be- coming scarcer the portable mills move out of the region, people who found employment in the woods leave and with scarcity of pupils the schools become depleted, with short terms. Those who do remain in the hill country find their main chance for winter employment gone with the rapid disappearance of the timber. This shows a relationship between forestry and com- munity welfare which does not exist in the Mississippi bot- toms where the entire land is agricultural or destined to be cleared. Farmers having woodlots should not be too eager to encroach upon them for pasture or farming but should see that fires are kept out and that they are handled with an aim to future timber production, both for direct returns in money and indirect returns in preventing erosion, storing up water in the hills and making stream flow more regular. Farming of these patches in the woods must be attended with small profit after the superficial richness of the soil is exhausted and the fields are abandoned to erosion or allowed to go back to woods. 2. Policy to be Pursued by Owners of Large Tracts. Timber Land Acquisition by the State In the hill country we find tracts of considerable size, up to 1000 acres, held by silicon and gannister companies, and 106 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE by sand and gravel companies. In walking through such tracts, signs of old and recent fires are seen, and it would seem to us to be good policy for these companies to protect - their lands against fire even if the greater values do lie be- neath the surface. Such companies might form cooperative fire protective associations to good advantage, increasing the value of these surface holdings by better handling of their tracts and at least by fire protection. Where private companies do not take an interest in the protection of the timber on such tracts, it would seem to us to be good policy for the state to purchase the timber rights after a careful examination and forest survey, protect them from fire, carry on improvement cuttings and thinnings which might afford a small revenue at times and hold them as a future timber supply and protection forest. Some of these tracts from which the larger trees have been removed for lumber still have a potential value and in twenty-five years might produce a considerable amount of tie and saw timber. This has been mentioned several times by timber men in this part of the country so that I do not believe the acquisition of such tracts at a reasonable price to be at all a fanciful proposition and it would assure another cut of timber in twenty-five years; whereas if left in its present condition repeated fires will change the composition of the forest from white oak, tulip and beech to an inferior one of black oak and hickory with inferior growth capacity and hence low value. 3. Bottomland Which Might Grow Another Crop of Timber Before Being Needed for Farm Crops There are occasional ‘“‘forties” and sometimes tracts as large as 160 acres in drainage projects which contain fine timber, such as sycamore, elm, maple, hackberry, and white, pin and bur oak, that are subject to periodical overflow, making their value doubtful when cleared for agriculture. In one such virgin tract an elm was measured which was 30 inches in diameter at a height of-4%4 feet above the ground, with a merchantable length of 42 feet and it scaled 921 board feet by the Doyle-Scribner log rule. One bur oak was measured which was 15.1 feet in circumfer- ence at a height of six feet above the ground, while a soft PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 107 maple scaled 1173 board feet. This will show to what size timber grows in some of these rich bottomland forests of which we have only an occasional example. Very often in such tracts as this bayous are found con- taining stagnant water in the summer, which indicates that drainage after clearing may be unsuccessful and that such tracts, after taking out the larger timber, might be left for a second crop. The ordinary procedure is to take out the larger trees for logs, after which the makers of railroad and motor ties come in and clean up the remaining species, such as elm, soft maple, hackberry and sycamore while leaving a fair number of these smaller trees on the ground might insure a future crop. After the logging of cypress we have many acres where black gum comes in, and if the stand is sufficiently opened up to the light, the cottonwood and the willow. We have been informed by men who own large tracts of this land that it might not pay to raise cottonwood on a twenty year rotation on account of the high drainage tax which must be paid, in addition to ordinary taxes, al- though it might pay to grow willow, on a shorter rotation. Willow is used to some extent in Illinois for charcoal, for gunpowder, while cottonwood is now finding a sale for soda pulp. Charcoal can be made near the source of supply, but so far there are no soda pulp mills in Illinois to afford much of a market for cottonwood. It would seem that working for such industries to be established near St. Louis to use the cottonwood and other bottomland species suitable for charcoal and soda pulp so as to make a better demand for these species would be good forestry and just as essential! as working for fire protection, better sylvicultural require- ments or reforestation. Southern Illinois offers good op- portunities for something of this kind due to rapid growth of the species mentioned, and the chance to utilize the smaller material from thinnings for mine timbers, mine and motor ties, and other similar purposes. 108 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE LITERATURE CITED Lem Savarenlagts The Devonian Formations of Illinois. Amer, Jour. Sci. 49:169-182. 1920. 2. Worthen, A. H. The Geology of Alexander County. Ill. Geol. Sury. 3:20-32. 1868. 3. Savage, T. E. The Faunal Succession and the Correlations of the Pre-Devonian For- mations of Southern Illinois. Til. State Geol. Surv. Bull. 16:302-341. 1910. 4. Hall, RL G: ‘and Ingall; ©: D: Forest Conditions in Illinois. Bull. Ill, State Lab. Nat. Hist. 9:175-253, pls. 21-36. 1911. UNION CO BOUNDARY x = TS Seg , ‘ ai CSS SSSR SSS SSNS i a CINE AS SSOSSOSS SSS SSS SSS SSA 77 ASSESSES SS ESS SSS SSS, if SSS SSS So BaISSonNSss ISS SSSY | SS" KSSSS Poads Secondary Railroads Streams Intermittent Upland Aiver Bottom Cypress Swomp Roads Streams Forest Forest Forest WOODLAND la NORTHERN _ ALEXANDER COUNTY, I// Scale —/inch =/mile PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 109 GROWTH AS RELATED TO SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND SIZE OF SEED* MARY E. RENICH TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Co Cin ep ee i ee ete a eee Ane eerie 109 il. Materials and Methods: 1. Selection and Separation of Seed Used...........-0eee0- 112 Fe IONE COL ASCCUINUE: «a2 om,. win acms aes bierminis «aber ate | Ill. Discussion: 1. Relation of Growth to Specific Gravity of Seeds, at 25°C.... 116 SEA Ee) OTe SE SR Ee ee pee ener ee 116 Seon Sant Gallagtes o ce oo ees eRe dk Sc omuios oaidekesee« oe cle 119 2. Relation of Growth to Size of Seed at 25°C.............- 122 3. Temperature in Relation to Specific Gravity and Size BE ASECU eee ae Re as oan nate bse skis SER ae eS 124 4. Some Comparisons of Seedlings in Water and Soil........ 126 5. Equation of Growth. .... ...2...02. 052.2 ceccsceceensescccs 126 6. Correlation of Weight and Position of Cotyledons.......... 126 SO ge a eee ee errr eer 127 ER ee So eee bs 2 scm sil pe Go she ods a Swink eps dain s ohin'nna'ek 130 eWSP ENNIS 5 ccc cou isc oa wd sae vise ss e'es Bt sec en nenaiiene 6s 132 MRA ee Nee See oe ke ee ses oni 1d vem caneine eee eeee cite 133 EE SRE I ee oe ialac o cosio'nsh te ooe Soles oe sake Jim ele wie kw e's cielo 111 I. INTRODUCTION The influence of the size and of the weight of seed on the resulting crop has been a subject of investigation for many years. The evidence gathered from the literature in this field seems to show that large, heavy seeds give the best re- turns. A considerable number of investigators find that their results are rather conflicting. Dehérain et Dupont (4) maintain that it is only when the difference in the weights of the seeds used is great, that there is a definite advantage in favor of the heavier seed. Meyer, C. H. (18) says that the question of advantage in the use of large and small seeds as associated with yields is inconclusive. Leighty, C. E. (11) condemns the method of selecting the largest seed without consideration of the char- acter of the mother plant; and Love, H. H. (12) concludes from his results that the heavy grains of wheat and oats come from the tallest and heaviest yielding plants. Johann- sen, W. (9) in his work on inheritance of weight shows that, in a population of beans, the heaviest daughter-beans *This paper is the thesis,somewhat condensed by the omission of several tables, submitted by the author in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. 110 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE are the progeny of the heaviest mother-beans, but that in a pure line this is not necessarily true. DeVries (5), on the other hand, thinks that the size and the weight of seed are primarily the result of nutrition, in the broad sense, rather than the result of inheritance. In so far as specific gravity is concerned, another series of experiments has been carried on. Haberlandt, F. (6) found in working with wheat, oats, etc., that the denser grains yielded the heavier returns in grain, and that the less dense ones yielded the greater amount of straw. According to Wollny, E. (17) the absolute weight and not the specific gravity is the only true index of the value of the grain. Clark, V. A. (2) found that, except in the case of oil bearing seeds, the larger number of good seeds is near the upper limit of the specific gravity for the variety. He concludes, however, that specific gravity is of less import- ance than size in seed selection. While each of these fields has been investigated by many workers, a few have considered the combined effect of size and of specific gravity in seed collection. Among the latter is Sanborn (16). He sorted wheat according to size and then separated the large grain into two groups by the use of a brine solution. The yield from his lighter grain surpassed that from his heavy grain. Degrully, L. (3) in working with corn, discarded all the very small and poorly formed grains. He then separated out the lightest one fourth by means of a sodium nitrate solution. He states that the dif- ference of the results in favor of the heavy grain was re- markable. Practically all experiments have been carried on under field conditions. They have had for their chief aim the in- fluence of specific gravity and of size of seed on crop pro- duction. A few tests have been made by Kiesselbach and Helm (10) to find the relation of the “sprout value” to the yield of small grain crops. The term “sprout value” is de- fined by the authors as, “The moisture-free weight of the maximum plant growth derived from the seed when planted and grown in a non-nutritive quartz medium and in absolute darkness.”’ 111 PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE CMM MMM MACE COMMU WAU UL AVVO: CALEY LEB OLD VAVUAY > WUD WAULLL UL UAW Vs Uh CRU eV LUAU WAVY UAW VA Ma YUU), MODUL UAL LLU UL UUU CWURUWLU EWLOB YL YRMAOMETL YL GUM LR Yh VEVVAYRL OLE BBD Os WAU MLM, YAW UAW UL, DDT DUIS Vi Ud YN PRG eialeeicaty es Bly gj OCULAR BUT WA LULU WB, WOULD UB CAUAYU Yh, UCB LLIDUD TLL LLY, WUOLCLBDUAYMLY, mec LARGE 2345 LARGE nan (2 tC PY LL | eae LALLULKULAAGL AOL UAVLAULUE DASA COOMBE LA VBR VULVA LWIA UV UULUDU TULA UMN OA Ws CAAA WAU AOA Vs. WAV VL UDN A bs Vash a tl, ppt ptt iis SS NES POEL UH 06 60K 81968 OIEED OSE 908 POEL ORI OR ON WE “Aes AUC BD OOD YB VITAE MIG Vo Bae UM AUAYAULT Ais Ma AMA WUMUUUUULL ALLL Oh, WOOO CC BBE WUUAUAUAU Uh. SW!MMAAYALLULAMW OTA Ab YLOMUTID VOT CAUULTDD OUATAT hs WCVB AB GAY, Ace MEDIUM Fees MEDIUM 123456 SMALL (aSase SMALL DUBRBABBBLY, UUWUUMAUAUAWUAYE WHO v 40 eHLGawaNny OUUTETDDOUWILUUAU PLT Piri iri a Ws) Wyud v JO CH.LGIYaNAH J FPP ee LEE ALAMO OVA WU Uh 4% GROWN IN WATER - 25°C. GROWN IN sow - 25°C a = i A ac 2 am ~ 9 i 2 & a > i a Wd o t (c $ = AVERAGE DRY PLANT WEIGHT For SEEDINGS. aka WLM VMs Ms UYU LULL A, MM ae Vinh Le kee ULLMAN A UA ULULMMMMAUYLLM MIA mites bn rot COVULULM AYU) VM alll tt, RELL VE: MM Msobevoriconms cll. Lp WN Wh ee LPL VAM HE: | ies Mee geuute GLEE ELL Men evs LYLE RMSE OLE MGM LLM MYL MAM VM UU DOULA A LLL Whi UMMA MMA UM hs Un (Hi: LLL TL EE YUMMY OODLE BELA N SOURS LM MULLS Ul CLL We OOM RUE EE LLL Wi UE sebrbyystion ollie Way EDR DOLL EE a OCCU OOK parce hacioneev copes LN NL ¢ LARGE MEDIUM Ls becom PBS eb ¢ MUAY Ne Yiyy hess Z eee Ley iy CRUSTY fl a La ddddaiddiddda ase SMALL MEDIUM CLO ELT IAL COLAO MELE BOLLE OWMLT LOOPY Mt a ES 4 HW Lddididathia uid diddddddiddéa ee GROWN IN Sait -25°C. SMALL AVERAGE SHOOT HEIGHT For SEEDLINGS. GROWN IN WATER - 25°C pects AVERAGE SHOOT HEIGHT FOR SEEDLINGS. DENSITY SIZE DENSITY SIZE 112 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE The problem of finding how much growth, due solely to the reserve food in the seed, will take place in seedlings from seeds separated according to specific gravity and to size has not, as yet, been studied. The solution of this problem is the object of the experiments here recorded. II. MATERIALS AND METHDOS (1) Selection and Separation of the Seed Used. The common garden bean because of its ready adapt- ability to laboratory conditions was chosen for these ex- periments. In the spring of 1919, ten pounds of Burpee’s Red Valentine seed of the season of 1918 were divided ac- cording to their specific gravity into six groups. This separation was made by means of solutions of chemically pure sodium nitrate dissolved in distilled water. A prelimi- nary test showed that few seed sank in a solution of 1.32 specific gravity, or floated in one of 1.12. The solutions used consequently range from 1.32 to 1.12 specific gravity. They were prepared with the use of a Twaddell hydrometer, corrected for 60° F., and both seeds and solutions were kept at this temperature while testing. The solutions made up differed from each other in specific gravity by .05 and, in use, were not allowed to vary by more than .005. A few seeds were placed in a small tea strainer, dipped into 95% alcohol to remove the air film and then transferred to a larger strainer immersed in a solution of sodium nitrate of 1.32 specific gravity. The seeds which floated were re- moved by a second small strainer and they as well as the ones which sank were rapidly and thoroughly washed, and spread out on towels in a warm room to dry. The ones which sank, after drying, were stored in glass jars for future use. After all the seeds had been passed through the solution of greatest density (1.32 sp. gr.), those which floated were taken in a similar manner through the solution next lower, solution of 1.27 sp. gr., ete. By this method six groups of seeds were obtained. These groups are designated in the discussion and in the tables as follows: Density 1, seeds which sank in a solution of 1.32 sp. gr.; Density 2, seeds which sank in a solution of 1.27 sp. gr.; (range from 1.32—through 1.27); HSH i inet ae / ee Hy | sesss3 TTY = Hue uti rasa: HEHE owess aesus alas om ce + euezs srsssses SSeet reese eases Pre EEBeaa: Pitt apensenes: wes =a: suse: =eeEE a: reses errr rsss: ine Susudscess seacarsepasessas anuge issas SSeassases iniesseses . eewessuree 88075 1s88s 2: ia SRL, pau : tH Fo a. iiran a _ L a ob . a ae _ a oe ye Ll | ne rr Ne ~ |. |. Hee | | a _ a oo a . is : a | en a el PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 113 Density 3, seeds which sank in a solution of 1.22 Sp. gr.; (range from 1.27—through 1.22) ; Density 4, seeds which sank in a solution of 1.17 sp. gr.; (range from 1.22—through 1.17); Density 5, seeds which sank in a solution of 1.12 sp. gr.; (range from 1.17-through 1.12) ; Density 6, seeds which floated in a solution of 1.12 sp. gr. By this method the seeds were exposed to the solution but a few seconds and, as germination and growth tests showed, suffered no harm from the process. The seeds passed through the successive solutions varied in length from 8.3 mm. to 18.5mm. These were divided into three groups of the following respective lengths: Large seeds, range in millimeters from 18.5 to 15.1; medium seeds, range in millimeters from 15.1 to 11.7; small seeds, range in millimeters from 11.7 to 8.3. (2) Treatment of Seedlings. Twenty-four seeds of each group were individually weighed and measured. Twelve were placed in beakers of sphagnum, the others were planted, one quarter of an inch below the surface of the soil, in small flower pots. In put- ting the seeds to germinate, the micropyle end was always placed down thereby avoiding unnecessary curving of the seedling. The beakers and the pots were kept in covered metal cases at a temperature of 20°C during germination. When the seedlings in the sphagnum started to put forth secondary roots they were transferred to small aspirator bottles filled with tap water. This water is essentially a © nutrient solution as the chemical analysis given by the IIli- nois State Water Survey (8) shows. The seedlings were held in place by means of fine aluminum wire and by a sup- port which was fastened to the neck of the bottle. The bot- tles were then placed into the cases where they were left until the seedlings were ready for use. The water in the bottles was renewed on alternate days. When the seedlings were one or two centimeters in height, the pots or bottles were placed into rectangular metal cases consisting of a lower part fifteen centimeters in 114 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE height and a tall upper part which fits down over the former leaving an air space of one centimeter between the lower and upper parts. By this means all light was excluded but air exchange was not prevented. These small cases were placed in special large constant temperature cases designed by Professor Charles F. Hottes. The seedlings were re- moved from the cases daily, measured and watered. Dur- ing the period of measuring, approximately ten minutes, the seedlings were exposed to the light and to the temper- ature (20°C) of the laboratory. Seedlings deformed or otherwise abnormal were discarded. They were grown in series at temperatures 20°, 25° and 30°C. The large seeds, of which only a very limited number were on hand, were grown at 25°C only. All measurements were taken beginning two and one- half centimeters above the root origin. If the entire height of the shoot is desired, two and one-half centimeters must be added to the total height of the shoot as recorded in the tables. In those cases in which the cotyledons were not opposite, the length of the hypocotyl was measured to the insertion of the lower cotyledon. The length of the inter- nodes were taken from the lower part of one node to the lower part of the next higher or, in the case of the upper internode, to the growing point. A centimeter rule was used and the measurements were read to the nearest milli- meter. From the record of these daily measurements, the daily growth increments given in the tables were obtained. When a shoot showed no growth since the previous day its diameter, one centimeter below the insertion of the coty- ledons, was taken by means of a vernier callipers. The seedling was then removed from the soil or the water, the root was washed, superficially dried, and separated from the shoot. Then the fresh weights of root and shoot were obtained. These parts were dried to constant weight in an electric oven. All weights were read to the fourth decimal place. The data for the several series are given in *Tables 1 to 47. Data are given for individual seedlings grown at the temperature 25°C; for those grown at 20° and 30°C, the PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 115 data given consists of averages, taken in most cases from eight seedlings. In a few cases, where germination was poor, or seedlings were discarded because of abnormality or accident, the averages include a smaller number. Meas- urements of seedlings were taken to tenths of centimeters, but the calculation of averages was made to the third deci- mal place and are recorded to the second. III. DISCUSSION Daily observation of the seedlings made evident a strik- ing correlation between the amount and rate of growth and the specific gravity and size of the seed. So marked and regular is the correlation that it was possible, as a rule, to select the seedlings from seeds of certain densities and sizes by their general appearance. This was especially true for the seedlings from seeds of Densities 2 and 3, for these ap- peared more uniform in size and consequently in the rate of growth. They were also more sturdy and of a deeper yellow color than those from seeds of the lower densities. Now and then a group from Density 4 would be mistaken for those of the higher densities. This is apparently in agree- ment with the results that Degrully (3) obtained in his work with wheat. He found that the plants from the den- ser grains were greener, more vigorous, and, during their early growth, showed a great superiority over those from the less dense grains. Because of heavy rains, his plants of both groups suffered greatly from rust and he was unable to make comparisons of the final growth. A study of the data as recorded in the tables shows that the differences noted in the seedlings are not differences of appearance only. Because seedlings from seeds of all sizes and densities were grown at 25°C the *Tables 1 to 17 and 21 to 36 have the data given for individual seedlings. A comparison of individuals is not undertaken because that would lead to a study of individual variation. In order to show the su- periority of some groups over others, the groups will be compared in respect to their average, maximum and mini- mum values. Because of differences between the seedlings grown in water and those grown in soil each culture will be studied separately. 116 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 1. Relation of Growth to Specific Gravity of Seeds at 25°C, a. Water Culture. Size —A comparison of average values for the seedlings grown in water, at temperature 25°C can be most readily obtained by a study of Tables 18 to 20; for the maximum and minimum values, *Tables 1 to 17. An examination of the average values for the heights of the shoots shows that the greatest and second greatest aver- age heights of seedlings from seeds of each of the three size groups are for seedlings from seeds of Density 1, 2 or 3. These average heights are graphically shown in Plate I. In the hypocotyl and first internode no correlation be- tween average length and specific gravity of seed is ap- parent, but a direct relation does exist between these fac- tors in the second and third internodes, in that, the lower the density of the seed, the shorter the internodes. Fourth internodes developed only in seedlings from seeds of Den- sities 1 and 3. There is also a direct relation between aver- age diameter of seedlings and specific gravity of the seeds; the seedlings from the denser seeds are larger in average diameter than those from the less dense. In studying the maximum and minimum values of seed- lings from seeds of the several densities, *Tables 1 to 17 are used. For the small seeds, the greatest shoot height is that of a seedling from a seed of Density 5. The second in height is from a seed of Density 3. For the medium seeds, the three tallest seedlings of the series are from seeds of Density 3. The two tallest seedlings from the large seeds are of seeds of Density 2, the third tallest, from a seed of Density 3. As in the case of the average length of hypocotyls and first internodes so here, there exists no definite relation between maximum lengths of seedlings of the different groups and specific gravity of seed. In the second and third internodes, the maximum lengths for the several series are in every case, in seedlings from seeds of one of the three highest densities. There is a marked difference between the maximum lengths of these internodes in the seedlings PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 117 from seeds of the higher and lower densities. While in average values, the diameter of the shoot varied with the density, this does not hold true for the maximum values. With but few exceptions the minimum values for shoot height and diameter are found in seedlings from seeds of Density 5 or 6, usually the latter. From these comparisons we may conclude that, for seed- lings grown in water at a temperature of 25°C. (1) The greatest height and diameter of shoot are found in seedlings from seeds of Densities 1, 2 and 3; in Density 2 or 3 more often than in 1; (2) The lower the density, the shorter the second and third internodes. Weight.—That weight is related to density is clearly seen from a study of the tables. The average weight values are considered in Tables 18 to 20. In the case of the fresh weights of roots, shoots and plants for seedlings from the large and the small seeds, the three greatest average weights for each size group are found in the seedlings of the three highest densities. For the medium seeds, the highest average fresh root weight is in the seedlings from seeds of Density 4, but the second highest is in those of Density 1. The highest average values for fresh shoot and fresh plant weights for the seedlings from these med- ium seeds are in those of the three highest densities as was the case for the seedlings from the small and large seeds. The maximum fresh root weight for the small seeds is found in a seedling from a seed of Density 3; for the med- ium seeds from a seed of Density 4; and for the large seeds, from a seed of Density 2. The maximum fresh shoot weight for the small seeds is that of a seedling from a seed of Den- sity 1; for medium seeds, of Density 1; for large seeds, of Density 3. The maximum fresh plant weights for seedlings from the small and the medium seeds are for those from seeds of Density 1; for the large seeds, for one from a seed of Density 2. The minimum fresh weights are usually the weights for seedlings from seeds of Density 5 or 6. A better idea of the actual amount of growth can be ob- tained from the dry weights than from the fresh weights. 118 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE For the seedlings from seeds of each size group, the three highest average dry weights for roots, for shoots and for plants, are in the seedlings from seeds of the three highest densities. These average weights, however, do not vary directly as the densities, for the highest value is sometimes in seedlings from seeds of Density 3, sometimes in those from seeds of Density 1 or 2. Plate II represents the aver- age dry weights for the seedlings of each group. The maximum dry root weights for seedlings from the small, the medium and the large seeds are in seedlings from seeds of Densities 3, 1 and 2 respectively. The maximum dry shoot weights, and also the maximum dry plant weights are for seedlings from seeds of Density 1, for those from the small and the medium seeds, and Density 2 for those from large seeds. The minimum dry weights are, as a rule, in seedlings from seeds of Densities 5 and 6. From these facts we may conclude: (1) That, with the exception of the roots from the medium seeds, the greatest fresh weights are in seedlings from seeds of the three highest densities. (2) The greatest dry weights are also in seedlings from seeds of the three highest densities. Comparison of Weights.—There is little correlation be- tween the relation of dry to fresh weight and the specific gravity of the seeds. It is apparent, however, that in the seedlings from seeds of Density 3 the average percentage which the dry weights of root, shoot and plant is of the fresh weights of the corresponding members is as great, sometimes greater, than that of any other density. The average percentage which the dry plant weight is of the seed weight is always higher for the seedlings of seeds of Density 6 than for those from seeds of Density 1; in most cases it is also higher than for those from seed of Density 3. This higher percentage shows that although in size and weight the seedlings from the seeds of Density 6 are inferior to those of other densities, the seedlings from seeds of Density 6 appear to make the best use of the re- serve food in the seed. PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 119 Rate of Growth.—Not only is the amount of growth related to the specific gravity of the seed but there also exists a relation between the rate of growth and the spe- cific gravity of seed. Considering the rate of growth as shown by the daily growth increments we find that, in gen- eral, seedlings from seeds of the higher densities have a greater growth rate than those from seeds of the lower densities. The greatest average daily increment for the small seeds, 5.8 cm, was made on the second day after be- ing placed in the constant temperature case by the seed- lings from seeds of Density 6. For the medium seeds, the greatest average daily increment, 7.63 cm, was made on the second day by seedlings from seed of Density 3; and for the large seeds, an average daily growth of 6.85 cm was made on the third day by seedlings from seeds of Den- sity 1. The maximum daily growth increment of the seed- lings from small seeds is 7 cm, made on the second day by a seedling from a seed of Density 3; the maximum for the medium seeds is 9.3 cm, made on the second day by a seed- ling also from a seed of Density 3. For the large seeds, the maximum increment 7.7 cm was made on the third day by a seedling from a seed of Density 2. The average rate of growth often decreases more rapidly in the seedlings trom seeds of the lower densities and although the total height of the seedlings from these densities is less than that for those from the denser seeds, growth usually con- tinues for as many days as in seedlings from the seeds of higher densities. b. Soil Culture. The data for seedlings grown in soil at temperature 25°C is given in Tables 21 to 40. Tables *21 to 36 contain the records of the individual seedlings while the average values are shown in Tables 38 to 40. Because of the limited num- ber of large seeds of Densities 1 and 6 none were grown in soil. Size—Proceeding as in the discussion of the seedlings grown in water, we find the greatest average shoot heights for the small, the medium and the large seeds respectively, are for seedlings from seeds of Densities 1, 3 and 3. The highest shoot from the small seeds is that of a seedling 120 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE from seed of Density 4, the second highest, of Density 1; the two highest for the medium seeds are from seeds of Density 3; the highest for the large seeds is from Density 2 while the second highest is from Density 3. The mini- mum value for each size group is in a seedling from seed of the lowest density. No correlation exists between density and average and maximum length of hypocotyl and first internode. The lengths of the second and third internodes vary as the density of the seeds. No seedlings grown in soil developed a fourth internode. As to the diameter, we find the aver- age size varies as the density of the seed; the maximum values are also in the diameters of the seedlings from seeds of the higher densities. In so far as size of seedlings is concerned, the results agree in general with those for water grown seedlings,— (1) The greatest height and diameter of shoot is found in seedlings from the seeds of Densities 1, 2 and 3. More often in seedlings from Densities 2 or 3 than Density 1. (2) The length of the second and third internodes vary as the density of the seed. Weight.—There is more variation in the fresh weight of soil-grown seedlings than in those grown in water. This is especially true in the root weight. In the roots of seed- lings from small seeds the greatest average and maximum weights are for those from the higher densities and the minimum weights are in those of lower densities, but no general relation seems to exist between fresh root weight and specific gravity for seedlings from the medium and large seeds. In the fresh shoot weights we have the greatest average weights for the small, the medium and the large seeds in those from seeds of Densities 1, 2 and 3 respectively. The maximum fresh weight for each size group is in a seedling from a seed of Density 3 while the minimum weights are in those from Densities 5 or 6, usually 6. In the fresh plant weights we find the same order as in the shoot weights the greatest average weights for small, medium and large seeds are in seedlings from seeds of Densities 1, 2 and 3 PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 121 respectively; while the maximum weight for each group is in a seedling from a seed of Density 3; the minimum weights are in those of Density 5 or 6, usually 6. In the dry weights we find a definite relation between density and weight. This correlation with plant weight is graphically represented in Plate III]. Without exception the highest average and maximum weights for each size group are in the seedlings from seeds of Densities 1, 2 or 3. This statement holds true for dry weights of root, shoot and plant. Moreover, the second highest average and maximum weights are in most cases also in seedlings from seeds of these higher densities. The lowest average and minimum weights are for seedlings from seeds of the lower densities. Comparison of Weights.—The facts pointed out for seed- lings grown in water with respect to correlation between dry and fresh weights and specific gravity of seed hold true for those grown in soil. The seedlings from seeds of Density 6 appear to lead in making the best use of their reserve food as was the case in the water culture. Rate of Growth—A study of the daily growth incre- ments also points to a superiority of the seedlings from the denser seeds. In the case of average daily increments (Tables 37-39) we find the greatest average increment for the small seeds is 7.56 cm on the third day for seedlings from seed of Density 1; for medium seeds, 8.9 cm on the second day by those from seeds of Density 3; for large seeds, 7.67 cm on the second day by those from seeds of Density 1. From *Tables 21-36 we obtain as maximum daily increments, for small seeds, 8.5 cm on the third day by a seedling from a seed of Density 1; for medium seeds, 10 cm on the second day by two seedlings from the seeds of Density 5 and one from those of Density 3; for the large seeds, 10.1 cm on the second day by a seedling from seed of Density 1. Summing up the results from the data for seedlings grown in water and in soil at 25°C we find the following relations exist between specific gravity and growth: 122 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE (1) The greatest height and diameter of shoot are found in the seedlings grown from seeds of the three high- est densities ; (2) The higher the density of the seed, the longer the second and third internodes; (3) Asa rule, the seedlings from the denser seeds have the highest fresh weight; (4) The greatest dry weight is always found in seed- lings from seeds of the three highest densities; (5) ‘The seedlings from the higher densities show, on the whole, a greater rate of growth than do those from seeds of the lower densities. 2. Relation of Growth to Size of Seed, at 25°C. Size.—That a definite relation exists between size of seed and amount and rate of growth is shown beyond a doubt by the results of these experiments. For both water and soil cultures the seedlings from small seeds are smaller than those from medium and large seeds in height and in diameter of shoot. This fact in regard to shoot height is clearly shown in Plates I and III. From these plates we see that the seedlings from small seeds are not only shorter than those from medium seeds of the same density but the seedlings from the small seeds of the highest density are shorter than those from the medium seeds of the lowest densities. Both the numerical data and these plates show that there is less difference in height between the seed- lings from medium and large seeds than there is between those from medium and small seeds. The average heights for seedlings from the medium seeds from Densities 3 and 5 (Table 19) are greater than those from the large seeds (Table 20) of the same densities. The maximum heights for seedlings of Densities 1, 3 and 5 are also greater than the maximum heights for the large seeds of the same den- sities. There is a greater difference between the diameters of the seedlings from small and medium seeds than between those from medium and large seeds. The lengths, both average and maximum, of the hypocotyls in seedlings trom PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 123 the medium seeds are greater than those of the small or large seeds. There is little difference in the case of soil grown seedlings in the hypocotyl lengths of seedlings from small and large seeds. There is less difference between the length of the second and third internodes of seedlings from medium and large seeds than between those from medium and small of the same density. Weight—From the data given for fresh root weight (Tables 18 to 20) for water culture, we find that the aver- age weight for seedlings from the small seeds of Density 3 is greater than that of those from the medium or large seeds of like density. The average weight for seedlings from small seeds of Density 2 is greater than that of those from the medium seeds of this density. Again, the aver- age weight for seedlings from medium seeds of Densities 4 and 5 is greater than that of those from large seeds of these respective densities. The fresh weights for shoots and plants vary, for equal densities, as the size of the seeds. The dry weights for seedlings grown in water also show a relation to size of seed. In the roots of seedlings, those from the small seeds of Density 3 nearly equal in average, minimum and maximum dry weights the roots from med- ium seeds of equal density. As between medium and large seeds, seedlings from medium seeds of Density 4 surpass those from the large seeds in minimum and average weight; and seedlings from medium seeds of Density 5 sur- pass those from large seeds in average and maximum dry root weight. In general, however, the weights of seedlings grown in water from seeds of equal densities vary as the size of the seed. The comparison of average dry plant weight is given graphically in Plate II. Turning now to the data for average values in soil grown seedlings (Tables 37 to 39) we find that, except for the average weights of seedlings from medium seeds of Density 2, all average fresh weights vary as the size of the seeds provided they are equal in density. In the exception just cited the average weights for seedlings from medium seeds is greater than that for those of the larger seed in the case of root, shoot and plant weights. With but one exception, 124 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE again in Density 2, all dry root, shoot and plant weights vary as the size of the seeds provided we compare seed- lings from seeds of the same density. Plate IV represents the average dry plant weights for soil grown seedlings. Comparison of Weights——In general, the percentage which the dry weight of shoot and plant is of the fresh weight of like member is greater for seedlings from the large seeds than from the medium or the small seeds. The percentage which the dry plant weight is of the seed weight is also higher for seedlings from the large seeds than from the medium or small seeds. Rate of Growth.—That the rate of growth is also influ- enced by the size of the seed is shown by the daily growth increments. For water culture seedlings the average daily increments (Tables 18 to 20) on the second and third day are greater for the seedlings from medium seeds than for those of either small or large seeds of like density. The greatest average daily increments, except in seedlings from large seeds of Densities 1 and 2, are found in the seedlings from the medium seeds. The maximum daily increment occurs on the second day in seedlings from the small and the medium seeds but not until the third day for those from the large seeds. The same superiority in the rate of growth for seedlings from the medium seeds grown in soil is seen from Tables 37 to 39. In so far as amount and rate of growth are influenced by the size of the seed, we find: (1) The amount of growth varies with the size of the seed ; (2) There is more variation in amount of growth be- tween small and medium seeds than between medium and large seeds; (3) The rate of growth of seedlings from medium seeds is greater than that for those of small or large seeds of equal density. 3. Temperature in Relation to Specific Gravity and Size of Seed. It is not the intention to discuss in detail growth at 20° and 80°C, but rather to determine whether conclusions PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 125 drawn for temperature 25° may be applied to seedlings from similar seeds grown at 20° and 30°C respectively. Because of the limited number of large seeds no data is available save at 25°C. The discussion will be confined to a consideration of average values. The data for seedlings grown at 20°C are found in *Tables 40 to 43, that for those grown at 30°C in *Tables 44 to 47. a. Growth as Related to Specific Gravity. A study of the above tables shows that with but few ex- ceptions the conclusions drawn for the relation of growth to the specific gravity of the seed, for temperature 25°C are also true for temperatures 20° and 30°C. At 25°C there was no correlation evident between length of hypocotyl and specific gravity of seed; at 20°, however, the greatest average length of hypocotyl in seedlings grown in soil ap- pear in those of Densities 1, 2 and 3. At 25°C, the percentage of the dry plant weight to the seed weight is higher for seedlings from seeds of Density 6 than for those from seeds of Densities 1 and 2. At 20°C, this is true only for seedlings grown in water, and at 30°C, it applies solely to seedlings from medium seeds grown in water. b. Growth as Related to Size of Seed. The seedlings grown at 30°C show the same correlation between growth and size of seed as is shown by those grown at 25°C. For the seedlings grown at 20°C, however, the following points of difference seem evident: (1) The average heights and average weights of seed- lings from small seeds are more nearly equal to the similar average values of seedlings from medium seeds of like densities, at 20°C than at 25°C. In a few cases the average values for seedlings from small seeds exceed those for seedlings from medium seeds. (2) From the total dry weight it may be inferred that at 20°C the seedlings from small seeds use their reserve material to better advantage than those from the medium seeds (3) At 20°C, the greater rate of growth is shown by seedlings from the small seeds. 126 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 4. Some Comparisons of Seedlings Grown in Water and Soil. a. Water Content.—The relation of the dry weights to the fresh weights shows a difference in the relative water content of seedlings from seeds of equal size and density grown in water and soil. The percentage of the dry root weight to the fresh root weight is greater for the seedlings grown in soil; that of the dry shoot and plant weights to the fresh shoot and plant weight is greater for those grown in water. The stems of the seedlings grown in soil were brittle while those grown in water could be coiled without breaking. b. Roots.—The root system of the seedlings grown in soil was very much larger than that of seedlings grown in water. In the majority of the soil culture seedlings the primary root soon ceased to elongate and the main part of the root system consisted of several long, lateral roots aris- ing from near the base of the main root. In the seedlings grown in water the primary root, although comparatively short, was the main part of the root system. Several short lateral roots developed near the base of the root and also lower down on the primary root. 5. Equation of Growth. A study of the tables here recorded shows that the equa- tion of growth given by Blackman, V. H. (1) does not apply to seedlings grown in the dark. In the case of each seed- ling grown under the conditions of these experiments the final dry weight is much less than the initial dry weight of the seed. This would mean, if Blackman’s equation held true, that there had been no growth in these seedlings. 6. Correlation of Weight and Position of Cotyledons. Harris (6), in an article on Interrelationships in Phaseo- lus, states that the green and dry weights of the primordial and first compound leaves of plants whose cotyledons are not inserted at the same level of the axis are less than those of normal plants. No such correlation exists for the fresh and dry weights of the seedlings recorded here. Numerous examples of this “abnormality” as Harris calls it, occurred PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 127 but no account was taken of them unless the difference in level was at least 2mm; in some exceptional cases it was as much as 18mm. That no such correlation exists in these seedlings is shown by a comparison of the root, shoot, and plant weights of an abnormal seedling with the corres- ponding average weights of the group to which it belongs. Such a comparison shows that the weights of the seedling are sometimes above and sometimes below the average weights. 7. Quintile Distributions. An article by Pearl and Surface (14) on “Growth and Variation in Maize” states, on page 120, “There is, then, a marked tendency for the plants which were relatively small at the beginning of the season to have remained, on the average, relatively small throughout most of the season.” Or, to quote further (page 170), “Extreme variants at the beginning of the season tend strongly, on the whole, to re- main extreme variants during the whole season.” This tendency is said to be due to the effect of internal rather than to external stimuli. Reed, (15) in studying growth and variability in Helian- thus, follows the method of argument of Pearl and Surface and concludes that, ““Plants which started in a given quar- tile showed a well-marked tendency to remain in that quar- tile during the entire grand period of growth. Plants which were small at maturity were generally small from the be- ginning, those which were large at maturity had a well- marked superiority from the start.” He, too, thinks plants show this tendency because of inherent factors. In order to determine whether the seedlings used in the present experiments revealed similar traits the data for all seedlings which were grown in water and which were placed in the 25°C temperature case on the sixth day after placing them to germinate, were collected. A group of 75 seedlings containing individuals from seeds of all den- sities and sizes was thus obtained. The heights of these seedlings on each successive day and the density and size of the seeds from which each grew are given in *Table 49. *It has been found necessary in the publication of these experiments to omit Tables 1-17, 21-36, 40-49. These tables can be found in the original thesis at the Library of the University of Illinois. 128 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE The seedlings are arranged and numbered according to their size on the first day, that is, on the day they were placed in the constant temperature case and six days after planting. Following the method given in the articles cited, these 75 seedlings are arranged in five groups, or quintiles, according to their size on the first day. In order to avoid having seedlings of the same size fall in two different quin- tiles, the number of plants in the quintiles varies. Thus, Quintile I contains the 15 smallest seedlings on each day of measurement. Quintile II contains the 16 next larger; Quintile III, the 17 next larger; Quintile IV, the 12 next; and Quintile V, the 15 largest ones. The number of seed- lings in the respective quintiles was maintained during the growth period. In but two cases, after the initial dis- tribution, did two seedlings fall on the separating line of contiguous quintiles. In these cases one of the seedlings was arbitrarily placed in the next highest quintile. The quintile distribution for each successive day for seedlings starting in the several quintiles is given in Tables 50 to 54. These tables give the total number of distributions, excluding those of the first day, when, of course, all distri- butions were in the particular quintile to which the seed- lings were originally assigned, and also the mean quintile position for each day. A study of the tables shows that by the sixth day only 3 of the 15 seedlings which started in Quintile I are still in this quintile and by the tenth day only 2 remain. Three of the 15 reach Quintile V by the ninth day. Out of the total of 165 distributions only 42, or 25.5% are in Quintile I. The mean quintile position for these seedlings changes from 1 on the initial day to 3 on the eleventh and twelfth days. This final mean quintile posi- tion is above the general mean, which owing to the differ- ence in the number of seedlings in the several quintiles is 2.95. Only 18.8% of the total number of distributions for seedlings starting in Quintile II fall in this quintile. For Quintile III the per cent is 20.9; for Quintile IV, it is 25; and for Quintile V, 25.5. The mean quintile position for seedlings starting in Quintile V drops from 5 on the first day to 2.87 on the ninth day. The curves for the mean quintile positions on the successive days are plotted in Plate V. As is to be expected where the variation can be in either PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 129 of two directions, there is a smaller shifting of the mean quintile positions in the intermediate quintiles than in Quintiles I and V. From the preceding facts it appears that seedlings which are small at first frequently surpass in growth, larger ones of equal age. Let us consider now the specific gravity and the size of the seeds from which these 75 seedlings grew. Of the 15 - seedlings which started as the smallest, Quintile I, (Table 50), 7 are from small seeds, 1 from a medium and 7 from large seeds. The 2 seedlings which remain in Quintile I on the last day are from small seeds, the 4 in Quintile II are likewise from small seeds. The seventh seedling from small seeds which started in Quintile I is from a seed of Density 3 and is the smallest seedling of Quintile III. Of the 3 seedlings which, starting in Quintile I, reach Quintile V, all are from large seeds; the 2 largest in this case, are from seeds of Density 3, the third from a seed of Density 5. The 2 seedlings in Quintile IV are also from large seeds. The seed- ling from the medium seeds is in Quintile III. Of the 16 seedlings which start in Quintile II (Table 51), 10 are from small, 5 from medium and 1 from large seeds. The 6 seedlings which fall back into Quintile I are all from small seeds. The 1 which reaches Quintile IV is from a large seed. In Quintile III, (Table 52), 7 of the original 17 are from small, 8 are from medium and 2 from large seeds. The 3 seedlings which, starting in Quintile III re- cede to Quintile I, are from small seeds. The 4 ending in Quintile II are also from small seeds. Of the 5 which end in Quintile V, 1 is from a large seed, the other 4 from med- ium seeds. The second seedling from large seeds starting in Quintile III falls just below Quintile V. All of the seed- lings which start in Quintile IV (Table 53) are from med- ium seeds. Of the 5 which reach Quintile V, 2 are from seeds of Density 1 and 3 from those of Density 3. Ten of the 15 seedlings which start in Quintile V, (Table 54), are from medium seeds, the other 5 are from small seeds. On the last day, 3 of those from small seeds are the seedlings in Quintile I, the other 2 are in Quintile II. Of those which remain in Quintile V, 1 is from a medium seed of Density 1, the other is from a medium seed of Density 3. 130 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Out of the 75 seedlings in the group in question, 29 are from small, 36 from medium and 10 from large seeds. Of the 29 seedlings from small seeds, regardless of their posi- tion on the first day, 14 are in Quintile I, 14 are in Quintile II and 1 is in Quintile III on the last day. The final distri- bution of the seedlings from the large seeds is 4 in Quin- tile V, 4 in Quintile IV and 2 in Quintile III. From the foregoing statements the following conclusions seem justified : (1) Seedlings which are small at first frequently sur- pass in growth, larger ones of equal age; (2) The size and specific gravity of the seeds, chiefly the former, are more definitely correlated with growth than is the initial height of seedlings of the same age. SUMMARY Common garden bean seed was separated into 6 groups of different densities by the use of sodium nitrate of 1.32, 1.27, 1.22, 1.17, and 1.12 specific gravity. The seeds of each of the densities were then grouped according to length into small, medium and large. Seedlings from seeds of each size and density were grown in the dark at 25°C. Seedlings from small and medium seeds of each density were also grown in the dark at 20° and 30°. Daily measurements were taken and from this data the daily growth increments were determined. When growth ceased both the fresh and the dry weight of the seedling was obtained. A study of the results made evident that: (1) Seedlings grown from seeds of 1.32, 1.27, 1.22, 1.17, 1.12 and 1.12-specific gravity differ in amount and rate of growth. (2) The greatest height and diameter of shoot, also the greatest dry weight, for seedlings from seeds of uniform size is found in those grown from seeds of 1.22, 1.27 and 1.32 specific gravity, seeds of 1.22 or 1.27 usually ranking first. PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 131 (3) The greatest fresh weight is, in general, found in seedlings grown from seeds of 1.32, 1.27 and 1.22 specific gravity. (4) The lower and specific gravity of the seed, the shorter the second and third internodes of the seedlings from seeds of equal size. (5) The greatest rate of growth, for seedlings from seeds of uniform size, is usually found in seedlings from seeds of 1.32, 1.27 or 1.22 specific gravity. (6) From the total dry weight it may be inferred that at 25°C the seedlings from seeds of Density 6 use their re- served material to the best advantage. (7) Seedlings grown from small, medium and large seeds differ in amount and rate of growth. (8) The total amount of growth varies directly with the length of the seed. (9) Size and weight of seedlings from seeds of uni- form specific gravity show a wider variation (more espec- ially at 25°C) between those from small and medium seeds than between the ones from medium and large. (10) Seedlings from seeds of medium length show a greater growth rate than seedlings from either small or large seeds of equal specific gravity. (11) From the total dry weight it may be inferred that, except at 20°C, seedlings from the large and medium seeds use their reserve material to better advantage than those from small seeds. (12) Seedlings grown in water contain a smaller per cent of water than those from seeds of the same specific gravity and size grown in soil. They are also less brittle. (13) The root system of seedlings grown in soil is larger than that of seedlings grown in water. (14) The growth equation of Blackman does not apply to seedlings grown in the dark. (15) A difference in level in the insertion of the coty- ledons on the axis is not correlated with the fresh and dry weights of either root, shoot or plant. 132 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE (16) Seedlings which are small at first frequently sur- pass in growth larger ones of equal age. (17) The size and specific gravity of the seeds are more definitely correlated with growth than is the initial height of seedlings of the same age. The author wishes to thank Professor Charles F. Hottes, not only for suggesting the problem, but also for his kindly criticisms and helpful suggestions during the progress of the work. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Blackman, V. H.: The Compound Interest Law and Plant Growth. (Annals of Botany, 33 :353-360, 1919.) 2. Clark, V. A.: Seed Selection According to Specific Gravity. (N. Y. Agri. Exp. Sta. Bull. 256, 1904.) 3. Degrully, L.: Sélection des blés et autres semences par la densité. (Le Progres Agricole & Viticole, 30:453-455, 1898.) 4, Dehérain, P. P. et Dupont, C.: Culture du blé au champ d’expér- iences de Grignon, en 1902. (Compt. Rend. de l’Acad. des Sci., 135 :654-657, 1902.) DeVries, H.: The Mutation Theory, Vol. I, (1909). 6. Haberlandt, F.: Ueber den Einfluss das Samens auf den Ernteer- trag. (Bohmisches Centralblatt fiir die gesammte Landeskultur, 1866:4, Abst. in Hoffmann Jahresbereicht Agr. Chem., 9 :298-300, 1868. ) Harris, J. A.: Further Studies on the Interrelationship of Morpho- logical and Physiological Characters in Seedlings of Phaseolus. (Brooklyn Bot. Gard., Memoirs 1:167-174, 1918.) 8. Ill. State Water Survey: Analysis of the Mineral Content of Tap Water of the University of Ill. (Lab. No. 30486, 1915.) 9. Johannsen, W.: Elemente der Exakten Erblichkeitslehre. Zweite Auflage. (1913.) 10. Kiesselbach, T. A., and Helm, C. A.: Relation of Size of Seed and Sprout Value to the Yield of Small Grain Crop. (Neb. Agr. Exp. Sta. Res. Bull. 11, 1917.) 11. Leighty, C. E.: Correlation of Characters in Oats. (Amer. Breeders’ Ass. Rpt. 7 & 8: 50-61, 1911 & 1912.) 12. Love, H. Hi: A Study of the Large and Small Grain Question, (Amer. Breeders’ Ass. Rpt. 7 & 8:109-118, 1911 & 1912.) 13. Meyers, C. H.: Effect of Fertility Upon Variation and Correlation in Wheat. (Amer. Breeders’ Ass. Rpt. 7 and 8; 61-74, 1911, 1912.) 14. Pearl R., and ‘Surface, F. M.: Growth and Variation in Maize, (Zeit. Indukt. Abstammungs and Vererbungslehre, 14 :97-203, 1915.) 15. Reed, H, S.: Growth and Variability in Helianthus. (Amer. Jour. Bot. 6:252-271, 1919.) 16. Sanborn, J. W.: Selection of Seed. (Utah Agr. Exp. Sta. Rpt. 1892 :133-137.) 17%. Woolny, E.: Untersuchungen ueber die Werthbestimmung der Samen als Saat und Handelswaare. (Jour. fur Landwirthschaft, 25 :75-116, 133-169, 1877.) or ba PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 133 TABLE 18. Series A WATER CULTURE SMALL SEEDS Temperature 25° C Den- Average Daily Growth Increments in Centimeters sity IH 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ying? 5 | TH HYPOCOTYL 1 1.83 1.62 3.90 3.30 .43 .01 11.09 2 1.8 4.05 4.47 1.53 21 12.11 3 fone 2.004.292 3.45. =38 10.65 4 1.47 2.03 4.73 2.38 .30 .04 10.95 5 CAS be y Ae Sy Gee 0G ey a We | 11.23 6 ian a.00 5.23. 42:27 .33> 12.17 FIRST INTERNODE 1 .26 £7 4.63: (2.45 53.33, 3.59', 45. <16, . ..01 11.15 2 .40 77 «1.84 3.68 2.94 1.56 -56 .19 .01 11.95 3 36 TS Bde. a .6D 86. 2299. . .46- 315 ie 4 .28 50 1.54 -3:963-11 35662 ~.53. 25, 261 11.84 5 4 3 (LAS 28k: 2.98. 1.84 9.70: . 20 05 10.11 6 7 eS) Boe ae eee, eee Oe 6a «07 10.37 SECOND INTERNODE 1 .04 1G, Ge (AE 2A Sr 2 Oe SO ee 2 .04 SO AS ae 2a OT Os .94 3 2G a5". 06.0 te SS a SC ORC 4 .08 a0, -*.00)> AGS 16), .18-.".18. .@ -91 = Se o8@el, Saal ee eae ae, kD dee) OR She 6 445) (ce Le | GS .48 THIRD INTERNODE 1 je a eee 68 2 .3 .& .06 3 et oS 01 .06 4 tee ee | 06 5 -01 »=.03 .04 6 .02 .02 SHOOT 1 a.33 1269. 4. a7 4.96 3.98. 4.20 1:8) 88... CLS 388 97 2 42.95" (4.45. 5°35) 3548 4:05 2:9 £0 of 36 UH 25.06 3 $229), 3565 8587 03.8843 195 2:98; 4.47). 272-336; 08). 63> .208: 33.56 4 4.47 2.30 5:24 3.99 4:36 ‘3.24 1.76 .69 45 .24 .04 23.78 5 2B Reed. Se ao Ga es, 17°93 | ..86.2 62 84. 13> 08: 48 6 $:35.03:33 SiB0) StS. 74 2280) 1.34... 58). 233) 28 23.00 Average Av- Wt. & Length Average Fresh Average Dry Weight erage (gram) (mm) Weight in grams of In grams of Diam. of Seed Root Shoot Plant Root Shoot Plant (mm) 1 . 2666 10.7 .3269 1.3800 1.7069 .0170 .1010 -1180 2.6 2 .2581 10.8 .3318 1.3084 1.6402 .0184 .0941 -1125 a7 3 .2757 10.8 .3648 1.3596 1.7244 .0196 .0992 -1188 2.7 4 .2526 10.4 .3197 1.2845 1.6042 .0164 .0931 -1095 2.6 5 . 2227 10.5 . 3024 1.1356 1.4380 .0157 . 0839 .0996 2.5 6 -1713 10.1 .2212 .9623 1.1835 .0124 -0657 -0781 2.3 TH—Height when placed in temperature case. TH—Total height. 134 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE TABLE 19. Series B WATER CULTURE MEDIUM SEEDS Temperature 25°C Den- Average Daily Growth Increments in Centimeters sity IH.. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12) Fe HYPOCOTYL 1 1.94 4.32 5.35 1.84 10 13.55 2 2.25 4.60 4.58 2.14 07 13.64 3 1.84 5.50 6.33 1.34 .05 15.05 4 1.86 4.21 5.24 .94 .09 12.34 Fen donee 10 sO.o9o.440 ecor, 002.06 14.47 6 1.84 3.27 6.17 3.06 .63 .11 14.99 FIRST INTERNODE 1 AL BA 99 ACT 2a. FB eo LO 11.96 2 AO) -. 661 /2):29) 4.61. (3685 “1260. >) ol 15 14.08 3 AS 28) 22590) 4005. 2 -5ds 94 30h 06) 202/02 12.50 4 AT ban (WARE Ls REGS a TREE eee es epee aah 11.66 5 .30 Bll AS41624 67 2645 297, 4334-7 06 01 15.51 6 .33 57.88 5.24" S70 eb 63) 22400 14.06 SECOND INTERNODE of Ba Va ge ema Deke Tapeh Tal) te Gs Van I pee: bse Kea mies 19) 8.46 2 SOG 2 AS 2 cet 642 ot eee, 4.26 3 (04. 2 AG 20 662 2523) 1684 e442) 06 On 6.76 4 AS wea AG) Sa PeOSa ga yesoG" Teed) ke Oo 3.64 5 Sp AC Bets 2 { reicer- Spee ec (Dees eit catie aro ye erty 2.20 6 201 7) 09%. 3.24.40 44754, 49) 24) 07), 0G ree THIRD INTERNODE 1 Si rewar cdo eat aun Ores O5) .84 2 104:. .16' 308 -28 3 eS Ge SAB 0805 -73 4 05 08 .05 .03 20 5 .04 .01 .04 -10 6 203%) 001) 7204 0322.00 300 .14 FOURTH INTERNODE 3 05 =.01 06 SHOOT ereO40 4 -7G0eO 1904297 94-59 3.440 odd) o-oo) cot Oo 20), a0 34.81 9 2.295 5.00 5.34 4.49 4.86 4.06 2.02 1.79 1.84 .60 .10 32.25 3 1.84 5.94 7.63 4.40 4.30 3.18 3.28 2.29 1.36 .67 .15 .06 35.10 4 1.86 4.73 6.33 4.85 4.08 1.69 1.46 1.27 .86 .41 .24 .05 27.83 Besar 2430 oy edOn Deed) onOr 4.80. 2 Oel or. 2 Ole 7462 26020 32.29 G6) 1.84 3.60) 6.74..4:89 5.86 4:06 1.91 1.135 .80' .54 227° 209) O07 esiesn Average Av- Wt. & Length Average Fresh Average Dry Weight erage (gram) (mm) Weight in grams of In grams of Diam. of Seed Root Shoot Plant Root Shoot Plant (mm) 1 -4407 a Sey .3495 2.1925 2.5420 . 0239 -1715 -1954 aie 2 .3851 12.9 .3240 1.8985 fe PPA .0199 .1492 .1691 2.9 3 .3915 1365 .3002 2.0435 2.3437 .0197 .1519 .1716 3.0 4 .3134 ayes .3501 1.6348 1.9849 .0191 -1164 -1355 2.8 5 .3290 13.1 .3259 1.6671 1.9930 .0195 .1216 1411 2.9 6 .2915 13.3 .3139 1.5851 1.8990 .0169 .1148 .1317 rey Series C Den- sity JH 1.80 1.87 1.13 1.10 1.70 we 0 RD om WwW We Om OW RD oe or Om cw NM ee 1.80 1.87 1.13 1.10 1.70 oe WN Oo, wh 1 2.40 2.93 1.37 2.05 3.00 wie wie i oneness 2.80 3.37 1.66 2.32 3.30 PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE TABLE 20 WATER CULTURE 135 LARGE SEEDS Temperature 25°C Average Daily Growth Increments in Centimeters He He CO Or OF _ BN BRE 6.80 5.98 3.80 5.20 4.75 Average Wt. & Length (gram) of Seed 16.2 -4957 -0272 -5174 3966 -4147 (mm) 16. 16. 15 15. 1 9 8 3 10 8 -25 -07 46 -50 20 02 -10 R -02 Average Dry Weight In grams of Shoot .1872 -2059 .2099 -1629 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 HYPOCOTYL 2.25 ) 2.33 10 3.97 2.33 .22 4.33 1.08 -10 3.63 83 FIRST INTERNODE 4.3. 4.95" 2235) 78 a5 3.73 4.25 3.18 .62 .12 72 2.77 4.9 3.22 .97 .28 .03 1.23 2.7% 4.47 3.17 .80 .15 1.25 3.00 4.70 2.90 .50 .13 SECOND INTERNODE con! S228. 3-78 3-70. 2.0. 235) 5 <0, 345 2.52 3.90 2.38) ..G8 - .13 03 35 .40 2.20, 2:67 2:13. \.82 fan coe 1 oe.) Se. AC o soe 08) 3%, \.7o. 21.38) 1.30) 4S THIRD INTERNODE i oe ae: cee ye eee, Cae 7 ee gt 0s a Fes |: es | aS 42 - (4? |. (20, , 2415 308 FOURTH INTERNODE SHOOT 6.85 4.50 3.50 4.55 3.10 1.25 .50 6.37 4.80 4.82 4.80 2.87 -97 -18 AT? (5:25 5.56 4:57" 3.82 2-62, 7.08 5.55 3.95 4.88 3.82 2.731.823" °.60 £88 53.90). 5.07. (3.05) 248 2257" > 70 Average Fresh Weight in grams of Root Shoot Plant Root .5499 2.4527 3.0026 .0295 -6445 2.5433 3.1878 -0331 . 3644 2.6313 2.9957 .0271 -3347 2.1359 2.4706 .0193 -2699 2.1988 2.4687 .0189 -1699 Plant -2167 -2391 -2370 -1822 -1888 = - or ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Average Daily Growth Increments in Centimeters 136 Series D Den- sity IH 1 2 1 1-63" 2:40) 5.37 2 2.11 3.70 5.60 3 2.26) 3.55. 4-61 4 Ak 2)79) 1G.05 5 41.29. 2:58 5.71 6 2.36 3.26 5.70 1 235 BR 2 Abt 3S 3 By leas is | 4 <3, * 391: 5 .24 oon 6 .36 76 1 2 se | 3 -01 4 .03 5 6 cid 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 1.63 2.64 5.90 2 aiid) 4245 7.00 3 2.26 3.96 5.74 4 2.11 3.10 7.49 5 1.29 2.81 6.24 6 2.36 3.61 6.46 Average Wt. & Length (gram) (mm) of Seed 1 . 2881 11.0 2 . 2665 10.7 3 .2444 10.8 4 . 2429 10.5 5 . 2164 10.3 6 -1983 10.8 3 5.08 -98 1.74 2.75 4.13 1.89 2.31 3.05 2.59 2.85 1.56 2.61 TABLE 37 SOIL CULTURE 4 26 -04 -10 14 37 06 5 6 HYPOCOTYL 7 FIRST INTERNODE 3.94 2.58 2.49 3.29 2.99 2.94 14 07 08 08 -15 -03 SECOND INTERNODE -18 14 18 19 12 -16 4.38 2.75 2.76 3.61 3.49 49 24 -16 16 -10 -04 04 -01 04 -03 .67 35 -25 27 25 Adi vod 84 = .25 a Ce oe. lay ed 2.02 .46 $2060 a 26 8.57 30) .50 14° 218 21 = 35 09 = .05 HS ee Ut) THIRD INTERNODE .03 04 03 01 SHOOT 2.03 1.11 2 Wea Betta) 1.31 .53 1.35.58 Papel NS | 1.21 .30 3.14 Average Fresh Weight in grams of Root Shoot .3424 1.6683 . 3252 1.5319 . 2609 1.4573 .2203 1.4990 -1504 1.2380 .1343 1.1577 Plant 2.0107 1.8571 1.7182 1.7193 1.3884 1.2920 16 8 03 -01 9 -01 -01 01 -01 -01 02 01 -01 -01 SMALL SEEDS Temperature 25°C 10: it 01 -01 01 -01 -01 . 01 Average Dry Weight In grams of Root -0200 -0219 -0190 -0163 0148 -0157 Shoot -1091 0994 -0907 -0937 0801 0762 Plant -1291 .1213 -1097 -1100 -0949 -0919 TH 14.76 12.43 12.26 14.34 14.08 13.27 9.47 26.20 22.69 21.32 24.36 22.51 21.85 Av- erage Diam. (mm) PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 137 TABLE 38 Series E SOIL CULTURE MEDIUM SEEDS Temperature 25°C Den- Average Daily Growth Increments in Centimeters sity IH 1 2 3 4 5 6 r 8 9 40. at TH HYPOCOTYL 1 2.84 4.39 6.27 1.70 15.20 2 2.67 4.37 5.96 1.99 27 15.26 3 ae S55 8.11 4.67 19 18.19 4 2.54 3.21 7.03 2.86 15 15.79 5 2.10 3.21 8:03 3.67 .39 .04 17.44 6 3.14 5.04 6.48 .68 04 15.38 FIRST INTERNODE 1 461.31 3.24 2.51 t-2t) £49) 5 9.73 2 -44 1.51 3.23 3.06 -67 ae .07 9.256 3 - 79 3:19 3:88: 2:89 5.56 2. 0h 10.78 4 -40 1.06 3.40 3.14 1.13 .42 .15 9.70 5 LSS). 80 2074 42.38 227-48 88 =. 10.99 6 [62° 2.54) 4.38) .3.12 , ;92 -<25:- .66 2.04 10.86 SECOND INTERNODE 1 ae A an th Be De AO. 07 5.18 2 Ae | ee ee 16a ee: |) 86. ae: 0 4.16 3 ae. 2.36. con S38 a ee | 3.74 4 ME 1S: Te Oe. Ee | ee 01 2.44 5 sia eta ngoe,. sae ce aek = <03° . 08 2.43 6 04.48. 20) ,<48 44 <40:> 5 06 2.02 THIRD INTERNODE 1 Maras. 61 -..03 .33 2 <<. 0: .07 -.4 . 27 3 2) 3'- -87 4 04 .04 .03 -10 5 4 61, 81. .6i .07 6 -02 .02 SHOOT 1 2.84 4.80 7.61 5.16 3.20 2.06 2.74 1.73 .20 .09 30.43 2 2.67 4.81 7.50 5.49 3.67 1.63 1.81 1.00 .30 .06 28.94 3 2.29 3.81 8.90 7.46 4.43 2.40 1.68 1. .41 .26 .02 32.91 4 2.54 3.61 8.09 6.46 3.53 1.44 1.26 Si .25~ = .04 28.03 5 2.10 3.54 8.83 6.54 4.91 2.69 .96 94 .36 6.04 .03 30.94 6 3.14 5.66 8.06 5.16 3.46 1.32 .70 46 .36 8 .08 28.30 Average Av- Wt. & Length Average Fresh Average Dry Weight erage (gram) (mm) Weight in grams of In grams of Diam. of Seed Root Shoot Plant Root Shoot Plant (mm) -4176 13.3 -4172 2.3848 2.8020 0294 -1630 -1924 3.3 -4215 13.3 -4485 2.5520 3.0005 -0327 -1659 -1986 3.2 -3079 13.3 -3072 2.4495 2.7567 0228 -1407 -1635 3.1 -3574 2.0892 2.4466 -0266 1293 -1559 3.1 3334 13.2 - 2886 2.0904 2.3790 -0235 -1288 -1523 3.0 -3072 13.4 -5046 1.9502 2.4548 .0294 -1206 -1500 3.0 our wWN eH B ~ os ow (—] 138 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE TABLE 39 Series F SOIL CULTURE LARGE SEEDS Temperature 25°C Den- Average Daily Growth Incremerts in Centimeters sity IH 3 4 5 6 10. ee TH HYPOCOTYL 2 2.17 3.17 5.90 2.07 .11 13.42 3 Sete eae eon ShOO Lce7 14.08 4 2793) 5.07 24783) 53 13.36 5 Zod edsas asco O00 oS 14.90 FIRST INTERNODE 2 SCOT MGy SSR Ee aiapy ales kt .44 14 .03 -01 11.48 3 soa, ec) erGa, 64650 2.50l) 2OFe al 11.73 4 (Ode aos worboro eee: il Osa irate a. Alo 10.73 5 AGO asi d oO) Vettel enn cl, eee Onn Oe 10.10 SECOND INTERNODE 2 -10 .27 .49 1.39 1.49 .54 .19 .04 4.50 3 SLO: Ssde oe Oe: Haseas bade a 4on 20S 5.98 4 0d 2a) GAT. 83 90! SCAB 07 2.97 5 can, Mad: P63 Ae eA ON Od 3.06 THIRD INTERNODE 2 04 03 07" 03) 7205 .30 3 A050 10m o. «Od, .37 4 SUS se Cvew Odi. OT -20 5 312" 202 5705 .18 SHOOT 2 Ahh atl 4167 "Gl33: 94213) 62.57) 72506 .76 .24 .09 29.71 3 220 3:08: 6.05., 6:40. 5223 347 3A0 2:10 .52 .03 32.17 4 2.03 soeL0) ek0) 4.40) Beo0 9001 20k A 60n eas 27.27 5 AiOoMOVian dood! Oeae, Aaa eto e Meade be) a7, 28.25 Average Av- Wt. & Length Average Fresh Average Dry Weight erage (gram) (mm) Weight in grams of In grams of Diam. of Seed Rcot Shoot Plant Reot Shoot Plant (mm) 2 .4421 15.6 -2043 2.4114 2.6157 . 0287 .1719 - 2006 3.4 3 .4658 16.2 .4839 227125 3.1964 . 0360 -1904 . 2264 Ble) 4 .4162 15.7 - 6050 2.5739 3.1790 . 0310 .1718 . 2028 3.3 5 . 3887 15.6 .3402 2.3250 2.6652 . 0260 -1585 .1845 all The cost of printing necessitates the omission of the data from which the following tables are derived: Quintile I II Ill IV Vv TABLE 50 Quintile Distribution on Successive Days for Seedlings Starting on Quintile I. — i — ecroonw RPOSMOW ornate — ae SS) CNHRAWD mh Clon hd 1 NO WS 0d or We OO Mean Quintile Position 1.00 1.53 1.67 1.93 2.00 2.33 2.67 2.67 2.87 2.93 3.00 3.00 Quintile I II III IV Vv TABLE 51 WwWrmwpRweo 1 wWNrwwunho al Quintile Distribution on Successive Days for Seedlings Starting on Quintile II. 1 2 3 4 5 6 ZI 8 0 5 4 7 7 6 6 6 16 3 4 1 1 3 3 2 0 8 7 7 6 4 4 6 0 0 1 1 1 3 3 2 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 Mean Quintile Position 2.00 2.19 2.31 2.13 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.13 2.06 2.06 2,06 — ork] 1 — eh or] 11 6 4 5 1 0 G 1 2 4 4 2 3 G rand Total 165 rand Total 176 PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 139 TABLE 52 Quintile Distribution on Successive Days for Seedlings Starting on Quintile III. Quintile 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Total* I 0 2 1 2 3 4 3 E 3 3 3 3 30 Il 0 5 5 5 4 2 4 4 3 3 a 4 43 5884 17 7 5 2 1 4 3 3 4 4 3 3 39 IV 0 3 5 5 6 1 2 ee 2 2 2 32 WV 0 0 1 3 3 6 5 5 5 5 5 5 43 Grand Total 187 Mean Quintile Position 3.00 2.65 3.00 3.12 3.12 3.18 3.12 3.12 3.18 3.18 3.12 3.12 TABLE 53 Quintile Distribution on Successive Days for Seedlings Starting on Quintile IV Quintile 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Total* I 0 0 1 1 1 0 2 1 1 1 1 1 10 II 0 2 0 0 1 2 0 1 1 1 1 1 10 il 0 1 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 16 IV 12 4 1 3 2 2 2 3 = 4 4 Q 33 Vv 0 5 7 6 6 6 7 6 5 5 5 5 63 cd Total 132 Mean Quintile Position 4.00 4.00 4.08 4.09 3.92 4.00 4.00 4.00 3.92 3.92 3.92 3.92 TABLE 54 Quintile Distribution on Successive Days for Seedlings Starting on Quintile V. Quintile 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Total* I 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 17 Il 0 0 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 3 3 3 32 ll 0 0 2 4 oa 3 Bs 4 5 i Q t 33 IV 0 5 5 2 3 4d 3 3 2 3 3 3 36 WF, 15 «610 6 6 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 42 Grand Total 165 Mean Quintile Position 5.00 4.67 4.00 3.73 3.67 3.20 2.93 2.93 2.87 2.87 2.87 2.87 *Total distribution exclusive of first day. 140 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE SUMMARY OF THE PAPER ENTITLED “A METRICAL STUDY OF A THOUSAND MOTH COCOONS.” PROF. ELLIOT R. DOWNING, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO * * * * * In the autumn of 1916, the cocoons of the Cecropia and Polyphemus moths were very numerous in the southwestern portion of Chicago. Two hundred forty-eight Cecropia cocoons were counted on one small catalpa tree on a lawn in Roseland. A small hickory about two feet high, found growing on the open prairie near the city limits, was so plastered with cocoons that no stem or branch was visible. There were two centers of abundance; one in Roseland; the other in the neighborhood of the B. & O. railroad cros- sing at 91st street. These centers had apparently been populated by the moths from a common point in the neigh- borhood of Chicago Heights where the moths had been es- pecially abundant the preceding year. The direction of mi- gration from this original center had been determined ap- parently by the prevailing winds. In the fall of 1916, some eighteen hundred Polyphemus cocoons and forty-two hundred Cecropia cocoons were col- lected in the two regions mentioned. Since then, collections have been made annually for the purpose of comparison with the first lot. In 1916, five hundred cocoons each of the Cec- ropia and Polyphemus were taken at random from the thousands collected to make a careful study of the cocoons and moths that were hatched from them. Similar samplings have been made each succeeding year, though in decreasing numbers since the cocoons are becoming scarce. The results of the study may be briefly stated as follows: lst—The percentage of parasitized and diseased pupae has increased steadily during this period of five years, un- til now, the season of 1920-21, it is next to impossible to find a viable cocoon. In 1916, about one per cent of the PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 141 cocoons were parasitized, and thirty per cent dead through fungus disease. 2nd—In both moths, the lightweight cocoons produce males; the heavy cocoons, females. Thus, out of the thirty heaviest Cecropia cocoons, no males were produced; and out of the heaviest fifty, only five males. Out of the lightest thirty, nine females came; out of the lightest fifty, seven- teen. The proportion of males to females in the whole lot was fifteen males to thirteen females. 3rd—Males were much more subject to death through fungus disease than females. 4th—The cocoons were kept indoors in a warm base- ment from the time of collection in November until they hatched in the following spring. The time of the appear- ance of the moth from the cocoon was about a month earlier than control cocoons left outdoors during the winter. 5th—The correlation between the weight of the pupa and the weight of the silk in both Cecropia and Polyphemus cocoons is low, and that between the weight of the pupa and the weight of the moth is still lower. 6th—There is a fairly close correlation between the weight of the pupa and its loss of weight in emerging from the cocoon. 7th—Males lose a much larger proportion of their pupa weight in transforming into moths than do females. 8th—Cecropia is much more variable in the weight of both pupa and silk than is Polyphemus. 9th—Cecropia is much more subject to parasitization than is polyphemus, at least in those stages examined. It may be that the Polyphemus larvae are killed by parasites before the cocoon is made. 142 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE THE AGRICULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TIGHT CLAY SUBSOIL OF SOUTHERN ILLINOIS PROF. R. S. SMITH AND F. A. FISHER* ILLINOIS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION The upland prairie soils of 27 counties in southern IIli- nois, as well as considerable areas in other states located in the Glacial and Loessial Province, among which are Iowa, northern Missouri, and southern Indiana, have an imtper- vieus subsoil known as “tight clay.” The exact nature of this impervious stratum, which averages from 8 to 12 in- ches thick, and lies at a depth of about 17 inches, has n_t been determined. Its impervious nature is probably due ‘o a high inorganic colloidal content. The comparatively low agricultural value of this section of the state is due tc the presence oi the tight clay, because of its interference with underdrainage. ‘The economic importance as well as the scientific interest of the problem presented by the presence of this unfavorable substratum is apparent, and the dis- covery of a method of ameliorating the unfavorable con- dition would in time add very greatly to the resources of the state as well as to the resources of similar sections in adjoining states. The causes of this formation, so far as the writer is aware, are not well understood. One theory accounts tor it on the assumption that the percolating water carried the fine particles down from the surface soil and deposited them in the subsoil. This theory does not account for the failure of this substratum to form excepting in limited areas in glaciated sections farther north in the state. The forma- tion is apparently associated with a high water table. It is found to occur in the bottom lands and terraces as well as in the prairie uplands in practically every portion of the state, but only locally in the northern two-thirds, while it occurs almost universally in the prairie soils of the southern third, which comprises the area covered by the lower Illi- noisan glacial lobe. *Mr. Fisher is now Farm Adviser in Wabash County, Illinois. PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 143 The recognition of the fact that a soil’s response to tillage and fertilizer treatments is never satisfactory when poor drainage conditions exist led the Illinois Experiment Sta- tion to lay out four series of four tenth-acre plots each in Cumberland county in 1913 on an area typical of this type. Ground limestone was applied to all plots in the fall of 1913 at the rate of 4 tons to the acre, and finely ground rock phosphate was applied the following spring at the rate of 1 ton to the acre. The application of limestone is to be re- peated every 4 years at the rate of 2 tons to the acre, and rock phosphate at the rate of 1 ton to the acre. A rotation of corn, soybeans, wheat, and sweet clover is used, and all residues are returned. The series which is to go in corn is plowed late in the fall, Plot one 5 inches deep, Plot two is subsoiled 12 to 14 inches deep, Plot three is plowed 12 to 14 inches deep with a Spalding deep tillage machine, and Plot four is dynamited and afterwards plowed 5 inches deep. The charges of dynamite are placed in the imper- vious stratum eight feet three inches apart each way on the dynamited plots of the first two series, and eleven feet apart each way on the dynamited plots of series three and four. The moisture conditions are such that the soil in this section is supersaturated in the spring due to the imper- vious nature of the tight clay substratum. It was thought that if the tillage treatments or the dynamiting had reme- died this condition, it should be reflected in a lower moisture content of the surface and subsurface strata during this period of supersaturation. Moisture equivalent determi- nations had previously been made and the plots found to be uniform in this regard. Early in the spring of 1919, a preliminary series ot ten borings per plot were taken from Plots 4, 7, 10, and 13. The samples were taken from systematically distributed points in four depths, as follows: O to 6, 7 to 12, 13 to 18, and 19 to 24 inches. The percentages of moisture found in the individual samples were averaged in groups of ten, five and three, for the purpose of computing the probable error of the averages as a means of determining the number 144 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE _ of borings per plot necessary to get a representative aver- age. The following formula was used for computing the probable error of the average. 4 (—) (V) | n(n-1) In which <(—) (V) = the sum of the deviations from the mean, their sign being disregarded n = number of borings entering the average. P. E. = (—)O. 8453 It was at once found by inspection that three borings per plot were an insufficient number to give a reliable aver- age, and the possibility of using this small number was at once abandoned. Tables 1 and 2 give the data secured in this preliminary work. It will be noted that in Plot 4 the highest probable error occurred in the 7 to 12 inch borings, in Plot 7 in the surface borings, and in Plots 10 and 138 in the 19 to 24 inch borings. No explanation is apparent for the high variation found in the above named strata in Plots 4 and 7. In the case of Plots 10 and 13, the wide variations found in the moisture content of the 19 to 24 inch borings seem to be ac- counted for by the fact that the tight clay stratum does not occur at a uniform depth, and consequently some borings contained more of this material than others. This conclu- sion led to the abandonment of this plan of taking the bor- ings at these arbitrary depths and the substitution, in all subsequent work, of the following depths: Surface, 0-8 inches, subsurface, 8 inches to the tight clay, subsoil, 6 inches of tight clay. These depths were chosen because they coincided with the very typical strata as they occur in this field. During the spring of 1919, six sets of samples of 5 borings per plot were taken from Plots 1, 2, 3, and 4 of Series 100 and Plots 13, 14, 15, and 16 of Series 400. Series 100 had been plowed the preceding fall for corn and was undis- turbed the following spring due to being too wet, until just prior to taking the last set of samples on June 19. The plots of this series had received two tillage and dyna- mite treatments prior to this season’s sampling, the first in the fall of 1914 and the second in the fall of 1918. Ap- 145 PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE a SS —————————————————————EEeEeEeEeEeeeeses z9'0 (—) 9°6z196'0 (—) seglore (—) z'ezlze't (—) '6zleh'0 (—) 0°92|98'0 (—) 8°L2/S6°0 (—) 9°08)9L'0 (—) FOE, HG - OF 1¢°0 (—) 'LZ199°0 (—) £°8z|00°L (—) @°gzlP8°0 (—) L'bz| 8¢°0 (—) 8°Sz|EF'0 (—) 0°L2|FL'0 (—) ¥'86|00'T (—) L'8e| BL ST 1¢°0 (—) r'gzize'0 (—) 9'8z/z¢°0 (—) ¢°¢2\86'0 (—) T'z/9¢°0 (—) L'LZ|€¢°0 (—) L'8¢|86'0 (—) L'8z|h8'0 (—) BOE) GEL Eb'0 (—) 8'0¢|0z'0 (—) 6:08 | gz'0 (—) BzzI49°0 (—) 042/460 (—) ¥'6z|29°0 (—) F0E]£9°0 (—) L'0e/9L'0 (—) OTE 9-0 UdAST ppo | ___—waag PPO Ud AT PPO udAt PPO 1 1ld _ OT Wd L Id b 19d eyeays Seen ee ee —————————————————— poses9Ay ssuLsog uoAgy pure ppO GIGL ‘Id Idd SHulsog g¢ ‘aanysTo|, JO JUdII0d OBRIDAY ‘Z AGBL *ArvUIO}sSND st sv ‘sus_S SNULUr w &q poyeorpurL sf 10110 atquqoad oy} ‘sojqe} yuonbosqns [[e UF pue pue snjd oq} Jo peoysuy ‘(—) snyy ‘sisoyjuoied ur ysep ————————e—eeaaaeaes<«<®~ + ee In which N = total number of borings entering the average n = number of borings in each average e = probable error of average. It will be noted that there is no significant difference in the moisture content of the differently treated plots of either se- ries. The moisture content of Plots 2, 3, and 4 is higher in each case than that of the corresponding stratum in Plot 1. It seems apparent, however, that this fact must be attributed to soil heterogeneity rather than to treatment, for corres- ponding behavior is not found in Plots 14, 15, and 16 com- pared to Plot 13. During the spring of 1920 this work was continued by taking four sets of samples from Plots 5, 6, 7, and 8. These plots had received the tillage treatment in the fall of 1915 and again in the fall of 1919. Fourteen systematically dis- tributed borings per plot instead of five were taken dur- ing this season’s work in order to increase the reliability of the average. The strata sampled were the same as in 1919. Table 6 contains the data obtained during this sea- son’s work. It will be noted again that there are no significant dif- ferences in the moisture content of these plots in 1920 which had received a tillage treatment the previous fall and one in the fall of 1915. It seems apparent that neither the subsoiling, deep til- ling, or dynamiting have had any effect which is reflected in the moisture content of this poorly drained prairie soil. 147 PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE _————— 1e°0 (—) grzzlae'0 (—) o°eelar'o (—) z'ez|0°0 (—) 9'¢z|ge"0 (—) gree|ae'0 (—) 9°66)a0'0 (—) z'teltr'o (—) Ter|' "AV [Buosvas OL'0 (—) Z'kz1G6'°0 (—) F'Tzlee'o (—) geelpr'o (—) s'0z|za'o (—) s'tjac'o (—~) s'61)06F (—) zigtiez'o (—) Ont} GE une ¥9'0 (—) L'1ZIL60 (—) raelee'o (—) L'veleL'0 (—) 6'es|L8'0 (—) 8'08|0S°0 (—) L’eo|PL0 (—) 661/180 (—) BLT's Pune Gg") (—) Z'GlE8'0 (—) F'Szl6a'0 (—) 6'zz|0F'0 (—) 8'92|96'0 (—) Fae}or'k (—~) P9GF TF (—) L'pzlgo't (—) ote} °° ' "6s AB 110 (—) S'¢zl86'0 (—) 9°6zl9z'0 (—) 6'Gz|Iz'0 (—) 8'Ps|£8'0 (—) O'Pe|E9°0 (—) LSe)60'T (—) zezlee't (—) soe} °° 6 ABN 960 (—) L'02/99'°0 (—) Fzzlzs'0 (—) 6'ez|0z'0 (—) B'1Z|10"L (—) s'Ge]8'0 (—) EreoiZ2 0 (—) cozibo'k (—) Lut" °S% Tedy 80'L (—) L'@@lo“'o (—) F'vel6z'0 (—) s9zl61'0 (—) ¢'pe|06'o (—) L’ez|6p'h (~) She) 9V'E (—) rezlto'n (—) vet} tn tdy gt G | eT V £ G I Wd Avy) VqaLL oq) OF Soqouy g—aon JANSqng GIGL ‘ld Md sAursog G ‘MIN|STO|, JO JUOMId oneoAy “Pp OGL ——s - = ————— a ——————— ~ — — P70 (—) S'Szl1G'0 (—) SHZGLO (—) V9STEO (—) o'pzlee'o (—) '8z|92'0 (—) 9GEIGH'O (—) 6'22|86'0 (—) TTa} "AV [euosBes ce (—) 6'E21G8'0 (—) F290 (—) L’°8s)96°0 (—) v'2zle9'0 (—) V8 hb'0 (—) P'8t)/8S°0 (—) o'stioc’o (—) PLT" Er ount 19°0 (—) 1'Ezl08'0 (—) L’'SZ{6e'0 (—) 996/600 (—) G'pz196'0 (—) 8'1z]66'0 (—) £°06)8S°0 (—) 6'0z|ge'0 (—) Vogl" euNe LE'0 (—) g:92/9b'0 (—) 0°98|06'0 (—) FLEl6e'0 (—) Z'Lz|99°0 (—) O'L2|EF'0 (—) 192)89°0 (—) ¢'9z/68'0 (—) e'G¢|"" "°°" 66 AGW 9G'°0 (—) ZLZBE'O (—) 9'°Sz6'0 (—) BLE\S6'0 (—) 9'9z|€8'0 (—) 8'9@]TL'0 (—) 9°96) h6°0 (—) €§'SZ/82'0 (—) 86s" GE AGW Z9'0 (—) 9 TZ00'L (—) G'08eS'0 (—) 986)69'0 (—) ZI1zlE8'0 (—) S1z|8h'0 (—) 8°00) hS'T (—) 0'Uz|0F'T (—) B'8Ty °° Se dy 980 (—) FLzG9'0 (—) FLzeE'0 (—) 6°66 /60°0 (—) PLZ06'0 (—) &G2]69'0 (—) &bG)9S'T (—) 6'PZ|SG'T (—) GTel "TE [idy oT cr aI el V t G I ld soyouy, L- 0 xBJANg GIGE ‘Wild 9d s#urwog ¢ ‘ANSLOW, JO JWI opesoaAy ‘fF OTQeL ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 148 L800 (—) T8¢ GL'l (—) $°9¢ GL'0 (—) S'Le 690 (—) $62 LL'0 (—) @'8% 99°0 (—) €'82 86°0 (—) 6 LE ot Se ooo GE'0 (—) 9'86)/8E'0 (—) €'0E]0F'0 (—) Z'8z/Lz'0 (—) T'szlor'o (—) e'6zl6g°0 (—) o'8c|0F'0 (—) €'9¢]" "AV [Buoseas GET (—) T'SG)28°0 (—) 8'6z/8E"'T (—) 6'9z/9¢°0 (—) F'8zl8e'0 (—) oselzet (—) G°L¢|66°0 (—) z9e}"** ET eung G80 (—) 9°8¢/FL°0 (—) Z'6z/48'0 (—) 8°¢zlF9'0 (—) SZz10L°0 (—) F'6zI80'T (—) 6°8¢/00'T (—) 6 Get *** +++ +g aung 190 (—) F'6G|F8'0 (—) §'TE}F8°0 (—) 6'6z/T9'0 (—) F'8z16z°0 (—) Togis¢'0 (—) V6c/LL'0 (—) 09g] "°°" 6g ABIL 6h'0 (—) L°62|16'0 (—) L'O8|OE'T (—) 8°6z/9¢°0 (—) 9°8z160°L (—) 6'6ziec'0 (—) F60/S8'0 (—) fe) "° "°° ET AVIV 9F'0 (—) L'8Z|FEE (—) F'66/00'T (—) 8'9z|00'T (—) c9e|F'T (—) e'8zizz0 (—) G8z/S0'T (—) F9C]"* °° eg Tady &L'0 (—) 6°62|90'T (—) F'TE]¢¢°0 (—) €:0E/96'0 (—) L6zlre't (—) 9'6z/68"°0 (—) z'8ziLO'T (—) oy ees IT [dy il! i! él v 6 G i 101d —e—oo.e—e———s—s————— SSS 6T6T ABID FYSLL JO sayouy g ‘[rosqng ‘JOld Idd ssulsog ¢ ‘aimystoy, JO JuadI0q a8e1aAy °¢ ofqey, ee EERE O10 (—) 89% TV'0 (—) 9°96 9¢°0 (—) 19% 6e'0 (—) 0°9% 2o'0 (—) €'9¢ 82'0 (—) o'Se cg'0 (—) &L2 10°0 (—) 69% LZ’0 (—) §°S¢ oc'0 (—) ¥°S6 1z'0 (—) 192 1g'0 (—) 8'Sz pr'0 (—) 996 a 149 1Z'0 (—) 192 610 (—) €'96 810 (—) 686 ‘ABI WALL JO soyouy g [rosqus ey LEER ay 1S°0 (—) €°Lz Pa erty Mt Le'0 (—) SLE RRC ASC eGR Sa J ABW er (—) V8 fide Sa A ABSA ON ON [lidy ee Sr Z1'0 (—) 6FG OVO (—) O'bG 810 (—) 6'Sz L2'0 (—) &'S¢ 62°0 (—) Se AC (ona Bd €2'0 (—) 9G 02'0 (—) 6°66 ce'0 (—) 0°66 920 (—) G'FG 910 (—) 8°&% P80 (—) 66 rT LV'0 (—) 6&6 1r'0 (—) L'Se 0¢'0 (—) TVG Avy) WSL 9Y} OF Soqouy g aovjaunsqnsg = EE re ee ord. (—) 666 O10 (—) 19% 82°0 (—) #83 0z'0 (—) V9 1z'0 (—) 6°66 ¢z'0 (—) VS 810 (—) 8°66 6o'0 (—) 8&6 GZ'0 (—) 8°Lzé LZ'0 (—) ¥'6¢ 9T'0 (—) GLE 700 (—) €'6¢ CeO) Fee i 8 L 9 ¢ ZT'0 (—) ¥'86 Le’0 (=) €'8¢ Gz'0 (—) G86 PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 0z'0 (—) 6'FZ wee ees eceren re'0 (—) €'92 Pos b ee ON ene h eee ore. ABT 9F'0 (—) V'h2% oo aoa ee ore eS rR TT Or'0 (—) £°&2 becocrese tear savenne sy Care Pro (—) 0'Sz en We Mea let Loki [ludy a ‘sayouy g- 0) aRsANS LT 020 (—) 6'LZ aud: 68 Ole ais mice ele oe "AY [euoseas ee Ede Bie ate ENS Bi al Us ACN I as ares ee 2 6 | ABIN “AW [BUOSBIS nnn UEEEEEEEE IEEE EREEESEEREREEERENIEE 610 (—) C'RZ foe Ala) aus sr as A jeuosvog 97'0) (—) 6 8c CAE SM ae eM ea tly fn 1 0¢'0 (—) Z'8z aE Meh oe wp a Pe eo ee aa Ged (—) GL1Z Pare Ce te ee a OC ae ONE [Lidy Wd NN gy foe), 7 esses OZGL ‘Wld 19d SBursog pp ‘eanysrow, JO Wooded “9 PPL 150 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Crop yield has also been taken as a criterion of effect and here also no consistent or significant difference in the yield of the various plots has occurred. This information, while entirely negative, is of consider- able value as a guide in planning future work which may lead to the discovery of a method of underdraining this ex- tensive area. It also furnishes the Experiment Station with a sound basis upon which to base advice to farmers of this region regarding the advisability of purchasing sub- soil or deep tillage plows, or of using dynamite in an effort to shatter and render more pervious the tight clay subsoil. These investigations, together with similar investigations which have been carried on at other stations, seem to point without question to the conclusion that the remedy for this unfavorable subsoil condition is not to be found in deep tillage or in the use of dynamite. Further investigation must determine whether a practicable remedy can be found. The problem is of such far-reaching economic significance that upon its successful solution depends, to a large extent, the material welfare of an extensive area in Illinois. The possibilities of attack have not been exhausted and valuable information has been secured in the work thus far attempted. Future efforts, it seems, must first be directed toward a study of the exact nature and behavior of this plastic material, and then with this knowledge as a basis we will be in a position to attack the problem in the field more intelligently. Discussion of Paper on “The Agricultural Significance of the Tight Clay Subsoil.” Mr. Haas asked whether the failure to have any effect through deep plowing, subsoiling or dynamiting might not be due to lack of underdrainage or tiling. In his own ex- perience on a small scale in northern Ohio through dyna- miting, from appearances, only, there seem to be a distinct gain in “drawing” power of tile as well as the growth of plants. In reply to the question whether the negative results obtained might not be due to the plowing down of the soil rich in humus and bringing to the surface of large quantities of gumbo, Mr. Smith replied that the color of PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 151 the surface soil on the plots plowed with the deep tillage machine was distinctly changed, showing a mixing of the subsurface and subsoil with the surface, but that no such inversion has taken place on the subsoiled or dynamited plots, and that no effect on the drainage could be discerned on any of the plots. 152 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE THE PLANT ECOLOGY OF THE ROCK RIVER WOOD- LANDS OF OGLE COUNTY, ILLINOIS. H. DE FOREST, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, 1920 INTRODUCTION Ogle County is located in the northern part of Illinois in the second tier of counties just west of the center line of the state. It is an irregular parallelogram in outline, some 39 miles in its widest west-east and 29 in its north-south direction. The total area is about 750 square miles. The area dealt with specifically in this paper comprises some 75 to 80 square miles along the Rock River, with a small area to the west of the Rock on Pine Creek. The larger part of the surface of the county is overlaid by glacial drift, generally so thinly as rarely to attain even 20 feet depth, and reaching its maximum of about 125 feet only in the northwestern part. The elevations above sea level run from about 700 to 900 feet. The Rock River, a moderate sized stream, takes a general north-east to south-west course through the middle of the county, with three or four main tributary streams entering it from the west and the east. It makes a great bend near the southern border of the county. The course of the Rock takes it through Iowan drift, which overlays more than half the county and affords good drainage without swamps. From the southern boundary an irregular area, varying from a few hundred feet to 10 or 12 miles wide, underlain by St. Peter’s sandstone, extends northward along the Rock on either side for about two-thirds of the distance to the north- ern boundary. The remainder of the county, with the ex- ception of a small area of the sand-stone at the west bound- ary and some shales at the south-east corner, is under- lain by Trenton-Galena limestones. Outcrops of both sand- stone and limestone in cliffs and walls occur along streams. The larger part of the county is undulating prairie. Here occur groves of upland prairie oaks. Along the river and creeks the country is more or less hilly. Here there is a fair growth of woodlands. PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 153 ROCK RIVER The Rock River, rising in southeastern Wisconsin, has a course of some 300 miles, flowing southwestward to empty into the Mississippi River below Rock Island, Illinois. It has a drainage area of about 11,000 square miles, half of which is in Wisconsin in the Wisconsin glacial drift, afford- ing poor drainage with the occurrence of many swamps, and half in Illinois in the Iowan glacial drift, affording good drainage with no swamps. The course of this river has been greatly altered since the Pleistocene ice age. Its former valley is much to the east of the present one in Ogle County. The preglacial valley is departed from in Winnebago County before reach- ing Ogle County, but in Ogle the river takes its way along the valleys of certain of the preglacial tributaries and in large part along a postglacial course. Thus the Rock follows the preglacial valley of the Leaf River for a few miles in the vicinity of Byron in the north of the county but in the reverse direction from that of the preglacial Leaf, and uses as well some of the small preglacial tributaries. Farther south Kyte River flows northwestward into the Rock below the town of Oregon in the valley of a pre- glacial western tributary of the Rock. The head of this is in the hills back of the town of Oregon, the present Rock cutting off only the headwaters portion of the preglacial valley. Several smaller streams also had preglacial courses cutting across the present Rock River which now intersects several of them midway of their course and diverts them westward into the Mississippi River by way of the Rock. From not far south of the Kyte the Rock appears to follow the line of a small preglacial stream as far as the mouth of Pine Creek, in a valley varying from about one quarter of a mile to as much as a mile in width at Grand Detour where the river makes its big bend. The course of the Rock, then, from where it turns away from its broad preglacial valley in southern Winnebago County, is in Ogle County south- westward through a much narrower valley, a valley that is postglacial except where the Rock occupies the valleys of preglacial streams. In this postglacial course the river is about 500 feet wide in a valley varying from 1000 feet 154 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE to 1 mile in width. Its total fall in Ogle County is only some 50 to 60 feet. It is this narrow portion that has given rise to the river bluffs. At Byron there are deposits of glacial gravel some 50 feet above the low water level of the Rock. At Oregon such deposits also occur, being some 40 feet here, and they extend thence to the southern end of the county and be- yond. Remarkably small excavation by the river has taken place since the deposition of this gravel. The rock exca- vation has been interglacial and the gravel excavation postglacial, the period of the rock excavation having been the longer and for the greater part in limestone. Today the outcrops seen along the Rock in Ogle County are mainly St. Peter’s sandstone, which outcrops for some 14 miles in banks from 25 to 200 feet in height. It is this that forms the bluffs for some two and a half miles above the town of Oregon, near the middle of the county, to below Grand Detour at the southern end. In color this sandstone is from nearly white to golden yellow and dark brown, from the iron once held in solution by the water. Sometimes these bluffs are capped by limestone, as on the east side of the Rock north of Oregon where the Black Hawk statue stands. Liberty Hill, west of Oregon, is also of this sandstone capped by limestone. A few miles north of Oregon, and south of the mouth of Pine Creek near the southern boundary, the outcrops rapidly decline. In the St. Peter’s sandstone there are sometimes ferruginous layers which, being more resist- ant to erosion, are often left as brown to almost black paral- lel or circular ridges. This is well shown at Hotel Rock, on the west shore about four miles south of Oregon. Again the sandstone may occur as an almost white, non-ferru- ginous variety, consisting of almost pure silica, as at Castle Rock on the west shore just north of Hotel Rock, where the stone is soft, friable, and very porous. In the ravines about the town of Oregon buff limestone occurs, and it is this that caps the sandstone of the river bluffs upon which the statue of Black Hawk stands opposite Oregon. Certain creeks emptying into the Rock show St. Peter’s sandstone at their mouths, then, farther up stream, the buff lime- stone, and still farther up blue limestone, and finally Galena PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 155 limestone as a rock wall, this last being dull gray to cream color, coarse-grained and porous. It is the Galena lime- stone that forms the bluff at Pine Creek upon which grows a stand of white pine. The above limestones, belonging to the Trenton group, are sometimes referred to as the Tren- ton-Galena limestones. The Rock, on the whole, may be considered as, even in the preglacial beds, an immature postglacial river, since some erosion has taken place since the glacial period. Con- sidered thus it is in the second phase of river development, that of bluffs, with erosional and depositional banks at vari- ous places. In this mid-phase of river development there frequently occurs an overlapping of bluff and flood-plain, and this is seen in the Rock. It should be noted, too, that much of the flood-plain development is artificial in nature, due to the formation of sand and gravel bars after the breakage of dams, as at Oregon and Grand Detour. It will be seen that the region is one altogether of the varied physiography of a river in its mid-phases with an ac- centuation of the topography in many places owing to the older preglacial parts. The soils belong to the following classes of the five recognized by the State Soil Survey. Up- land timber soils, the yellow to yellow-gray loams. Residual soils, including stony loam and rock outcrop. Terrace soils, which include bench lands (second bottom lands, formed by deposition from overloaded streams during the melting of the glaciers). Bottomland soils, which include the overflow lands or present flood plains along streams, and other poorly drained lands. The last class includes swamp soils else- where in the state. There are, however, no swamps in Ogle County. The remaining soil class, outside of the region es- pecially under consideration in this paper, is that of the up- Jand prairie soils, in the main the brown loams. These are rich in organic matter and are said to have been covered originally with prairie grasses, whose partly decayed roots have been the source of the humus. The upland timber soils are said to include practically all of the upland that was formerly covered with forests. The question raised thus, as to whether the vegetation caused these soils to be- 156 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE come what they are or whether the soils caused the repre- sentative vegetative assemblages, is outside the province of this paper. The alternation of loam and clay found in Ogle County is a thing common to glacial regions. Some limestone resi- dual soil occurs and there are residual sandy areas arising from the disintegration of sandstone. The most marked contrast and the most notable soil difference for vegetation, whatever may be the part the vegetative assemblages play in this, is that between the rich brown or black loam of the gently rolling prairie back from the Rock River and its tributaries and the more rapidly eroding clays, much poorer in humus, nearer the streams. NATIVE VEGETATION IN THE PAST In the geological past, since the last retreat of the Pleisto- cene ice, it seems certain that there was a time when the vegetation of the county comprised in large part white pine (Pinus strobus) as its chief tree growth. As the climatic change following the retreat of the ice took place through thousands of years, coniferous species became more and more replaced by the tree species that occur as the chief ones today, in response to the conditions furnished by the present climatic cycle. White pine is able to persist still, however, as a relic of the former vegetation. Careful searching of the old records as contained in the county his- tories of northern Illinois and of Wisconsin, and of old maps as well, indicates that for the geologically brief instant dur- ing which white men have been in the region this white pine has existed only in the form of isolated areas and not as ex- tended arms of growth from the north which have since become cut off into these scattered parcels. This evidence, though not conclusive, greatly increases the _ probability. Since the first coming of the whites about the middle of the nineteenth century even these stands have been mostly wiped out or persist only in the form of a few trees. Previous to about 1840 the inhabitants of Ogle County were chiefly Indians. A few French occasionally came to the region that is now the county after La Salle came to Illinois late in the seventeenth century. It has been estimated that PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 157 possibly five thousand Indians went up and down the Rock River valley and had a few small villages along it. Hunting and fishing, not agriculture, were the occupations, and con- sequently these early people were roving instead of settled in certain locations. This has had its influence on the vege- tation, both in the way of less disturbance to it than would result from a settled agricultural population and in the way of the relation of the Indians to prairie fires. These were purposely set for various reasons and have unquestionably had an enormous influence on the native vegetation. The exact extent of this influence may never be definitely known, but the early records of the whites agree in furnishing di- rect and indirect evidence of great weight as to the colossal effect. Early records of Ogle County, besides prairie fires of smaller size, mention two that occurred in successive years and 1an from the Mississippi River eastward to the Rock River. When the whites began settlement about 1840 woodlands extended along the Rock on either side for varying distances and along its tributary streams. According to the earnest accounts the prairie ran down to the water’s edge in only a few places. Elsewhere were the so-called “groves,” patches of woodland of varying size usually along water courses and in the neighborhood of springs. These woodlands must not be understood as mere narrow belts along the creeks; fre- quently they occupied considerable areas. By far the larger part of the county was undulating prairie land. Perhaps 15-20 per cent may be said to have been woods. It is in- teresting to note that the early accounts of these “groves” mention oaks, walnuts, elms, maples, hickory. This is a rather different community from the prairie grove of the present time. The same early accounts speak of the wood- lands along the Rock and its tributaries as containing oaks, walnut and butternut, hard maple, elm, hickory. Here the assemblage is characteristic today. An account of the woods west of the Rock, in Mount Morris township, written about the middle of the nineteenth century, mentions them as scrub timber growth in what was largely an open country. The reason for the scrubby form is given as prairie fires. é 158 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE As well as may be ascertained today the original areas of woodland, about 1840 and for an indefinite period before then, were approximately as represented on the map issued by the County Superintendent of Schools about 1900. The singular fact that these wooded areas should remain about the same in extent for over half a century is said to be explained as follows. During the years 1840 to 1900 the nature of the woods underwent great change at the hands of the whites. During this time a haphazard selection cutting rather than actual clearing is what prevailed, desirable spe- cies of trees of large size being cut out promiscuously. From about 1880 to 1900 actual clear cutting was more notably under way, but this was of such a degree that it did not be- come strikingly noticeable until about 1900. From this date onward, however, the clearing became great until very recent years, along with further selection cutting, the latter still going on. Today Ogle County has over 30,000 in- habitants. About 5% of the land in the neighborhood of the Rock may be estimated as wooded. A recent estima- tion for the northwestern part of Illinois of 8% may serve for rough comparison. THE VEGETATION The Rock would probably be referred to as a prairie river located in the grasslands (prairie)—deciduous forest tran- sition area of North America. This transition belt, as is well known, possesses characteristics, in the species of plants present, of the deciduous forest area to the east- ward and of the grasslands to the westward. The prairie areas of this transition belt comprise the major part. Its affinity with the east is expressed in the woodlands along streams and extending out irregularly from these. Al- though Ogle County lies in this transition a more exact delimitation of ecological boundaries takes note of what is known to plant geographers as the prairie peninsula. This is an arm of grassland extending eastward into Illinois and adjacent states. It grazes Ogle County at the south. Further, while the above statement holds good in a gen- eral way, the Rock River woodlands are not thoroughly typ- ical of the prairie river. In some respects they are more representative of the eastern portion of the transition belt. PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 159 Thus the wooded area on either side of the Rock, in its original extent, was about equal. See the sketch map on page 160. In the typical prairie river wooded region the greater extent of the woods is on the west of the river. The potential mesophytism, if not the actual mesophytism, is greater in degree and in extent in the Rock River wood- lands region than in that of any true prairie river. An examination of the Rock in Ogle County shows that the intrenched valley must expose here on either sloping side a set of soils that is different from the prairie soil. This is typical of the middle and lower courses of the prairie rivers. In general, too, the east side of the valley is wider than the west side, and the east is also generally of some- what lower slope. This, again, is typical of the prairie river. On the Rock River this is locally greatly broken into an ac- count of both the preglacial character of much of its course in Ogle and the physiographic diversity of the postglacial portion, so that the statements hold true only for the general aspect of the entire course in the county. In part this transition belt is a savanna. This term is of- ten used in order to compare it with other similar areas of the world that go by this general name. Many parts of this North American transition unquestionably furnish ex- amples of true savanna, chiefly of the patchy type, where, in a grassland, patches of tree growth frequently occur. This is almost the same thing as the “oak openings” often mentioned in literature descriptive of the early days of settlement, with the possibility that the oak openings com- prised rather more frequent wooded portions than character- istic patchy savanna. In some places the park-like savanna occurred. Here the grassland was set not with patches of tree growth but with isolated trees far enough apart to make it possible to drive about through the area. The early records of Ogle County make reference to such a form in Mount Morris township and the reference makes it highly probable that this example arose as the result of prairie fires. Other examples must have existed and there is likelihood that prairie fires were an important if not de- cisive element in their creation. tanh! vay e ORC f 2 c * é ’ ri eo 2 . 1 an i an Se @ | as 160 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE SALTCH MAP AOCHK AIVER WOODLAND AT /GY/9 AND 1840 : Orown by-Av west iS } WJ RE < BS NS, X FE s SRR NAN A = tgs 27 > 7 Uf, fy LLG tH Yjy VIM oe ama ea iy ee | RSS 7 YS we LE : . ye. UR Yi ZF ZZ Ly a VO Dk PGA Ba, GLA Y, ROCK RIVER WOODLANDS Showing their original extent, based on the map issued by the County Superintendent of Schools in 1900, and on field sketches by the writer in 1919. PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 161 The Rock River Woodlands are the vegetation response of this particular part of the world to the conditions of in- land plant succession in the depressions of the erosion topo- graphy of a river system that may be considered, in general at least, as in its mid-phase of ravines, bluffs, and fiood plains. A varied assortment of habitats for plant life is a corollary. Early xerophytic ravine stages through to ex- tremely mesophytic late ones in both clay and loams are present, with the rock bluff phase of river action in sand- stone and limestone, the depositional phase of flood plains, and depositing and eroding shores. This is the structure that has already been described as the Rock River system in Ogle County, with its vegetational history as already briefly outlined. Further, into all this there has been projected an element of powerful effect in the changes wrought by it directly and indirectly on the topography and the vegeta- tion. This element is that of the various activities of men. It is in its effects from minor to cataclysmic and from slow to the swiftest of all factors. FACTORS OF THE COMPLEX In the chains of causation leading to certain effects it is customary today to stress particularly the physical and chemical alterations in the surroundings, that is to say in the kinds and the rates of processes making up the condi- tions under which things exist and change. From the scien- tific standpoint this is, of course, desirable since it is always the more fundamental that is needed for establishing prin- ciples of application that approach universality. Today, however, the whole story, so to speak, of many occurrences in nature cannot be expressed in physical and chemical terms. The development of vegetation, for example, cannot possibly be told in such terms alone, whatever may be pos- sible at some later time. An account of the plant ecology of any locality must necessarily use other means of expression also. So, for a qualitative investigation of vegetation, an artificial classification of the “factors” or elements of the different complexes involved is desirable. A common, very general one, of great use in the past but now somewhat out- worn, is the division into topographic and biotie factors. Another recognition of this is to be seen in the still very use- 162 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ful though purely artificial separation into 1) Primary Succession; that resulting from natural causes, and 2) Secondary Succession; that resulting from disturbance by man. This is wholly a classification of convenience. The different categories may, in many cases, overlap consider- ably in so far as the laws of physics and of chemistry are concerned. But this is of no great importance in a qualita- tive investigation. Nor need it interfere at all with quanta- tive investigation of vegetation, where an endeavor is made to seek out physical and chemical relations in plant life or to advance our present defective state of knowledge concern- ing quantitative methods of investigating such phenomena. A simple classification of convenience for the purposes of the qualitative investigation in hand is as follows: Activities of men, Climatic fluctuations, Fires, Plant diseases, Principles of plant succession. The first of these categories may obviously be split up into such heads as: Clearing, Cutting, Grazing, Burning, Weed introduction, Crop raising, Industrial developments, Artificial planting. Since no complete handling of all these elements is at all possible it will be well to dispose here of a few that are either of lesser importance or are practically impenetrable, reserv- ing the more important or more feasible for a later discus- sion, after the plant ecology had undergone consideration. The height of water in the Rock River and its volume of fiow is influenced not only by natural causes but by indus- trial development. The water is artificially ponded often be- hind the dam at Rockford in Winnebago County to the north PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 163 of Ogle, causing abnormally low water. This is followed by the sudden release of the water, and, consequently, unusual influences of stream flow are at work at times upon the shore lines of islands and mainland. Island formation has been greatly influenced in places by the building of bridges, as at Oregon, and the breaking of dams, as at Oregon and at Grand Detour. Artificial islands have been created by the gravel and detritus washed from a broken dam against the piers of a bridge, as about the iron bridge at Oregon. The effect of ice, when ice gorges break farther north in the river in February or March and send down the river great quantities of ice, has been marked on shore lines and on island erosion and movement. There has beeen great change in the river islands in the county within the last few decades. The map issued about 1900 by the County Super- intendent of Schools exhibits a number of differences from the recent, still unpublished, map of the State Soil Survey, and it is possible today to trace the course of some of these changes. The earlier map shows a rather large island im- mediately north of Margaret Fuller’s island above Oregon. No island exists there now, but a very small one farther up stream near the west shore shows evidence of being the remains of the former larger one, since southward from it the remains of stems of dead willows may be seen stick- ing above the surface at low water. In a number of other locations similar effects may be seen. The arrangement of the islands south of the iron bridge at Oregon is strikingly different now from that of the earlier map, and the reasons for this are known in the events of the past fifty years or so. The dynamism of the islands is probably still of a high rate at times so far as their disappearance and appearance is concerned, while that of their progression downstream is generally that usually encountered in a stream of this char- acter. The canalization near the mouth of Pine Creek near the southern boundary of the county, whereby the lower end of the creek was afforded a shorter course, also pre- sents an artificial rearrangement of natural conditions. It should be noted that much of the industrial development on the Rock assists natural causes in making the river a de- positing as well as an eroding stream. The muddiness of 164 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE the water, due to the load carried, is frequently commented upon, whereas before the advent of the whites its clearness was equally noticed. The artificial planting that has been done in the county is mainly of an ornamental nature and there is no evidence as yet of the further establishment of these introduced species by natural means. As a factor this is still negligible. Unintentional weed introduction and the natural migration and establishment of weed species of plants has, probably, been very great since the settlement period about the middle of the nineteenth century. One need refer to the case of the giant ragweed (Ambrosia trifida) alone for an indica- tion of how widespread this influence may be upon the native vegetation. This species, locally known as “horse- weed,” is having a marked ill effect economically in its in- vasion of farm areas. The entire matter of weed introduc- tion is a practically unknown factor, however. The effect of crop raising on the native vegetation is, like its reciprocal, the effect of native vegetation on crop areas and the raising of different farm crops, practically an unknown territory. One aspect of this that seems likely to come up before many years for careful investigation by ecological methods is the effect of grazing by domestic stock on the permanency and the yield of farm pasturage. The ecological method of regulating grazing on western ranges has already been suc- cessfully worked out and applied. The effects of grazing animals on the Rock River woodlands will be considered here, however, after the plant ecology of the areas has been dealt with. It needs merely to be mentioned now as one of the prime factors of the region in the ecology of the native vegetation. Plant diseases among the native species is a wholly unknown factor so far as the past is concerned. References occur, to be sure, in various records of county af- fairs, but these references are all so general in nature as to be of little value, consisting mainly of such statements as that after the severe winters of a certain period there was much disease among the native trees. It will probably re- main one of the unknown factors of the past. There remain, then, for later discussion the topics of clearing woodlands, cutting out various species of trees PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 165 from them, fires in such areas, grazing within them, with such consideration of the principles of plant succession as appear pertinent, and the matter of possible climatic fluc- tuation. It may be well to emphasize that what is de- sired even in a qualitative investigation of these factors is some knowledge of the attendant alterations in such things, for example, as soil moisture content, physical character of the substratum, effects on the plant assemblages, as well as more general information and certain outstanding prin- ciples or isolated facts. THE PLANT ECOLOGY Just what the Rock River woodlands contained in plants besides tree species before white settlements got under way is somewhat speculative. The most striking thing about the early accounts appears to be the great similarity between the species of trees then present in the woods along the Rock and in the woods well back from the river, that is in many of the prairie groves. Mention of “large oaks” is frequent, and sometimes a diameter of three or four feet is given for them as well as for elms. Large walnut and butternut are also spoken of and the hard or sugar maple. The writer believes that there was more mesophytism than now, that if not a very much higher degree of it, it was at least greater in areal extent. It is believed, too, that the climax form today of the Rock River woodland region is one of very considerable mesophy- tism. The highest expression of this is to be seen only in spots of woodland, while certain larger areas exhibit it also but expressed in lower terms. It must be remembered that the region presents other woodland associations of high mesophytism besides this climax form. These are the bottomland association and the streamside association, al- most identical in floral composition, the former of which is notable on the islands while the latter is common on the banks of the Rock and other streams of continuous flow. Here the ruling species of trees are Acer saccharinum, Ulmus americana, U. pubescens, Salix nigra, S. fluviatilis, Acer ne- gundo, Fraxinus americana. When ungrazed, Ambrosia tri- fida and Urtica dioica are characteristic also. The climax form when at its highest expression contains such trees 166 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE as Acer saccharum, A. nigrum, Tilia americana, Prunus se- rotina, Hicoria minima, Juglans cinerea, J. nigra, Fraxinus americana, Quercus alba, Q. rubra. The following shrubs are rather typical of the undergrowth—Viburnum denta- tum, V. lentago, Staphylea trifoliata, Hamamelis virginiana, and, sparingly, both Amelanchier canadensis and Carpinus carolianiana. Some characteristic herbs and ferns are Viola spp., Podophyllum peltatum, Trillium spp., Sangui- naria canadensis, Asarum canadense, Hepatica spp., Aralia nudicaulis, A. racemosa, Actea rubra, A. alba, with Menis- permum canadense and Amphicarpa monoica among the lianes; Adiantum pedatum, Osmundas, Aspleniums, Aspi- diums. The oaks are still the dominant trees generally both in point of numbers and of size. The maple element sometimes is represented by trees of good size but they are generally still subordinate in point of numbers. In a sense this is a beginning aspect of a climax form, as an inspec- tion of the list of species named will indicate. The writer believes there is considerable evidence on the ground that goes to show that this form may not be the ultimate ex- pression, under the prevailing climatic complex, but that a still more mesophytic expression may be the real climax form, if the successional development of the vegetation were allowed to take place without interference. It is specu- lation, of course, to indicate what the ultimate form might be. Since Fagus americana and Tsuga canadensis are ab- sent, even as possible migrants, the beech-maple-hemlock climax of farther east is out of the question. It is con- ceivable, however, and rather probable, that an ultimate association might involve the well-nigh complete elimina- tion of Quercus alba and perhaps of the more mesophytic Quercus rubra, resulting in a maple association. In much of the eastern portion of the middle west of North America a red oak-white oak-hickory association (Quercus rubra- Quercus alba-Hicoria ovata) is the climax. Sometimes the course of the succession to this is likened to that of the country farther east with the exception of the elimination of the eastern climax of beech-maple-hemlock. The asso- ciation considered here as the climax of the Rock River woodlands region may be termed an oak-maple climax. It is not believed that this is, or would be if left to its natural PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 167 development, peculiar only to the Rock River region but that it would gradually spread over more or less of the county outside of that specifically dealt with in this paper. This oak-maple climax is to be seen well in portions of the Cart- wright woods on the west side of the Rock north of Oregon and in the east shore part of the McCormack woods north of Byron. The association has become in large part inde- pendent of physiographic diversity, that is to say, it is found not only in small ravine heads for example, which af- ford especially favorable mesophytic conditions, but spread over larger physiographic areas that involve much diversity of habitat. The floral composition of the associa- tion in such examples of the climax will be treated in more detail later. From the viewpoint of geological time, of course, the mesophytism of the Rock River woodlands re- gion is a temporary effect. Geologically later, when lateral erosion of the river has approached planation, mesophytism will have disappeared. For contrast, in order to get an impression of the course of the plant succession, and some idea of the probable ef- fectiveness of the factors influencing it, let us consider an association representing the other extreme, a xerophytic woodland. Although not especially concerned with the prairie groves as they remain in the county today, chiefly in the form of degenerate farm woodlots, they will, never- theless, serve the purpose. Their mesophytism when white settlers first came into the county about 1840 has already been noticed. While not applicable to all prairie groves eighty years ago many of them certainly comprised an as- semblage of plants whose mesophytism is indicated by the presence of such species as maples, walnuts and elms, be- sides the oaks. Today, after less than a century of occupa- tion by the whites, these groves or woodlots generally con- tain an association whose retrogression is indicated by their composition of oaks and hickory. The typical species are Quercus macrocarpa, Q. ellipsoidalis, Q. velutina, Q. alba, Hicoria ovata. Since the variations comprise almost all possible combinations of these species no more definite statement is necessary. In this connection there must be compared what has happened when the course of the plant 168 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE succession was in the reverse direction. The prairie groves have exhibited a movement of plant succession towards xerophytism from a rather high form of mesophytism, as retrogression due to the activities of man. Near Lincoln, Nebraska, an area of prairie, bearing the usual sod grasses, was made, by the activities of man, to exhibit a movement of the plant succession towards mesophytism from some de- gree of xerophytism. Some forty years ago seedling trees were planted in the prairie sod grass. Now the sodded condition has disappeared and the area has shown progres- sion into a rather mesophytic woodland. Among the species given as representative of the prairie groves, or their remains, the farm woodlots of today, Quer- cus macrocarpa is a typical border line tree between prairie and woodland. It is also, however, a species of very differ- ent habitat, occurring in places of great soil moisture, as for example, on the Leaf River flats. It is to be found, too, in other habitats of soil moisture conditions apparently in- termediate between these, where it may be a left-over from another set of conditions. It is quite possible that a statis- tical investigation would show it to be more plentiful in that portion of the area being dealt with that is west of the Rock River. Having now given some attention to what may be thought of as the two extremes of woodland growth, the prairie grove or farm woodlot association of today, just outside of the Rock River woodland region and the climax form of woodland within that region, some consideration of the in- termediate stages and deviations from the customary forms of these are in order. As might be expected the physio- graphic diversity afforded by an intrenched river valley in the way of differentiation of habitat conditions along the line of mesophytism, that is increased soil moisture and decreased evaporation, has given rise to practically all variations between the two extremes. The typical prairie grove or farm woodlot association can be found today with- in the Rock region as well as upon the prairie. From the oak-hickory association of xerophytic tendencies the relative frequency of the more mesophytic oaks, Quercus alba and Quercus rubra, increases as the succession goes in the meso- PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 169 phytic direction. The latter of these two species is a mark of attained mesophytism generally, while the former, though indicating an increase in mesophytism usually, nevertheless occurs in so wide a range of conditions as to be a member of many stages, or degrees of stages, of the suc- cession. All the phases, until a low beginning form of the climax itself is reached, appear to be variations on the oak representation. The occurrence of such species as Fraxinus americana and Juglans, while representative of advanced soil moisture, are probably less representative of a definite stage of succession, though generally present in the climax. A deviation from the regularity of the succession is shown by the association at the foot of a limestone ridge capped by sandstone on the east shore of the Rock just above Oregon, and consequently with a western exposure. The representative tree species here are Quercus alba, Q. ellipsoidalis, Hicoria ovata, Juniperus virginiana, and infrequent specimens of Quercus macrocarpa. Since the ground cover includes such herbaceous forms as Monarda stricta, Melilotus alba, Rudbeckia hirta, Desmodium illi- noense, Cassia chamaecrista, the assemblage may be taken to represent a response to xerophytic conditions on a rather dry western exposure. It appears to be evident from the surrounding growth that the xerophytism here- abouts has been and is still decreasing in areal extent. It is to be noted that for a number of years past the vege- tation conditions have not been interfered with materially. A frequent response to the changed conditions afforded by a stream that contains water at least the greater portion of the time is shown by the appearance of Juglans nigra and sometimes Gleditsia triancanthos in a stand of Quercus ellipsoidalis, Q. velutina, Hicoria ovata, Quercus alba. An herb such as Podophyllum peltatum is frequent. Migrants like Acer saccharum, Hicoria minima, Celtis occidentalis, indicate the direction in which the succession is going. A good example of this is to be seen in a woodlot east of the Rock opposite Oregon. Throughout the Rock River region Hicoria minima is an excellent indicator of good soil moisture. Celtis occidentalis, on the other hand, while often occurring correspondingly, as a seeming indicator of 170 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE still greater soil moisture, is to be found as well on sites - that are so much drier as to make the species unreliable as an indicator. In Oregon township, section two, there is a stand rep- resentative of mesophytism and xerophytism condensed. Here Quercus alba, Q. macrocarpa, Hicoria ovata, Quercus rubra, Hicoris minima, Tilia americana, Ulmus pubescens, Prunus serotina, P. virginiana, and Juniperus virginiana are intermingled. It is of course, a response to the physio- graphic arrangement, large differences taking place in small distances. Two of the more unusual species of oaks, out of a total of seven noted by the writer in the region of the Rock River woodlands, are Quercus acuminata and Q. platanoides. The latter is seen chiefly on some of the islands, while the former has two different forms and occurrences. It is found in a mesophytic stand, as upon the west shore of the Rock north of Oregon at the place known as the Narrows, at the foot of a wooded talus and on the inner part of the adjacent flood plain. Here Q. acuminata has the form of very thin, chestnut-shaped, acutely lobed leaves, and is a tall straight tree. It is to be found also on limestone ridges, which may be furnishing rather dry or rather moist habitats. Here the species is a short tree, or at least not tall and straight, with very much smaller leaves that are considerably thicker and inclined to be lighter in color on the under surfaces, while nevertheless preserving the acutely lobed and chestnut shaped outline. These two types are so distinct in appearance as to seem different species. In the location at the Narrows Quercus acuminata occurs with Acer saccharum, A. saccharinum, Robinia pseu- dacacia, Juglans cinerea, Salix fluviatilis, and Populus del- toides, as the tree species, and Alnus incana and Cornus paniculata as characteristic shrubs. Mesophytic herbs con- stitute the ground cover. Consequently there is a telescop- ing or condensation, a combination of the typical streamside association with the woodland oak-maple climax, with Quercus acuminata as the ecological equivalent here of Quercus rubra. Alnus incana is, of course, common along streams, though the genus is not especially frequent in Ogle PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 171 County. Cornus paniculata occurs in such a variety of situations as to be almost a ubiquitous woodland species. One of the most interesting displays of oaks is to be found just west of Grand Detour on the eroded anticline of the structural deformation crossing the Rock at that place and forming the rock bluffs on the north shore of the river in its western course beyond Grand Detour. The assemblages include Quercus velutina, Q. ellipsoidalis in its type form and its three varieties of intermedia, de- pressa, and coronaria, Q. alba, Q. rubra, and Q. macrocarpa, the last species being nearby at least. These woods exhibit, in their part on the tops of the sandstone bluffs, but not in the portion farther back from the river, the substitution of an oak stage in the succession for a coniferous stage. The recession of conifers in this county is to be explained not alone by the fact of their becoming relics of a past climatic_circle but also by the fact of man’s operations of cutting and clearing. Probably if Pinus strobus had chanced to be present in the neighborhood of these sand- stone bluffs in sufficient numbers to effect migration and establishment, a white pine stage would have occurred in the succession before the oaks, as is customary in this section of the country, where the series pines-black oaks- white oak-red oak, (hickory)—up to the climax, skeleton- izes the succession in part. Here, however, the white pine was not present in sufficient numbers to establish itself in new territory. That it is still able to do so, when present in sufficient numbers to form a nucleus for migration, is de monstrated in the notable instance of the white pine woods on the limestone bluff of Pine Creek in Pine Creek town- ship. At the sandstone bluffs west of Grand Detour a dry, sandy bank rises from shortly beyond the river side and continues as a sandy site on top of the bluffs. Wherever the vegetation has been able to advance considerably the sandiness has become modified by the accumulation of humus. The streamside species, Salix fluviatilis, S. nigra, and Acer negundo, are frequent along the river. The lower bank contains such species also. The moisture conditions below the surface are there hydro-mesophytic. Fraxinus 172 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE and Ulmus are added on this lower bank. Somewhat far- ther up the bank Ostrya virginiana, Juniperus virginiana, Celtic occidentalis, Gleditsia triacanthos, are present. Still farther up are the oak woods. Of course these species are not in zonation, as their mentioning might indicate. More or less intermingling takes place until the area of the oaks is reached. Here, on and about the sandy top of the bluffs, are also such species as Melilotus alba, Verbena stricta, Lespedeza capitata, Strophostyles helvola, Liatris scariosa, Verbena angustifolia, Achillea millefolium, Chenopodium al- bum, Physalis sp. These herbaceous forms are practically all those of dry sandy sites, the so-called waste places. Af- finities with the prairie vegetation are to be seen in such as Verbena stricta and Liatris scariosa. More than half the species mentioned belong to the weed class. Melilotus is of general occurrence throughout North America, except in the far north, on sites of this character. The upper layer of this sandy soil on the top of these bluffs appears, hence, to be rather dry, while the deeper soil layers contain much more moisture, at least as judged by the vegetation sup- ported. Upon one of the sandstone cliffs occurring along these bluffs, the small cliffs known locally as “buttes,” Pinus strobus occurs sparingly at the verge. Juniperus virgini- ana, Quercus alba, Q. ellipsoidallis, Q. velutina, small Populus grandidentata, with Carpinus caroliniana and Py- rus melanocarpa were also present on the cliff top. In the oak woods farther back from the river, where the stand of trees is much denser and the soil conditions much better, where in short a later stage of succession has been attained, such an assemblage as the following is representative: Quercus alba, Q. rubra, Q. velutina, Q. ellipsoidalis, Tilia americana, Juniperus virginiana, Hicoria minima, H. ovata, Fraxinus americana, Ulmus pubescens, Prunus serotina. In the undergrowth occur Ostrya virginiana, Cornus pani- culata, Xanthoxylon americanum, and so on. The succes- sion has passed in large part from the oak woods stage of the top of the bluffs but still retains many traces of the former. Considerable habitat differences within small areas are here a feature of this. PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 173 An extraordinary deviation from the ordinary course of succession in the county today is exhibited by an area out- side of that of the Rock River woodlands but worthy of note here because of its developmental relation. In the south- west part of Ogle County on the flat top of a Galena lime- stone cliff on Pine Creek there are about twenty acres of dense growth of Pinus strobus some seventy to ninety years old. The entire potential area may be said to be approxi- mately a hundred acres or so. Early settlers state that about 1840 the white pine growth extended irregularly along Pine Creek for a num- ber of miles and reached out in places on either side of the creek, with a number of groups of dense stands like the one remaining. The species is undoubtedly a relic that ex- ists now in the county only in a few small patches or as occasional individuals in inaccessible localities, those un- fitted for farming and for grazing, and possibly also such as have been in the past fairly secure from damage by prairie fires. This Pine Creek stand, whatever its manner of origin, is today and has been for some years past a remarkably strong seedling center. Adjoining it on the east is the cus- tomary oak upland woodland of the county. The pre- vailing winds are from the west and these scatter enor- mous quantities of pine seed from these vigorous trees to the eastward on favorable seeding ground. But here oc- curs the stand of upland oaks. It must be observed, how- ever, that these are two extremely different habitats lying alongside each other. The one, on which the pine is grow- ing, is a shallow, residual limestone soil with rock outcrop. The other, on which the upland oaks are growing, is a deep, upland timber soil of yellow-gray silt loam. The for- mer is of much lower soil moisture content. When the pine stand was of somewhat smaller extent it is probable that some oaks grew on what is now pine area. Perhaps certain small portions, or crevices in the latter, furnished greater soil moisture than the limestone pine area in general, thus permitting the oaks to grow there before they had to meet competition from the pines. The 174 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE dissemination of the pine seed has been for some time past and is now so vigorous, however, that it appears to the writer to account, in connection with the other matters recounted here, for the reversal found of the usual course of succession. Here, instead of the pine woods being in- vaded by the oaks, as usually takes place in the eastern United States, the oak woods are unquestionably being in- vaded by the white pine along the oak woods-white pine border zone in the territory of the dense white pine stand. Let us consider now a few localities of the region that are representative of the climax and of certain plant assem- blages that are on the other hand removed somewhat from the regular course of succession. In the big bend of the Rock at Grand Detour some herbaceous forms are of in- terest. This flat, consisting mainly of the terrace soil yellow-gray sandy loam over gravel, with some parts of the bottomland soil mixed loam, and a small area of sand- stone rock outcrop, formerly bore a mesophytic woodland with oaks, walnuts, and so on, of large size. The whole area is now under cultivation, except for the part compris- ing an abandoned channel of an artificial mill stream, and only a border zone of streamside vegetation is present along a portion of the Rock. Some of the herbs in the stream- side border and in the cultivated fields are Ambrosia trifida, which is very prominent, A. artemisiifolia, A. ludoviciana, Oenothera biennis, Convolulus sepium, Acnida tuberculata, Silphium perfoliatum, Polygonum pennsylvanicum, Verno- nia fasciculata, Brassica sinapistrum, Bidens sp., with many other forms. A large number of the grasses of the county are to be found here as well. Here, in a cultivated area, as in the so-called waste area of the sandy bluff tops west of Grand Detour, prairie forms (such as Silphium perfoliatum and Vernonia fasciculata) and weed forms have found a habitat suitable for their establishment. The McCormack woods on the east shore of the Rock north of Byron are of great interest. They comprise nearly one square mile, and several parts of the area illustrate the climax form of the Rock River woodland region. One rea- son for this is unquestionably the fact that these woods have been practically ungrazed for some time. A dozen or PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 175 a score of deer have been introduced, but their effects are negligible. The area, too, is one having sufficient topographic diversity to be representative. In the climax expression Quercus alba is still probably the dominant species. ‘The other representative species are Acer saccharum, A. nigrum, Hicoria minima, Prunus serotina, Juglans spp., Tilia ameri- cana, Fraxinus spp., Ulmus spp., Quercus platanoides, Populus tremuloides, Quercus ellipsoidalis, Hicoria ovata, Quercus velutina, Populus grandidentata, and some gnarly specimens of Quercus macrocarpa of irregular growth. Ostrya virginiana is very abundant. The undergrowth is notable chiefly from the great variety of shrubs rather than from particularly characteristic species. Most of the shrub species of the region are present. The ground cover con- sists of mesophytic herbs, such as Asarum canadense, Viola spp., Hepatica spp., Sanguinarea canadensis, and many others. Mesophytic ferns are in great abundance. About the edges and in openings of these woods there are in- vaders of a xerophytic or xero-mesophytic sort, such spe- cies, for example, as Euphorbia corollata, Helianthus hir- sutis, Verbena angustifolia, Eupatorium urticaefolium, Campanula americana. The Heckman woods on the east shore of the Rock just north of Oregon also exhibit in spots the climax form of the region. Here again Quercus alba is the dominant tree species. Quercus rubra is here, however, almost as im- portant. Other tree species are Hicoria ovata, small Fraxinus americana scarcely over five feet in height, Pru- nus serotina, Quercus ellipsoidalis, Q. velutina, Juglans spp. Acer saccharum, although present, is not yet of any im- portance in the tree community. The frequent occurrence of species like Hicoria ovata, Quercus ellipsoidalis and Q. velutina, when taken in conjunction with the more meso- phytic undergrowth and the quite mesophytic ground cover, indicate clearly that the succession, while advancing to- wards a mesophytic climax, has not yet reached a full ex- pression of this, since Acer saccharum is negligible and even absent yet in parts. In the more mesophytic undergrowth are such shrubs as Hamamelis virginiana, Xanthoxylon _ americanum, besides the less representative species of the 176 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE region, such as Cornus, Ribes, Ampelopsis, Toxylon, Rubus, Rhus, Vitis, Pyrus. Some small trees, but a few feet in height, of Fraxinus quadrangulata are present. The ground cover is much the most advanced layer, affording the best indication of the approaching mesophytism of the other strata of the vegetation. Here are such herbs as Thalictrum dioicum, Polygonatum spp., Trillium spp., Po- dophyllum peltatum, Arisaema triphyllum, Caulophyllum thalictroides, and so on. There is a fair ‘assemblage of mesophytic ferns, Aspleniums, Aspidiums, but not so great a display as in the McCormack woods. In this connec- tion it must be noted that here the topography often, even where the mesophytism has advanced to the point just de- scribed, furnishes no especially favorable conditions for mesophytism. There are, to be sure, spots where topo- graphic conditions give mesophytic sites, but this area of the Heckman woods has advanced well as a whole towards the climax, and evidently from much less mesophytic oak woods phases of the succession. It has, apparently, been left for some years without noticeable disturbance by grazing or other factors that make for retrogression. The younger tree growth is represented by such species as Fraxinus americana, Prunus serotina, Ulmus spp., Juglans spp., and Hicoria minima, clearly indicating an advance beyond the older tree stand of Quercus alba, Q. ellipsoidalis, Q. velu- tina, Hicoria ovata. There is evidently greater soil mois- ture throughout this whole woods than in the ordinary up- land woods of the region, and this greater quantity appears to result from the presence of the dense stand of the wood- land rather than from any especially favorable topographic arrangement. In some parts of the area Tilia americana, Acer saccharum, Quercus acuminata, Q. alba, Juglans nigra, J. cinerea, Quercus rubra, Hicoria minima, Robinia pseu- dacacia, occur. The Acer saccharum, though small, still proves clearly what the future of the succession will be if the vegetation continues to be left undisturbed. The Cartwright woods on the west shore of the Rock north of Oregon, while in places a much confused assem- blage of telescoped and condensed stages, nevertheless ex- hibits the oak-maple climax form excellently over some of PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 177 its area. These woods also show well a marked feature of most of the Rock River woodlands, that is, the decided in- crease in mesophytismin proceeding from portions back from the river towards portions near the river. This is what might in general be expected on an intrenched valley slope. The physiographic diversity, however, occasions many places where this might not be the case. Nevertheless when the vegetative succession is allowed to proceed with- out disturbance it appears to be quite general. In the Cartwright woods at their western part, that is the portion farthest from the Rock, Quercus macrocarpa is prominent in the stand. Towards the eastern part this species is al- most lacking. The increase in mesophytism from west to east is shown by the appearance and increase in numbers of such trees as Juglans nigra, J. cinerea, Ulmus americana. On higher and drier parts of the area, mainly at the western portion, Quercus ellipsoidalis is the chief tree. The more mesophytic eastern part bears the more mesophytic herbs, although in some small areas westward, where especially favorable conditions prevail on account of the topography, such herbs are also prominent. In one part of these woods there occur old trees of Quercus alba, usually with short bole and much branched form. They are quite the oldest trees of these woods. Their appearance suggests that they have belonged to an older stand that was largely open- grown. Into this older stand, presumably, there came the later, present stand of Quercus ellipsoidalis, Q. velu- tina, Q. alba, Hicoria ovata, and others, from which the still later, more mesophytic, phase of the succession has developed. The species of the climax here do not differ materially from the examples of it already described, ex- cept that in these Cartwright woods there is some Betula lutea. This species occurs in a few other places also, being usually present as an expression of certain especially favor- able, very localized habitats, rather than as a regular mem- ber of the oak-maple climax form. An extremely mesophytic assemblage representative of the moist areas at the heads of small ravines and other simi- larly moist areas is shown at the ravine head on the north slope of Liberty Hill back of the town of Oregon. Here 178 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Quercus is perhaps the chief tree. Fraxinus americana and Hicoria minima are prominent. The undergrowth is not remarkable, being about that found in the climax form of the vegetation. Carpinus caroliniana is somewhat promi- nent, however. Typical mesophytic and hydromesophytic herbs abound, and this, with the fern display, consisting of Osmundas, Aspleniums, Aspidiums, Cystopteris, Adian- tum, Polypodium, with a profusion of mosses and lichens on and about the moist sandstone rock wall forming the ac- tual head of the ravine, are especially characteristic. The island vegetation is another very mesophytic form, but of another sort. Omitting the streamside association the islands generally bear a vegetation about as follows. Ulmus americana and U. Pubescens may be considered the chief trees. Fraxinus nigra, F. americana, Juglans nigra, Celtis occidentalis, Juglans cinerea, Prunus serotina, Acer. saccharum, A. nigrum, make up the other prominent spe- cies. To these may be added such others of occasional oc- currence as Tilia americana, Ailanthus glandulosa, Quercus platanoides. Of course species like Acer saccharinum, Acer negundo, Salix nigra, of the streamside association, are of- ten present as well, back from the borders of the island. Consequently, from a comparison of the tree species alone, it may be concluded that there is here, in places at least, a telescoping of the climax form with the streamside associa- tion, and, on most islands, certain special bottomland or island features, such as the occurrences of Quercus plata- noides, or a superabundance of Ulmus. The undergrowth is very similar to that of the oak-maple climax, with, how- ever, much more of liane growth. Often plants of hydro- mesophytic are combined with plants of xero-mesophytic tendencies, as when, for example, Cephalanthus occidentalis and Crataegus occur near together. Shrubs such as Cornus sericea, Sambucus canadensis, Staphylea trifoliata, are fre- quent. The ground cover combines herbaceous form of hydrophytic and mesophytic tendencies. In the Rock River woodland region, as well as one may judge by observation alone, it appears that the main influ- ence on the progression of the plant succession is the soil moisture content. Of course this is the most obvious ele- PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 179 ment of the complex, and undue emphasis may therefore easily be given it. Nevertheless, in spite of the obscurity of such factors as temperature and evaporation by observa- tional methods, there seems to be sufficient evidence to re- gard soil moisture as the prime factor. As the soil moisture content increases the succession here progresses towards the oak-maple climax, and as it decreases the succession retrogresses towards xerophytism, towards something very like what the old prairie groves of the county now are or towards a somewhat less xerophytic form of such wood- land. This is without reference in this place to the par- ticular immediate causes. There has not appeared to the writer to be any marked difference in the vegetation upon soil derived from lime- stone or sandstone, or, indeed, a difference in the vege- tation upon any of the soils of the region that is dependent upon the character of the soil material itself, ergo as sand or lime. Of course on a residual sand, for example, the physical characteristics of such a soil yield in the early stages of plant succession a very different habitat than a clay soil. But these differences are not due to any chemical feature apparently. They are, in later stages of the succes- sion, wiped out completely. It is true that several of the plant species known commonly as those of limestone do occur most frequently on such sites. Pellaea atropurpurea is a notable example. But this fern occurs also on sand- stone, even if less frequently. This species with Pellaea gracilis rarely, and with Cystopteris fragilis, C. bulbifera, Woodsia ilvensis, and of course Polypodium vulgare, are the frequenters of rock wall crevices and cliffs. Much of the diversity that appears between sandstone and limestone cliffs seems to be explainable along the Rock and its tribu- taries by certain other factors. For one thing the sand- stone cliffs are mainly along the Rock River, where man’s activities have been greatest, and these cliffs present a more xerophytic habitat largely because of such activities. Castle Rock, for instance, on the east shore of the river be- tween Oregon and Grand Detour, composed of nearly white, non-fermuginous sandstone, a very pure silica, is to a great extent without vegetation owing to trampling by visitors. 180 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Other sandstone cliffs, of more remote location, present habitats of advanced mesophytism. This consideration is independent, of course, of high moisture content obtained in some cases, and by a cliff of any sort of material, by pecu- liarly advantageous seepage conditions related to stratifi- cation. Such advantageous moisture conditions frequently are found at the foot of cliffs, and occasionally on their slopes. While the topographic location of the soil is important in relation to its moisture content, the growth and develop- ment of the vegetation itself is of immense importance in determining what the moisture content will be. Before this influence becomes operative in any marked degree the other factors are controlling; the topography, the physical character of the soil, what man has done or is doing to affect the nature of the area. Outside of the Rock River wood- land region, out in the prairie groves, a different case ob- tains. In these isolated woodlots on upland prairie a num- ber of ether factors besides that of soil moisture become prominent to differentiate them from the area which is chiefly under consideration in this paper. Factors of a general climatic nature put them in another class. In the woodland region of the Rock it appears to the writer likely that the influences of other factors are largely wiped out and that the influence of soil moisture content dominates. Any careful examination of the plant life of the Rock River woodiand region will bring into notice a phenomenom that appears to be a swinging of the successional trend, now in the xerophytic direction, now in the mesophytic direc- tion, but irregularly. All that is known of the laws of plant succession goes to indicate that, under any particular climatic complex, plant succession will advance to its climax form through various successional stages, unless thrown into retrogression by some external influence. Since the local accounts repeatedly mention marked weather changes in the past, since the advent of white men to the county, and since the whole area is located in a traditional region, one is, at first, strongly inclined to attribute the phenomenon to minor climatic fluctuations, those changes in the weather conditions that present marked minor departures trom the PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 181 normal over periods of some few decades. Since white men have been in this region only for some eighty years past, no climatic change other than a very minor fluctuation would be traceable, could we obtain weather records for this entire period. Such a record is, of course, not to be hoped for. This swing, which is a thing of the mainland en- tirely and not of the islands, is seen most clearly in the more advanced phases of succession, say in the white oak- red oak-hickory stage, or some approximately equivalent phase of the successional series, or in a later, more meso- phytic, phase. Hereabouts it will become apparent that of two seemingly similar assemblages one is advancing in the mesophytic direction while the other is retreating in the xerophytic. Thus the two assemblages of similar aspect are exhibiting respectively progression and retrogression. This sort of thing may be seen in portions of the Cartwright woods and in areas that are near if not actually in the Heckman woods near Oregon, on the west and the east shores respectively. It seems rather sure that the same oc- currence takes place with earlier stages of the succession, but in these it is obscured and would probably require statistical methods to make it clearly evident. Let us look into the matter of possible minor climatic fluctuations. Accounts are conflicting, but from them all it seems to be believed that about 1880-1900 there were unusually severe winters followed by unusually hot, dry summers, and that, accompanying and following this, great insect damage was done to the foliage of the native vege- tation, the tree growth being mentioned particularly. A number of single seasons are spoken of as unusually cold or dry, and so on. Unfortunately information as to plant di- seases of the native vegetation in the past is and will prob- ably remain unobtainable. It can only be hoped that at some future time records will be made and preserved of such data both for its intrinsic interest and value and for its application in problems of economic importance. It is now in all consideration of the vegetation an unknown factor. Another unknown factor, but in this application one that is little mentioned, is that of fires in the woodlands of the 182 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE region since the settlement by white men about 1840. Fires, for example, starting at the railroad on the north of the Pine woods in Pine Creek Township, run not infrequently southwards through the area where white pine reproduc- tion generally occurs in the oak woodland adjacent, and are a factor in the successional changes, but here again an uninvestigated factor. There is no evidence, however, in the Rock River woodland region of any such periodical re- currence of fires as would be effective directly or indirectly in bringing about a swing in the successional stages such as has been referred to. The supposed damage to woodland growth by unfavorable climatic changes and plant disease is said to have eventuated economically as follows. ‘Ine first settlers located themselves in the prairie groves and in the woodland along streams, having a prejudice against the sod of the prairie for farming and also because of the water and the protection from wind afforded by the woods. These early settlers, however, were few in number and did not greatly alter the original extent of the wooded area of the county. Later settlers took up the prairie soil chiefly. Thus the wooded area of the county was preserved without much change in extent until a still later date. Then, ac- cording to the local accounts, in about the period of 1880- 1900, the damage to tree growth by unfavorable seasons and disease caused much clearing to be made in the wooded areas. It has been established by meteorologists that no perma- nent change is taking place in the climate of the country within historic time. Within geologic time periods a change may eventuate. Records available in this country are too short to afford any definite indication of any but short period fluctuations. The longest cover a period of only about 100 years and very few stations have records of more than 50 years in length. Unfortunately there is no more than some fragmentary records of meteorological conditions in Ogle County. Not far from this county, however, in the same general locality, there does exist one of the oldest and longest series of records for both precipitation and temperature in the entire state. These are for Marengo (formerly Riley) near the PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 183 Kishwaukee river in southwestern McHenry County. This is sufficiently close to the Rock River region of Ogle County and sufficiently like it to furnish results for the different seasons (seasonal averages) that are quite comparable. Indeed, it is probable that this McHenry County record furnishes very good information of what the four different seasons of the years involved were throughout the northern part of the whole state. The Marengo records run from 1850 to 1917 for precipitation, with but very few breaks in only three years out of these sixty-eight. The temperature records run from 1856 to 1917, with but very few breaks in only two years out of these sixty-two. For the purposes of this paper seasonal figures have been calculated. The U. S. Weather Bureau practice of calling December of the previous year with January and February of the cur- rent year the winter season of the current year has been followed. Then the spring season consists of March, April and May of the current year, with the summer and autumn seasons June, July, August, and September, October, No- vember of the current year. For temperature the means of the four seasons (average monthly temperatures), and the annual means, are given. For precipitation the means of the four seasons (average monthly precipitation), and the annual totals are given. The former is expressed in degrees Fahrenheit and the latter in inches of rainfall. For making these seasonal calculations the records of monthly mean temperatures and annual temperatures, and the monthly precipitation and annual precipitation figures were used.* These monthly figures are not given in this paper, however, since it is believed that, for furnishing data representative of conditions in Ogle County, the seasonal monthly averages are better. The three pages following give this data for the different years in tabular form. Asa sort of norm for the comparison the following average monthly precipitation figures for the different seasons have been calculated from published data,** for the northern central portion of Illinois. *Monthly Wea. Rev. Washington, Feb. 1888, p. 53. Ill. Climate & Crops Rep. s. 1901-1910. U. S. Wea. Bur. Climatological Data, 1910-1917. U. S. Wea. Bur. Springfield, Ill., Records 1888-1900. **Kincer, J. B.: Seasonable distribution of precipitation and its frequency and intensity in the U. S. Month. Wea. Rev. 47:624-31, 1919. 184 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF. SCIENCE Average monthly precipitation in winter 1.3—2.0 inches do in spring 2.7—3.3 do in summer 3.83—4.0 do in autumn 2.7 PRECIPITATION (Inches) Seasonal Monthly Means Winter Spring Summer Autumn YEAR Dec. prec. yr. Mar. Apr. June, July Sept. Oct. Jan. Feb. May Aug Nov. curr. yr. GOONS apneic tom Ace 2.8 10.1 3.1 ko 5 1 ba ene uae oe ASB 6.5 AY 2.8 SDD eeieteteilstele cee ec ales 23 6.0 2ee 3.4 BS Seiats Seton ebiele selene 2no 4.0 4.9 4.5 TSS See balls SENS ye ee tes —— —- Se Ba Seve hares oievel es ater — aa 9.1 2a, WGI Ma cerctalaisis sre eines oe 22 2.8 20 266 BBG « ctarataces orotate cs oreene Bee Bier 4.5 2.3 DGD Gee locia che cio er eels 0.8 4.7 (Ait 4.5 NBO ee er ctaarniete ava ews ievere 1.6 3.9 17 3.0 BOWS teas diverse eies 1.0 2.6 3.2 2.8 BG rae arate lakers ale iets 1.6 3.8 5155) 3.4 TBGI Rei nek ias se.ee a are Jue Page Bes 2.4 BGS a ceiche Meus atarors Is Sion 1.8 2.4 1.8 PAROS BGS racratte cielo. elena da | 1.9 2.9 2.0 VSG Rae steve, Sele oe voce es Sel Ped 5.8 Pail TWSG60 8 oc oiPisetrncinie is 0.7 PAs) Nat 3.6 BG Ucrceiessciecite sre waren Dive, 2.6 4.3 2 WSG8S ae cis stots seis oes elt aA 5.0 3.6 NSO Oe ere aisieieeslasrce 1.9 3.0 6.7 2.0 1 US beatae ae potas 129 Dae, oul: Bp! Oe Oe Tata a alerts 1.9 222 Bell rae NOD actos soe etcicinies Oe 0.9 O22 3.6 Sof MN Biertelates cistelane eels ois 1.1 3.1 2.4 220 TAS ee aeeree ms ce hie 2.4 2.0 Dey Pars TOLD Neola octevochaieroe toe 138) 222, 3.9 3.6 WSZO wee ea cio sieeve ole 4.5 6.3 Dae, 6.7 OTiesemm neces De Sal ae) Boe NSUSrinctiocnverei wowace 1.9 3153) 3.6 2.4 EOTOERES Aid sete Sevstane 6 1.6 226 4.2 2.6 SSOP Wirrmictts saree es 2.4 2.4 4.1 220 BGT estate san cteeleratehate ese 25 3.5 4.2 4.6 1 tay o PAA escheat erste emp eE 2a 3.8 3.4 ret BGS aspera ens sles te mee 2.9 3.0 Pest Ba VIBBA Se ei ielo Me etotsrciee Ciel 1.6 283 3.9 one LBB ae evarcyeieis sie Oe areata ehees 2a0 2.0 4.9 2.8 USSG sei ost eon ae Pd tS SS 2.9 1.9 DOOM yaks sain shes sdetanere eis one 1s 2.9 3.1 GSS ricislevever tics opsto ee ares 1.9 3.0 2.6 1.6 RSTO 18 Aart ete a Oi 1.6 ANT DES Ug) SOO eit yee ree 1.9 eal 4.7 2.6 1 Rod] ee ees he Sa ea Ae ee ike 3.4 3.1 19 | ed PA een em a 176 5.1 6.5 0.9 OOS ss sraieche iene eels 1.6 2.8 2.6 3.0 LSA SeeGrcleer nies eter Le, 3.1 1.0 6.5 TQOS Ree wie renin a eee 1.0 2.0 3.0 1.8 Annual Totals 53.1 56.9 42.0 45.4 31.4 38.0 50.3 29.8 29.9 36.6 41.1 25.6 23.9 37.2 39.9 27.9 44.8 42.5 29.5 27.8 33.3 28.4 24.4 34.7 72.8 34.5 32.4 32.6 33.3 47.2 35.4 35.9 35.0 35.8 31.2 33.2 26.4 24.5 36.4 31.3 43.2 30.0 35.5 25.9 PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 185 PRECIPITATION—Continued (Inches) Seasonal Monthly Means Winter Spring Summer Autumn YEAR Dec. prec. yr. Mar. Apr. June,July Sept. Oct. Annual Jan. Feb. May Aug. Nov. Totals curr. yr MOR secte cinta Aware oie sera i ay é ack 2.8 3.9 3220 Lc ee aC ee: rae 2s 2:3 1.4 Deane cb! ESSE SS ce eee 2.8 oor 4.8 2.4 38.7 LIN 2 SSO Sao at Saeerea 0.8 mas Ba | 1.6 24.2 ei Sec ae neoesc Zt 1.9 5.2 2.4 oe TOON gs oct Se Saisie see ee 1.6 Pas ES 19.7 UD ASB eRe Seiae 1.0 ous wee aol 39.1 Le Deo Soe ease 5 3.4 4.3 ook 35.9 eee oc ecis aiwaisicle se 1.6 3.0 Zak yea | 28.0 BONG 2 2.5 sleidc sje smo aioe 3% LS 4.5 5.8 3.0 40.7 LL Eee Sees 2.0 2.0 PA | 2.8 28.6 LO. Sa oe eeseraice 1.8 3.0 4.4 222, 34.2 WOR eid oo os 3's 016s, 5.0:5'8 «:c 125 5.0 2.9 1.0 31.8 Led Oe eet 2.0 oe 3.4 Bek 38.8 sre aiclostanic ciate ses 2.6 2.1 1.9 1.8 22.5 iM ASRS Seo eee Ue 2.4 hee, 3.8 34.9 WE ers woe ticis «6106/2. s 1.0 258 Bes) 3.6 SS: LL sae one ne ae ies: 3.4 4.1 Dak ele ts WOM teas cites coecis e's one oO 3.5 aod 2.4 31.6 MOM yeas c tees cscs 1 ae 2.4 Sat 2.8 30.5 LS TENSES 36d: eee 1.8 2.9 3.8 3.8 38.7 NOU ci cccisictsoeceme ne 1.4 2.6 2.6 — —— TEMPERATURE (Fahr.) Seasonal Monthly Means Winter Spring Summer Autumn YEAR Dec. prec. yr. Mar. Apr. June,July Sept. Oct. Annual Jan. Feb. May Aug. Nov. Means curr. yr. MEI Shai le Sakaie eel = Bic micrese 46.2 Tet 49.7 46.1 BORE « cicisinieiciete sels vistas UY (Ar Sa (ies 48.0 45.6 Us AS Aine 28.0 63.3 73.0 49.7 48.9 [INURE tice CARCI 25.7 45.8 68.8 59.1 46.4 NSGO< 2snodemasmehs hse 20.6 46.4 67.2 46.3 45.7 MOON ie) occ civ eie.s an s'cla's'so's 23.0 44.0 66.4 47.4 46.0 BOBS Soe emisieatsianee 22.8 43.1 68.0 48.8 45.6 BAG ois s oise sine atenrere ers 28.0 46.8 68.1 49.8 47.1 deen Shins aie nie te 23.9 45.7 ff tes 47.1 46.1 POOR Sc close sie sod eeteers 21.0 48.3 67.3 as ea | 47.3 LET PE RS eae eraser 19.7 44.1 69.1 48.4 45.6 TOR s wise Seow SER SS 21.0 40.3 (cai! abe2 46.2 BBGEs ecioccnisGe cece csc 18.9 46.1 71.4 45.4 45.1 LED TL A eee 20.7 42.6 67.5 43.0 44.7 122-7 (1 Re nen a ee 22.8 47.6 70.9 50.9 47.9 UY (Ee ee 22.8 48.2 68.6 46.0 45.9 erie nae She ak ovo Bins 18.7 42.2 70.1 44.9 43.6 WB Peewe a sieice 6 ws c\e,c,s'e/e-eve 14.1 41.9 70.4 43.3 43.6 ESIS A as ee ose 725 | 41.6 70.9 48.1 45.7 Waa ewe wiicacas oe EL? 40.9 66.0 43.2 40.9 Lee Ses hie Sect aleie,s 27.0 43.5 69.6 45.0 44.6 186 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE TEMPERA TURE—Continued (Fahr.) Seasonal Monthly Means Winter Spring Summer Autumn YEAR Dec. prec. yr. Mar. Apr. June,July Sept. Oct. Annual Jan. Feb. May Aug. Nov. Means curr. yr. PO Hisad biorale we tists aie-cis'e ¢ 17.9 —— 68.1 48.7 — ESPON erect anne Ss aed 48.7 69.4 48 .2 47.5 DE ts Sie eee refcuaveare ts MST 45.9 69.4 49.2 45.5 EBM csc as des sis lereneaans 26.9 46.8 69.7 42.7 46.2 OGM Sscncicieta aayete es wie eke 14.3 43.4 69.9 49.9 45.6 BOW ts is ose ojetne oheve Sues 27.8 42.8 66.6 50.1 45.7 POPS ora ehacaieia: sralbhevs’ adie wise 14.3 41.3 63.4 46.1 42.4 TOPE pss CaaS eles 17.9 43.3 66.4 49.8 44.0 MOUS o ccfscascaleeerwrcto.c eet _ 16.4 40.5 66.9 46.8 41.8 NGOs wis 5 Dato sera ciereeisieinw 18.5 45.2 68.7 47.9 44.4 POO os ales oc biek see e 16.0 46.2 70.7 45.0 45.1 POtotns.cjeus'a sists ee eceieie seks 15.9 40.5 67.8 46.3 43.1 POO coos iie.ave sata oie aaatere Papel 46.1 64.3 46.3 46.2 DE cscs oly wr aoas eine rots 30.1 41.7 68.7 48.4 46.3 MGs Oa ok ihs Belew aie wets 2525 43.7 66.5 49.3 46.7 POO oe csc io Sitio e atone Seow 24.6 42.2 68.5 48.1 44.8 POMS wae ces aterm ies cig 13.6 39.4 69.9 48.7 43.2 SS eee. eter act aepenenee 20.9 48 .4 (Gee? 48.4 48 .2 ROB! io icis.cjete aimte sieia a. 18.2 46.1 70.9 47.5 45.4 ROO cass oisiaiaMelete's cee elev 24.4 49.2 69.9 46.8 47.6 1h oie eRe EROS HOO e RIO 24.1 44.2 69.4 I 47.1 EG rea vacant iaraven'biets cece’ DIS 47.4 fee 47.5 47.7 PGOO we cio ete: se aiecesels 18.5 46.2 (C433: 53.5 48.0 OOO ern Selgin ey siake etal ose yaa | 45.7 71.6 Dane 48.4 MOOT siesta’ is lo7ctcvecels ciavesars 20.38 45.9 73.9 50.3 47.2 POOF ye cacratadiaitocisie cya 20.4 48.3 67.4 52.4 47.5 NOOB aso! eae iarn Savors sche are 21.9 49.6 67.1 49.4 46.5 LO SENS Biers come eeaciereseic 14.6 44.4 68.1 5] Pe 45.2 OMS e eret aa cvctenaia ave auata ate 16.8 47.3 69.4 Sle? 46.6 TOMS Seis cwlesmyereleso sa eia 26.3 45.3 70.6 50.9 48.6 PON Se aaa oe ee oe els 24.5 43.8 68.8 48.9 46.5 TOG, de sccnister sine ates 24.5 47.6 69.4 Blac: 48 .6 NOMS occas oroicva aie sie ieicie cote 26.5 43.8 LOE: Sat 47.0 RUD sree eaictale crores setae ore 18.1 50.0 TAlsr 49.7 47.8 Oe tee voveran coracveeimterete 24.0 48.2 qh 48.7 48.8 PEPE are oi srveislsreieiels ate 17.4 44.2 68.1 51.9 45.3 ee rorerere fatcust suclelisvel aveliohaie 24.7 45.6 a2 52a 48.7 TOME ya caieie cvbie aiale aie alene’e 25.0 47.4 71.0 -53.95 48.1 MOT ecepatarate eavcralereioe ate te 21.8 46.6 65.2 b2Eo 47.0 MOTO steaitisctesaiearde lee ones 22.9 45.0 tied, 50.0 47.0 MOT To rerctaratecie'e worreve sve ets 2020 43.6 67.6 — — The precipitation figures given in the table will show the amount of departure from the general average conditions for the northern central portion of Illinois. For temper- ature the table figures themselves furnish ample comparison for normal and abnormal conditions. PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 187 Examining the annual figures for precipitation only nine or ten years out of the whole sixty-eight show marked vari- ation from the normal. The years 1863, 1864, 1874, 1889, 1895 (possibly), 1897, 1899, 1901 (with a total annual pre- cipitation of only 19.7 inches, which is phenomenally low in a region where normally there is around 30 to 35 inches) and 1910 are the ones with low annual precipitation. The statement has been made that “since 1885 the rain- fall has decreased” in the Rock River watershed as; a whole.* To test this for the northern part of Illinois the figures for annual precipitation have been added for five year periods both before and after 1885, the data furnishing six of each, and the average annual precipitation for each of such periods calculated. These data are as follows: Period Average Annual Precipitation Totals 1856—1860 35.9 inches 1861—1865 32.9 1866—1870 36.9 1871—1875 29.7 214.4 inches 1876—1880 41.1 1881—1885 37.9 1886—1890 30.3 1891—1895 33.3 1896—1900 30.9 1901—1905 ont 191.5 inches 1906—1910 ole 1911—1915 33-2 22.9 inches This would indicate that there had, indeed, been a slight decrease in the total annual precipitation since about 1885. But an examination of the figures for the separate years shows that the year 1876, which falls, of course, within the first period — that before 1885 — had a most phenomenally high annual precipitation, a total for the year of 72.8 inches. If the difference between this and an *Schwarz, G. F.: The diminished flow of the Rock River in Wisconsin and Illinois. U. S. Dept. Agric. Bur. of For. Bul. 44, 1903, Page 8. 188 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE assumed general average of 35 inches for the year, which would be a high general average, be taken, the figure of 37.8 inches is obtained. If this excess of over 35 inches for the phenomenal year 1876 be deducted from the total for the period before 1885 this whole period becomes of the same magnitude as that of the period after 1885. Further, the year 1901, of the latter period, was phenomenally dry, hav- ing a total annual precipitation of only 19.7 inches. Conse- quently it does not appear, on the whole, safe to say that there has really been any change in the rainfall of this re- gion of northern Illinois in more than a half century. An inspection of the seasonal monthly means of preci- pitation shows considerable deviation from the normal in a number of single years for each of the four seasons, but there does not appear any change running over a series of years for any of the seasons, within the total period for which data exist. The winters of 1858, 1866, 1872 and 1899 show low precipitation, while those for 1876 (which was a year of very phenomenally high precipitation throughout all the four seasons), and 1887 show high precipitation. With the exception of the phenomenally low precipitation of the year 1901 the growing seasons (spring and summer) of the different years show rather a number of individual years with amounts above the usual than years with amounts be- low. The period 1850-1853 appears to have had unusually high precipitation for the growing seasons. The remain- ing years with unusually high precipitation are scattered, 1858, 1865, 1866, 1868, 1876, 1892 and 1905. Examining the annual figures for temperature, the an- nual means, a remarkably harmonious series is discovered. For the whole period of sixty-two years the greatest differ- ence, that between the maximum and the minimum annual mean, is only 8 degrees. The winters of 1879, 1881, 1883- 1888 inclusive were unusually cold, but the remaining sea- sons of these years presented nothing abnormal in the way of average monthly seasonal temperatures. Unusually low precipitation followed for the summers of the years 1883. 1886, 1887 and 1888, while the spring of the year 1887 also had unusually low precipitation. It is about this period that the damage to native vegetation, so often referred to PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 189 in the county, was said to have occurred, along with the extremely dry year 1501, when the temperature, however, throughout all four seasons presented nothing abnormal. The seasonal monthly means for the remaining seasons pre- sent remarkably uniform figures. It is, therefore, evident that there is nothing in the way of climatic fluctuation of a periodic nature within une tast fifty or sixty years at least within the region of the Rock River woodland and thereabouts to account for any swing- ing of the successional trend between the xerophytic and the mesophytic directions. The only marked feature would be that of the rather unfavorable years of about 1879- 1888, when even then, not all of these were sutiiciently unfavorable to afford sufficient reason for much effect uaon the native vegetation. The effect, especially if aided by plant disease of insect attack history, would be retrogres- sive. Recovery from such a setback would mean a return to the former rate of progression, or something approxi- mating it. A lag in the response of the plant associations would probably alter the dates somewhat for vegetative changes. The writer believes, however, that it is not any climatic change, and probably not materially any plant disease at- tack, that is mainly responsible for the seeming swinging of the succession, nor for the marked alterations in the nature of the native plant growth of the county. A general observation only of the Rock River woodland region would, it is believed, lead one at first to the conclusion that, instead of any swinging of the successional trend, there is a pro- nounced movement in the xerophytic direction. Closer ob- servation and the consideration given to the climatic data available bring the writer to the conclusion that the affair is related mainly to man’s interference with the native vegetation. Where the activities of man have caused inter- ference, there retrogression of the vegetative succession has occurred and occurs today. Where man has not in- terfered in the past with the native vegetation, there it has advanced in the mesophytic direction, that is to say pro- gression of the vegetative succession has occurred. And whenever man has, after such interference, ceased his re- 190 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE trogression-causing activities, there progression of the vegetative succession has been resumed. The potentiality of the region for advanced stages of the vegetative suc- cession has remained unchanged, except in so far as the activities of man may have permanently altered this. Those dealing with genetic plant geography would probably all agree that the glacial ice advance was a catastrophic event in the history of vegetation. To a lesser degree, but to how much less is uncertain, the advent of white men and their brief stay of less than a hundred years in this region has been absolutely catastrophic in its effect upon the native vegetation. Not the speed of the reaction chiefly but the degree of the effects is important. And it has been prac- tically wholly retrogressive. It must be remembered that here the discussion is concerned wholly with matters of plant life separate from all economic questions. The eco- nomic desirability of the proper handling of woodland growth, of grazing, and so on, is, of course, absolutely un- questionable. There are many evidences in the Rock River woodland region of the disastrous effects on the native vegetation of the clearing of wooded areas. On the west side of the Rock, in the upland timber soils especially, gullying is so common in farm fields that frequently makeshift measures to stop or reduce the damage are encountered. It is of common oc- currence on both the west and the east sides of the river to find during the summer many small streams with dry beds, streams giving evidence in the nature of their cutting and in the dead or passing vegetation of their banks of hav- ing once been fairly permanently watered. Then, too, in a few places, where such small streams are still protected in their flow by wooded areas, they are found with running water throughout the summer. It seems certain that, al- lowing for all natural exaggeration in the early accounts, in the early days of white settlement and for unknown years before that time the prairie fires were a factor of prime importance in the development of the native vege- tation of the region. The early records of Ogle County are one with the records of similar sections of the country in PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 191 recounting the ravages of such fires. They cannot be ac- counted as having been less than catastrophic in their nature. Today, however, the factor of man’s activities that ap- pears to be that most actively operative is the grazing of domestic stock in woodland areas. About the entire gamut of grazing is being run—cattle, horses, pigs, sheep, goats, and deer. It is extremely rare to find any place where graz- ing is practiced where the number of grazed animals has been held down to such a number as would cause little or no deterioration of the fodder plants, not to speak of the native vegetation as a whole. The consequence is that not only has the grazing been impaired but the productiveness of the land itself has become impaired, except where it was shortly converted into farm crop land. Back from the Rock River in many or most of the farm woodlots, where, ap- parently, the purpose is to obtain permanent pasturage for domestic stock, the areas have been so reduced and im- paired by overgrazing as no longer often to afford pasturage, having been reduced merely to shaded places for stock. The effect of all these matters, when considered from the point of view of their action on the habitats involved, is be- lieved by the writer to be chiefly of an edaphic nature, a matter of affecting the soil moisture content. For more complete elucidation of the numerous questions involved the line of attack would have to be a series of investigations planned for quantitative work. On the basis of data fur- nished by observational investigations such further ques- tions might be determined. Perhaps it will some day be recognized generally in this country that, as the elder Cockayne, a foreign botanist, has said—“The yield per acre in crop or meat is primarily a matter of the plant covering of the farm,” that “facts based upon the study of a virgin vegetation and on that of an ar- tificial or modified vegetation are of equal value, the same laws governing both,” and that, hence, “the ecology of vir- gin land is, then, the ecology of the farm, except that on the latter man can purposely alter the conditions to which the plants are subject in order to increase their economic effi- 192 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ciency.” “Agriculture is neither more nor less than ap- plied plant and animal ecology.” Although the present in- vestigation has been one wholly separate from all economic questions, being one entirely in pure plant ecology, it is evi- dent that in the near future many similar investigations will need to be undertaken in the field of applied plant ecology. REFERENCES Bradfield, Wesley. Typical Forest Regions in Illinois. A Report Based on Preliminary Examinations. U. S. Forest Service. MSS. 1908. Unpublished. Eikenberry, W. L. Some Notes on the Forests of Ogle County. Trans. Ill. Acad. Sci., Feb. 1912. Hall, R. C. and Ingall, O. D. Forest Conditions in Illinois. Bul. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Histy., vol. 9, art. 4, 1911. Kauffman, H. G. and R. H. Historical Encyclopedia of Illinois and History of Ogle County. 2 vols., Chicago, 1909. Kincer, J. B. Seasonal Distribution of Precipitation and Its Frequency and Intensity in the United States. Month. Wea. Rev. 47:624-33, 1919. Leverett, F. The Illinois Glacial Lobe. U. S. G. S, Monograph No. 38, 1899. Pool, R. J. The Invasion of a Planted Prairie Grove. Proc. Soc. Am. For, 10:1-6, 1915. Salisbury, R. D. and Barrows, H. H. The Environment of Camp Grant. Ill. State Geol, Surv. Bul. 39, 1918. Schwarz, G. F. The Diminished Flow of the Rock River in Wisconsin and Illinois. U. S. Dept. Agric. Bur. of Forestry, Bul, 44, 1905. Shreve, F. A Map of the Vegetation of the United States. Geog. Rev., 3:119-25, 1917. Transeau, E. N. Forest Centers of Eastern America. Am. Nat. 39:875-89, 1905. Waller, A. E. Crop Centers of the United States. Jour. Am. Soc. Agron. 10:49-83, 1918. Ward, R. deC. Rev. Kincer, J. B. Month. Wea. Rev. 47:631-2, 1919 art. in Scien. Month. 9:210-23, 1919. PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 193 Weaver, J. E. and Theil, A. F. Ecological Studies in the Tension Zone Between Prairie and Woodland. Univ. Neb. Bot, Surv., 1:1-60, 1917. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Thanks are especially due to Mrs. R. H. Kauffman of Oregon, Ogle County, for her public-spirited kindness in furnishing a great deal of data in addition to that in her history of the county, and to Mr. Charles D. Etnyre, also of Oregon, for his assistance in furnishing information for the writer in the field, and to Mr. F. G. Taylor, of Oregon, the Superintendent of Schools, for his kind assistance in the field. Mr. C. J. Root, Chief of the State Weather Bureau, U. S. Department of Agriculture, at Springfield, Illinois, has kindly supplied data and information relating to the northern part of the state. The State Soil Survey, Urbana, Illinois, has also kindly supplied infor- mation relating to the unpublished soil survey of Ogle County. Thanks are due to Dr. Henry C. Cowles and Dr, George D. Fuller of the University of Chicago, Department of Botany, for their assistance and advice. Papers on Geology and Geography PAPERS ON GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY 197 NEW SPECIES OF DEVONIAN FOSSILS FROM WESTERN ILLINOIS PROF. T. E. SAVAGE, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS The Devonian limestones of Rock Island County, Illi- nois, were deposited in a basin that was connected north- westward with the Arctic Ocean, and are said to belong to the northern or Interfor Continental province. They are an eastward continuation of the Devonian limestones of eastern Iowa, with which they entirely correspond. These limestones in Iowa were described by Owen! in 1852 as “The limestones along Cedar Valley’”’, and he considered them equivalent to the upper Helderberg (Onondaga) and Hamilton formations of the New York section. James Hall? in 1858 also referred the Devonian lime- stones in Iowa to the upper Helderberg (Onondaga) and Hamilton formations. In a report on the Geology of Iowa in 1870 White® as- signed all of the Devonian limestones of Iowa to the Hamilton formation, under which name the strata were described. Three years later Hall and Whitfield‘ restudied the De- vonian Limestones of Iowa and correlated the limestone in the vicinity of Waterloo with the upper Helderberg (Onondaga) ; the white limestone near Raymond with the Schoharie; and the limestones at Waverly and Indepen- dence with the Hamilton of New York. In 1878 Calvin® referred the Devonian limestones in eastern Iowa to the Hamilton formation. Barris,® who had studied the Devonian limestones in the vicinity of Davenport and Rock Island, reported one or more unconformities in those beds and considered the up- per limestones of that region equivalent to the Hamilton of New York, and the earlier Devonian limestones to the up- per Helderberg (Onondaga). 1 Owen, D. D., Rept. Geol. Surv. Wis., Iowa and Minn., pp. 77-89, 1852. 2 Hall, James., Geol. of Iowa, Vol. I, pt. I, pp. 81-88, 1858. 3 White, C. A., Geol. of Iowa, Vol. L p. 109, 1870. 4 Hall, James ‘and Whitfield, R. P., 23rd. Ann. Rept. of Regents of N. Y. State Cabinet, pp. 223-226, 1873. 5 Calvin, Samuel, Am. Jour. of Science, 3rd ser. Vol. 15, PP: 460-46) ont Barris, James, Proc. Davenport, Acad. of Science, Vol. 2, pp. en and 198 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE In volume I. of the reports on the Geological Survey of Illinois Worthen’ referred the Devonian limestones of Rock Island County, Illinois, to both the upper Helderberg (Onondaga) and the Hamilton formations. In discussing the Geology of northeastern Iowa in 1891 MaGee® con- sidered the Devonian limestones as a unit and revived the name “Cedar Valley limestones” applied by Owen to these strata more than 40 years before. MaGee proposed to dis- tinguish the lower, brecciated member of these limestones as the “Fayette breccia” from the town of Fayette, Iowa, where they are well exposed. The same year Calvin? gave the name Gyroceras beds to the strata a few feet in thickness lying immediately above the brecciated limestones containing many Gyroceroid shells. In 1895 Norton’? proposed the name Wapsipinicon lime- stone for the Devonian strata included in the Fayette brec- cia of MaGee, and the Gyroceras beds of Calvin, from the Wapsipinicon River in eastern Iowa where these rocks are well exposed. He restricted the name Cedar Valley limestone to the more shaly and very fossiliferous strata, that occur above the Gyroceras beds in eastern Iowa. Norton" also divided the Wapsipinicon limestone into the following members: Otis beds at the base; Kenwood shale; Lower Davenport limestone, equivalent to the Fayette breccia of MaGee; and Upper Davenport lime- stone, corresponding to the Gyroceras beds of Calvin. This classification has generally been followed by the Iowa Geological survey. Weller!? has considered the Wapsipini- con limestone of Iowa in the main equivalent in time to the later Hamilton of the New York section and the Cedar Val- ley limestone about contemporaneous with the Portage group of New York. The writer!® has recently correlated all of the Cedar Val- ley and Wapsipinicon limestones of Iowa and Illinois about 7 Worthen, A. H., Geol. Surv. of Illinois, Vol. 120, 1866. 8 MaGee, W. J., Eleventh Ann. Rept. U. S. et ca p. 319, 1891. 9 Calvin, Samuel, Am. Geologist, Vol. VIII, p. 142, 1891. 10 Norton, W. H., Iowa Geol. Surv., Vol. IV, Dp. 155, 1895. 11 Norton, W. H., Proc. Iowa Acad. of Science, Vol. I. pt. 4, pp. 22-24, 1893. 12 Weller, Stuart, Outlines of Geological History with Especial Reference to North Am., p. be 1910. 13 Savage, T. E., Devonian Formations in Illinois, Am. Jour. of JBekeaae. 4th Ser., Vol. 49, Mch., pp. 181 and 182, 1920. PAPERS ON GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY 199 with the Tully limestone of the New York section. The Wapsipinicon and Cedar Valley limestones are both pre- sent in Rock Island County, Illinois, and the following mem- bers of the Wapsipinicon limestone are recognized in that region: Otis beds; Lower Davenport limestone; and Up- per Davenport limestone. WAPSIPINICON LIMESTONE The Otis Beds outcrop on Campbell’s Island in the Mis- sissippi River above Moline, and a few low exposures oc- cur in the Illinois bank of the River in that vicinity. This is gray to dark non-magnesian limestone, commonly rather fine grained, and somewhat irregularly bedded. The thick- ness does not exceed 15 or 20 feet. It is succeeded in this region by the Lower Davenport limestone without any trace of the Kenwood Shale. The Lower Davenport mem- ber consists of strongly brecciated nonfossiliferous lime- stone, the fragments of which are gray to dark, fine grained, and show fine laminations on weathered surfaces. The matrix is also fine grained, but is somewhat lighter in color. This brecciated limestone is exposed in the Govern- ment Island at Rock Island, and is the horizon formerly quarried in Rock Island and Moline. The Lower Daven- port limestone is overlain in apparent conformity by the Upper Davenport member which is composed of gray, granular, subcrystalline limestone, in irregular layers from a few to twelve inches or more in thickness, and con- tains several fossils, among which Phillipsastrea billingsi, Diplophyllum major, Schizophoria macfarlanei, Gypidula comis, and several Cephalopod species are characteristic. This member is well exposed in the vicinity of Sears and Milan. CEDAR VALLEY LIMESTONE The Cedar Valley limestones are commonly more shaly, more evenly beaded, and more richly fossiliferous than those of the Wapsipinicon which they succeed without any sedi- mentary break. They outcrop in the banks of Mill Creek, and farther west along several of the creeks both east and west of Andalusia. These limestones are commonly rather thin bedded, shaly and obliquely jointed in the lower part. 200 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE The Acervularia coral reef is near the middle, above which the layers are mostly limestone or dolomite. The total thickness of the formation is nearly 70 feet. The general succession and relations of the Devonian rocks in Rock Island county are shown in the following section: ; Generalized section of the Devonian rocks in the vicinity of Rock Island, Illinois: CEDAR VALLEY LIMESTONE. Feet 10. Dolomite, yellowish-gray to brown, in layers 6 to 24 inches thick, alternating with thinner partings of shale, containing many stromatoporoids and other fossils. Exposed along the creeks both ‘east, and. westiot Amdalusias. L5-bS erence 239 IMG ASIES fe ietelares cere) alcvclacieveve vate erererelerets Be tale aiere HOSS 10-14..c0e% 1523 15-19 one 112 Whooping, Cough 2 cieii0.s eccss gaae Hd eR 228; 10-14...... ATFs 15-198 sc gen 10 Scarlet EVEN ys ccustsie lt ales oie oho starts Sat Mean 4731; 10-14 5.055.55 442: 15-19). 2 awaits 232 NERSINT ETE S vat srera cla crg cite win wieapk arotars 5=Oucmaes GSas 10-14 ee on 365 3: 1519 a cites 294 ORAS § c Narcis,aranied ale daevare ait sraiststorersiete 8306 2702 2470 The financial loss, based on an Illinois estimate for an influenza campaign, counting treatment $10, loss of time $15, funeral $100, life at $3,000, apportions ages 5-9 at $25,956,250; 10-14, $8,443,750 and 15-19, $7,718,750, ap- proximating $42,000,000.3 Based upon the foregoing three period school ages, the per cent preventable, for the selected communicable di- seases, follows: 5-14 years, colds, pneumonia and acces- sory, 50%; influenza, 50%; smallpox, tonsillitis and diph- theria, 70%; measles, 40%; whooping cough, 40%; scarlet 1. This per cent was computed by a chief with thirty (30) experts in health data. Authority: 2. U. S. Mortality Statistics and causes of death for registration area. 3. Ill. Statistics for the State July 1, 1918, to June 1, 1919. PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 251 fever 50%; meningitis, 70%. For 15-19, similar except whooping cough not reckoned. Estimate average prevent- able, 50% or 4,200 at 5-9, 1,350 at 10-14, and 1,235 at age 15-19. Total deaths, 15-19 preventable about 24,000. 5-14, 33,500.5 In 1918, 289.9 per 100,000 for influenza, 284.3 per 100,000 for pneumonia. Influenza, 3,517 cases and 396.6 deaths per 100,000 population, 112.7 per 1,000. $73,710,000 total cost for influenza 1918-19. Whooping cough 10,000; ill 190,000. Scarlet fever, 9,000. Diphtheria and croup, 18,000 annually. Pneumonia, 132,400 lives annually. Pasteur has prophesied: “It is within the power of man to rid himself of every parasitic disease.” ‘‘Within natural limitations a community can determine its own death rate.’’6 “Instructions in the methods of preventing disease should be an essential part of our system of education and no in- dividual should have completed his education without the knowledge of how communicable diseases are spread and prevented.” To materially limit the incidents of these diseases, and thereby preventing much of this loss, I desire to submit for your consideration and, I trust your very earnest discus- sion, what seems to me a very simple plan. My plan would be to have the school board of each com- munity compel the teachers to familiarize themselves with the easily recognized symptoms which occur in one or more of these infections. Then have the superintendent of each school insist upon an inspection of each pupil—every morning before classes begin. Such inspection, according to the keenness of the ob- 4. Fisher’s Average and U. S. Mortality Statistics. 5. U.S. Mortality Statistics and Fishe Preventable Table. 6. Various Official Pamphlets. 252 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE server, would require about twenty seconds. The routine inspection should be divided or modified, in accordance with each teacher’s plan of organization, in the opening period. The inspection should include a search for the follow- ing symptoms, in the order named: 1. Rash of any kind on face, neck or wrist—Skin. 2. Eyes—Redness, watering or puffy. 3. Mouth and throat—bright redness of tongue, gums, pharynx, and tonsils; white spots on pharynx, tonsils, gums or between cheek and gums. 4. Under the jaw and along the neck palpable swelling of glands. 5. General symptoms: Nausea, malaize, unusual inat- tention, coughing and sneezing, hoarseness or unnatural tone of voice. The instruction of the teacher so that she can recognize these symptoms should be made compulsory and should be given by a physician and made a part of a teacher’s certi- ficate requirement. In order that the school board can put into effective ope- ration this requirement, summer courses of instruction should be given by physicians whose sympathy and ex- perience bring them in touch with the most vital relation- ships of pupil, teacher and family doctor. The teacher should be given authority by the superinten- dent of schools to dismiss any pupil suffering from any of the symptoms mentioned. The teacher should not permit return to school until he could bring with him a physician’s certificate of good health. To sum up: Every teacher should learn to recognize a sick child. Every teacher should make a morning inspec- tion of each pupil. Every sick child should, by the teacher’s transfer slip, be sent home for the parent to immediately secure the pupil’s careful examination by the family doctor. The state and local boards of health should co-operate with the school board, school superintendent, the teacher and family doctor in establishing and enforcing this PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 253 routine. The attention of the public should persistently be called to the importance of co-operation in this move- ment. DISCUSSION OF DR. WALKER’S PAPER Dr. Pollock suggested that a great many Boards of Edu- cation might profit by spending a little more money for per- sonal study in Economics that would be directed along these lines. Dr. East emphasized that special knowledge relative to the control of communicable diseases is essential and that therefore the link of Nursing Services in this con- nection could not be overlooked. In this connection the question was brought up of the importance of general publicity and education along pub- lic health lines. It seemed to be the general impression of the Section that very little had been and is being done in the way of general education of the public. Mr. Richardson stated that the State Department of Public Health not only maintained constant educational service that embraces special bulletins, motion picture films, lan- tern slides, posters, exhibit material, and demonstration service but it carried out such special programs as Health Promotion Week and Better Baby Conferences. 254 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE THREE HELPFUL AIDS IN THE DIAGNOSIS OF GALL BLADDER DISEASE FRANK WRIGHT, PuH.C., M. D. DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY, NORTHWESTERN UNI- VERSITY MEDICAL SCHOOL Gall bladder disease so frequently disguises itself by a long train of symptoms, stimulating disease of other organs, that any additional means of obtaining definite informa- tion is welcomed. Careful study of a rather large series of cases prompts me to emphasize the aid one derives from three sources. 1. Trans-duodenal drainage of the gall bladder. 2. Examination of the gall bladder region using re- cently developed X-ray technique. 3. Checking the pathological anatomy of such cases as go to operation, with reference to the relation between symptoms and the pathology in situ. Trans-duodenal aspiration or drainage of the gall blad- der is readily applied as an adjunct to the fractional method of examining the stomach contents. The usual small tube, with perforated metal olive at the end, is al- lowed to pass into the duodenum, after the fractions have been aspirated from the stomach, the time of passage being noted by the change in reaction, or the appearance of bile, and checked as to the position by fluoroscopic examination. After a couple of specimens have been obtained from the duodenum, solution of magnesium sulphate is allowed to flow by gravity, and aspirations follow at fifteen minute intervals. Disregarding the question of duct contents, the appear- ance of 30 to 50 mils of a bile differing in color, consis- tency, and turbidity from the specimens which precede and follow it, is taken as indication that this bile comes trom a different source from that with which it is contrasted. Repeated trials warrant the assumption that this bile comes from the gall bladder. If in addition to these phy- sical differences, microscopic and cultural examinations PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 255 show pus and organism of different type than those pre- dominating in the duodenal content, before and after this portion, the deduction follows that the contents are not only from the gall bladder, but that there are signs of cholecystitis. It is true that it is not possible to drain every gall blad- der even after repeated attempts, but when positive find- ings are secured, they are a distinct aid. I have recovered typhoid, para-typhoid A. & B., colon, streptococci, diplo- cocci and pyocyoneus organisms. Many times I have re- covered the same organism on repeated trials upon one in- dividual. THE ROENTGENOLOGIC AID Attempts directed toward visualization of pathological gall bladders require infinite patience and innumerable films. The technique as developed by Dr. Robert A. Aarens of Michael Reese Hospital, with whom I have co- operated in all my roentgenologic examination, is as fol- lows: The patient lies face downward on the plate and com- pression is used to assist in immobilizing the part. Im- mobility of the diaphram is of the utmost importance as the slightest movement will blot out the shadow of the gall bladder. It is, therefore, very essential that if the patient cannot or does not understand how to hold his breath that he be taught how to do so. A duplitized film with a double screen and a radiator type Coolidge tube taking 25 M. A. is used. The penetra- tion is varied for each patient. A series of from four to eight exposures is made with slight differences in the pene- tration of the ray. The first exposure is made with a penetration as soft as it is possible to use to get through the patient. Each successive exposure the penetration is increased by about 4” so that when the series is com- pleted, the plates will vary from an under exposure, to an Over exposure with one or two perfect films in the series. The time for each exposure varies from four to eight seconds, depending on the patient’s size, the same time being used on all exposures in the same patient. 256 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE This shows a shadow of the liver and kidney, and re- peatedly a shadow of the gall bladder can be demonstrated. An accurate knowledge of the different types of gall blad- der that are to be met with is essential. It is not neces- sary to show the presence of stones to outline a patho- logical gall bladder. Pathological bile, thickening of the gall bladder wall, and adhesions combine to give a shadow so dense that it will be cast upon the film if the proper technique is employed. If the stones are present they may cast a shadow if of suf- ficient density. On the other hand, some cholesterin stones have given lighter areas than the surrounding medium; in either case the result is apt to be a mottling or tessilation of the area within the gall bladder shadow. A normal gall bladder does not differ in density from the surrounding structure sufficiently to throw any shadow. In addition to these findings others are of value, such as local tenderness under the fluoroscope with accurate locali- zation; immobility of the duodenum, where the bulbus is perfect in outline, and not of the physical type where the bulbus is normally immobile; at times a high help hepatic flixure in addition to other findings; in other cases, a gall bladder seat shown in the shadow of an _ other- wise normal duodenum; again a number of cases have been noted in which the duodenum has taken an unusually wide outward curve to the right, as though due to encroachment of the head of the pancreas. While simulating carcinoma of the head of the pancreas, which must always be con- sidered, we have never seen a carcinoma of this type but rather have found a pathological gall bladder adherent to the head of the pancreas. Lastly complete the diagnosis, not as to fact, but as to origin or contributing cause, when the patient goes to operation. Here I want to emphasize the point that facts are fre- quently overlooked which, while of no import to the sur- geon at the time, may yield a wealth of information to the internist who scrubs up, and examines carefully the patho- logy before any of the relations are disturbed, then follows every step of the operation. PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 257 The adhesions to the various organs may be of help, ex- plaining certain symptoms referable to the colon or stomach, but particularly do I wish to emphasize the find- ing of the anomalies of the ducts and blood vessels, a fact well brought out some time ago by Dr. D. N. Eisendrath in a masterly article on the subject. When one finds a ses- sile gall bladder with practically no cystic duct, he can understand how the adhesions to the fundus caused an an- gulation which produced colic quite as severe as though brought about by stones. Again, the parallel cystic and hepatic ducts, or the anterior or posterior spiral placement of the cystic duct, as it curls about the hepatic before it unites to form the common, or the constriction of a duct by an abbarent blood vessel, explain symptoms which were so puzzling. DISCUSSION OF DR. WRIGHT’S PAPER Relative to the relation between gall bladder infection and the typhoid carrier, Dr. Thomas G. Hull called atten- tion to the frequency with which carriers are being refer- red to the State Department of Public Health by physi- cians. Dr. Hull stated that from a public health standpoint, Dr. Wright’s paper is most interesting. Continually the laboratory is uncovering typhoid carriers and the cry is continually coming up to show how such persons can be cured. 258 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE THE FILTERABLE VIRUSES THOMAS G. HULL, PH. D. CHIEF, DIVISION OF LABORATORIES, STATE DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC HEALTH, SPRINGFIELD, ILLINOIS There exists just at the range of vision of our most powerful microscopes, or beyond this range of vision, a large number of microorganisms, the identity of which is uncertain. They are called ‘“‘filterable’ viruses because they will pass through our best clay filters. In 1898 the first of these was discovered by Loeffler and Frosch, in studying the foot and mouth disease of cattle. The same year Beijerinck demonstrated as the cause of mosaic di- sease of tobacco, a filterable organism. In passing it is interesting to note that as in bacteriology, where the first diseases studied by Pasteur were in the industries, so in this new class of organisms, initial studies were made up- on diseases of animals and plants. The application to hu- man diseases came later. During the next few years, a large number of diseases were investigated in various parts of the world, adding much to our knowledge concerning filterable viruses. By 1913, more than forty diseases were attributed to this cause. Among these were diseases of plants, as the mosaic disease of tobacco; disease of animals, including horses, sheep, cattle, swine, dogs, guinea pigs, rabbits and rats; diseases of birds, especially black birds, and chickens; and diseases of man. The latter list includes small pox, scarlet fever, measles, polyomyelitis, trachoma, rabies, Dengue fever, yellow fever and Rocky Mountain spotted fever. Recent literature, especially since the war, has been full of work confirming the filterability of the organisms of these diseases and methods and means of their prophy- laxis. Of more interest, however, are the new diseases of man which are included, namely, influenza, epidemic ence- phalitis, trench fever and the ‘“‘ccommon cold.” There is no need to mention the ravages which influenza has wrought all over the world in the last three years. The discovery of the causative agent is a great step toward its final eradi- PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 259 cation. Epidemic encephalitis is a new disease little known till the last two years. Its long course however makes it a dreaded affliction and its eradication imperative. Trench fever is of little importance in this country in times of peace at least. The common cold is the most costly of all of our diseases. While various factors are concerned in the common cold, a filterable virus has recently been iso- lated as one excitant. It is gratifying to know that in all four of these diseases, priority of investigation as to the real cause belongs to American scientists. No longer are our laboratories dependent upon Europe for stimulation. The nature of the filterable viruses as a group is un- certain. Park divides them into three classes; first, dis- eases produced by filterable agents of unknown morpho- logy, an example of which is foot and mouth disease. These organisms are probably too small to be visible with our most powerful microscopes. Second, diseases pro- duced by filterable agents shown to be visible. Polyomyeli- tis comes in this class, the virus of which can barely be seen with a microscope. Third, diseases produced by vi- ruses of questionable filterability. In this class are several diseases, one of which is smallpox. Another classification which might be used is a division into plant and animal kingdoms. In the plant kingdom are those viruses closely related to the bacteria, as polyomyelitis and encephalitis. In the animal kingdom, one disease, the agent of which in certain stages is filterable, has lately been shown to be re- lated to protozoa, namely yellow fever. Noguchi has very lately shown this to be Leptospira icteroides. Probably other diseases, especially those in which mosquitos are in- volved in transmission, belong in the same group. Both Williams and Hawkins have claimed that the virus of rabies belongs among the rhizopods. Lately an Italian investigator has shown that any sub- stance which will cause the clumping of the viruses makes these organisms easy to study with the microscope. Great possibilities lie in this field. | There are still many problems to be solved. One that is to be emphasized especially is that more attention be paid to this group of organisms. There should be devised more 260 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE accurate methods of study, including possibly zoology and botany. When one thinks of the immense amount of work done in attempting to isolate the cause of influenza, much of it of the crudest nature, it is no wonder that the re- sults were negative. The ability to run around with a cot- ton swab in either hand is not sufficient training to culti- vate such delicate organisms as the filterable viruses. Not till the causative agents of these diseases are demonstrated can we go very far in either prophylaxis or treatment. It is a satisfaction to know that already for several diseases, especially smallpox and rabies, we have an absolute pre- ventative in vaccine; and in at least two diseases, polyo- myelitis and hog cholera, a curative serum has been pro- duced. The outlook for future work in this line is bright. DISCUSSION OF DR. HULL’S PAPER Is there any similarity of mosaic disease of cucumbers and tomatoes in these filterable virus forms? Better stain- ing methods by use of mordants and testing out on the :ine of chemical agents and media were suggested. Mention was made of the work of Prof. Ernst Bessey of Michigan Agricultural College and his colleagues in mosaic disease. Dr. Latham agreed with Dr. Hull in his plea for co-ordinating the several sciences relating to _ bacteri- ology in order to more readily enhance the correctness and extensiveness on the results along the lines that deal with virus. Dr. Pollock felt that such co-ordination and co- operation would result in great practical good so far as junior sanitary leagues etc. in connection with schools and school teaching is concerned. PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 261 AXILLARY GLAND INFECTIONS AND THEIR TREATMENT JOHN QO. CLETCHER, M. D., Cisco The purpose of this brief paper is for the prevention of local and constitutional disease and the conservation and treatment of the axillary glands. Although there has been little written on axillary gland disease, it is most interest- ing from a health and medical standpoint. Probably no group of lymphatic glands, except the cervical, are called upon as frequently to stop the progress of infection bound vascularwards, as the axillary glands. In fact, they do their work so well and so infrequently become dangerously in- volved in ratio to the numerous infections of the upper ex- tremity, scapular regions and outer chest wall, and mamma that their presence is only realized when they become in- volved. (The public is much entitled to a fair conception of the hygienic and preventive measures.) This group of glands is slightly protected from infected wounds of the areas of their lymph channels drain. There are some small glands in the arm and fore-arm (these are often mis- sing), and the epitrochlear of the elbow are the only nodes to delay infections entering directly into these glands. The so-called “Kernels under the arm” are of frequent oc- currence and at first are taken lightly by the patient, es- pecially if they are not having intense pain at the focus of the infection. As long as the glands are not swollen and painful neither the patient nor the physician feels anxious; but when chill and pain appear, and the red streaks form in the skin between the focus and the axillary glands, radi- cal treatment of the infected area should be maintained and assistance should be given the glands in arresting the progress. We have both the acute and chronic infections, but in the chronic infections we have more time for study and treatment; therefore only the acute conditions can be con- sidered here. The etiology is clear but extensive. Predisposed by age we find more cases in the young and in the laboring classes who are most active, certain occupations incurring special 262 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE hazards in hand and arm injuries. Males are subject to these causes more than females. But, many cases are found in the females of child bearing period, from infected milk ducts and fissured nipples, females also from depilatory operations on the axilla, causing infections of the hair follicles. Many cases arise from constitutional debility and sedentary habits in persons who have thin loose skin and brittle nails causing hang-nails, which make ideal focci of infection. Gardners, farmers, carpenters and sportsmen should be careful. Formerly surgeons had frequent axillary infections, but since asepsis is more perfect we seldom see a case in surgeons. Skin diseases cause many cases, such as ring worm, se- borrheic, dermatitis, erythema, intertigo, eczema, scabies, furunculosis. Primary infections may enter the axillary glands by di- rect contusion, subjecting the glandular tissue to infectious material such as traumatic injuries from punctures, gun shot wounds and fractures about the shoulder joint. From these sources any kind of pyogenic bacteria may enter. Primary infections usually are more destructive to the glands than secondary infections because the glands do not have so much time to form their resistance. The exciting cause is bacterial, such as the pus forming organisms, tubercle baccilus, baccilus malignant oedema and others. The tissue changes in glands varies according to the type of infection. Infection with the baccilus malignant oedema may be described as a solid confused indurated mass of vessels, connective and glandular tissue, without much swelling. With the pus forming organisms there are constant changes; gradual swelling and induration of the whole gland and surrounding tissue, with whipcord con- dition of lymphatic vessels to the gland involved. Cross sections of the glands at first show simple induration, later breaking down into pus and abscess formation. It is when the gland becomes solid from induration that its function of filtering and fighting power over bacteria ceases, and the PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 263 danger arises of the enemy bacteria getting through to the next group of glands or into the blood vascular system giving general blood poisoning or constitutional disease. Symptomatalogy is fairly constant, depending upon the type and virulency of the infection, with temperature, swelling, pain, tenderness of the glands, often chills and general aching. Incubation period varies from a few days after the original site is exposed to infection, to several weeks. The duration depends upon the resistance of the individual, type of bacteria and its virus, and treatment. By far the most important treatment is preventive; vac- cination is probably premature. Training in hygiene, health habits, sterilization of wounds, and how to keep wounds aseptic, are of great assistance in keeping the axil- lary glands healthy. The active treatment varies with the type of infection. Here we must confine this paper to the simple and pus infections, leaving the tubercular, syphilitic, malignant oedema, tetanus, etc., to special study. The focci of both secondary and primary infections must be well drained and have frequent dressings. Regional skin diseases should have immediate attention. Free catharsis must always be maintained and symptomatic treatment in- stituted. Administration of autogenous vaccine made from secondary infection focci is often of value. External heat must be applied to the axilla continuously until the in- fection is aborted or a diagnosis of abscess formation is made. Then surgical treatment of free drainage and steri- lization of the wound by the Carrol-Dakin method is usually found most effective. 264 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE EDUCATION IN THE THERAPEUTICS OF GRAY MATTER ; DR. CLARENCE W. EAST CHIEF, DIVISION OF CHILD HYGIENE, STATE DEPT. OF PUBLIC HEALTH, SPRINGFIELD, ILL. The gray matter is anatomically disposed as the cortex of the brain, as several islands within the same and as the medulla of the brain stem and of the spinal cord. Histologically it is composed of many-poled cells and branched dendritic processes, (arborizations) together with its supporting tissue. Functionally it is the seat of so-called “centers” related both to trophism and to action, mental, special sense and motor. Lesions of gray matter may be discrete, general, or com- plicated by those of white matter or of other tissues or or- gans. Discrete lesions and their therapy are the subject of dis- cussion in this paper. The discussion is further narrowed to the motor gray matter. Motor gray matter is related in location to trophic substance and is probably related to it in function. The location of motor gray matter is each side of the fissures of Rolando for a variable area, beneath the ven- tricle of the medulla oblongata, and in the interior horns of the spinal cord. The function of motor gray matter is receiving and pas- sing of impulses to the motor tracts of brain and cord and to the peripheral nerves. Lesions of this substance are treated on the basis of four principles, the specific, the hygienic, the trophic-instinc- tive and the educational. If the lesion be specific within the range of known speci- fic remedies, specific treatment is fundamental. The hygienic treatment has the same importance as in pathologic conditions of other tissues and organs. The trophic-instinctive belongs to the relatively un- conscious and involuntary activities by which all repair is made and the fundamental functions are achieved. PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 265 The educational principle has a preponderating applica- tion in lesions of motor gray matter when those lesions are end results or residui of pathologic or traumatic processes. These residui are the most frequent lesions of gray mat- ter. They group themselves into the cerebral palsies and the spinal palsies. Typical of the former is birth palsy. Here hemorrhage or inflammatory changes have occurred affect- ing the Rolandic areas with consequent atrophy of gray cells. The functional effects of such lesions are seen in spastic paralyses of skeletal muscles of greater or less extent. Typical of spinal palsies is anterior polyomyelitis. Here there is toxic atrophy of gray cells in the anterior horns. Functional effects are seen in flaccid paralyses of skeletal muscles. What recovery can be hoped and how can it be effected? The usual points of attack are the muscles themselves, and their vascular and nerve supplies. It is fondly hoped that atrophy can be limited by stimulat- ing the muscles and nerves and mechanically inducing greater vascular activity. It is sometimes thought that by sending the electric current through the neuromuscular system function may be restored. But such effects have never been produced by these means, as the means are no more adapted to the ends sought than the stimulation of an electric light bulb and its contents is adapted to reactivating a damaged motor. Whatever results have been achieved are to be attributed to nature’s unaided efforts as seen in hygienic and trophic-instinctive effects. Gray matter responds directly only to educational efforts. Educational results are characterized by more complex and finely adaptive arrangements and contacts between gray cells through their arborizations. It is in the unhurt but hitherto unused surplus of gray cells that our hope lies. New paths for the transfer of motor impulses possibly may be found, and new arrangements in cell groups when partial damage has been done may be achieved. 266 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Even though a current of electricity may travel the route of the reflex arc there is only cellular response and not definite and purposeful organic function. Tetany and tre- mor are not artistic achievement. Causing the muscles to “jump” is not dancing a jig. Persons with cerebral and spinal lesions of motor gray matter are improved by definite neuromuscular re-educa- tion. If massage and electricity and the like have value it is because of general hygienic effects. In children re-education is carried on by reconstructive play often beyond the limits of that obtained by direct muscle pedagogy. Competitive reconstructive play often carries function to a complete recovery. Nothing can be manipulated into gray motor matter ex- cept the damage of fatigue. Much may be developed out of motor gray matter in proportion to the unhurt residue and skill of the pedagogue. DISCUSSION ON DR. EAST’S PAPER Dr. Pollock said, “I had in the last ten days an ex- perience which illustrated nicely Dr. East’s reference to in- volvement of the Rolandic area during child birth. This was a tedious and difficult labor—culminating by forceps. This child’s face on one side was involved—spastic contrac- tions of hand and arm which had almost cleared up in ten days, showing the tendency to recover by being left to nature.” PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 267 A STUDY OF ACIDITY CURVES IN STOMACH CONTENTS FRANCIS M. THURMON ILLINOIS COLLEGE, JACKSONVILLE, ILL. The paper by Francis. Thurmon, a student of Illinois Col- lege, Jacksonville, Ill., was introduced by Professor Isabel S. Smith of Illinois College, as follows: Illinois College has a department of biology, and I who have the honor of occupying that settee am a botanist. We have, of course, men who are preparing for medicine. Through the kindness and under the direction of Dr. Frank Garm Norbury of the Norbury Sanatoriums, we are able in the excellent laboratories of those institutions to furnish our strongest prospective medical students a chance to do what is to them research in the latter part of their college course. Dr. Norbury is a loyal alumnus of Illinois College, has an A. M. from the University of IIli- nois, is a graduate of the Harvard Medical School, and while there was an assistant in the pathological laboratory. Before taking work with him these men have taken in IIli- nois College a year of zoology, invertebrate and vertebrate, a semester of histology, a semester of vertebrate embryology and two or three years of chemistry. Besides the work which Mr. Thurmon will present, indi- vidual students are doing work on myleogenous leukemia, on anthrax isolated from a clinical case, studied by means of guinea pig cultures; on histological preparations from a case of sphlenic anaemia, the spleen having been removed at time of operation; on cancer of the oesophagus and in- flammation of the spinal cord, removed at autopsies. Blood chemistry is often introduced. I cannot tell you what an inspiration this is to these ad- vanced zoology students. Thinking that this may be of assistance to other professors in small colleges, I have 268 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE asked Mr. Thurmon to present a piece of work done under Dr. Norbury’s direction, “A Study of Acidity Curves in Stomach Contents.” The Paper follows: The method of gastric analysis clinically in vogue at pres- ent entails the feeding at a standard test meal, the par- tial removal of stomach contents at fifteen minute inter- vals over a period of 90-120 minutes, and the examination of the samples for: (1) Total acidity, (2) Free acidity, (8) Lactic acid, (4) Occult blood, (5) Bile, (6) Microsco- pical constituents. OLD METHOD The old method used until the introduction of the Reh- fuss method of fractional analysis consisted of feeding of a standard test meal, the partial removal of complete stom- ach contents at the end of a one-hour period, and the ana- lysis of the material so removed. That this was inaccurate has been proved through laboratory examination and is best explained by graphic representation. Owing to the bulk of the stomach tube and the marked discomfort occasioned by its use, it was impossible to fol- low the complete cycle of digestion and to estimate the dif- ferent changes step by step which took place in the stom- ach after the introduction of a definite stimulus such as various foods. At the end of one hour the entire stomach content was removed and examined. Chart 2 will suffice to show the fallacy of this method. Both curves represent the total acidity of two different cases. They show a vast variance by the fractional method; but by the old method, which called for the removal of complete stomach content at the end of one hour, one would readily suppose they were normal curves. REHFUSS TUBE METHOD Realizing the inadequacy of the procedure entailed in the old method, Dr. Martin E. Rehfuss devised an ap- paratus and procedure by which it is possible to follow the entire cycle of digestion without undue discomfort to the patient. It is the so-called ‘‘fractional method.” The modified stomach tube (No. 12 French Tubing) is fitted with a metal tip. The tip is slotted with large perfora- a PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 269 tions, the diameter of each being equivalent to the maxi- mum bore of the tubing. The principle of the tube is en- tirely that of gravity, and the tip is sufficiently heavy to seek the lowest portion of the stomach. The instrument is inserted and left in the stomach for hours until the gastric cycle is completed. It is possible at any given moment to draw off any or all of the juice secreted in sufficient quan- tity to perform the necessary chemical examination. METHOD The patient is requested to drink no water at any time after the evening meal on the night previous to examina- tion, and to eat nothing until after the test is complete. Usually he presents himself about 8 o’clock the following morning for removal of residium by means of the Rehfuss tube. REMOVAL OF RESIDIUM The swallowing of the tube may be accomplished with- out the aid of water. In obstinate cases where swallow- ing is difficult the process may be accomplished by coating the tube and tip with a thin film of petrolatum, and by placing the tip in the lower part of the pharynx, back of the tongue, and having the patient swallow. When the tube has reached the stomach (which has been determined by measurement) the contents are aspirated. A normal residium of large volume possessing a total acidity value of seventy or over may indicate ulcer. THE TEST MEAL Before making an analysis of stomach contents it is customary to introduce something into the stomach which will stimulate the gastric cells. The response to this stimu- lation is then measured clinically by the determination of total and free acidity in the stomach contents. The test meal most widely employed is the Ewald test meal, which consists of 2 pieces (35 grams) of toast and 8 ounces of tea or water. (The water meal is advised because it has the added advantage of enabling one to determine the presence of food rests, and to test more accurately for blood and bile.) 270 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE THE RETENTION MEAL “In order to obtain more information, if desired, regard- ing gastric motility than is furnished by the ordinary test meal, the patient may be fed a so-called retention meal. This meal is fed in place of the customary evening meal and contains substances readily detected. In the morning before breakfast the stomach contents are removed and ex- amined for food rests. A normal stomach should give no evidence of food retention. A satisfactory retention meal consists of six raisins. REMOVAL OF SAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS At exactly fifteen minute intervals from the time the test meal is eaten until the stomach is empty, 10 ec. ec. samples of gastric contents are withdrawn from the stom- ach by means of aspiration. EXAMINATION OF SAMPLES The modern tendency among clinicians is to lay par- ticular emphasis upon the value of free acidity and total acidity. The determination of presence or absence of oc- cult blood, mucus, and food rests are also of importance. Microscopic examination may show remnants of food from previous meals, red blood corpuscles, pus cells, sarcinae, ex- cessive number of yeast cells, bacteria, and definite ab- normal cells in an abnormal ulcerating cancer, all of which are of diagnostic importance. DETERMINATION OF FREE HYDROCHLORIC ACID Principle—The indicator used is di-methyl-amino-azo- benzene (Toeopfer’s reagent.) Procedure—Measure 10 c. c. of the gastric contents and introduce it into a clean 100 c. c. beaker. Add 2 drops of Toeopfer’s reagent, and if free hydrochloric is present the solution will turn a visible pink (depth of color depending upon acid concentration.) Titrate with N/10 sodium hy- droxide until the red color is replaced by an orange yellow. Take the burette reading and calculate for free acidity. PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 271 Calculation—The indicator used reacts only with free hydrochloric acid, hence the number of cubic centimeters of N/10 sodium hydroxide used indicates the volume neces- sary to neutralize the free hydrochloric acid of 10 ¢. c. of gastric juice. To determine the data for 100 c. c. of gastric juice multiply by 10. Occasionally in the fractional method it is not possible to obtain 10 c. c. of a specimen in one or more of the periods of aspiration. In this case use 5 ¢. ¢. of the gastric content and dilute to 10 c. c. with distilled water and proceed as above. Multiply the results by 2 be- cause a 5c. c. dilution was used. The latter procedure gives only approximate results, yet, an idea of the nature of the curve is determined. TOTAL ACIDITY Principle—The indicator used is phenolphthalein. Since the indicator reacts with mineral acids, organic acids, com- bined acids, and acid salts, the values obtained represent the total acidity of the solution. Procedure—To the titrated solution used above add 2 drops of phenolphthalein and titrate with N/10 sodium hy- droxide until a faint pink color is obtained and persists for about two minutes. Take the burette reading and calcu- late for total acidity. Calculation—The number of cubic centimeters of N/10 sodium hydroxide used indicates the volume necessary to neutralize the total acidity of 10 c. c. of the solution. To determine the data necessary for 100 c. c. multiply by 10. (It is customary to express the acidity in values per 100 ce. c.) This product of acidity represents the total acidity of 100 c. c. of the solution of that period. OCCULT BLOOD Guaiac method used: Introduce 1 c¢. ec. of gastric con- tents into a 10 c. c. test tube and acidify with 1 or 2 drops of glacial acetic acid. From a previously prepared solu- tion, consisting of a few Guaiac crystals and 95% alcohol (about 6 c. c. vol.), add to the gastric contents in equal 272 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE volume. To this add a similar amount of hydrogen perox- ide and if chemic blood is present the solution will turn a distinct blue. TYPES OF CURVES Curves representing total acidity and free acidity of the periods during complete cycles of digestion have been made. The ordinate of the graph represents the degree of acidity and the abscissa of the graph represents the time periods. 1. Isosecretory type shows a steady rise, high point usually sustained for half an hour and then a gradual de- cline. The curve is usually steady and unbroken; its high point rounded and not abrupt and is to be found within the neighborhood of one hour. Chart No. 1. 7o bo fo Yo 30 Se ie 20 Lewes 18 : Ps 30 15 bo Tae 108 Chart |1,— |Jsosecretory type. Top line represents tota) acidity ond lower Jine free acidity, 2. Hypersecretory type shows a rapid response to stimuli, rapid increase in acidity, high point from 70 to 100 or over, either abrupt or sustained, and a slow decline or none at all in the usual time. It is called the hyper- secretory type because of the general tendency to assume exaggerated proportions. Chart No. 3. PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 273 SL Ey 30 4s bd 9S 90 Chart 3. Hyperacidity type. Top dine represents }+ota\ acidity- and \ewer line Shows free acidity Curves 1 and 2 are typical of the reaction of normal in- dividuals when given an Ewald meal. A consideration of these curves from the examination of normal individuals indicates that there is no normal curve which will hold for all cases, but a normal curve may vary within certain well defined limits. 120 9° 6 70 bo 50 1s 30 45 be 15 98 185 120 Charta.— Showing fanacy of ‘Old Method” Top line shows hyperacidity after the one hour period. Lower Line represents a normal Curve, 274 [ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE PATHOLOGICAL CURVES Pathologically any variation may occur, each variation type typical of its stomach disorder. But a consideration of their interpretation is outside the purpose of the present paper. Charts of (1) Gastric ulcer, and (2) Carcinoma have been prepared with slight analysis showing as far as pos- sible how the laboratory examination goes. 1. Case of Gastric Ulcer: Tender point, persistent oc- cult blood. There is an excess of hydrochloric acid in about one-half the cases. In the other cases the acid is normal or diminished. The findings are: (1) a rapid rise in half an hour, (2) distinct, rather abrupt hyperacidity, (3) rapid decline, (4) usually occult blood. The diagnosis must be based largely upon clinical evidence. Chart No. 4 100 70 60 7o 60 Ef) #0 is 36 95 60 75: 40 05 Chart 4— Case of Gastric Ulcer: Top line representing total acidity find )ower line free acidity 2. Case of Carcinoma: As far as the laboratory find- ings go the cardinal signs are absence of free acid, blood in all specimens, and Oppler-Boas bacilli in large numbers. It is probable that some substance is produced by the cancer PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 275 which neutralizes the free acid. Also carcinoma seems to furnish a favorable medium for growth of Oppler-Boas bacilli. Chart No. 5. 50 30 Ws Faas A BTS 10 x se is 30 4S 60 15 90 105 Chart S5.— Case of Carcinoma: Showing free acidity € Gu ating Zero (lower Vine), and low Total acidity (+p ine), CONCLUSION 1. Gastric juice in healthy normal individuals shows no specific curve, but types of curve can be found which are named isosecretory and hypersecretory. 2. The pathological significance arises when a curve shows any marked deviation from the recognized standard. The most typical curves have been chosen from a group of one hundred fifteen cases examined. It has not been my purpose to offer a complete interpretation in this study of acidity curves, so much as it has been my aim to show how they serve as a means of aiding in diagnosis, and to repre- sent some of the possibilities open for advanced study dur- ing a “Liberal Arts Course.” Bibliography: (1) Practical Physiological Chemistry. Hawk. (2) The Journal of the American Medical Associa- tion, Vol. 63, Nos. 1, 2. Vol. 64, No. 21. Vol. 65, No. 12. 276 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE PRACTICAL INFANT CONSERVATION M. D. PoLLock, M. D., DECATUR, ILL. I have but one excuse to offer for the title of this paper, namely, I happen to be a citizen of what is said to be the most healthful city for babies in the world, Decatur, IIl., U. S. A. We have succeeded in raising her from the mud and malarial swamps of earlier days, and placed her on the world’s health pinnacle for babies. The recent Red Cross Survey of Decatur, under the aus- pices of the State Department of Public Welfare, in its re- port, makes the following statement relative to infant mor- tality: “Sir Arthur Newlsholme, the eminent English authority on infant health, has written that ‘Infant mortality is the most sensative index we possess of social welfare and of sanitary administration, especially under urban condi- tions.’ The Decatur figures show it to be very progres- sive in the reduction of infant deaths.” “During the fiscal year 1918-1919, 918 babies were bern in Decatur; 35 babies were reported to have died during the first year of life, giving a rate of 38.19 per one thousand births.” Assuming that births and deaths are well reported and this rate therefore correct, Decatur has reason to take pride in this remarkably low rate. It is considerably lower than for any city reported for the Federal census area, and lower than New Zealand, which ranks lowest of the count- tries of the world that report these figures. The Federal Census for the 23 states in the registration area reported in 1911 an infant mortality rate of 124 per thousand live births, and in 1915 for a smaller area, it showed a rate which varied from 70 to 120. Cities of 25,000 population or over ranged from 54 in Brookline, Mass. to 196 in Shenandoah, Pa. New Zealand has re- duced its rate to 51. 42 nae PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 277 During the same time the city’s birth rate, 20.9 per 1000 population, shows a fairly healthy and normal! increase. In the U. S. registration area in 1917, it was 24.6 per 1000 population. The annual report of the Commissioner of Public Health and Safety of the City of Decatur for the year ending Ap- ril 30, 1920, gives even a lower mortality rate for chil- dren under one year of age, as follows: Total number of births reported 888. Total number of deaths 31—which gives a mortality of 34.9 per 1000 babies born. This in- cludes only the corporate city and will not tally with the report of the State Bureau of Vital Statistics which report is not confined strictly to the corporate boundaries of the city. Anticipating your first inquiry, “How did you do it?’, I will state to begin with that personally I have nothing new or startling to offer. In the ten minutes allotted to me I only hope to review as of a landscape in an aeroplane flight, a few of the things Decatur did in establishing this record on a mere 18 cents per capital allotted to it for health, a record which I am sure you will grant is wor- thy of the title of this paper, “Practical Infant Conserva- tion.” In order to analyze all the factors entering into the health of any community, one will necessarily have to go back a generation or two. I can only mention some of these factors at this time. 1—Our people have inherited the rugged health of the pioneer, which is an asset not to be overlooked. 2—Our varied climate tends to raise the resistance of the body against outside influences. (I do not accept the pop- ular impression that we have a bad climate.) 3—We have converted our once germ breeding swamps and stagnant pools, by means of the dredge and tile, into running streams, flanked by verdant pastures, and fields of fragrant clover and waving grain. 4—Thus we have made it possible to raise agriculture, horticulture and animal industry to the highest possible standard, which in turn is an important factor in our milk 278 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE and food supply, which has so much to do with the standard of health. It would have been impossible to attain dis- tinction as a health center if our streets had remained a quagmire, and Lincoln Square a hog wallow. 5—Coming down to our present city, in attempting to lay a finger on the things which have contributed to its health, and more especially to the health of the child, one be- comes bewildered with the multitude of things, which though playing only an infinitesimal part, might have turned the balance against us. I would put first and at the top of the list, without which it would be useless for any city to hope to attain distinction either in raising babies, or selling municipal water bonds, CIVIC AND COMMUNITY SPIRIT. I con- sider this so fundamental and important that I am almost tempted to stop right here that you might have this first essential riveted to your memory. The paragraph just read is the important part of my message; the details can be worked out by any community backed by the above spirit. This, I think, is the real secret of Decatur’s record. I fully recognize however that excel- lent work had to be done by the various organizations, city officials and many individuals, a few of which I wish to mention after enumerating the Machinery operating for better health in Decatur and Macon County, as tabulated by the Red Cross Survey. Private physicians in Decatur, 75-80. Private physicians outside Decatur, 17. Decatur Medical Association. Graduate nurses in city and county, 80. County physician. City Department of Public Health and Safety. Commissioner. Director of Public Health (Physician resigned May 1, 1920.) Assistant Health Officer. Sanitary Officer. Milk Inspector. PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 279 Superintendent of Child Welfare. Building Inspector. City Scavenger. Police Matron (part time.) Assistant Police Matron (part time.) Decatur and Macon County Hospital. St. Mary’s Hospital. Wabash Hospital. Social Hygiene Clinic. Tuberculosis Clinic. Crippled Children’s clinic. 3 clinics for school children. Mental clinic under State Hospital. Mental test by teacher of room for subnormals. School nurse in city. School and Visiting nurse in County. Macon County anti T. B. and Visiting Nurse Assn. Y. W. C. A. Health Center. Hospital Aid Association. Junior Sanitation League. Red Cross and V. N. A. classes in Home Care of the Sick and First aid. Health exhibits and posters in schools and educational work through Associations and clinics. 2—A Commissioner of Public Health and Safety. Under his supervision the Junior Sanitary League of 300 boys did a wonderful piece of work by making two house to house sanitary surveys of the city during the year with a detailed report. This not only assisted greatly in locat- ing ill kept back yards, cess pools and privy vaults, but was of even greater educational value in creating a pride and a real competitive desire to excel, among our citizens. 3—A practical competent Director of Public Health, or all time health officer, who directed the various health ac- tivities and kept them working in harmony, seeing that one did not overlap the other unnecessarily. Among these 280 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE were running down communicable diseases, placing tempo- rary quarantine on contacts, detecting chronic carriers, making tests to ascertain who were immune and those who were not, and a multitude of things which can only be done by one especially trained. 4—The branch of the health department in my opinion having most to do directly with lowering infant mortality in Decatur, was the Child’s Welfare Department. ‘The Slogan of this department has been “‘Keep the Well Baby Well.” Under this department were maintained infant wel- fare stations, where 329 babies were registered and more than 800 examinations were made, the mother given advice as to the care of the baby, the food best for it, and other educational work. A remarkable feature of the work was the fact that not a single child attending the clinics died during the year. Number of nursing and instruction visits in homes 1097. Number of advisory calls 420. This organization has for its head the Medical director, and is directly under the supervision of the Child’s Wel- fare Nurse. The Federation of Mothers’ Clubs co-operates, thus making it widely educational. ‘Educate, educate, educate,” should be the slogan. The Day Nursery has cared daily for an average of 30 children whose mothers were working, and has provided for others who came in after school hours. It also main- tained a free kindergarten for these children. The matron visits all homes in sickness or trouble. 5—Scarcely second to the Child’s Welfare Department is the Dairy Inspector, for pure milk is essential to healthy bottle fed babies. Our dairy inspector is especially adapted to his work, being a practical dairyman himself and per- sonally acquainted with every dairy in the community, and he takes pride in being able to direct physicians or others just where to obtain the desired milk supply. He has really induced a sort of competitive rivalry among the dairymen to produce the best baby milk possible. 6—The Venereal Clinic has undoubtedly contributed its share in lowering infant mortality. During the year four PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 281 syphilitic pregnant mothers were treated, with no mortality resulting among the babies born of these mothers. With- out treatment we would naturally expect a very high mor- tality. In conclusion I wish to submit a diagram for affiliating health activities as outlined by Dr. I. H. Neece, Decatur’s recent Health Director. DIAGRAM Plan for Affiliating Health Activities for Year, 1920 Bureau Social Hygiene | rae A Bureau Child’s Welfare | els Bureau School Nursing Medical Inspection ae OG (2) Bureau Visiting Nurses’ = Association rae wn 5 ES 2, Bureau Crippled Children | thie + iS 2 8 Bureau Cummunicable = 5S. Diseases aa S. = Bureau Sanitation and Milk > a Inspection gat 2 = Bureau Social Service | eae Bureau Sub-Normal Children Hygienic Laboratory DISCUSSION OF DR. POLLOCK’S PAPER Dr. East added that the excellent status of Public Health Administration in Decatur, especially as it related to in- fant welfare, is almost purely the result of local initiative and serves to clearly demonstrate what can be done along these lines elsewhere. Dr. Pollock closed the discussion by 282 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE giving a digest of the work of the local junior sanitary league, and referred to the importance of a full time muni- cipal health officer. The last point has also been demon- strated in Decatur by an experience of two years and the late removal of the health officer for economical reasons. . ysics h Papers onP PAPERS ON PHYSICS 285 SOME PRACTICAL PROJECTS IN TEACHING PHYSICS ProF. C. F. PHIPPS, NORTHERN ILLINOIS STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, DEKALB, ILL. Physics deals with so many things connected with our home, school and community life, that if it is presented in a practical, rather than the usual cut-and-dried way, it is both interesting and instructive to our youth. Half a century ago there were fewer inventions and up to date conveni- ences, so the people of both city and farm were able to be- come acquainted with the limited number of things belong- ing to the field of science. The few conveniences then were learned easily at home, and the people were relatively more efficient than now. But inventions during the last half cen- tury have multiplied so rapidly that the home has been unable to keep up with them, so that the burden of making our youth efficient has fallen more and more upon our schools and colleges. These institutions as a whole are failing in much of this efficiency work. Listen to some of the adverse criticisms of science teach- ing that are offered: “School work, especially in science, is too artificial—not real.’”’ “Most of the science subject- matter taught remains unused, both in and out of school and college hours and in after school years.” “The big problem of the school is that there is very little relation- ship between the work of the school and the work ot the world.” “Our physics books are too much on the order of encyclopedias or dictionaries, and their proper function is for reference only.” “We lack books for high school and college which present science as living projects.” “The basic error in science teaching today is that it does not center itself about the interests and desires of the stu- dents.” One of the professors in Columbia Teachers College asks and answers this question: “Why do we, as mature peo- ple, go to the literature of the automobile company to learn about the workings and methods of repairing of our bat- teries, and to make other repairs, rather than to a physics 286 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE text book? Simply because the company’s literature satis- fies us, and explains in a practical, instructional way the workings of the battery and other parts, and touches closely and appealingly to the project we have.” ‘We must remember,” he adds, “that students are immature men and women and do not enjoy studying dry, unrelated facts, principles, theories and fundamentals any more than we would.” Why not bring small samples of real life and real work- able problems to the school and college more than we do, and give them as projects—those which will appeal to and grip the student? This will not only interest them and show the worthiness of physics, but it will develop their thinking power. Dewey says that “there is no thinking without a problem. When judgment is challenged to face a dilemma it makes a fork in the road and thinking begins here.” I grant you that there are difficulties in the way of teaching by the project method, such as large classes, lack of suitable projects, the time factor in the teacher’s and student’s busy life, lack of trained teachers, lack of equip- ment and supplies, etc. Yet many science teachers in high school, normal school and college are doing work of this kind, and our plea now is for many more teachers to tackle the problem and thus give students worthwhile opportuni- ties of studying science in practical ways. Since time for this paper is so limited, I will confine my- self to one phase of work in physics, namely, some prac- tical projects in electricity. A few years ago while teach- ing a small class of high school boys we took up some pro- jects in electric wiring. Several small, roughly boarded rooms in the manual training department served our pur- pose. Only three sides and ceiling were boarded, leaving the front of each room open. In these rooms the students worked out in detail a number of projects in electric wiring of homes, such as door bells, call bells and lighting. The interest was keen, thinking was stimulated, and the re- sults educationally were good, even though not all of the PAPERS ON PHYSICS 287 individual work was neat and perfect. At other times practical electric burglar alarms for windows were worked out and some students installed them in their homes. Electric dry cells are easily made, though they may be weaker than boughten ones, by taking apart old dry cells and using the zinc container and carbon stick, and pack- ing a new pasty mixture of chemicals around the carbon rod in this container. This gives the student an intimate knowledge of the construction of such cells. A strong wet cell, which students enjoy making and using, can be con- structed with a cup of water in an eight ounce bottle, a tea- spoonful of potassium bichromate and a tablespoonful of sulphuric acid. Carbon and zinc rods, with wire attached, complete the cell. With such cells a usuable medical battery, or shock coil, can be constructed, using a simple switch, a buzzer for make and break, and two pieces of coiled metal attached to wires to hold in the hands. A miniature home lighting system is a good project. It is made by mounting several sets of lamp sockets on short boards, each set representing a separate circuit in the house, and these all connected to the main line with switch and fuse plugs. If a watt-hour-meter is at hand the cost of using each lamp or circuit may be ascertained by the students. Again, the students may mount more lamp sockets on a board, having adjustable connections or switches between them so that the sockets may be cut out or cut in at will, and thus a handy lamp-bank is ready for a number of ex- periments. Since students occasionally burn out valuable instru- ments by using wrong connections, they ought to equip themselves with a small fool-proof switchboard which tells at once whether their connections are right or wrong. Hav- ing learned the right connections to make with this small switchboard, practically all danger of burning out valuable instruments is avoided. After electromagnets have been made and tested our stu- dents have put them to practical use by making simple tele- 288 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE graph sets and sending messages to each other, either in the laboratory or by installing the sets in their homes. The making of induction coils, spark coils and other parts of wireless outfits are good projects. Not only do students of physics make most of their wireless apparatus, but boys who never have had physics are doing it. I feel sure that anyone present can relate instances of keen in- terest shown by students when allowed to make, or assist in installing, a wireless in the school, or when making their own outfit at home. To mention briefly a few other practical projects in this branch of physics, I will suggest that the electroplating project, such as copper plating and nickel plating, be given. Let the students assemble the apparatus and actually plate things. Electrolytes and ionization are taught much more easily after a first-hand acquaintance with electroplating. Different solutions made with distilled water, using in turn salt, acid, sugar and glycerine, may be tested for conduct- ing power, thus showing ionizing and non-ionizing sub- stances. Why not begin the study of the storage battery by hav- ing the students construct simple ones with pieces of lead, a pint fruit jar and dilute sulphuric acid? After charging and testing this storage cell by ringing bells, the construc- tion and workings of the regular battery will be understood more easily. Interest and profit are gained by having students make Geissler tubes out of old electric light bulbs. The glowing, rarefied gas in such bulbs stimulates interest in another line, and may well lead to the mysteries of X-Ray produc- tion. Making arc lights, using home-made electromagnets to draw the carbon sticks apart when the current is turned on, teaches the principles involved in street lights and lights used in stereopticon lanterns. Continuing from this the electric furnace may be con- structed, using electric light carbons enclosed in hollowed out fire brick, or in a box lined with some refractory material. PAPERS ON PHYSICS 289 Recently our students obtained some wire of high re- sistance and worked out a number of interesting projects. One was an electric heater, capable of heating a small room. A piece of sheet aluminum was cut and shaped into a reflec- tor, and the heating wire, wound around an asbestos covered porcelain tube, was mounted in front of the re- flector. Some more of the same wire, mounted in six sepa- rate coils in the bottom of an asbestos lined shallow box with metal top, made a serviceable heater that could be used as a foot-warmer, or moderately hot stove or toaster. One student wished to make an electric flat iron. He did so by using some of this resisting heating wire inclosed between suitably insulated pieces of lead for weight. He covered it all with sheet copper, and fastened on a wooden handle. When connected to a 110. volt circuit it worked well. Surely college and high school students are interested and benefited in doing such practical work. A little more ingenuity is required for making a Tesla Transformer which will give a 6 to 8 inch spark, but our students have done it after having had an introductory course in electricity. When other projects are scarce a little time may be spent profitably in making blue print paper and then tak- ing permanent pictures of magnetic fields about magnets and about current bearing wires. Also simple detecting galvanoscopes, electroscopes and electrophorouses may be made by students and experiments performed by using them in preference to elaborate and expensive apparatus. I will mention in closing one other example of project work, and that is in the field of repair work. When some apparatus is out of order, if it is not too delicate and complicated, we give it to capable students to repair. They enjoy such work and often get much out of it, since they must learn how the apparatus is constructed and the prin- ciples by which it works. To mention a concrete case—we have an electric washing machine in our laboratory for demonstrating one use of the motor, and some time ago it failed to work properly. Some students took the motor off the machine, dissected it and found that a loose screw had caused a short circuit and partly burned out the armature. 290 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Since we have not the facilities as yet for winding motors, we had the armature repaired at the factory; then the stu- dents assembled and installed it on the washing machine, making the rather difficult adjustments with ratchets, and the satisfaction of putting the whole machine in good working order again was worth while. I am sure that you can suggest many more practical and instructive projects for students to do in the wide do- main of physics, both in elementary and advanced work, and you who have done some of this kind of teaching know how it enriches a course, and makes the student exclaim “That was the best science course I ever took. I got lots out of it.” PAPERS ON PHYSICS 291 DETERMINATION OF THE VAPOR PRESSURE OF MERCURY BY MEANS OF THE KNUDSEN PRESSURE GAUGE PrRoF. C. F. HILL, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS While engaged in experimental work in the apenietae 1920, the question arose as to the pressure of saturated mercury vapor. Upon looking in the tables for the values at temperatures ranging from 0° to 20°C., it was noticed that there is little or no agreement between different ob- servers. Data for but three direct methods was found listed at the above temperatures. An accurate knowledge of the vapor pressure of mercury is important in vacuum work since mercury is almost always involved in the vacuum in some way, either in gauges or pumps. Due to this fact, and to the lack of agreement of former observers, and also to the small amount of data really taken before, it was decided to try to devise a more dependable method. To this end a Knudsen pressure gauge was used. This in- strument is independent of the gas used and gives ac- curate readings on pressures of the order of those of mer- cury vapor at ordinary working temperatures. The cali- bration of the instrument was accomplished by connecting the apparatus as shown in the Fig. 1. All vapors were re- moved from the Knudsen gauge side and kept out by 1F “ 292 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE means of a liquid air trap. The pressure was then varied in the apparatus and simultaneous readings were taken on a standard McLeod gauge and the Knudsen gauge. A cali- bration curve was drawn on a large scale from the data thus obtained. This is made possible since the deflection at zero pressure is zero, and the origin thus became an accurate point of the curve. Mercury vapor of course still existed in the McLeod gauge; this, however, had no effect since this instrument does not read small vapor pressures. The Knudsen gauge consists of a platinum strip rigidly mounted within the bulb of the gauge and it is heated by means of an electric current. A light vane is freely sus- pended in front of the platinum strip. The bombardment of the molecules thrown off from the hot foil causes the vane to turn. The instrument may be used for pressures where the mean free path of the molecules is greater than the distance between the vane and foil. Since this con- dition obtains only when the vacuum is high, it follows that the Knudsen gauge is therefore adapted for the measurement of exceedingly high vacua only. It has been used in measuring pressures as low as 10-8 mm. of mer- cury. Having calibrated the gauge the mercury sample was in- troduced into the container, B, and purified by repeated distillations in the vacuum. Later on one sample was also treated with nitric acid before being used. The tube was hen heated to a temperature of 250° to 300°C for several hours, while the sample of mercury was protected by warm water in a vacuum flask placed on the container. A Lang- muir pump supported by a Gaede rotary outfit kept the vacuum at the highest point during the period of heating. All vapors were thus driven from the glass and a residual air pressure as low as .00002 mm. was obtained. The tube was then sealed off at E. The whole system was rigidly fastened within a box in order to control the temperature, and the box in turn was placed on a pier to prevent jarring. A fan properly placed kept the temperature uniform. Low temperatures were obtained by cooling the room, while heating coils placed within the box were employed in main- taining higher temperatures. PAPERS ON PHYSICS 293 After allowing the system to reach a constant tempera- ture for a time, the deflection of the gauge was taken and the total pressure read from the calibration curves. The mercury vapor was then driven into the sample container and held there by liquid air, after which the residual gas pressure was measured as above. The difference of the two readings gave the vapor pressure of mercury at that temperature. Four separate sets of readings were taken, using nineteen temperatures ranging between—7° and 34.9°C. All of the values are within about 6% of a mean curve, which is estimated as the accuracy that is attainable by this method. (See Fig. 2.) Pististsbke ta bo hordbeel le) i | | i | | | | SQRSR AR SERBS: PEPEE EEE EEC EEE EEE EEEEEE EET BE SESERSe Pile ori pact = paneer oT ee e PREECE ~ 2 BEER EEE eee o 5" on 30° 3S ee FIG 2. The data obtained agrees fairly well with that of Morley, van der Plaatz, and with the extrapolated values from higher temperatures by Ramsey and Young. The percent variation in the actual readings is much less in the present method. Measurements by Knudsen, in 1909, give results only 1/3 to 1/2 of those of the three methods mentioned above. His method, however, would be expected to give values too low, and it is not probable that either of the above methods would be in error as much as Knudsen’s re- sults indicate. A detailed study of all of the methods seems 294 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE to indicate that the value of the vapor pressure of mer- cury over a range in temperature from 0° to 40°C is near that of the results given by Morley, van der Plaatz, and by the present method, and from the standpoint of ac- curacy of observations, the present values obtained by the present method should be the more accurate. The mean values of mercury vapor pressure as read from the mean curve at 10° intervals are: Oe ee EN ree 00035 mm. il Larabee renee ae rents 000775 7 dalle PR Peete Posse AATEe 00182 OS Se ie hee ae ae 00407 7 SSDs G2 Un BRR pt acne 008 Physics Laboratory, University of Illinois April, 1921. PAPERS ON PHYSICS 295 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF CONCRETE Pror. A. P. CARMAN AND R. A. NELSON UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS The cylinder method was used. A long cylinder had a circular hole along the axis in which there was an electric heating coil. By preliminary tests it was shown that the flow of heat in the middle of the cylinder was radial. The heat generated in the coil in this middle part could be cal- culated directly from the electric current and e. m. f. per unit length of the coil. The temperature gradient was measured by thermocouples which were placed in holes parallel to the axis at different distances from the axis. The thermal conductivity was then calculated from the for- mula SU lece-comerar renee cla? In this formula, Q is the quantity of heat generated in unit length at the middle, t, and t, are temperatures at radial distances r, and r, when a steady flow is reached. Over fifty cylinders of various standard concrete mix- tures have been tested at temperatures ranging from 50°C to 300°C. The cylinders were made of various standard concrete mixtures, the ratios of the mixture to the ag- gregate being 1:2, 1:3, 1:4, 1:5, 1:7, 1;9, and different pro- portions of the mixing water were also used. The thermal conductivity in c. g. s. physical units for “‘neat’” cement was found to be .00147 and that for mixtures of different aggregates was about .00344 to .00384. The thermal con- ductivity of “neat” cement is thus about 1/2 of that for any concrete mixture. The thermal conductivity of con- crete mixtures did not vary much with the richness in ce- ment of the mixtures. The above values are for temperatures ranging from 100°C to 200°C, but the effect of temperatures on thermal conductivity below 300°C was not marked. All the above concretes were thoroughly dried and had an age of from 28 days to 120 days. 296 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE These experiments are to be described in detail in a bul- letin of the Engineering Experiment Station of the Univer- sity of Illinois. Laboratory of Physics University of Illinois March, 1921. PAPERS ON PHYSICS 297 ACOUSTICAL DESIGN IN BUILDINGS F. R. WATSON PROFESSOR OF EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS Acoustical defects in buildings are forced on the at- tention of the public in a considerable number of instances. These defects are sometimes found in auditoriums where speaking or music, or both, are heard at a disadvantage, or again in rooms where sounds from other parts of the building become noticeable in an objectionable way. The usual cause of the defects in an auditorium is found in the hard, non-porous walls of the room which reflect a large percentage of the incident sound with a consequent small absorption of the sound energy. This results in an undue prolongation so that successive sounds, as in speak- ing, are thus thrown in competition with each other and a listener has difficulty in following the sequence of a speech. This prolongation of the sound, or reverberation as it is called, may be corrected or avoided by having a suitable amount of sound absorbing material in the room. For music, the defect is not so objectionable, because musical sounds can overlap and yet be acceptable for most cases. These principles may be illustrated by describing two auditoriums recently built at the University of Illinois which incorporated acoustical features designed by the writer in co-operation with the architects. In both audi- toriums, the acoustical specifications were detailed in the plans before the rooms were constructed. One auditorium is the Concert Hall of the Smith Music Building, for which Professor James M. White was archi- tect with Mr. George E. Wright as associate architect. In this case it was desired to have a room with qualities that would co-ordinate as far as possible in the acceptable pro- duction of music. For this purpose, as shown by the theory of the subject and illustrated in the cases of audi- toriums already built and found suitable for music, the room was designed with a moderate amount of absorbing material so that the reverberation would be somewhat pro- 298 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE longed. The walls were to be quite reflecting, with venti- lators at critical positions to avoid echoes and undue rever- beration. The absorbing material was located largely in the seats which were to have considerable upholstery. The results obtained are in accordance with the predictions. One performer stated: “It is easy to sing in the Hall— the notes flow freely and the voice can be used almost with- out effort.” Instrumental music—that is, chamber music of moderate intensity—is also rendered so as to produce a pleasing effect. A maximum audience reduces the rever- beration somewhat without detriment to the acoustics. The room is not suited for heavy music of great intensity, since this would be rather overpowering. Neither is it well suited for speaking because of the relatively long period of reverberation. The other auditorium to be described is located in the Wesley Foundation Social Building. This room was to be used primarily for speaking; therefore, the acoustical de- sign was quite different from the Concert Room of the Music Building. The period of reverberation should be short in order that a spoken word after making its impres- sion should die out quickly. As in the preceding case, here too, the theory of the subject with illustrative halls gave suitable guidance for the acoustical prescription. It was recommended that the ceiling walls of the room, which formed an inverted V, should be covered with a sound ab- sorber—a pulp board in this case—that could be easily in- stalled and which presented an acceptable appearance. Calculations showed that this material would give a rever- beration acceptable for speaking for a room with the volume of the Wesley Auditorium. The outcome confirms the prediction. Speaking is heard distinctly even when only several people are present. With a maximum audi- ence of about 700 people, the conditions are improved. One rather surprising feature in the acoustics is the satisfac- tory rendering of vocal music. This was not anticipated, but it would seem that a room acceptable for speaking is also suited for vocal music. Instrumental music, such as that of a piano, is heard at a disadvantage. For this, the room is too “dead.” PAPERS ON PHYSICS 299 The two auditoriums described indicate the degree of development of the acoustical design of auditoriums. The theory and practice have been tried in many cases with success. There appears to be some range of latitude in the acceptable time of reverberation and in the intensity of the resulting sound so that the amount of sound absorbing material recommended for a room may be varied within certain limits without prejudicing seriously the successful outcome. In addition to the acoustical design of auditoriums, an- other problem in buildings presents itself — namely, the sound proofing of rooms. Great annoyance and inconveni- ence are suffered because of the unwelcome intrusions in a room of sounds coming from other parts of the building. The noise of a piano in an adjoining apartment, the hum of a motor, the click of typewriters, etc., are familiar in- stances of sounds that annoy people and reduce their ef- ficiency in the performance of work. The sound proofing of rooms to reduce this defect is not a simple matter, nor is it attended with the same cer- tainty of success as in the acoustical design of auditoriums. Sound progresses along unsuspected paths so that prac- tical attempts to stop it, even if based on the suitable theory and in accord with other successful insulations, are not al- ways effective. In this connection, two kinds of sound should be con- sidered. First, those generated by the voice, a violin, etc., which originate in the air and proceed through the air. These are reflected in large proportion when they strike a continuous wall of some rigidity. Another type of sound originates in the vibrations of a piano, cello, motor, etc.— instruments which make an intimate contact with the building structure. These vibrations travel with ease through the continuity of structure and are converted into sound in air, even at distant points in the building, when a wall or some structural member responds in a resonant way to the vibrations. The insulation for this latter type of vibration lies in the interposition of some medium varying in elasticity or density from the medium in which the vi- brations are traveling. Thus, an air space inserted in 300 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE masonry would be quite effective in stopping sound, pro- vided the air space were not bridged over by solid material. But the practical requirement of rigidity does not allow the interposition of an unbridged air space, so that the next best arrangement is used, namely, hairfelt or some other air filled material as part of a floating floor, double wall, etc. The problem is not yet solved in a practical way for all conditions; but progress has been made. For instance, in the Smith Music Building already men- tioned, an effort was made by the Supervising Architect and the writer to sound proof the entire building from at- tic to basement. This problem involved the sound insula- tion of some fifty small practice rooms, twelve studios, and the larger concert hall, besides the acoustic control of sounds of motors, fans and elevators. Double walls, floors, and ceilings were constructed in accordance with the de- scriptions set forth in the previous paragraph. Tight fit- ting doors and windows were specified to prevent leakage of sound and separate ventilation ducts were designed to convey air to and from each room. Without dwelling on all the details it is perhaps suffi- cient to state that some degree of success attended the ef- forts. Students use adjacent rooms for piano practice, singing, violin and other instrumental drill, etc., without serious disturbance to each other. The rooms are not ab- solutely sound proof nor does this appear necessary be- cause the sound that leaks into the room is so diminished in intensity that it is unnoticed when practice is in pro- gress. The ventilators transmit sound between different parts of the building, but the use of separate pipes for each room diminishes the intensity of these transmitted sounds so that they become unimportant compared with sounds generated in the room itself. After several months of use, the building is considered satisfactory for the purpose. Absolute sound proofing can- not be attained without very unusual, and perhaps in- practical, building constructions. It appears from the ex- perience with the Music Building thus far that absolute sound proofing is not essential. There are many things PAPERS ON PHYSICS 301 yet to be learned by further experience, but enough has been revealed to give encouragement to the belief that sound-proofing may be prescribed in the near future with some of the certainty that now attends the acoustic de- sign of auditoriums. Department of Physics University of Illinois February, 1921. 302 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE NOTE ON THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NEW SINGING TUBE! ProF. CHAS. T. KNIPP, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS The temperature difference that is necessary to cause the new singing tube to emit a tone, when the portion B (Fig. 1) is kept at room temperature while the tip A is heated, was observed to be about 400° Centigrade. If, however, B is cooled to the temperature of liquid air the temperature difference necessary is greatly reduced, being about 200° Centigrade. The pitch is also considerably lowered. A | B Cara NS | FIGURE 1. It was deemed desirable to make quantitative measure- ments of these temperature differences and also of the cor- responding pitch of the tone emitted. To this end B was held successively at different temperatures, ranging from that of liquid air to values considerably above room tempe- rature, while A was heated electrically in each case to a temperature where a tone was emitted continuously. The two portions A and B were each housed within a separate copper tube of about 1 cm. wall thickness and heavily in- sulated with asbestos. The temperatures were accurately measured by means of thermo-junctions—three being at- ‘tached to A and three to B. The temperature control of each section was good and could be held fairly constant at will. TABLE I. Obser- A B Totaltemp. Temp. of Vibra- nation Average Average difference B in tions No. Temp. in Temp. in in degrees absolute per degrees C degrees C Cc measure second 1 1 —181 182 92 213 2 204 — 88 292 185 300 3 355 — 16 371 257 378 4 448 +26 422 299 425 5 524 anand 464 330 450 The results from the only run thus far made are con- tained in Table 1. In observation No. 1 the part B was placed within a glass jacket heavily wrapped with asbes- 1. Phys. Rev., N. S., Vol. XV; p. 336. PAPERS ON PHYSICS 303 tos and cooled directly to -180°C by means of liquid air. The temperature of A was allowed to fall until the tone emitted was just maintained. This by repeated trials was found to be at 1°C. Thus the temperature difference when B was cooled to -181°C, for this particular tube, was found to be 182°C. In observations 2 and 3 the part B was placed in a special copper tube designed by the author! some years back for the determination of intermediate temperatures. Observation 4 was for B at room temperature (note that it was now necessary to heat A to 448°C), while in No. 5 the part B was warmed up to 57°C, and the tip heated elec- trically to 527°C before the tube responded. The absolute temperatures of the part B are given in the second last column, while the corresponding vibrations per second are listed in the last column. These data are represented graphically in Fig. 2, in which the total tem- perature differences as ordinates are plotted against abso- lute temperatures. The relation is strictly linear except possibly for the last reading at 330° absolute temperature. By extending the straight line to the left we are able to determine the temperature difference that should maintain er Seconda p Temporature Difference in Degrees Cc Vibrations 0 40 80 120 160 200 249 280 Sw teF Degrees Absolute Scale FIGURE 2. the tone when B is cooled to absolute zero. For this par- ticular tube the graph shows this temperature difference to be about 80°C. 1. Phys. Rev., Vol. XV, p. 125. 304 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE The same figure also shows the corresponding vibration frequencies (indicated by crosses) plotted to the same scale against absolute temperatures. This relation aiso seems to be linear except for the point taken at 91° absolute. The pitch was determined by means of a tone variator. Lastly the vibration frequencies and temperature ait- ferences in degrees centigrade, as shown by the graphs, are nearly equal numerically. This, however, should be con- sidered as a coincidence. Observations with tubes of different pitches and extend- ing over wider temperature ranges are under way. Department of Physics University of Illinois February, 1921. PAPERS ON PHYSICS 305 A WEHNELT CATHODE FOR THE EMISSION OF A SMALL, COMPACT AND PERMANENT BEAM OF ELECTRONS PROF. C. J. LAPP, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS A hot line Wehnelt cathode has been constructed by means of which a very small and compact permanent beam of electrons may be secured through the application of barium resinate and strontium hydroxide to a platinum strip. Heretofore when an experiment was performed re- quiring a small beam, two methods were available, one in which a tiny speck of either calcium chloride or Bank of England sealing wax was used and the other in which a small beam is obtained from a larger one by means of a plat- inum diaphragm. The disadvantage of the former is that the beam is not permanent, lasting at times but a few min- utes; while the latter can not be used to advantage in strong magnetic fields since the beam is deflected to one side and fails to pass through the opening in the diaphragm. A strip of platinum 0.5 mm. wide was cleaned with nitric acid and ammonium hydroxide. A tiny drop of strontium hydroxide was placed on the strip, after which it was dried by gently heating the strip by means of an electric current. After two applications the platinum strip was heated red in order to harden the deposit. A small and almost micro- scopic piece of barium resinate was then placed centrally on the spot and the whole carefully heated so as to evapo- rate the resin and have barium oxide. After two or three coats of barium oxide the strip was glowed to cherry red for several minutes in order to drive off all organic material. A coating of approximately 0.1 mm. in diameter was thus obtained which gave an intense and compact permanent beam of electrons without the use of a diaphragm. A beam of this nature has been long sought after in this laboratory and is now available for a number of uses. Laboratory of Physics University of Illinois April, 1921. 306 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE PRELIMINARY NOTE ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTIVE PROPERTIES OF A CATHODE RAY SOLENOID PRor. CHAS. T. KNIPP AND C. S. PALMER UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS That a cathode ray solenoid should possess electromag- netic inductive properties of a magnitude that can be meas- ured (or rather detected) by a suitably high sensitivity galvanometer has been more or less apparent to one of the writers for a number of years. It was suggested by Row- land’s classical experiments on the equivalence of a moving charge to a current of electricity. However, it was not until recently that it was decided to put the experiment to a test. That the electron composing the cathode ray beam — is deflected by either an electrostatic or a magnetic field is well known, and, in itself, is evidence enough of its equiv- alence. If now the cathode ray beam be used to induce a current in a neighboring wire through its purely electro- magnetic action, then such an induced current should be re- garded as additional evidence of the equivalence of a moving charge to a current of electricity. The arrangement of the apparatus, Fig. 1, proposed to test this point, is to form within a suitably designed cathode ray discharge tube, by means of a powerful external mag- netic field (in which H is of the order 50 gausses), a cathode ray solenoid having the approximate dimensions: length, Cofhode Ray Beom, Solenoid OO {thle Electromagnetic Inductive Cathode Ray Solerad FIGURE 1. 40 cm.; diameter, 2 cm.; and pitch, 1 cm. This solenoidal beam is made to pass through a glass tube, which is an PAPERS ON PHYSICS 307 extension of the discharge tube, and which carries over a considerable portion of its length a secondary of many turns of copper wire. The cathode ray solenoid, i. e., the spiral cathode ray beam within, is thus made the primary of a vacuum cored transformer, the secondary of which is connected to a low resistance high sensitivity galvanometer. The charge caused to circulate through the galvanometer on interrupting the cathode ray beam, or on allowing it to pass, is, to a first approximation, i a n, n, AI sie, Q=K.d=4T7 BUS . () where n, is the number of turns per centimeter length of the primary, n, the total turns in the secondary, A the mean area of the primary, I the current in amperes flowing through the cathode ray solenoid, and R the total resistance in the secondary. Since the secondary has a comparatively low resistance the damping of the galvanometer will be considerable, and hence its ballistic constant, K, becomes a function of the resistance R. Under these conditions the galvanometer may be calibrated readily and thus the order of the deflection that should result on making or on inter- rupting the beam, for a given current I, becomes known. As in experiments of this kind, it is wise to test the set- up before going farther and get some idea of the magnitude of the quantity of electricity induced in the secondary by known values of I made or broken in the primary, i. e., to see whether the effect sought will produce measurable de- flections of the galvanometer. To make this preliminary test we placed down through the central tube, where the cathode ray spiral was supposed to go, a copper wire spiral having the same pitch (turns per centimeter) and diameter as the proposed solenoidal cathode ray spiral. Then, on making or breaking the current through this, we read the corresponding induced current in the secondary,—this being proportional to the deflection of the galvanometer. Thus deflections of the galvanometer were obtained for a number of different values of I in the primary. The values are con- tained in Table I, 308 ‘ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE TABLE I I amperes Galvanometer Galv. deflec. in mm. in primary deflections calculated by means in mm, of equation (1) rd 27.5 ra | -05 13.5 14.85 035 10.0 10.39 .015 3.8 4.45 005 1.0 1.48 We see from this table that in order to get a galvano- meter deflection of about 27mm. the equivalent current flowing through our cathode ray solenoidal beam must have the value of .1 ampere, while .005 ampere will give a de- flection of only 1 mm. Intermediate values of I give intermediate deflections. Obviously, the current must ex- ceed .005 ampere in order to be detected, and to be measured with fair accuracy the current flowing through the beam should be of the order of .05 ampere. Two methods are available for the interruption of the cathode ray beam. The simplest, from a manipulative standpoint, is to break, at some external point, the high potential direct current supplied to the hot lime cathode. However, the most effective and theoretically correct method is to interrupt the beam by a shutter just before it enters the tube on which the secondary is wound. This shutter is operated from the outside through a ground joint. The general arrangement of the various connections is shown in: Pic, 1. In this preliminary report we may say that the order of magnitude of the cathode ray current that we were able to get in the few trial runs thus far made was about .005 am- pere,—thus the effect was just detectable. We expect to increase the current flowing through the electron solenoid at least ten times, by using a larger source of electrons and also by introducing hydrogen into the tube. When this is done no difficulty will be experienced in measuring quan- titatively the effect sought. Department of Physics University of Illinois April 27, 1921: PAPERS ON PHYSICS 309 EFFICIENCY TESTS OF THE NEW CENCO-HYVAC OIL VACUUM PUMPS PROF. CHAS. T. KNIPP AND C. S. PALMER UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS The Department of Physics at the University of Illinois has been interested in high vacuum work for a number of years. The new types of mercury vapor condensation pumps that are now generally used in the production of exceedingly high vacua require supporting pumps that will draw a fairly high vacuum of, say, .01 to .001 mm. of mer- cury, and maintain it after weeks and months of continued use. Such pumps, if moderately priced, are much in demand at the present time. Last December, at our request, the Central Scientific Company of Chicago sent one of their new design Cenco- Capillary HIG. 1. Hyvac oil pumps to our laboratory. We wished to test it for speed and endurance. It was inconvenient at the time 310 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE to make the speed tests since a pump was sorely needed as a fore pump in the junior electrical measurements work, and later also in research. The pump was put to work at once and has been in almost continuous use three days per week ever since. Just recently (in April) it was arranged to try it out quantitatively. To this end the pump was_ connected directly through a short large diameter tube to a 12 liter flask which had attached to it a 500 cc. McLeod gauge for measuring the pressure, making with the connecting tubes 13 liters as the total volume to be exhausted. The connec- tions and dimensions of the various parts are shown in Fig. 1. Ina test like this it is necessary that all connecting joints be absolutely tight. The only two in this set-up, the one connecting to the pump, and the other to the McLeod gauge, were protected by heavy oil seals. The test consisted in noting the time and reading the corresponding pressure. TABLE I. Cenco-Hyvac Oil Pump No, A112 13 liter volume 1.3 liter volume RPM Equals 225 RPM Equals 225 Time in Pressure in Time in Pressure in minutes mm. mercury minutes mm. mercury SOM Sine coe .00786 1 ARs HEM PaaS cit HE .01152 Pe eee oa eteaie sielore 00340 Oeecier echoes 00234 71) eee oe earn e .00200 RRA ee ee Herbs ries oF 3 00133 ASE Ae Me tigi ctat tc .00158 NOE vcrtecie oes 00105 ns setieetotiis -00139 1A ROR oe atte 00103 A eeatee tere tats tate .00131 LC exaast santas cee 00092 GO eae tate .00119 A hie ee ERE Meta a as 00090 GSmaeicocites einen .00117 ORs ets ens are ee .00115 BORE. aves ematectess .00109 (0) (ea Dea T BNE St .09100 LOGE Sek wee acs erates .00098 1 aeciooce .00094. IDA Bonk path aA asi .00092 SOR ee toro soaks eisiste .000911 TAQ ea eric eeishereie 00090 PAPERS ON PHYSICS 311 TABLE II. Cenco-Hyvac Oil Pump No. A186 13 liter volume 6 liter volume 1.3 liter volume RPM Equals 224 RPM Equals 214 RPM Equals 230 Pressure Pressure Pressure Time in inmm. Time in in mm. Time in in mm. Minutes Mercury Minutes Mercury Minutes Mercury sd eee SD1260 0 T1665 ee es POSS Aside cen eee PS elo iia JO04808 AT25 - sc .00210 Gece aysoCas oe 00279 even eS SL FR | ae eae ee POUT Te Onset Sec ee 00165 Ate suse EQNS AG 22 Sire taeut S00093)). (OUR ar cess 00124 1 PAR ae AIO 2 ee as Nae eine LOOT Ge ASS see sae 00095 ent re SQHOGU 21 c Os voce ont MWOUTS Arn score wok 00079 PS hs cn OOS TE Oe. cn eben {00070 22S See Aes 00062 Bae. eo hci | UPS AS eee = SOO0G Die eee oe 00051 “Spgs Sena MOOSE? P4024. «oe as .00065 1 Ee eee 5000558, 245.54 S342 Saks .00062 lee etek osiasie SOUOS E.On care creat .000: Gs .00053 dae Ror .00051 SS ae ee -00050 Readings were taken at five or ten minute intervals over a period of several hours. The revolutions per minute of the pump were also noted from time to time. epee tt 0130 pees eet ee a a yp ee Pee bok heey pee 0100 iaweag Speed Te sts, Ce ned-Hyvae Oi x ' | £1 .c0q0 Legerna | = o Pump No. F 186 . = 0080 " No. 4 8} ee Ee -0070 3 ee : 0060 6 I ” “ oo { “ . eee ey bl TE Pee E 050 edhe tt a ae “= 0049 -. - See eee ee eee be hf 3 BRASS SS. ce CS aoe Ge Ae REL Tas an had ce o M20" ee. an So ER We CE TY | ee) 2 Fr, Time in minutes FIG. 2. After completing the run with the 13 liter volume it was replaced by a glass tube of about 3.5 cm. diameter, making the total volume now to be exhausted but 1.3 liters,— 312, ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE exactly one-tenth the former volume. Readings at 5-minute intervals were again taken. The data relative to this pump with these two volumes are contained in Table I. Just recently (April 11) the department purchased a second Cenco-Hyvac oil pump. This was at once connected up as shown in Fig. 1, first with the 13 liter volume, then with a 6 liter volume, and finally with the 1.3 liter volume. The running conditions, etc., were exactly the same as in the first pump. The data relative to these three volumes are contained in Table II. The data in Tables I and II are plotted in Fig. 2, in which the crosses represent pump No. A112, received in December, 1920, and the dots pump No. A186, purchased recently. A careful study of the tables and curves makes further com- Lad v The Effect of Velume in Liters : Volume on Time i to reach 0.0005imm., limit : of Pump No.a186. & 7 6 s 4 3 2 1 Pine irk pee nS NE WIG. 3: ment seem scarcely necessary; suffice it to say that the limit of pump A112 appears to be at about .00085 mm. mercury, while that of pump A186 is about .0050 mm. mer- cury. Tags attached to the pumps indicated .001 mm. mer- cury for A112, and .00055 mm. for A186. Thus the data obtained in our laboratory place the respective limits at PAPERS ON PHYSICS 313 pressures that are lower than those claimed by the company. Furthermore, it appears that pump A112 has improved with use. The relative speed of exhaustion of the two pumps is also shown by the curves. In general the speed is a complex function of the volume exhausted, the time, and the pressure at the beginning and at the end, and need not be considered here. It should be noted, however, that it required about 27 minutes to reach the limit (.00051 mm. of mercury) in exhausting the 1.3 liter volume, while approximately 85 minutes were required to reach the same limit in the case of the 6 liter volume, and 120 minutes to reach the above limit when the 13 liter volume was exhausted. This rela- tion is best shown by the curve in Fig. 3, where volume in liters is plotted against time in minutes required to reach the limit .00051 mm. This curve is for pump No. A186. The foregoing data show that this type of oil vacuum pump is quite rapid, and reaches a surprisingly high vacuum. It is therefore well suited to be used as a fore pump to any large throated rapid acting mercury vapor pump, since there is ample overlapping—a necessary condition in any system of exhaustion where fore or supporting pumps are used. Laboratory of Physics University of Illinois April, 1921. Constitution and By-Laws CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS 315 CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS* Illinois State Academy of Science CONSTITUTION Article I. NAME. This Society shall be known as THe ILiinois STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. ArTIcLE II. Ossects. The objects of the Academy shall be the promotion of scientific research, the diffusion of scientific knowledge and scientific spirit, and the unification of the scientific interests of the State. ArtTIcLe III. MeEemBeErs, The membership of the Academy shall consist of two classes as follows: National Members and Local Members. National Members shall be those who are also members of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Each national member, except life members of the Academy, shall pay an admission fee of one dollar and an annual assessment of five dollars. Local Members shall be those who are members of the local Academy only. Each local member, except life members of the Academy, shall pay an admission fee of one dollar and an annual assessment of one dollar. Both national members and local members may be either Life Members, Active Members, or Non-resident Members. Life Members shall be national or local members who have paid fees to the Academy to the amount of twenty dollars. Life members, if national mem- bers, shall pay an annual assessment of four dollars. Active Members shall be national or local members who reside in the State of Illinois, and who have not paid as much as $20.00 in fees to the Academy. Non-resident Members shall be active members or life members who have removed from the State of Illinois. Their duties and privileges shall be the same as active members except ihat they may not hold office. Charter Members are those who attended the organization meeting in 1908, signed the constitution, and paid dues for that year. For election to any class of membership, the candidate’s name must be proposed by two members, be approved by a majority of the committee on membership, and receive the assent of three-fourths of the members voting. ArTICLE IV. OFFICERS. The officers of the Academy shall consist of a President, a Vice-President, a Librarian, a Secretary, and a Treasurer. The chief of the Division of State Museum of the Department of Registration and Education of the state government shall be the Librarian of the Academy. All other officers shall be chosen by ballot on recommendation of a nominating committee, at an annual meeting, and shall hold office for one year or until their successors qualify. They shall perform the duties usually pertaining to their respective offices. *As Revised February, 1920. 316 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE It shall be one of the duties of the President to prepare an address which shall be delivered before the Academy at the annual meeting at which his term of office expires. The Librarian shall have charge of all the books, collections, and material property belonging to the Academy. ArticLte V. CounciL. The Council shall consist of the President, Vice-President, Librarian, Secretary, Treasurer, and the President of the preceding year. To the Council shall be entrusted the management of the affairs of the Academy during the intervals between regular meetings: ArTIcLE VI. STANDING COMMITTEES. The Standing Committees of the Academy shall be a Committee on Publi- cation and a Committee on Membership and such other committees as the Academy shall from time to time deem desirable. The Committee on Publication shall consist of the President, the Secretary, and a third member chosen annually by the Academy. The Committee on Membership shall consist of five members chosen an- nually by the Academy. ArticLe VII. MeEetincs. The regular meetings of the Academy shall be held at such time and place as the Council may designate- Special meetings may be called by the Council and shall be called upon written request of twenty members. ArticLte VIII. Pusiication. The regular publications of the Academy shall include the transactions of the Academy and such papers as are deemed suitable by the Committee on Publication, All members shall receive gratis the current issues of the Academy. ArTICLE IX. AFFILIATION. The Academy may enter into such relations of affiliation with other organ- izations of appropriate character as may be recommended by the Council and ordered by a three-fourths vote of the members present at any regular meeting. ARTICLE X. AMENDMENTS. This constitution may be amended by a three-fourths vote of the member- ship present at an annual meeting, provided that notice of the desired change has been sent by the Secretary to all members at least twenty days before such meeting: BY-LAWS I. The following shall be the regular order of business: Call to order. Reports of officers. Reports of standing committees. Election of members. Reports of special committees, Appointment of special committees. Unfinished business. New business. Election of officers. Program. Adjournment. II. No meeting of the Academy shall be held without thirty days’ previous notice being sent by the Secretary to all members. SOON AM Rwy _ CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS 317 III. Fifteen members shall constitute a quorum of the Academy. A majority of the Council shall constitute a quorum of the Council. IV. No bill against the Academy shall be paid without an order signed by the President and Secretary. VY. Members who shall allow their dues to remain unpaid for three years, having been annually notified of their arrearage by the Treasurer, shall have their names stricken from the roll. VI. The Librarian shall have charge of the distribution, sale. and ex- change of the published transactions of the Academy, under such restrictions as may be imposed by the Council. VII. The presiding officer shall at each annual meeting appoint a com- mittee of three who shall examine and report in writing upon the account of the Treasurer. VIII. No paper shall be entitled to a place on the program unless the manuscript or an abstract of the same shall have been previously delivered to the Secretary. No paper shall be presented at any meeting, by any person other than the author, except on vote of the members present at such meeting. IX. The Secretary and Treasurer shall have their expenses paid from the Treasury of the Academy while attending council meetings and annual meet- ings. Other members of the council may have their expenses paid while attend- ing meetings of the council, other than those in connection with annual meetings. X. These by-laws may be suspended by a three-fourths vote of the mem- bers present at any regular meeting. List of Members LIST OF MEMBERS 319 List of Members Note—The names of charter members are starred; names in black faced type indicate membership in the American Association for the Advancement of Science. LIFE MEMBERS. *Andrews, C. W., LL. D., The John Crerar Library, Chicago (Sci. Bibl.). *Bain, Walter G., M. D., St. John’s Hospital, Springfield (Bacteriology). Barber, F. D., M. S., Illinois State Normal University, Normal (Physics). Barnes, R. M., LL. B., Lacon (Zoology). Barnes, William, M. D., Decatur (Lepidoptera). *Bartow, Edward, Ph. D., University of Iowa, Iowa City. Chamberlain, C. J., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Botany). Chamberlin, T. C., LL. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Geology). Cowles, H. C., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Botany). *Crew, Henry, Ph. D., Northwestern University, Evanston (Physics). *Crook, A. R., Ph. D., Chief State Museum, Springfield (Geology). Deal, Don W., M. D., Leland Office Building. Springfield (Medicine). Farrington, O. C., Ph. D., Field Museum, Chicago (Minerology). Ferriss, J. H., Joliet (Conchology). Fischer, C. E. M., M. D., Marshall Field Annex Bldg., Chicago (Biology). *Forbes, S. A., LL. D., State Entomologist, Urbana (Zoology). Fuller, Geo. D., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Botany).- *Gates, Frank C., Ph. D., State Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kansas (Botany). Hagler, E. E., M. D., Capitol and Fourth Sts., Springfield (Oculist). Hankinson, Thos. L., A. M., N. Y. Coll. Forestry, Syracuse (Zoology). *Hessler, J. C., Ph. D., James Milliken University, Decatur (Chemistry). Hoskins, William, 111 W. Monroe St., Chicago (Chemistry). Hunt, Robert I., Decatur (Soils). Jordan, Edwin O., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Bacteriology). Kunz, Jacob, Ph. D., 1205 S. Orchard St., Urbana (Physics). Latham, Vida A., M. D., D. D. S., 1644 Morse Ave., Chicago (Microscopy). Lillie, F. R., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Zoology). Marshall, Ruth, Ph. D., Rockferd College, Rockford (Zoology). Miller, G. A., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana (Mathematics). Moffatt, Mrs. Elizabeth M., Wheaton. Moffatt, Will S., M. D., 105 S. LaSalle St., Chicago (Botany). Mohr, Louis, 349 W. Illinois St., Chicago. *Noyes, William A., Ph. D., LL. D., University of Illinois, Urbana (Chemistry). *Oglevee, C. S., SC. D., Lincoln College, Lincoln (Biology). Payne, Edward W., First State Trust & Savings Bank, Springfield (Arch- eology). *Pepoon, H. S., M. D., Lake View High School, Chicago (Zoology and Botany). Rentchler, Edna K., B. A., Peabody Normal College, Nashville, Tenn. (Biology). *Smith, Frank, M. A., University of Illinois, Urbana (Zoology). *Smith, Isabel Seymour, M. S., Illinois College, Jacksonville (Botany). Smith, L. H., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana (Plant Breeding). Stevenson, A. L., Principal Lincoln School, 1308 Morse Ave., Chicago. Stillhamer, A. B., Bloomington (Physics). Sykes, Mabel. B. S., South Chicago High School, Chicago (Geology). Trelease, William, LL. D.. University of Illinois, Urbana (Botany). Ward, Henry B., Ph. D., University of Hlinois, Urbana (Zoology). Washburn, E. W., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana (Chemistry). Weller, Annie L., Eastern Illinois State Normal School, Charleston. *Weller, Stuart, Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Paleontology). Zeleny, Charles, Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana (Experimental Zoology). ANNUAL MEMBERS. Abbott, Howard C., University of Illinois, Urbana. Abrams, Duff A., C. E., Lewis Institute, Chicago (Structural Materials). Acker, Frank J., 357 W. Erie St., Chicago (Chemistry). Adams, E. W., Missouri Military Academy, Mexico, Missouri. Adams, Wm. J., M. A., 238 Holton St., Galesburg, Illinois (Biology). Adelsperger, Roland, B. S., 5751 N. Clark St., Chicago. Adler, Herman M., M. D., 119 E. Huron St., Chicago (Medicine). Alexander, Alida, M. A., 831 W. College Ave., Jacksonville (Biology). Alexander, C. P., Ph. D., 419 W. Main St., Urbana (Entomology). Allee, W. C., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Zoology). Alton High School Science Club, Alton. Ames, E. S., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Psychology). Anderson, S. L., M. D., DeKalb (Medicine). Andras, J. C., B. A., Manchester (Astronomy and Botany). Andros, S. O., M. E., Galesburg (Geology). 320 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Armstrong, Miss Christie, A. B., Princeville (Geography). Ashman, George C., Ph. D., Bradley Institute, Peoria (Chemistry). *Atwell, Chas. B., Ph. M., Northwestern University, Evanston (Botany). Augen, Allison W., M. A., 11359 S. Irving Ave., Chicago (Physics). Baber, Zonia, B. S., 5623 Dorchester Ave., Chicago (Geography and Geology). Bacon, Chas. Sumner, Ph. D., M. D., 2156 Sedgwick St., Chicago. Bailey, Wm. M., M. S., 701 S. Poplar, Carbondale (Botany). Baker, Frank C., University of Illinois, Urbana (Zoology). Baker, W. J., (Chemistry). Ball, John R., M. A., 820 Hamlin St., Evanston (Geology). Bangs, Edward H., 212 W. Washington St., Chicago (Agriculture and Electricity). Barnes, Cecil, LL. B., M. A., 1522 1st National Bank Bldg., Chicago (Physical Geography). ‘Barwell, John Wm., Waukegan (Anthropology). Baumeister, George F., B. S. (Soils). Bayley, W. S., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana (Geology). Beal, James Hartley, Sc. D., 801 W. Nevada St., Urbana (Medicine). Behre, Chas. H. Jr., 74 Hitchcock Hall, University of Chicago, Chicago. Bell, W. H., M. D., 957 N. Water St., Decatur (Medicine). Bensley, Robert R., M. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Anatomy). Bentley, Madison, Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana (Psychology). Berg, E. J., Union College, Schenectady, New York. *Betten, Cornelius, Ph. D., Cornell University, 215 Kelvin Place, Ithaca, N. Y. (Biology). Bjorkland, Alfred, M. S., 723 Irving Park Blvd., Chicago (Physics). Black, Arthur D., M. A., M. D., D. D. S., Northwestern University, Evanston (Dentistry). Blake, Anna M., B. S., 203 N. School St., Normal (Botany and Physiology). Blake, Mrs. Tiffany, 25 East Walton Place, Chicago. Block, D. Julian, 1423 Rosemont Ave., Chicago (Chemistry). Blount, Ralph E., 124 S. Oak Park Ave., Oak Park (Geography). Bonnell, Clarence, Harrisburg (Biology). Boomer, S. E., M. A., 207 Harwood, Carbondale (Physics). Boot, G. W., M. D., 800 Davis St., Evanston (Medicine and Geology). Braun, E. J., B. E., Normal (Biology). Breed, Frederick S., Ph. D., 5476 University Ave., Chicago (Education). Brennan, George A., 24 W. 110 Place, Chicago. Bretz, J. Harlan, Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Geology). Brink, Chester A., M. D., Apple River (Medicine). Brogue, Arthur, Berwyn, Illinois. Brown, Agnes, 1205 W. State St., Rockford. Brown, George A., 304 E. Walnut St., Bloomington (Education). Brown, Walter J., M. D., 33 N. Vermillion St., Danville (Medicine). Brown, Wm. S., M. D., The Spurling, Elgin (Medicine). Browne, George M., 902 S. Normal St., Carbondale (Chemistry). Buckingham, B. R., Ph. D., University- of Illinois, Urbana (Education). Burge, Wm. E., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana (Physiology). Burmeister, Wm. H., M. D., 1511 Congress St., Chicago (Medicine). Buswell, A. M., University of Illinois, Urbana (State Water Survey). Butcher, B. H., B. A. (Education). Buxton, T. C., M. D., 617 Wait Bldg., Decatur (Medicine). Caldwell, C. B., M. D., Lincoln State School & Colony, Lincoln (Medicine). Caldwell, Miss Delia, M. D., 501 W. Main St., Carbondale (Medicine). Caldwell, O. W., Ph. D., The Lincoln School Teachers College, Park Ave., New York, N. Y. (Botany). Calumet High School Biology Club, Chicago (Biology). Cann, Jessie Y., M. D. (Chemistry). Carey, J. P., B. S. (Geography and Geology). Carlson, A. J., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Physiology). Carmen, Albert P., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana (Physics). *Carpenter, Chas. K., D. D., 1724 Sunnyside Ave., Chicago. Cederburg, Wm. E., Ph. D., Augustana College, Rock Island (Mathemathics). Challis, Frank E., 121 N. Wabash Ave., Chicago (Analin Dyes). Chamberlain, Rollin T., Ph. D., Hyde Park Hotel, Chicago (Geology). Chandler, S. C., B. S., 402 W. Walnut St., Carbondale (Entomology). *Child, C. M., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Zoology). Clark, Albert Henry, B. S., 701 W. Wood St., Chicago (Chemistry). Clark, H. Walton, M. A., U. S. Biological Station, Fairport, Iowa (Biology, Zoology, Botany). *Clawson, A. B., B. A., Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. (Biology). Cletcher, J. O., M. D., Cisco (Medicine). Clute, W. N., Joliet (Botany). Coffin, Fletcher B., Ph. D., Lake Forest (Physical Chemistry). Colby, Arthur S., Ph. D., 413 University Hall, Urbana (Medicine). Colby, Chas. C., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Geography). Colyer, F. H., M. S., Carbondale State Normal (Geography). LIST OF MEMBERS 321 Compton, James S., Eureka College, Eureka. Cone, Albert Benjamin, 5245 Magnolia Ave., Chicago (Forestry). Cook, Mrs. Jane Perry, B. S., 5456 Kimbark Ave., Chicago (Geography). Cook, Nettie M., Spokane, Washington. *Coulter, John G., Ph. D. (Botany). *Coulter, John M., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Botany). Coulter, Merle C., University of Chicago, Chicago (Botany). Covington, E. Gray, M. D., 410 E. Market St., Bloomington (Medicine). *Crandall, Chas. S., University of Illinois, Urbana (Botany). Crathorne, A. R., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana (Mathemathics). Cribb, Aubrey, 216 W. Vine St., Springfield. Crocker, William, Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Botany). Crosier, W. M., M. D., Alexis (Medicine). Crowe, A. B., M. A., Charleston, State Normal (Physics). Cullison, Oliver, Chicago. Culver, Harold E., Ph. M., State Geological Survey, Urbana (Geology). Daniels, F. B., Pullman Bldg., Chicago. Danville Science Club, Danville. Darling, Elton R., Ph. D., 1345 W. Forest Ave., Decatur. Dart, Carlton R., C. E., 706 Greenleaf Ave., Wilmette. Davenport, Eugene, LL. D., University of Illinois, Urbana (Agriculture). Davies, D. C., Field Museum, Chicago. Davis, Alfred, M. A., Solden High School, St. Louis, Mo. (Mathemathics). *Davis, J. J., B. S., Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana (Entomology). Davis, Mrs. Robert L., B. A., Dept. Agriculture, Washington, D. C. (Biology). Davis, Roy E., B. A., Aurora (Physiology). Deam, Chas. C., M. A., Bluffton, Indiana (Forestry and Flora). Dean, Ella R., B. Ed., 2 E. Walnut St., Harrisburg (Chemistry). DeLee, Jos. B., M. D., M. A., 5028 Ellis Ave., Chicago. Demster, A. J., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Physics). DeTurk, Ernest E., Ph. D., 707 W. Green St., Urbana (Agriculture). DeWolf, F. W., B. S., Urbana (Geology). Dilts, Charles D., A. B., Terrace Park, Evansville, Indiana (Chemistry). Doll, Theodore, M. A., 913 Hamlin St., Evanston (Mathematics). Downing, Elliott R., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Zoology). DuBois, Henry M., M. A., LeGrand, Oregon (Geology). Dufford, R. T., 1117 Ayars Place, Evanston (Physics). Dunn, Charles F., 1912 So. 9th Ave., Maywood. Dye, Marie, M. S., 6021 Woodlawn Ave., Chicago (Chemistry). Earle, C. A., M. D., DesPlaines (Botany). 2s rain W., M. D., F. A. S. C., 326 W. Jackson St., Springfield (Medi- cine). Edgar, Thomas O., M. D., Dixon (Medicine). Ehrman, E. H., M. E., 410 N. Kenilworth Ave., Oak Park. Eifrig, C. W. G., 504 Monroe Ave., Oak Park (Ornithology, Botany, Zoology). Ekblaw, W. E., Ph. D., University of Ilinois, Urbana (Geology). Eldredge, Anthony G., University of Illinois, Urbana (Photography). -Elliott, A. T., B. S., P. O. Box 1221, East Chicago, Indiana (Science). Elliott, Jesse E., Hoopeston, Illinois. Englis, Duane T., Ph. D., 358 Chemistry Bldg., Urbana (Chemistry). Eureka Science Club, Eureka Township High School, Eureka. *Ewing, Dr. H. E., Smithsonian Institute, Washington, D. C. (Biology). Eyman, R. L., B. S., 302 N. Main St., Normal (Agriculture). Farwell, Mrs. Francis C., 1520 Astor Street, Chicago. Faust, Ernest Carroll, Ph. D., 333 Nat. Hist. Bldg., Urbana (Zoology). Featherly, H. I., Waterloo, Illinois (Biology and Agriculture). Feuer, Bertram, B. S., M. S., 2634 Argyle St., Chicago (Chemistry, Bacteriology). Finley, C. W., M. A., The Lincoln School Teachers College, Columbia Uni- versity, N. Y. (Zoology). Finley. J. Orton, Oneida (Agriculture). Fischer, C. E. M., M. D., Marshall Field Annex Bldg., Chicago (Medicine). *Fisher, Fannie, Ass’t Curator, State Museum, Springfield (General Interest). Fiint, W. P., Ass’*t State Entomologist, 1006 S. Orchard St., Urbana (Entomology). Foberg, J. Albert, B. S., 4031 N. Avers Ave., Chicago (Mathematics). Folsom, Justus W., Sc. D., University of Illinois, Urbana (Entomology). Franing, E. C., M. D., 404 Bank of Galesburg Bldg., Galesburg (Medicine). Frank, O. D., 1464 Vermont St., Quincy (Biology). French, G. H., M. A., Carbondale, Illinois (Botany and Entomology). Frison, Theodore H., 503 W. Springfield Ave., Champaign (Entomology, General Biology). Furlong, Thos. H., M. A., 6459 University Ave., Chicago. Gaines, W. L., Ph. D., Urbana (Milk Production). Gantz, R. A., 411 N. Talley St., Muncie, Indiana (Botany). Gault, B. T., 2313 Washington Blvd., Chicago (Ornithology). Georgetown Science Club, Georgetown High School, Georgetown. Gerard, R. W., B. S., University of Chicago, Chicago (Physiology). 322 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Gerhard, Wm. J., Field Museum, Chicago. Gerould, T. F., M. D., Centralia (Medicine). Geussenhainer, Lilah, (Household Science). Gilman, Albert Franklin, Ph. D., Carrol College, Waukesha, Wis. (Chemistry). Glasgow, R. D., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana (Entomology). Glattfeld, J. W. E., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Chemistry). Glenn, P. A., M. A., 506144 W. High St., Urbana. Glick, P. A., Urbana. Goode, J. Paul, Ph. D., 6227 Kimbark Ave., Chicago (Geography). Goodell, William L., M. D., Effingham (Medicine, Surgery). Gore, G. W., M. D., 231 N. McLeamsboro St., Benton (Medicine). Gorrell, T. J. H., M. D., Chicago Heights (Medicine). Gradle, Harry S., M. D., 22 E. Washington St., Chicago (Opthalmology). *Grant, U. S., Ph. D., Northwestern University, Evanston (Geology). Grear, D. Watson, M. D., Anna (Medicine). Greene, Bessie, M. A., University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo. (Zoology). Greenman, J. M., Ph. D., Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, Mo. (Botany). Griffith, C. R., Ph. D., 209 University Hall, Urbana (Psychology). Griffith, H. E., M. A., Knox College, Galesburg (Chemistry). Gronemann, Carl F., 310 N. Liberty St., Elgin (Artist, Naturalist). Groves, J. F., Ph. D., University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming (Botany). Guberlet, John E., Ph. D., Okla. A. & M. College, Stillwater, Okla. (Zoology). Gunton, John A., University of Illinois, Urbana (Chemistry). Gurley, William F. E., 6151 Lexington Ave., Chicago (Paleontology). Haas, William H., M. A., Northwestern University, Evanston (Geography). Hadley, Geraldine, B. A., Bradley Polytechnic Institute, Peoria (Dom. Science). Hale, John A., M. D., Bush (Medicine). Hall, Earl H., 1421 S. Tenth St., Charleston. Hance, James H., Ph. D., Urbana (Geology). Hansen, Paul, 39 W. Adams St., Chicago (Sanitation). Hanson, Alyda C., B. S., Chicago Normal College, Chicago (Geography and Geology). Harding, H. A., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana (Bacteriology). Harkins, William D., Ph. D., 5437 Ellis Ave., Chicago (Chemistry) Harmon, C. F., M. D., 31814 S. Sixth St., Springfield (Medicine). Harriman, E. H., M. A., Springfield High School (Chemistry and Physics). Harris, Charles L., Macomb (Archaeology). Hartin, Fred, B. E., Xenia (Biology). Hauberg, John H., B. S., L. L. B., 23rd, St. Hill, Rock Island (Botany). Hauberg, Mrs. John H., 23rd. St. Hill, Rock Island. Haupt, Arthur W., Carthage College, Carthage (Botany). Hawthorne, W. C., B. A., B. S., 308 S. Leavitt St., Chicago (Physics). Heflin, H. N., M. D., Kewanee (Medicine). Hemenway, Henry B., M. D., 620 Amos Ave., Springfield (Public Health). Henderson, William F., B. A., Mellon Inst., Pittsburgh, Penn. (Biology). Henning Community High School, Henning. Herrick, C. Judson, Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Anatomy). Hibbs, Carl L., M. A., Field Museum, Chicago (Zoology). Higgins, George M., Ph. D., 217 W. Nevada St., Urbana (Zoology). Hildebrand, L. E., M. A., Y. M. C. A., Evanston (Zoology). *Hill, W. K., Carthage College, Carthage (Biology). Hinchliff, Grace, Galesburg. Hinds, Mildred E., M. S., Johnson Mfg. Co., Jackson, Tenn. (Chemist). Hines, Murray A., Ph. D., 1704 Hinman Ave., Evanston (Chemistry). Hitch, C. Bruce, B. E., Township High School, Eureka (Botany). Hoffman, Frank F., M. D., 2514 Smalley St., Chicago (Phys.-Surg.). Hoffman, George, M. D., Chester (Medicine). Hoffman, Leslie R., 213 Baker Ave., Joliet (Entomology). Holgate, T. F., LL. D., 617 Library St., Evanston (Mathematics). Holmes, Manfred J., B. L., 703 Broadway, Normal (Social and Education). Honey, Edwin E., B. S., Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. (Plant Path. Botany, Ent.). Hood, Frazer, Ph D., Davidson, N. C. (Psychology). Hoover, Harvey D., Ph. D., S. T. D., Carthage. Hopkins, B. Smith, Ph. D., 706 W. California St., Urbana (Chemistry). Horton, Edward R., North Henderson (Medicine). Hottes, C. F., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana (Botany). House, Edward O., Ph. D. (Chemistry). Hudelson, C. W., M. S., 206 S. Main St., Normal (Agri., Biology, Chemistry). Huey, Walter B., M. D., Joliet (Medicine). Hull, Thos. G., Ph. D., State Board of Health, Springfield (Health). Hunter, George W., Knox College, Galesburg (Biology). Husted, Ward W., B. S. (Chemistry). *Hutton, J. Gladden, M. S., State College, Brookings, S. D. (Geology). Hyde, L. H., Ph. D., 502 S. Eastern Ave., Joliet (Geology). LIST OF MEMBERS 323 Hyman, Libbie H., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Zoology). Illinois State Library, State House, Springfield. Isenbarger, Jerome, B. S., 2200 Greenleaf Ave., Chicago (Zoology). Jamison, A. W., M. S., University of Illinois, Urbana (Physics). Jane, Wm. T., Room 905, 122 S. Michigan Blvd., Chicago (Bausch & Luamb Optical Co.). Jelliff, Fred R., B. A., Galesburg (Geology). Jensen, Jens, Ravinia (Geology-Botany). Johnson, C. N., M. A., D. D. S., 22 E. Washington St., Chicage (Prevention of Diseases). Johnson, Frank Seward, M. D., 2521 Prairie Ave., Chicago. Johnson, George F., 625 Black Ave., Springfield (Astronomy). Johnson, T. Arthur, 7th St. and 4th Ave., Rockford (Medicine). Jones, Elmer E., Ph. D., Northwestern University, Evanston (Mental Develop- ment and Heredity). Jones, James H., B. S., 2106 Maple Ave., Evanston (Biology). Karpinski, Louis C., Ph. D., 1315 Cambridge Road, Ann Arbor, Mich. (Math.). Karraker, Edward L., Jonesboro (Forestry). Kauffman, J. S., M. D., 233 York St., Blue Island (Medicine). Kempton, F. E., M. S., Urbana (Botany). Kennedy, Keith, B. S., 1334 Logan St., Grand Rapids, Mich. (Chemistry). Kennicott, Ransom, 547 Cook Co. Bldg., Chicago (Forestry). Kenniebrew, Alonzo H., M. D., Jacksonville (Medicine). Kerr, Chas. Roy, M. D., Chenoa (Medicine). Kingsley, J. S., D. Sc., 1011 California Ave., Urbana (Zoology). Kinnear, T. J., M. D., Ridgely Bank Bldg., Springfield (Medicine). Kisler, L. P., Roanoke (Physics). Kline, R. G., M. D., Hoopeston (Medicine). *Knipp, Charles T., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana (Physics). Koch, Fred Conrad, Ph. D., 4942 Ellis Ave., Chicago (Physiological Chem.). Kreider, G. M., M. D., 522 Capitol Ave., Springfield (Medicine). Krey, Frank, B. S., State Geological Survey, Urbana (Geology). Kreuger, John H., M. D., 118 Ellinwood St., Des Plaines (Medicine). Krummel, Grace, East St. Louis H. S., East St. Louis (Physics). Kuderna, J. G., M. S., Normal (Physical Science and Education). Kudo, Rokusaburo, University of Illinois, Urbana (Zoology). Kuh, Sidney, M. D., 30 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago (Medicine). Kurz, Herman, B. S., 5490 S. University Ave., Chicago (Botany). Lambert, Earl L., B. S., Dakota, Illinois (Botany and Zoology). Land, W. J. G., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Botany). Langford, George, B. S., Joliet (Paleontology). Langworthy, F., Joliet. Lanphier, Robert C., Ph. D., Sangamo Electric Co., Springfield (Electricity). Larson, Karl, B. A., Augustana College, Rock Island (Chemistry). Laves, Kurt, Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Astronomy and Math.). LeGrand, Daniel W., M. D., 463 N. 25th St., East St. Louis (Medicine). Leighton, Morris Morgan, Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana (Geology). Lerche, Thorleif I., D. D. S., 3012 E. 92nd St., Chicago (Medicine). Lewis, Howard D., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana (Physio. Chemistry). Lewis, Julian H., D. D., Ricketts Lab., University of Chicago, Chicago (Path- ology). Lightbody, Ernest, B. E., Weldon (Biology). Linder, O. A., 208 N. Fifth Ave., Chicago. Lindsey, Clara, White Hall (Biology). Linkins, R. M., M. A., 206 N. Main St., Normal (Zoology). Longden, A. C., Ph. D., Knox College, Galesburg (Physics). Loomis, Helen A., M. A., 5530 Dorchester Ave., Chicago (Zoology). Lukens, Herman T., Ph. D., 330 Webster Ave., Chicago (Geography). Lutes, Neil, 168 Wilson Ave., Dubuque, Iowa (Chemistry). Lyons, Hon. T. E., Hay Bldg., Springfield. MacFarlard, D. F., Ph. D., 121 N. Atherton St., State College, Penn. (Chemistry). MacGillivray, A. D., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana (Entomology). MacInnes, D. A., Ph. D., Mass. Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass. (Chemistry). MacInnes, F. Jean, B. S., 614 Michigan Ave., Urbana (Botany). Madison, Wm. D., M. D., Eureka (Medicine). Magill, Henry R., 426 Forest Ave., Oak Park (Geology, Sociology, Finance). Magnuson, Paul B., M. D., 30 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago (Medicine). Malinovszky, A., 316 Portland Ave., Belleville (Chemistry). Mann, A. L., M. D., 165 Milwaukee St., Elgin (Medicine). Marks, Sarah, Pecatonica (Biology). Mason, Arthur J., 5715 Weedlawn Ave., Chicago. Mason, J. Alden, Field Museum, Chicago (Anthropology). Mathews, Albert P., Ph. D., University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohfo (Phy- siology). Mayes, W. E. G., M. D., Dawson (Medicine). 324 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE McAuley, Faith, High School, St. Charles (Botany). McCauley, George V. (Physics). McClure, S. M., Lebanon. McCoy, Herbert N., Ph. D., 6030 Kenwood Ave., Chicago (Chemistry). McDougall, W. B., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana (Botany). McMillan, Mary Ann, Carthage (Botany). MecNallys, John L., 313 E. John St., Champaign. McNutt, Wade, Twp. High School, Highland Park (Botany). Mecham, John B., Ph. D., 118 S. Center St., Joliet. Merry, Jessie B., B. S., 126 E. Fifth St., St. Charles (Biology). Metzner, Albertine E., M. S., 326 S. Church St., Jacksonville (Geology and Physics). Michelson, A. A., LL. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Physics). Miller, Isiah Leslie, M. A. (Math. and Chemistry). Miller, Marion, A. B., 760 W. North St., Jacksonville (Biology). Miller, P. H., Potomac (Biology). Miller, R. B., M. F., 223 Nat. History Survey, Urbana (Forestry and Ecology). Millikan, R. A., Se. D., 5605 Woodlawn, Ave., Chicago (Physics). Millspaugh, Chas. F., M. D., Field Museum, Chicago (Botany). Mohlman, F. W., Ph D. (Chemistry). Montgomery, C. E., M. S., State Teachers’ College, DeKalb (Biology). Morgan, Wm. E., M. D., 1016 Hyde Park Blvd., Chicago (Medicine). Morrison, Elsie, M. S., Mount Carroll (Botany-Ecology). Moter, R. L., M. D., Albion (Medicine). Moulton, F. R., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Astronomy). Mullinex, Raymond C., Ph. D., Rockford College, Rockford (Chemistry). Mumford, H. W., B. S., University of Illinois, Urbana (Agriculture). Murrah, Frank C., M. D., 105144 N. Park Ave., Herrin (Medicine). Mylius, L. A., S. B., M. E., Illinois State Geolog. Survey, Urbana (Geology). Nadler, Walter H., M. D., 30 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago (Medicine). Neiberger, William E., M. D., Bloomington (Eugenics). Neifert, Ira E., M. S., 806 E. Knox St., Galesburg (Chemistry). Neill, Alma J., Ph. D., 524 W. Eyfaula St., Norman, Okla. (Physiology). Nelson, C. Z., 534 Hawkingor Ave., Galesburg (Botany). Newcomb, Rexford, M. A., University of Illinois, Urbana (Engineering Appli- cation). - Newell, M. J., M. A., 2017 Sherman Ave., Evanston. Newman, H. H., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Zoology). Nichols, H. W., B. S., Field Museum, Chicago (Geology). Nicholson, F. M., University of Chicago, Chicago (Anatomy). Normal Science Club, Ill. St. Normal University, Normal (General). North, E. M., B. A., 1481 E. Main St., Galesburg (Geology-Astronomy, Ped.). Obenchain, Jeanette Brown, Ph. B., 6130 Dorchester Ave., Chicago (Anatomy- Neurology). Ogilvy, Robert S., 1425 Juneway Terrace, Chicago. Olin, H. L., Ph. D., University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa (Chemistry). Ondrak, Ambrose L., B. A., Lisle (Physics). Ozment, Arel, 806 Washington Ave., Johnston City (General). Packard, W. H., Ph. D., Bradley Institute, Peoria (Biology). Paddock, Walter R., M. D., 904 State St., Lockport (Medicine). Parker, Bertha M., B. S., 5707 Kimbark Ave., Chicago (General Science and Botany). *Parr, S. W., M. S., University of Illinois, Urbana (Chemistry). Patterson, Alice J., Ill. State Normal University, Normal (Entomology-Nature Study). Patterson, Cecil F., B. S., 610 West Illinois St., Urbana (Horticulture). Patton, Fred P., M. D., Glencoe (Medicine). Pearsons, H. P., 105 S. LaSalle St., Chicago. Phipps, Charles Frank, B. S., M. S., State Teachers’ College, DeKalb (Physics and Chemistry). Pieper, Chas. J., University of Chicago, Chicago (General Science). Platt, Robert S., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Geography). Poling, J. A., M. D., Freeport (Medicine). Pellock, M. D., M. D., Powers Bldg., Decatur (Medicine). Porter, Charley L., A. B., B. S., 405 W. Washington Blvd., Urbana (Botany). Porter, James F., M. A., 1085 Sheridan Road, Hubbard Woods (Zoology). Potomac Township High School, Potomac. Quirkee, T. T., Ph. D., Room 234 Nat. Hist. Bldg., University of Illinois, Ur- bana (Geol.). Rathbone, W. V., Harrisburg (Ornithology). Ray, Ward L., M. A. (Chemistry). Reagan, Albert B., A. B., A. M., Kayenta, Arizona (Pal.-Ethnol.-Botany-Geol.). Redfield, Casper L., 526 Monadnick Block, Chicago (Evolution). Reiffel, M. I., 3510 Irving Park Blvd., Chicago (Botany). Renich, Mary E., Ph. D., Ill. State Normal University, Normal (Botany). Rew, Irwin, Ph. D., 217 Dempster St., Evanston. LIST OF MEMBERS 325 Rice, Arthur L., M. M. E., 537 S. Dearborn St., Chicago (Engineering). Rice, William F., M. A., Wheaton College, Wheaton (Physics). Richardson, Baxtor K., A. B., 326 W. Jackson St., Springfield (Pub. Health). Richardson, R. E., Ph. D., Havana, Illinois (Zoology). Ricker, N. C., University of Illinois, Urbana (Architecture). Ridgely, D. C., State Normal University, Normal (Geography). Ridgway, Robert, M. S., 1030 S. Morgan St., Olney (Ornithology). Risley, W. J., M. A., James Millikin University, Decatur (Math.). Robb, Mary E. (Geography). Robinson, C. H., Normal (Archaeology). Root, Clarence J., U. S. Weather Bureau, Springfield (Climatology). Ross, Clarence S., A. M., U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. (Geology). Rost, Louis N., Macomb (Archaeology). Ruckmick, Christian A., Ph. D., 209 University Hall, Urbana (Psychology). Rudnick, Paul, 10640 S. Seeley Ave., Chicago (Chemistry). Rue, Julia, M. A., State Normal, Carbondale (Geography). Salisbury, R. D., LL. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Geology). Salter, Allen, Lena (Medicine). Sampson, H. C., Ph. D., Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Savage, T. E., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana (Geology). Sayers, Frank E., M. D., Fisher (Public Health). Schantz, Orpheus M., 10 LaSalle St., Chicago (Birds-Plants). Schaub, Edward L., Ph. D., 2437 Sheridan Road, Evanston (Psychology). Schmidt, Otto L., M. D., 1547 Dearborn. Parkway, Chicago (History). Schmoll, Hazel Marguerite, A. B., B. E., M. S., 1437 Penn. Ave., Denver, Colo. (Botany). Schneider, Nora, B. S., Spruce St., Murphysboro (Chemistry). Schulz, W. F., Ph. D., 926 W. Green St., Urbana (Physics). Seifert, Herbert F., M. A., National Hist. Bldg., Urbana (Entomology). Shamel, C. H., Ph. D., 535 Black Ave., Springfield (Chemistry). Shaw, L. L., Ph. D. (Chemistry). Shelford, V. E., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana (Zoology). Shinn, Hareld B., 3822 Lowell Ave., Chicago (Zoology). Siedenburg, Frederic, M. A., 1076 West Roosevelt Road, Chicago (Sociology). Simmons, Marguerite L., M. A., 423 Leafland Ave., Centralia (Biology). Simonds, O. C., 1101 Buena Ave., Chicago (Botany). Simons, Etoile B., Ph. D., 7727 Colfax Ave., Chicago (Botany). +Simpson, Q. I., Palmer (Eugenics). Singer, H. Douglas, M. D., 6625 N. Ashland Ave., Chicago (Psychiatry). Slocum, A. W., University of Chicago, Chicago. Slye, Maud, A. B., 5836 Drexel Ave., Chicago (Medicine). Smallwood, Mabel E., 550 Surf St., Chicago (Zoology). Smith, Arthur Bessey, B. S., 2324 Hartzell St., Evanston (Telephony). *Smith, C. H., M. E., 5517 Cornell Ave., Chicago (Physics). Smith, Clarence R., B. S., Aurora College, Aurora (Physics). Smith, Eleanor C., B. S., 104 Winston Ave., Joliet. Smith, Grant, M. S., 1738 W. 104 St., Chicago (Zoology). Smith, James W., M. D., Cutler (Medicine). Smith, Jesse L., Supt. of Schools, Highland Park. Smith, K. K., Ph. D., Northwestern University, Evanston (Physics). Smith, R. S., Ph. D., 653 Agricultural Bldg., Urbana (Agriculture). Smith, S. S., Vergennes (Voca. and Physical Ed.). Smith, Sylvia. B. E., Decatur High School, Decatur (Biology). Snider, Alvin B., M. D., Blue Island (Medicine). Snider, H. J., B. S., University of Illinois, Urbana (Agriculture). Sonnenschein, Robert, M. D., 4534 Michigan Ave., Chicago (Medicine). Soyer, Bessie F., B. S., 315 S. Church St., Jacksonville (Biology). Spencer, Ada V., B. A., Eastern Illinois State Normal, Charleston (Zoology). Sperry, Holland R., Galesburg (Biology). Spicer, C. E., Joliet (Chemistry). Spooner, C. S., M. A., 704 N. Illinois St., Urbana (Entomology-Zoology). Stark, Mabel C., Ph. B., University of Chicago, Chicago (Geography). Steagall, Mary M., Ph. B., Carbondale (Botany). Steely, B. F., M. D., Louisville (Medicine). Stevens, F. L., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana (Botany). Stevens, W. A., B. A., Lockport (Chemistry). Stewart, Alice C., 132 W. Marquette St., Chicago (Botany). Stillians, A. W., M. D., 819 East 50th St., Chicago (Medicine). *Strode, W. S., M. D., Lewistown, Illinois (Medicine). Strong, Harriet, B. S., Northwestern College, Naperville (Biology). Struble, R. H., A B. (Physics). Swan, W. S., M. D., Harrisburg (Medicine). Tatum, Arthur L., Ph. D., M. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Physiology- Pharmac.). s Thompson, Louis T. E., Ph. D., 508 Douglas Ave., Kalamazoo, Mich. (Physics). Thompson, O. B., M. D., 201 S. Washington Ave., Carbondale (Medicine), 326 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Thurlimann, Leota, 5955 Calumet Ave., Chicago (Botany). Thurston, Fredus A., 1361 E. 57th St., Chicago. Tiffany, L. Hanford, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio (Botany). *Townsend, E. J., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana (Math.). Townsend, M. T., B. S., 301 Nat. Hist. Bldg., University of Illinois, Urbana (Ecology). Townsley, Fred D., B. A., James Millikin University, Decatur. Trapp, A. R., M. D., Ill. National Bank Bldg., Springfield (Medicine). Turton, Chas. M., M A., 2059 E. 72nd St., Chicago (Physics). Tyler, A. A., Ph. D., James Millikin University, Decatur (Biology). Udden, Anton D., University of Penn., Philadelphia, Penn. (Math. and Physics). Ulrich, Katherine, Ph. B., 641 N. Kenilworth Ave., Oak Park (Geology, Geog- raphy, Botany). Van Cleave, H. J., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana (Zoology). Van Cleet, Eugene, B. S., 9616 S. Winchester Ave., Chicago (Geography). rarecke aie M., Ph. D., Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado eology). Vestal, A. G., Ph. D., Stanford University, Palo Alto, California (Ecology). Vestal, Mrs. Wanda P., Ph. D., Stanford University, Palo Alto, California. Vise, H. A., M. D., Benton (Medicine). Von Zelinski, Walter F., M. D., Ph. D., Care Adjutant General, Washington, D. C. (Biology-Physiology). Wade, Esther, B. S., 421 N. Grove Ave., Oak Park (Botany). Wager, R. E., M. A., Dept. Education, Atlanta University, Atlanta, Ga. Waggoner, H. D., Ph. D., 224 Ward St., Macomb (Biology). Waldo, E. H., E. E., Dept. of Electrical Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois (Electricity). Walker, Ellis David, M. D., B. Sc., Litchfield, Illinois (Pedagogy, Medicine, Biology and Agriculture). Walsh, John, 282 W. Berrien St., Galesburg (Water Supply). wee eee C., M. D., M. C., 306 E. 48rd St., Chicago (Birds and All ature). Ward, Hareld B., B. S., Northwestern University, Evanston (Geology and Geog- raphy). Warrum, Jesse J., B. A. (Chemistry). Waterman, Warren G., Ph. D., Northwestern University, Evanston (Botany). Weaver, George H., M. D., 629 S. Wood St., Chicago (Medicine and Bacteriology). Weber, . 7 [ae eee 462 Focal Infections from the Teeth: Fred S. O'Hara, D.D.S., SPM Hel Gs eh a tsle «as ooo atae ue cae eso ste See 469 A Study of the Effects of Radium and X-Ray Treatment of Myelogenous Leukemia: Glen Wever, Illinois College, Jack- SR SIUM Creer Bers nett kata ons Sia wiet So Me a ae sie e 5, CU ee 473 PAPERS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION: The Problem of Personality: Edward S. Robinson, University DAS AI CAROLS FE Soe YS et Sie wipes ik © bate) a ete ks ee ee 487 The Validity of Arithmetical-Reasoning Tests: R. V. Hunkins and F.. S. Breed, University of Chicago.................. 492 The Infusion of Bad Blood Into a Good Family: Elmer E. Jones, Northwestern University 2.3.0.0... dc dik oe eee 495 The Use and Interpretation of Coefficients of Correlation: Walter S. Monroe, University of Illinois................. 506 The Intelligence Quotient,—Its Accuracy as a Means of Classi- fying and Grading High School Students: W. P. Morgan, state Teachers College, Macomb. .....:.........-cFsi Preys aa “ 5: aaa ei coh oul is mekeer REPORT OF THE SECRETARY “E\Y YoRK 9 TANICAL : GARDEN ta THE ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ' Office of the Secretary State Teachers College, DeKalb, Ill. COUNCIL MEETING At the call of President Knipp the Council Meeting was , held at the Quadrangle Club, the University of Chicago, on June 21, 1921. All the members of the Council were present, viz., President Knipp, Past Pres. Cowles, Vice- Pres. Ruth Marshall, Treas. Schulz, Librarian Crook and See’y. Phipps. The Secretary reported that the Carbondale material for the Transactions was nearly assembled, and soon after July 1 it would be placed in the hands of the printer. ‘Our membership relations with the A. A. A. S. concern- ing initiation fees and dues were discussed, and the Seere- tary was asked to take. the matter up with Dr. Livings- ton of the A. A. A. S., and President Knipp and Treas. Schulz, and after adjusting fees and dues to have new membership cards printed. ; By vote the President was empowered to invite the Illinois Division of the Mathematical Association to affil- iate with the Academy and to hold their meetings with us hereafter. By vote the immediate appointment of chairmen for the sectional meetings of the next annual meeting was left with the President. By vote last year’s committee on Ecological Survey holds over for another year. The President was empowered to appoint a committee of five, to be called the ‘‘Committee on High School Sei- ence and Clubs.’’ This takes the place of two former committees—Committee on Secondary Science and Com- mittee on H. §. Clubs. The names of twenty-six (26) local and two (2) na- tional candidates for membership, who had qualified since the Carbondale meeting, were presented by Treas. Schulz and elected. j A wh. ms ~ = ek Le ee a ee ON ey eh “APR 2 0 1925 Rockford, for the Academy to Nae) its west eeene t was discussed, and by vote the invitation was accepte 4 Vice-Pres. Marshall was made chairman, with power to appoint other members, of local committee to make eh necessary arrangements for the meeting in Rockford. The date of the Rockford meeting was left for the local — ; committee to decide after a conference with the President : “y)> and Secretary. Sas wy Vice-Pres. Marshall was empowered to extend invita- tions to nearby institutions, such as the Wisconsin Acad- emy of Science, Arts and Letters and the Science Club of Beloit Collese, to meet with us in Rockford. It was informally decided that the next Council meet- — ing should be held in November at Urbana at the time of the High School Conference. Adjourned, C. F. Putprs, Secretary. COUNCIL MEETING ee Nov. 19, 1921 a At the call of the President the Council Meeting was ree held in Urbana at the University Club House. Allmem- ~ A) : bers of the Council were present. y eH h . The President reported that the Illinois Division of the etl ai Mathematics Association would meet with the Academy : at the annual meeting in the spring to be held at Rock- ey oe ford and would take part in the program. Also the ques- ; s tion of their affiliation with the Academy would be voted be upon at that time in the Mathematics sectional meeting. = i It was voted to hold the Rockford Meeting Thursday ep afternoon and evening of April 27, and all day Friday, i with a field excursion on Saturday to some interesting ig points along the beautiful Rock River. ; iN It was voted that a program committee of three be ap- “f pointed for the Rockford meeting, President Knipp tobe chairman of the committee. Dr. Cowles and the Secre- aye tary were appointed to serve on the committee. pee Vice-President Marshall, as chairman of the Rockford = local committee, reported that Professor Mullinix and ei i. (ana ea ab RE! SP PORT oF THE SECRETARY © 7 4 bs , “ai > hes 2: - _a good time at the Rockford meeting. - The Treasurer gave a preliminary report which ~ showed a balance in the treasury of $713.35. Since the price of printing our Carbondale Transac- tions is to be so high this year, the Secretary was in- structed to write to the authors of papers and inform them that reprints could not be furnished gratis, but those desiring them could obtain them at cost. It was voted that it be the policy of the Academy for the present that papers to be printed in the Transactions _ be limited to twenty printed pages (about 7,000 words). It was voted that those authors whose Carbondale papers were very lengthy be written to, stating our condi- tion, namely, lack of necessary funds to publish the Transactions, and asking them either to reduce the length of their paper or to pay for all pages in excess of twenty pages. Voted that we have 1,000 copies of the Transactions printed this year. By vote it was decided that a sum not to exceed $200.00 be drawn from the treasury to help pay for publishing this year’s Transactions, provided the amount appropri- ated by the State was insufficient. Treas. Schulz presented a list of candidates, four local and six national, to be voted upon. All were elected to membership. C. Frank Pureps, Secretary. COUNCIL MEETING Rockford, April 27, 1922 At the call of President Knipp the Council met at Rockford College, Thursday afternoon, April 27th. The President, Vice-President, Past President, Treasurer and Secretary were present. The Treasurer submitted a list of thirty names to be voted upon for membership. The Council took favorable action on all of the names. pea were members of her cornniftee, and that a ae Beir committes had been appointed, and all were working = = a with a view of giving the Academy a hearty welcome and > ACG ae Doe aN CREM Cte ver arp Pirate ge, Doe ALLE on oe NON e UUme Peer Le ae { » P eh get! ND ORR Ue eee ya ie Ranh ae fn vies Reet yc eats Ae 12 _ ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE The Treasurer also reported that six members had. eu sent in their resignations during the year, and by vote — the resignations were accepted. In most cases these members had moved to distant states. A resolution to be sent to Illinois Congressmen, re- ferring to duty-free importation of scientific apparatus, was presented, and it was voted to approve the resolution. The President was empowered to appoint a committee to study the resolution and to present it at the Academy business meeting. Several members who were on the Rockford program had written that they would be unable to attend the con-— vention. It was voted that their papers should be pub- lished in the Transactions since they had sent to the Secretary either an abstract of the paper or the com- | plete paper. Na The vote of the Council in 1921, relative to charging authors for all pages in excess of 20 printed pages pub- lished in the Transactions, was renewed for another year. The price of 90c per page, to be charged for each page in excess of 20 printed pages, was decided upon by vote. The Secretary was instructed to prepare a schedule of prices, based on the last printer’s prices, for all pages in excess of 20 printed pages, and for reprints, and to record this schedule in the minutes of the general business meeting. In view of the fact that the membership of the Acad- emy had increased so materially during the past two years, thereby increasing the duties of the Secretary, and that other details of the Academy affairs had been placed upon the Secretary, it was voted that he be paid a salary of $150 a year in the future for services. By vote the price of the old volumes of the Transac- tions printed by the Academy was increased from 75c to $1.50 per volume. This includes volumes I, II, III, VI, VII, VIII, 1X and X. The other volumes, IV, V, XJ, XII, XII, and XIV, which were printed by state aid, are still free to members. The Librarian, Dr. A. R. Crook, State Museum, Springfield, is custodian of the above volumes. C. Frank Purrpes, Secretary. "REPORT OF ‘ang SECRETARY ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Fifteenth Annual Meeting of the Academy Rockford, Illinois, April 27-29, 1922 MINUTES OF BUSINESS MEETING April 27th. After calling the meeting to order President Knipp ‘asked for reports of officers. The Treasurer submitted the following report: Balance, One hnands Widy tls OMe Cos o. Sas creole le a eles $ 704.23 Received from Dues, Initiation and Annual......... 483.15 A. A. A. S. dues collected’ by the Academy.......... 1,160.25 Reeeived from the sale of Transactions............. 21.25 $2,368.88 Paid for stationery, postage, other expenses of officers AMG COMMALtGe | ChaAIT MCT ts <5 Soc. os ere’ oo Ss Sa wore ore $ 412.48 A PeP LATTES: LUNIS Ea. cr ehehe Mela cocleyereteiers) cs ko ereresarde Seine 159.83 Paid: tomA. 2A, “Ac S>-for dues: ‘collected . .)6 056... 6.05 oho 1,169.25 SACTINIV THAN ISLC SNE SEY Ke) Cl, UMS SPE apis aan ROR A eM en. So PR = 7.00 $1,739.56 Balance;on, hand April 27th 1922s . ow. ss ois wip beie te ese $ 629.32 Several outstanding bills were yet to be paid. The Treasurer’s report was accepted. Reports of committees ealled for: Professor C. F. Hottes sent his report for the Member- ship Committee by Professor Schulz. This committee sent out 250 invitations during the year to people to join the Academy. The result was that 57 new members were added to our list. Report accepted. Dr. H. C. Cowles reported for the committee on Eeo- logical Survey. He stated that the committee was made up of some members who were interested in the work, and they had seen to it that certain papers on Ecology were placed on the program of the Rockford meeting. Report accepted. Professor J. C. Hessler read the report for the com- mittee on High School Science and Clubs. In substance it was as follows: The effort of the committee has been confined to the attempt to interest high school principals and superin- tendents in the formation of Science Clubs, and in the Bi f x fi : D yr * 14 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE mn sending of representatives of the clubs, and members. of the science faculties, to the meetings of the Academy Of nee Bigenes. «About 120 letters, together with copies of a suggested constitution for such clubs, were sent out to fen schools of northern Illinois. The committee sug- gested for the consideration of the Academy the advisa- bility of taking measures to organize the high schools of Illinois for science by personal means, through leaders who will become acquainted with the schools, teachers, principals and students, as well as the community, and by a personal touch with all maintain an interest in science, even though local teachers may come and go. In some such way high school science clubs can not only be or- ganized and maintained but they can be related in a defi- nite way to the Academy of Science. The above report was accepted. The Secretary reported as follows for the Publication committee : The publication committee has had charge of publish- ing the Transactions for the 1921 meeting held at Carbon- dale. Working with the State printers, bids were secured and the job was let to the Joliet Republican Printing Co., of Joliet. On April 25th the first copies were delivered to the Secretary and were mailed out to the Academy members. The report was accepted. The Treasurer presented a list of new members, and all were elected to membership. This made a total of 57 new members for the year. A letter of cordial greetings and best wishes for a suc- cessful meeting from the Wisconsin Academy of Science, Arts and Letters, was read by the Secretary. The President appointed the following committees with instructions to report at the business meeting F'ri- day, the 28th: Committee on Nominations, H. C. Cowles, chairman, J. C. Hessler and F. C. Baker. Committee on Resolu- tions, C. H. Smith, chairman, Miss Mary M. Steagall and A. C. Longden. Committee on Auditing, Clarence Bon- nell, chairman, H. B. McDougall and R. C. Maullinix. Committee on Resolution relating to duty-free importa- BE Od atid 8. C. O Hartsouch, _ Adjourned to meet Friday, April 28th. Baciites Meeting, Friday, April 28th. - The meeting was called to order at 12:30 p. m. by Presi- be gent Knipp. je a ai raat a SNe nthe at ih, . on A eae a re ‘ Reports of committees called for: Dr. Cowles reported for the nominating committee as follows: Candidates for offices for 1922-’23 President, W. S. Baytey, Urbana. Vice-President, W.G. Warrerman, Evanston. Secretary, C. F. Purers, DeKalb. Treasurer, W. F. Scuutz, Urbana. Librarian, A. R. Croor, Springfield. For third member of Publication Committee, Charles H. Smith, Chicago. _ For Membership Committee—H. J. VanCleave, Ur- _ bana, Chairman, W. H., Packard, Peoria, Fred R. Jelliff, ag Galesburg, Mary 1 M. Steagall, Carbondale, and John R. Ball, Evanston. The Secretary was instructed to cast the vote of the _ Assembly for the above nominations. All were declared elected. Charles H. Smith reported for the Committee on Reso- lutions. The following is a condensed report: Resolutions of thanks were extended to the people of - Rockford, to the Board of Education, Rockford College, to the University Club, to the executive committee of the Academy and to Miss Ruth Marshall for all they had done in helping to make the meeting a successful one. Also sincere thanks were extended to the Chamber of Com- merece, to President Maddox, Major Hallstrom and Sup’t. Lewis for their one courtesies shown to the Academy members. The committee recommended that the Academy co- operate with, and sanction in every way, the work that is being done by the committee on High School Science and << —S- 16 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Clubs. It recommended that this committee be continued . 2 and five more members added to it. The committee recommended further that the Academy — co-operate with other scientific organizations whose pur- pose it is to promote the use of the metric system of weights and measures, so that the public in general may become familiar with the advantages of this system and proper legislation be enacted; that a committee of five : members of the Academy be appointed to be known as the Committee on Metric System, who shall be responsible for putting into effect the above measures. It was the committee’s sad duty to announce the death of Associate Professor William Logan Woodburn, who for twelve years had been in the department of Botany in Northwestern University; the death also of Mr. Francis Daniels, who was to have read a paper before the ~ Academy at this meeting. Mr. Daniels was an attorney, and for many years had been connected with The Pull- man Co., Chicago. The death of Professor A. A. Tyler of James Millikin University was also announced. The following committee on Metric System, as recom- mended by the Resolutions committee, was appointed by the President—Thos. G. Hull, Springfield, Chairman, G.’ A. Miller, Urbana, F. R. Watson, Urbana, F’. D. Barber, Normal, aene C. Longden, Galesburg. The Nuditae Committee reported that they had aud- ited the accounts of the Treasurer and found them to be correct. Report accepted. The committee on Duty-free Importation of Scientific Apparatus reported as follows: Resolved:—(a) That The Illinois State Academy be Science records its earnest hope that in the tariff legis- lation now under consideration by the Congress of the United States, provision may be made for duty-free im- portation of scientific apparatus for the use of educa- tional institutions, a privilege that has contributed in no. small degree to the wonderful progress made in science -and its applications in the educational institutions of this country during the past few decades. (b) That this resolution be spread on the minutes of the meeting and that certified copies of it be sent to the haere 0-0 ep Ye A eee Re Se? ft ty eee Sie the. A NY yell i REPORT OF THE SECRETARY AT Senate and House Committees by which the new Tariff Bill is being shaped up, and to each member now repre- senting Illinois in the Senate and House of Representa- tives. B. 8S. Hopkins, A. J. DEMPSTER, R. C. Hartrsover, Committee. On motion of Professor Turton the Committee on High School Science and Clubs was authorized to draw on the treasury for the coming year for an amount not to ex- eeed $50. to help in the work of that committee. Motion passed. The following schedule of prices for reprints and for — extra pages over 20 printed pages for papers in the Transactions was submitted after Council action— Reprints, $1.00 per printed page for 100 copies or less; $1.10 per page for 200 copies; $2.00 per page for 1,000 copies; $5.00 for special cover page on reprints for 200 copies or less; $5.00 for page of table of contents in re- prints for 200 copies or less; 90e per page for all pages in excess of 20 printed pages in the Transactions. Meeting adjourned. The papers presented at the general and section meet- ings were very much enjoyed by the members, by Rock- ford College students and faculty and by citizens of the city. As nearly as could be calculated there were between 150 and 200 Academy members present. The members were guests of the Rockford University Club for dinner Thursday evening. The president of the Club, Senator H. 8. Hicks, gave a cordial welcome to all in a pleasing address. The evening program was preceded by ad- dresses of welcome by President Maddox of Rockford College, Mayor Hallstrom of the city, and Sup’t. Lewis of the public schools. President Knipp made a fitting re- sponse for the Academy. Friday morning the members attended the College Chapel exercises in a body, and Dr. Cowles gave a much eyeeoien tik on the more. of the nee m : -quet in the evening was largely attended, and this f of the convention was, as usual, an enjoyable one. About 35 members started Friday evening for the fi trip to Apple River Canyon. Under the guidance of Dr HLS. Pepoon, Dr. H. C. Cowles and Mr. M. F. Kleeberge the trip was made interesting to all. The party return to Chicago Sunday afternoon. : ~ Between 30 and 40 members went on the short trip Sat- oa - urday down the Rock River Valley. The Rockford Cham- ber of Commerce furnished autos for the party, and Dr. # -M. M. Leighton, Urbana, and Mr. P. B. Riis, Sup’t. of — Parks, Rockford, acted as guides. At the alase of the . trip, on motion of Professor Bayley, a unanimous vote of © ia appreciation was given to Dr. Leighton for his care of the party under his charge, and for his patience in an- __-swering the numerous questions asked him concerning _ te the geology of the region traversed. ZS. pe Concerning the convention as a whole, many of the members voiced the opinion that it was one of the best the Academy had ever held. | eee C. Frank Puipps, a Sea aie | Secretary. Lf bar's ; ‘GENERAL PAPERS — a ‘a i 5 s Ae ee = . meat eee . ae i ___- PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS -* 2, ; - “PRODUCTION OF SOUND BY THE APPLICA — | TION OF HEAT” | (Experimental) Cuas. T. Kyrep, University oF [ntrxois ro (Abstract of Retiring President’s Address) That a tone of considerable intensity may be produced by heat is not new. Lord Rayleigh in his treatise on “Sound”? describes several experiments dating back as far as 1875, in one of which a sonorous sound was ob- - tained by placing a small flame within and near one end of a glass tube. This experiment, which is referred to in all text books on physics, is known as Rijke’s experiment and was possibly the best example of the production of sound by the application of heat until recently. Another example is the glass blower’s bulb in which a freshly ~ blown small glass bulb while still hot emits a clear tone as the stem is removed from the lips. Both of these in- . stances are fully discussed by Rayleigh, yet the true ex- planation of the cause of the tone, especially in the latter case, is not clearly understood. “ a deatny ok etait) aa ee i dase ng te A ine Several years ago the writer chanced to be working with Pyrex glass (the new refractory glass from which E baking dishes are made) and while blowing a tube to serve as a mercury vapor trap, it, quite by accident, be- me gan to emit a clear and apparently pure tone. The emis- a sion of the note was unlooked for and came as a complete z: surprise. The phenomenon was as unusual as it was _ novel and it at once suggested a fruitful field for research. It proved to be intensely interesting and many striking and unusual phenomena were recorded. While the ‘‘singing tube’’, as it came to be known, _ seems to be primarily of scientific and educational value, ‘yet there is also a practical aspect. The following ex- periments and observations have been made: 33 2 “7 1. The tube may have a variety of forms; however, co, the underlying principle of sound production is the same 2 in all. : 3 22 «ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 2. The tube under normal conditions emits a pure — tone which is the fundamental, as shown by photographs of the wave form. 3. The vibrating air column is accurately one quarter — of the wave-length of the tone emitted. 4. The pitch may be varied over a wide range by extending or shortening the length of the vibrating air column. 5. The air within the tube is set in violent stationary vibration. 6. Because of the purity of the tones emitted two singing tubes sounded simultaneously are well adapted for the production and study of beats. 7. This vibration results in there being a consider-. able back pressure at the inner end of the vibrating col- umn. 8. If the tube is lengthened indefinitely the funda- mental dies out and overtones appear instead. At times the two may be heard simultaneously. 9. The intensity of the tone emitted may be increased many fold by attaching a horn. 10. Each tube has a particular point at which the heat must be applied in order that maximum intensity of sound may be attained. 11. The pitch is practically unaffected by changes in the heating temperature, while the intensity is very much increased with increase of heat. 12. The tube may be used as a standard of sound to the extent that the energy (heat) supplied can be kept | ed Th Shot — Biel ot che ae bY [het : We} He Z Pies : | fu Z Meee ik. & 10 Figures 1-10 A Physical Explanation of the Action of the New Seite Tube. By Chas. T. Knipp and Jacob Kunz, November, 1921. er Poe apne FON eee ey Mee r gh) ie haar P mae > ak Leet Pts ort spun opiatsint* The best means of supplying heat i is by elec- inn current. 13. The dimensions of the various diameters of the tube are critical; however, as stated above, the various lengths are not. 14. The open end of the tube forms practically a point source of sound,—little or no sound coming from the other portions of the tube. 15. The tube when the open end is sealed is, on heat- ing, set in violent vibration, yet it emits no sound. This vibration may be converted into sound by placing closed end on a proper resonating body. 16. The temperature difference between the cold por- tion and hot tip when the tune is sounding i is about 400°C or 700°F. 17. The tube may be made to sing by cooling the body of tube to the temperature of liquid air, i. e. to —180°C or about—300°F, and leaving the tip (that is ordinarily heated) at room temperatures. 18. The temperature difference necessary when liquid air is used is about 200°C. 19. By extrapolation this means a temperature differ- ence of only 80°C when the body of the tube is cooled to absolute zero. 20. - Recent experiments show that the energy neces- sary to maintain the sound is from 2 to 3% of that sup- plied to the tube. ! Experiments illustrating most of the above items were performed. The following physical explanation of the action of the new singing tube is offered :* In the organ pipe, energy is supplied by a stream of air which encourages the vibrations in a one-sided way, so that the vibrating column receives an impulse each time when the air moves upward towards the node in the middle of the pipe, Fig. 1, and receives no impulse in the opposite motion. It looks as if a pendulum were kept in oscillation by receiving at one end of its path an im- pulse always in the same direction. If we would apply *In collaboration with Dr. Jakob Kunz, University of Illinois. gees > i” Dee nats : 4 We tm @ wid at, ¥ a Tye Ores, oa ar Coy, tte oer a Mea Man Na daat : atthe 28 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE factors upon which it depends. Clearly this time “wilt decrease as the area of the absorbing material is in- creased. Making a virtue of the defects of the room to be studied and corrected, Professor Sabine determined the general relation between the time of reverberation and the absorbing area. Cushions from Sanders Theater were brought into the room in varying amounts, and the time of reverberation from a selected organ pipe ar- ranged to speak with uniform power was determined in each case by means of a chronograph. Figure 1 shows the reduction of this time from 5.5 seconds in the empty room to 2.14 seconds after 220 meters of the cushions were introduced. An analytical expression for this curve Duration in seconds. ® 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 Length of cushions in metres. Curve showing the relation of the duration of the residual sound to the added abserbing material. Figure 1. appears immediately when the data are plotted in a somewhat different way as shown in Figure 2. Here the ordinates are the reciprocals of the times. The upper scale represented the actual length of cushions intro- duced. The points so determined lie very close to a straight line so that we may write 1 —= [Lr- Ic] 1/k t Clearly Lr is the length of cushions that has an absorb-s ing power equal to that of the empty room. If now, the origin of co-ordinates be shifted to the left by an amount + PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 29 Lr and we use as our unit of absorbing power, the ab- | _sorbing power of 1 meter of cushion, setting a equal to the total absorbing power of room and cushions, we may write 1 —=al1/k or t at =k, a constant quantity. This experiment yielded the important fact that in a given room, the time of reverberation of sound of a given Figure 2. initial intensity is inversely proportional to the total ab- sorbing power of the room and its contents. Further, it suggested a means by which the absorbing efficiencies of different materials may be compared quantitatively with that of some standard material. Thus by substituting for the cushions, a known area of heavy rugs, let us say, ara ~ 30 and noting the duration of audible sound under these conditions, the ratio of the efficiencies of rugs to cush- ions may be determined. Naturally, the next step in the. investigation was the determination of the absorbing power of the cushions in terms of some more universally accessible and more permanent unit. Viewed from the standpoint of reverberation, it is immaterial whether the -sound energy is dissipated as heat, as is the case in true absorption, or escapes from the room through an opening. Experiments in rooms with a large number of windows showed that open windows are also effective in reducing the time of reverberation. The relative efficiencies of cushions and open windows were determined in the man- ner indicated above. Assuming that the latter acts as a perfect absorber*, the absorption co-efficients of a large number of materials that are used in the interiors of auditoriums were measured as outlined above, and have been published from time to time in Architectural and Scientific Journals. Extending the experiments to a large number of rooms of different volumes, it was shown that the constant pro- duct of absorbing power and time of reverberation is directly proportional to the volume of the room. Using sources of different acoustical powers, the times of re- verberation were found to be proportional to the lo- garithms of the initial intensities. In the foregoing, we have gone somewhat in detail into these first experiments merely to illustrate the method by which quantitative sound measurements have been made with apparatus no more complicated than a stop watch and the unaided ear. Pursuing this method through a course of the most careful investigations cov- ering a period of more than twenty years, Professor Sa- bine secured data, and developed a complete theory of auditorium acoustics, which makes the remedy of faulty conditions entirely possible, and; what is practically more * Recent experiments show that this assumption is true only in special cases. ‘Theoretical considerations indicate that the fraction of the sound that passes through an opening is not in general unity, and that a portion of the incident sound energy is reflected. The relation between the reflected and the transmitted portions depends upon the dimensions and the shape of the opening as well as upon the wave length of the sound. It is to be said that later work is not based upon this assumption. . nae a J a cS %, ___ useful, enables the architect to provide in advance of con- _ _ struction for acoustic conditions, with the same assur- vale 2S PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS _ tes m ance as he provides for lighting and ventilation. Finally, the progress of the investigation developed an extremely useful means of making acoustical measurements, which may be called the Sound Chamber method. Having es- tablished the relation existing between the time of re- verberation, the absorbing power and the volume of the - room, and the acoustical power of the source, it is pos- sible to compute the intensity in terms of minimum audi- ble intensity at any time after the source has ceased. The only other physical factor upon which this time depends, the acuity of hearing of the observer, enters into the problem in such a way that the results are independent of its absolute value. Hence, although this threshold intensity may vary widely with the pitch of the sound, and be markedly different for different individuals, yet measurements made by different observers prove to be quite consistent. The Laboratory at Geneva was built primarily for the purpose of applying this method of acoustical measure- ments to the study of the transmission of sound through building constructions. Figure 3 shows the arrangement for measuring the transmission of sound by standard types of partitions as well as by any other construction or material. The Sound Chamber is an empty room 27x19 x 19 feet, with walls of brick, eighteen inches in thickness. As shown, there is no structural connection between this room and the rest of the building. The ar- rangements for excluding sound from without is such that observations requiring complete silence in the room can be made while others are at work in the building. Openings into three smaller rooms called Test Chambers are made in the walls of the Sound Chamber. In these openings, which are of different sizes, the largest being 6x8 feet, the partitions to be studied are built. Heavy steel doors can be closed over these openings, so that it is possible to restore the room to standard conditions whenever control experiments are necessary. The source of sound is a complete organ of seventy- two pipes, voiced so as to give as nearly pure tones as et yo 32 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE possible. The wind pressure for the organ is supplied by an organ blower driven by an electric motor placed just outside the Sound Chamber The acoustic insulation be- tween the blower and the organ is so good, that although there is a direct air passage between the two, the noise WORK BENCH TURHACE Room CABINET sre Nace . IAJULATED DOOR UP STA AT LY pJTeeL 00 <7 STEEL Door, ; INSULATED Ogee / 1 STEEL DOOR Fy ie AIR SPACE SOUND CHAMBER FELT JMSUYATION Wek delete Se lhe LYE CHAMBER, STEEL poor Thy CH 9 Figure 3. from the blower is entirely inaudible in the Sound Cham- ber. The organ is operated from four different key- boards, one in each of the Test Rooms and one in the Sound Chamber. By means of a specially designed stop- watch chronometer, the duration of audible sound in the larger room, and as heard in the smaller rooms throuzh PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 33 the partitions being studied, can be measured with a high degree of accuracy. - From these measurements, the relative intensities of the sound upon opposite sides of the partition being studied are easily determined. Seated in the Sound Chamber, the observer causes any desired. pipe to speak. A single electric contact stops the sound and starts the chronometer. This contact is maintained as long as the sound is audible and is broken the instant the sound ceases to be heard, the time being automatically recorded. This operation is repeated in the test chamber, with the partition to be studied intervening. Now it has been shown that although at any one point the sound fluctuates through maximum and minimum values as it dies away, yet on the average taken throughout the room, the in- tensity decreases according to a logarithmic law, that is, the average intensities at successive equal intervals bear a constant ratio to each other. Hence the logarithms of the ratio of the intensities on the two sides of the parti- tion is proportional to the difference of the times during which the sound remains audible in the Sound Chamber and in the Test Chamber. The factor of proportionality involves only the absorbing power of the Sound Chamber, its dimensions and the velocity of sound. The first of these is known from an initial calibration, made with sources of sound of known acoustical outputs. Llustra- tive of the general method, the computations are given for a wall made of two inch solid gypsum block plastered on both sides. (Figure 4.) Calculation of Relative Intensities of Sound, pitch 512 d. v., on opposite Sides of a Wall made of 2” solid Gypsum Block, plastered on both sides with Gypsum Plaster. I, = Intensity inside » = Intensity outside t, time of residual sound inside = 15.48 seconds t, = time of residual sound outside = 8.44 seconds a =absorbing power of room = 4.40 I fence —= 1960 (tet) = A26 x20 X64 — 2.80 2 & Fig. 4. 34 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE > In this way, the study of a large number of materials , = as well as of various structural units has been made. It je - is important to bear in mind the different processes by which the vibrations set up by any source of sound in one ~ room may result in aerial vibrations in an adjoining — room. If the vibrating source is in solid connection with the floor or wall, these vibrations may be conducted di- rectly along timbers or beams to the floors or walls of ad- jacent rooms. Probably the greater proportion of the sound from a piano, cello, or any stringed instrument resting on the floor, as well as the hum of motors or ma- chinery, is transmitted through buildings in this way. Thus far, no attempt has been made to deal with this aspect of the problem. In the case of sound of the voice or from an organ pipe, the alternating pressures in the aerial sound wave in one room produce vibrations of walls or partitions, which in turn communicate their mo- tion to the air of the adjoining room. In the case of por- ous materials, such as felts or fabrics, the motion of the air may be communicated directly through the pores of the material, with little or no motion of the partition itself. The problems so far studied all come under the last two heads. The case of solid impervious partitions is illustrated by doors and windows. Here the partition acts as a heavy plate, having its own natural frequencies of vibration. Its response to tones having these frequencies will the- oretically, at least, be much greater than to other tones. Henee we should expect the sound transmitted to vary widely with the pitch. The experiments amply justify this conclusion, so that a complete study of the trans- mission of sound by a single partition involves measure- ments for a large number of tones covering the entire musical range. The results here presented are for six or seven tones, at octave intervals, covering the entire musical range from 64 to 4096 vibrations per second. Figure 5 shows the effect of both stiffness and mass upon the transmissior of sound by glass windows. The ordinates of the curves give the logarithms of the re- duction of intensity of tones given on the horizontal scale. PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS | 35 _ _The lowest curve shows the reduction produced by a win- dow with panes 3/16 of an inch thick, composed of two thin sheets of glass with an intervening sheet of celluloid. Curve 2 is for a similar window with panes of solid plate glass of the same thickness. The effect of the greater stiffness of the solid glass pane in producing a greater reduction in the intensity of the transmitted sound is shown. Curve 3 is for an identical window using plate glass 14 of an inch thick. Translating the logarithmic re- ductions into numerical ratios, the curves for the heay- iest window show a reduction in the ratio of 100 to 1 at middle C and a reduction of about 500 to 1 for tones in Figure 5. Curve 1. Reduction produced by triplex glass. Curve 2. By 3/16” plate. Curve 3. By 1%” plate. the second octave above middle C. In Figure 6, is shown the relative transmissions of sound by a single and a -double pane window. The lower curve gives the reduc- tion produced by a window of lighter glass than those shown in Figure 5. Curve 2 is for a double glass window, the panes being set in putty upon opposite sides of the sash, with an intervening air space of 134 inches. The third curve is for the same window, the panes being set in felt rather than in putty. As is shown, the merit of the double glazed over the single glazed construction is slight for the lower tones, but the former produces a somewhat higher reduction for the upper tones. Similar- ly, the effect of the felt in reducing the transmitted sound is negligible for the lower tones, but does produce a 36 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE marked effect in improving the sound insulating proper- ties for higher tones. Similar tests conducted upon a number of window units of various types justify the — 105 108 103 10? | 10! Figure 6. ; Curve 1. Reduction produced by single 4 glazed window 3/16” plate. Curve 2. bre By double glazed window, with panes set in putty. Curve 3. By double glazed window, panes set in felt. statement that the sound-insulating properties of such constructions depend upon the mass and stiffness of the entire unit rather than upon the properties of the mater- ials used. Figure 7 presents the reduction of sound intensity pro- duced by doors of various types. Curve 1 is for a light 10+ 10? 102 10! Figure 7. Curve 1. Reduction produced by door of 4%” steel. Curve 2. By 4%” plate glass with cross bracing. Curve 3. By %” plate without cross bracing. Curve 4. By -3/16” small leaded panes. Curve 5. By %” panes 10”x Lg”: _ PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS :3T ; four panel door of birch veneer. Curve 2 is for a solid _ oak door, 134 inches thick. Curve 3 shows the reduction produced by a double walled ‘‘ice box’’ door, made of heavy pine, the intervening space being filled with heat insulating material. Interestingly enough, it was found that a solid steel door, 14 of an inch in thickness, was ‘much more effective in reducing the amount of the trans- mitted sound than were any of the other door construe- tions tested. Curve 4 indicates that, in general, only about 1/1000 of the sound was transmitted by this door. The net results of these investigations point to the con- clusion that the highest degree of sound insulation is in the use of materials having the greatest mass and stiff- ness, rather than in those in which the natural damping is greatest. It has been generally supposed that soft fiexible mater- ials possess great virtues in preventing the passage of sound. This opinion, no doubt, arises from their known value as insulators for heat, as well as to their property of being highly absorbent of sound. Our experiences in the usé of such materials in securing the necessary sound insulation in the laboratory led to serious question as to the validity of this belief. Accordingly a study of a number of materials of this general character has been made. Due to its wide spread use as a sound absorbent for the reduction of reverberation, uncovered hair felt . was the first material tested. In Figure 8, the logarithm- ic reductions of intensity of transmitted sound produced by different thicknesses of this material are shown. The point of most practical significance is the relatively small reduction of intensity of the transmitted sound as com- pared with material such as glass and steel. For all but the highest tones, four inches of this material is less ef- fective than one-fourth of an inch of plate glass. It will be further noted that the sound insulating efficiency rises rapidly with rising pitch. If the logarithmic reduction be plotted against the thickness of the material as in | Figure 9, the relation-is seen to be linear, that is, each succeeding layer reduces the intensity of the transmitted sound by a constant ratio. This leads to the conclusion that the reduction of intensity by such a material is-a a, OV EL ee ‘ae ae Cael . way 3 eh Rng ART a 38 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE > pure absorption process, and makes it possible to express ie the insulating efficiency in terms of the thickness and two experimentally determinable coefficients. The extension ote of the study to a large number of materials of the same character leads to the general conclusion that their in- sulating efficiencies follow the order of their densities. Another, somewhat different application of the Sound Chamber method has been an experimental study of the Figure 8. Reduction of Intensity of Sound trans- mitted by Hair Felt of varying thick- ness, plotted as a function of the pitch. sound amplifications produced by various hearing de- vices. The actual effectiveness of artificial aids to de- fective hearing has never been the subject of any more precise determination than the opinion of their users. Accordingly, an investigation was conducted to determine the efficiencies of a number of the more commonly used devices for the aid of the deaf. The eleven different in- “+ ee a PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS © 39 i struments tested may be classified as ‘‘Sound Collect- ors’’, ‘‘Sound traps’’, speaking. tubes, and telephones, Under the first group may be ineluded all the modifica- tions of the simple conical horn. The observations were made by a deaf observer, Mrs. M. H. Liddell, of Lafay- _ette, Ind., whose skillful aid it is a pleasure to acknow- ledge. They consisted in timing the duration of audible ~ sound, with the instrument held to the ear, and without. From the difference of these times, the amplification of sound is computed as in the case of reduction by parti- | pL | bomaleardyre] ||| - / 2 s # Figure 9. Reduction of Intensity of Sound of dif- ferent pitches transmitted by Hair Felt, plotted as a function of the thickness. tions. The results showed that the order of amplifica- . tions produced followed that of the relative sizes of the » instruments. The largest one tried produced a magnifi- cation of some twenty fold. It is of interest to note that simply holding the hand to the ear was as effective an aid as any but the largest of the ear trumpets. The instru-. ments which I have denoted as sound traps are modifi- cations of the open horn, obviously designed to secure magnification of sound intensity by reflection and focus- ing of the sound by curved surfaces. That such effects ae Ste lati MBN aaa UA 40 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE are not produced was evidenced by the fact that devices of this character were no more effective than the open horn of the same dimensions. To reflect sound as a mir- ror reflects light, the dimensions of the reflecting surface must be large as compared with the wave length of the sound. When it is recalled that the wave lengths of tones in the middle register are of the order of several feet, it is apparent that any amplifying device based upon such a principle must of necessity be prohibitively large as a portable instrument. Hence there is no virtue in such instruments when small, other than that of their simple action as resonators. Figure 10. Logarithmic amplifications of Sound in- ~ tensities produced by artificial aids : to hearing. See Text. Telephonic-devices proved to be much more efficient as sound amplifiers than the simpler ear trumpets. In in- struments of this type, however, the maximum amplifica- tions are limited to a small range of tones in the neigh- borhood of the natural frequencies of the transmitter and receiver diaphragms. The logarithmic amplifications pro- duced by the largest of the ear trumpets [curve 1] and by one of the better known telephonic devices [curve 2] are shown in Figure 10. The upper curve shows the amplification necessary to enable the deaf observer to hear sounds as faint as those that can be heard by normal Pea phies PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS | 41 ears. Expressed in Rare of physical intensity, the am- _ plification required to produce normal sensitivity for this observer is of the order of 100,000 fold. The best of the ear trumpets produced a magnification of some twenty fold, while the telephone at the frequency for which it was most efficient magnified the intensity some two hun- ‘dred fold. Study of the ear, regarded simply as a piece of physi- eal apparatus, has been a field of investigation sadly neglected by physicists. What is known of the perform- ance of the ear in a quantitative way is lamentably small. Otologists readily admit that the physical methods they are forced to employ for want of better are deplorably inadequate, as compared with similar methods employed in the diagnosis of defects of vision. A program of inves- tigation in this field has been begun. The first problem attacked has been that of the determination in absolute units of the minimun sound intensity that will produce the sensation of sound. The results of previous investi- gations on this question have shown enormous differ- ences. Thus Wien, working in Germany, obtained re- sults indicating a sensitivity of normal ears for tones in the middle and upper registers 10,000 times as great as that determined by Lord Rayleigh. In our Laboratory, ~ Mr. F. W. Kranz has spent almost two years upon this problem. Using a number of methods, results have been obtained, discordant at first, but now showing satisfae- tory agreement, as sources of error have been eliminated one after another. The energies to be measured are ex- tremely small, and the experimental difficulties are great. Perhaps the most striking of the results is the wide va- riation of apparently normal hearing. Of the twenty normal ears examined, the least sensitive required for the perception of the tone 512 vibrations, 100 times that required by the most sensitive. At a pitch two octaves above this, the maximum variation of sensitivity was by a factor of 1,000. In general, the range of tones for which the ear is most sensitive is the third octave above middle C, where the sensitivity is about 10,000 times as great as for the octave below this tone. In the region of maximum sensitivity, Mr. Kranz’ measurements indicate 42 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE that amplitudes of vibration of the same order as atomic dimensions, namely 10° ems., produce the sensation of sound. The extension of the method to other problems of audition promises to yield much valuable information upon a subject in which such knowledge is badly needed. These are some of the problems that have been at-— tacked and partially solved during the three years of the Laboratory’s existence. Beginnings have been made upon others, and there is still a large group for the study of which the Laboratory affords most excellent facilities. One of the most fundamental of these is the development of standard sources of sound of easily measurable acoustical output. An equally fundamental desideratum for acoustical measurements is a means of measuring sound intensity as energy, simply, independ- — ently of its pitch. All of our sound measuring devices give readings that are functions of both pitch and in- tensity, so that both of these factors must be taken into. account in acoustical measurements as now made. The status of our present investigational methods is that which existed in the measurement of radiation before the development of the bolometer and the sensitive thermo-couple. Rapid advance in the quantitative study of acoustical problems awaits the development of cor- responding means for sound measurement. The meas- urement of noise, which is sound without definite pitch characteristics, is at present impossible. One of the outstanding lessons of the war was the dis- covery of the military and naval possibilities of acous- tical methods. Equally impressive was the discovery of the entire inadequacy of our quantitative knowledge of this branch of Physics. The control and reduction of sound becomes one of vital importance in view of the multiplication of sources of noise in this mechanical age and the increasing congestion of living and working con- ditions of modern life. Hence research in Acoustics offers a pleasant prospect of contributions of practical value to scientific knowledge, and a laboratory devoted to this purpose should fill a useful place in the scheme of things scientific. — - PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 43 THE ATOM OF THE CHEMIST. W. H. Ropesusu, University or Inirnots. The chemist has believed in the existence of the atom _ for more than one hundred years. The fact that the different elements combine to form compounds in certain definite proportions by weight can be most easily ex- plained by assuming each element to be made up of dis- crete particles, all of the same mass in a given element but of different masses for different elements. But while this explanation of the laws of chemical combina- tion was the only satisfactory one that could be offered, nevertheless, until a few years ago, not a single direct proof of the existence of atoms had been obtained. As a matter of fact, about twenty years ago a school of chemists arose, headed by Ostwald, who doubted the existence of atoms. They said the atomic theory was an attempt to explain nature by a crude mechanical analogy, and that matter was not the coarse grained sort of affair that these literal minded people made it out to be. They said that the people who believed in atoms did so because they had a psychological intuition which they got from observing dust particles. One can divide a dust particle into finer and finer particles, but the imagination balks at continuing this process of division indefinitely. So these literal minded people said that one must ultimately arrive at a particle of such fineness that it could not be further divided and hence is the in- divisible atom. Likewise, said the antagonists of the atomic theory, these people think of a liquid like water not as a fluid but as a discontinuous medium made up of hard, solid molecules which were freer to slide over one another, for the reason that the hnman mind grasps the idea of particles of unchanging size and shape much more readily than it does that of fluid matter. And so a gas, instead of being a continuous medium able to ex- pand indefinitely, must be made up of hard elastic par- ticles flying about in space. On the other hand, these literal minded chemists, and they comprised a great majority, went ahead serenely = «oe Viger. pat bee hae thon a ie wane hee ara Maal enn hy rb Pee J Z - atte rye $ 44 ILLINOIS. STATE ACADEMY or SCIENCE a building up a system of chemical soaitiaintion pane one upon the assumption of indivisible atoms—a system — which has proved extremely fruitful in bringing the facts of chemistry, especially organic chemistry, to light and which constitutes one of the most remarkable achieve- ments of human intelligence. Within the last few years, by a series of brilliant experiments, the existence of the 7 - atom has been established beyond a doubt. For most of the direct evidence of the existence of the atom we are indebted to the physicist. But the physicist was not content with demonstrating the existence of the atom. He has gone ahead and shown that the atom is made up in turn of electrons and positive nuclei and is of such complexity as to defy our comprehension. His work has aK proved that both schools of chemists were wrong. Atoms 3 exist, but they are not the hard, indivisible particles that, the chemist thought them to be. They are perhaps nothing but systems of electrical particles. These par- ticles themselves are nothing but centers of electrical force. There is nothing left for the man whose imagina- tion works through his tactual sense to rub between his fingers and say, ‘‘This is matter.’? The man who was happy with hard, indivisible atoms is no more comfort- able with this complicated atom that the physicist has forced upon him than he would have been 1 in the old days without any atoms at all. The chemist is interested primarily in the ability. of atoms to combine with atoms of other elements to form chemical compounds. The numerical measure of the ability of an atom to combine with other atoms has been called its valence, and the force which-binds one atom to another, as to the nature of which we have been until recently very much in the dark, has been designated as the valence bond. By ascribing to hydrogen one valence bond, oxygen two and carbon four, the organic chemist has built up a most extraordinary system of chemical valence which not only applies almost perfectly to sev- eral hundred thousand compounds, but which may al- most be said to predict the existence and the properties of this vast number of compounds as well as innumerable oF a ~ a er as Se ie: dip e Ball eg x ji ‘ 4 _-—-- PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 45 ; other compounds which yet await syntheses in the laboratory. 2 When we come to inorganic chemistry, the situation - is different. In the first place, the valence of many of the K elements is not a simple, definite number, but is a vari- - able quantity, some of the elements having as many as seven different numerical valences. In the second place, the valence bond is a different sort of a thing than the one we met in organic chemistry. If we electrolyze sodium chloride which has been brought into a liquid condition by solution or melting, the sodium travels in the direc- tion of the positive current, and the chlorine in the oppo- site direction, thus demonstrating that the sodium atoms are positively charged and the chlorine atoms negatively so. It has been recognized since the time of Faraday that the attraction of the positively charged sodium atom for the negatively charged chlorine atom would account fully for the valence bond in sodium chloride. It remained for the brilliant researches of Bragg and Bragg to show just how and why this was so. Physical experiments show that a sodium chloride crystal is made up of alternate positive and negative charges arranged in a so-called simple cubie arrangement, each positive charge surrounded by six negative charges, and each negative charge surrounded by six positives. These charges are not to be confused with the electron or ele- mentary positive charge, however. For with the posi- tive charge is: associated a mass equal to that of the sodium atom and with the negative clrarge a mass equal to that of the chlorine atom. Evidently, then, we have the charged atoms acting as indivisible units and bound to each other by electrostatic forces alone. In valence bonds of this nature, therefore, number has lost its sig- nificance, for apparently one sodium atom may attract the six chlorine atoms which surround it with as much foree as it would attract a single chlorine atom in a sodium chloride molecule in the gaseous state. Evident- ly, therefore, if we were to try to write sodium as we do carbon, oxygen and hydrogen in organic chemistry, with a certain number of dashes to represent its valence, we oa "aaa eae ee Fe ee Le ee e a; 37" iS 1) See. A Ae coy eeten WLU Aaa) te Tene gia ye 5 5 yak Fret ra. * 46 ee STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE — should be at a loss whether to put one dash to represent the sodium atom, or six. With the understanding, how- ever, which the plyaiciet has given us of the structure of sodium chloride, the uncertainty of the valence number causes us no difficulty; rather, the new viewpoint of the matter makes easily understandable the many interest- ing properties of that large class of substances of which sodium is a conspicuous example, known as electrolytes. On the other hand, in the case of the organic com- pounds, where the number system of valence works so satisfactorily, we have no physical evidence as to the structure or arrangement of the atoms in the molecules except that the atoms do not seem to be charged as they are in the case of sodium chloride. We must still rely upon the intuition of the chemist rather than the direct experiment of the physicist for an explanation of the force which we call a valence bond. Many chemists still prefer to regard valence as an abstract numerical prop- erty of the atom and content themselves with taking it as it exists without worrying about why it is so. On the other hand, with the conception of the atom as a positive nucleus whose charge is its atomic number surrounded by electrons, a physical chemist believes that valence is not simply a number, but that it can be explained in all cases as due to electrostatic forces between the positive nucleus of one atom, and the outer electrons of the same and other atoms. The theory of G. N. Lewis has met with most remarkable success in explaining the combina- tion of atoms in the molecules. This theory is based upon the conception of the atom which the physicist has given us, and I shall try to sketch for you its essential features. Let us consider the elements from lithium to neon in- clusive, which form the first row of eight in the periodic table. Lithium has an atomic number of three, glucinum, four, boron five, and so on, to neon with an atomic num- ber of ten, the elements being placed according to their atomic number. The atomic number is the number of positive charges on the nucleus, and we represent the nucleus of the atom by writing the atomic number with 4: = ™ et te PRESENTED AT GE seh Dice PRT, 47 - a plus charge after it. The neutral atom then must have as many electrons around the nucleus as it has positive charges on the nucleus. It should be observed that ex- cept in the cases of substances like sodium chloride where the atoms are alternately positively and negatively charged, the atoms must be on the average neutral. In our representation of the electrons, we have apparently arbitrarily placed two of the electrons close to the nu- cleus and the remaining electrons are arranged at some distance away from the nucleus. The following consid- eration, however, shows the justification for doing this. When lithium combines with fluorine to form lithium- fiuoride, we get a salt which resembles sodium chloride. The lithium atom becomes positively charged and the fluorine atom negatively charged. This can be brought about only by an electron passing from the lithium atom to the fluorine atom. The lithium atom, however, never loses more than one electron. This is a fact which has been recognized for along time. Even before the electron was discovered, it was thoroughly understood that the lithium atom could acquire only one positive charge while the glucinum atom combines with two fluorine atoms and acquires two positive charges. That is to say, the gluci- num atom may lose two electrons. Since it has four elec- trons, however, apparently there are two electrons in it just as in the lithium atom which may not be lost. We find the same considerations to apply throughout the rest of this row of elements, and we assume that these elec- trons are closer to the nucleus than those electrons which take part in a chemical reaction Those electrons which take part in a chemical reaction we, somewhat arbitrarily perhaps, assume to be at a greater distance from the nu- cleus and designate them as valence electrons. A valence electron, then, is an electron in the periphery of the atom. Lithium has one, glucinum two, boron three, and so on up to neon which has eight. Lithium combines with one fluorine atom, beryllium with two fluorine atoms, boron with three and carbon with four. Lithium fluoride and glucinum fluoride are salt-like in their character, that is, they resemble sodium chloride, and the valence bonds Sig err WE reads TOT ree er 48 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE which hold them together may be ascribed to the electro- static forces between the atoms when an electron passes from one atom to another leaving the one atom positively charged and causing the other atom to be negatively charged. Compounds of this type are called polar com- pounds because the molecule consists of a positive and a negative atom or atoms resembling a magnet with a north and a south pole. The reason that the electron passes so readily from the lithium atom to the fluorine atom ap- pears to be because the positive charge upon the nucleus of the fluorine atom is so much greater than that upon the lithium atom. The recipe for making a polar com- pound, that is, one of salt-like character, then, is to take two atoms with a considerable difference in the positive © charge upon their nuclei. This rule is subject to a modi- fication which will be obvious a little farther on. When that modification is introduced, it is found to be verified absolutely by the facts of chemistry. When we consider boron trifluoride, we find that the difference in positive charges upon the nuclei of the two atoms in question is not so great. Therefore, the tendency for an electron to leave the boron atom and go to the fluorine atom will be very much less. As a matter of fact, boron trifluoride does not appear to be a polar substance, that is, of salt- like character, and when we consider carbon tetrafluoride, where the fluorine has only three positive charges more than the carbon, we have a compound which has no re- semblance whatsoever to a Salt. There is no reason to believe that the electron has left the carbon atom and gone to the fluorme atom, and we are forced to the con- clusion that the valence bonds here must be quite differ- ent in character from those in lithium fluoride. G. N. Lewis has proposed the theory that the valence bond in a compound of this non-polar type consists of two elec- trons occupying a position somewhere intermediate be- tween the two atoms. We do not have time to go into the detailed considerations which led Lewis to the idea that a non-polar bond consisted of two electrons. We can only try out the arrangement of a number of compounds to see how it will work out and, of course, that is in the last analysis the only consideration of importance in regard aa eC ei geee) ew! SP eee aoe > Spee hee es " ys: 7 PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS . 49 to any theory. It may be noted at once, however, that if two electrons are to be placed between atoms for each valence bond, it will in general lead to an even number of electrons in any molecule. Remarkably enough, all but a very few of the hundreds of thousands of chemical com- pounds do contain an even number of electrons. It may be noticed that if we take the old valence theory of or- ganic chemistry where carbon has four valence bonds and hydrogen one, and assume that these valence bonds link, not with each other, but from atom to atom, then the electron in the Lewis theory of valence simply replaces the valence bond in the old system. The application of - this theory of valence to organic chemistry in general, then, becomes very simple. Since carbon combines with four fluorine atoms, we might expect nitrogen to combine with five and oxygen with six. But no such compounds occur. The reason ap- pears to be fairly obvious. The forces of repulsion be- tween the nitrogen and fluorine nuclei are so great that the atoms refuse to remain in combination with each other. When we come to the neon atom, we find a pe- culiar state of affairs; neon does not combine with any other atom. We might explain its refusal to combine with nitrogen or oxygen as due to the repulsion of the positive nuclei, but there appears to be no reason why it should not take an electron away from a weak atom like lithium. The conclusion which we are forced to is this: Neon has eight electrons in its outer or valence shell. There must be something about the geometry of the ar- rangement of eight electrons about an atom which makes it peculiarly satisfactory to the forces between the elec- trons. Eight electrons may be comfortably arranged in the outer surface of the atom but no more electrons may be introduced into this arrangement. Sodium, with an atomic number of eleven, resembles lithium in its prop- erties and can acquire only one positive charge. That is to say, it has only one valence electron. We must con- clude then that in the sodium atom the eight electrons are in a condition similar to the two electrons in the lithium atom. We then represent the sodium atom. as hae Ny hd VOM a et Be ee Se iy AA AE SY ding | 50 x ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ~ having eleven positive charges upon its nucleus, two elec- trons close to the nucleus, eight more outside of these two, and the one valence electron still outside these eight forming the beginning of a new shell of outer or valence electrons. The second row in the periodic table thus be- comes a repetition of the first row, the number of valence electrons increasing with the atomic number until we reach the rare gas argon, the only difference being that the second row has an inner shell of eight electrons The chemical properties of these elements bear out this con- elusion absolutely. If time permitted, we could go on through the periodic table of elements, showing how the properties of these elements may be explained by as- suming that the electrons are arranged in series of shells, one about the other, the outer shell always composed of the valence electrons. Since this group of eight seems to be a peculiarly stable arrangement for the electrons about an atom, we should expect that those atoms which have less than eight elec- trons in their outer shells would try to acquire eight electrons when they enter into a chemical compound. This proves to be the case. It does not apply, of course, © to those atoms which are relatively weak, that is, those atoms which have a small positive charge upon the nu- cleus, because we have seen that when they enter into chemical combination they lose their valence electrons entirely. But, for the atoms beginning with carbon, which do not lose their valence electrons to another atom in a chemical combination, we. find in a vast majority of cases they combine with other atoms in such a way that they complete their shell of valence electrons up to the number eight. An inspection of such typical compounds as carbon tetrafluoride, methane, ammonia, water and hydrogen fluoride, will show that this is the case. The hydrogen atom, it may be remarked here, with only one positive charge upon its nucleus and only one electron of any kind, appears to be completely satisfied with two electrons instead of eight. But this is what we might ex- pect since we have been led to the conclusion that all atoms have two electrons arranged very close to the nu- cleus. Hydrogen and helium with atomic numbers of one ss i: ral he aided nl oa ica ciclo a & ao saw ae ee eee 603.9 SUCRE EUNSOR Se oars See are he a he ocal o.c'a 0 ala cinaenre 2908.8 EDECEET PICMECELE CSS ROMEE Pots oy: Ne ain cea x aiaie ea wre. © Miura So ate 708.0 S-irinie:, ACHE. BOM lo opigkicn ed ade «a ct Scie nls Cu ohe 126.0 Petey retheae: NOTE: POM. ora]. Sales aie mis warmer os melo wd ohare 6098.4 EPRERE RETO) Ie Reetcne oie aa ct teeta ain octet eha's arn.e'a. cae 1177.0 11626.1 HYPOTHETICAL COMBINATION CAC / DICATNONALC ©. Le. c's 4 cols aio chlo oeald cian ce os 2.4 MasneSium) BicArpOnate foes osc none oalm owen es ae 846.9 Marnesinm Carhonace Sie ecsts oe clas seuss eos as sales’ = aA OF (Bd | Magnesium Sulphate ................: Roc we eek Dalene 2029.9 Sori «SUI pHatenaG 2 aS. os duntno acinomae e wa sasecas 6625.9 SOG CHIORIGGI saa ofan e coin adn olsiace dmian ot 1177.0 10859 .2 Beas FOIE NC wis 2205 cele ate mare, oreo miegs) aco wise ole ah nom 12429.0 STC Tay kg FR inde RPC Mesa bleed LOE AS RM as 12.2 Iron Oxide plus Aluminum Oxide................ 4.0 Considerable quantities of organic matter and of in- soluble matter were present. The water stood for a long time in a warm room. It is quite possible that some of the calcium bicarbonate was decomposed in this way, precipitating out calcium carbonate. This may account to some degree for the small amount of calcium found. Devils Lake is shallow, twenty feet being its maximum depth. High winds churn the water frequently during the spring, summer, and autumn. Obviously the oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide would have a continual and rapid vertical distribution during the open season. Analysis of gases at different levels of the lake in 1911 gave the following readings: 1911 Depth June 1 Surface 7.49 ce of 0; per liter of water—13’ level 5.76 cc June 29 3 5.39 a LE a AMY, By Laine July 22 < 5.55 i “3 34635 July 31 = 5.46 Ib “~~ 42:667= Ane 7 a 5.40 Bottom 18’ 2.14 “ | . 88 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE For the purpose of this particular discussion, the changes in the physical and chemical factors within a dying lake have particular importance biologically. The student of physiology dealing with plankton, filamentous algae, higher plants, higher animals, and the bacteriolo- gical organisms inhabiting the waters of a lake which is gradually disappearing, has an extremely mixed culture, containing many varieties of organisms, all of them un- dergoing seasonal and periodic change in number of any one form and in the proportional numbers among all forms. This great natural culture solution affords an opportunity for studying permeability, osmotic pressure, and the limits of adaptability of the organisms as well as a study of their reactions upon the medium within which they are contained. An illustration of these points may be had in the reaction of every organism which ean live in the waters of a gradually dying lake whose salinity is continually advancing. The reactions of the organisms which survive afford some explanation perhaps for the absence of organisms which cannot survive. Professor Oltmanns made some very interesting studies of the va- rious factors involved when he undertook to transfer cer- tain green algae to water of higher salt concentration. He says: ‘‘Spirogyra and Chara withstand a salt con- centration of 0.5%. However, they are unable to with- stand a 1%: concentration because they cannot take in sufficient salts to raise temporarily the osmotic pressure of their cell sap. In other words, they are unable to bring about proper osmotic alterations rapidly enough to adapt themselves to the saline habitat.’’ Prior to 1889 the waters of Devils Lake has been popu- lated with vast numbers of great northern pike. Authen- tic reports state that these fish were taken out in carload lots by those who speared them through the ice. For some reasons unknown to the layman, these food fishes which appeared in actual shoals during the years pre- ceding 1889, suddenly vanished. The three prevailing explanations of the pseudo-scient- ists were that the water had become poisonous, that in- sufficient food was present, and that some disease had eaused the fish to die. While any of these might have , Vex a ey a atts twee xa - : = Oe a i“ WS rere : a ct oee . J 5f 6) Rei A ay aoe ce Fa! ol E ty as uae pea He ? 4.4 Ngee 3 Pay NS ° © . i) as . 4 . p Faia ue £ ade * eas 3 Mey - t 1 * eG Sy! . a Ain (es col, >.) Var axe ie. oe So Ne é ete ‘PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 89 n , ~ been true, a study of the biological situation led to the belief that no one of them had the slightest relation to the sudden disappearance of this important food supply formerly secured from Devils Lake. What really had happened was that due to the isolation of the Devils Lake waters from fresh water lakes to the north having a slightly higher altitude, with the increased dessication during the arid years from 1885 to 1890, the water level in the fresh water lakes and in Devils Lake had fallen be- low the bottom of the creek or coulee channel which con- nected them. The great northern pike apparently fol- lowed the habits of the ocean salmon and migrated in early spring, passing through the connecting coulee to the sweet water lakes north, where shallow fresh water beds produced large areas of favorable spawning ground, thus insuring the propagation and continuance of the swarm- ing pike. In the autumn, it was reported that the pike migrated from the shallow sweet water lakes to the deeper, and therefore better protected winter habitat of Devils Lake. When the connecting coulee dried up and Devils Lake became segregated from the spawning grounds in the sweet water lakes, reproduction of pike ceased. Obviously, if an organism is prevented from propagating itself, it soon vanishes from the earth, as did the wild pigeon. Following the studies of the physiographic, physical, and chemical changes, certain experiments were initiated in the adaptation of higher plants and animals to the water of Devils Lake. These organisms were taken from bodies of sweet water within the neighborhood of Devils Lake, or secured from the United States Fish Hatchery. Experiments were tried with yellow perch, rainbow trout, bull heads, and other material available for ex- _perimentation. Perhaps the following details of a few experiments may be sufficient for this report of the physi- cal reaction of higher organisms in the water of the dying lake: Prior to the initiation of our studies at the Biological Station in 1909, many attempts had been made to restock Devils Lake with fish. Much private, municipal, and fed- eral money had been spent in fruitless efforts to secure 90 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE this greatly desired result. A study of the experiments which had been made by preceding workers offered small hope of success provided their procedures were closely followed. However, to make quite sure, a duplication of the former experiments was made with the result that those in charge of the Station work became convinced that there was no hope of success in following the lines of procedure formerly instituted. The problem was entirely too complex for any guess work or merely empirical pro- eedure. In other words, it was manifest that successful culture and distribution of fish rested wholly upon as- certaining, first, the physical, chemical, and biological facets which entered into this very complex problem. As already indicated, these facts could be learned only through analyzing many hundreds of collections, carrying forward many experiments, and determining the limiting factors of the life already present in Devils Lake. After determining that there seemed to be no inhibiting toxic agents present, that there was ample oxygen in the water and thousands of tons of available fish food, an effort was then made to determine whether a successful method of introducing fresh water fish into Devils Lake might be established by following a procedure similar to that which characterized the natural situation in former years. Consequently, a series of tanks was built in the Biological Station and they were supplied with special devices for adding oxygen to the water as it was pumped into the tanks. Yellow perch and other forms experimented with would | frequently show great distress and die with an hour when placed in shallow water at a temperature of 24 de- grees C., whereas when the temperature was kept lower, from 17 to 20 degrees C., they appeared to be quite com- fortable. In view of this, the water was introduced into the tanks at 17 to 19 degrees C. The aerating devices as- sured a gas content of 4 to 6 cubic centimeters of oxygen per liter. Yellow perch, steel-head trout, large-mouthed black bass, pike, and some other varieties of fish were used in the experiments conducted during the summers of 1911 and 1912. - PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS or It was further found that the fish taken from fresh water lakes and transported 100 miles or even a shorter distance required some time to recover from the effects of transportation. Usually the fish which were weakened or injured through transportation would be eliminated during the first four to six days they were in the experi- mental tanks. At the expiration of this period, Devils Lake water was mixed with the water from the deep well in the portion of one to three. At intervals of two to three days, the proportion of Devils Lake water entering the tanks was increased until the wholly undiluted De- vils Lake water was supplied to the experimental tanks. Under average conditions, with average shipments, it was found that this process of increasing the per cent of Devils Lake water could be completed within ten to twelve days. After the fish had been retained in these experi- mental tanks for a period of one to three weeks, they were. transferred to anchored floating fish pens in order that their condition and behavior might be kept under ob- servation for several weeks. It will be noted that the specific gravity of the Devils Lake water to which they had become adjusted in the acclimatizing experiment was 1.019. It is to be further observed that they were taken from water having an osmotic pressure of .03 to .04 of an atmosphere and they were placed in water having an osmotic pressure of 4.6 atmospheres. As previously stated, it was found necessary to keep the temperature of the tank water within the range of 17 to 19 degrees C., and to maintain an oxygen content not lower than 4 cubic centimeters per liter in order to secure the best results. The transfer to the floating fish pens in the lake was more successful if it was done in the evening or during cloudy days, presumably because the temperature of the lake water was lower at those times than during periods when it had been subjected to the heat accompanying bright sunshine for some hours. Floating tanks were found to be far more satisfactory than submerged ones. The latter gathered too much fioating debris and sand which, of course, would interfere materially with the respiratory apparatus of the fish placed in the submerg- ed pens. f 4 92 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Of the fish used, the yellow perch and steelhead trout proved the most resistant and satisfactory. Excellent results were obtained during the summer of 1911 in the tests with these two varieties. However, it seemed de- sirable to postpone publication until the experiments could be extended and the results verified by subsequent cultures. Consequently, early in the season of 1912, large reinforced concrete tanks were built and the ex- periments were conducted out of doors. Yellow perch were gotten again from the nearby lakes and Turtle Mountain region and passed through the control experi- ments, duplicating those of 1911. When the perch were transported properly and the acclimatizing experiments conducted with care, the percentage of loss was only 10 per cent, including the losses which came from injuries in transportation and failure to recover from the fatigue of the trip. It was found that from 300 perch received on the 19th of July, 246 were vigorous and absolutely normal when examined in the floating fish pens on August 12. The following year we recaptured yellow perch from Devils Lake, proving that they had survived the change one year. In the latter part of May, 1912, a shipment of rainbow trout was received from the United States Fish Hatchery at Spearfish, South Dakota. They were placed in tanks containing well water on May 22. There were many fatalities during the month of June, due to mechanical troubles with the pumping plant of the station. On July 3, the trout which remained alive from the shipment re- ceived six weeks before were transferred to the tanks outside of the building into which there was introduced a mixture of lake and well water. An exceedingly high temperature during the 3d and 4th of July raised the temperature of the upper lake water 10 degrees above that which had been in the indoor tank water. Further- more, they had been placed in newly built conerete tanks from which soluble salts had not been sufficiently removed by long continued washings with the fresh or well! water. The result was that out of 100 placed in the tank at this time, 40% died within 36 hours. There was a lowering of the oxygen content of the water, a great increase in Si eee ye a ss PAPERS PRESENTED AT 4 Sa —. : , Me + . £ es , © . -~E ee. Nae rat Bs ot sy eae) ¥ Be. Fa a ve Sa ar temperature, and an increase in the soluble materials in the newly built tanks, a combination which was serious .- for so delicate a fish as the rainbow trout. On July 17, it was deemed that the increase of Devils Lake water had been carried to a point where undiluted lake water might be used. No serious results were noted. These fish were fed macerated liver. Most of them fed freely and were active, thriving, and growing. Some of them refused to eat from the beginning of the experi- mental period, and did not grow, but remained in an ab- normal condition throughout the entire time they were kept in captivity. On August 14, 48 were transferred to the floating fish pen in the lake. Several of these trout were diminutive and represented the starved, unnour- ished members which had survived. Two weeks later, on August 29, 34 rainbow trout, after 98 days of experi- mental work, were turned into the lake. They had grown from 214 centimeters to 514 centimeters. They were ex- ceedingly active and vigorous and seemed to be wholly adjusted to their new surroundings. While the experi- ments with the rainbow trout were attended with far greater losses than was the case in the experiments with the perch, the final results indicated that we were ap- proximating very closely proper methods of accli- matization when we were able to save any of the exceed- ingly delicate rainbow trout and secure marked growth and great vigor and activity in the stock which were turned loose at the end of the 98 day experiment. As previously stated, to the plant and animal physiolo- gist it is obvious that biological studies in the waters of a dying lake afford conditions not only for interesting ad- justments within the cells of the organisms experimented with, but there is afforded also a remarkable opportunity of investigation for all kinds of cellular biology. This is particularly true in the study of phyto-plankton. The changes in the membrane, the plasmolysis, and the gradu- al acclimatization in acquiring the ‘‘euryhyaline habit’’, as Professor Oltmanns expresses it, may be studied with the one cell organism in a remarkably successful manner. While one does not attempt to draw general conclusions from a few isolated experiments, nevertheless he is con- GENERAL SESSIONS 93 Ren —— z Pink: -“S 9 ale E> Deh Se eee Bode at ad gle eh iat ha pe mea) Eas FP toy yee hn d td ia F i 2 OOS ee ae pees ¥ hy we Bh it Loe _” a “ad el Pe EP eye na x ¢ Pa aha a * site oe.) eee oe » Ing rT) ~ 94 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE vineed that the rich and rare opportunities for the study of the physiology of multicellular organisms, a study even of such recondite subjects as ductless glands and internal secretions in multicellular organisms, are all of them il- luminated, or may be illuminated, by a study of the uni- cellular and multicellular organisms which inhabit the waters of a dying lake prior to the time when the higher plant and animal life vanished because of the over-con- centrated solutes in the water. o~ “ 4 a Ma ca os a ‘4 , ‘ veh. BRS Spa fo Se.» ey PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 95 SCIENCE VERSUS EMPIRICISM IN PUBLIC HEALTH WORK Isaac D. Rawtiyes, M. D., Director, [nnivots Depart- MENT OF Pusiic Heattu, SPRINGFIELD Definition: The Century Dictionary and Encyclopedia gives as one of the definitions of empiricism—‘‘an undue reliance on mere individual experience’’. In this sense, empiricism as the basis for effective pub- lic health work is often inaccurate, inefficient and expen- | sive when measured by the better results obtained through the application of exact scientific information. The French in endeavoring to build the Panama Canal made use of the empiric knowledge then existing in at- tempting to combat the hotbed of pestilential diseases which they found in Panama. It is said that each cross- tie in the Panama railroad, which is many miles long, is a monument to the death of some Frenchman sacrificed in the unsuccessful attempt to build the Panama Canal. This failure in a large measure was due to the use of methods for control] of diseases founded on inaccurate un- scientific experience. Contrast the thousands of deaths, the enormous sick rate, and this failure based on the false deductions of em- piricism with the brilliant success of the American at- tempt. During the years which had elapsed between these two attempts to construct the Panama Canal, em- piricism had yielded to science. Gorgas had accurate, exact, scientific facts as to the etiology, mode of spread and true methods of prevention and eradication of these pestilential diseases, instead of the exploded, mistaken theories used by the French based on supposed facts, the result of the deductions of experience. Again today, contrast the status in yellow fever con- trol with the appalling situation existing in 1878 under the empiric methods in yellow fever epidemics as related in the following quotation concerning a southern city: ‘‘Less than one short year ago, there was enacted a tragedy which has no parallel in the annals of this coun- try, and but few in the annals of mankind; a tragedy the My Peal 96 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE principal actor in which was the insatiate monster, Death. Along these streets and in these homes the heavy shad- ows of his dark wings fell, sweeping often into one common grave whole families, from the gray-haired sire down to the little babe which nestled in the crib. The very atmosphere was thick with his poisonous shafts, and it seemed inevitable that this beautiful and thriving city of this great valley was doomed to witness the extinction of her every son and daughter. Here, the wail of anguish and suffering went up from childless parents, parentless children, husbandless wives and wifeless husbands, un- til it touched the great humane heart of Christendom, and the fountains of charity were opened up, and a broad, steady stream flowed from every section; often coming in the form of a brave, philanthropic man, a fearless, de- voted woman, or in limitless quantities of money or sup- plies to meet the wants of the suffering and to sustain the strength of the well. It was here that the heroes and heroines were born; it was here that they died.’’ Compare this death and destruction, together with the panicky flight northward upon announcement of yellow fever in the South and the attending shotgun quarantine and drastic inspection with enormous expense and de- struction of property, with the sane and calm measures of today, consisting of screened isolation of the yellow fever patient and the destruction of the mosquito, with no thought of panic or extensive quarantine because ac- curate, effective, scientific methods of control now exist. Truly, scientific knowledge simplifies health measures. In malaria, too, we know today that this disease is not a visitation either of providence or noxious gases but rather a visitation of a certain variety of mosquito.. To banish this disease, science has shown it is necessary only to abolish the breeding places of this variety of mosquito. In the diagnosis of malaria, also, the old empiricism of the old style doctor with the confusion of typhoid fever, yellow fever and other fevers with malaria are a thing of the past, since the microscope reveals the blood picture and gives an accurate diagnosis of malaria. At present in public health work in progressive com- munities, the basis for the termination of diphtheria oe a ae tS ge iare a aid Retr We etme he Se eerie hd ¥ 4 ‘ 3 7 4 oer ‘PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 97 quarantine is the exact knowledge obtained through the examination of cultures from the nose and throat of pa- tient and close contacts. Two cultures negative as to the diphtheria bacilli means safe to release. Where the re- lease is made on the experience basis of a twenty-one day quarantine since the onset, some cases are held longer than is necessary, while others are released be- fore contagion is gone. Thus we have an accurate method replacing an inaccurate, unsafe one. Again, the positive reaction of a Schick test is a sci- entific indicator of a person’s susceptibility to diphtheria, and the permanent immunization with toxin-antitoxin of such a person thus positively proven to be susceptible to diphtheria is an accomplishment of science over the empiric fallacious. procedures of former days in attempt- ing active immunization of the individual against diph- theria. Formerly, in our epidemiological studies, we were sat- isfied under empiric methods to say whether cases of typhoid fever during an epidemic came from water, milk or other food, but today we want scientific data as to exact source of the contamination of these, whether the food- borne infection came from a typhoid ease or a typhoid earrier. Cultures and microscope can determine the ex- act source, and adequate quarantine will eliminate the person spreading the infectious material to the water, milk or other food. You thus scientifically stamp out your epidemic. Formerly, on basis of experience, we refused to termi- nate any cases of measles in less than 16 to 18 days from . date of onset. Today, scientific accurate data has re- vealed that the contagious stage in measles is over by the end of the third day following the appearance of the eruption, so we release the patient from quarantine in five days instead of holding him as formerly for 16 to 18 days. The former public Fathi procedure based on empiric data of quarantining all cases of cerebrospinal menin- gitis resulted in many useless quarantines, while the scientific and other data now obtainable through spinal puncture and microscopic examination permit us_ to 98 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE quarantine only that infectious form of cerebrospinal meningitis due to the meningococcus and to exclude from a useless quarantine the tuberculous, simple and other — varieties. We need but recall the ravages, the panic and the feel- ing of helplessness of the populace in the presence of widespread typhus fever epidemics to get a vision of the blessings and benefits of scientific data to our people, to say nothing of the financial economy now that we know that by thorough delousing operations we will prevent and protect against this often fatal disease. The allotted time does not permit us to cite other equally important victories of real science over former empiricism in connection with diseasés in the realm of public health activities. Neither will time allow us to take to task the scoffers who declare no advance is being made in exact information and scientific data relating to preventive medicine as it concerns public health. Suffice it to recall the sense of security we all feel today, thanks to scientific contributions, as contrasted with the horror, ravages and panic of other days in the certainty with which epidemics of :— (a) Smallpox ean be controlled by vaccination. (b) Typhoid fever can be controlled by sanitation, vaccination and quarantine of carriers. (c) Yellow fever can be prevented and controlled by sereening of patient and destruction of the Stegomaia mosquito. (d) Malaria can be prevented and controlled by sereening patient and preventing the breeding of Anopheles mosquitoes by drainage, oiling and other anti- mosquito eradication procedures. (e) Asiatic cholera and Bubonie plague are prevented and controlled by accurate, definite, scientific measures. The accomplishment of all of these and many other re- sults spell victory of science over empiricism. PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 99 STORED ENERGY Francis B. Danrets,* THE Putuman Company, CHIcaco Sir Ray Lankester, in one of the interesting papers published under the title, ‘‘Sctsence FRom an Easy Cuair,’’ complains that ‘‘glib writers in various journ- als’’ ‘‘with a false assumption of knowledge’’ ‘‘pour forth’’ ‘‘twaddle’’ concerning science. It should be said that he puts twaddle in quotation marks, also, with the parenthesis ‘‘ (if I may use an expressive term)’’. May not these ‘‘glib’’ journalists come back with a complaint that ‘‘glib’’ scientists, of high reputation for actual know- ledge, do worse, in that they teach ‘‘twaddle’’ to journal- ists, that is, to people generally who are not specialists in science? Is not stored energy an example? It is taught to non-specialists by writers of high scientific reputation. Energy is an important word in the technical litera- ture of the science of physics. It is treated of as existing in two forms: kinetic and potential. In books written by scientists to attract, or edify, purchasers among the gen- eral public, potential often approaches in meaning, or is transformed into, stored. This meaning has had a ecuri- ous effect. It has inspired flights of fancy which may, perhaps, be called poetry, in the sense of ‘‘imaginative language, or composition, whether expressed rythmically or in prose’’ (Webster). At the same time it has operat- ed as a warning against venturing upon prosaic data. The following specimens are culled from ‘‘Naturn’s Mr RACLES’’ (Gray, 1899), ‘‘Matrer anp Ejnwercy’’ (Soddy, 1912), ‘‘Scrence anp Marertauism’’ (Elliott, 1919), ‘‘CREATIVE CHEMIsTRY’’ (Slosson, 1920), and ‘‘ Histort- caL Grotocy’’ (Schuchert, 1920) : ‘“‘These great’’ coal ‘‘beds of stored-up sun-energy* * * warm our houses, * drive the machinery of our fac- tories, * send the locomotives flying across the continents and the steamships over the oceans.”’ * ‘‘Hinergy may sleep indefinitely * * In the potential form, in coal, it has persisted for untold ages; once re- leased, heat is the sole ultimate product * * *. The power * Died April 18, 1922. 100 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE of sunlight and coal, electric power, water power, winds and tides do the work of the world.’’ ‘‘By burning the coal, the energy which has so long been locked up is given forth afresh in its ne form of heat and light.’’ ‘*All life and all that life accomplishes depend upon the supply of solar energy stored in the food.”’ In plants ‘‘the kinetic energy of sunlight is trans- _formed * * * into the potential chemical energy of * food- stuffs. Animals * * * convert the potential chemical en- ergy of foodstuffs into the kinetic energy of locomotion and other activities.’’ These flowers of rhetoric are uniformly unaccompan- ied by a reference to an observation, experiment or line of reasoning on which they are based, nor has diligent search been able to find such in any literature. It is possible that the primary motor in all this is the phrase conservation of energy. We owe the phrase to a translator. Is it not an instance of unhappy scientific nomenclature? By those who are appropriately edu- cated it is understood as the technical name of a trans- cendent generalization regarding the physics of nature. But if the phrase should happen to be without illuminat- ing context, when seen for the first time by one not grounded in physics, he would be. likely to feel the need of a dictionary, unless diverted by the fancy that it was from an advertisement of a patent medicine held out as preservative of human vigor. He might not take the phrase in a scientific sense, because of the idea that conservation implies design, which, as controlling na- ture, however religiously believed in, is not within the present reach of science proper. But Conservation seems less questionable than Energy. ‘“Capacity for performing work’’ (Webster) fails to sat- isfy. A recent translator makes Arrhenius say: ‘‘Hy- erybody understands what is meant by energy.’’ What Arrhenius might have said if writing in English, is un- profitable conjecture. Men of Science use English ex- pressions such as these: ‘‘All forms of energy may be regarded as motion’’; ‘‘Knergy is motion’’; The princi- 7 te Sars an» dal. ~~ Wd beds. im I . =, FS inte aay DON Ny oe a a a m 4 te “ aap tus 2 2 ’ PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 101 ple of conservation of energy means that the total amount of ‘‘motion’’ in the universe, or system, ‘‘remains ever the same.’’ But a little further reading shows that the meaning is not settled by such expressions. The same book reads: ‘‘All forms of energy may be regarded as motion’’, and there is a ‘‘species of energy, named po- tential energy, in which nothing is moving.’’ The Cen- tury Dictionary defines kinetic energy as ‘‘energy in the form of motion’’, and potential energy as ‘‘energy existing in a positional form, not as motion’’. The most universal illustration of potential energy is a raised weight. The reader may happen to have seen the quotation from Crabb, in the New Revised Encyclopaedic Dictionary: ‘‘ With energy is connected the idea of activ- ity.’’ If so, he will be sure to ask himself what the activ- ity is doing in the weight while remaining raised, and will be disappointed by not being able to find in the book which gave the illustration, or in any other, either an - answer—which perhaps he would not expect—or so much as an intimation that such a question might arise. Another frequent illustration of potential energy is a eoiled watch spring. It is familiar knowledge that if a spring is of gas or rubber, heat is developed in the com- pression and absorbed upon the release. The reader who has no laboratory, but only books, would be much better satisfied with the illustration if it were accompanied by information as to whether similar heat phenomena at- tend the use of a metallic spring; also whether, in either case, the heat is adequate to the work. But nowhere is this question referred to. Conservation of energy is the technical name of the generalization, or principle, that the amount of energy in an isolated system remains the same, that is, never changes in quantity. Carl Snyder (‘‘The World Ma- chine,’’ 1907) says that ‘‘gravitation is a standing nega- tion of such a conecept’’. The raised weight illustration certainly induces the question: ‘‘Where does gravita- tion come in?’’ And if potential energy does not exist ‘‘as motion’’, the question arises whether a clear concept of potential energy can be consistent with an equally clear concept of the conservation of energy. The phrase per- TTA HN”. Sn eS > sakes et 102 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE petual motion would seem to be one that ‘‘everybody”’ | would understand more easily than conservation of en- ergy. It certainly would have been less likely to result. in the difficulties attending kinetic and potential. It has been buried in derision, however, because connoting a machine designed to thwart a fundamental method of na- ture. But when used so as to include the smallest parti- cles, as well as masses, it cannot be negatived—aunless by gravitation, the nature of which, though the subject of a great amount of speculation, remains as much a mys- | tery as ever. Professor Tyndall’s description of heat as a ‘‘mode of motion’’ seems better adapted to a clear con- cept than the modern expression ‘‘form of energy”’. Kixception is not taken to the term potential energy in a school book. The pupil who really cares will become scholar enough to understand. The objection is only to its use without the support of explanation or reference in books intended for the general public. It seems to be - responsible for stored energy. Possibly, also, it may mis- lead some who are educated in branches of science that do not involve general physics. An eminent, and gen- uinely scientific author, in such a branch, published the following: ‘‘TIn animals the final products of broken down proto- plasm are carbon dioxide, water, and a nitrogenous sub- stance called urea: These products are called excretory products. The animal machine is unable to utilize the energy which exists in the form of potential energy m these substances, and they are removed from the body.’’ (Italics mine. ) The italicized words are unnecessary. They are of the type termed, in legal phraseology, obiter. It was sug- gested to the author that they be omitted from later editions. They reappeared, however, though, to save his life, he could not have proved them, nor cited anything put forth as proof. Stored energy is the present subject. By its mention the writer is forcibly reminded of the memorable words of the famous philosopher, Mrs. Prig: ‘‘I don’t believe there’s no sich a person.”’ PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 103 As the quotations indicate, carbon (in fuel or food) is the leading illustration of stored energy. The quota- tion of the powers that ‘‘do the work of the world”’ is from so prominent an author in the literature of science as Professor Soddy. Please observe that coal is listed and oxygen not listed. Then perform the concrete ex- periment. Perhaps you can do so well enough in your mind. It has been performed countless millions of times by an ordinary fire, and thousands of times in the labora- tory. The chemistry is elementary. Compound (ap- proximately) 12 weight units of carbon, ordinarily a solid, possessing no readily perceptible activity and in- capable of combination without the application of exter- nal heat, with 32 like units of the most universally active substance known, oxygen, a gas, capable of combination whether cold or hot, and the result is heat and ight and 44 units of a substance more Obviously active than solid carbon and less obviously so than oxygen gas. The infer- ence requisite to sustain the illustration is that the mo- tion, or energy, manifested by the heat and light had, immediately before, been in the carbon and not in the oxygen. ‘*Can you beat it?’’ Please pardon the slang. The chemical weight units are of such class that com- mercial weights may be substituted, so that when you burn twelve tons of coal, or rather, of carbon in coal (plus the weight of the ashes, moisture and other irrelev- ant ingredients), you burn or consume thirty-two tons of oxygen, and besides the heat you were after, you pro- duce forty-four tons of carbon dioxide, that goes up the chimney. The light that is also produced is in the same category as the heat, and need not be considered separ- ately. Carbon, in wood or coal, has the appearance of a solid possessing no life that can be detected at the woodpile or coal bin. Oxygen, on the other hand, is a gas, which has life that manifests itself by keeping us alive. Moreover, it is, metaphorically, an all-devourer. By devouring ear- bon it makes carbon dioxide, by devouring hydrogen it has made all the water of the earth, by devouring silicon, etc., all the granite, by devouring iron all the rust, or iron oxide ore, and, by devouring other kinds of matter, 104 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE numerous other familiar substances. The compound, car- bon dioxide, possesses little or no such life, and is well known to be as certain as water to drown out the life of an animal or fire that is completely immersed in it. The purpose for which an ordinary fire is built is to produce a more desirable thing than carbon dioxide, namely, heat, which is described by one of the most emi- nent scientists of history as a ‘‘mode of motion’’. Can a person of ‘‘horse sense’’, without more evidence than the mere reputation, for science, of the writer who tells us of energy ‘‘stored-up’’ or ‘‘sleeping’’ or ‘‘locked up’’ in coal, believe for a moment that the heat of the fire comes from the carbon, and that the oxygen may be ignored? Can it be believed that such writer is not giving us “‘twaddle’’? ‘‘SoLipIriED SuNSHINE’” is the title of a chapter in a recent and most interesting book from which one of the above quotations was taken. The modest and straight- forward character of the book as a whole will banish any suspicion that this title was chosen because . ‘‘When fiction rises pleasing to the eye Men will be- heve”’ Sir Ray Lankester says (Second Series, 1912) that ‘“seience takes no heed of empty assertions unaccom- panied by evidence which can be weighed and measured.’’ Might he not have added ‘‘or common sense’’ to ‘‘sei- ence’’, or, at least, the common sense that is so fortunate as to be supplemented by sufficient education to enjoy scientific literature? But his remark, as made, implies that if the Master of Science, and Ph. D., who gave us ‘“Solidified Sunshine’’, had obtained that idealism from a friend, he would have asked the friend, in substance: . ‘‘How did you find out that sunshine, which includes heat, has taken a solidified, rather than a gaseous form, notwithstanding the familiar fact that the application of heat commonly tends to the production of the more tenu- ous form of matter?’’ A Master of Science will not be belittled by crediting his reader with enough mentality to recognize such ‘‘empty assertions’’, and to take no PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 105 heed of them unless the evidence is found in literature more complimentary to the reader. The literature above quoted has been written for the general reader. One of the books expressly says so, on its title page. If the general reader is to be fed upon imagination, why not give him something like this? — Oxygen is the most abundant terrestrial substance known. It is also the most important to our lives, if it is logical to compare the importance of essentials. Its importance is certainly the most obvious. That it is the breath of life is known to everyone whose education has progressed as far as the word oxygen. It supplies the warmth and movement of our bodies. It heats the fire that cooks a meal, warms a dwelling or actuates a boiler. The progress and noise of a railroad train are but other modes of a motion of molecule, atom, electron or something still nearer the infinitesimal, that, shortly before, was going on with inconceivable speed, but si- lently, invisibly, impalpably, in the oxygen of the air about our heads. In the animal processes carbon is the chief discard or waste. Oxygen is inhaled, picks up the carbon, and goes out with it. Then, with its load, the oxygen is wafted by atmospheric currents to a contact, at the appropriate time, with a trap which nature operates intermittently in green foliage. There the carbon is caught, and the oxygen, probably aided by an impetus from the sun, flies away to be again wafted by atmospheric currents to with- in the reach of the breathing of an animal that has eaten the carbon secreted by a leaf, when the cycle is repeated. If the last two paragraphs are wild in imagining all the work to come from the oxygen, let them be modified so as to read part from the oxygen and part from the ear- bon. The writer does not believe, nor disbelieve, them. He simply feels that without evidence they come as near being good poetry as the rhetorical specimens above quoted, which, without evidence, have been thrown at him as facts. Mr. G. K. Chesterton, who, whether or not thought of s ‘‘glib’’, is not likely to be accused of assumptions, Pare tte ries oo 2. 106 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE either false or true, of the particular knowledge now — commonly classified as ‘‘science’’, has stated the case in graphic form (‘‘The Uses of Diversity,’’ 1920), the asterisks, in the quotation, standing for further em- bellishments : ‘There is a certain kind of modern book which ought to be blown to pieces with the dynamite of some great satirist like Swift or Dickens * * *. The kind of book I mean is the pseudo-scientific book. And by this I do not mean that the man who writes it is a conscious quack or that he knows nothing; I mean that he proves nothing; he simply gives you all his cocksure * * * opin- ‘ jons and calls it science. Books are coming out with so- called scientific conclusions—books in which there is actually no scientific argument at all. * * * I should like some evidence.”’ * kK * - PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 107 THE MUSEUM, THE ORIGINAL EXPONENT OF VISUAL EDUCATION* Frank C. Baker, Curator, Museum oF Naturat History, University oF InurNots We hear a great deal in these days about the value of visual education, and a society has been organized for the - promotion of this method of teaching. This is indeed one of natures most effective methods of teaching her children the laws of the universe. It is said that we ac- quire much more information through the eye than through any other sense organ of the body. One often hears the expression ‘‘seein is believin,’? which ex- presses this truth in a homely way. The museums of science and art have been for many years pioneers in the field of visual education, bringing to the public, more or less imperfectly in the earlier years, the facts of Science and the beauties of Art. The muse- um is often called the ‘‘peoples university,’’ and it is quite true that the great majority of the population of our large cities acquire their only knowledge of the great world about them by visits to the museums, art galleries, and zoological gardens, where the fowls of the air, the beasts of the field, and the fishes of the sea, past and present, are gathered together in such an assemblage as Noah never dreamed of in his day and generation. The value of the museum as an efficient aid in educa- tional work is fully realized by but few educators. Even in many of the large cities there is little real co-operation between the local museum and the educational system, and this is by no means entirely the fault of the museum administrators. Visual education seems to center about pictures, lantern slides, and moving pictures, and the aid that may be rendered by the museum exhibits is, in the “main, unthought of. Perhaps many of our museums are to be held responsible for this condition, their exhibits being so often entirely useless to the teacher because of faulty installation, of value to the systematic student, * Contribution from Museum of Natural History, University of Illi- nois, No. 25. "ated 108 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE but valueless to the general teacher. The cooperative as- rae sociation of school and museum in New York, Chicago, Milwaukee, and some other cities, augers well for the fu- ture of the museum in finding its true place in the edu- cational system of the present age. In a recent article on the ‘‘Contribution of Museums to Public School Education,’’? Mr. Peter A. Mortenson, Su- perintendent of Publie Schools of Chicago, says: ‘‘The ” value of museum material as a factor ‘in reinforcing school instruction has, no doubt, been recognized gen- erally enough, but the difficulty lying in the way of its wider utilization has been the failure to find the museum material so organized that it would appeal to the dynamic interests of the children and at the same time portray the life that it was collected to represent.’? The larger museums, and even some of the smaller museums presid- ed over by far-sighted curators, are removing this un- favorable criticism, and are preparing some of their ex- hibits to meet the requirements of the teacher of the grade schools. That the museum is also of value in reinforcing in- struction in the universities and other higher institu- tions of learning seems equally certain, supplementing by the exhibits the material’used in the classroom and laboratory, the larger value being in the coérdination of all the material which may have been seen in the elass- room only as isolated parts of the whole subject. This value of museum material has been recognized for many years, and almost every college and university has its museum, even though it be a small one. Of late years some of the universities have drifted away from the use of the museum; hence the unsatisfactory condition of much of the material in many university collections and the general poor opinion of most of‘ such collections among museum men. I wish to indicate, briefly, some of the ways in which the museum may be useful in supple- menting the general courses given in a university. The modern teaching of geography consists not so much of political boundary lines, as of peoples, indus- tries, natural resources, and physical features. And here Pe 109 the museum can be of the greatest help in visualizing the text books. The cultures of peoples, how they utilize their natural resources and acquire material not found in their own country; the physical character of the country which has governed the development of the people, mountains, streams, valleys, deserts—all of these and more may be visualized in such a manner that the student easily grasps the significance of the facts of climate, topography, or geographic position, which have been potent in shaping the destiny of a group of peoples. The industries of cer- tain countries may be shown, such as the common articles upon which we depend for our daily comfort—cotton and its detivitives—iron and steel—pear! and ivory buttons— coal—aluminum—and many others. Exhibits showing the processes of manufacture from the collecting of the raw material to the selling of the finished product, with all of the by-products indicated, are of potent value to the teacher of geography. And in the natural sciences—geology, zoology, botany —the museum is indispensable because it visualizes the courses given in the different branches. The student pur- suing a course in systematic zoology may study the synop- tie collection, arranged so that the major groups are ex- hibited to show their development from simple to com- plex organisms, their relation to each other and to the past history of the earth, the extinct groups being shown with the recent groups. Such an exhibit links together all life, showing it to be interrelated on every hand. The student of geology may crystallize his course in historical geology or palaeontology by consulting the ex- hibits of fossils, in which he may follow the changes of life from its first definite appearance in the early Cam- brian seas to the latest prehistoric period. Here can be shown, as nowhere else, the dying out of one type of life and the advent, almost instantaneously as it seems, of another. Such examples as the dying out of the Ammon- ites in the Cretaceous, the rise and fall of the huge sauri- ans in Mesozoic times, and the advent of the mammals in Cenozoic times indicate the usefulness of such exhibits. The subject of coal can also be made more understandable re tery 110 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE by an exhibit of the peculiar flora of the Carboniferous. The evolution or descent of an animal and its modification during descent can be shown most effectively by groups arranged with speciments or restorations, supplemented by illustrations, so that the student grasps almost in- stinctively the significance of the subject. Such lines of descent as the horse, sloth, elephant, and armadillo can be shown very effectively. Physiography naturally lends itself to the museum treatment and all phases of earth processes may be illus- trated most effectively. The work of ice, snow, water, the sea, vulcanism, erosion, these and other subjects may be made clear by the use of properly constructed models of effective sizes. The modern group idea has revolutionized museum exhibits. By this medium we are able to visualize the whole realm of nature, history, and art. No longer must animals be seen only on shelves arranged in rows, like _eanned goods in a grocery; they may now be seen in their natural environment, in occupations such as they per- . form when unmollested by their arch-enemy, Man, the elaborateness and breadth of vision being limited only by the pocket book of the museum. In one museum may be seen the bird life of an island in the distant Pacific; in another, one may hunt the mountain sheep or the grizzly bear in the great mountains of the west; or visit a bird rookey in Florida or the islands of the West Indies. The fast disappearing native races of this and other conti- nents may return and perform their ancient tribal cere- monies in the groups of the museum, which often appear so lifelike that one almost expects the wax effigy to breathe or to throw an upraised spear or stone through the glass of the case. These groups need not be large or expensive. One of the most effective habitat groups in the museum of the University of Illinois is in a case 5 x 6 x 2 feet, in which is shown an old decaying log with its characteristic ani- mal life in the midst of a local environment, a small patch of almost virgin woodland near the university. An enlarged photographic background, tinted, makes the old log appear to be in the woods, while spring flowers, birds, PAPERS PRESENTED AT GENERAL SESSIONS 111 - toads, and butterflies add to the naturalness of the ex- hibit. This group, including case and all accessories, cost but $400.00. The modern study of natural history, now called ecolo- gy, may be aided very materially by these museum groups which visualize the life of different kinds of animal habi- tats, the natural homes of different species. Thus we may see the polar bear and musk ox of the Arctic, the deer and elk of temperate climes, and the gaudy birds of the tropics, all examples of the effect of climate on ani- mal life. Pond life may be distinguished from river life, prairie life from forest life; all these may be shown in a museum group, surpassed only by the living animal in its real home. Often, two or more habitats may be shown in the same group for comparison, as a swampy quiet pond behind a beach barrier, the animals of the quiet pond being contrasted strongly with the animals of the rougher water habitat of an exposed lake shore. In the teaching of economic entomology, the museum is again a valuable aid. In small groups, insects injurious to certain plants may be shown in their natural habitat on the plant as they would be seen when at work doing the injury, and the transformations may be shown so that the farmer or student may recognize the stage when the insect is most injurious. Such subjects as corn insects, grain insects, insects of the apple, pear, grape, garden insects, and many others may be shown as when living. These exhibits are far superior to the ancient custom of pinning the specimens in a glass covered tray, for the psychology of the group idea makes the insects seem more real. And in botany, exhibits are possible that will be an aid in the teaching of some branch of the subject. Forestry, extinct plants, evolution and descent of certain types, these and other subjects may be treated in museum ex- hibits. These examples might be amplified indefinitely, but enough have been given to show that the museum is a po- tent agency in modern education, a fact that is, perhaps, not fully realized by educators in general. The museum Hh Se ee ‘ 112 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ‘e is too often thought of as a storeroom or mausoleum in which musty specimens are stored away to be pored over by spectacled savants who live in a world by themselves. It is sadly true that this conception is not without founda- tion, for there are many museums in universities, col- leges, normal schools, and academies, which are this and nothing else. But the modern museum is a vastly differ- ent thing, filled with objects potentially arranged, await- ing use by all progressive teachers. In closing may I use the words of one of England’s greatest.museum men, Sir William H. Flower, who says ‘“Tt is not the objects placed in a museum that constitute its value, so much as the method in which they are dis- played and the use made of them for the purpose of in- struction’’. PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE ee ‘PAPER ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 115 NOTES ON HAWAIIAN BOTANY WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE FUNGI F. L. Stevens, Untverstry oF Inuinors Hawaiian botany as well as zoology is of especial in- terest for several reasons. The extreme isolation of the islands, which lie some 700 miles from any considerable islands and nearly 2,000 miles from continental land, renders the question of the origin of the flora an interest- ing and important problem. Some botanists see in the plant distribution evidence of previous land connection, of land bridges whereby the ancestors of the present flora and fauna arrived, while others explain the present con- dition as due to the wind and water currents, even going so far as’ to distinguish separate waves of migration correlated with the geologic record of America, the sub- mergence of Panama, and the consequent changes in ocean currents. The islands are entirely volcanic; Kauai, the northernmost, is doubtless the oldest ; Hawaii, the southernmost, doubtless the youngest. Only coral on lava or lava itself may be trod upon. All of the islands have been repeatedly subject to lava overflows, Kauai long ago, Hawaii recently, perhaps today. These over- flows have naturally profoundly influenced vegetation. In Kauai all has been quiet for ages, and immense ean- yons have been cut in the once hot lava. On Hawaii many lava flows during the last century and countless ones earlier have solidified into stationary stone rivers, often 30 to 60 miles long by several miles wide. These flows of all ages on Hawaii and their eroded counterparts on Kauai give most fascinating fields for ecological study. The character of erosion has produced wonderful can- yons, cliffs and gorges, and miles of knife-edge ridges with abrupt changes in elevation and sudden transitions in rainfall. The top of Mt. Waialeale, Kauai, is the wet- test place in the world, having a precipitation of 549 inches in 1920; other sections, Uuu Kea, had only 7.9 inches in the same year. These conditions also afford wonderful ecological opportunities. Sharp localization of flora is found on the two sides of a mountain or the Pe Stee. Li eee > sat 116 opposite sides of a valley or on the lava flow of 1841 or of 1881 as it stretches through both wet and dry regions. The flora of the island is highly endemic. Hillebrand states that excluding the species introduced by man there are 860 species, of which 653 or 76% are endemic with 40 endemic or peculiar genera, figures which are approxi-_ mately true in the light of present knowledge. Many wonderful and interesting forms occur, e. g. the Silver sword and Gunnera. It is, however, the fungi in which I am particularly in- terested. Less than 130 species, aside from those of economic crops, had been identified as occurring in the Hawaiian Islands prior to my collections of the summer of 1921, and very few of these had been recorded by pub- lication. My own collections number something over 1200, and represent trips into all types of floras. Hxamination of some of these has been completed, and the results are being published by the Bishop Museum; others are be- ing studied. The genus Meliola and its near relatives are represent- ed by 34 species on 58 hosts (4 on 4 hosts were previously known). Porto Rico gave 103. The ratio to available host species in Hawaii is .034 as against .046 in Porto Rico, a very significant difference showing the Meliolas to be approximately 50% more abundant in Porto Rico than in Insular Hawaii. The Meliolas are strictly limited to the ancient flora of the island and show decided evi- dence of western origin, being much more closely related to the Polynesian flora than to that of South America. This is particularly emphasized by the genus Meliolna, typically Phillipine. Transition genera between families are also of especial interest. Thus the genera Meliola, Amazonia, Actinodo- this present a series connecting the Microthyriacease with the Dothideales, and I believe that there is evidence from those studies that the present group of Dothideales is of polyphyletic origin. An interesting case of evolu- tion occurs on Perrottetia in that there are both a well defined Amazonia and an Actinodothis on this host, clearly related as is shown by the hyphopodia and spores but now well differentiated into two genera; an evolution Sentra ar gape REE Ie ee ee get ee ae ae Jeo ht 3s ei. Le CES t xe thes? ; eh Pe, RARER: AND AGRICULTURE 117 that evidently occurred from an ancestral form while on this host. | The rusts now number 38 on 44 hosts; fourteen are ad- ditions to the Hawaiian flora. In Hawaii there are 38 rusts on 999 potential hosts. In Porto Rico there are 175 rusts on 2250 potential hosts. In Indiana there are 172 rusts on 2339 potential hosts. The rust ratio of Hawaii thus is .038 as against .077 for Porto Rico and .073 for Indiana. The close agreement between the ratios of Indiana and Porto Rico is striking, while the low ratio of Hawaii shows rusts there to be approximately half as common as in Porto Rico. The absence of aecial forms is also striking; only one, an imported form, was found. As to their continental relationship, it appears that six came from America, one only from the West, and three others may have come from either east or west. Con- trary then to the Meliolas the rusts appear to have been dominated by the east. Most of the rusts are clearly im- ported and of very recent existence upon the islands. The six rusts on endemic hosts, too, are of very unusual character, consisting of isolated sori and not a general leaf infection such as is usual with other rusts. This condition suggests to me the possibility that these rusts are all as yet ill-adapted to their hosts. All of the evi- dence appears to show the rust flora to be recent as com- pared with the Meliola flora. The Trichopeltaceae are particularly interesting mor- phologically, presenting a type of thallus unique in the fungi and in general resembling that of the liverworts. My collections in this group are larger than ever before made and result in several new genera and some modifi- cations in classifications previously used. The genera Trichopeltis, Trichothallus, Enthallopyenidium and Ano- mothallus are of especial interest. Microthyriella hibisci is of interest as throwing light aa on the possible relationship of the apple fly speck furtgus. aa Hexagonella is a remarkable form with solitary naked : asci in a thallus of the type of the Hemisphaeriales. “a The Dothideales, which are very numerous in Porto ¥ Rico, are very few in number. The genus Phyllachora so : common here and in most places is represented by only ay he We ao 2 a ee Fe EMe, OU a) eu baie el ae ee ee eae ORY CIE MR TON eet re OL a cee Pat ‘ Peay War uhaie WET n° 118 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE two species, one possibly an import. The few Dothids that were collected are noteworthy. Yoshingiella shows a remarkable evolution on the tree fern Cibotium, it hav- ing evidently developed from a common ancestor while on this host into three distinct forms. Pauahia, a genus which I have named in honor of the Princes Bernice Pauahia who did so much for science in the Pacific, is a very interesting transition form midway between the superficial radiate Microthyriaceae and the subcuicular non-radiate Dothids. ; The smuts are conspicuous by their absence, only one really native one having been found and its birth place questionable, though smuts elsewhere are so common. I have not time to discuss other groups, much though I would like to do so. It is evident, I think, that the ques- tions in phylogemy and geographie distribution that arise in the Pacific are of keen interest, and that more complete knowledge of the insular fungus floras and of those of the east and west lands is needed. “~ s averet wg PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 119 va THE PRESENT STATUS OF PALEOBOTANY IN ILLINOIS A. C. Not, University or Cuicaco The first Survey of Illinois contains in Volume 2 (1866) and Volume 4 (1870) numerous descriptions of fossil plants by Lesquereux. The Swiss naturalist, who had arrived in the United States as a companion of Louis Agassiz, was destined to become the father of paleobot- any in this country, while Sir William Dawson had in- augurated the same science in Canada. lLesquereux’s domicile was in Cincinnati, and he acted as a consulting paleobotanist for the newly created state surveys, as well as for the United States Geological Survey. His interests were broad, but the majority of his publications deal with the Paleozoic floras, foremost among which is the Coal Flora of the Carboniferous Formation in Pennsylvania and throughout the United States. In Atlas, Volume 1, (1879); Volume 2, (1880); and Volume 3, (1884) many specimens from Illinois are described and pictured. Lesquereux apparently did not visit many localities, but had specimens sent to him. While this method saved much time, and accounts for the large amount of Lesquer- eux’s publishing, it had obviously two drawbacks—the exact geologic horizon of the plant deposit was rarely de- termined with accuracy, and only specimens which looked good to the average collector were sent. Lesquer- eux did not have at his command the rich paleobotanice lit- erature which the great French, English, and German paleobotanists produced in the last quarter of the nine- teenth century, and in which the coal floras of western Europe were described. Therefore a rather complete re- vision of Lesquereux’s determinations seems to be highly desirable before the study of American fossil floras can proceed much further. It is urgently to be hoped that a catalogue of the Paleozoic floras of North America may soon follow Knowlton’s catalogue of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic plants of North America. In the years 1906, 1907, and 1908, a new period of Paleozoic plant studies in Illinois was inaugurated. a y 7 es ee et Mea Manin Vaan SLC RR agi ale thea ct ads ia 120 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE David White, now chief geologist of the United States’ Geological Survey, was invited by the chief of the State Geological Survey of Illinois, Frank DeWolf, to renew in cooperation with the State Survey the study of the fossil plants of the Illinois coal fields. During those years, Dr. White visited the plant deposits of the western and southern coal outcrops, and mining districts of Illi- nois. His observations are given in Bulletins 4, 8, and 14 of the Illinois State Survey. Dr. White had a great advantage over Lesquereux. He visited the localities himself, equipped with excellent geological experience, and he had at his headquarters in Washington one of the most complete collections of Paleozoic plants and pale- obotanic literature at his command. Dr. White re- stricted himself in these publications to a preliminary report, and his larger treatment of Illinois coal plants is still to be hoped for. The author has found the support of the State Geologi- eal Survey very helpful in making collections and ob- servations throughout the coal seams of the state, in order to assist by the contribution of paleobotanic facts in the determining and revision of the correlation of Ili- nois coal seams. During the summer, 1921, a number of localities in the following counties were visited: Jackson, Union, Wil- lhamson, Johnson, Pope, Saline, Harding, in southern Illinois; and Will, Grundy, LaSalle, Bureau, in northern Illinois. In the early spring of 1922 collections were made in McDonough, and outcrops visited in Rock Island, Knox, and Scott. The work is to be continued during the summer of 1922, and arrangements with the Geologi- cal Survey of Kentucky promise to give an opportunity for obtaining valuable information in that state, which may throw light upon certain paleobotanic problems of Iilinois. NOTES ON ILLINOIS MUSHROOMS W. B. McDoveatt, Untverstrry oF Inrots CREPIDOTUS CINNABARINUS This pretty little species has a bright scarlet or cinna- bar-red, nearly sessile, cap which is usually only from 144 to 2 em. broad. The gills are rather broad, not close to- gether, cinnabar-red in color and brighter red or scarlet on the edge. The stem when present at all is very short, only 1 or 2 mm. long, and lateral. The plant grows on decaying logs in woods but seems to be very rare. It was first collected near Ann Arbor, Michigan, by an instructor in the University of Michigan, and sent to Peck about 1895. Peck (4) described it and named it, and it was not heard of again until it was rediscovered at Ann Arbor by Professor Kauffman some twenty years later. Kauftf- man’s collection was made in November and the cold. weather delayed the ripening of the spores to such an extent that he was unable to obtain a spore print. He found, however, that under the microscope the spores _ showed a slight tinge of red, and for this reason he ex- pressed a doubt as to whether the plant really is a crepi- dotus or whether it should be placed in the genus Claudo- pus which is a pink spored genus. (2). On June 7, 1919, I was fortunate enough to find a nice collection of this species in a woods near Urbana, I|linois. The specimens obtained were in very good condition and I succeeded in making satisfactory spore prints. Under the microscope the spores do have a pinkish tinge as Kauffman found, but in mass they are distinctly pale ochre or almost clay color. This proves that Peck was right, as likewise was Kauffman, in placing the species in the genus Crepidotus. PLEUROTUS SUBPALMATUS (FIGS. 1 AND 2) -Kanuffman’s (2) description of this fungus is as fol- lows: ‘*Pileus 3-5 em, broad, fleshy, convex-plane, obtuse, the cuticle gelatinous, coarsely reticulated and separable, 7 “! + 7m i r : ae heirs ~F- “ a . ay ’ ey Pow i *} A “i . "ee : . [ oe: ‘ ¥ ae PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE Leaf curl (Exoascus deformans)—Distribution general. Sega, slight if any. ~ Scab (Cladosporium carpophylum)—Abundant generally on twigs. Loss undeterminable. PLUM: Bacterial spot (Bacterium pruni)—Distribution general, but dam- age slight. Pockets and leaf curl (Exoascus pruni and E. communis)—Local distribution, resulting in leaf curl and deformed twigs. Damage none. Black knot (Plowrightia morbosa)—Distribution general. Loss undetermined. CHERRY: Leaf spot (Coccomyces hiemalis)—Distribution general. Damage undetermined. GRAPE: Black rot (Guignardia bidwelli)—Generally distributed. Found in 95% of vineyards of the state, causing loss of approximately 20% of the state’s crop. The most serious grape disease. Downey mildew (Plasmopara viticola)—Distribution general. Ap- pearance late, with the wet weather of August and September. Dam- age slight, mostly leaf injury. Powdery mildew (Uncinula necator)—Distribution general. Dam- age slight if any. BLACKBERRY: Anthracnose (Plectodiscella veneta)—Generally distributed. Loss 2 to 5% of the crop. Crown gall (Bacterium tumefaciens)—Present throughout the state, injuring between 5 and-10% of the plants. Yellows (Physiological)—Distribution general, more severe north- ward. Loss approximately 2% of the crop. CURRANT: Angular-leaf spot—Distribution general, damage slight. Anthracnose (Pseudopeziza ribis)—Distribution general, serious only locally, causing defoliation. Damage slight. GOOSEBERRY: Anthracnose (Pseudopeziza ribis)—Serious locally, though gen- erally distributed. Causing defoliation. Damage slight. STRAWBERRY: (Physiological)—Present in Champaign and Marshal counties. Not important. Leaf spot (Mycosphaerella fragareae)—Distribution general, but serious only locally. Total damage about 2%. Leaf scorch (Mollisia earliana)—Present in Champaign county and serious on the Bederana variety. The cold wave, occurring over the entire state about the middle of April, 1921, did a great deal of damage to the fruit crop of the state. As a result, estimates of damage which should be based upon yield could not, in * ‘ ‘ ' Bit , Adv, hes 14% rey. we ad a ie ds | hha oie Fe it that 2) 1 / wt? ‘ Put A eal Be Ne er de Pe? | [ ‘ i Pe hn an Oe TE it ‘2, hy, i ; ry QC) OS iy aay eet Gs Cie PIER Te M Pen ea ob! ae? aa ‘et oy = eee’) ae. Be i ae ee 148 ‘ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. many cases, be made because there was practically no crop on those plants. DISEASES WORTHY OF NOTE IN 1921 It is worth while calling attention to certain diseases which, during the past season, were especially destructive either in state wide or in local epiphytoties. At Libertyville, in Lake county, red raspberry plant- ings were suffering severely from an attack of phystolo- gical leaf curl. This disease is known commonly among growers as ‘‘yellows’’ and as ‘‘Marlboro disease’’. There is no known cause for the disease, and effective treatments are unknown. While this disease is not widely distributed through Illinois at present, wherever it has appeared it has been one of. the most serious diseases of the raspberry. The losses from this disease in the se- verely infested raspberry plantings in Lake county has been estimated to be nearly 90% of the total crop. Several patches of strawberries in Lake county were injured to the extent of a 50% crop loss through the at- tack of the strawberry leaf spot caused by Mycosphae- rella fragartvae. The Physoderma disease of corn, while prevalent throughout the southern half of the state, was nowhere severe with the exception of an area around Kureka in Woodford county, where the disease was reported as doing considerable damage. Samples received and ex- amined by us were so severally diseased that we feel justi- fied in estimating a loss of at least 25% in this area. This is especially remarkable in view of its northness. In all of the cabbage growing sections of the state, the disease known as cabbage yellows, caused by Fusarvum conglutinans, was the cause of an important reduction in the yield of the cabbage crop. Damage was particularly heavy in the Peoria district, and in the small gardens of Champaign County. In Coles county, black knot of plum, caused by Plow- rightia morbosa, appeared in rather more than its usual destructive abundance. In the same county broom corn blight, caused by Bacillus sorght, appeared to be damag- ing beyond use about 1% of the plants in the fields, but Se ae PR te a re EE wis M iS: oe .—< r “ ) a PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 149 the damage ffom the two smuts of broom corn ap- peared much less than that due to the bacterial disease. One bad outbreak of alfalfa leaf spot, caused by Pseudopeziza medicaginis, appeared in St. Clair county, and Jonathan spot on apples appeared to be a serious problem in Vermilion county, as was also tomato wilt caused by Fusarium lycopersicae. NEW DISEASES During the season of 1921 there came to our attention several diseases not hitherto reported in Illinois. Sey- eral of these diseases occurring on fruits, vegetables and ornamentals are described in a paper by Dr. H. W. An- derson and need not be discussed here. Along the lake shore north of Lake Bluff in Lake coun- ty, several greens on an expensively built golf course were being very badly damaged through the attack of Rhizoctonia solani. Often the loss would be as much as $500 for a single green since great Gare was being exer- cised in caring for the course, and especially imported seed of the New Zealand fescue grass was being used for seedage. This troublesome disease has hitherto been re- ported only from the neighborhood of Washington, D. C., and it seems unlikely that in Illinois the disease will be- come of more than a local importance. The parasite caus- ing the disease seems to be a normal inhabitant of forest soils, and is readily transplanted from woodlands to golf courses or grass plots in the neighborhood. The parasite seems to be spread from green to green on the golf course by the shoes of the players and caretakers, and its de- velopment and spread on the green itself furthered by the presence of abundant moisture. On greens not wholly level the course of the spread of infection corresponds strikingly with the course of water used for irrigation.. Cool moist nights appear to favor the development of the fungus, and in the mornings it can usually be detected as a thin, cobwebby film of fungous hyphae running among the leaves of the grass. The collection of dew among its mycelial strands gives it the appearance of a fine cloud lying in the grass. The heat of the sun on a bright dry day seems sufficient to stop the advance of the fungus, yy ee : i> } PTY Se ee 1 Ona a rete eh Lee by ey g \ i . a wey iy ae ee S54 3 Tal eae ae Ze a . opRe. sae 150 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF and it does not apparently spread fartHer from the one a spot, all further damage to a green resulting from the new infections. A stalk rot of corn made its appearance in some of the ye: fields of Monroe and Jackson counties. This stalk rot appears to be of bacterial origin, is not grossly similar — to Stewart’s disease, and has certain points of similarity with a disease described by Rosen as appearing in Arkan- | Sas. SURVEY SERVICE The Plant Disease Survey has assisted in the quaran- . tine area in Madison County, where a program of control and eradication is being waged by the State of Illinois ~ Department of Agriculture against the recently intro- duced flag smut of wheat caused by Urocystis tricict. There is also available, through the efforts of the sur- vey, a complete list by parasite, by host, and by locality of every disease so far known to exist within the state. A bibliography, comprising about 325 titles, indexes all publications concerning the presence of plant diseases in Illinois. : — . 7 4 i : > a ~ Set Se, ae ee Ge. ee AL sn a Oe ae SS ee eee ee eee Sree ee a ; x Z ee a ete R ON BIOLOGY AND 151 _ THE HABITAT OF NATURALIZED COMMON 4 BARBERRY IN ILLINOIS Leo R. Trenon, Stare Narurat History Survey An important problem in the prosecution of the coun- try survey for common barberry in Illinois, as well as in twelve other states, has been to determine in what places one might expect to find barberry shrubs escaped from cultivation. That some index of locations favorable for the naturalization of the shrub would greatly expedite the survey can not be doubted. The presence of the common barberry.(Berberis vul- garis Linn.) in the United States, it is generally admitted, is due to its introduction from Europe. DeCandolle (1) points to its absence from the islands west of America and east of Asia, which might be supposed to serve as dis- tributional bridges between the two continents, as a geo- graphical indication of the ageney of man in its intro- Map 1. Stephenscn County. Scale 4” —1 mile. * Location of escaped plant- ees « Location of cultivated plantings. Figures indicate numbers of ushes. .s re i 4 r Sar at Se a 152 ILLINOIS STATH ACADEMY OF SCIENCE duction to America. Following its introduction, it has spread both as an ornamental shrub and in its naturalized condition throughout a large area in the cold-temperate belt of our continent. The first point where the shrub was introduced into America was probably along the coast of New England where Sir Charles Lyell (2) speaks of it as having been introduced, supposedly as an ornamental shrub. Sir Charles Lyell also attributes its spread toward the in- terior, in a naturalized state, to the agency of animals which eat the berries. In our botanical manuals, it is probably first mentioned as having become naturalized by Bigelow (3) as early as 1813 near Boston. Wimmne bog ° Map 2. Winnebago County. Scale 4” —=1 mile. * Escaped plantings. ¢ Culti- vated plantings. Figures indicate numbers of bushes. Dotted areas— Primeval timber land. PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 153 From its point of first introduction and naturalization, _the shrub has spread westward aeross the continent, tra- versing in its role of decorative shrub, dye-producer, _jelly-maker, and spreader of rust, the paths of migration in company with the hardy pioneers of our early history. In Illinois, its presence, both as old and large cultivated shrubs and hedges and in extensive naturalized plantings, still marks the pathway of the early settlers from east to west and indicates those places which our forefathers con- Map 3. Boone County. Seale 4” =1 mile. Markings same as Map 2. 154 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE sidered most promising for settlement and home build- ing. Always in those places where it has been long es- tablished, it has escaped from cultivation and spread it- self throughout the countryside; sometimes in many plantings consisting of large numbers of well developed shrubs and multitudes of seedlings; and sometimes only in occasional adventitious plantings having a few scrawny weakling shrubs. Such variation in numbers, both of escaped plantings and shrubs, together with a very apparent lack of uni- formity regarding the chemical nature of the soils they inhabit, has led to a certain amount of speculation as to the ideal habitat for the barberry. It is obvious that, since the barberry depends for the dispersal of its seeds upon the assistance of birds (4), Map 4.. McHenry County. Scale 4” =1 mile. Markings same as Map 2. ae a fact mig. eS ae Sf at s% ~* ite Sieur ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 155 (5), (6) and other animals (7), (2), the location of es- caped plantings must be determined, in some degree, by the presence of floral or topographic situations likely to be visited by the birds and animals after feeding. This fact is illustrated by the relation of naturalized and cul- tivated plantings as shown in maps 1-8. Relative dis- tances are certain to be important. An area in Lake county drawn on map 9 (Township 45 North, Range 11 East of Third Principal Meridian) shows the profusion of naturalized plantings to be expected where favorable bird habitats abound in close proximity to cultivated shrubs. Whether or not the seeds so distributed shall spring up into tall-growing, vigorous shrubs or, having sprouted, shall eventually succumb to environmental in- Map 5. Lake County. Scale 4” =1 mile. Markings same as Map 2. 7 i it ee eA 156 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE fluences will, on the other hand, be determined by factors of an origin and significance different from those con- trolling only the dissemination of the seeds. In the first years of the barberry survey, it was sup- posed that the most favorable locality for the develop- ment of wild plantings was in regions characterized by calcareous soils, This opinion seemed supported, in our Map 6. Cook County. Scale 2/16” =1 mile. Markings same as Map 2. A i be "wT Sn Gy. PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 157 limited experience, by the frequent reports of plantings occurring in or near limestone quarries. As time has progressed, reports of barberries comfortably natural- ized in many other situations, such as, for example, among the dunes of Michigan and the shales in Illinois, have indicated that some other explanation for habitat must be sought. The wide range of habitat is indicated by Kern -(8) for Pennsylvania, as in ‘‘residual soils, whether formed from sandstone or shale, limestone, igneous and metamorphic rocks. ‘Glacial soil seems to be equally favorable. * * * In thickets, along streams, along Map 7. DuPage County. Scale 4%” =—1 mile. Markings same as Map 2. Map 8. Kane County. Scale %4”—=—1 mile. Markings same as Map 2. _ PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 159 : roadsides, in open pastures or half-wooded hillsides, this plant seems to be at home.’’? There would be no difficulty in enumerating locations in Illinois which would duplicate each item of Kern’s heterogeneous list. Yet, in Illinois, there seems to be a consistent relation which may be pointed out as existing between naturalized plantings and the locations they occupy. This relation is not to be seen in any consideration, individually, of our many escaped plantings; but it is apparent in a complete grouping of them all in relation to the dominant features of the habitat in which they are found to occur. . Map 9. Territory surrounding Gurnee, Lake County. ee aga xt . 160 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE As a preliminary basis and to provide as substantiat- ~ ing evidence the fact that reasonably large numbers of of observations are available, the following tables are in cluded. TABLE 1. Total barberry plantings found and removed in eight counties: Number of Properties in oj Cities Country Both, on which a = Counties and Having bushes were = Alphabetically Towns Escapes Total Found Removed os = BOON G2 ssayrar ere dale oes 48 1 20 68 68 COOK ar ic- otra aeto ys 1371 27 107 1478 1401 DUP Ae G52 exces raaciat ee ote se 12 82 418 345 KANG): fois ceeperae soa 490 7 33 523 418 EAR CSBP a... one Cie oie 2298 65 176 2474 2360 : McCHeEn nye dx d.:teasenene 209 26 74 283 264 s Stephenson: +... 7s 225 119 93. 110 229 Sea : Wamnebagoy.7 5. om ene 631 64 75 706 | 706 3 Ota oc noc tne 5502 295 677 6179 5791 TABLE 2. Total barberry plantings found and removed in entire state: Number of Properties in Cities Country Both, on which and Having bushes were Survey Towns Escapes Total Found Removed Oripmal "5 css Teele: 7724 346 794 8518 5523 IRCSUPVCY inet ch he re as reese Sane * Neate sis apa eri IUEMOVAIS Tessas cateeiae ees aitaee 2) oa Ei Aeae 2250 TOtAl ese. as sees 7724 346 794 8518 7773 4 TABLE 3. Total barberry shrubs found and removed in eight counties: Number of Bushes in Both Sprouts Cities Country cities and country Found Counties and Re- on Re- Alphabetically Towns Escaped Total Found moved survey BOONG ie thiciew ease oie 2426 al 119 2545 2545 | 4 COG eg re eee 1093 1610 5058 15993 - 14200 - 113 DWP aper sis eater ees 7232 84 3305. 10537 7058 © 201 Kane. 4 ti sescnstas one 9053 241 AOL = OA 9314 222 Male oa 8c) ancse dain toot 10784 18914 20706 31490 28379 462 IMGH enya, cncierd he eee 3707 2480 3313 7020 4098 250 Stephenson’ Asn ack 1426 860 1320 2746 2746 705 Winnebago ...2.... 6. 5825 281 686 6511 6511 320 MOU AL ay aichs lererets aeetenoiers 51388 24471 35626 87014 74851 2277 PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 161 TABLE 4. Total barberry shrubs found and removed in entire state: Number of Bushes in Both Sprouts Cities Country cities and country Found and Re- on Re- Survey Towns Escaped Total Found moved survey CTD rT TEA RR ate oa 2 92500 25635 42289 134789 81841 ..... ERE a ae ee ee kala Pf Sitin © aime Serie le’d, he Se ood we Re be RUA = es i eer Sean wcies Swe ee nine a 33056 2336 DST peepee ae eet 92500 25635 42289 134789 114897 2336 As previously mentioned, the first supposition that the common barberry might find especially favorable condi- tions for wild growth in calcareous situations has not been substantiated by later experience. This is a con- dition which should probably be expected since Schim- per (9. p. 100) remarks especially concerning the varia- tion of the flora found on ecaleareous soils, in that in places plants may be found to be ealciphilous, elsewhere silicifilous, and elsewhere apparently indifferent. He also notes (9. p. 100) that one species may be ecalciphilous in one area, calciphobous in another, and indifferent in yet a third. It may be doubted whether, in such eases, chemical characters of the soil are of so much import- ance as are associational or edaphic factors. In the eight counties of Illinois surveyed thus far for ' barberry, there is apparent a correlation between the lo- cation of escaped shrubs and the area once occupied by our primeval forests (10). Maps 1-8, in which escaped plantings are indicated, illustrate this fact and it may also be seen that in a majority of cases the plantings are located near the edge of the forested areas. It may be thought that this fact is due to the majority of settle- ments being located first upon the edges of timbered areas; but in locations toward the interior of timber areas where naturalized shrubs have been found, it is constantly observed that they are on the edges of the forest and present only when clearings are relatively large. Only two plantings, each of a single shrub, are at present known to occur in dense forest. Neither of these is far removed from the forest’s edge, and each appar- ently is surrounded by secondary growth whose origin is more recent than that of the barberry. xe | , ‘ a gaa 4, Lat tts ahs v a pee ae | 7, wy PP one + i Pts ley PP aM Ne Le t ‘ ‘ ris! 162 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE This is a condition which, in its total aspect, approxi- mates rather closely the habitat of the barberry in the Carpathian region, where, according to Pax (11), ‘‘am Waldrande und an licteren Stellen des Hochwaldes er- scheint ein charakteristisches Buschwerk aus Berberis vulgaris’? and other shrubs. 6;°8: 9 Radicula ype ape (L.) Moench., 3, 5, 6, 9. Armoracia armoracia (L.) Britton, Lepidium virginicum L., 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9. Lepidium densiflorum Schrad, 5. Lepidium sativum L., 6. Erysimum officinale t. Ase, WLS 2 8, 9. Norta altissima (L.) Britton., 2, 5, §; 9. Cardamine pennsylvanica Muhl., 2. Sinapis alba L., 9. Sinapis arvensis L., 5, Brassica nigra (L.) Ko 6, 9. ch., Brassica campestris L., 6. 2. 5, Be 5. “Brassica oleracea L., 6. Raphanus sativus L., 2, Fam. Caryophyllaceae. Silene stellata (L.) Ait., 10. Silene antirrhina L., 2, 6, 8, 9. Saponaria officinalis L., 2, 5, 9. Vaccaria vacearia (L.) Britton, 2. Alsine media L., 1, 2, 5, 7. Fam. Portulacaceae. Claytonia virginica L., 3, 7, 10. Portulaca oleracea L., 2, 5, 6, 7. Fam. Aizoaceae. Mollugo verticillata L., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, “6. 7% S93; 710: 168 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE LIST OF PLANTS OF CASS COUNTY, ILLINOIS—Continued. Fam. Salicaceae. Populus alba L., 5. Populus tremuloides Michx., 1. Populus deltoides Marsh., 2, 5. Salix alba L., 1, 2, 10. Salix humilis Marsh., 1. Salix spp. Fam, Amaranthaceae. Amaranthus retrofiexus L., 2, 4, 5, Osan 9) Amaranthus blitoides S. Wats., 5, 7. Amaranthus graecizans L., 2. Acnida tamariscina (Nutt.) Wood., 6. Fam. Chenopodiaceae. Chenopodium album L., 5, 7, 9. Chenopodium leptophyllum (Moq.) INCE, “5: Chenopodium hybridum L., 5. Cycloloma atriplicifolium (Spreng.) Coult., 2, 9. Atriplex hastata L., 2, 5, 8, 9. Salsola pestifer A. Nelson, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9: Fam. Polygonaceae. Rumex acetosella L., 2, 5, 9. Rumex altissimus Wood., 2. Rumex crispus L., 2, 4, 5, 8, 9. Rumex obtusifolius L., 10. Polygonum aviculare L., 2, 8, 9. Polygonum virginianum L., 7. Persicaria lapathifolia (L.) Gray, 5. Persicaria pennsylvanica (L.) Small, 5. Persicaria persicaria (L.) Small, 5. Persicaria orientalis (L.) Spach, 5. Fagopyrum fagopyrum (L.) Karst, 5 SB ite Tiniaria convolvulus (L.) Webb & Mog,., 2, 4, 5, 8, 9. Fam. Nyctaginaceae. Allionia nyctaginea Michx., 9. Fam. Plantaginaceae. Plantago major L., 5, 6. Plantago rugelii Dene., 5, 6, 9. Plantago aristata Michx., 2, 8, 9. Fam. Ericaceae. Vaccinium sp., 7. Fam. Ebenaceae. Diospyros virginiana L., 7. Fam. Polemoniaceae. Phlox pilosa L., 2. Phlox divaricata L., 7, 10. Fam. Convolvulaceae. Ipomoea pandurata (L.) Meyer, 9. Ipomoea purpurea (L.) Lam., 5. Ipomoea hederacea Jacq., 2, 4. Convolvulus sepium L., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, (sysctl Mt) Convolvulus arvensis L., 6. Fam. Boraginaceae. Cynoglossum officinale L., 10. Mertensia virginica (L.) DC., 7. Fam. Solanaceae. Physalis virginiana Mill., 2, 5, 8, 9. Physalis heterophylla Nees, 9. Solanum nigrum L., 5. Solanum carolinense L., 2, 8, 9. Solanum tuberosum L., 5. Lycopersicon lycopersicon Karst; so: Lycium halimifolium Mill, 5. Datura stramonium L., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, Gwroanoe (L.) Fam. Oleaceae. Syringa vulgaris L., 5. Fraxinus americana L., 1, 10. Fraxinus nigra Marsh, 3. Fam. Apocynaceae. Apocynum androsaemifolium L., 5, 6. Apocynum cannabinum L., 3. Fam. Asclepiadaceae. Asclepias tuberosa L., 2, 5, 8, 9. Asclepias variegata L., 9. Asclepias syriaca L., 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9. Asclepias verticillata L., 2, 8. Acerates viridiflora (Raf.) Eaton, 9. Fam. Scrophulariaceae. Verbascum thapsus L., 5, 9. Scrophularia leporella Bicknell, 5. Veronica peregrina L., 5. Leptandra virginica (L.) Nutt., 8, 10. Dasystoma grandiflora (Benth.) Wood, 10. Fam, Acanthaceae. Ruellia sp., 2, 9. Fam. Phrymaceae. Phryma leptostachya L., 3, 7, 10. Fam. Verbenaceae. Verbena urticifolia L., 4, 5, 6, 8, 9. Verbena hastata L., 10. Verbena angustifolia Michx., 10. Verbena stricta Vent., 2, 4, 5, 8, 9. Verbena bracteosa Michx., 2, 8, 9. Lippia lanceolata Michx., 6, 10. see eC PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE a . a cal = % 72 169 LIST OF PLANTS OF CASS COUNTY, ILLINOIS—Continued. Fam. Lamiaceae. Teucrium canadense L., 2, 9, 10. Teucrium occidentale A. Gray, 10. Nepeta cataria L., 2, 5, 7. Glecoma hederacea L., 3. Prunella vulgaris L., 2, 9. Leonurus cardiaca L., 5. Stachys palustris L., 10. Monarda fistulosa L., 8, 9. Blephilia hirsuta (Pursh) Torr., 10. Koellia virginiana (L.) MacM., 1, 2, 4, 7. Lycopus virginicus L., 10. ‘ Subclass—DICOT YLEDONEAE- CALYCIFLORAE. Fam. Rosaceae. Opulaster intermedius Rydb., 1, 7. Potentilla monspeliensis L., 5, 9. Fragaria virginiana Duchesne, 2. Drymocallis agrimonioides (Pursh) Rydb., 9. Agrimonia gryposepala Wallr., 1, 3, M210: Geum canadense Jacq., 5. Geum strictum Ait., 1, 2. Rubus strigosus Michx., 1, 7, 10. Rubus occidentalis L., 10. Rubus sp? (blackberry), 1,° 10. Rosa blanda Ait., 9. Rosa virginiana Mill, 6, 9. Fam. Malaceae. Malus ioensis (Wood) Britton, 1, 7, 10. Crataegus crus-galli L., 1, 7, 10. Crataegus succulenta Schrader, 7. Crataegus spp. (About 6 additional species. ) Fam. Prunaceae. Prunus americana Marsh, 1, 10. - Padus nana (DuRoi) Roemer, 10. Padus virginiana (L.) Mill, 7, 10. Fam. Cassiaceae. Cercis canadensis L., 3, 7, 10. Chamaecrista fasciculata (Michx.) Greene, 2, 8, 9. Gleditsia triacanthos L., 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 9. Fam. Fabaceae. Baptisia leucantha T. & G., 6. Melilotus alba Desv., 2, 4, 5, 6, 9. Melilotus officinalis (L.) Lam., 5, 6. Trifolium pratense L., 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9. Trifolium hybridum L., 5, 6. Trifolium repens L., 5, 6. Amorpha canescens Pursh., 9. Petalostemum candidum (Willd.) Michx., 2, 8, 9. Petalostemum purpureum (Vent.) Rydb., 2, 8, 9. Robinia pseudoacacia L., 5. Meibomia nudifiora (L.) Kuntze, 10. Meibomia grandiflora (Walt.) Kuntze, 10. Meibomia illinoensis (A. Gray) Kuntze, 9. Meibomia canadensis (L.) Kuntze, 2389: Lespedeza capitata Michx., 6. Faleata comosa (L.) Kuntze, 1, 7, 10. Strophostyles helvola (L.) Britton, Fam. Saxifragaceae. Penthorum sedoides L., 2, 9. Mitella diphylla L., 10. Fam. Grossulariaceae. Ribes americanum, Mill, 7. Ribes sp? 5. Fam. Hamamelidaceae. Hamamelis virginiana L., 10. Fam. Lythraceae. Lythrum alatum Pursh., 2, 3, 5, 6, Si-O, Fam. Oenotheraceae. Oenothera biennis L., 2, 6, 9. Oenothera rhombipetala Nutt., 6, 9. Kneiffia fruticosa (L.) Raimann, 9. Circaea lutetiana L., 1, 7. Cireaea intermedia Ehrh., 3. Fam. Cucurbitaceae. Micrampelis lobata (Michx.) Greene, 5. Fam. Vitaceae. Vitis vulpina L., 3, 6, 10. Vitis palmata Vahl, 7. Vitis labrusca L., 10. Parthenocissus quinquefolia Planes. 14 33,05, 0: 40: (L.) Fam. Celastraceae. Celastrus scandens L., 10. Fam. Aceraceae. Acer saccharinum L., 5. Acer saccharum Marsh, 1, 3, 7, 10. Acer negundo L., 1, 5, 10. Fam. Anacardiaceae. Rhus hirta (L.) Sudw., 1. Rhus glabra L., 1, 10. Schmaltzia crenata (Mill.) Greene, 170 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE , LIST OF PLANTS OF CASS COUNTY, ILLINOIS—Concluded. Toxicodendron radicans (L.) Kuntze 152, cos) Osh Os, Lae Os Cotinus americanus Nutt., 7. Fam. Juglandaceae. Juglans nigra L., 1. Hicoria ovata (Mill.) Britton, 10. Hiroria glabra (Mill.) Britton, 1, 10. Fam. Betulaceae. Corylus americana Walt., 1, 7, 10. Fam. Fagaceae. Castanea dentata (Marsh.) Borkh., 5 (cultivated). Quercus velutina Lam., 1, 3, 5, 1¢ Quercus alba L., 1, 3, 5, 10. Quercus muhlenbergii Engelm, 10. Fam. Araliaceae. Panax quinquefolium L., 7. . Fam. Apiaceae. Eryngium aquaticum L., 9. Sanicula canadensis L., 3. Daucus carota L., 5. Deringa canadensis (L.) Kuntze, 3. Pastinaca sativa L., 9. Zizia aurea (L.) Koch, 2, 6, 8, 9. Sium cicutaefolium Schrank, 1. Carum carui L., 9. Fam. Rubiaceae. Diodia teres Walt., 6. Galium aparine L., 1, 7, 10. Galium circaezans Michx., 3. Galium concinnum Torr and Gray, 10. Fam. Caprifoliaceae. Sambucus canadensis L., 2, 4, 7, 8, O10: Sambucus racemosa L., 10. Viburnum lentago L., 7, 10. Triosteum perfoliatum L., 7. Triosteum aurantiacum Bicknell, 7. Lonicera sp., 7. Fam. Campanulaceae. Campanula americana L., 10. Specularia perfoliata (L.) A. DC., 10. Lobelia leptostachys A, DC., 7, 10. Lobelia inflata L., 7. Fam. “‘Compositae”. Silphium perfoliatum L., 2. Silphium laciniatum L., 8, 9. Silphium terebinthinaceum Jacq., 2, 8, 9 Heliopsis scabra Dunal., 5, 10. Rudbeckia triloba L., 9. Rudbeckia hirta L., 2, 8, 9. Ratibida pinnata (Vent.) Barnhart, ay ” Echinacea purpurea (L.) Moench, 9, rare. Helianthus annuus L., 5. Helianthus atrorubens L., 2. Helianthus occidentalis Riddell, 5. Helianthus petiolaris Nutt, 2. Helianthus giganteus L., 10. Helianthus grosseserratus Martens, 2,.9 Helianthus divaricatus L., 10. Helianthus -strumosus L., 10. Phaethusa helianthoides Britton, cemetery. Bidens sp., ? 5. Ambrosia trifida L., 10. Ambrosia elatior L., 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9. Ambrosia psilostachya DG, 2, 9. Xanthium sp? 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9. Antennaria plantaginifolia Richards, 10. Solidago canadensis L., 9. Solidago nemoralis Aiton, 9. Solidago rigida L., 9. Chrysopsis villosa (Pursh) Nutt., 9. Aster divaricatus L., 10. Aster cordifolius L., 1. Aster novae-angliae L., 10. Aster sericeus Vent., 2. Aster dumosus L., 2. Erigeron pulchellus Michx., 9. Erigeron philadelphicus L., 9. Erigeron annuus (L.) Pers., 5. Erigeron ramosus (Walt.) B. S. P., aN oy Erigeron (L.) canadensis L., 5. Doellingeria umbellata (Mill.) Nees, 10. Ionactis linariifolius (L.) Greene, 9. Vernonia fasciculata Michx., 5, 6. Eupatorium purpureum L., 7. Eupatorium perfoliatum L., 7. Achillea millefolium L., 5. Anthemis cotula L., 5, 6, 7. Arctium minus Schk., 4, 5, 6. Cirsium lanceolatum (L.) Hill, 4, 5, 6 —— Cirsium discolor (Muhl:.) Spreng., 9. Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop., 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, Centaurea cyanus L., 5. Taraxacum officinale Weber, 5. Sonchus oleraceus L., 1. Sonchus asper (L.) Hill, 5. Lactuca virosa L., 5. Lactuca canadensis ABR Atay ened (: Lactuca sagittifolia EIL, DOR Nabalus albus (L.) Hook, 7, 10. (Michx.) — ae a ek Re «. ane ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 171 THE INTRODUCED WEED FLORA OF ILLINOIS Henry T. Dartineton, Micuican State AGRICULTURAL Cotuece, Lansine, MicHican. The more one studies the weed flora of any territory, the more one becomes convinced that there are two classes, a native and an introduced weed flora. The first class depends especially on the extent to which equili- brium has been disturbed and therefore it often becomes largely a matter of judgment as to what shall be con- sidered a weed. This class varies with the community and the conditions. Especially does it represent a re- sponse to changed edaphic conditions. This is illustrated by such plants as Witchgrass (Panicum eapillare), native species of Smartweed, Ragweed, and Cocklebur. There is no question as to whether the above plants should be classified as weeds, but the ease is quite otherwise with such plants as Asclepias wmcarnata, Helenium autumnale, Apocynum androesimifolium and Sabatia angularis, all of which are mentioned as weeds in a prominent weed manual. Many others occur which are weeds only under certain conditions. The consideration of this class of weeds is a problem in itself. In the second class, which contains the majority of weeds in any section, the indi- viduals are finding their balance in a new flora, rather than acting directly as a response to altered edaphic conditions, though they are undoubtedly fostered by these conditions. This is the class that is discussed in this paper. The problem of weed introduction into the state becomes a part of the larger problem of plant in- troduction because any foreign plant may be potentially a weed; and in order to appreciate the development of this flora in Illinois, it becomes necessary to examine records extending over nearly a century. In 1794, Andre Michaux visited what is now the state of Illinois, in search of plants, and in his Flora Boreali- americana which appeared in 1803, he listed a number of plants as having been found ‘‘in regione I]linoensis.’’ In 1826, L. C. Beck, writing in Silliman’s Journal, later ews as ‘‘The Riericnn Journal of Science nul }- 172 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Arts,’’ published what he called ‘‘A Catalogue of the © Plants of Illinois.’? In this list he mentions 8 plants which are now usually regarded as weeds. These are: Cerastium vulgatum, Polygonum Convolvulus, V erbas- cum Thapsus, Mollugo verticillata, Solanum carolinense, Oenothera biennis, Polygonum aviculare and Veronica peregrina. The first 3 are known to have been intro- duced into America from Europe. At least 2 of the re- maining 5, Solanum carolinense and Mollugo verticillata, have probably migrated into Illinois either from the West or from the South. Two more, Polygonum. avi- culare and Veronica peregrina, are known to be cosmo- polites. The one remaining species, Oenothera biennis, evidently belongs in that category of plants which assert themselves as weeds under the cultural conditions brought about by man. The following 11 immigrants, not before mentioned, were found in 1852, either ‘‘in limited quantities’’ or ‘‘as single specimens,’’ as recorded by Brendel; those found in limited quantities were Dactylis glomerata, Digitaria humifusa, Rumex obtusifolius, Trifolium pratense and Veronica arvensis. Two of these, Rumex obtusifolius and Digitaria humifusa, may become pronounced weeds. The others are inserted as members of an introduced flora. The remaining 6 were found as single specimens by Brendel in the vicinity of Peoria. They are reported by him as occurring in great abundance eighteen years later (1870). They are Linaria vulgaris, Rumex Aceto- sella, Sonchus asper, Cynoglossum officinale, Lappula echinata, and Leonurus cardiaca. By 1859, many additional introduced-species had been noted by various collectors. The majority of these were reported by Lapham in 1857, but several represent spe- cies added by Vasey and Brendel during the two follow- ing years. Lapham’s catalogue of Illinois plants ap- peared in the Transactions of the Illinois State Agricul- tural Society. In making up the list, he states that he examined extensive collections of plants exhibited at the state fair held at Chicago in 1855. He also had the benefit of information furnished by various collectors of that period, among whom was Dr. S. B: Mead, of Han- — een, * = — al PP at ey <> > OPEL y “ : = ie — 5 PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 173 cock County, who was, according to Lapham, the best recorder of Illinois plants up to 1859. Another active botanist of this period was Chas. A. Geyer, who pub- lished at least one list of Illinois plants during this inter- val. Dr. Engelmann, of St. Louis, furnished informa- tion concerning the flora in the southern part of the state. In regard to his catalogue, Lapham says, ‘‘It will be treadily understood that the following is a pretty full list of the plants growing naturally within the state of Ili- nois.’? The great increase in additional species repre- sents not only the fact that probably certain parts of the ‘state were settling up rapidly, but possibly even more the stimulation of botanical interest in various parts of the state. The introduced species occurring in this list are placed below. Possibly some of those included were here in 1826, not being seen by Beck; but undoubtedly the majority came in during this period. PLANT IMMIGRANTS FROM 1826-1859 Sisymbrium officinale Sisymbrium Irio Erysimum cheiranthoides Capsella Bursa-pastoris Brassica arvensis Brassica nigra Camelina sativa Radicula Nasturtium-aquaticum Saponaria officinalis Saponaria Vaccaria Agrostemma Githago Stellaria media Cerastium viscosum Portulaca oleracea Malva rotundifolia Malva sylvestris Malva verticillata Sida spinosa Abutilon Theophrasti Hibiscus Trionum Trifolium procumbens Trifolium arvense Melilotus alba Medicago sativa Medicago lupulina Pastinaca sativa Bupleurum rotundifolium Centaurea Cyanus Tussilago Farfara -Grindelia squarrosa Dipsacus sylvestris © Plantago lanceolata Verbascum Blattaria Mentha spicata Satureja hortensis Melissa officinalis Nepeta Cataria Nepeta hederacea Marrubium vulgare Lithospermum arvense Nicandra Physalodes Cannabis sativa Delphinium Consolida Linum usitatissimum Solanum Dulcamara Rosa rubiginosa Chenopodium murale Chenopodium album Chenopodium Botrys Chenopodium ambrosioides Chenopodium anthelminticum Amaranthus hybridus Amaranthus spinosus Amaranthus retrofiexus Aethusa Cynapium Conium maculatum Inula Helenium Anthemis Cotula Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum Cirsium arvense Cirsium lanceolatum Arctium minus Taraxacum officinale Sonchus oleraceus Polygonum Persicaria - Polygonum orientale Rumex crispus . Fagopyrum esculentum 174 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE _ PLANT IMMIGRANTS FROM 1826-1859—Concluded Hleusine indica Echinochloa crusgalli Eragrostis megastachya ' Digitaria sanguinalis Bromus secalinus Setaria glauca The above list contains 74 introduced species, most of them probably coming in during the interval of 33 years. Several of these were possibly introduced originally as crop plants or vegetables, such as Medicago sativa, Pasti- naca sativa, Linum usitatissimun, Cannabis sativa and Fagopyrum esculentum. Several are medicinal plants, ornamentals, or plants of the old-fashioned garden, such as Marrubiwm vulgare, Melissa officinalis, Satureja hor- tensis, Mentha spicata, Nepeta Cataria, Centaurea Cy- anus, Delphinium Consolida, Polygonum orientale, Rosa rubigimosa and Aethusa Cynapium. The remaining spe- . cies are mostly weeds, the worst possibly being Cirsium - arvense. The greatest number of introductions was in the family Compositae, with the Cruciferae second. In 1870, Frederick Brendel, working mainly in the region near Peoria, published an article in the American Entomologist and Botanist entitled, ‘‘ Distribution of Im- migrant Plants.’’ He notes the following—heretofore not mentioned—as ‘‘adventitious plants’’ or ‘‘mostly escaped or purposely introduced :—’’ Argemone mexicana Tanacetum vulgare Nasturtium Armoracia Ipomoea purpurea Anethum graveolens Phalaris canariensis Helianthus annuus Setaria italica The following additional plants, he says, had been naturalized from an unknown date:— _ - Hypericum perforatum Phleum pratense Chenopodium urbicum Agrostis alba Alepecurus pratensis Poa compressa In this list he also mentions Plantago major, Chenopod- wm hybridum, Solanum nigrum and ‘‘Xanthiwm stru- marium’’, all of which are now regarded as indigenous or at least as cosmopolites. Raphanus raphanistrum is mentioned as having been found in 1852, but not seen since. Many of the introduced species mentioned by Brendel had already appeared in Lapham’s catalogue. In 1872, H. H. Babcock’s ‘‘Flora of Chicago. and Vi- cinity’’ appeared. In this he mentions 47 introduced previous lists :— Lycopus europaeus - Datura Stramonium Festuca elatior Hordeum jubatum 175 plants, all found within 40 miles of Chicago. The follow- ing are named in addition to those already mentioned in Agropyron repens Setaria viridis Callirho6e involucrata The last two are possibly indigenous to the state. It is interesting to note that this is the first mention made of Agropyron repens. In 1891, the ‘‘Flora of Cook County’’ by Higley and Raddin came out. It listed a total of 1223 species. In the interval between 1872 and 1891, many new species were introduced, several of which were noted by E. J. Hill, one of the most active collectors in the Chicago region during this period. In 1871, another list was published by J. W. Hewitt in the National History of Illinois; LaSalle Coun- ty. This contained several more introduced species. The following list contains those species which apparently came in during this interval, a period of 25 years. For convenience the various species are collected into their respective families. The exact year for several of the species is given in the articles consulted. For example, J. EK. Arthur, in 1883, was possibly the first to call at- tention to the appearance in this region of Galinsoga - a parviflora. 1872-1897. Setaria verticillata Panicum miliaceum Eragrostis minor Lolium perenne . Agropyron biflorum Agropyron caninum Cynodon Dactylon Bromus tectorum Bromus racemosus Hemerocallis fulva Muscari botryoides Allium vineale Urtica dioica Salsola Kali Cycloloma atriplicifolium Chenopodium glaucum Chenopodium Bonus-Henricus Amaranthus graecizans Amaranthus blitoides Amaranthus paniculatus Oxybaphus nyctagineus Silene latifolia Silene noctiflora Lychnis alba Arenaria serpyllifolia Spergula arvensis Ranunculus bulbosus Radicula sylvestris Sisymbrium altissimum Lepidium campestre Lepidium sativum Lepidium intermedium Conringia orientalis Draba verna Alyssum maritumum Alyssum alyssoides Isatis tinctoria Neslia paniculata Reseda alba Sedum acre Sedum purpureum Sempervivum tectorum Hosackia americana 176 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Trifolium hybridum Physalis barbadensis Trifolium stoloniferum Datura Tatula Lespediza striata Nicotiana rustica Melilotus officinalis Veronica agrestis Euphorbia Cyparissias : Lactuca scariola Ricinus communis Tragopogon porrifolius Malva moschata Tragopogon pratensis Gaura parviflora Galinsoga parviflora Carum Carvi Anthemis arvensis Daucus Carota Chrysanthemum Parthenium Lysimachia Nummularia Cichorium Intybus Anagallis arvensis Sonchus arvensis Convolvulus arvensis Centaurea Jacea Ipomoea Hederacea Artemisia annua Ipomoea coccinea Aster angustus Myosotis scorpioides Anthemis nobilis Verbena officinalis Chrysanthemum Balsamita Leonurus sibirica Artemisia longifolia Galeopsis Tetrahit Leontodon autumnalis Solanum rostratum Hieracium aurantiacum A large number of species in the above list are common weeds of Kuropean nativity. A few are species which have come in from the West, such as Gaura parviflora, Amaranthus blitoides, Hosakia americana, Solanum rostratum, and possibly Cycloloma atriplicifolia. Two species of Agropyron, A. caninum-and A. biflorum, are supposed to have come in from the North or Northwest. They are not common. There are several species orig- inally from the tropics, such as Amaranthus paniculatus, Datura Tatula, Galinsoga parviflora, and Ricinus com- munis. Plants evidently escaping from cultivation are, Tragopogon porrifolius, Lespediza striata, Trifolium hybridum, Melilotus officinalis, Cichorium Intybus, Chry- santhemum Parthenum, Alyssum maritimum, Alyssum alyssoides, Lepidium sativum, Reseda alba, Hemerocal- lis fulva, Muscari botryoides, Myosetis scorpioides, Ipo- moea coccinea, Daucus Carota, Carum Carvi, Sedum purpureum, Sempervivum tectorum and probably a few others. Isatis tinctoria, the English Woad, was found at one point in Chicago. Several others mentioned above are quite rare. Sisymbrium altissimum, one of the most — notorious of the tumble weeds, appears to have been noticed first about 1890. The greatest number of species for any family during this period is in the Cruciferae, with 9 representatives. The interval from 1897 to 1921 may be taken conven- iently as the last period. The number of introductions Pe ph t- 3 ae Se ee TiS ee OS? Se eee Ee Ae ass SS rie PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 177 during this period was somewhat less than during the preceding interval. A noticeable feature is the number of species which have come from the West. Several of these have not yet spread far from the railroads, where one would expect the conditions for acclimitization were not the best. The writer is indebted to Dr. H. 8. Pepoon, of the Lake View High School, Chicago, for the follow- ing list of plants coming in during this time. 1897-1921. Euphorbia marginata Sorghum halepense Euphoribia Peplus Avena fatua Oenothera pallida Bromus hordeaceus Oenothera speciosa Bromus inermis Oenothera serrulata Rumex elongatus Cynanchum nigrum Atriplex argentea Cuscuta Epilinum Spergularia mariana Gilia linearis Stellaria aquatica ; Echium vulgare Lychnis coronaria Verbena bipinnatifida Gypsophila muralis Lamium maculatum Ranunculus acris Lamium amplexicaule Chelidonium majus Leonurus Marrubiastrum Thlaspi arvense Mentha rotundifolia Camelina microcarpa Solanum elaeagnifolium Raphanus sativus Physalis Alkekengi Brassica alba Physalis pumila Brassica juncea * Physalis longifolia Brassica Napus Lycium halimifolium Brassica campestris Petunia violacea Diplotaxis muralis Plantago aristata Hesperis matronalis Iva xanthifolia Barbarea vulgaris Lepachys columnaris Erysimum asperum Coreopsis tinctoria Polanisia trachysperma Artemisia kansana Potentilla recta Artemisia vulgaris Crotallaria sagittalis Artemisia procera Trifolium incarnatum Geranium pusillum Trifolium agrarium Tribulus terrestris Kallstroemia maxima - Arctium minus An examination of the foregoing list reveals several points of interest. Nearly one-third of the species are introductions from the West. Barbarea vulgaris, Aster angustus and Spergularia mariana are cosmopolites. The first is thought to be indigenous to the Northwest, and to have spread eastward. The case of Spergularia mariana is interesting. It is a plant of the Atlantic and Pacific seaboards, and saline regions of the interior, ac- cording to Gray’s Manual. The tendency to spread east- ward is rather striking in the two families Solanaceae and Onagraceae. Plants evidently escaping from culti- vation are Sorghum halepense, Bromus inermis, Lychnis 178 coronaria, Raphanus sativus, Brassica alba, Brassica Naus, Brassica campestris, Hesperis matronalis, Trifol- ium imcarnatum, Physalis Alkekengi, Petunia violacea, Coreopsis tinctoria, Lycvwwm halimifolium, and possibly Euphorbia marginata and Cynanchum mgrum. The fol- lowing, besides two or three already mentioned, are im- migrants from the West: Atriplex argentea, Erysumum asperum, Crotallaria sagittalis, Oenothera pallida, Oenothera speciosa, Oenothera serrulata, Verbena bipin- natifida, Solanum elaeagnifolium, Physalis pumila, Phy- salis longifolia, Plantago aristata (probably), Iva xanthi- folia, Lepachys columnaris, Artemisia kansana, Polan- isia trachysperma, and probably Kallstroemia maxima and Gilia linearis. The following is a list by families of the entire introduced flora enumerated in the preceding pages. Shrub-and tree introductions, such as Populus alba, Salix alba, ete., are excluded, as they are hardly to be counted as weeds. It is realized that the list is probably not complete. The nomenclature is that of Gray’s Manual, 7th edition. GRAMINEAE Eleusine indica, an., Old World trop. Eragrostis magastachya, an., Hur. Eragrostis minor, an., Eur. Digitaria sanguinalis, an., Eur. Digitaria humifusa, an., Eur. Setaria glauca, an., Hur. Setaria viridis, an., Eur. Setaria verticillata, an., Eur. Setaria italica, an., Eur. Echinochloa crusgalli, an., Eur. Bromus secalinus, an., Eur. Bromus hordeaceus, an., Eur. Bromus tectorum, an., Eur. Bromus racemosus, an., Hur. Bromus inermis, per., Eur. Dactylis glomerata, per., Eur. Poa annua, an., Eur. Poa compressa, per., Eur. Phalaris canariensis, an., Hur. Agropyron repens, per., Eur. Agropyron biflorum, per., Amer, Agropyron caninum, per., Amer. Hordeum jubatum, an., Cosmop. Festuca elatior, per., Hur. Lolium perenne, per., Eur. Cynodon Dactylon, per., Eur. Panicum miliaceum, an., Eur. Avena fatua, an., Eur. GRAMINEAE—Concluded Sorghum halepense, per., Eur. Phleum pratense, per., Eur. Agrostis. alba, per., Cosmop. Alopecurus pratensis, per., Hur. LILIACEAE Hemerocallis fulva, per., Eur. Muscari botryoides, per., Hur. Allium vineale, per., Eur. URTICACEAE Urtica dioica, per., Eur. Cannabis sativa, an., Asia. Humulus Lupulus, per., Cosmop. POLYGONACEAE Polygonum Convolvulus, an., _ Eur. Polygonum Persicaria, an., Eur. Polygonum orientale, an., India. Polygonum aviculare, an., Cos- mop. Rumex Acetosella, per., Hur. Rumex crispus, per., Eur. Rumex elongatus, per., Eur. Rumex obtusifolius, per., Hur. Fagopyrum - esculentum, an., Eur. ee, ey eT Tere ~ . Chenopodium aibum, an., Eur. Chenopodium murale, an., Eur. Chenopodium Botrys, an., Eur. Chenopodium ambrosioides, an., Trop. Amer. Chenopodium anthelminticum, an., Trop. Amer. Chenopodium urbicum, an., Eur. Chenopodium Bonus-Henricus, an., Eur. Chenopodium glaucum, an., Eur. Cycloloma atriplifolium, an., Amer.-west. Atriplex argentea, an., Amer.- west. - Salsola Kali, an., Eur. AMARANTHACEAE Amaranthus’ retrofiexus, an., Trop. Amer. Amaranthus paniculatus, an., Trop. Amer. Amaranthus spinosus, an., Trop. Amer. Amaranthus hybridus, an., Trop. Amer. Amaranthus blitoides, an., Amer. west. Amaranthus — graecizans, an., Amer.-west? NYCTAGINACEAE Oxybaphus nyctagineus, per., Amer.-west. AIZOACEAE Mollugo verticillata, an., Amer. south. CARYOPHYLLACEAE Cerastium vulgatum, per., Eur. Cerastium viscosum, an., Eur. Saponaria officinalis, per., Eur. Saponaria Vaccaria, an., Eur. Agrostemma Githago, an., Eur. Stellaria media, an., Eur. Stellaria aquatica, per. Eur. Arenaria serpyllifolia, an., Eur. Silene latifolia, per. Eur. Silene noctiflora, an., Eur. Lychnis alba, an., Eur. Lychnis coronaria, per., Eur. Spergula arvensis, an., Eur. Spergularia mariana, an., Cos- mop. Gypsophila muralis, an., Eur. PORTULACACEAE Portulaca oleracea, an., Eur. oe eo RS ee hee ee ee Pe a ee - #4 ss PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 179 = ee 8 ‘CHENOPODIACEAE RANUNCULACEAE = ~ Ranunculus bulbosus, per., Eur. iw Ranunculus acris, per., Eur. ar, Delphinium Consolida, an., Eur. 4 PAPAVERACEAE aS Chelidonium majus, bien., Eur. Argemone mexicana, an., Mex. = ‘a CRUCIFERAE ws a Sisymbrium officinale, an., Eur. - Sisymbrium Irio, an., Eur. are Sisymbrium altissimum, an, Eur. ee Erysimum, cheiranthoides, bien, = Amer. Rat eS Erysimum asperum, bien., Amer. — Pox Eat. Capsella Bursa-pastoris, an., Eur. Brassica arvensis, an., Eur. ane Brassica nigra, an., Eur. ath 2 Brassica alba, an., Eur. Bea Brassica juncea, an., Asia. cas Brassica Napus, an., Eur. aoe Brassica campestris, an., Eur. a Radicula Nasturtium-aquaticum, per., Eur. Camelina sativa, an., Eur. Camelina microcarpa, an., Eur. Radicula sylvestris, per., Eur. Lepidium campestre, an., Eur. Lepidium sativum, an., Eur. Lepidium intermedium, an., Eur. Conringia orientalis, an., Eur. tay Draba verna, an., Eur. Fad Alyssum maritimum, an., Eur. = Alyssum alyssoides, an., Eur. Nasturtium Armoracia, per., Eur. f Neslia paniculata, an., Eur. 2; Isatis tinctoria, bien., Eur. Thlaspi arvense, an., Eur. ; Raphanus sativus, an., Eur. Raphanus raphanistrum, Eur. Hesperie matronalis, bien. (or per.), Eur. 3 an., -\ ae 7. te Barbarea vulgaris, per., Amer. S and Eur. ; a Diplotaxis muralis, an., Eur. CAPPARIDACEAE 2 Polanisia trachysperma, an., Amer. RESEDACEAE ; Reseda alba, an., Eur. a CRASSULACEAE <= Sedum acre, per., Eur. a -Sedum purpureum, per., Eur. eae Sempervivum tectorum, per. — : Eur. = 180 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ROSACEAE Potentilla recta, per., Eur. Rosa rubiginosa, per., Hur. LEGUMINOSAE Trifolium procumbens, an., Eur. Trifolium arvense, an., Eur. Trifolium hybridum, per., Eur. Trifolium stoloniferum, per., Amer.-west. Trifolium incarnatum, an., Eur. Trifolium agrarium, an., Eur. Trifolium pratense, per., Eur. Cassia Tora, an., Amer.-south. Metllotus alba, ‘an. (or bien.), Eur. Melilotus officinalis, an., (or bien.), Eur. Medicago sativa, per., Eur. Medicago lupulina, an., Hur. Lespediza striata, an., E. Asia. Hosackia americana, an., Amer.- west. Crotallaria sagittalis, an., Amer. LINACEAE Linum usitatissimum, an., Eur. GERANIACEAE Geranium pusillum, an., Hur. ZYGOPHYLLACEAE Tribulus World. Kallstroemia maxima, an., Amer. S. W. terrestris, an. Old EUPHORBIACHAE Euphorbia Cyparissias, per., Hur. Euphorbia Peplus, an., Eur. Euphorbia marginata, an., Amer.-west. Ricinus communis, an. Old World Trop. MALVACEAE Malva rotundifolia, per., Eur. Malva sylvestris, bien., Eur. Malva verticillata, an., Eur. »Malva moschata, per., Eur. Sida spinosa, an., Trop. Abutilon Theophrasti, an., India. Hibiscus Trionum, an., Eur. HYPERICACEAE Hypericum Eur. perforatum, per., ONAGRACHAE Gaura parviflora, Amer.-west. Oenothera pallida, per., Amer.- west. Oenothera speciosa, per., Amer.- west. Oenothera serrulata, per., Amer.- west. . UMBELLIFERAE Pastinaca sativa, bien., Eur. Bupleurum rotundifolium, an., Eur. Aethusa Cynapium, an., Eur. Conium maculatum, bien., Eur. Carum Carvi, bien., Eur. Daucus Carota, bien, Eur. Anethum graveolens, an., Eur. PRIMULACEAB Lysimachia Nummularia, per., Eur. Anagallis arvensis, an., Eurasia. ASCLEPIADACEAE : Cynanchum nigrum, per., Eur. CONVOLVULACEAE Convolvulus arvensis, per., Eur. Cuscuta Epilinum, an., Eur. Ipomoea coccinea, an., Trop. Amer. Ipomoea hederacea, an. ‘Trop. Amer. Ipomoea purpurea, an., Trop. Amer. 5 POLEMONIACEAE Gilia linearis, an., Amer.-west. BORAGINACEAE Echium vulgare, bien., Eur. Cynoglossum officinale, _bien., Eur. Lappula echinata, an., Eur. Lithospermum arvense, an., Hur. Myosotis scorpioides per., Eur. VERBENACEAE Verbena bipinnatifida, per., Amer.-west. Verbena officinalis, an., Eur, LABIATAE Leonurus cardiaca, per., Hur. Leonurus sibirica, bien., Eur. Leonurus Marrubiastrum, bien., Kur. Satureja hortensis, an., Eur. Melissa officinalis, per., Eur. Nepeta Cataria, per., Eur. Par PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 181 ~ LABIATAE—Concluded DIPSACACEAE ae Nepeta hederacea, per., Eur. Marrubium vulgare, per., Eur. Galeopsis Tetrahit, an., Eur. Lamium maculatum, per., Eur. Lamium amplexicaule, an. (or bien.), Eur. Mentha spicata, per., Eur. Mentha rotundifolia, per., Eur. Lycopus europaeus, per., Eur. SOLANACEAE Solanum carolinense, per., Amer. west. Solanum rostratum, an., Amer.- west. Solanum nigrum, an., Cosmop. Solanum elaeagnifolium, per., Amer.-west. Solanum Dulcamara, per., Eur. Nicandra Physalodes, an. A. Amer. Physalis barbadensis, an., Amer.- west. Physalis Alkekengi, per., E. _Asia. Physalis pumila, per., Amer.- west. Physalis longifolia, per., Amer.- west. . Lychium halimifolium, per., Eur. Petunia violacea, an., Trop. Amer. Datura Stramonium, an., Trop. Amer. Datura Tatula, an., Trop. Amer. Nicotiana rustica, an., Amer. (probably). SCROPHULARIACEAE Linaria vulgaris, per., Eur. Verbascum Thapsus, bien., Hur. Verbascum Blattaria, bien., Eur. Veronica agrestis, an., Eur. Veronica arvensis, an., Eur. PLANTAGINACEAE Plantago lanceolata, per., Eur. Plantago aristata, an., Amer.- west. Dipsacus sylvestris, Bien., Eur. COMPOSITAE Sonchus asper, an., Eur. Sonchus oleraceus, an., Eur. Sonchus arvensis, per., Eur. Tussilago Farfara, per., Eur. Grindelia squarrosa, per., Amer.- west. Arctium minus, bien., Eur. Taraxacum officinale, per., Eur. Centaurea Cyanus, an., Eur. Centaurea Jacea, per., Eur: Hieracium aurantiacum, per., Eur. Inula Helenium, per., Eur. Anthemis Cotula, an., Eur. Anthemis nobilis, per., Eur. Anthemis arvensis, an. (or bien.), Eur. Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum, per., Eur. Chrysanthemum Balsamita, per., Asia. | Chrysanthemum . per., Eur. Cichorium Intybus, bien., Eur. Cirsium arvense, per., Eur. Cirsium lanceolatum, per., Eur. Aster angustus, an., Amer.-west. Leontodon autumnalis, per., Eur. Lactuca scariola, an., Eur. Tragopogon porrifolius, bien,, Eur. Tragopogon pratensis, bien., Eur. Galinsoga parviflora, an., Trop. Amer. Artemisia longifolia, per., Amer.- west. Artemisia kansana, per., Amer.- west. Artemisia vulgaris, per., Eur. Artemisia procera, per., Eur. Artemisia annua Coreopsis tinctoria, an., Amer.- west. Lepachys Amer.-west. Iva xanthifolia, an., Amer.-west. Helianthus annuus, an., Amer.- west. Tanacetum vulgare, per., Eur. Parthenium, columnaris, per., The data for nativity and duration of the above species were taken from Gray’s Manual, 7th edition. The dura- tion of several species, especially those belonging to the Cruciferae, may vary considerably from annual to bien- * ihe ¥ 182 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF ScaNG nial. The total number of introduced species listed above is 256. Undoubtedly there are several others which should be included. These figures, however, will serve as a basis for estimating the relative weed introduction from vari-_ ous sources. On this basis, 73% are of European origin, ~ 14% come in from West of the Mississippi, 6% are of - Tropical American origin, 5% are of Asiatic origin, and 2% are cosmopolitan. As to duration, approximately 32% are perennial, 60% annual and 8% pinatae Every species from Tropical America without exception acts here as an annual, which is to be expected. The greatest number came in during the period from — 1872 to 1897. Apparently the number of introductions during the last 24 years have been 30% less than the © ~ number during the preceding 25 years, the average be- ing 2.4 per year as against 3.3 yearly for the preceding interval. The period from 1872 on no doubt represents a rapid settling up of the farmlands of the state, and is naturally correlated with the introduction of many new species. The observations of Dr. H. 8. Pepoon, one of ‘the most thorough-going students of the flora of the state, are in line with this supposition. In 1876 he noted 355 species in a certain farm, and on the same farm in 1904, only 200, and these, he says, in his observations at the time ‘‘are the plebians, toughs, tramps, and rabble. The royal ones are gone.”’ Acknowledgements are due Dr. Chas. F. Millspaugh of the Field Museum for most of the articles consulted in reference to the flora of the state. The work was done under the direction of Dr. H. C. Cowles, of the University of Chicago. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1803 Michaux, Andre, Flora Boreali-americana. 1826 Beck, L. C., Catalogue of the Plants of WHlinois. Silliman’s Journal (Am. Jour. of Science and Arts). Vols. 10 and 11. 1844 Babcock, H. H., Flora of Chicago and Vicinity, The Lens, vols. La atidss- Engelmann, Geo., A List of the Plants Collected in Illinois and Missouri by Chas. A. Geyer. Am. Jour. Sci. and Arts vol. 44. 1845 *Short, C. W., On the Botany of Illinois. Western Jour. of Medi- cine. * Note: The starred references were not consulted. eT Sa PAPERS 0 ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 183 (1852 ‘Brendel, Frederick, Catalogue of Plants Gpeeeredt and Collected in the Vicinity of Peoria, Illinois, between 1852 and 1877. The Pharmacist, July, 1882. 1857 Lapham, I. A., A Catalogue of Illinois Plants. Trans. Ill. State Agr. Soc. 2: 492-550. Bebb, M. S., List of Plants in Northern Counties not in Lap- ; ham’s Catalogue. Trans. Ill. State Agr. Soc. vol. 3. 1859 Brendel, F., Additions and Annotations to Lapham’s Catalogue ; of Illinois Plants. Trams. Ill. State Agr. Soc. 3: 582-585. Bebb, M. S., Additions to the Plants Given in Lapham’s Cata- logue of Illinois Plants. Trans. Ill. State Agr. Soc. 3: 586-587. 1870 Brendel, F., Distribution of Immigrant Plants. Am. Ent. and Botanist 2: 378. Forbes, S. A., Illinois Plants. Am. Ent. and Bot. 2: 256. ——, Botanical Notes, Union and Jackson Counties. Am. | Ent. and Bot. 2: 256, 317 and 352. French, S. H., Some Interesting Plants from Senthern Illinois. Am. Ent. and Bot. 2: 383. Hill, E. J., Kankakee Plants. Am. Ent. and Bot. 2: 384. *McDonald, F. E., Rare and Interesting Illinois Plants. “Mss. Pamphlet. Field Museum. Vasey, Geo, Oquawka Plants (Collected by H. N. Patterson). Am. Ent. and Bot. 2: 319. , Southern Illinois Plants. Am. Ent. and Bot. 2: 191. ~ , New Plants from Southern Illinois (Collected by S. A. Forbes). Am. Ent. and Bot. 2: 288. , Warm, H. A., A list of Plants Growing in the Vicinity of Chi- cago during March, April and May. Am. Ent. and Bot. 2: 313 and-345. 1872 *Ridgeway, R., Vegetation of the Lower Wabash Valley. Amer. Nat. 724-732. Babcock, H. H., Flora of Chicago and Vicinity. The Lens. vols. 1 and 32. 1874 Patterson, H. N., Plants Collected in the Vicinity of Oquawka, Henderson County. Pamphlet, Field Museum. 1875 Hyatt, J.. Western Plants Observed Near Chicago and Peoria. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 7: 67-68. 1876 *Patterson, H. N., Catalogue of the Phaenograms and Vascular _Cryptogams of illinois, Native and Introduced. Pamphlet, Field Museum. 1877 Williams, R., Catalogue of the Plants of LaSalle County, III. In Balwin’s History of LaSalle County, 1877. p. 486-502. *Brendel, Fred, Catalogue of Plants Observed and Collected in the Vicinity of Peoria, Ill, between 1854 and 1851. The Pharmacist, 1882.: 1880 *Burrill, J. T., Useful and Noxious Plants. An. Rep. Ill. State Bd. Agr., 1880. - 1881 Hill, E. J., Plants and Plant Stations. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 8: 45. ——, Botanical Notes. Bot. Gaz. 6: 259. 1882 Bailey, L. H., Amaranthus blitoides. Bot. Gaz. 7: 110. Bebb, M. S., Recently Introduced Plants in and about Rockford Ill. Bot. Gaz. 7: 68. Foerste, A. F., Lactuca scariola. Bot. Gaz. 7: 136. Seymour, A. B., Cynoglossum vulgatum. Bot. Gaz. 7: 78. , Notes from Southern Illinois. Bot. Gaz. 7: 103. 1883 Arthur, J. C., Galinsoga parviflora. Bot. Gaz. 8: 283 *Boltwood, H. L., The Plants of LaSalle County, Ill. List in the Ottawa Republican. , * Note: The starred references were not consulted. 184 1886 1887 1889 1890 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1896 1897 1899 1902 1903 1906 1907 1908 1912 1913 1914 * ie — ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Hill, E. J., A Botanical Diary. Bot. Gaz. 11: 183. *Stewart, J. T., Flora of Peoria, Ill. Bull. Sci. Assoc. Peoria. p. 28-33. *Johnson, L. N., Grindelia squarrosa. Science, Sept., 1887. Hill, E. J., Lactuca seariola. Bot. Gaz. 14: 153. Hill, E. J., The Revised Manual and some Western Plants. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 17: 169-174. *Johnson, L. N., Botanical Notes. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 17: 287. McDonald, F. E., Additions to the Illinois Flora. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 17: 156. *McDonald, F. E., Plants of Richmond County, Ill. Mss. Pamph- _ let Field Museum. , Higley, W. K., and Raddin, C. S., The Flora of Cook County, IIL, and a Part of Lake County, Ind., vol. 2, Bull. Chi. Acad. Sci. 1891. Over 1000 species listed. Hill, E. J., Notes on the Flora of Chicago and Vicinity. Bot. Gaz. 17: 246-252. *Pepoon, H. S., Flora of Fulton County, Collecting List. 1892. Higgins, John, Plant Travel. Asa Gray Bull. 2: 6. ———,, Vagrant Crucifers. Asa Gray Bull. 3:4. Hill, E. J., Salsola kali tragus. Bot. Gaz. 19: 506-507. Clinton, G. P., Illinois Introduced Plants. Bot. Gaz. 19: 415. Moffatt, W. L., The Russian Thistle in Chicago. Asa Gray Bull. oa. 12-13. ——., Weeds of Chicago. Asa Gray Bull. 3: 39-40. Hill, E. J., Flora of Chicago and Vicinity, Notes on. Bot. Gaz. 21: 118-122. McDonald, F. E., Cleome serrulala Spreading Eastward. Bull. Torr Bot. Club 232 425. *Moffat, W. S., Solanums. Asa Gray Bull. 4: 56-57. Huett, J. W., Natural History of Illinois, LaSalle County. Part I. Botany. Chase, V. H., Lactuca seariola. Asa Gray Bull. 5: 16. Dewey, L. H., The Eastern Migration of Certain Weeds in America. Asa Gray Bull. 5: 31-34. Hill, E. J., Notes on Migrating Plants. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 26: 303-311. Schneck, J., Lespediza striata. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 18: 375. Hill, E. J., Torr. Bot. Club 29: 564-570. : Gleason, H. A., Notes on Southern Illinois Plants. Torreya 3: 1-3. , Ibid. 4: 167-170. 1904. Pepoon, H. S., Destruction of a Farm Flora. Plant World 7: 44-45, Gleason, H. A., Notes on Southern Illinois Plants. Torreya 6: 5-8. 1906. *Gleason, H. A., and Heart, C. A., Biology of the Sand Areas of Illinois. Bull. Ill. Lab. Nat. Hist. 7: *Huett, J. W., Flora La Sallensis. Nat. History of LaSalle Co., Illinois 1: 1-136. *Gleason, H. A., Various Illinois Notes. Am. Bot. 1908-1909. *Gates, F. C., Vegetation of the Beach Area in northeastern Illi- nois and southwestern Wisconsin. Bull. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist. 9: 255-372. *Gleason, H. A., The Vegetation of the Inland Sand Deposits of Illinois. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist. 9: 23-174. “Ridgeway, R., Richland County Plants. Mss. Pamphlet, Field Museum. Note: The starred references were not consulted. PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 185 THE EUROPEAN STARLING IN ILLINOIS Frank Siro, University oF ILuInots The presence of a small flock of European starlings at Urbana, Illinois, during the past winter, naturally leads to a desire to know something of the characteristics of this recent alien addition to our bird fauna. During the two decades following their first suecessful introduction into this country, in 1890, starlings did not extend their range much more than 200 miles from New York City where they were originally introduced. During the past decade they have made much more rapid progress, and have been reported from Nova Scotia, Canada, Ohio, Ala- bama, Georgia, and intermediate states, and have become abundant in various parts of New England, New York, and Pennsylvania. They seem destined to become abund- ant in the Mississippi Valley. They are very valuable aids in the destruction of a great variety of insect pests, but, when abundant, do ex- tensive damage to fruit. They nest in holes and inter- fere seriously with various kinds of birds using such nesting places. Like the English sparrows, they are more commonly to be found about the habitations of man. A considerable part of the starling population is ordinarily ~ migratory, going southward for the winter. They need and should receive no legislative protection. 186 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE HCOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE FAUNA OF LAKE KNOX : FiLorence Apcock, Knox CoLuEcE J. Deseription of the Lake. II. Reasons for choosing this particular region for our ecological survey. III. Purpose in the work to make as extensive a survey as possible, in the limited time, of the fauna of the lake and the conditions affecting the life of 4 the lake. IV. Methods. i V. EHeology. VI. General Survey of the Fauna with ecological notes. Lake Knox is a small, artificial lake or pond almost triangular in shape; and is 380 feet long, 210 feet wide at the wider end and 90 feet wide at the other. It lies in an east and west direction and is situated beside the Sante Fe railroad track two and a half miles east of Galesburg, Knox County, Illinois. The lake, which is 750 feet above sea level, is artificial and dates back to about 1880, when it was made by Purington Brick Com- pany to supply water for their brick works. The pond is very shallow, being about eight or ten feet deep; but - there is a seasonal change of several feet due to spring rains and summer drought. The water supply is largely surface water which drains in after rains. Two springs also contribute to the water of the pond; of these one empties directly through a pipe from a well just a few feet south of the railroad track, midway on the south side; while the other, which is about one-quarter mile south of the lake, drains into it through a creek and an- other pond. The stream enters the pond at the south- _ east corner. The lake is drained by a large pipe running under the street car track 75 feet from the east end of the north side and by a small pipe under the south end of the east embankment. The banks of the pond are partly of bricks and cinders, especially the south bank where the railroad company ee - PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 187 z 2 empties cinders, thus helping to fill up the lake. The pond if undisturbed will gradually fill up with humus formed by plants that die and by silt washed in by the small stream. Besides the area above described, this survey includes a swampy region about twenty feet _ east of the east end of Lake Knox (a little road separat- ing it from the lake). This area has developed in the - last five years. In this swamp are many cat tails, and muskrat mounds are quite numerous. The reasons for choosing this particular pond for this ecological survey were (1) because it is small and thus better suited for making an extensive study; (2) beeause it seemed like a typical place for the study of pond life; (3) because it is accessible, being not far from college and on the street ear line; (4) because of the great abundance of aquatic life found there. The purpose in this study is to make as extensive a survey as possible, in the limited time, of the fauna of the pond and its life. An attempt has been made (1) to study the environmental conditions which pertained to the life of the animals; (2) to identify by means of a key the specimens found therein, and (3) to study their habits in relation to their environment. Methods: In order to collect systematically, definite stations were established from which specimens were collected once a week by means of a long handled dip net; these-specimens, together with some of the mud, algae, etc., were put in fruit jars and small bottles and brought to the laboratory... The material was then examined; some specimens were preserved at once in 70% alcohol while some were kept alive in large jars for further study of their habits, and development of larval forms. Most of the collecting was done on Saturday, but the work of study and identification was done during the week with the aid of a lens, binoculars and microscope. Five stations were established. (1) The swiftly flow- ing brick-bottomed stream, which entered the lake at the southeast corner, together with the muddy area im- mediately adjacent was selected. For this station an area ten feet square was measured. (11) A shallow sta- tion west of station I where the water flows in through ee er sino ; Pa HA OER G4 My Lor, = MT CP ih a ‘fay te Si bh WO haees, % eer : & gf Hn, REE A an Spe tak Roe es 5 ay \ 188 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ~ a pipe at the rate of about 13 pints a minute became station II. The area is only a few feet wide and is clear, fresh water, the bottom being covered with dead grass and other vegetable matter. (III) A station at the north- west corner of the area called the muskrat region is Station III. There the shallow stream flows slowly un- der a bridge. The station is a mud bottomed one with a few bricks near the bridge. (IV) This station is lo- cated at the outlet which is west of Station III. Here the water flows rather swiftly through two large pipes which are beneath the street car track. Here are found a number of large stones, two large cement blocks and a floating log. (V) This area is of sluggish water which flows from a tile on the east side of the little road. This station is located just north of Station III. The water is rich in algae. In places it has a film due to a certain kind of bacteria. In studying animals as they exist in nature, one can- not overlook the fact that conditions of environment have much to do with the life of any region. Animals of a pond are influenced by such physical factors as the character of the surrounding country, the movement and the depth of the water, the character of the bottom and of the shores, and the light, temperature, and winds. Furthermore, animal life is influenced by such chemical factors as the acidity or alkalinity of the water and the presence of gases, salts, etc., in the water. Food and biological environment also affect pond life. The sur- rounding country is rich land of a glaciated region. It would seem, then, that a large amount of food materials might be carried into the lake by the contributing streams. There are small hills near, and a small patch of timber, thus limiting the effect of winds. Winds have a decided effect upon the life of a lake for they keep the water moving. In the rainy season of March and April the water is high and the inflowing stream is rapid. But in the dry season of mid-summer there is only a trickle and the lake is very low. The pond bottom is largely muck composed of decayed animal and vegetable debris. This muck is quite deep, for one sinks in it several feet. SR ng ee a eta te ey ee eee, teed. | eee “ha Se et eA Poe : —— =o * : ee a= ore" PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 189 - The underlying soil is shale, above which is the forma- tion of ooze of animal and vegetable debris. The water of the pond is comparatively clear so that light can penetrate to the bottom. In the muskrat region, however, the water is more muddy in appearance but is more shallow so that light can easily penetrate. The winter was not severe but the lake was covered with ice most of the time until the last of February. The first ‘killing frost was October 29th and the last frost, which was a slight one, was April 23rd. Much of the wind is kept off by the surrounding hills and by the banks which are three or four feet higher than the surface of the water. Wind is an important fac- tor in determining the circulation of the water which affects living organisms. Chemical Conditions of Water. Water was taken about three inches below the surface at a distance of a few feet from the shore, on a slightly cloudy day. The chemical tests were made by Professor J. E. Neifert, Department of Chemistry, Knox College. He found the oxygen content very low, 5.2 parts per million by weight. The hardness in Cac0; units was 168 parts per million and the alkalinity was 205 parts per million. The character of the margin (whether rocky or swampy), that of the shore (whether steep or shal- low), the outline (whether smooth or jagged), the depth of the lake, the chemical content of the soil, the banks, the exposure to sun and wind, relative inflow and outflow in relation to volume, the altitude, and the geo- graphic location—all these factors modify and control the types of living things and their abundance in the water. Lakes are only temporary; inflowing water 'brings detritus which fills in the shore for a new kind of vege- tation. This region increases as the lake advances in age, and open water and bottom areas decrease likewise till a swamp results which is gradually reduced to dry land. Life in the lake changes as the lake changes. At first there is little fauna, but it increases as new habitats are formed. Raw materials are washed in and plants and y t ‘= deal 190 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE animals increase. Animals are dependent upon each other; some supply food, some are enemies, ete. Man likewise has much influence upon the life of the pond. Animals also are dependent upon the amount and kind > of vegetation, for plants are used ‘for places to secure food, clinging places, sources of oxygen, shade aes ercediae places. . Animals thus form communities according as they se- lect the same kind of habitat. In ponds the following * habitats may usually be recognized. (1) The littoral or shallow water area along the shore comprising both that of (a) emergent vegetation and (b) that of submerged vegetation; and (2) the pelagic or open water area where fixed vegetation is lacking. The plants and animals of — this area are called Plankton. They remain suspended on the surface of the water. There may be another open water society called Necton which refers to large free swimming forms. The emergent vegetation area is lack- ing in Lake Knox, but is evidenced in the muskrat region. The area of submerged vegetation is found on the north side, where Hlodea is rather abundant and also at Sta- tion V where algae are so abundant. GENERAL SURVEY OF THE FAUNA OF LAKE KNOX. Phylum Protozoa ° All the protozoa identified were found in an aquarium of water collected from the pond. 1. Sarcodina Class Rhizopoda Only two classes of the so-called pee anon bearing organisms were found. Amoeba proteus These were few in number. Arcella vulgaris This is a green, smooth shelled Rhizopod. They were not abundant. 2. Mastigophora, the flagellates Euglena viridis Only one specimen was seen. Volwoxz Was rather more abundant. 3. Infusoria Class Ciliata Order Holotricha Two specimens of Paramoecium were found. Paramoecium caudatum, a large protozoan, was very abundant on the surface of the small jar of water. The specimens were so large that they were easily seen with the naked eye. Paramoecium aurelium Was found in a similar situation though not so abundant. Se rl ae 3 3 ON BIOLOGY nae ) AGRICULTURE : GENERAL SURVEY OF THE FAUNA OF LAKE KNOX—Continuea 4 Infusoria—Concluded - Order Heterotricha Spirostomum (rare) i .. Stentor polymorphus ~ Soe ie An attached form, only a few specimens of which a: : were seen. Order Hypotricha ; Stylonichia z Order Peritricha Se Vorticella campanula This well known vorticella was found also many times among the Elodea of Station IV. aA : Carchesium, a colony vorticella, was found on a beetle ie larva. This form contracts independently. Et - Loothamium ‘ Contract together and were found on the legs of a dead crustacean (gammarus). ae ro Phylum Porifera No fresh water sponges were found, but they are reported as having been found there. Ein Coelenterata Order Hydrazoa Fresh water hydra were found in the pond several times s but the exact station was not known. They were seen attached to the bottom of the glass dish in which the water was placed. - Hydra viridis Green hydra. ~ Hydra vulgaris Whitish hydra. - Phylum Plathelminthes -Class Turbellaria Planaria tova This almost black worm was found in great numbers at Station II among the dead grasses at the bottom. { Planaria velata = Is a much larger whitish one measuring 16 mm. in length. This was found at the same station. Class .Trematodes Two kinds were found but were not identified. One was a small pinkish one on a Gammarus. The other, longer a and more slender, was parasitic on the swimmerets of the crayfish. : Phylum Nemathelminthes Class Gordiacea ; Paragordus varius be : This small hair worm was the only round worm found. 4 It was 2 small worm with a white head and a dark band behind the head; and was found near the sur- mee face of the water at Station V. i : Phylum Trochelminthes “3 Class Rotifera Order Bdelloida ! Family Philodinidae Rotifer vulgaris m : Philodina si Both of these species were found in the jar of water mentioned. . Phylum Bryozoa , No bryozoans were found during the survey. 192 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE GENERAL SURVEY OF THE FAUNA OF LAKE KNOX—Continued. Phylum Annelida Class Chaetopoda Order Oligochaeta Family Lumbricidae Helodrilus caliginosus The common earth worm was found frequent- ly on damp earth on the bank. Family Naididae Chaetogaster Several of these were found in the shallow water of Station I. Class Hirudinea Order Gnathobdellida Family Herpobdellidae Herpobdella punctata This leech was found in numbers attached to the under surface of bricks at the mud bot- tomed station in the muskrat region. It was a rather large form characterized by four rows of black spots on the dorsal side. About the middle of May they were found in great numbers at Station I. The little newly hatched ones were very numerous on the under side of bricks in the water, and eges were plentiful as well. Phylum Arthropoda Class Crustacea Subclass Hntomostraca Order Phyllopoda Suborder Cladocera These water fleas were found in the water of Station V where plant food is so abundant. Simocephalus ; Daphnia Both of these forms were found in shallow water, some- times on the surface, and sometimes deeper in the water. Daphnia was the more numerous of the two. Order Copepoda Cyclops bicuspidatus This was found very early in the spring, in fact as early as March 20th when the water was quite cold. It is a plankton form remaining on the surface. It is found at almost all seasons of the year and often bears great loads of eggs in two little sacs, one on either side near the posterior end of the body: Order Ostracoda Cypris virens These small ie which are enclosed by a shell, belong to the plankton of the pond. The shell is covered with hairs. Subclass Malacostraca Order Amphipoda Gammarus faciatus s This small crustacean was found in March and early April in great numbers in the bottom of Station V and also at Station I. They seem to be unable to survive when taken out of their habitat, for they die very quickly when put in jars of water in the laboratory. 4 ; ’ I { P PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 193 GENERAL SURVEY OF THE FAUNA OF LAKE KNOX—Continued. Phylum Arthropoda—Continued Order Isopoda Family Asellidae Asellus communis This was very common among decaying vegetable matter of Station II and also of Station III. They were found in puddles of the Muskrat Region in early March while ice was still on. Young ones were very numerous on the under side of stones at Station I, May 28th. Oniscus asellus The common sow bug was found in great num- bers under bricks on the banks of Station I. They are not really aquatic but live in damp places. Order Decapoda Family Potamobiidae Cambarus propinquus This crayfish is found very frequently both in the swift brick bottomed stream which enters the pond and in the stream which flows into the muskrat region. They bury themselves deep down in the ground about the last of October. Their holes or towers of mud are commonly seen along the banks of the stream. We saw them in the water again as early as March 2d. In May the females bear young upon their swim- merets. Class Arachnoidea Water spiders were seen frequently swimming on the sur- face of the water near Station I but none were identi- fied. Class Myriapoda A single milliped was found at Station I but was not studied. Class Insecta Order Ephemeridae No May-flies have been found. Order Odonata Suborder Anispotera (dragon flies) Macromia The nymph of this form was found on the bottom at the north side of the pond near Station IV. Libellula pulchella A nymph of this species was found several times in the aquarium. Suborder Zygoptera (damsel flies) Lestes nymphs were found among the Elodea of Sta- “tion IV. : Anomalagrion _ A single nymph of this damsel fly was found. Order Plecoptera (stone flies) A nymph was found under a brick at the incoming stream but was not identified as to genus or species. Order Hemiptera Suborder Heteroptera This group includes water bugs, skaters, water strid- ers, and water boatmen. 194 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ~ GENERAL SURVEY OF THE FAUNA OF LAKE KNOX—Continued. — Phylum Arthropoda—Concluded Family Corizidae (water boatmen) Corixa was found on the surface near the eet at Sta- tion IT. Family Notonectidae Notonecta insulata This backswimmer was very common in the pond — near Station II. Family Acanthidae A small green water strider was very common on hb sur- face of the water both in the pond and in the slow stream at Station V but has not yet been identified. Family Gerridae ‘ # Gerris This long legged skater is quite commonly seen on the surface of the pond as well as in the stream of the muskrat region. Suborder Homoptera Family Aphidae Rhophalosiphum This aphid was found on the duckweed near the east side of the pond in the fall. Order Lepodoptera Land forms were seen on the banks. Nymphalidae Euploeinae Anosia plexippus The monarch butterfly was found dead on the bank. Larvae were found in May on milkweed. Larvae of viceroy were found on the willow in May also. Pyrrharctia isabella The common black and brown caterpillar was seen frequently on the banks. Order Coleoptera Family Dytiscidae Ditiscus Larvae of this predaceous diving beetle were abundant. They were found in early March in the mud of the muskrat region. These larvae are commonly known as water tigers. Family Hydrophilidae (water scavenger beetles) Tropisternus This is a common black beetle often seen on the surface of the pond. Family Haliplidae Peltodytes A small yellow beetle seen frequently on the water near Station II. It is swift in its move- ments. Order Diptera Family Chironomidae Chironomous larvae, commonly known as blood worms, were rather common at Station III. Family Culicidae Mosquitoes were common but none were identified as to species. “« F ; ,? L ; bo =, oy _ GENERAL SURVEY OF THE FAUNA OF LAKE KNOX—Continued. ZW 3 Phylum Mollusca Class Gastropoda Order Pulmonata Physa heterestropha This was very abundant, especially about the first of April. About the first of April, too, the eggs are found in great abundance in little clusters on the under surfaces of bricks. The snails make definite tracks of mucous which they se crete. These paths may be seen on the suriace of the mud at the side of the stream. Planorbis trivolvis This snail is frequently seen but not so frequently as is the Physa. Suborder Stylommatophora (land snails) Agriolimax campestris This slug was found on the damp earth near the stream of Station III. Class Palecypod Order Eulamellibranchiata = Musculium transversum This very small delicately shelled bivalve was found in Station III. Sphaerium This bivalve was somewhat larger than the above. It was found frequently in the stream leading from the outlet of the pond to the muskrat area. Phylum Chordata Subphylum Vertebrata Class Pisces Pomozxis annularies, the white crappie, was caught April 8th on the north side of the pond. Pimephales notatus The blunt nosed minnow was found the same day in simi- lar situation. These small fish measure 214 inches in length. Micropterus salmoides The large mouthed black bass was reported as present. Class Amphibia Family Bufonidae Bufo americanus A large toad was found on the street car track near Station IV, April 8th. Family Ranidae Rana pipiens The common leopard frog was very common in the fall Hyla pickeringit The spring peeper was found at Station V and III in Mareh and April. They were very numerous in the middle of May. Rana catesbiana ._ A tadpole of this large bullfrog was found at Station V, April 8th. Class Reptilia No water snakes were found but a water moccasin was re- ported as being seen. Mud turtles were reported as being found there. > © eS es Fim Te aig | eae Ee x uly ae Pee en re rs PAPERS AND AGRICULTURE 195 ic : ; Se eta Be a6 .™ aa.) 196 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE GENERAL SURVEY OF THE FAUNA OF LAKE KNOX=Continued. Phylum Chordata—Continued Class Reptilia—Concluded Order Ophidia Family Colubridae Eutaenia sirtalis : The common garter snake was found in great numbers both in the fall and in the spring. Seven were seen on the bank near Station IV, April 8th. Heterodoa platyrbinus The hog nosed snake was found near there September 29th. Class Aves (Birds) Order Anseres Anas platyrynchos Mallard ducks were seen flying over the pond, October 8th. Chen caerulescens A man killed twelve blue geese from the region Nov. 11th. Order Paludicolae Family Pallidae Fulica americana The American coot, known commonly as the mud hen, was seen very frequently. It was the only representative of the marsh birds seen. Order Limicolae (Shore birds) Family Scolopacidae Gallinago delicata The Wilson snipe was seen dead on the tracks Oct—21st- Pisobia minutilla Two least sandpipers-were seen March 15th in the muskrat area. Family Charadriidae (Plovers) Ozyechus vociferus The killdeer was seen very frequently. It was noticed as early as March 17th and as late in the fall as Oct. 21st. The killdeer is said to feed very largely upon shellfish and larvae from ponds. Other birds were seen frequently, which undoubtedly af- fect the life of the pond directly or indirectly. Order Coccyges Family Alcedinidae Ceryle alcyon The belted kingfisher was seen as early as March 16th, occasionally diving into the water for small fish. Order Pici (woodpecker) Family Picidae Dryobates pubescens The downy woodpecker which stays with us all winter was seen frequently pecking for insect larvae on the giant rag weed stems or other weeds along the bank. 74 PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE - 197 GENERAL SURVEY OF THE FAUNA OF LAKE KNOX—Continued. Phylum Chordata—Continued Order Pici (woodpecker )—Concluded Family Picidae—Concluded Dryobates villosus The hairy woodpecker, likewise a winter resident, and very much like the downy in appearance except for the larger size, was seen occasionally. Melanerpes erytrocephabus The red headed woodpecker, which commonly goes south for the winter, was seen in Decem- ber and in January this year. Centurus carolinus The red bellied woodpecker was seen likewise during the winter months. Colaptes auratus The flicker was first noticed March 21st. Order Passeres (perching birds) Family Tyrannidae , - Tyrannus tyrannus The kingbird was seen driving away a crow March 21st. Sayornis phoebe This was seen March 2ist on a willow tree near the pond. Family Corvidae Cyanocitta cristata The blue jay was seen October 21st and December 20th and frequently in the spring. Corvus brachyrhynchos Crows were very abundant in the region of the pond. Family Icteridae Agelaius phoeniceus Red winged blackbirds were very abundant at the pond in March, April and May. The first one seen was March 17th, but they were seen in the fall as late as November ist. Sturnella magna The meadowlark was seen April 4th and there- after. Icterus galbula The Baltimore oriole was seen May 10th in the woods near Lake Knox. Quiscalus aeneus The bronzed grackles were seen in flocks October 8th and were first seen in the spring on March 17th. Family Fringillidae Astragatinus tristis The American gold finch was seen in its winter plumage October 2nd. They have little to do with pond life, however, as their food is chiefly weed seeds. Passer domesticus The English sparrow is very common. Zonotrichia guerula The Harris sparrow was seen in the nearby woods April 9th. 198 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE GENERAL SURVEY OF THE FAUNA OF LAKE KNOX—Continued. Phylum Chordata—Continued Order Passeres (perching birds—Concluded Family Fringillidae—Concluded Spizella passerina The chipping sparrow was seen in early spring, but the date was not recorded. Junco byemalis Slate colored Junco was seen in the willows very frequently throughout the winter months. Melospiza melodia The song sparrows were very abundant. They could be seen at all seasons in the willow trees around the lake. Cardinalis cardinalis The red cardinal was seen occasionally even in winter months. Piranga erythromelas | ; The scarlet tanager, a rare bird, was seen near the lake May 20th. TIridoprocne bicolor The tree swallow was seen May 20th on a tele- phone wire above the bank of the pond. Seiurus noveboracensis - The water thrush was seen in the brush a liitle way south of the pond. Toxostoma rufum The brown thrasher was seen April 4th. Dumetella. carolinensis The catbird, which arrives in early April, is seen very frequently in the trees about the pond. Cerithia familiaris americana The brown creeper was seen in the winter and again in the spring in the lake region, usually climbing up a tree trunk in search of insect larvae. Family Paridae Penthestes atricapillus The black capped chickadee was seen at all sea- sons of the year. Sitta carolinensis The nuthatch was seen several times, usually climbing down a tree trunk head first. Boeolophus bicolor The tufted titmouse was seen Feb. 24th and many times thereafter. Family Turdidae Planesticus migratorius The robins were very abundant. Feb. 24th nine- teen of them were seen immediately south of the pond. Sialia sialis The bluebird is one of the first to arrive in the spring. The first ones to be seen, a flock of ten, were seen Feb. 24th. “ef — ee * é B. ‘Class Mammalia : a, = Order Glires rhodents : Pe A cc Family Muridae. : = Subfamily Microtinae : ’ a > Fiber zibethicus ag A dead muskrat was seen on the street - “Sax Ss car track. Muskrat mounds made Bes . ee largely of cat tails are very abundant. = 25 = and a boy trapping said that he caught ; thirty muskrats in one day. ee Microtus pennsylvanicus es ss Field mice were seen south of the pond. Family Sciuridae — Arctomys monazr ae The woodchuck was seen near the ditch just south > P- : _ of the pond Oct. 2. - soe Family Leporidae 3 a Lexus flordianus mearnsi “—< at 2. The prairie cotton tail were very common about WEG : the pond. ; 5 : f Man’s relations to the life of the pond cannot help ass being noticed. In the first place the pond is artificial; i __ furthermore it is changed to fit man’s needs. In addi- “ae ___ tion to the effect on the pond and its water supply man = __ affects the animals directly. He kills game, the street sae - car runs over animals which live upon animals and plants # _. in the pond. He changes the physical surroundings = __which affect the life of the animals. Man does much | a _ that affects animal life, but still there is a balance. ae Ss 4 eS 2 200 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE A PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF WATER MITES IN GREEN LAKE, WISCONSIN RutH MarsHauyi, Rockrorp CoLLEcE While geographical distribution, altitude distribution and distribution according to the character of the bodies of water in which they have been found, have been stud- ied, the vertical distribution of water mites has received little attention. Distribution in the lakes of different elevations has been studied in the Swiss and Scandinav- ian mountain regions. In this country, little has been done beyond systematic work; data on distribution have been confined almost entirely to horizontal distri- bution. In this connection, it is interesting to note that Professor F. C. Baker, in his studies on the life in Oneida Lake, New York, records the hydrachnids at varying depths and for different bottoms in a shallow bay. The author has been fortunate enough to receive from Professor Chauncey Juday, of the Wisconsin Natural History Survey, some collections made at different depths in Green Lake, in eastern Wisconsin. This lake is re- _markable among lakes in the glaciated plains regions in its great depth, which reaches 230 feet. Collections were made in August, 1921, and were in three lots: at depths from the surface to five meters; from five meters to ten meters; and from ten meters to twenty-nine meters. Thirteen genera were represented, most of them common ones. About three hundred and thirty-five individuals were present; the species have not yet been fully determined. As was to be expected, the genera were not found in the same ratios as in ordinary collections made by dragging a cone net through the vege- tation of the surface waters, where Arrhenurus, Piona, Limnesia, Unionicola and the ‘‘red mites’’, like Diplo- dontus, usually predominate. However, Limnesia led in number of individuals and was found at all depths, as were also Arrhenurus, Newmania and Piona. Lebertia and Torrenticola were very abundant in the shallow places but were not found at the greater depths. Muideop- Race “er ae 5 ‘Sie 2 4 . ee occurred ‘snly below five meters. The list “of the gen- era at different depths is given, together with the number “of individuals. ; a A—From the surface to 5 meters. —— Arrhenurus manubriator Mar., 10. ee. Arrhenurus scutulatus Mar., 5. awe Arrhenurus fem. unidentified, 16. ee Oxus, 1. 7s Frontipoda americana Mar., 2. 5 em Lebertia, 72. - Se Torrenticola, 50. - , = Koenikea concaya Wol., 17. ek Neumania, 19. pare: Piona, 13. : eS Unionicola, 1. Saou Limnesia, about 50. ae Sporadoporus, 11. eae _ _ B—From 5 meters to 10 meters. = Arrhenurus manubriator Mar., 3. iss a _ Arrhenurus scutulatus Mar., 2. ate Arrhenurus fem. unidentified, 9. as Koenikea concave Wol., 7. : *e Mideopsis, 5. . Neumania, 4. = Piona, 5. -. ae Limnesia, 36. | — Pionopsis, 1. eS From 10 meters to 29 meters. - ae Arrhenurus americanus Mar., 1. <= Mideopsis, 2. ea Neumania, 2. < oe Piona,1. aa Limnesia, 1. St | . " - sit ee =. d a = 202 CE ADVANTAGES OF RIVER CANYONS FOR ECOLOGICAL STUDY Frank THonez, University oF CHicaco The dunes of Lake Michigan have long since become classic soil to American botanists. They were early recognized by taxonomists of a former generation as collecting grounds unsurpassable for richness and va- riety of flora. Under the eye of Cowles (1) they became the cradle of ecology upon this continent, and the start- ing-point of the whole successional idea. Fuller (2, 3), a pioneer in the quantitative study of physical factors of the environment, carried on his work here. And latterly Cowles (4) again has made them a point of departure in a significant essay in floristic history.. | It is only natural that the dunes should have become a great outdoor laboratory of botany. Their relatively great topographical relief, their restless and rapid changes of position and surface, with erosion and de- position going on simultaneously within radii of a few yards, their relations to significant recent geological events, all conspire to bring together in one place a most remarkable diversity of environmental factors, and there- fore also a group of plant communities notable alike for their clean-cut character as ecological associations and as floristic groups. The botanical advantages they offer, their topographi- eal unity and geographical continuity, and the fact that they have furnished the material for so many well-known pieces of research, have rather tended to make the dunes an overshadowing fact in middle-western botany. It is the object of the present paper to bring out the point that they do not present a unique and isolated phenome- non in an otherwise dull and commonplace stretch of country. Rather they are simply outstanding and criti- cal features in an entity much larger than themselves, an entity that has many other features just as critical though less outstanding, which, nevertheless, await and will re- ward scientific investigation. a eee. ee I do not need to remind this audience that the dominat- ing event in the history of all the botany of this region, whether floristic or ecological, was the advent of the glaciers. Their advance and retreat, and the postulated climatic fluctuations that have occurred since their final disappearance, were the ultimate causes of the distribu- tional peculiarities of floral disjuncts of northern, Appa- _lachian and southwestern affinities, as well as of the suc- cessional relationships of the vegetational communities proper. to the region. The glaciers set the problems in this part of the country for students of ecology and field botany in general. Communities of floral disjuncts, as well as the most clean-cut display of successional series, will always be found where the greatest development of topographical and soil diversities give rise to the most marked modi- fications in ecological factors. These critical points, these points of profitable attack, therefore, must be sought out and studied not as discrete and unrelated matters of interest, but rather as coordinated parts of a whole. The rocky peninsulas and islands of the Super- ior region, the morainal lakes of Minnesota and Wiscon- sin, the dunes of Lake Michigan, and that remarkable series of steep-sided river canyons scattered across the upper Mississippi valley from Ohio to the Dakotas, are all chapters in one great work, and all must be read be-" fore any may be fully understood. It is about the river canyons that I want to speak for a few minutes. In advance I want to say that I do not come to tell about them, for I have only begun to try to find out a little about a single one of them; rather I stand as one just a bit aghast at the size of the task and look about for help. It is emphatically more than a one-man | job. What I bring is a challenge and an invitation. These canyons, as I have said, are scattered across nearly the whole of the upper Mississippi valley. Many of them have more than local repute. Sugar Grove in Ohio, Turkey Run in Indiana, Starved Rock and Apple River in Illinois, the Dells in Wisconsin, Wildeat Glen, the Palisades of the Cedar and Steamboat Rock in Iowa, are familiar enough names to most of us, and there are > Ya ORES ald ee ‘ Rees AUB d Os Le i 204 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE plenty of others which, if less well known, are quite as beautiful and striking in their scenery, and quite as in- teresting in their natural history. In all of them one gets much the same kind of story: a great telescoping of suc-_ cessional series and unusual groups of plants far out of their ordinary range. Each of these places is a ‘‘farthest south’’ in its own region for such northern species as white pine, yew, aspen, Canadian elderberry, harebell and Arctic primrose. Each has outliers of southeastern and southwestern floras. Naturally the eastern forms are more numerous in Ohio and the western forms in Illinois and Iowa, but the significant thing is that in any locality the canyon disjuncts represent a long jump from the nearest open-country community of the same species. Thus, a well-developed stand of sugar maple is a note- worthy feature of the Iowa canyons, while at Sugar Grove, Ohio, where sugar maple is a commonplace, the rhododendron, whose main range is in the southern Alle- ghenies, becomes a sort of floristic equivalent. There is no point in piling up examples; the character of these canyons as botanical outposts is evident at a glance even to a casual tourist. The presence of these disjuncts, particularly of the northern ones, becomes very suggestive when the location of the canyons is examined in connection with the line ‘representing the farthest advance of the last (Wisconsin) ice sheet. The accompanying map (fig. 1) shows, in a roughly approximate way, the relation of the half-dozen canyons named in the preceding paragraph to the edge of the Wisconsin drift and also to the driftless ‘‘island’’ in southern Wisconsin and northern Illinois and Jowa. The older drift exposures are omitted for the sake of sim- plicity; what is shown is sufficient for the purposes of illustration. Moreover, the erosion due to the release of water from this, the latest of the glacial masses, is still fresh, and the sides of the cliffs and canyons are still actively weathering, so that the ecological factors here are more active and more sharply contrasted than they are in parts of the older drift not so immediately affected. It was on the sides and edges of these canyons that the first hardy tundra vegetation appeared when the last of a i Sa PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 205 the ice melted under the rain-deluges of its own begetting, back in the earliest post-pleistocene, and here one stil! finds them: conifers and ericads and reindeer-lichens. It was up the rich and sheltered valleys that the plants of a milder climate came, pawpaws and tulip-trees and sas- safras, and it is in the valleys that they have held their place. Where the country rock is a sandstone, as at Starved Rock, the newcomers from the southwest, cactus and sagebrush and bunchgrass, gained and kept a foot- hold where the soil from its decomposition accumulated. And everywhere one can find places where the whole suc- cessional series proper to the region, from the burr oak of the prairie edges and the black oak of the dry upland woods, lie only a literal stone’s throw from the elm and linden of the floodplain and the willows at the water’s edge. An excellent illustration of. such a place is Lovers’ Leap cliff at Starved Rock, shown in figure 2. (A Lov- ers’ Leap is another feature that most of these canyons Fig. 1. Map showing distribution of representative river canyons, 1. Sugar Creek region 5. The Dells of the Wisconsin 2. Turkey Run Wildeat Glen 3. 4 v Starved Rock Palisades of the Cedar Apple River Steamboat Rock oles aS RRs te ge co TE Sen ae i Gkcueay nee ae at SNe, Reh eae ne i eat 5 aS DS ie ee ee . 206 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE have in common.) Here on the thin soil of the plateau is an association of black oak, with a few burr oaks about the margin, and bracken fern and xerophytic herbs un- der the trees. At the edge of the cliff, and along pre- carious footholds on its sides, where the steep drop to- ward the river comes, are white pine, arbor vitae and juniper, with mountain holly, shadbush, blue-berry and huckleberry, harebell, wild lily-of-the-valley and poly- pody. On the inland slopes, where talus has accumu- lated against the sides, come red and white oaks and witch-hazel, shading magnificent ferneries and beds of mesophytic spring flowers. At the foot, on the river terrace, is a mixed hardwood growth, ranging from white oak and sugar maple through elm, linden and Kentucky coffee tree to soft maple and willow at the water’s edge. On an exposed shoulder of the plateau, where weathered sand has gathered, are bunch grasses, euphorbia and xerophytic composites and legumes. And it all lies with- in a radius of less than two city blocks. Even the dunes ae eannot equal this. . - All this wealth of botanical possibilities is practically untouched. Griggs (5) has worked out the botany of the Sugar Grove region pretty thoroughly. Pepoon (6) in 1919 presented a plea before this society for the creation of a state park at Apple River. Cowles (7) has a brief section on botany in the bulletin of the Chicago Geographic Society on the Starved Rock state park. There are brief statements, mostly mere paragraphs, by various authors on the Iowa canyons in a report of the Iowa State Board of Conservation (8). Aside from some popular articles, that is about all there is in print. Dur- ing the spring and summer of 1921, at the suggestion of Doctor Cowles, I spent a great deal of time at Starved Rock, but what I have to say is still im werden, and I do not feel that my data more than scratch the surface. When it is recalled that there are dozens of such can- yons, big and little, each with its own story to tell and none complete until all are complete, do you wonder that I send up a Macedonian cry for help? Here is bot- anizing, interesting, profitable, worth while as contribu- tory data in the solution of a problem of continental Ss 1 oi Ili “ os 0, % Ly AGRI cUL La URED = > | Every « one eae us is within striking distance of some - sor t of a river canyon, perhaps in our own home county, — certainly within week-end flivvering distance. If there is anyone who is casting about for something promising in field botany, I for one, having made proof of the pud- ding, can assure him that it is most excellent eating. - peasy LITERATURE CITED. 1. Cowles, H. C.: The ecological relations of the vegetation on the sand dunes of Lake Michigan. Boi. Gaz. 27: 95-117, 167-202, 281- 308, 361-391. 1899. 2. Fuller, G. D.: Evaporation and plant succession. Bot. Gaz. 52: 192-217. 1911. 4 3. Fuller, G. D.: Evaporation and soil moisture in relation to the succession of plant associations. Bot. Gaz. 58: 193-234. 1914. 4. Cowles, H. C.: Ecological fioristics in the Chicago region. (In preparation.) 5. Griggs, R. F.: A botanical survey of the Sugar Grove region. ms? Ohio Biol. Surv. Bull. 3. 1914. ; 6. Pepoon, H.S.: A proposed new state park. Trans. Ill. State Acad. Sei. 12: 6468. 1919. 6a. Pepoon, H. S.: The forest lands of Jo Daviess County. Trans. Til. Acad. Sci. 12: 183-202. 1919. = 7. Sauer, C.0., G. H. Cady and H. C. Cowles: Starved Rock State Park and its environs. Geogr. Soc. of Chicago Bull. 6. 1918. ea on : ; 8. (Iowa) State Board of Conservation: Iowa Parks. Des Moines. SS 1919. a + — : “ aS “i 3 208 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE THE ECOLOGY OF RHUS TOXICODENDRON Hexen Turner, University or Cuicaco It was suggested that more information was needed on the variations in individual species in relation to their environments. Rhus Toxicodendron was selected for study, not because of its poison character, but be- cause it is a species which has a wide distribution, being found, as you know, in all situations from the very dry to the very wet. Field studies were made in eight typical locations during July, August, and September of last year, 1921. Measurements were made from 75 or more leaves in each location, being careful to consider only leaves which were mature and to consider all con- ditions of the fully developed leaves. From these mea- surements the average size was calculated. -All further study was made from the average leaves. For conven- ience the lots have been lettered A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H. When the leaves were arranged in a descending series, beginning with the most mesophytie, it was noticed that they could be divided into four groups. Only one lot of each of the groups will be considered today, by fig- ures B, D, F, and G. The leaves of lot B are from a moist dune environ- ment, located at Wycliff, Ind. The soil, of course, was sandy. The pocket was quite deep so that the bottom of it must have been near the level of the lake. From the other plants growing in the same location the degree of mesophytism can be seen. The more prominent ones were: : Acer saccharum Tilia americana Quercus Alba Pinus Strobus Hammamelis Psedera Fragaria The leaves from which measurements were made were growing on the side of a dune very near the bottom in the shade of the maple trees. = ~The jeaved of lot D are from a flood plain of the Des- e e plaines river at Riverside, Ill. The plot was about fif- teen feet from the river aaa the soil was quite moist. Other species growing in the same situation were: 1 be 2 3 : Quercus macrocarpa ' Acer saccharinum ; Juglans nigra = Tilia americana Ae Ulmus americana Ambrosia trifida © s 3 i Crataegus a Panicum a ~~ 2% The leaves from which measurements were made were pe growing in the shade of an elm tree. == am Lot E was located at the top of a dune at Mineral Springs, Ind., a xerophytic dune environment. ane other “= species in the same environment were: — Juniperus communis - > Cornus stolonifera e. Rhus aromatica ee | ‘Vitus vulpina The plants were growing on bare sand, but were more aa or less shaded. as Lot G was located on a sandy level beside the tracks 2 at Smith, Ind. The soil, though sandy, had more humus — than either of the other dune locations. The other : species found there were: =e Populus deltoides a Plantago Fragaria > 2 Salix (nigra) Grasses Compositae . The situation seemed very xerophytic and the plants a were not as shaded as in the other three locations. 2 From some of the leaves collected in the different a plots, blue prints were made in order to determine the 210 areas. The area in square centimeters of the end leaf- lets from these four Bg Ue Slade plots were: Lot B, 63 Lot D, 36 Lot fF) 17 Lot G, 12 These areas, as you see, conform with the types of their ea onmneni This has not proven true for the thickness of the leaves. When sections were made and measured, there seemed to be almost no relation between xerophytism and the thickness of the leaf. In the diagram, the leaf sec- tions were arranged in the same order as the leaf areas in the preceding diagram. As you can see, the meso- phytic leaves may be as thick as the xerophytic, or even thicker in some instances. The last and most important contrast is in the micro- 3 scopic study of the sections. Though it seems impos- 4 sible to tell by the thickness of the leaves whether they are mesophytic or xerophytic—when the general com- pactness of the tissue is considered, the difference is very striking. Cross sections were drawn on graph paper in order to determine the relation between the total area of the leaf section and the part of that area occupied by cells. In this way a coefficient of compactness could be determined. This work is not yet finished and I am not ready to give a conclusive statement, but so far as this has been considered the coefficient of compactness is: Lot B, 61 Lot D, 74 Lot F, 87 Lot G, 89 This conforms with the leaf area and type of environ- ment. Considering the individual elements, as seen in the cross section of the leaf, the greatest variation is in the upper epidermis and the spongy tissue. The variations in the upper epidermis are marked, the epidermis being much thicker when the leaves were growing in xerophytic regions. Some species of plants have variation in the number of the rows of palisade cells when growing in PS = different environments. In the case of Rhus Toxicoden- = _ dron there is not this contrast. In almost no case is there more than one layer of palisade cells. Noristhere _ any marked difference in the thickness of the one layer of cells. In the spongy tissue there is variation, not in — the thickness, but in the restriction of the amount of air spaces. This, of course, is what causes the variation in the coefficient of compactness. Pk. In-conclusion, The variations in the structure of the | Be _ leaves may be summed up in the following: PB, ae 1. The leaves are greater in area where the situation __ __. is mesophytie and smaller in the xerophytic locations. < _. 2. There is no apparent agreement in the relation ___ between leaf area and leaf thickness. This is contrary & to the usual condition. ; 3. There is agreement between the compactness of the leaf and its environment. . ie * ee ie Pd + 4) 2 vO, Ie aS 4 chee art Toe * ae > o> weet Rea et. “ i ere 212 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE VERTE- BRAL COLUMN OF THE ALLIGATOR. GrorcE M. Hiacerns, Knox Couuece This study upon.the early development of the verte- bral column in the alligator was made upon the collec- tion of vertebrate embryos in the zoological laboratories of the University of Illinois. Successive stages of young alligators, ranging in length from 6 mm. to 30 mm., were sectioned transversely; and the attempt was made to determine the origin of those mesodermal elements which contribute toward the formation of the vertebra, as well as their subsequent relation to each other in this for- mation. Reconstructions in wax have been made of the developing vertebra in the caudal, sacral, lumbar and thoracic regions of the various stages; so that careful comparisons could be made within these areas. This pre- liminary report will concern itself with the earlier dif- ferentiation only, and the more complete discussion will follow in a later paper. In an embryo.6 mm. long, the entire skeletal support rests in the notochord, a fibrous rod-like structure which lies ventral and parallel to the central nervous system. At this stage those cells which comprise the chorda are already migrating toward the periphery, so that a more or less indefinite epitheliomorph layer may now be iden- tified (Fig.1.) Asa result of this migration, large vacu- oles have appeared within the chorda, some of which measure fully one-third the diameter of the notochord itself. Immediately external to the epitheliomorph layer is a rather prominent deeply stained notochordal sheath, which, in’ the alligator, is not differentiated into two layers as is true for the Elasmobranchs and Ichthyopsida in general. In these embryos this sheath is a relatively thin layer, and under a magnification of 700 diameters it presents a fibrous appearance. It would further appear that this notochordal sheath is probably not a product of the tissue external to the chorda; but that it may arise from those cells within the notochord itself, and possi- bly as a secretion from the epitheliomorph layer. PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE 213 Those cells, which are potentially scleroblastie and later contribute toward the development of the mem- branous vertebrae, are derivatives of the median wall of the lateral myotomes, which lie between the spinal cord and the external body wall. Unfortunately, I have been unable to secure any sufficiently early stages which show the migration of these scleroblastic cells; but, fol- ‘lowing Schauinsland (1906) in his study of the very early stages in the development of the vertebral column of Sphenodon, the Australian lizard, it would appear that all of the cells of the lower half of the medial plate of each myotome are potentially scleroblastic. During the process of the migration these cells come to be ar- ranged into very definite groups which occupy. charac- teristic positions along the notochord and the spinal cord (Fig. 2.) In the earliest embryo of my series, these groups or masses of scleroblastic cells are definitely located in po- sitions along the dorso-lateral and ventro-lateral margins of the notochord. These groups may be readily recog- nized by the large size of their constituent cells and like- wise of their nuclei, as well as by the deeply staining quality of the cytoplasm. It is quite possible, in this’ stage, to recognize eight such cell groups within each body segment, all of which are concerned in the develop- ment of the definitive membranous vertebra. Of these vertebral elements, four lie upon each side of the noto- chord, two in the angle between the notochord and the spinal cord and two along the latero-ventral margin of the chorda. (Fig. 3.) Since the segmental blood vessels, which course up- ward from the dorsal aorta within the dissepiments between successive somites, afford an excellent means for the identification of the limits of each body segment, it is possible to designate these eight vertebral elements by such terms as characterize their position in the seg- ment. Accordingly, upon that basis, those elements which lie more anterior in each segment may be desig- nated as cranial and those most posterior as caudal. Furthermore that element which is cranial and lies along the upper margin of the notochord may be ealled a 214 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE cranineural; while the more ventral one, because of its association with the blood vessels, would be known as a cranihaemal element. On the same basis, then, the more posterior of these elements in each segment would be designated as the caudineural or the caudihaemal de- ~— pending upon its dorsal or its ventral position. These — terms were suggested by Professor J. S. Kingsley, with | whom the writer frequently conferred during the inves- tigation. Thus it is evident that each body segment would be characterized by a pair of cranineurals, a pair of cranihaemals, a pair of caudineurals and a pair of caudihaemals. This method of identification is entirely satisfactory, because it not only affords an accurate de- termination of the position of each element, but it also does away with the use of such terms as pleurocentrum, hypocentrum and arcualia, the homologies of which are so uncertain. In addition to the segmental blood vessels which mark the limits of body segments, each eranineural and caudi- neural bears a very definite relation to the nerve roots of the spinal nerve. Passing backward through a seg- ment, the order of sequence in the position of these parts ‘is as follows. Just posterior to the segmental blood vessel is the ventral nerve root; this is followed by the cranineural, the ganglion of the dorsal root, the caudi- neural, and the next succeeding segmental blood vessel, each in the order indicated. The cranihaemal and the caudihaemal of each segment lie along the ventro-lateral margin of the notochord, but in approximately the same plane as do the corresponding neural elements. (Fig. 3.) Schauinsland (1906) in his description of the develop- ment of the vertebral column of Sphenodon, describes the single sclerotome or mass of scleroblastic cells upon each side of a body segment. Subsequently, by means of sagittal and frontal sections, he was able to demonstrate a transverse cleft in each sclerotome; so that the terms cranial half-sclerotome and caudal half-sclerotome were employed to designate the resulting parts. Unfortu- nately, in this study, frontal and sagittal sections were not available, and such transverse clefts as Schauinsland describes were not identified in my material. t tial wo a Se oe ee Se, Immediately following the formation of the eight ver- -tebral elements there occurred a fusion of thé two cranial elements upon each side, as well as of the two caudal elements. In each case cells of the cranineurals and 4 caudineurals grow ventrally to meet the cells of the a cranihaemals and caudihaemals; so that as a result four vertebral components may now be identified within each ‘segment. Partially following the terminology of Schau- _insland, the term cranial part-sclerotome is employed to designate the fused cranineural and cranihaemal com- ponent; while the term caudal part-sclerotome likewise identifies the fused caudineural and caudihaemal com- ponent. Since the caudal vertebral component in each ease is considerably larger than the cranial, the term part-sclerotome seems more adequate in its designation than the term half-sclerotome of authors. Following the fusion of the original vertebral elements to form part-sclerotomes, as above described, there oc- curs a subsequent fusion of these part-sclerotomes to form entire sclerotomes within which the definitive mem- branous vertebra will later arise. The fusion of these part-sclerotomes is affected as follows. The caudal part- sclerotome, considerably larger than the cranial, extends somewhat dorsalwards, and reaching more posteriorly comes to unite with the smaller cranial part-sclerotome of the next posterior segment. Thus it is evident that entire sclerotomes are formed, not by the fusion of part- sclerotomes within a segment but rather by a fusion of part-sclerotomes of adjacent segments. So that sclerotomes come to alternate in their position with the myotomes from which the trunk musculature is to arise; affecting thereby the alternate relations of vertebrae and muscles in the adult condition. Dorsally these sclero- tomes extend to the level of the spinal ganglia, while ventrally each reaches downward a very short distance from the notochord. (Fig. 4.) ~ In an embryo 7 mm. long, three parts of the above described sclerotome may be identified. The upper more narrow portion, which lies adjacent to the spinal cord, is clearly the first stage in the development of the mem- branous neural arch. Likewise, the lower or haemal por- Lay aoe ey hah ibe tiaas PAS . dent ity Be Feit BONE Bo oe it} in et Bb Ae Sh vay 4 >t pom jo ™ sas! nia ee TRS te ete eo ali: rag LF 216 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE tion is as clearly the beginning of the membranous hae- mal arch; while the larger intermediate area, a probable derivative of the original cranial element, will contribute largely toward the primary centrum of the vertebra. At this stage, also, a rapid cell proliferation has occurred between the bases of the haemal processes along the ventral surface of the notochord and form a series of hypochordal bars which are to form the lower portions of the primary centra. (Fig. 5.) It is very evident that the scleroblastic cells compris- ing the sclerotome are clearly of two kinds. Those eells which compose the areas of the developing neural and haemal arches are spherical and contain very large and deeply stained nuclei; while those of the primary cen- trum as well as those cells which comprise the hypo- chordal bar are strikingly oval or spindle-shaped and are more closely applied to each other. As yet the scleroblastic cells do not appear in the area between the notochord and the spinal cord, so that the primary cen- trum is incomplete in that region. Since the primary eentrum in the alligator is formed entirely external to the notochordal sheath, a considerable contrast exists between that condition which maintains within the Elas- mobranch fishes and certain other Chordates. In these latter groups, openings occur in the notochordal sheath, through which the scleroblastic cells may enter the chorda and form the primary centrum within it. But in the alligator, at this stage, these centra appear as a series of membranous rings, incomplete dorsally, which he just external to the notochordal sheath and in the same transverse plane as do the neural and haemal mem- branous processes. These centra are separated from each other by wide spaces, into which scleroblastic cells will later migrate and which will subsequently be known as the intercentra; so that the notochord presents at this time a very characteristic moniliform appearance. These sclerotomes, together with the hypochordal bar, constitute the beginning of a membranous vertebra. (Fig. 6.) At first, in all the regions of the body, the lower or haemal processes lie in approximately the same transverse plane as do the neural processes; but in the PAPERS ON BIOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE __-2.17 sacral and the caudal regions, it would appear, however, as though the haemal process had shifted toward the anterior margin of the segment. As a result, in these posterior regions, this ventral part of the sclerotome lies just posterior to the segmental blood vessel and adja- cent to the ventral root of the spinal nerve. In this stage these haemal processes are more elongate in the tail where they extend ventrally to a position lateral to the caudal artery and vein. In the region of the trunk and thorax, however, they are greatly reduced and appear only as mere rudiments; while in the neck, there is no evidence whatsoever of any haemal process. In an embryo 10 mm. long, a further migration of the constituent cells of the notochord has taken place, so that a clearly defined epitheliomorph layer is produced. As a result the vacuoles are relatively larger than be- fore. The notochordal sheath is relatively thicker than before, and under higher magnification its fibrous com- position is more evident. A marked increase ‘in the relative thickness of the pri- mary centrum is apparent at this stage. Differentiation - of the cells has resulted in the formation of two distinct layers, the inner one of which lies just external to the notochordal sheath. This inner layer is composed of the long spindle-shaped cells which characterized the earlier primary centrum, and it extends entirely around the chorda connecting the bases of the neural arch processes beneath the spinal cord. The outer relatively thinner layer is composed of larger spherical scleroblastic cells similar to those of the earlier part-sclerotome; and they are evidently a product of these part-sclerotomes to- gether with additional cells from the original myotomes. In addition to these primary centra, primary intercen- tra may now be identified. Cells, which comprise the lat- ter, have apparently arisen from the original sclero- tomes, and have migrated anteriorly and _ posteriorly along the notochord, forming a series of intercentra which alternate with the successive primary centra. These intercentra, which lie opposite the original so- matic myotomes, differ from the centra in the absence of tn eihia . RPS. 218 the inner layer; but are composed entirely of the larger spherical cells. By a further proliferation of the cells of the membran- ous neural arches, the origin of which occurred in the earlier stage, and by a further addition of cells from the myotome, the entire spinal cord is at this 10 mm. stage covered dorsally and laterally by a continuous membranous structure. Openings, of course, occur for the exit of the spinal nerve roots and for the inclusion. of the dorsal ganglion within each segment. This struc- ture, although continuous, is much thinner in the inter- vertebral regions, since the cartilaginous vertebrae are to arise in the position of the original sclerotomes. The first appearance of a cartilage vertebra may be identified in this same 10 mm. embryo. In the approxi- mate position of the original caudal part-sclerotomes of the trunk region, the cells of the membranous sclerotome have transformed into a procartilage neural arch which rests upon the inner layer of the primary centrum. This procartilage neural arch extends dorsally and slightly posteriorly, and terminates just back of the upper mar- gin of the dorsal ganglion. The lower or haemal arches — appear as mere stumps in the trunk region, but in the tail these structures are much longer than before and nearly encircle the caudal blood vessels. However in neither region is there any evidence of a procartilage formation within these lower processes. Nor has such a transformation yet occurred within the primary cen- trum. So that the vertebral column of a 10 mm. alligator may be said to be composed of a series of independent procartilage neural arch processes which rest upon the membranous primary centrum and lie along the lateral aspect of the spinal cord. A further consideration of the later development of the column will appear in a subsequent paper. -. ° et ~*~ , 4 ' t) soe 1 tS TANS, Ay (ON PERS ON BIOLOGY ‘AND AGRICULTURE — BIBLIOGRAPHY. Gotte, A., 1897. Ueber den Wirbelbau bie den Reptilien und einige anderen Wirbelthieren. Zeits. wiss. Zool., 62, 1897. Hay, O. P., 1897. Structure and mode of development of the vertebral column. Science, 1V. 1897. Howes, G. B., & Swinnerton, H. H., 1901. On the development of the skeleton of the tuatara, Spenodon punctatus. Trans. Zool. Soc. London. 1901. Schauinsland, H., 1906. Die Entwickelung der Wirbelsaule der Wir- beltiere nebst Rippen und Brustbein. Handb. d. Entwicklung- slehre, 3 pt. 2, 1906. , EXPLANATION OF PLATE. long. ig. 2. Diagrammatic sketch of the myotomes in the trunk region-.of a 6 mm. embryo, showing the origin of the scleroblastic cells. Fig. 1. Cross section of a notochord of an alligator embryo, 6 mm. Fig alligator, showing the position and arrangement of the vertebral components. . 4. A single pair of sclerotomes, which show their position and their relation to the notochord and the spinal cord. Fig. 5. A ventral view of the notochord, showing the series of hypo- chordal bars in the trunk region. -Fig. 3. Side view of the notochord and the spinal cord of a young Fig. Fig. 6. Neural arch and haemal arch formation, and their connection with the hypochordal bar. cah caudihaemal na neural arch can caudineural ns notochordal sheath erh cranihaemal ote sclerotome ern cranineural sb scleroblastic cells dt dermatome sby segmental blood vessel el epitheliomorph layer se spinal cord ha haemal arch sg spinal ganglion hb hypochordal bar Vv vacuole mp muscle plate yn ventral nerve root n notochord ik Ah o™ “ be ae La 4 na a? y oY a Le , ’> Boe Nk Vy ya 4 4 44 5 \ hy BTA ie Z wa te 7% » Tae Ys al OV belo Arai ll okt in dial, : A; { 220 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE PLATE er ae Ee a ae ee - PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS ree < ~ a pe ee er ee ers Ea te anes Be gh On eee ae TRY AND PHYSICS =e +. —* —- < aae 20 See es eos ooo _ PAPERS ON CHEMI PREPARATIONS OF THE METALS OF THE RARE EARTH GROUP H. C. Kremers, University or Inpro The extreme electropositive character of the rare earths renders the preparation of the metals a difficult one. Their isolation is rendered still more difficult by ~ | the fact that the separation of the individual members from each other is no mean task. The rare earth ores are fairly abundant, especially those in which the cerium group predominates. In fact, in the incandescent mantle industry thousands of tons of cerium group material are annually thrown away after the extraction of thorium from monazite sand. This enormous waste of rare earth material has been a great stimulus for research on the _ preparation of the metals. There are in general two methods of attack in the iso lation of the metals: Reduction chemically by metals more electropositive in character and electrolysis of fused salts. The only metals which have been used more or less suc- cessiully for reduction chemically are sodium and potas- sium. The method has been partially successful and that only in the case of the less positive of the rare earths, _ namely the yttrium group. The method usually used’ was to mix the anhydrous chloride of the rare earths with the equivalent amount of granulated sodium, plac- ing the mixture in an iron or nickel boat in an iron tube and allowimg the reaction to take place under a high vacuum. The metal obtained as a fine powder is lixivi- ated with a large amount of water to dissolve away the sodium chloride, undecomposed chlorides and unused sodium. The metal powder can then be fused into a co- herent state in a vacuum furnace. This method would, of course, hardly be applicable in a commercial way since it would be far too expensive and slow, but it has been the means of making a study of some of the physical and chemical properties of the rare earth metals. Perhaps the greatest drawback to the method is the fact that the 1. Hicks. Jour. Am. Chem. Soc. #, 1619. a wl he } 4 i ce ox 224 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE reaction of sodium and a rare earth chloride is a reversi- ble one, and that metallic sodium can very easily be pre- pared by the interaction of a rare earth metal and sodium chloride. Electrolysis of the fused salts of the rare earths has been in commercial use for several years. This has, of course, only been applied to the production of cerium group metal or ‘‘misch metal’’. Several tons of misch metal have been made annually in this country alone dur- ing the late war. Considerable use of this metal was made in igniters for hand grenades, tracer bullets and trench lighters. The raw material in the production of misch metal has always been the double sodium cerium group sulfates obtained as a by-product in the ineandes- cent mantle processes. The waste liquors after the ex- traction of Thorium are simply acidified with sulfuric acid, and upon the addition of NaCl the double sodium cerium group sulfates will precipitate out. The double sulfates are then converted to the rare earth hydroxides by treatment with strong hot sodium hydroxide solution and the soluble sodium salts filtered off. The hydroxides are then converted to neutral chlorides, filtered to re- move any rare earth phosphates that may have formed and dehydrated. The anhydrous chlorides are electrol- ized, using a cast iron pot as cathode and a graphite rod as anode. The melting point of the bath is usually suffi- ciently high to melt the misch metal as fast as it is formed. The melting point of misch metal is about 750°C, well below that of the melting point of the anhyd- rous chloride, the latter being about 950°C. It is thus evident that in the electrolysis of the fused chlorides of the cerium group or in general any of its members, the melting point of the metal being below or near that of its anhydrous chloride, the metal is easily obtained in a coherent state. Excessively high temperatures of the bath are not necessary and there is very little volatiliza- tion of the latter. Considerable interest has been shown in the use of misch metal as a deoxidizer for cast iron,’ steel and other alloys requiring a scavenger to clean the 1. Maldenke. Iron Age 105, 324 (1920). oe - os = eo Ch a dee ee als pile St YY ~ . a a RoR Se en 3 . < - ~ ~ -— _< ¥ . = PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 225 molten metal of its dissolved oxygen. Misch metal has properties which make it quite desirable for this pur- pose: melting point 750°C, heat of oxidation 1740 calor- les per gram, and alloys with most metals are readily formed. With respect to the yttrium group, considerably more difficulty is encountered in the isolation of the mixed metal or any of its individual members. The metals are less electropositive, it is true, but their melting points are very much higher. Yttrium is reported as melting at 1250° C, Erbium 1250° C and ytterbium as high as 1800° C, although there is some doubt with respect to the last named. These high melting points are not the greatest evil to be overcome. Most of the anhydrous chlorides of the yttrium group have low melting points as compared with those of the cerium group. Yttrium chloride melts at 680° C, dysprosium chloride at 700° C, and ytterbium chloride at 880° C. Thus in the electrolysis of the fused chlorides of this group it is impossible to obtain the metal in the fused state, and since the temperature of the bath must be maintained in the neighborhood of 1000° C there is a large loss of salt due to volatilization. It has been found that yttrium chloride is quite volatile slightly above its melting point. Since the metals of the yttrium group are less electro- positive than the cerium group and are also slightly less positive than aluminium, it has been possible to prepare the mixed metals of this group by a solution of the oxides in a molten bath of eryolite and subjecting them to elec trolysis similar to that of the production of aluminum.’ It is also possible to use the double fluorides of the yttrium group instead of the eryolite. By these methods there is very little loss of any material due to volatiliza- tion. It is quite probable that most of the rare earth metals as individuals will not command a great commercial use since the isolation of their salts is a very difficult matter. 2. _Hicks. ‘Loc. cit. 226 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE In summation then there are perhaps four metals of the rare earths which will find commercial use: Cerium, which ean be separated from the cerium group with considerable ease and has already been prepared and exhaustively studied.* Cerium free misch metal, for which a demand will be created in time. The element cerium having two stages of oxidation is at times undesirable as a metal, and ce- rium free misch metal would meet this difficulty. Cerium group metal, or misch metal which has found considerable use in pyphorie alloys as deoxidizers. Yttriwm group metal, slightly less electropositive in character but having a much higher melting point. 1. Hirsch. Trans. Am. Elec. Soc. 22, 57. vr a oe a2 ts \ : oe _ PAPERS oN CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS ~ 227 on _ CON CENTRATION OF RADIUM FROM CARNOTITE ORES B. S. Horriys anp G. C. Runte, Untversiry or Ittrors 3 Carnotite is a potassium uranyl vanadate of essen- _ tially the composition represented by the formula K,O. . 2U0;.V.0;.8 H.0. All the mineral substances present are valuable, but the most valuable component, radium, is - present in such a small proportion that it cannot be shown readily in the formula. It requires a ton of relatively rich carnotite ore to produce 10 milligrams of radium. It is very evident then that any method which is efficient in the removal of radium must be capable of effecting practically 100 per cent extraction. It is also clear that a very important part in the process will consist in the concentration of the minute quantities of radium after they have been removed from the great bulk of the ore. For the first step in the process, the United States Bureau of Mines recommends the employment of nitric acid, by the use of which practically all the radium to- gether with most of the other valuable mineral consti- — tuents present is converted to the soluble form. The solu- tion obtained in this manner is nearly neutralized, bar- ium chloride is added, and the radium and barium are precipitated by adding sulfuric acid. The precipitated radium—barium sulfate is filtered off, and from the clean solution uranium is precipitated, usually as sodium ura- nate and the vanadium either as ferrous vandate or cal- cium vanadate. The main advantage claimed for this process is the high recovery of radium. The disadvantages arise from the cost of nitric acid and the fact that there is only par- tial extraction of vanadium. In large measure the cost difficulty is overcome by the fact that a very considerable portion of the nitric acid may be recovered and used again. If the main object in view is the extraction of radium, this method is said to be especially efficient. The radium-barium sulfate, which contains only a very small per cent of radium, must now be subjected to treat- ment for the concentration of radium. The usual pro- ; Pec r ae ce re a bane 228 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE cedure is as follows: The mixed sulfates are reduced to sulfides by heating with charcoal or are converted to the carbonates by boiling with sodium carbonate. solution. The sulfides or carbonates so obtained are dissolved in hydrochloric acid and the resulting solutions subjected to fractional crystallization. This method of concentra- tion depends upon the fact that when a saturated solu- tion of radium-barium chloride is cooled from 100° to 0° the crystals formed are much richer in radium than - the original solution. Accordingly, if a solution of the mixed chlorides is evaporated until there remains not quite enough solvent to keep all the salts in solution, there will be a tendency for the radium chloride to erys- tallize out, while the mother liquor will become corres pondingly richer in barium chloride. After this process has been repeated many times, it is found that the radium is nearly all concentrated in the erystal fractions, while the solutions at the ‘‘soluble end’’ of the series contain no radium. It has been found that the concentration of radium takes place more rapidly if this process of frac- tional crystallization is carried out by the use of bro- mides in place of chlorides. This is explained by the fact that the bromides are more soluble than the chlorides. If a saturated solution of the chlorides is cooled from 100° to 0°, about 50 per cent of the solute crystallizes out; but under the same conditions the bromide solution will give up only about 34 per cent of the salts. Hence, there isa more rapid concentration of the radium if this salt is used. The concentration of the radium in any fraction may be calculated from the equation: C= AK" in which" is the number of crystallizations, A is either the actual or assumed concentration of some dish to start with, and K, called the enrichment factor, is a con- stant when the crystallizations are carried out under ex- actly similar conditions. It represents the relative con- centration of the radium in the erystals to that in the original material. It has been shown" that the enrich- ment factor is practically independent of the degree of 1. John L. Niermann. Jour. Phys. Chem. 24, 192 (1920). x PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 229 acidity of the mother liquor; likewise, that this factor for a bromide system is 2.6 while for a chloride system it is about 1.6. Reasoning from the familiar relation- ships shown in the periodic table, it might readily be eoncluded that if a bromide system was more efficient than a chloride system the fractional crystallization of the iodides would be considerably more efficient than either the chloride or the bromide. With this view point in mind a series of experiments are now being conducted to determine the practicability of an iodide system of radium concentration. Before this experiment could be carried out success- fully, it was necessary to determine the best method of preparing the iodide solution. Several methods were tried such as: (1) Superheated steam was passed over the sulfide, converting it to the hydroxide, which was then heated to a dull red in a stream of hydriodie acid gas; (2) the sulfide was transformed to the iodide by boiling with an alcoholic solution of iodine; (3) the sul- fide was added to a boiling solution which contained slehtly more than the calculated amount of ferrous io- dide; (5) the sulfide was boiled with hydriodic acid solu- tion and a small amount of iodine in hydriodie acid was added. Of these methods, the last proved to be the most satisfactory, so it was employed. To test out the efficiency of the halide fractionation system, three samples of radium-barium sulfate, each weighing 100 grams, were reduced with charcoal and the resulting sulfides were treated with hydrochloric, hydro- bromic and hydriodie acids respectively. After the ac- tion had ceased they were boiled to expel hydrogen sul- fide, filtered and the residue washed thoroly. The fil- trates were evaporated to dryness, taken up with a small quantity of water to which was added a little of the free acid, and the fractional crystallization begun, by evapor- ating on a steam bath until the solutions were completely saturated. Then the dishes were cooled in ice water, the crystals filtered out, redissolved in pure water and re- erystallized. 2. .C. E. Scholl. Jour. Am. Chem. Soc. 42, 889 (1920). 230 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE To test the efficiency of the solvent action of the three a halogen acids, the residues from the acid extractions were analyzed for their barium content and were found to contain practically the same per cent of that element. Hence, it was concluded that the acid extraction was the same in all cases and that the three solutions presumably contained the same amount of radium. After several crystallizations of the three halide sys- tems, equivalent amounts of the richest fraction of each were placed in the case of a charged electroscope and the time of discharge noted. The iodide discharged the elec- troscope more quickly than either the chloride or the bromide, but the work has not yet progressed to the point which will permit a definite statement concerning the value of its enrichment factor. Another decided ad- vantage in the use of the iodide comes from the greater solubility of this salt over the others; hence a given amount of radium in the iodide solution occupies a much smaller volume than it does in the chloride or bromide © solution. This permits the use of smaller crystallizing dishes, a material saving on a large scale operation. The use of the iodide for radium concentration would not be practical unless it were possible to recover a large per cent of the iodine at the end of the process. Accord- ingly, when the radium had been practically all removed from certain fractions, the barium iodide solutions were | saturated with chlorine. The displaced iodine was fil- tered off, dried and resublimed. The barium chloride solution was evaporated and the crystals were used in the precipitation of the next batch of radium-barium sulfate. The iodine was mixed with a little less than the theoretical amount of red phosphorus, and water was slowly dropped over the mixture. In this manner hy- driodic acid was obtained, which was also used in the next series. The recovery was satisfactory, indicating that the operating cost for iodine would be quite reason- able. Urbana, Illinois, April 25, 1922. corer <* oe an = “., oe? ste te Ree ste ee ee ee st a Se Saran ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 231 EFFECT OF X-RAYS ON THE RESISTANCE OF TIN FOIL W. H. Sanvers anp C. J. Lapp, Untversiry or ILuriois Some unexpected results have been obtained recently in an experiment on the action of X-rays on a beam of electrons. Im connection with this the question arose whether X-rays would affect the resistance of a metallic conductor. The first work in this field was reported by J. W. Gil- tay’ in 1896. Because of the similarity between X-rays and light he anticipated that the resistance of selenium would be altered by exposure to X-rays. Experiments confirmed the prediction. Later work has been carried to such point that this property may be applied to meas- urement of the intensity and of the constancy of X-rays. Giltay mentioned an incidental test on a tin bolometer which gave no indication of a change in resistance caused by the X-rays. Selenium exhibits a change in resistance also when ex- posed to the action of radium and radium compounds. At first it might be supposed that the change manifested is caused by the gamma rays. However, experiments carried out by F. C. Brown and Joel Stebbins* indicate that the change observed is the result of bombardment of alpha and, particularly, beta particles, the gamma rays having little or no effect. The action of radium bromide on a bismuth spiral was studied by R. Paillot,* who re- ported his work in 1904. He found a change in resist- ance of about one part in three thousand. The descrip- tion of his experimental arrangement indicates that alpha particles could not have participated in the action, but no effort was made to isolate the effects of the beta particles or the gamma rays and the work was not followed up. In view of the lack of quantitative data on any mater- ial except selenium and the theoretical importance which a positive result would have, it was thought advisable to DO jas J. W. Giltay, Nature, V. 54, 109, (1896). Brown and Stebbins, "Phys. Fp V. 25, p. 505 (1907); V. 26, p. 273 (1908). . R. Paillot, Comptes Rendus, Vol. 138, p. 139 (1904). 7 "tly 232 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE determine with considerable care whether an X-ray beam has any effect on the resistance of an ordinary metallie conductor. As tin foil was most convenient it was chosen for a preliminary experiment. | The foil was cut into the form of a grid so as to have a total resistance of about 13.1 ohms, not including heavy leads soldered to it. This grid was mounted with shellae on a glass plate and enclosed in a light pasteboard box for the sake of protection from air currents and rapid temperature changes. The grid was placed in a position about twenty centimeters from the target of a Coolidge tube. The current for the tube was furnished by a large Klingelfuss induction coil with a Wehnelt interrupter. The equivalent spark gap was approximately six inches. The resistance measurements were made with a Wheat- stone bridge circuit arranged so as to be especially con- venient for the detection and measurement of small changes in resistance, essentially a bolometer. The slide wire was shunted and also resistances were inserted at each end so that its equivalent length was about fifteen hundred meters. The galvanometer was a special Leeds and Northup instrument of high sensitivity and low re- sistance. The bridge arms were so proportioned that the galvanometer was critically damped. The use of a good telescope and a scale three meters from the mirror aided in securing high sensitivity. The sensitiveness of the arrangement could be deter- mined in two ways, by the deflection resulting from a given shift in the balance point and by the deflection pro- duced when a known change of resistance occurred in the X-branch. As it was more convenient and more accurate, the latter method was employed. In series with the tin foil grid was placed a one ohm resistance which could be shunted by a resistance of ten thousand ohms. The re- sulting change in the resistance of the X-branch was very nearly one ten thousandth of an ohm. It produced a change of twelve millimeters in the galvanometer deflec- tion. For resistance changes up to at least three thous- andths of an ohm there was a linear relation between the resistance increment and the corresponding galvano- meter deflection. During all measurements the galvano- —_—. cae ee See % : - meter and the battery circuits were closed continuously so that trouble with thermoelectric effects was eliminated. Under ordinary circumstances the galvanometer deflec- tion exhibited a steady shift resulting from a gradual change in the X-resistance caused by its change in tem- perature. By reading the deflection at intervals of, for instance, fifteen seconds with the X-ray beam alternately on and off, the effect of the X-rays themselves could be isolated. The results may well be shown graphically, plotting times as abscissa and deflections as ordinate. When temperature changes are occurring, the points will lie on a smooth eurve having a positive slope. Ifa re- sistance change is produced by the radiation, alternate points will be displaced vertically from the curve by a constant amount. The amount of this displacement gives a measure of the resistance change. Some difficulty was experienced at first with leakage from the high tension circuit of the Coolidge tube. The amount of interference seemed to be dependent on the frequency of interruption of this current. Proper pre- cautions, however, made this trouble negligible. Several series of observations were made in the manner des- eribed. The frequency of the X-rays was varied through a considerable range. Sensitivity tests before and after the measurements showed that a resistance change of one ten-thousandth ohm in the X-branch would cause a deflection of twelve millimeters. No change in resist- ance caused by the X-ray beam was detected. Fluctuations in the rate of change of temperature made it impossible to take full advantage of the accuracy of which the bridge used is capable. However it may be said that any resistance change which does occur when tin is subjected to such an X-ray beam is less than one part in four hundred thousand, or less than 0.00025%. Experiments with more adequate temperature control to permit much greater accuracy and with other elements than tin are anticipated. In conclusion, we wish to thank Professor A. P. Car- man for the facilities of the department. Laboratory of Physics University of Illinois April, 1922. PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 233 ” ‘e _* fe e S e FES Eee Ver Rael ai ns gy eye WE Sra RADae eee age is Pe ee 2: . “4 wite c im ee Tos Pik) : se ies Pe weet 3 ~ ae Fn 234 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE INDUSTRIAL CHEMICAL RESEARCH Joun C. Hesster, Knox CoLuece The writer has no thought of entering upon an ex- tended exposition of industrial research, nor upon a de- scription of any special problem, but to give in a few words his impressions of the work done at the Mellon Institute of the University of Pittsburgh, in the hope that these impressions may be, to some of those present, of at least a. passing interest. _ The Mellon Institute represents, in cement and stone, | the ideas and ideals of Dr. Robert Kennedy Duncan. Dr. Duncan, as most of you know, was a pioneer in the popu- larizing of science, especially chemical science, with the industrialists of America. He was a man of wonderful imagination and of magnetic personality; when he ent- ered a room, he became at once its.center; when he spoke, the captains of industry listened. His voice is still heard in the Institute he founded. It was Dr. Duncan’s idea that the manufacturer was entitled to the service of men of approved ability, and that the investigator, on the other hand, was entitled to the stimulus and aid which come from companionship with other investigators and the oversight and direction of trained scientific admini- strators. These advantages the Institute affords. At the Mellon Institute an industrialist, a company, or an association of manufacturers may become the donor of a fellowship. The conditions are essentially the sign. ing of an agreement stating the relation of the donor, the Institute, and the Fellow, and the contribution of a foundation sum for a period of not less than one year. This sum must be large enough to permit of the purchase of all necessary special equipment and to pay the salary of the Fellow. The Institute gives the Fellow the room for his work, the use of permanent equipment and li- brary, and the direction of the administrative officers. All results obtained during the course of such a fellow- ship belong exclusively to the donor. One can get some idea of the scope of the Institute’s work when he learns that during the year 1920-1921, the foundation sums of v 2 pits Seas | py payin x! Sey z Fae ae ns ie PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 235 -the Industrial Fellowships totaled $320,848, and that there were 48 fellowships and 83 Fellows. During the ten years ending March Ist, 1921, the total contributed amounted to upwards of $1,500,000; while the overhead expenses of the Institute were approximately $470,000. To come now to the individual fellowships. The writer recalls very vividly the case of a prospective donor who was being conducted through the building, and who exclaimed, upon entering the room of the Laun- dry Fellowship: ‘‘What on earth has a laundry to do with Chemistry?’’ Of such stuff are many donors, be- fore they are converted. It happened that the Laundry Fellowship was working upon matters that involved a great deal of Chemistry; not only the routine analyses of soaps, water softeners, water samples, blues, sours, bleaches, and the like, and in the investigation of claims for damage, but also the greater problem of interesting the public in the idea of ‘‘sending it all to the laundry’’, a problem involving not only the renewing of soiled fabrics, but a study of all the complex operations concerned with ' the weaving, dyeing, and composition of fabrics. The new problem of the laundry is something more than the washing of the collars and ‘‘biled’’ shirt of the bachelor until he gets a wife. The Laundry Fellowship is an asso- ciation fellowship, with about 1800 members behind it. Other fellowships bear the names of Synthetic Resins, Bread, Zirconium, Fish Products, Fuel, Plastics, Soap, Enameling, Synthetic Acids, Food Container, Protected Metals, Stove, Sulphur, Oil Shale, Nickel, Flotation, Glass, Oil, Quartz, Gas, Tar Products, Emulsion Flavors, Inks, Cements, Fiber, Yeast, Silicate, Magnesia Insula- tion, Coke, Organic Syntheses, Insecticides, Glue, Fertil- izer, Dental Products, Cleaning, Refractories, Asbestos, Fruit Beverages, and Magnesia Products. The Bread Fellowship is the oldest, probably, at the Institute, and one of the most successful. It would be hard to overstate the importance of the work of this fel- lowship, and of similar work done elsewhere, upon the quality and cost of commercial bread. The processes developed save, probably, half the yeast and half the sugar used in bread-making. One has only to compare Pa as Pe ee 236 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE the commercial bread of today with that of a few years’ ago to realize the enormous importance of scientific meth- ods applied to this ancient ar The Fellowship labeled ‘‘Fiber’’ inary and uninteresting; but when one understands its ranimications and import, it has a different significance. One of the problems of this fellowship is the testing and develop- ment of fiber shipping containers. If one goes through a freight warehouse these days, he is struck with the lack of wooden boxes and the way in which fiber boxes and cartons have taken their place. The development of con- tainers includes not only the study of the fiber boards, multiple and corrugated, but of the adhesive, which must be cheap and at the same time proof against storage in damp warehouses and exposure to weather. One of the tools of this fellowship is a miniature Ferris wheel, operated by a motor and containing a series of baffles, so that a loaded container may, in a few minutes, be subjected to all the drops and bumps of a thousand, two thousand, or three thousand miles. Other tools give the actual strength of the fiber and tape employed. The Sulphur Fellowship has a number of most inter- esting problems. You will realize how enormously the production of this element was stimulated by the war, as the starting point in the manufacture of sulphuric acid, which in its turn lay at the foundation of the manufacture of explosives. Now, the war over, the companies producing sulphur in the Texas fields have an enormous excess of this element over what the markets can possibly absorb. The question is, how to use the vast sulphur deposits. Perhaps some of these present will have some ideas on the subject. A large scale use which seems possible is as a material for large acid proof containers. Curiously enough, while the sulphur obtained from the deposits by the Frasch process is very pure (often 99.9% ), the presence of a trace of oil in the sulphur makes its continued combustion in a sulphur burner difficult, be- cause the oil forms a film which extinguishes the flame. A special burner had to be devised for the purpose. = SS | oe PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 237 The Yeast Fellowship, the Flotation Fellowship, and the Coke Fellowship have problems of most far reaching character and are almost research institutes in them- selves. Such fellowships are of the type called Multiple Fellowships, in which the Senior Fellow is a man of un- usually high research ability, in charge of a group of in- vestigators for the solving of a group of problems. Fellowships like those on Synthetic Resins, Synthetic 3 Acids, Organic Synthesis, and the Pratt Memorial Fel- lowship are doing work of a pure-science research char- acter, but often on a scale of which the organic chemist rarely dreams. 7 The stipend earried by the fellowships at Mellon Insti- tute is far beyond that allowed in the usual college or uni- versity. Since it is paid by manufacturers, accustomed to a business man’s scale of compensation for service per- formed, instead of by Boards of Trustees doling out very limited funds to needy students, there is a possibility of attracting and holding men of University research char- acter to the work of investigation. The advantage of these fellowships is further increased by the fact that by special arrangement with the donor, the Fellow may spend a limited amount of his time in graduate study or in teaching at the University of Pittsburgh. A number of Fellows have received higher degrees in,this way. The writer will close this paper with the inscription he often pondered upon during his year in Pittsburgh. It is: ‘‘This building is dedicated to the service of Ameri- can Industry and to young men who destine their life work to the industries; the goal being ideal industry, which will give to all broader opportunities for purpose- ful lives.’’ So a pe. | cere ee ~ o> of Fg Te a oo ee MAE er Et aN ee) tne ) a Se ag ES Ng ae ark oo et RO a eR : “ mie ze s 2 ~ ee Za ie oe ne eee r 238 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE RESEARCH WORK AS A PREPARATION FOR TEACHING HIGH SCHOOL SCIENCE Frep D. Barssr, Intino1s State Normat University, Norma On Wednesday, January 25, last, while the thermome- _ ter stood at zero, I received the following letter from the principal and teacher of physics in a high school in west- ern Illinois. January 24, 1922. ‘‘Professor Barber, Normal, Illinois. Dear Sir: Please be so kind as to write me which will freeze the quicker, hot or cold water. I am unable to find anything in reference to this in any of my physics textbooks. Thanking you, I am Yours truly, **P.§. The problem I have in mind is this: If a pan containing boiling water is placed in a room 10 degrees below zero, and another pan containing water at a tem- perature of 40 degrees Fahr. is placed in the same room at the same time, which will freeze the quicker?’’ Some of us are inclined to smile at this inquiry. In reply we are perhaps inclined to suggest that authority might well be dispensed with in seeking an answer to this question, and simple observation substituted. We are even inclined to advise personal experimentation and ob- servation to the application of abstract reasoning based upon the abstract laws and principles of physics which we all studied in our high school days. We are inclined to advise the writer of the letter to fill two similar dishes, one with boiling hot water and the other with cold water, and place these two dishes north of the school house on a cold day and observe results. Let us not be too severe in our judgment of the atti- tude of this teacher. In thus seeking what he considered a reasonably authoritative statement for the solution of his problem he was undoubtedly but following the path ERO See cela ee Pen ET EEN ER PSOE ety RPL ee ane eee PO Fey PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 239 = Bone which his high school training taught him to tread. _ Although the Weather Bureau records will show that the entire week from January 20 to 28 showed zero weather, still it evidently never occurred to him that it was posai- ble for him experimentally to answer his own query. His 3 attitude of mind was not exceptionally remarkable. A % fair length of life and constant observation leads me to believe that many other high school graduates are as de- -_ pendent upon authority in all scientific matters as he ap- --—s- pears to be. Naturally, I read this letter to an advanced class in physics, and the pedagogy of physies teaching was dis- cussed. In that class no one appeared in doubt as to whether the hot water or the cold water would freeze the sooner. One of my physics students carried the question into an advanced class in pedagogy. That class was di- vided in judgment as to whether the hot water or the cold water would freeze first. Not being a science class, judg- ments were based necessarily upon knowledge of physical laws and upon reasoning formulated upon the remem- bered laws and principles of physics. I was told that the discussion was animated and the conclusion was about fifty-fifty in favor of the hot and the cold water. One member of that pedagogy class, a man of middle age, a high-school graduate and a man of many years ex- perience as a teacher, was much interested in the question. Like the writer of the letter, he wanted a statement from some authority. He could not find it in textbooks and so he appealed to me. I questioned him as to his own con- clusion. He readily gave it together with his reasons for drawing that conclusion. He said the hot water would freeze first for two reasons: First, ‘‘Physics teaches - that the molecules of hot water are a rather rapid mo- tion, while the molecules of cold water are not. There- fore, the molecules of the boiling water would come rapid- ly and frequently in contact with the sides of the contain- ing vessel or to the surface. Therefore, the molecules of the hot water would lose their heat much faster than the molecules of cold water.’’? Second, ‘‘Hot water evapo- . Tates much faster than cold water and every gram of water which evaporates carries off 536 calories of heat. 240 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE On account of these two physical laws the hot water would cool much more rapidly than the cold water and conse- quently freeze sooner.’’ Another student went to her home near a thrifty, small city in central Illinois on Friday evening, January 27. On Saturday her father called an intelligent and exper- ienced plumber to do some repair work on the farmhouse plumbing. The student put the question to the plumber, whether hot water or cold water exposed to zero tempera- — ture would freeze the quicker. The plumber quickly an- swered that the hot water would. He was certain be- cause in his experience it was invariably the hot water pipes of the hot water heating systems which freeze and burst and not the cold water pipes of the water system. Accepting this plumber’s observations as being correct, some of us may be inclined to seek knowledge relative to the location of the hot-water pipes and cold-water pipes, especially in reference to the outside walls of the house. It is my experience that in a physics class where the practice is encouraged, hundreds of practical questions pertaining to the environment of the class and the com- munity in which they live will be asked. Few, if any, of these questions are to be found in our ordinary textbooks or suggested in our manuals. In my judgment, in the course of the development of each unit of instruction students should be led to see and to study the relations of the principles involved as they are found in commonplace, everyday environment. From a class which has grasped this conception of the function of science study, practi- eal questions will be forthcoming by the hundreds, and it is the most important function of the recitation or the laboratory period in a science course to answer such questions. Illustrative of the type of questions I have in mind, per- mit me to state a few of them: 1. Where electric service is available, electric light- ing has very generally displaced gas lighting. Generally, we also use the electric flatiron in preference to the gas or coal-heated flatiron. Why have not, likewise, electric stoves and electric heaters displaced gas stoves and coal PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 241 furnaces and coal or oil water- and steam-heaters for _house heating? 2. How ean an electric company supplying current to consumers afford to maintain the pressure upon the pri- maries of their transformers throughout the year, day and night, when frequently, especially during the summer months, little current is consumed? This condition is true especially in villages and smaller cities. 3. Why do shunt-wound motors, running without load, or with light load, usually speed up tremenduously when large resistance is placed in series with the field coils? Why do such motors usually develop their greatest power and efficiency, when moderately loaded, when a small amount of resistance is still left in the field cireuit? 4. In freezing ice cream why does the ice continue to melt even when the temperature of the contents of the freezer approaches zero Fahrenheit? 5. If an injured man is being earried up a steep hill or up a flight of stairs upon a stretcher by two other men, supposing that the center of gravity of the injured man is at the center of the stretcher, midway between the sup- porting hands of the bearers, is the weight of the burden equally distributed between the two carriers, one of whom is, perhaps, at an elevation of three or four feet above the other? 6. The vacuum cleaner demonstrator delights to show the hesitating purchaser that even after a rug has been thoroughly beaten on the grass or line the vacuum cleaner will still remove much dust and dirt from the rug. It is equally true that the rug receiving ordinary use and being first cleaned by a vacuum cleaner and then hung upon a line and beaten will still yield an ample amount of dust and dirt. Why is this true? 7. Frequently the unqualified statement is found in our physics textbooks that no machine ean be so con- structed as to yield 100% or more of efficiency when op- erated doing work. Is this statement true? If some em- _ ployees are sent from a music store to remove a piano from the fourth story of an apartment house and they use a block and tackel to lower the piano from the fourth story window, is the statement true? Is the statement 242 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE true when railroad men use the ordinary skids to unload a carload of barreled goods? 8. Is it true that a farmer using a very aninage tehed of horses sometimes pulls a high-priced, guaranteed forty- or fifty-horsepower automobile through a bad strip of road or out of a ditch when the auto cannot make — headway unaided? A live, wide-awake high school class in physics, prop- erly trained and actuated by a wholesome and entirely natural attitude toward their physical environment will, in the course of a year’s work, ask and eagerly seek the answers to hundreds of questions similar to those men- tioned. No textbook or set of textbooks can supply the answers to the legitimate questions which arise in the minds of properly trained science students. How ean a high school class in science be so trained that they naturally assume an attitude of openmindedness and inquiry concerning their environment; that they will pre- sume that nearly every lesson will reveal the explana- tion of their natural surroundings? Such an attitude of mind rarely, if ever, results when the student is required to perform a hundred or so laboratory exercises as usu- ally outlined in a manual and designed to demonstrate the laws and principles of physics. It has been my experi- ence that but little of the apparatus usually described in our laboratory manuals or commonly found in our lab- oratories is patterned after or reminds the student of ma- chines and utensils which he sees daily in use performing the necessary operations of modern life and industry. To a large extent the equipment of our laboratories is un- like the equipment ef our homes and our industries. Is this necessary, to the extent that now prevails, and can we with such apparatus best teach the practical or com- monly applied principles of science? If my laboratory is equipped with a Regnault’s apparatus for the deter- mination of the boiling temperature of water under pres- sures ranging from 2 pounds to 60 pounds, is it possible that I might substitute a common pressure cooker with a smaller range of pressure and temperature to the positive advantage of my class? Which is the more profitable experiment: To attempt to determine the calorific value : = _ PAPERS” on CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 243 aa of gas by means of an ordinary Jolly calorimeter with the usual resulting values falling far below the values _ Tequired of gas companies by law, or to accept the legal _ ealorific values and by using an eaiiaacy gas stove de- termine the cost of operating that stove for one hour? ‘Or, possibly, compare the cost and efficiency of the gas stove with an electric stove of similar size? As I have passed through our laboratories during the past 10 or 15 years, I have been impressed with the thought that there is some tendency to substitute, to a _ certain extent, practical utilitarian appliances such as are seen daily in use in the ordinary walks of life for ap- paratus never met with outside the laboratory and used solely to illustrate or demonstrate the laws and principles of science. i) 4, 2 I have recently been interested in looking through a new laboratory manual of physics. Of the first 25 ex- ercises, 13 are instructions for setting up models of ap- pliances in common use and involving physical principles. The author explains that each student is to be provided with a locker equipped with a supply of glass tubing, lamp chimneys, rubber tubing and rubber stoppers, pinch- cocks, Florence flasks and such other raw materials as will enable him to construct models of useful appliances. Without counting them, I should say that about one-half of the exercises outlined are intended to be of this char- acter. Probably the other half can safely be described as being of the old type, i. e. exercises planned to illustrate the truth of stated laws and principles and, in the main, using apparatus never used outside the laboratory. While this laboratory manual interests me, and while I regard it as something of an imnovation in laboratory practice, still I cannot approve of the method as a whole. Exercise 1 is ‘‘To construct a lift pump and explain its action’’. Materials required: ‘‘No. 50 Macbeth chimney; 12-0z. bottle; 12-inch, solid brass piston rod, diameter 6 mm. with cotter pins; 12-inch glass tube, outside diame- ter 7 mm.; No.7 one-hole rubber stopper; No. 6 two-hole rubber stopper (one hole at the center); thin leather sheeting and tacks.’’ Illustrations and description of the UNL Ft a TR ee ee eee ee, aut ‘ Tiny On Poe Tee wee eer c ‘ , re a A ae: “> | e es aul A tir be " a bn SAA Rees i he, ¥ <4 oe wits ee ee ws % Psy Va se | ‘ at i F pie { ‘ ’ * A , ) es » és win J as a ee Oe ee a eh. Fan GBs sae et ak 4A 244 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE exercise are given. In closing, this statement is made: ‘“The action of this pump is similar to that of the kitchen lift pump, Experiment 57. Examine the parts of this pump if the apparatus is in the laboratory.’’ Turning to > Experiment 57 we find a good, commonsense study of the ‘‘ordinary kitchen lift-pump’’ or rather suction pump. Why should any student spend time in the fitting to- gether of glass tubing, rubber stoppers and other similar materials into a model of a kitchen pump when later he is asked to study the real article? Would there not be far more educational value in furnishing a group of four or five students with a real kitchen pump, a set of wrenches, and requiring them to dissect and examine the pump, sketch and describe it? In one corner of the lab- oratory there should be permanently mounted one such pump over a sink where its operation could be studied. IT am unable to get free from the idea that a practical course in physies for the high school should consist very largely of two parts, so far as laboratory exercises are concerned: First, we must continue to illustrate and demonstrate some of the important laws and principles of physics by means of special apparatus. Not every law or principle can be illustrated profitably, nor can all de- sirable quantitative relations be shown in any other way. Our laboratories must contain some equipment not found and not used in the ordinary walks of life. Second, Our laboratories should be equipped also with many of the available and commonly used pieces of machinery and utensils which involve physical laws and principles. We should banish models temporarily put together by the students and made out of glass tubing, rubber tubing, rub- ber stoppers, etc., playthings at best and time consumers all the while. Physics study is primarily thinking, not pottering with play stuffs. No suggestions need be made upon the equipment of a physical laboratory to illustrate and demonstrate laws and principles or to determine such constants as should be determined. This custom is established. I think it is desirable to suggest that a laboratory should be equipped with many practical, rather small but life-sized, portable, PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 245 and where possible, dissectable commercial appliances —~ eommonly used in the life of every community. What are a few of these commercial appliances? Cistern pumps, coal stoves, gas stoves, electric stoves, meters of every kind (gas, water and electric), water and electric motors, gasoline, gas and hot-air motors, pressure cookers, heat regulators, electrical transformers, rectifiers for chang- ing ordinary 110 volt A. C. to low voltage D. C., ice and mechanical refrigerators, cameras, telescopes, opera glasses, transformers and X-ray outfits, some musical in- struments, blood-pressure apparatus and such other ap- pliances as involve physical principles and are suitable and available. The list should include eventually practi- cally every appliance which is not too large or costly which is found in the community. If some of our laboratory periods are to be spent in experimentally answering practical questions which arise in the class recitation and not to be found in text or manu- ~ al, how much will our ordinary laboratory methods be modified? Suppose that the following question has been raised in the class during the discussion of why electricity has not so completely displaced gas in cooking and heat- ing as it has in lighting: What is the relative cost and time required to raise a quart of water from tap tempera- ture to the boiling point, first, by using a gas stove or hot- plate and, second, by using an electric stove or hotplate? It is then the teacher’s duty to plan an exercise which will answer the question. In my judgment it is neither feas- ible nor desirable that high school students make such in- vestigations individually. Class or group work is en- tirely sufficient. This does not mean that the teacher should give this rather lengthy exercise as a clear-cut demonstration while the class looks on. If the group consists of no more than 10 to 15 students the teacher can stand aside and assign the duty of making the proper con- nections to certain students. Other students may be as- signed the task of inspecting those connections. Still other students may later be assigned the duty of read- ing the meters and taking the temperature and time. To conduct such a group experiment, perfect order and careful attention must be required of every student. 4 ra are. f , at ea aN tat pea v Nv i 7 ‘ P+ ie a a ee | y “ 4 4) wt Bees 246 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Frequent questioning should be the rule. Hach piece ee of data must be clearly announced, or better still, re- — corded upon the blackboard. Each student should be held strictly for the proper recording of data as the experi- ment proceeds, and likewise for adequate sketches of ap- paratus and all connections. Such an exercise is justi- fied only upon the ground that thinking and thoroughly understanding every detail of the exercise is an im- perative requirement. I doubt if it is nearly so difficult to secure such results when conducting a group exercise as it is when overseeing 10 to 20 students at individual experiments. Now as to the subject of this paper: Research Work as a Preparation for Teaching Science. If, as this paper as- sumes, about one-half, or thereabouts, of the laboratory exercises are based upon the study of situations arising out of the questions proposed by the class and not to be found, asked or answered in the text or manual, then the burden of determining just how those investigations are to be made falls upon the instructor. If such investiga- tions are attempted, the instructor must plan many exer- cises. In my opinion the fitting of the laboratory work, as far as possible, into the environment of the class, making the laboratory investigations reveal the facts about the physical world about us, is a sure way of se- curing true values, lasting interest, and vital cooperation on the part of the students. The science teacher who has received considerable training in research work is, in my judgment, much better fitted to conduct experimentation, suggested by class questions or class discussion, than is the teacher who has _ received no training in research work. Reliable judg- ment as to the soundness and reliability of methods to be used is a necessity. The teacher must also be prepared to defend the conclusions reached. Teachers of science who have been dependent, all their lives, largely upon the authority of the textbook for conclusions and upon the laboratory manual for the methods of experimentation are not well prepared to have the class ask questions not discussed in either text or manual. Such science teach- ~~ ——— ee - a i ey a ae — 7 ~ oe st Pe C=... oe 7. my » => ah ee Ar oe 2S SS el ood Se ee . 2 St AS a . “ ag =. = : . /- paPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS mat ers will continue doubtless to adhere strictly to the reci- _ tation of the laws and principles from the text and to the _ performing of only those exercises which are outlined in 43 the manual. ___ Is it not possible that the writer of the letter quoted at _ the beginning of this paper lacked the self-confidence and initiative needed to stimulate him to investigate the mat- ter as to whether hot water or cold water freezes first be- _ eause his training has never included any work in re- search? This paper is no appeal for the injection of ordi- nary university research work into the high school cur- riculum. It merely makes the suggestion that if the spirit of the research worker and his attitude toward unsolved problems were frequently and skillfully in- jected into high school science classes and always applied toward clearing up situations found in the student’s en- vironment or in the community, there would be less ster- --eotyped, uninteresting and unprofitable science teaching. Is this picture of fitting at least a part of science study a ee vor ear a io a) a pi farfetched and visionary? Is there a science teacher in this audience who has not felt an immediately stimulating interest arise in the class when some student springs a vital question which relates the general topic under discussion to a concrete situation in which they are all eoncerned? Recently I had such an experience. We had studied the short-distance and the long-distance tele- - graph systems. One young man, without any suggestion on my part, went to a Western Union station and asked questions. When he reported to the class that the op- erator told him that the Western Union Telegraph Com- pany had discarded the local circuit from many small sta- tions on their lines and were largely using ‘‘main line”’ sounders, except at central stations, the interest of the class was much aroused. When the initiative for study comes largely from the science class itself, then we shall ___ have more productive and more educative science teach- A 4s te 4 Ry ety ce Vie Ve al i / See RN Ta eT ay EPIEE in the high school onto the environment of the students - iw - 7 ion CATT oe " es Bee . fil 4 hy (os es it by \ bat Heb - isl 1% fii4 a. ual Hut ie i * Cae (eat ee ’ . tee Diab Re iN /, Pt he Be are J vd ig CRA SL OTN ne L, fl A : P i TAY Ar ey es * 248 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE CONTENT OF THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN CHEMISTRY J. P. Magnusson, Aucustana CoLLEGE It is barely a matter of two decades ago since chemis- try began to be transferred from the college to the high school as a well established course of study. -It is per- haps for this reason that high school chemistry has per- sistently clung to its inherited character of a college sub- ject pared down, made easy, and sugar coated with ‘practical applications’’ to make it more palatable to the recalcitrant young minds. It is the purpose of this paper to offer a suggestion by which the high school and college freshman chemistry courses may be sharply differentiated so as to make the one a real foundation course and the other a distinct ad- vance in the learners progress. The constant overlap- ping of these two courses, with the consequent loss of mo- tion and hence interest in the subject, is familiar to all teachers of chemistry. In the average high school text there are the usual chapters on fundamental laws and principles, hydrogen, oxygen, water, hydrochloric acid, the halogens, salts, acids, bases, solutions, ionic theory, the metals, the periodic law, and so on to a grand finale on the wonders of radium or a mighty explosion in the Pana- ma Canal. Then, to those whose enthusiasm has been sufficiently aroused to carry them into the freshman class, comes a dreary rehash of the whole program, the only - practical difference being that the young freshman has to pay more for his text book. In order to arrive at some conclusion as to the nature of the present day high school course in chemistry, six of the most widely used chemistry texts in Illinois high schools were analyzed by paragraph count, classing the paragraphs under the following three heads: 1. Fundamental Principles. 2. Descriptive Matter. 3. Practical Applications. Under the first head were included paragraphs dealing with fundamental principals and laws, such as the weight Aaa sift Ia eS id ee os =% SS _-—ss PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSI —- P laws, gas laws, definitions,- theories, formula making, - equation writing, ete. Under the second head were in- eluded paragraphs of a purely descriptive nature, deal- ing with such matters as occurrence, preparation, prop- erties and uses of the elements and of their compounds. Under the third head were included paragraphs of a purely practical nature, such as water purification, glass blowing, acetylene welding, air purification, and the like. . The following table exhibits the ‘‘chemical composition”’ of the books examined: COMPARISON OF TEXTS, ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY. Funda- Prac- mental Prin- Descrip- tical Appli- Text ciples tive cations Brownlee and Others (1921).. 27.0% | 63.3% 9.7% McPherson and Henderson USS i a ee eee ee 24.1 64.6 11.1 eH COTE) Fn ts Sees we So 18.1 75.8 6.1 Hessler and Smith (1912-1921) 31.6 . 65.9 225 malt (ISS 1958) oS. 8 27.8 56.5 15.9 Black and Connant (1921).... 28.2 63.5 8.2 A weragers: <2 84 eS ee 26.1 64.9 8.9 From the above tables we see that in spite of the authors’ prefatory promises as to uniqueness, the texts examined run very true to type. About one-fourth to one-~ third of the space is allotted to basie principles, while the rest is given over to the usual descriptive matter with here and there a sprinkling of practical applications amounting to an average of less than ten percent of the whole. For some years past the writer has been associated with work in high school chemistry in an advisory ca- pacity, at the same time conducting a first course in ‘college. This has offered an opportunity for developing two distinct and complementary courses, each course dis- tinct as to content and the one preparing for the other. The beginning course is a course in fundamental and general principles only. The divisions are sections, each section dealing with one law or general principle. The principle is first stated and then followed by any neces- sary explanatory sentences. Then follows a series of ex- periments illustrating the principle or law in question, each experiment containing a general statement of meth- s re ‘ 7 hibv wn den, Pa s AL? a im WAT oe ‘ A Where « Hd ‘ ¥ t by ’ a 250 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE od, detailed’ experimental directions, and questions intended to show how the results of the experiment il- lustrate the law. The emphasis is on fundamental princi- ples rather than on processes. To illustrate: This course does not contain an experiment the ‘‘object’’ of which is ‘‘to make hydrogen’’, but under the section deal- ing with the action of acids on metals there is a statement of this principle: Active metals displace hydrogen from acids. Under this principle there are experiments show- ing the action of various acids on various metals, Thus the principle involved in these experiments is kept to the fore, and the learner comes through with this in mind rather than with the idea that he has learned how to make hydrogen. The relative value of these two ideas as a net ‘‘result’’ of the experiment is easy to see. Fundamental and general principles are the a-b-e’s of any science. The learner makes no real progress until they begin to take shape in his mind, and the proper place for this process to start is at the beginning. Sub- sequent courses will then serve to broaden and deepen these concepts and he will then gain the correct scientific viewpoint, i. e. he will learn to view the varied and com- plex phenomena of the world around him in the light of fundamental laws and general principles. j See te ta 2 ge Cee A BS ae eee : : = _ PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 251 c, p sae ~ MELTING POINT, LATENT HEAT OF FUSION _ AND SOLUBILITY OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS — ; F. S. Morrmrer, Inurois Wesnteyan UNIversity yg IyNTRODUCTION Commercial laboratories as well as educational labor- atories which are working with organic compounds are constantly confronted with questions having to do with _ solubility and choice of solvent for use in purifications. In the great majority of cases the desired information is not available from the published data. In such cases it is necessary either to determine the solubility experi- mentally or to resort to some method of calculation. The j more successful of the various methods used for ealéu- lating solubility generally employ an equation involv- ing Raoult’s freezing point law together with the sec- ond law of thermodynamics. Perhaps the simplest and ___ most useful of these expressions is,— 4.58T ; In this expression N represents the mole fraction of the solute. (By solute is meant, that component which first erystallizes out in the pure state upon cooling the sys- : tem). L is the molecular latent heat of fusion, T is the absolute temperature of the melting point of the system ___and [I is an integration constant. 3 In general it may be said that these equations have been successful only for the so called ‘‘ideal’’ mixtures. By ideal mixture is meant those binary systems, the com- ponents of which may be considered to have the same thermodynamic environment when both are in the liquid state and both are at the same temperature. Two of the 3 eriteria for such a system are that there shall be neither ; any heat effect nor any volume change when the two ; liquid components are mixed. The complete absence of any secondary molecular effects, such as association and compound formation, is implied in the definition. There- fore, if in any case the heat effect for the solution pro- /- cess of dissolving a solid in a liquid differs from the latent heat of fusion of the solute at the temperature Nee ae eee eS 252 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE -in question, then this simple form of the solubility law does not express the true solubility. Hildebrand,’ in a series of very able papers, has shown that the degree to which a given binary mixture of non- polar substances departs from the formula for ideal mix- tures is closely related to the magnitude of the differ- ences in internal pressures of the components. In the fourth paper of the series, he has described a method for evaluating solubility data, and has indicated how the solubility of many substances may be approximately cal- culated providing the solubility of the given substance has been determined in solvents having a similar internal pressure to that of the solvent in question. In evaluating solubility data Hildebrand plots the common logarithm of the mole fraction of solute against the reciprocal of the absolute temperature of the melting point of the system. The experimental solubility points when plotted in this manner should, if there are no sec- ondary molecular effects, lie on a straight or only slight- ly curved line over fairly wide ranges of temperature. When the solubility curves of a given solute in a variety of solvents are plotted in this way, there is obtained a series of lines, which converge to a point at the melting temperature of the solute where N=1.0(Log N =0.0) According to the hypothesis put forward by Hilde- brand, the nearer the internal pressures of the liquified solute is to that of the solvent in question, the nearer will the experimental curve approach to the ideal solubility curve calculated from the latent heat of fusion of the solute. Therefore, if two solvents should be found to have exactly the same internal pressures, then the mole- cular solubility of each solute should be the same for the two solvents. Hildebrand? has prepared a table of rela- tive internal pressures from which, having a series of solubility curves for each solute, the solubility curve of any such solute may be located approximately for any other solvent, the position of which, in the table of rela- tive internal pressures, is known. The obvious disadvantages of this method of caleulat- ing solubilities are: first, the internal pressures are known for only a relatively small number of substances. . : : : PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 253 Second, the method has not been applied to polar sol- vents. Third, in any case, the solubility must have been determined in a series of selected solvents before the solubility in other solvents may be calculated. In the pages which follow we have described a method of calculating solubilities which requires but a minimum of physical measurements and which will apply to polar as well as to non-polar solvents providing there are no molecular compounds or solid solutions produced. It should be possible also to tell which systems will give partially miscible and which immiscible liquid systems. DEVELOPMENT OF METHOD From equation (1) it is evident that the slope of the log N vs. 1/T curves is related to the latent heat of fu- sion of the solute in the following manner, A log N —L S08 ee (2) A (VT) 4.58 Equation (2) applies only to those binary mixtures in which the heat effect of the solution process is equal to the latent heat of fusion of the solute. Now it is a gen- eral rule, providing no secondary molecular effects are produced, that the negative heat effect accompanying the solution process is greater than the latent heat of fusion. In all such cases the slope of the logarithmic curves must be greater than that of the ideal slope. This is well shown in Table 1. The ideal slope for any solute is that slope which would be obtained with a solvent which gives a thermo- dynamically ideal mixture. It is evident from Equation (2) that the value of the ideal slope may be calculated by dividing the latent heat of fusion of the solute (in small calories per mole) by the constant 4.58. If now the experimental values of the slopes of the log N vs 1/T curves for a given solute in a variety of solvents be divided by the value of the ideal slope for that solute, there is obtained a series of factors the mag- nitude of which is a measure of the non-ideality of the mixture. In Table 1 are given values of the slopes and of the factors which have been calculated for the four solutes, O54 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Naphthalene, Fluorene, Benzoic Acid and Urethane. A glance at the solubility relations of these four substances shows that the solvents which come the most nearly to forming ideal solutions are the aromatic hydrocarbons with their halogen and nitro derivities. These are fol- lowed by the substances having lower internal pressures such as ether, carbon tetrachloride, the esters and acid. anhydrides and also by-the substaness having higher in- ~ ternal pressures, the amines, acids, alcohols and water. Comparing the solubility relations of naphthalene and fluorene, it is found that the relative positions of the log N vs. 1/ T curves are the same for both substances. Hence it may be concluded that the internal pressures of these two solutes are nearly the same. When we come to consider the solubility relations of benzoic acid, it must be remembered that this substance is moderately polar; hence the moderately polar sol- vents, or those having moderately high internal pres- sures, come the most nearly to giving ideal mixtures. Finally, it is evident from Table 1 that urethane has an internal pressure corresponding to that of the lower aleo- hols. The very high slope obtained for this substance in toluene should be noted. It will be observed that the highly polar substance, water, is a better solvent than is toluene. In order to coordinate these solubility relations and many others which have been studied we have made use of the chart shown in Fig. 1. It will be observed that the q a eee TABLE 1. Slopes of the log N vs. 1/T curves for the sqlaied Naphthalene, ~ — Fluorene, Benzoic Acid, and Urethane and the values of the factors obtained by dividing the experimental slope by the ideal slope. SOLUTE—NAPHTHALENE. Slope of the Experi- Factor log N vs. mental slope taken Solvent 1/T curves Idealslope from Fig. 1 Ldealssolven ty < certs peters 970 al: 1 Daphermy LAME 20 = chices See oe aeeeotars 960 1- 1 4 PUUOLTEIC 5,2 cis tee Sie eyed eae 970 1 1 IPHRERANnEHTONC! wisi eedivs ee coin 970 al 1 qi GhilorbenZene a Jieninc cae cee = 970 at 1 Ethylene dichloride .......... 980 1.01 1.01 Ethylene dibromide .......... 990 1.02 1.02 INDERO GDEIZEN Caan cies ee eens 1010 1.04 1.05 2 SOLUTE—NAPHTH ALENE—Concluded. = Slope of the Experi- Factor log N vs. mental slope taken Solvent 1/T curves Idealslope from Fig.1 LEST i Seed gain rae eee 1020 ; 1.05 1.06 SE ae are eee ae 1030 1.06 1.07 _ Phthalic anhydride .......... 1040 1.07 1.09 Carbon disulfide .............. 1050 1.08 1.11 2a eee gears es ae ES 1060 1.08 - 1.10 Manwic-arinte, .°. 22. o>. 1160 1.20 1.19 MD. ay Soe ee te ete 1180 1.22 1.22 MMS. “Oo Sel Se ee. res ~ 4200 1.24 1.30 [7 ET Si ES oe ena ere 1260 1.30 1.33 Para toluidine ...-.~.....<... 1270 1.31 1.35 Alpha naphthylamine......... 1270 | S-38 fe MipnaAmaAnnenol 2:2 15.2 ok. x s~e 1310 iB 1.40 i ei eae 1430 1.47 1.45 SS Se a ne eee 1700 1.75 1.75 SEISSANG. Coos. Seo ae ake. AOS eee 1740 1.80 1.80 : SOLUTE—FLUORENE. Peownivent —. 57 - et. ct 1050 1 1 MCMIRENS . ene a See 1060 1.01 1.01 LY HeMNZONG 5 Soo Sc ee 1090 1.04 1.04 PIMENVEES Ticors e S ks ce oo coe 1180 1.12 1.10 q OS ee gee eee 1200 1.14 1.10 Carbon,.disulfide’ .2:...:....<- 1210 295 g Bar Ir 3 ’ Carbon tetrachloride ......-... 1320 1.25 1.22 SO SR ae eee 1510 1.44 1.35 q 2 US Sa eee 1580 1.50 4.37 Ps SOLUTE—BENZOIC ACID. ’ eer OVE... oe erase Soe 900 1 1 , ertimige Soo >=. ot. owes 940 1.04 1.04 eee ee ee 940 1.04 1.04 ; ACPIBNeNONC. F< ois. ao. ~~. se 940 1.04 1.04 a4 2 Lo ea a Sipe alii t 1190 1.32 1.35 Nitro nenrene ss 225 2522 2.2: 1200 1.33 1.34 SRUMMONICC Se og ot he See meee ces 7 1370 1.52 1.47 2 SES eee ee eee 1380 1.53 1.45 E Weiter REE oh, oe. oa = 1460 1.62 1.58 ’ Carbon tetrachloride ......... 1530 1.70 1.67 : SOLUTE—URETHANE. SUE oOROIeGHE 2. Shces. ccs ..~ 2... .<..<-. 1500? = 1. 75-2.00 1.90 Miia Ft Bon So ee 8 2000? 2.25 2.35? | eMMEME, 22 ee ees ys 2600? - 3.00 3.65? . right and left sides of this chart are the same, except that a one side is the inverse of the other. On the left side __ of the chart the internal pressures increase downward P - ° ° ° - _ while on the right side they necessarily increase upward. _ The figures in the middle of the chart, increasing both ‘ upward and downward from unity, are the factors ob- Z 3 NV ee eee ae eee ee ee ee eee ee ee “ ploe 017908 jouseyd suT[Iue ‘Ss[ose.o Plow’ OLJIOBAIOL[YOIA} ‘JouyyYdeu vyoq pue vyd[e poe o1ozueq sourpiIn,to] —d —wut.—o surure[Ay}yydeu Bvjoq puv vyd[e ‘au0}a0e [OUAY} ‘[Izueq ‘euouUeydoj}a0e suousydozueq QuUOUINDevAiyyUR sUuOIYUBZUAq s[Toueyd oajru eplyd[Nstp uogavd ‘ojozeqaeo JoutAd ‘aurpraAd ‘sepi~ey oajzru souvyjeupAusyd 14} pus Ip SO9ATHIALIOp O1]TU ‘QUSDBIYIUB [oyoore [A ynq joyoo[e [Adoad & 1S) a ‘ial 1S) MR ics eo) Pal : 5 eue10nyy : : a £ BUILUVTAUZYdIp ‘ousIy}JURUDYd ‘aueleyydeu 7 suey ydeusoe #5 5 SOATJIALIOp OWLOIG ‘SapITeylp ‘elozueq bs : atonytoy iy fe oprapAyuR o1peyyyd = [Oyoo[e [Ae <1 @IPLIO[YoORI}9}] UOGIed a eplpAyUe O1J00V ‘97 B]90B TAYJO nN I9Yyo epAyopleied wn Se ae apAyoaplesec E (e) asuOULTOOIpAY a E yy ouvyjeoin 4 prure}o0R ouPxXoy ts] SGUNSSHUd IVNYUHENI|HAILVIAYU AO LUVHO uLOIOSOL We) Ye) I h { 3 va > ay + 2 mmanmend . ulO108oed ouvxoy pluvjooe ouryjodn Sel euouTyoorpAy youooly [AY Poul . opAyop vad 1oyyo ‘079 OVBJOO" [AIO OpMolyoRsjo, uoqavo — 8prpAyue oppeyryd oeTon[oy q ‘O}O OTOZuOKd ousy deus Tinie ‘O70 oueTeYy Yydeu ——————S LLL eee . eudr10Ony £ BOATITATIOp Oujyu youoore [Adoad ouvyjou ApTuoYydyay \ BOPTTVY O41} ;U ‘yd[nstp uoqaro sfoueyd oayyu pudryUOZUeg ouoUTnoOBIYy Ue ououeydozued ‘070 OuOUeYdo}90"R ‘079 pUuoJONT : “souyprnqoy —d —w —o prow ofozueq ‘geome et OU a) 970 oUuT[ue foyoo[e [Aue pouyoole [Ang jouoyd BEDS ere igh th ce eee ei Yad eb hc ty de er Aon ched Fye; 2 yas ~ Gane ee (re apie, y 2 al 258 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF Aarti ty, . tained by viding the experimental slopes of ie 16a ; a N vs. 1/T curves by the ideal slope calculated from the ie latent heat of fusion. . In this chart naphthalene has been taken as the start- ing point. The value of the ideal slope is taken to be 970. This corresponds to a latent heat of fusion of 4,450 calories per mole, a value which is somewhat less than HEXANE PHENOL 2p ANILINE § RAPHTHOLS BENZOIC ACID ACETONE ACETOPHENONE PARALDERYDB 15 ANTHRAQUINOKE ETHER NITRO PHENOLS CARBON TETRACHLORIDE CARBON DISULPIDE PHTHALIC ANHYDRIDE | PYRIDINE BENZENE, DIBALIDES FLUORENE NAPHTHALENE 119 NAPHTHALENE PLUORENE BENZENE, DIHALIDES PYRIDINE PHTHALIC ANHYDRIDE CASBON DISULFIDE CARBON TETRACHLORIDE NITRO PHENOLS ETHER ANTHRAQUINONE PARALDEHYDE ACETOPHRNOKE NAPHTHYLAMINES, ACETONE BENZOIC ACID NAPHTHOLS ABILINE PHEROL Aw ACETIC ACID Miss; Chart of Relative Internal Pressures. that commonly accepted for naphthalene, viz., 4,550 _ calories. In order to fix the positions of the other sub- stances relative to naphthalene, it was found convenient to locate first those substances which had been used as solvents for naphthalene. Now a large number of freez- ing point and solubility curves of binary systems involv- ing naphthalene as solute are given in the literature. 20 this number about twenty appear to have been deter- mined with the required degree of accuracy. The ex- _ perimental slopes of each of these curves are given in ‘Table 1, together with the value of the factors obtained by dividing the experimental slope by the ideal slope, 970. Each factor was then located on the middle line, and a straight edge was so placed across the chart that it passed through this factor and the point chosen for naphthalene. The point at which this line euts the op- posite side of the chart is the location of the substance in question. Having located these substances they were then used in finding the location of other substances, the binary systems with naphthalene of which had not been determined. In making the calculations involved in finding the lo- -eation of these other substances in the chart it was often found that the positions of the substances already fixed in the table could be checked repeatedly. Im all cases shown the positions finally adopted are the mean values of several closely agreejng experiments using different solutes or solvents. It will be observed that there may be some question, __ especially where the factor has a value near to unity, as to whether the factor should be slightly above or slightly below the ideal position. In deciding this question one may be guided somewhat by Hildebrand’s table of rela- tive internal pressures and also by the solubility rela- tions in other systems. In making the complete table we have calculated to mole fractions the solubility and freezing point measure- ments of over 400 binary mixtures. Not all of the sub- stances studied appear in the chart. There have been a large number of isolated systems investigated which need only a few measurements in order to coordinate the complete solubility relations of these substances. We hope soon to make these measurements and to publish the results in a later communication. USES AND LIMITATIONS OF THE CHART The uses of this chart are quite evident from the fore- going discussion. In the first place it may be used to REN MPR RENT YOR Wet 260 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE calculate the freezing point curve or the solubility of any substance in the table with any other substance in the. — table providing the latent heat of fusion (ideal slope of the log N vs. 1/T curves) is known and the assumption is warranted that there are no complicating molecular effects. In making the calculation all that is necessary is to find the factor by which the ideal slope must be in-- creased in order to make it equal to the slope which would be determined experimentally. This factor is found by placing a straight edge across the chart in such a position that it joins the components of the desired system. The point at which this cuts the line of factors will then be the ratio sought. Evidently, the nearer two substances are to one another in the table, the more nearly will their reciprocal solution approach to that of the ideal mixture. A comparison of columns 4 and 5, Table 1, will indicate the degree of precision to be ex- pected. In determining molecular weights by the melting point or boiling point methods, one ‘should choose a solvent which has approximately the same position in.the chart as the solute to be used. If this rule is not followed it will be observed that the ‘‘molecular association’’ of the solute will appear to increase in direct proportion to the magnitude of the factor relating the solute and sol- vent in the above chart. In this connection, it is commonly assumed that acetic acid in benzene solution (benzene = solute) is associated into double molecules as determined from the Van’t Hoff freezing point laws. In making that assumption, the further assumption has been made that the heat of the solution process is equal to the latent heat of fusion. In many ways it is more tenable to assume that in those systems which give fairly straight logarithmic solubility curves, at least, the variation from the normal is in the heat effect rather than in the molecular weight of the dissolved substance. This view is further supported by the fact that when molecular complexes are formed very highly curved solubility curves are obtained. This chart should also aid in the choice of solvent to be used in recrystallization and in the choice of extract- » ng « PON gp DS "AND PHYSICS — ie ON Pie pivenis In this connection the question may be tg ne ne & a ot lie! © mM ° Fe s Kk 5 o @ n = 2: ik g ip o cy ¥. tes ety “ow «4 e 4 es: It has been observed that when the difference os 3 in internal pressures of the substances is so great that sa the factor connecting them in the above chart has a & greater value than about 4.0—4.5 partially miscible liq- aN _ uids may be expected to occur. In general the higher * the melting point of the components the greater must be “i the difference in internal pressure to cause a separation ed - into two liquid phases. When the factor between two oe - components is greater than 5.0—5.5 the substances may “S be considered as practically immiscible. Mixtures of two compounds containing enolic or ketonie oxygen may not follow this rule due to the formation of oxonium - eompounds. - } or. pe = > “ve <7 - —. AE Pee Pe eek oY Ae TON ths pO gy ed aE PFT Pe nee ON LO Ae EE ah RS et Saas CE a) ye i ee Sg: In making the calculations involved in constructing _ this table some generalizations have been observed __ which, although probably well known, will be valuable in ; placing other substances in the table and also in showing the uses and limitations of this method of calculating aft be oF rs solubility. ; , It has been found that structural isomers very seldom ° form mixed crystals or chemical compounds; phenan- ; threne and anthrecene, however, do form an unbroken. j series of mixed erystals. ‘- | Structural isomers generally have very nearly the same internal pressures; hence the freezing point curves Z between isomers are useful in determining the ‘‘ideal ; slope’’. Resorcin and hydrochinone are apparently ex- ; ceptions to this rule. ~~ . It has been observed that when substances containing hydroxyl groups enter into systems containing enolic or ketonic oxygen, positive deviations from Raoult’s law may be expected to occur, i. e., the solubility will be greater than that calculated from the principles outlined above. A typical exception to this rule is found in the sys- tem Resorcin-Water, the log N vs. 1/T eurve for which is almost a straight line. - SN eT TPE) geet Bae ee ite, (ae 2 Sa isa | , h C pense 5 we ; BPM 262 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Binary systems of similarly constituted molecules may | be expected to form mixed crystals. Examples are: para chlor nitro benzol—para brom nitro benzol. para brom toluene—para iodo toluene. It is interesting to note that substances having simliar structures occupy approximately the same place in the table, thus :— Acetone, benzophenone, acetophenone, benzil. : Pyridin, pyrrol, carbazol. Ethers anhydrides, esters. Simple amines. Simple nitro derivitives. Simple halogen derivitives. In describing the above method of calculating solubil- ity we have made the assumption that the log N vs. 1/T curves having the ideal slope is known or may be deter- mined. We shall now consider some of the methods of - obtaining this ideal slope in cases where it is not known. ; : f i METHODS OF FINDING LATENT HEAT OF FUSION AND IDEAL SLOPE The method which has been found to give the most con- sistent results is the following. There is first obtained _a complete freezing point curve of the substance in ques- tion, for convenience called A, with some other substance, B, the ideal slope for which is known and the position of which in the chart of relative internal pressures has been determined. In choosing the exact binary system to be used it is necessary that there shall be no molecular com- plexes formed in the solution, and it is convenient to choose as the second component a substance having about the same melting point as that of the substance to be in- vestigated. The factor to be used between solute B and solvent A is first determined by dividing the value of the ideal slope for B into the value experimentally obtained when the substance A, of unknown internal pressure, is used as solvent for B. Having determined this factor, the position of the substance A in the chart may be found. ~ If now the substance A be used as solute B, or any other substance whose position in the chart is known, be used as solvent and the slope of the log N vs. 1/T curve of the system is determined, then the ideal slope for A is obtained by dividing this experimental slope by the ap- propriate factor obtained from the chart, Fig. 1. From the ideal slope so obtained the latent heat of _ fusion of the solute may be calculated. This is done by - multiplying this ideal slope by the constant 4.58 which gives the latent heat in calories per gram mole. In Table 2 are given some values of latent heats calculated in this way. It will be observed that these values compare fav- orably with those determined calorimetrically. A second method for determining the ideal slope and the position in the table may be called the ‘‘cut and try’’ method. This method may be used in those cases in which the solubility of a solute has been determined in a series of solvents whose positions in the chart have been determined. It is evident that there is only one position in the chart which will satisfy the demands of the factors of more than one solvent when the solute has. been given any value for the ideal slope. The object is to find that set of values for the ideal slope and for the position in the chart which comes the most nearly to fitting all of the solvents involved. Evidently only two such solvents are needed, but if more have been investigated greater confi- dence may be placed in the results obtained. A third method for determining the ideal slope of the log N vs. 1/T curves may be used in those cases in which L, the latent heat of fusion, is accurately known. This is - seldom the case, however. It is regretable that such an important physical property has been so long neglected. In cases where it has been determined the results are often so discordant that doubt is thrown upon much of the published data. This variation is due, partially at least, to the fact that many of the values have been eal- culated from Van’t Hoff’s equation and hence the values obtained will depend upon the nature of the solvent used. In table 2, column 5, have been tabulated the latent heats of fusion of a representative number of organic compounds. These values have been taken largely from Landolt and Boernstein, Tabellen, and only those results which have been calorimetrically determined are includ- i at ‘eas et *. 264 ILLINOIS seer ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ed. In the 4th column of this table are given he latent heats of fusion as calculated from the ideal slopes of the log N vs. 1/T curves. Finally, in column 6 are given the quotients obtained by dividing the caleulated molecular — latent heat of fusion expressed in small calories by the ~ absolute melting point of the substance. This, according to Walden,* should equal about 13.5. It will ie observed from table 2 that the constant, 13.5, applies very well to most halides and nitro commons and to many other isolated compounds, especially to those substances which have relative high molecular weights and moderately high melting points. In general, it may be said that the Walden constant for the more highly polar substances ~ such as the hydroxide, ketones, amines, ete., has a value somewhat smaller than the normal. In any ease, it should be possible, by reference to table 2, to calculate an approximate latent heat of fusion and hence the ideal slope for any substance whose structure and melting point are known. Presuming the structure to be known, it is then possible to locate approximately the position — of the substance in the chart, Fig. 1. With this informa- tion it is then possible to caleulate the solubility of the substance in question in all of the substances shown in the table which do not form molecular complexes or solid solutions. Thus it is seen that a fair idea may be had of the solubility relations of any given substance from only the melting point and structure of the solute. The application of the principles outlined above should aid materially in the choice of solvent for crystallizations ~ and also in the choice of solvent for use in molecular weight determinations. TABLE 2. The Latent Heat of Fusion of Organic Compounds. HYDROCARBONS. Ideal M. Pt. Abs. Slope Si 4.58 Leale. Substance (Tm) (Si) (Leale.) Lobs. Tm Benzoled 2 ee ele eee 278 .5 510 2330 2350 8.36 Para. xylolesnigise cee ose tee o 287.4 840 3840 4170 13.4 Diphenyl methane ......... 299.3 810 3700 Slee 12.4 DIMHENY en crabs Sorawlenehersers 343.2 960 4390 4390 12.8 Naphthalene 2%. )acra iets aves a 3De.L 970 4440 4550 12.6 Triphenyl methane ......... 366.0 970 4440 batts 12.6 wie? s wa 8 Ls pa, .-* a 5, 7 ad 2 ‘ * 45 - PAPERS ON STRY AND PHYSICS HyYDROcARBONS—Concluded. ‘Ideal M.Pt.Abs. Slope Si. 4.58 Substance (Tm) (Si) (Leale.) Lobs. APE NADHENEME |. iam. oem ete cls 366.5 1090 5000 oes PRenARERYTERe © 22S. ~5 eee 371.0 980 4470 Sack eUnER TIS SO eb Aes ES Beg ay 386.5 1050 4800 35 Parener 52. Vest Sor eke 421.0 1150 S200! en ook FAneRe 2 Pox 2S = 255 a oie 489.6 1500 6870 6830 HALIDES. Ethylene dibromide ........ 282.8 550. 2540 2540 P-brom toluole ............ 299.8 800 3680 3650 P-dichlor benzole .......... 325.5 960 4400 43930 P-dibrom benzole .......... 360.0 1060 4850 4860 P-diiodo benzole ........... 401.0 1200 5500 6 0 NITRO COMPOUNDS P=nitro toluole®..5 2... 2.6% 324.3 800 3660 ees Alpha nitronaphthalene...... 328.0 950 4340 4380 1-3—4-dinitro toluole ....... 332.0 990 4520 mip ka 1-2-6-dinitro toluole ...... 338.0 1000 4570 oe 1-2-4-dinitro toluole ....... 344.0 1020 4650 —- M-dinitro benzole .......... 363.0 1070 4900 4870 Q-dinitro benzole .......... 389.5 1160 5300 Pot NITRO HALIDES. P-filuor nitrobenzole ....... 299.5 710 3240 % O-chlor nitrobenzole ....... 305.3 850 3900 $2) Q-brom nitrobenzole ....... o11 2 900 4110 apes M-chlor nitrobenzole ....... 315.8 930 4250 4630 P-chlor nitrobenzole ....... 357.0 1060 4850 Leo oe P-brom nitrobenzole ....... 396.5 1200 5490 wae P-iodo nitrobenzole ........ 446.0 1500 6850 1—2-4-dichlor nitrobenzole... 313.6 810 3700 AMINO COMPOUNDS. “TE ETT SE SRE aE 267.5 425 1940 1940 SES TT UTE gee A ag eee 316.5 870 3980 ae Alpha naphthylamine........ 317.7 680 3110 oe ae Diphenyl amine ........... 325.7 880 4020 4050 -nltranwdine-~ —.. ideo. ek o 343.0 840 3840 oo2e i aitrannine- #2 is ees. So 387.0 1000 4570 Piitraniliné 2.2 36. oso... 421.0 1100 5030 : OXYGEN CONTAINING SUBSTANCES. jp) (as 1) ee See ae ee 277.3 380 1740 ae Orihe; cresol’ ce ..6 2 sc Fe 303.7 475 2170 5s ENEMGE SIG Ge toot iso eas Se C 313.6 495 2260 2340 Alpha naphthol ........... 367.5 1120 5120 eee eta. naphthol = ).o25..«...2.- +. o00.0 1150 5250: '¢ > HESOLPEMAN) . [666 chee ee See sc 383.4 565 2580 eet Wydrochinone .............. 443.0 705 3220 Eee GH SS Sen ate Sen. wie we 322.2 650 2970 2980 ETD yeas Ae es ee eat 315.0 650 2970 2950 PaO = 5 okw co aw e'nien OOO 615 2820 eae Phthalic anhydride ........ 403.8 1070 4900 Seis Reeinnhenone:.. 0.6450. s 22k 293.5 Beis pads 3980 265 ex ns Leale. “ Tm v 13.6 sige 12.1 vs 12.4 ‘a 12.5 an 14.0 a eo . 9.0 a 12.2 ia 13.5 “s 13.5 > 13.7 cs ae" 11.3 ee. 13.2 Ss 13.6 ‘Sa 13.5 aa 13.5 e 13.5 “s 13.6 o 10.7 oN 12.8 “, 13.2 “ 13.5 ~% 13.6 be 13.8 mr, 15.3 ~*~ 11.8 a 7.26 ¥ 12.6 v¥e 9.8 a 12.3 re 11.2 ces 11.8 oo 11.9 ‘= ‘ = 6.3 4a 7.15 a 1.2 . 13.9 oe 13.3 v, 6.73 4 7.3 9.2 a 9.4 : 9.9 A 12.1 a 266 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE OXYGEN CONTAINING SUBSTANCES—Concluded. Ideal M. Pt. Abs. Slope __ Si. 4.58 Substance (Tm) (Si) (Leale.) Lobs. Tm Benzophenoney..i.isc ek © dae ee 322.0 830 3800 4310 11.8 BETA rene nisin os Ho eee aoe 388.0 1020 4650 4650 12:20 ANthHraquinone: -cr1t S24. ele 558.0 3560 7780 7780 13.9 ACObIC WACO Ceti a letters 289.4 320 1460 2630 5.05 Trichiloracetic: ACW! Gacy. es 330.0 775 3540 Mee OA Beta oxynaphthoic acid..... 489.0 1440 6580 eee a5 MISCELLANEOUS SUBSTANCES. . Wrethanen 27 osen ikke. erste 318.2 795 3630 3630 8.03 @arhazoleihs here vee cco 518.0 1400 6400 7050 12S AN GetaAmMidi ce oa esee Bh SRS ae 350.0 480 2200 ane 6.3 Ortho nitrophenol ......... 319.0 810 3700 3720 11.6 Meta nitrophenol .......... 367.5 1080 4950 ove ike 135 Para: Nitropnhenol oy.cen is THE INFRA-RED ABSORPTION OF SOME OXIDES = OF NITROGEN Er B. J. Spence, NorTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY The following is intended merely as a preliminary re- port of work taken up in an attempt to add to the data bearing upon the considerable theory already developed for the infra-red absorption of gases made up of simple — molecules. The theory in the case of a simple diatomic gas assumes that the molecule is made up of two atomie nuclei separated by only a short distance. These nuclei are held together by a ring of electrons rotating about an axis joining the two nuclei and between them. According to the quantum theory it is possible for a molecule to rotate about an axis at right angles to the line joining the nuclei with definite but different velocities. If the moment of inertia does not change, these different veloci- ties of rotation will manifest themselves as simple ab- sorption bands in the far mfra-red region. If, on the other hand, isotopes of one of the atomic nuclei exist, there will be different moments of inertia of the mole- cule. The different moments of inertia will not differ greatly and instead of a series of simple bands, we shall find a series of more complex bands, for example, trip- lets, where two isotopes of one of the nuclei exist. . ‘ wih ae oO i ands i> 1. bain *, # , CD g If the nuclei vibrate along the line joining their cen- e = ters with a simple harmonic motion, the vibration will : 3 manifest itself as an absorption band in the near infra- ie _ red region. This frequency of vibration may combine o ’ with a rotation frequency to produce a series of bands a in the region of the vibration frequency. If the vibra- me tion frequency is not simple harmonic on account of large q nuclear displacements, such a vibration will give rise 4 ;. to harmonics whose frequencies are approximate multi- ples of a fundamental frequency. These in turn may ag an cae 8 combine with the rotation frequencies to produce the . _ complicated system of bands in the region of the har- a a monic frequencies. In short, there should be rotation 3 _. frequencies, vibration frequencies, harmonic frequencies, q : and combination frequencies. These, however, need not % “a al eae) bil a! ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 280 necessarily all be manifested as absorption bands in a single gas. tae | 3 The evidence supporting such a theory is very meager, and this investigation was undertaken in an attempt to add more data to the general problem. Accordingly the absorption of NO, NO:, N.O., and N.O was investigated by means of a grating spectrometer and a radiometer in the region from 1uto45u. e2 METHOD The conductivity cells were of special design, resemb- ling small flat-bottom flasks of about 30cec. capacity, with the electrodes inserted in the sides. The procedures of filling the cells, transferring to the thermostat, etc., were conducted in the dark. The thermostat lamp was painted black and enclosed in black paraffined paper. The samples were exposed to the light of the 500 watt, concentrated filament, nitrogen-filled lamp mentioned above, placed at a fixed distance of about 60 cm. from the cells. Exposures to the light were made for definite intervals at constant temperature, the cells transferred . to the thermostat, and the conductivities measured, using a special set-up consisting of a Wheatstone set built up from Curtis coils and a Leeds and Northrup drum-type Kohlrausch slide wire, with air condensers for obtain- ing proper phase balance. The energizing current was at 1200 frequency and was generated by an audion os- cillating circuit, the bridge balance being accurately de- termined by the use of a DeForest P-200 two-step audion amplifier, using special high-resistance telephones. The point of balance was one of complete silence, the slightest movement of the contact of the 4.7 meter Kohlrausch slide wire to right of left giving a distinctly audible sound. The set-up was built along lines suggested by Hall and Adams.” DATA The data of the determinations are given in the Table. The curves were constructed from the same data. DISCUSSION OF THE DATA It will be observed that the curves for the different concentrations are nearly parallel, thus showing that the ‘ ree re IRE Si . . f 7 is cee wei MeN OIA eee Saoees - PAPERS SOR CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS st * ae > rate of change in the conductance was practically ‘the eS same for the sols of different initial concentrations. __. However, on closer examination of the curves for the sols oh _ __ of different concentrations, it will be seen that the slopes — pe at corresponding times increase as the concentration — AS _ of the sol diminishes. Thus for the eight and sixteen hour periods the slopes are approximately as follows: ae : Slopes of the curves for ie “¥, 100% 15% 50% 25% 12.5% 5% Time Sol. Sol Sol Sol Sol Sol ; Reh Gung?” 62. acess 56000 SBMS” G75 HO * 2-985 | TRE ae Sehonrse sos 2. 2. “B76 <). 37a, 1 aaah gees ABT nis eats: These figures indicate that the rate of change of condue- | tance increases with decreasing concentration of the sol. K as The slope of each of the curves gradually becomes smal- . ler, and all the curves would eventually become parallel = to the time axis and further -increase in conductivity xg cease if the runs were continued for a sufficient length of time. It was observed that a finely divided whitish , TABLE OF DATA. ie = ; Specific Conductivity, K x 10° SF ... « Time in Hours 100% Sol 75% Sol 50% Sol eae 0 4 ce gets airs eB 18.127 15.333 10.943 See SUR. ce Ms oe PRS hE 18.209 15.413 11.032 ‘ 1.2 A eR tal eee 18.444 15.568 11.145 oS ee rete ene eS Ye 18.814 cG15 +2023 eee $e OS) SE SECS ie a ae _ 19.265 16.358 12.008 ee 1a RS Aa See 20.199 17.234 13.004 es en A. 2 PSG PET ys Vee 20.750 17.911 13.799 re er Ee ee Oe eg 21.746 18.750 14.809 Re Bereta te Sin oe lowe 22.564 19.584 15.867 ash 7 ee Sa a ne 23.160 20.294 16.717 Re a kos Fe vances ae 24.069 21.281 18.097 25% Sol 12.5% Sol 5% Sol “ae 1 oe GAD Aas eet een ea 6.898 4.983 2.715 7” ly CT OE EE 2 eee 7.129 5.204 2.930 + . 7) Ng Rogie aaah eee epeicay Be 7.517 5.620 3.333 > LT ree Ee EEE hee ae 8.279 6.281 3.953 “ | SS ess irae 9.445 7.802 5.372 e.. Ty eer se Pane Se 11.786 9.652 7.250 BE i agit mone 13.876 12.036 9.874 ; Be 6 Rak 14.934 13.027 11.223 PND cas wi Pl Ree ORK. 15.952 13.741 12.220 = Gi precipitate formed on the bottom of the conductivity cells A? in all cases. x _ Freundlich and Nathansohn® have pointed out that : the gradual clouding and final precipitation of sulfur fol- =f lowed by coagulation-of arsenic trisulfide from a care- “Ss 284 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE fully pr siieen clear arsenic trisulfide hydrosol may be upon the following grounds: Arsenic trisulfide explaine hydrosol sensitizes the photochemical oxidation of dye- stuffs like eosin and malachite green. Due to this photo- sensitizing action of the arsenic trisulfide micelles, hy- drogen sulfide produced by the hydrolysis of arsenic trisulfide is oxydized to colloidal sulfur which is stabi- lized by absorbed pentathionic acid. That pentathionic acid is the stabilizing electrolyte for sulfur hydrosols of the Oden type, has been shown by Freundlich and Scholz». This acid is quite stable in the presence of hydrogen sulfide, with which it reacts to form free sulfur and water: _5 HLS + H.S8,0;=10S8 + 6 H.0, this reaction. explaining the great sensitiveness of the Odén S-hydrosols toward H.S. It is the reaction between the stabilizing pentathionic acid of the S-micelles and the stabilizing H.S of the arsenic trisulfide-micelles ac- cording to the above equation which deprives the micel- les of both sols of their stabilizing electrolyte and re- sults in the coagulation of a mixture of the two sols. In their presentation of the above explanation of the action of light upon arsenic trisulfide hydrosol, Freund- lich and Nathansohn do not discuss the mechanism of the formation of pentathionic acid. It is probable, however, that the photochemical oxidation of H.S which results in the formation of colloidal sulfur may also account for the formation of the pentathionic acid, presumably by the photochemical oxidation of H.S to SO. which reacts with H.S to form the acid, a reaction which is probably one of many taking place in the formation of Wacken- roder’s solution, and which has been investigated by Debus* and others: 5 Ai o> H.S,0, +58 +4H.0 Assuming that a condition of equilibrium exists in an arsenic trisulfide hydrosol with respect to adsorbed hy- drogen sulfide and pentathionic acid on the one hand, and intermicellular hydrogen sulfide and acid on the 7 : } | PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 285 * oe other, the action of light would be merely to maintain and colloidal sulfur as the reaction between H.S and the acid proceeds. With certain assumptions regarding the mechanism of the above process the explanation offered by Freund- lich and Nathansohn can be reconciled with the fact that the conductivity of the sol increases upon exposure to light. If the process resulted in the reaction between the first traces of pentathionic acid formed and H.S, _ the conductivity of the sol could not increase, since no 4 substance of sufiiciently high conductivity is formed to __ account for the changes produced. On the other hand, if the formation of S-hydrosol, whether by the photo- chemical oxidation of H.S or by the H.S-pentathionic acid reaction, is assumed, a gradual increase in con- ductivity can be more readily explained. Colloidal sul- fur produced by either or both of these reactions will adsorb pentathionic acid as stabilizing electrolyte, the S-micelles, with their adsorbed acid, serving to augment the conductivity of the solution, and maintaining at the same time a certain concentration of free acid in the in- termicellular liquid by virtue of the adsorption equili- brium set up. Both of these factors serve to increase the conductance. Eventually the concentration of the intermicellular pentathionic acid will reach such a value that the rather slow reaction of the acid with intermicel- lular H.S, which has been increasing in speed with con- tinued increase in the concentration of the acid, will proceed unhampered, an equilibrium having thus been set up between the various components of the system. The attainment of this equilibrium marks the end of the increase in the conductivity of the sol. a The fact that the rate of change of conductance in- ereases with decrease in the concentration of the sol is readily explained in view of the work of several investi- gators who have pointed out that dilution of a sol results in increased dispersion, i. e., diminution of the size of the particles. Increased dispersion of the colloid parti- cles will favor the speed of the reaction due to the in- creased photochemical activity of the micelles per unit = =—*, =, F 286 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE mass of As.S, owing to the relatively greater active sur- face. In the above discussion of the mechanism of the re- action it is assumed that the H.S-pentathionic acid re- | action proceeds only in the intermicellular liquid, and not in the adsorbed layer enveloping the As.S, particles, since it is taken for granted that As.S, and S-micelles, respectively, retain the H.S and pentathionic acid ad- sorbed as stabilizing electrolyte, out of the sphere of reaction with each other. The photochemical formation of colloidal sulfur and pentathionic acid takes place only in the adsorbed layer. It is noteworthy to remark that the photochemical re- action is not reversible, samples of the sol which had been exposed to light suffering only: a very slight de- crease in conductance on being kept in the dark for per- iods as long as several days. This slight decrease in conductance is explained as being due to the fact that the slow H.S-pentathionie acid reaction, which in itself tends to lower the conductance by formation of H,O and S from the active electrolyte, pentathionic acid, contin- ues for some time after the action of light ceases, the resultant effect being a slight diminution of the concen- tration of the intermicellular pentathionic acid. There may be some question as to the nature of the electrolyte formed in the photochemical process. The fact that Freundlich and Scholz have demonstrated the existence of pentathionic acid in colloidal sulfur is not to be taken as a priori evidence of the existence of the same stabilizing acid for the colloidal sulfur formed in As.8, hydrosol. Whether the acid formed is penta- thionic, tetrathionic or another of the thionic acids known to exist in Wackenroder’s solution, or a mixture of two or more memlers of the family, is conjectural. It would seem more plausible, possibly, to assume the formation of tetrathionic acid, since this is undoubtedly the first product formed in the preparation of Wackenroder’s solution. ‘ Sei ihe a Sa “a = 7 PAPEES ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS e > yp 3 SUMMARY a>? 1. The electrical conductivity of arsenic trisulfide hy- _ drosol increases upon exposure to light, the rate of in- __ @rease being practically independent of the initial con- Rh: 3 - -.* > centration of the sol, although increasing somewhat with decreasing concentration of the colloid. Studies were made upon a very pure arsenic trisulfide hydrosol (one containing very little excess hydrogen sulfide), following the conductivity during exposure to the light of a 500 watt nitrogen-filled lamp under constant conditions of temperature and intensity of illumination. 2. The reaction is explained, after the suggestion of Freundlich and Nathansohn, as one of a two-stage photo- chemical oxidation of H.S adsorbed on the As.S,-micelles to colloidal sulfur and pentathionic acid (or tetrathio- nic), followed by the reaction between H.S and the thionic acid in the intermicellular liquid with liberation _of free sulfur, and with final precipitation of As.S, upon removal of the stabilizmg H.S. The increase in con- ductivity is to be explained as due to the building up of a concentration of the thionic acid more than sufficient to serve as the stabilizing electrolyte for the colloidal sulfur, the reaction with H.S then proceeding at such a rate that the equilibrium is maintained between the several components of the system, further change in conductance thus being prevented. The increase of the rate of change of the conductance with decreasing con- centration of the sol is explained as due to the increased photochemical activity per unit mass of As.S,, brought about by the greater dispersity of the more dilute colloid. The author wishes to acknowledge the kind assistance of Dr. J. H. Mathews of the Department of Chemistry at the University of Wisconsin, under whose direction the work described in this paper was done. REFERENCES. 1) Jour. Am. Chem. Soe. 4/, 1515, (1919). 2) Koll. Zeit., 28, 258, (1921). 3) cf Freundlich and Nathansohn, loc. cit. 4) Jour. Chem. Soc. 53, 278, (1888). Bags As xCQUBRELSESEOTSEY=7 fe ss05 ceases == ma Ge gery gpa nent A an naan pA au vunn ine ;aunUUULGM aan ed Se ee ee Ha EP Pea autciinn cae Ds | Cre peta eee Peansareutaiics {WE FU a a fw =e seeraes moee Baty bubs Bee BET ESELSgES is A a a OTS Ree SuEERE anu eeeeeeeeee eo HOTT DU aed Course SL} 16 7 18,1370 LEGA AUER NY a Ft Ye ERE SRRRARRASA HR PU SeESCRESEES HELE EE eperataeseveratcar: CEE EEEE EEE EEE ES EEE EE HE aaressetatiees| SEE eee aa EES ERESHADHE py aa ne: ve ee N . 7 7 - Ce ede x THE DETERMINATION OF “‘g”’ | . A. C. Lonepey, Kxox CoLiece ee It is not the object of this paper to present a new _ method or even to consider exhaustively the older meth-_ _ ods of determining ‘‘g’’. That would require more time aoe than I have at my disposal. What I hope to do is to in- Z _. dicate a way of getting better results from one of the ee well known methods. = Of the various methods of determining ‘‘g’’, the sim- Sa 6 ple pendulum method is doubtless the most widely used, | =a _ -and perhaps, all things considered, the most generally satisfactory. . a I think it is the method which succeeds best in the ~Xs hands of our students, and I also think it has within it * the possibilities of great precision. ee The quantities to be measured are two in number, the a length of the pendulum, 1, and the period, or half period, - ele a? : oe % : t,intheformula g—=— ae ce i 2 _ The length of a pendulum about a meter long can easily ae _ be measured to within one part in ten thousand, with a 4 good cathetometer, if the pendulum is properly construct- = ed, and if suitable corrections are made for the mass of i the suspension and for the moment of inertia of the ball. eo? If, then, the period can be determined with equal accu- _ ee racy, we should have no difficulty in getting the fourth << figure in the final value of ‘‘g’’. ee The period, however, must be squared and must there- ; _ fore be determined to within one part in twenty thousand, 35 2: in order that the value of ‘‘g’’ may be correct to within tom - one part in ten thousand. 3 To count twenty thousand oscillations and guarantee ia the count would be rather too great a strain on human endurance, even if we could get a pendulum to continue swinging long enough, which would be another difficulty. — The coincidence method furnishes a perfectly splendid way of supplementing human endurance at this point, = but our next difficulty lies in the fact that the oscillations i A Me et y . Sear fla adil ' be A a " b> alate ide 4 Re eR Ee ee Te eee os ann 4 ‘ia ase ” 4 e . Ls 4 i tne 4 a =~ ys . “i 4 3 eae by 290 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY ‘OF SCIENCE are not strictly OUT Onan Many of our laboratone r manuals say they are practically so, if the amplitude of the pendulum ‘is not more than five degrees. Well, that might do for measuring t to within one part in a thous: and, but not for one part in twenty thousand. Figure 1 shows the interval between coincidences on the Y axis, plotted against the number of intervals between coincidences on the X axis. It is obvious that as the number of intervals increases, that is, as the am- plitude of the pendulum decreases, the lenpih of the in- terval decreases. Figure 1. This is a case in which a pendulum a little less than a meter long ran an hour and twenty minutes, starting with an amplitude of 46 mm. and finishing with an ampli- tude of 3.5 mm. During this time the interval between coincidences de- creased from about 197 seconds to about 192 seconds. Which value shall we accept? Neither of them, of course. The period is changing with the amplitude, and we really want the period for an infinitesimal amplitude. How- ever, the interval between coincidences approaches a minimum as the curve approaches a position parallel to the X axis. The curve appears to be nearly horizontal 9 10 n 2 3 4 > .- ee, S ~~ ae _" ig om oer > ee See Se 4 =a — —— tg . c= “ PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 291 at the end of the twenty-fourth interval, but just how much farther it has to run, it would be difficult to say. ) Figure 2 shows the decrement in amplitude for the same set of observations. The two curves are quite similar in character. | | IAA THERA AY ENO : : rT il I} } | In figure 3 they are plotted.on the same scale, and when : the two are placed side by side they are seen to be almost identical. It is obvious that the interval.approaches a minimum as the amplitude approaches zero. That is, when the curves are drawn on the same seale, the minimum on the interval curve may be taken at the X axis on the amph- tude curve. In this case, the amplitude curve is two ei Wek ei! i | | tL | I {¥2 Se : ree ae Le. ee ee Db myqnentennaye Per Vi mm Hl i i i! i i | 292 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE spaces above the X axis at the end of the twenty-fourth interval. Since the two curves are so nearly identical, we may safely assume that the interval curve reaches a minimum two spaces below its position at the end of the twenty-fourth interval. This would be about 191.9 sec- onds, and with no very great uncertainty about the fourth figure. ; Granting the possibility of an error of one or two units of the fourth order, let us see what the effect would be on the period. For an interval of 191.9 seconds, the period is 191.9 divided by 192.9, or, .994816 if carried to the sixth figure. For an interval of 191.8 seconds, the period is 191.8 di- vided by 192.8, or, .994813-++, and likewise for an interval of 191.7 seconds, the period is .994811—. There is, of course, no justification for carrying these results to six figures; but the calculation shows that if the curve can be placed correctly to within one or two, or even to within three or four spaces on the chart, the per- iod is correct to five figures. These results are alike to within considerably less than one part in twenty thousand. Our measurements, then, are sufficiently exact, and we might expect results within one part in ten thousand, if there are no other sources of error. There is, of course, a formula which corrects the per- iod of a pendulum for the amplitude, but who can say what other errors are to be corrected? For example, does the suspension bend exactly at the edge of the clamp which holds it, or does it begin to bend a little farther down? And, if the suspension is very slender, does the weight of the ball stretch the wire more when moving at a higher velocity than when moving at a lower velocity, and if so, how much does that add to the length of the pendulum? These questions are important if the pendulum is swinging through an appreciable are, but they lose their significance entirely when the pendulum is swinging through an infinitesimal are, and therefore, errors aris- ing from such sources are eliminated entirely by the th the jength and the period of the Sate in the hands of our students in Knox Ccllege this method yields | results ranging from 980.2 to 980.4. an : The theoretical value of ‘‘g’’ for Galesburg is 980.26. 294 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE A METHOD OF MAGNIFYING SMALL ANGUE DISPLACEMENTS _ Rates C. Hartsoucs, Inumors WesLtevan UNIVERSITY OUTLINE AND SUMMARY 1. Basic principle is multiple reflection II. Limits of range (a) Theoretical (b) Practieal III. Experimental data and conclusions. SUMMARY By multiple reflection between two parallel mirrors, an incident ray is turned through a magnified angle upon emerging provided one or both of the mirrors are turned slightly. The amount of magnification depends on the number of reflections. Theoretically the limits of opera- tion are much greater than are possible from a prac- tical standpoint, for on account of absorption, the inci- dent ray after many reflections becomes a very weak emergent ray. However, with mirrors of high reflective power, and by taking advantage of moving both mirrors, a magnification of one hundred is easily obtainable. I. BASIC PRINCIPLE IS MULTIPLE REFLECTION The author was confronted with the problem of mea- — suring some very small angular displacements, and de- vised an optical method which he chose to call ‘‘The angleometer’’. A beam of light is reflected back and forth between two parallel aierors as in Figure I. If either or both of the mirrors are turned through a small angle, the emergent ray will be turned through an in- creased angle depending upon the number of reflections of the turning mirror. In Figure I, the illustration shows the short mirror stationary, and the long mirror turning through a small angle. The number of reflections on the movable mirror multiplied by two gives the magnification number. A reflected ray from a mirror is turned through twice the ae ae > Fi gf ; 1G. * 3 é _, as S = / 3 ae = ae oe » > ae 4 . Ma vi a SS angle that the mirror is turned. The magnification is increased by increasing the number of reflections and by turning both mirrors in opposite sense. It is evident that in Figure I if the short mirror had turned an equal o would have increased our magnification. ll. LIMITS OF THE RANGE OF ‘‘ THE ANGLEOMETER’’ The nearer to the perpendicular the incident ray is brought, the greater the number of reflections, and the sorption of the mirror with each reflection, we are limited _ in the number of reflections. With a mirror of 95% re- flective power, and allowing 50 reflections, there would about 10% of the light get through as the emergent ray. _- This is not an impossibility, for with a very intense source and an emerging ray one-tenth the intensity as nf 1 / y 7 Te Ag) RP gh Y my mp Si ‘ a - ‘a a) ns oi “i | : Yap’ amount in the opposite sense to the long mirror, we- & greater the magnification. But on account of the ab-. Mit) Pe hale Sat cel a a A RR Rs ps ee j fd dt sit se 4 Ay . ne i , “ Ata, PAL at: a , Wary. PA ge Na ' § : ait ae Wied rei) fame x ye re J ‘ Pur « a 4 ,* | VV ae tN wey a vA aie hd ’ ie Shh Dial,” af Ry Ap . re th 296 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY, OF SCIENCE the incident ray, it is readable to a good eee ors ace curacy. EXPERIMENTAL DATA AND CONCLUSIONS. Number of moving Angle Angle emergent B reflections mirror moved ray moved —— Nx2 N eA. B A 7 5 0.06° 0.86° 14.3 14 9 0.05° 095° 19.0 18 abe 0.042° 0.93° 22.1 22. By utilizing the optical lever, the emergent ray is converted into a measurable quantity: even with .0001° angular displacement of the moveable mirror, using eleven reflections. By using the two mirrors on moveable systems, an angular displacement of .00005° can be measured. CONCLUSIONS One-fifth of a second of are is measurable with high : precision by this method, and it seems not an improba- : bility to refine it to measure much smaller displacements. <. = PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS . 297 THE VAPOR PRESSURE AND HEAT OF VAPORI- ZATION OF NON-ASSOCIATED LIQUIDS. F. S. Mortmrer, Inurvois Westeyan UNIVERSITY In the application of physico-chemical principles to in- dustrial and manufacturing processes, few questions are of more frequent occurrence than those dealing with dis- tillation problems. The questions take a variety of forms, but most of them may be answered when the vapor pressures of the substances involved are known. Occasionally the desired information may be found in, or calculated directly, from data given in the literature. More commonly this is not the case, and it is then neces- sary either to make the measurements directly or to re- sort to some method of calculation of the required data. Many expressions have been developed for calculating vapor pressures and heats of vaporization, probably the most useful of which is that obtained from the integra- tion of the Clausius-Clapeyron equation. Assuming the gas laws to apply and also assuming that the heat of vaporization is a constant throughout the desired range, and introducing common logarithms, there is obtained the expression: —-L hee Pr — 4.58 T in which P is the vapor pressure and T is the absolute temperature at which P is measured. C is an integra- tion constant, the value of which depends upon the units used. Equation (1) indicates that if the common logarithm of the vapor pressure be plotted against the reciprocal of the absolute temperature, a straight line should re- sult. In view of the rather bold assumptions concerning the applicability of the gas laws and the constancy of the latent heat of vaporization, it is quite remarkable how closely experimental data may be represented by this linear equation throughout relatively wide ranges of temperature. . In equation (1) the term L/4.58 represents the slope of the log P vs 1/T vapor pressure curve. The integra- 4 . nfl PNP Mo, A ae LF iA ie jt ale a¥ ib Meg at Pritt a eS y j te a, 1D Aas frtetty RS, wh ‘ts § eae ti, he ee Ae a LT Oy ee ie 298 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE tion constant, C, is the value which log P would have when the temperature is some hypothetical maximum. Numerically, the value of C, assuming the pressure to be measured in mm. of mercury, varies from about 4.2 for helium to about 11.2 for tungsten. The exact value for any substance may be calculated when the latent heat and the boiling point at some particular pressure are known. The integration constant may be eliminated if the vapor pressures at two different temperatures are known. - Equation (1) may then be transformed into: log P,—logP, fA logP —L ——— —' Slope’ ='S=_ twee eee (2) 1/T, — 1/T, A (1/T) 4.58 Thus it is evident that if the slope of the logarithmic vapor pressure curve be determined, the molecular latent heat of vaporization may be calculated, or vice versa. Having shown that there is a simple expression for vapor pressures involving only two constants, the ques- tion naturally arises, Can these constants be evaluated from existing data? Since the slope of the straight line vapor pressure equation is directly related to the latent heat of vaporization (equation 2), and since the heat of vaporization is closely related to the normal boiling point as shown by the well known rules of Trouton*’, Nernst” and Bingham‘, it is probable that the slope, 8, is a func- tion of the normal boiling point, a constant which is known for many liquids. In order to show the nature of this function we shall make use of the data collected in Table I. The data from which this table was constructed have been taken mainly from the Landolt und Boernstein, ‘‘Physickalisch Chemisch Tabellen’’ and the French Tables. For the vapor pressures of the metals, the most recent deter- minations of Ruff and Bergdahl’ and of Langmuir’ have been consulted as well. The vapor pressures of tungsten and platinum have not been directly determined above the melting point. Langmuir has determined the subli- mation pressures, however, throughout wide ranges of temperatures. The values here given for the vapor pres- sures of these two metals have been calculated from the thermodynamic relations existing between the vapor —_~ " = a eo = =a x. “pr essure and the heats of vaporization, of sublimation and of fusion, in accordance with the principles dis- « ~ cussed i in a later section of this paper. The latent heat x _of fusion of tungsten is not known, but it may be shown - that for most metals the molecular latent heat of fusion, Beespressed i in small calories, is about 2.6 times the AES _ tIute melting temperature. The values used for making A eT ro eee Nye se the calculations for these two substances are, M. Pt. Ht. of Ht. of Ht..of (Abs.) sublimation fusion vaporization SOT SS 2 3540 210,400 9200 201,200 » . Platinum ....... eames. oe eOee 123,500 5300 118,200 Under column 3, Table I, are recorded the slopes of the log P vs 1/T eurves which have been determined from the experimental curves plotted on large scale coordinate paper. Now it is very evident that there is a gradual change in the slopes of the log P vs. 1/T curves as one passes from the stibstances having low normal boiling points to those having higher boiling points. This change is observed readily when the experimental slopes are plotted against the normal boiling points for these substances. The points on this plot lie very close to a line which may be represented by the equation: 2 nL eee te ON, BN ara ae oh « gs Uwe RAS (3) ; b In this equation §S is the caleulated slope and T, the ab- _ solute boiling point of the substance under normal pres- sure. Under (4), Table 1, are given the slopes of the log P vs. 1/T curves calculated from equation (3), and in column 5 the differences between the observed and eal- culated slopes are recorded. It is quite evident, except at the very lowest temperatures where negative results are obtained, that this equation expresses the slope with a high degree of precision. Applied to the high boiling metals, the equation expresses the true slope with re- markable accuracy, the variations being both positive and negative. Indeed it may be said, that at all temperatures above 20° Abs., equation (3) expresses the true slope of Pe pes 999° ~ " hi “4 Jat be . ; oil a 4 Ee yet Nee eA tlt, ee nS coe hae het BY 300 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE TABLE I, (1) EPC) (3) Substance Tb Sobs ET@UR UTE. ta everest aos tie ee ote 4.3 5 p Hay Ororen) (as awe es 20.2 50- INGtrOgen fx ees Cea leer hik.se 314 OSV Rene Ieee ee 90.1 380 IMGtH ANE) =. o8 em ac wale see oe 108.8 440 RHOsphing . cseace foes RY ns) 800 Hydrogen chloride ...... 190.0 900 Hydrogen bromide ...... 205.0 920 Hydrogen sulphide ...... 21155 1000 ELVOTOLen” 1OdiIde! ~ ck cexex. ose 234.0 1150 CHIOKINCs. T ave raroseeece eae 240.0 1080 Hthyl Chloride xiiacs «clos 285-6 1310 Boron, trichloride: ..ies. 3. - 2982 1320 LSODEDEANC > Fscasrelile vers eet 301.0 1400 ICME or tanisie oa states «Ge 308.0 1450 IN=pentane © . 5...) s:aa ders we 308.8 1470 Carbon disulphide........ 319.0 1450 silicon tetrachlome-2s... 2 ees 1580 IDiSODLODY NU sate ee 330.5 1580 TONING 5. cee B aeealeieic ae 331.6 1610 CHLOVvOTGUO “rs. gc cnetctere ake 333.2 1620 INSHORE? SRS. Suter encree tare 341.6 1660 Phosphorous Trichlor:... 346.2 1690 @Carbon- tetrachlor =; s.cc.6. +2 conus 1660 AON ZQIE Ts shicje mierda t wispedercs Boas 1720 Hexamethylene ......... SHB 1720 Flourbenzole 358.0 1750 N—heptane SE RA) 1800 Diisobutyl 382.2 1890 FE OMILOLG: “na hateas oe Pats tao» sens tele 383.4 1880 Stannie (chloride: «2.06 cs. ool a 1890 IN=OCEANCE s Biala jars eine em te eke 398.5 1970 @HilorbenZole oe Sela east css 405.0 1980 Propylene bromide ...... 414.0 2050 IBronitbenZole ~ A 66s seis seers. 428.5 2120 Trimethylene brom....... 4387.4 2190 Benzoic aldehyde ....... 451.3 2320 ToGobenZole. Soy c= scree 461.0 2250 IBECRZOMIUTIICL 45. cis, andietetcnene 463.6 2300 Benzoyl] chlorides .:...>.. — 470.1 2380 INGTETODEIZOl Cen chcreretat enone 485.0 2440 Naphthalene rents ¢ cc's = sus 491.0 2460 Chlornaphthalene ....... 532.3 2675 Acenaphthene 2 %2% <0, s ee = 550.5 2780 Bromnaphthalene ....... 554.0 2800 Phthalic anhydride....... 556.5 2825 HLUVONENC Gis racers eles oce 570.5 2930 Phenanthrene— <.5 0<<.ciea «2s 611.0 3090 PAMUtHTACON Gn cyetetoteie cet lsvers 615.0 3120 CarbaZzole Goose c Wrst slot 624.0 3170 VEER CUNT Var in eieiovale aris pieverettiensts 630.0 3070 Sulphur’ >. Zia okeesr asec oxemcseiens 720.0 3700 (Oh Vobanilbt ile Meteo miok ns SAG on 1057 5750 WANG = sodrac staredacsreter aes ieaialal a 1198 6880 Hrlshae(ese nies Saiicen ice Gan oe 1600 9000 ES TSTAD Ears clove ses cloausionestetonste 1780 10100 CCA cies: aintevche ienarsvouete ccoriere 1830 10200 SUNVErie state siebuerexehe ne tetera 2218 13150 PITA gots eave lok Moe tance agetaterete 2545 16600 CGDDAY ceticrea vee Helos oes 2600 17000 GOVE. orccscc roueteha are ws ols eater 2885 18600 12 ehibayibe, SqeAndoGan Tao ab 4270 25800 EPUNEStEN er eee siayaiticn orators 5280 44000 AAS ees 3 S Cooe Oo de arin 373.0 2160 Hthiyly Alcowol seterenesene re 351.4 2170 124 cVais(0 Qe ete Ao O On es 454.4 2520 IAGELIC ACI pe cieeeieieala nes 392.2 2200 INTE peccotenare tape cate syerezeceneie 456.9 2510 Acetophenone .........e. 474.5 2550 (8) ->--@) (10) - (11) (12) (13) (14) Lea , le : Sobs bce Leale Lobs. 4.23x Scale Trouton Binghan Nernst Tb (13) + 2.881 ae “UT Si een ae meet ete 92.5 73.3 25.83. 1.350 4.231 228 3 35 250 2.475 5.356 CONN IO O10 HP Hm Hm HB fie HP HS He He CO 00 00 100 0 00 0 = CO AAD 1 HD O00 oo see ee se eee see see ee steer eee ee eee ee wee ee we ee et ee ee ep Smee ke +e es mw « See ak @ eS SSeS eae GS te eet ve” — @ = wa eS emia mre le aed ae ee ae DT Sts er 2, ewes) es eine wee See ee Se SSI 4 8 OSS e Hy ~. aie Por «awash Se eee oe be Shae SS de ad fe eat Phi s ease ace Sere 302 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ~ the log P vs 1/T curves for normal liquids with a degree . of precision approaching that often found in the record- ed experimental results. In column 6, Table 1, are given the molecular latent heats of vaporization of some of these liquids. These results have been calorimetrically determined. Column 7 shows the values of the latent heats calculated as shown - in equation (2). These values have been obtained by multiplying the observed slope (column 3) by 4.58. Col- umn 8 shows the ratio of the caleulated to the observed latent heats. It will be observed that in all cases below hydrogen the calculated result is larger than the ob- served. This difference averages about 8%. This, then, is equivalent to changing the constant 4.58 to 4.23. Ac cordingly, a new empirical equation for calculating lat- ent heats of vaporization may be developed by combining equations (2) and (3) and using the constant 4.23 in- stead of 4.58, viz., Ly == 4.23 (— 68.4- 4:877 Th-=— 0005 Th?) pecs 6 ote sisi ethan cv se on, catetomale daar (4) In columns 9, 10, 11 and 12, Table I, are given, first, the latent heats of vaporization caleulated from equation (4), second, from Trouton’s* equation, Ly = 21.5 . Ty :— ee (5) third, from Bingham’s* equation, Ly = (17 + 0111) UP pbs cule ahs ae (6) and fourth, from Nernst’s® equation, Lb, =-(9.5- loge T= 00%-Ts) Ep. oka eee (7) Comparing the results obtained by these various equa- tions with those obtained by direct measurement, it will be observed that at the very lowest temperatures, Nernst’s equation gives the best results. At all other temperatures, except for isolated cases, equation (4) gives as good, if not better, results than any of the others. At high temperatures it is very evident that equation (4) gives much the best results. Nernst’s equation actually goes through a maximum and finally to negative results. The results obtained by Trouton’s rule are also much too low at high temperatures, while those from Bingham’s equation are much too high. Finally, Table I contains the values for the constant, C, in equation (1). In column 13 are given the values of the constant which should be used when the pressure is ee PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 303 to be calculated in atmospheres. This constant is found by dividing the observed slope of the log P vs 1/T curves by the absolute boiling point. By adding the value of the logarithm of 760, which is practically 2,881, to the num- bers given in column 13 there is obtained the value of the constant to be used in order to represent the vapor pres- sure in mm. of mercury. These values are given in column 14. This constant increases as the boiling point of the substance in question increases. In order to show the limitations of this method of eal- culating vapor pressures and heats of evaporation, there are collected at the bottom of Table I the data for some typical associated liquids. In general it may be said that the simpler compounds containing hydroxyl, amino, carbonyl and carboxyl groups and most molten salts will deviate more or less from the general rule for normal liquids. For these classes of liquids there will be needed at least two values of the vapor pressure or one value of the vapor pressure and the latent heat of evaporation in order to write the vapor pressure equation. It should be noted also that the vapor pressures of the more strongly associated substances may not be accurately represented by the straight line equation except through relatively narrow ranges of temperature. Having given a simple expression for the vapor pres- sure of liquids, the question may be asked, Can a similar expression be derived for the sublimation pressure of solids? Happily the answer is that a similar expression exists, and that for many substances the constants may be empirically caleulated from existing data. It has been shown that in the expression, A a Be ay eee eee Cy ere (8) the constants C and S may be calculated for normal liquids from the boiling point alone. In any case they may be calculated from two simultaneous values for log P and T. Now it may be shown that there is an exactly similar expression for sublimation pressure, Viz., ee = Bt a Oe ee De ca wes gees (9) in which P: is the sublimation pressure at the tempera- 4 aa. —. rs. ‘ he eo ar ae — Slerte e we go eee Se ae eee 5 tae Pee, ee = ey Sa oak = oT 8. ek aR he a = = 4 See ‘i - s = ‘ mo ha sagt : “ay, - » og 4 304 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ture T, and Cs and S; are constants having the a enbicince as in equation (8). The constant S; is related to the heat of snblndatien by the expression, SOR Sel ane ALS. <7. sc dtp leach osteo tye, ed cr eis was cs SLE he ee is Pzesasecene (10) Now the latent heat of sublimation is equal to the sum of the heats of fusion and of vaporization, or, Dg A ee eg itn el as, ohn a ty Oe cect ee ees oe (11) Equation (4) furnishes a method for calculating Ly, leaving then only the latent heat of fusion to be obtained. A careful search has revealed the fact that there are relatively very few reliable measurements of the latent heat of fusion recorded in the literature, and almost no data are available for substances melting below 0°. Sev- eral empirical rules for ecaleulating the latent heat of fusion have been proposed. Probably the simplest and most generally useful is that proposed by Walden‘, by which the molecular latent heat of fusion is equal iS the absolute melting point times a constant, or, Le — Tm K o wlerene siete die) ex» eeu oleae ere pel ales e's te 6) Creole. 6 enh ce © + 009) %, © 6th jee eneMeyel mis (12) Walden has shown that the constant K has a value equal to about 13.5 for many organic compounds. This value is, however, too high for many classes of substances After considering all of the available data upon the latent heats of fusion, we have concluded that the following tentative values for Walden’s constant may be used for calculating the latent heats of fusion of these classes of substances here represented. No. of sub- AV. stances Mean deviation investi- value of from Substance. gated. Ls/Tm—K. mean. Metals ay. teas sete. cotcen oe eka cere 18 Bie Aromatic Hydrocarbons......... 10 12. Halogen See % om i Ss ee = PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS There is insufficient data to indicate what would be the __ value of this constant for mixed derivitives, but in gen- eral, it may be said that the higher the molecular weight and the higher the melting point, the larger will the con- stant tend to become in any of the series of compounds investigated. _ Assuming, then, that Le the latent heat of sublimation, is known or may be caleulated from equations (11) and (12) there still remains the constant C: to be determined. This is accomplished readily when it is remembered that, at the melting point, the vapor pressure is equal to the sublimation pressure. Hence, LEE RE SY a oe Ce Se eae ees ees aa (13) from which C: may be calculated. It should be remembered that there is an independent method of calculating the latent heat of fusion of solids from their solubilities and freezing point lowering. In order for this method to yield accurate results, however, the substance chosen as solvent must be one which will form a thermodynamically ideal mixture, or, otherwise _ there must be introduced a faetor which will correct for _ the non-ideality of the given mixture. In a recent paper _ the Author’ has described a method for determining this factor, and hence for finding the latent heat of fusion, for several classes of organic substances. It is probable that the principles there diseussed would apply to other classes of compounds as well, but at present there is too ; little data to enable one to make a comparison. Rs In conclusion, it may be said that, from the principles outlined above, it should be possible to determine the vapor pressures, the sublimation pressures and the heats of vaporization, of sublimation and of fusion for normal substances when only the freezing point and normal boil- ing points are known. SUMMARY Empirical methods for evaluating the constants in the vapor pressure and sublimation pressure equations, log _ P=C,—S,/T and log P=C.—S. /T have been given R and their significance discussed. ie ~~ = investigated. gives very aoa results for fiquide boiling from about 20° 8 Abs. up to those boiling at the highest iehperas so far BIBLIOGRAPHY. = (1) Ruff and Bergdahl, Z. anorg. u. Allg. Chem. 106, 89 (1919). (2) Langmuir, Phys. Rev., 340, (1913) and 384, (1914). (3) Trouton, See Nernst’s Theoretical Chemistry. (4) Bingham, See Nernst’s Theoretical Chemistry. (5) Nernst, See Nernst’s Theoretical Chemistry. (6) Walden, Zeit. fur RS eb 14, 718, (1908). (7) Author. This issue. Contribution from the Chamienl Rete Illinois Wesleyan f University. + hg ees Se ee. 2 ate Dobe ae en ae es - = SOUNDPROOFING IN BUILDINGS F. R. Watson, Untversiry or Itirvots - The demand for quiet rooms in hospitals, hotels, and - office buildings, the desirability of insulating music _ studios and other rooms where disturbing sounds are _ produced, have led to repeated requests from architects and builders for reliable information on effective meth- 4 ods for insulating sound. Although present knowledge of the subject is incomplete, nevertheless, on account of the pressing need for guidance in such matters, it is thought desirable to collect and present the available information in a systematic way, giving the methods and results of various investigations relating to the action of materials on sound, describing practical in- -stallations of soundproofing, and setting forth in ac- cordance with existing knowledge recommendations that may be applied where sound insulation is wanted. This introductory statement in a recent bulletin* on ‘‘Soundproof. Partitions’’ indicates the lack of infor- mation on the subject of soundproofing. The action of sound in a building is much of a mystery to many people. There is a popular belief that wires stretched in an auditorium will be of benefit for faulty acoustics, or, if this fails, that a sounding board over the speaker’s head will remedy matters. Also, concerning sound proofing in buildings, an impression prevails that an effective wall is one containing air spaces. These popular conceptions are not altogether supported by the facts. People who regard the problems with a de- gree of seriousness realize that the action of sound is not a matter of chance, but that the phenomena must accord with scientific laws. In the bulletin mentioned, the results are given of a survey of the subject of sound insulation in buildings from three standpoints,—the theory of the subject, ex- perimental investigations, and practical installations of soundproofing. This information thus collected, while * “Sound-Proof Partitions” Bulletin 127, University of Illinois Engineer- ing Experiment Station. ISTRY AND PHYSICS ~ - 308 ILLINOIS STATE drawn from different sources and apparently unrelated, proved quite concordant and led to conclusions concern- ing effective sound insulation. Two Types of Sound in Buildings—Two types of sound should be considered in the problem of insulation in buildings. One type includes sounds that are gener- ated in the air and that progress through the air to the boundaries of the room; the other is composed of com- pressions generated in the building structure by motors, elevators, and street traffic. Insulation of Sounds in Air—Sounds of moderate in- tensity such as those generated by the human voice or a violin may be stopped with comparative ease if the walls of the room are continuous and fairly rigid. The more vigorous sounds of a cornet, trombone, ete., would require especially heavy walls or else double partitions. Any breaks in the walls for ventilators, pipes, or doors should be guarded by effective insulation. Insulation of Building Vibrations——Compressional waves generated in the building structure pass readily along the continuity of solid materials, and, as they have more paths for escape, are more difficult to insulate than sounds in air. Moreover, they may create trouble when they cause a wall or floor to vibrate. The insulation is based on the same procedure as that used for air sounds; namely, to interpose a new medium differing in elas- ticity and density. An air space in masonry would be effective if not bridged over by solid material, but since this is impossible for ordinary building constructions as the weight of bodies necessitates contact for support, an approximate insulation is sought by using air-filled sub- stances like dry sand, ground cork, hairfelt, or flax, that possess but little rigidity but are capable of sustaining a floor or a partition that is not too heavy. Transmission of Sound.—Sound waves in air may be transmitted through an obstructing medium in three ways. First, they may pass through the air spaces of a porous material. Second, they may be transmitted by modified waves in the new medium. In this process sound compressions and rarefactions progress rapidly thc hadi ie i ie + . — we wi thr rough the air, avi the ‘molecules successively as ~ they pass in Sanewhat the same way as a gust of wind blows the separate stalks in a wheat field. On reaching a solid partition the forward motion is hindered, par- ticularly if the molecules of the new material are mas- _ sive and resist compression. In this case most of the energy is reflected and only a small proportion pro- gresses through the wall. On meeting a further discon- tinuity of material, such as wood or air, the waves are again affected, ae finally a part of the energy emerges. Third, sound may be transmitted by setting a partition as a whole in vibration. The partition then acts as an independent source of waves, setting up compressions and rarefactions on the farther side and giving a sort of fictitious transmission. If the partition is rigid and massive the vibrations are small and very little sound is transmitted; if the partition is thin and flexible a con-— siderable amount of energy is transferred.* Usually in building constructions the partitions are complex, as for example plaster on wood lath and studding. In this case the plaster areas between the studding act in a manner similar to drum heads and transmit sound. Hard plaster on wire lath presents a different surface with a modified action on the incident sound. The transmission of sound involves a number of phe- nomena and is not a simple matter. It depends essen- tially on the character of the structure through which sound is transmitted and ean be calculated only for sim- ple cases of homogenous materials of known constants. The systematic survey of the subject of soundproof- ing as given in the Bulletin leads to several practical Saaaictatrern. Ventilation System.—KHEspecial inenean should he paid to the ventilation system. All effective soundproof constructions either omit entirely a ventilation system or else construct it in some special manner to avoid transmission of sound. In some buildings air is sup- * Rayleigh. Lord. “Theory of Sound”, Vol. 2. Sections 270-272, see also: Jager, G. “Zue Theories des Nachhalls”, Sitzungber. der Kaisl. Akad. der Wissenschaften in Wien. Math. Natur. Klasse, Bd. CXX, Abt. 2a, 1911. plied and withdrawn from rooms by individual pipes that B are smali in diameter and extend without break from ~ the air supply chamber to the rooms. This results in considerable friction between the walls of the pipes and the air, with a resultant weakening of the sound waves. Without some efficient control of the transference of sound through the ventilation system, it is a waste of effort to construct soundproof walls, double doors, and other contrivances for insulation. Soundproof Partitions—Partitions between rooms should be as rigid and free from air passages as possible. For effective soundproofing of a group of rooms, the partitions, floors, and ceilings between adjacent rooms should be made continuous and rigid. Any necessary openings for pipes, ventilators, doors, and windows should be placed in outside or corridor walls where a leakage of sound will be less objectionable. Absorption of Sound.—The absorption of sound is an essential feature for soundproofing. Reflecting sound and seattering it still leaves it with energy. It must be absorbed; that is, converted into heat energy by friction, before it is eliminated as sound. This means that ecar- pets, furniture, draperies, etc., should be present, or if greater absorption is desired, hairfelt or similar mater- ials must be installed. Soundproofing a Building.—*When soundproofing a building, all details should be considered with respect to the likelihood of transmission of sound. Hach room, as far as possible, should be made an insulated unit by means of air spaces or air-filled materials that separate it from surrounding walls. Pipes and ventilators should be so installed as to minimize the chance of transfer of sound. Patent doors are now available that will close the door space at top, sides and bottom. In ease a troublesome sound is generated in the room, it may be minimized by installing absorbing material on the walls. The insulation of sound is a complex problem, and a successful solution is obtained only when all the possibili- ties of transfer of sound are anticipated and guarded * “Soundproofing a Building’, Architectural Forum, November, 1921. See ee a Tae ee eee ee ee Ree — ainst. “While many cage may be learned foun ii further experience and much may be gained from addi- | t tional theory, enough has been revealed to give en- r souragement to the belief that soundproofing may be eee in the future with some of the certainty that - now attends the acoustic design of auditoriums. 312 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE A SIMPLE DEVICE FOR THE ANALYSIS OF SOUND WAVES C. J. Lapp, University or Ita1nors This sensitive device was designed while research was being done on the wave form of the sound emitted by C. T. Knipp’s singing tube. The principle used is similar to the one employed by D. C. Miller in his phono- deik. The optical reflecting system, however, was en- tirely different, being at the same time much simpler. The diaphragm of dermatype paper was stretched over a two inch circular opening in a brass plate, 0.159 em. in thickness, and held in place by a flat brass ring of the same thickness screwed to the plate. To the center of the diaphragm were attached perpendicularly four or five silk fibers, the other end of which was held by a very fine conical aperiodic spring. Across the dia- phragm, 0.476 cm. above and parallel to it, was very tightly stretched one strand of a three strand silk thread. This was passed 0.154 em. from the perpendicular fibers. A small mirror, 0.0435 cm. in width and 0.154 cm. long, was mounted with its plane parallel to the diaphragm between the horizontal silk strand and the vertical silk fibers. When a sound wave was caught by the dia- phragm the mirror vibrated with it around the horizon- tal silk strand, causing a beam of light to vibrate and trace out the sound wave form on a moving photographic plate. F’. A. Schultze* has shown that paper is aperiodic and that a paper diaphragm is sensitive to sounds of any wave length. The dermatype paper used was taken from dermatype stencils manufactured for the HEdison-Dick mimeograph. This paper is flexible, and very strong. In the diaphragm mounting the author has incorpor- ated some new features which are shown in Figs. 1 and 2. No horn or resonating device of any sort was used in any of the work to increase the intensity of the sound brought to the diaphragm. Professor Foley, of Indi- ana University, read a paper before the St. Louis meet- * Annalden d. Physik IV, Folge, Vol. 24, p. 75, 1907. ——————<_ © 2.42 Vee rr. Figure 1. ae ing of the heron Physical Society i in December, 1919, MZ Poses ’ in which he clearly demonstrated the distorting affects 2 of bent tubes and straignt horns on sound waves. Al- ~ _ though this diaphragm mounting was designed before “) Professor Foley’s paper was read, the author was very _ eareful in the designing to avoid air pockets of any sort. The inertia of the movitig parts of the mounting is _ probably smaller than that of any diaphragm mounting heretofore used in sound-wave analysis. The only masses involved are, the mass of three or four silk fibers 3 em. long, the mass of the mirror 0.154 em. long, 0.0435 em. wide and of microscopic thickness, and the mass of the small specks of shellac used to mount the mirror. The spring used was made by winding No. 40 steel wire on a brass cone of small dimensions. The period of any Are Lemp \ feng fecal Lensih Lens / Braptrag re CS ylaencel lens Menag Plate Figure 2. spring is a function of its diameter and the elasticity > of the material used. The diameter of each turn of wire was different from that of any other; therefore each turn had a different period and the spring as a whole was aperiodic. While in use a small tuft of cotton was placed inside the spring to damp out sidewise vibrations. The other details of the set-up may be seen easily from the diagram, Fig. 2. This device was found to be very sensitive as is demonstrated by the photographs taken with it in Fig. 3. This is a series of curves taken to show that the diaphragm as used was sensitive to even the faintest overtones. Wave A is the sound wave of an open organ pipe. Several overtones can be found in the wave. Wave B represents the sound wave produced by two tubes sounding together, no resonator being used Sy SS Pah ae PES See ae pe ane eee ea ee eae 314 "ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE > ee on either tube. This wave demonstrates the ease with which the dermatype diaphragm followed a complex wave form. At least six wave forms can be traced in this curve. Waves CO, D, and E were taken by C. T. Knipp during the author’s absence. In C, the two L-form tubes used were adjusted to each, giving its maximum tone with a resonator attached. A slight adjustment of either gave any desired beat frequency. This curve is exceedingly clear cut and bears a critical study under a glass. For each tube the energy was being supplied by one burner; hence the components of the wave should be nearly pure sine waves. Ununiform motion of the film makes the beats appear to be of different sizes. In D the same two tubes were adjusted to nearly unison, giving six or seven beats per second. The other conditions were the same asin C. In E there was superimposed upon D the tone emitted by a high pitch organ pipe blown to sound its fundamental. The film was moving some faster, other- wise the conditions were the same. Wave F was taken from three open organ pipes sounding together. The pipes ranged from a very low to a very high pitch, and were being blown with considerable pressure so as to produce overtones in each one. This is not a hap-hazard curve as it appears at first sight, but rather an ordered succession of a single configuration, three of which ap- pear on the photograph. Wave G represents a note from a French horn. The wave forms represented in B, H, F and G should remove from the minds of even the most skeptical any doubt as to the sensitivity of the dia- phragm. The author wishes to express his thanks to Professor C. T. Knipp for his encouragement and assistance in this work, and to Professor A. P. Carman for the facilities of the department. Laboratory of Physics University of Illinois January, 1922 7 in, oe Ve —_— Lad HY yyy \!| i Hy a ly al | in Mey Ad A a Wy a Ae a fe eA . Raaanl rs D 3 Le ei yi Pip E PIA IR PAy ie ; , ‘ “¥y yi Prey Y | | is pe i 7 ” 1} : ee i : F : i, ; it , " H i PY i Figure 3. or > hE 2 gs Z : 4 ‘ eek an a5 ¢ a» te ; iy 25 ae ws % ~ Shag Per Pag See ines = a . or ~ ,, 5 PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS st i = & ia s. 5 == = 3000-VOLT LEAD PLATE SHOP-MADE STORAGE BATTERY—ITS CONSTRUCTION AND CHARGING CHARACTERISTICS C. T. Kyrep anv R. J. Ruepy, University or Intrvois -In the modern well equipped physics laboratory, whether in secondary school or university, sources of direct high electromotive forces are becoming increas- “ingly more important. It is not the object of this paper to enumerate the uses of such potentials, but rather to describe in some detail a battery of 3000 volts that was built during the past winter by one of the writers and which is now in commission and is giving excellent serv- ice. This battery is a shop-made one, meaning thereby that the complete installation, i. e., the lead plates, multi- ple switches for charging and discharging, binding posts, and the cupboard in which the cells are assembled, was made in our physics shop. The 1500 test tubes necessary were especially blown by the Central Scientific Company, Chicago. The cells are grouped in trays of 20 each, and thus each tray has a potential, when fully charged, of 40 volts. The trays are constructed of wood, and in appearance are similar to a test tube rack as may be seen in Fig. 1. Each tray was boiled in paraffine for 15 to 20 minutes. After cooling it was dipped again in paraffine so as to thor- oughly protect the wood from the acid, and also to im- prove the insulation. sa ORY igs a {a 419. L° Tray of 20 jest Tobe Cells Connected in Series ry WMAAAAMH_W HE WAKE. ie 316 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Each individual cell consists of a glass test tube, 1 to 114 inches in diameter, and 5 to 6 inches long, in which are placed two strips of sheet lead and a quantity of di- lute sulphuric acid. To protect the electrolyte from evaporation it is covered with a thin layer of oil which also tends to prevent the acid from being thrown off in spray while charging the battery. A general idea of the wooden tray and assembled cells may be obtained from Fig. 1. The purpose of the two auxiliary tubes,*next to — the binding posts and filled with oil, is to prevent the acid from creeping. The oil also protects the soldered joints. The plates were made of sheet lead 1/8 inch thick. Af- ter cutting it into strips of the desired width, they were run through two corrugated rollers, giving them some- what more surface, and also providing recesses to hold the active material formed in charging. These strips were then cut into the desired length, each length provid- ing two plates when bent into shape. The strip thus bent was placed astride two cells, one plate forming the posi- tive electrode and the other the negative of the adjacent eell. The lead plates being heavy, but little warping will result; hence no separators are necessary. The manner of putting the cells together is clearly shown in the figure. The time required for the forma- tion of the lead plates may be considerably shortened by treating them before assembling in strong nitric acid for from four to six hours. The plates were then rinsed in water and placed in position. Dilute sulphuric acid of density 1.25 to 1.30 was used as the electrolyte, and a pro- tecting film of oil was placed over it. The cells thus as- sembled were allowed to stand for several days before beginning to charge them. During this interval a coat of lead peroxide formed on the plates. In the formation of the plates, a small current (about 1/10 of an ampere) was sent through each eell. Larger currents caused excessive bubbling, which is objection- able since it tends to prevent the formation of active ma- terial on the plates. The charging was allowed to con- tinue until they were all gassing freely, which required about 8 hours. a 2 eells discharged through a resistance at a rate about PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS ‘The charging source was then disconnected, and the equal to that of charging. After they were discharged _ the cells were allowed to stand for a day and then charged as before, but now in the opposite direction, forming lead ‘peroxide on the plate which had previously been negative. When the cells were again gassing freely the same pro- cedure as before was followed in discharging them. The above cycle was then repeated until they seemed to have reached their maximum capacity. About 15 such cycles se dian! hie‘ el > ts AS De Ne ee See ae ea Series Connector Jo Negative Terminals Te Negative Side Chergng > Je Positive Terminals Paralle/ Connecter fer Charging MULTIPLE SWITCH Figure 2. were required, after which they were charged and dis- charged a few times without reversing the polarity, and after a final charge were put into use. In charging the cells the trays containing them were always placed in parallel; thus the charging voltage necessary was but little in excess of that of each tray. Since there are twenty cells in each tray the charging voltage need not exceed 45 volts. However, to obtain a high voltage on discharge when using them the trays must be connected in series. Thus five trays when fully charged give when connected in series 200 volts. eo Cnraes ee coy 4 pis us (Cpl ge ee he Y teens Sam er "Es ae (eo iA T% 318 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE To facilitate the changing of connections a multiple switch was constructed (Fig. 2) which accommodates 5 trays, the number assembled on each shelf of the cup- board. The terminals of each tray are brought to a pair of mercury cups, as indicated in Fig. 2. The positive terminals are connected to the front row of cups, and the negative to the back row. ‘The leads from the charg- ing source are connected to the two end cups as shown. Two types of connectors are used which consist of copper or brass legs attached to a block of hard rubber. The legs are arranged to set in mercury cups. The one type has all of the legs on the front side connected together, and likewise on the back so that.when it is inserted the trays are all connected in parallel,—positive all together on the front and negative on the back. The other type has the legs connected across diagonally so that when the connector is in place the positive terminal of one tray is connected to the negative terminal of the next and so on. One multiple switch is provided for each shelf of five trays. In order to connect the different shelves together in series diagonal cross wires are used. These wires show in Fig. 3. The particular’ installation which is the subject of this paper, consists of 1500 cells, or 75 individual trays as- sembled in three tiers of 25 trays each. The total po- tential when all are in series and fully charged is 3000 volts. In order to reduce any leakage to a minimum value, the five trays on each shelf are supported on an individual paraffined shelf which in turn is supported by four porcelain insulators. In this way each 200 volts is thoroughly insulated from the cabinet as a whole. An idea of this method of assembling may be obtained from Pies3, In building such a battery, it is, of course, not essential that the cells be grouped as described. Almost any num- ber of individual cells may be incorporated in one tray, but it seems that for maximum convenience twenty cells to a tray is about the right number, for if more are added the tray becomes large and heavy. ‘ = : | eee we 72° “4 - | [efatata a b _oerg. bateana z ra — & 4 : -_---- = — cdbunasas tee ee y ‘The catrent pais er he a battery 4 is raeeally very == 5 low. It should be used primarily for potentials only, or | _ for very small currents of the order of a few milliam- - peres. The cells will, however, deliver about 1/10 am- pere, but for a short time only, the voltage soon dropping off. Cells constructed of sheet lead and formed as these _ should be charged regularly once per week whether they = are used or not. For convenient charging the trays = should be mounted in a cupboard as described, wheres _ the individual trays may be returned for charging. If preferred the cupboard may be replaced by three cabi- nets of 1000 volts each mounted on rubber tired castors, thus making the battery available in different rooms. a University of Illinois —— Laboratory of Physics April, 1922 Phy ete, i ioe. CIEN' 320° - TLLINOIS STATE ACADEM DEMONSTRATION OF THE WIND IN THE CORONA DISCHARGE Jakos Kunz, University of ILurois ‘The characteristic pressure increase observed in the corona discharge can be explained by the assumption that the positive ions arising from the luminous layer surrounding the positive wire transmit their momentum to the gas molecules, according to the principle: ne EH ‘ 3 7 p dt—dp2nr.* It was found that the-mobility of the posi- bs ee dee P . tive ions in various gases is remarkably low, and there- , 3 fore the pressure increase rather high, amounting in several experiments to 2 and 3 em. of water. If the a corona discharge takes place in an open gas between parallel wires, then we observe the mechanical momen- tum as a wind away from the positive wire, whereas in a closed cylinder the wind makes itself felt as pressure increase. The experimental arrangement was very simple. ‘T'wo wires of 0.12 mm. diameter, 30 cm. long, and 3 cm. apart, oe were stretched between two hard rubber plates and a & potential difference was applied from 0 volts up to ry 18000 volts from a battery of dynamo machines. In a wash bottle was put a small quantity of ether, so that no bubbles were formed by the slow stream of air which was driven through the bottle, carrying ether vapors with it. This stream of air and ether vapor passed through a stop cock, a glass sphere of 10 cm. diameter, and escaped through a capillary of about 1 mm. opening into the air between the parallel wires, forming a beauti- ful regular jet of arbitrary length. This jet between the wires was projected by means of an are without lenses ona screen. The distance between the are and the wires was about 1.5 m., and this was also the distance between the wires and the screen. When a potential difference of 15000 volts was applied no deflection of the jet could be observed; there was, however, a small deflection for a potential difference a * On the Pressure in the Corona Discharge. Phys. Rev., Vol. 19, p. G52 el o228 Fig.3- Jet 2 crn ir trot oF Platie of Wiles. Figure 2 little below the critical difference for which the positive = 3 corona became visible. As soon as the corona appeared in the form of a uniform layer of weak light surrounding the positive wire, then the deflection of the jet of ether was very marked, as indicated in the following photo-~ graphic picture and in the drawings made on the screen directly. The deflection could be varied at will by chang- ing the air current through the ether, or the potential dif- ference across the wires. The two variables could easily be adjusted so that the originally vertical jet was di- rected at right angles and passed a long distance beyond the negative wire. The largest deflections were obtained when the capillary was set between the two wires about 5 mm. away from the positive wire. See Fig. 1. But even when the capillary was placed behind the negative wire or in front of the positive wire, a marked deflection was obtained, as can be seen from Fig. 2. Finally, if the capillary was placed about 2 em. outside the vertical plane containing the wires, a considerable deflection was observed as indicated by Fig. 3. These 3 figures indicate the strong wind blowing from the positive to the negative wire. Instead of ether a jet of ammonium chloride or of water vapor can also be used. The water vapor jet ap- peared darker with the corona discharge than without it, indicating the condensation of water vapor around the ions. In the photographic picture the corona took place between a positive wire of 0.3 mm. diameter and a nega- tive wire of 1.25 mm. diameter. It was observed that when the potential difference was applied in the first in- stant the positive wire. was surrounded by diffused streamers of light, which disappeared suddenly, giving rise to the uniform positive layer of light. This observa- tion may help to explain the beginning of the corona. at if Figure 4. a wean of ee ie ill et ee «ee i - eee ae ee gee ee "PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND Sie Tn Sa aa THE ADSORPTION OF HYDROGEN IONS BY CHARCOAL (Abstract from original paper.) J. J. Jenxs, Srare Teacuers Corztece, DeK ars INTRODUCTION that the ions of an electrolyte are adsorbed by certain precipitates and the similarity of this adsorption of gases by charcoal has been pointed out. | W. Mansfield Clark in ‘‘The Determination of the Hy- drogen Ion’’ (Page 34) mentions the work of Bovie as showing the adsorption of both hydrogen and hydroxyl ions by charcoal, when present during an electrometric titration. Bovie (J. Med. Research 295-317-1915) found that the presence of .5g of Kahlbaum’s animal charcoal in a 0.01-N solution of alkali strongly depressed _ the hydroxyl ions concentration and prevented also the appearance of hydrogen when the solution is titrated with .01-N HCl, the usual symmetrical curve being mark- edly flattened out on both sides, with the vertical rise which marks the end point entirely obliterated. Bovie points out the similarity of the effect to that ob- tained in a true ‘‘buffer’’ solution, but attributes the buffer effect to adsorption of both hydrogen and py dresys ions by the charcoal. Two objections to this interpretation of Bovie’s ex- perimental curve may be noted. In the first place it is not common to find both hydrogen and hydroxyl ions _equally adsorbed; usually adsorption of hydrogen ions is much more marked. In the second place, Bovie did not take into account the possibility of salts contained within the charcoal, in spite of the fact that animal or bone charcoal almost certainly contains calcium phos- phates which are among the most effective buffers. (See A. H. Clark, Masters Thesis, U. of C. 1920, Pages 19-23, 58-65. ) This research was therefore undertaken to investigate this factor and to determine whether pure charcoal shows It is a well established principle of colloid chemistry | 324 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE a similar buffer action. The results show that the ap- parent buffer effect produced by animal charcoal is prob- ably caused by chemical action of the alkali or acid added upon the adsorbed gases and salts contained as impuri- ties in the charcoal, rather than by any true adsorption by the charcoal itself. Obviously most animal charcoal contains small quantities of impurities such as phos- phates, carbonates, tartrates and oxalates together with ‘some salts of calcium, sodium, or potassium and also adsorbed gases such as carbon dioxide and hydrogen sul- fide. ; To test their effects, titrations were made with the various grades of commercial charcoal obtainable, and with charcoal made from pure cane sugar and containing no mineral salts. The results obtained in these titrations are plotted as curves on which the conclusions are based. The titrations were made with a simple titration ap- paratus devised in the laboratory and similar to one de- seribed in Central Scientific Co. Bulletin No. 86. This method of titrations is especially suited for the purpose, because it indicates the actual hydrogen ion concentra- tion at all times and also gives the neutralization point. Furthermore, the charcoal suspensions are so black that indicator changes could not be clearly marked. EXPERIMENTS The first experiment was made with a sample of com- mercial animal charcoal bought on the market, the titra- tion being made with N/20 sodium hydroxide and N/20 HCl. Curve I, Plate I, represents the normal curve for this alkali and acid. A second titration was then made by first running in 25ce. of the alkali, then adding one gram of the charcoal. No change was observed in the voltage or Ph. reading upon the addition of the charcoal, but as the titration was carried out the curve (curve II) follows the normal until near the neutral point; then instead of showing an abrupt drop it is straightened out, indicating the elimina- tion of the hydrogen ions of the acid by adsorption or by the action of some substance which interacts with the he ef fh en all A fig bY ak ts al ig Mila > | ee J 7 _ acid. Even the addition of a large excess of the acid wo ee ee ee Tee we? eee ee. ee >» aa ~ ee ab lt os digi * ot a. ™ orn S40 Sar we! as —- 2 : PHYSICS - - PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY. ~ brings the Ph. value down to slightly below the neutral point. The experiment was then repeated, using oxalic acid instead of the hydrochloric, with practically the same re- sults. These curves are quite different from that of Bovie, as his curve is affected on both sides of the neutral point. - That is, his curve is lowered much below the normal curve before reaching the neutral point, while the curve for this charcoal is only affected on the acid side of the line. Plate L If adsorption is the cause of the effect, there is here no evidence of the adsorption of the hydroxy] ions. On the other hand the results could have been due to the presence of alkaline buffer salts in the charcoal. These titrations were then reversed, starting with the acid, taking the voltage of Ph. reading, then adding the charcoal and completing the titration with the alkali. On adding the charcoal to the acid a sudden rise in the Ph. reading was noted, the concentration of the hydro- - gen ions being reduced nearly to the neutral point. That alkaline reactions are responsible is indicated by the fact that neutralization was complete at about 10 ee. while in the normal curve 25ce. were required. If oOrFPNU RUDI WOS 326 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE adsorption were involved, the active concentration of ions might have been reduced, but the same amount of alkali should have been required to neutralize the acid. There is here again no evidence of the adsorption of hydroxyl ions. (Curve IV, Plate III, shows this curve.) Upon examination of this charcoal it was found to be very impure, containing considerable ash, and when treated with hot HCl it gave off carbon dioxide, hydro- gen sulfide, and probably other gases. The presence of sulfides and carbonates as well as phosphates in the ash would allow an interaction with the hydrogen ions to eause the effect noted. CeNnaoH 5 10 Plate III. A sample was then boiled with strong hydrochlorie acid washed with boiling distilled water and then heated to drive off the adsorbed gases, and a titration was made using one gram of this treated charcoal. The curve is much straighter, the charcoal has no immediate effect, and the curve shows a gradual rise from acid to alkali with no abrupt rise at the neutral point. (Curve IV). This is similar to Bovie’s, and seems to show the consumption of both hydrogen and hydroxyl ions. The sample, however, was still very impure, as on burning there was considerable ash present. ~ ‘ar ia Flo ee HEMISTRY AND PHYSICS =. 327” -~ PAPERS ON C = = Pee - a oe Sus at - Pai - ¢ a. - - rs 0S ae © nes st £ a.) =) 7) Zz a. = The boiling with acid neutralized the alkaline salts co present but evidently did not remove all the impurities, a and neutral buffer salts may still have been present. x A sample of ‘‘Norit’’ purified charcoal was then tried cae in the same way. This gave a very similar curve tothe = commercial grade that had been treated with aeid, ex- = cept that the curve was slightly lower. This sample i: was also found to contain considerable ash and was quite 7 impure. (Curve IT). — A cample of ‘‘Norit’’ purified charcoal was then tried 7 found to give about the same results as the previous 173 commercial charcoal; however, when tried with oxalic é acid instead of rising gradually after neutralization, as + __with the HCl, upon adding the alkali the first 5 ce. gave = ) a sudden rise, then the curve is held to almost a hori- Gontal tine -which-éould only be raised slightly by an ; excess of alkali. A large quantity of alkaline material a q was shown to be present since so little alkali was neces- ; sary for neutralization. (Curve V). On the other hand, the failure of the hydroxy] ions to BS show up may be due to the presence of neutral buffer = salts. This curve is also shown on Plate III, Curve V. 2 Samples of ‘‘Super-Filchar’’, both Pharmaceutical —- and Sugar grades, were tried with results similar to those of the other purified charcoals with the exception of their being slightly acid in their reactions. 4 Both samples contained considerable ash, showing a them to contain salts of some kind. Acids stronger than the N/20 were then tried with te the different charcoals. Here it was found that instead of a gradual rise in the curve as with the weaker acids, a the eurve remained horizontal until near the neutral _ point, then rose abruptly in a vertical line to nearly the full concentration of the hydroxy] ion, similar to that for the acid and alkali alone. This action is similar to that of other buffer solutions, ge such as acetates, and phosphates which do not give a en buffer effect with strong acids, and gives rise to the theory that the different reactions caused by the various Oe Oty Se a ed Se ee en A 5 fe ie a ee ee Pee a SOR ee oe Le REA ee pe Ae LN NS ay ER aE agen St eRe 3 eR ite (Ota ar ‘ ¥ ie we ant F. \o not sane 328 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE | charcoals are caused by the adsorbed salts and gases rather than by the charcoal. CANE SUGAR CHARCOAL To prove the theory some charcoal containing no me- talic salts was prepared from pure cane sugar, and a two gram sample tried with N/20 sodium hydroxide and ti- trated with N/20 hydrochloric acid (curve represented on plate VII). This shows no depression of the curve at either end or adsorption of ions, but does show the presence of acids, as the neutral point is reached with about five ec. less acid than when no carbon is used. However, after numerous successive washings with boil- ing distilled water the curve was made to nearly follow the normal curve. Although it was practically impos- P, bi a oN OrPNUPHPUMDA@WOBE Plate VII. sible to remove all the adsorbed organic acids from the charcoal by this method, the results of the successive washings show that the change in curve was due to im- purities rather than to the charcoal. To check the work of Bovie a sample of this sugar charcoal was also titrated with solutions of N/100 acid and alkali, and it was found that the sugar charcoal fol- lows the normal curve of the acid and alkali. Samples of the other so-called purified charcoals gave curves very similar to that obtained by Bovie. ae ee ee a 7, — ee qa PSP eee? ee oo ele se -w? ron % PAPERS. ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 329 CONCLUSIONS A. H. Clarke defines a ‘‘Buffer’’, or regulator, as any ‘substance which tends to preserve the original hydrogen- ion concentration of its solution upon addition of acid or base, and states that the hydrogen ion concentration of a buffer solution depends upon the disassociation of the acid and base formed by hydrolysis of the salt used. This could not well be caused by pure carbon. EK. W. Washburn (Jour. Am. Chem. Soe. 30-31-46, 1908) states that a solution will automatically keep itself at any desired hydrogen concentration even though small quan- tities of acid or base be added to it, provided it contains something which will remove both hydrogen and hydroxyl ions when acid or alkali are added to the solution, and states that a solution which contains the salt of a weak acid or base together with an access of the acid or base has the property of automatically maintaining itself at practically constant concentration. He gives a list of acids, including NaH.PO., H.CO:, and bases including Na-H PO., NaHCO, which will do this. These are the common ‘‘buffers’’. Charcoal prepared from animal matter, wood, nut shells, or other sources will naturally contain some of these salts together with some adsorbed gases, which cannot be removed by the ordinary methods of purifica- ‘tion, owing to the great adsorbant: power of the charcoal, and are therefore present in varying quantities in most animal charcoals, which upon addition of the weaker acids or bases will hydrolize to give the buffer effect ob- served. From the fact that we are unable to obtain this buffer effect from charcoal made from sources containing no mineral salts, we are led to believe that the removal of ions obtained from the commercial grades was caused by _ such impurities and not by the pure carbon. The differences between the various commercial char- coals may be readily noted from the curves. The writer wishes to express his appreciation of the help and criticism of Dr. G. L. Wendt, in the preparation of this paper. oS {Ne “A MSA 7 ech Wile “ asient nad ne SENAY. os ays ie 2 LP, ae ies AE OT» = peas ; yo Bet. .' gee” We, Bel a Not die) 330 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE | A METHOD OF DETERMINATION OF DIELEC- TRIC CONSTANTS | A. P. Carman anp G. T. Lorance, Untverstry or ILurinois Use has been made of the arrangement of oscillating currents described by J. J. Dowling in his article on ‘‘The Recording Ultra-Micrometer’’ in London ‘‘ Engineering”’ for September 30, 1921. In this method the variation of the anode current of an oscillating electric valve is meas- ured by a sensitive galvanometer and a curve is drawn showing the relation between the variation of this current and the change in the capacity in the circuit. A part of this curve is practically a straight line, so that a small change of capacity due to a change of dielectric in a condenser can be read off directly from the curve. We | have been able to show the difference in capacity in an air condenser produced by exhausting the air; that is, the method is capable of measuring the dielectric constants of gases. It is proposed to measure the effect of pressure on the dielectric constants of gases, the constants of va- rious solid and liquid dielectrics, and the effects of va- rious changes in the dielectrics. Laboratory of Physics . University of Illinois March 30, 1922 — eee a ee ee Pe OO RP Ee eT eS ee eee eae eee ty ee P ? ’ i aL) y e *» \ 4 Te = pene iat =A ee) Tea TO ee a Pe ke. oi rae Se Se Per ee ge ey —— a teks as ‘ as Pont ee pa ~~ ae os" ee ue Ps ; =a: 7 ies st tg Sn ta a ~~ * nie — _ PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS THE EFFECT OF SHORT ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES ON A BEAM OF CATHODE RAYS C. J. Lapp, Untversiry oF ILuinois SYNOPSIS Much has been written concerning discontinuous wave fronts of electromagnetic radiation. Sir J. J. Thomson and A. Einstein have definitely developed such theories. As an experimental test, apparatus’ was devised by means of which electrons were projected through a com- pact beam of radiation, such as ultra violet light or X- Rays. In order to magnify any possible effect the elec- tron beam was twisted into a long spiral of about 3 em. pitch and 1.5 cm. mean diameter, by means of a strong magnetic field. The helical beam thus formed was about 70 em. long, and the path of each individual electron much longer. If the electron beam was permitted to fall on a photographic plate, traces made on the plate when the radiation was turned off should be different from those made when the radiation was present if any effect oc- eurred. The results recorded photographically may be summarized as follows: 1. When a strong beam of radiation of wave lengths from 8000 to 1300 Angstrom units fell across a stream of rapidly moving electrons, there were indications of a slight decrease in the velocity of the electrons. This effect, however, was smaller than the errors of measure- ment. 2. With the above radiation wave lengths the evidence is very strong that there was a scattering of the electrons in the beam. 3. When hard X-rays were used instead of the radia- tion given in 1, there was a distinct decrease in the ve- locity of the moving electrons, as is shown by the decrease in the diameter of the electron trace. 4. It was also found that X-rays caused a decided scattering of the electrons in the beam. . J. Thomson, “Electricity and Matter”, Ch. 3, pp. 53-70; Phil. Mag. Vv. a3é, 7 (1910). 332 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE INTRODUCTION Some years ago J. J. Thomson advanced a theory of light which had properties characteristic of both the emis- sion theory and the usual form of the undulatory theory. While lecturing in 1911, he proposed as an experimental test to the theory that if a stream of electrons had a strong beam of light thrown directly across their path slight deflections of the electrons might be expected. C. T. Knipp,’ who was a student with Thomson at the time, saw the possibilities of such a research and soon after his return to Illinois attempted the experiment. He used a cathode beam twisted into a spiral, by means of a mag- netic field, which fell on a photographic plate leaving a trace in the form of a circle. Although much work was done at that time by Knipp and later by O. A. Randolph (1912), and also by C. F. Hill (1915), yet the difficulties of obtaining high vacua, together with the great mechanical complications, prevented conclusive results from being obtained. Owing to the fact that since that time some prominent physicists? have modified their views concerning the electromagnetic theory of light* and much has been writ- ten concerning non-continuous electromagnetic wave fronts, it was thought that it might be profitable with the modern methods of producing high vacua to carry for- ward the experiment. To that end the old apparatus was redesigned and entirely rebuilt in an attempt to deter- _- mine whether or not electromagnetic radiation has an effect on rapidly moving electrons when thrown across their path. DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS The general arrangement of the apparatus is shown in Fig. 1. The electron discharge chamber was con- structed from a cylindrical glass jar 9.2 em. in diameter and 76 em. long, inside measurements. A powerful mag- 1. C. T. Knipp, Phys. Rev., Vol. 34, 2. H. Bateman, Phil. Mag., Vol. 250, = “408 (1917) : A. Hinstein, Phys. Zeitschr., V. 18, p. 121, (1917). 3 ij Kunz, Phys. Rev., 2d Ser., , p. 464; J. J. Thomson, Froc. Camb. Phil. Soc., {depot Presidential Kaadiess Brit. Assoc., Winnipeg (1909), Phil. Mag., Nae (1910), Oct. (1913); H. S. Allen, Phil. ‘Mag., Oct. (1921), p. 523. Aw, oe, ae te ae eae ee napa he mas 4 ? > Sey roe aE OP. SST Rees eS, ee: PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 333 netic field was produced by an electric current flowing through a solenoid on the outside of the chamber. The electrons were obtained from a microscopic spot of oxide deposited on a platinum strip.t When the magnetic field was on, and the electrons were projected at an angle with the axis of the tube, they were twisted into a spiral klingettus Cel lle KDE. Solenoid Circurt Ss We ---!|i r | Electron Spiral 4 =o aA | shutter Circuit Zorelts Fig. 1. General Arrangement of Apparatus. which struck on a photographic plate at the opposite end of the discharge chamber. The radiation used in the experiment was admitted just in front of the cathode through a side tube with a quartz window and thrown directly across the path of i. -C. J. Lapp; Trans. Ill. Acad. Sci., V. 14, p. 305. vf We iki Win tangs (us ois aN le ee eer NT y 7) " ’ oe », : bs ore et ify cuts way / PO Ee OF R IS ee rw Oe. COM eee t ee, Ni bee oe hae te oe be se ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE the moving electrons. Two sources of radiation were used,—a ninety degrees carbon are, and a Coolidge X-Ray tube. They were placed about 40 em. from the beam of electrons upon which the radiation was to fall. The X-Ray tube used was the universal type Coolidge — tube with a broad focal spot. This was excited by a Klingelfuss induction coil with a six-inch spark gap. The electron beam was maintained by a potential differ- ence of about 2,000 volts from a small high potential storage battery. A camera was placed within the discharge chamber at the end opposite the cathode and connected through a ground glass joint to the outside in such a way that the photographic plate could be rotated, making it pos- sible to take six exposures on a single plate. The camera shutter was operated by a magnet, but was designed so that the time lag between the tripping and the open- ing of the shutter permitted the magnetic effects of the operating magnet to disappear before the photograph was taken. Ill. OPERATING CONDITIONS Due to the fact that the experimental operations of this research were very critical, the exact conditions under which the results were obtained are definitely stated. The vacuum was always 0.00001 mm. of mercury or less when the exposures were started. At the end of a series of exposures the pressure was measured and it was sel- dom higher than at the beginning. The discharge cham- ber was freed of water and mereury vapors by a P.O; bulb, a large charcoal bulb, and a liquid air trap, the last two being immersed in liquid air. The Wehnelt cathode was heated to a temperature gained by experience until a beam of electrons of suffi- cient intensity was obtained to make an impression on the photographic plate. Because of the high vacuum used and the absence of any trace of mercury vapor, it was sometimes very difficult to start the discharge even on the application of 2000 volts. It could, however, usually be induced to start by heating the cathode very 7" 4 ' ee Gees P is Se a eR 7 PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS hot for an instant. After the beam was started the cathode was rotated until it was projected against the side of the tube. When the current was turned on in the solenoid circuit, the beam was caught in an intense mag- netic field and wound into a spiral which traversed the length of the discharge chamber, striking on a willemite screen on the outside of the camera shutter. The intensity, size, shape and position of the phos- phorescent spot could be changed by adjusting or regu- lating the pitch of the cathode ray spiral, the tempera- ture of the hot cathode and the solenoid current. A focusing coil enabled the final adjustment to be made, after which a series of photographs were taken. Six photgraphs were taken on each plate. A practice was made of taking the odd numbered exposures with- out, and the even numbered ones with the radiation fall- ing on the electron spiral. The time between exposures was five to six seconds. IV. MEASUREMENTS After the photographic plates had been developed and numbered, they were carefully examined to see which ones could be subjected to measurements. A plate, to be of value for measuring, had to possess certain quali- fications adopted as standard. First, the electron trace had to be of sufficient intensity to be seen easily with the naked eye, since faint traces could not be seen under the microscope used in measuring the photographs. Sec- ond, the trace had to form an arc of a cirele of sufficient length to measure its diameter. Third, the edges of the circle had to be sharp so that the error in measurement might be small. Fourth, the six traces on a plate had to be similar so that corresponding measurements could be taken on each one. A short table has been prepared as typical of the total results from data taken from consecutive plates. In this series the electron beam making the traces was alter- nately exposed to hard X-Rays. Fig. 2 shows Plate No. 720 listed in Table I. - = on DP t's 336 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE TABLE I. Electrode Cathode Vacuum Plate Voltage temperature inmm. Hg. Effect Scattering EO pace sec 1800 Volts 900°C 0.00001 mm. Positive Yes 7 Mie os ete 1900 1150 0.00001 Positive Yes ' aoe 2100 1150 0.00001 Positive Yes ; TAOS S55 Plate was a blank 4 SO Lee ie a000 1150 0.00001 Positive Edges fogged ; GO Peay beste 2000 1150 0.00001 Positive Yes | NA rots nars 2050 1150 0.00001 Positive Edges fogged PRO: >. 2000 1150 0.00001 Positive Yes { WO Ott se 2000 900 0.00002 Positive Yes ; When the even numbered circles—those taken with the radiation turned on and numbered 2, 4, 6—have a smaller average diameter than the odd numbered ones—those taken while radiation was off—the effect is defined as | positive. This decrease in the diameter of the electron traces on the photographic plate is due to a collapsing or a falling together of the spiral. This is caused by a. decrease in the velocity of the electrons in the beam. The effect is noted in the fourth column of the table above. ; Another effect is present, that is, a scattering of the electrons or a diffusion of the electron beam. This effect, which shows mainly on the edges of the traces, can be noted even when the traces are not complete circles. When it is present the table indicates the fact by ‘‘yes’’ in the last column. Plates 750 and 770 were so imperfect that the effect was covered up, hence no record was made for them. ‘A large amount of data was also taken where radiation of wave lengths from 8000 to 1300 Angstrom units fell across the stream of rapidly moving electrons. There were indications of a slight decrease in the velocity of the electrons. This effect, however, was smaller than the errors of measurement. Evidence of a scattering effect when the above radiation wave lengths were used was very strong. At the time the photographs were measured, the data were put into graphical form in order that they might be easily interpreted. Because the time intervals be- tween exposures were approximately equal, the diame- ters of the circles have been plotted as ordinates, while 2 Plate No. 720, Showing the Difference in the Diameter of the Electron Traces. ee ee ee ee ee _— Yo ss - SAS a ee SOP aio a oad . Sn a by PAPERS ‘ON (CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS aa7.* the traces numbered 1, 2, 3, ete., have been used as ab- scissae. Two of these graphs have been selected as typi- eal and are shown in Fig. 3 and 4. ¥. DISCUSSION No formal attempt will be made to explain from a theoretical point of view the results obtained in this _ research. It seems, however, that it would not be out of place to suggest possible lines along which explanations © might be found. Thomson pee when he suggested eed thas Sle fe i fey SS sie | | | | x-Ray Plate No.560 | | | Ss ~ ; > Ped 1.54 Diameter of Circles in Centimeters > bdiee ‘sain Fig. 3. Graphical Fenrseeten of the difference in the diameters of e electron traces the experiment, that if a diffused Sater of the electron trace was found when radiation was thrown across the path of the electrons, the result might be taken as indi- cative of the correctness of a theory of light which he had advanced. Ejinstein* has developed another electro- 1. A. BHinstein, Phs. Seitschr., V. 18, p. 121. P “oe Oe oe a “ 7 os A ’ be Pe ee ee Say ne eri gt aS , ae re y ya A le Sd at Mee SPORT xt we ° SG pipet hep en Setepelig “Nee ees FPG aii S = Goes se ; Z a 338 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ; | 7 2 magnetic theory along the same lines. In fact, if any a kind of a wave theory is postulated in which the wave ee front is discontinuous, it is evident at once that an ap- — _ preciable scattering effect would be expected under the ~ ae eondition of the experiment. : 7 ¢ 2 je a wes SE ee: | E : & oS ds [leo STS SR nS] ae Se eR FS Ee | Rima BGS Es a le a ofc a eal ee mie Se eres © (a aa Se a a P=) Q eS >in Goaeineien * the author ise fe recognize the hele = ; - received from the early work of Professor C. T. Knipp 7 “8 on this problem, and to express his thanks to him for his | - advice and aid throughout the research, and to Professor _ _ A. P. Carman for the facilities of the department. DS aiamatary of Physics _ University. of Illinois May, 1922 340 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE EFFECT OF LUNAR GRAVITY UPON A QUARTZ THREAD BALANCE R. C. Harrsovues, Intrvois Westevan UNIVERSITY The construction and description of the apparatus. The construction of the balance is somewhat after Threl- fall’s ‘Gravity Balance.’’ The chief addition is a long vertical lever arm and suspended mirror for magnifying small movements. This is due to Lord Kelvin in his “‘Tunar Disturbance of Gravity’’ experiments. The shape of the apparatus is of a large T'; the horizon- tal part is 60 em. long and the vertical part is 50 em. long. Wt. Quartz Thread (Quartz) .... SIT (ein ay Length of short weight-lever..... 2.0 cm. Length of long observing-lever...26.5 cm. Weight on weight-lever......... O-20' 52m: lat ~* ae tt ea tel Es SS q 5 i = the ie pete BAS = i Five complete twists were given each end of the quartz thread in order to hold the weight-lever horizontal and the observing lever perpendicular. . The apparatus was enclosed in a T-shaped tube of brass and was evacuated to 0.03 mm. mereury pressure, and dried with phosphorous pentoxide. The apparatus was placed in the basement on a solid base; however, passing trucks gave a very noticeable vibration. The temperature of this room was constant to within one de- gree in 24 hours. A galvanometer telescope-scale was used for observing deflections. Distance was 60 em. The following readings and curve are typical of many taken. Date Time Scale Room Temp. Remarks 1 Nov. 7 7.30 AM 23.2 19.0°C : 8.45 AM 26.7 18.5 12.00 Noon, 22.0 19.0 2.30 PM 1922 19.2 5.30 PM 17.4 19.4 6.00 PM 16.6 19-5 Moon at zenith 6.12 6.14 PM 159 19.5 6.20 PM 15.8 19.3 8.00 PM 16.1 19.8 8.15 PM 16.5 19.8 Nov. 8 6.30 AM 22.7 19.3 8.00 AM 23.5 19.2 The evidence of this experiment shows that if the earth’s gravitational force is balanced against the torque in a quartz fiber, the moon will disturb that balance gradually over 24 hour periods. A maximum decrease of the earth’s gravitation occurs with the moon at its upper culmination and a minimum at the moon’s lower culmina- tion. The author expects in the near future to try to detect any lag effect in the gravitation of the moon and the sun. Of course many changes will be necessary to adapt the apparatus to such measurements. The facilities of the Laboratory of Physics of the Uni- versity of Illinois through the courtesy of Professor A. P. Carman were placed at my disposal for this investi- gation, while the council and help of Dr. C. T. Knipp were a large factor in its success. Laboratory of Physics University of Iilinois September, 1921 a ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 341 Sao Ae a Sar le Pane, 9 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE > ILLINOIS COAL AS A SOURCE OF SMOKELESS FUEL S. W. Parr, University oF ILLINoIs Until recent years the topic of coke and its production carried with it in America substantially no accessory thought or idea except the simple one of metallurgy, and to all intents and purposes coke in its original signifi- cance meant pig iron. Indeed, in a general way we meas- ured our coke production in terms of pig iron, pound for pound. f pty, aa ey ated ME TNS eee ee OTE eR ea thy, enki 2 hos i ea 4 Tehet ; 9 pines th CER ST,* ea aye le 9) Set Ae ne \e id Fae yi 344 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Wuat Is Coxitne Coau? Coals of the eastern United States tend to run some: what in parallel lines, the most easterly being anthra- cites, then a much longer line of semi-bituminous coals, and then a longer line of bituminous coals parallel in the main to the semi-bituminous fields, extending south- ward into Kentucky and westward into Ohio. But the farther west we go the less we hear about coking activities, the great Connellsville region, for ex- ample, in southwestern Pennsylvania being the peak of the curve as we go west. When we take into our vision the coal fields of the entire United States, we note from the standpoint of cok- ing proclivities that the farther west we go the less credit is given the coals for the purpose of coke making. This is entirely consistent with our technical literature which relegates all these coals to ‘the non-coking class which have a hydrogen-oxygen ratio of 60 per cent or less. The ultimate verdict vitally affects the vast coal fields of the mid-continental region as well as not a few extensive areas in Colorado and Utah, and in the great Canadian Northwest. This is a rather serious matter for these regions, if it truthfully represents the situation. According to the map, showing the coal areas of the United States, one is impressed with the relative extent of the deposits, especially in comparison with the areas furnishing the coking coals of the eastern United States. Moreover, we were forcibly reminded during the war of the eco- nomic waste involved in long freight hauls that could be avoided. One steel works alone near Chicago produc- ing less than 14 of the iron of that district uses a train load of coke per day. This would mean, let us say, three trains coming and three trains going, or six trains under constant movement to keep up that one supply. It is 460 miles from Pittsburgh to Chicago. It is, say, 100 miles from some of the principal Illinois fields to Chicago. It should be stated at the outset that reference is here made to Illinois coals as a type rather than a product je PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY. AND PHYSICS having geographical limitations. It is to be so consider- ed in this discussion, and as a matter of fact the charac- teristics as to high oxygen and non-coking character ac- cording to present standards would cover also the depos- its in Indiana, western Kentucky and the coals of all the states west of the Mississippi from Iowa to Oklahoma. The importance of determining the really correct status for these high oxygen coals is further emphasized when we note the relative coal reserves of some of the principal producing regions. Colorado would seem to lead the list. But so much is inaccessible owing to the great depth of the deposits below the surface, that for purposes of this discussion, the Colorado reserves might for the present at least be set aside or given a lower place in the list. It would appear then that Illinois leads even West Virginia and Pennsylvania in the matter of potential quantity. The coal in this region is readily accessible, is mined with comparative ease and is con- tiguous to great industrial centers. Its relative value as an asset to the resources of the state is a matter of great importance. Similar statements would apply equally to the adjoining states where the same coal measures are met with. So far as ordinary everyday purposes are concerned, it can be shown by reference to a chart on production that aside from the particular adaptation to coke mak- ing, these coals are entirely on an equal plane with the coals of either West Virginia or Pennsylvania. For ex- ample—suppose we eut off from Pennsylvania the coal output which is mined for the purpose of cokemaking. The remaining tonnage will very well represent the rela- tive rank of the several states with respect to their coal output for general industrial purposes. The annual out- put of coal for coking purposes is in round numbers about 65,000,000 tons. If we subtract that entire ton- nage from the Pennsylvania yield of bituminous coal, the remaining 100,000,000 tons or less just about equals the annual Illinois output. So much for the lay of the land. Now what is, coal anyway? : eV, bp A ‘ ¥ ” \ of “) \) - i v ) - - erw : ‘ $ tel, Pas be eas : FF, VE oes Rn, iS - Fi ed) Ak ois 4~e Sp ; ree A > ») ee] as, 2 1. ee - Bh , Li Ae tN peat ey el ; * Ey AX nn ere at 7 Le AC eee ees FIG.2 Known Coal Areas of the United States. BITUMINOUS COAL AVAILABLE SHORT TONS - coLo. © 193.060.318.000 | x ILL. & 181,280,129,000 W.VA. @ 137.063.282.000 PENN. eo 98.286.522,000 STATE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OHIO. $ 84.344.704.000 FIG.3 Relative Coal Resources of Five States. PRODUCTION BITUMINOUS COAL 1920 CALENDAR YEAR 0 50 100 150 200 #©MILLIONS PENN. i § 163,000,000 TONS ILL. 90.050,000 V.VA. i 87,500,000 STATE GEOLOGICAL | OHiO FE §=645.000.000 SURVEY : FIG. 4 Coal Production of Four States for 1920. ee ee 4 COMPOSITION OF COALS ‘This question was first installed, so to speak, in the _ chemical laboratory at the University of Illinois in 1902, 7 and it is no exaggeration to say that today in this a of grace, 1921-22, it is more installed than ever. The slight hitch wich occurred 20 years ago in the curve for the output of anthracite means that for the major part of that year the country at large was deprived of its - smokeless fuel, and dire necessity was the mother of the practice of burning bituminous coal. Hence, the ques- tion, ‘‘What is coal?”’ We have already seen that geogr agnically the Illinois fields are about midway between the deposits of the Hast. and the West. Ina general way this is true also geologi- eally. The fact is still further emphasized when we look at the coals chemically. In this chart, we have average BE Aft Cy HE aiteminous AN Wr seraceccneneranazs & Sat if jl aaneeeene ae: WI on eg ee aeaueee ti 1880 /885 1890 are 1900 (1905 ee /91S 1920 (325 Fic. 5. Growth of Coal Production since 1880. ° analyses showing-the composition of three types, a low volatile Eastern bituminous coal, an Illinois coal and a lignite. For our purpose in this discussion it is desired to eall attention to one characteristic difference only, that is the shaded portion. This represents the residual oxygen or ‘‘hydroxy’’ compounds which remain from the initial organic material after all the vicissitudes of decay and geological alteration have taken place. 348 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE es The chart is interesting because it illustrates at least the chemical method ordinarily employed for determin- ing whether a given coal would coke or not. For ex- ample, if the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is 1:1 or even . 34:1 or 75 per cent of the oxygen percentage, then the . 3 coal is considered to be in the coking class. But if the : : ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is, let us say, 0.6:1, that is : 60 per cent or less, then the coal is classed as non-coking. When one insists on a definition of these terms from those who make use of them, their answer really amounts to this: ‘‘A non-coking coal is one which is not being | coked.’’ They do not say it is one that cannot be coked, : hence, fortunately the door is left open for the foolish . to venture in. For a better emphasis upon this oxygen factor, to be discussed presently, let us make a new set of ratios from these charted values,—a ratio of the inert or oxygen compounds to the volatile combustible residue, not be- cause we wish to introduce a new ratio as a coking index, but simply as emphasizing from another angle the oxy- gen content of these coals. Such ratios would then ap- pear as follows: a (1) \4:145or approximately. oc. 30% (2). 14:21, or approximately. “27.452. 60% (3) 21:20, on approximately »..<-~2i24 100% From the standpoint of the usual classification, those eoals which pass beyond a ratio between the oxygen compounds and the hydrocarbons or volatile combustible of 1:2 or 50%, bring us into the class of non-coking coals. It will be evident at once that we have here no expla- | nation whatever as to the reason for coking or non- coking properties. The use or status to be given to analytical results of this sort is that of a definition only. It is a definition moreover which is not even empirical in its derivation. The most that can be said of it is that its basis is that of a coincidence—and any case which | might arise to break the coincidence would vitiate the — : value of the definition. F ripe K we Oe ik 4 A Tht oo > ‘\ m RN W. Tee ee rid pat ae A ie gh TET LRN 8 coh a ; 3 ; i wf ae ‘STROM [MoIdAT, JO S]BA[VUY ‘9 “DILT % SOLO IALY TIDY MI GANANLILGNOC ONIAAOHS SIVOD SIOMITA W3y sO JOWWIA?y SNOLLWODOMe| TALLY Ie, We GANINLILENOS AHIMOHG wos NMOXg) YO SLLINDIGQ WY 40 SISAIVN SHOMLMOSO FALY IIe} NI SLNAALILSNOSD ONIMOHS (SV.LNOHWOQ4) Wot SNONIAIN LIE) WIS ViJjJO SISAIVNY —.' > a> ~ ae 2 ee . Co PAPERS ON CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS = en and o< SvOD SIONT T Ilee SISATWNV S WOD NYALSVA 4° SISATIVWNV y, : ff ‘ J ‘ ry ; sai 1 , hog dd . ‘ b ” , 4 oy OO, ee oon ene er ee rae ee ee ee eee 1% ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE _ This brings us directly to the question as to what is involved in carbonization—and by carbonization is meant not simply the destructive distillation of organic matter but the production at the same time of a strong dense coherent mass, capable of being handled and suited for use in either domestic or industrial appliances. Are there any underlying principles which play a funda- mentally important part in the production of coke? In other words, is there a theory of carbonization applic- able in a general way to coals of all types, the recogni- tion or observance of which would enable us to attain the utmost limit of possibility in the matter of coke forma- tion? Let us review some of the existing theories. In the old beehive oven the coal having a depth on the floor of the oven of about 3 ft. was decomposed by the heat of the burning gases which were discharged from the coal into the upper part of the chamber. As the decom- position proceeded downward, the gaseous products of decompositions were obliged to pass upward through the highly heated layers, thus undergoing secondary decom- position. The carbon deposited on the surface of the coke in this process of decomposition gave a silvery lustre and was believed to play a part in the formation of the cell structure of the product. Now, this is hardly to be credited with the designa- tion of a theory. It is doubtless a description of some things that take place upon or around the coke after it is formed. It is distinctly silent as to what is going on down in the coal mass at the zone of active decomposi- ~ tion. The fact of the matter is that the coals worked upon in this fashion were for the most part from the Connellsville region, and would be entirely indifferent - as to what theory was proposed for their coking prop- erty. They would coke just as well under one theory as another or under no theory whatever. -EFFECT OF OXYGEN ON COKING We come next to a study of coals resulting from the use of solvents which separate the coal without decompo- tition into two portions, one of which has distinctly non- -. OK, et th lls i ce a Dl ME ed ti nad, ii) i ee : a oa £ = a —_— ; Stat ra ~~ < ~ : = m5 2d Stas =. ae pe ax oe aa ve P i — =z = m4 . “e, es - Ses rag ig ee so B= i27 > aa ~ * - hood 8s St yt 2% i gs.) een vray anes Pe rs : eet ae rhea ais Age yreg an re ; ¥ P ae bh A ty ate eA , . t eget eee RON ; ct Pei es SP ye ieee te See eee ee 4 ad OWA OG t Wa ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE By way of illustration taken from some of our ex- periments: Here is a high volatile eastern coal with ex- cellent coking properties. It has in its normal condi- tion a hydrogen-oxygen ratio of 73 per cent. Now by saturating with oxygen under suitable conditions where- by it has taken up approximately 50 times its volume of oxygen, it has a hydrogen to oxygen ratio of 33 per cent, and has dropped out of the coking class absolutely as we would expect. By suitable procedure, however, and recognition of the part that the cellulosic residue may play in the carbonization process, it is possible to pro- duce a normal coke even from this highly oxygenated sample which, as we have seen, was reduced in its H:O ratio from 73 to a percentage of 33. LOW TEMPERATURE CARBONIZATION Space will not permit of details in connection with the behavior and control of these factors. One point of fundamental importance and interest must suffice. It relates to the property of all coals in general and high oxygen coals in particular of decomposing with the evo- lution of heat. The interactions involved, therefore, CENTIGRADE DEGREES TIME (Nn Ho ee Fic. 12. Progress of Temperature Changes in By-Product Oven. which it is essential to control, are exothermic in char- acter. This fact should be coupled with another im- portant one, namely, the control of these interacting substances can best be carried out under low tempera- ture conditions of carbonization, that is, at temperatures below approximately 750 deg. C. (1382 deg. F.). | ba Se _ micity and of carbonization are not only compatible with _ each other, but we believe are essential to the successful accomplishment of the prime purpose we seek, namely, _ the carbonization of high oxygen coals. In attempting to maintain low temperature condi- tions, the first problem with which one is confronted is the physical impossibility of conveying heat into the center of a non-conducting mass without maintaining at the exterior a high heat head for the purpose of driving the heat forward through the insulating layers of coke that are continually in the process of formation. Some idea of the actual conditions involved may be seen from Fig. 12 here presented. The diagram at the right is a cross-section of a by-product oven with points indicated where temperatures within the coking mass were taken. Tt will be seen that in an extended 35-hr. coking period, the temperatures at the center of the mass did not reach the stage of decomposition, say 250 deg. C. (482 deg. F.) until after 20 hr. The obtaining of heat transmission, _ therefore, by simple process of conductivity is at once seen to be impracticable if low temperature conditions throughout the mass are to be maintained. It is at this point that we have attempted to use the exothermic reactions involved in the carbonization process. These exothermic reactions are directly due to the oxygen com- pounds of the raw coal. By reference again to the chart, Fig. 6, showing the makeup of an [linois coal, we can at once see the possibility of a very considerable amount of heat available from this source. The high oxygen content therefore becomes an asset instead of evidence of a nullifying influence in the process of carbonization. The direct measurement of this exothermic heat has been one of the most interesting as well as one of the most elusive features of the problems involved. If time per- _ mitted it would be worth while to illustrate the methods of measurement employed. It will doubtless be better at this point to follow out the sequence of the process wherein use is made of the exothermic heat and how it is made available. = j PY wee ae) ise & rw & = ’ ‘ Vv Ss o .)) so haa as ta a Lien ee at Ee Pe rortunataty for our purpose this fact of exother- a rr," 5 ak Pe tae hee Se ce fl et) ade oe Pa ae i Bae ee of a tw ee ae " f Fs eee EE Selly 8 ah eels SES, SS p Ts PA nda ey Dons Nr ed or 5 ; oy N sar cna Ea a Sg eiiie, Se cic FEN he A) Pay oS ay 356 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Let us assume, by way of illustration, that in the case of an average Illinois coal, we have an amount of this potential heat equal to 4 per cent of the total heat of the coal, or approximately 500 B.t-u. per pound. Now, if we can drop a mass of coal into a retort whose walls are heated to 750 deg. C. (1882 dee. F.) and start off the exothermic reactions in such a manner that they will become autogenous, they will, of course, pass beyond the outer zone of heat furnished from the walls of the oven and proceed to the center of the mass regardless of either the heat head at the surface or the insulating property of the mass. In the illustration here shown, these conditions have been secured. Note particularly that a narrow zone at the outer rim shows a coke formation which has been due to the direct application of heat from the walls of the retort. Beyond this zone and thus soon out of reach of the exterior heat, the reactions became autogenous and quickly penetrate to the center. Naturally also we would expect that in order to travel alone, they must have at least shg¢ht surplus of heat at every stage of progress inward, which would thus be cumulative in ef- fect and to the end of the process would show a higher temperature at the center of the mass than at any other point. This correctly represents the uniform condi- tion at the termination of an experiment. Incidentally, it is interesting to note not only the texture and cell structure peculiar to the carbonization that occurs under these conditions, but also that the sample at the left is from an Illinois coal with the high oxygen value as already shown in the chart, while the sample at the right is from a high volatile eastern coal which would at once be placed among the coking coals because of its low oxygen content. The texture, strength, density, ete., of the two examples seem to be very much alike. The question will at once arise in your minds as to why this effect is not secured in the regular byproduct coke oven. The wall temperature starts the coal at even a higher stage, say 1000 deg. C. (1832 deg. F.), while we are using from 700 to 800 deg. at the start. Why do not the exothermic reactions occur and travel autog- Fic. 13. Samples of Coke from Illinois Coal at Left and : Eastern Coal at Right. rT es - — at ie i, hes ™ eke ie na ee 2 enously to the center in the usual method of procedure? A brief bit of figuring will answer the query. Let us recall that we are assuming a source of heat of this sort equal to 500 B.t.u. per pound. Now if we start out with .a mass of coal at 30 deg. C., or say 100 deg. F., and plan to raise the temperature of the mass to 800 deg. C., or 1500 deg. F., we must provide heat enough to raise the mass through 1400 deg. F. Roughly, the specific heat of coal is 50 per cent that of water, hence it will require 700 B.t.u. to do the work of raising the tem- perature of the mass without taking into account the latent heat of vaporization for the water present. But we have to our credit only 500 B.t.u.; hence, no matter how good a start we give to the reactions, they. will cease to operate as soon as we pass beyond the zone of external heat where that effect is lost by reason of poor conductivity. As we say when attempting to start a fire with green or wet wood, ‘‘the fire goes out.’’ On the other hand, if we raise beforehand the tem- perature of the mass to say 300 deg. C., or 600 deg. F., slightly below the point of active decomposition, the work remaining to be done is now that of raising the _ temperature of the mass through only 800 deg. F., or in terms of heat units, we require only 400 B. t. u. Since we assume 500 B.t-u. at our disposal and expend only 400, we have a slight margin to our credit which ac- counts for our cumulative effect and higher tempera- ture in the center at the close of the process. — This, therefore, in a general way sets forth what we believe to be the essential factors that must be taken into account in the coking of high oxygen coals. A summarized view would indicate that the theory of carbonization needs to be rewritten or revised in such a manner as to cover the case of high oxygen as well as - low oxygen coals. That when the factors are thus un- derstood and their influence properly controlled, the so-called non-coking coals may be brought into the cok- ing class, and that the low temperature condition is the one which lends itself most readily to the carrying out of the carbonization process. Perhaps the most import- ant of all is the utilization of the exothermic property y aS ois: : EASE RC wee mS mee So ae < ae Sp a =| Ss 7 ~ S PAPERS ON See ee, ONE OR TSICE 357 st Ee the slow effect. uh Ke eee is replaced : the relatively quick procedure of preheating the ¢ thus securing autogenous chemical reaction throu the mass. a For the present at least we are content to tone , ultimate goal of fuel gas and stop at the coke stage, especially in view of the fact that the coke produced in. this manner comes into the class of smokeless fuels with © = combustion characteristics quite comparable to the : anthracite or semi-anthracite type. PAPERS ON GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY er ~ = ” ~ = I ~~ - - ~ 4 « > = ~~ e. ; > 2 rs ~ " OF Se: - a me te fe ; s6i-° 3 —— m2 _ THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE HIGH = SCHOOL = VV. I. Brown, Prixcrpan, Watseka Community Hicx ps ScHooL ae When I first received from your chairman an invita- - i . tion to present before this meeting a ten-minute paper, —s_— I felt that there had been some mistake. I have had that 3 feeling several times since and find no small amount of = = the same existing at this moment. Perhaps whenI shall > have finished you will have a similar feeling. If youdoI 3 shall not question your judgment. With this attitude of — - _ mind I wrote to a friend who is interested in the teachmg —— of Geography and received the following suggestion. = = = . “*You may know the character of the meetings to have —_— changed, but at the meetings of the Academy of Science ae which I have attended all the papers have been on orig- = inal investigations along scientific lines.”’ I then wrote 2 your chairman and suggested that there might have been 3 __ an error and that any paper which I might present would, =- of necessity, be pedagogical rather than scientific. Hav- 3 ing his assurance that such a paper would be acceptable Hf * and in place, I have made bold to discuss before this meet- ~ — “ —— ES oe pai gee i - a ae a > > a Sess + i 6 “at “ is as PAPERS ON GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY — the unfortunate teacher who happens to be available at the time and place best suited to the daily program. Under such conditions ‘‘The Sick Man of the Curricu- lum’’ shows no improvement, and we may as well pre- pare ourselves for the worst. It is not the purpose in this discussion to defend either ~ the right of Geography to a place in our high schools or the proposition that it should be taught as a science. Both of these things have been assumed. Neither has it been thought necessary to distinguish between Physi- ography and Commercial Geography. It is believed that the suggestions submitted may be applied equally well in either subject. If, then, Geography is to be taught as a, Science, what shall be the method of attack? Psy- chologically as well as scientifically the pupil should be introduced to the subject matter of Geography through the study of pertinent problems. _ . These problems may be simple and limited in their scope or they may be as broad as the ability of the class and the nature of the subject matter will permit. Their _ solutions may come through the examination of subject _ matter, through laboratory work, or through field trips. ‘The essential thing is that the pupil solve the problem for himself under the guidance of the teacher. Facts, a details, definitions, and principles are subordinate to the __ solution of the problem. But the lessons will develop certain facts, definitions, - and geographical principles which need to become the permanent possession of the pupil in order that they may serve as a part of his working equipment in the solution of further problems. These definitions and _ principles are a minimum requirement which each pupil _ should master. The more enthusiastic advocates of the problem meth- od would have us believe, that the necessity of memoriz- _ Ing and drill cease with the introduction of this method. of teaching. But until the Law of Recall shall change, ____ the necessity of drill, like the poor, ‘‘ye have always with - _. you.’’ Since these facts, definitions, and principles are to be a part of the child’s working equipment they should be, first, scientifically accurate; and second, within the © ee . >. See =" SGa> - 2 =< 364 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE realm of the child’s experience and vocabulary. Half truths are always dangerous. It is not true that tem- perature decreases as latitude increases. It is true the temperature tends to decrease as latitude increases. It ‘is a good science to leave a principle in such form that it is subject to enlargement. It should not be left in such form that it becomes subject to correction. One of the worst faults of our science teaching has been the assumption that Science, to be science, must be abstract and expressed in abstract terms. The follow- ing definition occurs in Mill’s International Geography, ‘Geography is the exact and organized knowledge of the distribution of .the phenomena on the surface of the earth, culminating in the explanation of the interaction between man and his terrestrial environment.’’ Such a definition may be in place in such a book, but we have carried too much of such so called ‘‘scientific language’”’ over from our colleges and universities into our high schools. Geography deals with common place things and phenomena. It should be expressed in common place language. If the solution of problems has developed the necessary facts, definitions, and principles and these have become a part of the pupil’s possessions, he now has the tools for attacking larger and more complex prob- lems, each of which may in turn develop new principles. In order that Geography may be taught in this way, it would be necessary that we have, first of all, a-group of trained teachers. This would mean teachers not only familiar with their subject matter but also trained in scientific methods of presentation. The possession of Geographical knowledge is no more assurance of the abil- ity to teach than the mere possession of capital is assur- ance that the holder is a fmancier. Second, there needs to be within the State an organized body of teachers who will.aceept the responsibility of guiding and develop- ing the teaching of Geography. Whether or not such a work is within the province of the Illinois Academy of Science, I am not prepared to say. But unless some organized group shall attempt this work, Geography will never play any vital part in the education of High School pupils. ‘ ye Pe ee ee eS oe ee a WW ’ eRe ge Sy eC ee a at ey eh PAPERS ON GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY 365 A FEW CRITICISMS OF THE ILLINOIS STATE COURSE OF STUDY IN GEOGRAPHY C. E. Cooper, Stare Norman Untversiry, Norma One of the most formidable arguments with which ‘geographers have to contend is that which claims that the subject has taken so much unto itself that it is a duplication of the work found in a number of other lines of study. Of course one can prove that many of these other subjects which are so closely related to geography are but the off-spring of the parent, geography, but it is not the purpose of this paper to consider either the justice or the fallacy of the suggested criticism. We shall do better to admit that, regardless of the justice or injustice in the criticism, it is usually the best policy to remove the cause of it. : One cannot look carefully through the State Course of Study without being forcibly struck with the needless duplication of the subject-matter in ‘‘Home Geography”’ and ‘‘Nature Study and Agriculture’’. My first eriti- cism falls upon the home geography work of the Fourth grade. Each monthly topic as outlined in the home geography work receives sufficient emphasis somewhere in the work in nature study. At best, only an introduc- tion is needed in such subjects in this grade. Such work as the phases of the moon, a detailed study of the soil, equinoxes, solstices, and much of the star study is away beyond the comprehension of such young pupils. It is unfortunate that the vital and human subject of geogra- phy has inherited so much of this work from cartog- raphy, astronomy, and mathematics. The best part of the work, as outlined under home geography, is the work on the study of the various peoples. This is the time © when children are vitally interested in the children of other lands. If geography is to be begun in this grade it ought to be correlated with language work and should take the form of geography stories. .Here is the place to teach where our various foods come from, how they are gotten, and how our homes are constructed, in com- parison to the homes of boys and girls in other countries. 366 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Excursions to stores are very valuable in this connection. This kind of work is not the business of nature study. Personally, I believe that geography can well afford to turn over to the teachers of nature study and language most of the work as outlined in home geography. There is too great a tendency to crowd geography into the — grades below the eighth. I have a letter upon my desk from a teacher of geography in the seventh and eighth — grades of one of our smaller villages. She states that her Superintendent is requiring her to teach the seventh and eighth grade work in one year and that he argues that geography contains so much detail that part of the work should be left out anyway. This opinion is all too common. It isa school-room tragedy to see the sixth and seventh grade children struggle with much of the mathe- matical geography-which is outlined for them. Not long ago I watched and listened while an eighth grade class tried to wade through the work as outlined upon the — motions of the world and its shape. Their teacher was as well informed as the average grade-school teacher, in this phase of geography. The children ‘‘Hdisoned’”’ the words, oblate spheroid, aphelion, etc., back to the — teacher, but it took only a little questioning to show that the whole story meant very little to them. Perhaps skillful teaching and an extended knowledge on the part of the teacher could have accomplished fair results, but that is, of course, what we do not have in our common schools. Geography must be pushed up through the eighth grade and through a year in the high school, and . there is no better way to do it than by permitting nature - study to take its place in the lower grades. Geography study calls for mature thought, and we teachers of the subject should seize every opportunity to dignify the ‘work by dropping the duplication and pushing its case — into higher courts. On the other hand, nature study should be taken out of the eighth grade and room thus made for geography. Teachers of nature study can afford to do this if they have the extra time of geography elsewhere. — gp ate Ys ee a hn Ry Ee Oe Se 4 yee oes Le oe oe eee — = PAPERS ON GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY 367 In the third month of the fifth year the work on the scale of the globe can well be omitted. School-room globes are so small that the equivalent in miles for one inch is too great a distance for children to comprehend. The time can be spent to a much greater advantage in _. teaching sizes and distances by means of comparisons with which the child is familiar. Nothing is gained at this age by teaching the child that the earth has a cir- cumference of 25,000 miles. You can impress him with _ its size by finding out how long it would take a train going at an ordinary rate of speed to travel around it, or by some other easy comparison. The sixth grade is not the proper place for the teach- ing of much of the detailed work on latitude and longi- tude. This part of geography should be put off as long as possible in the grades. Positions should be taught by comparisons, rather than by degrees of latitude and longitude. In the list of definitions in the work of the first month I would leave out parallels, meridians, merid- ian-circle, circular measure, and all of the definitions which follow them. Those terms which we do teach should not be taught as definitions to be learned and parroted in set phrases, but should be taught by illustra- tion. I am convinced that we are accomplishing little by try- ing to teach the wind system in the grades. Its place is in physical geography. The students who enter my classes in the Normal, having had no geography since the grades, are utterly ignorant concerning a knowledge of the winds, though some teacher has tried to teach them this work in earlier years. It is not just a case of for- getting because they do not even comprehend the prin- ciples of the wind system. I think that we should teach the causes of the winds, but that we should lay most of the stress upon their effects; such as, winds blowing off water, winds on leeward and windward sides of moun- tains, winds from the north, and winds from the south, etc. No attempt at a classification of the winds should be attempted in the grades. We are interested in the human effects of winds and not a scientific classification 368 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE which is at best only generally true. A. classification is of value in high-school years as a means of determining climates but is beyond the comprehension of the grades. Less stress should be placed upon the climatic influ- ences of ocean currents and more upon the influences of large water bodies? Instead of teachers permitting the children to set out of the grades with the idea that the Gulf Stream is totally responsible for the mild climate of the British Isles, they should bring out more carefully the effects of een water bodies and should show that even if the Gulf Stream were not present, the climate of these islands would still be more moderate than if they were in the same latitude but surrounded by land. The effect of liberation of heat by precipitation should also be stressed. An understanding of cyclonic and anti-cyclonic winds is hopeless in the grades, is very difficult for the high school, and will keep the beginning college student busy for some time before they are mastered. I have more calls for help from teachers, concerning these winds, than in any other phase of geography. Throughout the seventh grade, more time should be spent upon the ef- fects of rainfall and its distribution and less upon the technical causes of rainfall. The eight grade mathematical geography as outlined is far too abstract for grade school children. It forces them beyond their ability and tries to give them a body of knowledge which is of value to ion only in a cultural way. You may argue that this knowledge is of value to them and indeed necessary for the naveleien: reading of the textbook. In answer I would say that too long we have tried to mould children to the form of the textbook written by some college professor who has forgotten that he ever was young and consequently fails to make the textbook meet the needs of the child. J wish that some of the fine women who are doing the critic work in the Normal Training Schools of our country would take up the writing of geography textbooks. The star work is of course a heritage from astronomy. We should teach what stars are, if we haven’t already done so in nature study, and the names and locations of P 7 oa ~>, “ é oon ~ : : a ¥ ny ee Oi ps ~ a £ as ~~ ‘ a a 1 ire tel aes se a oa as a _ 4 1 E aa &- ai a “PAPERS ON ‘GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY tz those whith will ee the pupil in foeating himself. Star knowledge which is of a cultural value can be left until - more mature years. Just enough should be taught con- cerning meteors, comets, and shooting stars to remove - superstition. In the list of definitions for the frst month of the eight grade I should omit the following: point; = ~Iime; surface; solid; plane; plane surface; arc; ellipse; ne _ _ foci; major axis; minor axis; plane of the earth’s orbit; a perihelion; aphelion; meridian circle; and oblate spher- . a oid. . s - It seems to me that there is no use in taking time to ree, prove that the earth is round. Much of mathematical geography must be taught dogmatically; so why try to — prove something so obviously true? If some pupil should want to know the proofs, then the fact that men have i ¢ sailed around it, and the shape of its shadow ought tobe ; sufficient proofs. It is inconceivable that the altitude of —__ the stars.and the pendulum proofs are more compre- a a hensible to these children than these simpler proofs. Similarly the proofs of the rotation of the earth are - - unnecessary. If they are to be used, the dropping of the , ball, Foucaults pendulum, oblate spheroid, cireulation of the water and the atmosphere are beyond the understand- ing of grade-school children. Let us put the emphasis upon the human effects of the shape of the earth and its movements, and worry less about the mathematics of the situation. _ IT suppose one can teach inclination and parallelism so that the child can give the facts back parrotlike but I doubt very much whether he will understand those facts. ’ Not one student in twenty-five entering my normal-school classes has any knowledge of the width of the zones. In- deed, is it necessary in the grades to give them that knowledge? Why not spend the time to better advantage in teaching them the proportions of the continents in the various heat belts and the effect of these heat belts upon life? The equinoxes Sa solstices are confusing and difficult to teach even in high school classes. As = the change of seasons, we should stress their effects more’ than their causes. A few simple demonstrations of moving the globe around a child tae to be caiicient to howe the changing position of the direct rays of the sun. La Eee tude and longitude should be taught in this last grade but — even here much of the detail must be left out. The In- | ternational Date Line is incomprehensible to grade-school pupils and it takes a clever teacher to make it plaintoa _ 3 high-school class. Pay more attention to comparisons of | various places as to latitude and longitude and less to oe E details of number of degrees, ete. ge In short, one can take the mathematical geography as outlined in our State Course of Study and make the aver- age freshman in our normals and colleges work exceed- — ingly hard to master its principles. Much of it does not — function in the later life of the average individual. ss PAPERS ON GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY 371 THE HENNEPIN CANAL ~~ Ropert G. Buzzarp, Stare TreacHers Coiitece, DeEKats The present session of Congress is confronted with _ the problem of an international deep-waterway. The In- _ ternational Commission studying the project of deepen- - ing the upper St. Lawrence River has submitted its re- port. The Congressmen from the Mississippi River valley and the Great Lakes are clamoring for the build- ing of this waterway. The news columns of the cereal re- gion are broadcasting the benefits to the grain grower such a waterway will bring about. From the current propaganda one reads that the problem of cheap trans- portation eastward will be solved by a thirty foot chan- nel to the Great Lakes. To Chicago, Milwaukee and Du- luth will come the seaboard advantages of Boston, New York and Philadelphia. To the student of the trans- portation problem which has grown with the develop- ment of production in the upper Mississippi basin, this clamor for a waterway eastward is but the latest of a series of such agitations. The experience gained through the use of the Hudson River, the Erie Canal, the line of the Great Lakes, the Erie-Ohio canals, the Illinois and _ Michigan Canal, and the other waterways which aided the _ move of population westward, seems to have left indeli- - bly impressed on the minds of succeeding generations the conception that waterways are the solution of all trans- portation problems. Within the bounds of our own state lies a not long since ~ ~ completed example of the application of waterways to the problem of inland transportation. Its conception, the fervor of its agitation, the marked distress of the region demanding it, the stick-to-it-iveness of the Congressmen who made it a plank in their platforms, the twenty-seven years of heckling before Congress succumbed, the build- ing of a waterway for a people who had forgotten or had never known why it was wanted, its maintenance amid their hard roads and efficient railways, — in all this the Hennepin Canal exemplifies the effort our na- tional government is putting forth towards solving in- HD 4) vi r Wap Oty r v7 hl oe “S = > Fi m ’ s pa Prey & ; i xo‘t\ ¥ 7 mie ‘ ‘| , EWA ea is ties ciek 372 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE land transportation. The story of its achievement is worthy the notice of the Congressmen who support the St. Lawrence project. In the late summer of 1834 a family moved to the region of Bureau Creek (Bureau County, Ilnois) from the banks of the Erie and Ohio Canal. The succeeding autumn, a son who had helped construct the canal near the Ohio home, took his gun, and, in his own words, ‘viewed the country through from Hennepin (on the Illinois River) to the Mississippi River near Rock Island, and thought it was a natural pass for a canal as there was a depression all the way across with high land on either side.’? This reconnaissance led to a more careful review- ing of the region a few weeks later, the interesting of local influence and the agitation for a waterway to connect the big bend of the Illinois River with the Mississippi near Rock Island. Believing that there might be dollars and cents in it, the Erie Canal having paid for itself in the ten years just past, local interests financed private sur- veys of the proposed route. The legislature of Illinois was involved in the Ilinois and Michigan Canal project, and to this body the matter of extending water trans- portation to the upper Mississippi was carried. Permis- sion for the building of the canal was given but state aid was not forthcoming, so the matter was dropped. The growth of population near the junction of the Rock and Mississippi rivers made the need for better communication eastward a more urgent one. The canal project was changed to a railroad, and the line of the ©. R. I. & P. railroad was put through almost directly over the first surveyed route for the proposed waterway. Interestingly enough the exorbitant freight rates charged by this railway in carrying cargo eastward, and the example of the influence upon rail rates exerted by the Erie and the Illinois and Michigan canals, again brought about agitation for waterway extension from the Illinois to the upper Mississippi. Private and state aid having been previously sought in vain, in 1863 the project was carried before Congress by Senator Hawley of Iowa, where it became noted in sueceeding sessions ee ee a. ee ee a Tv. rt _ : f j ‘ - ‘ ( : { POR ee ere ye ie Becee a : PAPERS ON GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY 373 s ‘*Hawley’s canal bill’’. The report of the senate committee to whom the bill was referred illustrates the turn which agitation for water transportation had taken, a turn not at all different from that it is taking in our ‘present Congress. The considering committee said, ‘‘No improvement of the same probable cost would be pro- ductive of so great a benefit; and that the benefit to be produced would not be confined to the state of Illinois alone, in which the work is situated, but would directly and inevitably embrace the state of Iowa, Wisconsin and Minnesota, and indirectly affect all the states lying west of these, whose railroad lines would bring produce down to be shipped by the canal’’. How like the current statements we read concerning the St. Lawrence project! Suffice it to say that Congress evidenced sufficient inter- _ est to authorize surveys of the proposed route in 1870, 1874, 1882 and in 1886. These surveys having proved the feasibility of the waterway from the engineering stand- point, in answer to the clamor of state legislatures, me- morials from waterways conventions, boards of trade and chambers of commerce, in 1890 Congress authorized the construction of the waterway, fifty-six years after agitation for it had commenced and twenty-seven years after the bill had been presented for consideration. The significance of the twenty- seven years which the - Hawley Coma Bill spent in Congress is not remarkable until one considers the changes in the transportation problem that had come about in that time. During this __ period of agitation railroad growth had been very Tapid throughout the cereal region of the upper Mississippi basin. The railroads had become masters of the trans- portation problem through increase in mileage and through improvement of carriage facilities. This period was one in which railroads set rates unhampered by such governing influences as railroad commissions and with- out concern for inter-state commerce commissions. The adoption of rates truly in keeping with the service rend-~ ered, however, was coming about even at the time when the waterway was authorized in 1890. Had the whims -_ of a slow-to-act Congress, and the political adjustments 374 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE due to party influence which brought about the authoriza- tion of the project, encountered the most meager con- sideration of the evident future of rail transportation, the value of the water-way as a ‘‘regulator’’ in its 1890 environment would have caused it to be held up for even a longer period, if not prevented the expenditure of the more than seven millions of dollars for its construction. The geography of the region between the Illinois and Mississippi Rivers determined both the general and the specific location of the waterway. . The great bend of the Illinois and the eastward bend of the Mississippi near Rock Island invited connection by an artificial waterway. The depression of Bureau Creek led westward from the Illinois at a place where a lake afforded an eastern terminal harbor. Green River led westward from the slope of the morainal divide to the navigable Rock River, — whose channel led directly to the Mississippi. The re- lation of the upper Green River to the flat divide of summit level offered the first suggestion of a to-be-im- pounded water supply from which the canal could be fed both eastward and westward. Later surveys set forth the feasibility of bringing southward along the flat crest ~ of the divide a canal feeder from the upper course of the Rock River, thus assuring a cheap and satisfactory sup- ply of the water necessary for canal maintenance. The character of the Mississippi between the mouth of the Rock River and the town of Comanche, Iowa, to the northward introduced the problem of finding a suitable ~ western terminus, thus modifying the location of the western half of the waterway. The intervening land mass between the Illinois and the Mississippi did not offer a serious problem in canal construction. The height of the divide necessitated a rise of one hundred — ninety-nine feet above river level at low water, an ele- vation accomplished by twenty-one ordinary locks. [In passing it is interesting to note that in 1894 lock construction marked the beginning of the use of concrete in canal building. | The highways of the region introduced a problem of bridge construction and highway embankments; the — Nh 3 La ki eee a LA Wea pe 8 —- La) Se ee er oe a gre he oie : > - <> as : PAPERS ON GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY 375 streams of the region necessitated concrete aqueducts through which the canal was carried above them. The earth material encountered was mainly morainal. No rock excavation was necessary except near the upper entrance to the canal around the rapids in the lower Rock River. The position of the C. R. I. & P. railroad necessitated in many cases canal building at a higher level than originally planned, and the circumventing of the rapids near the mouth of the Rock River introduced the use of high embankments to maintain canal level with regard to flood conditions and to slack water. The swampy condition of summit level, a region overlying a former peat bog interspersed with pockets of quicksand, introduced the lining of the canal with planks and clay in order to maintain a channel. The construction of the feeder had as its most serious prob- lem the location of the dam in the Rock River from above which the canal water could be taken. Consideration of the effect upon previous power constructions in the Rock River resulted in the locating of the dam at Sterling, _-and the carrying of the canal feeder southward along the divide. Although authorized in 1890, actual construction of the canal did not begin until July, 1892, with the building of the section around the rapids in the Rock River near the town of Milan. This section, four and one-half miles in length, was opened to traffic on April 17, 1895 at a cost of $547,229.93. A dam in the river above the rapids afforded slack water transportation from the eastern end of the Milan section of the canal to Colona, where the main line of the canal joined the Rock River. Water from the Rock River was turned into the feeder in the fall of 1907, and on November 15th of that year, the first vessel passed from the Illinois River through the entire length of the canal to the Mississippi. The actual cost of construction was $7,319,563.39, a figure almost double the early estimates. ‘ = = A "eg greatest assets of the State. Mr. Thomas L. Watson, State Geologist of Virginia, has described the topography of the Piedmont Plateau Province as one ‘‘of a more or less smooth, broadly roll- ing or undulating upland, of moderate elevation;- ~into which the streams have rather deeply sunk their chan- nels. Scattering hills and ridges—unreduced residuals— rise in some cases several hundred feet above the general vel upland surface, deep and narrow gorges have been carved by the streams.*’’ No conspicuous elevation is found in Prince Edward county, its highest point being only 715 feet above the sea, about 200 feet above the upland, and less than 465 feet above the lowest point along the Appomattox river. Higher elevations do oc- cur in the vicinity, however, such as Willis Mt., Buck- ingham county, which rises to an elevation of 1159 feet, and. whose rugged outlines can be seen clearly from Farmville about 12 miles away. It is not only in the greater amount of relief, but in the greater number of streams and slopes that the topography of the Virginia section differs from that of Illinois. The largest square field without a permanent stream that could be laid out in Prince Edward county would contain but little more than 1 square mile, while a similar area in Champaign county would cover at least 18 square miles. This contrast in topography helps to explain the differ- ence in the use of the land in the two regions. In 1920 less than 32 per cent of Prince Edward county was im- proved farm land, while Champaign county reported 8814 per cent of the area as such. The reverse is true, however, in woodland in farms, 40 per cent of the area of Prince Edward county and 114 per cent of Champaign county being given as farm woodland. The response to this difference is in the use of wood for fuel. In this see- tion of Virginia every backyard has its pile of stove- wood, and trade in cord-wood is considerable to furnish fuel for the kitchen stove and to feed the small sheet- tai ah By NO NS ek a t 7 ' ’ , 5 i* ’ F i ® Mineral Resources of Virginia, 1907, pp. 5-6. = = 7 ee : - = -~ «-* : et whe = * aor ” rs = 2: a 4 oun a Ps b — pate tt ae os = - See ——— j eo +s~< . > = ‘PAPERS ON GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY ‘WT 23 are characteristics which make the climate one of the level of the upland surface of the plateau. Below the — 380 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE iron air-tight heaters that are in common use there. Such a stove would be a novelty in Champaign county, while a load of cord-wood is seldom seen. The roads respond to the type of topography found in the Piedmont by clinging persistently to the summits of the upland ridges between the streams, an occasional one following the ridge so continuously as to be known, lo- cally, as ‘‘the ridge road’’. In the rougher sections, as in the vicinity of Willis Mt., where the road must cross ‘the narrow valleys, the frail wooden bridges are fre- quently carried away by freshets, after which, until the bridges are repaired, travelers cheerfully ford the creeks though they may be 10 to 15 feet wide and offer a drop of from 1 to 2 feet from the road to the stream bed. In order to take advantage of the best grades, the roads are very crooked, many of them requiring a drive of perhaps 17 miles to reach a point 12 miles distant. Some of the roads are hard-surfaced for short distances near the larger towns, but, for the most part, ‘‘dirt’’ roads pre- vail. Travel over the roads is done in almost every con- ceivable way. On Saturday afternoon when the country people are returning from town, one can see people on foot and on horse or mule-back, one and two-horse farm wagons, single and double buggies, automobiles, and even the faithful ox, driven sometimes single, sometimes double, and attached to a farm wagon, two‘wheeled cart, or, rarely, to the more aristocratic light buggy. The pos- sessor of the ox is more often colored, that element form- ing 55 per cent of the population of the county in 1920, but many of the less prosperous whites find in the ox their greatest help. It is easy to contrast with this the many miles of nearly level hard-surfaced road of Cham- paign county, extending over the-country in a straight line for miles and traversed by little but the speedy auto- mobile. The most conspicuous difference in soil between the Virginia Piedmont and the Illinois plain is one of color. The crystalline gneisses and schists of the former region contain iron-bearing minerals which give rise to a bright brick-red colored soil in the advanced stages of weather- VP j ; a -s-=-.e),, ae eee —s- a oa ax, 6 an >> = . {i> ss be = oe 7 "ita ee ee = : = yee ‘PAPERS oN GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY ing. Here and there are nated of lighter colored soil which represent the earlier stages of weathering in ' which disintegration has taken wilh more than decom- position. These soils are mostly of clay with a compact subsoil which does not allow ready absorption of the run- off during rains, and which results in relatively rapid erosion on even the more gentle slopes such as are not seriously affected in Illinois where made of the looser textured glacial drift. Many years of leaching by the weather, rapid erosion, and continuous cropping of to- bacco have impoverished the soil to such an extent that a large use of commercial fertilizer is necessary. On farms reported to the census enumerators in 1920, $147,- 790 was expended for fertilizer in Prince Edward county as against $33,326 for Champaign county which is nearly - three times the size. The contrast in topography and soil between the two regions is further reflected in the valua- tion of the land, the average land value per acre in 1920 being $25.11 and $339.07 respectively, for Prince Edward and ‘Champaign counties. In each section agriculture is the predominant indus- ‘try, 82 per cent of the population of Prince Edward county being rural in 1920, and 52 per cent of Champaign eounty. Corn is the most important crop in acreage in each case, that cereal occupying 35 and 52 per cent, re- spectively, of the cultivated land. The more favorable geographic conditions for corn production in the latter county is indicated not only in the larger acreage, but also in the average yield per acre, which is nearly three times as great as in Prince Edward county.* The im- portance of oats in the corn producing regions where it fits into the labor economy of the farmer is shown in Champaign county, in which it occupies second place in acreage, wheat third, and hay and forage fourth. In the Virginia section hay and forage oceupy second place, with tobacco, the great money crop, as third in acreage. Tobacco is also the labor consuming crop, the quality de- pending not alone on soil and weather conditions, but much on the kind of attention given to it during its growth. * The proportion is 42:15. \ ey PAL VS Ma a f. r= 4 fier ‘ t PAPEL aw tree ai pe Py i 5 ul rae whe: \ bi 382 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Topography, soil, labor requirements for crops, an as the price of labor are some of the factors affecting the size of farms. It is interesting to note that in Virginia where the rough topography interferes with the most. economical use of large machines and where tobacco, which requires a great amount of hand labor, is a leading crop, the farms average less than 100 acres. This is a decrease of 6.2 acres per farm since 1910, probably in response to the recent high price of labor. In Champaign county, where machinery can be used satisfactorily, the farms have an average size of 165 acres, a slight inerease over the figures of 1910. The greatest consequence of the geographic conditions noted is the respective wealth of the two sections. The prosperity of the Illinois plain is an established fact to the Virginian, though the Illinois farmer may not real- ~ ize his good fortune. The difference is easy to distin- guish, however, in either section after a sojourn in the— other. The well-tilled, generally level fields of Illinois with a rank growth of crops almost continuous as far as the eye can see, the good straight roads, and the modern — and spacious farm buildings present a striking contrast to the wooded or waste slopes interspersed with culti- vated fields, some of them offering the prospect of an uncertain yield, the winding roads, and the many small and poor farm buildings of the Virginia Piedmont. In delightfulness of climate, especially the extended spring and autumn seasons, and in beauty of scenery, the Vir- ginia Piedmont far surpasses the Illinois plain, but it does not compare with it in material prosperity. ~_——S— : —e SF “ ee eS 2 sa >. - PAPERS ON GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY COAL RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ILLINOIS -COUNTIES JUST NORTH OF THE OZARK OUTLIER W. G. Larurop, Jonnston Crry ‘The Illinois coal field is a spoon-shaped basin with the Duquoin anticline at the west edge, the LaSalle anti- cline at the east edge, and the Ozark uplift at the south. From the foothills of the Ozarks and from the Duquoin anticline where the beds appear at the surface, the coal seams deepen to the east and north at the rate of from forty to sixty feet per mile, reaching their maximum depth of 1200 feet in White County or vicinity. It is the coal resources of the southern counties of this basin that I desire to discuss in this paper. The coal beds of the state are all found in the Pennsyl- vania series of the carboniferous system and are num- bered from one to seven upward from the bottom. The producing beds included in this discussion are number two, or Murphysboro, number five, or Harrisburg, and number six or Herrin. Seam number six, known as the ‘**blueband’’ coal, is the greatest single producing seam in the state, having an average thickness of nine feet, five inches. Coal number five lies about twenty-five feet below the number six, and has an average thickness of four and one-third feet. Vein number two varies in thickness from one to six feet. COMPARATIVE PRODUCTION The bituminous coal field of Illinois underlies three- fourths of the state. Eighty-five counties share in the wealth of this, the greatest of bituminous fields. It was estimated by the State Geological Survey in 1907 that the original deposits in Illinois amounted to 136,966,000,000 tons. At that time the Survey estimated that 645,868,309 tons had been mined. Based upon an average of 62% recovery in mining, there had been mined and wasted in 1907 about 891,000,000 tons. Since 1907 there have been mined and wasted 677,747,615 tons of coal in Illinois fields. This gives a total of 2,205,858,000 tons of coal ‘ >= = = as = = > i > . ae Gee om” ana 384 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE mined and wasted (based upon 62% recovery) in Illinois up to 1919. This is a little over 1.6% of our original deposits, leaving a reserve of nearly 135,000,000,000 tons at the beginning of 1919. In 1918 Illinois produced 89,291,105 tons of coal, more than 15.4% of the total bituminous production of the United States for this year. The leading counties entering into production in this part of the state, in order of production, are Franklin, Williamson, Saline, Perry, and Jackson. In 1918 Frank- lin produced 12,373,356 tons, valued at $29,224,580. This was almost 14% of all the coal mined in the state for that year. In the same year Champaign County, our great- est corn producer, produced corn valued at $13,869,931, not quite half the value of the Franklin County Coal.“ Franklin and Williamson, our first and second coal counties, produced in 1918, 23,711,918 tons of coal (val- ued at $55,363,559), over 2616% of the state production for this year. The five counties named above hoisted in 1918, 33,369,327 tons, 37.37% of the total hoist for the state. The value of this coal was $77,992,252, and may be compared with the value of the corn produced by our five leading corn counties (Champaign, Fulton, McLean, Pike, and McDonough) for the same year. The value of the corn is $60,632,678, the coal leading by more than $17,000,000. MINING The coal of these five counties is produced by 181 mines, including 54 local mines, 1714% of all the mines of the state, employing 36,736 men, 38.3% of the miners of the state who in 1918 averaged over 1307 tons of coal per man. Practically all the coal is mined from shaft mines, though strip and slope mines are common near Marion and Carterville on the south, and Duquoin on the west where the Ozark foothills and the Duquoin anticline bring the coal-bearing strata near the surface. Many acres at the south edge of the basin have had the coal re- moved by the strip mine method. Near Carterville, it is reported that by modern steam shovel methods it is profitable to remove as much as 30 feet overburden. = ae ee eS ee ee Pere a = ris 2 : PAPERS ON GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY 385 _ Stripping unfits the land for any agricultural purposes except pasturing. The surface is left in a very uneven condition and erosion attacks it readily. MARKETS Illinois consumes more than 50% of her own produc- tion of coal. Chicago consumes about 14%, and St. Louis and East St. Louis use about 10%. Because of compe- tition of eastern coals, practically no Illinois coal goes eastward, although some has reached northeastern mar- kets in recent years. No coal goes south, and the region north of the lakes is supplied by the lake traffic with eastern coal. Our best outside markets are to the north- west, to the Minneapolis and St. Paul region. Competi- tion between Illinois coals and those of eastern states favors the outside coals because of the better quality of the coal, cheaper labor and cheaper transportation where this is done by streams and lakes. EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION More than 98% of our vast coal resources is still be- neath the surface. Using the production of 1918 asa basis, and calculating on a recovery of 50%, which I be- lieve to be more nearly correct, there are being mined and wasted about 175,000,000 tons of Lllinois coal per year. There is no evidence that the rate of removal will not increase for some years to come. On the 1918 basis of removal, the coal deposits of Illinois will be exhausted in 800 years. Operators near Johnston City and Herrin think this part of the field will be active for a period of 50 years from the present date. Of course other areas less accessible will come into prominence as the more favorably located deposits are exhausted. But is 50 years a sufficient look into the future? Is 800 years to be considered as the limit of time during which we should expect to use coal? Should we not begin now to con- sider more efficient uses of our coal supply in order that its life may be lengthened? In order to do this we should begin at once to get at the root of the evils. Wastes due to mining operations, 386 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE such as mining lower veins first and leaving 50% of the ~~ coal underground, should be given up. Practice of better uses of coal should be encouraged. Smoking chimneys which waste millions of tons of coal annually should be eliminated. Engines securing a higher efficiency from coal fired should be put into use. The mechanical stoker has aided greatly in correcting the last mentioned evil. The Central Illinois Public Service Company, whose plant is located at Harrisburg, Illinois, reports through Supt. Cook of Marion, Timers, that with stoker firing and tubular boilers, it is aaa to get a kilowatt hour of electricity from each 2.75 lbs. of doal fired. The hand firing process requires 4.75 lbs.. This is a saving of about 42% of coal formerly used by this company. The Illinois Tractions system, also, reports that with the Curtis and Parson turbines and with Corliss engine. generators they are able to get equally good results. But the average for this company is 5.5 lbs. per kilowatt hour, on an average production of 543,450 kilowatts per day. This shows that a vast saving can be effected through the use of better machinery. Mr. Hight, chief engineer for the Illinois Traction Sys- tem, says " “PAPERS ON GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY 387 small, are using 100% No. 2 coal. These companies get 1200 Ibs. of coke and 10,000 eu. ft. of gas per ton of coal coked. The St. Louis Coke and Chemical Co. at Granite City are coking a mixture of 90% No. 6 coal and 10% Poca- hontas. This Company uses the Roberts type of coke oven, mentioned so favorably in the Iron age for March 2 and 9, 1922. They coke 1400 tons of coal per day with a recovery of 68.14% of the coal charged. As by-pro- ducts they obtain 10,840 cu. ft. of gas, 9 gallons of tar, 27 lbs. of ammonium sulphate, and 31% gallons of light oil per ton of coal. This company gets only 25¢ per thousand for its gas, while the gas companies at Duquoin and Centralia get $1.85 per thousand. The coke brings $7.50 per ton, a little more than the coke of the other cities mentioned. Coke is the equivalent of the same number of pounds of anthracite. It is cleaner and more economical-than raw coal. That produced at Granite City is used for zine and lead smelting, blast furnaces, water gas, and household purposes. Mr. Farrar, of the Seuthern Illinois Gas Company at Murphysboro, thinks most of the gas plants of the state would use Illinois coal immediately if the State Utility Commission would reduce the standard from 565 B. T. U. to 500 B. T. U. per cubic foot, since with straight Ili- nois coal it is difficult to get a gas of the required stand- ard. The gas companies, he thinks, would then create a market for their gas-house coke through the education of the people to its advantages. This seems to be the road to true efficiency and conser- vation. The coal should be coked near the mines, and ean be sold for use in bakeries, smelting, blast furnaces, household uses, and perhaps for firing railroal engines.“ The gas produced can be sold to surrounding cities for fuel, and used on the spot in gas engines to generate electricity, for light and power. Electric energy may also be used to transport the coke to places of consump- tion through the use of the electrified railway, since trans- mission is now possible over a distance of 500 miles with slight loss. The Illinois Traction System reports a line 450 miles long in operation. Coking by means of the ‘ \ Nes oe oe Pew by-products oven also makes available for utilization vast | - quantities of by-products. I have tried in this small way to aren a alight now : tion of the most important resource which nature has ig left us. It is ours to use, not to abuse; to consume, not waste. Let us accept it as our treasure, use it as our friend and ally, and in turn pass it on to those who are to _ follow us with as little impairment as possible. / REFERENCES. a: Shaw, E. W., and Savage, T. E., U. S. G. S. Folio, No. 185, p. 7. DeWolf, F. W., Ill. State Geol. Survey, Bul. No. 1 Yearbook 1908, p. 189. 8. Lesher, C. E., U. S. G. S. Mineral Resources of the United States, 1918, Part 2, Nonmetals p. 748. DeWolf, F. W., Ill. State Geol. Survey, Bul. 33, 1916, pp. 38, 39. 4. Lesher, C. E., U. S. G. S. Mineral Resources of the United States, 1918, Part 2, Nonmetals, p. 708. 5... Ibid. JS 747, 748. 6. Ovitz, F. K., Dept. of Interior, Bul. 138, “Coking of Illinois Coals,” | Dp. He : 7. Ibid, p. 38. Sollee Merete ese a Pe ae ee a PAPERS ON GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY 389 POSSIBLE HORIZONS FOR OIL AND GAS IN NORTHEASTERN ILLINOIS U.S. Grant, NorrHwestern University During the last twenty months an interest in drilling for oil and gas has developed in several places in the northeastern part of the state. Companies have been or- ganized, leases have been taken, and some actual drill- ing has been done. The greatest interest has been near the northern edge of Cook County, the southern edge of Lake County, and in western McHenry County. It con- sequently seems proper on this occasion to outline brief- ly the horizons in which there is a possibility of the oe- eurrence of oil or gas. Beginning with the latest for- mations, these horizons may be listed as follows: 1. Glacial Drift. Lying below the most recent or Wis- consin drift there is frequently an old soil zone or a zone containing large amounts of vegetable material, especial- ly remains of trees. Probably more than one such hori- zon is present in some localities. Wells have been sunk to one of these zones rich in organic matter, and gas has been obtained from a great many such wells. The gas pressure at first is occasionally quite strong, but usually soon declines so that it is only a few pounds per square inch and eventually this pressure may disappear alto- gether. However, in a number of places such gas wells have furnished and undoubtedly will continue to furnish for years to come local supplies which can be used in farm houses or possibly in small communities. Show- ings of oil in these same horizons have also been re- ported. 2. Devonian Shales.. In a few places in the eastern ~ part of the state,-either in cracks in the Niagara lime- stone or in small masses probably detached in the drift, remains of Devonian black shale occur. This shale is frequently highly carbonaceous and might form a source for oil or gas, but the lack of any extensive bodies of this material under a suitable non-porous cover makes it im- 390 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE probable that oil and gas will be obtained from this horizon. 3. Niagara Limestone. In a number of localities, small asphaltic residues have been found in the more porous parts of the Niagara limestone, especially near its top, and in certain places wells have encountered con- siderable pockets of gas and sometimes a little oil in the bottom of the drift and in the top of this limestone. In places the oil-is sufficient in amount to spoil water wells, but has not been found in sufficient quantity for economic use. Early reports of borings in the Niagara limestone state that a few barrels of oil were obtained from that formation. Locally a thin sandstone may occur at. the base of the Niagara, and this is a possible oil and gas horizon. 4. Maquoketa Shale. While this formation is com- posed largely of clayey shales passing into impure lime- stones, in a few horizons small carbonaceous layers have been reported, and a few well borings have reported some oil showings in these shales. 5. Galena Dolomite. This heavy dolomitic formation underlies the northeastern portion of the state and has been penetrated by many wells. Only a few very meagre oil showings have been reported from this horizon. How- ever, in the northwestern part of the state, i. e., in the upper Mississippi Valley lead and zine district, at the very base of the Galena dolomite is a peculiar chocolate- colored shale known locally as the ‘‘oil rock’’. This is very rich in carbonaceous material,—in fact from it oil and gas ean be distilled and dry splinters of the shale. burn with a smoky flame. This peculiar carbonaceous shale is confined mainly to the lead and zine distriet and exists, if at all, only in small quantities in the northeast- ern part of the state. There is still a possibility, but not a probability, that thicknesses of this material sufficient to furnish small supplies of oil and gas may be found in that part of the state. ee ee eee - PAPERS ON GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY — ~ 391 6. Platteville Limestone. The upper part of this formation in the northwestern part of the state also sometimes contains very thin seams of the oil rock, while the lower part of the formation is dolomitic and more porous. Rocks of this same age have furnished large quantities of oil and gas in both Indiana and Ohio, but not in Illinois. Geological Structure. The northeastern part of the state consists of a low monocline dipping very gently to the east or a little south of east, and is the eastern limb of the main structural axis of the state, i. e., the LaSalle anticline. Local irregularities may, and probably do, occur in this monocline, but in order to furnish proper structures for the accumulation of oil and gas there should be well defined domes. While such structures may possibly exist, they have not yet been found and their locations, if they do oceur, would be attended with much difficulty and uncertainty because of the heavy cov- ering of drift in most of the district. Sandstone lenses would also be very difficult to locate. Well borings. Mention has already been made of a number of shallow wells which have obtained gas from the glacial drift or from the upper part of the Niagara limestone. Large numbers of deep borings for artesian water both to the St. Peter sandstone and the Potsdam sandstone,—the two main agquifiers of the district,—have been made. Many of these wells have penetrated one or more of the horizons noted above, and most of these _ wells furnish fresh water of good quality, while a few are somewhat charged with salts, but none-have found the decidedly briny waters which are so commonly as- sociated with oil and gas. SUMMARY Summing up the above, it may be said that small local supplies of gas ean be looked for in the drift and in the upper part of, and perhaps at the base of, the Niagara limestone, but the chances of finding large amounts of either oil or gas in these horizons are not encouraging. a PT \ <9 > ee Lae a a y y mart ' ‘ AA ip Sa AMIR em iy he ie? Ad ade oP Poe es y ne ae ae Ae: See Ce Be CY ns Cs While possibly structures favorable to the acer of oil and gas may be found i in the northeastern ] if located, would carry considerable dante ae oil or gas. Thus the district as a whole offers very encouragement to prospecting for oil and gas, and chances for success in such prospecting are very small, while the chances for failure are very large. : - MAN AND TOPOGRAPHY IN SOUTHWESTERN WISCONSIN W. O. Buancuarp, Untversiry oF In.rois The topography of southwestern Wisconsin, south of the Wisconsin River and west of the glaciated section, is in marked contrast to that farther east. The first is _ eharacterized by a rough, maturely dissected surface with I TT te eRe, ey ee eee ee A vip Ay f r 7 ¥ Q ™ TT ve ep om CrOupueri es a <« - i 7 , i ¥ precipitous slopes and ecastellated rocks; the second by gently rolling topography with the rounded hills, gentle slopes and shallow valleys typical of a recently glaciated region. Within the district itself the degree of dissection is not uniform. Roughly parallel to, and about 10 to 12 miles south of the Wisconsin River is the Military Ridge. It represents the crest of the Galena Trenton cnuesta. The escarpment slope of the cuesta drops off rapidly from the Ridge to the flood plain of the Wisconsin River 500 feet below. On the opposite side the back slope dips gently southward to the Wisconsin-Illinois state line -about 35 miles away. This latter slope is about one- fourth the former and the dissection of the surface is, therefore, correspondingly less. Of the various geographical factors which have oper- ated to differentiate man’s activities in this region as a whole from those in the region to the east, as well as those on the escarpment from those on the back slope, topography has by all odds been the most important. Differences of climate, position and resources are negli- gible in comparison with those of relief. The handicap of a maturely dissected terrain is felt directly or indirectly by all the inhabitants and in all occupations. Along two lines—communications and agri- cultural activities—the influence is most marked. Some of these are indicated below. Because of the geographical location of southwestern Wisconsin on an air line between the great transporta- tion centers of Chicago and the Twin Cities, one would expect it to be on the line of the great transcontinental = 3 am = ay 394 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE route. However, the topography of the region repels rather than invites the great trunk routes, and they bend ~~ to avoid it, leaving this section an island in the stream of traffic which sweeps by on either side. As a result the railroad service here is typical of branch lines— second rate rolling stock and limited accommodations in general. In the matter of highways, rough topography has placed a heavy burden in the cost of construction, oper- ation and maintenance as compared with the glaciated counties immediately to the east.* By selecting items of construction which bear intimate relations to topog- raphy such as the cost of (1) surveying, (2) grading, (3) bridges and culverts, and (4) guard rail, some idea may be gained of how real an expense these communities are put to in road construction. For the items named the difference in cost of construction of the state aid highways from 1914-1917 inclusive averages $1,531.73 per mile of road greater than in the level counties to the east. This is added cost due, not to greater expense in unit cost of materials, but to greater mileage of guard rail, more bridges, more grading and greater difficulty in surveying. The total additional cost for these 4 items for the state aid roads built during this period was al- most $25,000 for three counties. The absence of gravel in this region, so common as mounds and ridges in glaciated sections, has resulted in a large proportion of the roads remaining unsurfaced. Of the state aid road constructed in this region from 1912-1917 (202 miles) about 1/3 (35%) was hard sur- faced. The glaciated counties built in the same period twice the mileage and hard surfaced over 9/10 of the toval: = Important as is this excessive initial cost, it is, of course, in the time and energy required to transport goods over such inferior roads as well as in the high cost * Grant, Iowa, and Lafayette counties in southwestern Wisconsin are compared with Rock, Columbia and Jefferson counties, the nearest counties on the east wholly glaciated. ** Wisconsin Highway Commission Reports. ae a Oe ee EE a ee Te ee Te ee Se ee ee eee, ew Pe Te Ee ee ee eo an siti by he PAPERS ON GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY 395 _ of maintenance that the burden bears most heavily. And it must be remembered that this region is almost entirely agricultural where commodities to be moved are heavy and comparatively cheap. Let us now turn to the effect of topography upon the utilization of the land. Conspicuous examples illustrat- ing their intimate relationship may be found within the region itself in contrasting conditions upon the escarp- ment and back slope of the cuesta. Thus we find that the back slope in proportion to its size had, because of its more favorable relief, 50% more of its total land classed as improved. While the aver- age farm was smaller by 37.5 acres, its value, equipped, was about 75% greater and the farmer’s income was esti- mated at about 1/3 more than on the escarpment. Chiefly because of its more favorable topography specializa- tion* in corn was 21% higher on the back slope, and since corn growing is aauAlly associated with swine and butter production, specialization in these two ran 200% and 100% higher respectively. The dairy speciality of the escarpment, on the other hand, with its relative sear- city in corn and hogs, turns to cheese, in which its spe- cialization ran 30% higher. And finally, because of its greater agricultural pro- ductivity, we have, on the back slope, better social and economic conditions being maintained in a population twice as dense as on the rougher escarpment. * The degree of specialization is obtained by taking the square root of the production per capita and producticn per acre of improved land.” B. H. Hibbard. ee ge ea Bee GD” a Ee St A OS eel Ge ee ee SS Saag == Peat = it = perseeee ey at = a Bape aie ee er et = a +s > & 396 _ ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE _ FOSSIL FLORA OF BRAIDWOOD, ILLINOIS A. C. Not, Untversrry or Cuicaco Braidwood is situated fifty-nine miles southeast of Chi- cago on the Chicago and Alton Railroad. Two miles northeast of the Chicago and Alton Station is located a medium sized coal mine which was still working before _ the beginning of the strike, and which it is to be hoped _ will continue to be active for a long time to come after the strike is settled. It is the last coal mine in Mining Dis- trict No. 1 (Longwall) which contains large numbers of excellent plant impressions. The owners, the Skinner — brothers, are very friendly toward collectors, and the active member of the firm, Mr. David Skinner, together < 4 with his mine manager, Mr. William Oswald, cordially welcome and generously treat all serious-minded collec- tors of fossil plants who visit their mine. They receive every year several times, large and small geology classes from the University of Chicago, and give them every facility for studying their mine and their fossils. The author takes great pleasure in acknowledging his indebt- edness to these two men. The log of Skinner mine No. 2, the mine in question, is lost, but the log of the Maltby mine, located in the next section east, and abandoned in 1887, is still at hand. Ac- cording to it, the workable coal seam begins at a depth of 48 ft.,4in. This seam is 40 inches thick, with 20 inches of fire clay below it. Under this fire clay lies another coal seam 9 inches in thickness, and under it are 18 in. of fire clay. Above the workable coal seam is a layer of shale of a thickness of 25 ft., 4 in., above which follow 8 ft. of sandstone, 8 ft. of blue clay, 6 ft. of gravel, and 1 ft. of soil. The fossil plants occur in a zone of about 6 ft. in the shale, beginning immediately above the workable coal seam. They are most numerous next to the coal. The fossils appear in either calcareous concretions em- bedded in the shale, or as impressions directly in the shale. ? The shale of Braidwood consists of various species of Calamites, Annularia, especially A. Sphenophylloides, aie i wal vr ee ee ee ee es ee ee ee Lae uy { g Bis idodendron, Sigillaria, Ulodendron, Stigmaria, Sphe- _ nophyllum, especially S. marginatum, Peeopteris, es- pecially P. unita and P. eHlona. Alethopteris, especially A. lonchitica, Callipteris, especially C. Sullivanti, Neu- orpteris, especially hirsuta, and various types of Sphe- nopteris, Odontopteris, and Palmatopteris. Also various seeds of Cycodofilieales, like Trigonocarpus, and leaves of Cordaites are frequent. The flora of Braidwood resembles closely the famous deposits of the Mazon Creek and Coal City, which are situated in the neighborhood. It is different from that of Colchester and Murphysboro, Ill., which also belong to horizons similar to those of Braidwood. If we compare the Braidwood flora with the standard ‘deposits of Pennsylvania and of Europe, we come to the conclusion that it corresponds to the lower Alleghany formation of Pennsylvania (Kitanning), and to the upper Westphalien and lower Stephanian of western Europe. The horizon of Mazon Creek was usually con- sidered as lying at the basis of the Carbondale section of the Pennsylvania formation of Illinois immediately above coal No. 2. Since lately the correlation of [llinoisian coal seams has become questioned, it may be wise to postpone a defi- nite stratigraphic assignment of the Braidwood flora un- til the time when the horizons of the coal measures of Llli- nois are again definitely fixed. ya) det shes ae hs he aed “ 4 b " ¥ ps i m Pie i ds \ P| sat |? oe 398 ILLINOIS. STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE NOTES ON THE WATERLOO ANTICLINE J. Everts Lamar, State GEoLocicaL Survey, URBANA The Waterloo anticline is located between the towns of. Columbia and Waterloo, in Monroe County, Illinois, about 28 miles southeast of St. Louis. The structure was first worked out by Dr. Stuart Weller in connection with his geologic mapping of Monroe County for the Illinois State Geological Survey. In the fall of 1920 a heavy oil was encountered in the Kimmswick limestone in a well drilled for water by the Waterloo Condensed Milk Com- pany. Shortly afterwards two press bulletins were is- sued by the State Geological Survey, the first by Mr. H. KE. Culver, and the second by Mr. L. A. Mylius, in which the structure was delineated and recommendations made for drilling. This is the most recent case where the Sur- vey has called attention to favorable field conditions and directed successful exploration. Up to the present time there have been 55 wells drilled on the anticline, and of this number 33 are producers, 12 dry with a showing, 3 incomplete, and7 dry. Wells with good locations on structure come in at from 75 to 125 barrels, but soon drop off to 25 or 50 barrels per day. They do, however, make good consistent pumpers, and because of the nature of the pay are likely to be long lived. THE STRUCTURE OF THE WATERLOO ANTICLINE The structure is that of a long, narrow, sharp crested. asymmetrical anticline, extending approximately from north to south, with its maximum width of about one mile near the north end, and tapering abruptly to the north, but extending as a long, narrow fold for about 314 miles to the south. The total length of the anticline is about five miles. The west flank is by far the steeper side with an aver- age dip, as indicated by structure contours on the Kimmswick limestone, of about 10° to the west. In the vicinity of the producing area it is cut by a normal fault with its upthrow side to the east, which probably dies out into a monocline to the south. This fault brings inclined ee eos oe ae Se 7) ail ea Saree te Oe ed eee Le 5D. ae <= _ PAPERS ON GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY 399 Warsaw beds in contact with almost horizontal Chester beds. Its presence is further substantiated by a well drilled apparently on the fault plane or close to it, which encountered considerable ‘‘creviced rock’? and clear gs transparent quartz, as well as a rather unusual succession of limestones. The east side of the anticline is much less steep than the west, and has an average dip, as indicated by struct- ure maps, of about 4° to the east. THE PRODUCTIVE AREAS The greater part of the production in this field comes from a tract about a mile long and a third of a mile wide, which comprises the top of the anticline. Most of this area has already been drilled, but there is a possibility of the extension of production somewhat farther to the north and south, particularly along the axis of the anti- cline. ‘ There has been a little production about three miles south of the main pool in section 24 on what appears to be a narrow terrace, or slight flattening of the pitch of the main anticline. The wells located on the top of this terrace come in at from 5 to 10 barrels, and those slight- ly off on the sides, though dry in the Kimmswick, show gas in small quantities in what is probably the Keokuk- Burlington. Between the large and small producing areas and also south of the latter, all wells drilled on the axis of the anticline have showed oil, but none in sufficient quanti- ties to make profitable wells. THE GEOLOGIC COLUMN The geologic column in this area is relatively simple, but some interesting features are brought out in studies of the well cuttings. The formations may be described briefly as follows: ; THE MISSISSIPPIAN SYSTEM St. Louis Limestone: The St. Louis limestone is a fine grained, dense, hard, compact rock which locally contains numerous nodules 400 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE zs of chert. It is entirely eroded from the top of the anti- a cline and is exposed well down on the flanks. The maxi- mum thickness shown in well records is 185 feet. Salem Limestone: The Salem limestone, like the overlying St. Louis, is 4 also eroded from the top of the antiéline. Where ex- posed, it consists of a fine and coarse grained, moderately | hard, gray-white and speckled limestone. Locally it contains chert, and is commonly oolitic. As noted from well records its thickness varies up to 140 feet. Warsaw Limestone and Shale: The Warsaw outcrops on the flanks of the anticline, but it is entirely eroded from the crest. It consists of gray and buff, crystalline limestone, moderately hard, and locally argillaceous, and interbedded with thin lay- ers of shale. In the upper beds of the formation Spirifer washingtonensis and Productus magnus are abundant. Its thickness ranges up to 125 feet. Keokuk-Burlington Limestone: The Keokuk-Burlington is the oldest formation ex- posed on the anticline. It consists of coarsely erystal- line, or granular, white limestone with much interbedded blue-white chert. Its thickness varies from a few feet on the top of the anticline to about 240 feet well down on the flanks. Kinderhook Limestone and Shale: The Kinderhook formation has two phases, the upper shaly phase and the lower limy phase. The upper phase is not every where present; in fact it is more commonly absent than present, and so far as known does not out- crop in the vicinity of the anticline. It appears more commonly in the logs of wells drilled near or on the axis of the anticline, and has a thickness of from 32 to 110 feet, with an average of 70 feet for the eters wells in which it is logged. As indicated by the disparity between the maximum and minimum thicknesses, the shaly portion of the Kin- Te een e ie ee a ’ eT ea eee ee rei a apo ee ie ; F ‘ i ‘ ’ a, au ae Tien ih 4 Ne ' Le lg 3 he ee + cae * PAPERS ON GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY 401 derhook is largely eroded and the declivities of the erod- ed surfaces are apparently abrupt and sharp since a hori- zontal distance of a few hundred feet may make differ- ences of 60 or more feet in the thickness of the shale or may even account for its entire disappearance. The lower phase, the Fern Glen limestone, averages about 30 feet in thickness, but with extremes as low as 11 and as high as 60 feet. The limestone is coarse grained and of variegated shades of brown-red, dull red- purple, pink, green, and white. The red and purple limestones have a dull, dead lustre, while the remaining pink, green, and white have the vitreous lustre of erys- talline calcite. The red color of the limestone is prob- ably due to minute particles of red ferruginous shale and hematite. Locally the Fern Glen contains chert, crystal- line calcite, and commonly the top or medial portions contain thin beds of red, gray, or greenish-gray shale. Where the formation is thick, however, it is roughly divisible into the upper and lower red limestone beds, with intermediate beds of gray or green shale. In the vicinity of the anticline, the drillers estimate the interval between the top of the Fern Glen and the top of the Kimmswick as 200 feet. As a rule this ap- plies to the interval between the top of the ‘‘red rock”’ and the first showing of oil below the ‘‘black shale’’. Logs bear this out, and in almost every ease the interval between the two horizons mentioned is from 200 to 220 feet. This is rather surprising when it is remembered that the Devonian in this area is unconformable above and below, and varies from a few feet up to 75 feet in thickness, and that the Trenton cap, the Fernvale, also is not of constant thickness. THE DEVONIAN SYSTEM Judging from the number of logs which do not re. cord the Devonian limestone, it is not every where pres- ent. Whether it has been logged with the Fern Glen or really is absent can not be stated definitely. However, in the 20 logs in which it is recorded, it has a range in thickness of from 20 to 75 feet and averages 40 feet. — ns ae z til ¥ ed M4 a eu Wades y aes SoM TO : iy Yen ee 402 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE The limestone is gray-white, coarse orained, and moder- ately hard, and is uneconformable with the beds above and below. THE ORDOVICIAN SYSTEM Maquoketa shale: ’ The Maquoketa is a dense, dark gray shale. Its thick- ness, as indicated from well logs, averages about 85 feet on the top of the anticline. Well down on the flanks of the anticline its thickness is as great as 145 feet. Fernvale limestone or ‘‘Trenton Cap’’: Figures on the thickness of the Fernvale are very dif- ficult to obtain, primarily because it is followed below by a limestone, with which it is commonly included by the drillers. This is not surprising because locally the top of the Kimmswick ‘‘tightens up’’ so as to be difficult to dis- tinguish from the Fernvale without careful examination. Tlowever, from the best available information, the aver- age thickness of the Fernvale may be considered about 12 feet. The minimum thickness noted is 2 feet, in the log of a well drilled approximately on the axis ) of the anticline, and the maximum thickness of 29 feet, somewhat off on the east side of the anticline. The Fern- vale is a dense, fine grained, hard, brittle, thin bedded, white limestone. Kimmswick limestone (‘‘Trenton’’): | The Kimmswick is a coarse grained, moderately por- : ous, coarsely crystalline, white limestone, and tests above : 95 per cent calcium carbonate. When bailed out from a well it resembles very closely a true sand, and is so called by the drillers. Particularly is this so when the lime- stone does not contain oil, and is therefore pure white. The coarsely crystalline character and porosity make . the Kimmswick a good oil reservoir, though locally it is rather ‘‘tight’’, particularly in its upper portion, and well down on the sides of the anticline. The top of the Kimmswick is irregular and unconformable with the formation above. 2’ 2’. Se) eee 547% Ev = a *. mes Delt THE WELLS In general, the wells in this area are drilled to a depth of between 475 and 550 feet, depending on the elevation of the curb of the well. The greatest difficulty in drilling is encountered in going through the cherty Keokuk-Bur- lington, and in some eases through the Moquoketa, which breaks up easily but will not mix with the water in the ~ hole and is therefore difficult to drill through. At the present time wells are put down in from a week to 10 days, barring delays due to the failure of the drilling machinery. The general procedure is to drill the wells until the sand begins to show the first indications of water. On the crest of the anticline this means a drilling of about 50 feet into the Trenton before water is struck, while in producing wells off the axis water is usually encountered at about 30 feet. There are apparently no formations which are consistent aquifers in any one particular horizon. Parts of the Warsaw and Keokuk- Burlington, however, are reported by drillers to be ecrev- iced, and from such portions of these formations there _is the greatest influx of water into the hole above the Maquoketa. THE SOURCE OF THE OIL In all probability the thick Trenton limestone and the Maquoketa shale are the formations in this area from which the oil has come. It is not an-uncommon thing to encounter a strong odor of oil or even a little black oil in drilling through the Maquoketa shale. While this fact in no way proves that the Maquoketa was one of the sources of the oil in the Kimmswick it at least indicates that the Maquoketa may well have furnished some of the oil now found in the Kimmswick. The oil which has accumulated in the Waterloo anti- cline probably migrated largely from the east and south- east. The Valmeyer anticline shuts off migration from the south and southwest, a syncline between the Water- loo anticline and the Mississippi River bluffs excludes extensive migration from the west, and to the north other smaller folds probably have acted as barriers prevent- ing marked migration from that direction. PAPERS ON GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY 403 - rd ee Rs A sae SS bay : ee residue is removed, however, the remaining ae gives ae very high yield of the lighter distillates. It is black oil and contains a relatively small amount of gas and sul- phur. The oil is steamed and then run into tank cars = in which it is transported to the oil refineries at Wood — River. The production at the present time is about three _ tank cars per day, and the er price of the os is $1.7 5: ae per barrel. ae PS ee |S he Oe lee = Te ee Bl ee cl i lh ee el i * PAPERS ON GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY 405 DESCRIPTION OF A BOULDER NEAR THE SOUTH- ERN LIMIT OF GLACIATION IN ILLINOIS CuarRENCE Bonnett, TownsHie Hien ScHoo., Harrispurc, IL. - The boulder to be described is of significance only on account of its size and of its location near the southern limit of glaciation in America. The published maps of the glaciated areas show ‘‘farthest south’’ in glacial movements to be in Saline county on a line curving southward to follow approximately the east and west trend of the Saline river, which in turn follows rather _ closely the northern base of the Ozark hills. It should be noted that boulders are not a prominent feature of the southern Illinois drift as they are north of the Shelbyville moraine in the later deposits. The earlier geologists mention granite boulders in Saline county as large as the two fists, but I have not been able to fmd specimens during a residence of eighteen years. It has been necessary to import a few from the old home farm in central Illinois for class room demonstrations. Reports from students, of what was supposed in their neighborhood to be a ‘‘meteorite’’ lying in a field just southeast of the village of Carrier Mills, led me to this boulder. It lies on a low ridge in a cultivated field owned by Mr. Marshall Thompson who lives on the place. The exact location is near the middle of the south line of the SW14 of the NE of Sec. 2 Twp. 10 South, Range 10 East of the 3d Principal Meridian. About ten years ago, Mr. Thompson, while plowing deeper than usual, scraped the top of the stone which was covered with earth. Curiosity led him to uncover it and, later, to dig under and set two sticks of dynamite with which he raised it to the surface, or nearly so, at the same time breaking it into three pieces. It differed so much from the ordinary stratified rock fragments which are more or less abund- ant in the county that the ‘‘meteoric’’ theory of its origin arose. In fact, people were found who ‘‘had seen it fall’? sometime.in the dim past. Mr. Thompson has Re aN Ng I cee Ee eC ER » ~ as * 5 a AB Shiite ode bets, ry iy oh Pee elite Pe Tok ate teal lets Be Soe igre ey? he ena a > ite “ 406 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ‘ the smallest of the three fragments in his yard. I have © samples from this smaller one and pictures of the two larger ones which now lie partly out of the ground. The part of the field where the boulder lies is slightly higher than the part to the north. Also, the ground slopes gently to both the east and west and more abrupt- ly to the south toward the edge of what was once a great | cypress swamp extending two miles farther south to the ~ Saline river. It is but a few hundred yards to the edge of the swamp. Beyond the Saline, the foothills of the Ozarks begin within a mile or two, and the altitude in- creases. rapidly within the next two miles. There seems ~ to be no possibility that the ice sheet could have extended more than four or five miles to the south of this boulder ; and I have found nothing in the nature of the soil or topography to indicate that it even went beyond the present location of this rock, though it could have done so as has been indicated. That is, it could have gone four or five miles farther at this particular point without the necessity of climbing the mountain to the south. The surface soil about the boulder is deseribed by Mr. J. EK. Whitchurch, Saline County Farm Advisor, as a- yellow or yellowish-gray silt loam such as is common to much of the hill land of the county. Mr. Thompson says that the soil immediately surrounding the rock at the very top of this low ridge will raise more kinds of crops than will the soil on the slopes but a few feet lower down. This lower slope soil which evidently underlies that at the crest is very acid and is described as a deep gray silt loam. The same kind of soil outcrops along the road- way and ditches to the northeast of Mr. Thompson’s farm. Mr. Thompson says that a well dug and drilled about 200 feet south of the boulder came to the No. 5 coal at a depth of about 45 feet. He thinks that shale and sandstone would be found at about 20 feet below the boulder, basing his estimate on their known depth at other places near. The elevation above sea level is ap- proximately 380 feet. The stone is a light red granite. Careful estimates of the size, made after some excavating, and of the density Ae of Ennai See sae give 4,725 Seat as the approximate weight of the three fragments. There are no evidences of striation or other glacial marks. See he x E. ae Be & i tac ee The size, position, and elevation of the boulder are such that there is no possibility of its having been trans- _ported from its original bed except by natural forces. It should be of interest on account of its nearness to the _ southern limit of glaciation in America. There is strong probability that it may remain as a monument marking the point of the most southern migration of its kind. 408 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE PLEISTOCENE MOLLUSCA FROM THE VICINITY OF JOLIET, ILLINOIS.* Frank Cotuins Baker, Curator, Museum or Naturan History, Unrversiry oF Inurnors Several collections of Pleistocene fossil mollusks from the vicinity of Joliet have recently been submitted for study, which are of unusual interest from the standpoint of geological and geographical distribution. All of the deposits are Post-Glacial in age and represent several stages in the history of Glacial Lake Chicago. It is, of — course, difficult or impossible to exactly correlate these deposits with the lake stages, but the contained life in- _ dicates that the lake was populated from the Des and Illinois valleys. MATERIAL FROM THE FAIR GROUND QUARRY, JOLIET This material was collected by Mr. James H. Ferriss, of the Joliet Daily News, a veteran collector of mollusks, both recent and fossil, and represents several years work. — It is thus as complete a collection as could well be made — and probably includes about all of the species possible to be found in these strata. Fifty-six species are in- cluded, of which eight are bivalves, six water breathing gastropods, 19 pulmonate aquatic gastropods, and 23 land gastropods, altogether forming one of the largest aggregations of Pleistocene Mollusca from one place. One variety is recorded as new, a species listed from Pleistocene deposits for the first time, and the distribu- tion of several recently described species and varieties is enlarged. Mr. Ferriss thus describes the stratigraphy of the de- posits at this locality: ‘¢ Above the limestone on the east side, about the cen- ter of the prehistoric pond, the marl is nearly pure and of a thickness of from six to ten feet. Then is found a bed of peat with stumps and cones of Arbor Vitae and White Cedar, which do not grow within many miles of * Contribution from Museum of Natural History, University of Illi- nois, No. 26. PAPERS ON GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY 409 Joliet. Marl and sand and clay adulterate the peat in cer- tain layers, while in others it is almost pure peat. The material above the limestone measures in all upwards of 20 feet in thickness and contains shells all the way through, the water shells largely in the lower levels and the land shells in the upper strata.’’ The lower strata containing the marl probably repre- sent a stage when the valley was largely filled with water from the Chicago outlet and there was little territory for land mollusks to occupy. Later, when the outlet be- came reduced to a narrower river, or perhaps during some of the low water intervals between the different lake levels, land mollusks came and took possession of territory above the river. It is probable that the lower strata which contain such an abundance of fresh water mollusks represent the earlier stages of Glacial Lake Chicago, perhaps as early as the Calumet or even follow- ing the Glenwood, for many hardy mollusks, such as many of the species represented are, probably followed the ice very closely, and there is no reason why the water at Joliet, 30 or 40 miles away from the ice, could not have supported some kind of a snail fauna. A huge boulder overlying a bed of Unios in the bed of Wilmette Bay at- tests the presence of icebergs in Glacial Lake Chicago when an abundant fauna flourished at Chicago. (Life of the Pleistocene, Plate VIII). We must consider, I think, that this life above the limestone in the Joliet quarry represents the biota that migrated up the [linois and Desplaines rivers and reached Glacial Lake Chicago by way of the outlet via Joliet and Lemont. This time, therefore, could not be later than the Toleston, and was more likely during late Glenwood time, for a consider- able fauna has been found in Chicago that lies between the Glenwood and Calumet stages (Bowmanville Low Water Stage). Of this biota, at least a dozen species are the same as those at Joliet. It is probable that these different stages could be worked out if sections were available, such as were studied during the exeavation of the large drainage canals in Chicago. At Lemont, above Joliet, sections made with a post-hole auger showed 410 i ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE about seven feet of marl and Tene avine the Nissan limestone, both the marl and peat containing an abund- ance of molluscan material. Collections made in three places below Chicago indi- cate rather clearly that the Chicago biota migrated up the Illinois and Desplaines rivers. A comparison of col- lections made at Morris, Joliet, and Lemont’ with those of Lake Chicago indicate this migration route. The Joliet material contains more species because more thoroughly collected. The other localities would doubt- less yield additional species with more time for collect- ing. The approximation of the Joliet species with those found in Glacial Lake Chicago at Chicago strikingly in- dicates that the Joliet fauna provided a reservoir from which the Chicago region was populated. The Morris material, though not large in number of species, contains some critical species which also occur in the deposits farther up the river. Additional collections from marl and peat deposits in the Illinois and Desplaines valleys will add more species records and strengthen the chain of migration. The following table graphically shows the relation of the Joliet species to the biota of the other deposits along these rivers: Distribution of Aquatic Species in Different Localities Species Morris Joliet Lemont Chicago Sphaerium sulcatwm 2... .<:.. scorns > Oe MAY |: x Sphaerium rhomboideum ... ....+. SRL tier Da fea x MUSCUWUNT: SECUTE Foaac ces Osa me n wet DS Se one ey eee x PUSTOUU Mg MOLILO LLCS > stan hee. miei Katt eae x Pisidium compressum ..... x x x x PASidvane= DORDCTCWIUME. Suaczc. cee: = een Mas Ry riot x PUSTAUUT TULTMVUSCUUIIID, aateteiette.) a bce OX, oe a in atte x Pisidium. Ssplendiqunim, 2 ase en ane x x x Fresh water snails (Gastropods) Valavia tricarinata ........ x x x x ViGlUGtA= TEIOUSTt PF eres tesa ee ate be Ko oC Sas 2 ee SPOMOGEODS Ss LUDUGUE UM aratete tials see bene XS WSS Le Bh ee AMNiCola. leIgntent sve. 2%. x x x x Amnicola lustrica gelida.... BK xX x x Pulmonate Gastropods, aquatic PHYSO WUNLCIUMOILES, abate site sya otis cote x x x (PRYSO OUCINGS sac chtarc de ee te ae xX xX x PIGNOTUISM LIP LOLUIS Hae ae eae Lee x x xX Planorbis antrosus ........- x Xx x x Planorbis antrosus striatus. x x x x 1. Made by Mr. H. E. Culver; see Journ. Geol., Vol. XXX, p. 58, 1922. 2. Baker, Life of the Pleistocene, p. 56, 1920. BL Oe ee a ae ee eae Pe ee Pe et "PAPERS ‘ON GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY 42 Distribution of aa Gpcties in Different Localities—Concluded a $: rep es Species Morris Joliet Lemont Chicago eS _ Planorbis campanulaiu a Se BOTTNSSES oe oss oe eee x x x eee ee Plaworbis campanulatus .... ...... wear = ae X = = ee Pilaser his arcticus.-s .'. 5st 8 _ -. Planorbis dejfiecius ......7.. x _.. Planorbis aitissimus ....... x _.- Planorbis parvus urbanensis ...... sFerrissid paraHel® © 2222022523 -s : = - Lyumndea stagnalis appressa ...... a PACE “NGIdEmant. 2-2 LS GElig nm , RAVE. TS nah cs yw ai eat <_ i ty aa vi 5 or i Pte be se a "% vrd fs) ike ’ tr ene) ¥ » Bid te BE eee Wey bie oe file ba te eS a Oe ae 6. 418 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. Planorbis parvus urbanensis, rare. Physa warrenana, rare. Galba obrussa eaigua, rare. BIVALVES (PELECYPODS) Sphaerium rhomboideum, rare. Pisidium splendidulum, not common. Two species of land shells, starred in the above list, occur in the Fisher collection that were not included in the Ferriss collection. On the other hand, 35 species oceur in the Ferriss collection that are not in the Fisher collection. Mr. Ferriss collected the material many years ago when exposures were better than at present and also gave much more time to collecting, visiting the quarry many times. The marl material is commented upon on a previous page. STATION NO. 2 Locality: Bank of DuPage River, 8. W. 14 of N. W. ts Sec., T. 35 N., R. 9 E., Joliet Quadrangle. Material: Alluvial clay. Stratigraphic horizon: Pre-recent. MOLLUSCAN LIFE (LAND PULMONATES) Polygyra clausa (Say), rare, Succinea ovalis Say, common. STATION NO. 3. Locality: South edge of southern slough, SH. 14 of SW. 14, See. 31, T. 36 N., BR. 10, B. Material: Alluvial clay. : Stratigraphic horizon: Pre-recent. MOLLUSCAN LIFE (AQUATIC PULMONATES ) Planorbis trivolvis pseudotrivolvis Baker, not com- mon. Planorbis parvus Say, not common. Physa gyrina Say, not common. Galba elodes Say, not common. These mollusks are such as live in swampy pools or sloughs where the water is more or less stagnant. - PAPERS ON GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY 419 4 STATION NO. 4. Locality: Bank of Du Page River, SE. 44 of SW. 4, im Sec. 16, T. 35 N., R. 9 E. : Material: Alluvial clay. x Stratigraphic horizon: Pre-recent. . MOLLUSCAN LIFE Goniobasis livescens Menke, common. Valvata tricarinata Say, rare. of Sphaerium stamineum (Conrad), common. Planorbis trivolvis Say, rare. Planorbis antrosus Conrad, rare. Planorbis crista Linn., rare. Polygyra thyroides (Say), rare, young. cae This is a river fauna and is of the same general charac- ae ter as the river fauna of today in this region. The sin- gle specimen of Planorbis crista is peculiar in lacking the ribs which are characteristic of that species. This is the only specimen of this form observed among hun- dreds of specimens examined, both recent and fossil. STATION NO. 6. Locality: SW. end of southern slough, NW. 14 of SE. 4, Sec. 11, T. 35 N., R. 9 EH. x Material: Alluvial clay. ; 2 Stratigraphic horizon: Pre-recent. MOLLUSCAN LIFE ¥. Planorbis campanulatus Say, rare, but one broken specimen found. ae Planorbis antrosus Conrad, rare, one immature specimen. A Planorbis deflectus Say, common, the keeled peri- : phery not as acute as in some recent forms. > Planorbis exacuous Say, not common, and typical. Planorbis crista Linn., not common, with sharp, well ‘- defined ribs. Planorbis altissimus Baker, abundant, somewhat resembling some forms of parvus. : Amnicola lustrica Pilsbry, rare and typical. oe ——— © “er 1 a ee ee ad) ees eS ie ee ie ts Wit Ss tema i a eee, i i : ' 420 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Amunicola leightoni Baker, not common; somewhat resembling some forms of limosa. Amnicola walker. Pilsbry, common and typical. Valvata tricarmata (Say), common and sharply tri- carinate. Physa warreniana Lea, rare, but one young speci- men found. Galba elodes jolietensis (Baker), rare, one young specimen found. Pisidium splendidulum (Sterki), rare. The above fauna is characteristic of a lake or large pond and not of a swamp, and probably represents a former large body of water connecting one of the stages of Glacial Lake Chicago. It is related in a general way to the fauna of the marls of the Joliet quarry. STATION NO. 7. Locality: Bank of DuPage River, SE. 144 of NW. 4, sec. 10, T. 35 N., BR. 9 E. Material: Alluvial clay. Stratigraphic horizon: Pre-recent. MOLLUSCAN LIFE AQUATIC Gontobasis livescens (Menke), common. Campeloma subsolidum (Anthony), rare. Sphaerium stamineum (Conrad), rare. LAND Pyramidula solitaria (Say), rare. Pyramidila alternata (Say), rare. Polygyra hirsuta (Say), rare. This is a river fauna, the land mollusks being washed in from the bank. The specimens are all normal and the same species now live in the vicinity. = ee ee ee Se ee oR, SO ee FC a ee PAPERS ON GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY 421 NOTE ON THE OCCURRENCE OF FUSULINAS IN _ THE PENNSYLVANIAN ROCKS OF ILLINOIS. Harotp E. Cunver, State GeotocicaL Survey, Ursana 1. Brief résumé of literature: Probably the earliest reference to Fusulinas in the Pennsylvanian of Llinois is found in the reports pre- pared under the direction of A. H. Worthen. These re- cord a large form, now known as Fusulina secalica, Say, in the rocks outcropping along Embarrass River in Cum- berland County. There are references also to another and smaller fusulina called Fusulina ventricosa, cylin- drica, var. but now known as Girtyina ventricosa, which was found in the limestone cap rock over No. 6 coal in Fulton County, in St. Clair County, and other districts farther south. Udden reported Fusulinas from two zones in the rocks of the Peoria quadrangle. The lower of these was the limestone capping No. 6 coal and the other was the marl at the base of the Lonsdale limestone about 100 feet higher. The fossil in the lower zone was called Fusulina secalica, Say, and its abundance was noted. The Fusul- ina of the upper stratum was also listed as Fusulina secalica, Say, but with a parenthetical note suggesting an easily recognized distinction between the forms. Two forms in similar relations were reported from the Belleville-Breese area. Here the zones were but half as far apart (50 feet), and the distinction between the Fusul- inas was apparent. The upper was doubtfully referred to Fusulina secalica, Say, with a statement that it was a long, slender type, ‘‘quite different from the form of Fusulina found in the roof limestone over the Herrin coal’’. The later references to Fusulinas in [Illinois are in large part records of new occurrences of the Fusulina of the No. 6 horizon which were referred without particular investigation to the Girtyina ventricosa type. SS ar at a 8 OT oO eee eee eee Sui Speers n- 50 ~ - oe s > : oe Mise tects eS aS ee ee Ske >, = Ea Say? a ¥ 422 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 2. Matherville section: During the field work last fall in preparation for a _ report on the coal resources of District IIJ, Fusulinas were obtained from the cap rock of what was reported as No. 1 coal in the Pottsville series. The section at Matherville where the Fusulina lime- stone is well exposed includes about forty feet of sand- stone and sandy shale, with purer shale on top. Below is a dark, massive, argillaceous bed several feet thick, known to the miners as the ‘‘blue rock’’. Below thisis — the two foot, dark, argillaceous limestone which earries Fusulinas and which caps the coal of the region. Beneath ~ the coal, which is here only 30 inches thick, is a sandy shale which grades to sandstone in less than a yard. Lo- cally there are variations from this section. Jn southern Mercer County a second limestone and lower coal appear along Pope Creek. In eastern Rock Island County the upper sandy beds include layers and lenses of flint. In places the limestone cap thins out as though removed by erosion prior to the deposition of the overlying beds. A still more common variation is the presence of a few inches to several feet of shale between the coal and the limestone cap. Disregarding these variations this same section ap- pears in much of the adjoining area. Thus at the Alden Mine at Matherville, at the mines at Cable and Sherrard, at outcrops on Camp Creek in northern Mercer County, and along the Mississippi bluffs west of Andalusia, are found the blue rock, the Fusulina cap rock, and the coal. Eastward the Fusulina limestone is found at Coal Val- ley and both north and west of Geneseo. Following the margin of the Pennsylvanian area southward the Fusul- ina limestone and associated beds are found in Warren, Knox, Fulton, and McDonough counties. The Fusulinas appear to be restricted to the limestone overlying the coal, but are by no means uniformly dis- tributed through even this thin stratum. They are most abundant in the lower part of the bed, although rarely found in the basal six inches. rs dg Ppiecos accepted and endorsed the ‘‘Minimum Standard’’. These include the following: The American Hospital Association. The Canadian Medical Association. The Catholic Hospital Association. The Conference Board of Hospitals, and Homes of the Methodist Church. The Medical and Surgical Section of the American Railroad Association. The Methodist Hospital Association. The Protestant Hospital Association. The American Conference on Hospital Service. We see therefore that this modern movement for hos- pital betterment and classification is not the work of a single organization, but represents the ideas and aims of all the large organizations interested in hospitals. Endorsing the ‘‘Minimum Standard’’ in 1919 Father Chas. B. Moulinier, President of the Catholic Hospital Association, made the following statement: ‘‘I pledge to the American College of Surgeons with my personal honor and all the official capacity I have, that the Cath- olic Association with whatever force and power it has, the clergy of the Catholic Church and that great body of twenty or thirty thousand sisters working in Catholic hospitals are going to co-operate with the College to the highest point.’’ The American College of Surgeons made a survey of all general hospitals of 100 or more beds in the United States and Canada in 1920, and they are now making a survey of all general hospitals between 50 and 100 beds. All hospitals which conform to the ‘‘Minimum Stand- ard’’ will be rated as Class ‘‘A’’. The progress of the movement has been rapid. In 1918, only 89 of the 761 larger general hospitals met the ‘‘Minimum Standard’’. In the next year, 198 ful- filled the requirements. In 1920, 407, and in 1921, 579 or 75% of the larger general hospitals had conformed to this standard. 25% of the 764 smaller hospitals al- ready visited were found to meet the standard. 4 rm 433 In expressing his opinion on the rapidity of this move- ment, President Henry S. Pritchett of the Carnegie Foundation said: ‘‘From coast to coast the idea is changing the conditions in hospitals. Everywhere there is the ferment of development, the activity of improve- ment. In great centers of medical affairs the changes have been startling. In Baltimore, there is not a hospital of 100 beds or more that has not put into effective opera- tion the ‘‘Minimum Standard’’, and in New York and other cities the hospitals have made almost as great an advance. The world of the hospital is changing. An ad- vance normally to be expected in twenty years has come in three.’’ The change in Canada has been just as rapid. In five provinces not a single large hospital remains un- classified. No movement is destined to contribute more to the con- servation of the public health of the country than the hospital standardization movement. In 1917, the records kept in 75% of the hospitals of this country were practically valueless. No examinations were made of the patients on admission. No diagnosis, no family history and no physical examination were «e- corded. Figures from two prominent hospitals prepared on similar cases before and after standardization show that the percentage of operative cases was reduced from 44 to 30% in one hospital, and in another from 62 to 47%, and the mortality was reduced about 1%. This repre- sents the prevention of 15% of unnecessary operations and the saving of one in a hundred of all patients ad- mitted. Again, a comparison of a standardized and a non-stand- ardized hospital in which 100 appendectomies were done showed the following: S$ N.S Complete physical examination and blood count............. 100—14. Cgriseplea TOTES MON oe re ee tia ns wee mre aie ole © ones wn iste bie aici « 41— 2. WRGEEINP tases PeNOFLC. coach su o's o\n © aus om winiw deme cis Stee, 100— 0. PEE Sa DECORA CUS AA Gao o' dls c caminte’s via) A er oh tre g aL v ¥ ae. pee SS » , i Lea ay e eee! whe Sf att) en wey. ue (ee so | 438 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE such as medicine, surgery, and obstetrics; the clinical records of patients, free and pay, to be the THE for such review and analysis. 4. That accurate and complete ease records be ae ten for all patients and filed in an accessible manner in the hospital, a complete case record being one, ex- cept in an emergency, which includes the personal his- tory; the physical examination with clinical, pathologi- eal, and X-Ray findings, the treatment, medical and sur- gical; the medical progress ; the condition on discharge, with final diagnosis; and in case of death, the aOR findings when available. Dd. That clinical laboratory facilities be available for the study, diagnosis, and treatment of patients, these facilities to include at least chemical, bacteriological, — serological, histological, radiographic, and fluoroscopic service in charge of trained technicians. The first rule relates to the organzation of the attend- ing hospital men. The organization of the attending physicians of any hospital, if such organization is neces- sary, ought to be effected among those physicians inde- pendently of the management of the hospital, if it is for their medical uplift. There are certain inherent fundamental rules with which it is necessary for every hospital to compel the medical profession to comply, but it is not necessary for the hospital to enter into an organization with the medi- eal profession to determine these rules, such as those relating to the admissions of infections diseases and the like. The second rule relates to the competence of the at- tending staff. My contention is that whatever relates to the competence of a physician concerns the department of the government which licenses him to practice and does not concern the authorities of the hospital, who often times are laymen and are not competent to pass on the professional qualifications of physicians. The third regulation refers to the supervision of the professional work in the hospital. To justify such super- vision, it must be presumed that the stamp of efficiency PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 439 given a physician by the state is inadequate. From this rule the very delicate question arises as to who is com- petent among the physicians of the community to judge and pass on the efficiency of their confreres. Another difficulty arises: How is the community to be assured that the stamp of approval or disapproval of the com- mittee supervising the work of the physician will not be made according to the selfish interests of the staff? Still another difficulty which arises is, how is such a staff once appointed, to be deposed, or replaced when other better qualified physicians come into the community, or when the acting men grow old and less competent? The third regulation also calls for meetings of the medical men. Such meetings can easily be arranged for under the auspices of the local medical society if that is not already being done, under whose auspices special meetings can be set aside for the review of hospital eases and records, if such meetings are for the best interests of the medical profession. As to the advisabil- ity of reviewing and analyzing clinical records, each phy- sician would know whether or not he was violating the confidence of his patient in so doing, whereas the hos- pital authorities have no way of judging, and have no legal right to permit the information contained in the records of the patients to become the common knowledge of. the medical profession of the community and hence are not in a position to enforce such a rule. The fourth rule is that of compiling of ease records. This requirement is wise and advisable, but not neces- sary in every case to good medical treatment. The char- acter and completeness of such records as well as the fu- ture use of the same are entirely dependent upon the personality of the physician in charge of the case, and are quite foreign to any interest of the hospital authori- ties except in so far as the hospital clerical force is called upon to file and index the records that originate in the hospital. The fifth requirement may or may not be closely re- lated to the hospital management. This is the require- ment for the provision of a clinical laboratory. Sucha ; $65 Pp eee My eee Trey al hi Kita: 440 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE laboratory should be in charge of a medical man. The hospital has two alternatives, the first, to rent space suitable for such facilities to a physician who will under- take to install his own equipment; the second, for the hospital to purchase and install equipment and arrange a suitable basis for the conduct of this department under a competent man. In either case the hospital is only responsible from a financial standpoint, and a physician from a professional standpoint. If the hospital authorities undertake to enforce this standard of the American College of Surgeons they must take the position of self appointed censors of profes- sional men already licensed by the state. With the pos- sible exception of the last one, all the rules of the Mini- mum Standard should be enforced by the state, or by the physicians of the community organized as the County Medical Society; thus relieving the hospital authorities from acting as police of delinquent medical practitioners. In the hope that I may make plain to you the effect of the adoption of this standard, I wish to suggest a classification of hospitals under three types. What I will designate as Type I is necessarily an auto- cratic type of hospital management. The type that I will designate as Type II shows the relation of hospital authorities to the medical profession and to the prospec- tive patient which I believe to be ideal from the stand- point of all concerned, and which is the type of organ- ization of St. John’s Hospital, Springfield, Illinois, which later I wish to discuss in detail. The type which I will designate as Type IIT shows the possibility of hampered relations of hospital management, unfair discrimination against licensed physicians and against prospective pa- tients, when hospital authority is shared with a hospital staff. ; The first type of hospital has for its aim and purpose other functions in addition to the care of the sick of the community. In addition to the work of caring for the sick, some hospitals of Type I function as teaching insti- tutions, in which case the organization must be similar to that of the teaching institutions with which they are PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 441 affliated. Others of the first type, though concerned only with the care of the sick, have their origin and con- trol bound up in Federal, State, County, or Municipal government. A third group of the first type are private hospitals owned and controlled by physicians for the eare of their own patients. Any one group of the first type of hospitals requires a form of organization essentially different from the hos- pital whose function is solely to care for the sick of the community. The first type of hospital charged with a definite pur- pose is usually under control of a director, officer or man- ager who is especially trained to direct the functioning of the hospital along the lines necessary to obtain the end desired. Such an officer is usually found to be a medical man. He is charged not only with the care of the sick but is also responsible for the physical property, and for the professional and moral conduct of the medi- eal and nursing personnel. Such an officer must have definite, limited and lawful authority over the personnel. He therefore builds up an organization which will fune- tion and carry out his ideals of hospital organization and eare of the sick. Thus he will surround himself with “such a personnel as are willing to act in accord with his plans. The results obtained are credited to the one source. Except as it is necessary to use the Type I organiza- tion for comparison, my paper is not concerned with this type, nor have the activities of the self appointed hospital standardizing bodies of the American College of Surgeons been concerned with it, except that it is ap- parently their aim to bring about the organization of all hospitals according to this type and to place themselves in control. The second type of hospital is organized, presumably, for the sole purpose of caring for the sick of the com- munity. Such hospitals are usually dependent upon gratuities from the public, or patronage from the public for their financial existence and support. Whether they are brought into existence by a society or a religious 442 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE order or by a board of public spirited citizens, this fun- damental obligation of taking care of the sick of the community still exists. Every citizen of the community in which such a hospital is brought, should have, theo- retically, equal privileges. By privileges I mean the right to receive medical care and nursing in the insti- tution when the emergency or demand affecting him or: his family arises. Assuming that his demands are con- sistent with the hospital organization, and assuming the semi-public character of these institutions and the right of the public to be served in them, the question of organ- ization to meet this condition comes into consideration. We have two distinct divisions of the activities to be organized. First, organization from the standpoint of housing, boarding, and supplying nursing care; second, the organization of the medical care. The third type of hospital is similar to the second type in its fundamental obligations to the medical profession and to the public. To show the potential danger of fail- ure to maintain this fundamental relation in a hospital where a staff functions, I wish to draw comparisons be- tween the Types II and III hospitals. The issues at stake are these: shall a hospital where physical existence is controlled by a non-medical person- nel and which is dependent on the public for its support place itself under the control of a limited group of medi- cal men, or shall it function separately and independent- ly of the medical profession, granting equal privileges to all members of the medical profession of the commun- ity? Will the interests of the public be served best by selecting a group of medical men to take over control, or by organizing the hospital in such a way that all medi- cal men have equal privileges? Under the Type I hos- pital the functioning of the hospital always progresses in accordance with the ideals of the men in charge. In the Type II hospital each patient is cared for according to the ability and ideals of the attending physician of his choice. In the Type III hospital only the physicians in control of the hospital are privileged to practice their profession to the full extent granted them by their h- ee, per ES ‘os oe eat "PAPERS: ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH eense received from the state, while the physicians not on the staff of the hospital are limited in their hospital | - practice by the privileges granted them or denied them — by the group of men who are fortunate enough to be on _- the hospital staff. Thus from the standpoint of the med- _ =. ; ical man who is not on the hospital staff, though he live __ under a demoeratie government, which licensed him to FE practice medicine and surgery, his professional life is a __ eontrolled, in so far as his patients require hospital care, = ___ by an autoeratic group of men, the Hospital Staff, whose = authority he resents to the extent that he will habitually refuse hospitalization of his patients except in the most = ___extremely urgent cases, this to the detriment of the hos- =e 3 pital, himself and his patients. When one considers that = ____if the application of the Minimum Standard be univer- r sally adopted by hospitals, not more than 15% of the os medical profession can hold hospital staff positions, one << ’ can foresee this, that 85% of the medical profession will : . be constantly advising against hospitalization rather "i 2 than for it. The more prosperous physicians without a é staff positions will endeavor to establish private hos- a __ pitals for their patients which will, if they succeed, neces- oe _- sarily be more expensive, less well equipped, consequent- <4 x _. Ty less efficient than the larger hospitals from which they tg = are barred and which are given public support. The ae _ foregoing comparisons of hospital organizations are As graphically brought out in the following charts: > . =. = oe: ; a ) > == 444 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Type I, Hospital Elegibility of patients through Gov. Body COUNTY COMMISSIONERS CITY COMMISS/ONERS MEDICAL SCHOOLS ETC. U.S. ARMY : U. 5. Bet HEALTH SERVICE STATE CHARITIES — Commanding Officer ’ i Ss Surgeon . urs/n a ~ 5a : = OD cd Surgeon 582 : pae ‘Wa | 02 = Surg Utilities 2°s | Wy) 3 eee aN 8 pie | 8s BS) a 3 oo = Technician are made ava od S | physicians and patients throu Assistant Dentist la Assistant Dentisé id r Je Surgeo Lab. Technician b fst d d }. iS a commanding officer or Supe Service Department ao ee et a PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 445 Type I, Hospital Elegibility of Patients through the attending Physicians on/; HOSPITAL TRUSTEES , CHARITABLE ORGANIZATIONS ea & RELIGIOUS COMMUNITIES Medico/ Licensing BoArRos Ethical Medical Secieties ee > Director S = LN) “ ee: S ot 8 ye e oe & s aS nN: % General Practitione Internes Surgeon Fipance ranted Pro Noursin g the Dreé edges Within Che priv Vtilities to ethics of labor a re Drug tice Pecords NM 2 g v ma) = S 8 8 “OS = yy y ) 5; yy, rs ig s 6 $ — WN ® Staff 0 5 ih os = Your : 5 Ma 4 Physician Utilities Y = staf 8 “ & Membe SSS | [Beste — gi” rug “X.Y Dig eel. eee S oS Non Staff Physician eS 3 K 2 Staff Member Supplies ~S 3 L Non stat Surgeon SOB : SA : e & Aon StafF Specialis TSN yn QQ Laboralory Direc bor Ot re ae a ie Ca PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 447 There follows a tabulation of the essential differences between the three types of hospitals: 1. Source of Control. TYPH I Hospitals under con- es trol of Federal gov- ernment, ; Municipality, or pri- : vate institutions owned by physicians or hospitals allied with teaching institu- tions and utilized for teaching purposes. State, or - TYPH II General hospital * supported by the com- munity under control of a charity board, a religious community, or owned and con- trolled: by a religious organization. TYPE Iil General hospitals sup- ported by the community under control of a charity board or owned and con- trolled by a religious or- ganization or a religious community, but under the direction of a staff of local physicians selected by the Board or Com- munity who make them- selves responsible ~- for professional work in the hospital. 2. Relation of Attending Physicians to Management. Attending staff se- lected by Command- ing Officer according to existing laws of the state or allied teach- ing institutions or by owners. Attending physi- cians all licensed phy- sicians practicing in accordance with laws of the State and the ethics of the profes- sion, 3. Limitation of Medical Personnel. Personnel limited by law. Medical personnel limited by Medical Practice Act and ex- isting code of Medical Bthics. Attending physicians selected by the attending staff. Medical personnel lim- ited by judgment or prej- udices of Medical Staff. 4. Responsibility for Medical Care of Patients. Governing body re- sponsible for patient. Patients’ physician is solely responsible for the patients’ pro- fessional care. Staff of physicians re- sponsible for professional conduct of patients’ phy- sician. 5. Responsibility for Financial Management. The governing offl- cer responsible’ for financial management. Governing body re- tains financial man- agement or delegates same to business man- ager. Financial manager sub- ject to more or less in- terference by medical staff. : 6. Responsibility for Physicians’ Professional Qualifications. Governing officer responsible for quali- fication of physicians under him State _ responsible for qualifications of attending physicians. 7. Legal Responsibility for Patients. Legal responsibility rests with governing officer. Legal responsibility rests with physician selected by the pa- tient. 8. Source of Financial Support. Financial support obtained through taxes, from allied teaching institutions or from fees paid by patients, Financial support obtained from public contributions, from services of religious communities and mod- erate fees from pa- tients. Staff responsible for qualifications of attending physicians. Legal responsibility rests with hospital and with the staff. Financial support ob- tained from public con- tributions, from _ services of religious communities and moderate fees from patients. s 448 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ey 9. Attitude of Medical Profession Toward Method of Appointing et Physicians. Medical profession Medical profession generally recognize appreciate general re- justice in selection of cognition enjoyed by medical personnel as them. done in accordance with government laws. Medical profession jeal- — ous and embittered by selection of a favored group placed in control — over them. : 10. System of Selecting Medical Personnel. System of selecting System of selecting medical _ personnel medical personnel works no hardship. works no hardship. Fo} que a ey 11. Relation of Community to Hospital. No patient needing No patient is ex- medical care excluded cluded for any reason except by law. whatever, except by general hospital order against. criminal sur- gery and contagious diseases, System of _ selecting personnel gives rise tc unfair discrimination against physicians not on the staff in that their practice is limited by lack of hospital facilities. Any patient excluded | unless willing to. replace their family physician by one of the hospital staff, or have family physician work under direction of staff. 12. Relation to Growth of Hospital. Growth of institu- Growth of institu- Growth of institution tion not dependent on tion concurrent with is dependent on popular- Be rae of medical growth of community. ity of attending staff. personnel. Up to the time the Nurses’ Examining and Licensing Boards were being established, little interest had been taken in the analysis of the hospital situation, either by the medical profession or by the public. This agitation has stimulated both medical and hospital organizations to efforts resulting in the collecting of much data on the subject, and to the publication of much information which has made it possible for hospital superintendents to analyze local situations by reliable comparisons. Co- incident with the standardization program of the Ameri- ean College of Surgeons and often confused with it, has arisen a number of other movements of interest to the medical profession. Of these I wish to mention Group Medicine and the Municipal Hospital movement. Under the name of Group Medicine, we have, during the last few years, seen the establishment of a great many so-— ealled clinics. Under the name of Clinic, an internist, a surgeon, a pathologist, a roentgenologist, and other specialists, combine to form a partnership in practice, os- tensibily to reduce their overhead expense and to give more complete service at a lessened cost to the patient. Occasionally these clinies have established their own hos- 1" ; . <" é = PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 449 pital or have gained control of the staff of an exist- | ing hospital of the Type III, just described. The Mu- nicipal Hospital movement has been brought about by those physicians and public spirited citizens who sensed, if they were not fully cognizant, of the unfair discrimina- tion of the Type III hospitals. In view of the fact that in the organization of St. John’s Hospital, of Springfield, Illinois, we believe that we have met satisfactorily these three most important problems, I would like to take up the story of the way this has been done. From the standpoint of the Minti mum Standard, but without a staff, we are able to give equal privileges to physicians, to give the patient the freedom in his choice of a physician, to give the greatest scientific care to the patient, to bring about with the greatest ease interchange of opinion among physicians, to give the greatest facilities for consultations, and to establish a very satisfactory system for maintaining present and future records, and we are maintaining un- excelled laboratory facilities, and an X-Ray department of the highest type. From the standpoint of Group Medi- cine, the hospital organization has offered every con- venience for supplementing the efforts of several clinics. From the standpoint of the Municipal Hospital, the de- mands of the public and of the profession have been met by maintaining every requirement from the Free Dis- pensary to the most satisfactory type of private room. Inasmuch as the hospital has passed through the per- iod of organization under a closed staff, the period of a partly closed and open staff, and a long period of organi- zation without a staff, we feel that our experience justi- fies us in speaking with authority on the advantages of each type. As evidence of the growth of the insti- tution, through these varying periods, I wish to submit the following chart. a BED) ep et eee PE selon Peo st alee SIRES ee Te Merril gf LAE Te bot in Ey sews ETRE ET LT toad Mectast Tlb eo te sd alee 3 At Yk ES Bin ae mee Peas eb s[e pt ces |p tee ae AERP SeRR Reo se oe Se SERRA Tew Addtion J TAREE ET TTT ELA [etd oe PRP Toe Per ota ger BBGLEPECRMSEBGh ss PT taza Foaling AE Ea bebe ets Se area Ene Ue BERMARSESSeaee amb. SERRE ERRARORMers | je hate. CCN ie SEDER ial) [siege iio) aia tial aaa on Rati ad oe ede Pe aie PAT [ele aL ep eal lal peal ee ERSESEREESRSE Seer CECE Taser Nos pita re yeeds | | eee ten Tie eee et lel ene ie This hospital is typical of the hospitals of many com- munities and is typical of the average community of the same size in any state. The growth of our hospital how- ever has been remarkable, and the results have been satisfactory from the standpoint of the care of the sick of the community, the percentage of patients hospital- ized, the relations of physicians to the hospital and to each other, and also from the standpoint of the advan- tage to the community in getting good care at the mini- mum expense to the patient. These advantages have been such that I believe it to be quite worth while for me to take up an intimate discussion of this institution. Ae te : roe Se y : ; ; PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 451 From the Mandporat of the relation of the population to the hospital beds as compared to the hospitalization in other communities, I would like to present the follow- ing table, the data for which was obtained from the Journal of the American Medical Association. (Reference data obtained from American Medical Association Journal, April 16th, 1921, page 1085.) 2 RATIO OF HOSPITAL BEDS TO POPULATION. Ratio Area of of Beds to Unit of Population Sq. Mile Population Population WK Atlanties States. 52 S.A 161,976 7d OR ME sen dee Be ae AGIAN Ie SERIES) See cas sce. Fons 209,071 BOS. St = i es Seto e PROG Pra SEALER oo oie 2 we ea oO 756,368 SP oe rete at ces PECTS OP SLALGS) "oc wise s wots es owes 609,255 MO ey oe, Ko Aes MSEE THE SLAG 2 2 oh oe So whe caaioatotee S 1,177,220 Ae EN ee ee OSE DES. =F -3. NS . e slo Ue ek 2,973,890 A} Sr as Sree erTE MOTEY. > 3. Sete fre on cac oe et 232 5,621,000 i eee cP AS SI iat cot oer a adie ete Phen owe 183 60,000 jE TL PO ea, C ee ge eae ene tre 1a eh Pe 112 584,605 REESE TGO” WY ol Vos oo as Soo rea oye Didi Re ae ee amit 56,000 (Has nine general hospitals containing less than 25 beds) SELES TCT ge S| a i eae a ee gh ee eee ea 214 2,701,705- eek Lord: | dhl 5 oie oe Ve ent ase Rene 169 65,000 pupemaMe HCl ITT te ree ee doe ae tee: So dates 95 59,000 Pees Cress oUt see knee fae in ace a iw Ble a 399 387,408 MI GOP LORD aes Salo ioc nse S teteia a 151 58,000 Megas Ast PONG OAT fate cick ce oes ie eo he oie She 211 575,480 SE AIIEIEL MLE eee co od odtere sickle) NOG ob FS 137 65,857 ee Ae) WESCERTE ~ C1LIOS -lo.5-c bine wo letn ie a acta 2 ore TGA eT et ee SER Oe SANCOTIMN- C1tIeS © 5 oo oe oasis vee bis 3 2 5 5 ee Te From this table it will be seen that the community in -and around the city of Springfield has one hospital bed to each ninety-five of the population, which shows a greater hospitalization demand than any other district of the United States; one hundred per cent higher than any single state in the United States, and a greater per- cent than any other city. I attribute the low hospitaliza- tion in the southern district to the colored population. The discrepancy in the east is without a doubt due to the system of closed staff hospitals which increases non- hospitalization of patients on the part of physicians not on the hospital staffs. It will be noted from these statistics that the western cities have a larger hospitalization than those of the east. _ €® Since these figures have been made 100 beds have been added, and a new addition is under construction which will give 75 more, making the ratio of beds to population 75. if -/ .@ Md OP Pe » iz 4 A - ¥. reo Pete Ls ‘adv! stil i onl ee eh te 4 Page, © Was \s LoOyres: sae ee ON ae " ee Yé ‘ Ay MET ee ITO Lae PU a nre Tite Mac, Mees eae P= i, os > aD eee MER NRE Rae DL OER er me asi SYS Seti en Soa 452 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE This is due to the more liberal hospital facilities offered — the physician, as many of the western hospitals are with- out a staff or with a distinctly open staff. Discussing the Springfield situation, we have in the city a competing general hospital with a staff organization, but this has not tended to curtail hospitalization in the community because of the liberal policy of St. John’s. We have also a private hospital for nose and throat cases which has always been filled, owing to the wide profes- sional reputation of the owner and manager. We have also two tuberculosis hospitals, which are also privately owned and are well patronized. Discussing the operations of the hospital frém the standpoint of the Minimum Standard, let me state how these requirements have been met. First, assuming that the organization of the attending men, as suggested, is for the purpose of bettering hospital conditions, how have hospital conditions been bettered without such an organi- zation of physicians? It has been donein this way; when- ever the attending men have desired improvements or changes which would tend, as they believed, toward the betterment of their professional work, their requests have been made direct to the Director as individuals, or through the hospital personnel. Such requests have been studied from the standpoint of the hospital facilities and policies, inquiry has been undertaken as to the workings of such improvements in other institutions, and the sug- gestion, wherever feasible and consistent with the finan- cial policy of the institutions, has been carried out. Thus, suggestions have not come from a small group, but the hospital has received suggestions from the entire medical personnel of the city. It might here be stated that the medical personnel of the attending men of the hospital includes every registered physician in the city, who is either.a member of the County Medical Association, or who is found from time to time in consultation with mem- bers of the County Medical Association. With reference to the competence of the attending men, the Director of the hospital has always taken the stand that the competence of a physician to practice medi- = a ae ae > Se — -_ = Se aw “ =>. se — i S- es ee ee VS See ad * ae en ee ~ > =. “na Se ae ~ — : es ee oy * ~ ; ~ “= PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 453 cine should be determined by the state, and not by the hospital authorities. It has happened oceasionally that the nursing person- -_ nel of the hospital has observed certain younger men, who though deemed competent by the state licensing board, have undertaken the performing of surgical procedures for which they were obviously not fitted by experience. When such observations have been made, the man was requested by the Superior of the hospital to associate himself in future undertakings with some one more ex- perienced than himself. It has never been necessary to refuse these men the operating room, as they have al- ways willingly complied with this request, and in fact have seemed grateful that such a request has come from the Superior of the hospital without having their incom- petence advertised among their professional brothers. Apparently these men have held no ill will toward the hos- pital, and have in the future always limited their surgi- eal efforts to work quite within their ability. The fact that they were not forced to associate themselves with any man or group of men, and that they were not forced to relinquish control of their patients, has given these men a freedom of professional action quite satisfactory to themselves, to their patients, and to the hospital au- thorities. . As to the third standard, the hospital authorities have always reserved the privilege of refusing classes of cases where there was even a doubtful criminal intent. In such cases, the authorities, if they were at all suspicious, have either refused the care or have insisted upon consultation with men of known integrity. It has been very noticeable that after one or two attempts of this kind, the black sheep of the profession have never given any trouble. In cases of suspected epidemic diseases, consultations have been insisted upon and obtained without embarras- ment to the attending men and with what we believe to be a minimum disturbance to the hospital. As for the meeting of medical men in conference, a club room has been provided in the hospital where the physicians have daily conferences and discussions of their cases. It is surprising to note the freedom with 454 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY. OF SCIENCE e which all hospital matters and difficult cases are thrashed’ out among them in this conference room. These confer- ences are informal but from their frequency and from the apparent interest of those taking part, they are obviously of much. benefit. The younger men in this way daily get into conference about their difficult cases with the older men; the older men with each other about their difficult cases or cases of interest, and though informal, one can hardly conceive of a more advantageous anraneement, From these in- formal conferences there are daily bedside consultations and frequent surgical clinics attended by interested phy- sicians. In my opinion such an arrangement is quite as beneficial as the formal review of cases in a called staff meeting. With references to the compiling of case records, the hospital authorities have always insisted upon the great- est accuracy and completeness from the standpoint of the case record so far as the nursing personnel was con- cerned. It has also been an important point with the hospital to see that the physician place on the record his own orders for his patient. But in view of the fact that the patient was presumed to belong to the physician, the hospital has taken the attitude that the history, past and present, and the details of the physical findings of the case, were matters of professional concern and confidence between the patient and his physician. They have not insisted on this record being made, except as it was neces- sary for the hospital to have on file the summary of such information in the form of a tentative diagnosis, which is necessary for the proper classification of patients entering the hospital, and for the protection of the hospi- tal against the admittance of infectious diseases. Simi- larly, records in regard to the operations have been re- quired, where such records are necessary for the proper conduct of the operating room and for the classification of operations. The hospital has felt it advisable to fur- nish as complete mechanical arrangement as is neces- sary, but have only insisted on such records as are of value to the hospital personnel in their own work. Be- sides the foregoing records, upon the discharge of the he — eee a ee Se ne ee ey - - a + a Ce rh cg eee ae 9 Cena Ree at aA, + ie pe a ce” Bs =" ae a ; PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 455 patient the physician is required to report a summary of his treatment, condition of patient on discharge, and com- plications. All this information is summarized, and indexed for future reference, for other physicians read- mitting the same patient and for the compiling of hos- pital reports. It has always been the attitude of the hospital that beyond these requirements the information which a phy- sician obtains from his patient relative to his condition is a confidential matter, and should only be placed in the records as the physician might desire. St. John’s Hospital has been one of the leaders in the matter of providing laboratory and X-Ray facilities, and through this department the hospital has not only met the demands for better scientific work, but has also been able to furnish the physician a means of meeting the de- mand for group medicine, and to a certain extent the de- mand for municipal clinics. The laboratory is so equip- ped that the physician can arrange to have whatever as- sistance he desires, from the bending of a test tube to the work necessary for a complete clinical study. The fees are so reasonable that clinical groups can better af- ford to patronize the laboratory at the hospital than maintain their own organization of this kind. This de- partment also furnishes a center for conference and con- sultations. In addition to the already mentioned facili- ties, a free dispensary is in operation, which is main- tained by the county, and where daily free clinics are held and where indigent patients are treated. With this sort of an arrangement, so flexible, so democratic, so con- venient, available to every citizen through his physician, we believe we are able to meet the demands of group medicine, of the Municipal Hospital and of the highest standard of service. The basic principles underlying this service are: 1. The St. John’s Hospital is owned and conducted by the Hospital Sisters of St. Francis, who welcome all physicians that can give satisfactory proof of being in good standing in their profession. 456 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 2. The patient belongs to the physician who alone i is 2 responsible for his professional work. 3. The hospital is responsible only for the nursing ~ a care of the sick. 4. The hospital stands ready at all times to cooperate _ as far as possible with the attending physician in all ef- _ forts to advance medieal science. In conclusion I would summarize as follows: 1. The hospital is a community problem because it is a supported by the community. 2. The existence of the community-supported hos- 4 pital can only be justified when it is accessible to every citizen through his physician. 3. The patient in the hospital belongs to his physi- cian. 4. The hospital is responsible for the housing and nursing care of the patient. 5.. The physician is responsible for the medical care of the patient. 6. The hospital can best perform its function inde- pendent of control by the:physicians whom it serves. 7. The medical profession can best care for their pa- tients independent of control by the hospital which should serve them. 8. The Medical Staff of the hospital tends to divide and complicate hospital authority. 9. As the hospital staff becomes more autocratic. the number of patients in the hospital becomes less. 10. The sections of the country with closed hospital staffs have fewer hospitals to the number of population than sections of the country with open hospital staffs. Communities with hospital staffs have both smaller hos- pitals and less hospital facilities than communities with- out hospital staffs. 11. The adoption of the Minimum Standard of the American College of Surgeons will eventually result in autocratic hospital staff control of the hospitals of the country. Hospital staff control will deprive 85% of the physicians of their hospital practice and 85% of the population of their hospital privileges. i Pe ee Pes ea et ore To — Ete S ey he os) tee i — ied . — a . PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 457 THE APPLICATION OF BACTERIOPHAGE TO PUBLIC HEALTH Tuomas G. Huu, Craer, Division or Lasoratorizs, Inuivois DeparTMENT oF Pusiic Hears, SPRINGFIELD Some years ago Hankin observed that the water of the Ganges and Jumna Rivers in India have marked bacter- _icidal action for bacteria in general and for cholera vi- brio in particular. The water of Jumna river contains, at the city of Agra, more than 1000 bacteria per ec. Five kilometers below this it contains only 90 to 100 bacteria per cc. When this water is passed through a Berkefeld filter it shows a marked bactericidal action for the cholera organisms, in four hours destroying all organ- isms when a little of the water is placed in a broth cul- ture of cholera vibrio. When this water is boiled it loses its bactericidal action and cholera vibrio grow well, as they also do in water taken from wells in the vicinity of the rivers. Hankin had no adequate explanation of the peculiar phenomenon. In 1916, Twort was attempting to isolate filterable viruses from nature which might be grown on ordinary culture media. In this he was unsuccessful. In his work on calf vacinnia (smallpox vaccine) he noted that cultures of micrococci growing from the glycerinated vaccine be- came glassy and transparent and could not be subeul- tured. By transferring a little of the glassy material to new tubes of micrococci, these also became dissolved. Action was strongest with young cultures and could not be demonstrated in very old cultures. The lytic princi- ple passes through the finest clay filters, but would not : grow of itself on any culture media. Twort was not cer- tain whether the lytic action was due to a minute para- sitic organism, an amoeba or an anzyme secreted by the micrococeus. The investigator who has taken up the work of these two pioneers and made a most careful study of it is d’Herelle. It is his theory that there is one parasite for all bacteria which adapts itself to the various kinds of a a ee ee 458 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE e 3 organisms. These parasites pass through the finest clay — : filters, but can be cultivated only in the presence of the bacteria. Bordet states the phenomena is a defensive process due to the leucocytes which give to the organ- ~ isms an hereditary property of producing a lytic fer- — ment. The only difference between these two theories is whether the lytic ferment is produced by an ultra-micro- scopic virus or whether it is produced by the bacteria themselves. JXabeshino claims that lysis is due to a 4 prodiastase present in the bacterial cell which is acti-. vated by a catalysor contained in filtrates of intestinal = contents; in other words, that lysis is due to a ferment from the tissues. - Salibeni has found a myxamoeba in lytic filtrates. Hlivia and Pozerski described the de- struction of Shiga bacillus by salts of quinine. What- ever the nature of the principle, however, it is certain that in persons convalescing from disease, notably typhoid fever, bacilliary dysentery and cholera, a sub- stance is present in the stools that will dissolve the bae- teria from which the patient is suffering when these two are placed together. As was stated before, it is impossible to grow this lytie principle, whatever it may be, except in the presence of young cultures of bacteria, but bacteria free cultures will remain active for as long as six months. Anaerobiosis does not favor the lytic action. The material can be © passed from tube to tube of bacteria an indefinite num- ber of times and will remain active in clear filtrates for six months. In centrifuged specimens of filtrates, noth- ing can be demonstrated by staining the sediment. How- ever, when a little of the sediment is examined with the ultra microscope, very fine points of light are seen danec- ing in the medium. d’Herrelle claims these are the or- ganisms in question. The principle reacts to physical and chemical agents very much as do bacteria, being de- stroyed by antiseptics and heat and being quite suscep- tible to acids and alkalies, preferring a slightly alkaline medium for growth. The lytic action of this ultra microscopic organism, if such it is, can well be demonstrated in a test tube experi- ae Oe ct = ag ie . Se et , are . . i < “ —— 2 ~< 7 ____ PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 459 ment. If to young cultures of Shiga bacillus on slant agar or in broth, some of the lytic principle is added, all of the bacteria disappear and the medium becomes per- _ feetly clear. After a short time, however, a growth re- ‘ eM ‘ PL ye ne z 4 2 ; : q ‘appears, but this is not typical of the organism in ques- _ .tion. Grattia designates these organisms by the letter R for resistant, and those dissolved by S for susceptible organisms. The resistant organisms can be transferred from generation to generation but are not typical either in morphological or cultural characteristics. Old and dry cultures of bacteria contain more resistant organ- isms than young cultures. The lytic principle has been found so far only in intes- tinal contents with the exception of the experiments of ~ Twort where he found it in vaccine virus. d’Herrelle is of the opinion that all normal persons harbor the prin- ciple, although in some persons it may be weak and it must be activated for demonstration. A person does not become ill upon infecfion if he has sufficient bacterioph- age in his system. If the bacteriophage is weak he may develop signs of the disease but recovers after the lytic principle becomes activated. If the lytic principle does not become activated or if the resistant strain of organ- ism develops, the patient may not recover. Possibly the production of organisms resistant to the bacterioph- age is responsible for relapses in typhoid fever. d’Her- relle claims that the only persons from whom he could not obtain bacteriophage filtrates were those destined to die. In the lower animals, as in men, the bacteriophage is easy to demonstrate. It has been found in horses, chickens, calves, buffaloes, rabbits and other animals. Very probably it is widely distributed in nature. The bacteria susceptible to lysis by bacteriophage are mostly those from the intestinal tract, though others have been described. The dysentery bacilli—Shiga, Hiss and Flexner,—all are very susceptible. The typhoid group including the paratyphoid and the colon group are likewise easily lysed. Bacillus proteus, Staphlococcus Bacillus subtilus, the cholera organisms, and Bacillus pestis have been made the subject of study. The diph- 460 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE theria bacillus has not received very much attention, al- though d’Herrelle found in the manure of diphtheria antitoxin horses a substance which would dissolve the diphtheria bacillus. Among the lower animals, for the — organisms of fowl typhoid, hemorrhagic septicemia and plague of the rat, a lytic substance was present in the in- testines. As d’Herrelle says, probably the parasite is the same for all organisms, but becomes adapted to spe- cific organisms according to the conditions. The most interesting results obtained with bacterioph- age from a public health standpoint are the inoculation experiments of d’Herrelle. In an epidemic of avian typhoid which was scattered over 25 poultry farms, from 20 to 50 percent of the fowls had died from the disease. He gave to 600 of the fowls by ingestion 1 ec. of the bac- teriophage culture activated against B. gallinarium, and to 1500 more 0.5 ec. of the same culture subcutaneously. Not one of the fowls on the 25 farms which had received the bacteriophage died, although the epidemic continued to rage on other poultry farms in the vicinity. In Indo- China hemorrhagic septicema among the buffaloes is an exceedingly fatal disease. By injecting into 100 buf- faloes 0.25 ec. of bacteriophage principle, d’Herrelle im- munized the animals to such an extent that they received without harm 1000 fatal doses of the pathogenic bacteria necessary to kill buffaloes under ordinary conditions. The blood of these immunized animals conferred immun- ity upon other animals when infected. Rabbits, which are very susceptible to the toxin of bacilliary dysentery, were rendered immune by the subcutaneous injection of a small amount of bacteriophage. In seven cases of dysentery in man, the injection of 1 ce. of bacteriophage was followed in from 24 to 36 hours by the disappearance of blood and bacillus from the stools. From these results it would seem that it would be a simple matter to immunize our population against all in- testinal diseases, by simply injecting a small amount of bacteriophage. In case a person, contracted a disease, he could be cured by injection of bacteriophage. Prob- ably the problem will not be solved so easily. d’Herrelle << aa.» = a 4 " ead ee lis eo -. . Se 4 a — ~. - — a > : wT ? = ay ea. ee ee Ske FS 2 m4 2 = : PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 467 high degree of lasting immunity. It was in this paper that he made that memorable suggestion that human kind might thus be actively immunized by neutral mixtures of toxin and antitoxin. _ This idea was so revolutionary and contrary to accept- ed theories that it attracted no attention. Two years later, in 1909, this medical Leverrier, with the courage of his convictions, again pointed the way to human im- munization. Three years more followed and still no one arose to follow Smith’s prophetic finger. It was not un- til 1912 and 1913 that Behring himself, who had evidently experienced a change of heart, without mentioning Smith’s name, reported successful active immunization with TA mixtures. The fear of the known effects of diphtheria toxin on the nerves and heart, together with Behring’s dictum mentioned before in this paper, un- doubtedly deterred research workers and clinicians from the earlier use of TA mixtures. It seems to me no one ean read Smith’s reports and not be convinced that TA mixtures do produce a lasting immunity in these animals. Experimentation has abundantly proved that the tests, manifestations of the disease, immunity and susceptibil- ity observed in the guinea pig are exactly the same in human kind. TA mixture, as the name indicates, is a simple mixture of the diphtheria toxin with antitoxin in which the toxin is not quite neutralized. It is given sub- cutanously in three doses of 1 cc. each at intervals of seven days. Immunity develops slowly, often not reach- ing its maximum until five or six months have elapsed. Experience shows that about ninety percent of the chil- dren receiving the three doses have been rendered im- mune during the whole period of observation, namely three to seven years. You will hear undoubtedly of the danger of giving these TA mixtures. In fact several deaths resulted in Dallas, Tex., because a mistake was made in the laboratory in the preparation of the mix- ture. I have given about 3500 injections in children without an unpleasant result. Park and Zingher in New York have given thousands and thousands of these in- jections without a death or loss of an arm. I had one 468 - ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE unpleasant result from an injection I gave a nurse. Re- covery was not complete for four or five months. SUMMARY 1. Experimental evidence is unimpeachable that TA — mixtures do produce lasting immunity to diphtheria in lower animals. Clinical results are accumulating which show that similar active immunization can be produced in human kind. In my own experience the persistant use of such mixture has immunized 98 to 99 percent for a period up to three and one-half years. 2. The Schick test made with a potent toxin carefully performed and properly interpreted is almost an infall- ible indication of susceptibility or immunity to diph- theria. 3. 20000 t & 3 Q 15000 g g » < thes 10000 S 2 > Nortnal £/re-2000 5000 4 6) see ge ee saa ee Pa Re Soe ee Oe. SE Bee eee 4919, Nov.27 Dec. 5 4920, counting of 200 white cells, the actual number of nucle- ated red cells appearing in the field was recorded. These are grouped as normoblasts, megaloblasts, and micro- eytes, respectively. The chart shows in the first three columns the hemoglobin tests, the number of white blood corpuscles in 1 eubie millimeter of blood, and the number of red blood cells per cubic millimeter. The data of the second chart is computed from that of the first. Here the actual number per cubic millimeter of af . By : : t- =p ‘ : aes 476 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE = TOTAL P.M. N. CouNT. Plateli Treatment ‘ormal Line-$ #20, : Radi um Treatment—> — Nova Dec I5. Jon.2% aK Feb.3 FebJ3 Feb2x, Mar 4 Mar 14 Mar.24 Apr. 35 Apr. 13 > Spec 5. polymorphonuclear neutrophiles, neutrophilic myeloey- tes, and remaining white cells is shown. This chart is the basis for the first four graphs that follow. The first graph (Plate I) shows the Total White Blood Count. The variability of the number of white blood cells, a characteristic of this disease, is easily seen, es- pecially in the period of most intensive observation, Jan- uary 25 to February 18. The ray treatments are indi- cated by the arrows. It will be noticed that after each Apr. 23, oot eS ee. 9 4 * nde Se coll * oe $ ~~ tS -_- PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 477 TOTAL N-My. Count. - Plate ZZ. hee a yp Treatment, ~ a = v t * s 5 2 a ft L £ 2 3 S S Ss & = wa EN ay ~ - Seem Bras tt Se we ee Ss 8 om. Se es a Oe < ma) a ae ~ ~ > < S$ s 1 & Ss * On wz ¥ Zo > ¢ ~ N uy » N nai ~ a ~” N mk rs a a = N Se eee ee ee ee tak egy OS GS. SS ee ee it eee ee ee ce eR SS Sa See 1919 £920 effect of the ray treatment seems to be a raising of the count. The general trend of the curve is seen to be up- ward. As has been suggested, the observations here tabulated include only a fractional part of the entire course of the disease. From observation covering so brief a period of a single case it is obviously impossible to draw any definite conclusions as to the whole effects of Radium or ¢ bel ae SA a 480 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. X-Ray treatment of Myelogenous Leukemia. Many more cases must be subjected to exacting study before reliable conclusions can be made. Effective treatment for Myelogenous Leukemia is a problem for the future to solve. an EXPLANATION OF SYMBOLS FOR PLATES AND CHARTS. — a o Hemoglobin test. . White Blood Corpuscles. . Red Blood Corpuscles. . Polymorphonuclear neutrophiles. . Polymorphonuclear eosinophiles. . Polymorphonuclear basophiles. Lymphocytes. Mononuclear leucocytes and Transitionals. n-My neutrophilic Myelocytes. — e-My eosinophilic Myelocytes. b-My basophilic Myelocytes. errs BSS Dy BEAzQQ No Normoblasts. Mg Megaloblasts. t Mi Microcytes. Total N. Total number of neutrophilic cells—P. M. N. + n-My. See Charts I and II on the following pages. Date. Hb. Myelogenous Leukemia. WAT Gee Ue Differential Count. at th reve My eMy) W.. Bay) oR. BaGy PMN PME PMB 56, 000 57, 600 57, 600 Sess ESss (0, 000 SS ae S O&O CO EEEEE RFPOW RS SOHM ORONO WOWR 0 SOs S00 eros oO-ow S SES: 8888 84, 000 org 4, 736, 000 4, 800, 000} 4, 832, 000 4, 632.000 nena sees see eee re ween tenes teens Ss i cy al Or see — rs a eee eeeleeeece pew eweleenees teen eslewnene sees tenes Ce ice ieee iy ee enc ee ad tenes es ee ie iy Aye . PAPERS ON MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 483 See 8 Op Actual number in 200 cells. REMARKS. No | Mg | Mi Be isl aso S dansenode pee from laboratory report, ; 5 See es ees Radium treatment December 6..} et counted by me. oe GUS sivoinied athe nies Some Poikilocytosis; one megakaryocye. Sm See ane ed eos Poikilocytosis. : MON Anse |teeie Ss, « Poikilocytosis. 16 isin las Poikilocytosis. 5) pe ee ae By eee Little Poikilocytosis; Aniso.: Mitotic Reds. ¢ Ee ee Radium treat., 1-6to 1-15: pronounced poik. Taken from lab. report. U9) |poikilocytosis. Crenation. Sales oo 4|Poikilocytosis, Anisocytosis, Polychromasis. 37 2 eae Crenated red cells prominent. ROT foe cies 3)/Anisocytosis, Poikilocytosis not prominent. Bee 1}Anisocytosis. Poikilocytosis notprominent. X-Ray treatment. hy Se 5|Anisocytosis. Poik. not prominent. 3 eee 6|Anisocytosis. Poik. not prominent. 30 2 7\/Anisocytosis. Poik. not prominent. rk) SS Wo Many extruded nuclei. 6 5 eras Anisocytosis. Poikilocytosis not prominent. ll fAlicte atest Anisocytosis. Poik. not prominent. 11 11 5/Anisocytosis. Poik. not prominent. 19 Bist Mews Anisocytosis. Poik. not prominent. 30 Bl aaale. Several extruded nuclei. 8 1 a Several extruded nuclei. 8 5 10|Poikilocytosis and Anisocytosis prominent. 16 | Ra Poik. and Aniso. prominent. fete if ROS Poik. and Aniso. prominent. 8 Unite of Poik. and Aniso. prominent. 7 21 yore 2|......|Little Aniso. and Poik. Several extruded nuclei. LR 7 i at 1 Little Aniso. and Poik. Several extruded nuclei. a 1 1 | eel aac Little Aniso. and Poik. Few extruded nuclei. 3 9 2 1|Little Aniso. and Poik. Few extruded nuclei. 12 3 1\Little Aniso. and Poik. Few extruded nuclei. rege iw 1\......|Little Anis. and:Poik. Few extruded nuclei. cad 4) °° 3) 1.7" |nittle Aniso. and Poik. Very few extruded nuclei, 9 Bes Little Aniso. and Poik. Very few extruded nuclei. 1 5 1|Little Aniso. and Poik. Very few extruded nuclei. 12 6 4\Little Aniso. and Poik. More extruded nuclei. 12 1 25|Little Aniso. and Poik. More extruded nuclei. ae Sls eth Anisocytosis. Several extruded nuclei. 21 1 9|Anisocytosis. Several extruded nuclei. 5] .....- 6|Anisocytosis. Several extruded nuclei. ; 9 1 6|Anisocytosis. Several extruded nuclei. Poik. Ser EERE Dea fae of the lymphocytes are of the large variety. 2 extruded 16 1 ee nuclei. 1 Karyokinetic figure. * Poik. and Aniso. very slight. a $$$ oOo eee oso (SS A pe TEA Pe RM eT a NINO glenn, aah NES ra ye 4. aks 484 ILLINOIS STATE ACADE CHART It. ) . ACTUAL NUMBER OF CELLS PER. CU. MM. Gere P.M N. n-My. Total N. AllOther Total WBC i Ter 14,238 8,814 23,052 10,848 335900). “tp 11-25 29,016 35,712 64,728 9,672 74,400 12-27 11,730 2,890 14,620 2,380 17,000 on 5,720 4,698 14,418 se 16,200 1= 3 10,440 4,002 14,442 2,958 17,400 TS46 21,120 8,250 29,370 3,630 33,000 1-15 32,430 9,870 42,300 4,700 47,000 1-18 28,416 10,434 38,850 5,550 44,400 1-19 19,720 8,330 28,050 5,950 34,000 1-20 21,210 3,534 24,744 15,656 40,400 1-23 24,500 9,996 34,496 4,704 39,200 1-24 28,892 13,281 42,173 - 4,427 46,600 © 1-25 22,320 6,665 28,985 2,015 31,000 1-26 19,564 6,716 - 26,280 2,920 29,200 Bey 19,272 5,402 24,674 4,526 29,200 1-29 14,280 4,725 19,005 1,995 21,000 1-30 22,572 6,669 29,241 4,959 34,200 Bae 13,794 7,296 21,090 1,710 22,800 Mad 19,596 5,934 26,530 1,070 27,600 yo LA 24,820 3,570 28,390 5,610 34,000 2-5 14,884 8,008 22,892 1,508 24,400 2= 6 15,194 5,457 20,651 749 21,400 P| 24,016 5,016 29,032 1,369 30,400 2- 9 23,868 5,148 29,016 2,184 31,200 Peaal 25,905 5,940 31,845 1,155 33,000 2-12 20,250 3,500 23,750 1,250 25,000 2-14 28,208 1,968 30,176 2,624 32,800 2-16 26,208 3,900 30,108 1,092 31,200 realy 32,400 2,340 34,740 1,260 36,000 Daal) 25,632 2,448 28,080 720 28,800 . 2e08 21,838 1,830 23,268 1,132 24,400 2-24 26,505 4,340 30,845 1,155 31,000 - 3- 5 25,536 7,560 33,096 504 33,600 3- 9 32,844 7,140 39,984 816 40,800 3-12 37,600 5,640 43,240 3,760 47,000 3-20 26,988 5,363 32,351 2,249 34,600 4- 5 43,050 2,706 45,756 3,444 49,200 4-12 34,176 2,688 36,864 1,536 38,400 4-18 26,195 4,185 30,380 620 31,000 se - z - 4 Zz ‘ S Ch 2) =) =) fy & =) . md oO ae Be wn ay Zi >) wn G Fe Ay 2. Fre 5 er?) Shwe” Pa A eee igt ee) eR oi ee aa a oo » . 2% A z 4 2 i 4 ~ ; ~ iu > ' PAPERS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION 489 as they are thought of by McDougall; sentiments, as they are thought of by Shand; complexes, as they are thought of by the psychoanalysts; and ambitions, ideals, hopes, and the like, as all of us understand them, would be of interest to the student of personality. The details of vision, of space perception, of memory, would not. It is also fairly clear that the mental activities in which the student of personality is most interested are those which involve the social relationships of the indi- vidual. While all mental activities are necessarily social to some extent, the student of personality is usually in- terested in those activities which can be adequately de- scribed only by emphasizing the social character of the situation. The desirability of getting the social view of the psy- chophysical organism is hardly open to debate. The proposition put forward at times, that this is really the only adequate view is, however, an over-statement of the case, to say the least. A social psychology undoubtedly gives better promise of applicability to the solution or interpretation of social problems, but we shall always have with us the seeing, hearing, feeling, remembering organism whose seeing, hearing, feeling, and remember- ing are being handled by a non-social psychology with an accuracy and adequacy which is to some degree a func- tion of its lack of emphasis upon social issues. When the psychologist comes across problems such as those of personality which require an unusual recog- nition of social factors, it would be well, it seems to me, if he kept in mind certain difficulties here in the way of keeping his thinking upon a scientific plane. Perhaps the greatest of these difficulties is the danger of mistaking ethical, social, and political issues for scientifie or psy- chological issues. Social ethics, social hygiene, and po- litical philosophy are of tremendous importance for hu- man life, but the psychologist, even though his interest be primarily in serving them, must recognize that un- less the standards of logic be dominant over all other standards his psychology will quickly become propa- eanda, and cease to function as science. win «<2 ~~ -@ Nie, Wi Ae eau aa Re) De ma TEC ce Puls teh hoc Om ah cas! ee Re a Lint Ar oA nes Mar Aaa 4 4) : 4 hi ‘" ee Ne en 4: ty 490 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE There is still another even more subtle danger which = must be guarded against where social factors are empha- sized in the program of psychology. I refer to the danger of assuming, where there are fundamental dis- tinctions from the standpoint of every-day life, that there must also be fundamental psychological distinctions. The mere fact that there are radicals and conservatives, religious and irreligious does not mean that these groups are necessarily important psychological types. It is true that we may describe the radical by means of a psychological terminology, but so may we describe ice- men, and grocerymen, conductors, and policemen, and anybody and everybody in our world. If we did this, we should be merely counting the leaves on the trees. In speaking of these things, I do not want to give the impression that I am minimizing the importance of recognizing the social factor in many psychological prob- lems. I wish only to point out the difficulty in this case of keeping free, as scientists, from those standards and — prejudices, many of them highly valuable in themselves, which permeate every social situation. A fourth point which is likely to impress one is that the study of personality is concerned with facts that are somehow more intimate than those of the rest of psychology. The polarity between the individual and other things and other individuals comes in for a cer- | tain amount of stress. When it comes to this aspect of his problem, the student of personality finds that much of value has already been worked out by introspection. It seems to me that the dialectic of personal growth ~ which has become an accepted part of our traditional psychology may with great profit be written as an im- portant section into our contemporary treatment of per- sonality. ; I have been considering personality study in so far as it is concerned with general principles. There is also a differential psychology of personality which is receiv- ing considerable attention. Ultimately, of course, the general and differential psychology of personality may be but different aspects of the same subject matter, but at present, this is hardly true. Those who have heen Wates oe ‘PAPERS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION 491 interested in measuriig individual differences in per- sonal traits have, like the intelligence testers, worked on an almost purely empirical basis. The differential psychologist, in enumerating character traits, for in- stance, is bound to pick out the measurable rather than the fundamentally important. A final question occurs to me in this attempt to inter- pret the appearance of a new chapter in psychology. Does this chapter contain, or is it likely to contain, any forms or principles of mental activity comparable in im- portance for psychology as a whole to the reaction are, perception, image, idea, and habit? There are those’ who believe that the science of psychology will have _ largely to be rewritten as a result of modern studies of personality. Although time forbids an adequate defense of my position, I should like to say that I am extremely doubtful as to the truth of this statement. Most of the so-called new principles which have come into psychology with the recent studies in personality are after all not so very new. The notion of causal relationships between mental phenomena, the importance of unconscious activi- ties, and the conception of conflict put forth so vividly by the psychoanalysts harken back to many historic systems and debates. I should not for a moment deny the paramount importance of the many neglected prob- lems which recent studies of personality by the psycho- analysts and others have pointed out, but what is needed at the present time is not a proclamation that these mechanisms of personality are newly discovered phe- nomena, unrelated to any psychology heretofore thought of. Rather, there is a need, and I believe it is being increasingly acknowledged, for these personal mechan- isms to be set in their proper relationships‘to that host of psychological principles which have been accumulat- ing since Aristotle. ee RA te eee Thee Teh 4 ERAS. Sey th Rte Ob eR Te Fe ne ee . t ifs i nh J (Dy atet Ae Rs iy Dec ewe reeno yy ain Tea een nieces SHregug 492 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE — | THE VALIDITY OF ARITHMETICAL- REASONING | ni. TESTS | R. V. Hunxins anp F. 8. Breep, Untversiry or Curtcaco The primary purpose of this investigation was to throw light on the relative validity of several arithmetical- reasoning tests now in use in the public schools. A sec- — ondary purpose was to explain in some measure the different degrees of merit shown by the different tests. The following tests were used in the experiment: (1) - Daniel Starch: Arithmetical Seale A. (2) C. W. Stone: Reasoning Test. (3) W.S. Monroe: Standardized Reasoning Test in Arithmetic, Form 1. (4) B. R. Buckingham: Seale for Problems* in Arithmetic, Form 1. (5) E. H. Chapple, S. A. Courtis, F. R. Matthews: Arithmetic Tests—Reasoning. (6) R. M. Yerkes, M. E. Haggerty, L. M. Terman, E. L. Thorndike, G. M. Whipple: National Intelligence Tests, Scale A, Form 1, Test 1. (7) M. E. Haggerty: Intelligence Examination, Delta 2, Exercise 2. . : (8) A.S. Otis: Group Intelligence Scale, Advanced Examination, Form B, Test 5. (9) L. M. Terman: Group Test of Mental Ability, Form A, Test 9. (10) A. 8. Otis: Group Intelligence Scale, Advanced Examination, Form B (complete). For special reasons the results from tests (5) and (9) were not included for further study. The subjects to whom the tests were administered were pupils in grades five to eight, inclusive, of a Hot Springs, S. D., public school. Complete data on all tests were se- cured from 127 subjects. In advance of experimentation, a plan of administering the tests was devised to control such variables as time of day, day of week, and order of administration. All tests were administered and scored personally by Mr. Hunkins. PAPERS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION 493 Each reasoning test provided a single measure of the arithmetical-reasoning ability of each pupil. On the as- sumption that the average of several expert attempts to Measure an object or reaction is more reliable than a single attempt, the average score of a pupil from several tests was regarded as approximating more closely the true measure of the ability in question than the measure- ment derived from a single test. The average score was obtained after each test series had been transmuted into values on a percentile scale and thus made comparable. The method of transmuta- tion was shown to have satisfactory reliability by the high correlation between each original series of scores and the corresponding derived series. The average coefficient (product-moment) was .99. The five tests which have but one set of problems for the four grades in which the experiment was conducted were employed in deriving the average or composite score. The average coefficient of correlation of each test series with the composite in each grade was found, and the sev- eral tests ranked according to closeness of agreement with the composite. For the purpose of verifying the results obtained by the use of the composite scores, all the possible inter-test correlation coefficients were computed for the sixth and seventh grades. The method of composite scores showed which test agreed most closely with the average result of five of the tests. The method of inter-test correlation showed which test on the average agreed most closely with the rest of the tests. The results by the two methods - should be closely similar. Table I presents the ranking of the tests according to the two different methods of estimating their validity. 3, a ‘ s a on ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE of TABLE I_ . RANKING OF THE TESTS Method Method of of Com- Inter-test Com- . posite Cor- bined Final Test Scores relation Ranks. Rank INAIMONa LS et oi.) cles ne eae 5 5 4 9 4 PASC enty leovitc Sec see tec ere aes 2 3 5 2, Dae OEISRS Reke Fh'e 060 pee Masia eee 3 2 5 2.5 SGALCH prctlie sip sists cane eos eae 4 6.5 10.5 5 SEONG oie cicrers ton at orerolstoie ageee rane ede A al ‘2 1 NIONEDC obs vee a, os clots bande eterna eds 6 5 11 226 BUCKING WANT {is Usha etate uate ete tanta 2 7 6.5 13.5 ‘e It should be remembered that in determining the com- | posite score only five of the tests were used, Monroe and Buckingham being omitted. In determining the inter- test correlations, all the tests were used. It willbe noted that the results by the two methods differ but slightly. It is important, however, to consider the inter-test values side by side with the other series, primarily because of the above omissions in the computation of the composite. Inclusion of a test in deriving the composite naturally tends to improve the rating of the test by the composite The two series of ranks appearing in Table I were com- bined to form a final series representing the net result of the investigation. This final series is shown in the column designated ‘‘Final Rank.’’ It will be observed — that the Stone test occupies first position, the Haggerty and Otis tests divide honors.for second place, the Na- tional ranks fourth, Starch fifth, Monroe sixth, and Buck- ingham seventh. Analysis of the method and content of the tests re- vealed marked variations with respect to (1) length. of time allowance, (2) selection of problems for different — grades, (3) space for computation, (4) weighting of problems, (5) method of scoring, (6) use of preliminary — exercises, (7) kind of problems. Most of these variables need further investigation in order to lay the foundation for more accurate tests of arithmetical-reasoning ability. 2 has 4 >: nese fa; { PAPERS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION 495 THE INFUSION OF BAD BLOOD INTO A GOOD FAMILY Eimer EK. Jones, NortHWESTERN UNIVERSITY Few families have been so fortunate as to have escaped the infusion of bad blood into the line of descent. No matter how excellent the lineage from remote ancestors, there are to be found individuals in every family who have disregarded, either voluntarily or ignorantly, the family traditions, and have married into families whose blood is teeming with undesirable traits and characteris- tics. In some instances these traits have been so domin ant as to overshadow practically all the good .qualities of the family, and in the branch affected destroy its use- fulness to society. The new science of Eugenics is bring- ing to light many instances in which a single unsocial dominant trait introduced into an otherwise excellent family has wrought its ruin. Whole branches of families have been wrecked by a single marriage starting a line of descent which is unsocial, mentally unbalanced or of low intelligence. Such tragedies are continually occur- ring, even among our most gifted and highly cultivated families. This fact is frequently overlooked, viz., that there are many intelligent, and even gifted individuals who are members of degenerate families. Such individuals are very apt to migrate from the home community in which they were reared, in order to escape the stigma of the home to which they belong. They are intelligent enough - to know that the ‘‘cards are stacked’’ against them so long as the world knows their ancestry. They migrate to remote regions in order to escape the disgrace. Here they may marry and propagate their kind unrestricted, provided, of course, the family tree remains unknown. About fifteen years ago an intelligent boy belonging to a degenerate family in southern Indiana migrated to the State of Kansas, where he married a talented and well edueated girl, the daughter of well-to-do parents of the middle class. The type of degeneracy well known in this man’s family for several generations is a low grade WO Tt ee ee ine gee A eae ah Re as OEE Lee So RSE A CALS Tee ANT Ate 108", Ry Sen ee : on et ks a ee ames | Gt Ue Yel airline 496 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE of feeble-mindedness accompanied with viciousness and fits of anger followed by a prolonged state of coma. There are many criminals, police court cases, vandals, petty thieves, incendiaries, and delinquents. One branch of the family has been, at times, the occasion of much ter- rorism in northern Kentucky and several members of the family are now serving sentences in Indiana and Kentucky prisons. As a result of this marriage five children were born, four of whom are perfectly normal, but one is typical of the degeneracy described above as characteristic of the father’s family. At the present time he is eleven years of age, but has an intelligence quotent of 75, and is not capable of carrying the work of the second grade in school. He is a moral delinquent, already guilty of sex- ual perverseness and numerous petty thefts, is belliger- ent, high tempered and incorrigible... There is not the slightest doubt, even in the mind of his parents, that sooner or later he will become a ward of the State of Kansas. The family tree of this father, extending back only to his immediate parents, and including all his brothers and sisters with their children, is given below in Chart I. The chart shows that this man’s father was feeble-minded and his mother epileptic; that he had one normal brother and one normal sis{fer; that he had two feeble-minded sisters who are not yet married, and one unmarried epileptic sister. It is little wonder that an intelligent man should wish to remove himself from such a home environmert. The tragedy appears in his marriage into a good family, and his responsibility in _bringing into the world offspring tainted with his own bad blood. His feeble-minded son may never marry, and his other ehildren may marry normal individuals whose children may all be normal; but the tragedy of a single life such as his son presents should be adequate warning against allowing such individuals to marry. Knowledge of his family tree would probably have deterred any intelli- gent girl from considering with favor his suit for mar- riage. Another case was recently brought to my attention by a social worker in the City of Chicago. Her charts showed that the girl under consideration belonged to a degenerate family which for almost a century has existed in southwestern Ohio. The girl herself is of normal intelligence, though of the servant girl class. She pos- sessed enough energy and self reliance to break away from the home environment about fifteen years ago, and came to Chicago to live. Here she married a normal man of intelligence and excellent parentage, a mechanic of good ability. . This girl’s family tree presents many cases of sexual perverseness, idiocy, imbecility, temporary insanity, feeble-mindedness, weakness, and almost always the most abject poverty. As a result of her marriage four children have been born, three of whom are perfectly AOE RL Wah or aee ICR TM eg ak atk Bek ON Maiti eee Vee MEE et Re et 498 ; mapper STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE cal normal, and one a row grade imbecile, incapable of faa ing or arene: Her family tree, exeaee back to her — own parents and including her brothers and sisters, is given in Chart IL. HERE EEE Bratt ars nessa Sena neeeneeeneene EDD, bet Ba fey HE See eeeeeeee ase SEeeeeHnnEHEE aaa seertartics a fim eite ZN 5 Sane EERE eS Sassceeas Bs a. a es os Fae NG =e BESReE Rese She se o~s CHART. fI. At present the writer is making a careful study of the ~ descendants of a family which migrated from Pennsyl- vania to Hastern Indiana about 1820. They were Quak- ers, and believed in education, thrift, good citizenship, honesty, and peace. Approximately four hundred de- scendants have been traced, and the life and achieve- ments of individuals carefully studied and tabulated. This family presents an enviable record of excellent citi- zenship, high ideals, and moral stamina. Throughout its long history the family has been represented in its descendants by men who have found simple duties in life and performed them with Christian fortitude. The ideals of service, so prominent in the Quaker religion, took deep root in the descendants of this family, and while few have gained distinction, nearly all belong to the great 499 middle class of highly respected citizens of the common- wealth. At least five of the descendants have been, or are at present, college professors, seventeen have served as high school principals or city superintendents; no less than thirty have taught in the elementary schools, and ‘one is a Kindergartner of national reputation. Many have been and are at present successful farmers and stock raisers. One is president of a railroad corpor- ation, another is president of a state labor organization, and there is one descendant who is probably a million- aire. There have been several Quaker preachers, and one Presbyterian preacher, though none of them have gained distinction in this field. In pre-Civil War days this family held very pronounced anti-slavery views, as did most Quakers, and maintained five well established stations of the ‘‘Underground Railroad’’ system reach- ing from Richmond, Indiana, to Fort Wayne. Hun- dreds of slaves made their escape to Canada over this route. The study reveals the fact that all the descend- ants have been law abiding, peace loving, gentle folk of good intelligence and decent behavior. The marriages of the descendants, with one exception which will be discussed later, were uniformly favorable, producing offspring which conform more or less closely to the general type of native ability found throughout the family. The marriages were formerly held rather closely within the Quaker church, it being the custom of the sect not to marry outside. Since the Civil War, however, descendants have not at all conformed to this custom, whole branches of the family now being con- nected with other religious orders. All branches of the family have been practically free from mental and physi- cal weakness, such as insanity, feeble-mindedness, can- cer, and tuberculosis. Not a single instance of any of these maladies is recorded in the long history of this family. Infant mortality has been extremely low, which indicates a high degree of excellence in parental care. In 1848 an event occurred in the history of this family tree which practically wrecked one branch of it. The 500 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE eldest son of this original pair migrated to the state of Towa and there married. His wife had been known to him only a short time, and it is probable that he did not know of the mental status of her forebears. At any rate this marriage initiated a series of tragedies scarcely surpassed in any Hugenies study with which I am famil- iar. The woman he married was attractive, intelligent, and a natural favorite. She lived to the age of sixty-six, a highly respected woman, a devoted mother, and died without showing any symptoms of the bad blood flowing in her veins. All we know of this woman’s family is that her father died in a hospital for the insane, she had one brother who committed a murder and then committed suicide rather than suffer arrest, another brother was guilty of sexual disorders, served a term in the penitentiary for rape, and finally committed suicide. Her mother died when the girl was thirteen years of age, and three children died in infancy, one supposedly in an epileptic fit. This record is sufficient to identify certain mental and moral traits, which should not be transmitted. The children of the original pair have all shown signs of the unsocial and diseased traits which were inherent in the family of the mother. The eldest daughter, a real Shakespearian shrew, while she was never actually in- sane, was always regarded as very peculiar. She talked almost continually during the waking period of her en- tire life. She was irritable, and unreasonable, an habit- ual scold, showed fits of passion at her children little short of real madness, was unclean in her person and house. Although she raised a large family of children, she never showed the slightest intelligence in the teaching of them, or the organization and administration of her home. She abused her husband and threatened to leave him many times. She talked about her own children in terms quite befitting them, for she apparently realized that her offspring were a degenerate lot. She gave birth to ten children, not one of whom ever gave her, or any- one else, any pleasure. Three girls were always called ‘thalf-witted’’? by relatives and friends. Two boys served jail sentences for serious sex crimes. Two others PAPERS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION 501 have served terms in the penitentiary for mail robbery and burglary. One daughter married a negro and has given birth to four children, three of whom are feeble- minded or worse. At least two of the daughters were common prostitutes. Little wonder that she railed at her family and blamed her husband for her troubles. ‘It is quite clear, however, that the bad blood came from her own family, since her husband’s family was free from any of the traits appearing in her offspring. All the children in the family showed symptoms of de- generacy similar to that found in their grandmother’s stock. Not one showed the virile traits of excellent ca- pacity so prevalent in the father himself and his whole family. In this marriage all the factors of reproduction seemed to bring together and emphasize the unsocial qualities latent in the grandmother. The diagram illustrates more fully the degeneracy of the whole group. The mother stated to the writer that her children among themselves committed practically every social irregularity known, including adultery, in- eest, pander, masturbation, theft, vulgarity, obscenity, ete. She talked about their unsocial disorders with great freedom, but with deep emotion. The eldest son, No. 2 in Chart III, in the family for many years showed no signs of degeneracy. During his youth and adolescence he was self respectable, digni- fied, studious, and energetic. He was somewhat ad- dicted to intoxicants, though not to excess. He married at twenty-four a woman of fine family, and considerable wealth. At about forty the degenerate traits of his mother’s family began to show themselves. He was found guilty of sexual perverseness, was accused of fi- nancial irregularities in a county office, though not con- victed because it was found that his guilt involved others of the county ring. Weaknesses of various kinds over- took him, ‘including periodical melancholia, idleness, viciousness in his home and drunkness. At the age of fifty he had disgraced his wife and family in several debauches with disreputable people, and finally commit- ted a sexual crime for which he was sentenced to prison for five years. A new trial brought in the insanity plea PG) fi ome D <7 me) a a & |e el sal a. & wa M a FS _ i and he was sent to a sanatorium. The records of the institution show that he suffered a complete mental — breakdown from which he never recovered. His case was | diagnosed as ‘‘softening of the brain’’ from which he died o after three years at the sanatorium. 7 SEER Ht ZN CHART III. pe ee The second son, No. 3, Chart III, in the family showed no signs of degeneracy till he was somewhat over fifty years of age. Mex During his youth he was a dudish chap, with little ambition except to dress gaudily and work as little as compatible with his dressing instinct. He was a cabinet maker of considerable proficiency and worked at (ca bah s TF Hf : . : iat A : i more : oh ae eae -’ PAPERS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION 503 this craft throughout his life. ‘He never married, and be- came incompetent at fifty-four, when he was sent to a state sanitarium in a western state. His case was diag- nosed as ‘‘softening of the brain’’ and he died at the age of sixty-one. His decline was quite similar to that of his brother, according to the copies of the records in my possession. The third son, No. 4, Chart ILI, of this original pair . seemed for many years to be normal in every respect. He was engaged in Government service with considerable distinction for a time, married well, and was the father of DTT Pent tent tary ‘aan CHART IV. three children. He provided a fine home in which was a considerable library, excellent pictures, and other means of culture usual in the best American families. He seemed to develop greatly after his school days, by much general reading and study, and was regarded most favorably by all who knew him. His social qualities were exceptional, and the best citizens in the community sought him out as a most companionable and versatile friend. Just when he had reached this point an event happened which shoéked all who knew him but which was a harbinger of his future collapse. He was caught in fraudulent use of ee NE eA aaNet ny aye ae yh tri f bbe atl re \ vi F vey 504 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE “ | funds held in trust. The case was settled and a jail sen- tence suspended. He moved to another state and made a new start, but several minor lapses followed in quick succession. Once, an affair with a woman; another, a drunken spree for a few weeks in another city; and final- ly the selling of his property without the knowledge or consent of his wife. The money was quickly squan- dered, and his once happy home was wrecked. His down- fall was rapid. The saloon, the brothel, the gambling den now became his haunts and he was rarely seen by his family. In a drunken row he was accused of killing his pal. By this time he had so far deteriorated from his former self that it was quite easy to prove him insane ~ when he came up for trial. He was sent to the hospital — for the insane in the state of Iowa, where he slowly de- teriorated mentally and physically: for about five ee when he died. His case turned out to be quite similar to that of his two elder brothers. The break came at about the same period of life or a little later, but the symptoms in the diagnoses were quite similar. The youngest daughter, No. 5, Chart III, in “thie family - is still living. She has never aivfer ed a breakdown! but has always been regarded as most peculiar. She married and is the mother of three children, but she has not lived with her husband for many years, nor do her children see her. She has long periods of depression during which she will not speak to her most intimate friends. These are probably forerunners of a final state of melancholia so common in her mother’s family. In the third generation the terrible effects of the un- social dominant traits described in the parents are still evident. The accompanying charts show to what a low station many of the descendants of the original pair have sunk. One branch seems to have reached so low a stage that there is little danger of further propagation. ' From every standpoint the results have been disastrous. Heo- nomically it has been wasteful. Four states, Iowa, Mis- souri, Kansas and Nebraska, have expended approxi- mately $18,000 in legal processes alone; a moderate esti- vee. Pee oe Pe et ee ae PE See cee to kA ba 0 Sree Sent ! * eM En ee + 4 4 h Fos N ata! U _ PAPERS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION 505 mate of hospital and asylum fees for the incompetents is placed at $20,000. The negative results entailed upon the community by mere residence of such socially unfit can never be estimated. The question naturally arises, how long will society fail to comprehend this problent? How long will our -marriage laws permit unsocial dominant traits to be free- ly propagated by any wretch who may possess them? It should be as difficult to get a marriage license as a life insurance policy. If men and women who con- template marriage were compelled to submit with the application for the license a true family tree indicating family traits and hereditary tendencies, and if this ap- plication were compulsory long enough time before con- -templated marriage to permit the state eugenist to pass upon the family of pedigrees, it is possible that two- thirds of the degenerate and unsocial qualities in the race could be eliminated. tt r ies Si i . Na a 506 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE THE USE AND INTERPRETATION OF COEFFI CIENTS OF CORRELATION 4 Watrer 8S. Monror, Untiversiry or ILiLriors Within the last few years the statistical device known | as the coefficient of correlation has become extensively | used in various phases of educational research. As a result, the interpretation of the coefficient of correlation has become a matter of major inportance. In the brief time that is allotted to me I desire to eall attention to two conditions which affect the meaning to be attached to a given value of the coefficient of correlation. In the first place, the magnitude of the coefficient of cor- relation is affected by a selection of the population from which it was caleulated. When studying general rela- tionships it is obvious that we must resort to sampling. For example, if we wish to ascertain the relation between success in Latin and success in English, it is necessary for us to answer this question on the basis of the relation that exists between these two achievements in a limited population. If two populations are selected in a random or unbiased manner the resulting coefficients will not be identical, except by chance. The differences, however, will not generally be large, and if we are justified in as- suming that the selection is a random one, the fluctuations of the resulting coefficients of correlation conform to a general law. For any given value of the coefficient of cor- relation caleulated from a known number of cases we can determine the probable error due to sampling by means of the formula | 1 —r,,” Vn In certain types of educational research the magnitude — of the coefficient of correlation is affected by other as- pects of the selection of the population group from which it is calculated. In the case of certain traits, the range of the magnitude of the traits is a potent factor in de- termining the magnitude of the coefficient of correlation. For example, if we are studying the relation between in- - ~ - ¢ ~ 2 ~~ > ~ ~ : J , ““ Le - bie pags ‘ < . 4 pc ite ae ap is By ees ey ete s Be 2 eee tie Dae, __- PAPERS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION — eke a : 7 . . * efficient of correlation will be much smaller when ealenu- io * _ lated from a random selection of the pupils belonging to - random selection of pupils taken from grades three - to eight, inclusive. In a recent study the coefficient -of correlation between these two traits was calculated for each half grade from 3B to 8A, inclusive. The co- eficients of correlation range from —.12 to .57. Since there were from 200 to 400 cases in each half grade the probable errors of these coefficients of correlation are re- latively small. When the data from all grades were com- bined the coefficient of correlation for the same two ens ot Mate. Py ae — 454) es oe Sg oii 4 - ("ee i 2 the average of the coefficients of correlation for the ____ separate half grades. wa A more striking illustration is cbtaimed from the cor- relation between chronological age and mental age. In the investigation referred to above, the coefficients of cor- relation were calculated between these two traits for each : half grade. These range from —.12 up to —44. In other ay words, the correlation between mental age and chronolo- a _ gical age for the pupils belonging to a single half grade = is inverse. In general, the pupils who are older chro- _ ___ nologically tend to be the ones who are younger mentally, é and vice versa: When the pupils from grades 3B to 8A, ___ inelusive, are grouped together the correlation between “a chronological age and mental age was found to be .56. oa In this instance the coefficient is not only larger but it is 4 positive, although when the pupils were taken by sepa- ___ rate half grades all of the coefficients were negative. It, “a however, does not always happen that the coefficient of = correlation is affected by the grade range from which the population is selected. For the same pupils the correla- ee tion was calenlated between the intelligence quotient and ____ the achievement quotient for arithmetic. When the pupils are taken by separate half grades, these coefficients range from —.19 to —.62. When all grades are taken together, the coefficient of correlation was found to be —.41, which is essentially the average of the coefficients of correlation for the separate half grades. ete das cy lie de yee Phi J tie a aA . > y j ef An 3h, af Oe os Ait wh Wi etal Ds telligence and achievement in silent reading, the co- a single half grade than when it is calculated from a_ traits was found to be .76. This is distinctly larger than. Leg Adi ‘ nae . mi A : Mos Oe iak ee <) he ee vot) i Bed maten Ae Ne ee ee, wig " 4 he 508 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE . It is, therefore, necessary to take into account the type | of selection that is made as well as its random character. It is not enough to make the selection of data in an un- biased way. In addition, one must interpret the co- — efficient of correlation that is obtained with reference to the particular type of selection that has been followed. If all of the data have been obtained from the pupils be- longing to a given half grade, the interpretation will be generally on a distinctly different basis from that to be followed if the data were selected in a random way from the pupils belonging to a sequence of several grades. - My ‘second thesis is that the meaning to be attached to the numerical value of a coefficient of correlation de- pends upon the type of relationship being studied. For example, if we were studying the relation between general intelligence and quality of handwriting, a coefficient of correlation between these two traits of .40 would be high. If we were to obtain this result for a representative stud- ent population drawn from the sequence of several grades, we would be justified in asserting that for this eroup the relationship between general intelligence and quality of handwriting was very high. On the other .hand, if we were studying the relation between first trial and second trial scores on an intelligence test we would consider a coefficient of .40 exceedingly low, if it was based upon a representative group of pupils from a sequence of several grades. In order for a coefficient of correlation to be considered high in this case it would need to be .80 or larger. When these two illustrations are analyzed with refer- ence to the questions we are attempting to answer by means of the coefficient of correlation, we find that we are dealing with questions which are not identical. In the case of the relationship between general intelligence and handwriting we are primarily concerned with ascer- taining whether or not any relationship exists. If any does exist, it is very small. If we secure a positive co- efficient of correlation which is three or four times larger than its probable error, we have evidence of a positive relationship between these two trials. We are, of course, - eed ee Oe te Sp ote! A es PERS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION = 5 b = och a2 2 S ? -* Py, Pay, weap r os * i o; interested somewhat in the closeness of this relationship, = but since it is slight we have answered the question in so far as we are able when we have determined that a ‘e _ positive relationship does exist. On the other hand, ; when we are dealing with the relation between first trial < scores and second trial scores on the same test we are ‘not concerned with ascertaining whether a positive re- “a lationship exists between fhese sets of facts. We know from our general experience with educational tests that ; a relatively high positive relationship exists between 3 first and second trial scores. The question which we . ‘wish to answer in this case is how nearly perfect is this relationship, or perhaps to put it into a more effective form, how great are the departures from a perfect ree lationship. If we compare the coefficient of correlation or: Si baa WPA vit el are ie. r with its probable error due to sampling we obtain little ‘Ss or no assistance in interpreting it in such case. For ex- = ample, we might have a coefficient of correlation of .65 3 ‘i with a probable error of = .03. In this case the coefficient a oN of correlation is more than 20 times its probable error, “$3 _____ but the relationship between the first trial scores and the ___ second trial seores is far from perfect. : In order to secure a measure of departure from a _ * perfect correlation the probable error of estimate has am been proposed for use instead of the coefficient of corre- A lation. It may be caleulated by means of the formula, 3 P. Eger = 6745 PV 1—r1,.. ¥ _. The calculation of the probable error of estimate, if the | “ 4 coefficient of correlation is known, involves some very - 7 simple arithmetic. It gives a measure of the magnitude ke a. _ of the departures from perfect correlation, or to put it 5 ; in another way, it measures the amount of change which — would be necessary in one set of data in order to bring ~ S them into perfect correlation with the other. For ex- °* ample, the correlation between the number of questions answered by eighty fourth grade children on forms 1 and 3 of the Courtis Silent Reading Test No. 2, was mE found to be .87 = .02. In this case the coefficient of cor- relation is 43 times its probable error. This will be recognized as a very high correlation since it is based upon data of children from a single school grade. T fifty percent of the cases one set of scores departed from — perfect correlation with the other by more than 4.6 units. Since the average score is approximately 40 this amounts to about twelve per cent of the magnitude of the aver-_ age scores. : In the formula for the probable error of estimate it will be noted that its magnitude depends upon the stand- ard deviation of the distribution of the data from which the coefficient of correlation is computed as well as upon the coefficient of correlation. For this reason there is far from perfect correspondence between the magnitude ~ of the probable error of estimate and the magnitude of the coefficient of correlation, even when the difference in the size of units is recognized by taking the ratio of the probable error of estimate to the average. For ex-_ ample, a certain collection of paired facts yielded a co- efficient of correlation of .52. The probable error of estimate was 6.4 and the ratio of this to the average was” .o38. Another collection of data yielded a coefficient of | correlation of .8, a probable error of estimate of 1.4 and the ratio of the probable error of estimate to the average of 14. 8 bs aS a > q BS as Laie er on eet gg ee rR Ns as Se ii ES Sis) tyme bb a5 C So Oe aye po, 8 Sa o i coal oO al — o = i 3 > (8s 2 a S 2% os a & 328 Fe =a = a s =o = c s Se et BE : o = eo BS = = & we + “3F = -_ = S$ £8 = = s 5A ee = = 4:8 So A = S eet arr gs - a -98 Boo Co Cs B CAO 7k Saw bet 1 98 GoucB 2B AS c C . ~B- < CSaeaee 50 Be Re -- B B= BSB B- me 89.8 B SS He ee SS 3S 3.5.2 B B B Cc B- B- B ae 89 ) Se eS ees yee east, Sr Cae eae 10182 ae 89 es Se ee oY B- Bae 99 ES: ee & A Cc Heo 5B B - Me SAS A OAR Be 4 AS 4 eee 3 2 A> SB A A- A B AZ 2B p- 89 G28 Be AS Cc Bo eee % if SR BBS a E c B a 90 E BP oR Be E Cc BoC a4) C.F Be + BL Ci. Gos tae f ee 16627 > AS Oe ow an A aot SBS APR 4 _ The grades made by each section in each subject each quarter have been compiled so as to show the number- of A grades made in Algebra in section one. Likewise _ the number of other grades in other subjects have been -— eolleected. The following chart shows the number of each of these grades as they have been collected. A compilation of the various grades made in the four subjects in each section in the Fall and Winter Quarters. FALL QUARTER SEcTION 1 (Class of 25) Soir se tS eae 4A’s 5 As 9 Bs *4 B’s 3 Cs PAREN SN Sez 5 To ere eee 0 A’s 36 As “9 B's. 5 Bs, 5208 [ene ranhy | sin 2h vw aes. oe 5 A’s 3 As 13 Bs 0 B’s 3Cs 1E Drawing and Biology....5 A’s 10 A~s 8 Bs 1 B- 0€Cs 1E SECTION 2 (Class of 19) FAT 1 ee RS a cael iy 3-A~s 2 -B’s 3 Bs 8 C’s 2 E's Pinelish. .f.cncc ee oft en" 1A 0 A’s 5 B's 9 B’s.2Cs 2s Geography ...... ee ae £:A’=)- 0: As*'6. B's -62B—s °3:C8 Drawing and Biology....0 A’s 6A’s 7 B’s 5 B’s 1C WINTER QUARTER a SECTION 1 ne PIP CREA dies a. oc a8 3 A’s~ 4 As 7 B’s, 4 Bs 6:C's PS 123) 2 a ae 2 A’s 5 A’s: 9 B’s 4B’s 4C’s 1E a Geography ........ 3 A’s 5 A’s 10 Bs 4B’s 1C 1©E 1D ps Drawing and aera.) Biology ...:<.... . 1A 4A’s 16B’s 2B’s 0C’s 2 E's us Bea ek oa) 514 IANS ODA Mes det steers coe Z\-A's Hide lishte). ceases 0 A’s _ Geography .. 3 A’s Drawing and Biology Hahevetenais eke 2 A’s II. RELATION OF GRADES MADE BY SECTIONS By observing the above chart it is quite apparent that a section one, which is the section with the higher I. Q.’s, ia hasa nah larger percentage of high grades and there- SECTION 2 1 A- 1 A- 1 A- 1 A- 2B’s 2 Bs ES 8 Bs 5 B’s 6 Bs 9 C’s 9 C’s 4 C’s 3) O's) leaky 5 B’s 7 Bs fore a much smaller percentage of low grades than sec- mu tion two. The same fact may be made much more striking by — making a chart so that a graph showing the percentage ie of the various grades made by section one in Algebra in the Fall Quarter (or Term) may be set alongside a graph of the same thing for section two. lowing charts this has been arranged for all the sub- 2 jects for each section for each tunics ) If the charts for section one are compared with the — charts for section two by subjects and the percentage of — -A’s, A-’s, and B’s is determined in each subject, it is observed that,— 1. In section one 72% of the Algebra grades, 70% of the English grades, 84% of the Geography grades, | of the grades in Drawing and Biology fall in this group of grades in the Fall Quarter, while in sec- tion two 32% of the Algebra grades, 31% of the English grades, 538% of the Geography grades and 69% of the Drawing and Biology grades fall in this group. 2. In section one 56% of the Algebra grades, 66% of the English grades, 72% of the Geography grades and 84% of the grades in Music and Biology fall in this group of the grades in the Winter Quarter while in section two only 27% of the Algebra grades, 52% of the English grades, 47% of the Geography grades and 42% of the Music and Biology grades fall in this group. 3. Section one has most of its grades in all subjects congested with B’s and A—’s in both terms, while sec- tion two has most of its grades congested with B—’s and and 92% C's. In ‘the tol - PAPERS ON P a? SYCHOLOGY AND 5 DUCATION 5 ~ Re 516 - - ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ae 2G. ‘ s eas eth “Jane ON PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION “Bt 3 xs SE RRRES BESS ERR EEE ESE REREE SEREE ESS ES EUs SERRE EERE EEES | BSUS EN YESS IRE ER 2S SER ER BLEEK ja BS ER SERS ee ppipi S° BES SS BESS! 10 BER SS SERES BSUS BEERS SRZSER SESESESEES gEE ERR B EE SORES FREES SEES EES BREE BREE REE BREE R PEE S CSREES es PRS ORR EE SRURT EEE RS EEE ORES S CBRE PREECE Ee BRE ES CEES PRES PSR ES CERES BEERS ESSE BEARS SERRE BEERS aEe REERSEEE wes SEaa5 Paty SESEAERESSRERESEER ‘ : pagel PiTiisittitisitsttittriy FISTESINUIIIsTISCTISS ICI OsI si Pcs INI IIs iis iii isis it iiet tite ip rii yy ETC tisitiilii tri siti tet seitti it SERGE RERSESERSs Coe ESHRDE PESTS ERESRERREREERESE Sage eeeene CERES ; im EREEEGEES ii Bi ti atititiiitt ERGRE ESRRRESSES SHSES EB Pitt titi TH im imme S8 ueeEe SERGE EE EEE RESSEERUERRREES CREE BEES SEER a! : SSP Sees ys Bit} SES SS 8 2E88 bee ee PITTI ttt ti titi tii tit titi ttt ttt rt Prt Tiet it SnneE SOG SSeS eees sauss ro iH au gauge Pit i tt i BEERE SEARE SEEES PEERS BEERS GRRE ESR Sos [BEE RE RES SERRE PRESS PS SSE SS SS BESS SSS Se AY oe s! (C4 UE BEE BESESaSeES uaB SEBS SEaea 58 SEENS a ig asa rity (SEESSEREESS SEESE SESE EERE E ESAS EESAE EERE RES EE : Bei es: tatty : ian ERRUSS REESE SSESE CRESS CERES REESE RSS E EROS SRE E SEES EE Re Es: : eee! rity [BERSER ER EERE R SONG EFPRE SERRA ERE E RRR ER RRR ROSE R EERE CREE EBRERES SS SSEEE ERPSREERES EES Prt if oweseeetiatisiitittitiiittitititt Pr Tip piri Mak ESSE CSREES SREGR ESSERE SE Rees wan : GRRE S RESET SERGE ERE RE PURER EERE REE ee ii att SESR2 SRE E SSSOR OOES SES EE PERRESE EEE eee e SESS Ee : ESSER SBSUSSEETE CARES SERRE REREEeReee SBEES SESE SS SERES BASES ESR eee SEGRE ESSER SEER EREERESRER REESE SESEE RESER SER ESERERS REE ES EERE REEEE SRERE SREDE CERES EEESS EER RS Reese SHEE GEER ERO EE ESUES EEERE EERE Eee SEEEESSEEE SEA ETERSES BREE eRe ESESE SERES ERS EE PSSRE BEES EERE eee BSRRRSEEEERERSREREEE ee EESSEBaDES BSEUES BEES SSREREEEES ES ERESSBS005 BESS ES BSS ERASER REESE ROR RSSRSaE Eee SESE 8 BRSSS SSE ORES BSE See SGUGS SESUS SHUS RES ERRRER SS BARES SERR ae BEERS SEUSS SERED GREE EERE Ree a ESSeeuESa iS PERESSREEERESeS Bauas SERRE ERSTE PeeSeEeA EGSGS 08858 tL - esanee ESE E SERRE SESS Bese BSa5a aa65 < petit gegag cuEEE SeS05 OLS De Oa Ure REA REE Oe Nl 2! La HON Bena at 4 core Lo . 4- q . Be) y o re ; 4 » " r rer ee “B18 ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Te 4% Rt nee” Oa ans es = EM ; ed ibe nS anya . ‘3 a vr. = ER fo yas Nee ? ve Se a boss \ Sg > on i * n t aA 4. Section one oaeentiy 3 is quite superior to section two. III. CORRELATION OF I. Q.’S AND TERM GRADES - To determine the degree of correlation between the “ I. Q.’s and term grades of the pupils, each section is di- vided into quintiles on basis of the I. Q.’s of the students f in it. These quintiles are marked 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 begin- +43 ning with the quintile composed of pupils with the higher = I. Q.’s. Likewise the grades of the pupils in each sec- 5 ‘ tion in each subject are divided into quintiles and are 4 marked 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 beginning with the quintile com- posed of the higher grades in each subject. The two Ee charts which follow show the two sections with the ‘ ae identification number of each student in each section, ag the I. Q. of each student, the I. Q. quintile and each 2 : RTS 5 ra subject quintile in which the student’s grades fall for % both terms. | 4 : SECTION ONE ! E _ Fall Quarter Winter Quarter ¢ y be ——————— = i if S S : ce E 2 s2e2 232 @s2 a2 2428 | : So & 28 SESE W353 33 53 BS JE ef So ¢ 22 SRS 6582 22 £2 25 82 32 ia cs : S eS = oS = & DS SS = 4 4G <@HhG CGAC Fe 42 Be OG Be 1 18 yi Sabet Sabet Se aae | ao ek eS Pi 2 25 Bia Gi PG Bt Nyy iat (Dark fn oe eK 6 19 OR abr oe ea Ay ae See any he ae 7 22 ng OE AR ae SMI eee Gakt ieG . 9 7 CN pee eee deel Wy Bale IAN a ; 12 20 PANS ee a. te wy one area i 14 4 sche Shee Rien Raeeas | Lo dave as ee 15 13 = ts lyigaest Spee Mae Se a Se a om ' 19 8 OG Sais aes ana eRe Was ie fer | 20 14 : or ae Sane an a= Bi gheeer nas 21 1 “ree bo Be GS hy Akan Cae Ps) St, Ta aa ee 26 23 ey Sart eee ee Bi¢:\\ a) ere BP tae 28 21 Be ON BS Be og rane 29 12 ee ites Samer ans | Wee xcs, soe eA 32 2 Sr Ae cae ee | ne Bee ar a 34 24 SRA Sa eae eer 5 Ree Renee 38 a Bess Ply, 28 8 Bt SS xr rtee eset 44 17 Es Ray Same eee eee eet Ct ee : 48 10 igs SLY ey Seo 2 Roe ta ie a eee | 49 11 Seige. BFS 8A SC Bas oon oeac eam 54 15 Rees. “eda 8 25 8 3: Gd a ee a 60 5 tikes eeey ae ee | RA BENS ga MGT - 63 3 Eves ete Ca Sb US ESS ee ee . 64 6 AE es hae ae Pees See 9 1 Rivets 2 ihe See al 6 16 Seryet NF Vey SRE = aie: ieee eet > ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE SECTION TWO > Fall Quarter Winter Quarter ns 2 : gh 8 Sank ane ie 3 iS =| A pO Sy c= ie ae ace ae HS = mae ap ab HP CF EB oo o8f O98 oS PS £8 1.08 Of DA Pa we C2 28 23 Sel as ine 2s 7s 2 2S Neo ae HS” £o@ &G 4@¢ AG5oG AG 8G 46 BE SEG BE 5 7 Eigen aR epee em Ne ila! 6 2 4 2 2 2 2 3 2 3 4 16 9 3 2 3 5 3 3 2 3 2 3 17 lB} 4 2 4 4 4 4 2 4 4 4 24. 10 3 a Pe eases 3 3 3 3 3 2 337 16 4 it z, a iS 4 al 2 1 al 39 2 1 2 3} 2 4 af al it 2 ote 40 18 5 3 2 4 3 5 4 2 5 + 42 5 2 3 4 3 5 2 3 4 5 3 45 19 5 5 5 3 4 5 4 5 5 2 50 15 4 3 5 2 2 4 5 4 4 2 51 + i 3 4 5 1 i Bee 2 a na 53 il 1 il 1 1 2 1 2 il 1 By 58 11 3 1 1 il i 3 1 if 1 2 59 14 4 4 if 2 1 4 4 2 3 ni 61 8 2 5 3 3 4 2 5, 4 2 5 66 12 3 5 3 4 5 3 5 5 3 be 68 inf 5 4 4 4 5 5 4 5 4 40 69 3) il il il 1 i 1 i 2 1 ai sits a: ae By a study of the last two charts it is easy to deter- . * mine whether a student whose I. Q. placed him in quin- tile 1, was also placed in quintile 1 by his Algebra grade. If so, there is a total correlation between his I. Q. and his Algebra grade. If by his I. Q. he is in quintile 2 but by his English grade he is in quintile 3, there is a variation of one quintile. It is readily ob- served, therefore, that there may be a total correlation, or a variation of one, two, three, or even four quintiles. Checking through the ne charts the following corre- lations Ie variations are discovered,— Fatt Term, SEcTION ONE ALGEBRA 1. Ten students had a total correlation of quintiles in their I. Q.’s and Algebra grades. 2. Fourteen students had a variation of but one quintile in their I. Q.’s and Algebra grades. . 3. One student had a variation of three quintiles in his I. Q. and Algebra grade. ot ao ee BO Fo San ik Twelve students had a total Cora Seven students had a variation of one quintile. Four students had a variation of two quintiles. Two students had a variation of three quintiles. ' GEOGRAPHY Fourteen students had a total correlation. Eight students had a variation of one quintile. Two students had a variation of two quintiles. One student had a variation of three quintiles. Sal ell dl DRAWING AND BIOLOGY Eleven students had a total correlation. a Seven students had a variation of one quintile. Four students had a variation of two quintiles. One student had a variation of three quintiles. Two students had a variation of four quintiles. She See a . Fatt Term, Section Two ALGEBRA _ Five students had a total correlation. ere | > “s aS “ * . € a 4 . ~ ae he —— * one 3.9 as ot s ‘ o° ates oH & F = eo a oe 5 7 5 ? * U : b PAPERS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION 523 ENGLISH Nine students had a total correlation. Three students had a variation of one quintile. Six students had a variation of two quintiles. One student had a variation of three quintiles. es Pe. Pe GEOGRAPHY Nine students had a total correlation. Six students had a variation of one quintile. Two students had a variation of two quintiles. Two students had a variation of three quintiles. at alll od gee MUSIC AND BIOLOGY Five students had a total correlation. Seven students had a variation of one quintile. Four students had a variation of two quintiles. Three students had a variation of three quintiles. If we consider total correlation as 100% correlation; variation of one quintile as 75% correlation; yaciatiile of two quintiles as 50% correlation; variation of three quintiles as 25% correlation; and variation of four quin- tiles as 0% correlation, the following statements are true,— 1. In the Fall Quarter section one had 84% correla- tion in Algebra; 79% correlation in English; 85% corre- lation in Geography; and 74% correlation in Drawing and Biology. 2. In the Fall Quarter section two had 68.4% corre- lation in Algebra; 68.4% correlation in English; 65.8% correlation in Geography; and 71% correlation in Draw- ing and Biology. 3. In the Winter Quarter section one had 85% corre- lation in Algebra; 79% correlation in English; 83% cor- relation in Geography; and 79% correlation in Musie and Biology. 4. In the Winter Quarter section two had 71% corre- lation in Algebra; 76.3% correlation in English; 79% correlation in Geography; and 68.4% correlation in Music and Biology. oo bo gu int all Fabjtetat in the Fall Rane aeehiod one had re 80.5% of correlation and section two had 68.4% of corre- . lation. eal 6. In all subjects in the Winter Quarter section. > had 81.5% of correlation and section two had fas 7% 0 correlation. oe 7. In all subjects in both quarters both sections had bie 76.7% of correlation. | From the above it seems probable that the I. Q.’s of 4 j students will give a teacher rather reliable evidence as’ to what may be expected of these students in high school — subjects in the ninth grade. CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS Pe OR o _ ~+CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS : . | Illinois State Academy of Science oo. CONSTITUTION ~ + eee ees 4 an ARTICLE I. NAME. This Society Shall be known as THE ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF > ScIENCE. Articie II. Ossects. i. The objects of the Academy shall be the promotion of scientific a research, the diffusion of scientific knowledge and scientific spirit, and the unification of the scientific interests of the State. aay ie ArTIcLeE III. MeEMBERs. a7 The membership of the Academy shall consist af two classes as = follows: National Members and Local Members. ES National Members shall be those who are also members of the om American Association for the Advancement of Science. Each national i member, except life members of the Academy, shall pay an admission fee of one dollar and an annual assessment of five dollars. z Local Members shall be those who are members of the local Acad- emy only. Each local member, except life members of the Academy, shall pay an admission fee of one dollar and an annual assessment of one dollar. Both national members and local members may be either Life ri Members, Active Members, or Non-resident Members. 3 ’ - Life Members shall be national or local members who have paid fees to the Academy to the amount of twenty dollars. Life members, if national members, shall pay an annual assessment of four dollars. Active Members shall be national or local members who reside in the State of Illinois, and who have not paid as much as $20.00 in fees to the Academy. ; : Non-resident Members shall be active members or life members > who have removed from the State of Illinois. Their duties and privi- leges shall be the same as active members except that they may not a hold office. ae 5 > os 4 Charter Members are those who attended the organization meet- 2 ing in 1908, signed the constitution, and paid dues for that year. ‘9 For election to any class of membership, the candidate’s name 3. must be proposed by two members, be approved by a majority of the a. committee on membership, and receive the assent of three-fourths of f i. the members voting. —_— Rec’ ARTICLE IV. OFFICERS. Soe The officers of the Academy shall consist of a President, a Vice- es President, a Librarian, a Secretary, and a Treasurer. The chief of st the Division of State Museum of the Department of Registration and A Education of the state government shall be the Librarian of the Acad- emy. All other officers shall be chosen by ballot on recommendation of a nominating committee, at an annual meeting, and shall hold office e for one year or until their successors qualify. ’ They shall perform the duties usually pertaining to their respec- tive offices. > Se et Oe ee — Pn . Bes — Se se@ . It shall be one of the duties of the President to prepare an addre: ‘ which shall be delivered before the Academy at the annual meeting: at which his term of office expires. The Librarian shall have charge of all the pooks, selene. and | material property belonging to the Academy. ARTICLE V. COUNCIL. The Council shall consist of the President, Vice-President, Secre- tary, Treasurer, Librarian, and the president of the preceding year. — 3 To the Council shall be entrusted the management of the affairs of the Academy during the intervals between regular meetings. ARTICLE VI. STANDING COMMITTEES. The Standing Committees of the Academy shall be a Committee on Publication and a Committee on Membership and such other commit- tees as the Academy shall from time to time deem desirable. The Committee on Publication shall consist of the President, the Librarian, and a third member chosen annually by the Academy. The Committee on Membership shall consist of five members _ chosen annually by the Academy. s ARTICLE VII. MEETINGS. The regular meetings of the Academy shall be held at such time and place as the Council may designate. Special meetings may be called by the Council, and shall be called upon written request of twenty members. ARTICLE VIII. PUBLICATIONS. The regular publications of the Academy shall include the trans- actions of the Academy and such papers as are deemed suitable by the Committee on Publication. All members shall receive gratis the current issues of the Academy. ARTICLE IX. AFFILIATION. The Academy may enter into such relations of affiliation with “ other organizations of appropriate character as may be recommended by the Council and may be ordered by a three-fourths vote of the mem- bers present at any regular meeting. ARTICLE X. AMENDMENTS. This constitution may be amended by a three-fourths vote of the “3 membership present at an annual meeting, provided that notice of the desired change has been sent by the Secretary to all members at least twenty days before such meeting. BY-LAWS I. The following shall be the regular order of business: Call to order. Reports of officers. Reports of standing committees. Election of members. Reports of special committees. Appointment of special committees. Unfinished business. New business. Election of officers. Program. Adjournment. Sa ROO SA rete Ue cae OF H aes ia ‘No meeting - of the Kindo. ‘ghall be held without ‘thirty di previous notice being sent by the Secretary to all members. _- See tis Fifteen members shall constitute a quorum of the Acaeape : se +% A majority of the Council shall constitute a quorum of the Council. fe LV. No bill against the Academy shall be paid without an order Pr ened by the President and Secretary. _V. Members who shall allow their dues to remain unpaid for _ three years, having been annually notified of their arrearage by the _ Treasurer, shall have their names stricken from the roll i VI. The Librarian shall have charge of the distribution, sale, and exchange of the published tramsactions of the Academy, —s ope such restrictions as may be imposed by the Council. < a “a Pa = Vil. The presiding officer shall at each annual meeting appoint ‘g's a committee of three who shall examine and report in writing upon the account of the Treasurer. VIII. No paper shall be entitled to a place on the program un- less the manuscript or an abstract of the same shall have been previ- ously delivered to the Secretary. No paper shall-be presented at any _ Ineeting, by any person other than the author, except on vote of the _ members present at such meeting. IX. The Secretary and Treasurer shall have their expenses paid from the Treasury of the Academy while attending council meetings and annual meetings. Other members of the council may have their expenses paid while attending meetings of the council, other than a ; - those in connection with annual meetings. 4 X. These by-laws may be suspended by a three-fourths vote of the = Members present at any regular meeting. LIST OF MEMBERS 533. List of Members 3 Note—The names of charter members are starred; names in black faced type indicate membership in the American Association for the Advance- »~Ment of Science. LIFE MEMBERS. : *Andrews, C. W., LL. D., The John Crerar Library, Chicago (Sci. Bibl.). on *Bain, Walter G., M. D.. St. John’s Hospital. Springfield (Bacteriology). iv" Barber, F. D., M. S.. Illinois State Normal University, Normal (Physics). aM Barnes, R. M., LL. B., Lacon (Zoology). A Barnes, William, M. D., Decatur (Lepidoptera). P *Bartow, Edward, Ph. D., University of Iowa, Iowa City. + Chamberlain, C. J., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Botany). ant! Chamberlin, T. C., LL. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Geology). - Cowles, H. C., Ph. D., University of Chicago. Chicago (Botany). “ *Crew, Henry, Ph. D., Northwestern University, Evanston (Physics). 5 -#Crook, A. R.. Ph. D., Chief, Museum, Springfield (Geology). ~ Deal, Don W., M. D., Leland Office Building, Springfield (Medicine). fr Farrington, O. C., Ph. D.. Field Museum, Chicago (Minerology). ; Ferriss, J. H., Joliet (Conchology). ‘i *Pischer, C. E. M., M. D., Marshall Field Annex Bldg., Chicago (Biology). Ee *Porbes, S. A., LL. D., State Entomologist, Urbana (Zoology). Puller, Geo. D., Ph. D.. University of Chicago. Chicago (Botany). *Gates. Frank C., Ph. D., State Agricultural] College, Manhattan, Kansas (Botany). Hagler, E. E.. M. D., Capitol and Fourth Sts.. Springfield (Oculist). Hankinson, Thos. L., A. M., N. Y. Coll. Forestry, Syracuse (Zoology). = *Hessler, J. C., Ph. D., James Millikin University, Decatur (Chemistry). skins, William, 111 W. Monroe St., Chicago (Chemistry). > Hunt, Robert I.. Decatur (Soils). a Jordan, Edwin O., Ph. D.. University of Chicago. Chicago (Bacteriology). . Kunz, Jakob, Ph. D., 1205 S. Orchard St., Urbana (Physics) ; Latham, Vida A.,. M. D.. D. D. S., 1644 Morse Ave., Chicago (Microscopy). Lillie, F. B., Ph. D., University of Chicago. Chicago (Zoology). . Marshall, Ruth, Ph. D.. Rockford College. Rockford (Zoology). x Miller, G. A., Ph. D., University of [llinois, Urbana (Mathematics). oa Moffatt, Mrs. Elizabeth M., Wheaton. Be ba *, hon Oo Moffatt, Will S., M. D., 105 S. LaSalle St., Chicago (Bdtany). a: Mohr, Louis, 349 W. Illinois St., Chicago. d *Noyes, William A., Ph. D., LL. D., University of Illinois, Urbana (Chem- S istry). 7: *#Oglevee, C. S., Sc. D., Lincoln College, Lincoln (Biology). 4 are Edward W., First State Trust & Savings Bank, Springfield (Arche- “s ology). ; *Pepoon. H. S.. M. D., Lake View High School, Chicago (Zoology and - Botany). Rentchler, Edna K., B. A., Peabody Normal College, Nashville, Tenn. ‘ (Biology). *#Smith, Frank, M. A., University of Illinois, Urbana (Zoology). *Smith, Isabel Seymour, M. S., Illinois College. Jacksonville (Botany). Smith, L. H., Ph. D.. University of Illinois, Urbana (Plant Breeding). Stevenson, A. L., Principal Lincoln School, 1308 Morse Ave., Chicago. Stillhamer, A. B., Bloomington (Physics). Sykes. Mabel. B. S.. South Chicago High School, Chicago (Geology). Trelease, William, LL. D.. University of Illinois. Urbana (Botany). Ward, Henry B., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana (Zoology). Washburn, E. W., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana (Chemistry). Weller, Annie L., Eastern Illinois State Normal School, Charleston. *Weller, Stuart, Ph. D.. University of Chicago, Chicago (Paleontology). Zeleny, Charles, Ph. D., University of [llinois, Urbana (Experimental Zoology). ") i ee oO ee eae og \ 7 ANNUAL MEMBERS. 7 Abbott, Howard C., University of Illinois. Urbana. Abrams, Duff A. C. E., Lewis Institute, Chicago (Structural Materials). Adams, E. W.. 332 S. Dudley St., Macomb, Tl. Adelsperger, Roland, B. S., 5751 N. Clark St., Chicago (Safety in Build- ing). (3a ES MM. M. D.. 119 E. Huron St., Chicago (Medicine). Alexander, Alida, M. A., $31 W. College Ave., Jacksonville, Ill. (Biology). Alexander, C. P., Ph. D., 419 W. Main St., Urbana, Ill. (Entomology). Alldredge, Samuel M., A B., F. O. Box 682. Johnston City, Ill. (Chem#stry). Allee, W. C., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Zoology). Alton High School Science Club, Alton (General). Ames, E. S., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Psychology). i. ior. ha LS a = — To: 2 reek Anderson, H. W., 811 Michigan Ave., Urbana, Ill. (Plant Pathology). Anderson, S. L., M. D., DeKalb, Ill. (Medicine). ; Andras, J. C., B. A., Manchester, Ill. (Astronomy and Botany). M Andros, S. O., M. E., Galesburg, Ill. (Geology). sie Armstrong, Christie, A. B., Princeville, Ill. (Physiography). cae Ashman, George C., Ph. D., Bradley Institute, Peoria, Ill. (Chemistry). *Atwell, ae B., Ph. M., Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill. (Bot- any). (Uae Augen, Mrs. Allison W., M. A. 11359 S. Irving Ave., Chicago (Physics). Baber, “stein: B. S., 5623 Dorchester Ave., Chicago (Geography and Geol- ogy). x Bacon, Chas. Sumner, Ph. D', M. D., 2156 Sedgwick St., Chicago, Ill. Bailey, Wm. M., M. S., 701 S. Poplar St., Carbondale, Ill. (Botany). f ane ahora C., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Zoology and Con- — chology). 4 (a Ball, John R., M. A., 820 Hamlin St., Evanston, Ill. (Geology). : mane: anor H., 212 W. Washington St., Chicago, Ill. (Agri. and Hlec- ricity). ; 4 wn Barnes, Cecil, LL. B., M. A., 1522 1st Nat’l] Bank Bldg., Chicago, Il. (Physical Geography). Barwell, John Wm., Waukegan, Ill. (Anthropology). - : Bayley, W. S., Ph. D!, University of Illinois, Urbana (Geology). ut meting. Hartley, Sc. D., 801 W. Nevada St., Urbana, Ill. (Pharmaceu- cal). Behre, Chas. H., Jr., 74 Hitchcock Hall, University of Chicago, Chicago. Bell, W. H., M. D., 957 N. Water St., Decatur, Ill. (Medicine). : wos Bensley, Robert R., M. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Anatomy). — Bentley, Madison, Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana (Psychology). ; Berg, E. J., Union College, Schenectady, New York. Bergner, Elizabeth A., 2025 Howe Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Physics). ¢ *Betten, Cornelius, Ph. D., Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. (Biology). Bjorkland, Alfred, M. S., 723 Irving Park Blvd., Chicago, Ill. (Physics). Black, Arthur D., M. A., M. D., D. Di S., Northwestern University, Evans- ton, Ill. (Dentistry). ’ pinke oe M., B. S., 203 N. School St., Normal, Ill. (Botany and Physi- ology). : Blake, Mrs. Tiffany, 25 East Walton Place, Chicago, Ill. Bleininger, A. V., B. S., Newell, W. Va. (Ceramics). Block, D. Julian, 1423 Rosemont Ave., Chicago, Iil. (Chemistry). 1 Bonnell, Clarence, Township High School, Harrisburg, Ill. (Biology).. Boomer, S. E., M. A., 207 Harwood St., Carbondale, Ill. (Physics). «=| Boot, G. W., M. D., 800 Davis St., Evanston, Ill. (Medicine and Geology). Boys’ Science Club, Galesburg High School, Galesburg, Il. Breed, Frederick S., Ph. D., 5476 University Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Educa- tion). ‘ erennans i iercgh A., 24 W. 110 Place, Chicago, Ill. (Prin. VanVlissingen _ School). Bretz, J. Harlan, Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Geology). Brink, Chester A., M. D., Apple River, Ill. (Medicine). Brogue, Arthur, 3428 Oak Park Ave., Berwyn, Ill. Brown, Agnes, 1205 West State St., Rockford, Ill. Brown, George A., 304 E. Walnut St., Bloomington, Il. (Education). Brown, Howard C., B. S., 409 Hamilton St., Geneva, Ill. (Botany). Brown, Walter J., M. D., 33 N. Vermillion St., Danville, Ill. (Medicine). Brown, Wm. S., M. D., The Spurling, Elgin, Ill. (Medicine). Browne, George M., 902 S. Normal St., Carbondale, Ill. (Chemistry). Buckingham, B. R., Ph. D., Director of Bureau of Educational Research, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio (Education). % Burge, Wm. E., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Physiology). Burmeister, Wm, H., M. D., 1511 Congress St., Chicago, Ill. (Exp. Medi- cine). Buswell, A. M., Chief, State Water Survey, University of Illinois, Urbana, Til. Buxton, T. C., M. D., 617 Wait Bldg., Decatur, Ill. (Medicine). Buzzard, Robt. G., M. S., State Normal University, Normal, Ill. (Geog- raphy and Geology). ; Caldwell, C. B., M. D., Lincoln State School -& Colony, Lincoln, Ill. (Medi- eine). : Caldwell, Delia, M. D., 501 W. Main St., Carbondale, Ill. (Medicine). Caldwell, O. W., Ph. D., The Lincoln School, Teachers College, Park Ave., New York, N. Y. (Botany). ; , Calumet High School Biology Club, Chicago, Ill. (Biology). Cann, Jessie Y., M. D., Smith College, Northampton, Mass. (Chemistry). Carlson, A. J., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Physiology). Carmen, Albert P., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Physics). *Carpenter, Chas. K., D. D., 1724 Sunnyside Ave., Chicago, I11. Cederberg, Wm. E., Ph. D., Augustana College, Rock Island, Il. (Mathe- matics). Challis, Frank E., 121 N. Wabash Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Analin Dyes). Chandler, S. C., B. S., 402 W. Walnut St., Carbondale, Ill. (Entomology). : LIST OF MEMBERS 535 *Child, C. M, Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Zoology). Christie, J. B., B. S.. M. S., East Falls Church. Virginia (Biology). Clark, Albert Henry, B. Hy 701 W. Wood St.,-Chicago, Ill. (Chemistry). Clark, H. Walton, M. A.. U. S. Biological Station, Fairport. Iowa (Bio- logy, Zoology, Botany). *Clawson, A. B., B. A.. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. (Biology). Cletcher, J. O., M. D., Cisco, Ill. (Medicine). Clute,- W. N., Editor “The American Botanist”’, Joliet, Ill. (Botany). Coffin, Fletcher B., Ph. D., Lake Forest. Ill. (Physical Chemistry). Colby, Arthur Samuel, Ph. D.. 413 University Hall. University of lli- nois, Urbana, fil. (Pomology and Pathology, Medicine). Colby, Chas. C., Ph. D., University of Chicago. Chicago, Ill. (Geography). Colyer, = H., M. S., State Normal University. Carbondale, il. (Geog- raphy Compton, James S., Eureka College, Eureka, I11. Cone, Albert Benjamin, 5245 Magnolia Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Forestry, Mi- croscopy). *Coulter, John M, Ph. D.. University of Chicago. Chicago, Il. (Botany). mer oe ©., Botany Bldg., University of Chicago, Chicago, Il. otany Covington, E. Gray, M. D., 410 E. Market St.. Bloomington, Ill. (Medi- cine). *Crandall, Chas. S., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Botany). Crathorne, A. B., Ph. D.. University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Mathematics). Cribb, Aubrey, 216 W. Vine St.. Spring.ield, lil. (General Interest). Crocker, William, Ph. D., care J. M. Arthur Thompson Institute, Yonkers, N. Y. (Botany). Crosier, W. M.. M. D., Alexis, Tl. (Medicine). Cross, Chas. H., Science Teacher, Y. M. C. A., Freeport, Ill. (Biology and Chemistry). Crowe, A. B., M. A.. Eastern State Teachers College, Charleston, DL (Physics). a Cullison, Olive, 1735 E. 67th St.. Chicago, [1l. Culver, as E., Ph. M., State Geological Survey, Urbana, Ill. (Geol- ogy). Danville Science Club, Danville, Ill. (General). Darling, Elton B., Ph. D., 1345 West Macon Ave.. Decatur, IL Dart, Carlton R., 706 Greenleaf Ave., Wilmette, I11. Davenport, Eugene, LL. D.. Woodland, Mich. (Agriculture). Davies, D. C., Director Field Museum, Chicago, Ill. Davis, Alfred, M. A.. Soldan High School, St. Louis, Mo. (Mathematics). *Davis, J. J.. B. S.. Purdue University, Lafayette. Ind. (Entomology). Davis, Mrs. Robt. L., B. A., Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. (Biology). Davis, Roy E., B. A., Aurora High School, Aurora, Ill. (Physiology). Deam, Hon. Chas. C., M. me Bluffton, Ind. (Forestry and Flora). Dean, Ella R., B. Ed., 416 S. Fair St.. Olmey, Ill. (Chemistry). De Lee, Dr. ems, M. D., M. A., 5028 Ellis Ave., Chicago, Il. Dempster, Ph. D., Ryerson Physical Lab., University of Chicago, ig mn DeTurk, Ernest E., Ph. D.. 707 W. Green St.. Urbana, Ill. (Agriculture). De Wolf, PF. W., B. S., Chief Ill. Geol. Survey, Urbana, Ill. (Geology). Dilts, Charles D., A. B., Central High School, Terrace Park, Evansville, Ind. (Chemisiry). Doll, Theodore, M. A.; 913 Hamlin St.. Evanston, Hl. (Mathematics). Downing, Elliott B., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Zool- ogy).- DuBois. Henry M., M. A.. LeGrand. Oregon (Geology). Dufford, B. F., University of Missouri, 104 Physics Bldg., Columbia, Mo. (Physics). Dunn, Charles F., 1912 S. $th Ave.. Maywood, Il. Dye, Marie, M. S.. 6021 Woodlawn Ave.. Chicago, Ill. (Chemistry). Earle, C. A., M. D., Des Plaines, Ill. (Botany). East, Clarence W., M. D., F. A. S. C., 326 W. Jackson St., Springfield, Ml. (Preventive Medicine). = SE 0., M. D.. Dixon, Ill. (Ophthalomology and Medical Sci- ence Ehrman, ©. H., M. E.. 410 N. Kenilworth Ave., Oak Park, Ill. (General). Bifrig, = * G., 504 druesne Ave., Oak Park, IL (Ornithology, Botany, Zoology). Ekblaw, W. E., Ph. D., University of Iilinois, Urbana, Ill. (Geology). Eldredge, Anthony G., Physics Bldg., University of Illinois, Urbana, Dl. (Photography). Elliott, A. F., B. S.. P. O. Box 1221, East Chicago. Ind. (Science). Elliott, Jesse E.. Hoopeston, Ill. Duane F., Ph. D., 358 Chemistry Bldg., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ii. (Chemistry). Eureka Science Club, Eureka Twp. High School, Eureka, Ill. *Ewing. Dr. H. E.. Dept. of Insectology, Smithsonian Institute, Washing- ton, D. C. (Biology). EHKyman, R. L., B. S., 302 N. Main St., Normal, Ill. (Apnieniee ts Farwell, Mrs. Francis C., 1520 Astor St; Chicago, Tl. 8 Faust, Ernest Carroll, Ph. D., Peking “Union Medical Solleer? Peking : China (Zoology). Featherly, H. I., Waterloo, Ill. (Biology and Agriculture). 5 ea r Feuer, Bertram, B. S.,,M. S., 26384 Argyle St., Chicago, Ill. (cnemipee ia. f Bacteriology). Be" Finley, C. W., M. A., The Lincoln School, Teachers College, Columbia. University, New York (Zoology). ; *Fisher, a Asst. Curator, State Museum, Springfield, I11. (Gen. eee terest ‘ae Flint, W. P., Asst. State Entomologist, 1006 South Orchard Se Urbana, Tl. Gantemeloey as f-i* Riad bu - ;. « ate oe : *Simpson, Q. I., Palmér, Ill. (Eugenics). hmoll, Hazel Marehiertic AS OBE Bibi Meese, 41437 Pennsylvar Denver, Colo. (Botany). herd Schneider, Nora, B. S., Spruce St., Murphysboro, Ill. (Chena Schreiber, Geo. F., 80 Tllinois St., Chicago Heights, Ill. Schulz, W. F., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana, Il. cna Bey, Sears, O. H., 606 E. Chalmers St., Champaign, Ill. (Chemistry). | Seifert, Herbert F., M. A., National Historical Bldg., Urbana, I11. mology). c Shamel, C. H., Ph. D., 535 Black Ave., Springfield, Ill. (Chemistry Shaw, lL. L.,. Ph. D., Address Unknown (Chemistry). , Ba 2 Shelford, v. a Ph. D., Vivarium, Wright and Healy Sts., Champaig Ill. (Zoology, Ecology). om Shinn, Harold B., 3822 Lowell Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Zoology). "/ Shull, Chas. A., Ph. D., Univ. of Chicago, Chicago. (Botany, Plant P ology). Siedenburg, Frederic, M. A., 1076 West Roosevelt Road, | Chicago, : (Sociology). ik Simmons, Lillian M., 325 Melrose Ave., Centralia, Ill. (Biology). _ ee Siemans, jmarstertie L., M. A., 423 Leafland Ave., Centisuny il. (Bie oak ology ; is Simonds, O. C., 1101 Buena Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Botany : ie oe Simons, Etoile B., Ph. D., 7727 Colfax Ave., Chicago, III. (Botany). i Singer, e Douglas, M. D., 6625 N. Ashland Ave., Chicago, Il. (Psyehi- * atry , arent ma &., PH. Ds,>.Se:~D., Univ. of-Chicazo; Chieazo, wits (Mathe. matics ‘ Slocum, A. W., University of Chicago, Chicago, I1l. Slye, Maud, A. B., 5886 Drexel Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Medicine). Smallwood, Mabel E.,°550' Surf St., ‘Chicago, Ill. (Zoology). Smith, Arthur Bessey, B. S., 2324 Hartzell St., Evanston, 111. (Telepne *Smith, C. H., M. E., 5517 Cornell Ave., Chicago, Il. (Physics). : Smith, Clarence R., B. S., Aurora College, Aurora, Ill. (Physies). Smith, Mrs. Eleanor C., B. S., 104 Winston Ave., Joliet, Ill. Smith, Grant, M. S., 1738 W. 104 St., Chicago, Ill. (Zoology). Smith, James W., M. D., Cutler, Perry Co., Ill. (Medicine). Smith, Jesse L., Supt. Schools, Highland Park, Ill. Smith, K. K., Ph. D., Northwestern Univ., Evanston, Tll. (Physics) see Smith, R. a Ph. D., 653 Agricultural Bldg., Univ. of Illinois, Urbana, (Chemistry and Physics of Soils). ; Smith, S. S., Vergennes, Ill. (Vocational and Physical Education). Smith, Sylvia, B. E., Decatur High School, Decatur, Ill. (Biology). — Snider, Alvin B., M. D., Blue Island, fl. (Medicine). iy puider, alte B. S., College of Agri., Univ. ot Til, Wrbana, ie (Soils top eal Merit epee S75 Robert, M. D., 4534 Michigan Ave., Chicago, Ill. (M cine). Re Soyer, Bessie F., B. S., 315 S. Church St., Jacksonville, Ill. (Biology). Speckman, Wesley . N., Ph. D., Eimhurst College, Elmhurst, Ill. (Biola Spencer, Ada V., B. ve Walcott, Ind. (Zoology). Spicer, ©. E., Joliet, Til. (Chemistry). F sey Spooner, C. S., M. A., 704 N. Illinois St., Urbana, Ill. (Entodil VAD a kK Steagall, Mary M., Ph. B., Carbondale, Ill. (Botany). Steely, B. F., M. D., Louisville, Ill. (Medicine). Pod Stevens, F. L., Ph. D., Univ. of Illinois (Plant Pathology, Botany). ; Stevens, W. A., B. A., Lockport, Ill. (Chemistry). a Stewart, Alice C., 132 W. Marquette St., Chicago, Ill. (Botany). Stillians, A. W., M. D., 819 East 50th St., Chicago, Ill. (Medicine). *Strode, W. S., M. D., Lewistown, Ill. (Medicine). ; Strong, Harriet, B. S., Northwestern College, Naperville, Il. (Biology). ry we Struble, R. H., A. B., 4481 Sheridan Ave., Detroit, Mich. (Physics). va Swan, W. S., M. Dt, Harrisburg, Ill. (Medicine). wae Tatum, Arthur L., Ph. D., M. D., University of Chicago, Chieaep TL (Physiology and Pharmacology). Taylor, Mildred E., A. B., A. M., 806 Washington Ave., Johnston City, “HH. (Mathematics). Me Tehon, Leo R., A. B., M. A., Univ. of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Botany, Plan Pathology). a. Thompson, Louis T. E., Ph. D., 508 Douglas Ave., Kalamazoo, Mich, ~ (Physics). , Ke By Thompson, O. B., M. D., 201 S. Washington Ave., Carbondale, Ill. (Medina cine). i 3 Thurlimann, Leota, 5955 Calumet Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Botany). 7 ae Thurston, Fredus ie 1361 EB: 57th St., Chicago, Il. Tiffany, L. Hanford, Ohio State Univ., Columbus, Ohio (Botany). *Townsend, E. J., Ph. D., Univ. of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Mathematies). | Townsend, M. T., B. S., 301 Nat. History Bldg., University of Tiimotss SS Urbana, Ill. (Animal Ecology). ae Ba! ‘ . . x Sa ea Trapp. A. R., M. D., Tllinois National Bank Bldg., Springfield, Til (Medi- eal Diagnosis). - 9 Turton, Chas. M., M. A., 2059 E. 72d St., Chicago, Ill. (Physics). os, Udden, Anton D., Univ. of Pa., Philadelphia, Pa. (Physics and Mathe- matics). Ulrich, Katherine, Ph. B., 641 N. Kenilworth Ave., Oak Park, Ill. (Geol- ogy. Geography, Botany). Van Cleave, H. J. Ph. D., Univ. of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Zoology). Van Cleet, Eugene, B. S., 9616 S. Winchester Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Com- mercial and Econ. Geography and Climatology). Van Tuyl, Francis M., Ph. D., Colo. Schoo] of Mines, Golden, Colo. (Geol- ogy). Vestal, A. G., Ph. D., Stanford Univ., Palo Alto, Cal. (Ecology). Vestal, Mrs. Wanda P.. Ph. D., Stanford Univ., Palo Alto, Cal. Vise, H. A., M. D., Benton, Ill. (Medicine). Von Zelinski, Walter P., M. D.. Ph. D.. Major Medical Corps, U. S. Army, care Adjutant General, Washington, D. C. (Biology and Physiology). Wager, BRB. E., M. A.. Emery Univ.. Decatur, Ga. (Biology). Waldo, E. H., E. E., Dept. of Electrical Engineering, Univ. of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Electricity). Waldo, Jennie E., 1204 Third Ave., Rockford, Ill. (Biology). Walker, Ellis David, .M. D., B. Se., Litchfield, Ill. (Pedagogical Med., Biol. and Agri.). Walsh, John, 282 W. Berrien St.. Galesburg, Ill. (Water Supply). Warbrick, John C., M. D., M. C., 306 E. 43d St., Chicago, Ill. (Birds, Na- ture Study). Ward, Harold B., B. S., Northwestern Univ.. Evanston, Ill. (Geology and Geography). pega Warren G., Ph. D., Northwestern Univ., Evanston, Ill. (Bot- any). Watson, F. E., Ph. D., Dept. of Physics, Univ. of Illinois, Urbana, Il. Weart. James G., A. B., 109 E. John St.. Champaign, Ill. (Botany). Weaver, George EH, M. D., 629 S. Wood St., Chicago, Dil. (Medicine and Bacteriology). Weaver, H. E., Raymond, Ill. Weber, H. C. P., Ph. D., Westinghouse Electric Co., Pittsburgh, Pa. (Chemistry). Weckel, Ada L., M. S.. Twp. High School, Oak Park, Ill. (Zoology). Weicholt, A., M. D.. Barrington, Ill. (Medicine). Welker, William H., Ph. D.. Univ. of Illinois College of Medicine, 508 S. : Honore St., Chicago, Ill. (Biological Chemistry). Wells, M. M., Ph. D.. General Biological Supply House, 1177 E. 55th St., Chieago, Ill. (Zoology). Wells, Mrs. John k., B. S.. R. F. D. 1, Harvard, Hl. (Botany). Wentworth, Edward N., B. S.. M. S., 6320 Kenwood Ave., Chicago, [fl (Livestock Research, Armour & Co.) (Genetics and Economics). Wescott, O. S., Waller High School, Chicago. Ill. Wever, Ernest Glen, A. B., Roanoke, Ill. (Biology). Whitmore, Frank C., Ph. D.. Northwestern University. Evanston. Ill. (Organic Chemistry). Whitmey, Worallo, A. M., 5743 Dorchester Ave... Chicago, Ill. (Botany). Whitten, J. H., Ph. D., 7111 Normal Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Botany). Wilezyncki, E. J., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Math.). Wilhelmj, Chas. F., M. D., East St. Louis. Ill. (Medicine). Williams, E. G. C., M._D., Danville. Ill. (Medicine, Clinical Pathology). Willier, Benj. H., Ph. D.. Zoology Bidg., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. (Zoology). Wilson, C. S.. M. D., Freeburg, Ill. (Medicine). Wilson, J. Gordon, M. A., 5755 Kenwood Ave., Chicago, Til. (Otology). Windsor. Mrs. P. L., 609 Michigan Ave., Urbana, Ill. (Entomology). Winslow, Chas. A., 2125 Sherman Ave., Evanston. Til. (Geology). *Winter, S. G.. M. A., Lombard College, Galesburg, Ill. (Histology). Wirdlinger, Sidney, Ph. D., Galesburg, Dll. (Chemistry). Wirick, C. M, M. A., Crane Technical High School, Chicago, Til. (Chem- istry). Witzemann, Edgar J., Ph. D.. Sprague Mem. Institute, Rush Medical Col- lege, Chicago, Dll. (Chemistry). Wolkof, M. IL, Ph. D., Agricultura] Experiment Station, Urbana, IL (Soil Fertility). Wood, FP. E., 804 N. Evans St., Bloomington, Ill. (Biology). Woodruff, Frank M., Chicago Academy of Science, Chicago, Ill. (Taxi- dermy). Woods, F. C., Galesburg, Ill. (Physics). Worsham, Walter B., A. B., 501 E. Daniel St., Champaign, Ill. (Physics). Wright, Frank, M. D.. 5 S. Wabash Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Biological Chem- istry). Wynne, Eoss B., A. B., 250 E. 111th St., Chicago, Ill. (Botany). Young, Mrs. J. D., M. S.. Windermere Hotel, 56th St. and Cornell Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Zoology). Sa o1 “Bau 6 05 W. . University . , Karl C., be ela Til. (Agriculture). 4 “¥Zete , James, A. M., Box 245, Ancon, Panama Canal Zone (© a neers ‘Augustine G., 30 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, u cience Zinn, Julian W., M. D., Flanagan, Il. (Medicine). n 4 Zoller, Cc. H., M. D., Litchfield, I11. eateaiciie : aa a Sr inain et: ~7?t a> ec . ss VEGA yg Be ae ; -_ i pAt es 6 % . Po ay v- ~a ea eas ie . mJy id, a hs ey ~~ ’ Que WL TEIN A 3 5185 00280 1510 ae ed osu oe Ce pS me ore? eaeire eye eater ia ‘ ane eta? Pe S