If li'l I; li:| i!ii:„ ,ii"""iiiii. t •»-^=^?i:^ „4^ ■*^ ■ ---'^ ::i5j >^ 1 ^ ^4 ^ •v K^ \ I Cl^ V ^ •5; \ i 1 > TBANSACTIONS OF THE "^ NEW-YORK STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY, TOGETHER WITH AN ABSTRACT OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE COUNTY AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES, AND THE AMEEICAN IISTITUTE. VOL. IV— 1844. <-5 ' ALBANY: PRINTED BY E. MACK, PRINTER TO THE SENATE. 1845. CONTEJ^TS OF VOL IV. STATE AND COUNTY AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES. Page. Annual Repokt of the New- York State Agricultural Society, 3 State Cattle Show at Poughkeepsie, 6 Address of Hon. George Bancroft, 12 Premiums awarded at Poughkeepsie, 19 Proceedings at Annual Meeting, 1845, 31 Officers of the State Agricultural Society, 33 Premiums awarded at Winter Meeting, 32-43 Address of Hon. J. P. Beekman, 34 Report of B. P. Johnson, Esq., Cor. Sec'y, 43 Report of Assembly's Committee on Agriculture, 47 Analysis of Soils, by the late Willis Gaylord, 61 Tribute to the memory of Mr. Gaylord, 61 On Farm Management — Prize Essay, by J. J. Thomas, 76 Jefferson County Report on Farms, 94 Monroe County Report on Farms, 96 Oneida County Report on Farms, 101 Oswego County Report on Farms, 103 Rotation of Crops— Prize Essay, by J . J . Thomas, 105 Rotation vs. Summer Fallows, by Willis Gaylord, 1 18 Extract from Report of Clinton County, 126 Manures — Extract from Dr. Beekman's Address, 127 Extract from Essay of Samuel Williams, 129 Remarks of Messrs Humphrey, Bement, Emmons and Lee, at Albany Agricultural Meetings, 133 Waste of Manures, by L. B. Langworthy, 135 Subsoil Plowing, by J. Macdonald, Salem, 140 Trial of Plows — Report of Committee on, 147 Wheat Culture — in the Southern Counties, by Dr. Lee, 151 Wheat Crops of Western New- York, by H. O'Reilly, 154 Extract from Dr. Beekman's Address 156 from Report of Maj. E. Kirby, 159 from Report of Wm. Parsons, 161 Statement of E. J. Ayres, respecting' his Premium Cropj 161 of M. Watson and J. Selover, 163 of J.M'Gonegaland E. B. Lucas, 164 ofWm. Wright, 165 Spring Wheat — Statement of Wm. Hambleton, 165 IV Page. Spking Wheat — Statements of H. B. Bartlett and R. Eells, 166 Statement of C. H. Curtis, 167 Indian Corn — Experiments in culture of, by George Geddes, Onondaga co.,. 168 Experiments of J. F. Osborn, Cayuga county, 173 ' of Wm. Parsons, Niagara county, , 175 of Nathan H. Corwin, Orange county, 17 7 Statement of J. L. Smith, Chemung county, 179 of Amos Rice, Cortland county, 180 of Rufus Beckwith, Monroe county, and Charles H. Curtis, Lewis county, 181 Statements of S. H. Knappen, Clinton county, and Ezekiel Butler, Onei- da county 182 Barley — Report of Awarding Committee, 184 Statements of S. H. Church and J. Warner, Oneida county, 185 of Wm. Wright, Oneida county, 186 Oats — Report of Awarding Committee, 187 Beans and Peas — Statements of C. Lee and B , W. D wight, 189 Statements of E. Dayton and A. Miller, 190 Carrots — Culture of Wm. Risley's Premium Crop, 191 Field Beets — Culture of C. B. Meek's Premium Crop, 192 Statement of J. F. Osborn, 193 On the culture and use of, by R. E. Keese, 194 Potatoes — Crops of M. Morrison and S. H. Knappen, Clinton county, 197 Ruta Bagas — Statement of J. G. Smedberg, of Greene county, 198 Statement of H. S. Randall, Cortland county, 200 of C. B. Meek, Ontario county, 201 of B. P. Johnson, Oneida, 202 Cornstalk Fodder, by Myron Adams, Ontario county, 204 Gypsum and Clover, by Wm. Penn Kinzer, of Pennsylvania, 205 Clover Seed — Experiments in growing, byH. Brewer, of Tompkins county, 206 On gathering Timothy seed, by W. Hambleton, Erie county, 209 On Feeding Stock, by E. N. Horsford, Albany, 210 Butter Dairies — Report of Awarding Committee, 214 Product of six cows for thii'ty days, by Geo. Vail, 215 Statements of P. Van Eenschoten and J. Martin, 216 of Geo. Vail, Rensselaer county, 217 of Theodore Allen, Dutchess county, 218 of Caroline G. Cheesman, Dutchess county, 219 Chef.se Dairies — Report of Awarding Committee, '2 20 Statement of A. L. Fish respecting his Dairy Farm, 222 of Abraham R.Hall, 229 Extracts from Report of Madison county, 230 from Report of Clinton county, 231 Improved Churn, by J. Battey, Clinton county, 232 Soiling Cattle, by R. L. Pell, Ulster county, 236 The Provision Trade, by T. C. Peters, Genesee connty 238 Domestic Ani.mals — On improving, by S. Howard, 243 Cattle and Sheep of England, by Geo. Drake, England, 249 Page. Domestic Animals — Saxony and Merino Sheep and Ayrshire Cattle, by Wight Chapir an, Vermont, 251 Statement of H. S. Randall respecting his flock of sheep, 254 Remarks on Sheep Husbandry, by Dr. Lee, S. Howard, S. Cheever, E. K. Horsford, J. B. Nott, and Dr. Beekman, 255 Use of Oxen, by J. S. Skinner, Washington City, 264 Horses — Extract from Report of L. F. Allen, 284 Swine — Extract from Report of H. S. Randall, 286 Silk Culture — Report of Alexander Walsh, 288 Communication from D. Stebbins, Mass,, 289 Maple Sugar — On making, by J. Woodworth and M. E. White, 292 The Orchard— Culture and uses of the Apple — Prize Essay, by J. J. Tho- mas 294 Produce of an orchard, 311 Cullure of Fruit Trees, by J. C. Piatt, Clinton county, 312 The Cranberry — Culture of, by S. Bates, Massachusetts, 315 Thorn Hedges — Culture of, by M. B. Bateham, Ohio, 316 Letter from J. W. Thomson, Delaware, 318 from Wm. Darlington, Penn., 320 from W. Gibbons, Delaware, 322 from A. J. Downing, Newburgh, 323 Agriculture of Malta, by W. W. Andrews, U. S. Consul, 325 of South Carolina, by Hon. J. R. Poinsett, 337 Analysis of the Rice Plant, by Prof. Shepard, 343 Agriculture of Mississippi, byM. W. Philips, M. D., 349 of Indiana, by Hon. T. A. Howard, 358 of Winnebago county, m., by A. S, Miller. 360 of Addison county, Vt., by S .W. Jewelt, 362 of East Windsor, Ct., by H. Watson, 364 of Oneida county, N. Y., by P. Jones, 367 Agricultural Education — Mr. Greig's Report, 372 Letters from S. S. Randall, State Deputy Superintendent of Common Schools, 376 Communication from H. S. Randall, 388 Massachusetts Society for Promotion of Agriculture, by Hon. J.Wells, 392 County Agricultural Societies — Condensed statements respecting, 395 Treasurer's Report of the State Agricultural Society, 408 THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE. Annual Report of Trustees, 413 Receipts and Expenditures, 420 List of Documents accompanying Report, 424 Extracts from Report of Managers of Fair, 425 Report of Committee on Plowing and Spading 426 on Trial of Plows, Matches 427 on Gen . Johnson's Farm , 428 Page, Report of Committee on Thomas Bell's Farm, ,,..,, 430 on S. B. Townsend's Field of Wheat, 432 on Peter Hulst's Field of Cabbage, 433 — — on India Eubber Goods, 433 on Colt's Cartridge, , 437 Communication from E. L. Pell, on his Farm, 438 Ezra Leland, on Culture of Hops,. 44/ J. H. Coggeshall, on Cultureof Bai-ley, 448 Thomas Bell, about his Farm, 449 John P. Haflf, about Potatoes, 450 ' Joseph Clowes, about Native Cattle 451 Peter Hulst, about Field of Cabbages, • 45^ Wm. H. Burr, on Clover Seed, 452 Wm. Brown on Squashes, and A. Cocks and D. Jagger on Onions, 45S ■ R. R. Bailey on Carrots, and J. W. Wood on Turneps,. 454 C. Allen on Cauliflowers, and J. L'Hommedieu on Butter, 455 ■ R. Plummer on Cheese, and F. N. Smith on Corn Shel- ler, 456 . A. Hall, on Brick Making 457 Proceedings of Silk Convention held at Institute, 463 Letter from Hon. M. Van Schaick, 467 Resolutions and Addresses, 481 Letter from Dr. D. Stebbins, 484 Henry Lord and Geo. Fitch, 490 J. W. Chappel, A. S. Newton, and Miss Rapp, 491 J. H. Cobb and Hon. A. E. Ernest,.... 493 Rev. J. Van Tassel and Dr. D. Stebbins, 494 M. Klyne, Jas. Walker, and Harvey Loomis,.... • 497 Josiah Everett, J. M. Summy, D. Eberly, John Borden and Timothy Wheelwright, 498 Samuel Barrett, J. P. Van Epps, and P. H. Green,.. 499 Dr. B.Blakesly and G.W. Fargo, 503 Lucius Carey, Hugh Cassiday and Henry Chapin, 504 Wm. R. Massey and Clark Avery, 505 .1 Jeremiah Upham, Enoch Bacon and Lemuel Gates, 506 Francis D. Wait, 507 D. Musk, • 508 Edward Valentine, Geo. W. Fargo and A. C. Van Epps,. . 509 Abraham Erisman, A. S. Smart and J. Belcher and Sons,. . 510 . Henry Chapin and Martin Phelps, 512 Shaw & Weston and Alexander Smith, 513 Richard Spalding, Jas. Hamilton, Jr., and Dr. M. W. Phi- lips, 514 W.H.Benton, 516 Dr. D. Stebbins and T. Douglas, 517 I.R.Barbour, 522 OFFICERS OF THE NEW-YORK STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETV FOR illE YEAR 1845. President, B. P. JOHNSON, of Oneida. Vick-Presidents, JAMES LENOX, of New- York, THOMAS L. DAVIES, of Dutchess, E. P. PRENTICE, of Albany, H. W. DOOLITTLE, of Herkimer, BENJAMIN ENOS, of Madison, O. C. CROCKER, of Broome, HENRY S. RANDALL, of Cortland, GEORGE W. PATTERSON, of Chautauque Corresponding Secretary, DANIEL LEE, of Erie. Recording Secretary, LUTHER TUCKER, of Albany. Treasurer, THOMAS HILLHOUSE, of Albany. Additional Members of the Executive Committeb, T. S. FAXON, of Utica. E. KIRBY, of Brownville. ALEXANDER WALSH, of Lansingburgh. GEORGE VAIL, of Troy. J. McD. McINTYRE, of Albany. Life Members — By the payment of $50 or more. John P. Beekman, Kinderhook, $100. Erastus Corning, Albany, $65. *Henry W. Delavan, Ballgton. Joseph Fellows, Geneva, $100. John Greig, Canandaigua. James Lenox, New-York, $450. *J. Le Ray de Chaumont, Jefferson co. *Edward P. Livingston, Clermont. Archibald M'Intyre, Albany. J. M'Donald M'Intyre, Albany. Ezra P. Prentice, Mount Hope, Francis Rotch, Butternuts. Philo N. Rust, Syracuse. William H. Seward, Aubura. John M. Sherwood, Auburn, John Townsend, Albany, $100. Luther Tucker, Albany. George Vail, Troy. •Stephen Van Rensselaer, Albany. Stephen Van Rensselaer, Albany. William P. Van Rensselaer, Beaverwick. * James Wadsworth, Geneseo, $100, James S. Wadsworth, Geneseo, $200. William W. Wadsworth, Geneseo, $75, Deceased, STATE OF NEW-YORK. No. 85. IN SENATE, . April 4, 1845. ^ COMMUNICATION From the Recording Secretary of the New- York State AgricuUural Society. State Agricultural Hall, Albany, March 24, 1845. To the Hon. Addison Gardiner, President of the Senate : Sir — I transmit herewith, by order of the Executive Commitee of the New-York State Agricultural Society, the annual report required of them by the " Act for the promotion of Agriculture," embracing an account of their Transactions for the past year, together with ab- stracts of the reports of the American Institute, and the several county agricultural societies of this State. Respectfully yours, , LUTHER TUCKER, Recording Secretary. I [Senate, No. 85.] A (lOt.) TRANSACTIONS OF THE NEW-YORK STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. ANNUAL REPORT— FOR THE YEAR 1844. The labors of the Executive Committee of the New- York State Agricultural Society for the past year, having this day been brought to a close, I submit this as my report of its proceedings. The offi- cers of the society who were elected on the 17th of January, 1844, to conduct its operations for the year, immediately after such election entered on the performance of their respective duties. The offi- cers of the society having long felt the necessity of a suitable building in Albany, in which to hold their meetings and preserve their collec- tions, application was made to the State officers for rooms in the old State Hall for such purpose, and was at once cheerfully granted, so that their meetings for the last year have been held in that building, which, by its commodious situation in the centre of the city, as well as by its internal arrangements, is well adapted to this purpose. The executive committee at once met, and made out a list of premiums, to be awarded at the ensuing fair to be held in September, in Poughkeepsie. This list, the several premiums awarded, the subjects designated for premiums, the persons who successfully competed for them, together with all the particulars of the fair, will form a portion of this report. Ever since this society has been in existence, it has been a desideratum that as soon as a location of a N 4 [Senate suitable building could be obtained, our scattered books should be collected, and the nucleus of a State Agricultural Library commence. This object was at once carried into effect. Mr. Walsh, an active member, and one of its oldest friends, immediately entered the field, and by means of his exertions in procuring donations in money and books, succeeded to a considerable extent in effecting the purpose de- signed. The importance of having a well selected and extensive collection of books, in aid of the object of this institution, must be apparent to those who have given the subject the least considera- tion, and it is hoped that the members of the society will not relax in their efforts, until this great object shall be fully accomplished. The writers on the subject of agriculture and its kindred branches, have of late years become so numerous, as well as better acquainted with these subjects, that their writings have not only become ex- tremely desirable, but no intelligent man, no matter what branch of business he follows, but would occasionally like to consult authors, who treat understandingly on these subjects, and no place so fit for the depository of them as the rooms now occupied by this society. Another object of the society was the formation of an Agricultu- ral Museum. In the old cities of Europe large collections of such subjects as would properly form a museum, have for many years been gathering, and they have succeeded to a very great extent, so that their museums not only attract the attention of the practical agricul- turist, but many scientific men, and especially strangers. In these collections we see how fast iinprovements in agricultural implements have progressively been made, and in what the improvements consist, what new implements have been added, and what has been retained or discontinued. We see farm implements in all their simplicity, and af- ter the test of time and experience, how far they have been remodeled and made better as well as more useful. We see ali the varieties of seeds, &c., &c., used from time immemorial, and how far they partake of the kinds now in use. We see, in fine, the instructive collection for hundreds of years, of those who toiled before us in the same field of investigation, and if we can gain instruction from their labors and experience, it is all, that as rational men, we can expect and desire. Our collection is yet very small, but it is hoped that the active members of this society will not hereafter let any opportunity escape them, to add to so useful as well as necessary measure. Through the No. 85.] 5 exertions of our secretary, Mr. O'Reilly, weekly meetings for the discussion of agricultural subjects were commenced and continued during the winter season. These meetings were generally well at- tended by members of the society and the Legislature, as well as oth- ers. The subjects selected for discussion were generally of a practi- cal nature, and from the interest manifested in them we have every reason to believe much valuable information was imparted ; indeed, as the season progressed, it was evident that these discussions had taken a deep hold on the public mind, for besides being reported for the public papers, the attendance on them rather increased than diminish- ed. Many of the subjects of discussion, as well as remarks made, will be found under the appropriate head, in the accompanying vol- ume of transactions. The executive committee have, during the season, held their regu- lar monthly ixeetings for the transaction of the ordinary business of the society. These meetings have most commonly been full, and thus gave evidence of the growing interest felt in the institution, and each has contributed all in his power to make the labors of the socie- ty as effective and useful as possible. That public sentiment partakes of the feeling imparted, is witnessed not only by the fact that our meetings during the year, have generally been better attended than heretofore, but from the desire for the general diffusion of agricultu- ral intelligence, and from the numbers that attend our exhibitions, the desire to become better acquainted with our movements, and the large and respectable collections that grace our fairs whenever and where- ever we hold them, are signs that we cannot mistake. These sub- jects are all causes of congratulation, for we have seen the time, and that too not far distant, when the prospect for our advancement in the estimation of the community was any thing but flattering; but keeping steadily in view the advancement of agriculture as our polar star, and using every effort to awaken public attention to this great interest, we have in a good measure succeeded in arresting and fixing the gaze of the community upon our progress. All our efforts tend to give better practical views of the subject; our object has been, and is, to call the practical farmer to aid in advancing our cause, and we find that we are daily gaining numbers of them. As the State fair for the year, was appointed at the meeting of the society, in January, to be held in Poughkeepsie, on the 18th and 19th 6 [Senate days of September, it was thought desirable to hold two or three meetings of the executive committee there, to enable them the better to perfect their preliminary arrangements. Such meetings were ac- acordingly held, and by the aid of the citizens of Poughkeepsie, to w^hom all praise is due for the prompt and efficient manner in which they furthered the vie"ws of the committee, the most satisfactory ar- rangements were made for the holding of the coming fair. o m H H < H < H o |Z! W H O I The ground selected for the occasion, was an elevated plain, com- manding extensive views of the surrounding country, to which the mountains in the west, and the blue range of the distant Highlands, gave a varied outline and interest scarcely to be surpassed. A large No. 85.J 7 field of ten acres was enclosed by a high fence, within which all the objects of the fair were collected. The number of people admitted to the grounds on the two days of the exhibition, is supposed to be not less than from twenty-five to thirty thousand. A line of large buildings, erected for the purpose, extended for several hundred feet through the centre of the grounds, and formed a leading feature of attraction. The first, which was thirty-six feet wide and more than one hundred feet long, was inscribed over th« entrance, " FLORAL HALL," in rich letters of evergreen on a white ground. The whole interior of the building, as well as the entrances, was richly ornamented overhead, with beautiful and massive wreaths and festoons of evergreen. In the centre of tTie building was a splendid outline temple, " Dedicated to Agriculture and the Arts ?5 8 [Senate consisting of a high evergreen arch in the middle, interwoven with flowers, flanked with square wings on the sides. In the centre, and surrounding the whole, w^as the inscription " Agriculture," and the numerous articles arranged within this arch, were the appropriate details of the great leading subject ; among which w^ere the tall lance- like stalks of corn crossing the middle, the suspended heads of wheat and other grain, the paintings of domestic animals, and a large as- semblage of other articles, beneath the whole of which was a beau- tifully ornamented miniature plow, the origin and foundation of the whole. Under " Manufactures," were collected specimens of fab- rics, domestic silks, and numerous others, of an appropriate charac- ter. Under the chaplet inscribed " Horticulture," was a most in- teresting exhibition of rich fruits and brilliant flowers. Numerous emblems and inscriptions were interspersed through the whole, and with some fine ornamental figures decorated the base. The whole of this outline temple, which contained thousands of specimens, and which occupied a space of twenty-six feet in length and twelve feet in height, was designed by Alexander Walsh, of Lansingburgh, to whose imaginative taste and unwearied labors the public are very largely indebted for the interest and attraction of these extensive halls. A double line of tables extended through the centre of this build- ing, densely loaded with fruits on either side, and a long range of flowers in w^reaths, temples and pyramids, in the centre. Among some of the best collections of fruits, were handsomely arranged spe- cimens of a hundred fine varieties of apples, eighty of pears, and many of other fine fruits, from A. J. Downing & Co., of Newburgh, extending compactly for forty feet along one side of the table ; also, extensive collections of apples from R. L. Pell, of Ulster ; J. R. CoMSTocK, of Dutchess j J. F. Oseorn, of Cayuga ; Alex. Walsh, of Lansingburgh ; and large and fine collections of pears from James G. King, Highwood, N. J. ; J. R. Comstock, Wm. Reid, of Mur- ray Hill, N. Y.; and also excellent specimens of grapes from R. Do- naldson, J. Merritt, S. "Van Rensselaer, and many others. The whole display of fruits, though defective in a few particulars, exceed- ed in variety and extent that of any previous exhibition of the State Society. , The vegetables, suspended from the sides of the tables and beneath, presented a very fine array j among which, was a superb lot from the No. 85.J 9 garden of R. L. Pell, of Pelham, Ulster county, consisting of very large mangold wurtzels, true blood-beets, carrots, parsneps, sugar beets, Patagonian gourds, five feet eight inches long, squashes weigh- ing 152 and 200 pounds, ten varieties of table squashes and cabbages, weighing thirty pounds. Mr. P. also presented very beautiful sam- ples of fine heavy wheat, rye, oats, buckwheat, Egyptian corn and wheat, Indian corn seventeen feet high, yellow and white flint, and sweet corn, forty varieties of seedling and twenty-seven of grafted apples, Catawba and Isabella grapes grown under glass, very large gooseberries, three kinds of currants, a floral ornament seventeen feet high, shad from his fish ponds, &c. Some other collections also ex- hibited great excellence and skill in culture. Among the Agricultural and Horticultural products, was an enor- mous pumpkin of the seven years variety, weighing 126 pounds, some heads of millet a foot In length, and some Washington peaches, ten inches in circumference, and weighing eleven ounces, all presented by Mrs. Vassar, of Poughkeepsie. One of the most truly valuable and meritorious articles ever shown at any fair in this country, was a neat glass case, containing thirty-five varieties of wheat ; heads and shelled specimens of each variety, being arranged with great neatness in separate apartments of the case. A large portion of these were cultivated, and all arranged and presented by Gen. R. Harmon, of Wheatland, Monroe co., whose labors in test- ing the various qualities of different sorts, have already proved of so much value to the agriculture of this country. Numerous paintings of cattle, horses, and of rural scenes, decorated the walls on each side. The second building, inscribed "LADIES' HOME," was en- riched with a gorgeous display, consisting of a vast collection of articles of taste, splendor, and skill, among which were spe- cimens of needle-work on screens, coverlets, rugs, chairs, and in landscapes ; temples of shell-w^ork, and other things of equal interest. So fine, indeed, was this display of fancy productions, that we were almost led to question the propriety of thus eclipsing the more humble, but pre-eminently useful and substantial products also hand- somely arranged here, among which were many excellent specimens of quilts and other articles of domestic use and comfort, conferring the highest credit on the truly w^orthy contributors. The third building, entitled " MANUFACTURER'S LODGE," 10 . [Senate contained an excellent collection of fabrics, including a large assort- ment of cottons and mixtures from the Mattewan Company j a su- perb display of cloths, consisting of sixty-two different kinds, from the Middlesex Woolen Company, Lowell ; fine carpets from the Thomp- sonville Company, and from C. M. Pelton, A. Ross, and others, of Poughkeepsie. There were specimens of good solid-head pins, made by Mosely, Howard & Co., Poughkeepsie j and models of many use- ful domestic and rural contrivances and machines. \ The fourth building, " FARMER'S HALL," was occupied with an exhibition of flour, salt, butter, cheese, sugar, and all coarse arti- cles of domestic production, as well as cooking stoves, fanning mills, washing machines, &c. These four buildings, being in one continuous line, and open at the ends, presented a vista 500 feet long, which, with the innumerable ar- ticles there exhibited, and the congregated thousands constantly pass- ing through, gave an extraordinary interest to the scene. One of the most truly magnificent objects of the kind ever seen, was the " FARMER'S CAR," from Hyde Park. This vehicle, from the na- ture and style of its decorations, might have been taken as the combined work of the most refined votaries of the divine trio, Ceres, Pomona, and Flora. The body, or frame work, was twenty-six feet in length, by ten in breadth, and twenty in height, covered with a magnificent canopy of evergreen festoons and wreaths, and presenting the form of a sylvan temple, the walls or sides of which were nearly one entire mass of vegetables, fruits, flowers, and farm productions generally, some of them of extraordinary size and excellence. The inside had the appearance of a bower, with rustic chairs made of the grape vine, cedar and oak. These chairs were occupied by ladies and children, who from this cool and agreeable shelter, quietly viewed the sur- rounding scene. The car was drawn by ten yoke of superb oxen from Hyde Park, to which was awarded the premium for the best ten yoke from one town. The color of all was a deep red, with scarcely the variation of a shade — they were well matched in shape and size, and showed much Devon blood. When this splendid car, with its laying colors and coat of arms, first entered the grounds, like a mo- ving miniature temple, among the thousands there assembled the ef- fect and interest produced was almost electric, and several distin- guished persons pronounced it as decidedly superior in design and dis- play, to any thing of the kind they had ever witnessed. It is no No. 85.] 11 more than justice to say, that the decorations of this beautiful car> were designed by Mrs. D. B. Fuller, and arranged and executed un- der the direction of Mrs. F. and Mrs. J. W. Wheeler. Cattle. — In this department, the show was considered on the whole, superior to any previous one. There was a fine display of Durhams, particularly of bulls, of which there were exhibited some as splendid animals as are to be met with in this country, and probably not infe- rior to any in Europe. The principal exhibitors of Durhams, were James Lenox, J. F. Sheafe, Thos. A. Emmet, Thomas Oliver, E. P. Prentice, Geo. Vail, D. D. Campbell, D. B. Fuller, W. A. S. North, C. F. Crosby. The only Hereford s were twelve head from the noble herd of Messrs. Corning & Sothara. There were a few good Devons from Mr. L. F. Allen, of Black Rock, and Mr. Lent, of Poughkeepsie. There were some excellent Ayrshires, particularly a bull from Mr. Archibald, of Montreal, and some cows from Mr. Ellison, Mr. Lenox, and Mr. Rathbone. Of grades, there was a very superior heifer, said to be Durham and Devon, exhibited by Jos. Silkman, Dutchess county. There were but few natives shown. There were good dairy cows from R. L. Pell, Z. Pratt, and an uncommonly fine one from Robert Donaldson, the notes in reference to which have been lost. Of fat cattle, there was an extensive competition. Among the ex- hibitors, were Messrs. Mills, D. D. Campbell, A. M. Underbill, Mr. Swift, and James Van Wyck. The working cattle made a fine appearance. The fine teams of ten yoke each, from Hyde Park, and from Mr. Wadsworth, of Geneseo, were much admired. There were, also, several single yokes exhibited, which attracted much attention. The department of horses was uncommonly good, comprising ex- cellent specimens of the diflferent classes, from the high-bred courser to the heavy English dray-horse and Canadian pony. The show of sheep was good — in all the different classes, there was a spirited competition. In long-wooled breeds, the principal exhibi- tors were, Messrs. Dunn, Clift, Hallock, Mesier, and Haviland — in South Downs, Messrs. Mclntyre, Wait, and Haight — in Saxons and Merinos, Messrs. Hull, Church, Brown, Randall, Carpenter, Wake- man, and Harmon. Of sheep from other states, there were excellent ^2 [Senate samples ; of Merinos, from Messrs. Blakeslee & Atwood, of Connecti- cut, and from Messrs. Jewett, Sanford, and Wright, of Vermont, The show of swine was large, and comprised good animals of all the most noted breeds in the country — Berkshires,Leicesters, ChinaSy Neapolitans, &c. In the Plowing Match, there was much less competition than •was expected ; and much of the work was deficient in execution. The great fault arose from a desire to do too much work in a giyen time, which fatigued the teams, caused disorder, and broken and crooked furrows. There were, however, one or two very commend- able exceptions. On the afternoon of the second day of the exhibition, the officers and members of the society, with the thousands, both male and fe- male, in attendance, assembled under the great tent to hear the fol- lowing ADDRESS, BY HON. GEORGE BANCROFT, Of Massachusetts. Mr. President, and Gentlemen of the Agricultural Society : Farmers of New-York — The hour of separation for this dazzling array of beauty, this vast multitude of men, is at hand. Fruits rich- er than ever graced the gardens of Pomona — a paradise of flowers — needle-work the most exact, delicate and even — ingenious farming implements and manufactures of all sorts, cloths of the finest quality, from your own looms, and from looms in Massachusetts — horses, fit to win prizes at Olympia — milk-white cattle, more beautiful than ever grazed on the banks of the Clitumnus, and never were dreamed of by the highest genius of the Dutch painters — all these and more have arrested our gaze and filled us with wonder and delight. And now I am commissioned to summon you, and through you the popu- lation of this mighty commonwealth, to come up and join us, as, un- der the auspices of the State, honor and distinction are awarded to agricultural industry and genius. A spectacle like this around me, of culture, order, and the peace- ful virtues, cannot be surpassed in the world. In this hour, hushed be the spirit of party ; be it utterly exorcised and banished from this enclosure, which is consecrated to the peaceful triumphs of the agri- No. 85.] 13 ulture and industry of New-York. We yield on this occasion to no narrower sentiments than the love of country, and of collective man, and we invoke the blessed influence of that universal Provi- dence, which watches over the seed time and matures the harvest. The theme for this occasion is the agriculture of New^York. But what need of words to speak its praise 1 Look around you. The cultivated earth is its own eulogist. The teeming wealth that gush- es from its bosom — the returns of its industry in every form, that pre- sent themselves in their abundance and perfection to our never wea- ried eyes — are the evidences of its magnificence. The trees in your market-place and on your hill tops, are older than the settlement of civilized man in our America ; they are older than the presence of the plow on the soil of New-York : they are witnesses of the quite recent day, when your forests stepped down to your river's bank, and the glades and prairies of your west were covered with useless luxu- riance. And behold the change which little more than two centuries have wrought : the earth subdued ; the forest glades adorned with the white spires of churches, and gleaming with the light of villages; towns nestling in every valley ; crowded cities, competing with the largest of the earth, profusely supplied with every article of food. And by whom has this miracle been wrought 1 By the farmers of New-York. As I turn my eye northward, along the banks of the Hudson, my mind reverts to the memory of one of your ancient landholders, who died before our Independence. Join with me, farmers of New- York, in recalling the gentle and humane Robert R. Livingston, the elder, the father of the Chancellor. His home was in your vicinity ; his mind was greatly and firmly, though not passionately, devoted to your service. An only son, husband of an only daughter, father of those whom the world will not soon forget ; he was of so lovely a nature, that it seemed as if the fragrant atmosphere of spring, and the melody of its sweetest birds, and the softened reflection in your tranquil river of its grandest scenes, had blended together and melted themselves into his soul. Peace to his memory ; let it not perish among you. Let the lines on his monument be refreshed and deep- ened. Nor let me limit the achievements of the farmers of New- York to the subjection and beautiful adornment of its soil. The great works of internal communication were commenced by the enterprise of your- 14 [Senate selves, were undertaken when farmers held power. Call to mind the immense structures which make this State the astonishment of the world; its channels for inward communication carried upwards to the waters of the St. Lawrence, stepping aside to the Ontario, and uni- ting at the northwest with the illimitable wildernesses of our inland seas; and then join me in paying tribute to those who were the ser- vants of the public mind in commencing this gigantic system. To De Witt Clinton, whose capacious mind grasped in advance the sum of its infinite benefits — whose energetic, vehement and commanding will was to the enterprise like a powerful mill-stream, as it dashes on an overshot wheel of vast dimensions. To Van Buren, who, when the bill for the construction of the canal had almost been abandoned by its earliest friends, put forth those noble-spirited, well-remembered exertions, which resuscitated it when all seemed lost, and restored it to to the approbation of your Legislature. Well might those chiefs in the world of opinion embrace each other in the hour of their suc- cess. If in action they were often divided, in this great service they share a common glory. But the farmers of New-York are not content with improvements in the material world alone. From their generous impulses springs your system of free schools. They have proved themselves the libe- ral benefactors of academies and colleges. They, too, have been careful for the means of their own special culture, and have founded and nurtured societies for promoting agriculture. For an example of the virtues of private life, I name to you the farmer of Westches- ter county, the pure and spotless Jay, who assisted to frame our first treaty of peace, which added Ohio and the lovely west to our agri- culture. Side by side with him, I name the friend of his youth, Ro- bert R. Livingston, the younger, the enlightened statesman of our revolution, whose expansive mind succeeded in negociating for our country a world beyond the Mississippi, and gained access for our flag to the Gulf of Mexico. Here, on the Hudson, he is celebrated as it were by every steamboat, and remembered on your farms through his experimental zeal. On this day be remembered the virtues of Stephen Van Rensselaer, who was among the first to bring Durham cattle into this State, and who liberally diffused the breed. Join with me also in a tribute to Mitchell, the faithful advocate, and perhaps institutor, of one of the earliest agricultural societies ; to Jesse Buclj who connected science with fact, taught how the most No. 85.] 15 barren soil may be made vastly productive, diffused his acquisitioni/ by the press, and by life and by precept was the farmer's friend ; to Willis Gay lord, whose agricultural essays are standard authorities, honorable to the man and to the State ; to Le Ray de Chaumont, who kept alive an agricultural society in Jefferson county, when all others had expired, and gave the impulse to the formation of the State society, of which he was the first president ; to James Wads- worth, for his skill as a cultivator, and still more for his liberal exer- tions, pouring out thousands after thousands at the impulse of a ge- nerous mind, as if from a well-spring of good will, to promote agri- cultural science in primary schools. And I should be wanting to the occasion, did I not tender the expression of your regard to the present president of the State society to the influence of that institution of which he is the honored head ; to its Journal of agriculture, to its annual fairs. But let me also entreat your friendly wishes to its pur- pose of establishing an agricultural school ; and to that other more diffusive design of introducing, through its secretary, scientific works on agriculture into school libraries. I am happy also to announce that efforts are now making to constitute agriculture, as it deserves to be, a branch of instruction in one, at least, of your Universities. I have named to you some of the benefactors of agriculture in New-York. Their benefits endure. The pursuits of the farmer, bind him to home. Others may cross continents and vex oceans ; the farmer must dwell near the soil which he subdues and fertilizes. His fortunes are fixed and immovable. The scene of his youthful labors is the scene of his declining years ; he enjoys his own plantations, and takes his rest beneath his contemporary trees. But the farmer is not limited to the narrow circumference of his own domain ; he stands in relations with all ages and all climes. Your society has done wisely to urge on those who bear the Gospel to untaught nations, to study their agriculture, and report for com- parison, every variety of tillage. All ages and all climes contribute to your improvement. For you, are gathered the fruits and seeds which centuries of the existence of the human race have discovered and rendered useful. Tell me if you can, in what age and in what land the cereal grasses were first found to produce bread 1 Who first taught the useful cow to furnish food for man 1 When was the horse first tamed to proud obedience 1 The pear, the apple, the cherry, where were these first improved from their wildness in the original 16 [Senate fruit 1 And whose efforts led the way in changing the rough skin of the almond to the luscious sweetness of the peach 1 All ages have paid their tribute to your pursuit. And for you the sons of science are now scouring every heath, and prairie, and wilderness, to see if some new grass lies hidden in an unexplored glade ; if some rude stock of the forests can offer a new fruit to the hand of culture. For you the earth reveals the innumerable beds of marl ; its minera wealth, the gypsum and the lime, have remained in store for your use from the days of creation. For you Africa and the isles of the Pa- cific open their magazines of guano j for you old ocean heaves up its fertilizing weeds. y And as the farmer receives aid from every part of the material world, so also his door is open to all intelligence. What truth is not welcomed as an inmate under his roof? To what pure and generous feeling does he fail to give a home 1 The great poets and authors of all times are cherished as his guests. Milton and Shakspeare, and their noble peers, cross his threshold to keep him company. For him, too, the harp of Israel's minstrel-monarch was strung; for him? the lips of Isaiah still move, all touched with fire ; and the apostles of the new covenant are his daily teachers. No occupation is nearer heaven. The social angel, when he descended to converse with men? broke bread with the husbandman beneath the tree. Thus the farmer's mind is exalted ; his principles stand as firm as your own Highlands ; his good deeds flow like self-moving waters. Yet in his connection with the human race, the farmer never loses his patriotism. He loves America — is the depository of her glory and the guardian of her freedom. He builds monuments to greatness, and when destiny permits, he also achieves heroic deeds in the eyes of his race. The soil of New-York, which he has beautified by his culture, is consecrated by the victories in which he shared. Earth ! I bow in reverence, for my eyes behold the ground wet with the blood of rustic martyrs, and hallowed by the tombs of heroes ! Where is the land to which their fame has not been borne 1 Who does not know the tale of the hundred battle-fields of New-York ? Not a rock puts out from the highlands, but the mind's eye sees in- scribed upon it a record of deeds of glory. Not a blade of grass springs at Saratoga, but takes to itself a tongue to proclaim the suc- cessful valor of patriot husbandmen. Here the name of Schuyler, the brave, the generous, the unshaken No. 85.| 17 patriot, shall long be remembered; the zealous, reliable George Clinton, a man of soundest heart, a soul of honesty and honor, a dear lover of his country and of freedom. Nor do we forget him — the gallant Montgomery — twin martyr with Warren — who left his farm on the Hudson, not, as it proved, to conquer Quebec, but to win a mightier victory over death itself. I renew that theme once more, to recount how the farmers of New- York have served their country and mankind. They were invested with sovereignty, and they abdicated it. Glorious example ! Highest triumph of disinterested justice ! They themselves peacefully and publicly renounced their exclusive authority, and transferred power in this republic from its territory to its men. May your institutions, under the spirit of improvement, be perpetual. May every pure in- fluence gather round your legislation. May your illustrious example show to the world the dignity of labor ; the shame that lights on idleness ; the honor that belongs to toil. To the end of time, be happiness the companion of your busy homes, and the plow ever be found in the hands of its owner. The farmer is independent. With the mechanic and manufacturer as his allies, he makes our country safe against foreign foes, for it be- comes perfect by its own resources. All America, thanks to New- York, is united in the bonds of internal commerce ; our exchanges at home exceed our foreign traffic ; and were our ships driven from the ocean highways of the world, America has become competent to sus- tain herself. She has less to fear from war than any nation in the world. She may pursue her career and vindicate her rights, and call forth all her energies in conscious security. But why do I say this 1 To foster a spirit of defiance 1 Far otherwise. Let us rejoice in our strength, but temper it with the gentleness and spirit of love for all mankind — a love that shall perpetuate tranquility and leave the boundless, and rapidly increasing resources of the country, at liberty for its further development. Forests of New- York ! under the hands of skill, shape yourselves into models of naval architecture, and go forth upon the seas, to reconcile inequalities of climate, and confirm the brotherhood of nations. American ideas shall travel on your prows, and the genius of humanity guide your helm ; while we who remain at home, will water the tree of peace, so that its roots shall strike to the very heart of the earth, and its branches tower to the [Senate, No. 85.] B / 18 [Senate heavens : we will so nurture and protect it, that its verdure shall be perennial, that no spirit of animosity shall sway its branches, that not even a whisper of discord shall rustle in its topmost boughs. One word more, and I have done. But with that last word, I am about to address, though but in imagination, the assembled people of New-York. It is a tale often repeated, that to do honor to agricul- ture, the Emperor of China is, himself, accustomed in the spring- time of every year, to hold the plow and turn a furrow. Under our republican institutions, far more is achieved. The state itself in- cludes, and is in the greatest measure constituted by its farmers. They themselves are the kings that hold the plow and drive the team, every day in the year. The whole commonwealth watches over the farmer. This society performs its office as the agent of the people. They are assembled at our fair, to view with honest exultation, the products of the farms and workshops, and single out this occasion alone, to award public honors to exalted merit. It is right, therefore, to assume that the empire state itself is present in your midst. And has it occurred to you that this great commonwealth — the most numerous people ever united under a popular form of govern- ment— is emphatically a commocwealth of the living 1 Go to the Old World, and your daily walk is over catacombs ; you travel among tombs. Here the living of the present day outnumber the dead of all the generations since your land was discovered. All, all, who sleep beneath the soil of New-York, are fewer in number than you who move above their graves. Look about you and see what the men of the past have accomplished. Concentrate in your mind all that they have achieved ; the beauty of their farms, the length and grandeur of their canals and railroads, the countless fleets of canal boats they have constructed ; their ships that have visited every continent and disco- vered a new one ; their towns enlivening the public plains ; their vil- lages that gem the hollows ; the imperial magnificence of their cities ; and when you have collected all these things in your thoughts, then hear me when I say to you, that you of this living generation as you outnumber all the dead — are bound, before your eyes are sealed in death, to accomplish for New-York more than has been accomplished for New- York thus far in all time. Well have you taken the device on your banners ; the sun as he emerges gloriously above the horizon and comes rejoicing in th5 East : Well have you chosen your motto : " Excelsior j'^ upwards, still upwards. Mighty commonwealth ! lift No. 85.] 19 up your heart ; let your sun ascend with increasing splendor towards its zenith. You shall be a light to humanity ; a joy to the nations — the glory of the world. After the address the reports of the various committees were read from the stand, and the following LIST OF PREMIUMS AWARDED: CATTLE. Class I — Best of any breed. Bulls. — Bests years old, to George Vail, Troy, " Meteor,"* |20 — Best 2 years old, to C. F. Crosby, Watervliet, " Osceola," $15 — Best yearling, to Thomas Oliver, Westchester county, " Marius," $10 — Best bull calf, to Corning & Sotham, Albany, " Pomaria," $6. (Corning ^ Sothani's Premium Bull Calf, " Pomaria.") Cows — Best 3 years old, to James Lenox, Poughkeepsie, " Red Lady,"* $20— Best 2 years old, to E. P. Prentice, Albany, $15— Best yearling, to Duncan Robinson, Fishkill, $10 — Best calf, to R. L. Pell, Pelham Farm, $6. • For Portrait of " Meteor," see "Transactions," vol. iii. * For Portrait of " Red Lady," see Frontispiece. 20 [Senate (Mr. Prentice's Prize Heifer, " Esterville.." Class II — Durham Cattle. Bulls— 1st, to George Vail's " Meteor," $15— 2d, to D. D. Camp- bell's " Rotterdam ," Schenectady, $10— 3d, to R. Donaldson's "Prince Albert," Blithewood, Diploma. Two years old— 1st, to C. F. Crosby's "Osceola," $10— 2d, to George Vail's "Symmetry," $5— 3d, to Wm. Salisbury's "Sir Pe- ter," Catskill, Diploma. Yearlings — 1st, to Thomas Oliver, Sing-Sing, $10 — 2d, to J, F. Sheaf, High Cliff, $5 — 3d, to James Lenox, Diploma. Bull Calves— 'ist,to C. N. Bement, Albany, " Albino," $5— 2d, to George Vail, Diploma. Cow^— 1st, to J, F. Sheaf, $15~2d, to George Vail's " Victoria," $10— 3d, to J. F. Sheaf, Diploma. Two year old Heifers— 1st, to E. P. Prentice's " Nell," $10— 2d, toE. P. Prentice's "Esterville," $5— 3d, to D. B. Fuller's "Vic- toria," Hyde Park, Diploma. Yearlings — 1st, to George Dakin, Dutchess county, $10 — 2d, to D, D. Campbell, $5 — 3d, to Wm. Kelly, Rhinebeck, Diploma. Heifer Calves — 1st, to George Vail, $5 — 2d, to C. N. Bement, < " Albiness," Diploma. Class III — Hereford Cattle. All the premiums in this class were awarded to Messrs. Corning & Sotham, Albany, to wit : For 2 years old bull, Edwin, $10 — for bull No. 85.] 21 calf, Pomaria, $5 — for cows, 1st, to Aston Beauty, $15 ; 2d, to Vic- toria, $10 ; 3d, to Perfection, Diploma — for two years old heifer, Mary, $10 • for yearling heifers, 1st, to Lilly, $G ; 2d, to Maggie, vol. Transactions. Class IV — Devon Cattle. To L. F. Allen, Black Rock, for best bull calf, $5. For the best cow, 1st, to D. B. Lent, Poughkeepsie, $15 — ^2d, to L. F. Allen, $10. Class V — Ayrshire Cattle. For best Bull, 1st, to Joel Rathbone, Albany, $15~2d, to C. N. Bement, $10. The committee also awarded a premium of $15 to Mr. Archibald, of Montreal, for his Ayrshire bull. Sir William Wallace. For the best Cow, 1st, to Thomas Ellison, New- Windsor, $15 — 2d, to Joel Rathbone, $10 — 3d, to Cornelius Dubois, Poughkeepsie, vol. Transactions. Class VI — Grade Cattle. For the best 2 years old Heifer, to Duncan Robinson, Fishkill,$5 — 2d and 3d, to J. F. Sheaf, Poughkeepsie, $3 and Diploma. Class VII — JYative Cattle. For the best Cow, 1st, to R. Donaldson, " Kaatskill," $12— 2d, to R. L. Pell, $8 — 3d, to Z. Pratt, Greene county, vol. Transactions. A vol. of Transactions was awarded to Hezekiah Smith, Greene county, for his Native bull ; and a premium of $3 to John G. Parker, Poughkeepsie, for his Native calf. WORKING OXEN AND STEERS. For the best pair oxen, 1st, to Luther Comstock, Oneida, $15 — 2d, to Isaac Doty, Clinton Hollow, $10 — 3d, to H. D. Grant, Amenia, vol. Transactions — 4th, to F. W. Aiken, Greenbush, Diploma. Best 3 yoke Oxen, 1st, to James S. and Wm. Wadsworth, Geneseo, $15_2d, to D. B. Fuller, Hyde Park, $10. Best 10 yoke Oxen from one town, to D. B. Fuller, J. W. Wheeler, Elias Butler, Thomas Allen and John Traver, Hyde Park, $20. Best 3 years old Steers, 1st, to Charles Westcott, Fishkill, $15 — ^2d, to J. W. Wheeler, Hyde Park, $10. Best yearling Steers, to Dr. Vandeburgh, Rhinebeck, $10. FAT CATTLE. Best pair, 1st, to George Mills, Livingston county, $20 — 2d, to Thomas Swift, Amenia, $15— 3d, to A. M. Underbill, Clinton Hol- low, $10 — 4th, to Duguid & Candee, Onondaga, Diploma. 22 [Senate Best fat ox, 1st, to D. D. Campbell. $15 — 2d, to Duncan Robin- son, $10 — 3d, to Duguid & Candee, vol. Transactions. Best fat heifer, 1st, to Martinus Calkins, Chenango county, $15 — 2d, to Walter Wakeman, North East, $10— -3d, to Dr. Vandeburgh, vol. Transactions. HORSES. Best Stallion over 4 years old, 1st, to Wm. Salisbury, $20— 2d, to John Greenfield, Newburgh, $10 — 3d, to Silas Belding, Amenia, $6 and vol. Transactions — 4th, to A. J. Skidmore, Fishkill, $4 and Di- ploma. Best 3 years old Stallion, 1st, to Calvert Canfield, Pleasant Valley, $15 — 2d, to Jacob Duncan, Union Vale, $10 — 3d, to Job Sisson, Washington, $6. The committee on stallions made the following special awards ; to David B. Haight, Dutchess county, $10; Aaron Bailey, Cherry Valley, $6 and Diploma ; Edw^ard Long, Cambridge, $6, and to Da- vid Long, as groom, $5 ; and Diplomas to Epenetus How, North Salem; Wm. H. Ludlow, Claverack ; C. F. Crosby, Watervliet ; John Cooper, Poughkeepsie ; Bastion Moore, Columbia county ; S. V. R. Ableman,and Corning & Sotham, Albany ; Benj. Petit, Oneida county ; L. W. Ten Broeck, Columbia county ; Samuel Verplanck, Fishkill. Best breeding mare and colt — 1st, to Josiah Williams, Poughkeep- sie, $20 ; 2d, to Isaac T. Frost, $10— 3d, to Thomas Dearin, Pough- keepsie, Diploma. The committee also awarded $10 to S. C. Roe, and diplomas to P. Lyon, Washington, and Moses Clark. Best pair matched farm horses ; 1st, to Allen B. Stockholm, Fish- kill, $10— 2d, to Philip Vanderbelt, Fishkill, vol. Transactions. Best pair Matched Horses ; 1st, to William Landon, Albany, $10 — 2d, to William A. Davies, Poughkeepsie, vol. Transactions — 3d, to J. P. Beekman, Kinderkook, Diploma. Best Single Horse ; 1st, to De Witt Hasbrouck, Orange county, $10 — 2d, to Duguid & Candee, vol. Transactions. Volumes of Trans- actions were also awarded to Anthony Van Bergen, Coxsackie ; Samuel Townsend, Orange county, and Benjamin Van Voast. MULES. Second premium, to Nathan Colman, Poughkeepsie, $10. SHEEP. Class I — Long Wooled. Best Buck, 1st, to L. D. Clift, Carmel, $10— 2d, to Thomas Dunn, Albany, $5 — 3d, to Nathaniel Halleck, Milton, Diploma. Best pen of 3 Ewes, 1st, to L. D. Clift, $10— 2d, to Edward Hal- leck, Milton, $5 — 3d, to Henry Mesier, Fishkill, Diploma. Best pen of 5 Lambs, to Willet Colver, Hyde Park, $5. [No. 85.] S8 Class II — Middle Wooled. Best Buck, 1st, to Isaac Foster, Hillsdale, $10--2cl, to J. McD. Mc- Intyre, Albany, $5 — 3d, to S. &. J. Wait, Orange co., Diploma. Best pen of 3 Ewes, 1st, to S. & J. Wait, $10— 2d, to J. McD. Mclntyre, $5— 3d, to Edward Halleck, Diploma. Best pen of 5 Lambs, to D. B. Haight, $5. Class III — Fine Wooled. Saxons — Best Buck, 1st, to C. W. Hull, New Lebanon, $10 — 2d, to Abner Brown, North East, $5 — ^-Sd, to Samuel H. Church, Vernon, Diploma. Best pen of 3 Ewes, 1st, to Walter Wakeman, North East, $10 — 2d, to Samuel H. Church, $5 — 3d, to S. B. Crocker, Vernon, Dip. Merinoes — Best Buck, 1st, to H. S. Randall, Cortland Village, $10 — 2d, to H. & J. Carpenter, Poughkeepsie, $5. Best 3 Ewes, 1st and 2d, to H. S. Randall, $10 and $5— 3d, to H. and J. Carpenter, Poughkeepsie, vol. Transactions. Best 5 Lambs to Rawson Harmon, Jr., Wheatland, $5. FAT SHEEP. Best, to J. McD. Mclntyre, $10— 2d, to D. W. Elting, New Paltz, $5 — 3d, to J. C. Haviland, Dutchess co., vol. Transactions. SHEEP FROM OTHER STATES. Best fine wooled Buck, 1st, to Jacob N. Blakeslee, Litchfield co.. Conn., Silver Medal — 2d, to Stephen Atwood, Litchfield co.. Conn., 2 vols. Transactions. Best 3 fine wooled Ewes, to Jacob N. Blakeslee, Conn., Silver Medal. SWINE. Best Boar, 1st, to Benj. H. Hart, Lagrange, $10 — 2d, to James Lenox, $5 — 3d, to C. F. Crosby, Diploma. Best Sow, 1st, to W. A. S. North, Duanesburgh, $10— 2d, to W. T. Hulse, Blooming Grove, $5— 3d, to Thos. T. Doty, Beekman, Di- ploma. Best lot of Pigs, 1st, to D. B. Lent, $5— 2d, to Thomas T. Doty, Diploma. The committee commend a boar and sow of Neapolitan breed, of- fered by C. N. Bement, and a Leicester boar of John Wilkinson, FARM IMPLEMENTS, &c. Best Plow, 1st, to Howard Delano, Mottville, Onondaga co.,$15 — 2d, to Thomas D. Burrall, Geneva, Shell Wheeled Plow, Silver Medal— 3d, to W. U. Chase, Amsterdam, $5— 4th, to M. D. &. T. H. Codding, Rochester, Diploma. For Gang Plow, to Thomas Wiard, East Avon, $15. 24 [Senate -si s ^ili "^ For best Dynamometer, to W. U. Chase, $15— 2d, to T. D. Bur- rall, Geneva, 57 — 3d, Mr. Seymour, Hartford, Conn., Diploma. Best Farm Wagon, 2d premium to William Cox, Stamford, vol. Transactions. Best Horse Cart, to John Wilkinson, Union Vale, $5. Best Horse Rake, 1st, to Gustavus White, Middlefield, $5 — 2d, to William B. Stoddard, Moravia, vol. Transactions. Best Grain Cradle, to David Flanders, St. Lawrence co., $3. Best half dozen Hay Forks, to Taylor, Buttolph & Co., West- Stockholm, Diploma. Best Dung Forks, to Taylor, Buttolph & Co., vol. Transactions. !6est Harrow, to John Wilkinson, vol. Transactions. Best Fanning Mill, 1st, to Isaac T. Grant, Schaghticoke, Silver No. 85.J 25 Medal — 2d, to David Bryan, North East, vol. Transactions — 3d, to E. Dodge, Watertown, Diploma. Best Threshing Machine, 1st, to J. A. Taplin, Montpelier,Vt., |15 — 2d, to S. S. Allen, Poughkeepsie, vol. Transactions — 3d, to A. Wheeler & Brothers, Chatham, Diploma. Best Straw Cutter, 1st, to Wm. Hovey, Worcester, Mass., Silver Medal — 2d, to Stephen Armstrong, Poughkeepsie, vol. Transactions — 3d, to Thomas P. Thorn, Fishkill, Diploma. Best Cheese Press, to Egbert Dodge, Watertown, $3. Best Field Roller, to T. D. Burrall, Diploma. Best Corn Sheller, to Francis N. Smith, Kinderhook, Diploma. Best Bee Palace, to M. O. Remmington, Cayuga co., Diploma. Best Bee Hive, to E. Townley, New-York, |5. Best Harvesting Machine, to George Easterly, Heart Prairie, Wis- konsan. Diploma. 26 [Senate Best model of Hay Press, 1st, to Dedrick & Brothers, Claverack, vol. Transactions — 2d, to J. H. P. G. Yelverton, Poughkeepsie, Di- ploma. Best Rut Shears, to B. Benedict, Geneseo, Diploma. Best Washing Machine, to Joseph C. Rich, Penfield, Diploma. Best Clover Machine, to Wheeler & Brothers, Columbia co., vol. Transactions. Best Clover Gatherer, to Benj. H. Hart, Diploma. Best Apple Drier, to Gustavus White, Diploma. Best Churn, to David Dakin, Pine Plains, Diploma. Best Cultivator Plow, to B. Langdon, Troy, $5. Best Stump Machine, to R, H. Hall, Owego, Silver Medal. (Hall's Stump Machine.) IMPROVED AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS. Silver Medals were awarded to George Geddes,* Onondaga county, for an improved Harrow — to Roswel] H. Hall, Owego, for a Stump Extractor — to Wm. Hovey, Worcester, Mass., for his Straw Cutter — to I. T. Grant, Schaghticoke, for a Fanning Mill. DAIRY. Best Butter, 1st, to I. Martin, Ulster co., |15 — 2d, to Hester Ann Travers, Troy, Silver Medal— 3d, to Theodore Allen, Hyde Park, Silver Medal — 4th, to Nathan Colman, Dutch, co., Silver Medal — 5th, to Caroline S. Cheeseman, Dutch, co., Silver Medal — 6th, to John Lester, Lagrange, Silver Medal. Best Cheese, 1st, to H. P. & G. Allen, Duanesburgh, $15— 2d, to A. L. Fish, Litchfield, Silver Medal. MAPLE SUGAR. Best to Joel Woodworth, Watertown, $15— 2d, to Wm. E. White, Walton, $10— 3d, to Alfred Fitch, Riga, Diploma. SILK. Best Manufactured Silk, 1st, to George Gents, agent for Murry & Co., Paterson, N. J. $20— 2d, to Clark Avery, Madison co., 2 lbs. sewing, $10 — 3d, to Miss Margaretta Hutchinson, Long Island, $5 — 4th, to Wm. Thomas, Col. co.. Diploma. • For drawing and description of this Harrow, see <' Transactions," vol. ui. No. 85.] ^7 Best Reeled Silk, 1st, to Ruth S. Carey, Saratoga co., $10 — 2d, to Ira Howland, Pleasant Valley, $5 — 3d, to C. R. Cable, Constantia, Diploma. Best Cocoons, 1st, to Ira Howland, $10 — 2d, to Palmer Cook, Red Hook, $5 — 3d, to J. C. Church, Poughkeepsie, Diploma. DOMESTIC MANUFACTURES. Best Woolen Carpets, 1st, 2d and 3d, to C. M. Pelton, Poughkeep- sie, $5, $4 and $3. Best Rag Carpets, 1st, to Mrs. C. W. Tower, Amenia, $3 — 2d, to Mrs. James Ryan, New Paltz, $2 — 3d, to J. Palmer, Poughkeep- sie, $1. Best Woolen cloth, 1st, to Scofield, Capron & Co., Walden, $5 — 2d, to J. Bowen, Pleasant Valley, $4 — 3d, to Titus, Sweet &. Co. Dutch. CO. $3. Best Carpet Coverlet, 1st, to Philip P. Knapp, Beekman, $4 — 2d, to Philip Dubois, New Paltz, $3— 3d, to Israel Hall, Fishkill, $2. Best Woolen Blanket, to Norman Culver, Arcadia, $5, Best Linen Sewing Thread, 1st, to Peter Crispel, Jr. Ulster co. $2 — 2d, to Norman Culver, $1. Best Linen Diaper, 1st and 2d to Mrs. Russell, Lebanon Springs, $5 and $4— 2d to Peter Crispel, Jr. $3. Best Linen, 1st, to Mrs. Russell, $5 — 2d, to Peter Crispel, Jr. $4 — 3d, to D. W. Siting, Ulster co. $3. Best Linen Knit Stockings, 1st, to Mrs. Freelove Arnold, Quaker- Hill, $2— 2d, to Peter Crispel, Jr. $1— 3d, to Mrs. Vincent M. Towns- end, Diploma. Best Cotton Knit Stockings, 1st, 2d and 3d, to Mrs. Charles Thomp- son, Poughkeepsie, $2, $1 and Diploma. Best Woolen Knit Stockings, 1st, to S. Bassett, North East, $2 — 2d and 3d, to Mrs. Daniel Washburn, Union Vale, $1 and Diploma. Best Tow Cloth, 1st, to Peter Crispel, $1. Best Hearth Rugs, 1st, to Chas. M. Pelton, Poughkeepsie, $5 — 2d, to Nancy Hull, Lexington Heights, $4 — 3d, to Lydia Peck, Lexing- ton Heights, $3. Best Flannel, 1st, to Mrs. G. W. Henry, Lowville, $5. FRUIT. For greatest variety of Table Apples, 1st, to A. J. Downing & Co., Newburgh,$5— 2d, to John R. Comstock, Washington, $3 — ^3d,to J. F. Osborn, Port Byron, vol.' Transactions. For twelve best Table Apples, to R. L. Pell, Pelham, $3. For greatest variety of .Table Pears, 1st, to A. J. Downing & Co., $3 — 2d, to Wm. Reid, Murray Hill, vol. Transactions. Volumes of Transactions were awarded to A. J. Downing & Co., for greatest variety of Winter Pears — to Alex. H. Smith, Hyde Park, for best twelve Quinces — to Mrs. A. Thorpe, Schodack, for best twelve Peaches — to A. J, Downing & Co., for best twenty-four Plums — to W. North, Poughkeepsie, for best six bunches of native ' 28 [Senate Grapes — to Robert Donaldson, Blithewood, for best six bunches Fo- reign Grapes. A Diploma and $1 was awarded to Moses Humphrey, Poughkeep- sie, a colored man, 80 years old, for fine specimens of Grapes. FLOWERS. For greatest variety, 1st, to Miss Verplanck, Fishkill, $5 — 2d, to W. Harrock, $3. For Floral Ornaments, 1st, to Wm. Prince & Co., Flushing, $5 — 2d, to Miss Garretson, Rhinebeck, $3. For Dahlias, 1st, to J. M. Thorburn & Co., New-York, $5— 2d, to J. B. James, Rhinebeck, $3 — 3d, to Messrs. Prince, Flushing, vol. Transactions — 4th, to Mr. Swift, Poughkeepsie, Diploma. Discre- tionary— $3 to Mr. Van Waggoner, Poughkeepsie, and $1 to Samuel Mitchell, Poughkeepsie. For Green House Plants, 1st, to John N. Stuyvesant, Hyde Park, vol. Transactions — 2d, to J. Charran, Poughkeepsie, Diploma. VEGETABLES. Best Celery, to Robert Kelly, Rhinebeck, $2. Best Cauliflower, to Samuel Curry, Poughkeepsie, $2. Best Turneps, to Michael Kane, gardener of John A. De GrofF, Hyde Park, $1. Best Carrots, to John B. James, Rhinebeck, $1. Best Beets, to R. L. Pell, $1. Best Parsneps, to W. Harrock, Hyde Park, $1. Best Cabbage, to R. L. Pell, $1. Best Tomatoes, to R. L. Pell, $1. Best Egg Plants, to John B. James, $1. Best Onions, to Joseph T. Adriance, Poughkeepsie, $1. Best Lima Beans, to Joseph T. Adriance, $1. Best Double Parsley, to Michael Kane, $1. Best Squashes, to R. L. Pell, $1. Largest Pumpkin, to John Townsend, Hyde Park, f 1. Best Seed Corn, to J. F. Osborn, Port Byron, $1. Best Table Potatoes, 1st, to W. Harrock, $2— 2d, to Samuel Cur- ry, $1- Diplomas were awarded for Celery to Samuel Mitchell, Pough- keepsie— to W. Harrock for Turneps and for fine specimens of Green Peas — to Michael Kane, for Orange Carrots — to J. F. Adriance, Poughkeepsie, for White Carrots, and for best collection of various kinds of Beets — to Nathan Colman, for beautiful specimens of White Onions — to N. Shephard, for Lima Beans — to D. B. Fuller, for eight varieties of Squashes — to A. J. Downing, for Seedling Rhubarb — to Robert Kelly, for Vegetable Oyster. Volumes of Transactions were awarded to Joseph F. Adriance for Cuba Pumpkins, eighteen from one seed, weighing 776 J lbs. — to Hamilton Morrison, Montgomery, for twelve varieties of Potatoes — No. 85.] 29 to Mrs. Verplanck, Fishkill Landing, for several fine heads of Lettuce — to Thomas Addis Emmet, New-York, for Okra and Cucumbers. PLOWING MATCH. First premium to Wm. H. Warrall, Poughkeepsie, $15 — 2d, to Pe- ter F. Procius, Kinderhook, $12— 3d, to Valentine Halleck, $10 — 4th, to E. B. Smith, Poughkeepsie, $6 — 5th, to Elias Westervelt, Poughkeepsie, Diploma. The Committee awarded prizes of $3 each, to John Day, of Lith- gow, and James East, of Poughkeepsie, as the best plowmen. DISCRETIONARY PREMIUMS. JVeedle Work — To Mrs. Tuckerman, 70 years old, for a Counter- pane, $2 — to De WittC. Thomas for superior woolen Mittens, $2 — to J. G. Wood, Gloverville, for a specimen of buckskin Mittens and ladies' Moccasins, $2~to Mrs. Polly B. Wescott, Greenfield, for Counterpane, $2 — to Mrs. Johanna Hurley, Poughkeepsie, for a spe- cimen of embroidery needle work, $2 — and Diplomas to Mrs. J. Reynolds for an embroidered Table Cover ; to Mrs. Eliza R. Davies for raised Worsted Work ; to Miss'Frances M. Kirby, Brownsville, for a beautiful Work Bag ; to Miss Akin, Dutchess co. for an elegant specimen of needle work. Flour — To E. S. Beach and Co, Akron Mills, Ohio, for a good barrel of flour. Diploma — to Phillip Garbutt, Wheatland, N. Y. for a better barrel of flour, $3 — to John Williams, Rochester, for the best barrel of flour, $5. Diplomas were awarded to Miss McDonald, Poughkeepsie, for a beautiful specimen of Wax imitation of Fruit ; to Comstock and Johnson of Rome, for a splendid assortment of Garden Tools ; to Lewis Wetham, Poughkeepsie, for two elegant Piano Fortes ; to Maurice Cunningham, gardener of R. L. Pell, Esq.; to Charles Roome, New York, for a specimen of the application of Coal Tar as a paint ; to James Vail, Poughkeepsie, for an Artificial Grotto ; to Miss Mary Sherwood, Fishkill, for one Divan and three Gilt Frames ; to John M. Ketchum, for three slabs of fine white and clouded Mar- ble, from the quarries of Dover, Dutchess county ; to Giflbrd & Sher- man, Poughkeepsie, for a specimen of ground dye-wood in jars ; to Jared Gray, Poughkeepsie, for beautiful specimens of Hair Work ; to Elisha M. Haley, Poughkeepsie, for a handsome specimen of fan- cy Brick ; to Peter Crispell, jr., for a specimen of Flax ; to Augus- tus Thayer, Maiden Bridge, for a Columbian Pump ; Peter Van Vliet, Newburgh, for a specimen of Cooperage ; to Hiram Pierce, Coopers- town, for a beautiful specimen of Penmanship ; to Gen. R. Harmon, jr., Wheatland, for thirty-five varieties of Wheat in the ear ; to John R. Stuyvesant, Hyde Park, for three Top Knot Fowls, remarkable for laying eggs the whole year without intermission -, to B. J. Hayes, Hastings, for a specimen of Egyptian Wheat in the ear j to Russell Comstock, Washington, for Seedling Apples and Pears ; to Noah 30 [Senate Gridley, Amenia, for two pairs Sad Irons ; to Abram Fonda, Pough- keepsie, for samples of Tooth Wash, Tooth Powder, and Tooth Paste ; to Anson Barhydt, Columbia county, for three models of Bee Hives and Bee House. Manufactures. — Diplomas were awarded to the Middlesex Com- pany, Lowell, Mass., for a splendid assortment of Broadcloths, Cas- simeres and fancy Woolens, J. Gleason, agent ; to Archibald Winter, Rondout, for a specimen of Shoes made by a machine from one piece of leather without a seam ; to Z. Pratt & Co., Prattsville, for four sides of Spanish leather, sweated and tanned in five months in hemlock, in the common mode ; to Watson & Dwight, Windham, for four sides of slaughtered Sole Leather, tanned in hemlock in four and a half months, in the usual mode ; to Wm. Wilson, Poughkeep- sie, for a Ledger in elegant Russia binding ; to Joseph Laubach, Middletown, Penn., for an Iron Revolving Hearth ; to John C. Cham- bers, Poughkeepsie, for a beautiful Row Boat ; to G. M. Viele, Poughkeepsie, for a Hat ; to Henry D. Meyers, Poughkeepsie, for a Pump and Block ; to Wm. Shiels, Poughkeepsie, for a fine speci- men of Mahogany Grained Doors ; to R. G. Holmes, Poughkeepsie, for a beautiful set of Artificial Teeth • to Bernard Skinner, Pough- keepsie, for a beautiful specimen of Buckskin ; to Granger & Todd, Oneida county, for a specimen of Glassware ; to Thomas Prosser, New-York, for a beautiful variety of Porcelain Buttons ; to Mosely, Howard & Co., Poughkeepsie, for specimens of Solid Head Pins; to Fairchild, Pelton & Co., Poughkeepsie, for specimens of the same; to M. Morse, Rochester, for an elegantly bound Blank Ledger ; to John Eisel, Poughkeepsie, for a beautiful specimen of Boots ; to Alex. Wright, Poughkeepsie, for a Rifle ; to Alex. Ross, for American manufactured Brussels Carpeting. Carriages and sleighs — Diplomas, to John H. Wood, Poughkeep- sie, for carriages and sleigh ; to John W. Whitney, Poughkeepsie, for a single horse carriage ; to Harvey Palmer, Poughkeepsie, for a single horse pleasure wagon. Stoves. — To Wager & Dater, Troy, for 4 air tight stoves, $3 ; to Smith, Lockwood & Co., Troy, for 4 family and 1 hotel stoves for coal or wood, $5, and Diplomas were awarded to J. T. McCarty & Co., Rhinebeck, for one stove; to Barnard & Heermance, Pough- keepsie, for 2 cooking stoves ; to Low & Bradley, Poughkeepsie, for 2 stoves ; to George Smithson, Poughkeepsie, for a cooking closet ; to W. O. Jenks, Albany, for a parlor coal stove ; to James Robb, Peekskill, for a cooking stove ; to R. D. C. Stoughtenburgh, Pough- keepsie, for a parlor wood stove and a parlor coal radiator; to At- wood & Cole, Troy, for 4 cooking stoves ; J. C. Heermance, Sche- nectady, for 2 cooking stoves. Smut machines — To Wm. Delaney, Canterbury, $5 ; to W. G. Borland, Little Falls, $3 ; to E. F. Cushman, Troy, $3. A premium of $2 was awarded to John Wilkinson, Union Vale, for a specimen of chrystalized maple sugar ; to Andrew Meneely, West Troy, for two church bells, weighing 650 and 1525 lbs., with improved cast iron yokes, and 1 gilded steamboat bell weighing 172 No. 85.] 31 lbs., of beautiful tone and finish, $5; to John Dalley, Troy, for a fine specimen of cut tobacco, $2 ; to Thomas N. Smith, New-Paltz, for a fine specimen of harness and top leather, $3 ; to Wm. H. Sleight, Hyde Park, for a stove drum, and beautiful specimens of tin cotfee urns and teapots, $2 ; to G. W. I. Brownson, Amsterdam, 3 kinds of brooms and brushes, f 3 ; to Dedrich &. Brothers, Claverack, for a fire escape, $3 ; to Wm. Roze, Philadelphia, for a hoof splitting ma- chine, very ingenious, $5 ; to 6 pupils of the institution for the blind, New-York, for 8 specimens of willow work, from American willows, presented by J. R. Horn, $6 ; to John C. Hall, Fallsburgh, for a sam- ple of beautiful timothy seed, $3. The admirable regulations, the excellent police arrangements, and the uniform good order which prevailed throughout the fair, from be- ginning to end, among the great mass of human beings on the grounds, confer the highest credit on the committee of arrangements, and citi- zens of Poughkeepsie generally, who have given an example which should be held up for imitation wherever the future shows may be held. The receipts of the State Fair amount to about $3,720, from which very few expenses had to be paid ; the citizens of Poughkeepsie and its vicinity, having raised by subscription, a sum sufficient to defray all the expenses incurred in fitting up the grounds, erecting buildings, &c,, amounting to about $1,800. The interest excited by these fairs is the strong evidence of the hold we now have of the popular feeling. It is but to continue and hold on our course with no motive but the advancement of agricul- ture, and this great State, with its fertile territory, its advantages for commerce and manufactures, the character of its population for indus- try and intelligence, will become one of the wealthiest, as it is now one of the most favored places on the globe. ANNUAL MEETING, JAN. 15th, 1845. The annual meeting of the society was held on the loth January, 1845. There was a very large attendance from different sections of the State, and a spirited interest was manifested in the affairs of the society. Reports were made by the corresponding and recording secretaries and the treasurer. From the report of the treasurer it appears that the receipts of the society during the last year were : 32 [Senate Interest on stock, $210 00 Donation from John Grieg, 50 00 " '' Geo. Vail, 25 00 " " Robt. A. Donaldson, 12 00 " " J. P. Beekman, 50 00 « " J. McD. Mclntyre, 20 00 « " Joel Rathbone, 25 00 " " Wm. H. Seward, 50 00 Receipts at Fair, 3,723 80 Appropriation from the State, . . . . : 700 00 $4,865 80 Payments. Premiums, $1,600 50 Balance due former Treasurer, 1 14 23 Recording Secretary, 550 00 Expenses at Fair, 300 00 Subscriptions to Colman's European Agr'l. . . 100 00 Design of Diplomas 50 00 Binding, 328 00 Printing and advertising, 409 34 Incidental, 481 84 $3,933.91 Mr. Greig, chairman of the committee on the introduction of books of agriculture into primary schools and school libraries, presented an interesting and valuable report, which will be found among the trans- actions of the society.* The following premiums were awarded : Wheat — First premium, $15, to M. Watson, Canandaigua ; 215 bushels on 4 acres and 12 rods. Corn — First premium not awarded ; the second, to J. F. Osborn, Cayuga county ; 213§ bushels on 2 acres. Barley — First premium, Stephen B. Dudley, East-Bloomfield, On- tario county ; 69 busheles per acre on two acres. Second premium, Wm. Wright, Vernon, Oneida county ; 50 bushels, 47 pounds per acre on 2 acres. Third premium, Nathaniel Wright, Vernon ; 47 bushels, 25 pounds per' acre on 2 acres. Oats — First premium to Seth Lawton, Washington, Dutchess county ; 120i bushels per acre. Second premium, J, F. Osborn, Port Byron, Cayuga county; 104 bushels per acre on 2 acres. • The Recordinsr Secretary has not been able to find the copy of Mr. Greig's Report, among the papers of the Society — consequently, its publication is necessarily omitted. No. 85.] 33 Ruta Baga — First premium, John G. Smedburg, Greene county ; 1,160 bushels per acre. Second premium, H. S. Randall, Cortland county ; 820 bushels per acre. Third premium, C. B. Meek, Ontario county ; 724 bushels per acre. Carrots — First premium to Wra. Risley, Chautauque county ; 1,059 bushels per acre. Mangel Wurtzel — First premium, C. B. Meek, Canandaigua ; 1,101 bushels per acre. Sugar Beets — Third premium, J. F. Osborn, Cayuga county; 657 bushels per acre. Clover Seed — Volume of Transactions to Henry Brewer, Tomp- kins county ; about 12 bushels on 3 acres. Butter Dairies — First premium, Geo. Vail, Troy ; 6 cows, averag- ing 43 lbs. 12 oz. for 30 days. One cow yielded 52 lbs. 9 oz. in 30 days. Sheep management — First premium, H. S. Randall, Cortland. The following officers %vere elected for the ensuing year : B. P. JOHNSON, Oneida, President. James Lenox, New- York, Vice-President. Thomas L. Davies, Dutchess, " E. P. Prentice, Albany, H. W. DoLiTTLE, Herkimer, Benjamin Enos, Madison, " O. C. Crocker, Broome, " H. S. Randall, Cortland, ^' G. W. Patterson, Chautauque, " Danl. Lee, Erie, Corresponding Secretary. Luther Tucker, Albany, Recording Secretary. Thomas Hillhouse, Albany, Treasurer. Additional Members of the Executive Committee — T. S. Faxon, Utica; E. Kirby, Brownville; Alexander Walsh, Lansingburgh ; Geo. Vail, Troy ; J. McD. Mclntyre, Albany. The next annual fair of the society, was recommended to be held at Utica. In the evening, the society, with numerous other gentlemen, met in the Assembly Chamber, when the annual address was delivered by the president of the society, [Senate, No. 85.] C u 34 [Senate ADDRESS OF HON. J. P. BEEKMAN, PRESIDENT OF THE SOCIETY. Gentlemen : — In compliance with the custom which has uniform- ly prevailed in the action of this Society since its organizationj I rise as its presiding officer, at the close of my official term, to address you. This Society has had an existence since the year 1832 ; and we can- not now, probably, be better employed, than in taking a cursory survey of its past operations, and in looking forward to its future prospects. It was formed to promote the cause of Agriculture ; but whether the benefits derived from it have been proportionate to the labor it has cost, must be left to the good judgment of an intelligent community of farmers to determine. The profitable cultivation of the soil is a subject of the deepest solicitude to an American freeman ; for a coun- try so extensive and fertile as ours, with its varied productions, its changeable climate, and its fast increasing population, must derive its support, its wealth, and its prosperity principally from the labors of the husbandman. It is a most interesting study to give a right direction and efficiency to these labors ; and to aid in this work was the paramount object in the formation of this Society. That important changes have taken place in the manner of culti- vating the soil, and a vast accession been made to our agricultural knowledge, within a short period of time, must be apparent to the most superficial observer. How far we by our organization have con- tributed to it, is not so easy to determine. But an impulse has been given to the cause — men of other occupations have entered into it with a zeal, intelligence and ardor, which will lead to the most im- portant practical results, and which must operate most beneficially to our country. Union of action creates a union of interest and feeling — it gives tone to public sentiment, and determines the fate of fami- lies, of societies and nations. If public sentiment can be so directed that all take an interest to make it bear on one subject, depend upon it, that subject, whatever it may be, will undergo an investigation as thorough as it will be instructive. The Executive of this State, in his recent annual message, says, " the interest of agriculture is not only the most important committed to our charge, but more important than all others." If this be so, it then becomes us, fellow-members, to whom this No. 85.J 35 subject is specially committed, to give it all the consideration which its great importance demands. In reviewing the operations of this society, it is necessary that we should revert to the general state of agriculture about the time it came into existence, the sentiments that were then held upon this subject, and compare it with the position in which we now stand. Every observing man, who has for two score years been upon the stage of action, must have seen farming in all its simplicity, — ^when the farmer had no resource to renovate the soil but his own scanty barn-yard manure, and even of the value of that, he was imperfectly informed. It is not many years since the use of clover was first intro- duced— that of gypsum soon followed ; the effects of the last struck every one with surprise, particularly when applied to the former, and it was reallyUhought by those who observed it that no other renova- ter of the soil would be necessary. But time has since developed, that great as was, and is now the benefit of gypsum, yet it requires not only constant renewing, but cannot supersede the application of stable manure, and successful farming now requires an augmentation of the list to an almost indefinite extent. If I remember right, our list of fertilizers fifteen years ago, ex- tended very little, if any, farther than the two substances already men- tioned ; and gypsum was specially required to the growth of clover ; so too, it was then a principle of farming to task the soil to its utmost capacity, to raise wheat and corn if we could, and if we could not, to try rye, buckwheat and oats. We followed a rotation of crops not to enrich the soil, but to impoverish it ; not to enrich ourselves, but to trust alone to our luck and the bounties of Providence. And who does not remember the slow process, when the harvest was gathered by the sickle, followed by the use of the half cradle. That, however, was before the time we speak of, and the cradle as a harvest tool has now for many years been very generally used. It is a tool, however, of modern times, and its use is principally confined to this country. The plow and the harrow were then almost the only farm imple- ments used for the cultivation of the soil — the former made of wood, but shod with iron ; the latter clumsy and imperfect. The potatoe grown, was the red ; no other kind was known — it was hardy, but strong to the taste, and not very productive : as to the different kinds of seed sown, sufficient care was not taken in the selection, and much of it was linclean. 36 [Senate The farmers' cattle were of the ordinary kind ; a few valuable for milk, but none peculiarly so for the carcase. Common horses were raised in unknown numbers, and I have seen the whole side of many a large barn consisting of horse stables filled with them from one end to the other — the consequence was, that the horses emptied the barn of hay and grain at the approach of spring, and the cattle the straw. The first was an unprofitable animal j they were raised at a ruinous loss. Such was the course of farming, when our land was cultivated by slaves ; it was an old adage, that " the hogs ate the corn, and the negroes ate the hogs." All this was literally true, as I have often been a witness of the fact. Could our farmers by such farming, be otherwise than poor 1 Could they be otherwise than indebted for many of their annual and family expenses 1 And do not all know, that many farms in those days were encumbered with mortgages '? The persons of property at that time were professional men ; they were considered the gentlemen of leisure, respectability and charac- ter. The farmers looked up to them as a superior class, for they had not received the advantages of education, nor had they the means of acquiring a fortune. These were the halcyon days of the profession, when that class of men monopolized not only almost the wealth, but the respectability of the whole community. Living under a free government, where every man has the full benefit of all his faculties, and can own the land he tills, if by industry he will earn it, — within the last few years, the mind of the farmer has been directed to the improvement of his condition, and to raise himself by education, intel- ligence and industry to a higher, if not the highest rank in Society. What is the first step he takes to do this ? He wisely frees his slaves and turns his sons from the taverns, the race-course, and the haunts of idleness and vice, where formerly most of their time was spent — • to take their turns at the plow ; to sow in season ; to work in harvest, and lay up for him stores for winter. This was a great step, and a thousand other blessings have followed in its train. He looked upon his condition as a farmer. It was work without profit — labor with- out reward. What next 1 He brings into action the thinking mind, and naturally asks himself — cannot the intelligent mind be called to aid the industrious hands, to the improvement of my class, and re- lieve me from debt and embarrassment 7 View my state. It is land impoverished, fences prostrate, stock too No. 85.J 37 many and deteriorated, and as to the comforts of my household, they are few and with difficulty obtained. The resolution to improve, call- ed upon his industry to accomplish what his mind had conceived, and we see him slowly rise above all the evils of his situation, and place himself where he now stands, upon an equality with his species, and the pride and ornament of his country. Look now at the farm of the man who takes pleasure in his profession, and whose habits are regular, quiet, orderly, and industrious — and what do you see 1 Does he confine himself to the scanty supply of manure, he formerly made, for fertilizing his soil, with the only incidental aids of clover and plaster 1 No. His inquisitive mind takes in the whole range of what reading and reflection have imparted. He vastly increases the offals of his yard — he makes the compost heap — he finds the ashes of wood or coal to be eminently serviceable — he uses swamp mud, and weeds, and bone, poudrette and guano, and talk^ of acids and alka- lies, and salts, and theorizes and reasons upon their qualities and ef- fects, with the staidness of the philosopher, and the intelligehce of the man of science. He looks even farther than this. He calls chemistry to his aid, to analyze his soil, and to classify its varieties, that he may have a full knowledge of its component parts, and so use it as may be most conducive to his interest, his tastes or his de- sires. He does not even stop here ; but having analyzed the soil, he examines, minutely examines the plants it produces, and talks of the lime, silex, potash and soda, substances that enter into the composition of wheat, and rationally says, if these are the compo- nent parts of plants, they must derive them in their growth either from the earth or air ; and if from the earth, it is as well my duty as my profit to supply these materials abundantly : for the air being the gift of the Almighty, is as pure and abundant as his goodness and wisdom are exhaustless and infinite. Is it not worth while there- fore, for me to make the inquiry whether I cannot supply the food of plants in a condensed form, and thus save the labor of making and carting many thousand loads of manure, which is both tedious and expensive 1 Cannot I by a short process apply these materials in a more compact and equally acceptable state to my growing wheat, corn, &c. 1 And let me tell you, gentlemen, this subject is now un- dergoing investigation, and may lead to the most important practical results. We are yet in the infancy of farming. The inquisitive mind, seeking knowledge, never returns empty j and full as we are of 38 [Senate encouragement from the past, we look with increased confidence to the future. As a proof of the efficacy of applying to plants food in a condensed form, the subject of steeping grain before planting or sowing, is now highly recommended, although heretofore it was only occasionally thought of and practiced. From recent communications made on that subject by Mr. Colman, in the last number of his Agricultural Tour, it appears that repeated experiments of steeping seeds have been made in England with eminent success, and that in all cases in which it had been resorted to, it had a most wonderful effect on the growth of the plant. He says — " the specimens of oats to which preparations of sulphate of ammonia have been applied are magnificent, both as to height and strength — ^being six feet high, and having stems like small canes, with an average of ten stems from one seed, and one hundred and sixty grains on each stem." It produced the same good efiects on all the other grains, and the experiments were full and satisfactory. Gentlemen, if we can profit by these remarks, it is a cheap and easy way of applying food to plants, and is one of the discoveries of modern times. The great object of the farmer is to make his farm, by judicious culture, more productive. He is now convinced that to nurse his soil is his true policy ; that, as different crops exhaust more or less of its capacity to produce, he must adopt the principle qf rota- tion of crops, and not let two grain crops follow in succession. The introduction of grasses, other than clover, is of modern practice, and is found to be not only profitable as a crop, but most renovating to the soil. Old meadows are now plowed up, and after a short cultivation, again laid down to grass with the most happy effect. Draining of land, too, is a modern improvement, and highly as wri- ters speak of its effects in Europe, I see a commencement is made in this country, and with most beneficial effects. I have observed that many wet places in fields have been dried by it, and that unseemly swamps and miry bogs have by it been turned into the most beautiful and verdant meadows. Another subject is now, too, undergoing an investigation — and that is a most important one. What crops successively are best adapted to particular soils 1 This embraces a wide field of research, and will receive quite as much benefit from the light of science as from the ob- servations of the practical farmer. Comparing the variety and quality of the plants we now cultivate with those in use but a few years ago No. 85.] 39 we not only see the number much extended, but the quality decidedly improved. Where formerly we had only the red potatoe, followed by the English white, we have now the flesh-colored, the pink-eyes^ mercer, carter, blue-noses, and many others, which for productive powers and their intrinsic excellence, have driven the old kind out of the market. Soj too, of our cattle. The natives, which were considered well enough in their day, now look so diminutive and deformed when placed beside some of the finest specimens of our Durhams, that it re- minds one of dwarfs compared with men of full stature, and in perfect maturity. By this remark, however, I wish not to be understood as derogating from the intrinsic value of the native breed. In their day they have been vastly useful. But to say that they cannot be, and have not been improved by cross-breeding with other varieties, would be to shut our eyes against the most apparent objects. So, too, of our farm implements. Look at the plow as a specimen of the whole. First, we had the cast iron plow, as an improvement upon the old one, and we thought we had arrived at perfection in the construction of that instrument. But we found upon using it, that the ease with which it could be drawn through the soil, and the excel- lence of its work, must depend upon giving it that shape which the laws of mathematics alone could illustrate. What that is we have not yet exactly ascertained j but it is palpable that a process is now going on which must end in giving it the lightest possible draft with the most excellent workmanship. The improvements on this most use- ful instrument to the farmer, are so great and decided, that if this soci- ety has done aught to effect it, it repays a thousand-fold all the money we have spent, and the time we have occupied. Who does not at once see that its offer of premiums for the exhibition of plows at its fair, and the extended competition which it has thus brought out, has been the mighty lever that has moved the ingenuity of our coun- trymen, and been the great cause of such decided and valuable im- provement ? But, gentlemen, if the plow now in ordinary use is so much better than the old one, there is yet a different kind that our advances in the art of farming must call into action ; and that is the sub-soil plow. This is a differently constructed implement, and is entirely a modern invention. It will, however, soon come into general use, for it is now well ascertained that for many crops the ordinary plow does not stir 40 [Senate the soil deep enough. The experiments upon this subject have been most ample and satisfactory, so much so that it has suggested another mode of stirring up the earth, and that is by the use of the spade, which is made to penetrate the earth about fourteen inches, and most effectually loosens the soil. Indeed, in England, where labor is cheap, and the fruits of labor dear, entire acres are allotted to this kind of farming alone. The profits have been such as to repay the outlay ; for, comparing the product resulting from it with that raised when the plow was used, it has been ascertained that it amply remunerated the additional expense. For proofs I would once more refer you to the second number of Mr. Colman's Tour. It will probably, how- ever, be a long time before its use to any great extent will be prac- ticed in this country, on account of the price of labor ; but we learn from it this important lesson, that if we strive for good crops we must stir the soil well and deeply. To draw your attention to all the different subjects of the improve- ments of modern farming, would occupy too much time. Indeed, we would have to amplify on all the variety of products, animal and vegetable, of the farmer. We would have to go into a discussion of the benefits of sheep husbandry, the turnep culture, the beet culture, the silk culture, the modern discovery of the immense product of corn and wheat, and rye, and oats, and barley, per acre, from land pro- perly prepared for it, and it is but another illustration that the powerl of the soil for the subsistence of man are illimitable, and we cannot but exclaim — " Great and wonderful are all thy works. Lord God Almighty ; in wisdom hast thou made them all." And here permit me to ask what effect have the advances in agri- culture for the last few years, had upon the comfort, happiness and prosperity of man 7 Look at his temporal prosperity, and what do you see ? Better buildings for his use and accommodation — fields better cultivated , fences better constructed, the hand of industry brush- ing away all that looks like slovenliness or bad farming from around his habitation and enclosures. Implements of modern construction, animals that will often vie with the best of their species — in fine, a regeneration brought about simply by calling on his intelligence to aid in the labor of his hands. The effect that all this has upon our general prosperity as compared even now with the olden time and in the older counties of the State, is most wonderful. His debts are in a measure removed, the incumbrances on his real estate not only paid No. 85.] 41 up, but he is often a lender, and stands by the side of the professional man not only in wealth and respectability, but likewise in intelli- gence. Education with him is not now as isolated as formerly, and feeling its benefits, he is desirous not only to extend it in its fulness to his posterity, but by his munificence to scatter it wide as his coun- try. Gentlemen, we will not stop here further to expatiate on the effects of the improvements in farming in the last few years. You have doubtless all heard of the labors of Liebig, of Johnston, of Daubeney, of Dumas, in the cause of agricultural science. Their works have gone through many editions, which is a strong evidence that their labors in that department have been eminently successful. Some of our young men have been stimulated to avail themselves of their knowledge, and I know two of them, Messrs. Hors- ford and Norton, and there are probably others, who have gone to Europe to place themselves under the instruction of these agricultu- ral chemists. I honor them for their resolution and enterprise, and from what I know of their talents, I have the fullest assurance to believe they will return to us richly laden with the fruits of their study and observa- tion. But let me not forget to mention Henry Colman, who is now making an agricultural survey through the best portions of Europe, examining the different modes of culture, comparing them with our own, and by means of his reports, now in the course of publication, disseminating the information he obtains for the benefit of our farm- ing community. The lights of other countries are thus shed back upon our own, and we can have the advantage of the knowledge they have acquired. There are many more branches of this subject into whose detail, and their bearing upon agriculture, we would enter with pleasure, but it would render the discussion too elaborate for the occasion. Suffice it to say that this society would rejoice to be the means of introducing into our common schools, elementary views of agricultural chemistry, and with the assistance of our able and gifted superin- tendent, we have now a fair prospect of succeeding. Did we dare to look higher, and had we the means, we would found an agricultural school and experimental farm, which would bear a comparison with any similar establishment in Europe. 42 [Senate We have within the last year formed the nucleus for an agricultu- ral museum which we hope to see greatly extended, and by consent of the State officers, apartments, convenient and accessible, have been granted us for an Agricultural Hall. These, gentlemen, have been some of the operations of this society. We do not take to ourselves all the honor of the great advancement of Agriculture since we have been an organized body — ^but we have labored most assiduously to draw public attention to this great subject, by disseminating information through our excellent agricultural papers — ^by holding meetings, and discussing topics relating to it— by exciting competition at our numerous and well conducted fairs — by the valuable essays that have been contributed through our instru- mentality— thus fostering and encouraging a taste for a pursuit whose great benefits we cannot appreciate, for they will be lasting as time and durable as our species. At the close of the address, the President elect, was introduced, and on assuming the duties of the office, addressed the meeting in an appropriate speech. In a portion of the volume of the Transactions for the present year, will be found the proceedings of the American Institute. By an act passed May, 1844, that useful association now report their proceed- ings to the Executive Committee of the New-York State Agricultural Society. They have added some valuable papers to our Transactions, and they fully merit, as they have received in their section of the State, the fullest confidence from all classes of our citizens. Their course has been useful and prosperous, for from their reports we ga- ther the fact, that in seven years they have collected at their exhibi- tions $78,975 .62, all of which has again been distributed in the pay- ment of premiums and their ordinary expenses — that not more than one-fifth of their visiters pay for entrance, — that the contributors to the last Fair, were at least two thousand, and that they exhibited about twenty thousand articles of different varieties, of which most were very superior specimens, as I had the pleasure of a personal in- spection, and we trust that association, together with the State Agri- No. 85.J 43 cultural Society will long hold, as they have now gained, the confi- dence of the public. All of which is respectfully submitted : J. P. BEEKMAN, late President of the JV. York State Agricultural Society. Albany^ March 28th^ 1845. ADDITIONAL PREMIUMS. At a meeting of the Executive Committee, held February ISth? 1845, the following premiums were awarded : — Cheese Dairies. — 1st Premium, gold medal, to A. L. Fish, of Her- kimer county — 2dj 3 vols. Transactions, to A. Hall, Oneida county. Experiments on Corn.— 1st premium, $25, to Geo. Geddes, Onon- daga. '^[Essays — On Farm Management, premium $20, to John J. Thomas, ^ilacedon, Wayne county. On Rotation of Crops, to John J. Thomas, $20. On the Cultivation of the Apple, to John J. Thomas, $20. Wheat. — A premium of $15 was awarded to E. J. Ayres, of Tomp- kins county, for 114 bushels 58 lbs. on 2 acres. Feeding Cattle. — Silver medal to R. L. Pell. Several interesting essays were submitted relative to the disease of the Potatoe, but as none of them were in the opinion of the commit- tee such as to entitle the writer to the premium offered by the society, no premium was awarded. CORRESPONDING SECRETARY'S REPORT. The Corresponding Secretary would most respectfully report : That in accepting the office to which he was elected at the annual meeting in January last, he felt great diffidence as to his ability to to discharge the duties which devolved upon him in a manner that would meet the expectations of the Society. He has endeavored to keep in view the important objects for which the Society was organ- ized, and in every suitable manner to advance its best interests. 44 [Senate In accordance with the directions of the executive board, a corres- pondence was opened early in the season with gentlemen who were supposed to take a lively interest in the improvement of agriculture. This correspondence was not confined to our own country, but ex- tended to gentlemen distinguished for their intelligence, and for their interest in the subject, in England, Scotland, Ireland, and upon the continent, and also to several of the American ministers and consuls at Courts in Europe. From most of those to whom letters were addressed, answers have been received, and a deep interest has been expressed in the objects of our society, and in its prosperity. From several gentlemen valuable communications have been re- ceived, which will be found not only interesting but valuable docu- ments, worthy of a place in our Transactions. A distinguished gentleman — Professor James F. W. Johnston — writes: " That it gives him great pleasure to observe the interest that is taken in the United States, and especially in the State of New- York, in the promotion of agriculture. It is astonishing how much the long peace has drawn the attention of all countries to this vital subject, and how universally all classes manifest their desire to aid in bringing it as an art up to the level of the other arts, which during the last half century, have in so extraordinary a degree advanced. The organization of your general and local societies, with the pecu- niary aid of your Legislature, will no doubt do very much with you for the promotion of this end." The same gentleman writes that " efforts are making to establish special colleges of agricultural instruction, and that a little elemen- tary catechism for the use of schools in the country districts, has al- ready had a very wide circulation, and is promising much good." A copy of this work has been received, and is in course of republi- cation, and it is believed will prove of great advantage to the interests of agriculture. The same gentleman says — " What a fine object would it be for your great State, unfettered as you are by old forms or scholastic pre- judices, to undertake. Your State is large enough to establish and maintain with ease such an institution, and fill it with students who should be taught all those branches of science which bear more or less remotely upon agricultural pursuits. I might urge it further also, as being little less than a duty for you, who have " Excelsior " for No. 85.] 45 your motto, to take precedence in this matter of the other States, and to show them an example worthy of imitation. Why should you not advance as far and as fast in agriculture as you have in commerce ?" It is hoped that these suggestions will be appreciated by our society, and that no effort will be omitted that can lead us on to the accomplish- ment of a work which would redound so much to the interest as well as the honor of our society and State. Many valuable communications have been received for publication, and the society are under great obligations to the writers, for their contributions to the Transactions of our society. The papers which are submitted for publication, it is believed, will not be less interest- ing than those heretofore published. In October last, Mr. O'Reilly, Mr. Howard, of the Cultivator, and myself, attended the annual meeting of the Massachusetts State Soci- ety for the promotion of Agriculture, at Worcester. We were received with all that cordiality and kindness so eminently characteristic of the farmers of New-England. Every attention was shown us that could have been desired. The exhibition was creditable, not only to that noble society, but one from which much might be learned valu- able to our own. The order and regularity with which all their proceedings were conducted, is worthy of all praise. Their social meetings, at which an interchange of sentiments among farmers was had, were very in- teresting ; and the example thus given, it is hoped, may be imitated successfully in New-York. It is a matter of encouragement, that an increasing interest in the subject of agricultural education is abroad among the farmers of our State. The subscriber has had many inquiries from different parts of the State, from intelligent gentlemen desirous of information as to the time of the commencement of our agricultural school. It is to be hoped that another year will not be permitted to pass without having a school established, that will afford to the sons of the farmers that instruction which is so much needed to fit them for all the vari- ous duties which will soon be devolved upon them. The subscriber is aware that he has very imperfectly discharged the duties of the office which he has held, and which have been so ably discharged by his predecessor, for several years. He has the conso- lation, however, of having devoted his best energies to the advance- ment of the interests of the society, and he closes up his labors with 46 [Senate the reflection, that although all has not been accomplished that migh have been, still, in all his efforts, he has been actuated by a sincere desire to promote the great interests of the agriculturists, which are second in importance to no other in our State. The following papers are submitted : — The Island of Malta, its position and products — ^by W. Winthrop Andrews, U. S. Consul. Agriculture of South Carolina — by Hon. J. K. Poinsett. Chemical Examination of the Rice Plant and Rice Soil in South Carolina — by Charles Upham Shepard, M. D., Professor of Chemis- try, &c. Agriculture of Mississippi — by M. W. Phillips, Editor South Wes- tern Farmer, Log Hall, Edward's Depot, Miss. Hereford Cattle, their superiority. — Leicester Sheep — in-and-in breeding— by George Drake, Manor Farm, East Tytherly, Hamp- shire, England. Agriculture of the Wabash Valley, Indiana — ^by T. A. Howard, Rockville, Indiana. Agriculture of Winnebago county, Illinois — ^by Anson S. Miller, Esq., Rockford, Illinois. Working Oxen — by J. S. Skinner, Washington, D, C^ The Cranberry — by Sullivan Bates, Norfolk county, Mass. Agriculture generally — by Pomeroy Jones, Oneida county, N. Y. Gypsum and Red Clover as a fertilizer — ^by W. Penn Kinzer, Spring Lawn Farm, Pequa, Lancaster county, Penn. Agriculture of Addison county, Vermont — ^by Solomon W. Jewett, Weybridge, Vermont. • The Provision Trade — by T. C. Peters, Genesee county, N. Y. Agriculture of Hartford county. Conn. — by Henry Watson, East Windsor. Saxony and Merino Sheep — Ayrshire Cattle — by Wight Chapman, Middlebury, Vermont. On Thorn Hedges, (with letters, &c.) — ^by M. B. Bateham, Editor Cultivator, Columbus, Ohio. Introduction of the Study of Agriculture into our Common Schools and of Agricultural books into our Common School Libraries, &c. — by H. S. Randall, Cortlandville, N. Y. Sketch of the origin and progress of the Massachusetts Agricultu- ral Society — by John Wells, Boston. B. P. JOHNSON, Corresponding Secfy JV. Y. S. Jig. Society. No. 85.] , 47 DR. LEE'S REPORT ON AGRICULTURE. The following report from the committee on agriculture, to "whom was referred so much of the Governor's Message as relates to that subject, was submitted to the House of Assembly by Mr. D. Lee, on the 20th March, 1845: Speaking of agriculture the Governor says: "The interest in- volved is not merely the most important committed to our charge, but more important than all others." This is no more than a just appreciation of that portion of the pub- lic interests committed by the House to the charge of your committee. Happy shall we be if any thing we can say or do shall serve to lessen the hard work now expended in producing a pound of wool, a firkin of butter, or a bushel of wheat. Agriculture is a subject that public men are far more inclined to praise than to aid by any legislative enactments. However others may regard the interest of rural industry, your committee believe that, while legislating for half a million of farmers, we owe them some- thing more than empty commendation, something better than a heart- less lip service. It is known to all that no class in the community give so much muscular toil for $100 as do the common field laborers in the State of New-York. The hard work of skillful farmers is bought and sold at nine or ten dollars a month, and twelve hours' toil is cheerfully performed each day. But the mechanic, the banker, the merchant, the broker, or the professional gentleman, thinks his service very poorly rewarded if he do not receive three or four times that sum. If a man whose whole life is devoted to the cultivation of the earth, does not and cannot earn so much as the merchant, the physician or the lawyer, in the course of a year, pray tell us what is the cause of this inability, that wise legislation may remove it. And if the ag- riculturist does earn as much as any non-producer in the State, then please inform us how it happens that an experienced farmer must sell his labor at $120 a year, when he cannot hire one experienced in the mysteries of law or medicine for less than $1,000 a year. Surely the toiling husbandman needs, if he does not deserve, as many good meals, as much good clothing and as fine a house as one that merely studies to acquire, not to produce, the good things of this world. 48 [Senate Nevertheless, the fact is notorious that the great body of our rural population somehow contrive to work a little harder and fare a little poorer than any other class in the community. We learn from reliable statistics that paupers increase among us much faster than population. The number that live from hand to mouth, only one step from the poor-house, is increasing with fearful rapidity. There are already more than 500,000 people in this State wholly dependent on their daily labor for their daily bread. No government can exceed us in bestowing idle praise on honest productive industry. But what has this Legislature ever done to se- cure from the grasp of avarice, to each hungry mouth and naked back, a fair equivalent for all the food and raiment called into exist- ence by the mind and hands which God has given to each person 1 In our fierce scramble to exchange with the common farmer ten hours' work for ten days' work, are we sure that we do not trample under our feet every principle of justice, and every right of humanity? What great public good is there in a system of legislation, which operates practically in a way that gives to one family ten times more than it really needs, and compels twenty families to live on half al- lowance 1 How long shall we foster in the breasts of a favored few, that morbid " love of money" which is the " root of all evil ?" Never till this ,unnatural appetite for needless wealth shall be aba- ted as a public nuisance, by removing from the masses the ignorance that feeds it, will agricultural labor be as well rewarded as the misem- ployed intellect, which now reaps where it has never sown. The in- creasing pauperism, suffering and crime, so common in the land, spring not so much from a lack of the comforts of civilized life, as from their unequal and unjust distribution. If the legislature will do as much to instruct the producing classes how to keep and enjoy the entire proceeds of their honest toil, as it does to teach all non-producers how to exchange their shadows for the workingman's substance, nine-tenths of our growing taxes for the sup- port of the poor, and the punishment of crime, will cease forever. On the contrary, so long as three-fourths of any community, give the pro- ducts of three, four, or six hands, for the little earnings of one hand, just so long will hungry mouths, naked backs, and houseless heads, claim assistance by a tax on the property of those that are better off. According to the official report, the direct tax in this State for the No. 85.] 49 year 1844, was $4,243,100. This will soon be $8,000,000, unless we cease to manufacture paupers, criminals, and needless litigation. In the common business transactions of society, men submit to be plundered an hundred times, from a seeming necessity. This neces- sity will always occur, so long as we refuse to be content with a sum equal to the products of one pair of hands. We violate a law of our being, when we strive to obtain a sum equal to the earnings of two intellects, and of four hands. It is obvious that should one-half the community succeed in acquiring a sum equal to the products of three hands to one human being, the other moiety must of necessity limit all their food, clothing, houses, farms and other property, to an average product of one hand to each person. Such is the present lamentable result of our past unwise legislation. If the alarming evils of this system be not corrected, is there not reason to fear that it will, at no remote period, call down the terrible but just punishment of Heaven 1 Before we prescribe a remedy, let us view the malady in another aspect : " To know ourselves diseased, is half our cure." Our intense anx- iety to acquire property without producing it, is an eating cancer on the body politic ; and he is no patriot, who is unwilling to have the sore probed to the bottom. There are in this State, at least ten thousand persons, that enjoy in- comes, on an average, of $2,000 each, derived from interest on money, rents, and for personal services. This secures to them an aggregate annual income of $20,000,000. Estimating the average value of ru- ral labor at $200 per head, and it will be seen that these 10,000 rich men, draw from human muscle and thought, a sum equal to the entire products of 100,000 farmers. Of this large sum, they may consume as much as 50,000 laboring men produce, and then lay up annually $10,000,000. Let us sup- pose this money is re-loaned, at an annual interest which will double the principal in twelve years. In that length of time the income of one year will become $20,000,000, and in twenty-four years it will become $40,000,000. In connection with the above figures, it is important to bear in mind that while interest augments the principal four fold in a quarter of a century, the increase of laboring people to work and pay this interest, is only 100 per cent, in the same length of time. Now, is it not clear- ly demonstrated that, by increasing our tax on productive industry [Senate, No. 85.] D 60 [Senate four times faster than the human family increase to work and pay such tax, that pauperism must also increase much faster than the population '? Had not the productive power of man's physical strength been largely expanded by the aid of labor-saving machinery, propelled by steam and water, within the last twenty-five years, the number of paupers in this State, and of those just above public charity, would be double what it now is. One of the greatest misfortunes that fall to the lot of the farming community is their extreme proneness to incur liabilities, and under- take the payment of interest. These people do not sufficiently study the relation that capital bears to humanity. They forget that a hu- man being, who must have more than 1,000 meals, to say nothing of clothes, in 365 days, cannot safely offset his productive labor against the service of dead matter. He should freely give for the use of capital, all it can earn without the aid of human muscle and thought, but no more. The poor far- mer- should ever bear in mind the fact that no amount of silver can possibly produce one kernel of wheat ; and if he offset his industry against the use of SjOOO silver dollars, he must either eat what he had before earned, or what some other man produces, or he must starve. How" cruelly have thousands suffered, because they failed to remem- ber that a debt on land will last for 100 generations, and extort from poor, toiling humanity, an annual tribute more remorseless than the grave. Beware, then, how you degrade the human intellect, and hu- man flesh and blood. These greatly need, for their full development and comfortable support in infancy, manhood, sickness and protracted old age, the entire proceeds of one pair of honest hands. Never for- get that whatever you give to inert matter, is so much stolen from a living soul and living body. This great truth should be known, that no man can make a beast of burthen of his physical frame, and not in- flict infinite wrong on his immortal mind. To supply our natural physical wants, no one need labor beyond what is necessary to impart health and vigor to his body and his mental faculties. Why, then, ' degrade a human being almost to a level with the ox that he drives, by compelling him, like the patient ox, to give to the world twice as much as he receives in return 1 Tt is thus that we create that rebel- No. 85.] 51 lion against our unwise and unjust laws, which calls for the brute force of military power. It is thus that we are so successful in filling our poor-houses with paupers, and our jails and prisons with criminals. Suppose a paternal government, acting on the principle of equal and exact justice, were to credit every member of the community, every family in the State, with all the good things produced by the same, and should debit each person and each family, with all they have ever consumed, how few could show a balance in their favor of $2,000 ? Under a system of just debit and credit with every mouth, back, and pair of hands, how many who are now rich would be bankrupts for thousands 1 How many, now really poor, would rejoice in their com- fortable circumstances 1 Suppose every man that has $3,000 at interest, were compelled to work at 75 cents a day, to pay his own interest 1 Who then would care to overreach his neighbors, and acquire $3,000 which rightfully belong to the families that gave them existence 1 It is because $3,000 will draw for its holder, from human bone and muscle, 200 days' work a year, for ten generations, that we are all so anxious to acquire the means thus to eat bread by the sweat of other men's faces, rather than by the sweat of our own. Humanity gains nothing by the circumstance that capital so often changes owners. To the producing classes, who work 100 days at 70 cents a day, for the service of $1,000 a year, it matters not whether this money has shifted owners a thousand times, or only once. Having thus briefly noticed a few of the evils which affect most in- juriously the great agricultural interest of New-York, your committee regard it as a part of their legitimate duty to suggest a remedy. The objects sought to be attained are these : First, to increase the productiveness of rural labor. Secondly^ to secure to every cultivator of the soil the entire pro- ceeds of his better directed and more productive industry. On what does the productiveness of the farmer's labor mainly de- pend 1 Surely not on his mere muscular strength, for in that case the mechanical power of a cart-horse will exceed fivefold in value the labor of an agriculturist. It is the sound judgment, experience and acquired knowledge of the directing Mind, that imparts productive value to the labor of human hands. And it is mainly because the in- tellect employed in rural pursuits is less developed than the mind de- voted to other and more professional occupations, that agricultural 52 [Senate labor is so poorly rewarded. The truth is that passive intellectual faculties are utterly valueless. They produce nothing. Hence, as the mind of a human being lacks science or knowledge, the market value of his mere physical force depreciates in price. Without going into an elaborate argument, your committee appeal to the ten thou- sand improvements of the age in which we live, as furnishing conclu- sive evidence that there is no power on earth so productive of great and beneficent results as the power of highly cultivated intellect. Those that follow the plow, and swing the axe, and gather the harvest, have not, as a class, been instructed in the sciences which re- veal nature's process for changing earth, air and water, into bread, meat and clothing. Hence, to manufacture a barrel of pork, of flour, a firkin of butter, or 100 pounds of wool, from the ingredients neces- sary to form those agricultural staples, the farmer loses one-third or one-half of his labor by its misapplication. To make one ripe wheat plant, nature requires no fewer than fourteen simple and distinct ele- mentary bodies. Each one of these substances has peculiar proper- ties, and not one can serve as a substitute for another. The laws established by the Creator of the universe, which govern all the changes in the form and properties of matter, whether in a crude mineral or in an organized condition, making the living tissues of plants and animals, are as uniform and unerring as the laws that regulate the rising and the setting of the sun. By studying the ope- ration of these laws, the practical agriculturist is often able to effect a result in a day, which he could not accomplish in a week, while working against the purposes of nature. It is not far from the truth to say, that 400,000 of the 700,000 chil- dren now attending our common schools, are destined to become prac- tical operatives in the great art of making something into grain, grass, roots, milk, butter, cheese, wool, fat, lean meat, bone, or some of the other numerous products of rural labor. Where that something can be found, and how the raw materials of all cultivated plants should be combined, so as to give the largest return for any given amount of capital and manual toil, are problems in practical husbandry, which science alone can solve. / If the ashes obtained by burning a ripe wheat, rye, oat, corn, bar- ley or timothy plant, be analyzed, not far from 80 per cent will be found to be silica, or common flint sand. This silica is an indispen- sable ingredient in the above named crops ; and yet, not one parti- No. 85.] 53 cle of this mineral can enter the root of any plant except it be dissol- ved in water. Now, of all earthy substances, flint sand is the most insoluble. Indeed, you may boil it for hours in aquafortis, sulphuric or muriatic acid, without dissolving it. How, then, is the practical farmer to dissolve this mineral, which, more than all others, forms the hone necessary to give strength to the stems of his grain, that they may hold up, without falling, the load of ripe seed in the ears ? Chemically speaking, silica is an acid, and will unite with a large dose of the two alkalis, potash and soda, and form a soluble silicate of those bases. This explanation reveals the reason why the alkalis in wood ashes are so valuable as fertilizers on sandy soils. On comparing the ana- lyses of maple, beach and oak ashes, with those obtained from cereal plants, there will be found a striking similarity in their respective constituents. Next to clay, sand and potash, lime, soda, phosphorus, sulphur, chlorine and iron, are the most important minerals found in cultivated plants. To prepare these ingredients for use, the following is a cheap and easy process. Take ten bushels of newly slaked lime, i. e. ten before it is sla- ked, and mix it thoroughly with twenty bushels of loam or vegeta- ble mould. Add to the heap five bushels of common salt and an equal amount of plaster of Paris ; moisten till the mass is like damp earth. The plaster will furnish sulphur, and the common salt will yield both soda and chlorine. The latter will leave the sodium and unite with the caustic lime, forming a soluble salt, called the chloride of calci- um. The sodium being first converted into soda, will then combine with the carbonic acid from the air and organized matter in the ve- getable mold, and form a precious alkaline salt, which will dissolve common sand. This compound still lacks phosphorus and iron. Ground bones furnish the former and copperas the latter mineral. If one can get the liquid excretions of domestic animals, or of the hu- man species, and saturate the compost heap with this compound o ammonia, phosphoric acid, and of other valuable matters derived from plants, the fertilizing properties of this artificial manure will be greatly increased. There is no branch of business in which the sciences of geology, chemistry, and of vegetable and animal physiology, are so useful to 54 [Senate man, as they are io the practical husbandman. The term science, i& but another name for knowledge. It is, however, usually limited in- connection with natural phenomena, to the systematic investigation of the laws of nature. Of all men, the practical farmer is most inter- ested in understanding and obeying these wise and salutary laws. The fact is susceptible of demonstration, that from a general igno- rance of these laws, we have w^asted in the State of New-York, within the last twenty-five years, the indispensable ingredients that go to form both bread and milk for our children, which,, if placed in New- York and Boston markets, would sell for one hundred millions of dollars. The guano imported into Great Britain last year,, sold for $4,0007r 000. It is retailed in Western New-York by an exchange of four pounds of flour for one of guano. To make an acre of wheat that will yield 20 bushels, the plants must have twelve pounds of phosphorus. To purchase that amount of a substance, which forms one of the constituents of the human brain, at a druggist's shop, will cost $24. The fact is notorious that there are thousands^ if not millions, of acres in this State which once bore 20 bushels of good wheat per acre, that now yield not more than ten bushels. To make our twelve millions of bushels of wheat a year, w^e annually consume about 7,000,000 pounds of phosphorus. It is the phosphate of lime con- tained in grass and hay, derived from the earth, out of which all our domestic animals form the solid, earthy portion of their bones. At present prices the phosphorus and ammonia, annually thrown away in the solid and liquid excretions of man and his domestic animals, are worth some $20,000,000. A cargo of guano — phosphorus and concentrated nitrogen derived from the fish on which sea-fowls feed — arrived in New-York a few days since, which will sell at some $60,000 ! What consummate folly to throw away the raw materials which form our daily bread ! In a work just published in this country, M. Boussingault states that he has seen fields on the table lands of the Andes, which have produced excellent crops of wheat annually^ for 200 years. Guano is the fertilizer used on these fields. Recent experiments in Scotland have demonstrated the practicabi- lity of growing 44 bushels of wheat on an acre having only 1 h per cent, of organized matter in the soil. It must contain, however, to No. 85.] 5,5 a limited extent, each of the 14 simple elementary substances which form a wheat plant. The organized arrangement of the phosphate of lime and magnesia, in an embryo corn plant, and the locality of the salts of iron, zeine and starch, are worth knowing. The following diagram illustrates the section of a grain of corn ; a. The cotyledon or embryo. b. Starch. c. e. Oil — zeine — sugar. d. Salts of iron. In the cotyledon or germ, is deposited the phosphates which form the bones of animals, and also most of the glutinous substance which is indispensable in the formation of lean meat, tendon, tissue, and the jelly found in bones. Hence, when the mouse eats out the chit of a kernel of corn, he gets the raw material to make muscle, bone, and brain ; and by taking into its stomach the iron in the dotted line d. this little animal, as well as the ox and man, obtain the substance which gives color to the blood, and with oxygen, the vital heat of the system. The iron in venous blood, is in a state of protoxide. This fluid is loaded with carbon, if not carbonic acid. From these causes venous blood is much darker colored than arterial blood. In the latter the iron is a peroxide, imparting to the blood a light vermillion hue. The fact has often been demonstrated, that the air expelled from the lungs of a warm blooded animal contains 100 times more carbonic acid than the air taken into these organs. As the arteries leading from the heart penetrate every part of the living frame, they convey vital gas — oxygen, condensed in the peroxide of iron — to every portion of the system. This oxygen, while the blood is passing through the tissues from the arteries into the veins, combines with that portion of carbon which has performed its office in nourishing the body, and carries it, in the form of carbonic acid, through the veins, heart and lungs, into the ever moving atmosphere. In thus burning the waste carbon in the system, ox3^gen gives out just as much heat to the surrounding matter as it would, provided an equal quantity of vital gas had burnt an equal amount of fuel in a stove. 56 [Senate. Every body knows that active exercise will warm him in cold wea- ther— that a horse driven forty miles a day will breathe oftener, evolve more heat and consume more food, or fuel, than he will when standing quietly in a warm stable. The waste oxygen and hydrogen will escape from the lungs of the animal, if quiet, in the form of va- por; in perspiration also, if driven hard. This sweat will carry with it some nitrogen and saline matter, which sometimes crystalizes on a horse by the evaporation to dryness of the liquid that escapes through his skin. But most of the valuable salts taken from the earth in the food of all animals, escapes by the kidneys and bowels. As the demand for carbon to form fat, muscle, cellular tissue, bone,, brain, hair and wool, as well as to keep up a continuous heat of 98° night and day, is very great, it will be seen why starch is so abundanty not only in corn, as above indicated, but in all plants used as food for man or beast. Starch contains a large amount of carbon. It is well known that if a bin of corn be moistened, it will heat and grow or rot. In the process of sprouting, a seed first imbibes some portion of the vital gas that surrounds it, which, uniting with the carbon in the starch, forms carbonic acid and evolves heat. When starch thus loses one portion of its carbon, it is changed into a kind of sugar J making, as is well known, sweet bread from wheat a little grown. If a grain of wheat be surrounded by a little waxy clay^ only a half inch in diameter, it will not sprout, because oxygen gas cannot penetrate the compact earth. By sowing grain in wet wea- ther, so that the harrow covers the seed with mud, thousands of bush- els are lost. It is a matter of great practical importance to know how to devel- op a large, vigorous growth of roots. On a poor soil this can only be done by the aid of science. Deep plowing and a thorough pul- verising of the soil are indispensable to accomplish this object. If it cost the farmers of New-York twice as much land and labor to produce a bushel of grain as it does their competitors out of the State, how are the cultivators of the earth among us to prosper 1 All the farmers in the Empire State should rise as one man, and in- sist that the science of keeping property, shall be taught in all their common schools. The same mental cultivation which will enable an honest tiller of the soil to double the products, and double the value of his better di- No. 85. j 57 reeled industry, will also qualify him to keep and enjoy a much larger portion of the nett proceeds of his labor. Your committee have been constrained to believe that much of the opposition to agricultural schools in this State, has arisen from the well grounded apprehension that if we place the farmers of New- York on a par with professional men, in point of attainments, they will cut off at the fountain the large fortunes which now flow into the hands of men who really produce less than they consume. These educated farmers will demand, it is feared, an equal share ol the honors that accrue to our executive, judicial and legislative offi- cers, and hence the light of science must be shut out from their un- derstandings. It is now twenty-six years since the friends of agricultural improve- ment first made a serious effort to establish an agricultural college in this State. Your committee have before them an essay published in this city, in 1819, of forty-two pages, advocating such an institution with unanswerable arguments. At a later period the lamented Judge Buel succeeded in procuring a naked charter for such a school ; but not a single dollar could be obtained to aid private enterprise in teaching the unerring laws of nature to the young men who are to pursue the modern art of trans- forming solid rocks into fertile soils, and these again into human food and raiment. Wise legislators conferred unlimited authority on a few Canal Com- missioners to expend indefinite millions in cutting and beautifying in- animate stone along the line of the enlarged canal ; but the law mak- ing power refused to grant one dollar to teach the science of rural economy to the sons and daughters of practical farmers. Within the last twenty-six years there has been taken from the public treasury about $200,000 to prepare the candidates f(U" legal honors to study successfully the science of law. We have also four well endowed medical colleges, now drawing from the public funds $5,500 a year, besides $200,000 before received. We have so long paid a large bounty on all branches of unproduc- tive industry that no young man, of any honorable ambition, will consent to toil, and sweat, and burn in the sun on a farm, for $10 a month, when as a clerk in a store, a bank, a broker's office, or as the student in a doctor's or lawyer's office, he can expect, in the course of twenty years, to command five dollars to one, and at one-fifth of the 58 [Senate severe bodily labor exacted of the practical agriculturist. But can all our ambitious young nien become professional gentlemen, without rendering these professional pursuits utterly valueless ? If learning and science are the great highways to honorable distinction and pub- lic favor, why deny these advantages to those that do more than all others to feed and clothe the whole community 1 It is true that science is the greatest leveler in the world ; but, un- like the leveling of ignorance and brute force, it ever levels upward. It takes the highest point of mental attainment already achieved for its standard ; and then wisely and humanely attempts to elevate all be- low up to that standard. , The object of this effort is to make the triumph of mind over matter universal and complete. All men, blessed with a common share of common sense, should have, in their every day business operations, the full benefit of the best lights of modern science. Science gives to the poor man unknown and ever increasing power over heat, light, elec- tricity, chemical attraction, air, water, and the solid substances which form the surface of the globe. All these elements are brought into requisition by nature, in chang- ing crude mineral matter into living, organized beings — into the cul- tivated plants and domestic animals, produced by the labor of the husbandman. To increase the knowledge of the producing classes does not detract, in the least, from the attainments of any class that may stand, or think they stand, above the common average of the com- munity in which they live. Why shall we refuse to do as much to make skillful and scientific farmers as we do to make skillful doctors and lawyers ? There are 11,000,000 acres under cultivation in this State, yielding an average product worth $7 per acre. Communicate to the half million of men who cultivate these lands a knowledge of the laws of nature which govern all the results of rural industry, and instead of exhausting the soil of its bread-forming elements at the rate of mil- lions a year, they will improve the land and harvest, at the same cost in labor, three dollars per acre more than they now do. This will add to the productive value of our agricultural industry $33,000,000 a year, and to the revenue of our canals more than one million of dol- lars. For a large portion of this will go to the cities on the sea board, and be paid for in goods to be returned through our canals to the con- No. 58.] 59 sumers. Thus the property dug from the earth will contribute a double toll to the State. Who cannot see that commerce, manufactures, and all other pur- suits in civilized society will be largely benefited by increasing the productiveness of rural labor 1 Hence, whatever we give to agricul- ture is truly given to all classes. By unwise cultivation we have all consumed much of the constituents of human food and clothing that a bountiful Providence spread over the virgin earth in the Empire State. Science now comes to our aid, and teaches us how to change a cold, compact subsoil, into a loose, friable and most productive surface soil. It reveals to us why it is that a good soil will produce 100 pounds of ripe wheat plants, and yet lose only 15 pounds of its weight and sub- stance by the operation, eighty-five pounds coming from the atmos- phere. In combustion, respiration, and by fermenting and rotting, an im- mense amount of organized matter is decomposed, and dissipated through the air. These gases are all soluble in water. Hence, all the carbonic acid expelled from the lungs of all animals, and the am- monia formed by decomposing organized substances, are dissolved in the rains, snows, and dews in the atmosphere, which fall to the earth, and pass into the roots and circulation of cultivated plants. The leaves also imbibe from the air a very considerable amount of vegeta- ble food. There are a thousand reasons why the laws of nature should be carefully studied, and as carefully obeyed by our whole rural popula- tion. It is by this means alone that they can largely increase the pro- ducts of their honest toil, and keep for the benefit of themselves, and their helpless offspring, those surplus earnings which now go to form the immense fortunes of capitalists. England and Wales have a mil- lion and a half of public paupers. Do we desire an equal ratio, as compared with our population ? If not, then some power must pro- tect the inalienable rights of labor and of humanity. To make a beginning in this great enterprise of universal education which aims to unite science with labor., your committee beg leave to introduce a bill, appropriating five thousand dollars a year, for three years, to the Fairfield Medical College, on condition that the institu- tion shall be connected with a model and experimental farm, for the purpose of teaching both the science and the practice of agriculture. 60 [Senate This college was chartered in 1811, and has peculiar and strong claims to the favorable consideration of the Legislature. It has about $15,000 invested in college buildings, which are worthless for any other than educational purposes. The experiment then, if any choose so to regard it, can be tried at this institution cheaper than to erect a new establishment. The trustees are eminently practical men, and will be under the strongest inducements to give success to the under- taking. The college has a library and chemical apparatus worth about $2,000, and many conveniences which will be valuable to an agricultural school. ANALYSIS OF SOILS AND THE DIFFERENCE IN THE SEVERAL PARTS APPROPRIATED BY DIFFERENT CROPS GROWN UPON THEM. BY WILLIS GAYLORD.* Ever since the revival of chemistry, and particularly since its im- portance in its application to agriculture became known, experiments have been making to determine the character of the soils, their pow- er of production, and thecauses of their varying fertility, by a chemi- cal examination of their constituents. That soils varied much in their adaptation to particular plants, was a fact perfectly obvious to all; for instance, that oats would succeed well on soils where wheat could not be grown, was a fact familiar to every farmer, and it was desirable to ascertain, if possible, the reasons of this non-adaptation, so far as it existed in the soil. It was found, also, that certain plants * This paper was one of the last productions of the late Willis Gaylord, and was found on his table immediately after his death, which occurred on the 27th of March, 1844, and was announced at a meeting of the friends of Agricul- ture, held in the State Agricultural Hall, by John P. Beekman, Esq., Presi- dent of the State Agricultural Society, in the following just and appropriate lan- guage : The President said that he had just received intelligence which would be heard with regret by every individual familiar with the agricultural movements of the times. The mail just arrived from the west announces the death of Willis Gaylord. The judgment of every intelligent farmer in the State will respond to the assertion that to no man whatever — excepting perhaps Judge Buel — is the agriculture of the State more indebted than to Mr. Gaylord. The character of Willis Gaylord was in all respects what might be expected from his writings — benevolent, enlightened, elevated — yet plain, practical, unas- suming. His character may well serve as a beacon-light, not only to farmers, but to men in all conditions of society. Without any advantages of| early education — debarred even, by physical infirmity, from many opportunities vyhich others enjoy for self-improvement — he conquered all obstacles by unflinching perseve- 62 [Senate of different species, wheat and clover for example, delighted in the same soil, and in their production could be serviceable to each other; and chemical analysis was resorted to in order to determine the cause of this affinity. There certainly appeared to be externally no good reason why this difference in the character or productive qualities of these soils should exist, and the separation or reducing them to their original elements promised much in the solution of these difficulties. Sir Humphrey Davy, whose discoveries in chemistry were so ex- tensive and brilliant, was one of the first who entered the field of agricultural chemistry, and in the importance and value of his labors can scarcely be said to have been exceeded by any of the numerous able men that have followed in the same course of investigation. New paths have indeed been struck out, new processes adopted, many errors corrected, many new and important results been obtained, and the sphere of agricultural chemistry astonishingly simplified as well as extended, yet the honor of being the pioneer in this direction of science, as well as one of the ablest that have labored in this field, be- longs to the English philosopher. Chaptal, in France ; Liebig and Sprengel, in Germany ; Johnston, in England ; and Dana, in this country, have all been successful investigators in this department of ranee in pursuit of knowledge. His acquirements as a man of science, evinced by his writings for literary and scientific journals, as well as for the " Cultivator," would reflect credit on many who enjoyed the advantages of a collegiate educa- tion. And those acquirements were of the progressive character — every day of his useful life being marked not merely by the exercise of his versatile talent on the multifarious objects embraced by agriculture and the domestic arts, but by advancing steadily in the acquisition of knowledge from the various departments in the wide range of science. It would be sufficient, indeed, to say of him, that, as senior editor of the " Cultivator," he had proved himself every way worthy as a successor of the lamented Buel. Like Buel, also, Gaylord was cut down in the maturity of his intellect — in the very field of his fame — cut off suddenly, too, as Buel was — precluding even inti- mate friends from the privilege of soothing his dying hours — so suddenly was death consequent on the commencement of the fatal disease. When the President concluded his remarks, of which the foregoing is a mere outline, the following preamble and resolutions were unanimously adopted : Whereas, This meeting of the friends of agricultural improvement have heard with deep regret of the recent and sudden death of Willis Gaylord, of Onondaga, senior editor of the " Cultivator," well known to the agricultural world for the versatility of his talent, as a writer on subjects essential to the interests of Agri- culture and the Domestic Arts : Be it therefore Resolved, That in testimony of respect for the memory of this distinguished friend of agriculture, this meeting do now adjourn ; and that cop- ies of these resolutions, signed by the officers ol this meeting, be enclosed to the bereaved family of the lamented dead, in testimony of our sympathy in their af- fliction. Resolved also, That these resolutions be published in the newspapers, as a mark of respect for the memory of the departed. No. 85. J 63 science, and Liebig and Johnston, by the extent and success of their interrogations of Nature, have given to agricultural chemistry almost the aspect of a new science. It was early found that the perfect analysis of soils, required a more thorough acquaintance with chemical processes, and a more exten- sive and costly laboratory, than could be generall}' expected, and that a multitude of the original elements of soils were present in such small quantities, or under such circumstances, as to show they could be scarcely essential to the success of the crops usually grown by the farmer ; and their total absence in some cases, or their presence in the smallest appreciable quantities, proved that such was the case. The more important original elements, however, those which the ana- lysis of the plants themselves, as well as of the soil producing them, proved to be essential to their perfection, was found in such quanti- ties, and so easily determined, as to render a general knowledge of the soil, — that knowledge so essential to the practical fafmer, — of com- paratively easy acquisition. The processes for ordinary analysis have accordingly within a few years been much simplified and improved, so as to be within the power of almost any one who chooses to un- dertake the task of investigating the character of the soils he culti- vates ; while the more delicate processes necessary for a refined and perfect analysis are left for the laboratory of the professed chemist. Cultivated soils are composed of certain earths, salts, and vegeta- ble matter, and as a general rule it may be stated that in the tempe- rate zones, and under ordinary circumstances, the earthy part of soils does not vary far from 90 to 96 per cent. The salts are of course in small yet active quantities ; and the vegetable matter ranges from half per cent., to 70 or 75. The essential earths, — those on which the pe- culiar qualities of all soils are based, — are sand, clay, and lime, or the * compounds formed of silex, alumina^ and calcium. There are other elements entering into combination with these, but it is on these, and the relative proportions they bear to each other in the soil, that their fertility is depending. Pure sand, clay, lime, or vegetable matter, will not produce healthy plants, or indeed in most cases, any vegeta- tion, however imperfect ; it is the mixture or combination of these that constitute a fertile soil, and analysis is the method by which the nature of these combinations, and the proportion of each element, is made known. 64 [Senate The mixture of these elements is usually purely mechanical, and always so with the silex and the lime ; but in- the clays, the sand and alumina is frequently chemically combined, or in such a state that mere agitation in water will not separate them. The purer kinds of pipe and plastic clay are of this nature ; indeed what is called pure clay, although composed of perhaps 60 per cent of silex and 40 of alumina, is of this character. Where sand and alumina is mechani- cally mixed, it becomes loam, the name and character of which is de- termined by the proportion of the several elements of sand, clay and lime it contains. Professor Johnston has in part classified the soils thus formed as follow^s : Pure^ or pipe day ; about 40 per cent of alumina, and 60 of silica. No sand subsides when agitated in w^ater. Strong^ or unctuous clay ; pure clay, with from 5 to 15 per cent of sand, which can be separated by boiling and settling. Clay loam contains from 15 to 30 percent of sand mechanically united, and which may be separated by washing. Loamy soils deposit from 30 to 60 per cent of sand by mechanical washing. Sandy soils contain no more than 10 per cent, of pure clay. Marly soils, are those in which the lime is more than 5, but does not exceed 20 per cent. Marls are sandy, loamy, or clay marls, as these several substances preponderate in the mass. Calcareous soils, are those in which the lime exceeds 20 per cent, and thus becomes a prominent constituent. Vegetable soils, are those in which the decomposed organic matter exists in pro- portion of from 5 to 10 per cent, as in garden mold, or from 60 to 75 per cent,?as in peat. It is also clear that these soils will be clayey, sandy, or loamy, as these several earths may predominate in the mix- ture. It sometimes happens that the surface soil, or the part usually cul- tivated, is unproductive, or perhaps entirely barren, from the too great predominance of one of the principal earths, while the subsoil may be of precisely the character wanted to give it the greatest ferti- lity. This occurs oftener on a sandy soil than any other, as on such soils there is a constant tendency to permit clay and vegetable matter to sink through the porous surface, to a more dense subsoil. , Thus there are many tracts of sandy soils so light as to be unfit for cultiva- tion, resting on subsoils that require only to be combined with the surface one, to give the proper combination for the highest degree of fertility. Such instances may be found in this country, and they will No. 85.] 65 become more common, as the time increases during which our soils have been under tillage. Sprengel, among the soils analyzed by him, gives instances of some wholly barren, but which contained in the surface soil from 27 to 38 per cent of vegetable matter. Analysis showed that while these lands contained from 70 to 95 per cent of silica, there was but 1 or 2 per cent of alumina, and a mere trace of lime, and thus the cause was shown at once why they were unproductive. On the contrary, the subsoil in these cases was rich in the earths and salts most wanted, and had it been raised and mixed with the surface soil, abounding as that did in humus or decayed organic matter, a soil of the most fertile description would have been the result. There is scarcely an instance of barrenness in soils, in which an analysis, such as may be made by any one, will not point out the evil, and thus lead to the best means of remedying it. For the purpose of determining the proportions of the principal earths and organic matter there is in a soil, we have found the fol- lowing course, which is the same in substance as that recommended by Prof. Johnston in his essays, for a rough analysis, to be sufficient- ly accurate, and more easily performed than any other. Nothing is required for its performance, but a set of common druggist's scales with grain weights ; a capsule of platina for burning the earth, (or a piece of sheet-iron, or even an iron spoon will do, where the platina is not at hand,) and a small quantity of muriatic acid, with a com- mon tumbler or two. Select the soil to be experimented upon, in such a manner that it may be a fair sample of that of which you wish to ascertain the constituents. By drying it in the air, making it fine, and passing some of it through a not very fine sieve, a quantity for examining is obtained. Take of the soil so provided 100 grains. Spread it in a thin lay- er on white paper and place it in an oven, the heat of which should be raised till the paper begins to be slightly discolored. An hour or two should be employed in this process. Take from the paper and weigh ; the loss will be the water driven off. Take 100 grains dried as above, and place them on a platina cap- sule, or some untinned clean iron, and heat the earth to dull redness over a spirit lamp or charcoal fire. Take from the iron, when cool, and weigh. This will show the amount of organic matter burned out, or the per cent in the soil. Take 100 grains of the dried soil, and mix it thoroughly with half [Senate, No. 85.] E 66 [Senate a pint of cold water. To this add a large tablespoonful, or half a wine glass of muriatic acid, and stir the mixture frequently. It may stand over night to settle ; pour off the liquid in the morning, and fill the vessel with water, to wash off the excess of acid. When the water is clear pour it off carefully, dry the soil and weigh it. The loss will show the per cent of lime in the soil, and although not rig- orously accurate, will be sufficiently so for all ordinary purposes. To determine the quantity of sand in the soil, and by its separation, the amount of clay also, it is better to take as much as 200 grains, and this should be from the undried mass. The 200 grains may be boiled in water, as that will incorporate the soil more fully with the fluid, and then poured into a glass, where the sand will soon subside to the bottom. When the clay begins to settle, the water must be turned off, and the sand collected and weighed. This will show the per cent of sand, and the remainder will be the clay, or nearly so. Sometimes the sand will contain considerable quantities of lime. When this is suspected to be the case, it may, after separation, be treated with muriatic acid, as directed above, and the remainder will be silicious sand alone. In determining the quantity of lime, the glass should not be filled, as where the effervesence is active on the addition of the muriatic acid, a part of the material may be lost, and the result be consequently erroneous. By the simple process we have here described, any farmer who chooses, may determine the general character of his farm, or any part of it. The more refined analysis for the detection of the salts, solu- ble and insoluble humus, &c., &c., must be left to the professed chem- ist ; and we may add here, that the results of the multitude of ana- lytical experiments conducted by Liebig, Sprengel, Burger, and oth- ers, go to show that it requires but a slight modification of the more minute and rare elements of the soil, or change in their proportions, to materially affect both the quality of the soil, and its productions. For instance, Sprengel analyzed two soils much resembling each oth- er, but one of them was remarkable for producing naturally the most beautiful crops of red clover, while on the other it could scarcely be made to grow at all. The analysis showed that the last was deficient in sulphuric acid and the chlorine of common salt. A dressing of gypsum and common salt removed these deficiencies, and gave the soil the same qualities as the other. A weak solution of sulphuric acid has proved sometimes of great service on grass lands. The above analysis explains its action. Combined with the lime in the soil, No. 85.] 67 gypsum was formed, a product, as every farmer knows, of the great- est utility. As instances of analysis designed to determine the class of soils, or common analysis, the following from Davy, Chaptal, and others, may be given : SOILS. Carbonate of lime. Clay, Sand, Organic matter. No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. No. 5. 28 30 30 4 3 29 14 21 52 51 32 56 42 36 42 11 • • 7 8 4 No. 6, 2 34 64 1 sa In these examples, No. 1 was a superior wheat soil, in Middlesex, England ; No. 2, a fertile soil in Sweden, but the proportion of or- ganic matter is omitted ; No, 3, is the composition of the alluvion of the Loire in France ; No. 4, good garden mold ; and No. 5, a fer- tile clay loam. No. 6, is a specimen of poor soil ; but it is proba- ble a more refined analysis, would have pointed other causes of ste- rility than those here indicated. As instances of thorough or refined analysis, we give a few in- stances, principally from Sprengel : SOILS. Quartz, sand and silicates,, Alumina, , Oxides of iron, Oxides of manganese, Lime, Magnesia, Potash and soda, Phosphoric acid, Sulphuric acid, Chlorine in common salt,., Humic acid, Insoluble humus, Organic matters containing nitrogen, Carbonic acid united to the lime, No. 1. 71.849 9.350 5.410 0.925 0.987 0.525 0.007 0.131 0.174 0.002 1.270 7.550 2. COO No. 2. 77.209 8.514 6.592 1.520 0.927 1.160 0.780 0.651 0.011 0.010 0.978 0.540 1.108 -No. 3. 87.143 5.666 2,220 0.360 0.564 0.312 0.145 0.060 0.027 0.026 1.304 1.072 1.011 0.080 No. 4. 86.200 2.000 2.900 0.100 4.160 0.520 0.035 0.020 0.021 0.010 0.544 3.370 0.120 In these examples, No. 1 was an alluvial soil long in pasture on the river Weser, and celebrated for its properties in fattening cattle. The quantity of potash and soda is small, the natural result of being 68 [Senate long in grass. Ashes, silicate of potash, &c. would increase the quan- tity of grass on this soil. No. 2 shows the composition of a soil in Moravia, celebrated for yielding large crops of grain for a long peri- od without manure. It has been cropped 160 years successively, without either manure or naked fallow. No. 3 is the analysis of a virgin soil from the banks of the Ohio. R has of course all the ele- ments of fertility. No. 4 is an analysis of a soil given by Spren- gel as an instance of those having natural sources of fertility, and therefore capable of producing good crops with applications of ma- nure at distant intervals. This soil is defective in the mineral salts, such as the potash and soda, the phosphoric and sulphuric acids, and the chlorine, yet lying as it does on the side of a hill containing lime- stone and marl, the waters percolating through or over these, and afterwards spreading over the field, supply it annually with an amount sufficient for a good crop. Instances in the central parts of this state may be pointed out, where similar causes produce the same result ; a kind of natural manuring of the most valuable kind. Chemical analysis, however, as applied to agriculture, must be considered as scarcely to have entered upon its office, when confined to the classification of soils, or determining the nature of their con- stituents. This was indeed once considered about all that could be necessary, and to this the attention of the early chemists was princi- pally directed. With the progress of the science, and the extension of inquiry, however, it was deemed proper not only to submit the soils themselves to analyses, but the produce of the soils. To detect and determine the gaseous matters entering into vegetation was not a difficult task, but more skill was required to determine the earthy materials that go to form plants, and of course must be taken from the soil in which they are grown. The importance of results so ob- tained, can be perceived at once ; for they furnished the means, taken in connection with an analysis of the soil, of determining the wants of plants, and what was required to supply them. In this investigation, the ashes of plants have furnished the basis of analysis. When the plants are dried and burned, the ashes are found not only to contain the mineral or earthy matters of the plant, but these materials are found, in different plants, to differ in their proportions very material- ly. This will in a great degree serve to show why some plants will succeed well, where others could scarcely exist, or would perhaps prove a total failure. In order not only to show what the earthy No. 85. J 69 constituents of plants are, but the proportions in which they exist in the most common cultivated plants, we shall show the result in a se- ries of tables prepared from Sprengel. The analysis of both the grain and the straw will be given, as it will be seen a knowledge and comparison of both will be requisite to a proper understanding of the subject. The quantity supposed to be operated upon is 1000 lbs. of each, and the amount of ashes, and its composition, from this quan- tity will be seen at a glance. The tables show how much each plant takes from the soil, and consequently their power of exhausting it of any one particular ingredient, and the quantity that should be added, to repair the loss. The absurdity of the idea, that soils cannot be exhausted, is also demonstrated most conclusively, since it is mani- festly impossible where the material is limited, to be constantly ta- king away without, in the end. producing exhaustion, and consequent sterility. Potash, Soda, Lime, Magnesia, Alumina, Oxide of iron, .... Oxide of manganese Silica, Sulphuric acid, .... Phosphoric acid, . . Chlorine, WHEAT. Grain. lbs. 2.25 2.40 0.96 0.90 0.26 4.00 0.50 0.40 0.10 BARLEY. Straw. Grain. lbs. 0.20 0.29 2.40 0.32 0.90 28.70 0.37 1.70 0.30 11.77 35.18 23.49 lbs. 2.78 2.90 1.06 1.80 0.25 a trace. 11.82 0.59 2.10 0.19 OATS. Straw. Grain. I lbs. 1.80 0.48 5.44 0.76 1.46 0.14 0.20 38.56 1.18 1.60 0.70 52.42 lbs. 1.50 1.32 0.86 0.67 0.14 0.40 19.76 0.35 0.70 0.10 Straw. -I. lbs. 8.70 0.02 1.52 0.22 0.06 0.02 0.02 45.88 0.79 0.12 0.05 RYE. Grain. lbs. 5.32 1.22 0.44 0.66 0.34 1.64 0.23 0.46 0.09 Straw. 25.80 57.40 10.40 27.93 lbs. 0.43 1.78 0.12 0.25 22.97 1.70 0.51 0.17 In the following table, embracing the filled pea, the common roots, and a few of the best hay plants, the proportions of the same mate- rials will be continued, and we think, will well repay the examina- tion of the farmer. Potash, Soda, Lime, Magnesia, Alumina, Oxide of iron, Oxide of manganese, Silica, Sulphuric acid, Phosphoric acid, Chlorine, FIELD PEA. Grain. Straw 8-10 4-10 0-53 1-90 0-33 2-35 27-30 3.32 0-GO 0-20 O-O' 9-96 3-37 2.40 0-04 TURNEPS. .1. Root. Tops 23.86 10.48 7.52 2-54 0-36 0-32 3- 8-01 3-67 2-39 32-3 22-2 62 5 0 1 Roots. POTATOES. Roots Tops 35-33 9-22 6-57 3-84 24.64f 49-71 63-03 180-9 66-19 12-8 25-2 9-8 8-7 39 33 60 37 70 14 ■70 40-28 23-34 3-31 3-24 0-60 0-32 0-84 5-40 4-01 1-60 Si K S2-83 Sl-9 0-9 129-7 17-0 0-4 0-2 49-9 4-2 19-7 5-0 8-81 3-94 7-34 0-90 0-31 308-4 27-72 3-53 0-25 0-06 52-86 19-95 5-29 27 -SO 3-33 0-14 3-61 4-47 6-57 3-62 31-05 5-79 23-48 3-05 1-90 0-63 14-73 3-53 5-OS 211 74-78 91-32 70 [Senate In this analysis, 1,000 pounds of the grain, or straw, was used ; the same quantity of dried hay, clover, &c. ; while of the roots, the cal- culation is for 10,000 pounds of each kind, as they are taken from the field. If we make this allowance, or take nine-tenths from the amount stated in the analysis of the roots, we shall perceive that they exhaust soils much less than any of the other plants named. Even this would not be a fair comparison, as the roots are in their green state, and therefore contain a very large per cent of water in 1,000 pounds, while the others are dry, and require no such deduc- tion. As they stand in the tables above, the plants named in them, would rank as exhausters of the soil as follows, the least exhausting named first : Turnep, potato, rye, wheat, hay or grass, carrot, peas, red clover, barley, oat, white clover. It must be admitted, however, that very much is depending on the state of the plant, so far as regards its maturity, as in most plants the earthy constituents vary much at different periods of their growth. Saussure found in plants of wheat in the same field, that one month before flowering, the ash was 8 per cent ; when in flower 5 .4, and when ripe 3.3 per cent ; and Mollerat found that the potash in the stalk or leaf of the potato diminishes rapidly as the plant approaches maturity. It is worthy of inquiry, however, whether this diminution does not, in part at least, arise from a portion of these earthy matters being ap- propriated to the growth and perfection of the seed or tubers. It is also true that the same variety of plant, on different soils, will con- tain more of any particular substance, as the soil happens to be fa- vorable, or otherwise, for the appropriation ; and not only the quan- tity of any given substance will vary, but the amount of ash, or the sum total of earthy substances, will differ essentially, according to the soil. Prof. Johnston examined specimens of oats grown on boggy peat land, and on sound stiff land, and found that while the quantity of ash was nearly the same in both specimens, the silica from the sound land was 3 .42 per cent, and from the boggy only 1 . 90. Grain grown on soils where the silica is deficient, generally has weak straw and lodges badly ; while a good supply of silica, gives a stiff sound straw, and secures in a greater degree the perfection of the seed. Wheat straw varies in a rem-arkable degree in the quantity of ash pro- duced, but as a general rule, the surer the soil for wheat, the greater the proportion given. Thus, Saussure, from 100 pounds of ripe wheat straw, obtained 4.3 pounds ash; Sprengel, 3.5; Bathier, No. 85.] 71 4.4 ; Sir H. Davy, 15.5; and in some experiments by Prof. John- ston, a variety of red wheat, grown on clay loam, gave 6.6 per cent, while two other specimens of red wheat, grown on a soil abounding in calcareous matter, left respectively 12.15, and 16.5 per cent of ash. For the purpose of comparison, we here place the analysis of that great American staple, Indian corn, as furnished for the New-Eng- land Farmer, Vol, 21, No. 36, by that excellent chemist. Dr. Dana, to whom the American farmer is so much indebted for his labors in the cause of agricultural science. Quantity as before, 1,000 pounds. Potash, 0.200 Soda, 0.250 Lime, 0 .035 Magnesia, 0 . 128 Alumina, 0.016 Oxide of iron, « Oxide of manganese, Silica, 0 .434 Sulphuric acid, 0 ,017 Phosphoric acid, 0 . 224 Chlorine, 0,008 In addition to this analysis, which, following in the steps of the earlier chemists, only furnishes the amount and kind of materials drawn from the earth, Dr. Dana furnishes another, founded on the principles of nutrition developed in the animal chemistry of Prof. Liebig; and, in its results, forms a striking confirmation of the opin- ions and views adopted by that distinguished man. Liebig, it is well known, divides the plant, or seed, mio flesh forming parts ^ gluten, albumen, &c. ; and fat forming parfs^ as gum, sugar, starch, woody fibre, oil, &c. Dr. Dana, by analysis, found that of the first named principles, or flesh forming, corn contained in 100 parts, 12 . 60 And of the fat producing principles, 77 .09 Water, 9.00 Salts, 1.31 Thus, analysis shows results perfectly corresponding with the ex- perience of the farmer; the fattening properties of corn, as every one knows, greatly preponderating over its power of promoting growth. 73 [Senatr The matters taken from the soil, and their several proportions hav- ing been ascertained, it seemed desirable to find the amount of eachy which a medium crop of each plant, subjected to analysis, would take from an acre ; or how far a course of crops, such as is most approv- ed, would exhaust the soil submitted to culture. In England, a fa- vorite course is furneps, barley, clover and rye grass, wheat, called the four years course ; and Prof. Johnston has given a table showing the quantity of each part of the constituents of plants lost by the earth during this course. He has also, in another place, shown what would be the exhaustion from a three year's course of fallow, wheat and oafs, as practiced in some parts of England, and in the table be- low we have given the details of the first, and the results of the last. Prof. Johnston estimates ^the crop of turneps at 25 tons, of hay at one ton, and wheat at 25 bushels. The oats in the three year's course he estimates at 50 bushels per acre. & a 3 S m OS g O • • o Co Potash, 145.5 64.3 45.8 15.5 2.2 23.6 49.0 22.4 14.5 10.1 6.9 15.0 5.4 3.9 113.6 4.0 7.9 1.9 73.5 21.1 79.5 9.5 1.1 70.0 18.0 15.6 8.] 3.9 4.4 8.7 2.5 3.1 92.0 1.8 5.6 1.1 233.0 96.6 149.0 32.9 10.3 299.2 72.8 51.5 25.6 40.35 Soda, . 7.07 Lime, 16.09 Masrnesia 5.00 Alumina 1.00 Silica. ...... ...... 314.00 Sulphuric acid, Phosphoric acid, .... Chlorine, 5.65 7.53 970.9 398.13 It will be observed, that in the first course a very large part of the whole total, which is not far from 1000 lbs., is taken away by the turnep crop. If it were required at the commencement of a four years' course to supply the various inorganic or earthy substances that will be taken from it, the following amounts, as calculated by Prof. John- ston, would be applied. Dry pearlash, 325 lbs. Carbonate of soda, 333 " Common salt, 43 " Quick lime, 150 « No. 85.J 73 Gypsum, 30 lbs. Epsom salts, 200 " Alum, 83 " Bone dust, c 210 " The importance of any particular earth or salt to the growth of plants, and the influence which even a minute quantity can exert, is perhaps best shown by the action of plaster on clover. According to Prof. Johnston, " half a grain of gypsum in a pound of soil, indicates the presence of nearly two cwt. in an acre, where the soil is a foot deep, — a quantity much greater than need be added to a soil in which gypsum is almost entirely wanting, in order to produce a remarkable luxuriance of the red clover crop. In 100 grains of this soil, this quantity of gypsum amounts to only seven thousandths of a grain (__'^_ or 0.007 grs.) — a proportion, which only a very carefully con- ducted analysis would be able to detect, and yet the detecting of which may alone be able to explain the unlike effects which are seen to fol- low the application of gypsum to different soils." Now every farmer is aware, that half the above quantity of gypsum, or 100 lbs. per acre, constitutes a sufficient dressing in most cases, and that a greater quan- tity on vegetables, or soils favorable to its action, would injure rather than benefit, by causing an overgrowth. We are aware of only two cases in which the addition of plaster appears to produce no effect ; one of these is where the soils are near the sea, and consequently ex- posed to the effects of a sea atmosphere ; and the other is, where the land is wholly or partially irrigated by surface waters holding in solu- tion considerable quantities of lime or its sulphates, and which will be more or less of it left as a deposit annually. All hard waters are of this class, though in some the proportion of gypsum is much greater than in that of others. We may remark here, that as a general rule, (and the exceptions are yet to be discovered,) whenever a substance is always present in soils, it is essential to the formation of plants, and they cannot suc- ceed without it. Lime furnishes an instance of this substance. No soil, moderately fertile, is found destitute of lime, and there is no plant in the ashes of which lime may not be detected, and which of course it must have derived from the earth. This we think determines the utility, or rather the necessity of the presence of lime in all cultivat- ed soils. Much has been written and said on the use of lime as an application to the soil, which might have been spared, had this law 74 [Senate of the distribution of inorganic matter been fully recognized. The quantity, however, required for the use of plants is not large. An analysis of three kinds of earth by Prof. Johnston, gave these results: marsh land, 0 . 02 ; salt marsh, 0 . 06 ; and rich pasture, 1.31. Even when in such minute quantities as in the first instance, the amount per acre will be comparatively large, when the quantity demanded by a crop is considered. Suppose this soil containing the least, to be only six inches in depth, and the cubic foot to weigh only 80 lbs., it would contain 3,500 lbs. of lime, or a ton and a half to each acre. By re- ference to a previous table, it will be seen that the four years course of cropping only required 150 lbs. of lime, or reduced the original quantity in the soil to that amount ; consequently this small per cent of lime w^ould be available for some 23 or 24 such courses of cropping, or v/ould last nearly 100 years. But this statement also proves that if the exhaustion of the lime is slow, it is certain, during continued cultivation, and must in some manner or form be restored, or fertility will eventually cease. That such exhaustion has already taken place to a considerable extent, in some of the oldest settled parts of our country, where lime was never abundant, and too little attention has been paid to manuring, can scarcely be doubted. In many instances deep plowing might remedy the evil, as experience proves that in such soils the subsoil usually contains far the greatest per cent of lime, a result to be expected from the fact that lime has always a tendency to sink in the soil — a tendency facilitated by culture. The remarks made respecting lime are applicable to any of the in- organic substances in soils, the exhaustion of which, and the time of restoring, may be seen in the tables already given. Thus when the alkalies, such as potash or soda, become deficient in soils, the silicates so indispensable to the formation of plants cannot be produced, and the grasses and grains, to the stems of which in a particular manner they are requisite, cannot be grown in perfection. Cultivation seems to show there is none of the inorganic materials sooner exhausted than potash, especially in soils that are sandy, and there is none of these materials more essential to the growth of many plants, or which is taken up more liberally, as the tables will show. It is for this reason that ashes produce such an excellent effect on most soils, especially when combined with vegetable matter. In closing this paper, it is only necessary to add that the object has been more to direct attention to an important part of agriculture, one No. 85.J 75 which has been too much overlooked, than to present anything novel, or which had not a direct practical bearing. In every branch of bu- siness, a knowledge of the materials used is justly deemed essential to success ; and surely such knowledge cannot well be dispensed with in the pursuits of agriculture, where the abundance of the matters used, and the multitude of their combinations, demand the united efforts of the most profound science and the most enlarged experi- ence. 01 FARM MANAGEMENT. PRIZE ESSAY — BY J. J. THOMAS. The great importance of performing in the best manner, the diffe- rent operations of agriculture, is obvious to every intelligent mind, for on this depends the success of farming. But a good performance of single operations merely, does not constitute the best farmer. The perfection of the art, consists not only in doing every thing well, in- dividually, but in a proper adjustment and systematic arrangement of all the parts, so that they shall be done, not only in the best man- ner and at the right time, but with the most effective and economi- cal expenditure of labor and money. Every thing must move on with clock-work regularity, without interference, even at the most busy seasons of the year. As this subject includes the whole routine of farming, in a collect- ed view, as well as in its separate details, a treatise upon it might be made to fill volumes ; but this being necessarily confined to a few pages, a general outline, with some remarks on its more essential parts, can only be given. Capital. — The first requisite in all undertakings of magnitude, is to " count the cost." The man who commences a building, which to finish would cost ten thousand dollars, with a capital of only five thousand, is as certainly ruined, as many farmers are, who, without counting the cost, commence on a scale to which their limited means are wholly inadequate. One of the greatest mistakes which young farmers make in this country, in their anxious wish for large posses- sions, is, not only in purchasing more land than they can pay for, but in the actual expenditure of all their means, without leaving any even to begin the great work of farming. Hence, the farm contin- ues for a long series of years poorly provided with stock, with im- plements, with manure, and with the necessary labor. From this No. 85.] 77 heavy drawback on the profits of his land, the farmer is kept long in debt ; the burthen of which not only disheartens him, but prevents that enterprise and energy which are essential to success. This is one fruitful reason why American agriculture is in many places in so low a state. A close observer, in traveling through the country, is thus enabled often to decide from the appearances of the buildings and premises of each occupant, whether he is in or out of debt. In England — where the enormous taxes of different kinds, impe- riously compel the cultivator to farm well, or not farm at all — the indispensable necessity of a heavy capital to begin with, is fully un- derstood. The man who merely rejits a farm there, must possess as much to stock it and commence operations, as the man who buys and pays for a farm of equal size in the best parts of western New- York. The result is, that he is enabled to do every thing in the best manner ; he is not compelled to bring his goods prematurely to market, to supply his pressing wants ; and by having ready money always at command, he can perform every operation at the very best season for product and economy, and make purchases, when necessary, at the most advantageous rate. The English farmer is thus able to pay an amount of tax, often more than the whole product of farms of equal extent in this country. The importance of possessing the means of doing every thing at exactly the right season, cannot be too highly appreciated. One or two illustrations may set this in a clearer light. Two farmers had each a crop of ruta-bagas, of an acre each. The first, by hoeing his crop early, while the weeds were only an inch high, accomplished the task with two days work, and the young plants then grew vigor- ously and yielded a heavy return. The second, being prevented by a deficiency of help, had to defer his hoeing one week, and then three days more, by rainy weather, making ten days in all. During this time, the weeds had sprung up six to ten inches high, so as to require, instead of two days, no less than six days to hoe them ; and so much was the growth of the crop checked at this early stage, that the owner had 150 bushels less on his acre, than the farmer who took time by the forelock. Another instance occurred with an intelligent farmer of this State, who raised two fields of oats on land of similar quality. One field was sown very early and well put in, and yield- ed a good profit. The other was delayed twelve days, and then hur- ried ; and although the crop was within two-thirds of the amount of 78 [Senate the formerj yet that difference was just the clear profit of the first crop ; so that with the latter, the amount yielded only paid the ex- penses. Admitting that the farm is already purchased and paid for, it be- comes an object to know what else is needed, and at what cost, before cultivation is commenced. If the buildings and fences are what they should be, which is not often the case, little immediate outlay will be needed for them. But if not, then an estimate must be made of the intended improvements and the necessary sum allotted for them. These being all in order, the following items, requiring an expenditure of capital, will be required on a good farm of 100 acres of improved land, that being not far from the size of a large majority in this State. The estimate will of course vary considera- bly with circumstances, prices, &c. 1. Live Stock. The amount will vary with the fertility and products of the land, its quality, and situation with regard to market. The follov/ing will approximate the average on good farms, taken at the spring of the year, or commencement of work. 3 horses, at $80, $240 1 yoke oxen, , , 75 8 Milch cows, at |15, 120 10 steers, heifers and calves, . , 70 20 pigs, at $3, 60 150 sheep, at $2, 300 Poultry, say 5 Total, $870 2. Implements. 2 plows, fitted for work, $23 00 1 small plow, do 6 00 1 cultivator, best kind, 7 00 ^ 1 drill barrow, 5 00 1 roller, 5 00 1 harrow, 10 00 1 fanning mill, 20 00 1 straw cutterj .... 15 00 1 root slicer, 8 00 No. 85.] 79 1 farm wagon, with hay rack, &c., $70 00 1 ox-cart, 50 00 1 horse-cart, , 45 00 1 double farm-harness, 30 00 1 horse-cart harness, 18 00 1 root-steamer, or boiler^ 20 00 1 shovel and one spade, " 2 50 3 steel-plate hoes, 2 25 2 dung forks, 2 25 3 hay forks, 3 00 2 hand rakes, 0 25 1 revolving horse-rake, 8 00 2 grain cradles, 8 00 2 scythes, 4 00 1 wheelbarrow, 4 00 1 pointed shovel, 1 25 1 grain shovel, or scoop-shovel, 1 25 1 pick, 1 50 1 mall and wedges, 2 50 2 axes, 4 00 1 hammer, 0 50 1 wood-saw, 1 50 1 turnep-hook, 0 75 1 hay-knife, 3 00 2 apple-ladders, (for gathering,) 150 2 large baskets, 1 25 2 hand baskets, 0 50 1 tape-line, (for laying off land,) 2 00 2 sheep-shears, 2 00 1 grindstone, 3 00 1 steelyard, large, and one small, 2 00 1 stable-lantern, 0 50 1 currycomb, one brush, 0 75 1 half-bushel measure, 1 00 20 grain bags, 8 00 1 ox-chain, 3 00 1 crowbar, , 2 00 1 sled and fixtures, 30 00 Total, $437 00 80 [Senate Other articles might be included, as subsoil plow, sowing ma- chine, &c. A thrashing machine is not named, as it is better to em- ploy itinerant thrashers, and save capital. To the preceding amount ought to be added one tenth the expense of fencing the farm, as fen- ces need renewing at least once in ten years. Every farmer should also be supplied with a small set of» carpenter's tools, which would cost about twelve dollars, for repairing implements in rainy weather, and other useful purposes. This set should include saw, hammer, augers, planes, adz, mallet, chisels, square, breast-bits, &c., and by the convenience and economy afforded, would soon repay their cost. 3. Leeds. 2h bushels clover seed, for 10 acres, $15 00 2 " corn, " 6 " 1 00 30 " potatoes, " 2 " 7 00 3 lbs. ruta baga seed, " 1 " 150 2 " field beet " " h " 100 2 " carrot " " i " 1 00 30 bushels seed wheat "20 " 30 00 10 " oats, " 5 " 2 50 10 " barley, " 5 " 4 00 Total, $63 00 4. Sabor. Supposing the owner to labor with his own hands, as every owner should, so far as is consistent with a general superintendence of all parts, which would probably amount to one-half the time, — he would need besides through the season two men and one boy, and in the win- ter one man j during haying and harvest he would require two addi- tional hands. The men, boarding themselves, could be had for fif- teen dollars per month in summer, and twelve in winter ; if boarded, the cost of their meals would make up the deficiency in wages to the same amount. The expenditure needed then, would be, 2 hired men 8 months, 15 per month, $240 00 1 " boy " 6 " 48 00 Day labor in harvest, 32 00 Total, $320 00 No. 85.] 81 5. Maintenance of Animals. Cattle and sheep would need hay till fresh pasture, and horses hay, and also a good supply of oats till after harvest. All would be bene- fited by a liberal feeding of roots, including swine. The amount of all these supplies needed, would be about 7 tons of hay, |42 00 200 bushels of oats, 50 00 400 " " roots, .50 00 $142 00 RECAPITULATION. Livestock, $870 00 Implements, 437 00 Seeds, 63 00 Labor, 320 00 Maintenance of Animals, 142 00 $1,832 00 — the amount of capital needed the first year, in stocking and con- ducting satisfactorily the operations of one hundred acres of impro- ved land, several items being doubtless omitted. If this is a larger sum than the young farmer can command, let him purchase only fifty acres, and reserve the rest of the purchase money which would be needed for the 100 acres, to commence with on the smaller farm ; and he will scarcely fail to make more, than on a larger, with every part subjected to an imperfect hurrying, and irregular management. He may calculate perhaps on the returns of his crops in autumn, at least to pay his hands. But he must re- member that the first year of farming is attended with many expen- ses which do not usually occur afterwards ; which his crops may not repay, besides supporting his family and paying his mechanics' and merchant's bills. The first year must always be regarded with un- certainty ; and it is better to come out at the end, on a moderately gized farm, well tilled, and in fine order, with money in pocket, than on a larger one, in debt ; and hired hands, a class of men not be disappointed and who ought not to be, waiting for their pay. There are a far greater number of farmers embarrassed and crippled by placing their estimates of expenses too low, than of those who swing clear and float freely by a full previous counting of cost. [Senate, No. 85.] F 82 [Senate Size of Farms. After what has just been said, the cultivator will perceive in part the advantages of moderately sized farms for men in moderate circumstances. The great disadvantage of a superficial, skimming culture, is obvious with a moment's attention. Take the corn crop as an illustration. There are a great many farmers to my certain knowledge, whose yearly product per acre does not exceed an average of twenty-five bushels. There are other farmers whom I also well know, who obtain generally not less than sixty bushels per acre, and often eighty to ninety-five. Now observe the difference in the profits of each. The first gets 250 bushels from ten acres. In doing this, he has to plow ten acres, harrow ten acres, mark out ten acres, find seed for ten acres, plant, cultivate, hoe, and cut up ten acres, be- sides paying the interest on ten acres, worth from three to five hun- dred dollars. The other farmer gets 250 bushels from four acres at the farthest j and he only plows, plants, cultivates, and hoes, to obtain the same amount, four acres, which from their fine tilth and freedom from grass and weeds, is much easier done, even for an equal surface. The same reasoning applies throughout the farm. Be sure then, to cultivate no more than can be done inthebestmanner,whether it be ten, fifty, or five hundred acres. A friend who owned a four hundred acre farm, told me that he made less than his next neighbor, who had only seventy-five. Let the man who applies a certain amount of labor every year to his farm, reduce its dimensions until that labor accomplishes every thing in the very best manner. He will doubtless find that the amount of land will thus become much smaller than he supposed, more so than most would be willing to reduce it ; but on the other hand, the nett proceeds from it will augment to a greater degree than perhaps could possibly be believed. But let me not be misunderstood. Large farms are by no means to be objected to, provided the owner has capital enough to cultivate every part as well as some of our best small ones are cultivated. As an example of what may be obtained from a small piece of land, the following products of fifty acres are given, and are not more than I have known repeatedly to be taken from good land by several tho- rough farmers : , 10 acres wheat, 35 bushels per acre, at $1 .00, $350 5 " corn, 90 " " .40, 180 2 " potatoes, 300 " " .20, 120 1 « rutabagas, 800 " « .10, 80 Carried forward. $730 No. 85.] 83 Brought forward, ., $730 6 acres wint. apples,250 bushels per acre, at $0.25, 375 6 " hay, 2i tons, at 6.00, 90 10 " pasture, worth GO 6 " barley, 40 bushels per acre, at .40, 80 5 " oats, 50 " " .20 50 Total products of fifty acres of very fine land, $1,385 This aggregate yield is not greater than that obtained by some who might be named from a similar quantity of land. Good land could be brought to that state of fertility very easily at a total cost of one hundred dollars per acre, and then it would be incomparably cheaper than many large poor farms at nothing ; for while the fifty acres could be tilled for three hundred and eighty-five dollars, leaving one thou- sand dollars nett profits, large poor farms hardly pay the work spent upon them. One proprietor of such a farm declared — " It takes me and my hired man all summer at hard work to get enough to pay him only." Laying out Farms. — This department is very much neglected. The proper disposition of the different fields, for the sake of economy in fencing, for convenience of access, and for a full command of pas- ture and protection of crops at all times, has received comparatively little attention from our agricultural writers and from farmers. Many suppose that this business is very quickly disposed of; that a very few minutes, or hours at most, will enable a man to plan the arrangement of his fields about right. But this is a great error. Even when a farm is of the simplest form, on a flat uniform piece of ground, many things are to be borne in mind in laying it out. In the first place, we all know that the fencing of a moderately sized farm costs many hundred dollars. It is very desirable to do it well, and use at the same time as little material as possible. To do this, much will depend on the shape of the fields. A certain length of fence will en- close more land in the form of a square, than in any other practicable shape. Hence fields should approach this form as nearly as possible. Again, the disposition of lanes is a matter of consequence, so as to avoid unnecessary length and fencing, and occupy the least quantity of ground. But these rules may be materially affected by other considerations. For instance, it is very 'desirable that land of similar quality may be in the same enclosure. Some may be naturally too wet for any thing 84 [Senate but meadow or pasture ; some may be much lighter^ and susceptible of plowing, while others are not ; some may be naturally sterile, and need unusual manuring, with green crops. All these should, as far as practicable, be included each in its own separate boundary. The situation of surface-drains, forming the boundaries of fields, may influ- ence their shape ; facilities for irrigation may have an essential bear- ing j convenience for watering cattle is not to be forgotten. Where, in addition to all these considerations, the land is hilly, still more care and thought is required in the subdivision, which may possibly require years of experience ; but where fixed fences are once made, it is hard to remove them; hence a previous thorough examination should be made. A farm road, much used for heavy loads, should be made hard and firm, and cannot be easily altered ; it should consequently be exactly in the right place, and be dry, level and short — the shape of adjoin- ing fields even conforming to these requisitions ; but a road little used, should not interfere with the outlines of fields. c -^ \ a?(w «-^5»Li'a ~J5 S^V) V a ra ui- o= «< ^CDC> g9 Oc>c^ A ^C»^ t5.^g^eO .^i^. No. 85. 1 85 A specimen of laying out a farm is given in the preceding plan. It is of the very simplest kind, or aright-angled parallelogram, on nearly level land — a form that often occurs. It lies on one side of a public road, which is lined with forest trees. The middle enclosure on the road contains the dwelling, the barn, and other out-buildings. It is planted with trees for shade, ornament, and domestic enjoyment — not set " all in a row," but in the graceful or picturesque style which dis- tinguishes a beautiful natural landscape. On one side are the fruit, kitchen, and flower gardens — the lot containing them being oblong, to separate certain portions of the fruit garden for pigs — the sovereign remedy for the curculio ; the orchard may occupy the lot adjoining. The remainder of the farm is divided into fields nearly square, each being entered from the lane by a good gate. These fields may be in- creased or lessened in size without altering the position of the lane. They should always be sufficiently numerous to admit a good rotation, and to separate at all times the pasture from the tillage land. In laying out a farm with a very uneven surface, or irregular shape, it would be best to draw, first, a plan adapted to smooth ground, as the one just given ; and then vary the size and shape of the fields, the distance of the lane from the center, its straightness, &c., accord- ing to the circumstances of the case. Fences. — The kind of fence used, and the material for its construc- tion, must depend on circumstances and localities. A good fence is always to be preferred to an imperfect one ; though it cost more, it will more than save that cost, and three times the amount in vexa- tion besides, by keeping cattle, colts, and pigs, out of fields of grain. A thriving farmer, whose whole land, except a small part with stone wall, is enclosed by common rail fence, with upright cedar stakes and connecting caps at the top, finds that it needs renewing once in six years. He accordingly divides his whole amount of fences into six parts, one of which is built new every year. All is thus kept systematically in good repair. Stone walls, if set a foot below the surface to prevent tumbling by frost, are the most durable fence. Hedges have not been sufficiently tried. The English hawthorn is not well adapted to our hotter and drier climate ; and though some- times doing well for a time, is not to be depended on. The Buck- thorn in New-England, and the Newcastle and Washington thorns in Pennsylvania and Delaware, have succeeded finely. Gates. — Every field on the farm should be entered by a good self' 86 I Senate Shutting and self-fastening gate. A proper inclination in hanging will secure the former requisite, and a good latch, properly constructed, the latter. Each field should be numbered, and the number painted on the gate-post. Let the farmer who has hars instead of gates, make a trial of their comparative convenience, by taking them out and replacing them without stopping, as often as he does in one year on his farm, say about six hundred times, and he cannot fail to be satisfied which is cheapest for use. Buildings. — These should be as near the center of the farm as other considerations will admit. All the hay, grain, and straw, being conveyed from the fields to the barn, and most of it back again in manure, the distance of drawing should be as short as possible. This will, also, save much traveling of men and of cattle to and from the different parts of the farm. The buildings should not, however, be too remote from the public road ; and a good, dry, healthy spot should be cho- sen. The dwelling should be comfortable but not large — or it should, rather, be adapted to the extent of the lands. A large, costly house, with small farm and other buildings, is a bad indication of manage- ment. The censure of the old Roman should be avoided, who, hav- ing a small piece of land, built his house so large that he had less oc- casion to plow than to sweep. The barn and out-buildings should be of ample extent. The barn should have space for hay, grain, and straw. It is a matter of great convenience to have the straw for littering stables, housed, and close at hand, and not out of doors, under a foot of snow. There should be plenty of stables and sheds for all domestic animals. This provi- sion will not only save one-third of the fodder, but stock will thrive much better. Cows will give much more milk — sheep will yield more and better wool — and all will pass through the winter more safely. The wood-house near, or attached to, the dwelling, should never be forgotten, so long as comfort in building fires, and economy in the use of fuel, are of any importance. A small, cheap, moveable horse-power, should belong to every es- tablishment, to be used in churning, sawing wood, driving washing machine, turning grindstone, cutting straw and slicing roots. There should be a large root cellar under the barn, into which the cart may be dumped from the outside. One great objection to the No. 85.] 87 culture of ruta-bagas and beets, in this country, — the difficulty of win- ter keeping, — would then vanish. Both barn and house cellars should be well coated on the bottom and sides, with w^ater-lime-mortar ; which is a "very cheap and effectu- al way to exclude both water and rats. Choice of Implements. — Of those which are much used, the very best only should be procured. This will be attended with a gain ev- ery way. The work will be easier done, and it will be better done. A laborer, who by the use of a good hoe for one month, can do one quarter more each day, saves, in the whole time, an entire week's labor. Choice of Animals. — The best of all kinds should be selected, even if costing something more than others. Not ''^ fancy'''' animals, but those good for use and profit. Cows should be productive of milk, and of a form adapted for beef ; oxen, hardy, and fast-working ; sheep, kept fine by never selling the best ; swine, not the largest merely, but those fattening best on least food. A Berkshire, at 200 pounds, fattened on 10 bushels corn, is better than a " land-pike" of 300 fattened on 50 bushels. Having now taken some notice of the necessary items for com- mencing farming, it remains to glance a little at SOILS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. Soils are of various kinds, as heavy and light, wet and dry, fertile and sterile. They all require different management, in a greater or less degree. Heavy soils are often stronger and more productive than light ; but they require more labor for pulverization and tillage. They cannot be plowed when very wet, nor so well when very dry. Although containing greater or less portions of clay, they may be distinguished, as a class, from lighter soils, by the cloddy surface the fields present after plowing in dry weather ; by their cracking in drouth j and by their adhesiveness after rains. Sandy and gravelly lomas, also contain clay, but in smaller quan- tity ; so that they do not present the cloddiness and adhesiveness of heavy soils. Though possessing generally less strength than clay soils, they are far more easily tilled, and may be worked without dif- ficulty in wet weather ; they do not crack nor bake in drouths. In- 88 [Senate dian corn, ruta-bagas, and some other crops, succeed best upon them. Sandy soils are very easily tilled, but are generally not strong enough. When made rich, they are fine for some succulent crops. Peaty soils are generally light and free, containing large quantities of decayed vegetable matter. They are made by draining low and swampy grounds. They are fine for Indian corn, broom corn, barley, potatoes, and turneps. They are great absorbers, and great radiators of heat ; hence they become warm in sunshine, and cold on clear nights. For this reason, they are peculiarly liable to frosts. Crops planted upon them must, consequently, be put in late — after spring frosts are over. Corn should be of early varieties, that it may not only be planted late, but ripen early. Each of these kinds of soil may be variously improved. Most of heavy soils are much improved by draining ; open drains to carry off the surface water, and covered drains, that which settles beneath. An acquaintance covered a low, wet, clayey field with a net-work of un- derdrains, and from a production of almost nothing but grass, it yield- ed the first year forty bushels of wheat per acre — enough to pay the expense ; and admitted of much easier tillage afterwards. Heavy soils are also made lighter and freer by manuring ; by plowing under coatings of straw, rotten chips, and swamp muck ; and in some rare cases, by carting on sand — though this is usually too expensive for practice. Subsoil plowing is very beneficial, both in wet seasons and in drouth ; the deep, loose bed of earth it makes, receiving the wa- ter in heavy rains, and throwing it off to the soil above, when needed. But a frequent repetition of the operation is needed, as the subsoil gradually settles again. Sandy soils are improved by manuring, by the application of lime, and by frequently turning in green crops. Leached ashes have been found highly beneficial in many places. Where the subsoil is clayey, which is often the case, and especially if marly clay — great advan- tage is derived from shoveling it up and spreading it on the surface. A neighbor had twenty bushels of wheat per acre on land thus treat- ed, while the rest of the field yielded only five. Manures. — These are first among the first of requisites in success- ful farm management. They are the strong moving power in agri- cultural operations. They are as the great steam engine which drives the vessel onward. Good and clean cultivation is, indeed, all-impor- No. 85.] 89 tant ; but it will avail little without a fertile soil ; and this fertility must be created, or kept up, by a copious application of manures. For these contribute directly, or assist indirectly, to the supply of nearly all the nourishment which plants receive ; it is these, which, produced chiefly from the decay of dead vegetable and animal matter, combine most powerfully to give new life and vigor ; and thus the apparently putrid mass, is the very material which is converted into the most beautiful forms of nature ; and plants and brilliant flowers spring up from the decay of old forms, and thus a continued succes- sion of destruction and renovation is carried on through an unlimited series of ages. Manures possess different degrees of power, partly from their inhc'^ rent richness, and partly from the rapidity with which they throw off their fertilizing ingredients, in assisting the growth of plants. These are given off" by solution in water, and in the form of gas ; the one as liquid manure, which, running down, is absorbed by the fine roots ; and the other as air, escaping mostly into the atmosphere, and lost. The great art, then, of saving and manufacturing manure, consists in retaining and applying to the best advantage, these soluble and gaseous portions. Probably more than one-half of all the materials which exist in the country, are lost, totally lost, by not attending to the drainage of stables and farm yards. This could be retained by a copious application of straw ; by littering with sawdust, where saw- mills are near ; and more especially by the frequent coating of yards and stables with dried peat and swamp muck, of which many parts of our State furnish inexhaustible supplies. I say dried peat or muck, because if it is already saturated with water, of which it will often take in five-sixths of its own weight, it cannot absorb the liquid portions of the manure. But if it will absorb five-sixths in water, it will, when dried, absorb five-sixths in liquid manure, and both together form a very enriching material. The practice of many farmers, shows how little they are aware of the hundreds they are every year losing by suff'ering this most valuable of their farm products to escape. In- deed, there are not a few who carefully, and very ingeniously as they suppose, place their barns and cattle yards in such a manner on the sides of hills, that all the drainage from them may pass off" out of the way into the neighboring streams ; and some one mentions a farmer, who, with pre-eminent shrewdness, built his hog pen directly across a stream, that he might at once get the cleanings washed away, and pre- 90 , [Senate vent their accumulation. He of course succeeded in his wish ; but he might, with almost equal propriety, have built his granary across the stream, so as to shovel the wheat into the water when it increased on his hands. The loss of manure by the escape of gas is often very great. The proof of this was finely exhibited by Humphrey Davy, in an experi- ment, performed by filling a large retort from a heap of fermenting manure, placing the beak among the roots of some grass. Nothing but vapor left the vessel, yet in a few days the grass exhibited greater luxuriance round the beak of the retort than any of the surrounding portions. Hence the superiority of unfermented manure — the rich portions are not yet lost. And hence, too, the importance of prevent- ing this loss by an immediate application and plowing into the soil, and also by mixing it in composts with muck, peat, swamp mud, and even common earth in a dry state, — and of preventing its escape from stables and yards, by a daily strewing with dried peat, lime, or plaster. The superiority of unfermented manure has just been mentioned, which is by many doubted. But the very facts on which these doubts rest, only prove its efficacy. For, say they, " I have always found fresh manure to be attended with little effect the first year, while it yet remains fresh ; but afterwards, when fermentation and decay had taken place, the benefit was great and striking." But here is the proof at hand, that not until the rich, soluble and gaseous parts had well penetrated and been absorbed by the soil, was their powerful and invigorating influence exerted upon the growing plants. Fresh manure is generally in a state not readily mixed with s«ils ; it is thrown into large lumps over the surface, some of which are plowed in and others not, but none of them prove of immediate use to the crops. But on the other hand, fermented manure, from its ready pulverization, ad- mits of an easy admixture. Let fresh manure be thoroughly ground down and worked into the soil by repeated harrowings, and two or three plowings, and its influence will be like magic. Swamp muck has often been spoken of as manure. But those who expect great and striking results from its application, will be disap- pointed, as the writer has been. Even with ashes, it is much less powerful than stable manure, not only because it possesses less inhe- rent richness, but because it has less soluble parts, and consequently imparts its strength more slowly to growing plants. But this quality No. 85.] 91 only makes it the more enduring. By decoction in water, vegetable mold loses a small portion of its weight by solution ; but if the re- maining insoluble portion is exposed to air and moisture a few months, another part may be again dissolved. Thus, peat, muck and all de- cayed vegetable fibre, becomes a slow but lasting source of nourish- ment to plants. But it is, when shoveled out and dried, to be mixed with farm- yard manure, as a recipient for its evanescent parts, that peat or muck becomes pre-eminently valuable. Some parts of the State abound with inexhaustible supplies in almost every neighborhood ; many land owners have from twenty to a hundred thousand cubic yards on their farms, lying untouched, while half starved crops are growing in the adjacent fields. There are whole counties so well supplied with it, that if judiciously applied, it would doubtless double their aggregate products. All neat farming, all profitable farming, and all satisfactory farm- ing, must be attended with a careful saving of manures. The people of Flanders have long been distinguished for the neatness and excel- lence of their farms, which they have studied to make like gardens. The care with which they collect all refuse materials which may be converted into manure and increase their composts, is one of the chief reasons of the cleanliness of their towns and residences. And were this subject fully appreciated and attended with a corresponding practice generally, it would doubtless soon increase by millions the agricultural products of the State. But there is another subject of scarcely less magnitude. This is a systematic Rotation or Crops. — If manuring is the steam engine which propels the vessel, rotation is the rudder which guides it in its pro- gress. Unlike manuring, rotation does not increase the labor of cul- ture ; it only directs the labor in the most effective manner, by the exercise of judgment and thought. The limits of this paper do not admit of many remarks on the principles of rotation. The following courses, however, have been found among some of the best adapted to our State : — 1. — 1st year. Corn and roots well manured ; 2d year. Wheat, sown with clover seed, 15 lbs. per acre ; 3d year. Clover, one or more years, according to fertility and amount of manure at hand. 92 [Senate 2. — 1st year. Corn and roots, with all the manure ; 2d year. Barley and peas ; 3d year. Wheat, sown with clover ; 4th year. Clover, one or more years. 3. — 1st year. Corn and roots, with all the manure ; 2d year. Barley ; 3d year. Wheat, sown with clover ; 4th year. Pasture ; 5th year. Meadow j 6th year. Fallow ; 7th year. Wheat ; 8th year. Oats, sown with clover; 9th year. Pasture, or meadow. The number of fields must correspond w^ith the number of the changes in each course ; the first needing three fields to carry it out, the se- cond four, the third nine. As each field contains a crop each, in the several successive stages of the course, the whole number of fields collectively comprise the entire series of crops every year. Thus in the last above given, there are two fields of wheat growing at once, three of meadow and pasture, one of corn and roots, one of barley, one of oats, and one in summer fallow. Operations in the order of Time. — The vital consequence of doing every thing at the right season, is known to every good farmer. To prevent confusion and embarrassment, and keep all things clearly and plainly before the farmer at the right time, he should have a small book to carry in his pocket, having every item of work for each week, or each half month, laid down before his eyes. This can be done to the best advantage to suit every particular locality and dif- ference of climate, by marking each successive w^eek in the season at the top of its respective page. Then as each operation severally occurs, let him place it under its proper heading ; or, if out of season, let him place it back at the right time. Any proposed improvements can be noted down on the right page. Interesting experiments are often suggested in the course of reading or observation, but forgotten when the time comes to try them. By recording them in such a book under the right week, they are brought at once before the mind. Such an arrangement as this will prevent a great deal of the confu- sion and vexation too often attendant on multifarious cares, and assist very essentially in conducting all the farm work with clock-work regularity and satisfaction. No. 85. J 93 In reviewing the various items which are most immediately essen- tial to good farm management, some of the most obvious will be — capital enough to buy the farm and to stock it well ; to select a size compatible with these requisites ; to lay it out in the best manner ; to provide it well with fences, gates, and buildings ; to select the best animals and the best implements to be had reasonably ; to bring the soil into good condition, by draining, manuring, and good culture ; to have every part under a good rotation of crops ; and every operation arranged, so as all to be conducted systematically, without clashing and confusion. An attention to all these points would place agricul- ture on a very different footing from its present condition in many places and with most farmers. The business then, instead of being repulsive, as it so frequently is, to our young men, would be attend- ed with real enjoyment and pleasure. But in all improvements, in all enterprises, the great truth must not be forgotten, that success is not to be expected without diligence and industry. We must sow in spring, and cultivate well in summer, if we would reap an abundant harvest in autumn. When we see young farmers commence in life without a strict attention to business, which they neglect for mere pleasure, well may we in imagination see future crops lost by careless tillage — broken fences, unhinged gates, and fields filled with weeds — tools destroyed by heedlessness, property wasted by recklessness, and disorder and confusion trium- phant ; and unpaid debts, duns, and executions, already hanging over the premises. But, on the other hand, to see cheerful-faced, ready- handed industry, directed by reason and intelligence, and order, energy, and economy, guiding the operations of the farm — with smooth, clean fields, and neat trim fences — rich, verdant pastures, and fine cattle en- joying them, and broad waving meadows and golden harvests, and waste and extravagance driven into exile, we need not fear the suc- cess of such a farmer — debts cannot stare him in the face, nor duns enter his threshold. It is such enterprise as this, that must place our country on a sub- stantial basis. Agriculture in a highly improved state, must be the means, which next to the righteousness which truly exalts a nation, will contribute to its enduring prosperity. All trades and commerce depend on this great art as their foundation. The cultivation of the soil and of plants was the earliest occupation of man ; it has in all 94 [Senate ages been his chief means of subsistence ; it still continues to furnish employment to the great majority of the human race. It is truly the great art of peace, as during wars and commotions it has languished and declined, but risen again in strength and vigor when men have lived at peace with each other — it has then flourished and spread, converted the wilderness into life and beauty, and refreshed and adorned nature with embellished culture. For its calm and tranquil pleasures — for its peaceful and healthful labors — away from the fret- ful and feverish life of crowded cities, — " in the free air and beneath the bright sun of heaven," — many, who have spent the morning and noon of their lives in the anxious cares of commercial life, have long sighed as a scene of peace and quietude for the evening of their days. JEFFERSON COUNTY REPORT ON FARMS. The following remarks are from the report of E. Kirby, Esq., chairman of the committee on farms, to the Jefferson county Agri- cultural Society : If they have seen much to approve and admire, so, also, have they seen much, far too much, of slovenly, wasteful husbandry, which lead- eth not to wealth or comfort. They have seen fertile fields disfigur- ed by hedge rows of briers and thistles and other noxious weeds. They have seen the same thing, in many places, along the road sides, in utter defiance of the law of the land, as well as of the common law of self-preservation, for it is vain to expect exemption from dam- age to our crops from these pests, if we allow their seed beds to flourish in such close proximity to them. They have seen barn-yards encumbered with masses of manure, wasting under the influence of summer rains and summer heat, which should have been applied to the spring crops, or summer fallows. They have seen at one place, leached ashes in great quantity, applied to the novel purpose of road making, the owner, from the appearance of the neighboring fields, obviously in blissful ignorance that these same leached ashes are charged with highly fertilizing properties, and that they have a me- chanical as well as chemical action upon the soil most beneficial. This want of appreciation of leached ashes as a fertilizer is much too common, for the committee found numerous heaps of this valuable manure on the sites of old asheries, which have lain for years without being applied to the purposes of agriculture. They have seen poor crops, poor cattle, bad plowing, fences in a condition to invite even orderly cattle to trespass, and farm houses and barns in a state of di- lapidation not creditable to Jefferson County farmers. These are some of the blemishes which it has pained the commit- No. 85.J 95 tee to observe, but they are happy to say that they form the excep- tion and not the rule, and serve to show in bolder relief, the well fenced and well tilled fields, where no noxious weed is suffered to grow, clean fallows, commodious barns, filled to overflowing with the luxuriant crops of the season, convenient sheds and yards, good stock and other agreeable objects which they found in every part of the county. * * * The farm to which the committee award the first premium, contains 141 acres, 111 of which are cleared and improved — cleared and im- proved too, by the hands of their present worthy owner, who has oc- cupied the premises twenty-five years. He entered the forest in the vigor of youth, holding by contract, his only property, his axe — by persevering industry he has changed his contract to a deed in fee sim- ple— his log cabin to a substantial stone house — his rude shelter for his cattle, constructed of crotches and poles, for commodious barns and sheds ; he enjoys the luxury of good fruit and of an excellent vegetable garden, ornamented with flowers and shrubbery — his out- buildings are a model of neatness and convenience — his piggery com- bines the advantages of a cellar for storing vegetables and a steamer for cooking them, water and pasture range. His fences are of posts and boards, and of cedar rails, well staked, dividing the farm into fields of about 12 acres each, the whole under excellent cultivation and free from weeds. This fair domain has by the labor of its own- er's hands, been rescued from the wilderness state, and added to the national wealth. In describing it and him, we but describe a class. Thousands among us, like him, have cut and plowed their road to competence, and like him, live to enjoy the fruits of their labor in peace and happiness. The farm which takes the second premium is owned and occupied by another pioneer settler, who entered the forest seventeen years ago, his axe even purchased on credit, and by the same process has attain- ed the same results. His farm contains 211 acres of land, ISO acres of which are cleared and improved. His large well finished and fur- nished frame house, three large barns, a well arranged piggery, poul- try-house and yard — a cow stable with 32 admirably arranged stalls — nine hundred rods of cedar rail fence, with upright stakes and caps — a superior garden, fields in excellent condition and under high culti- vation, attest the energy with which he has applied himself to the task of improvement. Well merited success has crowned his ef- forts and left him, apparently, little to desire in the way of worldly comfort. Still another pioneer is the successful competitor for the third pre- mium. He owns 300 acres of land, 220 of which are under cultiva- tion. A stone house, large barns, an orchard of 500 thrifty apple trees, a fine garden, well stocked with choice fruit, and one mile of stone wall are some of the fruits of his labors. The same energy which has produced these results, would, if circumscribed to a smaller space, have left little to choose between this and the farms which take the first and second premiums. 96 [Senate MONROE COUNTY REPORT ON FARMS. Extracts from the Report of L. B. Langworthy, chairman of the Committee on Farms, to Monroe County Agricultural Society: Let a farm consisting of any number of acres, not too large — say, for example, one hundred acres of arable land, independent of wood lands, orchard, and garden — be in the first place well fenced, if with rails, well staked and ridered ; or what is better, with corner stakes and yokes, the yokes placed at two or three rails from the top, in which case the stakes need not be set in the earth ; or what is better still, where there is a sufficiency of stones, let the fences be made with them, and it can hardly be conceived, by those unacquainted with the process, how small and inferior an article will make a good and last- ing fence, merely by the plentiful use of cedar, pine, or chestnut sticks laid in crossways with the stone, always reserving a sufficient quan- tity of stone to cope the wall, and form a cap, to cover and retain the whole line. Divide the whole into such sized fields as shall comport with the size of the farm, and in such a manner as will allow it always to be nearly equally divided into a three-course rotation. The fences to be clear from weeds, brambles, and shrubs, and of a sufficient height to protect against all depredation : for there is no better opi- ate to induce good nature, and calm an uninterrupted sleep at night, than good strong and high fences. If there are any low or springy lands, let them be thoroughly open or under-drained — under-draining is by far the most convenient, safe, and economical. The barns should be large, with an under-ground basement, if pos- sible ; sheds and stables, large and roomy enough to house every hoof on the farm ; barn-yards not too large, with water handy ; a piggery, with boiling apparatus ; and proper protection and fixtures for the sheep ; with a well-built, snug, and convenient house ; an industrious wife, not too handsome ; a kitchen and flower garden ; a well chosen fruitery and orchard — and that is what this committe would consider a pretty smart chance of a beginning. Now, we would propose that there should be a flock of sheep, of a hardy ^ Jine-wooled variety if for the fleece, or of a large-framed, long-wooled variety if for the carcase; as an indispensable requisite to commence with, not only as to profit from themselves, but as an important element in wheat husbandry. A greater profit will be realized from the sale of the wool and carcase than is lost to the farm by the food they consume, as their manure is the perfection of food for the wheat plant, and, from its intimate divi- sion and distribution, it is in a better state to feed the young plant than any other, except, perhaps, the artificial compounds. The true wheat farmer should have no more cows, oxen, or horses than are necessary to carry on the farm, and subsist the family — and those of the very best breeds. It must be very bad economy to be obliged always to keep half the farm in pasture and meadow, merely for the sake of keeping a great herd of cows ; coupled with the privi- lege of foddering 20 or more tons of hay, and making a few pounds No. 85.] 97 of butter, to sell at eight cents per pound, the marketing of which costs more than its produce. We would premise, that a farm, when it is right, should not have one square foot but what is arable, and capable of producing any crop put upon it ; and as nearly as convenient, always to have one-third in wheat, one-third or more in clover and grass, and one-third or less in summer crops. Now let us explain the modus operandi : It is now spring — one-third in wheat, properly seeded ; one-third or more in meadow and pasture ; and such portion of the other third as shall be convenient fall-plowed, for summer crops, which is to be devoted to oats, corn, potatoes, bagas, wurtzel, carrots, &c. — on which is to be expended the fresh barn-yard manure made the winter previous, or so much as is needed, and the balance composted, for dressing the summer fallow. All of the oat, corn, and potatoe ground, or so much as the season wall admit, should be sown with wheat, after the crops come off; if any lays over, it may be sown the next spring with peas or barley, and followed with wheat. The manure which was applied to the summer crops, is now in the best possible state for producing wheat, having lost its fermentative quality, and, by rotting, plowing, and working, has become tho- roughly divided and mixed with the soil, and is in a better state to promote the production of the wheat berry than in any other shape that it can be applied. So much of the summer crop and enough of the grass in pasture to make about one-third of the arable land, comes into wheat each year. This course of cropping gives but a small portion of mowing land, after providing pasturage for the sheep and neat stock ; yet, with the judicious use of the root crops, and the straw from the w^heat and oats, a very small quantity of hay need be used before the first of April, and yet the whole farm stock be kept in as good order as those to which is fed a ton and a half per head; by which course a great amount of land is relieved, for the grand desid- eratum of the wheat crop. The meadows and part of the pasture of this year, become the fal- low of the next ; and this year's stubble, properly seeded, becomes the meadow and pasture of the succeeding season. This course your committee consider the best, safest, and most profitable, taking into consideration the importance of keeping the soil in good heart and productiveness, and in a state of improvement, rather than impoverishing it. Yet there are some good and judicious farmers who, occasionally, where a field throws heavy to straw, fol- low with two or more crops of wheat alternately ; when clover suc- ceeds well, and the ground is free from weeds and foul grasses, we have known this course to succeed well, even with once plowing, but it is a course, generally speaking, more to be deprecated than praised. Another course is pursued, by some of our best farmers, who pre- fer to let all the manured summer-crop land lie over to the next sea- son, and take off a crop of barley or peas, and follow with wheat. The committee incline to the opinion, that this course must nearly or quite exhaust and neutralize all the virtue of the previous year's ma- nuring, and have a tendency to keep the land in a situation notimprov- [Senate, No. 85. J G 98 [Senate ed for the wheat crop, if not losing in its qualifications to produce, for any length of time, a certain and profitable return. Another course, pursued by equally judicious farmers, is to take a four-year course rotation, by allowing all the seeded ground to lie. two full years in clover. The first year it is mowed and pastured, and the second year it is mowed or pastured till about the first of June, then plastered, and at the proper time cut for clover seed; the year after, mowed or pastured till the first week in June, when it is turned under for the summer fallow, for wheat. This course, on large farms, with a heavy stock of cattle and sheep, (as it allows more hay andpasture than the three-year course,) is a very successful method ; and even for those of a medium size, may suit w^ell for some particular soils ; and perhaps in those cases where the management for saving and increasing the manure is not skillfully and judiciously performed, this is a safe course, if one-quarter of the arable land gives a sufficient quantity of acres in wheat: Jhe three-year course in three divisions — Field A. 1S4 1 in wheat seeded. 1842 in meadow, pasture and summer crops. 1843-4 in wheat. The four-year course in four divisions — Feild A. 1840 in wheat seeded. 1841 in meadow and pasture. 1842 in meadow, clover-seed and summer crops. 1843-4 again in wheat. But whatever course an enterprising and thinking farmer may pur- sue, if he has a system and plan of proceeding, and pursues it con- stantly, he will soon come to a result as to what process is best adapt- ed to his soil. Without regularity, system, and a code of rules and reasons, no course will succeed, nor any valuable result be reached. It is said, that bad habits regularly followed, are not so pernicious to the human system as an irregular and mixed course of life ; and the remark is peculiarly applicable to the arts of husbandry. We say — system I system ! system ! and follow it, good or bad, and conviction must follow, by comparison with others pursuing a different course. The committee can conceive of no better system of farming than that of 100 acres of arable land, (or double or treble that amount, if you please,) of which one-third, say 33 acres, is put into wheat, pro- ducing from 800 to 1,000 bushels; with 100 to 150 fine-wooled sheep, producing from 300 to 500 pounds of wool, worth from 40 to 50 cents per pound ; and the balance of the land in grass and sum- mer crops, every item of which should be consumed on the farm, to subsist the family, hired help, and farm stocks, and perhaps, to help to pay mechanics ; all the offal, hay, straw and roots, going to in- crease the manure heap, which, with a plentiful use of plaster and clover, will more than compensate for the wheat and wool subtracted from the soil, and sold. The committee, in awarding their premiums, have selected those No. 85.] 99 who, in the words of their instructions, came the nearest to their standard of excellence — " reference being had to the general system of management^ and the profit obtained^ rather than to natural ad- vantages or expensive improvements.^^ Elisha Harmon, of Wheatland, to whom was awarded the first premium, cultivated a farm of 400 acres, 306 of which are improv- ed ; has been settled 40 years ; the soil a sandy loam, inclining to gravel, abundantly filled with a limestone shale ; on a part of which are beds of plaster, which are opened, and manufactured for use and sale, averaging 1,000 tons per year. This tract was originally an oak opening, with gentle undulations, and is, altogether, a splendid wheat farm. The dwelling-house, barns and out-hOuses are of a su- perior construction and finish. He has this year over 92 acres of wheat yielding over 2,000 bushels — has raised an average of 50 bush- els of clover-seed for the last 18 years — usually alternates his crops, by wheat one year and clover two years, but has one field that has produced wheat every other year for 15 years past, without any deterioration of the land. Plowing commences, for the summer fal- lowing, on the first week in June and second week in September, using his sheep and the wheat cultivator intermediately between the plowings — sows from the r2th to the 20th of September, 5 pecks to the acre, of pure White Flint. His stock consists of 400 sheep and 106 lambs, Saxon and Merino. His clip of wool this year was 1,600 lbs., which sold in market for 40 cents ; 7 cows, 12 horses and colts, and 30 hogs, a part of them fine Leicesters : and what particularly commended itself to this committee was, over four miles of stone fence. His summer crops were 8 or 10 acres of corn and oats each, root crops, potatoes, &c. Taken altogether, in system, management and productiveness, this farm took the precedence of all those who entered for competition. First premium : $10 and vol. Transac- tions. William Garbutt, of Wheatland, to whom the committee award the credit of being the only farmer accountant that they visited, who kept his accounts of profit and loss on every crop on his farm, and the produce and cost per acre, and the general result for some 20 years past. For a description of his farm, and his system of farm- ing, they propose to let him tell his own story. To the Viewing Committee of the Monroe Agricultural Society. Gentlemen — I was sorry that you did not take more time, when you were making your agricultural tour, so as to ascertain what each farmer was doing, and why he did it ; for each one ought to know the reason for performing each and every operation in which he is en- gaged. I consider the having a viewing committee one of the best plans that can be adopted for the improvement of agriculture ; and if it could be effected without awarding premiums, I think it would be preferable : for it is much to be regretted, that the great anxiety which prevails, either for the profit or honor of the premium, causes very great dissatisfaction among the non-successful competitors. lOQ [Senate I herewith send a statement of the expenses and proceeds of my farm for a few years ; but it must be borne in mind^ that the profits of a farm cannot be uniform, owing to many causes independent of the market and the productiveness of the soil ; including these, it is very fluctuating. The frequent failure of the clover seed to germinate, is a great in- convenience, and frequently compels us to sow on ground not in con- dition to produce a bountiful crop. The expense of making and re- pairing fences is not yearly uniform, and on grain farms the amount of stock sent annually to market is very various ; nor can the ex- pense of team and tools be accurately calculated for each year. But the greatest irregularity arises from the ups and downs of the market, and the non-market value for coarse grains, and the minor products of the soil. Previous to 1812, we here could not be said to have a market value for our produce ; from 1812 to 1817 inclu- sive, prices for every thing were extravagant ; from 1818 to 1822, the depression was great, there being no market value for any of the farm productions ; from 1822 to 1829, crops were tolerably good, prices middling — farmers were industrious and economical, made mo- ney, became rich and independent ; from 1830 to 1840, crops were heavy, prices extravagant, and farmers got into debt — (the wheat crop of 1836 and 1837 was light, but the price was enormous;) from 1840 to 1843, crops of wheat were light, price small, and farm stock, coarse grains, and the minor products of little or no value ; which brought ruin on many who expected that capital and labor, judiciously employed in agriculture, would be profitable. But to my own business. My farm consists of 200 acres of clear- ed ground ; but the mill pond overflows 10 acres, which is of little value except for pasture in autumn and dry seasons, and 6 acres are occupied with roads and yards ; which leaves 184 for cultivation. I generally calculate, when circumstances will admit, to have 45 acres in wheat, 15 in barley and oats, 15 in hoed crops, 40 in pasture, 40 for hay and clover-seed, and 30 in fallow. The ground intended for the hoed crop is always in clover, if practicable, highly manured with rotted manure, and plowed under in the fall. The barley stubble is twice plowed, receives a light dressing of manure, and is sowed with wheat ; so that about two-fifths of my wheat crop are raised after summer crops, the remainder after fallow (viz : clover pasture ;) the whole of the wheat always seeded with clover and timothy. I annu- ally sow from 10 to 12 tons of plaster, and the two seasons past have put 4 tons, each year, on my manure in the yards. My general av- erage stock has been 300 sheep, 30 hogs, 15 head of cattle and 8 horses ; keep three good teams, a span of mares for breeding, and odds-and-ends. I stable or yard all my stock in winter, and make all my forage into manure. I keep the stock in the yards in the spring as long as I conveniently can, seldom turning sheep out before the 1st of May, cattle the 10th, and team not until spring work is done. My first pasture is my fallow ; second, clover, which is intended for hay and seed. No. 85.] 101 The cattle are wintered on cornstalks, straw, and roots ; sheep on chaff, straw, and shorts, of which I feed annually from 1,000 to 2,000 bushels. I always endeavor to feed as well as I can, with the fodder I have — not to pamper nor waste. The amount sold from the products of the farm, from 1830 to 1840, was great, averaging from $2,200 to $3,200 per annum, independent of our farm living — it being only the amount sold. The expenses during the same period, including every expense belonging to the farm excepting those of my own and Mrs. G.'s labor, of which we make no account, was from $1,200 to $1,600 per annum. The crop of 1840 amounted to $1,818.76; expenses, $1,296.15— 1841, $1,- 802.44 ; expenses $1 ,244.28—1842, $1,578.02, expenses $1,204— 1843, $1,639.63; expenses $1,219.10. I can give all particulars relative to these amounts, but this communication is already too long. The plaster and mill-feed increases the amount both in the expenses and income. Owing to the failure of my clover, I have the present season more acres in wheat, more in fallow, less in hoed crops, less in grass, and fewer sheep than usual — viz., 57 acres in wheat, 43 in fallow, 10 in barley, 10 in hoed crops, of which 2 are in potatoes, 3 roots, and 5 corn ; and 8 in oats. Stock, 10 horses, 26 cattle, 24 hogs, 190 old sheep, and 60 lambs. Present season, 4 men by the year from the middle of July ; one more for the season ; 3 one month in hay and harvest, and one by the day through wheat cutting. And I would further state, that the great difference in my wheat crop per acre, in the various years, was more owing to the seasons than to the cultivation, or the condition of the land to produce a crop. The crops of 1833-4-5 were very heavy, yet the ground was not in any better condition than it was in 1836, and 1837, when the crops were light ; and the same may be said of 1841 and 1842. The crop of 1842 was the lightest I ever had, being only 19 bushels per acre, owing to the rust j for if it had not rusted, it would have been 30 bushels per acre. The present season all my crops are more abundant than they were the three years previous ; and my expenses rather less, having fewer laborers employed. Yours most respectfully, WILLIAM GARBUTT. ONEIDA COUNTY, The report from Oneida County gives the following, from E. Comstock, of the Committee on Farms : The next farm visited, was that of Richard Barnes, of Vernon. Mr. Barnes is an intelligent Englishman, who has been in this coun- try but about three years, but he brought with him a good knowledge 102 ' [Senatk of practical farming, and has shown what skill and hard labor together, can accomplish. Number of acres under cultivation is about fifty. Soil a gravelly loam and pretty uniform throughout, except a small piece of swampy muck soil, containing perhaps half an acre. Land is sufficiently level for cultivation, and altogether a nice and valuable farm. The farm has been in possession of Mr. Barnes since two years ago last spring. In regard to rotation of crops, the owner says, "My usual practice is to summer fallow and sow wheat ; after wheat, peas ; then barley, and seed down. This year no summer fallow is sown, the wheat crop to follow peas. Do not plant much corn. This year planted corn on sward and pea ground. I have one span of horses, and one yearling colt, three cows, one two year old heifer, one calf, all of native breed, twenty-one Saxony sheep, and four Berkshire hogs. About 100 loads of manure are annually made on the farm, and fifty loads have bees purchased, since I came into possession of it." Thus far we have quoted from Mr. B.'s statement, and here we cannot refrain from expressing our satisfaction at the admirable practice of Mr. Barnes in the manage- ment of manures. A considerable portion is applied in the spring and the remainder is carefully collected and made into a compost heap, covered with earth, to prevent loss from fermentation, evaporation^ &c. In these days of general neglect in this department of agricul- ture, it is really gratifying to find one farmer who so far studies his own interests, as to give proper attention to the preparation and ap- plication of manures. Mr. B. again says, " Fall plowing is much practiced on this farm, and with good effect. Usual depth of furrow, seven inches, although I sometimes plow ten or eleven inches deep, and consider deep plow- ing decidedly best. Farm was in rather bad condition when I pur- chased it." ' The crops this year are as follows : Wheat, Ik acres. Barley, 10 " Oats, 3 " Peas, 6| " ^ Tares, i " Corn, 2 " Potatoes, 1 " Carrots and Ruta Bagas, I " Meadow, 11 " The remainder of the farm in pasture. The crops all look well^ except grass, which we find light on nearly all the farms in that sec- tion of the county. Indeed, we have seldom found a farm which was better managed in all respects, whether we consider the judicious arrangement of the fields, and rotation of crops, or the more im- portant subject of manures and the superior cultivation of the soil. We found on this farm, (if our memory serves us right, for we made no memorandum of this at the time,) some twelve varieties of peas, all kept separate and distinct, and s6me of the varieties we had never before seen. The buildings are new and not expensive, but perfectly No. 85.] 103 neat and well arranged. We must not omit to notice the garden, which we found in much better condition than on any other farm which we visited. One hundred and fifty rods of under drain, and fifty or sixty of open drain have been made, which has greatly im- proved the farm. Your committee will here say that they, in common they have no doubt, with every good friend of agriculture, would gladly welcome thousands of such foreigners as Mr. Barnes to our country, and learn from them the improved modes of husbandry. OSWEGO COUNTY. The following extracts are from the Farm Report made to Oswe- go County Agricultural Society: Your committee first visited the farm of John Becker, which is sit- uated in the town of Parish, and contains 150 acres, the whole of which is improved land, divided into suitable fields, with houses, barns and out-buildings, in good condition and mostly new. This farm was, most of it, originally a hard stony farm, and its former owner in speaking of the good qualities of his farm, said, " he could build a stone wall on somie parts of it without being to the trouble of draw- ing any stone." We found the farm at the present time in a good condition, and well fenced with 1,002 rods of good stone wall, most- ly whole wall, and 50 rods of board fence ; the remainder of the fen- ces good rail fence. Mr. Becker also has on his farm J 60 rods of blind ditch, and 225 rods of open ditch. In the management of his farm, Mr. Becker has adopted the system of rotation of crops. The division of the farm this year, with the quantity of crops, is as follows : 10 acres of wheat, yielding 185 bushels; 5 acres of corn, averaging 35 bushels per acre ; 18 i acres of oats, averaging 40 bush- els per acre; 1^ acres of buckwheat; 5 acres of potatoes, and 10 acres of fallow, which are sown to wheat; 45 acres of meadow, av-' eraging 1 1 tons of hay per acre, and 55 acres of pasture on which was kept 20 cows, 21 head of young cattle, 4 horses, 1 yoke of ox- en and 21 hogs, besides 10 cows taken in to pasture for others. The farm of Mr. Becker exhibits the untiring industry of its own- er, and the result is converting what may with propriety be called a hard farm.) into a productive one. The committe next called on Arvin Rice, of Hannibal, and exam- ined his farm, situated east of Hannibalville, on the Oswego road. This farm contains 185 acres, 150 acres of which are improved, the remainder woodland, enclosed by good rail fences. The whole farm is divided into suitable fields with 350 rods of good stone wall, 200 rods of board fence, the remainder of the fence on the farm is good rail fence. The improved land was divided, as follows : the present year 50 acres in grain and root crops, 30 acres of meadow and 70 acres of 104 [Senate pasture, on which were kept 21 cows, 15 young cattle, 5 horses, 28 sheep, 32 hogs, besides 7 cows taken in to pasture for others. Mr. Rice's farm is under a good state of cultivation, and the fields perfectly clear of bushes and briers ; he remarked at the outset that he would carry all that there was on the farm, at once in his arms, which we are satisfied could very easily have been performed. The houses, barns, sheds and other buildings on the farm are in good condition and sufficient for all uses, and from the manner in which Mr. Rice carries on his farming operations, it would seem that he is not afraid that the profits of his farm will not pay for an outlay of extra capital in improving the soil and fence. ROTATION OF CROPS, -'J ADAPTED TO THE CLIMATE AND SOILS OF NEW-YORK. PRIZE ESSAY — BY J. J. THOMAS. Little attention, in comparison with its real value, has yet been . given in this country to a good system of rotation of farm crops. This is the more to be regretted as a large share of its resulting benefits are to be derived, not from additional labor or increased expenditure, but from a mere exercise of thought and judgment, in arranging and adopt- ing a proper system, to prevent a needless waste of the riches of the soil. While other parts of farming — as manuring, for instance — may be equally important, rotation possesses the peculiar advantage of consisting merely in the direction and guidance of the exerted force of the farm. Manuring is the great prime mover ; rotation the guide of this moving force. The former may be compared to the engine which propels the vessel ; the latter to the rudder which directs all this exerted power to a beneficial end. The practice of all ages has been teaching a lesson, which, though we may have been slow to read, has forced itself irresistibly upon us. This is, that exclusive husbandry, except in rare cases, is eminently unprofitable ; that a farm wholly and perpetually devoted to raising wheat, or to raising grass, or any other single crop, can never be at- tended with profit. The various departments of agriculture must be mixed. Domestic animals must be raised for the production of ma- nure ; hay and grass, grain and roots, for their food ; straw as a sponge to hold the otherwise wasting manure they yield. Thus the one be- comes an increased means for the other — cattle and other animals, by manuring and enriching the soil, increase the amount of the crops ; and this increase in crops again supports an increased number of ani- mals, and a mutual augmentation is thus the consequence. Manure is applied to cultivated crops only j but alternation soon brings these enriched portions into grass for pasture, and the full benefit of the improvement is thus obtained. But the continued cultivation of the same land with similar crops. I 106 [Senate .not only loses this mutual aid, but is in itself attended with a constant exhaustion and running down of the soil. As an almost universal rule, a crop of wheat, a crop of oats, or a crop of corn, raised year after year on the same piece of ground, yields less each successive year, till little or nothing is finally produced. Hence the practice of dividing the farm into permanent meadows, permanent pastures, and permanently cultivated fields, is highly detrimental. The soil, as a consequence, deteriorates in every part ; meadows run out, and moss and weeds come in — the soil not only becoming less productive, but often so compact from want of stirring, as to yield but little ; the til- lage grounds, by continued cropping, wear down till they fail to pro- duce the materials for making manure ; and even the pastures often become gradually filled with bushes and weeds. A few very rare and apparent exceptions, exist in case of some soils of extraordinary fer- tility, or naturally wet ground yielding grass, or grass land annually enriched by the process d'f flooding, or manuring by irrigation. A want of the knowledge of this fact, and of a corresponding prac- tice, has been the means of a loss of millions, not only in the eastern continent, but in our own country. The same process which has re- duced to sterility many of the once fertile portions of Europe, has di- minished the products, and in some cases totally unfitted for the growth of some crops, many parts of the United States. Even in western New-York, so eminent for its fertility, the diminished or else uncer- tain crop of wheat in many districts, tells too plainly to be mistaken, the barrenness which is hastening upon us, unless a new system is adopted more generally. It was this practice, which Buel correctly asserted " had impoverished, and is still impoverishing the soil of our Atlantic border, and which is already causing indications of prema- ture exhaustion and poverty in some portions of the New West." Farmers are sometimes driven, as they suppose, in cases of neces- sity, to crop hard to raise money to pay their debts. But in thus en- deavoring to get a little increased interest on their capital, they are making a tremendous draft on the principal. A little additional in- formation— a little planning and proper arrangement — would preserve the fertility of the land, and the crops would soon be increased more than by hundreds of dollars worth of labor without. Where experi- ments have been made with different courses of crops — some of them bringing very often into the course wheat, and other such cash produ- cing but soil exhausting crops ; and others bringing in such crops at I No. 85. J 107 greater intervals — the increased richness of the land in the latter cases has been attended with the greatest profit at the end. Forty bushels of wheat from an acre once in four years, is far better than twenty bushels once in two years ; for then three years of intervening crops in the former, instead of two only in the latter case, are afforded for other crops, which are much heavier besides. Hence those of the same kind, occurring at remote intervals, prove most profitable, even though for some of the intervening crops there may be little demand in mar- ket. Take, as example, the results of a bad and of a good course, which on many soils, would not be far different from the following ; 1. A hard-cropping course — 1 acre. 1st year, wheat, 20 bushels, $20 2d do do 10 do 10 3d do oats, 25 do 6 4th do wheat, 8 do 8 $44 The land diminished in value. 2. A better rotation — 1 acre. 1st year, wheat, 20 bushels, $20 2d do clover & grass, 1 J tons, 12 3d do do 1^ tons, 12 4th do corn, 40 bushels, 15 $59 The land not diminished in value. A rotation proper for one country, or for one district, may be en- tirely unfitted to another. It must be particularly adapted to the re- gion where it is employed, so as to suit the climate, soil, and market; and be so arranged as to distribute the labor of the farm as equally as possible throughout the season. As these must ever vary more or less according to circumstances, some judgment and discretion is always to be used by the farmer in so arranging the rotation as at the same time to afford the best means of enriching the farm, and of affording the most profitable returns. To facilitate this, the leading principles upon which all rotations are founded, should be well understood. 1. Or)e of the most important of these principles, is — every plant.} during growth^ exhausts the soil on which it grows. Plants derive a part of their support from the soil, through the roots, and a part from the atmosphere, through their leaves j hence the soil continues 108 [Senate to decrease in fertility, provided each successive growth of plants is removed. But if suffered to remain on the soil, in most cases they enrich it, especially if buried beneath the surface before decay has dissipated their fertilizing parts. A continual turning-under of green crops perpetually increases fertility, for all which the plants abstract- ed from the soil itself, with all they received from the air superadded, is given to it again. But in most of the operations of the farm, the crop is removed ; hence the necessity of making a return in the form of manure, to prevent an increase of sterility. 2. Another principle is, that plantSj at different periods of their growth, exhaust the soil unequally. As a general rule, during their early growth, and while in a green state, they impoverish the soil but slightly ; but during the ripening of their seeds, they make a heavy draught upon it. Hence, pasture, which is consumed on the ground jn a green state, injures the soil much less than grass cut for hay, after the seeds become fully ripe. Flax, though usually a severe crop, is far less so when removed while in a green and growing state. A striking illustration is also given in case of the turnep, which, though one of the heaviest crops in weight and bulk, produces but slight injury to the soil ; but when it remains on the ground the second year, and ripens its seeds, it has a powerfully exhausting in- fluence. 3. Different plants do not exhaust in the same manner, nor in equal degree. Some imbibe from the earth much larger portions of certain ingredients than others. Thus, red clover requires a considerable quantity of sulphate of lime or gypsum, which is found largely in its stems by chemical analysis, and which consequently greatly benefits it, when deficient in soil, by application as manure. Grain crops, on the other hand, usually require a liarge supply of silicates, while the nettle and the sun-flower are benefited by nitrate of potash or nitre. Hence, a continual succession of the same crop may soon deprive the soil of certain parts essential to its growth, and languish for the supply, while other succeeding crops requiring different food, may flourish luxuriantly. Different plants, too, may feed from different depths of the same Boil. Some of the grasses occupy only a few inches of the surface j while red clover and lucerne are known, sometimes, to send down roots to the depth of three feet, or more. Hence, after some may cease to obtain nourishment from the surface, others may obtain supplies from a greater depth. But this consideration is of compara- No. 85.] 109 tively minor importance in arranging a rotation, as most plants throw down roots as far as cultivation extends. As a general rule, broad leaved plants derive, comparatively, less from the soil and more from the air, than narrow leaved plants ; hence, when buried as manure, they restore most to the soil. 4. Some plants favor the growth of certain weeds more than others. Cockle and chess flourish with wheat, alyssum with flax, and most sown grain crops are attended with an increase of grasses. These weeds multiply greatly where a single crop is raised on the same lands for many years successively ; but rotation prevents this evil, and thwarts their increase. The same remarks will apply, in some degree, to cer- tain destructive insects, as, for instance, the grub and the wire worm. 5. Some plants admit of a heavier application of manure than oth- ers.— Such are generally broad leaved succulent plants, as beets, turneps, and corn ; and, indeed, most plants whose value depends mainly on the quantity of green growth, as grasses for meadow and pasture. But the smaller grain crops, as wheat, oats, and barley, may be so heavily manured as to promote too luxuriant a growth of leaf and stalk, at the expense of the seed. Hence, in a rotation, the manure should be given to such as are most immediately benefited by a heavy application. Its decay and subsequent intermixture by tillage, gradu- zJly fit the soil for the more delicate crops. The manure should be always applied as soon as practicable after breaking up from grass, that thorough admixture may take place before seeding down. The latter is of much more consequence than most are aware of; for by leaving fresh manure in lumps, unpulverized and unmixed, plants not only derive little comparative benefit from it, but by aiding in drying the soil in times of drouth, it has actually lessened, instead of in- creased, the products of the land. Many other rules growing out of the preceding principles, will sug- gest themselves to the reflecting cultivator. From these principles it will be perceived, that Farming is a continued system of exhaustion and return^ where properly conducted ; and not a continued system of exhaustion only, as when badly managed ; or, rather, exhaustion without any system whatever. The best way of making, most ef- fectually, this return, should in all cases whatever, be considered the great leading object in all rotations, and the immediate profit from sales, the second great object. And hence, in all good husbandry, the crop which gives the greatest immediate return in money, is not 110 [Senate always the best ; but the one which puts the soil into the best con- dition, and helps to make the most permanently enriching manure, must be properly appreciated. The one may draw the treasure out of the soil, but the other accumulates it ; the one expends the wealth of the land, the other collects it. If, for instance, a crop of green herb- age be turned beneath the soil, though yielding of itself no return whatever, yet if it increases the following crop of corn from thirty to fifty bushels the acre, and a subsequent crop of w^heat from fifteen to twenty-five bushels, it becomes, in reality, equal in nett value, to twenty bushels of corn and ten of wheat. In devising a good rotation, the following objects must be taken into consideration, viz : — 1. To exhaust the soil as little as practicable ; 2. To return as much manure as possible again to the soil ; 3. To obtain, by a variation of different crops, an equal propor- tion of the varions fertilizing ingredients from the soil ; 4. To prepare for future crops ; 5. To prevent the growth of weeds ; 6. To adapt the application of manure best to the respective needs of the different crops following that application ; 7. To adapt the crops to the physical and chemical condition of the soil, as in relation to dryness and moisture, lightness and tenacity, poorness and fertility ; 8. To adapt them to the market, to the climate, and to an equal distribution of the labor of the farm, throughout the year. In attaining all these objects, a thorough knowledge is required of the nature of the soil, and of the effect of the different crops upon it, and upon succeeding crops, and of the influence of manures upon them. This knowledge is yet in its infancy. Numerous, well- directed, and accurate experiments, must be performed, and perhaps occasional chemical analysis resorted to, before full information on all these points is attained. A very brief examination of what is already known, may be highly useful, as well as assist further investigation. The limits of this essay, admit, however, of only a general classifica- tion of properties. Plants may be grouped, with reference to these points, into several divisions : — 1. Cereal grasses — or grass-like, grain producing plants, as wheat, oats, barley, rye, &c. As these are all narrow-leaved, and all ripen their seed before they are cut, they are eminently exhausting to the No. 85.] Ill soil. This result is still further increased by most of them being car- ried off entirely from the farm, and consequently they do not return in the form of manure to the soil. They are further detrimental in not admitting of cultivation by hoeing, and hence favor the increase of weeds. These crops, therefore, however important they may be in themselves, should not succeed each other too often in rotation. Indian corn, though naturally allied to this class, differs materially in its broader leaves and more succulent growth, but more especially in admitting a heavy application of manure, and cultivation by the hoe. 2. Broad leaved seed bearing plants — as the pea, bean, and buck- wheat. These, by ripening their seed, also exhaust the soil. But they differ materially from the last mentioned, in their broader leaves, which by their shade, more effectually prevent the growth of weeds ; or attend their destruction by hoe-culture, as with the bean. They also differ materially in their chemical composition, containing much potash, soda, and lime, while silica enters largely into the composi- tion of wheat and similar grains. Hence they exhaust the soil in a different manner. Clover, when cultivated for seed, may be classqd with the plants of this division, and in common with them, may alter- nate with the cereal grasses in a rotation, in connexion with other crops- 3. Root crops — as turneps, beets, parsnips, carrots, potatoes. These, from the large quanties of manure which may be applied to them from the modes of culture which thej admit and require, pulverizing and cleansing the soil of weeds ; from their not being seed-bearing crops ; and especially from the abundant supply of manure which they return to the soil, by their consumption as food for cattle ; char- acterize them as decidedly ameliorating crops. Although the alkalies are found to enter largely into their composition, yet most of them are found to be but little exhausting to the soil on which they grow. Indian corn, though naturally allied to the cereal grasses, partakes largely of these beneficial qualities. 4. Crops for herbage and forage — including plants for meadows and pastures. These are generally regarded as ameliorating crops. Pastures, being fed off green, the manure of the feeding animals being dropped upon their surface, and the enriching vegetable matter fur- nished by the accumulating roots in the soil, render well managed pastures beneficial to the land. The same is true of meadows, if the crop is consumed upon the farm, and returned again in the form of manure ; but where the hay is sold in market, and especially if the 112 [Senate grass seeds ripened before the hay was cut, the crop must be consid- ered as exhausting. 5. Other divisions may be made — as of plants cultivated for their fibre, as hemp and flax, both of which are exhausting to land, though for hemp, the strength of the soil maybe kept up by heavy manuring ; but flax is eminently exhausting, especially if it comes under another division of plants, raised for their oil, when the seeds ripen, and little or no manure is made from the plant to return to the soil. Naked, or open fallows, are introduced very properly in a rotation when from the hardness or roughness of the soil, from the introduc- tion of perennial-rooted weeds, or from other causes, it becomes otherwise difiicult to prepare the ground by a hoed crop, for success- ful subsequent culture. Where land is cheap and labor dear, open fallows may often be the cheapest means of eradicating annual weeds, but for rich and high priced land, they are mostly bad economy. From the preceding facts, the following general rules may be deduced : — 1. The same or similar crops should not follow in succession, but return at periods as remote as practicable. 2. Crops requiring thorough tillage, should alternate with those admitting of only partial tillage, and summer fallows substituted where such crops cannot be raised. 3. Crops favoring the growth of weeds, should not follow in suc- cession. 4. Crops which eminently exhaust the land, should come in rarely, and those which exhaust but little should be introduced as frequently as circumstances will admit. 5. Crops whose consumption copiously returns manure, should occur sufficiently often to keep up or increase fertility. It now remains, as the object of this essay, to fput the preceding principles and rules into practice, by pointing out the errors of bad rotations, and endeavoring to suggest better, which may be adapted to our own State. All farming may be regarded as some kind of rotation, either regu- lar or irregular, however imperfect it may be, unless there is a per- petual succession of the same crop. There are consequently all grades, from the very rudest and simplest, to the complete, well di- gested, and systematic rotation throughout the farm. Some of the most worthless, as long ago practiced, and still prevailing to a greater o. 85.J 113 or less extent in many parts of the country, are given in volume seventh of the Farmers' Register. Specimens of the two-shift system, are as follows : — 1st year — Corn. 2d year — Wheat — or oats, if on land too poor or too light for wheat. After harvest, the stubble grazed closely until next spring, when plowed again for corn. When too poor to bear any small grain crops, that part of the course is omitted on such poorer spots of the field, and afterwards on all ; thus changing the relation to 1st year — Corn. 2d year — Natural growth of weeds, grazed. When not grazed the second year, as was sometimes the case, for want of separate fencing, or some other cause, this rotation made a nearer approach to alternate and improving husbandry. It was then, 1st year — Corn. 2d year — Weeds not grazed, forming a very poor manuring crop. An improvement was made on this by the adoption of the three- shift rotation. 1st year — Corn. 2d year — Wheat, and afterwards the spontaneous growth of grass and weeds, grazed. 3d year — Pasture, closely grazed. This was supposed to be a great march in agricultural improve- ment, and by some regarded as the summit of perfection, to which two-shift and no-shift cultivators aspired as the height of their ambi- tion. The exhaustion of the second year was moderated on the poor- er parts, by the wheat being then omitted, for the simple and very obvious reason that it would not grow there. On those parts there were, of course, two years of rest from tillage in the three. Col. Taylor introduced a four-shift system, which was as follows : 1st year — Corn. 2d year — Wheat and Clover sown — or if too poor for Wheat, left at rest and not grazed. 3d year — Clover, (and weeds,) not mown nor grazed. 4th year — Clover, not mown nor grazed. This course possessed the advantage of giving two and a half years, out of four for vegetables to grow which were to die and de- cay on the soil, and finally to be plowed in. It was a great improve- [Senate, No. 85.] H 114 [Senate ment on the others. But it was materially opposed to the principles of good husbandry in several respects. It furnished vegetable ma- nure only to the land. A large portion of the value of this vegeta- ble growth was lost, by dissipation into the air, during its decay. The returns from the land were necessarily small, as only two years out of four produced crops for harvesting. And it greatly increas- ed the labors of tillage, by the increase of noxious weeds. In the preceding specimens, it will be perceived that the shorter courses are the worst, and the longer ones — the three and four course systems — the best. But the mistake must not be made by supposing that the number is by any means an index to the excellence of the rotation ; for a good two-shift system may be devised and executed which may be better than a bad eight-course system. For instance, an alternation of wheat and clover, with the application of manure, and especially if the clover crop continues two years, and is plowed into the soil, would be far superior to a course consisting of wheat, corn, barley, oats, wheat, oats, wheat, and oats, without manure or seeding, which would be eminently exhausting, all of these crops be- longing to the first class of plants given a few pages back, designa- ted as cereal grasses. Good systems of rotation must differ materially with the nature of the soil and other circumstances. Where from necessity, grazing en- ters largely into the husbandry of a particular region, the course will vary from that adopted on a rich and mellow soil. An excellent far- mer in Macedon, Wayne county, N. Y., has long pursued the follow- ing, and his superior success over his equally hard working neighbors, is ascribed by them to " extraordinary good luck :" 1st year — Wheat after clover. 2d year — Corn, potatoes and ruta-bagas, with all the manure. 3d year — Barley. 4th year — Wheat, sown with clover. 5th year — Clover, pastured. The chief part of the farm is regularly laid out in ten acre lots, and each lot, in its turn, regularly subjected to this system. A piece of low ground is kept in meadow, and occasionally top dressed, rare- ly broken up, and supplies the hay. A rougher part of the farm, which could not be well brought into the regular course, is occupied with the summer fallow, wheat, and clover, and grass for pasture. After long trial, the owner of the farm is satisfied that the manure No. 85.J 115 which is applied to the corn crop, from the thorough intermixture which it undergoes with the soil during the cultivation of this and the following crop of barley, is more beneficial to the wheat the third year, than if the whole of it were directly applied to the wheat. The crops on this farm have averaged for several years past, as follows : Wheat, 20 bushels per acre ; corn, 50 ; ruta-bagas 600 to 700 ; barley, 35 ; hay, 2 tons. This course is well adapted to most of our fertile wheat producing regions ; slight variations, of course, being made, according to cir- cumstances. The principal objection is the frequent recurrence of the wheat crop, which would be remedied by suffering the clover and grass to remain for two or more years, instead of one, before break- ing up for wheat, introducing summer fallow if necessary. This change would also admit of a greater number of live stock, and of a consequent increase of manure. The following excellent course was given by Willis Gaylord, in his essay on Farm Management, and adapted to a farm of eight fields : 1st year — ^Wheat, with clover seed. 2d year — Pasture ; 3d year — Meadow. 4th year — Fallow. 5th year — Wheat. 6th year — Oats and barley with clover seed. 7th year — Pasture. ' 8th year — Corn and roots with manure. Thus, if each field contained ten acres, there would be each year twenty acres of wheat, twenty in pasture, ten in meadow, ten in sum- mer fallow, ten in oats and barley, and ten in corn and roots. The chief objection is, that as there are only ten acres of meadow, there would be hardly enough dry fodder for the domestic animals which twenty acres of pasture, besides stubble and summer fallow, would sup- port, more especially in our long winters, where for nearly six months green food cannot be had. A large quantity of roots would of course, greatly lessen the diflficulty. With a more southern region the ob- jection would not exist. An interesting example is given in the Farmer's Cabinet of very successful farming connected with regular rotation. An old, practi- cal, hard working farmer, commmenced the world as a day laborer, 1 16 [Senate and when 30 years of age, by the avails of his industry, added to a small legacy, was enabled to purchase, and to pay for in part, a farm of 130 acres, 100 being under cultivation but in a very low condition. When he commenced farming he adopted a particular system of ro- tation, to which he has adhered for forty years, or until the present time, and his success is the best comment on the value of his experi- ment, he being now worth at least $100,000, not taking into account several heavy pecuniary losses he has at various times sustained. His course of cropping, defective in some particulars, is as follows : 1st year — Wheat, after fallow. 2d year — Clover — meadow. 3d year — Wheat. 4th year — Clover — pasture. 5th year — Wheat, 6th year — Rye. 7th year — Corn. 8th year — Fallow, with a heavy manuring. This course, it will be seen, is a much more severe one than the last ; but it is probable that a large supply of extraneous manure was used, in addition to that made on the farm ; and the fertilizing operation of turning under in the latter part of summer, two crops of clover, the one meadow and the other pasture, for succeeding crops of wheat, was an additional benefit. Another objection is, the difficulty of plowing in two fields of clover immediately after harvest, and in the hottest and driest season, for wheat. The manure following instead of preceding the corn, is another defect. But the superiority of the course, in spite of these defects, over the many more imperfect modes in practice, is shown by the heavy crops obtained, the crop of wheat seldom being less than 1,500 bushels (on three twelve acre fields ;) the rye averaging 450 bushels (on one field ;) and the corn crop annually, about 500 bushels. The latter would however probably have been double, if the manure had preceded instead of following it. In this respect, the two preceding courses possess eminent advantages. In addition to those two, the following may be proposed for the adoption of our farmers. Simplest, or three-course system : — * * A very simple and successful course in some very fertile districts consists of an alter- nation of wheat and clover, the latter being turned in as a green crop for manuring the wheat. But the too frequent recurrence of the wheat, and the absence of animal manur- ing, are strong objections,iexcept on the very richest soils, or where extraneous manures are at hand, or two or more years can be allowed for clover and grass. No. 85. J 117 1st year — Corn and roots, well manured. 2d year — Wheat. 3d year — Clover — one or more years, according to fertility and amount of manure at hand. Four-course system : — 1st year — Corn and roots, with all the manure. 2d year — Barley — or peas — or both. 3d year — Wheat. 4th year — Clover — one or more years. Oats is a severe crop any where in a rotation ; an excellent farmer who adopts the preceding three-shift system, never permits oats to grow on land fit for wheat, but confines the crop exclusively to the more moist parts of his farm otherwise devoted to meadow and pas- ture. The following diagram will exhibit, to such as may not be familiar with the subject, the manner in which a field may be laid out into fields, and each one allotted to its regular course for a long term of years. The rotation of Willis Gaylord, already mentioned, is select- ed ; and the column given has only to be repeated to extend the crop- ping to a perpetual series of years. 1840— Wheat. 1840— Pasture. 1840- -Meadow. 1840— Fallow. 1841— Pasture. 1841— Meadow. 1841- -Fallow. 1841— Wheat. 1842— Meadow. 1842— Fallow. 1842- -Wheat. 1842— Oats & Bar. 1843— Fallow. 1843— Wheat. 1843- -Oats & Bar. 1843— Pasture. 1844— Wheat. 1844— Oats&Bar. 1844- —Pasture. 1844— Corn&roots 1845— Oats&Bar. 1845— Pasture. 1845- -Corn&roots 1845— Wheat. 1846— Pasture. 1846— Corn&roots 1846- -Wheat. 1846--Pasture. 1847— Corn&roots 1847— Wheat. 1847- -Pasture. 1847 — Meadow. Lane, with gat es to each field. 1840— Wheat. 1840 — Corn &. roots 1840— Pasture. 1840- -Oats& Bar. 1841- Wheat. 1841— Corn & oats. 1841- -Pasture. 1841— Oats & Bar. 1842— Pasture. 1842— Wheat. 1842- -Corn&roots 1842— Pasture. 1843 — Meadow. 1843— Pasture. 1843- -Wheat. 1843— Corn&roots 1844— Fallow. 1844— Meadow. 1844 — Pasture. 1844— Wheat. 1845— Wheat. 1845— Fallow 1845- -Meadow. 1845— Pasture. 1846— Oats & Bar. 1846— Wheat. 1846- -Fallow. 1846— Meadow. 1847— Pasture. 1847 Oats & Bar. 1847- -Wheat. 1847— Fallow. It may be needless to multiply examples for practice. The prin- ciples already laid down in a former part of this essay, will enable the cultivator to vary the preceding instances to suit circumstances ; and the more the subject is examined, the more interesting will its inves- 118 [Senate tigation appear. One of the courses already given, — that of corn, wheat, clover, and heavy manuring, — has tripled the products of many farms in the eastern and southern portions of the state within the last thirty years j and some which had been exhausted and aban- doned have been restored to a fertility rivaling the rich districts of the west. It is only the examination of this branch of successful agriculture, and the exercise of the judgment in its application in practice, that is necessary to enable the farmer to guide his multifari- ous operations with clock-work precision and regularity ; and while other departments of husbandry are all essential, — while manuring has been justly styled the sheet-anchor of the farmer, rotation maybe regarded as the compass needle to guide him and prevent shipwreck on a barren waste. To the attention of all, this subject is therefore commended, as one fraught with the deepest and most important re- sults to the agricultural prosperity of this country. HOTATION VERSUS SUMMER FALLOWING. BY THE LATE WILLIS GAYLORD. Considerable diversity of opinion exists as to the necessity and pro- priety of summer fallowing land ; some maintaining that it occasions a useless waste of time in cultivation, and the loss of one crop at least, beside the great additional labor incurred of the several plowings which are necessary where the system of summer fallows is adopted. On the other hand, it is contended, that fallowing is occasionally ne- cessary to give a proper aeration to the soil, pulverize its particles, and break up that adhesion or running together, which is very apt to occur where summer fallowing is not practiced, especially on stiff or clay lands. As usual in such controversies, both parties are partly right, and both are partly wrong, a fact accounted for by the differ- ence in the condition and quality of soils, circumstances which should never be overlooked. By fallowing land, or summer fallowing, is meant devoting the in- terval that occurs between the taking off of one crop in one season, and the putting in of one in another, to the repeated plowing and har- rowing of the soil, by which it is cleaned of weeds and made fine for No. 85.] 119 the following crop. In all countries where practiced, it is used al- most exclusively as a preparative for the wheat crop, and by many good farmers is deemed indispensable to keeping the land in good condition, and securing good yields of that important grain. The number of plowings given is made to depend on the circumstances of the soil, the difficulties attending making it clean, and the time at the command of the farmer. With less than three plowings, and as many harrowings, the treatment scarcely deserves the name of fallowing — while as many as five or six are not unfrequently given, particularly in the heavy clay districts of Great Britain. The question to be de- cided is, whether this great amount of labor may not be dispensed with ; the soil kept clean and in good condition ; and a crop taken from it, during the time that it lies idle while in fallow. There can certainly no good reason be given why soils may not produce a continued succession of crops, if the conditions requisite for the production of each are present ; such as the proper proportion and mixture of the several important earths, the presence of the re- quired salts and manures for the growth and nutrition of the plants, and the soil be deepened and loosened for the reception of the seeds, and the spread of their roots. As it is certain, however, that some plants derive more of their substance from the soil than others, or have a tendency to exhaust it rapidly of some one or more essential elements, it is clear, that a constant succession of the same crop on any soil, or under any system of management, can scarcely be possi- ble, or advisable. The question therefore is not whether a constant repetition of the same crop, may not enable the farmer to dispense with the fallow, but whether some other one, less exhausting of the elements of the main or wheat crop, may not fill the interval usually appropriated to the fallow, without injury to the soil, or to the suc- ceeding grain crop. We believe that some such crop may be substituted on all good conditioned soils, and that where a farm is once in a proper state for cropping, when it contains the elements of fertility, and is mainly ex- empt from those great drawbacks on farm products, weeds, there is no necessity for losing every third, or fifth year, as the case may, in summer fallowing. But where the soil is not so conditioned, and where a course of cleansing more thorough than can be derived from hoed, or from green crops is required, then summer fallows are not 120 [Senate only proper, but imperiously demanded. The skillful farmer then is to determine whether he is to fallow his lands or substitute a crop in its place, and this decision is of no little moment, as where the latter course is admissible, the actual gain of the substituted one, is little if any inferior to the main crop. Thus, if the fallow can be dispensed with, and a crop of peas taken in the room of it, not only is there a great saving of labor, but the pea crop may be considered as clear gain. So with that most valuable crop, maize, which in many places is made the substitute of a fallow, or precedes wheat in the course of cropping. In the cultivation of the soil, there are many things that must be taken into consideration, and each allowed their due weight, if good crops are to be obtained, and the fertility of the farm kept up. Too many look to immediate projfit only, and their treatment of the soil corresponds with this idea. Future fertility is sacrificed; every thing possible is taken from the soil and nothing returned to it — ^no time is allowed for it to recover its exhausted energies, and the fabled de- struction of the goose that laid the golden eggs, becomes a sober ve^ rity. Neither fallows or rotation, are allowed to check the progress of exhaustion ; and if the father found a rich soil, he leaves an impo- verished one to his children. To remedy these evils, fallows and ro- tations have been adopted with the best effects. By fallowing, the humus in the soil is rendered more soluble, the weeds that spring up between the successive plowings are turned under, and suffer decom- position ; and atmospheric influences are allowed their full action on the soil ; great advantages, as all must allow, but still hardly a com- pensation for the additional labor, interest on idle capital, and the loss of one crop, especially if all these advantages may be secured, with- out these attending inconveniences. That this may be done is certain, if a course of cropping can be adopted which shall afford a sufficient change in the draft made by the plants on the different elements of fertility in the soil, and which shall return to the soil as great a proportion of organic matter in the shape of manure as is taken from it in grain. That this is possible, the ex- perience of many skillful farmers within a few years, has sufficiently demonstrated; since without fallowing, and by the application of manures produced on the farm only, there has been a constant increase of fertility, and consequent profit in the management of such farms. It should always be recollected, that what has been done by one far- No. 85.J 121 mer, may, under the same or equally favorable circumstances, be done by another, a fact that should prevent many of the mistakes and losses that arise from unskillful husbandry. To show the means of doing this, it may be necessary to present a few calculations showing what is taken from the soil in weight during a course of ordinary crops, and also what is returned to them in straw, &c., as manure in the same time. Fortunately we have here the aid of those patient and accurate experimentalists, some of the results of whose labors may be found in the valuable translations made from Burger and others, by Prof. E. G. Smith, with notes by the transla- tor. In doing this, we select in the first place two estimates, show- ing two courses of crops, in one of which the fallow is used ; the ma- nure employed ; the amount of grain and straw, or the whole pro- duct from the soil ; and the deficiency of manure to supply the de- mand of the crops. FIRST COURSE. Manure employed. Manure from plants. PRODUCT. Grain & straw. Deficiency of Manure. Surplus of Manure. Pure fallow, Winter wheat, . . . Cwt. 140 Cwt. 0 Cwt. Cwt. 0 0 9 18 8.7 14 Cwt. 0 Cwt. 0 Barlev 140 17.7 32 90 In this case, or with this course, there is a great deficiency in the manure returned, to the soil, and therefore under it a soil must grow poorer. In the next course the substitution of clover for the fallow, will produce a different result. SECOND COURSE. Manure employed. Manure from plants. PRODUCT. Grain & Straw. Deficiency of Manure. Surplus of Manure. Clover, Cwt. Cid. 40 Cwt. Cwt. .... 30 9 18 8.7 14 Cwt. Cwt. Winter wheat,. . . Barlev 100 JJU.i.l.\^J , 100 40 17.7 62 20 Here the materials returned to the soil as manure, exceed the drain upon it from the grain produced and sold, by 20 cwt., and consequent- ly, such a soil is growing richer by substituting the clover crop for the fallow. 122 [Senate We give still another example, in which the course is for four years without fallow ; and it will be seen that in this, which is certainly a most profitable course, there is ultimately no exhaustion of the soil. The calculations are for a farm of 142 acres; of course about 35 J acres will be in each crop named in rotation : Crop. Product in bushels. Indian corn, 1 ,750 Barley, 845 Clover, 140,000 lbs. Wheat, 762bushls. The manure returned to the soil will consist of the clover, the corn stalks, and the wheat and barley straw, which make a total of 3,620 cwt. for the course. The weight of the grain taken off, is 1,759 cwt. leaving a deficiency of 1,861 cwt., or 93 tons to be supplied; but this is much more than added by the decayed clover leaves, stems and the clover roots plowed up for the wheat crop. This course shows at a glance, that fallowing may be dispensed with, and yet no exhaustion of the soil take place. We wish farmers to pay particu- lar attention to this course and its results, as it forms a most impor. tant lesson in the art of good husbandry. It is true we would prefer gi\dng the clover another year, either as pasture, or meadow, previous to breaking up for wheat, thus requiring five years instead of four for the course, not because the first would not secure against exhaustion, but because by allowing another year to the clover, a greater amount of roots and decayed matter would be gained, more animals could be kept on the farm, and the more rapid promotion of fertility be se- cured to the soil. On every grain farm, animals enough should be kept, to use the straw, clover, stalks, &c., either as food or litter, and thus commence the conversion of these materials into manure. If fed out in the usual manner, a large part of the coarser parts of the food will not be eaten, but it is trampled upon, broken and rendered fine, and thus fitted to absorb and retain much of the urine and the valuable materials contained in the fluid part of other animal excre- ments. It is clear the farm must be made to support its own labor, feed its own teams, &c., and any course which does not make ample provision for this, must be considered as radically defective. The course here recommended, while it prevents the possibility of ex- haustion, secures the proper supply of food for the laboring animals. No. 85.J 123 a most important item in agriculture, and makes this very feeding of them, contribute materially to further fertility. In this course, spring wheat or oats might be substituted for the barley at the/pleasure of the farmer, the great point being some summer crop with which the clover seed may be sown, and which, of course, should be put in the ground as early in the spring as is possible. In this rotation the corn receives the manure, the very crop on which it is most useful when fresh, and the remaining effects of the dressing are beneficially exer- ted on the succeeding barley and clover. The question is sometimes asked by the advocates of fallowing, why, if this course is unnecessary, successive crops of wheat cannot be taken from the same ground'? The reason why this is impracti- cable has already been hinted at; but it may be well to consider the matter more fully. In the first place, the natural effect of a con- tinued cropping with wheat, or any other grain, would be an ex- haustion of the materials in the soil suitable for the growth of that crop, and its consequent gradual failure ; and though it is evident, from both theory and practice, that if the proper materials are re- turned to the soil, such as are taken from it by the crop grown, there is no need of rest between crops, or change of them ; yet it is equally evi- dent that time must be required to accomplish this preparation of the soil, and return of material. Except under the most favorable cir- cumstances, where the plowing, harrowing and cleaning processes are much aided by the qualities of the soil, there cannot be sufficient time between the coming off of the wheat crop in the northern States or latitudes, and the best time for seeding again, to perform these indis- pensable labors. Then, in addition, there is the manuring to take place, for no one can expect a succession of wheat or other crops, without manuring in some form, and in this case it can only take place between the removal of a crop in the latter part of July, and the seeding again th.e last of August or the fore part of September, thus allowing only one month for plowing, harrowing, manuring and seeding. Now on a fine soil, a small farm, and plenty of labor at command, it would be possible to accomplish all this, but under no other circumstances could a second seeding with wheat take place with any prospect of success. On a large farm neither teams could be had, or labor commanded, to put in a proper breadth of wheat in so short a time, and consequently on such farms, a rotation, allowing of seeding without fallows, must be adopted, or fallows, with all their 324 [Senate additional loss of time and capital must be chosen. In England, Germany, and all countries where the climate is similar, and the sea- son for harvest and seeding limited to one or two months, fallows are common ; but where the climate and seasons are different, and more time for preparing the soil allowed, as in the south of France, the fertile plains of Spain and Italy north of the Po, fallows are almost unknown. It seems clear, then, that in the northern and middle States, compri- sing the wheat-growing part of the Union, the system of fallowing must be adopted and continued, or a course of cropping preferred, which shall give the avantages of fallow, without the attendant losses. We think we have shown how this may be done, but the methods pointed out are the only ones in which a successful rotation may be pursued. Root crops may be substituted for the maize or the clover, and where land is not free from weeds prejudicial to a wheat crop, a crop that requires careful hoeing, and a consequent thorough cleaning of the soil, may be preferred to any other, reference being had at the same time to its means of forming manure,, or the quantity it requires. But the propriety of this course does not rest on theory alone; if it did, there might be some grounds for hesitatancy in abandoning the system of fallowing. Experience, in a multitude of instances, has shown that the very best crops of wheat may be grown on lands sub- jected to a more or less perfect system of rotation, without fallows, and with a single plowing only. In this method the necessity of the case demands previous good condition, which is secured by the manu- ring given the corn or root crop, and by the clover. One or two in- stances may be given of the success of this practice, and they shall be for the current year, or 1843, which is known not to have been re- markable for the magnitude of the wheat crop. On the farm formerly owned by Mr, Woodward, of Camillus, Onondaga county, a field of fifteen acres in clover was turned over in October, 1842, and sowed with wheat. This proved the best on the farm, averaging for the whole, thirty-five bushels per acre. Another instance was on the farm of Mr. Dickinson, Onondaga Valley, where the wheat was sown on a clover sod, after a single plowing, and the measured yield from one acre, was fifty-two bushels and eight quarts, and on several other acres, the yield would not have fallen much, if any, short of the measured one. Such examples might be multiplied, but it is unnecessary. A single glance at these facts will show the immense difference there is No. 85.] 125 in the profits of cultivation where no interval is allowed in the suc- cession of grain, roots and grasses, and where every third or fourth year is lost to a crop, but at the same time demands an equal or in- deed extraordinary outlay of labor. The more the principles which recommend the substitution of a ro- tation in which corn and wheat constitute the principal items of pro- duct, are considered and contrasted with the system of fallows, the more they will recommend themselves to the practical farmer. The roots and summer grains can be considered only as accessaries to the outline ; the one to be grown to the extent demanded for the use of the farm, or perhaps taking in part the place of corn, where the soil is not so suitable to the growth of that plant, and the other to serve as a medium in which the clover seeds so essential to the fer- tility of the soil, can best be committed to the earth. It is true, bar- ley, spring wheat, and oats, as well as roots, are of the greatest neces- sity and utility on the farm, but whether the system of rotation or fal- lows be adopted, the farmer must rely for his sales, and consequently his profits, on his wheat and corn. We shall of course be understood in these remarks, as speaking of what are called grain farms exclu- sively. Dairy farms, or those in which a more mixed husbandry pre- vails, are a different matter, and their profits are derived from more varied, but perhaps not less certain sources. If it be objected to the substitution of constant cropping with ro- tation, for summer fallowing, that it is not possible except on clean soils, then the answer is ready, make your soils clean. One of the greatest recommendations of the system that dispenses with fallows, is the very necessity it imposes on the farmer of cleaning and keeping clean his soils, and the ample means it furnishes him for doing this. If it should be the object of the farmer to combine the greatest amount of produce, with an increasing fertility of the soil, and the least expenditure of labor, we think the method that prevents the loss of one year in every four, both of time and labor, should commend itself to his notice and approval. But in this case as in others, let each one experiment for himself ; for in no situation in life is the ad- vice to "prove all things, and hold fast to that which is good," more necessary or appropriate than in that of cultivating the soil. N 126 [Senate CLINTON COUNTY. The following rotation is practiced on the farm of J. L. Hack- staff, as reported to the Clinton County Agricultural Society ; and the appended recapitulation of the daily account he keeps with his farm, exhibits the success which follows his practice : First crop. Corn or potatoes^ on green-sward, with manure spread and plowed under. Second crop. Spring wheat., ground plowed fall and spring. Third crop. Winter rye, and oats, and seeded with Timothy and clover. Fourth, fifth and sixth, meadow. Recapitulation of Farm Accounts. Acres. Value of Crop. Expense. Profit. Corn, potatoes and beans, 9 $288.80 $138.50 $150.30 Wheat, 14 400.00 141.68 258.32 Rye, li 100.00 65.44 34.56 Oats, Ih 100.00 59.69 40.31 Hay, 22 400.00 116.90 283.10 Cultivated fields, 60 $1,288 .80 $522 .21 $766 59 "Pasture, 11 Income equal to expenses. Woodland, 29 do. do. do. Orchard, 72.75 7.28 65.47 Whole farm, 100 $1,361.55 $529.49 $832.06 MANURES. DUTCHESS COUNTY— DR. BEEKMAN'S ADDRESS. Extract from the Address of Dr. John P. Beekman, President of the State Agricultural Society, before the Dutchess County Agricul- tural Society, Sept. 13, 1844 : " Dutchess has for many years stood high as a well cultivated county. No doubt the praise is merited ; but tell me where is the intelligent farmer whose land is not susceptible of being made better? Where is the farm that will average forty bushels of wheat to the acre, and so proportionably its other products 1 Now, can any one doubt that this may be done ? That it has been done elsewhere, we have the most abundant proof. Will you acknowledge that the land elsewhere is much better naturally than yours, as you do not raise half that amount ? No, I know that you will not make such an admission. There can be only one cause, and that is imperfect cultivation. The time has been when forty bushels of wheat to the acre has been re- peatedly raised in Dutchess ; but that time has for the present gone by ; whether it will return or not will depend on your own industry and intelligence. That it will return I have no doubt ; for I have the confidence to believe that your desire for agricultural distinction will induce you to adopt a more systematic and intelligent course of hus- bandry. When the forest was opened to the plow, you had the ac- cumulated decomposed vegetable matter of centuries to enrich your soil, which made it immensely productive ; but drawing too long and too often upon that storehouse, you have in a great measure emptied it of its treasures, and now you have no resource left but to draw up- on your own management and skill. I have no hesitation in saying that you will be equal to the occasion, and that the lost fertility of this county will in process of time be more than restored. But it cannot be by farming as our fathers have done : it will be by becom- ing better acquainted with the nature of our soils — with the food most congenial to the plants we wish to cultivate, and applying to that soil whatever may be deficient to assist the full development of its pow- ers. To learn this, must we all turn philosophers, and go back through the whole train of causes until we come to the simple elements 1 Must we all turn geologists, and ascertain the nature and age of the primi- tive rocks, and the origin of clay, lime, iron, potash, soda, magnesia and carbon 1 Let us leave this to the philosopher. It is most appro- 128 [Senate priately his study, and if he can hammer any thing' out of it for our benefit we will cheerfully pay him for his labor. Must we all turn chemists, to analyze the soil and the component parts of its products, so that knowing what we want to produce, we can know exactly what ingredient to apply to produce it 1 This would be a pleasant pastime for the farmer, and if he could carry it out would materially lessen his labor. Must we all turn botanists, and give to each plant its or- der, genus and species in the great vegetable garden of nature 1 Oh, no. Let the man of leisure do this — it is a pleasant study, and it opens to his mind the vast and comprehensive knowledge and good- ness of the Almighty, in providing not only for the sustenance of his creatures, but also what is to relieve them in sickness, and add to their multiplied enjoyments in health. Let the farmer attend to these pur- suits if he pleases, for pastime and recreation ; it will add to the store of his ideas, and open new subjects for contemplation ; but they are not indispensable to the proper management of his farm, although oc- casionally he may draw contingently upon them. We know that if we wish to produce plants, we ought to provide food for them. The more abundant that food to a certain extent, the more the plant is de- veloped. We know that decomposed vegetable matter, in all its va- riety, is the natural food of plants, and that if we shall make our farms productive it must be by ah abundant supply of manures. By the term manure I do not mean simply the accumulation of our barn-yards. This constitutes an item, an important item in our supply ; but I mean all that stimulates the plant, either quickly or slowly, but permanently to its full development. In this way, and in this way only, has an exhausted soil been recovered, and yielded to its generous owner a fourfold return. Do not be afraid therefore, to lay out time and money in drawing marl upon your land, filling your yards with leaves, muck, weeds or offal. Your swamps are a treasure to you ; you may first mow their surface, and make an abundance of litter from their weeds, and next take the black vegetable mold which has been thrown out of your ditches, to fill your yard or make the compost heap. Two loads of muck will go as far as one load of stable manure — and all its cost is the drawing — whilst there is at the same time profit in the removal. Then there is a clover ley— there is lime, gypsum, ashes of wood, leached and unleached, and for meadows the ashes of coal. There is poudrette, horns and guano. New experiments, with new substan- ces, are constantly tried, and I have no doubt in a few years the list will be greatly extended. But we have already enough for present use ; our only difficulty is we are too sparing in the application. Do you doubt the goodness and wisdom of Providence, and that after giv- ing you all these materials He did not mean you should use them 1 Have you ever applied one dollar's worth of manure that you did not receive two dollars in return 1 I can assure you that if it has been w-ithheld from you, it has not from me ; for I can spt^ak from expe- rience of the bountiful manner in which those are rewarded who re- plenish the land, and make it fruitful. Depend upon it, the great defect of our farming is the scanty return No. 85.] 129 that we make to the soil that we crop so closely ; and when yoti com- plain of poor returns for your labor, at least in the quantity gathered, it is upon the principle that you are willing to work your horse but not to feed him. Until, therefore, we feed with a more liberal hand, we shall not be more liberally rewarded. If I compare our farming, however, with what it was twenty years ago, I see a decided improve- ment; better houses, better barns, better fences, better — that is cl eaner — fields, better crops, and stock essentially improved. With all these, man improves. But there is a vast deal yet to be done, and we must not talk of good farming until we can in all things double, and in many treble our present product ; for let me tell you the productive powers of the earth are almost illimitable." SENECA COUNTY-MR. WILLIAMS' ESSAY. Extracts from the Essay on Manures, read before the Seneca County Agricultural Society, by Samuel Williams, of Waterloo. The practical farmer will of course make the distinction, in using peat and swamp muck, between that which is saturated with water, and that which is well dried ; as the purer kinds absorb more than five-sixths of their weight of water, they are consequently unfitted until dried, at least to a considerable extent, for the absorption of the valuable and enriching juices of manure, which so often are allowed to waste without a mixture of peat, muck, straw, or other absorbing substances: The two great principles to be impressed on the mind of the far- mer, who wishes to avail himself of the aid of science in his call- ing, are, first : that urine, stable manure, and all animal manures, fer- ment ; in the process of which they will convert three times their own weight of other substances, into manure equivalent to stable manure itself. Secondly, that the more intimately the manure is mixed with the soil, the better, as in the first place it acts mechani- cally to open the soil and let in atmospheric gases ; in the second place it dissolves quicker ; and until dissolved, all vegetable physio- logists agree that manure can have no chemical, or organic effect, upon growing plants. The same with plaster — until plaster is dis- solved, it can produce no effect, hence the importance of sowing plas- ter early, even before the snow of winter is gone. From the first principle, the farmer will see how much he looses by permitting the manure of his barn-yard to waste itself by fer- mentation in the open air. Some agricultural chemists have advised that ground plaster should be strewed over the stables and the barn- yard in order that its lime and sulphuric^ acid might seize and retain the ammonia which escapes during the fermentation of the manure, but the best authority decides that swamp muck, bog peat, or even common loam, is better than plaster ; that the manure should be [Senate, No. 85.] I 130 [Senate pressed down and covered up Avilh straw In the barn-yard to pre- vent fermentation there, that it should be hauled out on to the land in- tended to be manured, as early in the spring as possible ; if it cannot be plowed under before it ferments, it should be fermented in heaps covered up with swamp muck, or even the surrounding earth, if time cannot be had to procure other matter ; just air enough should be admitted to the manure, to promote fermentation, but none of its gas- es should be allowed to escape through the earthy covering. David Thomas has advised that a thin coat of lime, or plaster, should be thrown on the top of the earth which covers the fermenting dung 9 but that, in no case, should caustic lime be mixed with barn-yard manure ; when the lime has become carbonated by being sometime mixed with loam, or muck, it may then be safely mixed with the com- post. Lime in the hydrate state spoils animal manures, urine and stable dunsf, althoug-h it is useful in that state to reduce and render soluble the fibre of such undecomposed matter, as peat bog, leaves, straw, chip dung, &c. &c. Lime is also useful, to decompose the in- ert vegetable matter in the soil ; when soils fail to produce wheat, our farmers suppose that their vegetable matter is exhausted; this is a great mistake ; it is only ^the alkalies that are wanting, and the me- talic bases. These alkalies dissolve the vegetable matter in the soil, and fit it for the food of plants ; they attract the ammonia and car- bonic gas, from nature's great storehouse, the atmosphere, and pre- vent their escape, giving them off slowly as food to the growing crop. It is also necessary to ameliorate the mechanical structure of heavy tenacious soils, by plowing in long manure, or green crops ; thus ren- dering the soil porous and capable of absorption. I often hear a farmer say, of a particular lot, that it has been cropped until it is heavy and dead ; in this state the ammonia deposited by the dew and rain on the surface, is immediately taken back again into the atmos- phere, by the first sunshine or dry wind ; thus many soils are accu- sed of sterility when nothing is wanting to them, but a mechanical change from heavy and dead, to light and porous ; as it is in this state alone that the soil can receive and distribute the atmospheric gases. Go into your garden in the morning and examine a bed, that was raked the previous evening ; it will be wet with dew, induced by ca- pillary attraction — then look at a bed which has not been raked since the last shower ; it will be found crusted over and dry, or much dryer than the new bed. A little manure, vvith thorough mixing and good tillage, is better than much manure badly distributed, the working of the soil and its mechanical structure, being no less important than its chemical fertility — in fact a heavy application of manure badly mix- ed, often injures the crop. When I hear a farmer say that from the best manured field he ever planted, he got but 50 or 60 bushels of corn to the acre, I have replied, had you planted closer, cut out the barren stalks and suckers, and worked and hoed it more and earlier, the product might have been doubled. The secret why river bottoms produce better than uplands, is resolved into the simple jfac?, that na- No. 85.J 131 ture there has mixed the soil Into a rare consistency, which enables t to absorb and retain the atmospheric gases, almost without tillage. I have before stated that barn-yard manure, particularly that which is well saturated with urine, has power to make in the process of com- bustion, or rather fermentation, three times its quantum of manure equivak nt to rotted stable dung. Charcoal, well pulverized, would be^ a valuable agent in the compost heap as an absorbent of ammonia. When sown on the land, charcoal absorbs ammonia from the dew and rain, and only gives it off as needed by the growing plants. Liebig is of opinion that urine is ten times richer in the animal al- kali ammonia, than stable dung ; he says that the urine of a healthy man will make one ounce of the carbonate of ammonia daily. If this is true, which I do not doubt, the excrements of the domestic animals on the face of the earth, contain manuring properties suffi- cient to give perpetual fertility to the whole tilled surface of the inhabited earth. I once, in Rhode Island, heard a farmer say that a single hog would make seven dollars worth of manure in one year ;' his hogs were kept in a tight floored pen, in which all the urine was absorbed by repeated floorings of bog peat, sea weed, or eel grass, straw, weeds, &c. Swamp muck is invaluable in the fermenting compost heap ; its carbonic acid seizes the escaping gases, and the whole mass becomes a quickening, unwasting manure. How often do we hear a farmer boast that he has no waste land on his farm, but an acre or two of swamp ; yet these swamps are the great store- houses of the material of which plants are half composed, to wit : carbon ; these swamps are now considered in New-England as the depots from whence their worn out granitic soil is to receive newness of life. In relation to animal manures, Doct. Dana says that the carcase of an animal of 100 lbs. weight, covered up so as to decompose slowly, will convert a cord of swamp muck into a solid cord of ma- nure, equivalent to the manure of the stable. How often do we see the most valuable animal and vegetable manures, and even lime and ashes, lie wasting in the road along side of a field exhausted by reck- less tillage. It is not six months since, I saw leached ashes employ- ed to fill up the ruts and mud holts in a road ; yet chemistry tells us that leached ashes contain alkaline salts which nothino; but a jirow- ing plant can thoroughly extract and assimilate; when I see a far- mer fill the highway with pigeon weed pulled from his wheat field, instead of placing it in his compost heap, there to be sprouted by warmth and destroyed by combustion, I can but invoke the presence of that great analyzer of vegetable physiology, Doct. Sprengel, to show this farmer how much of the elements of new plants he is iosing in thus wasting this weed. The leaves of plants and trees, are the great receivers of carbonic acid from the atmosphere, which they decompose, appropriating the carbon and giving off the oxygen again to replace the carbonic acid in the atmosphere ! It is a wise provision of nature to place her trees, weeds and grasses, where man will not place vegetables. Were it not for weeds, the working of the soil would too often be neglected — yet some farmers are so stupid 132 [Senate as to suppose that were it not for the weeds, their corn would need no dressing. The plowing in of weeds keeps the soil open and loose ; hoe under the smallest garden weeds when covered with the morning dew, and all the ammonia brought to the earth the prece- ding night is saved. The right application of manures. — In relation to the best appli- cation of manures, it is doubtful whether fresh unfermented barn- yard manure will fertilize as much soil, when turned under in the plowed furrow, as in the compost heap, covered with swamp muck j because this muck contains much more carbonic acid to hold the am- monia of the dung, than the soil of the furrow. Still the dung in the furrow has the advantage of a much better mechanical action on the soil, than the reduced manure of the compost heap ever can give : and to a heavy tenacious soil, this mechanical action, to wit, de- stroying its adhesiveness, is so important that the plowing in of coarse unfermented manures, I think, should have the preference on all such soils. But it will be admitted by the well practiced farmer, that manures applied in either of the above modes, are threefold more economical than to suffer stable dung to rot and waste its volatile gases in the open air, before it is used, or applied to the soil. A top dressing of manure to grass lands, is not always a wasteful mode of applying it, if done late in the fall, when the solar heat is succeeded by long nights, and cool, moist, and cloudy days ; most of its salts will be absorbed by the soil, to be fed to the roots of the grass in early spring ; top dressing, in the fall, gives warmth, and ensures an early growth in the spring ; but to go against this advan- tage, is the loss of the manure, which must eventually be dried up and wasted in the atmosphere. Frauenfelder says that the leaves and branches of trimmed vines, have very little effect as manure on the vineyard, unless hoed under the surface soil, when in a green state, in July or August ; but that when this is done, so complete is the decomposition of the pruned twigs, that in four weeks of warm weather, not the smallest trace of them can be found. This mode of manuring vineyards on the banks of the Rhine, has of late entire- ly superseded the expensive use of animal manures. In England, where the true value of manures is much better understood than in the United States, top dressing, through the agency of pasturing or yarding sheep, on the lot to be manured, is the only kind practiced. The composition of sheep dung is known to be nearly three times richer in salts than the manure of other stock, the hog included ;* the mechanical structure of this excrement is also better fitted to sink into the soil before it is wasted in the air. Wm. Garbutt, an intelligent farmer on the Genesee river, has advised the pasturing of sheep, at least one year, on the clover field intended to be broken up for wheat, as the certain means of bringing back to the soil those elements which are indispensable to the full development of a crop, in all its original perfection ; to this advice, I believe every vegeta- • Dana's prize essay, p. 22. Still the urine of the hog is twice as rich in ammonia aa that of sheep. No, 85.] 133 h\e physiologlstj who knows the analysis of sheep manure, will set his seal. Still, it is very far from the intention of the writer, to dispute the su- perior valueof clover as the most economical manuring crop. Accord- ing to Boussingault, a ton of green clover affords seventeen pounds of ammonia, while a ton of herds grass, gives but five pounds ; when we add to this the value of the extra quantity of large roots left by the clover in the soil, as compared with the roots of other plants, the superior value of this grass, as a manure, needs no farther comment. This volatile alkali ammonia, is said to be as efficient in converting the humus in the soil, into soluble food for plants, as the fixed alka- lies, potash and soda ; all of which perform a twofold office in the organism of all vegetable structure. ALBANY AGRICULTURAL MEETINGS. Extracts from the report of the discussions at the first Agricultural Meeting, held on March 4, 1844 : Mr. Humphrey, Mayor of Albany, opened the discussion. He said he had a farm a few miles from the city — the soil sandy. A year ago last spring, he carried out 250 bushels of horn shavings. He planted about three acres to corn, and put a very small quantity, only what could be held between the thumb and finger, in each hill, and used no other manure. The corn grew surprisingly, so much so that it attracted the attention of the Shakers as they passed by it ; and they wanted him to have the crop particularly measured at har- vesting. He did so, and found there was 126 bushels of ears, or 63 bushels of shelled corn to the acre. The corn was the small eight rowed kind ; was all sound and very heavy. He thought the land would not have produced over 15 bushels per acre, if he had not used the horn shavings, or other manure. He also used the horn shavings for potatoes, and they did remarkably well. Mr. Bement said he had used horn shavings. He usually made them into compost, with anthracite coal ashes, muck, &c. He had applied this mixture to corn, potatoes and turneps, and found it ex- cellent. He had used hog's bristles ; got about 60 bushels, one year, and used them with potatoes, putting a handful in the hill, at the time of planting. The season was a moist one. Where the bristles were put, the yield was double what it was in other parts of the field, where he used the common quantity of stable or yard manure, though the soil was quite similar. He had also used the refuse of a glue factory, (hair, bits of skin, &c.,) which is a powerful manure. He had used fish, also. A few years ago, he got six barrels of damaged fish, which he used as manure. He facetiously remarked, that he was fond of fish and potatoes, and he thought he would try the effect of mixing them together at planting time. He therefore put half a fish to a hill, on one-half the lot, and on the other half, he put ma- 134 [Senate nure. We did not understand him to say how much manure he used per acre. The soil was a stiff loam. Where the fish were put; the tops were best, through the season, and the yield of potatoes was double what it was on the manured part. The effect of the fish was sihown in the succeeding crops of carrots, oats, &c., for three years. Prof. Emmons said he thought horn shavings were a good manurey probably better than bones. Both contain phosphorus and ammonia, and bones contain lime. Ammonia is an essential ingredient in In- dian corn, being found in the grain. Liebig attributes the action of gypsum to its power of fixing ammonia ; that is, he supposes it to absorb the ammonia existing in the atmosphere, which is thus brought within reach of the plant. Prof. E. would account principally for the action of horns, bones, &c., from their containing the food or ele- ments of plants. He thought the action of the fish spoken of, was prolonged by the animal matter being combined with salt. He spoke of other substances as manure. Nitre, he said, has a tendency to piroduce large stalks, but not so much grain. In regard to the exis- tence of ammonia in the air, and its being brought down by rain and snow. Prof. E. said he had, by evaporation, detected it in snow — it was very perceptible by its scent, and affected the olfactories in the same manner as the hartshorn of smelling bottles. Dr. Lee spoke in reference to the crop of corn raised by Mr. Hum- phrey. He thought the ammonia of the horn shavings, produced the principal effect ; but it was not wholly by supplying the plant with this substance as food — it had a stimulating effect — by which more root and leaf was formed, and the plant enabled to seek and obtain other food, both from the earth and atmosphere. Plants contain 50 per cent of carbon, and they absorb this substance largely by their leaves ; hence, by inducing the plant to put out leaves, its means of obtaining carbon are increased. Common sal ammoniac has beeis found highly beneficial in stimulating the growth of corn — the corn being soaked, before planting, in a solution of this substance. He al- luded to charcoal, which he thinks is the most valuable substance for absorbing ammonia. It is from ammonia that the gluten of wheat is formed ; and when charcoal is applied to the soil, ammonia is given off as the growing wheat plant requires. To show the absorbing power of charcoal, he mentioned that Port wine loses its color on being run through it. He looked for a great increase in the yield of wheat, from the use of charcoal ; he had, himself, already produced wheat heads six and a half inches long, and containing 140 kernels each. He believed that a yield of 60 bushels to the acre, was at- tainable in this country. The English, said he, have now gone be- yond that, and have produced 80 bushels per acre. He thought ashes would be a very valuable manure on the sandy soils in the neighborhood of Albany. The potash would render the fl!int of these sandy soils soluble, by which, material for the straw would be pro- vided, and by adding charcoal and bones, or horn shavings, the am- monia, phosphorus, &c., necessary for the grain, would be supplied. If the charcoal was saturated with urine, it would be better, because this would give the elements of the grain at once. He would also No, 85.J 135 use some lime on such soils ; though where lime is scarce, he would recommend only a moderate quantity, say 10 bushels to the acre. This he would apply at the time of sowing the seed. Clay would probably do well on these sandy lands. Clay has an alkaline qual- ity, and hence its action would be in some degree similar to ashes ; besides it would act mechanically, by rendering the soil more reten- tive of water, &c. Dr. L. alluded again to Mr. Humphrey's corn crop. Mr. H. took off 60 bushels of corn per acre. Now the horn shavings did not actually make half this. What then was taken from the soil 1 In the stalk and leaf, he took off that which, in some shape, should be returned to the land. If, when the corn was husked, the stalks had been immediately plowed back into the land, he thought the matters which the corn had taken out of it, would have been nearly restored. If the stalks were eaten by cattle, then both the dung and urine should be put back on the land. MANURES— THEIR WASTE, &c. BY L. B. LANG WORTHY-. The vast importance to the agricultural community, of manures, is a subject almost too palpable to require my poor aid in enforcing its value and claims; yet I propose to treat the subject in a plain man- ner, adapted to the ability and comprehension of the common every day, practical farmer, which station is the bounds of my ambition in that line. The present days are prolific with able, learned and valuable treatises on the subject. Chemistry and analysis are taking the place of superstitious dogmas and venerable vulgar errors, and some of the great lights of the age are engaged in developing and elucidating the mysteries of manures, which in fact and verity is the true and long sought Philospher'' s Stone, which by-gone credulity supposed gifted with the magic property of turning all substances it touched into gold. The object of this article is to shew the waste and loss of a great part of the valuable properties — the very life blood, heart and soul of manures, as generally made and produced by a great majority of farmers in all parts of the country j even those who are ambitious of being estimated as good practical and economical husbandmen. The great and prominent fault, as I consider it, lies in the exposure of the droppings of animals during the feeding season, promiscuously 136 [Senate over great rambling barn-yards, wholly exposed to the rains and melting snows ; whereby at least three quarters of the true and elementary properties of the manure are leached off and lost. What should we think of the housewife, who, as she gathered her ashes for spring soap-making, should pile them out upon the snow, exposed to all weathers 1 Would not every one exclaim with the prompter, " she does not work it right." In what point are the two processes different 1 It is only the liquid and soluble parts of barn-yard manure, which renders it superior to sawdust j or mere undecomposed vegetable mat- ter J let any one observe a horse dropping deposited in the fall of the year, which has laid exposed to the weather till some day in May ; crush it and it is a dry, pulvurent, inodorous mass of finely cut hay, without taste or smell, and is in fact worth no more than so much stubble, except that it is finer, and if mixed with the soil would sooner decompose and form humus, or the food of plants ; the virtue is washed away by the great floods of winter and spring, and is career- ing on to its destination, the Atlantic ocean. During a rain or thaw, observe the pools, puddles and streams of the dark colored, rich leachings about the barn-yard, that pass off into the next ditch, and are lost. Can this be economy 7 Is there no better process for pre- serving so valuable a material for the farm within the reach of those of ordinary means 1 It has been speciously urged that barn-yards should be concave, or lowest at the center, with vats to contain the liquid manure ; but in most cases it is a fallacy, as the quantity of water that falls on the surface, and the drippings of roofs, and melting of snows, is so great, that it will fill up the hollow of the yard and pass off, nor could any sink or vats be constructed capacious enough to contain the liquids within the ability of common farmers, and even if it were possible, the quantity would be so great and so diluted, that it could in no way be profitably used. Tanks and drains attached to stables where cattle and horses are housed, is undoubtedly a great saving and improvement, for contain- ing the urine, but is such a departure from the habits and customs of our generality of farmers, that it can hardly prevail to any great ex- tent. None but the wealthy, or the parvenuesj will go to the ex- pense, or venture on the innovation. No. 85.] 137 Most barn-yards are too large^ and many are without water, and cattle are obliged to travel half or three-quarters of a mile for drink, and then allowed to wander in the streets or fields for the rest of the day, depositing their droppings where they are of no use, and beyond the reach of the owner. This is decidedly wrong ; if manure is worth any thing, it is worth saving ; and those who are so prodigal of their manure, should go to England, and see thousands of the poor gaining a livelihood by picking up the droppings of animals by the road-side, and selling it to the workers of the soil. Barn-yards should be as small as the stock kept will permit, and care should be taken that descending grounds in the neighborhood do not send their surface waters into them. All surplus straw that cannot be eaten by the stock, should be liberally spread over the yard and under the sheds, to be beaten up and to absorb the liquids ; being composed of hollow cylinders, when once filled with liquid manures, it holds it by capillary attraction, and will not part with it, even in heavy rains, and therefore is an important agent of absorption. But after all, the true way to do the thing right — to make manure and then to save it — is, to stable and litter the animals, and make the manure under cover, and keep it there ; but when inconvenient, it may be thrown out in heaps, the exposure to rains affecting it but lit- tle, in comparison to its lying scattered over an acre of ground. It is a well ascertained fact, that the quantity of food required by the animal system to keep up its natural heat, is greatly influenced by heat and cold. Man or beast, when exposed to excessive cold, require one-third more food than when protected by housing or arti- ficial heat ; the animal stove^ like the mechanical one, requires more fuel in cold weather than in warm ; this is palpable to every obser- ver, with respect to his own person, and is equally applicable to the whole animal creation, and in strict accordance with the eductions of philosophy. How important, then, in the fattening process, or in the mere subsistence of animals, on the score of economy, is protection and warmth for the farm stock — to say nothing on the score of hu- manity— and when the increased value of the manure is taken into consideration, how important becomes the stabling and shed protect- ing system. Another method is practiced with great economy, by the use of feeding sheds ; they should be from twenty to twenty -four feet in 138 [Senate depth, and as long as may be required ; with a double roof, with pur- loin plates to sustain it ; the posts twelve feet long and the beams al ' seven feet from the ground, leaving a large space above for the gene- ral store of hay for winter feeding, with a strong feed rack on the back side, and a long sloping brace every five feet, to protect and give confidence to the underlines, against the master cattle, and yet not sd to confine them, that they cannot see them and change places when they move ; there should be sliding doors every twenty feet in front, to take in the hay, and a row of studs on the back side of the upper story, to cecure a passage of four feet, and an openijig over the rack, to feed through. By having this great depth and small height, snows and storms do not beat in on the open side ; there is space for the whole stock to stand or lie down. How often do we see one or two of the master cattle stand or lie down at their ease, in the common shallow sheds, in such a position as to keep out all the others — when there is room enough, if they could all agree. By this method, you only feed in the sheds, and litter them freely j whereby you insure the greatest part of the manure and urine under cover, by the time spent in eating and sleeping under them, and during storms and excessive cold. At least three-quarters of the whole winter's droppings will be under the sheds — and that three-quarters will be worth more than double the amount of the leached and bleached material which lays five or six months exposed to the elements. You also by this method nave the trouble of stabling and tying up the cattle, and the manipulations of cleaning them and the stables, so objectionable to many persons not educated in that system. If, as Liehig, the great agricultural chemist, asserts, — and proves it too, — that the liquids of absorption contained in the dung of cattle, are worth thirteen times as much as the vegetable matter constituting its bulk, — and there can be no doubt but almost the entire active vir- tues of barn-yard manure reside in the urine and liquid absorption of the solids, — all the salts and ammonia are due to it, the rest is mere vegetable fibre, and constitutes mold when decomposed. Under this state of the case, the system of making and keeping manures under cover, is too palpable to be neglected. In those localities where hay is worth any thing in market, and can be sold at a profit, the great saving in the quantity required to win- No. 85.] 139 ter cattle, becomes a great item, by feeding from racks on deep bins under cover, and in a comfortable and warm stable — in place of scat- tering it on the ground and in the mud, with the animals constantly passing over it with their dirty feet, treading it into the filth and to- tally spoiling it. Let any one who finds his thirty by forty feet barn too small to con- tain both his hay and grain, instead of enlarging it, or building another, put up one of these sheds, sixty or eighty feet long, accord- ing to his stock, and fill it with hay, from the floor to the verge pole, and if he don't find it a comfortable operation on stormy days, and a mine of wealth the year round, then his humble servant will sign a cognovit that he believes wheat will turn to chess. SUBSOIL CULTURE. BY JOHN MACDONALD — PRESIDENT WASHINGTON COUNTY AGRICUL- TURAL SOCIETY. The site of Salem, as all will remember, who have visited that pretty village, is the eastern . extreme of a plain that extends some two miles south and west, with very gentle undulations of surface, and may embrace near 3,000 acres. This plain is surrounded by hills, and constitutes the bottom of a very picturesque, natural basin, that geologists conjecture was once filled with water by Black Creek, from the north, and the Battenkill from the east, and was finally drained through a gap in the hills, by which the " Kill " flows west- ward to the Hudson. Not far from the center of this basin, lies my farm — the surface rolling — the more elevated portions, gravel — and the low glades, loam — all resting on clay at different depths — approaching the surface, however, only in the loam. For 30 years prior to 1834, it was oc- cupied by two industrious tenants, who taxed its productive powers to their utmost capacity — sowing wheat while wheat would grow, and then covering it with rye, year after year. I found the farm so exhausted that it was exceedingly difficult to make grass seed catch without manure — and no wonder — for it did seem as if the gravel soil in some of the easiest tilled, and therefore the most exhausted fields, had been leached^ and little beside clean sand and gravel left. (The course of husbandry adopted, and by which I enjoy both the pleasure and the profit of seeing these gravel fields giving fair promise of returning fertility, may, perhaps, be the subject of a future communication.) The loam too, seemed much impoverished by constant tillage and successive annual cropping — but the mere exhaustion of the soil was not the worst of it ; for in *^ No. 85.] 141 the lower glades there was not sufficient depth of soil for either grass or grain. The surface of rich alluvial lands, it is known, may be so impover- ished by constant tillage and severe cropping, as to become compara- tively barren : but they may be renovated by giving unusual depth to the furrow and bringing up a portion of soil that has never been robbed of its native fertility. But in my case this could not be, for the clay, or rather the sub- soil, composed of clay and sand, in many locations almost impervi- ous to water, and altogether sterile, was found at depths of from four to eight inches from the surface. Here then, were two difficulties — my soil lacked fertility, and it lacked depth. It was not only poor, but there was not enough of it. Its fertility might be restored by manure, but the want of depth was always fatal to the crop, in sea- sons remarkable either for drouth or moisture. The great desideratum, then, was to increase the depth of soil. This could not be done by deep plowing, with the common plow, or by the use of the subsoil plow. The first of these modes is liable to two objections, both of great practical importance. And 1st. In those fields where the depth of soil varies from four to eight inches, a furrow ten inches deep and of the common width, would require the power of two yoke of oxen — and any considerable increase in the depth of furrow would employ the addition of a third team. 2d. Under such culture the soil is buried deep and the subsoil brought to the surface, presenting a clay- cold, pale face. The great amount of manure necessary to bring such land to at once — to give it the hue of health, and the vigor of fertility, I could not at all afford ; and as illy could I avail the slow natural process of amelioration by the frost and the snow of winter, and the showers and the sunshine of summer. My interest required that I should adopt some plan less expensive than the one, and more expeditious than the other. I had long thought of the subsoil plow as an implement adapted to my purpose ; but not until the past winter did I resolve to test theory by experiment, and give subsoil culture a fair trial, deeply im- pressed with the belief that it steered clear of those insuperable ob- jections that exist to the other mode, and that it was well adapted to effect my object in the most perfect manner, and at the least possible •;> 142 [Senate outlay, both of labor and manure. That impression has been deep- ened by experience and observation. At our late cattle show and fair, 1 exhibited my subsoil plow, and am satisfied, not only from the report of a committee, making grati- fying mention of it as a new and valuable implement, and awarding me a premium, but also from the universal curiosity excited by its ex- hibition, and the equally universal marvel " what it could be for," that it may not be out of place here, briefly to describe it and the manner of its working. The subsoil plow is perhaps best described as "the common plow without a mold board," and having in lieu of it, a cast iron plate four or five inches wide, fastened to the share, and running back (with its plane at right angles to the plane of the landsides) to the heel of the plow, when it is elevated about four inches, constituting an inclined plane, over which the clods broken up by the share have to pass, and in their progress are still more broken and displaced. The stilts most convenient, are those commonly used with the side- hill plow. It does its work entirely below the range of the soil plow, and at the bottom of the furrow made by it ; and in ordinary culture a com- mon plow is always employed at the same time with the subsoiler. First goes the soil plow, in the usual way, turning over its slice of soil, and just after it comes the subsoiler, working in the bottom of the new made furrow, thoroughly disturbing and displacing but not inverting the hard subsoil, to the depth (if required) of 14 inches, with No. 1, and 18 or 20 with larger sizes of the plow. Then comes the soil plow again, on its second round, turning over its slice of soil — covering the work of the subsoiler, (not its furrow, for it makes none) and uncovering a new and unbroken line of subsoil for the second round of the subsoiler. Thus they alternate, and experience satisfies me that two teams (one to each plow) will do as much with respect to quantity, depth of furrow and ease of draft, and very much more with respect to efficient and profitable tillage, than three similar teams can, with the common plow in the other mode. Thus at least a third of the team work is saved at the outset, besides being altogether more manageable and convenient. Subsoil culture leaves the soil at the surface, where it is wanted — inverted, but not buried — and by breaking up the subsoil, prepares it No. 85.] 143 for the ameliorating influence of the frosts of winter, and the genial warmth and showers of summer. Whatever may be the culture of the soil, whether it be in grass, in grain, or in fallow — manured or starved — no matter how deep the frost, how fierce the heat, or how refreshing the rain, a stilTand un- kindly subsoil is still just what it was a century ago, and what it will continue to be for ages to come, unless it be disturbed by mechanical action. But let its natural compactness be but once effectually broken up by the subsoiler, and then the frosts pulverize and render it per- meable, rains carry down fertilizing matter, superabundant moisture is let off, the temperature is raised, small roots pioneer downward in search of food and room, and tend still further to fit materials lately so barren, for an active and beneficial agency in sustaining vegetable life. It is generally thought, and seems reasonable to believe, that in porous soils, the rains leach the surface and carry down some of its valuable productive qualities below the reach of ordinary plowing ; and may it not be so, to some extent, with more tenacious soils ? Is it not probable that stiff subsoils may have received and retained that, which when brought to the surface and incorporated. with the upper soil, will add somewhat to its fertility ? At each successive plowing then, let the depth of furrow be gradu- ally increased, thus bringing up to the surface, by little and little, the ameliorated material from below, until sufficient depth of soil is obtained : and it seems quite probable that the occasional use of the subsoiler in after years, would be amply rewarded by an increase of crop, and may indeed be indispensable, again and again, to break up the partially compacted subsoil, and to keep open that kind of under- drain, so universally needed in stiff soils, and especially when under grain. In the course of the summer I have had occasion to break up the graveled waggon track of the highway near my dwelling, and have done it wholly with the subsoiler and a single team. It was severe work certainly for the horses — but with the soil plow, two just such teams would not have stirred it an inch : and with team enoufjh to perform the work, no ordinary plow would have borne the strain for a moment. We thus completed speedily and in the best mannefj with the team, what would have required a comparatively large out- 144 [Senate lay of hand labor — the subsoiler being substituted for the pick, and the team performing the work of at least a half dozen men. Wherever ditches are required, on land sufficiently firm to carry a team, the subsoiler is employed to great advantage. The team needed is a yoke of oxen — the yoke, a piece of scantling long enough to allow each ox sufficient room to travel outside of the ditch — and lengthening the chain, enables you to plow without inconvenience in a ditch two feet deep. My experiments have not been sufficiently accurate or extensive to enable me to state the actual saving, but I am fully satisfied not only that the amount of hard labor is materially abridged, but that the necessity for spading, the hardest part of that labor, is obviated en- tirely. The plow used in making the following experiments, is of the manufacture of Ruggles, Nourse & Mason, of Worcester, Mass., pro- cured from Pruyn, Wilson & Vosburg, of Albany. It is a substan- tial, neat and highly finished implement, as are all the articles of their make that I have happened to see. Experiment J\''o. 1. May 16th. Plowed two acres — in potatoes last season, planted on the sod — soil, a sandy loam, six or eight inches deep — subsoU somewhat clayey. One half of this piece was subsoiled to the depth of eight inches below the bottom of the soil plow furrow, making the whole depth of the culture about fourteen inches. After a dressing of ten loads of rotten dung to the acre, one-half was sown to wheat, and the other to oats, and finished with grass seeds and the roller. Experiment JVo. 2. May 17th. Subsoiled a strip four rods wide, through a field plant- ed with corn the 19th. Soil, deep sandy loam, with occasional gravel knolls. Experiment JVo. 3. Green-sward last year, and planted with potatoes. Soil, similar to No. 1. Plowed 24th May, and half of it subsoiled — sown with oats same day, and treated in all respects like No. 1. The corn crop on No. 2 was good, but had no advantage either in growth or yield over adjacent parts of the field. The experiment was made with the expectation that it would be labor lost, and so it was. But with respect to Nos. 1 and 3, better hopes were at first No. 85.J li5 cherished — hopes early disappointed, and soon abandoned. No bene- fit to any of the crops on 1 or 3 has yet been realized. 'This shows that with a medium depth of soil already under good cultivation — with a subsoil not unusually hard and stubborn — with ten loads of good manure to the acre as a top dressing, and with a favorable season to crown the whole, we need not look for profitable results from subsoil culture, at least the first season. And yet, I con- fess I shall be disappointed if the clover do not feel and show the benefit of it the coming season, a fact that can be certainly and readi- ly determined, for the pieces subsoiled are all accurately marked. None ol that portion of my farm where subsoil culture is expected to be most beneficial, has been under the plow the past season — but in the course of the approaching spring, it is designed to try it on a more extensive scale, and on land better adapted to prove its value. There are three sizes of the subsoil plow. When selecting mine, 1 judged that either of the large sizes would require more than a single team to work it, but from the ease with which a single span of horses draws No. 1, in all ordinary work, I am now satisfied that No. 2 would have better answered my purposes — the greater width of its work, and of course the more complete displacement of clods effected by it, constituting an obvious advantage, and at very trifling cost. K needed, one or more, additional team may be attached without risk, the plow being designed to resist the severest strain. Several of my neighbors witnessed my experiments, and among them were Chief Justice Savage, late President of our County Agri- cultural Society, and Doctor Fitch, its indefatigable and intelligent Secretary — all of whom with one accord pronounced the new plow a very perfect implement, admirably fitted to deepen and to dry thin, hard, and wet soils. My own conclusions, based on repeated trials of the plow, are — 1st. That subsoil culture is the only practicable mode of deepen- ing the soil. 2d. The expense attending it is not materially greater than that of common plowing. 3d. It is entirely practicable to break up the most indurated sub- soil, to any required depth. 4th. The harder the material, the more perfect the breaking up, and the more complete the displacement of the clods. [Senate, No. 85.J K 146 [Senatk 5th. This mode of culture neither buries the soil, nor necessarily brings the subsoil to the surface. 6th. It is the most economical and effectual mode of disposing of superabundant moisture ; and, by consequence, raising the tempera- ture of the soil, destroying mosses, and encouraging the growth of a profitable vegetation. iSo/em, 30th Dec, 1844. TRIAL OF PLOWS. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE TRIAL OF PLOWS AT THE STATE FAIR AT POUGHKEEPSIE. The committee to whom was assigned the duty of instituting a trial of the plows offered for the Society's premiums respectfully report, that there were eight competitors for the premiums on plows, and thirteen plows in all presented for examination. Your committee ap- proached their duties with more hesitation and reluctance, in conse- quence of the great difficulty which has been experienced by the very competent gentlemen who have served on this committee at former meetings of the society, in arriving at a satisfactory conclusion in re- gard to the merits of the plcws exhibited. If the labors of the pre- sent year have been less arduous than heretofore, it should be borne in mind that we have had the benefit of former experience, and also that fewer plows were this year exhibited than on former occasions. We have, however, devoted much time to the details of this trial, with the view of satisfying ourselves at least — if we were unable to satisfy all who were competitors — and entertain the confident belief that in point of equality in land, and fairness of trial, the test now in- stituted approximates as near to correctness as can be expected from the time and the conveniences which are afforded at the annual exhi- bitions of the State Society. The ground furnished for the trial was a rather light soil, and very uniform throughout, showing very little difference in the land assigned to the different plows. Each competitor was first directed to draw a few furrows without the dynamometer attached, to show the work which his plow was ca- pable of doing, after which a test of draft by the dynamometer was had, first with teams, and afterwards by means of a machine furnished by Mr. Chase — one of the competitors — by which the plow was drawn with great steadiness and uniformity. The following table 148 [Senate will show the names of all the competitors, with the result of trial by both methods adopted : No. 1. Peter S. Proseus, Kinderhook, Columbia county — "Co- lumbia premium :" 5 by 13 inches. Average of draft by team, 350 lbs. 6 by 12 " " " " hand, 420 lbs. No. 2. Howard Delano, Mottville, Onondaga county — " Dia- mond, No. 5 :" 6 by 13 inches. Average of draft by team, 287 i lbs. 6 by 12 " " " " hand, 280 lbs. No. 3. M. D. & S. H. Coding—" Coding's American, No. 4 :" 5 J by 14 inches. Average of draft by team, 337 i lbs. Another plow presented by the same gentleman gave 6 by 14 inches. Average draft by team, 337 J lbs.. 6 by 12 " " " hand, 400 lbs. A third plow by same manufacturer : 6^ by 16. Average draft by team, 575 lbs. No. 4. James B. Moore, Wilmington, Delaware — "Moore's self- sharpening plow :" 6 by 14 inches. Average draft by team, 437^ lbs. 6 by 12 " " " hand, 420 lbs. No. 5. W. U. Chase, Amsterdam, Montgomery county — "Mont- gomery county plow :." 5 by 11 inches. Average draft with team, 225 lbs. 6 by 12 " " " " hand, 300 lbs. A second plow presented by Mr. Chase gave 5h by 11 inches. Draft by team, 275 lbs. A third plow presented by Mr. Chase gave 5 i by 12 inches. Average draft by team, 225 lbs. No. 6. A. Hawley, Brooklyn, Long Island — " Bergen plow :" 6 by 12 inches. Average draft by team, 275 lbs. 6 by 12 " " , " hand, 350 lbs. Second plow : 6 by 12 inches. Average draft by team, 275 lbs. 6 by 12 " " " hand, 300 lbs. No. 7. Edgar Sleight, Fishkill— " Revenue Cutter :" 5 1 by 12 inches. Average draft by team, 250 lbs. No. 85. 1 149 No. S. Thomas D, Burrall, Geneva, Ontario county — " Shell- wheel plow :" 5 .8 by 12.8 inches. Average draft by team, 24H lbs. 6 by 12 " " " hand, 260 lbs. " BurralPs plain plow." 6 by 13 inches. Average draft by team, 325 lbs. « « " " hand, 375 lbs. It is proper for the committee here to remark that the first trial by teams was made by a dynamometer manufactured by Mr. Burrall. The trial by hand was made by an article of different construction, manufactured by Mr. Chase. Both these gentlemen kindly allowed these instruments to be used for testing all the plows presented. Your committee, after mature deliberation, have agreed upon the following awards, viz : To Howard Delano, of Mottville, for his Diamond plow, No. 4, the first premium of $15. To Thomas D. Burrall, of Geneva, for his Shell-wheel plow, the second premium — a silver medal. To W. U. Chase, of Amsterdam, the committee recommend to the society to award a discretionary premium of $5, for his Montgomery county plow. To M. D. & S. H. Coding, of Rochester, for their American plow, a Diploma. In addition to those to which the above premiums have been awarded, there were several other plows well calculated for light soils, but which, in our opinion, would not answer for heavy and rugged lands. Of this character are the Bergen plows, the draft of which, it will be observed, is light. The " Plain plow" presented by Mr. Bur- rall, we should judge well calculated for doing its work in a proper manner, although requiring more force to move it than is required for several others presented. The committee were also charged by the society with the examina- tion of the dynamometers presented for trial. After an examination and triiil in testing the plows, we have awarded to W. U. Chase, of Amsterdam, Montgomery county, a premium of $20. To Thomas D. Burrall, of Geneva, a premium of $7. To Seymour, of Hartford, Conn., a Diploma. The gang of plows presented by Thomas Wiard, of East Avon, Li- 150 [Senate vingston county, was also examined, (it having been previously used and tested by one of the committee,) and is considered a very valua- ble and useful implement for covering seed grain of any kind, or for working and pulverizing summer fallows, &c. It will do vastly more work than the common plow, in a given time, and in a workmanlike manner. We recommend that a premium of $15 be given to Mr. Wiard. All which is respectfully submitted. R. HARMON, Jr. E. COMSTOCK. WHEAT. At the third of the series of Agricultural Meetings, held in Alba- ny during the winter of 1844, the subject under discussion being the culture of wheat in the southern tier of counties. Dr. D. Lee made, substantially, the following remarks : Mr. President ; The question for investigation this evening, I be- lieve to be this : " Is it practicable, and if so, will it be profitable, to *' grow wheat south of the limestone strata that extend west to lake ** Erie, through the central portion of this State ?" The soil in the region alluded to, is based on shale and freestone rocks, and lacking lime, its sulphates and phosphates, it is but poorly adapted to wheat culture. Practically then, the question to be solved is this : How much lime, sulphur and phosphorus must be added to the shale and freestone soils in the southern tier of counties, to make them good wheat lands, and what will be the expense per acre 1 If we take 100 lbs. of ripe wheat, including roots, stem and head, and burn it in the open air, about 97 per cent of its weight will be con- verted into vapor and gas, and escape into the atmosphere. The ash, or 3 per cent left, will, on analysis, show the earthy elements neces- sary to produce this grain. Liebig and Johnston both quote the fol- lowing analysis, made by Sprengel, as entitled to confidence ; — Wheat Ash» Potash, 0.6 Soda, 0.8 Lime, 6.8 Magnesia, . . , « 0.9 Silica (flint,) 81.6 Alumina, and oxide of iron, 2.6 Phosphoric acid, , 4.8 Sulphuric acid 1.0 Chlorine, 0.9 100.0 When it is recollected that there is never more than three or four per cent of the above earthy substances in wheat, and that silica (sand) composes 81 .6 per cent of even that small portion, it will not I trust, be deemed incredible if I express the opinion that, by the aid 152 [Senate of a little practical science, good wheat may be grown profitably in any county in the State. This plant has been raised in a great variety of artificial soils,- where each ingredient was carefully weighed, both before and after the plant was taken from the earth. By careful analysis, what the soil had lost, and what the plant had gained, was susceptible of de- monstration. A very large portion of the elements of all cultivated plants comes from the atmosphere. The precise amount dependinff alike on the composition of the soil and the nature of the particular plant upon which the experiment was made, I regard it as a fact of great practical importance, that wood asheSy even leached ashes, so abundant in the southern tier of counties, con- tain all the earthy elements of this invaluable bread-bearing plant, Compare the following table, showing the constituents of beech ash,, with that of wheat ash. This is also taken from Sprengel : Beech Ash„ Silica (sand,) 5 .52 Alumina (basis of clay,) . . « 2.33 Oxide of iron, 3 .77 " manganese, 3 . 85 Lime, 25.00 Potash, , 22.11 Soda, "3 . 32 Sulphuric acid, ... . 7.65 Phosphoric acid, 5 . 62 Chlorine, 1.84 Carbonic acid, 14 . 00 100.00 Maple, birch and other wood, contain the same minerals. Note the 25 per cent of lime in the above analysis, being larger than that of potash. Our primitive forests have been for centuries drawing the above earthy constituents of wheat from the soil. And instead of carefully preserving this indispensable raw material of good wheaten bread, thousands of bushels of leached ashes have been thrown away ! Being but slowly decomposed by the vital action of plants, ashes are an enduring fertilizer, when compared with stable manure. Mixed with quicklime, their good effects are more speedi- ly obtained. Lime will render alumina either in the soil or in leach- ed ashes, soluble in water, so that it can enter the minute pores of roots. Clay in the soil is always combined with a large portion of silica, and before it has been exhausted by continuous cropping, it holds in combination considerable potash and soda. Lime, by com- bining with alumina, the basis of clay, liberates these alkalies and silica, w^hich uniting chemically, form soluble silicates of potash and soda. These also enter into the circulating nourishment of plants, and are decomposed in the stems of grasses and cereals. The silica goes to make vegetable bone, to keep the plant upright, while the potash and soda go back to the earth to dissolve as before, another No. 85.] 153 portion of saiid, to be also absorbed, and transformed into bone. It is in this way that a few ashes applied to a sandy soil, will enable grass and grain to take up the 81 per cent of flint found in their ashes. Lime will do the same thing on clay soils, for the simple rea- son that they generally do not lack potash, soda, and magnesia. The quantity of lime and ashes to be applied to an acre, will de- pend entirely on their cost at the place where they are to be used. A few bushels will be of essential service ; but a larger dose will be better. I come now to speak of the organic elements of the wheat plant, which as I have already intimated, form ninety-six or seven per cent of its substance. Water and its constituents, oxygen and hydrogen, carbon and nitrogen, are the four elementary ingredients of all culti- vated plants, beside their minerals. As there is no lack of water or of its elements, oxygen and hydrogen, our attention will be confined to obtaining a full supply of carbon and nitrogen. These are indis- pensable, and fortunately nature has provided an amount of carbon and nitrogen in the air, if not in the soil, more than equal to all the wants of vegetation. A large portion of the fertilizing elements of vegetable mold in a rich soil is carbon, and a small portion is nitro- gen ; both of which are usually combined with other substances. These important elements are often nearly exhausted in fields which have been unwisely cultivated ; and I have paid much attention to the subject of cheap and practicable renovation. By the aid of clover and buckwheat dressed with gypsum, ashes, lime, or manure, and plowed in when in blossom, much can be done in the way of augmenting the rich vegetable mold so desirable to a certain degree in all soils. Straw, corn-stalks, leaves of forest trees, and swamp muck made into compost with lime and ashes, are of great value. Charcoal well pulverized, and saturated^with urine, I regard as the cheapest and most useful fertilizer that can be applied to a poor soil, for the production of wheat or almost any other crop. The earths contained in charcoal, as the analysis of its ash demon- strates, are identical with the earths found in the wheat plant. Coal contains a very large portion of carbon, and will imbibe from the at- mosphere a large quantity of nitrogen in the form of ammonia and its carbonates. Unlike stable manure, the salts of lime, potash, soda and magnesia, it will not waste by premature solution nor by evapo- ration. On the contrary, it is of incalculable value to mix with the liquid and solid excretions of all animals, to alsorb and fix in a tan- gible condition those volatile, fertilizing elements, which are so prone to escape beyond our reach. When it is recollected that without nitrogen in some form, it is utterly impossible to grow one kernel of good wheat, and that a pint of human urine or four quarts of that of the cow, or one quart of that of the horse fed on grain, contain nitrogen enougti to supply 60 lbs. of wheat, we may begin to understand something of the money value of this animal product. But mind this suggestion 154 [Senate Nothing is sooner lost than the hartshorn in an open smelling-bottlcj or a large share of the ammonia in free urine in a warm atmosphere. Charcoal and gypsum will absorb it in large quantities, and give it out to the roots of plants as their wants require. In feeding plants, great judgment should be exercised. At least one-half of the food fed out to them in the shape of stable and barn-yard manure, is en- tirely lost. It escapes into the air, or is dissolved prematurely, and carried like the potash in water running through a leach, beyond the reach of your hungry, if not starving plants. I have just separated a half pound of wheat-flour into its proxi- mate elements of starch and gluten. The gluten I have in my hand. It is nearly identical with animal muscle. It forms from 7 to 35 per cent of the bulk of wheat kernels. The more glutt n flour contains, the more good bread a given number of pounds will make. A bar- rel of flour rich in gluten, will make 10 per cent more of bread than one which is nearly all starch. Gluten will bear far more water than starch. The quantity of this meat-forming principle in wheat, de- pends in a good degree on the quantity of nitrogen in the soil where the wheat is grown. Prof. Emmons made some interesting experiments, illustrative of soils. He also exhibited some beautiful specimens of the separation of starch and gluten in kernels of wheat and corn ; and also of the phosphates in the latter grain. At the sixth meeting, Mr. O'Reilly briefly alluded to the diminish- ed average of the crops, even in the best wheat growing regions of the state, as furnishing strong reasons for energetic action in adopting- improved modes of cultivation, so as to produce better crops, while renovating the impoverished soil. He stated the results of inquiries which he had made from several of the most intelligent wheat buyers and flour manufacturers — foremost among whom was Hervey Ely, of Rochester, who had furnished him with some data, and would furnish more, concerning the condition of the wheat crops for each year, in quality, quantity and price, during the last thirty years — Mr. Ely having been one of the earliest, as he has been one of the most ex- tensive flour manufacturers in the Genesee country — commencing with the second mill established at Rochester, when that place was yet nearly a wilderness, in 1814. No flour was manufactured at Ro- chester, except the grists for local use, until 1814, when a few hun- dred barrels were sent to the troops on the Niagara frontier ; which was followed the next year, after the peace with England, by the ex- portation of a few hundred barrels to Montreal and other Canadian ports — the business increasing since then in a ratio that has finally rendered Rochester capable of packing more flour annually than any other city in the world. Such has beeen the depreciation of the wheat crops, owing to exhaustion of the soil, consequent on ill- judged farming, (said Mr. O'R.,) that, extraordinary as the assertion may seem, the product of the wheat lands between the Seneca lake No. 85.J 155 and Niagara river has not, for the last three or four years, exceeded the low average of eleven or twelve bushels per acre I Indeed, he had authority for declaring that, in reference to a single county (Seneca,) possessing unsurpassed natural capacity for producing wheat, " the average yield is now not over ten bushels per acre on lands which, twenty years ago, freely yielded twenty." Is the wheat crop better any where in Western New-York than in Seneca 1 And such being the remarkable depreciation in one of the finest wheat growing regions of the world, how strongly does the simple fact proclaim the great necessity of renovating the soil so as to restore its pristine vigor, and to produce increased crops while enriching rather than impoverishing the land. The average of the wheat crop in England may be stated at twenty-eight or thirty American bushels per acre for a series of years. With a soil of unsurpassed natural qualities, requiring compa- ratively little labor and expense for its renovation — with the flood of light which modern science and English perseverance have shed upon the culture of wheat and other grains, as well as [the improvement of domestic animals — with all the incitements possessed by the Ame- rican farmer, and all the advantages within his reach — it cannot be doubted that the intelligent wheat growers of the state of New-York will soon repair themischiefs which slovenly cultivation has produced — will soon restore the land to primeval fertility capable of producing at least double the amount of the present crops — if not crops rivaling the generaLaverage|of British wheat husbandry. Even the average of thirty bushels, taken for a series of years, is not a fair criterion of what can be produced on lands of like natural quality with those of Western New-York when well cultivated. Forty, fifty, aye sixty bushels of good wheat have been produced on some acres in Genesee Valley* — still larger crops sometimes occur in England. Though such results may not readily be reached by all farmers, no farmer can suffer by taking for his example a high standard in agriculture any more than in morality. Complaints of " hard times" would soon be rendered less prevalent, were the twelve millions of bushels of wheat now ordinarily produced annually in our State, increased even thirty per cent — and they might be increased a hundred per cent without surpassing the annual average per acre in the Genesee country ten or twenty years ago — yet even then fall thirty per cent below the low- est average of the British wheat crops. Gen. Harmon, of Wheat- land, deserves the thanks of the community for the efforts made on his experimental farm for improving the quality of our great staple; and the Wadsworths, and other large land proprietors of the west, now find ample scope for enlightened enterprise in stimulating atten- tion to the importance and practicability of increasing largely the • In 1803, Peter Shseffer, one ofthe veteran pioneers of Western New-York, raised forty acres of white-chaffwheat on the Genesee flats— (where was gr-^wn in 1788, the first wheat crop ever cultivated in Western NevvYorIf) — which crop ol 40 acres averaged sixty-two and a half bushels per acre. In 1833, Gen. Harmon, a neighbor of Mr. Shaefifer, (from wliom Mr. O'R. had his information,) raised sixty-seven and a quartei bushels of the same wheat on an acre and a quarter. [Gen. Harmon is the well-known experimenter in cultivating varieliesof wheat. 1 Instances might be multiplied, were not the knowledge ofthe former large crops of the Genesee country well known, and were not large crops yet realized by those who pay proper attention to manuring the land and rotation of crops. 156 [Senate quantity of grain produced in that far-famed wheat growing region. And in what section of the State that has ever borne wheat, may not wheat crops be again advantageously produced by proper cultivation ? Dr. Lee, of the Assembly, remarked that it was a knowledge of such facts, showing the depreciation of the wheat lands of Western New-York, that mainly induced him, years ago, to turn attention to the subject of improved modes of cultivating that grain. He referred to the vast importance of the subject ; and was rejoiced to perceive the attention now awakening towards the policy of improving the crops while renovating the soil. Additions cheaply made to even worn out soils — supplying them with the comparatively small amount of ingredients essential to the production of grain, and without which wheat cannot be grown — would richly repay the farmer, and vastly enhance the wealth of the state. Analysis shows that a very small portion of the nutriment of wheat comes from the soil ; but that por- tion must be restored in some form, as lime or otherwise, if we ex- pect to make the earth yield profitable returns for ourl abor. After some further remarks, on motion of Mr. O'Reilly, a resolu- tion was adopted, requesting Hervey Ely, of Rochester, to furnish further information of the condition of the w^heat culture in Western New -York, for the last thirty years — or since the commencement of the flour manufacture in that region — showing the average annual quality, quantity and price, between Cayuga lake and the Niagara river — with such observations as his experience and reflections may suggest respecting the mode of culture that has been, and that which should be, adopted by wheat growers, for renovating their lands. Mr. O'R. remarked that this was imposing a heavy duty ; but he felt assured that Mr. Ely would not shrink from furnishing facts and ar- guments with which he is amply supplied on this important subject. DUTCHESS COUNTY— DR. BEEKMAN'S ADDRESS. Extracts from the address of Dr. Beekman, before the Dutchess County Agricultural Society: I commenced this addressby propounding the query — " Where is the farm that will now upon the average yield forty bushels of wheat to the acre V If in this assemblage there is one individual who owns that farm, and realizes, positively realizes that result, I will here stop, and respectfully ask him to give us the benefit of his practice and intelli- gence. No one speaks. If not forty, then thirty ; if not thirty, then twenty. With less I cannot be content ; because with less, although it might be an improvement, it would not be so decided as that the man's experience would be of essential benefit. They have raised seventy — eighty bushels of wheat to the acre in England ; and shall we, the freemen of America, who own the soil and its improvements, No. 85.] 157 be content with less than twenty 1 No ! I will raise the standard higher. It must be doubled, and let no farmer stop until he comes up to the average of forty. We cannot accomplish great things if we do not attempt thom, and success is only to be won by effort. Be- tween sixty-eight and sixty-nine bushels of wheat to the acre have been raised in the town of Wheatlanil, Monroe county, in this State, as stated by Gen. Harmon, of Monroe. Here is a proof that it may be done, because it has been done in this Stale — and if in that portion of it, why not in this? why not in Columbia, the adjoining county? although it is true that one soil is better adapted 1o the growth of wheat than another. But these counties were formerly considered wheat counties, and if they were so once they may be made so again. They only lost their character when they lost their fertility by our exhausting mode of farming. Restore to the soil what you have ta- ken ; give what a little labor will procure — a moiety of its decompo- sed vegetable products — and you will soon retrieve its character and fertility together. Wheat was originally a wild plant, the kernel much smaller than it is now^j and we hear of it first in the East. But we know nothing definite as to the era in which it first appeared, the country that pro- duced it, nor at what time it was first used as the food of man. Its growth is co-extensive with the world, and whether sown under the tropics or in northern latitudes, it always matures, and furnishes the same valuable and nutritive food. It will thrive in all climes, and man can avil himself of it in all places. It is so well adapted to his support, that bread made from it is justly termed " the siaffof life." A plant that is so useful, both as an article of food, and a means cf com- merce, surely ought to draw our most careful attention to its success- ful cultivation. It is a hardy plant ; what it wants is a rich, clean soil, well pulverized, and to be sown in season. Its component parts, chemists tell us, are " carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen, toge- ther with silex, lime, potash, soda, magnesia, alumina, chlorine, sul- phur, phosphorus and a trace of iron." But a more simple division for the farmer would be to say that a kernel of wheat consists of its skin or covering, and the interior of starch or gluten. Its nutritive powers are proportionate to the quantity of its gluten, and different kindsproduceit in different degrees. The State of New- York, in 1840, produced between twelve and thirteen millions of bushels — the Uni- ted States about eighty-five millions — and as far as statistics cany us, it is thought that there are raised from six to eight hundred millions in Europe alone. An article so much used, so much sought after, and so necessary to our existence, deserves all the consideration we can give it, and much more than it now receives. We have spoken of the plant generally — we will now say something of its varieties. In England, where it is carefully cultivated, they are divided into a large number, each with its corresponding name, sometimes given to it from the appearance and color of the berry, the head or the straw, or from the district in which it is cultivated. All these to us are unimportant. Here we have fewer varieties, and hence have fewer names. We have from a 158 [Senate dozen to about twenty ; but it is useless to recapitulate them, except so far as to call them the white and the yellow, the smooth head and the bearded. Whether the white wheat or the yellow, the smooth or Jhe bearded is best, it is not now my province to determine. Pariicu- lar varieties do best in particular locations, and of that each farmer must judge for himself by his own observation and experience. If he wishes to consult authorities on the subject, I would refer him to a Prize Essay, for which a premium was awarded by the New- York State Agricultural Society, to Rawson Harmon, of Wheatland, Mon- roe county. His remarks are practical, and he gives the result of a series of experiments in cultivating different varieties, to ascertain which is the most productive, and in which he is still engaged. Wheat will not grow in a poor, grassy or weedy soil. It must have clean land — rich land — carefully plowed, and be carefully covered. It will not contend for the mastery with grass or weeds, but it will have the whole or nothing ; and how easy it is to gratify it in these particulars, as it conduces so materially to onr interest. Besides, good farming requires it. There was a time in the district of country in which I live, when all fields of wheat had more or less of rye, cockle, chess, &c. Indeed it was thought it could not be raised with- out these. But now the slovenly practice which then prevailed has given way to its more cleanly culture, and if you will raise it, for your credit's sake, if from no other consideration, grow wheat and wheat alone. Still it is a precarious crop. But our country is so ex- tensive, with a climate so varied, that although the demand for it is so great, still we have almost always had an abundant supply. Lat- terly in this section of country, except within the last two or three years, it had the grain worm to contend with. This was a destructive enemy, and for two or three years cut off entire crops. During its ravages it was, however, noticed that its appearance was at a certain time of the season, and that wheat that was forward on warm land escaped it in whole or in part, while the later sown or backward was often entirely cut off. To sow the last week in August was the remedy proposed, so as to bring the wheat to as early maturity in the suc- ceeding summer as possible. This was found the best plan to escape the ravages of the grain worm. For two or three years, in conse- quence I presume of early sowing, we were not visited by it ; still this last season it has again been somewhat prevalent. The Hessian fly is another enemy destructive of wheat. It appears and disappears without any obvious cause ; but sowing after a frost is thought to de- stroy it. There is, undoubtedly, much force in the suggestion. For a more full and extended account of the insects which prey upon wheat, and the diseases to which it is subject, I refer to a series of Es- says on the insects injurious to the farmer and gardener, written by the late Willis Gaylord, which received the premium of $50 from the New- York State Agricultural Society. These Essays ought to be in the hands of every farmer. He will at once see the number of in- sects he has to contend with, and that prey upon his growing crops and fruit, and derive practical lessons of their habits, and manner of No. 85.] 159 extirpation, that will repay him a thousand fold for their expense and perusal. By early sowing, the plant before winter has taken deep root, and sent forth abundance of foliage ; the falling snow presses it to the earth, and the roots are well protected against succeeding frosts and winds. To feed off this foliage in the autumn I consider bad farm- ing ; for, independent of maiming the plant, it removes part of the covering it ought to have for its protection ; for how often do we hear of wheat being winter killed by exposure ? I believe it likewise to be an effectual remedy against the heaving of the plant in clay lands from alternate thaws and frosts. The root having struck down deep, and the ground and top of the plant being well covered, it is at least good sense to infer that such would be the result ; and I must say that my own experience confirms it. In the selection of seed for sowing, due care ought to be taken that we have not only the best variety in use, but that it is all of one kind; that it is perfectly clean ; that it weighs over sixty lbs. to the bushel, and that the seed is large and plump. All these are material conside- rations, and will have an effect not only on the growing crop, but also on its ultimate value. Diseased wheat of any description ought not to be sown. Many applications to prevent a future crop from partaking of the evil have been suggested — such as liming, &c. There is no doubt some efficacy in them, but the safest way to prevent mis- chief from such sources is to sow none but the cleanest seed. Throw- ing a heap of cleaned wheat from one end of the barn floor to the other — called casting — is an excellent plan to collect for sowing the choicest ker- nels. The largest, being the heaviest, are thrown farthest ; those of a smaller size will not be thrown so far, while the lightest will sooner drop to the floor. I make these suggestions as they have occurred to me in relation to the culture of wheat. Perhaps there may not be in them a single new idea that has not occurred to the intelligent farmers before me, and been put to the test of experiment. Still my object in the remarks I have made will be fully answered should they be the means of drawing your attention to an investigation of this subject in all its bearings. JEFFERSON COUNTY— MAJOR KIRBY'S REPORT. Extracts from the Report of E. Kirby, to the Jefferson County Agricultural Society : Some estimate may be formed of the importance of judicious selec- tions of seed by referring to our recently harvested wheat crop. The season has been propitious, and until just before harvest, the prospect of a great crop was most flattering, but besides sustaining considera- ble damage from rust, we have been assailed by a new enemy —the grain worm, commonly called the weevil, which has committed great ravages and combined with rust, has utterly destroyed many promising 160 [Senate fields and discouraged some of our best farmers, from cultivating wheat at all. This insect makes its appearance within the husk, soon after the grain heads out, and if the kernel is not already formed, it feeds upon the juices intended by nature to nourish the grain, and leaves a barren husk. If, however, the kernel is fairly developed, and has acquired some consistency before the insect makes its appear- ance, the attack is harmless. This circumstance indicates the reme- dy— namely, the selection of early varieties of wheat, good tillage and early sowing. The red-chaff-bald-wheat, the kind hitherto most extensively in used throughout the county, has suffered most. The Kentucky white- bearded-wheat, better known among us as the Canada-flint, has been recently introduced into the county. It has thus far almost entirely escaped injury from either rust or the insect. It has given heavier yields, than any other variety under cultivation in the county. In the same field and under the same treatment, it has this year ripened eight days earlier than the red-chaff-bald. To this doubtless may be ascribed its exemption from damage by rust or the grain worm, for in the field referred to, in the town of Brownville, 14 bushels of the Canada-flint sowed upon 7 acres, produced 172 bushels, or 24 34-60 buphels per acre of beautiful clean wheat, while 8 bushels of clean seed, of the red-chaff-bald, upon 4 acres, yielded but 30 46-60 bush- els, or 7 41-60 bushels per acre of shrunken grain. In the early part of the season there was no marked difference in the appearance or promise of the different parts of this field; the red-chaff-bald was de- stroyed by rust and the grain worm, while the Canada-flint escaped by reason of its ripening earlier. It is the prevailing opinion, among those who have cultivated both of these varieties — and the committee think it well founded — that though the rust may strike the Canada-flint, the berry shrinks much less than the red-chaff-bald, under the same circumstances. In fact, this variety seems less liable to rust than others equally exposed at the same stage of growth. Rawson Harmon, Jr., of Monroe county, the most careful experi- menter upon seed wheat, and the best authority upon the subject in the state, recommends this variety, especially for " clay soils, or where wheat is late in ripening," and for its stiff straw which prevents it from lodging; but his opinion that it is more liable to injury by in- sects " than some other varieties," is not confirmed by experience in this county as compared with any variety cultivated here. Mr. Harmon also highly recommends the " improved white-flint- wheat." It has been introduced into the county this year, and we shall soon be able to judge whether it is superior, or equal to the Canada-flint in its capability to resist the evils which trouble us. No. 85.] 161 NIAGARA COUNTY— MR. PARSON'S REPORT. Extract from the report to the State Agricultural Society, by Wm. Parsons, President of Niagara County Society : It is probably well known that wheat is the great and leading arti- cle of produce in Niagara county. But large amounts of other crops are annually produced, to wit : corn, oats, barley, potatoes, wool, &LC. The course pursued by a majority of our farmers, in the rais- ing of wheat, is to summer fallow with three plowings, and twice as many harro wings. Sow from 1st to 10th September, and harrow in thoroughly. The last plowing is in lands from 16 to 20 feet in width, carefully cleaning out the ditches between the lands, and making cross ditches as may be necessary to drain off all the water. Others, (and more especially a class of Germans from Pennsylvania,) apply all their manure to the wheat fallow, between the first and second plow- ings, and by a very light third or fourth plowing, generally with one horse, cover the seed. But the most general course is to apply all the manure to the corn and potatoe crops, followed with peas and barley, then wheat, and seed down with clover and timothy grass, sown upon the wheat in the month of March. Others, again, (and these are increasing,) plow but once^ and that in June, with four horses, or an equivalent, 8 or 10 inches in depth, being careful to do the work well — follow with the roller — pulver- ize the surface to the depth of five or six inches with the harrow and two horse cultivator, and cover the seed with the same, or sometimes with a shovel plow. During the summer, sheep and cattle are allow- ed to occupy the field, and if any fine or rotted manure can be obtain- ed, it is applied to the surface, and mixed with the soil and seed with the cultivator. In this way large crops of wheat are produced, whole fields yield- ing from 30 to 40 bushels per acre. I._WINTER WHEAT. MR. AYRES' STATEMENT. Statement of Elias J. Ayres, of Tompkins county, relative to the culture of his wheat crop, which received the State premium of $15, and which yielded 114 bushels 58 lbs. on two acres. The soil on which the above crop was raised was a clayey loam, resting on a clayey subsoil. An under drain was cut in the field on which the above crop was raised, some 15 years since, and I believe the first one cut in this town — the plan of which was adopted from directions in the Memoirs of the Transactions of the board of the old State Agricultural Society, It has succeeded completely to drain the land, until this time, and before which half an acre or more was too [Senate, No. 85.] L 162 [Senate wet profitably to raise a grain crop ; and is I think a practical de- monstration of the utility of the circulation of agricultural writings. The previous crop was clover, mowed twice, once for hay, and once for seed. In the spring of 1843, the clover was allowed to grow until it was about twelve inches high, when eighteen loads, one-third cord per load, of long barn-yard manure per acre, was spread on the ground, and that, together with the clover, was all carefully turned under with the plow, about eight inches deep. The ground was then harrowed, and subsequently harrowed again. After harvest time, the ground was cross plowed, and again harrowed. Near the latter part of August it was again plowed, twelve loads of chaff, which had lain two or three weeks in the hollow of the barn-yard, and had received some of the soakings of the barn-yard, but was now nearly dry, was carefully and evenly spread on the ground. The wheat was then sowed, one and one-half bushels per acre, on the first day of Septem- ber, which completed the cultivation. Not one grain of chess, or cockle, I believe, was found in the whole crop. Indeed I have nearly eradicated these pests from my farm — and which I think can be wholly done, if strict perseverance accom- panies peculiar care, and which I think is the strongest practical proof against transmutation. The following is nearly the amount of the expenses: Thirty-six loads of long manure, 25 cts. per load, $9.00 One day spreading, 63 cts .63 Two days' plowing, with boy to rake in the furrows, at $1.75 cts - 3.50 Half day harrowing, 75 cts. — do. half day, 1.50 Two days plowing and harrowing, 3 .00 One and one-half day's plowing, $1.50 cts 2.25 Twenty- four loads of chaff, 25 cts 6 .00 Plowing and harrowing, 1 . 00 Three bushels seed wheat, $1, 3 .00 Harvesting and getting into barn, 7 .50 Thrashing, cleaning and measuring, 10 . 00 Surveying, 50 cts .50 Interest on two acres of land at $50 per acre, 7 .00 $54.85 Receipts for 114-g| bushels of seed wheat, at 87 i cts. per bushel, $100.59 Straw, 2 .00 Total receipts, $102 .59 Total expense, 54 . 85 Profits of two acres of land, $47.74 No. 85.] 163 MR. WATSOn's statement. Statement of Matthew Watson, of Ontario county, relative to his crop of wheat, yielding 215 bushels on 4 acres and 12 perches, or at the rate of 52 J bushels per acre, as fully attested by surveyor and witnesses, and which received the State premium of $15. The ground was seeded with clover on wheat in the spring of 1840, and kept for pasture till December 1842, when it was plowed. In June 1843, in August 1843, and about the first of September 1843, it was plowed and harrowed each time. It was sowed by hand on the 11th of September, with eight bushels of red chaff-bald wheat. The soil is black loam mixed with some clay and gravel — no other manure used than what might result from pasturing and clover roots. It was harvested about the last of July, and threshed in the lot with a machine and cleaner attached, and put once through the fanning-mill. The expense of plowing the ground four times, was about $18.00 " harrowing, was about 6 . 00 " seed and sowing, 3 .75 " harvesting and stacking, 8 . 00 " threshing and cleaning, 17 .33 Whole expense, $53 .08 MR. SELOVEr's statement. The following statement was made to the Tompkins County Agri- cultural Society, by John Selover, of that county. A fuller authen- tication by affidavits would have been more satisfactory to many : Wheat Crop. — From 7J acres on my farm, in Ithaca, I raised 285 bushels of winter wheat, a fair sample of which is herewith exhibited. From 2 acres less 10 rods of which, (and which I measured off accu- rately) I raised, harvested and thrashed 115 bushels by weight at 60 lbs. to the bushel or about 59 i bushels to the acre. The soil is a clayey loam, naturally wet, but greatly improved by an under drain or blind ditch, cut several years since. Before the wheat crop, the ground for four years had been sodded with clover and timothy and used as pasture for cattle and hogs. The only manure the ground received previous to the crop, was the droppings of the cattle and hogs in pasturing, and soakings from my barn-yard, which was near by — no manure was carted or drawn upon the ground. About the last of May 1843, I carefully turned under the sod. During the summer I plowed the ground three times and harrowed it thoroughly intermediate each plowing. By this process I entirly subdued the Canada thistles, with which it was infested. I sowed the wheat 1| bushels to the acre, on the 5th of September and harrowed it in. The wheat is the kind known as the Hutchinson wheat, with a slight mix- ture of the red chaffed bald. I harvested the crop July 18, 1844, and drawed it into the barn and thrashed it out about the 1st of August. 164 [Senate MR. MACGONEGAL's STATEMENT. Statement of John McGonegal, of Irondequoit, relative to the cul- tivation of two acres of Wheat, yielding 46|f bushels per acre, made to the Monroe County Agricultural Society : The kind of soil on which my crop of wheat was grown, is a sandy loam. The previous crop was wheat, which I harvested two years before, and seeded with clover in the spring before harvesting. The next summer, after the clover began to head, I turned in my cattle, and soon after commenced plowing the lot, which has about fifty acres in it : that part measured off was plowed about the middle of June. About the first of August, harrowed over well ; cross plowed the last of August ; plowed again the second week in September, and sowed the 11th and 12th of September. There has not been any ma- nure drawn on for ten years, except plaster, which I sowed on the clover in the spring, before plowing. I sowed about 1 bushel and 8 quarts per acre, of the red chaff bald variety, limed before sowing. Harvested some of the last days in August, which was cut with a sickle, bound and put up in three or four days, and drawn into the barn and thrashed the fore part of September, and measured. The expense I cannot come at very exactly, as it was plowed with the rest of the field each time. Plowing three times |5 . 25 Harrowing i 2.63 2i bushels of seed 2 .25 Reaping, binding, and setting up 4 . 00 Drawing in 2.50 Thrashing and cleaning 7 .00 Whole expense $23 .63 MR. LUCAS' STATEMENT. The two following statements are from the proceedings of Oneida County Agricultural Society, giving the method of culture of the two premium crops in that county : Eli B. Lucas, Kirkland ; for 38 bushels 39 lbs. per acre — soil, red clay ; previous crop, potatoes. Four plo wings ; depth of furrow, six inches ; II bushels of seed per acre, sown on the 8th of Septem- ber. The expense of cultivation, seed, and interest on land, $21.70 Value of grain, at $1 per bushel $38 .55 Value of straw 2 . 00 40.55 Nett profit per acre $18 .85 No. 85.J 165 MR. Wright's statement. William Wright, of Vernon — Soil, gravel ; previous crop. Barley. Well plowed,, with six inches depth of furrow ; two bushels seed per acre, sowed the first of September. Thirty-six busheL-; and 28 lbs. per acre. Value of grain at $1, $36 .28 Straw 2.00 $38.28 Expense ol raising crop 25 . 29 Nett profit $13.99 II. SPRING WHEAT. MR. HAMBLETOn's STATEMENT. Statement of Wm. Hambleton, of East Hamburgh, to the Erie County Agricultural Society, relative to a crop of spring wheat, yielding 36 bushels per acre : The land is a sandy loam, with a slight sprinkling of gravel ; it was plowed once only, and that about the 10th of April, and sowed at the rate of 2k bushels to the acre, on the 15th day of the same month ; the seed soaked one night in brine, and was then rolled in plaster, and sowed immediately. It was harrowed both ways twice in a place, with a twenty-seven toothed harrow, which so completely pulverized the soil that it was equal in appearance to first-rate garden mold, which I think is very essential to the growth of any grain crop. The first week in August, we measured off one acre from a piece that contained a little over two ; we cut it with a cradle and put it in the barn by itself, and there it remained until a few days ago, when we threshed it ; it was considerably eaten by rats and mice, which lessened the amount. We cleaned and measured, from the growth of said acre, 36 bushels of such wheat as I here present, with the exception of one and a half bushels which was taken from the tailings, threshed and cleaned over again, which is not quite as clear from oats and whitecaps as the sample here presented ; besides a full barrel of screenings of the fragments, left by rats and mice. The preceding crop was potatoes, on a green-sward of clover and timothy, of three years lay. The land has been manured twice ; nine years ago, it received at the rate of about twenty-five two horse wag- on loads of common barn-yard manure per acre, and then again on the preceding potatoe crop, about the same kind and quantity of manure. ^ Expenses. Interest on land at $40 per acre, $2 . 80 Plowing, hand and team half a day, 1 .00 166 [Senate Expenses. Dragging, -50 Preparing seed, sowing, &c., .38 Cutting and taking up, 1 . 00 Drawing in, 1 . 00 Threshing, one hand and two horses, two days, 3.00 Cleaning, two hands half day, .75 $10.43 Value of Crop. 36 bushels, at 75 cents, $27.00 Straw, &c., to feed, 3.00 $30.00 Deduct expenses, 10.43 Nett profit, $19.57 MR. BARTLETt's statement. Statement of two crops of spring wheat, reported by the Oneida County Agricultural Society : H. B. Bartlett, of Paris — 39 bushels and 20 lbs. per acre. Soil — sandy loam ; previous crop, winter wheat ; plowed twice with six inch furrow ; two bushels of seed per acre ; sowed May 1st ; ma- nured the last year. Value of crop, $39.00 Expenses of crop, 13.05 Nett profits, $26.95 MR. EELLS' STATEMENT. Robert Eells, Westmoreland — 37 bushels 6 pounds. Soil, red loam ; one plowing, with six inch furrow ; two bushels seed per acre ; sowed last of April ; previous crop, corn • no manure, except for previous crop. Value of grain, $37 . 10 Straw, 1.50 38.60 Expense of crop, 12.00 Nett profit, $26.60 No. 85.] 167 MR. CURTIS'S STATEMENT. Statement by Charles H. Curtis, of West Martinsburg, to the Lewis county Agricultural Society, relative to a crop of spring wheat, 381 bushels per acre : In the spring of 1843, the land, which was in grass, was broken up, and planted with potatoes. After the potatoes were dug, fifteen loads of yard manure were drawn on the land. In the spring of 1844, the ground was plowed, and then about six loads of leached ashes spread. The wheat was then sowed, well harrowed, and roll- ed. It was harvested the 31st of August, and yielded 38 bushels and 3 pecks. INDIAN CORN. STATEMENT OF GEORGE GEDDES OF ONONDAGA COUNTY, TO WHOM WAS AWARDED THE FIRST PREMIUM OF THE STATE SOCIETY. To the Committee on the Cultivation of Indian Corn: I submit to your consideration a statement of my experiments made upon two acres of ground, in the culture of Indian Corn. The soil is a deposit of gravel mixed with sand and clay, resting upon a gypseous shale. The previous course of cultivation has been as follows, viz : In 1837, a crop of corn was raised on a heavy sod turned under that spring, and slightly manured with barn-yard manure. The yield was estimated at 65 bushels to the acre. In 1838, corn was again raised and without any manure ; estimated to yield 50 bushels to the acre. In 1839, it was sown with oats, and yielded a very heavy crop. Grass seed was sown with the oats, which succeeded well. The next four years it was pastured^ Plaster was put onboth corn crops, and on the oats and once or twice on the pasture. The ground was plowed about the first day of May, six inches deep, and planted on the third and fourth days of that month. The variety of corn, was the improved Button, that is, Button that had been selected from the earliest ears for a series of years. Experiment No. I. One acre was planted in hills three feet apart each way, six ker- nels in the hill. Fifty loads of half rotted manure, was put on this acre, after it was plowed, and harrowed in as well as it could be done ; it being so coarse, that it piled up a great deal before the harrow. The hills had a hoe full of the best of the manure drawn in by the planter, and the corn dropped into it. It was hoed twice, and a cultivator was run once along each row both ways at each hoeing. The account of the cost of cultivation is as follows, viz; To plowing and harrowing one acre, $1 .50 50 loads of manure, drawing and spreading, 2s. . . 12.50 two days work of one man planting, 6s., 1 .50 cultivating for both hoeings, 4s,, .50 hoeing twice, 3 days work, 6s., 2 .25 harvesting, 3i days work, 6., 2.63 $20.88 No. 85.] 169 The product was 70^ bushels, at 4s.=$35 .25— 20.88=$14.37, for the use of the land ; or the corn cost, besides the use of the land, $0.29.6 per bushel. Experiment No. II. The other acre was cultivated as follows : — One-tenth was planted in hills, three feet by two apart, six kernels in a hill, and without any manure. The account of the cost of cultivation is as follows, re- duced to acres : To plowing and harrowing one acre, $1 .50 planting 2 days, 6s 1 .50 cultivating, 4s., 50 hoeing twice, 4| days, 6s., 3 , 37 harvesting 3 days, 6s., 2 .25 ,|9 . 12 The product was 60 J bushels to the acre, at 4s. =$30, 12 — 9. 12= 21.00 for the use of the land ; or the corn cost, besides the use of the landj $0.15.1 per bushel. Experiment No. III. Another tenth was planted the same distance apart, and the same number of kernels in the hill as the last — and was manured by filling each furrow, as it was plowed, full of barn-yard manure, unfer- mentedj — the amount used being at the rate of 150 loads to the acre. The cost of production was as follows, reduced to acres : To plowing and harrowing one acre, $1 .50 2 men to fill the furrows with manure, 6s., 1 .50 2 days work planting, 6s., 1 .50 4^ days hoeing, 6s., 8.37 cultivating, 4s., .50 3 days harvesting, 6s., 2 .25 150 loads of coarse manure. Is., 18 . 75 $29.37 The product was 70 bushels to the acre, at 4s.=$35 . 00— 29 . 37= $5.63 for the use of the land ; or the corn cost, besides the use of the land, $0.42 per bushel. Experiment No. IV. Another tenth was the same distance apart, and the same number of kernels in the hill as the last, and manured with coarse manure in the same way, and had besides a top dressing of half-rotted manure, at the rate of twenty-five loads to the acre. The cost of production was as follows, reduced to acres : To plowing and harrowing one acre, $1 .50 150 loads of coarse manure. Is., 18 . 75 25 " fine " 2s., 6.25 2 days work to put manure in furrows, 6s., 1 .50 2 days planting, 6s., 1 .50 170 [Senate ToU days hoeing, 6s., 3.37 cultivating, 4s., 0 .50 4 days harvesting, 6s., 3 .00 136.37 The product was 80 bushels to the acre, at 4s.=$40. 00— 36.37= $3.63, for the use of the land ; or the corn cost $0.45 .5 per bushel, besides the use of the land. Experiment No. V. Another tenth was planted in drills, three feet apart, the corn four inches apart in the drills. It was manured with 25 loads of half rot- ted manure, to the acre, put on after the plowing. The cost of production was as follows, reduced to acres: To plowing and harrrowing one acre, $1.50 25 loads of manure, 2s 6 .25 drilling in seed 4 days, 6s 3 . 00 two hoeings, 3 days work each, 6s 4 .60 cultivating, 4s." 50 harvesting, (small ears) 4 days 6s 3 00 $18.75 The product was 55 bushels to the acre, at4s.=$27.50 — 18.75= $8.75 for the use of the land j or the corn cost $0.34 per bushel, besides the use of the land. Experiment No. VI. The remainder of the ground was planted in hills three feet by two feet, six kernels in the hill, with a top dressing of twenty five loads of half rotted manure to the acre. The cost of production, was as follows, reduced to acres: To plowing and harrowing one acre, $1 .50 25 loads of manure, 2s 6 .25 2 days work planting, 6s 1 .50 4 h days hoeing, 6s 3 . 37 Cultivating, 4s 50 3 J days harvesting, 6s 2 .44 $15.56 The product was 65^ bushels to the acre, at 4s.=$32 .75 — 15 ,56= $17. 19, for the use of the land ; or the corn cost, besides the use of the land, $0.23.7 per bushel. It is proper to say, that the cost of labor for such small parcels, is a difficult thing to determine with perfect accuracy. The stalks being of such equal value upon each piece, I have sup- posed it unnecessary to attempt any separate measurement ; neither have I kept any separate account of the cost of the seed, for the same reason. The whole was plastered, but the expense being so slight, and costing the same for each piece, no account has been made of it. The manure is charged at its full value, in each case, though No. 85.] 171 the land is greatly benefited for future purposes. Hardly a quarter of its cost is justly chargeable to this crop. In No. 2, we have an example, in which the effects of the manure are easily traced through many years. The last manuring this piece had was in 1837 — and it now produced 60 J bushels to the acre. No charge being made against it for manure, it appears to be profitable above every other experiment. But if the account could be stated for a period of years for each piece of land as we have it for this year, I doubt not the manure would be found to pay fully all it costs. These experiments were made, chiefly to determine how thick corn should be planted — what is the most convenient form to place the plants — and whether the manure should be rotted and applied to the surface, or plowed under unfermented. The conclusion that now appears likely to be arrived at is, that hills three feet by three feet apart, put in rows, so that a cultivator can be used both ways, is the most convenient form for cultivation, and that six kernels put into each hill, will make the corn thick enough. I counted, and made examinations that satisfied me, that at harvest, my hills averaged five stalks to the hill — no thinning was done, except by insects and accidents. That this is not too thick, is proven by experiment No. 6, where the hills were three feet by tw^o feet, the product being 65^ bushels to the acre, and with one half the manure that was put on No. 1, which was three feet by three feet apart, and the product only five bushels more to the acre. In fact I believe that more bushels with the same manuring, would have been raised, with the hills two by three feet, than three by three feet, but the extra labor of planting, hoeing and harvesting, will more than counterbalance the gain. The labor required to plow under imfermented imnuve, in any con- siderable quantity, is so great, and its great bulk compared with its value, making it so expensive to draw, and the fact that it is not felt until late in the season, and that the next plowing must be deeper, in order to bring it all up and mix it with the soil, are great objec- tions to its use. That the next plowing must be deeper, in order to bring up all the manure, is evident from the consideration that every time the soil is saturated with water it must sink deeper unless it is held up by some stratum that is impervious to water. If the contents of the barn-yard are piled up in the spring as soon as the frost is out, and covered with gypsum, so as to prevent the escape of any of its gases, and turned and replied at midsummer, and again covered with gypsum — the seeds of weeds will be destroyed, and the manure will be entirely rotted in time to put on corn the next spring. The ma- nure used in these experiments was but half rotted, in consequence of neglecting to turn and repile it. From the decrease of the bulk, the expense of handling and mixing the manure with the earth, will be so much lessened, as fully to compensate for all the expense of piling and rotting it. The cost of the gypsum, too, will be but slight, as but little is required — merely enough to whiten the heap. The corn will then have its stimulus at the time it needs it most, and but few weeds will spring up from the manure. All these considerations lead me to prefer fine manure to coarse. / 172 [Senate It is worthy of remark, that in No. 2, where no manure was used, that the yield was 60i bushels — in No. 3, where 150 loads of unfer- mented manure was used, the yield was 70 bushels — a gain of 9^ bushels to be ascribed to the manure; in No. 4, with the like amount of unfermented manure, and 25 loads of fine manure, the product was 80 bushels — a gain of 10 bushels, to be ascribed to the fine manure — showing that one load of fine is worth more than six loads of coarse manure. While No. 6, which was manured with the fine only, yield- ed 65 J bushels — a gain of 5 J bushels to be ascribed to the same amount of fine manure — showing that one load of fine is worth about three and a quarter of coarse manure. But the land on which No. 6 was raised, was not as rich as Nos. 2, 3 and 4, owing to the fact that it was so situated in the field that it had not been as highly manured in those years gone by, when manure was only drawn out of the barn- yard "to get rid of it." Nos. 2, 3 and 4 were nearer the gate, and had been served about alike, and furnished the fairest test of the value of the different kinds of manure. Some of the results obtained by these experiments were unexpected. The highest yield is very far below the great crops that have been reported. I know not why a hundred or more bushels to the acre were not raised on No. 4, with manure both on top and under the furrow, amounting to 150 of the coarse, and 25 loads of fine, to the acre — and that, too, along side of land that, without manure^ yielded more than 60 bushels to the acre. I purpose the next year to plant all of this ground with corn, and carefully measure the product of each piece, with a view of learning the effects of this manuring for the second year. All of which is repectfully submitted. GEORGE GEDDES. Camillus, November 21st, 1844. No. 85.] 173 MR. OSBORn's statement. The following is the statement of J. F. Osborn of Cayuga county, of his experiments on a crop of corn, to which was awarded the se- cond premium of the State Society, on one acre and fifteen square rods of land ; accompanied by satisfactory affidavits. 1 5 S to o ja to . a V o 1 d e m O a • 11 rt O .— * 3 O Four loads leached ashes and scrapings from wash of kitchen. Four loads scrapings of hog pen, hen roost and stables. Four loads sheep manure. Four loads long hore ma- nure. Four loads barn yard ma- nure. Each load 30 bu. Total products. Bushels Bushels Bushels Bushels Bushels Bushels Bushels 1 Bushels 1 11 rows 12-row- 1 ed yellow corn. 1 60 lbs. pr bush. Rows 3 ft. apart 61 5f 5 5i 5J 41 35 36S iS in. between 1 hilh, 3 rows in- jured by oats. 9 rows 12-row. eil corn, 60 lbs. j)er bush., r >ws 3 ft. 9 in. apart. 61 5i 5 5h 5 5 44 37| li 18 in. between hills. 1 11 rows 12-row- ed corn, yel'w, i 60 lbs. bushel, 3 ft. apart, 2 ft. 6i 5i 5f 6J 54 5^ 41 391 6 in between hills in row. 1 11 rows 8-rnw- ed, white, 56 , lbs. bush., rows 3 ft. apart, 18 51 5J 5k 5i 5 5J 4i 35 § inches between hills. 11 rows 8-row- j ed yellow, 62 i lbs. bush., rows 3 ft. apart, 18 inches between 5h 51 51 51 54 5 44 36 i hills. 11 rows blaclc- 1 hawk corn, 52 I lbs. per bushel, rows 3 ft. apart 5 4a 4J 41 44 4 3k 291 18 in. between hills. Total products, 36^ 32 h 301 3H 305 291 24 1 174 I Senate The corn was planted on stalk land, manured last year with 25 loads of barn yard manure. The above exhibits the mode in which it was laid out in lands, two rods wide, and running east and west, and plant- ed in lands running north and south. You will perceive that the land manured with the hog manure, gave the greatest yield ; that with the rotten horse manure, next ; and that manured with the scrapings of the hog pen, next, &c. You will also see that each square was kept and measured by itself. It has been surveyed by J. W. Sawyer and found to contain one acre and fifteen square rods. The product was 215 bushels of first rate sound corn in the ear. If I had planted all twelve-rowed corn, the yield per acre would have been considerably more. I had oats adjoining the west row and not more than 18 inch- es from it. The first two rows were much injured ; the ears being smaller than those in the remaining rows on the same land, which clearly show with what power oats draw the strength of land. About the last of August I topped 4 rows ; and on the 9th of Sep- tember cut up 4 rows adjoining, and left 4 rows standing ; each 4 rows kept separate, and shelled and weighed. That cut up at the roots weighed 60 lbs. per bushel ; that topped weighed 58 lbs. per bushel ; and that left standing weighed 54 lbs. per bushel. It was cultivated and hoed three times ; and the last time thinned out so as to leave three stalks to a hill. Besides the corn, I had 2 loads of pumpkins, and 30 bushels of flat turneps. The manure was evenly spread and then plowed under. Expense of the preceding crop. 28 loads of manure, at 50 cts. per load,* $14 .00 I day plowing, 1.50 Harrowing, .25 Planting, 75 12 quarts seed, .37 1 i days cultivating with horse, 1 .50 13i days hoeing, 6 . 75 12 days cutting up, husking and hoeing, 6 .00 Whole expense, $31 . 12 Profits. 107 J bushels corn, at 50 cts., $53.75 2 loads pumpkins, 1 .50 30 bushels flat turneps, 19c., 5 .62 Stalks, 4 .00 $64.87 Deduct expenses, 31 . 12 Nett profit per acre, $33.75 • It did not cost me half this sum. No. 85.] 175 I give a statement of a crop of corn raised by me this year, on two acres and 33y\ square rods as surveyed by J. W. Sawyer. The lot is a steep side hill, descending to the northeast, the soil gravelly loam. It has had but two crops on and those of wheat. About twelve years ago it was summer fallowed and seeded to wheat, and afterwards to clover and timothy, and remained as meadow and pasture until last spring, when I had it plowed for corn. No manure has ever been carted, nor any thing foddered on it. It was well turned over and dragged, and then planted in drills from 3 to 4 feet. I cultivated and hoed it but twice. I had on one acre at the lower side, as near as we could measure by pacing, 246 bushels of ears, and on the remainder 1801 bushels, making on the whole 4261 bushels of first rate sound corn, weighing in the ear 44 lbs. to the bushel. When shelled, one bushel of ears made a heaping half bushel, and weighed 30 lbs., there being 14 lbs. cobs. The corn was all measured accurately in my presence by B. E. Snyder and T. Hubbard. We weighed every tenth bushel, (or nearly that,) and found to average 44 lbs. to the bushel. Expense of cultivation. One bushel of seed, $0 . 75 Planting with drill half day, 38 Cultivator and horse 2 days, 2 . 00 Twelve days hoeing, 50 cts., 6.00 Ten days cutting up and stocking, 5 .00 Husking and housing 15 days, 50 cts 7 .50 121.63 Cr. By 2131 bushels corn, at 50 cts.,., $106.68 By 6 loads of pumpkins, 75 cts., 4 .50 By 2 large stacks of stalks, 10 . 00 $121.18 Deduct expenses, 21 . 63 Profit of the two acres, $99 .55 MR. parsons' statement. The following interesting and well conducted experiments on five acres of land, by Wm. Parsons of Niagara county, were reported by the Agricultural Society of that county: To the Committee on Grain of the JYiagara County ^Agricultural Society. In accordance with the rules of said society, I present the follow- 176 [Senate ing statement of the manner and result of the cultivation of five acres of corn. But for the purpose of showing the result of several differ- ent experiments, the parts of said five acres on which the experiments were made, shall be separately described. The soil of the whole is very similar, being a sandy loam, with a moderate descent to the north. In 1840, it was in barley, twenty-six bushels per acre. Seeded with the barley, eight quarts per acre, half clover and half timothy, 1841 ; pastured J 842 ; mowed 1843, and yielded about II tons hay per acre. No manure since 1839. First experiment : One acre on the east side of the lot, was plowed in November 1843, after the application of twenty loads of long, or unfermented manure, spread evenly over the surface. 1st May last, put on the poorest part thereof four loads horse ma- nure ; harrowed the whole thoroughly, mixing the manure with the surface soil. May 9th to 15th — Marked out with light furrow north and south, 3 feet apart, planted with eight rowed yellow corn, previously tarred and rolled in plaster, hills eighteen inches apart — four grains to the hill. June 4th to 1 1th — Run a cultivator once between the rows, and hoed it indifferently, by hired men. June 20th to 24th — Cultivated and hoed again, after applying thir- teen bushels of plaster and house ashes, half each, to the hills. July 15th to 18th — Went through it again with the hoe only, merely to destroy the weeds. Sept. 10th to 13th — Cut it up at the groimd, and set it up in stooks to dry. I estimate the value of the stalks, equal to the expense of husking the corn. Whole expense of the above, including $7 for the use or rent of the land, $19.00 Produce 84 bushels corn, at 3s. per bush., 31 .50 Profit, $12.50 Second experiment. One acre on west side. Cultivation and pro- cess precisely the same as the above, with the following exceptions, to wit : 1st. Ground plowed 21st April last, previously manured as above. 2d. Ten loads fine barn yard manure spread upon the surface after plowing, and mixed with the soil with cultivator. 3d. Ten loads compost of night soil, hog manure, lime and plaster applied in the hill before planting. 4th. Planted two feet apart in the rows. No. 85.] 177 Expense, as in first experimentj or same principle, $17.00 ■ Add $7 for use of land, 7.00 $24.00 Produce, 96|f bushels shelled corn, at 3s. per bush 36 . 33 Profits, $12.33 Third experiment. Three acres between first and second. Pro- cess same as the first, with the following exceptions : 1st. Ground plowed 19th and 20th April last. 2d. No manure applied after plowing. Expense, on same principle as above, $33 . 00 Add $7 per acre for use of land, 21 .00 $54.00 Product, 195 i bushels corn, at 3s. per bush 73 . 31 Profits per acre on the three acres, $6.44 cts $19.31 Produce of corn per acre, 65 bushels 5 quarts. The foregoing experiments were made principally to test the pro- priety of larger applications of manure to corn than are usual. And if we estimate that one-half of the value of the manure goes to the benefit of succeeding crops, the result cannot be doubtful. I can give no reason why the first experiment as above, should show to the best advantage, except the fact, that the land of the first was manured and plowed in the fall previous. I would only add, that the preparation of the ground was well done ; but the hoeing was indifferently done by hired men entirely ; hilled very moderately. To ascertain the quantity of corn, it was all carefully measured in a basket, one basket shelled and weighed also; estimating both by measure and weight, reckoning seventy lbs. to the bushel. W. PARSONS. MR. CORWIN's statement. The following experiment in the cultivation of corn, made by Na- than H. Corwin, near Middletown, and properly authenticated by affidavits, is taken from the Report of the Orange County Society, and exhibits well the advantages of the mode of planting there de- scribed. Variety — Eight row Canada Corn. One acre of clover sod, which had been mowed for two years pre- vious, was "turned under" in March, 1844. About the 8th of May was cross-plowed and harrowed, for the purpose of planting on the 9th. The heavy rains setting in on the 9th, prevented planting at [Senate, No. 85.J M 1'78 [Senate that time. After these rains the ground was so hardened by the sun that I deemed^ it necessary to plow it again. It was then plowed the third time, and made ready for planting on the 24th of May. My method of procedure was thus : — I planted the corn in double rows. The distance between the main rows where the horse and plow passed, was four feet. The following is a diagram, comprising two of the main rows. IS, iii.(ih.es (The lines from the dots, serve only to show the shape of the triangle.) You will observe that the stalks, where lines are drawn, stand at the angular points of an isosceles triangle, having the equal sides 85 inches in length, the other side 12 inches. The perpendicular of the triangle, or the distance between the double row, being six inches. The nearest distance which the stalks stand to each other is 8| inches. The seed was prepared by pouring boiling water upon it, and roll- ing it in plaster Paris. When the corn was planted, two kernels were put at each angular, point. The blades made their appearance on the 5th day after plant- ing. On the 3d June, the corn was plastered and partially " dressed out" with a narrow hoe. On the 11th, it was plowed, hoed &c.,and the superfluous stalks were taken out, leaving but one standing at each angular point. The corn was first suckered on the 21st of June; on the 27th of the same month it was plowed — a person followed and dropped a small quantity of unleached ashes close to the roots ; a second person followed to cover the ashes with earth, suckering the corn again at the same time. On the third of July, I passed through with a plow for the last time without hoeing, suckering it again for the third time. About the first of August I was fearful that the corn was too thick, consequently passed through and suckered it for the fourth time. The corn was cut close to the ground during the first week in Sep- tember. On-the 10th of October commenced harvesting it, and ob- tained 185 bushels of ears from the acre. N. B. — It must be borne in mind that not a particle of manube No. 85.] 179 was applied to the ground, with the exception of the ashes and plas- ter used after the " corn came up." For the sake of experiment, one bushel of ears was shelled, and upon being measured, was found to contain twenty quarts of shelled corn — equal to 115 1| bushels the acre. By the above mode of planting, 20,500 stalks will stand upon one acre. Expenses of raising said Crop. Three plowings, and other preparations, $3 .00 Seed and plaster, 1 .25 Planting, 5.00 Firbt partial " dressing," •'75 Other expenses of raising said corn, 4 .00 Twenty bushels ashes at ten cents per bushel, 2.00 Cutting and gathering crops, 9 .00 $25.00 500 bundles of stalks sold at 2 cts. per bundle, $10 . 00 115 bushels corn, at 35, 43 . 13 $53.13 MR. smith's statement. Description of the mode of cultivating a crop of corn raised by John L. Smith, of Southport, Chemung county, which yielded 116 bushels, and to which the first premium of the Agricultural Society of that county was awarded : Certificate shows that this crop was raised on corn stubble — previ- ous crop, grass, which was turned under with a dress of 30 loads of manure — 104 J bushels to the acre — soil gravelly loam — split the hills about the 1st of May, and harrowed it, then gave a dress of 30 loads long yard manure, then plowed deep and harrowed twice, fur- rowed 3 J feet wide, north and south, and planted 8th May, as near 18 inches the other way as could guess — seed dry, and 4 or 5 grains in a hill — after planting, went over with roller, to mash lumps — soon as the corn was up, put on a bushel of plaster to the acre, and went through with a cultivator once in a row, and gave a drawing blow with a hoe between the hills, instead of cultivating each way — soon as large enough, plowed two furrows in a row, and cleaned well with the hoe, taking care to pull as much dirt from the hill as was put to it — thinned to 3 stalks in a hill and plastered again — soon as large enough to hoe a second time, went through with a cultivator, twice in a row, and hoed again, leaving the gravel as level as possible- — when the corn got as large as would answer without breaking, went through again with the cultivator. This completed the labor of tilling. 180 [Senate MR. rice's statement. The following statement of a crop of corn, yielding 150 bushels to the acre, from the report of Cortland County Agricultural So- ciety, is certified by the affidavit of Amos Rice, who raised it : I have cultivated one acre and five rods the current year, in the following manner, and with the result annexed : About the 1st May, turned over an old pasture, (never before plowed,) to the depth of about five inches, in the best manner a skillful plowman could invert a surface so uneven, at an expense of , $2 .50 Previous to this, twelve ox-cart loads of barn-yard ma- nure were spread on the knolls, and parts supposed to be the poorest — at an expense of (including manure,) 3.00 Harrowing, half a day, — lengthwise of the furrows — at $1 .50 With a one horse plow run a light furrow, from north to south, 3 h feet apart, and about 2 inches deep — .33 Drew on 5 loads compost, made of night soil, leached ashes and muck, at 45. ; 7 loads hog manure, at 4^. ; and 4 barn-yard, at 2s. — , 7 . 00 This was deposited in the furrows, at from 2 to 2 J feet apart, half a shovel full to a hill, and immediately cover- ed to the depth of 1 inch, and pressed down — on which the seed was dropped, 5 or 6 grains to the hill ; used about half a bushel of seed, of the eight rowed, yellow kind — planted dry — worth ,38 May 20th. Planting three days at 65., (including board) — 2.25 June 15th. Passed the cultivator twice between the rows — .50 and hoed two days, (leaving 4 stalks to a hill,) at 6s.-^ 1 .50 June 20th. To lH bushels of plaster and 1| of ashes, thrown round the hill, .75 July 1st. Cultivated and hoed same as first time, without much tilling — 2 . 00' Sept. 15th. Cut up at the roots — 4 days, at 5^., 2.50 Oct. 10th. To 8 days husking and cribbing, at 55., 5 .00 To interest on land at |50 3 .50 ^31.71 Cr. By 190 baskets of corn— one of which was this day taken from the crib and shelled, and made, by measure, 3 pecks and 1 pint, and weighed 45|| lbs., — but for the convenience of reckoning, called it 451 lbs., — which being multiplied by 190, (the number of baskets,) makes 8,692 J lbs.— divided by 56=155 bushels, 1 peck and 2 quarts. Deduct for the five rods the 32d part of an acre, and there remains as the product of 1 acre, 150 bush., 1 peck and 3 quarts j at 4^., is 75 . 16 By about three tons of stalks, supposed to be worth 12 . 00 No. 85,] 181 By 2 loads of pumpkins, 2 . 00 Deduct one-fourth value of manure for succeeding crops, 2 . 69 $91.85 Cost of cultivation, j 31 ,00 Nett profit, $60.85 MR. BECKWITh's statement. Statement of a crop of corn, raised by Rufus Beckwith, of Henrietta, and which yielded 126 bushels to the acre, according to his affidavit j from the proceedings of Monroe County Society : The kind of soil on which my crop of corn was grown, is a dark gravelly loam, approximating to black sand. The previous crop was wheat, two years previous seeded with timothy, and pastured two years. No manure to previous crop. Manure to this crop about thirty wagon loads of coarse barn-yard manure. Plowed once about eight or ten inches deep, and harrowed thoroughly the first days in May. Planted the first week in May in drills about three feet six inches apart, and from twelve to eighteen inches in the drill. The seed was the large eight rowed variety ; dropped about four grains in a hill, and used about three pecks of seed to the acre. Cultivated be- tween the drills for first hoeing, and plowed two furrows between the drills the last hoeing, (there were many hills missing, having been destroyed by worms. ) Cut the stalks by topping the corn in Sep- tember. Harvested about the first of October by husking on the hill or drills, and took from the same ground 20 cart loads of pumpkins. The whole expense per acre of producing and harvesting the crop, as near as can be stated, including the value of the manure and seed, the labor of men and teams at cost, or at current rates of wages, would not exceed Jif teen dollars. MR. Curtis' statement. Statement of a crop of corn raised by Charles H. Curtis, of Lewis county, giving 114i bushels to the acre ; from the proceedings of the Agricultural Society of that county : It was planted the 7th May, 1844, after corn, with a corn planter, the rows were six inches apart and the hills ten inches, and a space of two feet between every three rows. After the first corn was har- vested in 1843, fifteen loads of barn manure were drawn on the acre, and just before planting I drew on six loads of leached ashes. I was 41 days in planting it j in hoeing the first time, lOi days j second 182 [Senate time 6 J days; and the third time lOh days. The gathering about 17 days. I had from the acre 114f | bushels. MR. KNAPPEn's statement. Statement of a crop of corn cultivated by S. H. Knappen, of Beek- mantown, Clinton countyj which received the premium of that County Society: The soil on which this crop ^rew is a dark loam or muck. Crop last year, potatoes ; when there was about ten loads of long manure applied. In the spring fifteen loads long manure were spread on, and the ground plowed, harrowed and ridged. Planting done the 15th of May in rows on the ridges, which were 28 inches asunder, the hills were two feet apart. Put from three to five kernels in a hill. Hoed three times ; the first time when the corn was about an inch high. Corn, " Large Eight Rowed," mixed with " Button." The land rich, never having had but two crops raised on it. Expenses. Dr. Plowing, harrowing and ridging , $2 . 25 Planting, two days at 6s 1 .50 Seed..... 31 Hoeing, six days at 6s 4.50 Harvesting 4 .50 15 loads manure at 2s, one-third the value being charged to present crop 1 . 25 10 loads, do. applied last year, at 2s, one third value charged to present crop 83 Interest on land at $50 3 .50 , Total expense $18 .64 Produce. Cr. 91^ bushels shelled corn, at 4s $45 . 75 Stalks valued at 6 .00 Total value of crop $51 .75 18.64 Nett profit $33.11 MR. butler's statement. Statement of the crop raised by Ezekiel Butler, of Rome, to whom was awarded the first premium of Oneida County Society, and yield- ing 103 bushels per acre, according to his affidavit : No. 85.] 183 Soil sandy loam. Previously in grass. Plowed once, about six inches deep. One peck of seed per acre ; planted 21st of May. Coarse manure spread over the field before planting, and manured in the hill. Product 103 bushels, 10 lbs. Value of corn at 3s. 6d per bushel $45 .56 Stalks and pumpkins 2 .00 $47.56 Expense of crop 17 . 32 Nett profit.. . $30.24 It is to be regretted that a large number of the statements from Coun- ty Societies, of crops ranging from 80 to 90, and 100 or more bushels, and including some of the preceding, should not have been more fully certified by an accurate survey of the land and statements of disin- terested persons ; for however correct they may in reality appear, it becomes exceedingly desirable to furnish such irrefragable proof, that the most doubting and captious may be satisfactorily convinced. BARLEY. REPORT OF THE STATE SOCIETY'S COMMITTEE. The committee to which was referred for examination the state- ments of competitors for the premiums offered on Barley, report that Stephen B. Dudley^ of East Bloomfield, Ontario county, is found to be entitled to the first premium of $10. William Wright^ of Vernon, Oneida county, is entitled to the sec- ond premium of $5. JVathaniel S. Wright, of Vernon, Oneida county, is entitled to the third premium of a volume of the Transactions of the Society. The statements and verifications of these competitors are in the re- quired forms. Mr. Dudley's crop was grown upon two acres and one rod of land. The soil, a sandy, gravelly loam, firmly covered with a thick growth of white oak timber, had been under cultivation about forty years. The field had been in meadow five or six years ; was manured in the spring of 1843 with twenty-five loads of yard manure to the acre, and planted to corn — the yield a good one, and the land in good condi- tion. Ground plowed thoroughly, and sown with five bushels and three pecks of six-rowed barley, the 6th day of April, the seed having been soaked twelve hours in brine, and rolled in lime. Aggregate yield, (by weight of 48 lbs. to the bushel,) 140 bushels 12 lbs., or 69 ,Yo bushels to the acre. Expense of cultivation, seed and har- vesting, exclusive of interest on land, $22.88. Mr. William Wright's crop was from two acres of land — soil in good condition — previous crop wheat and corn. The one acre which had been in wheat, manured with ten loads of yard manure ; the other not manured. Three bushels of two-rowed barley sowed to the acre, about the last of April — product, 101 bushels 461 lbs., or 50 bush. 47 lbs. per acre. Expense of cultivation, &c., $16.15. Mr. Nathaniel Wright's crop was raised upon two acres of ground — the soil in good condition at the commencement of cultivation for the crop — previous crop corn — once plowing without manure, and sowed with four bushels of two-rowed barley, about the middle of April — harvested in July. Product 95 bushels and 3 lbs., or 47 bushels 25 i lbs. to the acre. Expenses of cultivation, $13.70. In addition to the foregoing there is a statement from Mr. Bani No. 85.] 185 Bradley, of East Bloomfield, Ontario county, of a crop produced from one acre, two roods and twenty-one rods of land — aggregate yield, 93 bushels 19 lbs., or 55 bushels, 3 lbs., to the acre. Expense of culture, &c., $14.75. This crop is excluded by the rule of the society, which requires not legs than two acres, or it would otherwise have been enti- tled to the second premium. There is also a statement of Mr. H. T. E. Foster of Fayette, Sen- eca county, of a crop of 266 bushels from 5 acres and 35 rods of land, or 51 bushels to the acre. Cost of cultivation, excepting interest on land, $27.53. Mr. Foster's papers are correct, and very intelligible in all respects, except that there is but one name to the affidavit as to the quantity of grain, the rule of the society requiring two witnesses, besides the af- fidavit of the person applying for premium. This defect alone pre- vents the committee from awarding to Mr. Foster the second pre- mium. ONEIDA COUNTY. The three following crops, giving 68, 59 and 59 bushels per acre, and certified respectively by the cultivators, are from the proceedings of Oneida County Agricultural Society: Samuel H. Churchy Vernon. 68 bushels 4. lbs. per acre. Soil clay and gravel — previous crop wheat — plowed once, with six inch furrow — three bushels seed per acre, and sowed 1st of May. Value of crop, at 4s. 6d., $38 . 13 Expense, 11 .70 Profit, $26 .43 Julius Warner^ Vernon. 59 bushels and 21 lbs. per acre. Soil, sand, gravel, and clay ; pre- vious crop, potatoes. Plowed once, six inches — four bushels seed per acre — sowed 13th of April. Value of crop at 4s. 6d., $33 .20 Straw, 1.00 $34.20 Expenses, 12.81 Profit, $21 .30 186 [SENAtE William Wright , Vernon. 59 bush. 1 lb. per acre. Soil, gravel — plowed once, six inches — 3 bushels seed per acre-^sowed 1st of May. Value crop, at 3s. 6d ... . |32.45 Expenses, 11.50 Profit, $20.95 Chemung county report states 61, Erie 60, and Lewis 57 bushels of barley per acre, as their respective premium crops j but detailed statements of the modes of cultivation are not given. OATS. Extract from the Report of the Committee of New-York State Agricultural Society, on the oat crop : To Seth Lawtoiij of Washington, Dutchess county, the Committee award the first premium of $10.00. To Joseph F. Osborn, of Port Byron, Cayuga county, the second premium of $5. The crop of Mr. Lawton was from two acres of land, soil a sandy loam. Previous crop, corn, upon a stiff sward, broken up and ma- nured with five cart loads to the acre. Sowed 15th of April, four bushels of oats to the acre. Product, 140 i bushels, or 120i bushels to the acre. Cost of cultivation, $12.15. Mr. Osborn's crop was raised upon two acres and nine square rods of land. Soil, sandy loam. Previous crop, corn ; manured with 25 loads of barn-yard manure to the acre. Sowed 12th April, with 12 bushels of seed. Product, 260J bushels, or 104 ,-j bushels to the acre. Expense of cultivation, &c., $17.87. Hamilton Morrison, of Montgomery, Orange county, furnishes a statement of the product of one square rod, taken from a field of seven acres, three roods, and thirty perches, all in oats. The product wag twenty-one quarts — which would be equal to one hundred and five bushels to the acre. The soil was a gravelly loam — the field planted with corn the previous year, and manured with 15 loads of barn-yard manure, three bushels of lime, plaster and ashes, in equal proportions, to the acre. No manure the present season. Three bushels and twenty quarts of common oats sown to the acre, broadcast, on the 13th and 15th of April. Harvested in August. Product, as above rated, 105 bushels to the acre. Cost of cultivation, $6.50 per acre. Value of product, $34 .50. Estimated profit, $28. The mode adopted to ascertain the aggregate of this crop, is one not recognized by the rules of this Society, which requires statements of the product of at least two acres, therefore no premium can be re- commended in this case. Uri Beach, of East Bloorafield, Ontario county, presents a statement of a crop produced from one acre and fifty-four rods of land. The soil, a gravelly loam, formerly covered with a thick growth of white oak and hickory. Has been about 40 years under cultivation. Was seeded six years ago. Two years ago last spring, was manured with fifty large loads of barn-yard manure, and planted with corn. The crop, a heavy one. Planted again with corn a year ago last spring, and produced a heavy crop. Ground prepared, 8th April, by plow- 188 [Senate ing carefully, and harrowing three times. Sowed with four bushels of common black oats — rolled, and seeded with grass. Product, 140 § bushels, or 107 bushels per acre. Cost of cultivation, $10.00 Oats, 140 1 bushels, at 2s $35 . 12, Straw and chaff, 5.00, $40.00 Profits, $0.00 The land upon which this crop was produced, falling short of two acres, the premium, by the rules of the Society, cannot be awarded to him. Several of the County Societies report crops exceeding one hundred bushels per acre, but detailed statements appear to have not been fur • nished. BEANS AND PEAS. ORLEANS COUNTY. Statement of C. Lee, of Barre, Orleans county, of his crop of white beans, yielding nine bushels on thirty-six rods of land, or forty bushels per acre. The soil a compact clay loam, much reduced by cropping ; wheat on the land the last year. Three loads of unfermented barn-yard manure, and two loads of tan, over twenty years old, were put on the land and immediately turned under ', well pulverized with the drag, and planted on the 12th day of May in drills, in which the plants were thinned to an average of about three inches apart, the rows three feet apart. It was hoed twice, the cultivator passed through three times. Soon after the second hoeing, a compound of two bar- rels of pulverized charcoal, saturated with urine, were put in the ground a few inches from the plants, and covered with earth, which produced a sudden change in color, and rapid growth. When fully grown they entirely covered the ground. I think it may be useful to state the manner of harvesting. On the 6th of September they were stacked around stakes nine feet long, mostly without spurs or limbs, (although a few are preferable,) and so small as not to mold, and capped with straw. The roots should be so placed as not to be in sight in the stack. They will keep good in this manner until near winter without injury. I believe the above to be the cheapest method of harvesting and drying — with care none will be lost. ONEIDA COUNTY. Statements of the premium crops of white beans and peas, from the proceedings of the Oneida County Agricultural Society. BEANS. Benjamin W. Dwigkf, Clinton. Thirty-nine bushels and 3 pecks per acre. Soil, gravelly loam. Previous crop, potatoes. Plowed twice, five inch furrow. Planted 27th and 28th Mayj half bushel of seed to acre. 190 [Senate Value of crop, 8s. 6d. per bushel, $42 .23 Straw, 1.17 143.44 Expenses, &c., 22 . 39 Profit, $21.01 Erastus Dayton, Vernon. Seventeen and three-fourths bushels per half acre. Soil, sand, gravel and clay ; previous crop, grass. Plowed once, six inches. Seed half bushel. Planted 18th to 20th May. Value crop, 8s., $17 .75 Expenses, 7 .90 Profit, $9.85 PEAS. ^mos Miller, Vernon. Thirty-six bushels per acre. Soil, clay, black loam and sand. Previous crop, corn and barley. Plowed twice five inches. Five bushels seed, sowed 15th April. Value of crop, 4s., $18.00 Expense, 10 . 67 $7.33 ROOT CROPS. CARROTS. Statement of Wm. Risley, of Chautauque county, relative to his crop of carrots, yielding 1059 bushels per acre, as fully attested by surveyor and witnesses, and to which was awarded the first premium of the State Society : The crop was sown the first of May, from seed of the large white carrot, prepared in the following manner : The seeds were soaked in water for twelve hours ; after draining off the water, a sufficient quantity of dry soil was mixed with the seed to absorb the water remaining, and leave it in a proper state for vegetation ; the fourth day, the sprout appeared, and the seed was then sown in rows, ten inches apart ; after the carrots were up, they were carefully cleaned from the weeds, and thinned out to four inches in the rows. This manner of preparing seed is a great advantage, as the plants will come up in so short a time that the operation of hoeing and moving the soil about the plants, which will check the weeds, and the time required to till the crop, is trifling, compared with the usual manner of sowing the seeds dry, and necessarily leaving the work until the land is green with weeds. The previous crop was radishes, raised for seed, which was the fourth crop after the sward was turn- ed over, with but a small quantity of manure. Last spring there was twenty loads of fine manure, from the horse stable, put on the land : the land was plowed and worked fine, and was in excellent condition, and the crop appeared exceedingly fair, until the heavy and continued rains, in summer ; after this, a portion of the leaves died, and did not regain their freshness, and as the growth of the carrots was materially checked, and on some of the piece, they were entirely killed out, the labor was also much increased. I make this last statement as an excuse for presenting a smaller crop than that of last year. 20 loads of manure, at 45., flO.OO 1 day's plowing, at 10^., 1 . 25 12 " raking and sowing, at 5.., 7.50 50 " weeding three times at 5s., 31 .25 192 [Senate 20 day's harvesting, at 55,, 12 .50 Interest on land, 7 . 00 Expenses, $69 .50 1059 bushels of carrots, at Is., $132.37 Deduct expenses, 69.50 Nett profit, $62.87 FIELD BEETS. ONTARIO COUNTY. Statement of Charles B. Meek, of Ontario county, relative to his crop of mangel wurtzel, yielding 1101 bushels per acre, and which received the first premium of the State Agricultural Society. The statement is fully attested by surveyor and witnesses. The condition of the soil where the mangel wurtzel grew, was not very high at the commencement of preparation for present crop. Quality of soil, part sand, a small part clay, and the remainder loam. The roots were the largest on the last. The previous crop was oats. After this crop was harvested, the land was manured with unfermen- ted manure, in October, at the rate of 40 loads to the acre, which was plowed in immediately, and the land lay in that state till the spring. On the 20th of April, it was cross-plowed and w^ell harrowed. On the 10th of May we commenced drawing it up in ridges, but were driven off by rain, and the ground was not again in a fit state to work, until the 20th of May, when we planted it with two kinds of seed, procured from Mr. Skirvine, of Liverpool, England — the long red, and the long yellow. The former made the best crop. He also sent me two other kinds, which succeeded very well, the red globe, and the orange globe. We sowed at the rate of about 6 lbs. to the acre, and from repeated trials, we have found the following plan of sowing the most certain : After the land is drawn up into ridges 30 inches apart, and as soon after as possible, one person with his hoe makes a bed for the seed every 12 inches along the ridge, a second person drops the seed, six or eight in a place, and a third covers the seed with a hoe ; is very careful to cover the seed with fine and moist soil, and to press it down lightly with his hoe. We never soak our seed, for we find that by having the soil in a proper state for the reception of the seed, it will be up in one week in any kind of weather. Whereas, if the seed be soaked, and very dry weather succeed, the chances are that the seed will perish. I consider it a great advantage to sow the seed in the first instance at the distances you wish the plants to stand, as by this plan you are enabled to cut up every weed as soon as the No. 85. J 193 plants show themselves. We do not single out the plants until they attain a good size. If singled out whilst small, they are very liable to be cut off by insects. This operation of singling out the plants requires a practiced hand ; indeed without skillful hands the expense and uncertainty of the crop is so great, as to have discouraged many farmers from growing roots. The first crop of weeds destroyed, and the plants singled out, the rest of the cultivation is very easy. Of course all weeds must be kept down afterwards, but this may be ef- fectually done by once more hand-hoeing, and using the cultivator as often as necessary. Even if weeds should not spring up between the rows, I would strongly recommend a frequent use of the cultivator. The crop was harvested in the middle of October. Amount of pro- duce, 13 t., 15 c^'t., 28^ lbs., or 550bushe]s, 28ilbs=1101 bushels, 7 lbs. per acre. Value of crop per acre, 1101 bushels, 7 lbs., at 6 cents per bushel, $66 06 Expense of crop, per acre, 21 .00 Profit, $45.06 I have omitted to mention one circumstance which I consider con- tributed very materially to the success of the crop. Before drawing the land into ridges, we spread upon it a good wagon load of un- leached ashes, and harrowed them well into the soil. As far as the ashes were spread, the plants seemed always to be several weeks in advance of the rest of the field. CHARLES B. MEEK. Canandaigua, Dec. 24, 1844. CAYUGA COUNT y. Statement of J. F. Osborn, of Cayuga county, relative to his crop of Sugar Beets, yielding 328 J bushels on a half acre, or 657 per acre, as properly authenticated, and to which was given a premium of the State Society. , I planted one acre and 24 square rods to beets. I intended half for mangel wurtzel, but they proved to be mostly yellow sugar beet, and did not do as well as the white sugar beet. I had of the latter, on half the ground surveyed, 328 J bushels. On the other half I had only 260 bushels. The soil was loam and gravel, and planted with potatoes last year ; then manured with eight loads of sheep manure. This year I put on fifteen loads of sheep and horse manure, and plow- ed it twice, and dragged it and planted it on the 4th of June. The rows were two feet six inches apart, and ten inches between hills — and harvested on the 7th of October. [Senate, No. 85.] N 194 [Senate Expense of cultivation : — lUbs. seed, |0.94 Planting by hand, 3 days, 1 .50 Hoeing first time, 3 days, 1 .50 Plowing second time, with one horse, .37 Hoeing and thinning out, 5 days, 2 .50 Pulling and burying, 7 days, 3 .50 7^ loads manure, 50 cts., 3.75 $14.06 Credit by 328 h bushels sugar beets, 12 ^ cts. , 41.06 Nett profit, i $27.00 CLINTON COUNTY. Extract from a communication of Robert E. Keese, of Ausable, Clinton County, on the culture of beets and turneps, to the Clinton County Agricultural Society. I have raised, the present season, about one and a half acres of roots, consisting of mangel wurtzel, white sugar beet, and ruta baga, in two fields separated only by the highway. The larger of the two fields, contained 180 rods of ground ; soil, about half sandy loam, and the other half gravelly and black loam ; the whole resting on a subsoil of clay. The field was greensward, turned over the last days of the fifth month, in lands two rods in width, making five equal divisions of the piece ; no manure was applied ; the ground was thoroughly harrowed, and planted about the 10th of the 6th month, which was quite too late, as from dryness, the plants did not start soon. A heavy fall of rain succeed- ing, saturated the ground, and they were nearly " drowned out." Excessive drouth followed ; the yield, however, though light, was far better than might have been expected. Two of the five lands, or two-fifths of the piece, were planted with mangel wurtzel, and pro- duced about 200 bushels ; full three-fourths of which, or 150 bush- els, grew on about one-half of the ground, or 36 rods ; the remain- der being very much injiVied by the wet and drouth. By this esti- mate, the better part yielded at the rate of nearly 700 bushels to the acre. Two other of the five lands were planted with the sugar beet, but the seed was poor and but little came. Some time afterward, the deficiencies thus occasioned, were supplied by transplanting in ruta baga. But this being done quite too late in the season, the yield was light — although this part of the field was less injured by the wet and drouth than the other ; the product being about 150 bushels of ruta baga, and very few beets. The remaining one-fifth was planted with ruta baga, in drills 18 inches apart — the plants being subsequently thinned out from 4 to 8 inches (they should have been from 8 to 10 inches at least,) in the drills. Produce, 150 bushels. No. 85.] 195 The other field, which contained about 50 rods of ground, was mowed the previous year, and cows were yarded on it during the spring. The soil being a clay loam, and very dry at the time of plowing, was afterwards very lumpy, notwithstanding it was very thoroughly harrowed. This field was planted even later by a few days, than the other, with the sugar beet ; a part of it in drills 2 feet apart ; and the remainder in drills 3 feet apart, with alternate rows of ruta baga between each two rows of beets. But the beet seed being old and poor, mostly failed, and the ruta baga became the principal crop — the produce being about 150 bushels of the turnep, and 50 of the beet. The beets in the first field were planted in double drills, 3 feet apart from center to center, or 2 feet from out- side to outside of the drills ; the two rows constituting each " double drill," being one foot apart. The planting was done with a " drill harrow," invented by J. Battey , [the same which was exhibited at the late Fair of our Society, and re- ceived its premium,] which by the way, is the most perfect machine of the kind, I have any knowledge of ; it being adapted to jDlanting all kinds of garden seeds, as well as field beets and turneps, and also corn. For planting all the smaller seeds there is probably nothing superior to it ; and for planting beets and other rough seeds, as also for planting corn, it surpasses any other which I have ever seen. For planting corn it is admirable. It will drop in hills, or in drills, at almost any required distance ; and drops plaster with the corn, in any required quantity, and with perfect uniformity. It performs the whole work of opening the drill, dropping corn and plaster, covering, and pressing down the earth, at one operation^ — and as fast as the operator pleases to w^alk, which be may easily do at the rate of from 3 to 5 acres a day. In planting my beets, I regulated the machine so it might drop considerably more seed than I wanted to grow. This I did from a fear that the machine, like all others which have been Iried here, would drop the seed irregularly ; but I found that my fears were al- together unfounded ; so that where the seed was good, it apparently all came up, producing a superabundance of plants, which occasioned considerable labor at thinning out ; and this not being done so seasona- bly, nor so thoroughly as it should have been, the yield was thereby evi- dently somewhat diminished . I hoed twice ; the first time merely stir- ring the ground between the drills, and killing the weeds ; and the second time, with a horse and cultivator, followed with a hoe, thinning where the plants were too thick, and transplanting in turneps, where the seed proved poor. The tops of beets I fed to my milk cows, in the fall, for which purpose I consider them valuable ; the roots I stored to use for the same purpose in winter. From the experience I have had in raising these roots, I am well satisfied that their cultivation for stock, particularly that of the beet is an object worthy of increased attention. It will be observed that the circumstances attending my experience in their culture the pre- sent season, are in many respects quite unfavorable. For, as I have before stated, I planted quite too late ; I used too much seed, and 196 [Senate used poor seed, which considerably increased the expense of cultiva- tion ; the thinning was delayed too long, and done imperfectly — by which the plants were stinted in their early growth ; and the ex- tremes of wet and drouth nearly destroyed a large portion of the crop — and seriously injured it all. Still, under all these circumstan- ces, I have raised on an average about 500 bushels to the acre ; and I have no doubt that had the circumstances in all these respects been favorable, I should have had from 1000 to 1200 bushels to the acre ; the whole expense of which, could not have exceeded 30 dollars. The value of 1000 bushels at 1^. a bushel, half the present value of potatoes, though I consider them worth two-thirds as much for feed- ing stock, — would have been 125 dollars, leaving the sum of 95 dol- lars as the nett profit of the crop on one acre. Probably no farmer would realize, by feeding out, an income of one shilling a bushel for beets, — neither would he realize in the same way 2s. a bushel for po- tatoes, nor 8 dollars a ton for hay. But my object in making this communication, is to offer some hints on the comparative advantages of raising these roots for the purpose of feeding stock. Now, two tons of hay, a good average crop for the land that would produce 1000 bushels of beets, would keep one cow about six months ; and 1000 bushels of beets, at H bushels each a day, (an ample al- lowance,) would keep four cows something over the same length of time. If it be allowed that the after feed would pay for the expense of cutting and securing the hay, (which it would not do,) then it fol- lows that the same land which would keep one cow on hay, would, at an increase of 25 dollars in the expense of cultivation, keep four times that number on roots, or furnish extra keeping for three cows ; while the hay required to keep the three extra cows, would cost at 8 dollars a ton, 48 dollars. Thus, by the substitution of the beet crop, on one acre of meadow land, there would be effected an actual saving of some 23 dollars, over and above the profits which would otherwise accrue. Add to this, the advantages resulting to the farm from the additional amount of manure made from the extra stock which might be kept, and we have no very small inducement to the cultivation of roots. I would not be understood to recommend the feeding of any kind of stock on roots exclusively ; but with a proper proportion of hay and other fodder, one half bushel, or a little more or less, of roots, will, I am satisfied, make the animal thrive better, and effect a saving of fodder, in quite as large a ratio as the one assumed above. I am now so well satisfied with the experience I have had in raising and feeding roots, and so well convinced of the advantages of root culture, that I intend to plant at least 4 or 5 acres of these roots next year. POTATOES. Martin Morrison's statement, of the mode of cultivating a crop of Potatoes, yielding 496| bushels per acre, reported to the Clinton County Agricultural Society. No. 85.J 197 " The land was plowed in the fall. In the spring it was cross- plowed, by one span of horses and a driver, in half a day, — dragged one-fourth of a day by same team, — opened in drills [furrowed] thir- ty-two inches apart, and fifteen loads of manure laid in the drills. On the 6th of May, the potatoes were planted, three seeds in a hill ; the hills eighteen inches apart in the drills, and covered with a plow in half a day. Fifteen days after, it was dragged with a light double harrow, which levelled the ground and destroyed all the young weeds. When twelve inches high, two men cut the weeds between the rows ; and one week after, it was molded with a Scotch plow and one span of horses, in half a day. This acre produced 496| bushels of pota- toes, of the "Joshua Moore" or " Cork red " variety. The committee would add, that Mr. Morrison is from Ireland, and being a farmer hy 'profession^ is well acquainted with the most ap- proved methods of cultivating the potatoe in his native country. And from observation and experience, both in that country and this, he is decidedly of the opinion, that the farmers of this country gene- rally, are by far too sparing of their seed, and that potatoes should by all means be planted in drills. He also recommends a more thorough distribution of the seed in the drills, by placing each piece singly by itself, and the hills nearer together than he did in the instance above described. It will also be seen that his mode of cultivation effects a very considerable saving of expense, by the substitution to considera- ble extent, of horse for hand labor. Statement of Samuel H. Knappen, of Clinton county, relative to a crop of potatoes, yielding 300 bushels per acre, from the proceedings of the Agricultural Society of that county. Statement. — Soil, black muck. The land was seeded with herds grass when new, and last fall was broken up. In the spring it was harrowed three times, plowed twice, and furrowed out three feet apart. Planted the 28th of May in hills two feet apart, and two pieces in a hill, the potatoes having been cut once in two. In the after cultivation, plowed three times and hoed twice. Expenses. — Plowing three times, 4 . GO [Harrowing three times, and furrowing omitted. This omission was not noticed by the committee previously to making their award, and may be set down at] 3.25 Planting, 1 .50 11 h bushels seed, at 2s. 6d. and cutting, 6.47 Plowing out and hoeing, 4 . 00 Harvesting at one tenth, 7.50 Interest on land at fifty dollars, 3.50 Total expense, $30 .22 Produce. — 300 bushels, at 20 cts., $60 . 00 Profit, $29.78 198 [Senate Lewis county reports 420 bushels, and Oneida county 384 bushels of potatoes per acre; but the statements are brief and present nothing new in cultivation, success appearing to depend chiefly on manuring and thorough culture. 7 RUTA BAGA, Statement of John G. Smedberg, of Prattsville, Greene county of his crop of ruta bagas, yielding 1,161 bushels on an acre, and 2,173 bushels on two acres and five rods of land, well authenticated by surveyor and witnesses, and to whom was awarded the first pre- mium of the State Agricultural Society: The ground being in the spring of 1842, a timothy and couch grass meadow, (soil sandy loam, in a low state of cultivation,) was dressed with about sixty-five loads of manure to the acre, part of it unrotted barn-yard manure, and part of it the refuse of a tannery, (hair, limCj scrapings of hides, &c.,) — the sod turned over and corn planted — crop about forty bushels per acre. (Plowed too deep, say 8 inches^ and couch grass not well kept under.) In 1843 it was again in corn, without manure, crop rather lighter than beforej couch grass stronger than last year. In order to eradicate the couch grass it was plowed as late as pos- sible in the fall (say 23d and 24th Nov., 1843,) about 3 inches deepy and again about 10th April, 1844, 10 inches deep. It was manured with about forty loads per acre, of unrotted barn-yard manure, plow- ed in, about 4 inches deep. May 12th, and planted with mangel M^urt- zel, on a level surface. May 15th. This seed failed almost totally. About half an acre of the ground was then manured with fifteen loads of half rotted horse manure and the whole plowed 8 inches deepy June 6th, ridged with a light corn plow at 30 inches — the ridges slightly flattened by dragging a light stick over them, and the seed planted by a drill barrow, June 7th and 8th, two pounds of " Dick- son's improved ruta baga," procured from Thorburn in New-York, being used. Owing to the drill not covering the seed regularly, va- cancies occurred, when the plants came up, to the extent of at least 25 per cent of the ground. These vacancies were replanted by hand June 24th and 27th. The crop was weeded with the cultivator and hoe, and partially thinned July 11th and 12th; worked with the cultivator and hoe, and thinned as regularly as possible to 12 inch intervals, July 29th and 30th, and harvested between Oct. 21st and Nov. 4th. The tops were cut off by small boys with hoes, and the roots turned out by men with dung forks. Very little dirt adhered to them, after being knocked together before thrown into the cart or basket, and the little that did, and shook down into the cart, was shovelled out after every load. No. 85.] 199 The cart body was measured with potatoes, of which it held thir- ty bushels when slightly rounded up ; it was also measured withtur- neps, a basket holding just two bushels of potatoes being used ; fif- teen baskets full were put into the cart, and it was viewed by all of us and every load afterwards, made as near as possible of the same size. They weighed about 60 lbs. per bushel, the average of several weighings. Turnep cropj 1844, in account with J. G. E. Dr. Nov. 24. To li days plowing, at |2, $2.50 April 12. To 2 days plowing, at $2, 4.00 May 12. To U days plowing, at $2, 2.50 June 6. To 2 days plowing, at $2,.... 4.00 To 69 loads manure, at 4s., 48 . 00 To ridging, &c., 1 .00 To planting, .50 To replanting, 1 .00 ' ' To seed, 3.00 To hoeing and cultivator, first time, 4 .50 To hoeing and cultivator second time, 5 .50 To harvesting, 14 .00 To interest on land, 10 . 00 $100.50 Deduct for tops, after manure and cleaning land,. 30.00 2173 bushels cost, (equal to 3 J cts. per bush.) . . $70.50 Cr. By 208 bushels turneps, sold at 12 J cts $26 . 00 By 81 bushels turneps, sold at 15 cts., 12 . 15 By 1884 bushels turneps, worth to feed, at the present price of hay, 8 cts.,. 150.72 $188.87 By tops, $5 By manure for other crops, 20 By clearing land of couch grass, 5 — 30.00 $218.87 Debit side, 100.50 Profit, $118.37 John G. Smedberg. Remarks. The couch grass is now completely killed, none appearing after the fourth plowing, and the process has been the cheapest and most effectual that I have yet discovered. 200 [Senate Mr. Thorburn's " Dickson's improved ruta baga," may be safely and highly recommended to any cultivator of the root. The bulbs are solid and large, (we weighed several of from 12 h to 15 lbs. weight and the av- erage was about 5,) the stems are short and free from the woodiness common to other ruta bagas, being fully as soft as the bulbs. They appear to be little liable to the attacks of worms, and to escape en- tirely the hollow-heartedness which commonly exists in roots of large size. In feeding out some 300 bushels, we have not yet found a single hollow-hearted one. The crop was viewed in October by the County Committee on farms and said by them to be the best they had ever seen ; they estimated them at 2,000 bushels. The crop would have been better had the ground been subsoiled, a little bone dust put into the drills, and a full stand obtained at the first planting. I believe that upwards of 1,500 bushels may be raised on an acre. My estimates of the expense of cultivation, are taken correctly from my journal and wages book ; the hoeing was a very slight task, very few weeds appearing ; the chief of it was the thinning out the superflu- ous plants. My way of harvesting I believe to be the cheapest pos- sible. On the 4th Nov. we harvested, as per statement, 835 bushels, pitting the greater part of them, and carting the rest one quarter of a mile. Our force on that day was 5 men, 2 boys and a yoke of cat- tle, at an expense, including board, and 12s. for the cattle, of $5.04. MR. brown's statement. Statement by Randolph Brown, of H. S. Randall's crop of Ruta Bagas, yielding 8^0 bushels per acre, and which drew the second premium of the State Society, as fully authenticated by witnesses. In the early part of June, 1844, I carefully measured with a sur- veyors's chain and staked out one acre of land on the farm of H. S. Randall, for the purpose of preparing it for a crop of ruta bagas. The soil was a dry loam. It had been a meadow until the prece- ding year, when it was broken up and sown to oats. The stubble was turned under in the fall. On the I8th of April, 1844, it was again plowed and harrowed. On the 10th of June succeeding, it re- ceived a deep plowing, with narrow furrow slices, and was harrowed down smooth. Furrows were then struck, say six inches deep, and as near as might be, two feet and two inches apart. Sixty-two loads of manure were then thrown into the furrows, but these were small loads, to prevent cutting up the earth which was very mellow. The furrows, after being filled with manure, were covered by turning a furrow on them each way , with a very small plow. The ridges thus formed above the furrows were raked down with a hand rake, to level them properly for the reception of the seed, and to remove the clods, stones, &c. The seed was drilled on the 11th, 12th and 13th of June, as the ridges were made ready. The weather being dry for a few days succeeding planting, and the seed employed to some ex- tent defective, the plants came up thin, and in some places were en- No. 85.J 201 tirely destroyed by the fly, notwithstanding the seed had been soaked in currier's oil. On the 24th, (June) portions of the field were re- planted. On the 8th, 9th and lOth of July the land was hoed, the crop thinned where necessary, and some transplanted. On the 18th and 19th, the land was again hoed, and more roots transplanted. The appearance of the crop at this time \^as far from favorable. About the 1st of August, about a day was spent in removing such weeds as made their appearance above the turneps. We commenced harvesting them on the 4th of November, and finished on the 8th. The turneps were pulled by hand, and the tops and roots entirely removed. I carefully ujeasured the cubic contents of a wagon box, and in this they were measured and drawn to the turnep house. The crop from the acre of ground measured by me was eight hundred and twenty bushels. I labored for Mr. Randall during the summer of 1844, and for about two years preceding — took the general direction of the farm, and kept the farm accounts during his absence, which was a considera- ble portion of the time. Below is the expense of the crop so far as labor is concerned, with estimates based on market prices in the vicinity of Cortland. Owing to the failure of the potatoe crop, the roots might probably be sold at eighteen instead of twelve and a half cents as estimated be- low. All sold at the farm before I left it, were sold at eighteen pence a bushel. Half a day plowing, boy and team, in fall, $0.50 One do. in spring, ' 1,00 One do. 2d plowing, 1.00 Sixty-two small loads manure, 20c. per load 12.40 Two and a half days furrowing, ridging, raking, one horse used in furrowing, 1 . 75 Two days replanting, man and boy, .75 Four days hoeing, (man and boy two days each,) .... 1 .50 Four days do. do. .... 1,50 Ten days harvesting, (men and boys,) and two days team, 7 ,50 Interest on land, taxes, &c., 2 . 90 One pound of seed, ] . 00 $31.80 820 bushels turneps, at 12 i cents per bushel, 102 .50 Nett profit, $70.70 MR. MEEK's statement. Statement of Charles B. Meek, to whom was awarded the third premium of the State Society, for a crop of Ruta Bagas, yielding 720 bushels per acre as fully attested by witnesses. 202 [Senate The quality of the soil where the Ruta Bagas grew is chiefly sandy loam. The previous crop was oats without manure. After the oats were harvested, the ground was plowed in the fall, but not having any manure left, we had to wait till spring. It was then well manured with fresh unfermented dung from the yard, plowed twice and well harrowed after each plowing. Before the last harrowing, we sowed one and a half bushels of plaster to the acre. On the 11th of June drew the ground into ridges twenty-seven inches apart, and on the 12th sowed the seed by hand at the rate of four pounds to the acre. The seed was from Mr. Skirvine, of Liverpool, England, and the kind, his improved purple top. On the 5th of July went between the rows with a cultivator, and on the 11th and 12th July, hoed the plants out, leaving them from eight to ten inches apart. They were hoed once more by hand, and the cultivator was worked through them twice more. They were harvested the second week in November. One acre was measured off, and the produce was 18 tons, 2 cwt. 2h lbs., or 724 bus. 2-| lbs., reckoning 50 lbs. to the bushel. Value of crop per acre, 724 bus. 2| lbs. at 6cts $43.44 Expenses of do , 19 . 75 Profit, $23.69 CHAS. B. MEEK. Canandaigua, December 24:y 1844. MR. Johnson's statement. The following statement by Benjamin P. Johnson of Rome, will be read with much interest, as it strikingly exhibits the advantages- of the subsoil plow, in preparing the ground for crops, especially those requiring depth of soil. The subscriber raised, the past season, from half an acre of ground, upwards of four hundred bushels of ruta bagas. The soil was a sandy loam. The ground was planted with potatoes the previous season. Last spring a few loads of manure were spread previous to plowing. The land was plowed about six inches deep, and the sub- soil plow followed, and stirred up the soil about six inches deeper. The effect of the subsoil plow was very apparent. In a portion of the field, beets and carrots were cultivated, and finer and larger varie- ties have seldom been seen. The ruta bagas were very fine, and had the season been favorable, the yield would probably have equalled a thousand bushels per acre. The exact amount in the half acre, as near as it could be ascertained, all having been measured but a por- tion estimated at fifteen bushels which had been been fed out pre- vious to the gathering of the crop, was 425 bushels. The subscriber, not having had his crop measured by the town com- mittee, does not present it for a premium, but makes the statement more especially to call the attention of the farmers to' the subsoil No. 85.] 203 plow. I am satisfied that the crop of beets and carrots was increased at least one-third by the use of the subsoil plow. It is a matter wor- thy of attention, and it is hoped our farmers will direct their atten- tion to this subject. Most of our lands would be very materially im- proved by the subsoil plow, and a much greater increase would be realized, more than sufficient to pay for the additional labor and ex- pense. The benefits do not cease with the first crop. The land is in much better condition for the succeeding crop, and no one who has made the experiment but has been satisfied that a fair increase of crop will ordinarily be the result of the use of the subsoil plow. B. P. JOHNSON. Rome, January J 1845. CORN-STALK FODDER. STATEMENT OF MYRON ADAMS, OF ONTARIO COUNTY. Having had some experience in sowing corn broadcast for fodder, and finding it usually much injured by weeds, I determined last spring to sow corn in drills for fodder. The soil was a gravelly clay loam, and was in oats the year before — partially manured, probably six or eight loads upon the piece. Plowed and harrowed the22d May, and marked off into drills three feet apart. Corn dropped from a basket, intended to have a kernel once in two inches, and covered with a hoe — plastered, cultivated and hoed it on the 7th of June — 19th June, cultivated it again, but did not hoe it. The corn grew rapidly, was very rank, ancl covered the ground. It appeared to have attained its growth by the 20th of August, at which time we commenced cutting. It was cut with a corn cutter, and laid on the ground to wilt. After a day or two, it was bound in very small bundles, and stacked like corn, seven bundles in a stack, bound around the top. The 14th of September, the weather having been very dry, it was drawn to the barn, after having been weighed upon hay scales. The amount of seed used was one bushel and a half. Expenses of cultivation : — Expense of plowing and harrowing, $3 . 00 Drilling and seed, 2.50 Cultivating and hoeing, 1 . 00 Harvesting and carting, weighing, &c., 5 .50 $12.00 Cr. By 7565 lbs. corn fodder, at 40s. per ton,! |19.00 Rate per acre, 9,520 lbs. P. S. — The hired men who assisted me in the cultivation of the fodder are gone from me, and the man who assisted in weighing did not take notes of the amount. GYPSUM-RED CLOVER AS A FERTILIZER. BY WM. PENN KINZER. Notwithstanding an existing analogy in the vegetable and animal kingdom is conceded by every intelligent agriculturist, yet, it is matter of surprise, that so many disobey this important law of nature in their practice. Animals thrive and improve most on a variety of food, while the farmers of our country in very many,#and indeed in most instances, seem to be unaware that their crops will be benefited by a variety of manures. Many farmers will argue, that stable manure constitutes the only useful alimentary food of plants, and adhere to this notion in their practice as the alpha and omega of their hopes, to the exclu- sion of all other manures. If a supply of such manure were endless, it would perhaps go further to furnish the constituents of all the crops we cultivate, than any other fertilizing substance singly ; but if the wheat crop, for instance, were dependent in the middle States upon this single resource, there would be an immense falling off in the an- nual crop of that important staple. The true principles of agriculture require, that the soil be satura- ted (or as much so as necessary) with every variety of all the sub- stances which induce fertility ; or those constituents which our prin- cipal crops afford upon analysis. So, in addition, or rather in con- junction with stable manure, it is essential to the success of the far- mer, to apply marl, ashes, compost, gypsum, magnesia and lime, with all the other unnamed substances which enter into the composition of wheat and other crops. But 1 must remark, if there be a zenith in the prosperity of the farmer, that desideratum can neither be reached nor maintained, without the liberal and extensive cultivation of clo- ver. Give clover a seed bed in a soil thoroughly free from all kinds of binding grass, well supplied with gypsum and lime, and the farmer need seldom, if ever, be disappointed in his reasonable hopes. Clover furnishing in its analysis a large proportion of gypsum and lime, delights in a calcareous soil. If the phraseology be admissible, clo- ver may be called a gormandizer ; and if well fed, is sure to repay the farmer, not only in the abundance of the crop, but in the quantity of manure returned to the soil. It is a singular fact, that after gypsum has ceased to act on clover, an application of lime to the same soil, will render the gypsum as operative as when the gypsum was originally applied. I never ob- 206 [Senate served a greater or more striking effect, result from gypsum, than in a certain instance within my own experience. I sowed a single 'land' of wheat in the spring of 1832, for experiment, in the middle of a field, having an idea that gypsum is inoperative, applied direct to wheat. I was not disappointed, I could not distinguish even a shade of difference in the color of the wheat, butthe experiment, eventually^ was to me most interesting. In the spring of 1833, 1 sowed the whole field with clover seed, and notwithstanding the field was deeply plow- ed in the fall previous, and the gypsum on the ' land' as above stated, was of course plowed under in the meantime, yet the growth of clo- ver, in the following summer of 1833 on the half acre sowed with about half a bushel of gypsum in the spring of 1832, just about one year before the clover seed was sowed, " astonished the nhtives :" thus, not only overthrowing the theory that gypsum benefits crops or ope- rates by attracting or absorbing moisture from the atmosphere, and must be applied to growing crops. But my experiment was conclu- sive, and demonstrated beyond any cavil, that the soil is the laboratory which brings this valued mineral agent into action ; and also proving the utter fallacy of the common practice and opinion, that gypsum must be sown on the leaves, or lungs, the respiratory organs of the growing crop. It occurs to me, the experiment, or rather the dis- covery, is an important one to the scientific farmer. Theory is re- versed, clover, corn and other crops, receive no benefit from gypsum, above the surface of the soil ; it must be first dissolved and rendered soluble, then taken up by the spongioles of the roots of plants. My conyiction, on this subject, is such, that I want no additional evidence to establish my theory. In the experiment above narrated, it must be remembered the whole field was sown with clover seed, and no gypsum sowed, excepting the one land, at the time above stated ; the remainder of the clover presented so sickly a contrast with the luxu- riant gypsumed part, that I sowed the balance with gypsum, but found it required a year of time, to produce an equal effect — which effect was only developed after the gypsum had time to reach the roots of the clover. Much of the specific food of the wheat crop is evidently extracted from the subsoil^ by the long tap roots of clover ; hence, a clover lay, with the second crop plowed under, on a limed soil, is the best imaginable preparation Tor a wheat crop. Spring Lawn Farm, Pequea, Lancaster county, Pa. ^ Dec. 28, 1844. CLOVER SEED. Statement of Henry Brewer, of Enfield, Tompkins county, of his crop of Clover Seed, yielding, from three acres and ten rods of ground, ten bushels of seed, weighing 60 lbs. per bushel ; one bushel 11 lbs. at 52 lbs. per bushel ; and half a bushel of tailings, weighing 38 lbs. per bushel : No. 85.J 207 The quantity I raised this year, was ten bushels and thirty-three pounds of good seed, weighing sixty pounds the bushel ; one bushel and eleven pounds of seed weighing fifty-two pounds per bushel ; and one and a half bushels of tailings weighing thirty-eight pounds per bushel, on three acres and ten square rods of land. 1 send you a sam- ple of all kinds for you to judge from. I think it would have yield- ed over five bushels to the acre, had it not been eaten by the clover seed worm, that I shall hereafter describe. You can form some idea by examining the sample I send, although I have over a barrel of tail- ings that is little but the hull of clover seed, with the meat eaten out, and which I do not report. Expenses. \ One and a half bushels plaster, and sowing $0.50 Mowing two days at 75 cents 1 .50 One day raking and heaping clover hay 75 Man and boy I of a day drawing in with team 1 .88 Thrashing chaff from straw 2 . 00 Cleaning seed from chaff 6 . 50 $13.13 Credit. By lOf f bushels good seed, at $5 per bushel $52 .75 By lii bushels seed at $2.50 per bushel 3.00 By H bushels tailings at $1 .25 per bushel 1 .87 By 2 tons clover buts at $1.50 per ton 3.00 Clover chaff and tailin""s to sow on wheat 1 .00 b" $61.62 Deduct expenses 13.13 Profit of land for ninety days $48 .49 Nature of the land and soil with preparation for said crop of seed, with management for the last* six years — condition of the land in 1838, compared with this date. This land came into my possession in May, 1838. Piece No. 1, now set out with young apple trees was the most barren piece of land that 1 ever saw, it being a part of about four acres of land that lay in one piece cleared, which from appearances had been cleared twenty years. It had been worked on shares for eight years previously to its coming into my possession, and how much longer I am unable to tell, — one year with oats, next year with buckwheat, not yielding eight bushels to the acre at best, and some seasons not harvested at all. The land was intended to be seeded with clover when I bought it. I sowed one bushel of plaster per acre the same week I bought it, and let the clover grow up all that I thought it would grow, (and that was not much), about six inches high, and very thin. I then plowed the clover under about the first July. Plowed again 20th of September — then drew and spread about eight loads common fine barn-yard manure on the acre, and then sowed it with wheat, har- i08 [Senate rowing wheat and manure all in together. And here let me remark, that I have found out by experience that a few loads of manure per acre, spread on the top of the soil is the best mode of making grass seed take that I have ever tried, and I have practiced it for twenty- years and never knew a failure. The soil was dry, and a severe drouth at the time. The wheat did not come up until the next spring. The spring not being very favorable, the most of the wheat perished, and I thought it all lost ; and about the l5th of April, I sowed about one bushel of spring wheat and fifteen pounds of clover seed per acre, and harrowed once with sharp iron tooth harrow. About the first of June, sowed a half bushel plaster per acre. The wheat carbe on finely, and made a good crop, half winter and half spring wheat. T did not pasture wheat stubble that season. I mowed the same, June 22d, 1840. The clover was short, but very thick — half bushel of plaster sowed, July 3d, per acre ; mowed again in October for seed, producing two and. one-half bushels to the acre. I sold the seed for $7.25 cts. per bushel. In the spring of 1841, I drew about twelve loads common unfermented manure per acre, and plowed under the manure with a fine growth of young clover, — on the last week in May 1841, I planted the same with potatoes and ruta bagas. The crop was good. I planted with potatoes again in May, 1842; no manure was used — the crop was good. I sowed with flax the last week in April 1843, and with twenty pounds clover seed per acre — no manure was used. The flax was sowed for the seed. One-half a bushel of plaster was applied per acre on May 20th. It was mowed June 22d, 1844, — sowed with plaster June 29th, half bushel per acre. It was mowed again the last of September. This clover was brought in during my absence from home, while at the late State Fair at Poughkeepsie, and some of the same was rather damp to house, which makes some loss in seed and hard to thrash from the straw, which was done with horses. Some was left on the straw. It was cleaned with Rittenhouse & Go's patent machine, made at Trumansburgh, by King & Co., which I think the most perfect machine for cleaning clover seed now in use. These machines will clean with good chafi", twenty bushels per day, with four horses and the common strap horse power. I know of one of these machines that cleaned 750 bushels of clover seed last winter without any repair. Lot No. 2, by survey, came into my possession at the same time as lot No. 1 ; there had never been a crop on it, although it had been cleared many years ago, and then left to grow up with white pine bushes. I cleared it in the summer of 1839, and sowed with wheat, seeding with clover in the spring of 1840. The clover did not take. I plowed and sowed with oats in the spring of 1841 ; seeded with clover seed, 15 lbs. per acre. The seed did not take ; it came up fine, but soon perished, although I sowed plaster on it, at each time seeding. In the spring of 1842, I drew on 21 loads of common barn-yard unfermented manure, on the piece. I thought it contained about 1 J acres ; I plowed it in May, and planted with corn and po- tatoes— the crop good. In the spring of 1843, the last week in April, I sowed with flax seed, and seeded with clover seed, at the rate No. 85.] 209 of 20 lbs. to the acre. I sowed just one bushel of seed on the two pieces. This piece, as well as the other, is sandy loam, very yellow when first cleared, and appears cold and sour, as much of lot No. 2 was covered with moss before I began to plow it. This piece received plaster, and was mowed on the same day as the first — treatment the last summer, alike. Both pieces of ground appear different in the looks and fertility of the soil, from what they did when they came into my possession, and I attribute my success in its appearance to clover. In this town, I find most improvements on the farms that sow the most clover seed ; and many would as soon think of buying all their seed, — wheat, oats, buck-wheat, corn, and potatoes, — as of buying their clover seed, annually. H. Brewer. GRASS SEED. Extract from the statement of Mr. Hambleton, of Erie county, ac- companying a specimen of timothy seed, which received the premium of that County Society : This timothy seed was gathered by reaping the tops of the grass in the meadow, and then mowing the same afterwards ; which seems to be a saving, for you get the seed by cutting and threshing, which costs but a trifle, and you have the same amount of hay. I think if our farmers would more generally save their seed in this way, it would be much better for them. [Senate, No. 85. J O FOOD FOR STOCK, DESIGNED FOR SERVICE AND SLAUGHTER. The following paper was read by Mr. E. N. Horsford, at the 4th Agricultural Meeting, at the old State Hall, Albany, Thursday even- ing, April 4th. 1. It is well known that working cattle and horses perform given amounts of service with less exhaustion when fed upon grain, than when fed upon hay or potatoes. The reason is this. All labor consists in repeated muscular con- tractions. No muscular effort can be performed without the expen- diture of muscular fibre. Muscular fibre is composed of several ele- ments, one of which is nitrogen, and the substance is said to be a nitro- genized compound. Nitrogenized compounds are supplied to the wasting muscle from the blood. The blood is supplied with nutritive matter from the stomach. The stomach receives its supplies from the food which the animal eats. Grain, and hay, and carrots, turneps, potatoes, pumpkins, &c., dif- fer from each other in chemical composition. The grains contain more of the nitrogenized compounds, which are consumed by the ac- tive muscle, than the potatoes and kindred agricultural products. These nitrogenized compounds have been found to be very nearly the same things in the proportions of the elements which form them, in grains and vegetable productions generally, that they are in the stomach, the blood, and the muscle. In other words, the matter to be expended in labor is formed in plants, and passes to the stomach, and floats in the blood, and is secreted to form muscular fibre, with- out any change. Some vegetable products contain more of this matter than others, and are therefore more profitably employed as food for working cat- tle and horses. The destruction of muscular fibre which takes place with each con- traction, and the consequent fatigue, may be illustrated in this manner- The muscle is a series of parallel fibres. These fibres are made of little particles arranged side by side, or end to end, all of which attract each other. Those immediately contiguous, attracting each other more strongly than those at an interval asunder. If now some of the particles be withdrawn, the contractions among the remaining portions of the fibre, are less effective than they would be if the sec- No. 85. j 211 tions were not interrupted ; because the attraction at the ends of the sections is weakened by the increased distance. If the chasms were filled by the deposition of new particles from the blood, the same effort with equal energy may be repeated ; and if the blood were an exhaustless reservoir, the nitrogenized compounds might be as con- stantly supplied to the wasting tissues, as muscular effort should re- quire. But at the close of the digestion of a meal, the supply of ni- trogenized compounds is in a measure arrested ; and the quantity in the blood, being a fixed quantity, determined by the kind and amount of food eaten, will in process of time be exhausted. The inability to muscular effort arises from consumption of muscular fibre, and ex- haustion of nitrogenized constituents of the blood. The fatigue is the natural pain which accompanies this condition of a muscle. This explanation, though gross in comparison with the delicate and elaborate processes constantly going on among the organic tissues, may not be altogether without service in enabling us to comprehend the demand which labor makes upon the nitrogenized and other com- pounds— makes upon food which contains these essentials. Other organized substances are expended in labor, and must be replaced through the blood from the food, such as the earthy matters of which bone is composed. Some kinds of food contain these essentials in larger quantities than others, and will therefore be more profitably grown and consumed. II. It is also well known that cattle and sheep fatten more rapidly upon some substances than upon others, and that the food which will sustain much physical labor, is not necessarily the food that will fat- ten most expeditiously. To know what kinds of food will most advantageously increase the flesh, the mere fat of stock designed for slaughter, and what admix- tures of the two kinds of food are best adapted to sustain a good coat of flesh, and yet permit vigorous service, is obviously of no small im- portance. Prout, anxious to know what kinds of food, and what proportions of those kinds were best adapted to the physical development of ani- mals, commenced his investigations by an analysis of the human milk. He found it consisted of three substances dissolved in water ; one of these containing nitrogen, and the other two destitute of nitro- The nitrogenized substance is called caseine, and is the basis of cheese. The other two substances were sugar of milk and oil. The oil is separated from the other two by agitation, and the par- ticles aggregate in the form of butter. The sugar gives the sweetness to new milk, and in the fermenta- tion which succeeds, gives rise to the acid principles observed in milk after standing a day or two. The caseine or basis of cheese being the only organic principle that could form muscle or tissue of any kind, because the only one that contains nitrogen, the other two substances mu^t have another office to perform. The oil of the milk is deposited in the form of fat, around the mus- ' 212 ' [Senate cles and under the skin, and the sugar, except a part of it, being con- verted into fat, is gradually resolved into the various secretions, tears, mucous, saliva, perspiration, &c. The use of the oil and sugar as types of the two great classes of oleaginous and saccharine food, have been made an interesting sub- ject of investigation, and shown to be the source of heat in the ani- ^ mal body. The use of the caseine as the type of the nitrogenized or albumi- nous compounds, has already been referred to. It makes the muscle,. the tendon, the tissues, brain and integuments. The appetite demands an admixture of these. Bread is chiefly composed of starch and gluten — substances allied to sugar and caseine. Civilized men, everywhere, overspread the piece of bread with butter or oil, that the three kinds of food may be mingled. Rice must be eaten with butter or sugar. Potatoes with gravy, which consists of the expressed nitrogenized juices of meats. A meal cannot be made the laborer feels, without meat for the nitrogenized constituent, the caseine; potatoes, or rice, or bread for the saccharine ingredient, the sugar; and butter or gravy for the oleaginous constituent, or the oiL The student, whose muscles make no expenditures, thinks the meat non-essential. He can live on bread and ale. The Greenlander, who fears the severity of his high northern lati- tude, thinks oil the great essential, and devours pure fat and tallow with a relish akin to that of more southern men for sugar. To return. Some kinds of food are better adapted to fatten cattle and sheep. Why ? Because they contain more oil. Some are better adapted to sustain cattle in labor. Why 1 Because they contain more of the substances expended in service. HI. It is not only true that different kinds of food contain in une- qual proportions, the caseine, the oil, and the sugar ; but also true,, that varieties of the same grain have them in varying proportions, and the same variety of grain has them in unequal proportions if grown upon soils of unequal fertility ; and even in two successive seasons,. one season being adapted in the amount of its sunshine and dew and rain, to advance the crop and bring out a large return, and the other with its cloud and mildew and drouth, fitted to shrivel the stalk and starve the kernel. The grain of corn may be dissected so as to display the several principles of which it is composed. The cotyledon or embryo, contains the earthy matters, and most of the nitrogenized substances that contribute to the formation of the organic tissues in general. The circle immediately around the cotyledon contains a salt of a peroxide of iron. This is to serve in coloring the blood. The bulk of the seed is composed of starch and oil. The oil goes to fatten, the starch to supply matter for various secretions, and to some extent No. 85.] 213 to form fat. Mingled with the oil and starch in some varieties of corn, is a third nitrogenized substance, called zeine. Section of grain of com, a. Cotyledon. h. Starch. c.e. Oil— sugar — zeine. d. Salts of iron. In the associated diagrams, several varieties of corn are presented, and the relative proportions of the several substances that compose them. Tuscarora corn. Sweet corn. Northern yellow com. Pop com. In the use of these varieties of the same grain, it is easy to see that given weights of each might be profitably employed, if different ob- jects were to be accomplished. They could not all be employed to fatten with equal advantage. If it be desired merely to fatten an ox, he should be fed with that corn or grain which in 60 lbs. contains the most oil. If he is to be worked, he should be fed with corn which contains the largest coty- ledons, for they contain the capital for labor. If he is to be merely inflated, without producing either fat or muscle, let him be fed on starch and water, or on a grain whose cotyledons are small, and in which the oil is wanting. From what has been said, how essential does an analysis of the dif- ferent kinds of grain become, that it may be known, which naturally contains most starch, most oil, or most gluten ? And that the essen- tials of soils that are to produce those grains, be known, that the de- ficiencies may be supplied, or noxious ingredients neutralized 1 In other words, how manifestly important that science be interro- gated upon subjects of such vital interest to the agricultural commu- 5iity, as the raising of stock arid the growth of crops. DAIRY MANAGEMENT BUTTER DAIRIES, Extract from the Report of B. P. Johnson, Chairman of the Award- ing Committee on the Manufacture of Butter, made to the Annual Meeting of the State Society : There were submitted to the Committe but two applications : the one from George Vail, Esq., of Troy, and the other from Philip Van Benschoten, of LaGrange, Dutchess county. The Committee suppose that the applicants should present, with their application, a sample of the butter manufactured — otherwise they would have no means of judging of the superiority of the butler manufactured. In the case of Mr. Van Benschoten, no sample of the butter ha& been presented to the Committee, and they cannot to him award the premium, should he otherwise have been entitled to it. Mr. Vail has presented for examination a jar of butter which was manufactured from his cows, and the Committee consider it an ar- ticle of excellent quality, and worthy of a premium from the Society. Mr. Vail has had six cows, with which the experiment was made, of the short-horn Durham breed. Three of the cows were put on trial from the 27th of May to the 25th of June, inclusive. The other three, from the 8th of July to the 6th of August, inclusive. The produce of the six cows, in thirty days, was 262 lbs. 9 oz., — aver- aging for each cow, 43 lbs. 12 oz. One of these cow's milk was kept separate from the other, and the cream churned by itself ; and the produce from this cow in butter, was 52 lbs. 9 oz. The covps of Mr. Vail were kept on pasture alone, and the Com- mittee deem this to be the proper manner in which to make the ex- periment. It will be observed, that the three cows last named, were tried at a season of the year when the weather was unfavorably warm, and the field as short as at any period of the year. Connecting the circumstances under which the experiment was made, the Committee are of opinion that Mr. Vail is entitled to the premium of the Society, and have accordingly awarded him a Silver Medal. The Committee refer to the statement of Mr. Vail, which accom- panies their Keport, as to the making and preserving of his butter. The quantity of butter which Mr. Van Benschoten manufactured from five cows, was 227 lbs., — amounting to 45 lbs. and 6 oz. each. Had Mr. Van Benschoten's butter been presented, and had its quali- No. 85.] 215 ty been equal to that of Mr. Vail, he would have been entitled to the premium. STATEMENT OF MR. VAIL. The undersigned appropriated six Durham cows on his farm, about two and a half miles from this city, for the purpose of testing the dairy qualities of Durham cows, by ascertaining iheir yield in butter for 30 (lays. Three of these cows were put on trial from the 27th day of May, to the 25th day of June, inclusive, being just 30 days. Their produce in butter was 146 lbs. 2 oz. The other three cows were put on trial from the 8th day of July, to the 6th day of August, inclusive, being just 30 days. The produce of these latter three cows was 116 lbs., 7 oz., and the total produce from the six cows, in 30 days, was 262 lbs., 9 oz., being an average for each cow of 43 lbs., 12 oz. of butter, in 30 days. One of these cow's milk was kept separate from the others, and the cream churned by itself, and the produce from this cow, in butter, for 30 days, was 52 lbs. 9 oz. In order to test accurately the quantity of milk drawn in one day from these six cows, during the above trial, the milk was carefully measur- ed and weighed. The result was as follows : the milk weighed 265 lbs., 10 oz., and measured one hundred and thirty-four quarts, aver- aging about 22i quarts in one day. These cows were in only ordi- nary condition, and fed on •pasture only-^-i\i\s being, as I conceive, the as wide a field as we can possibly desire, if we avail ourselves of the opportunity thus presented. While the modification of the corn laws has been slight, and the duty may be considered as prohibitory, the reduction of duty upon most kinds of provisions has been such as to enable the^ farmers of this country to supply almost the entire demand for salted meat, as well as cheese and lard. Heretofore, Ireland has been the great storehouse from whence has been drawn the vast supplies of salted beef and pork, which has been required for the army, the navy, and the merchant service. There is nothing of the kind put up in any part of the United King- dom. Since the great increase of steam communication between England and Ireland, the latter country has lost much of its insular position, and the rapid increase of population requiring a large in- crease of fresh provisions, it is no longer in the power of the Irish No. 85. J 239 provision dealer to supply the demand for cured meat, unless at very high rates, as the contracts with government for this year show. Hence the great interest which is felt in England for the adoption in this countr}-, of that method of curing and putting up provisions, which has been so long followed in Ireland, which is so well adapted to their habits and prejudices. The Irish method of curing and put- ting up both beef and pork is preferable to any other, even for our own country, but it is the only one that will be recognized abroad. To that standard then we must cc nform, if we wish to avail ourselves of the best market in the world. But that method may be adopted in other States of the Union, and to a certain extent is already in operation in many portions of the- western states. No method of curing will obviate a radical .defect existing in the pork produced throughout most of the western states, and which will always prevent its having the preference with the foreign consumer. I allude to the oily nature of the meat which is so prevalent, and which in my judgment can never be Overcome by any process of feeding. The prime requisite in pork is, that the fat should be firm and free from any soft, or oily appearance. It should also be sweet. These are the peculiar characteristics of the Irish and English pork. The pork of this State, especially in the dairy districts, is identical with the Irish, and when cut and cured as the Irish, could not be distinguished from it. In pork making then, we have nothing to fear, for the West can- not compete \s'ith us, owing to its warmer climate ; and the East has nothing to spare. Here, we have the advantage over all other sec- tions of the Union ; for those portions which can compete with us by reason of the climate, are so far from market, that the difference in transportation will always give us, very decidedly, the advantage. As to beef, we are not so favored ; inasmuch as the west can pro- duce it in the greatest perfection, and at prices so low as to almost exclude competition. Still, good stall fed beef, properly put up, will pay a profit. Chfcse has already become a very important item in the list of our exports ; and with proper care, all that we can make may find a ready sale in the English market. But the duty is so high upon butter, that it can only be shipped there in its most worthless state, at any profit. It is gratifying, however, to find that our farmers are im- proving every year in this most important branch of their business. Lard has also become a staple article of export, and will continues©. Having premised thus much, I will proceed to the detail of so much of the Irish mode of curing and putting up provisions, as will be of service to the farmers of this State. Pork. When hams and shoulders command a good price, I should recom- mend to put up only tierce, middles, or prime mess. There is one uniform method of cutting and curing : Heavy hogs, or those weighing over 250 lbs., if cut baconed, are cut into 6 lb. 240 [Senate pieces, and made into what is termed navy or India pork; lighter hogs are cut into 4 lb. pieces. After being split through the middle, each half of the carcass is laid upon the cutting block and again divided through the whole length, including ham and shoulder. These quar- ters are weighed and divided into 4 or 6 lb. pieces, according to the size of the hog and kind of package intended. It requires care and skill to cut the pieces in a neat and sizeable manner, but it requires only a short practice to do it well. The salt is well rubbed into each parcel. The meat is then put into a large tub, and freely salted, but no brine added. It remains in this state for several days, depending upon the weather. When taken out, it is washed in strong brine — thoroughly tried, to see that it is not tainted, and then properly wiped and packed ; if 4 lb. pieces, into barrels, 50 pieces to a barrel ; if 6 lb. pieces, in tierces, 50 to a tierce. Great care must be taken to- have the package hold out weight. The barrel must not have less than 200 lbs-, and the tierce 300. It is usual to put an extra piece in each package. While packing, saltpetre must be added, at the ,rate of a common wine-glass full to each 100 Jbs. After heading up, the barrel or tierce must be filled with strong, pure brine, and there must be a good capping of coarse salt put on, before the head is put in. The barrel must be full bound, with a good iron hoop on each end, and a tierce must have three iron and eight wooden hoops on each end. A barrel of prime mess pork should contain from 25 to 30 pieces, cut from the ribs, loins, chines and belly pieces, all lying' between the ham and shoulder, forming what is called the broadside or middle ; 3 hands and 2 hind leg pieces, or 3 hind leg pieces and 2 hands, and 15 or twenty pieces cut from other parts of the hog — except no part of the head — that should never be packed. Bacon mess is where the fu'l proportion of prime mess is withheld. The same rule is to be observed in packing a tierce, as a barrel, — and in either case, the number of prime mess pieces should be marked upon the head. Tierce middles^ are what, with us, is called the broadside ; being all that part of the hog between the ham and shoulder. It is clear when the bone has been taken out, or it is hone middles when the ribs re- main in. The middles are curt^d in the same manner as the pork, and packed in tierces holding as near 300 lbs. as possible, hooped and ironed in the same manner as India tierces. The number of pieces in each tierce should be marked on the head. Middles would pay the best to be sent out clear from bone, like our clear mess pork. Beef. Beef is rarely packed in barrels. It is usually put in tierces. It is cut into 8 lb. pieces, and the process of curing and packing is pre- cisely the same as in pork except more saltpetre is added when pack- ed. In all cases the saltpetre should be finely pulverised and put in- to the package in small quantities ; as the meat is put in, the usual quantity is a wine-glass full to the 100 lbs. A tierce of prime India beef, should contain 42 pieces, 8 lbs. each, and must, therefore, contain not less than 336 lbs. of meat. It should No. 85.] 241 be made from fat, well fed bullocks, 32 pieces of prime, from loins, and chines, flanks, rumps, plates, briskets and buttocks. 10 pieces, consisting of 4 chines, 2 mouse buttocks, 2 shells of rumps, 2 pieces cut close to the neck with bone taken out ; no shins, ttiigh bones, or necks. A tierce of prime mess heef should contain 38 pieces of 8 lbs. and have not less than 304 lbs. of meat. It should be made from prime fat cows and heifers. 28 pieces of prime from loins and chines, with one rib in each, flanks, rumps, plates, briskets and buttocks, 10 coarse pieces consisting of 2 neckpieces, not the scrag, 2 thighs or buttock iDones with some meat on them ; 2 shells of rumps, 2 or even 4 chines, not cut too close to the neck, and 2 shoulder pieces with part of blade bone in them. All packages must be made of well seasoned oak, full bound, and contain a good capping of St. Ubes or other coarse salt. It is also indispensable that the barrels should have one iron hoop on each end, and that each tierce should have three iron hoops on each end about equally divided among the wooden ones. The young cattle of the west would make the prime mess beef equal to any in the world, and with proper care in selecting and putting up none but really fat beef, and having it well cured, the western states can sup- ply the entire demand for all time to come. Lard. Lard has already become so much an article of export that few direc- tions are necessary. If, however, a farmer seeks to have a good de- mand, and the best price, a little more pains and care will insure it. The best lard is made from the leaf, and should be hard, clear and sweet. Bladdered lard, if of that quality, will always command the very best and highest price in the market. Hogs' bladders only are used, and they must be v/ell cured and bleached. For exporting, the bladders should be put in strong casks and w^ell packed with oat hulls. Another favorite package is small kegs holding about 30 lbs., made very nice with peeled hoops. The lard should be put in nearly cold, and before heading up white paper should be put between the head and the lard. These packages should be sent out in larger ones, so that they will come into the market nice and clean. Inferior lard is as well or better in barrels, than any other way it can be put up. Cheese. With proper care in making, curing and getting it into the market, cheese will become as much of a staple for exportation as any in the State. The size should be as uniform as possible, and the weight from 45 to 60 lbs. when well cured. It should be mild flavored, and much deeper than is usual to make them among the dairies of this State. A cheese weighing 45 or 50 lbs. should be at least 8 inches thick. They should be well pressed, and cured in a large airy room. For shipping they should be packed in casks. [Senate, No. 85. J Q 242 [Senate Butter. There is already quite too much butter prepared for foreign mar- kets. The process is too familiar to the great mass of both farmers and consumers, to require any description from me. The butter is usually half worked, poorly salted, with common salt, packed in fir- kins made of half seasoned oak — and by the time it has reached the seaboard it has become so rancid that it is worthless for any use ex- cept to send to Scotland to be used for smearing sheep. Good butter can only be made by care and attention. Work out all the buttermilk — use the finest and purest salt, put up in good and well seasoned oak firkins, and there is little danger of its becoming rancid or difiicult to sell, at remunerating prices. In conclusion, whatever is sent abroad must be put up in the best manner, and must be the best of its kind. DOMESTIC ANIMALS. ALBANY AGRICULTURAL MEETINGS. At the sixth agricultural meeting in Albany, the subject for discus- sion was the proper mode of improving the breed of domestic ani- mals. Mr. Sanford Howard, associate editor of the Cultivator, made, substantially, the following observations : Mr. H. said, although he thought the remarks which had been made by the gentlemen who had before spoken, were, from their general character, highly interesting, yet he should have been pleased if some- thing had been said having a more direct bearing on the subject under consideration. It seems to be admitted, by most persons, that domestic animals have in some cases been improved by man, and the object, in the out- set, is to ascertain how that improvement has been effected ; because, " what man has done, man can do." What, then, has been the sys- tem pursued by the improvers of animals 1 Some natural principle has doubtless been acted on. In the history which has been given of the management of Bakewell, Fowler, Colling, and others, we are not informed that the constitutional qualities of their animals were changed or improved, by keeping them on any peculiar kinds of food. They, to be sure, had their animals well fed with wholesome food, adapted to their age, but no particular mode of feeding was relied on to effect a constitutional improvement. Nor was it supposed that those men had a very thorough knowledge of the physiological prin- ciples, which had just been spoken of. In saying this it was not in- tended to undervalue science, but simply to state that with such light only as is within the reach of every man, important improvements have been made. If to the practical habits of observation, which those celebrated stock-breeders possessed, had been added a thorough knowledge of anatomy and animal physiology, the results of their la- bors might have been still greater. But practical skill and discrimi- nation, are of the first consequence, and with the men" who possess these requisites, theoretical knowledge will be turned to the best ac- count. An attempt will be made to state, briefly, what is believed to have been i\i& foundation on which Bakewell, and other improvers of stock, conducted, or continue to conduct their operations. The best domestic animals for any particular purpose, are seen to possess certain natural or constitutional characteristics. It may be said to be a law of nature applicable to the animal and 244 [Senate vegetable world, that " like produces likeP This, though a truth in a general sense, is not strictly so 'vaz particular sense — if it were, all animals of the same general family or race, would be exactly alike. For an illustration of this idea, suppose we take a given number of animals of any species, breed them together, and rear their progeny. We do not find an exact resemblance among them, nor do they ex- actly resemble either of the parents, or any of their progenitors. Some of the offspring may not possess as many good points as their progenitors had, and occasionally some may be found with more. There is a variation, but still there is a general resemblance. Now if we select from the offspring of our first named animals, some which are actually oetter than their progenitors, and breed from them, al- ways bestowing proper attention, we may have some among their progeny also, which will exhibit the same superiority over the parents that was mentioned in the first instance. If we select the best from these again, and go on as before, we obtain the same results — we may still have a few superior ones — and thus by attending for many gene- rations to these rules in selecting, a general, fixed and permanent im- provement is effected. But it should not be supposed that the superiority of offspring to parents, which has been spoken of, is frequently to be expected ; on the contrary, such superiority is rare, especially in those breeds which have derived their excellence chiefly from the art of man — in such cases a progeny is more likely to be inferior than superior — neverthe- less, that superiority is sometimes found; and experience has proved that if such animals as possess it are chosen for propagation, those superior points, though in their first development they may seem to have been only an accidental deviation from general laws, may be perpetuated in the future progeny — may be transfused through a larg- er number of animals, and other improvements added in succeeding generations. • The principle then is this— -that like begets like in a general sense — that there are some variations within this rule, which, when seized on, constitute the basis, under proper management, of new and im- proved varieties. That particular qualities in animals, though appa- rently accidental at first, may become fixed and hereditary, (coming under the general principle that like begets like,) by the exercise of care and skill in selection and breeding. It is by having acted on this principle, that improvement in breed- ing domestic animals has been chiefly effected. But it is impossible to lay down rules for selecting and breeding, so minutely that they will infallibly lead every one who undertakes to follow them to the desired point of improvement. To be able to select the best animals for particular purposes, requires a nicety of discrimination which can only be acquired by a long course of the closest observation and a habit of comparing different animals, united with a natural taste for the subject, and a thorough understanding of its principles. Such is the attention, study and observation, that is necessary to constitute a successful breeder, that few men have hith- No. 85.] 245 erto been able to secure that title, and until men are much altered, it will continue to be so in future. It is an easy matter to improve an inferior stock by crossing it with a superior one ; but when there is no longer a superior stock to resort to for crossing, there will be found but few who will be able to push improvement any farther. And this will always render the number of truly fine animals compara- tively small, and as a natural consequence, the prices they will com- mand will be comparatively high. It is believed that the principle here laid down, is the one which has been acted on in breeding, whether improvement has been sought by crossing distinct breeds, and rearing a new one from the issue, or by breeding entirely from one variety. It is this principle which con- stituted the basis of the improvements effected in the Long Horn cat- tle by Bakewell and Fowler, in the Short Horns by Colling and his coadjutors, in the Herefords by Price, Tompkins, and others. It has also been equally the basis of improvement in sheep-breeding, from the Leicesters of Bakewell down to the South Downs of Ellman and Webb, and the Anglo-Merinos of Lord Western. Proper selection \s the grand point, and, with a sufficient range for this, with due care in feeding, &c., in proportion to the skill and judgment of the breeder, in discovering the excellencies and defects of animals for particular purposes, so will be his success in attaining the points of improve- ment at which he aims. Every thing depends upon the faculty of the breeder to select those animals for propagation which are best calculated to promote his object. It may not be improper to make a remark here m relation to cer- tain modes of breeding, in reference to which much has been said and written. Breeding from animals of near relationship, commonly called in- and-in breeding, is generally considered injudicious. On the other hand, crossing two distinct races, whose characteristics present a wide contrast is by some considered equally impolitic. Breeding directly in-and-in, or from precisely the same blood, is not, probably, often practiced by professional breeders. It is usually ad- mitted that Bakewell practiced very close breeding, if, indeed, he did not breed from precisely the same blood, with both cattle and sheep. And yet his stock not only improved in symmetry and ten dency to fatten, but in constitution also.* It is true that after his death the stock declined, but under the guidance of his master mind, no degeneracy was indicated. He made such selections of animals for breeders, in the beginning, as suited his judgment, but afterwards confined himself to his own stock ; but it has been observed that his stock was so large as to furnish unusual facilities. Crossing long-wooled with short-wooled sheep, and breeding from the issue, is commonly considered injudicious, and in general the plan • " The principle which he [Bakewell] invariably adopted was, to f elect the best beast that would weigh most in the valuable joints ; so that while he gained in point of shape, he also acquired a more hardy breed, and especially by attending to the kindliness of their skins, he became possessed of a race, which was more easily fed and fattened than any other."— [Complete Grazier, p. 34.] 246 [Senate does not succeed, yet examples may be cited to show that great sue" cess has sometimes followed its adoption. Mr. Twynam, of the county of Hants, England, has for twelve or fourteen years been engaged in breeding a race of sheep from an ori- ginal cross of the Cotswold and South Down. His sheep sustain a very high character, and he has carried many prizes on them. Count de Gourcy, in the account of his late tour through England and Scot- land, speaks of them in the highest terms, both those which he saw in the possession of Mr. Twynam, and of the same stock which he saw on the pattern farm of Lord Ducie, under the direction of Mr. Morton. The Count states, that Mr. Twynam has for a few years past, sold many of his sheep to be sent to Australia, India, &c.* Another striking example, is that of the Anglo-Merino sheep of Lord Western. He commenced his experiments about the year 1812, with some sheep presented him by George III., which that monarch had received from Spain. The peculiar race to which he has given the name of Anglo-Merino, were produced by a cross of the Spanish with the English long-wooled sheep — the object of Lord Western be- ing, as he has declared, the production of a Merino fleece on a Lei- cester carcase. His first crosses were with the Leicesters, and after- wards with the Cotswolds and the Kent long-wooled sheep. His success, up to this time, has been very satisfactory. He has obtain- ed a carcase weighing at two years old, from a hundred and twenty to a hundred and thirty-five pounds nett, selling at a high price to the butchers, and has obtained at the same time a fleece averaging nearly six pounds of washed wool, commanding a price in market nearly equal to full blood Merino. His flock of breeding ewes, of the cross- bred stock, is about eighty in number. It is not now intended to recommend these modes of breeding, but to show from these examples, (and others might be given,) that men who thoroughly understand the business, with a sufficient range for selection, may effect improvement by either of them. But the breed- er must not be confined to too small a number of animals — he should have so many to choose from that there may be an opportunity of ob- taining the points he wishes for, without concomitant defects. Range for the selection is very important, and much disappointment has fre- quently been experienced from inattention to this particular. Some seem to have an idea that to obtain a superior stock it is only neces- sary to procure a single pair of animals of the breed desired, and leave them to an indiscriminate copulation. The expectations of farmers are often highly raised from the circumstance of a few improved ani- mals being brought into their neighborhood, and it appears to be sup- posed that in the course of a few generations their whole stock will possess the blood and perfections of the new breed. These expecta- tions are seldom realized. From the limited chance for selection, animals having the same defects are permitted to breed together, and the consequence is that these defects become more and more con- • The Mark-Lane Express of May 13th last, gives an account of a show of animals which had just been held in England, at which Mr. Twynam carried the prize for the *' best ram of any kind, breed or age." No. 85.] 247 spicuous with every generation, so long as the injudicious course is followed, the stock degenerates and dwindles away to worthlessness, perhaps, even before the sanguine, but dull-sighted owner is aware of it. This consequence may perhaps follow sooner where stock is bred from close affinities of blood, but if the selection of breeders is con- fined to the progeny of only two or three animals, it is almost impos- sible to avoid degeneracy. It is often remarked that high-bred animals, as they are called, (or perhaps we should say high-bred fattening animals,) do not breed readily. In animals of this character, a sort of artificial temperament or constitution seems to take place — a change somewhat analogous to that which not unfrequently occurs in plants. An extraordinary de- velopment of one class of organs is frequently attended with a greater or less defect in other organs. Strawberries and other fruits, of a size much greater than is common with the species, are sometimes produced. But they are generally much less prolific than other kinds which show no extraordinary departure from the original or natural characteristics of the race. The flowers of some plants by cultiva- tion become double. In this case, the stamens, or one portion of the procreative organs, are converted into petals — the plants become monsters ; and are either totally barren or produce only a small quan- tity of imperfect seed. So with certain animals, cultivation has par- tially changed their constitution — their procreative faculties are weak- ened— the energies of the organs of generation become as it were swallowed up by the fat-secreting organs — and the animal is either incapable of propagation, or begets only a feeble progeny.* The skillful breeder will be always on his guard against this de- fect, or monstrosity — he will take care that no one property is culti- vated to the sacrifice or injury of any other essential one — he will not encourage the fat-forming organs to such a degree that the generating organs of his animals become weakened, and consequently the consti- tutions of their offspring impaired Vigorous and energetic animals should always be chosen for propagation — and the ultimate success of those breeders will be greatest, who pay due regard to the proper balance of the animal system. In reply to an inquiry by Professor Emmons, "which of the parents has most influence on the progeny ;" Mr. Howard said — that was a question on which even " doctors disagree." Some few years ago, the Rev. Henry Berry, of England, wrote a prize essay on this very question, and the ground he took was, that where both parents are equal in strength or purity of blood, the influence of each on the pro- geny is equal. It is, however, reasonable to suppose, that in some respects this influence of the parents cannot be equal ; and that the theory is well founded that the coTi^^i^w^iowa/ qualities, ner-vous temperament, &c., are more likly to resemble the dam, and the external qualities, such as ♦ Barrenness of females seems in some cases to result from excessive venereal excite- ment. Cases of this kind are entirely distinct, and are the result of a different cause from the imbecility here aUuded to. 248 [Sena outward form, color, hair, &c.,to resemble the sire. Many examples might be cited in support of this theory. Many farmers have noticed how much more likely their animals are to inherit the diseases of their dams, than their sires. When we consider that the animal is sup- ported during the foetal stage of its existence entirely from the blood of the mother, and that this blood circulating through every part of the system would, of course, be affected by the state of the animal's health, this consequence would seem to be perfectly natural. On the other hand it has been noticed that the outward features of the sire, more frequently than those of the dam, are enstamped on the progeny. This has been attributed to the nervous influence of the dam — or what is called the influence of the imagination of the dam on the foetus. Practical men believe there is something in this. Pro- fessional breeders avail themselves of the principle in giving to their animals some desired marks or qualities. It must have been something akin to this, by the influence of which, through the medium of peel- ed rods, Jacob caused the cattle to be born " ringed, streaked, and speckled." Breeders of horses sometimes take great pains to operate on the imagination of the mare, and thus produce in the foal certain characteristics. At the time of conception, or within the first month afterwards, the foetus seems to be particularly susceptible to this influ- ence, and it is not difiicult to produce the changes spoken of. Some striking instances of the effect of this sympathetic influence might be given. One of the most remarkable, perhaps, as showing the evi- dence of anterior excitement, is that of a mare, seven-eighths of Arabian blood, after having produced a foal by a stallion quagga, (a species of zebra,) continued, after a lapse of five years to reproduce the markings of that animal, at three successive births, although the sire of all the subsequent progeny was a thorough bred Arab horse. This is a well authenticated fact, and correct portraits of the mare, the hybrid, the three foals which the mare afterwards had by the horse, the latter showing the stripes of the quagga, are preserved.* The influence of one black sheep, though it may never have any pro- geny, is often noticed in causing black iambs. Shepherds who have kept black dogs with their sheep, have observed the same efi"ect. The nervous influence of animals in a state of pregnancy, shows itself very conspicuously in the efl"ects of fright on the offspring. Many cases of this kind might be cited in the human species, as well as in our do- mestic animals. * See Naturalists' Library, Mammalia, vol. 12, p. 342, &c. No. 85.] 249 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF CATTLE IN ENGLAND. HEREFORDS THEIR SUPERIORITY IN-AND-IN BREEDING LEICES- TER SHEEP. BT GEORGE DRAKE, MANOR FARM, EAST TYTHERLY, HAMPSHIRE, ENGLAND. To the committee of the Mew-York State Agricultural Society : July, 1st, 1844. Gentlemen — In compliance with the solicitation of your Corres- ponding Secretary, (Mr. Johnson,) I am induced to forward an arti- cle for insertion in your journal of Agricultural Transactions, on the different breeds of farm animals, chiefly kept and patronized in Eng- land, together with some suggestions for their improvement, and rea- sons for their extended introduction into counties and countries re- mote from the principal localities in which they are found and propa- gated. Considerable opposition has been aroused, and is still main- tained, as to which breed of cattle and sheep will pay the most mo- ney for the food they consume, and return to the soil the greatest proportion of the most valuable manure for the production of future crops. Such undoubtedly is the best, and the duty of every one to encourage, and should be made the test whereby to judge of the mer- its of particular breeds, and individual animals. This desideratum should have its due influence with every breeder in the founding and maintaining a herd or flock. The breeding of domesticated animals is, by many, esteemed as having arrived at its climax, but I believe its true principles are very imperfectly understood, and a wide field for improvement remains unexplored. That there are particular breeds or tribes of animals, capable of paying more for the consumption of food, and calculated to endure greater hardships than others, is an ad- mitted fact ; and consequently deserves a greater share of our support and attention. The Herefords, Short Horns, Long Horns, Devonshire and Highland cattle, the South-down and Leicestershire sheep, cer- tainly surpass all others for every purpose ; and all of these various breeds have their advocates, some from early association, some from the recommendations of their patrons, others from having seen pam- pered and over fed animals at public exhibitions, made up for the pur- pose of show, and perhaps labelled with the additional recommenda- tion of a prize ; and a few from careful and judicious comparison, without partiality or prejudice. The general and great hindrance to the extension of well bred cattle and sheep, is the provincial opinion that they require more and better food than the indigenous or hetero- geneous multitudes of mongrels which disfigure many of our finest pastures, and are almost sacred in the estimation of the inhabitants of their respective localities. This delusion has more votaries than any other ; and it displays a want of the knowledge of the external struc- ture of animals, whereby to judge of their construction, capability 250 [Senate to live hard, and rapidly to acquire flesh. I have always believed, and practice confirms it, that the most perfectly formed animals have the best constitutions, and will endure more privations, and even dis- ease, than those that are ill shaped, and when equally inured to the climate they are destined to inhabit, will get fat much earlier, and on less and inferior food. The one true standard or model of perfection of form, (the component good points of which, when united, com- prise one level mass of flesh ; or in other terms, the most human food in the least animal frame,) applies to cattle, sheep and pigs respec- tively. And that this form may be developed in succeeding genera- tions, it is the most certain to choose from those that have possessed them for years past. There may be a multitude of evils in the pre- dictions of many ready to advise on the subject, but the proof that they can advance in favor of their objections, will, on investigation, be found inefficient. These opinions guided me in the selection of my own cattle, and after a diligent search, I was fortunate in obtain- ing some bred by the late John Price, Esq., Upton on Severn, Wor- cestershire, a tribe of Herefords distinct from all others, and partak- ing of the form, constitution, and capabilities to live hard, &c., pre- viously recommended, (and so much to be desired,) in a far greater proportion than any other cattle that have yet come under my obser- vation. They have for nearly a century been bred in-and-in (and in many instances from the closest affinities,) with positive improve- ment, and I believe would possess health and manifest the same dis- position to fatten and arrive at early maturity, in colder climates, and on the most barren land upon which any cattle ever did or can sub- sist. This valuable breed of animals are now in the possession of only three or four individuals, in their pristine purity. A weighty reason for the adoption of my method of perpetuating animals, is its economy ; for when once a herd or flock is established, there is not any expense incurred in the annual hire or purchase of males, which greatly detracts from the profit of the produce of those herd or flock masters, whose custom it is to infuse frequent strange blood into their stock : this amalgamation greatly injures, if not the first, the later descendants. The works of nature display ample lessons in favor of the princi- ples that I advocate, which man is slow to learn and reluctant to practice. He should remember that he is nature's apprentice, and strictly adhere to his indentures. He will then be impressed with the important truth, that beasts, birds and fishes (over whose procre- ation he has no control,) breed from close affinities, without any de- terioration in size, form, coat or color. The principal evil ascribed to in-and-in breeding, is its tendency to reduce size and encourage disease. Animals of a small size, of every breed, frequently possess the most symmetrical forms, and conseqjiently are preferred for breed- ing, and the issue is almost certain in the lapse of years, (as may natu- rally be expected) to produce diminution in size, with improved for- mation. That in-and-in breeding does not necessarily generate diseases, un- less animals have hereditary predisposition to suffer from them, is suf- No. 85.] ' 251 ficiently demonstrated by my Herefords, and a flock of Leicester- shire sheep, which, to my knowledge, has been so bred for the last 40 years, and are quite free from goggles, a disease said to be pecu- liar to sheep so descended. I do not advocate breeding from very close affinities tmless they partake more of the qualities that I wish animals to inherit, than others of more remote alliance. The best cow perhaps, ever seen, was the produce of own brother and sister ; but it must be remembered that both the sire and dam, were animals of extraordinary merit. Those whose inclinations may induce them to make improvements in their cattle and sheep, without going to the expense of an entire change of stock, should select superior males of a particular tribe. If this system is persevered in, a surprising and lasting benefit will be derived from it. All animals require to be well fed when young, in order to arrive at great size and perfection ; when they have attained it, they will live on little food, and endure great privations — with the proviso, that they are descended from blood of good reputation. It is too much the custom with breeders to give inquirers the impression that their stock has been getting fat by starvation, and that they live on "absolutely nothing;" this is preposterous; but that their fine condi- tion frequently indicates more and richer pasturage than falls to their lot, is equally true. I remain, gentlemen. Your obedient servant, GEORGE DRAKE. Manor Farm, East Tytherly, near Stockbridge, Hampshire, England. BREEDING SAXONY AND MERINO SHEEP— AYRSHIRE CATTLE. BY WIGHT CHAPMAN, OF VERMONT. Middlebury, 1845. Dear Sir — Your favor, in form of a circular, was duly received ; but my pressing business engagements have prevented my replying sooner. I shall make a few observations on cattle and sheep. In the choice of bucks to breed from, the sheep breeder should consult his wants, rather than his fancy, for on this his success very much de- pends. If his ewes have slight constitutions, light fine fleeces, and bad build, he should endeavor to remedy their defects, by selecting a buck from a family of Merinos distinguished for heavy bodies, strong constitution, and heavy fleeces — although the latter may be somewhat coarse, always rejecting those whose fleeces are not of an even quali- ty— for it is not advisable to breed from a buck that has coarse shag- gy thighs, or one that has hair or jar over the surface of the fleece, 252 [Senate although he may have other good qualities. If the breeder has coarse ewes, like the native breeds, a different course should be pursued. A judicious cross of Saxony would, perhaps, be the best that could be made ; though care should be taken not to follow it so long as to sacrifice those valuable qualities of weight of fleece and constitution. A great disposition to run to extremes has been prevalent among wool-growers for the last few years. Some years since, the cry was all Saxony ; and so far was it carried, that, regardless of constitu- tion, build, and weight of fleece, the finest Saxons were bred from, until those valuable qualities were all sacrificed. This soon brought this breed into disrepute, and a disposition has since been prevalent, to disregard them altogether, and run to extremes another way. To prevent disappointment, the breeder should avoid these extremes, and endeavor to divest himself of all prejudice, recollecting that both Saxons and Merinos have qualities which, if rightly under- stood, are valuable for crossing. Eucks to be bred from, must be pure blooded, or no dependence can be placed on their transmitting their valuable qualities to their stock. While I should prefer a buck without wrinkles, I should not discard one simply because he had them. A buck with a heavy dew- lap and a few rolls over his neck, (provided he is well built,) is more apt to mark his stock with good build and strong constitution, than one that has neither. Large wrinkles on the body, I think are objec- tionable. It is important that a buck should be well coated on his legs and belly ; and there should be an evenness of length, thick- ness, and quality, throughout the whole fleece. The length or thick- ness of the wool should be governed by that of the ewes ; if that is long, a buck should be chosen that has thick wool ; but if short and thick, the buck should have it long, as the object always is to combine thickness and length, as much as possible. While a hard, glutinous gum should always be avoided, a quantity of natural oil in the wool is desirable, as such wool has a soft, silky, elastic feeling, that wool entirely free from it, does not have. I do not permit my stock bucks to run with other sheep, for they thrive much better when kept alone, and they are apt to injure other sheep, especially ewes with lamb. I begin to feed my bucks a small quantity of grain, the last of October, and continue to grain them until they are turned to pasture in the spring, giving them from one gill to a pint of corn each day, varying according to size and age. During the winter, in addition to the grain, they have a mess of roots every day, (carrots or sugar beets are preferred to potatoes or ruta bagas) ; I think a part roots better than a large quantity of grain. IJpon breeding cattle, so much has been written, that I do not ex- pect to present any thing new ; but I give you my experience for what it is worth. We have had almost all of the improved breeds here, yet various opinions exist with our farmers, as to which are most profitable. We want a breed that will thrive upon our short pastures through the summer. We must have those that are hardy, that they may thrive during our long and severe winters. No. 85.] 253 Butter and cheese are made in large quantities in this section ; there- fore we want a breed that will furnish cows valuable for the dairy. Thus, while the large Durhams may be the most valuable for the rich prairies and milder climate of the West, it is the opinion of our prac- tical farmers, (who have tried them,) that they are far from the best for us. The Ayrshires, so far as they have been tried, have answer- ed our wants better than any other. I have bred a number of fine grade Durhams and Devonshires. A few years ago, I purchased a bull that was sired in England, by a Durham ; his dam was a pure blood Devonshire ; he was a deep cherry red color, and was a very perfect formed animal ; he was used here two seasons and was after- wards purchased by a gentleman (I think) in Essex county, in New York. This bull's stock were characterized for their beautiful forms and fine silky red coats. The males were superior for working cattle, but few of the cows were good milkers. Through the bountiful kindness of Mr. John P. Gushing, of Watertown, Mass., about four years since, I received as a gift, a superior Ayrshire bull, from his valuable herd. The oldest stock we have from him, here, were two years old last spring. Most of these are a deep red color ; all are finely formed and good sized ; though not over large, are very thrifty and hardy, and both size and stock are kept with the least expense of any cattle ever raised here. During the time I have owned this bull, there has been no time but that he has been in good order, and most of the time quite fat ; his feed in the winter, the most of the time, , has been coarse hay, and in summer he has been tied under a shed and fed with dry hay ; all the extra feed he has had since he came to ray farm, was two bushels of oil meal. This winter, so far, he has been kept at a stack, without shelter, with two two year olds, and two yearlings, and fed twice each day with damaged hay. One of the yearlings is a seven-eighths Durham ; the others were sired by the old bull. While the Durham is thin in flesh, the others are fit for the butcher. I have three heifers (from native cows sired by the old bull,) two years old last spring ; one calved last June — the other two last November — all three have proved excellent milkers, giving a large quantity of rich milk. The old bull will be seven years old next summer ; he has never been weighed, but it is supposed by good judges that he will w^eigh 1,800 or 2,000 lbs. He is most perfect in form, and has never shown the least disposition to be cross or ill-tempered. He is as agile as a calf six months old, and has covered a number of yearling heifers the past season. He is the fastest walker I ever saw, having travelled 90 miles in three days. The whole distance he travelled when com- ing from Massachusetts, was 180 miles, over a hard, rough road ; but although unshod, he was not the least foot-sore when he arrived here. For a drawing and description of him, by S. W. Jewett, I would refer to the Albany Cultivator of June, 1841. In making the foregoing observations, I have relied mostly on my own experience, though somewhat on the experience of others more 254 [Senate competent than myself, and I leave you to dispose of them as you see fit. Your most obedient servant, \ WIGHT CHAPMAN. January, 1845. SHEEP. Statement of H. S. Randall, relative to the management of his flock of Sheep, which received the premium of the State Agricultural So- ciety. In the winter of 1843-4, 1 wintered in a separate flock, fifty-one ewes over one year- old, two ewe lambs, two rams, one of them one and one of them two years old. Of the ewes over one year old, twenty-eight w^ere full blood Merinos ; twenty-three were half blood Merinos and half blood South Downs; the two ewe lambs were three- fourth blood Merino and one-fourth blood South Down ; and the two rams were full blood Merinos. The flock were kept as follows through the winter. They were fed hay morning and night, and were, as a general rule, required to eat it up clean. At noon the flock were daily fed three bundles of oats and barley (which had grown mixed, say three parts oats and one part barley,) until the 25th of December — after which they received four bundles of oats. The grain was light and shrunken. They received no hay at noon during the winter, and usually consumed all the straw of the grain fed them. They had a good shelter and access to pure water at all times. From this flock I raised fifty-three lambs. The full blood Merinos, includ- ing two rams, and the two three-fourth blood lambs, (in all thirty- two) sheared one hundred and eighty-six pounds and four ounces of washed wool, which I sold at forty-eight cents per pound. Four of the full bloods had two years' fleeces on. The half blood Merinos and half blood South Downs (twenty-three) sheared eighty and one- half pounds of washed wool, seventy-one pounds of which I sold at thirty-eight cents per pound. During the summer of 1844 the flock were kept in good ordinary pasture, and salted once a week. Expense of keeping 55 sheep one year, $82.50 Received for wool, estimating that kept at the same price with that sold, $119.99 besides the increase of 53 lambs. HENRY S. RANDALL. No. 85.1 255 ■' \ ALBANY AGRICULTURAL MEETINGS. Extracts from remarks made at the Agricultural meetings for dis- cussion, held April 4 and 11, 1844. Dr. Lee opened the discussion with some remarks on wool-growing. He thought it was practicable greatly to increase the weight of wool per fleece, and at the same time to preserve its fineness of staple, without incurring a corresponding increase in the expense of produc- tion. This could be done by properly sheltering the sheep and feeding them with food containing, in a large proportion, the elements of wool. He had seen some Cotswold sheep at Mr. Coming's farm, which Mr. Sotham told him would average 8 lbs. per fleece. He believed it was practicable to get from the sheep of the country an average of 6 lbs. per fleece. The extraordinary weight of wool which some sheep produced, was owing to their wool-secreting organs having been highly stimulated by particular care and feeding — they and tjieir pro- genitors have been fed with a kind of food which is best calculated to make wool. Beans contain a larger amount of the substance which goes to make wool, than Indian corn — and hence they are a more ap- propriate food for the production of wool. On the other hand, In- dian corn contains more of the elements of fat, than beans, and it is therefore a better food for fattening animals. Dr. L. thought that by proper management and feeding, the most ill-formed animals might, in a few generations, be transformed into valuable and useful ones. For example, take the woods-hog of the western country. He now has a hide as thick as a board, ears big enough for a leather apron, and bones large beyond all proportion — he is nearly all offal. Put him in a quiet pen or pasture, feed him properly, and a change soon takes place. He is no longer under the necessity of constantly running about to get his living — he is fed with a different kind of food — the secretions are different — from the food he now gets, he assimilates fat — thus after pursuing this course for a time, you may make from this race of hogs, a fine improved Berkshire. Dr. L. had no doubt of this — the Berkshires, and other improved races of animals, were all produced in a similar way. Mr. Howard said, although he thought the remarks of Dr. Lee generally correct, he did not know how far it was safe to follow one or two ideas. He was willing to admit that change of habits and change of food, would have an influence in changing to some extent the characteristics of animals ; but whether so great a change could be effected as to transform the uncouth western " Land shark^^ which Dr. Lee had described, into an " improved Berkshire,'' was to him a matter of doubt. The ideas of Dr. Lee on the tendency of certain kinds of food to produce fat, wool, &c., had been pro- minently put forth by certain chemists. Mr. Howard said if he understood the theory, it was that animals accumulate fatin pro- portion as the food given to them contains oil, or the elements of fat. They had recommended maize or Indian corn as peculiarly adapted to the fattening of animals, on account of its being rich in "those elements, and had recommended other substances as particularly 256 [Senate adapted for the production of muscle, &c. The general principle might be correct, but Mr, H. did not think the ideas of the relative value of some kinds of food, accounted for, or exactly corresponded with certain facts which the experience and observation of every farmer will attest. For instance, take a Hereford, or a fine Durham cow, and an old fashioned Short-Horn or Yorkshire one — feed them with the same kind of food — take corn-meal, if you please, as that has been supposed to contain in an extraordinary degree the elements of fat — the Hereford or the Durham gets fat, really fat — the other gets Jleshy^ but is never fat. Thus, from the same food which it is said contains abundantly the elements of fat, one animal accumulates fat, and the other gains only muscle. It is probable we should see the same difference in the animals, if fed on any kind of food. It is well known that some do not acquire fat, feed them as you will ; while others, running on the same pastures, or kept in the same pen, and eating precisely the same kind of food, attain any desirable degree of fatness. The Berkshire hog has a much larger proportion of lean meat or muscle, than the Chinese, even when both are fed exactly alike. The same fact will apply equally well to some varieties of sheep. The Bakewell or Leicester is found covered with fat on the same pasture with a Merino that is quite lean. The feeding of sheep with food containing the elements of wool, it seemed reasonable to suppose would have a good effect. Beans are good for sheep — and whatever of the elements of wool they might contain, it is well known that they have an excellent fattening ten- dency ; and though the chemist may say there is a less proportion of the fat-forming elements in beans than in corn, those who have wit- nessed their effects in making good mutton, cannot fail to estimate their value for this purpose as at least equal to any kind of grain. Mr. Howard said he did not perceive the propriety of assuming that all the different varieties of animals of the same species, sprung originally from one stock. He would admit that the matter was of little consequence, comparatively, though if we can ascertain the ori- gin of varieties, whether good or bad, we have certainly secured one important point in knowing how to manufacture such ones as we want. From the earliest ages, there have been many varieties of the same species, and it is impossible to fix on a time when it can be said there was upon the earth but a single variety of horses, cattle, sheep, swine, or any of our domestic animals. Mr. H. would not say it was absolutely impossible to produce an improved Berkshire hog from a " land-shark," but he would say he did not think there was a man living who had known such an instance. He did not believe that a fine symmetrically-formed race of hogs, has ever been seen, which were known to have sprung entirely from a race of precisely opposite characteristics. There is another fact, (said Mr. H.) in regard to the effect of In- dian corn on animals, which he could hardly reconcile with the theory before spoken of. It is known that the strength of animals is derived from their muscles, not from their fat. It is almost universally ad- mitted in this country that animals are stronger, and that they will No. 85.] 257 endure hard labor better, when fed with corn meal properly mixed with other food, or ground with the cob, than when fed on anything else. This is particularly true of working oxen. The food of the slave in our southern states is principally Indian corn, with a little (in some cases it is feared too little) bacon ; yet the performance of his daily task, requires the constant exercise of muscular strength. Judge Cheever thought it of but little consequence whether all the fish of the sea, or all the varieties of sheep, and all breeds of hogs, came from one orimnal stock — we take them as we find them. We need not trouble ourselves to get an improved race of swine from the wild hog of Louisiana, since we had the Berkshire and other valuable jreeds already made perfect at our hands. We were only left to in- quire how we could best keep up those breeds and turn them to the best account. Much had been said about the different kinds of Eng- lish sheep — the Leicester, Cotswold, South Down, &c. In the river counties of this State, and in other places where the flesh can be easily taken to market, these sheep would doubtless pay the farmer well. But in the interior of the State, at points remote from market, the Merinoes would undoubtedly prove the best breed. Give them then the attention in feeding which the Cotswolds and South Downs re- ceive, and if the owner does not get as many pounds of wool, he would get as many pounds of money. He thought that with due attention, an average weight of four pounds per fleece might be got from Merinoes, Mr. Howard here called on Mr. Mclntyre to state the average weight of his Cotswold fleeces, and the price per pound at which they sold. Mr. J. McDonald Mclntyre replied that they averaged about eight pounds, and sold for 28 cents per pound. Mr. Howard wished then to call the attention of J%dge Cheever and the meeting, to the following statement. The Cotswold fleeces, 8 lbs. each, at 28 cents, would amount to $2.24. Merino fleeces, at the highest weight the gentleman claimed for them, 4 lbs. each, at 40 cents, (the highest price last season,) would amount to $1.60 — making a difference in favor of the Cotswolds of 64 cents per fleece. Four pounds per fleece for Merinoes would be a very extraordinary yield, as an average, though bucks and wethers sometimes sheared considerably more. No one breed of sheep should be recommended for every farmer, or every situation — we want several kinds of wool, and must have several breeds of sheep. Let the breed be chosen with regard to location and purposes. Mr. HoRSFORD, in support of Dr. Lee, who had left, and some of whose positions in regard to the improvement of which stock are sus- ceptible, had been questioned by Mr. Howard — remarked that the va- rieties oljserved among sheep, among cattle and among horses, had been referred by Cuvier, whose authority in matters of comparative anatomy and physiology was supreme, to modes of life, differences of climate, and kinds of food. The ability of man to enstamp colors upon stock, was illustrated in the early history of the human race. Jacob, when promised by Laban all the ring streaked, speckled and [Senate, No. 85. J R 258 [Senate spotted among the flocks of his master, stripped rods of green wood of a portion of their bark, and erecting them in watering troughs, secured a greatly increased proportion of ring-streaked, speckled and spotted progeny. He kept the spotted by themselves, and turned all the brown among the flocks of Laban, that he might increase the more rapidly the variety of the flocks that was to fall to him. More- over, he erected the striped poles only when the stronger cattle came to drink — withdrawing them on the approach of the feebler, so that Jacob gained all the stronger calves. It is also illustrated in the spots of blackness with which lambs of white flocks become impressed, if fed in fields where there are black objects, as charred logs and stumps. A more forcible illustration than perhaps any one beside, occurs in the varieties of the human family, which are beyond all question acciden- tal subdivisions of the same species. There are black, bronze and copper complexions, as well as the fair and ruddy Caucasian. There are albinos and mottled skins — monsters, to be sure, but capable to a certain extent of propagation from sire to son. There are contours of figure and of features, distinguishing the Chinese^ African^ Esqui- maux and Indian from the Caucasian — and even distinguishing the German, French, English and Spanish nations from each other. And there are men whose whole physical constitutions are in the highest degree contrasted with each other. There is in Smyrna and Con- stantinople, a race of porters — a tribe of Cossacks ? trained to this vo- cation— whose strength of muscle and firmness of bone enable them to perform feats which would hardly be credited without the testimo- ny of an eye-witness. Rev. Mr. Pierpont, of Boston, states that he saw them engaged in carrying boxes whose weights were frequently from six hundred to a thousand pounds. On the occasion of a fire, one seized an iron safe, and ran with it and its contents on his back, from the burning building. Another took upon his back the weight of sixteen bushels of wheat — equal to eight bags of two bushels each • — a quantity we should fear to place on the back of an ordinary horse — and yet carried it without injury. Now, if we place such men as these porters beside the feeble and delicate students of the Halls of Oxford and Cambridge, there surely is a^ contrast as extreme as be- tween the dray horse and the trotter of a race course — or as that be- tween the wild SM'ine of Illinois and the Berkshire pigs. If such chasms as these exist in the capacities of diff"erent individuals of the same species, can it be difficult to believe that the varieties of dogSy horses, cattle and sheep have been the off"spring of circumstance, though the progress of change may not have been observed by any single generation:/? The ability of man to improve stock by judicious management, will be abundantly apparent if he remembers two points in physiology : 1st. That every circumstance in modes of life, climate, food, &c., produces its specific eff"ect more or less marked, upon the physical constitution of the animal. 2d. That the physical constitution of the dam and sire is transmit- ted to the progeny. No. 51. J 259 Mr. NoTT observed that as he did not keep a large flock of sheep, his own mode of management might not be the one in all respects best adapted to every other person. In the way he kept his sheep, they cost him but a trifle, and their produce therelore, was almost clear gain. They were pastured considerably in the woodlands, through the sum- mer ; and in early spring and in the fall, his practice was to let them run on the winter grain. This was, with him, considerable of an ob- ject ; and he was in the habit of sowing his wheat and rye early, that they might get a good start, and afford the more feed. He thought no injury resulted from thus pasturing sheep on grain — on the con- trary, he believed the crop was sometimes improved by this means, and gave a better yield. Mr. N. stated that it was his practice to let the buck run at all times with the sheep ; and on this point he was well awkre that he should generally be pronounced heterodox. Nevertheless, he has had good success from the practice ; and though the lambs sometimes came in cold weather, he seldom lost them. He thought sheep were more hardy reared in this way, than when the lambs were not allowed to come till May, On another point, Mr, N. said he presumed he should be pronoun- ced also heterodox ; and that was, in regard to the time when the sheep 'should have the most nutritious food given them. He thought they needed it most in the fore part of the winter ; and it was, there- fore, at that time that he gave them turneps, &c,, if he had any, whether he had enough to feed them through the winter or not. For winter food, Mr, N. is greatly in favor of bean-haulm, which he thinks is altogether better for sheep than any kind of hay — except- ing, perhaps, the best of clover. He thought that on land suited to beans, they were the most profitable, considering their whole value, of any crop that could be grown for sheep His sheep are of the South-down breed and their crosses, which, from their hardiness and excellent meat, he thinks most profitable for his purposes. Mr. N. continued his remarks at considerable length ; and con- cluded by calling on the President to favor the meeting with the re- sult of his experience in the management of sheep. The President (Dr. Beekman,) in reply to the call made upon him by Mr. Nott, proceeded to give his views on sheep husbandry — views deduced from his management of considerable flocks, in con- nection with other farming, for a series of years. In giving his views on those subjects, said the President, the last speaker commen- ced by observing that in some things he might be pronounced hetero- dox ; but he has given us a clear and succinct history of his practice, and in most of his remarks, I thought him orthodox. His hetero- doxy, if I may apply that term to a difference in practice on these matters, may, in my opinion, be found in two or three points. First, he turns his sheep into woody pasture — I mine into open ones ; be- cause I had learned that one blade of grass grown in the sun, has the nutriment in it of five grown in the shade. Second, he keeps his buck with the sheep during the entire year — I mine only during the month of December ; because my experience has taught me that lambs com- 26Q [Senate ing in May give the least trouble, and to me are the most profitable. I have endeavored to obtain them at an earlier season j but although I have tried warm sheds, and succulent food, success has not induced me to repeat the effort— on the contrary, the practice has been attend- ed with unnecessary expense, and some losses in lambs. But the qualities of our sheep, and of course their constitutions, are different ^ his are the South-down, which are hardy — mine the Saxon, which are of more tender constitution. Third, he shears his sheep early — I mine late. And, while on the subject of shearing, permit me to say that it is of great importance to the farmer to employ none but the best shearers ; for if he does, they will leave twice as much wool on the sheep as will pay for the shearing. I have made several ex- periments towards ascertaining this point — -both in having some of my own resheared, and causing others to do it ; and in several in- stances, they have been enabled to obtain at a second shearing, from, four to eight ounces of additional wool. My sheep (said Dr. B.,) while running in the pastures in summer,, are sorted as to size, sex and condition. I find it an advantage for them to be uniform in all these, and to have the flocks as small as is consistent with their number, and the size of the yards and farm. Our farmers find it to their great profit to keep as many sheep without crowding as their farms can well support. Even the grain farms are much benefited by this practice, and experience has taught that by adopting this practice, they can raise more grain in consequence, as sheep manure is of great service in enriching their farms. This truth has been strikingly illustrated in my neighborhood, where a farmer who was slow to adopt this practice, ultimately became satisfied of its correctness, and a test of ten years experience, has taught him that upon the same tract of land in that time he has nearly doubled his product, as he has certainly his estate. On a grain farm tolerably adapted to grass, it is perfectly easy to keep one sheep per acre ; and upon what is called a grass farm, where the raising of grain is a se- condary object, two sheep can be kept per acre. When shelter is provided for them in winter, which ought always to be the case, I find that one hundred sheep, if they are moderately littered, will make forty loads of manure. No quality of it can be finer ; and a poor, worn-out clay pasture lot, not too profusely covered with it and sum- mer fallowed, will give, the succeeding season, a good crop of wheat. I find if I put on too much of this kind of manure to the acre, it yields too much straw in proportion to the grain. It is likewise most excellent to renovate old meadows, and as a manure, ranks much higher than common barn-yard. The summer run of sheep likewise, is essentially beneficial to a succeeding crop of grain on a fallow ^ and no farmer who has in view his own profit and the improvement of his farm, can so easily effect his purpose with any other kind of stock. I have already recommended sheep to be sheltered in winter. I must say that it is not only useful as against storms, but against cold and the winds. To guard effectually against these, as soon as snow falls I have it thrown up and piled against the boards on the north side of the hovels, as high as it can easily be done, as I find it ren- No. 85. J 261 and loss, 1 . 17 Sulphate of potassa, . . ] Chloride of sodium,.. J 100.00 346 [Senate 9. — Rice Soil from Matanzas on the Main. Silica, with fine sand as above 60 .50 Alumina, partly combined with humic acid 8.15 Peroxide of iron (combined with humus,) with decided traces of phosphate of lime .... , , 3 . 00 Carbonate of lime, with traces of magnesia 0 . 85 Water of absorption, 9 .00 ' Humus, 18.50^ ^^-^^ Chloride of calcium and of sodium, } i •, , ^^ c 1 1 4. 1 u } and loss, 1.00 bulphates nearly as above, ) ' 101.00 10. — Rice Soil from Dr. Parker. Silica, with fine sand, as above 41 .25 Alumina, (combined with humus,) 9 . 25 Peroxide of iron, (combined with humus) 3.30 Phosphate of lime 0.55 Carbonate of lime 0 . 85 Carbonate of magnesia 0.45 Water of absorption, 9 .50 ? 4.^ no Humus, (with odor of ammonia,) 33 .50 ••••••• Chloride of calcium, abundant, Chloride of sodium, Sulphate of lime, .... Sulphate of magnesia, , Sulphate of potassa, , ■ and loss, 1 . 36 100.00 Additional particulars, with some consequences from the foregoing. [1.] 100 parts by weight of rough rice, (from which the remains of stems and glume-leaflets had been separated,) gave 82 . 10 parts of grain, and 17.90 " husk. 100.00 [2] 100 parts of unhusked grain, gave 95.238 parts of non-cotyledonous grain, and 4.762 " cotyledons, or eyes. 100.000 [3.] 100 parts of non-cotyledonous unhusked grain, gave 94.3 of grain without husk, cotyledon or epidermis, 5 .7 of epidermis, or inner coat. 100.00 [4.] 100 parts of rough rice, then has 17.900 husk. 3.909 cotyledon. No. 85.] 347 4.456 epidermis. 73.735 clean grain. 100.000 [5,] The ratio of rough- rice to the straw of the harvested grain, deduced from taking the mean of 15 separate experiments, gave the weight of the grain 53.5, that of the straw, including the panicle or stems, 23.6. But as many of the leaves appear to have been mutilated, I am dis- posed to assume as a probable approximation to the truth, the weight of the grain as just double that of the cut-straw. And as some ob- servation of the stubble and roots strongly favors the idea of their equaling together the weight of the straw, I shall still farther ven- ture to consider the rough-rice of a ripe, harvested plant, as equal in weight, that of the entire stem, leaves and root. [6.] Let us next attempt an approximation towards an apprecia- tion of the mineral constituents of these different portions of the rice plant. The ash in 100 parts of rough-rice equals 4.762 parts. And as the ash in 100 of the husk, equals 13.67, that in 17.90 parts of husk must equal 2.446 parts. By difference, therefore, between 2.446 and 4.762, the ash of the cotyledon, epidermis and clean grain, in 100 parts of rough-rice, will equal 2.316 parts. But the percentage of the ash in clean rice being known, we are able to state what the amount of ash is. In clean rice of 100 parts rough-rice, it is 0.297 parts. The general statement, then, will stand thus, for 100 parts rough-rice : Ash in the husk, 2 . 446 parts. " cotyledon and epidermis, . .2.019 " " clean grain 0.297 " 4.762 [7.] The straw (including the stubble and root,) having been as- sumed as equal in weight to the rough grain, the ratio of the mineral ingredients of the former to the latter, stands as 12.422 to 4.762. [8.] Considering a single rice-plant, in its dry, mature state, to weigh 100 grains, (a supposition which will often accord with the fact,) we shall have of mineral matter in the different parts of the plants, the following number of grains : In the stubble and root, 36 . 08 " straw and pan leaves, 36 . 08 " husk, ...14.20 " cotyledon and epidermis, 1 1 . 70 " clean rice, 1 . 94 100.00 • From losses [sustained to the clean grain, in the process of milling', it is not probable at above 70 parts of commercial rice are afforded by 100 of rough-rice. 348 [Senate As however, in the milling, nearly one-sixth of the cotyledon still adheres to the grain, for all practical estimates, it will be nearer the truth to state the mineral ingredients of clean rice at 2 per cent those of the whole crop, and to diminish therefore, the residuum of the cotyledon and epidermis by 0.06 per cent, making the percentage statement to stand thus ; Stubble and root, 36 . 08 Straw and leaves, .... ...... ...... . 36 . 08 Husk, 14.20 Cotyledon and epidermis, 1 1 . 64 Clean rice, (commercial) 2 .00 100.00* [9.] If the foregoing views are correct, it becomes plain, at, a Balance, that the planter who sells his crop in the condition of rough- rice, robs his lands of 27.84 per cent of the mineral ingredients of this species of produce ; while on the other hand, he who sells it as clean rice, subtracts from them but 2 per cent, of these ingredients. But the true value of these constituents cannot be rightly estimated by their numerical proportions, since the mineral ingredients of the cotyledon and epidermis consist of above 50 per cent of the most precious saline substances, while in those of the stubble, root and husk, the like constituents scarcely rise to 10 per cent. [10.] From the extreme slowness with which the husk suffers con- version into humus, unless fermented with stable litter, this portion of the rice-plant appears to be almost wholly neglected by the planter. But as it contains above 30 per cent of carbon, it must be capable, when incorporated with the soil, of performing to a considerable ex- tent the functions of humus, i. e. of gradually giving rise to car- bonic acid from combining with the oxygen of the air, and of raising the temperature of the soil by its eremacausis, or slow combustion. Besides, its minutely divided silica is in a more favor ablecondition for absorption by the rootlets of plants, than that which is offered to them by the soil itself. We may add to these supposed useful prop- erties of the husk, the mechanical service which in certain stiff, com- pact land it is capable of exerting, by keeping the ground open to the access of air, and as an absorbent of moisture. As it is unlike to the stalk and leaf, in not containing alkali, it might perhaps be found advantageous to add wood ashes along with it to the soils on which it is applied. • It may be useful to present here, also, a per centum view of the incombustible constitu- ents of the rough -rice. Husk, 51 .00 Cotyledon and epidermis, 41.81 Clean rice, 7. 19 It scarcely need to be stated, that the cotyledon and epidermis are found in the coarse rice flour, intermingled largely with the husk, and with from three to four per cent of powdered clean rice. The cotyledon and the epidermis are richer than the clean rice in saccharine matter and gluten, which materially augment the value of rice flour as a feed for cattle and swine. These principles are thus returned to the soil under the most favora- ble conditions for agriculture. No. 85. J 349 The extraordinary results, so fully proven of late, to flow from the use of minutely divided charcoal, would perhaps authorize another mode of treating the rice offal, which is to burn it with a smothered combustion in small kilns, or in heaps partly covered with soil, where- by it might be converted into a species of charcoal, I should anticipate from such a preparation of the husk, whether applied alone, or pre- viously mixed up with putrescent matters into a compost, the most marked effects.* I conclude this report with the hope, that this inquiry, which is by no means supposed to have exhausted the subject, or to have reached that rigid accuracy of result, which it is to be hoped may one day be obtained, may afford the rice planter more valid reasons than he be- fore had, for husbanding those mineral elements of his crop with a religious care, the neglect of which, with whatever apparent impunity it may at first be attended, cannot fail in the end to involve him in a hopeless struggle against nature. C. U. SHEPARD. Charleston J Jlpril 6th, 1844. AGRICULTURE OF MISSISSIPPI. BY M. W. PHILLIPS, EDITOR OF THE SOUTHWESTERN FARMER. Log Hall, Edwards' Depot, Miss., August, 1844. Benj. p. Johnson, Corresponding Sec'y : Dear Sir — Your request, " on behalf of the Executive Committee of the New-York State Agricultural Society," shall receive my most cheerful attention. With a climate and soil not excelled by any portion of our conti- tinent, — with every facility to rear all necessaries, — with many of the luxuries of life, — the farmers and planters in this rich valley, do, far too often, lead a miserable life in laboring to accumulate, with the sole intent of adding to their effective force, that they may make more. I speak from facts that can be substantiated, when I affirm that • I need scarcely to add, that the difiFerent composition of the stem and leaves of the rice, ■would scarcely justify a similar procedure with these parts of the plant, since un- less the temperature be regulated with great care, the silica would form with the associa- ted alkali, a true glass, which for agricultural purposes, would be nearly as inoperative as common sand. 350 [Senate we can, in this portion of Mississippi, make an average crop of six bales weighing 400 lbs. each, with corn and pork for the farm ; as also, to rear cattle and sheep in sufficient abundance to give us beef, butter, milk, mutton and wool, for home consumption ; and no doubt but in addition, enough horses and mules to keep up the farm stock of work animals. With this, we can produce a great variety of choice fruits, with but little attention, and make wheat and grain generally to supply all of our wants. Yet how is the fact 1 Almost every farmer pitches his crop so as to give the greatest possible yield of cotton, with enough corn " to make out with." In consequence, he has no time from his cotton, to devote to any thing else, — neither cotton or corn cultivated, merely kill, kill grass and weeds ; he makes a little corn do, — less milk and butter, — and even less of every thing else. Content with making as many bales as his neighbors, he cares for nothing else. From these circumstances, the mere sojourner draws his conclusiDns unfavorable to our soil and climate, presuming that if grass would grow, and sheep would not run out, and hogs could live, that we would have more, — thereby doing an injury to this beloved country. Attribute this want to a bad system of farm- ing,— to indifference or indolence of the farmer, and justice would be rendered to all. Our climate is accused of being unfavorable to the production of fine wool, of fruit, corn, grass, &c., &c., — with bare credit given to it of ability to raise cotton, rice, and sweet po- tatoes,— which, by the bye, are the only products that are grown. The above is mainly what now is, and what has been, but a change is coming over the spirit of our system, — much of this want of care and attention is wearing away. The farmers of Mississippi are be- ginning to improve, and to provide many of the comforts and luxu- ries of life, as well as the necessaries. I claim some allowance for my brethren ; we are, comparatively, a young people ; fifteen or twenty years ago, a great portion of this country was untenanted, save by wandering Indians. Therefore, improvements to any great extent, are not to be expected. The ignorance, or want of education attributed to our citizens, though true, yet as the population now here, are mostly from other States, the odium, if such, should be cast north, south, east, and west, not entirely on this State. As our country increases in age, a better culture and wiser exertions are per- ceptibly advancing. To give one instance of this, I will here state, that shipments of choice fruit have been made from Vicksburg to New-Orleans, this season ; which business will increase so as to be reckoned in the exports of this State. Two hundred barrels were freighted at one time, on a steamer. This State, embracing an extent of territory from 30° 30', to 35° north latitude, and from 11° to 15^ of longitude west from Washing- ton, it must be supposed that] the soil, aspect of country, products for market, &c., &c., would be very various, and so they are ; whilst we have some hilly country in the interior. We have some of the most broken and unique country immediately on the Mississippi river, No. 85. J 351 that is seen any where. Yet for all this, as a State, the land is level. The soil is equally various ; the hills of the river are rich, and are the best cotton lands in the State ; whereas, the hilly lands of the in- terior are poor to fair quality ; the level lands of the eastern portion of the State widely ditfer ; some of that country is rich, but the larger portion are covered with pine, and much of that timber ap- pears to be young. The level lands of the western and northern por- tion, are from fair to choice lands. A portion of the eastern and upper part of the State, is well sup- plied with streams of water, where excellent mill seats, and water too, can be found, to carry on manufactories. This, with the healthi- ness of that region, will some day bring it into notice ; and 1 might add, the vast grass range for cattle, hogs and sheep. There are here, thousands of acres, — not entered, — and not unfrequently 500 to over 2000 head of cattle belonging to one man. Our means of production are as various as the soil, or face of country, and far more than our products indicate. Much of the east can only rear stock, and this can be done to an indefinite extent ; a portion of it, and of the north, can raise wheat and stock profitably ; and if those who live so remote from market, would devote their at- tention to stock, they would be the gainers, and their country enrich- ed. The west portion can, as I have before said, raise all supplies and a fair crop of cotton. Our product of corn may not show over an average crop of twen- ty bushels per acre ; but if no more, any farmer can make a full sup- ply, and a fair crop of our staple. One fact is certain, — many raise enough, and some large cotton growers do actually sell corn. If these do so, why those who make a less crop per Land cannot, I leave to others to account for. In many portions of this State, the only attention that cattle, sheep and hogs require, is, a little salt and corn, to keep them gentle ; and yet it is broadly asserted, and again reiterated, that there is no grass in Mississippi, — that the heat of sun and want of rain, parches up vegetation. If this be so, how could a man, planting only some ten or twenty acres of corn, keep his 1,000 or 2,000 head of cattle, which is now done in the eastern portion of Mississippi ? How can the farmer who works only fifteen or twenty hands, and is known to make large crops of cotton too, — I ask, how can he feed 300 to 500 head of hogs, 100 to 200 head of sheep, and full 200 head of cattle, besides work horses and a few colts 7 Yet this is done, and the owner sells corn, also cattle, sheep, and pork. Then let it not be said that Mississippi cannot raise her necessaries, nor produce grass. While on this subject, allow me to Say, that as early as the 26th of March, I have cut a stalk of red clover here, measuring 46 inches, and had a lot of over four acres, that would have averaged three feet. There is generally but little attention devoted to raising of stock of any description, but if you will cast your eye over the census as returned to the general government, you will see that we raise some 352 [Senate stock, and that of hogs, nearly three for every inhabitant, — which I think, like much more, is wrong, — there are more hogs in Mississippi than returns call for. Though this in the general be true, yet there are many exceptions — the bigh-bred racer is found here, and quite creditable ; some mules ; quite a number of jennets — one gentleman alone has some forty of them. We have quite a number of cattle of the improved breeds, and on the increase. Also, a large number of the various improved breeds of hogs ; and sheep of the pure Bake- well, Southdown, Saxony, and the native, or Spanish stock. In short, this branch of domestic economy is on vantage ground, and must con- tinue to advance, even without any further importation, nay without even an additional attention, the improvement must spread until the old breed is changed entirely. Here, as elsewhere, there is much contrariety of opinion as to the kinds of stock preferable ; not a few of my fellow citizens believe strongest in any_breed crossed on the corn house, and that alone is improvement. I differ from this opinion, and think that although corn is an admirable cross, yet when crossed on the native breeds, it were well it be sold at 25 cents per bushel at home. I am of opinion that Ayrshire or Devon cattle would suit the cot- ton growing region much better than any other that has been intro- duced into the United States, for the reason that no provision is made for cattle ; but if well attended to, the Durham must be the favorite. I have had no experience with Ayrshire cattle, with the others I have. We want milk cattle, for that size which will give us milk enough will give us beef. I have in all probability brought more cattle to Mississippi, of the improved breeds, than any other person. The loss sustained was full fifty per cent, but their increase has far out- stripped the whole original number, cows giving generally a calf per year. Of hogs, I give a decided preference to the improved Berkshire. Having tried several, and had, I might say, the most of the improved breeds under my eye, I may be permitted to say — although the white Berkshire, the Woburn & Mackay may have been either sorry speci- mens, or diseased — but the Berkshires with me make a hog large enough for any country ; 220 to 230 lbs. at eighteen months old, on the same keep as others that only weighed 150 to 160 lbs. That sheep husbandry is destined to exercise an important influence on Mississippi, I cannot question, and the Merino family must be our sheep. Our pasturage, when good, is too luxuriant, and when drouth of some weeks standing supervenes, it becomes scant. Oiw seasons of wet are uncertain — sometimes of short duration, again for a month, and " when it rains it pours." This sort of keep, and these rains will not do for the long wools, which I am satisfied of from a trial of five years. I think the middling wool Southdown would suit admirably, but it is as cheap to raise a fine fleece as the second rate one of Southdown. The Merino sheep in the south are healthy ; I can place my hand on them in South Carolina, where they have been for thirty years, and if any diminution in quantity or quality of fleece, then we know nothing southerners cannot detect. No. 85.] 353 Where stock is concerned, we have an advantage over any north ern country. But mind you, we have winter, such as it is, for some two or three months, often not cold enough to " save our ba- con " well — we can have green food any day in the year without a plow, the erroneous statements of English journalists to the contrary notwithstanding. Admit we could have nothing but Bermuda grass and ry6, — the first everybody knows grows in a drier clime than this, — and we can have grass from March till frost, and by sowing rye in corn and cotton fields, it will be fit for grazing before Bermuda is killed down. We can raise turneps, which grew within the sound of my voice, to measure thirty inches in circumference ; cabbage that measured thirty-six inches clear of the green blades, a white head only measure'!. Egyptian oats make an excellent winter food ; clover, if sown in September, will make excellent grazing by 1st of March. The cow pert sown in our corn fields, not injuring product of corn, will fatten our hogs and horses, and a limited number of cattle — ex- tent of field considered. But I need not expatiate ; to the true Ame- rican enough has been said to induce him to inquire, to examine, and not like the South the less because its resources are ample for every emergency. I may add — though the fact that some of us have one to two hundred head of cattle, with only ten to twenty hands would induce a thinking man to know it without mentioning it — we do not feed our cattle or sheep, and seldom jfeerf hogs. It may probably be agreeable to some of my readers to know what I have that could eat provender, and then show the hands that I em- ploy. I have 13 head of mares, colts and mules here, 4 elsewhere ; some 75 head of cattle ; (lost a number by high waters last winter ;) 100 head of sheep ; 125 head of hogs, nearly all improved Berkshire. Can ten hands feed the half of this number as you are forced to do, and then raise my average crop of seven bales, (for the last five years)] Then you will see what our climate and wild grass does. The diseases of our farm animals have of course received much of my attention, and this again is in our favor, for the diseases can gene- rally be prevented by good management, or are easy of cure. As a rule, I have had far more success in this department of my doctoring, than when I practiced on the animal man. I provide for my ar.v- mals an abundance of water, which I am compelled to do by digging out for a pool, and throwing up embankments, to catch and hold rain water ; I keep them well supplied with salt, salt and ashes ; sometimes sulphur and air-slacked lime. I have a long trough in an open shed 50 by 18 feet, and unless I have food in the trough, I keep salt there the year round. This prevents bots and cholic in horses, as also other diseases. That hot story I am inclined to be a disbeliever in. When I meet with the symptoms of " hots''' or cholic^ I give about an ounce of laudanum in a pint of water, and if not relieved in a half or three-quarters of an hour, I repeat half the quantity, and so on, sel- dom repeating, and never the third dose given. I give salts after, or [Senate, No. 85.] X 354 [Senate use a plug of fat bacon inserted into the rectum, about six inches long and three thick, made wedge shape, so as to insert readily. The big head I have never failed to cure ; my remedy is enough arsenic to make a pill about the size of a small garden pea ; envelop it in fine muslin or silk paper ; then cut down on the swelling through the skin, raise it a little and place under it the arsenic ; confine with one or two stitches by drawing lips of wound together. After the flesh has dropped out, wash, poultice, &c., as for a sore ; let the horse's food be grass only, I must here give due credit to " The American Farmer " for my practice. The hig jaw I have seen only once ; the animal — a noble, high bred brood mare — having it, I was anxious to cure, and asked every body what to do, and as usual, every body knew, and prescribed very vari- ously ; but I took abler counsel ; that farmer's friend " The American Farmer " was consulted. I followed the direction of Mr. Buvard of North Carolina, which was to burn with a dull chisel entirely through each tendon or muscle that leads from nose to eye. Having such confidence in my mare's courage, I did not cord her nose, and accord- ingly burnt through until I could see each end of the muscle and the bone underneath, about midway between the eye and nostril on each side. She also had two " blind teeth " in juxtaposition with the first grinder ; knowing no harm could ensue, I punched these out easily. Soon after, the mare began to thrive ; she had been well attended to; no man's horse could have received better grooming or higher feed, with water and an excellent pasture at control. Yet she continued to decline, and at length became so clumsy that she could not step over a rail. Five to six months has expired ; she is now to every appearance well, and though not half feed allowed her, she has got in good condition. Hooks I have experienced no difficulty in curing, by cutting through the skin on the nose below where the tendons above alluded to bifur- cate, then with a baling needle, or some sharp pointed instrument, I pass under the tendon, having cut through the ligament that envel- opes it ; I raise it and twist the needle round, then cut the tendon and sew up the wound ; the irritation and inflammation cures the eye or eyes. Weakness of eyes, or weeping, or the white film that some- times forms on the eye, I treat with loaf sugar, powdered fine and mixed with lard ; a little of this is wiped into the eye with the fore- finger once a day, after bathing with warm water. The hollow horn in cattle of course I have seen only once or twice in this State. I then had a gimblet hole bored in a depending spot, and salt water poured therein. This disease I have thought to ori- ginate from bad keeping, and the above case was an ox that I had purchased when old, and poor at that. Big head, or similar diseases, attacking jaw, head or shoulder in cattle, I have never known treated, but think arsenic would cure either, thinking they are similar diseases. The diseases of hogs have been more diflScult to manage, but raising No. 85,] ,355 as many as we do, and at trifling expense, we never trouble ourselves much ; at this time I must have over three pigs of three to six months old to each member of my family. The mange in hogs I cure with sulphur in food, and washing with suds, or feed with poke root ; or it boiled and the liquor fed with meal or grain. The mange in dogs I cure by washing them daily in tan ooze, and give sulphur occasionally. The diseases in sheep have proven my master when they do occur, which is but seldom in our native flocks, but in my Bakewell crosses I have lost a large number, and generally about yeaning time. We will now return to the State from this digression, which I trust may be of service. This State is well known to be a cotton growing one, and too many, both at home and abroad, think it can do nothing else. This is an error, as before shown j but, to be more particular : From very respectable authority, I can say that wheat has been grown weighing sixty to sixty-eight lbs. per bushel — that forty bushels have been cut from one acre — one hundred and one bush- €ls of sound corn gathered from one acre, out of a fifty acre field — not meaning that all would be as good, but that it was all cultivated alike. I have seen an entire crop, within three miles of me, of one hun- dred acres, that averaged fifty bushels per acre, and not a shovel full of manure to all or any part of it. I have cut, from what was sup- posed to be a fair average spot of my little crop, at the rate of four tons of well cured millet grass per acre. I have also cut at the rate of 36,000 pounds of green corn fodder, and the driest season known. I have shown here native grass, " nimble will," that measured near five feet, and crab grass that exceeded six feet in length, not including a joint where roots had sprung from. Hogs killed out of the woods, that never ate ten grains of grain to our knowledge, weighing two hundred and twelve pounds ; others that were raised in the range, but stalled before killing, weighing from two hundred to over four hundred pounds, and but one of them over two years. Will this not satisfy ? Had we the energy, industry and improving spirit of our northern brethren, we could do any thing in husbandry ; but unfortunately, our northern friends, when settling among us, soon get to be as lazy as we denizens of a southern clime are. I know of nothing that could add more to the welfare of this my adopted State than disseminating agricultural facts and agricultural knowledge, generally speaking. Our legislators cannot be induced to do any thing in this matter, and although agricultural books and papers are very cheap, yet my fellow-citizens in the mass, seeing no utility, will not subscribe or buy. We " must wait a time with pa- tience," until time has the opportunity to work the change, which I am happy to say is now going on. Good plows and effective plow- ing has done much to assist in bringing about this change, and proba- 356 [Senate bly it is well for improvement to work its own way, and prove itself to be " worthy and well qualified." The difference in opinion of wri- ters would serve much either to confuse or to disgust ; whilst some hold that lime is indispensably necessary to use, others affirm if vege- table matter be applied there will be all the ingredients necessary, while others speak confidently of the^ atmosphere ; the plain farmer becomes bewildered, and leaves " book farming" alone. I should not find fault wTth what I could not mend, but yet I cannot but express my opinion. At all events, we cannot doubt that the soil of western Mississippi has lime enough, and that all we have to do is to apply vegetable matter, and plow deep. I have experimented, and speak from due reflection. « The farmers throughout the length and breadth of our country can at least redeem their children, and in no way so surely as by the me- thod now about commencing — using agricultural works in schools. Allow me, dear sir, through you, to express, as an individual, to your society, my warmest approbation of this measure, and to assure ihem that one of their fellow-citizens, though he be in the swamp of Big Black, and in the wilds of Mississippi, yet feels proud of them as his fellow-citizens. ADDITIONAL REMARKS ON ROTATION OF CROPS. Having been directly engaged in farming for nearly fifteen years, giving my personal attention, and often assisting in all the details; I can with some experience recommend to my brethren the four field rotation as best suited to a southern culture. This rotation is, cot- ton, corn, grain, and rest, in the order named — that is, cotton on the land that was at rest, corn follow, then grain, then rest. I go farther than the mere rotation, thinking the good only half effected, — I would therefore advise the cotton fields should be sown down about the first of September in rye and turneps, one bushel of the first, and a pint or even a half pint of the last per acre : when hands walk through to gather cotton, they will cover or press the seed into the earth if rains do not sufficiently, to secure a stand. This will give excellent grazing for sheep and cattle after gathering, until time to plow for corn. On corn fields, I would say, sow a peck, or if possible a half bushel of cow-peas between corn rows, just before the last plowing, in May or June ; and after the corn is gathered, say in September or Octo- ber, sow one bushel of rye per acre. In this latitude, in ordinary seasons, the pea vine will have covered the earth before the first of August, this will give one of the richest pastures known to our coun- try for all kinds of stock; and whilst the pasture is being eaten out, there will be peas enough trodden into the earth to make a tolerable fair stand in the succeeding grain crop — no fear about the rye, it will assuredly be provided ibr — all that is required is to sow it down. On the grain crop, when oats are required, plow up the rye in Feb- No. 85.] 357 ruary or early in March, and sow down IJ to 2i bushels of oats, with a peck to a half bushel of peas, — the latter will come up about the time of the oats, but will not grow more than a few inches high, until the grain is cut off, when they will soon cover the land — or in the rye left standing open, cut rows six to eight feet apart, with a bull-tongue plow in March, ancf drill peas — cover with another fur- row. Many peas will lie in the ground all winter, and come up in the spring. I have had a piece of land covered in many patches en- tirely, where oats had followed corn. The year of rest, will show a tolerable good stand of peas on good land, and of course will aid in covering the land, which will be ensur- ed by the cotton and corn stalks, pea vine, stubble and grass allowed to rot in the earth. I could not myself avoid pasturing all the fields to some extent, and believe if the land is good enough to produce 20 bushels of corn, and 800 lbs. of cotton, that pasturing the land to a moderate extent will not prevent a permanent improvement^ and from my experience, though I have never rested but one field, and it not in cotton since, I feel that facts would bear me out in saying, that in three years the crops would be increased to 30 bushels of corn, and 1200 lbs. of cotton. T have not said anything of manures, which by this mode of work would be trebled easily, it being almost a branch of business of itself; I would only say, use it on cotton, for the corn and grain will not be important, there being so much made, and so much pasturing would require even less. There are many who object to this rotation because it requires so much open land ; this is more apparent than real, for the diminution of the cotton crop is not as great as appears from the diminution of land, there being a better cultivation, as well as much time to add to the returns by manuring, besides which there is a vast increase of food which will render the work animals more effective, as also longer lived, and also render stock more profitable. I propose though, to decrease the number of laborers by disposal, or the employment of a portion in cleaning, providing manure, draining and improving gene- rally. If by manuring, the cotton crop can be increased in amount, which Dr. Cloud has proved, as also many others, then will a given number of acres employ more hands in gathering the crop than in cultivating it — add to which, the clearing, and you will see that in a very short time the whole force will be brought into active and really profitable use ; by adding the hands employed at clearing or in-ga- thering, there would be much more time to clear and manure between crops. I have dwelt too long on this subject, and yet have not dwelt on it as long as its importance might warrant, for I sincerely believe, that by some species of rotation, the cow-pea, rye, and turneps, that we can improve our land, and increase our crops at one and the same time. I would not give rest at all, (if the labor of the farm could 358 , [Senate manage so much cleared land every year,) but would follow grain with cow-peas, at the rate of three or four pecks per acre sown broad- cast and plowed in, in the month of May. The effects of cow-peas can be shown here — can be shown wherever the pea has been sown thick enough, and any attention paid to relative product of the land. Would my brethren only consent to use a half bushel of cow-peas on all corn land, and a half to three-quarters of a bushel of rye only, on every cultivated acre, and change land yearly, I do most confidently believe that in ten years, ordinary land would become good, and good land wo uld produce with the choice. Yours, M. W. PHILIPS, INDIANA— ITS AGRICULTURE„ BY T. A. HOWARD, OF ROCKTILLE, INDIANA. Washington City^ 2d May^ 1844. Sir — The Hon. Mr. Wright, of Indiana, has placed in my hands a printed letter, addressed, to him by yourself, as Secretary of the New- York State Agricultural Society, requesting that I would an- swer it. If my information on agriculture was equal to my zeal for its progress as a science, I would be able to afford you something valuable ; but as it is, I can only in general terms apprize you of the state of culture in our State, (Indiana.) We have a state agricultural society, and several county organiza- tions. Our Legislature has provided by a general law for these asso- ciations, and I doubt not that in a few years they will be made the instrument of good. My residence is in the Wabash valley, in Rockville, Park county, Indiana, and my remarks will mainly apply to that region. Our soil is very good generally, consisting, on the river Wabash, of a very deep alluvial soil, not inferior, I presume, to any soil on the con- tinent, for fertility ; the prairies have a clay bottom, covered with a rich loam, which is also very productive ; besides we have two classes of upland, each covered by a dense timber. One consists of our walnuts, sugar tree and ash land, having a very rich ve- getable mold, that yields wheat, corn, rye, oats, potatoes, the grasses, &c., in great abundance ; the other is our back land, flat, spouty, and not so productive as the first named. It is, however, very fine land, as I have myself proved. I had some ^ of it, which had been run a few years in corn, some in clover. I allowed it to remain in clover two or three years, when it was plowed up to put in corn, and I have not seen finer corn growing on any land, than it produced. I had it No. 85. J 359 then sown in wheat; it brought a good crop, and now it is well set in clover, from the seed which remained in the ground. I believe it to be as good land as we have, if we take care to im- prove it by means of clover, small grains, &c. The state of agricultural improvement is not equal to what I un- derstand to be its progress in New- York. Yet I can see something added every year. Our plows are better than formerly, and the har- row is now in use. We use the Peacock plow with others. On the prairie, a large plow is used, suited to the prairie, which in breaking is drawn by from four to eight yoke of oxen. I have examined the models of plows in the patent office here, and find several very fine plows which are unknown to the west. I would be pleased to see the most approved models introduced, and am satisfied that the proprie- tors and patentees would do well to visit the west, and induce our smiths to mcinufacture them. I am unwilling, by speaking at random, to place any one plow above others, which may be quite equal ; indeed, I find several wheel plows that I *think are very nearly balanced in point of excellence. But I saw one (Prouty & Mear's,) plow tried here, and was much pleased with its performance. The cultivators, I feel assured, mio-ht be introduced in the west with great profit. I would remark here, (for the ear of the emigrant to the west,) if this letter should find a place where it may be read, that farmers and mechanics of every de- scription do exceedingly wrong when they emigrate to the west, to " sell out" their household goods and industrial utensils. This they often do, too, on a credit. Now the better way is, (for we have now a water passage, you know, from New-York city to the heart of the Wa- bash valley,) to bring every thing, plows, harrows, log-chains, hoes, axes, mattocks, hand and cross-cut saws, inch, inch and a half, and two inch augurs, and, (if a mechanic,) a complete chest of tools, suited to the particular pursuit ; and to all this I would add, if they have pots, kettles, cooking stoves, household furniture of all sorts, bring it along, and when they arrive, go to work and realize at once the good fruits of a provident forecast. Our country is such as I have briefly described it to be, and we have millions of acres, lying uncleared and uncultivated for want of labor. Our valley will ad- mit of three times its present population. The Wabash and Erie ca- nal runs through it. It will be finished in a year or two to Terre Haute, and w^e hope before a great while to Evansville, on the Ohio river. It will then be four hundred and fifty miles long. We have made some progress in improving the breeds of stock. We have the most improved breeds of the hog. Our sheep are com- mon, except a few improved stocks have recently come in. Cattle, too, have been somewhat improved, so have horses. 360 [Senate I AGRICULTURE OF WINNEBAGO COUNTY, ILLINOIS. BY ANSON S. MILLER. Rockford, Winnebago co., Illinois^ September 30, 1844. Benj. p. Johnson, Esq'r. Cor. Sec. JV. F. State Agr. Soc. Dear Sir : — Your circular on behalf of the Executive Committee of the New-York State Agricultural Society is before me ; and I an- swer with pleasure your inquiries, concerning the agriculture of this county. You are aware that Winnebago is one of the newly settled counties of northern Illinois. It is bounded north by Wisconsin Ter- ritory, east by Boone county ; south by Ogle county, and west by ^tephenson county, and a part of Ogle county ; Rock river passes through it nearly from north to south. The Pecaionica and Sugar rivers enter it on the west and northwest; and the Kishwankee on the southeast. Rock river and the Pecatonica are navigable streams ; and all these rivers and their branches abound in water powers for hydraulic purposes. Rockford is the county-seat. The first settle- ment was made in this county, in the autumn of 1835. There was very little agricultural improvement, however, till '37 and '38. In 1840, the population numbered 4,609 5 of this number 1,064 were engaged in agriculture. The products of the county for '40 were as follows — wheat, 68,315 bushels; oats. 50,117; corn, 127,377. Stock owned in the county — horses and mules, 1,039; neat cattle, 4,711 ; sheep, 894, and swine, 12,374. There has been since '40, a constant and somewhat rapid increase in each of these departments of statistics. Our farmers begin to cultivate large tracts of land. Some have 400 acres' or more under the plow ; and every year the farms are becoming more numerous and extensive. In 1841, the agricultural society of Winnebago county was formed. This society has ever since proved an efficient means in attaining the ends for which it was formed. From these facts you can form some estimate of the present condi- tion of agriculture, in a county most of the improvements of which, are not more than five or six years old; and the earliest settlement less than ten years. The aspect of this county, is that of the Rock river country gen- erally. The surface is fine rolling prairie, spotted over with groves and fountains, and diversified with the woodlands and dense forests, bordering the rivers and their tributaries. The land is mostly arable. The soil is very fertile, of a dark sandy loam, and well adapted to the growth of grass and grain. Few or no rocks, except in the lime- No. 85.] 361 stone quarries, which abound in this county, and throughout this re- gion of country. The principal products are wheat, oats, corn, and potatoes, with beef, pork, butter and cheese; also, among articles of export and trade, may be reckoned, wool, hemp, tobacco and barley. Silk and honey are easily produced. Apples, and all kinds of fruits usually found in this latitude, flourish here, and will soon be plenty. These products are marketed' east and south, at Chicago and other lake towns, or at Galena, St. Louis and other river towns. Rock river, however, is the natural outlet for the productions of this country, and will be used in connexion with the Mississippi in trading, even with New-York, Boston, and other eastern cities. Transportation by the rivers, in carrying on eastern trade, has many advantages over that by way of the lakes and eastern canals. The kinds of cultivation, modified perhaps a little by circumstan- ces, are the same here, as in the eastern and middle States, from which most of the population emigrated. Our settlers brought with them their sentiments, skill, science, and refinement ; in short, their habits social, moral and intellectual. And thus our fields, so recently under the dominion of savages, are tilled, enriched and adorned with the agriculture of many ages of civilization and improvement. The far- mers of this county have received much aid from the study of agri- cultural publications. In their houses, may be found volumes of our own " Prairie Farmer," " The Cultivator," " Central New-York Farmer," the " Genesee Farmer," " American Agriculturist," and other excellent agricultural papers. The favorite breeds of horses, are those of the Duroc and Messen- ger stock, and the Morgan horse. Best breeds of cattle in this coun- ty, Durhams ; particularly those known as the " Clay Durham" — from stock imported by Hon. Henry Clay. Also the Devonshires are excellent, and much admired here. Choice specimens of these breeds are owned in the county, and have been exhibited in large numbers at cattle shows. Berkshire, Byfield, Irish Graziers, and other excellent breeds of swine, have been well represented at our fairs. Crosses of the Berkshire and Byfield have the preference. This country is peculiarly adapted to the raising of sheep, and the purest Merinos, Bakewells and Leicestershires, are owned in the county. Merinos and their crosses have the preference. The cattle are mostly fattened on the prairies ; the grass of which is much better for this purpose, than clover and timothy. Cattle are often fit for the butcher as early as June or July, and as fat as stall fed in September and October, by feeding on the rich and ample pas- turage of the natural meadows every where abounding in this region. Swine are usually fattened on corn ; occasionally the farmers avail themselves of the acorns, walnuts, and other mast common in the forests. The agricultural implements generally used here, resemble those of New-York and New-England. The plows are differently constructed. 362 [Senate as the ordinary plows of the east will not scour or clear in this mellow and somewhat adhesive soil. Plows with short mold-boards and forming a greater angle with the land side, are required here. The value of lands in this county, is varied much by circumstances. Good U. S. lands are still to be had in this vicinity. The price of cultivated farms, depends upon the location, extent, and value of build- ings, and other improvements. Farms vary from $5, to $15 and $20 per acre. The principal timber and forest trees are — oak, of many varieties, hickory, black walnut, butternut, sugar maple, ash, elm, baswood, with some pine and red cedar, skirting the water courses. The agricultural changes requisite for the prosperity of this county, are those somewhat peculiar to a new prairie country — where there is plenty of land, cheap, fertile, and easy of tillage. In such a country the farmer is tempted to pass over more land than he can till well ; often neglects rotation in crops, and the preservation and application of manures. The intelligent agriculturists of this county are already making the requisite changes, with a full determination to suit their soil to their crops — keep their fields, now rich, always in good heart, and to advance their productive lands even beyond their original fer- tility. But I must close this already lengthy communication, by ex- pressing my best wishes for the prosperity of the Agricultural Society of my native State, and my respect for its Corresponding Secretary. I have the honor to be, most cordially and respectfully, Your co-worker in the cause of agricultural improvement, ANSON S. MILLER. AGRICULTURE OF ADDISON COUNTY, VERMONT. BY SOLOMON W. JEAVETT, WEYBRIDGE, VERMONT. A section of country bordering on Lake Champlain, in Vermont, is supposed to be unrivaled by any other portion of the Western Continent, in the abundant productions of the different kinds of grasses. We presume no country on record can tell an equal amount of stock kept on the same portion of land, as may be found in Addi- son county, on a tract fifteen miles in length, and eleven wide. About one-half of this same tract is unimproved, covered with tim- ber, &c. This tract comprises six towns, averaging each five miles square. The census of 1840 enumerates 7,000 inhabitants ; about 1,400 of this nunjiber were employed in agriculture. The number of tons of hay produced, were rising fifty-one thousand ; neat cattle^ nineteen thousand head ; sheep, one hundred and forty-four thousand ; and No. 85. J 363 two thousand one hundred horses. Whether there is another tract of land on the globe, of this size, where an equal number of sheep are sustained the year round, may be considered quite problematical. If we include four more adjoining towns, we swell the number of sheep to two hundred and forty thousand six hundred and sixty-four. This section abounds in streams and springs of excellent water. The soil is mostly clay, and clay loam, with a portion of rich loam on the swells, and on the low lands in some parts, may be found muck and black sand. The nature of the soil, and its situation, is rightly adapted for both meadow and pasture land. We much abound in natural meadows, of a smooth surface, which are free from stone. There are many arti- jicial meadows, which we term intervales. Both, the natural and artificial meadows require but little improvement, other than the re- moving of the superabundant moisture, by proper draining. But a limited portion of the lands in this section, which are cropped with grass, are supplied with manure, except what may drop from the ani- mals that are allowed to graze thereon. The greatest proportion of all the improved land is natural mea- dow, though we have large tracts flooded by Otter and Dead creeks and Lemon-fair stream, which overflow their banks, in many instances, more than half a mile in width, affording an abundance of hay and grass, of a rich quality. Those higher meadow lands which partake more of the loam, de- mand more attention in their management, as respects their always being kept in good heart. On these, generally, may be found some stone ; ihey produce excellent feed, and are occasionally occupied for growing field crops or fed down by sheep or other animals. Formerly, large crops of wheat were raised on our clay lands. The superabundance of this grain was conveyed to Troy market, on wheels. But those meadows which remain in the state of nature, not having been disturbed by the plow, are the best for grass. Our marketable products are now conveyed through the Champlain Canal to Troy, and down the lake to St. John's and Montreal market. Our neat stock are mostly fattened for market, on grass. Those large, fine fat cattle frequently found in the Brighton market, called " lake cattle," are taken from this region ; and frequently, droves of fat oxen are sent to Brighton market, from this district, in the latter part of winter, which have been fed nothing but hay. There is no better test of good land, than its running spontaneous- ly to white clover. Although it has not the sweetness of red clover, it is our main dependence for grazing. Our hay crop is mostly white and red clover, and timothy or herds-grass. Our sweetest hay is cut from such lands as produce only about one and a half tons to the acre. Our land is valued at from fifteen to forty dollars per acre ; our farms are divided into fields of from ten to forty acres each. 364 [Senate AGRICULTURE OF EAST-WINDSOR, HARTFORD COUN- TY, CONNECTICUT. / BY HENRY WATSON. Benjamin P. Johnson, Esq. Deal' Sir : — Your circular as Corresponding Secretary of the New- York State Agricultural Society was duly received. I will answer some of your inquiries as correctly as is in my power. Agriculture in this town and county is in a prosperous condition, as is plainly shown by the improvements made in farm houses, barns, fences, gar- dens, and indeed in every thing appended to the farm. The soil in this town and county varies from that of stiff clay, worn out fields of blowing sand, and every intermediate soil, to that of as good alluvial as there is in the world. Many and great changes have taken place in the manner of cultivating the soil, as well as in the crops cultivated. Indian corn, rye and tobacco, were the principal crops cultivated to any extent, up to about 1790. Corn, horses, mules, beef and pork were up to that time exported to the West Indies, and in return were received the luxuries of life, sugar, molasses and rum. Tobac- co and rye were shipped to Amsterdam, and the return cargo was usually Holland gin. From 1790 till 1815, large quantities of kiln- dried corn meal were exported from this country. From 1806 to 1815, hemp to a considerable extent was produced in this town, but its cultivation is now abandoned. From 1795 till. 1820, but a small quantity of tobacco was produced. The crops between those years were principally corn and rye, which, with the exception of what corn was kiln-dried, was consumed by about fifteen gin distilleries then in the county. Now we have but five, which are supplied with rye and corn from New-York. We do not now produce as much rye, corn, oats, or any other grain, as is consumed by the inhabitants and their domestic animals. Large quantities of tobacco have been produced within the last twenty years in this town, and the cultiva- tion of the weed is extending in this and the adjoining counties. Teazles have for many years been successfully and profitably culti- vated in this town and Weathersfield. Woad has been to a consider- able extent successfully produced in this town for a number of years. Wheat, sown after a crop of tobacco, has usually been more success- fully cultivated than when following any other crop. Oats are pro- fitably cultivated, and our lands are generally stocked with grass seed with this crop. Buckwheat, though by many thought an ex- hausting crop, has been cultivated for twenty years in succession on the same lands without apparently exhausting the soil or diminishing the crop. The only root crop that is considered worthy of attention, and is now cultivated by the farmer who holds the plow himself, is No. 85. J 365 the potatoe. Ruta bagas, mangel wurtzel and sujar beets were for a time cultivated to a considerable extent, but are now abandoned and left for those alone to cultivate who have not a soil and climate for Indian corn, or those who can live by cultivating merely a fashion- able crop. There has no crop, either grain or root, ever been culti- vatedjn this county that with the same labor and expense would produce grain and fodder, or any other nutritive aliment, to that ex- tent, and that would sustain so much animal life, better the condition and increase the fat of our domestit; animals, as that grain which was cultivated by the natives of the soil at the landing of our pilgrim fathers. For more than half a century we have had an improved breed of cattle in this county. Previous to 1790, Col. Jeremiah Wadsworth introduced into this county one or two imported bulls. Mr. Samuel Wolcott, then the most enterprising and best farmer in the State, brought one of those bulls into this town, and he was used by him and others. That bull evidently improved our stock. Mr. Wolcott bred by the use of that bull, and sold one year, twelve steers, the average weight of which was 1,200 lbs. at four years old. and for many years he bred and fatted the best cattle that were slaughtered in New-York. HiS brother, Elizur Wolcott, bred the celebrated East- Windsor ox, which about the year 1809 was taken to Boston, there exhibited for a long time, and finally slaughtered, and weighed 2,133 lbs. Two steers, bred and fatted by Mr. E. Bissel, were driven to Philadelphia and slaughtered in ISII, then six years old, weighing 1,808 lbs. and 1,828 lbs. They were spotted, red and white, de- scendants of Mr. Wolcott'sbull, and evidently had a dash of the short horned blood in them. Two oxen fatted by Mr. Samuel Bartlett, known to be at least half-bloods, were in 1834, then eight years old, driven to Boston and there slaughtered — live weigrht, 3,709 lbs. and 3,740 lbs.; dead weight, 2,637 lbs. and 2,644 lbs. In 1840 Mr. Willis White sold a steer, a cross of short-horns, which when slaugh- tered weighed over 2,500 lbs. All the above weights were quarters, hide and tallow, and all the animals were bred in this town. In 1826, Wye Comet, a thorough-bred Durham short-horn bull was introduced into this town, and since that many other excellent bulls and cows of that breed have been brought and bred here. Our stock generally has been greatly improved by their introduction. About 1822, Henry Hills, Esq., of Windsor, imported from Ayrshire a bull and cow. The bull, a fine animal, was kept for a time in this town bv Mr. Eli- hu Wolcott, was the sire of many good animals, and was finally taken to the vicinity of Rochester, by a Mr. Culver. The oxen fatted by Mr. Bartlett were well broke, and were worked on his farm, and we have had many grade or high bred animals that were valuable as working oxen ; and the best cows for milk we have had here have been grade animals. In some parts of this county we have had high bred Devons, and with a dash of that blood we have had, and now have, some valuable working oxen. All the best cattle that have been bred in this town, have been 366 [Senate reared in the only way that farmers, who breed cattle either for milk, work or the shambles, can profitably do it. At three days old the calf is taken from the cow, and fed with new milk two or three weeks, after that with skim milk and porridge till they are three or four months old, and then turned into a good pasture. The first horses that I have any account of as bred in this county, were the Narraganset breed. They were generally chestnut or sor- rel, very fleet, sure footed, high spirited, and a valuable breed for the saddle. Many mares of this br^ed were bred to " Ranger," for a time kept at Hartford, an imported Arabian, that in 1777 or '78 was taken to Virginia, and there called "Lindsay's Arabian." He left many colts of fine figure and action. In 1783 and '84, a black horse called " Paoli," about fifteen hands high, was for two years kept in this town. He left many valuable colts, and distinguished himself as a racer. From 1790 to 1794, three blood horses were brought from Virginia to Hartford, and were bred to our best mares, and their de- scendants were celebrated roadsters. From about 1798 to 1800 there were two importations of horses from England, in all ten or twelve blood horses, and one of the cart-horse breed, called " Black Prince." Up to about 1806 there were bred in this county a great many very valuable roadsters, by the use of the blood horses to our country mares, and many valuable draft horses by the use of Black Prince. Since that time horse breeding has been on the wane, and we are now dependent on other States for our best horses. In this county we have no large flocks of sheep. Since 1810 we have had flocks of Spanish Merinos, and since 1824 Saxon Merinos, also various grades of the two varieties. We have had careful and skillful sheep masters, that were the owners of their flocks, and by care they have been improved. It is not the name, be it Paular Me- rino, Ramboulette Merino, or Saxon Merino, even if individual sheep have attached to them as high sounding names as Fortune or Gran- dee, that can make them favorites here. It must be the intrinsic value of the fleece in proportion to the weight of the carcase, regardless of name. The swine of this town and county are now principally white, and are nearly the same breed that have been bred here for thirty years. They have no particular name as a breed. They have small bones and thin skins, are well formed, mature young, and, if well fed, fre- quently at nine or ten months old, whole litters will cut up from three to four hundred lbs. each, and at sixteen and eighteen months old, five hundred to six hundred lbs. each. Berkshires were never favorites with but few, and that few have now abandoned the breeding of them to those breeders who breed for other purposes than the profit to be derived from making pork. I am sir, respectfully, Your obedient servant, HENRY WATSON. No. 85.J 367 AGRICULTURE OF ONEIDA COUNTY. BY HON. POMEROY JONES, ONEIDA CO., N. Y. Col. Benj. P. Johnson, Cor. Sec. JV. F. State Agr. Soc. Dear Sir : — I have always resided in the southern section of Oneida county ; of course very much of the observation I have been enabled to bestow on the defects and improvement of agriculture, have been confined to the county, and more particularly the southern part of it. The first settlers, something more than fifty years since, generally removed from the most sterile parts of New-England. When arrived, with true Yankee perseverance, they set themselves to work, to anni- hilate this stupendous frontier portion of the forest, which w^as then the yar west. They planted and sowed their newfcleared fields, and without much further trouble, the rich virgin soil enabled them to reap bounteously. They took no thought to preserve them in their fruitfulness. This El Dorado they had no idea couldever be impo- verished, by unfruitful, worn out fields. To heighten their infatuation, they saw land in the valley of the Mohawk that had been plowed its threescore and ten years, yet producing well. They even saw these Mohawk farmers, hauling the manure from their barn-yards, unloading it on the ice, that it might float out of their way in the spring. Many of our first cleared fields were plowed and cropped fifteen and even twenty successive years. For a time this skinning, or skimming, for they literally took all the cream by their shallow plowing, passed off tolerably well. ■ At the end, however, of about that time, they bound they were considerably well used up. Wheat was raised with great ease ; sowed any time between the first of September, and the setting in of winter, and a good crop gen- erally ffoliowed. But the mistake was at last found out. Farming any how, late sowing, shallow plowing, and no manuring, was found to be a bad, unprofitable business. Like the lands in the olden time, their worn out fields required to be sown to grass and clover to en- joy their jubilee. The ten year old manure heaps about the barns, had to be put in requisition ; and it was found by sad experience, that it would have been far easier to have preserved the land in its fertility, than to renovate that thus early worn out. PRODUCTIONS. Wheat, which for a series of years, was reckoned as the staple crop c,f Oneida, has nearly disappeared. The rust and the worm have almost excluded both winter and spring wheat from 368 [Senate among the productions of a large proportion of the county. The exhaustion of the lime in the soil, is probably the cause of the disease which rusts the straw and shrinks the kernel. The cheapness of flour in market, brought from the west, and far west, will not war- rant the outlay for lime, to restore our farms to a wheat growing con- dition. We have therefore, to a great extent, turned to the raising of stock, dairying, coarse grain and the fattening of pork. Corn, oats, barley, peas, beans and buckwheat, continue to make large returns for the labor bestowed on them. Roots of all kinds yield well in our soil. The potatoe, until the two last seasons, has been raised to an extent which it is confidently believed few sections of the State can equal. Five, ten, and even fifteen acres, were not uncommon fields ; yielding from two to six hundred bushels per acre. On them we fattened our pork, wintered our store hogs, and large quantities were fed to our dairy cows at the close of winter, and in the spring. Almost every farmer has his piggery, with a cauldron set in an arch, for the purpose of boiling his potatoes and provender. A few words as to the disease which has made such sad ravages with the potatoe crop the two last years. Like the cholera, it defies all ordinary rules ; its cause, to some extent, seems inexplicable. To my mind, the most rational theory for accounting for it is, that it is caused by the fermentation of the soil. For the last two years, while the crop was maturing, the weather was extremely warm, accompa- nied by occasional warm, almost scalding rains. This caused the fer- mentation too powerful to be withstood by the tubers. Another argument in favor of this position is, that cool weather immediately checked the disease, and few potatoes rotted the last fall after the first of October. But my confidence in this position is somewhat shaken from the fact — and I believe it is generally conceded — that the rot- ting of the tuber is connected with the curl or rust that strikes the vines. Last summer, and the one preceding, I had a piece of pink- eyes that were in each year struck with the rust as early as the last of July, and in a few days the leaves on the vines were entirely with- ered. The potatoe immediately stopped growing, so that last year I had not more than one-third, and this year one-fourth of a crop ; yet, in each caso of those thus early struck with the rust, I did not lose one bushel by the rot. Possibly their being so early killed, gave them a chance to mature, so that the fermentation would not affect them. After all, I have no very great confidence in the above, or any other theory I have seen. IMPROVEMENTS IN AGRICULTURE. Of late years, and particularly since the formation of the Oneida County Agricultural Society, and the more general diffusion of papers and essays on the subject, our farmers have awakened to the impor- tance of their calling, and a spirit of improvement and reform in gene- ral pervades them. Firstly : In no branch of our husbandry was there a more thorough reformation needed than in the tillage with the plow, and in none are the improvements more perceptible. Half plowing. No. 85.] 369 that is, the old system, cut and cover, is generally discarded by cu"* farmers. Good plows are sought after by them, and in their selec" tion, they show much skill and no little science. In my rambles among them the season past, I have seen much good work ; the straight furrow, lapped according to the most approved methods, evinced a laudable pride and ambition. The plowing at our annual fair, is considered as copy work, which every good farmer should endeavor to imitate, by trying to excel it. Secondly : The same causes have operated to greatly improve our various kinds of farm stock. Devon, Durham, and Holderness cattle are sought after, judicious crosses with them and our best na- tive breeds, being thought by many to be preferable, in this climate, to either in their pure state. In sheep, we have many choice flocks of Saxons, whose wool equals in fineness of fibre, weight of fleece, and the price in market, any in the State. We have all grades between these, and the long wooled Bakewells. In swine, we have done much. By crossing the Berkshires with the Leicesters, we think we can challenge the state to produce finer specimens. Two pi^s that took the first premium at our fair, a year last fall, were killed when a few days more than eight months old and averaged 340 lbs. each, showing an average gain of a fraction over twenty ounces per day each, during their life time. In horses, we have made advances, but like all dairying counties, we are far behind what we should be. DRAINING. In nothing are we making greater improvements, than in this? both open and covered. A considerable portion of our land has a stiff strong subsoil. This subsoil, particularly in those narrow swamps known in common parlance as swales, retains the surface water to such an extent as to prove almost destructive to all vegeta- tion, except the most worthless grasses, cold and sour enough to give a whole stock of cattle the nightmare. We have by a judicious location of drains, covered where the amount of water is small, and open where it is large, reclaimed much nearly worthless land, and made it quite productive. MANURE. There is a very evident improvement in the increased attention paid to the use, saving and manufacture of this, to the farmer, invalu- able article. Our best farmers now calculate to get out all their manure in the spring, for the benefit of the spring crops and their meadows. We now generally believe that there is a very great saving of its ferti- lizing properties in applying it in its long state, that the gases that escape in the decomposition may be retained in the soil, rather than wasted by evaporation from the overstored barn-yard. In some very [Senate, No. 85.] Y 370 [Senate wet and backward springs, it is next to impossible for them to cart out all of their manure. In that event the remnant is piled, mixed with every thing that will increase its quality and quantity. Swamp muck has to a small extent been advantageously put in requi- sition. The increased attention to this subject, the augmented size and number of the piles of compost, shows that what has been written on the subject, has not here been lost, and augurs well for the future. In fences, the laying out of the farm into fields, in the construction and convenience of the farm buildings, the farmers of Oneida begin to show some taste. In the kitchen garden also, the shapeless, weedy, and disgusting, is giving way to neatness, usefulness and order. The neat little flower gardens of our agriculturists are no longer few and far between ; " Oh ! tell me of regions, where flowers abound. Where perfumes and tints spread a paradise round." These are very many of them only tended by the fair hands of the " Farmers' Daughters." SOILS. In this section we have almost every variety, though comparatively very little that is sandy. Much, and a large proportion, is a clayey loam, generally intermixed with gravel. The town of Augusta, in the southwest part of the county ,is in gen- eral high ground. The soil of this town and in its vicinity is mostly underlaid with limestone. This is the best section of the county for wheat and barley, is good for corn, oats, &c., but probably, certamly in dry seasons, the poorest for grass. Leaving this high land, and passing to the north, we fall on to the hill generally known as Col- lege hill, from the site of Hamilton college being located on it. This hill leaves the valley of the Mohawk at Utica, or more properly it is a continuation of the second table of the south bank of that river, running across the country a little south of the Seneca turnpike to Chittenango, instead of accompanying the river to Rome. This hill, quite across Oneida and Madison, contains vast bodies of red slate, or shale. This is more prominently the case in the southwest part of Westmoreland, some one or two miles northwest from said college. Here there is a flat of about one hundjed acres, covered with this slate, which has been washed from the neighboring hill out of deep gullies. A well dug near the foot of the hill, showed that eighteen feet in depth was made land. I know of no more productive soil. Gypsum has a very advantageous eff'ect on this kind of land, through its whole course. When first cleared, many of the steepest parts of the hill, and where the slate comes in its rocky state quite to the surface, it was with difficulty seeded to grass, and when seeded, yielded very little feed, but with the aid of gypsum, the steepest parts are now covered with the richest pasturage. This red slate, after having been washed from its bed and subjected to the action of the sun, rain and frost, becomes in time so fertile that I have known it drawn a mile or more, to put in gardens. This hill, extending about forty miles quite through two rich and No. 85.] 371 populous counties, containing a substance thus fertile, entirely escaped the attention of our State Geologists, in their survey of the State, although that survey, at such vast expense, promised so much to the agriculture of New-York. Northerly and easterly from the foot of College hill is an excellent belt of land, a portion of which is better adapted to grazing than grain, although there are many choice sec- tions of plow lands. This may well be denominated the iron region, as there are exten- sive beds of that ore in the towns of Verona, Westmoreland and Kirk- land. The vein of ore in the two former towns lies nearly on alevel, with a slight dip to the south and west ; that in Verona I believe lies lower, although I have not the necessary information to state precisely. All experience shows that land impregnated with iron receives very little if any benefit from gypsum. It has been repeatedly tried with- out any perceptible effect. In a few instances partial benefit has been derived from its use on the driest gravelly ridges in this region. There its benefits are most perceptible on pastures. These mines of iron have been extensively worked for about thirty- five years, within and out of the county. One bed in Westmoreland has sometimes furnished 2,000 tons in a year to furnaces in other counties. The wood has now become so exhausted in the vicinity that there is but little of it used, but it is still sent in large quantities on our canals to more distant parts. I saw two boats at a time load- ing with the Kirkland ore last fall. It is also believed that this iron region failed to attract the keen optics of our State Geologists. Passing from this section, we fall on to the rich, gravelly, and allu- vial, bottoms on our larger streams of water. Very little better land can be found in the State, for all productions excepting wheat. It is proper here to remark that very much of the land in this county ly- ing lower than the ridge of red shale, is underlaid with a strong, heavy subsoil. In conclusion, I would remark that the meetings of the farmers of Oneida are attended with the most beneficial effects. At these meet- ings the results of experiments are freely communicated, and their benefits duly examined and considered. A general spirit of inquiry prevails. Agricultural reading is sought after, particularly by our young men, with an avidity unprecedented since the settlement of the county. Although far behind what we should be, yet with the present state of things, the course of agricultural improvement cannot fail to be progressive and onward. Westmoreland, Dec. 1844.^ AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. SECOND REPORT* OF THE SPECIAL COMMITTEE FOB PROMOTING THE INTRODUCTION OF AGRICULTURAL BOOKS IN SCHOOLS AND LIBRARIES. (Members of the Special Committee— Hon. John Greig, Governor Seward, Lieut. Gov. Dickmson, James Lennox, John A. King, James S. Wadsworth, and Henry O'Reilly.) [Read at the annual meeting of the State Agricultural Society, Jan. 1845.] The committee appointed under resolutions passed at the last annu- al meeting of the New- York State Agricultural Society, for the pur- pose of promoting the introduction of agricultural books and studies in the schools and libraries throughout the State, and also for the pur- pose of selecting such prize essays from among the Transactions of the Society, as may be most appropriately published in volumes of suitable size for the " Family and School District Libraries," respect- fully report : — That, in furtherance of the duty devolved on them, they have open- ed and maintained correspondence with friends of agriculture and edu- cation in various parts of this State and other States. They prompt- ly adopted, and perseveringly pursued, such means as they supposed best calculated to promote the object in view. They appealed at once and directly to the superintendents of the common schools — in- voking those officers to throw their influence systematically in favor of the introduction of agricultural and horticultural books and studies into the schools and libraries connected with the common school orga- nization. To these invocations, the most gratifying responses were promptly heard from that efficient class of public officers. From the county superintendents in various sections of the State, as well as from the Department of Common Schools which exercises supervision over the whole system, the language of approbation and encourage- ment was fully uttered. Nor was the expression of opinion confined to individual impulses. In their collective capacity as well as indivi- dually, the superintendents manifested great cordiality in the cause. The State Convention of Common School Superintendents, (which met in Rochester in June, and of which Henry E. Rochester was pre- sident,) publicly testified, what is abundantly manifested in the indi- vidual expressions of many of these officers — a lively interest in the • The first Report was made at the meeting of the Executive Committee of the State Society, held in July, 1844, at Poughkeepsie — as published at the time in pamphlet form, and in the Albany Argus and Evening Journal. No. 85.] 373 proposed connexion of agriculture and horticulture with the educa- tional interests of the State — in illustration of which, reference may be made to the report and resolutions submitted to that convention by a special committee consisting of Professor Potter of Union College ; Mr. Patchin, the superintendent of Livingston county ; and Mr. Bate- ham, the editor of the New Genesee Farmer, but now editor of the " Ohio Cultivator," — which report and resolutions were as follows : " As jigricuUure is the art on which all other arts depend, and (he profession in which the greater part of our population are engaged, its improvenaent and prosperity is a subject of the highest importance ; and the committee are of opi- nion that the time has arrived when the elements and scientific principles of Agri- culture should be taught in all our schools, especially to the older class of pupils. " The rapid progress which has of late years been made in those parts where the discoveries of science have been brought to bear on (he improvement of Agri- culture, affords the strongest evidence of (he importance of diffusing a knowledge of the principles upon which these improvements are based, among those who are soon to become the owners and cultivators of our naturally fertile, though much abused soil. There can be no doubt but that such knowledge, if properly imparted, would have a direct tendency to improve the practice of Agriculture, and elevate the profession to that high rank in public estimation which it so justly deserves. " Your committee have perceived, however, that there are numerous difficul- ties connected with the subject, and that it requires more deliberate considera- tion than they have bestowed upon it, to devise (he best means for accomplishing the object. Much can be done by the introduction of books on Agriculture into the District School Libraries. This object has received considerable attention from the New-York State Agricultural Society, and premiums are now offered for the best essays for the purpose. There is still wanting a suitable Text-Bcok on Agriculture, for the u«e of schools. "In view of the whole subject therefore, the committee beg leave to recom- mend this subject to the earnest consideration of (his Convention, and (o submit the following resolutions : " Resolved, That this Convention recommend to teachers, as far as is in their power, to impart instruction on Agriculture by occasional dialogues or conversa- tions among the scholars, and by the reading of Agricultural books and periodi- cals, so as to explain the piincijtles of this art, and show its respectability and importance to themselves and society. "Resolved, That the Convention deem it of the highest importance that our School Libraries contain more works on the principles and practice of Agricul- ture suitable for the perusal of the young ; and therefore we lake pleasure in re- commending to the trustees of school districts under our charge to purchase works of that character. " Resolved, That we will, as county superintendents, take the subject into con- sideration, and be prepared at our next annual convention, to express our opinions respecting it, and to act decisively upon it, if deemed advisable. " Resolved, That a committee of three be r.ow appoin(ed to take (his matter under their especial consideration, and report thereon at our next annual conven- tion; and that the State Agricultural Society be requested also to appoint a com- mittee to confer with them." Your committee deem it proper to add that they opened a commu- nication with the special committee appointed by the convention of school superintendents ; and that there is reason to believe that the co-operation, in this way will lead to further and more gratifying action at the next convention of school superintendents in the ensuing spring : and with the officers of the common school organization, thoroughly and zealously engaged in promoting attention to agricul- 374 [Senate tural education throughout the range of their widely extended sphere^ it is safe to anticipate that the results will soon and largely realize all reasonable expectations in promoting the welfare of the schools^ as well as in advancing the interests of agriculture and domestic in- dustry generally. Among the officers of educational systems in other States, who have shown the most lively interest in co-operating with your com- mittee on this subject, may be named Henry Barnard, of Connecti- cut, and Oliver Comstock, of Michigan — gentlemen who have ren- dered themselves well known for their long and active devotion to intellectual improvement in other spheres, as well as in their present positions as superintendents of public instruction in their respective commonw^ealths. In addition to the interest taken by Col. Young, the State Super- intendent of common schools in our own State, the committee can point with satisfaction to the intelligent and industrious support which the cause of agricultural education has received at the hands of S. S. Randall, the Deputy Superintendent of the State, to whose letters reference is made for arguments enforcing the views which in- fluence the State Agricultural Society in raising this committee upon that important subject. (Vide letters marked I. and II. at the conclu- sion of this report.) Examination of the correspondence herewith submitted as a part of this report, will indicate the extent to which gentlemen in other departments of society, as well as those engaged in the agricultural and educational organizations, have participated in giving the cause of agricultural education the impetus which it now experiences in its onward progress. Worthy of special mention, is the late President of the State Society, James S. Wadsworth, who, in his last report, bore emphatic testimony, in these words, to the importance of the cause which your committee were appointed to promote : — " The So- ciety has recently adopted a measure from which much good is anti- cipated," said Mr. Wadsworth. " It is proposed to prepare volumes of Selections from the Prize Essays of the Society, and that these be offered to some enterprising publishers, with a view of having them printed in form suitable for incorporation with the School District Li- braries. Liberal premiums are also offered for the best ["Text-Books and] series of Essays on the Importance of Scientific Knowledge in connexion with the Ordinary Pursuits of Agriculture ; with the design of having those works also included in the proposed volumes on ag- ricultural subjects for the District Libraries. It is believed that those Valuable fountains of popular knowledge will be greatly enriched by the volumes embodying the best of the Prize Essays, and that the sanction and recommendation of this Society will lead to their gene- ral introduction throughout this State, if not in other States. It is re- garded as not only the duty of the Society to encourage and promote the discoveries and developments of science as connected with rural pursuits, but to spread the results thus attained among the mass of practical and laboring farmers. In the attainment of this latter ob- ject, it is believed that no more effectual instrument can be employed, No. 85.J 375 f or reaching both the rising generation and the adult population, than the School District Libraries." It is satisfactory to know that the sentiments expressed by Mr. Wadsworth, and other friends of Agricultural Education in this State, find a hearty response from many eminent friends of the cause in other States. It is satisfactory to your committee to know that the offer which they suggested of a premium of a hundred dollars to the author of the best text-hook on agriculture^ has been followed by some competition, which will probably result in the publication of one or more works well suited to promote the object in view ; and arrangements are now in progress for submitting materials for at least two volumes of the prize essays of this Society in a form suited to family and school dis - trict libraries, the first of which volumes will probably contain a selec- tion from the writings of the lamented Gaylord — that enlightened and enthusiastic advocate of agricultural improvement. It is the intention of your committee to persevere steadily in the work which the State Society has assigned them. For this purpose, the correspondence commenced with many zealous friends of the cause in this and other States, will be steadily maintained as long as the duty is devolved on your committee. The zeal and efficiency with which the objects of your committee have been approved and advo- cated by editors of public journals, are worthy of particular com- mendation. Not only the agricultural prints, but influential newspa- pers in various States, have devoted a liberal share of attention to these matters ; and the indications thus furnished may be classed among the brightest harbingers of cheering results in the progress of this glorious cause. A portion of the correspondence of the committee, which is deemed particularly important,* is herewith transmitted as a part of the report now presented by your committee ; and reference is also made to the report and correspondence submitted by your committee, and pub- lished in pamphlet shape on a former occasion. JOHN GREIG, Chairman. * It is to be regretted that circumstances prevent the insertion in this volume of any of the numerous communications addressed to your committee, excepting only the two let- ters from the Deputy Superintendent of Common Schools of the State of New- York, here« to annexed. 376 [Senate APPENDIX TO MR. GREIG'S REPORT ON AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. Letter JVb. J. from the Deputy Superintendent of the Common School Department of the State of JVew- York. [referred to especially in the preceding report.] SECRETARY'S OFFICE, ) F Common Sc: Albany y July Department of Common Schools, "> 1, 1844. J Hon. John Greig, Chairman Committee of State Agricultural Society: Dear Sir — In compliance with the request contained in a circular forwarded to me on the 26th ult. by the Recording Secretary of the New-York State Agricultural Society, I have the honor to submit briefly my views respecting the introduction of agricultural studies in- to the several district schools, and of agricultural books into the seve- ral district libraries of our State. It is a source of the highest gratification to every enlightened mind, that a very large and rapidly increasing portion of the moral and in- tellectual energy of the age is resuming the direction of agricultural and horticultural enterprise and knowledge. The numerous vicissi- tudes and disastrous results which have ensued from a too general di- version of men's faculties and powers into the various channels of personal and political ambition — of unhallowed speculation, and over- crowded professions, have produced a decided revulsion in public sentiment in this respect ; and the ranks of the " ancient and honora- ble " fraternity of agriculturists are beginning to be replenished from all the other departments of the social organism. This infusion of new material, although perhaps not immediately productive in all cases of practical benefit, arising from a want of experience, and from a prevailing tendency to substitute plausible theories for the slow results of cautious labor, must nevertheless be regarded as a valuable accession, in many points of view. It brings to bear upon the inte- rests of agriculture that invincible spirit of enterprise which, in what- ever field its energies are unfolded, is eminently characteristic of the age, and adequate to the accomplishment of its highest behests. It gives new life and vigor to agricultural labor, by raising it to the dig- nity of a science — by applying to all its departments the principles of advancing knowledge, and the discoveries and inventions of a pro- gressive civilization, and by disseminating a practical acquaintance of its details among all classes and conditions of community. It recon- ciles and harmonizes those clashing interests which, from mutual igno- rance of the value and relation of each to the others, have heretofore No. 85. J 377 often been found at variance, to the serious detriment of the common- wealth, as well as to the manifest injury of the rival aspirants to pre- cedence and profit. And it restores the cultivators of the soil to their just predominance in the social and political system — assigning to them that influence and rank, which under various pretences, have long been almost exclusively usurped by other and less important classes. That a mere knowledge of the theoretical and practical details of agricultural science^ should be diffused among the youth of our land, is, unquestionably, exceedingly desirable. The importance to the future farmer, of such a thorough and minute acquaintance with the details of his profession, as may enable him to accomplish the high- est practicable results, with the least expenditure of time and materi- al, and in the most direct, judicious, and efficient mode, can scarcely be over-rated. This knowledge can only be acquired by the union of practical experience with scientific investigation and research. And where can the elements of the latter be more readily found and successfully prosecuted, than in our common schools 1 It may, pro- bably, be safely assumed, that nine out of ten of those who are in the habit of attending these schools, in the rural districts, are destined to become practical agriculturists. Why, then, should not more ample and systematic provision be made for such a course of study and of education in these institutions, as shall meet the requirements of this large class of pupils, — especially when, by the adoption of such a course, the interests of the remaining pupils can, in no respect, be in- juriously affected ] A course of study which should prepare those for whom it is more particularly designed, for an enlightened and systematic cultivation of the soil, with the view of obtaining the highest and most permanent rewards of labor and industry, while it would exclude no single branch of science necessary to success in any other profession, trade or calling, would confer incalculable ad- ditional benefits, direct and indirect, upon those who may never have occasion to till the earth, either for subsistence or profit. The ordi- nary branches of common school education, — orthography, reading, writing, arithmetic, grammar and geography, are equally essential to every class of pupils, whatever may be their subsequent destination, A knowledge of the higher branches of the mathematics, — of algebra, geometry, surveying, trigonometry, geology, natural philosophy in all its departments, and even of rhetoric and belles-letters, — is as in- dispensable to the enlightened farmer and horticulturist of the pre- sent day, as to the advocate, the clergyman, the merchant, the manu- facturer, the legislator or the judge. Habits of accurate and practi- cal observation — a familiar acquaintance with the capabilities, pro- perties and varieties of soils, — the nature and properties of the vari- ous minerals, — the different species of grain and vegetables, and the principles which regulate their growth and improvement, — the dis- tinction between useful and noxious plants, — the uses and most ad- vantageous mode of cultivating and improving the one, and the means of extirpation, when necessary, of the other, — the effects of air, 378 [Senate of light, heat, moisture and vegetable decomposition upon plants, — the various species and habits of domestic animals, — the principles which determine the uses and value of the different classes of trees, — and in short, a ready and intelligent practical knowledge of the most ordinary pursuits of agriculture and horticulture, — could not fail of proving eminently serviceable in any condition, either of public or pri- vate life. Is it wise, then, to send forth our six hundred thousand chil- dren annually, from our public schools, in entire ignorance, so far as the direct instructions of the teachers are concerned, of these pur- suits which must, of necessity, enter so largely, in one shape or another, into the whole tenor of their future lives ? Can that be de- nominated a practical education, or an enlightened system of public instruction, which, for all practical purposes, leaves out of view so important a department of intellectual culture ? But there is another view of this subject which suggests itself to my mind, as peculiarly worthy of regard and attention. Would not the various elementary studies which are taught in our common schools, be far more speedily appreciated and rendered interesting and attrac- tive, by their perceived connection with the practical pursuits of ere- ry-day life ? Would not the apparently inexplicable mysteries envel- oped wdthin the folds of the obnoxious and wearisome task-book, be- come invested with a new life and a new nature, by the application of their principles to the circle of observation within the range of the inquisitive pupil 1 From the names, qualities, properties and powers of every portion of animate and inanimate nature, familiar to his eye or ear, to the most profound principles of dynamics, hydros- tatics, or mensuration, illustrated in the operations of the farm on or near which he resides, he would be enabled at once to perceive the objects and the uses of all science, and all knowledge — to trace its results in the limited field of observation open to his view, and from thence to infer its capabilities and powers when applied on a more expanded scale. Is there not reason to believe that a process of this nature, conducted under the auspices of a corps of well qual- ified and efficient educators scattered among the ten thousand school districts of our State — and aided by a competent supply of elementa- ry text-books and well digested essays for the district library, might operate a complete transformation of our existing systems of agricul- tural science, into practical results of enduring beauty and value 1 Such, on a limited scale, has been its effect in portions of Continental Europe, where the experiment has been tried, under circumstances favorable to its complete development. The agricultural condition of Bavaria, in Germany, has undergone an improvement during the present century, exceeding that of any other country, of equal extent, in civilized Europe, with the excep- tion, perhaps, of Scotland. The great impulse to this improvement, originated in the primary schools, where agriculture and horticulture were taught theoretically and practically. Not only were the best elementary treatises on gardening, agriculture, domestic economy, the qualities of different soils, the effects of chemical compounds, the management of silk-worms, and the culture of silk, introduced as text-books into the different schools, but to each school was attach- No. 85.] 379 ed at least half an acre of land for experimental gardening, under the instruction of a leader who was required to be a practical agricultu- rist. " Since these schools have come into action," says an intelligent tourist in that country, " an entirely new generation of cultivators has arisen, and the consequence is, that agriculture in Bavaria, is car- ried to a higher degree of perfection than it is any where else in the central part of Germany. The result of the whole of the informa- tion procured, and of the observation made, is that we think the in- habitants of Bavaria promise soon to be, if they are not already, the happiest people in Germany." Nor has the influence of this enlightened system of agricultural instruction in the primary schools of that country, been confined to the mere improvement of the soil. "The roads, bridges and other public works have undergone a corresponding improvement ; individu- al comforts have been greatly multiplied ; business of every kind has been improved ; and human intellect, reanimated as it were, has burst its cerements and become an efficient aid in the noble work of im- provement. The public roads are all lined with ornamental, fruit- bearing or forest trees, and furnished with guide boards, mile stones, and seats, at intervals, of stones or sods, for the weary traveller." This novel species of education, and the blessings which have flowed from it, and the still greater blessings which appear in prospect, have resulted from the wise provisions of the gov- ernment, aideil by individual enterprise. M. Hazzi, the editor of an agricultural journal, at Munich, an active philanthropist and a devo- ted patriot, contributed essentially to a result so gratifying. It was the opinion of Fellenberg, one of the most enlightened and judicious educators of the age, and the founder of the w^ell known school at Hofwyl, that agricultural pursuits were most favorable to a sound and healthy development of the mind — that the child, when surrounded and occupied with the objects of nature, instead of the pro- ductions of human skill, the arts and sciences, which are at once the work of man and the sceptre of his power, perceives continually such luxuriant richness, such varying and inimitable beauty, such immense operations, as to place the highest eff"ort of man in the strongest con- trast with infinite power : and that such a practical and scientific ac- quaintance with agriculture, as may, under proper regulations, be taught in our elementary institutions of learning, furnishes the most ample means for direct intellectual instruction and moral improve- ment. In a physical point of view, it contributes, in his judgment, to health and vigor of body, from the necessity of active employment, in the open air, when in its purest state ; and, as a science, tends not only to cultivate the spirit of observation and of systematic effort, to exercise the judgment, and to produce habits of foresight and pru- dence, but to the acquisition and practice of the most important branches of knowledge. In laying out and arranging the ground for different crops, in the various processes of irrigation, in removing stones from the fields and clearing the ground of weeds, in the selec- tion and improvement of the various instruments of husbandry, and the best methods of cultivation of the soil, scarcely a department of intellectual science fails to be frequently put in requisition • and the 380 [Sexate conptant necessity of order, industry, foresight, discrimination, regu" larity, and accuracy, exercise the moral faculties, in a mode best adapt" ed to their harmonious and proper development. The practicability, then, of uniting elementary instruction in our common schools, with agricultural science, and of so combining them as to produce results eminently favorable to physical, intellec- tual and moral culture, has been amply demonstrated in the educa- tional institutions of Continental Europe. Is there any thing in our institutions, our civilization, our societies, which should induce us to doubt the full success of the experiment here 1 Are we not emi- nently an agricultural people ? Are we not provided with every facility in our school district organization, for the practical adop- tion of a scheme which commends itself unhesitatingly to our most mature judgment, and which alone can give to our rising millions that sound and useful knowledge, requisite to enable them adequate- ly to fulfil the great mission with which they are entrusted — the advancement of civilization — the diffusion of science — and the final and complete triumph of republican freedom 1 Ample means are at our command ; and it only remains that an enlightened public sen- timent, indicate the cause to which reason, interest and duty alike point. This may be done, and to a very great extent, has already been done, through the agency of the Agricultural press — through the operations of the State Society, and its county branches — and espe- cially by the various officers in any way connected with our extensive and admirably organized common school system, interspersed through- out every portion of the State, and possessing unequalled facilities for the guidance and direction of the public mind. " To me," says Governor Seward, in his message of 1841, " the most interesting of all our republican institutions, is the common school." In this sentiment, every enlightened philanthropist, every right judging citizen will readily concur, looking forward to the time when instead of " the miserable and dilapidated edifices" which in too large a proportion of our school districts, offend the eye and the taste, spacious and commodious erections, combining architec- tural grace and beauty with comfort, health and convenience, shall be found — when instead of the tedious and monotonous routine of miscalled instruction, which, by its disagreeable associations has rendered knowledge tasteless and insipid to so many of our youth, education, in the hands of thoroughly qualified teachers, shall assume a practical cast, and become the means of a systematic, full and har- monious development of all the physical, mental and moral faculties of our nature — when the lessons of the school room shall be agreea- bly diversified with intellectual and moral teaching, with music and drawing and painting — and the hours of necessary relaxation, be divided between the exuberant and healthtul sports of childhood, and the no less healthful, no less pleasing culture of flowers and shrubs and trees, in an ample portion of the play-ground, set apart for this purpose. When the long winter evenings shall be enlivened and animated by the perusal of the choicest productions of literature and science, in all their various departments, ^' without money and No. 85.J 381 without price" — when in short, the Common School and the District Library, shall be made to unfold their exhaustless capabilities of dis- ciplining the youth of our land in all the essential requisites of prac- tical knowledge, and goodness and virtue — we see the most abundant cause for congratulation on the wise and beneficent policy, which has heretofore so liberally aided these invaluable institutions. If in view of the importance of a practical and permanent con- nection of the great interests of agriculture and public instruction, I might venture to throw out a few brief suggestions for the considera- tion of the intelligent body of which you, sir, are chairman, I would respectfully recommend the organization of auxiliary associa- tions, in each of the eleven thousand school districts of the State, to consist of such of the inhabitants of the district as might feel an interest in the subject, and of the teacher and pupils of the school. The purchase of an acre or two, at least, of suitable land, adjacent, if practicable, to the school-house, to serve as a model farm, and to be exclusively cultivated by the male children, under the direction either of the teacher, if qualified, or of a committee or agent of the association ; and the conversion of a portion of the play-ground at- tached to the school, into an ornamental garden, to be cultivated and superintended by the young ladies of the school and district. For the purpose of a more general and thorough diffusion of agricultural and horticultural information, I would also recommend the prepara- tion of a series of practical works devoted to the elucidation of ag- riculture in its various departments, for the district library ; and of proper elementary text-books, on this subject, for the school. I am, sir, very respectfully. Your ob't ser't, S. S. RANDALL, Gen. Dep. SupH Com. Schools. Letter JYo. II. from the State Deputy Sup^t. of Common Schools, [referred to in the preceding report of MR. GREIG.J Albany^ January 10, 1845. Henry O'Reilly, Esq., Recording Sec^y of the JV. Y. State Agricultural Society : Dear Sir — In a former communication which I had the honor to submit to the committee for promoting the introduction of agricul- tural books into the common schools and district libraries of our State, I endeavored to show the practicability and utility of connect- ing the art and science of agriculture with the ordinary branches of elementary instruction pursued in our schools. Since that time, I have bestowed much reflection upon the subject, in its various bear- ings, and have become more and more confirmed in the conviction that the foundation of all those improvements in agricultural science, 382 ~ [Senate to which the earnest and enlightened efforts of the present times are tending, may and should be laid in those elementary institutions of learning where nineteen-twentieths of the youth of our State are an- nually instructed. Nor is it necessary to the accomplishment of this object, that a separate department of education, devoted to this spe- cific purpose, should be organized, or that any serious innovation should be made in the ordinary process of elementary instruction. I was very much struck with the force of Dr. Beck's observation, in a portion of his communication to the committee above referred to, deprecating the too early use of purely scientific works on the con- stitution of the air, of water, and of the various elementary sub- stances which enter into the formation and development of soils, — to the exclusion of primary objects of early study. It may be true, likewise, as he observes, that the researches of philosophers and sci- entific men in the prosecution of those interesting and important to- pics which " the present brilliant era in agricultural chemistry" has opened up, may overthrow or very materially modify principles and doctrines now generally received as fundamental. But while the probability or even possibility, that new and more enlightened views may supersede those which now prevail in this branch of scientific investigation, should teach us caution, and prevent us from hastily rushing to conclusions, without a sufficienlly extensive induction, it will scarcely be contended that we should, on this account, altogether cease our efforts in this direction. Mr. Barnard, the able and ac- complished Secretary of the Board of Education in Connecticut, and more recently the Agent of Public Instruction in Rhode Island, whose opinions on any subject immediately or remotely connected with education, are entitled to the highest confidence and regard, unites with Dr. Beck in deprecating the introduction either of agri- culture or horticulture, as a new and distinct branch in our common schools^s at present organized. The great experience, and the known practical abilities of these distinguished educators, confer additional weight to their opinions in this respect ; and I do not propose to con- trovert the soundness of the conclusions to which they have arrived. The object which the friends of agricultural improvement have in view, in incorporating a knowledge of the fundamental principles of that science, with the gradual development of the mental faculties, may, I apprehend, be attained without innovation on the course of studies now generally marked out for our common schools. Natural philosophy and natural history, including in their more advanced stages the elementary principles of chemistry, geology, mineralogy, botany, zoology, and entomology, are branches coming within the ap- propriate pale of primary instruction — adapted to the comprehension and congenial to the taste of the young learner — of undoubted impor- tance to an accurate and useful knowledge of the external world, and of the various topics subsequently to be mastered in the course of a thorough education. Should not the teacher be able, in communicating the principles and facts connected with these interesting departments of general sci- ence, to point out their practical application to the every day pursuits No. 85.] 383 of human life — their intimate connection with the phenomena con- stantly present to the eye and to the mind — their beautiful adapta- tion to these processes which are periodically passing before the quick observation of the child ? And will not the foundations of sound in- tellectual culture be more strongly and permanently laid by connect- ing its earliest stages with a full, systematic and clear exposition of the nature, constituents and powers of those elementary substances which surround us on every hand — enter into the formation, growth and modification of all that our senses enable us to perceive, and make up, in short, the material world in which we live, and move, and have our being ? Now this knowledge can thus be illustrated and applied, in the first instance, in no more direct, simple and efficacious mode, than by its reference to the various pursuits of agriculture — pursuits familiar, to a greater or less extent, to every child in the land. The composition of the atmosphere ; the various elementary par- ticles of matter ; their powers separately and in every variety of com- bination ; the influences they are capable of exerting in the formation and improvement of soils, the processes of vegetation, the culture of plants, trees and vegetables of every description ; the beautiful adap- tation of the different constituent elements of the atmosphere to the varying requirements of animal and vegetable life, by means of which plants are incessantly inhaling for their sustenance and nutriment, the carbon, hydrogen, and azote or ammonia, emanating from ani- mals, who, in their turn, obtain their essential nourishment from these plants ; the preservation of the purity of the atmosphere by the reproduction by vegetables of the oxygen consumed by animals ; and the necessity of mineral substances no less than of vegetable mold and atmospheric compounds, as food for plants ; all these, and many other principles intimately connected with the every-day pursuits of agriculture, may be ascertained, and their practical application point- ed out in the schooi-room, and without any departure from the pre- scribed routine of elementary studies. It is, in my judgment, a great mistake to Imagine that the ten years which, in our systems of education, are devoted to the attainment of the elementary principles of knowledge, can profitably, or indeed without manifest injury to the government of the mind and the for- mation of character, be spent in the mastery of the present restricted outline of common school studies. During the general prevalence of a system involving the necessity of the temporary employment of a teacher for a few months of each year, it is apparent that the range of instruction, however thorough, was necessarily confined to a few branches ; and the long interval ordinarily permitted to elapse, be- tween the successive terms of instruction, rendered it nearly indispen- sable to go over in each successive term substantially the same course. Under a competent instructor, permanently employed, and devoting the principal portion of each year to the task of instruction, it is sus- ceptible of demonstration that a single year will suffice for the ad- vancement of the pupils far beyond the point heretofore supposed to constitute the utmost verge of common school education, leaving them 384 [Senate at liberty to enter upon the higher branches usually allotted to the academy and high schools. Already, in a very large and constantly increasing portion of our schools, the higher mathematics, the more abstruse branches of natural philosophy, chemistry, mineralogy, ge- ology and astronomy, form a portion of the course of instruction ; and in proportion as improved methods of teaching, and a higher grade of qualifications in teachers are demanded by the public sentiment, this advancement in the quantity and quality of elementary education will continue to progress ; and it is difficult to assign any other limits to its extent than those arising from the pecuniary means of the in- habitants of the different districts, and their ideas of the necessity or expediency of a division of labor in the department of education by which institutions of different grades shall continue as at present to exist. But whether the various branches referred to, are taught in the common or in the higher school, the academy or the college, they may each and all be applied to the improvement and advancement of agricultural science ; and this end should be assiduously and syste- matically kept in view. The fundamental principles of chemistry in general, and of organic chemistry in particular, in its application to agriculture and veg'etable physiology, may be communicated at an early age, and should form an indispensable part of elementary in- struction. The nature of soils is known to be, to a very great ex- tent, dependent upon that of the rocks from which they are derived. The various minerals, therefore, should be known — their constituent particles analyzed — and their distinctive features clearly ascertained. A proper mixture of earths is found by experience to be of the great- est importance to the fertility of the soil. Neither pure clay, nor sand, nor chalk, separate from all other mineral or vegetable ingredi- ents, can constitute a productive soil. A judicious mixture of all these ingredients, having reference to the peculiar nature and circum- stances of the locality, is essential to its profitable culture. In what proportions these ingredients should be supplied, the effective force of each, and the peculiar properties which enable it to exert this ef- fective force, are facts which come within the range of elementary science. The materials therefore for enabling the future agricultu- rist to give to his land the highest culture of which it is susceptible, should be furnished by the teacher, and general principles for their application laid down. A knowledge of the constituents of the soil, and its peculiar cha- racteristics, whether aluminous or clayey, and consequently liable to the retention of too much moisture, or silicious or sandy, and absorb- ing with too great rapidity the water which it receives, is necessary in order to determine when and to what extent the process of drain- ing on the one hand, and that of irrigation on the other, may be ex- pedient. There are cases, too, of not infrequent occurrence, when the latent sources of infertility can only be arrived at by a scientific knowledge of the peculiar formation and geological development of the strata of an entire district ; where, for instance, a series of forma- tions, one above the other, to a great depth, may consist of rich, fer- tile soil, reposing, however, upon a substratum either too retentive or No. 85.] 385 too porous, discoverable only by the practical eye of an observer fa- miliar vfiih the geological structure of the adjacent country. In such cases, it is obvious that the ability to determine the nature and con- tinuity of the geological formations of the district vi^ould prove of in- valuable service to the farmer — enabling him at once to detect the existence and ascertain the extent of the hidden source of infertility, and to apply those remedies which a mere investigation of the soil, without this aid, might fail, even with the greatest perseverance, sat- isfactorily to indicate. In short, a general and scientific acquaintance with the component elements, and the position of rocks to each other — a knowledge which may, without difficulty, be acquired after a few elementary lessons, practically applied to the ordinary purposes of agricultural improvement, might be most advantageously connected with the earliest processes of intellectual culture. " Perfect agriculture," observes Professor Liebig, " is the true foundation of all trade and industry ; it is the foundation of the riches of states. But a rational system of agriculture cannot be formed without the application of scientific principles." So important, in particular, to the agriculturist, is a knowledge of the elementary prin- ciples of chemistry, that it is not too much to say that without it no improvement on existing processes of culture worthy of the name, can be expected. The effects of different rotations of crops, the proper- ties of diffierent manures, the preparation and adaptation of the soil for the growth of particular crops, and a variety of other circumstan- ces of equal importance, can be intelligently appreciated only by a practical acquaintance with these principles ; and the farmer who at this day expects to realize, from the cultivation of the soil, those ad- vantages which it is capable of imparting, without such an acquaint- ance, will labor under physical disabilities fully equal to those of the mechanic who is ignorant of the essential properties of matter, and of the fundamental principles of the various mechanical forces, or those of the miner who is unacquainted with the geological structure of the country he is seeking to explore. It would be easy to extend these views throughout the entire circle of the useful sciences, the acquisition of which, as abstract sciences, is deemed essential to a complete elementary education. There are many and weighty reasons why all knowledge communicated to the young should be accompanied with clear views of its practical appli- cation in the various exigencies and pursuits of after life. If the cul- tivation of the earth is among the most general, honorable and useful of all these pursuits — if a large and constantly increasing proportion of our fellow-citizens are constantly occupied in deriving from this source the materials of wealth, for themselves and those who are de- pendent upon their exertions— if every individual has a deep and per- petual interest in the most efficient prosecution of this pursuit, and is bound to contribute directly or indirectly to its support, to the best of his ability, it would seem to follow that all the acquisitions of science should be made subsidiary, to the greatest practicable extent, to its improvement and advancement ; and that while the just claims of the various other professions, arts and employments which make up [Senate, No. 85.] Z 386 [Senate the aggregate of civilization, receive an adequate appreciation, the noblest and most important of them all should not be overlooked. The distinctive feature of modern civilization is the application of the physical sciences to the practical pursuits of life. The great ob- ject to be kept in view in education, next to the development and direction of the moral and religious faculties of our nature, is practi- cal usefulness. Agriculture, confessedly the most general and most important of all the industrial arts — the source of wealth as well of individuals as of nations — -is also confessedly far less indebted to science than any other pursuit or profession. While in every other department to which the ambition and energies of man have been from time to time directed, the successful discoveries of modern science and the inven- tions of modern art have been efficiently brought to bear in securing and modifying the results attained, in that of agriculture alone, has there been no corresponding advancement. If, as political economists tell us, population has a constant and invariable tendency to press upon the means of subsistence — if, as the history of the past, and the events of the present in a portion of the old world, conspire to assure us, the progress of civilization has not been attended with a correspond- ing increase of physical well being ; and if the rich and abundant re- sources of the earth are competent, when fully developed, to the liberal and generous support of all its living inhabitants, it becomes the duty^ no less than the interest, the obligation, no less than the ex- pediency, of every proprietor of a portion of the earth's surface, to develop to its utmost practicable extent, its capacity and fertility. To this end he should at an early period be placed in possession of every established theory of science and every discovery in any of its various departments which may immediately or remotely, tend to the advancement and improvement of existing modes of culture. He should be made fully aware of the nature and power of all the elements which separately or in combination, exert a favorable or an unfavorable influence upon the soil ; he should thoroughly understand its geolo- gical formation, and the effect of this formation upon the compara- tive fertility of different portions of its surface, as well as the appro- priate remedy for any deficiency in its original capability ; and above all, he should be well versed in the chemical properties of the various substances which in such an infinite diversity of forms enter into the cultivation and growth of the vegetable, no less than of the animal world, from which he is daily and hourly to draw fresh supplies for future use. Believing as I do, that this knowledge can be most efficiently and systematically communicated in our public schools, 1 am of opinion that it should constitute a definite portion of the instruction there ^ven : that in connection with the studies of Natural Philosophy, Natural History, Chemistry and Geology, an adequate idea should be given of the essential principles of agricultural chemistry, the organ- ism of plants and animals, and the various relations which the phy- sical economy of the material universe sustain to the development and culture of the soil. An elementary text-book embracing these inter- esting subjects of investigation and study, and presenting in a simple, No. 85.] 387 familiar and attractive form, those views which I have here endeavor- ed to indicate, is greatly needed in our common schools ; and will, I trust, soon be supplied. Such a work has, as I am informed, recently been introduced into the schools of Scotland, and is about to be re- published here under the auspices of one of our most finished scho- lars, now temporarily resident in Edinburgh. The works of Pro- fessor Liebig, of Sir Humphrey Davy, of Chaptal, Daviess, &c., al- though exceedingly valuable to the more advanced student, are not in all respects, the best adapted to elementary investigation, and are better fitted for the library than the school. The establishment and liberal endowment of a State Normal School for the education and preparation of teachers, presents a most favor- able opportunity for the diffusion of correct views on this important topic. It is from this institution that the effective impulse should be communicated, which may lead to results in this department of edu- cation, surpassing all preceding efforts for the improvement and ad- vancement of agricultural knowledge. From a corps of teachers thoroughly versed in the scientific principles applicable to this field of labor, may, within the compass of a very brief period, be diffused throughout every county, town and school district, a competent ac- quaintance with the fundamental truths of agricultural science and art. No more favorable period than the present, can be imagined, for the energetic prosecution of so noble a design. The friends of agricultural improvement are moving in a solid column, and through the agency of associated and individual effort, of annual fairs, of lo- cal celebrations and gatherings, and ably conducted periodicals, are rapidly assuming that precedence in the body politic and social to which they are legitimately entitled. The true theory of popular education is beginning, under the enlightened auspices of the great, the good and the wise of both hemispheres, to be carried into prac- tical operation, by means of institutions for the thorough preparation of teachers; by elevating the standard of instruction, widening its channels and rationalizing its processes ; by the recognition of its im- portance and value as the harbinger of a nobler civilization, and con- sequently, of the claims in a moral and social point of view, of its teachers ; and by that ceaseless and vigilant supervision which watch- es over the sucessive developments of its onward progress. That education which is to fit the future citizen for the intelligent and faith- ful discharge of the duties and responsibilities which he owes to his ma- ker, to himself, to society, to his country and to his race, must com- prehend within its compass a thorough knowledge of all the means which have hitherto been discovered for the improvement, advance- ment and elevation of humanity. And with this knowledge must be associated the will and the practical ability to apply those means to the production of the highest attainable result. The numerous dis- coveries in science and the arts which have reflected such unfading glory upon the three last centuries, have already removed the most formidable barriers to the well being of the race, as well in a physical as in a moral point of view. By the substitution of machinery for 388 [Senate. labor, by a knowledge of the elementary properties and latent pow- ers of matter in its innumerable forms, by the combined and irresisti- ble force of numbers acting in concert, and each possessing all those materials of thought and action which the collected wisdom of pre- ceding ages could supply, — modern civilization has attained a point from which it can survey the certain triumphs which are still in re- serve for it in its future progress. Among those triumphs, one of first and most important in its influences upon the general ameliora- tion of humanity, must be reckoned the highest and most perfect and complete development of the productive powers of the earth — the triumph of agricultural science. Whatever may be the prin- ciples upon which the distribution of the wealth of nations and com- munities is regulated, here must be found its source : and while^ without impeaching the wisdom and justice of Providence, we cannot doubt the inexhaustible capacity of the soil to supply the wants of all living things, we have only intelligently to avail ourselves of the means thus abundantly provided for our use, to secure that per- fect dominion over the earth and its products which was the original birth-right and the heritage of humanity. I have now, my dear sir, only to apologize for the length of this- communication, and to subscribe myself, Very respectfully. Your ob't servant, S. S. RANDALL. ON THE INTRODUCTION OF THE STUDY OF AGRICUL- TURE INTO OUR COMMON SCHOOLS, AND OF AGRI- CULTURAL BOOKS INTO OUR SCHOOL LIBRARIES, &c. BY H. S. RANDALL, ESQ.* Having been unable, from a pressure of other avocations, to reply to the inquiries addressed to me by the society's committee " for pro- moting the introduction of Agricultural books in Schools and Libra- ries,"— I avail myself of the opportunity presented by your circular^ to lay the results of my experience and reflection on a subject of so much interest, briefly before the Society, I regard the question as to the propriety and expediency of intro- ducing the study of agriculture, (for 1 suppose this is involved in the introduction of the " books,") into our common schools, as merely one of time. That its elementary principles should, ultimately, form a part of the education of a people, so essentially agricultural as our own, scarcely admits of doubt. * Superintendent of Common Schools for Cortland county, N. Y, No. 85.] 389 In determining whether the proper period has yet arrived for such introduction, the main point, in my judgment, to be settled, is this — are elementary and other studies more important and more indispen- sable to the pupil, than that of agriculture, so generally pursued, and in such a state of progress in our primary schools, as to warrant the introduction of a new branch of study, the acquisition of which, to a sufficient extent to render it of any practical value, would consume much time. It may be considered an axiom, that studies, if equally adapted to the comprehension of the pupil, should be taken up and mastered, in the order of their importance. And although the pupil need not be confined to one, he should be restricted to a few. Two, or at most, three, in addition to the daily exercises of the school-room, (reading, writing, and spelling,) are amply sufficient for the maturest scholar. If the number is extended, time is frittered away, and habits of super- ficiality are acquired. In assigning agriculture as a science, its true rank in the scale of importance amongst the other sciences, a knowledge of which should constitute the popular education of our country, we must not forget our natural proneness to exaggerate the consequence of our chosen and favorite pursuits. True, we can hardly overrate the utility of a thorough knowledge of that branch of industry which affiards means of subsistence to much the greatest portion of our people, and indeed of mankind. We cannot shut our eyes on the fact, that everything which tends to its improvement, tends directly, and more perhaps than by any other possible means, to add to individual and national wealth. But is wealth the paramount object of either the individual or the na- tion 1 Is a knowledge of the means of its attainment the end of edu- cation 1 It surely cannot be necessary to debate a proposition so ab- surd ! In whatever position man may be placed socially or politically, the first great prerequisite to fit him to " act well his part," is the proper development of his moral, intellectual, and physical faculties. Virtue, intelligence, and health are of more importance than wealth, under any and all circumstances : and especially are they so, (particularly the two former,) when man is called upon to perform the duties, and incur the responsibilities of self-government in a republic. To decide, and decide unhesita'.ingly, that it is far more important to instil moral, intellectual, (and to this I would add, political) science into the minds of the young, and especially young republicans, than to teach them any, or even all the natural sciences, is not, in my judg- ment, underrating the dignity or the value of our art or calling as husbandmen. To love "Rome more," is no proof of a disposition to undervalue Csesar ! The question now comes up, are the studies above enumerated pur- sued so genei'ally, and are pupils in such a state of progress in them, that we would be justified in superadding the science of agriculture to the course of instruction in our common schools 1 First, in relation to moral culture. Is moral science taught in our schools from books ? Not one scholar out of every hundred in our 390 [Senate State, has probably ever opened a book devoted to the science of ethics. Worse than this, there are no such books of generally acknowledged meritj adapted to the capacities of children.* Do instructors teach it orally 1 As a general thing, I am prepared to say, they do not — usu- ally pleading a want of time from a multiplicity of other studies. Is it expedient to surrender up this branch of education exclusively to parental and clerical influences'? Facts, daily occurring on every side of us, trumpet-tongued, make answer. Next, let us ask what is done for intellectual culture 1 What faculty besides that of memory, is systematically trained and developed, unless it be in the ordinary faulty method of acquiring a knowledge of arithmetic and English grammar — the latter too, almost universally degraded to a mere process of memory ? And finally, what is accomplished in our schools, in preparing the young republican to discharge his duties as such, by making him ac- quainted with the structure of our government, — the general princi- pies of political economy, and (ought I not to add,) political ethics? Out of one hundred teachers examined by me, three years since, not exceeding ten could give a definite idea of the relative powers and duties of the legislative, executive, and judiciary departments of our State and General Governments ! Ten per cent has, perhaps, now, increased to fifty. Not ten out of every hundred are yet ac- quainted with the rudiments of political economy ! And perhaps af- ter all, these teachers are not blameable, or at least, most blameable^ — ^for a knowledge of these subjects has not been required of them as a qualification for teaching ! But if this is the condition of this branch of education among the teachers^ what are we to expect from the schools ! These are assuredly painful truths to utter. But if true, it is equally certain they ought not to be concealed. We stand in need of a radical and pervading reformation, on the subject of popular education, — and I am constrained to believe that there are other im- provements far more necessary, than any which would accrue from the introduction of the study of agriculture. Even were it otherwise, our teachers are not now qualified to teach scientific agriculture ; and our pupils are not qualified, by a knowl- edge of preparatory branches, — as for example, chemistry, — to follow up and investigate it as a science. Waiving all other objections, there is no suitable treatise, prepared in reference to American soils and climate, discussing the subject comprehensively and scientifically, yet sufficiently briefly, for a text book in our schools ; and which is sufficiently clear, simple and explanatory for adaptation to juvenile attainments and juvenile comprehension. Of what utility could the works of Davy, Liebig, Boussingault, or Paen, be, to a " raw" boy of sixteen, utterly un- acquainted with even the nomenclature of chemistry 1 • The "Rollo code of Morals," is as near it as anything with which I am acquainted. Wayland's abridged " Moral Science," and several other works of similar stamp are well suited to advanced scholars, but scarcely adapted to the understanding of children. No. 85.J 391 Again, nearly if not all works of any reputation, which have ap- peared, on the subject of agriculture, have been too exclusively theo- retic, or too exclusively practical. It would be by a union of both, that a suitable work for schools could be prepared. And there is another consideration which we are not at liberty to overlook. The most learned writers are, to this day, divided on some of the great and cardinal points of the science of agriculture. Saussure, Paen, and Liebig, differ as widely in some of their theories, as ordinary far- mers do in their practices ! Though this should prove no bar to study and investigation, it shows that it would be difficult to even prepare a text book which would be above all danger of teaching error. In relation to the introduction of Agricultural books into school libraries, there can be no doubt of its propriety and expediency. Among our agricultural population, it is singular that so few are al- ready introduced. It is, doubtless, greatly attributable to the want of treatises of a popular character. I should be decidedly in favor of the institution of a State Normal Agricultural School, with a pattern and experimental farm. I believe a manual-labor, self-supporting school, — partly on the basis of M. Fellen- bourg's school, at Hofwyl, — in every county of our State, would, (i equally successful in obtaining students,) be of far more value than our academies. Poverty would be no bar to entering such a school ; and labor would confer health, and that spirit of self-dependence, and manly industry, which would teach the poor to acquire and the opu- lent to preserve the blessings flowing from wealth, or to encounter poverty without repining, or a surrender of independence or self- respect. Your ob't serv't, HENRY S, RANDALL. B. P. Johnson, Esq. OEIGIN AND PEOGRESS OF THE MASSACHUSETTS SOCIETY FOR THE PROMO- TION OF AGRICULTURE. At a meeting of the Massachusetts Society for promoting Agricul- ture, held Nov. 1st, 1844, A letter was read, addressed to Mr. Quincy, by B. P. Johnson, Esq., in behalf of the New- York State Agricultural vSociety, requesting some facts in relation to the origin and progress of the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture. It was thereupon voted, that the letter be committed to the President, (Mr. Welles) and Mr. Quincy, and that they be requested to reply to Mr. Johnson. At a subsequent meeting of the board of trustees, on the 11th of January, 1845, a reply in the form of a report was offered by Mr. Welles, and read to the board, and by them approved, and a copy directed to be sent to Mr. Quincy, to be transmitted to Mr. Johnson. A copy of the record, BENJ. GUILD, Recording Secretary of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture. As soon as the Independence of the country was established, the attention of the community was at once led to the consideration of the state of our agriculture. A war of seven years had fallen heavily on the farmer ; whilst his efforts had been called into exercise with success, in another fieldy his homestead had become cheerless and barren. This alone was sufficient to excite the general sympathy. The new relations in which the different classes of the community stood at home, and the effects on the value of our productions abroad by the change of our foreign relations, became objects of great solicitude. It became therefore a prevailing desire that earnest ef- forts should be made to improve whatever discoveries had been made in cultivation at home or abroad, and that a full knowledge thereof, should be disseminated to excite and enlarge the production of the country, which was looked to prospectively, as an essential object for the common welfare ; as from the mode of the early settlement of the country, our cultivation was of narrow and limited extent ; an increase of the capacity of production was therefore highly desirable. Impresssed with these sentiments, in the year 1792, application was made by a large number of respectable citizens to the Legislature of Massachusetts, and an act was passed " To incorporate and establish No. 85.] 393 a society by the name of " The Massachusetts Society for promoting Agriculture." " This act was signed by the Governor, John Hancock, and the per-- son named to call the first meeting was Samuel Adams. This was soon called, trustees appointed, and suitable rules and regulations were adopted. (Vol. 5 page 80.) By the fifteenth rule, it was provided that the several members should pay into the hands of the treasurer, two dollars annually, until otherwise ordered, to carry into effect the objects had in view ; it further appears that a subscription, liberal for that period, was forth- with made of about four thousand dollars in aid of the important ob- jects thus contemplated. The society by its trustees, then proceeded to place before the public, the several objects as to which informa- tion was needed from the experience of our husbandmen ; suitable premiums were offered for invention and discoveries, as well as in re- lation to the improvement of our race of cattle, sheep, etc., and these were varied from year to year, as seemed most important and desira- ble. The appeal was not made in vain. With a view to the improve- ment of our breed of cattle, several costly and valuable animals were presented by liberal men, and that no means should be untried, some of great promise in successive periods of time have been imported by the society, and placed for the general advantage in different parts of the State. Strenuous efforts were also made to ascertain the race of sheep best suited for our climate, as well as for the general purposes of our manufactures. In 1797, the trustees published some agricultural pamphlets, which afterwards became a journal to which they mostly contributed, and by the aid of others, the freedom of discussion and means of in- formation were widely diffused ; this was continued for more than twenty years, and was productive of a good effect. The several counties were appealed to for the establishment of County Societies, in aid of the efforts of the State Society, which has been gradually accomplished, and been productive of beneficial effects on the interests of agriculture. From a desire to avail of these ad- vantages, the trustees proposed to have a cattle-show at Brighton, which was kept up for several years ; those distinguished by knowl- edge and experience being invited to address the assembly of congre- gated farmers. Their addresses through the Journal and the press in general, were widely diffused. Plowing matches were instituted. A hall was built mostly by the liberal contributions of individuals, for the exhibition of domes- tic and other manufactures, for which premiums were offered, which course, though varied, has been long fcontinued. About 1802 the trustees contributed to the establishment of a Pro- fessorship of Natural History at Cambridge college. Wm. D. Peck, was elected Professor; the benefit of his researches, which were highly estimated, were laid before the public through the Agricultural Jour- nal, and the press generally. On the 20th February, 1819, the Le- gislature passed an act by which every society which should raise the sum of one thousand dollars for the improvement of agriculture, 3 ) i [Senate should receive $200 a year and in like proportion for any greater sum not exceeding $600. This liberal extension of the aid and pa- tronage of the government, had a good effect in exciting an increased attention to the several arts, inventions and improvements by which the whole community are alike benefited. After the experience of several years, it was suggested that the many exhibitions of implements, manufactures, with the cattle-showj &c., together with the distributions of the premiums, all of which appeared to excite a general interest, might to advantage be carried more into the interior of the State, under varied regulations, tending to a more general association and convention of all those who felt an interest in the several great objects had in view. With this view notice was given that a meeting of the trustees would be held on the 10th of October, 1844, at Worcester; the seve- ral premiums on stock, manufactures, &c., were modified and duly published. The result was highly gratifying ; the show indicated pro- gressive improvement — the premiums were awarded mostly by the advice of members of the county societies, and were apparently con- firmed by general opinion. The hospitality of the Worcester Society was in a most acceptable manner extended, and in the evening a numerous and respectable col- lection of Agriculturists, not only from New-England but from New- York also, were by invitation assembled. Several oflScers of that State Society made interesting addresses, which were received with great applause. Gov. Briggs, with many other members of the county societies, did like honor to the occasion. And the trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, cherish a hope that the interesting discussions so fully and freely indulged in at this assemblage, may have a due influence on any future occasion. All of which is submitted. JOHN WELLES, Boston^ January., 1845. COUNTY SOCIETIES. CONDENSED STATEMENTS OF THEIR PROCEEDINGS. ALLEGANY COUNTY. Organized in 1843, by the adoption of a constitution. The first Monday in February, the day fixed for the annual meeting, the offi- cers were elected. The annual Fair was held on the 8th day of Oc- tober, where premiums were awarded to the amount of $142. The amount offered for field crops, to be awarded Feb. 4, 1845, is $51.50. Officers. — Alvan Burr, President ; Stephen Woodruff, Luther Couch, Vice-Presidents ; Ransom Lloyd, Recording Secretary j Lau- rens Hull, Corresponding Secretary and Treasurer. CATTARAUGUS COUNTY. The Annual Fair was held at Ellicottville in October, and well attended. A decided improvement has taken place in stock of all kinds, and in domestic articles, since the formation of the Society. Officers. — Abraham Searl, President ; Samuel Harvey, of Moor- field, Vice-President ; Daniel Reed Wheeler, of Ellicottville, Secre- tary and Treasurer. CAYUGA COUNTY. From this Society no report has beeen received. Published noti- ces state that the Annual Fair was held early in October ; that the ex- hibition, though commendable in many particulars, was decidedly de- ficient as a whole ; and that an excellent address was delivered by Dr. D. Lee of Buffalo. CHAUTAUQUE COUNTY. The report from this county speaks of the small beginning of the Society ; and of the several years of struggle it maintained during its early existence ; and of " the timely and noble act of the Legis- lature of 1841, which brightened the prospects and added new life to the cause of agricultural improvement throughout the county." One 396 [Senate hundred and seventy-five members paid each one dollar the last year to the Society. Five crops of corn ranged from eighty-eight to one hundred and eight bushels per acre. The soil of the county being chiefly adapted to grazing, those farmere have been most successful who have adapted their operations mostly to that branch of agricul- ture. The annual Fair was held on the 25th and 26th of September, presenting a fine exhibition, and indicating the advancing prosperity of the county. Officers. — Thomas B. Campbell, President ; D. J. Matteson, Abijah Clark, Caleb O'Daughaday, Wm. Prendergast, 2d, J. S. Pat- terson, Henry Baker, W. W. Chandler, Timothy Judson, Elisha Nor- ton, Nathan Mixer, Vice-Presidents ; Wm. Riley, Secretary ; Samu- el A. Brown, Treasurer. CHEMUNG COUNTY. The Annual Meeting and Fair were held at Havana on the 2d and 3d of October. More than two hundred domestic animals were ex- hibited, and other departments of the Fair exceeded in interest and extent those at previous fairs. The annual address was given by A. J. Wynkoop. Premiums were given on Wheat, for 50^ bushels per acre ; corn, 116 bushels, 105 bushels, and 961 bushels per acre ; on Barley, 61 bushels per acre ; and on hay, 3 tons 1,750 lbs. per acre. Officers. — E. C. Frost, President ; Comfort Bennett, Gabriel Sawyer, Abel N. Sweet, Nathaniel Barnes, G. B. Dix, William Hoff- man, Peter McKey, Samuel Leverick, Henry Crandall, Vice-Presi- dents ; Levi J. Cooley, Corresponding Secretary ; William W. Wis- ner, Recording Secretary ; Wm. Maxwell, Treasurer. CLINTON COUNTY. The Fair was held at Plattsburgh, Sept. 27th, 1844. The Society have published a pamphlet of their proceedings, which evinces the prosperous condition of the Society, and contains many interesting and valuable reports, in the various departments of agriculture. Among other crops, of which distinct statements of the modes of culture are given, are. Corn, 92 bushels, ; 88 bushels, and 80 bush- els per acre ; and Potatoes, 496 and 300 bushels, respectively, per acre. The pamphlet also contains statements of experiments on the cultivation of fruit trees ; on Beets and Turneps ; on Rotation of Crops ; and on the manufacture of Butter and Cheese, with a descrip- tion of a new and improved churn ; all of which are given under their appropriated heads in this volume. Officers. — Edwin Benedict, Plattsburgh, President ; Augustus Ransom, Charles C. Knappen, Willetts Keese, Robert E. Keese, Vice- Presidents ; Jacob H. Holt, Corresponding Secretary ; George W, Palmer, Recording Secretary ; Moses K. Piatt, Treasurer. No. 85. J 397 COLUMBIA COUNTY. The Fourth Annual Fair, was, in many respects superior to any of its predecessors. The list of premiums has been reported, but not the officers of the Society. The annual address was delivered by Maj. Abraham Van Buren " and was received with universal approbation." CORTLAND COUNTY. The Annual Fair was held in Homer on the 2d and 3d of October. There was a spirited competition in nearly every department of the premium list. Number of cattle exhibited 100; sheep 75 to 100 ; Swine 50 to 60 ; and horses from 20 to 30. The annual address was given by Henry S. Randall, Esq. The aid from the State, and the consequent influence of the county society, has wrought a decided improvement in the agriculture of the county. Among the premi- ums awarded for field crops, were two for oats, one 83 bushels and the other 82 bushels per acre ; and an enormous crop of corn, 150 bushels to the acre, a full statement of the management being given under the appropriate head in this volume. Officers. — Jedediah Barber, President. The others not reported. DELAWARE COUNTY. The Fair was held at Delhi, October 16, 1844. Two hundred and ten dollars were paid in premiums. Improvement was visible in ev- ery department. The county being chiefly a grazing section, the exhi- bition of cattle, horses, sheep, and swine, was particularly interesting. The annual address was delivered by Dr. C. R. Fitch, President of the Society. The names of the other officers not reported. DUTCHESS COUNTY. The Fair was held at Washington Hollow on the 12th and 13th days of September. The show of domestic"animals exceeded that of any previous fair. More than one thousand dollars have been dis- tributed the last three years in premiums. The premium corn crops were 86 i and 85 1 bushels per acre ; oats, 57 bushels; ruta baga,393 bushels. A very valuable nd able address was given by Dr. J. P. Beek- man, chiefly on the importance of manures and their application, and on the cultivation of wheat, extracts from which will be found under their appropriate heads in this volume. Officers, — Stephen S. Thorn, President ; James F. Shief, Thomas Taber, Obadiah Titus, Vice-Presidents ; Htnry A. Mesier, Edgar Sleight, Recording Secretaries ; George Knetland, Corresponding Secretary ; George Wilkinson, Treasurer. 398 [Senate ERIE COUNTY. The Fourth Annual Fair was held at Buffalo, on the 25th and 26th of September. It was regarded as equal to any preceding. Among the premiums awarded by this society, were, for corn, 81 bushels per acre ; spring wheat, 36 bushels ; barley, 60 bushels ; and potatoes, 320 bushels per acre. Officers. — Henry B. Ransom, Clarence, President ; Abner Bryant, Augustus Raynor, Wm. Mills, Timothy S. Hopkins, Moses Case, Amos Chilcott, Henry Atwood, Alonzo Havens, Ezra Chaffer, Vice- Presidents ; Warren Bryant, Buffalo, Secretary j Robert McPherson, Treasurer. HERKIMER COUNTY. The report of the Annual Fair, held October 4, and containing only the names of the successful competitors for the premiums, speaks of the improvement upon the fair of last year. JEFFERSON COUNTY. This flourishing Society held its Annual Fair at Watertown, on October 1st and 2d. An interesting and able report was made by E. Kirby, Esq., chairman of the committee on farms, from which ex- tracts are made on Farm Management, and on the Wheat Crop, un- der the appropriate heads of this volume ; the annual address by Charles E. Clark, Esq. A proof of the prosperity of the Society is furnished by the fact, that $409 have been paid by members of the Society the past year, which, with $45 for the addmission of stran- gers into the show hall, and $183 from the State, amounts to $637. Officers. — Charles E, Clarke, President ; George White, Noah- diah Hubbard, P. S. Stewart, Titus Ives, Elisha Camp, Edward Whilford, Curtis Goulding, Azariah Doane, Levi Miller, Vice-Presi- dents ; Willard Ives, Corresponding Secretary ; Adriel Ely, Record- ing Secretary ; O. V. Brainard, Treasurer. LEWIS COUNTY. The Fair was held on the I3th of September, and much exceeded that of the previous year. Premiums were awarded on Spring Wheat, for 42 and 3Sh bushels per acre; Ruta Baga, 877 bushels; Corn, 114^ bushels ; Potatoes, 420 bushels ; and Barley, 57 bushels. For accounts of the culture of these respectively, see the respective heads on those articles in this volume. The annual address was made by M. M. Norton, Esq. Officers. — Ela Merriam, President; Homer Collins, Isaac W. Bostwick, Harrison Blodget, Oliver Hough, Horace Clapp, Lyman No. 85.] 399 R. Lyon, Merrit M. Norton, E. L. Sheldon, Nelson I. Beach, Peter Miller, Vice-Presidents ; Charles Dayan, Recording Secretary ; Chac. L. Martin, Corresponding Secretary ; Harvey Stevens, Treasurer ; Sanford Coe, Hiram Mills, Norman Gowdy, Seth Miller, Clarence Whittaker, Executive Committee. LIVINGSTON COUNTY. The Fourth Annual Fair took place on the 26th of September, 1844. The report gives a satisfactory account of the condition of the Society. Among the premiums, were two on Wheat, the best acre being 53§ bushels, and the best two acres, 84 J bushels. Officers. — W. W. Wadsworth, President ; Holloway Long, Thos. H. Newbould, Hector Hitchcock, Vice-Presidents; C. H. Bryan, Secretary -, Allen Ayrault, Treasurer. MADISON COUNTY. The Fair was held on the 1st and 2d of October, 1844. The re- port states that premiums were awarded for 66, 64, and 63 bushels of Barley per acre; 106 and 91 of Oats; 147, 110, and 93 of Corn ; 1,600 of Beets ; 43 of Winter Wheat ; and 48 and 47 of Spring Wheat ; but statements of the mode of culture are not given. Officers, — Seneca B. Burchard, President ; Horace Hawks, Will- iam Benton, William Ward, Vice-Presidents ; Thomas A, Clark, Corresponding Secretary ; Ledyard Lincklean, Recording Secretary ; Uriah Leeland, Treasurer. MONRO]^ COUNTY. The Society held its Fair on the 8th and 9th of October, 1844, which was attended with its usual interest. The proceedings, with the able address of Dr. D. Lee, of Buffalo, have been published in pamphlet form. Interesting extracts from this pamphlet will be found under the head of Farm Management, and the Culture of Wheat and of Corn, in this volume. Officers. — John H. Robinson, President ; Elisha Harmon, Caleb K. Hobbie, Frederick P. Root, Vice-Presidents ; Henry M. Ward, Recording Secretary ; Thomas H. Hyatt, Corresponding Secretary ; James P. Fogg, Treasurer. 400 [Senate MONTGOMERY COUNTY. The report from this county consists chiefly of a list of the suc- cessful competitors at the Annual Fair, held the 8th and 9th of Octo- ber, 1844. Officers, — George Geortner, President ; Josiah Nellis, Cornelius W. Phillips, Vice-Presidents ; John Frey, Secretary ; James Lansing, Jr., Treasurer. NIAGARA COUNTY. The Fourth Annual Fair was held at Lockport, on the 9th and 10th of October, 1844. A decided improvement on former years, in at- tendance and interest, was evident. Crops were produced in the county, as follows : Wheat, 58, 54, 50, and 38 bushels per acre ; Corn, 53, 51, and 48 bushels per half acre ; Oats, 101 and 90 ; and Barley, 52 bushels per acre. The annual address was delivered by G. W. Holley, Esq., of Niagara Falls. Officers. — James D. Shuler, Lockport, President ; Jonathan In- galls, John Gould, Vice-Presidents ; Sulivan Caverno, Lockport, Secretary ; Silas H. Marks, Treasurer. ONEIDA COUNTY. The Fair of the Society, held on the 15th and 16th of October, exceeded those of former years ; and the interest evinced, by attend- ance, was as great as at any previous period. The prosperous condi- tion of the Society is shown by the fact, that $400 have been paid to its treasury by members, which, with the State donation, amounts to $656. The premiums for crops were, on Winter Wheat, 38^ bushels, and 36^ bushels per acre ; on Spring Wheat, 39^ bushels, 37 bushels, and 81 bushels per acre; on Corn, 103 bushels, 98 bushels, and 88 bushels per acre ; Rye, 40 bushels, and 32 bushels ; Barley, 68 bush- els, and 59 bushels per acre ; Oats, 96, and 72 bushels ; Carrots, 1120 bushels ; Peas, 36 bushels ; White Beans, 37 bushels per acre ; and Potatoes, 192, and 126 bushels per half acre. The annual address was delivered by Benjamin P. Johnson, Esq., of Rome, President of the Society. An extract from the Farm Report, will be found under the head of Farm Management in this volume. Officers. — Benjamin P. Johnson, Rome, President; John Butter- field, Horatio W. Gary, Sylvester Curtis, Samuel H. Church, Lewis Benedict, Thomas Horton, Wm. Furguson, John J. Knox, Vice-Pre- sidents; E. Comstock, Rome, Corresponding Secretary ; L. T. Mar- shall, Vernon, Recording Secretary ; Wm. Bristol, Treasurer. No. 8o.J 401 ONONDAGA COUNTY. The report from this county consists only of a list of premiums awarded at the Fair held in Syracuse, on the 2d and 3rd of October, 1844. Officers, — Squire M. Brown, Elbridge, President ; George Ged- des, John F. Clark, Vice-Presidents ; Russell Hubbard, Syracuse, Recording Secretary ; James M. Ellis, Onondaga, Corresponding Secretary ; Thomas A. Smith, Treasurer. ONTARIO COUNTY. The show of last year was held at Canandaigua, and appears to have been creditable to the county. Officers. — John Greig, President ; Joseph Fellows, Joel S. Hart, Chester Loomis, Jonathan Buel, Hiram Pitts, Vice-Presidents ; Wm. W. Gorham, Recording Secretary ; Oliver Phelps, Corresponding Secretary ; Nicholas G. Cheesebro, Treasurer. ORANGE COUNTY. The report from] this county exhibits the increasing prosperity of the Society, the Fair exceeding any of its predecessors. The premi- ums awarded, were for 32 bushels and 31 bushels of wheat per acre ; 108 and 74 bushels of oats; and 115 and 106 bushels of corn. Be- tween four and five hundred dollars were paid out in premiums. The annual address was delivered by F. J. Betts, the President. Officers. — Frederick J. Betts, President ; Benjamin F. Dunning, Recording Secretary ; J. W. Gott, Corresponding Secretary ; Charles Downing, Treasurer. ORLEANS COUNTY. The annual Fair was held on the 16th of October, and $117 awarded in premiums. An interesting experiment on the culture of Beans is given under that head in this volume. Officers. — Archibald L. Daniels, President ; Benjamin L. Bessac, Corresponding Secretary. {Senate, No. 86J Aa 402 [Senate OSWEGO COUNTY. The Fair took place on the 25th and 26th of September. The annual address was delivered by Seth Severance, President of the Society. Extracts from the Report on Farms will be found under the head of Farm Management in this volume. Officers. — K. E. Sanford, Volney, President; John Becker, Pe- ter Chandler, Vice-Presidents ; B. E. Bowen, Corresponding Secre- tary; R. A. Still, Recording Secretary ; E. C. Mitchell, Treasurer ; Bradley Higgins, Seth Severance, John Tiffany, Executive Commit- tee. OTSEGO COUNTY. The fourth annual Fair was held at Cooperstown the 2d and 3d of October, in which the usual interest appears to have been manifested. Among the farm crops, were 93^ and 99| bushels of corn per acre ; spring wheat, 33 and 24 bushels ; barley, 40 bushels ; and potatoes, 290 bushels per acre. Officers.— Joseph Bennett, President; Olcott C. Chamberlain, Daniel (Gilchrist, Halsey Spencer, Vice-Presidents; Henry Phinney, Secretary ; Charles McLean, Treasurer. QUEENS COUNTY. The Fair was held at Jamaica, Oct. 10, 1844. The only report received is a list of the Premiums awarded at the time. RENSSELAER COUNTY. The annual Fair was held at Troy, October 2d and 3d, 1844. The mechanical and domestic departments and the exhibition of stock, were very interesting, but a deficiency of interest was manifested by most of the farmers of the county. The annual address was given by Hon. R. D. Davis of Dutchess county. Two successful experiments on butter making were reported and will be found in another place in this volume. The names of officers not reported. SARATOGA COUNTY. The annual exhibition was held at Ballston Spa, Oct. 1st and 2d, 1844. The annual address was delivered by Daniel Shepherd, Esq. Officers. — David Rogers, President ; Jesse H. Mead, R. R. Ken- nedy, Vice-Presidents ; Stephen Merchant, Corresponding Secretary ; John A. Corey, Recording Secretary ; Seth Whalen, Treasurer. No. 85.] 403 SCHOHARIE COUNTY. This Society was organized in 1841, and held its first annual Fair on the 15th and 16th days of October, 1844— $202. 50 were distributed in premiums. The annual address was delivered by Jedediah Miller, Esq. Officfks. — Jedediah Miller, President ; Daniel Larkin, Peter Hynds, George Goodyear, Hezekiah Manning, Charles Grovener, Collin Reed, Vice-Presidents; Ralph Brewster, Secretary ; William Mann, Treasurer. SENECA COUNTY. This society has published its "proceedings in pamphlet form, ex- hibiting its usual success and prosperity, and containing the annual address by John Delafield, Esq., an Essay on Manures by Samuel Williams of Waterloo, and the awards of premiums, and a brief sketch of the agriculture of the county. Extracts from the Essay on Ma- nures will be found under the head of Manures in this volume. Officers. — John Johnston, President; Joel W. Severns, R. P. Hunt, Clement C. Jones, H. T. E. Foster, H. Sutton, G. V. Sackett, Henry Ruder, Jason Smith, Israel Lish, Vice-Presidents ; Joel W. Bacon, Recording Secretary; John Delafield, Corresponding Secreta- ry ; John D. Coe, Treasurer. Extract from the report of John Delafield, Cor. Secretary of this Society, to the State Society : " The Corresponding Secretary opened a correspondence with in- telligent farmers of each town in the county, and collected a variety of facts useful and interesting, and it is believed if the same system could be methodically pursued, it would furnish to the State Society a mass of facts annually, from which important results might flow to every pains-taking farmer in this State. Amongst the facts thus ob- tained by our secretary for the past year, it may be stated, that the wheat crop of Seneca county is less abundant by nearly one-fourth, than in 1843 ; the crop was more or less injured by the fly, and it was observed that the early sown wheat was most subject to its ravages. The description of wheat cultivated in this county is for the most part the Hutchinson. The barley crop has proved to be good though small in quantity ; the farmers generally have omitted its cultivation ; the demand for barley during a short period this autumn, has render- ed barley a profitable crop. The oat crop is abundant and good in quality ; the black oat is ex- tensively sown, and preferred as the heaviest oat. Indian corn has never been as successfully cultivated in Seneca county, as along the valley of the Mohawk, the soil of this county being for the most part clay ; but an improved system of cultivation would doubtless give to the farmer more abundant returns than have yet been gathered. 404 [Senate Flax is extensively raised, producing a full rich seed, sought for with avidity by the proprietors of oil mills : the manufacture of Lin- seed oil has tended to check the production of linens, but the farmer derives a valuable article for feed, in the refuse of the mills, known as oil cake. The export of this article to England has tended to keep the price too high to admit of very general use. Hemp has not yet received any attention in this county, though many localities are admirably situated for its profitable culture. The grass crop has been most abundant. Clover and timothy are the grasses sown almost exclusively : clover is extensively sown as a manure crop, turning it under when in luxuriant flower. Large quan- tities of clover seed are also produced with advantage. Potatoes have suffered in many towns from a disease not under- stood : they have decayed in the ground in the months of August and September, and during a period of drouth. Many farmers thought it prudent to dig and house their potatoes in September, but in many instances the potatoes then dug, and fair to the eye, soon showed ev- idences of decay, and were totally lost. It is believed by many that we have too long and too often planted the same kind of root on the same soil. Be that as it may, we want knowledge on this important matter, which has lessened the crop of 1843 not less than ten millions of bushels, as appears by a report to Congress at its last session ; and this season we may well suppose the diminution to be from fifteen to twenty millions of bushels, a loss of edible products necessarily af- fecting the value of all others." TIOGA COUNTY. The annual Fair was held at Owego on the 7th and 8th of October, 1844, in which the usual interest was manifested. The address was given by H. S. Randall, Esq. The report on crops states that wheat has been produced at the rate of 48 bushels per acre, oats 101 bushels, and barley 40 bushels. Officers. — Charles F. Johnson, President ; Clark Hyatt, Wm. B. Bement, Vice-Presidents ; John Carmichael, Treasurer ; John J. Taylor, Corresponding Secretary ; L. H. Allen, Recording Secretary. TOMPKINS COUNTY. The Society held its Fair on the 4th and 5th of October, 1844. A decided improvement is spoken of in the agricultural condition of the county, as exhibited at the Fair. The address was delivered by Ebenezer Mack, Esq. Among other premiums on crops, one was awarded for 93 bushels of corn per acre ; two for wheat, 59 h and 57^ bushels per acre, the excellent culture given them described under the proper head in this volume ; and one on barley, 52 bushels per acre, Officers. — William Carman, Hector, President ;] Amos Lewis, 2d, Isaac L. Smith, Henry Brewer, J. J. Speed, Jr., E. L. B. Curtis, No. 86.J 405 Lorenzo Carter, John Bloom, John P, Andrews, Elias J. Ayres, Vice- Presidents ; Wm. L. Dewitt, Ithaca, Corresponding Secretary ; Sam- uel Crittenden, Jr., Recording Secretary ; N. T. Williams, Treasurer. ULSTER COUNTY. The Fair was held on the 11th of October ; $175 were paid in premiums. The report does not represent the Society as in a flour- ishing condition Louis D. Bevier, President ; other officers not reported. WASHINGTON COUNTY. The Fair was held on the 8th and 9th of October. $310 have been paid in premiums the past year. The entire receipts were $366. 50 — more than $100 greater than in any previous year. Among the pre- mium crops were — wheat, 28 and 26 bushels of winter wheat ; 40 J, 27^ and 263 bushels of spring wheat ; 83 i and 79| bushels of corn ; 79 bushels of oats ; 41 of barley, and 29 bushels of peas per acre. Officers. — John McDonald, Salem, President ; James Savage, L. B. Armstrong, Zachariah Sill, Ezra Smith, Vice-Presidents ; Or- ville Clark, Kingsbury, Corresponding Secretary ; Asa Fitch, Salem, Recording Secretary ; Henry Holmes, Treasurer. From the report of this Society, furnished by Asa Fitch, Jr., Re- cording Secretary, the following extracts are made, showing the mea- sures taken to raise funds for the Society : " Entitled to special notice, as forming an important part of our proceedings, and bidding fair to render our society a permanent insti- tution, is the system of financial measures adopted and carried into operation the past season. " The uncertainty with regard to what the amount of our funds would be, has annually been the most embarrassing obstacle which the managers of our Society have had to encounter in conducting its affairs. It is obvious that our premium list should be made out and published some months previous to the days of our Fairs ; and yet we have ever felt it to be most unsafe to issue this list, whilst we are in utter uncertainty with regard to what the amount of our funds will be, and when we know not that we shall receive a tithe of the amount which we are promising to pay. Heretofore we had depended en- tirely upon subscriptions to be annually renewed, and it has not been until the very day of our Fair that our list of members has been com- pleted— a large proportion of our resources having been in each year paid in upon that day. For the purpose of remedying this inconve- nience, the Society at one time resolved that no person should be per- mitted to compete for a premium whose name was not enrolled as a member six months previous to the day of the Fair. So very few 406 [Senate names, however, were received at the specified time, that we were compelled at once to recede from this regulation or abandon the hold- ing of a Fair in that year. Moreover, as the Society has no calls for disbursements until the premiums are awarded, it seems useless to endeavor to collect one or two hundred dollars to lay idle in our Trea- surer's hands during a period of several months. All that we desire is an assurance that this money will be forthcoming at the time when it is required for the payment of premiums. With the view, there- fore, of obviating the annoyances and risks incident to this subject, and giving a greater degree of permanency to the yearly income of the Society, a paper in the following words, was issued in July last to the committeemen in the several towns, with a request that it should be diligently circulated, and thereafter returned to our Trea- surer. " We whose names are subscribed, hereby enroll ourselves as " ■permanent members of the Washington County Agricultural Soci- " ety, and severally promise to pay to the Treasurer thereof, the sum " of one dollar, on or before the day of the Society's annual meeting "in each year, whilst the present organization of said Society con- " tinues, or until we individually give due notice to said Treasurer to ^' erase our names from this list." This measure has thus far been crowned with marked success. From the few papers already returned, it is evident that we can hereby easily secure the yearly payment of an amount at least equal to the State appropriation. An annual in- come is thus insured adequate to the efficient support of the Society. " Another measure which increases the amount of our resources at least a fourth beyond what they would otherwise be, is the following article of our Constitution : " The annual Fair shall be held in such " town as shall, on or before the second Tuesday in June in each year, " pay or secure to be paid to the Society the greatest amount of cash; " provided said Fair shall never be held two successive years in the " same town." This regulation was adopted upon the principle that it was but equitable that the keepers of public houses and other per- sons who derive a large pecuniary benefit from having a Fair held in their own village, should contribute liberally towards the getting up of such Fair. It should be noted farther, that in this county, the erection of pens, furnishing of rooms for the accommodation of the Society, &c., has uniformly been at the expense of the village in which the Fair is held, and independent of the contribution of the said vil- lage to the Society's treasury." Erratum. — In last year's Transactions, the report on farms, crops, &,c., page 608 to 611, belongs to some other, not to Washington county. WYOMING COUNTY. The report from this county furnishes evidence of the increasing prosperity of the Society. Dr. D. Lee, of Buffalo, gave the anniver- sary address. The present number of members is 249. Officers. — James C. Ferris, President ; J. W. Thayer, Sec'y. 407 YATES COUNTY. The annua] address before the Society was delivered by Richard H. Williams, Esq. The report of the proceedings has not been re- ceived. In addition to the above, it may be stated there are organized Ag- ricultural Societies in the counties of Broome, Greene, Genesee, Suf- folk and Wayne, in each of which Fairs were held in 1844. Socie- ties have also been organized in the counties of Albany, Kings and Steuben. From none of these counties have any reports been re- ceceived. NEW.YORK STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. TREASURER'S REPORT. Thomas Hillhouse, Jreasurer^ in account with the JVew-York State Agricultural Society. Receipts — 1844. Dividend on stock, $105 .00 John Greig's subscription, 50 . 00 Receipts from members and at Fair, 3 ,723 . 80 George Vail's subscription, 25 . 00 J. Donaldson's subscription, 12 .00 Dividend on stock, 105 . 00 J. P. Beekman's subscription, 50.00 J. McD. Mclntyre's subscription, 20 . 00 J. Rathbone's subscription, 25 .00 State of New- York, 700.00 W. H. Sev\rard's subscription, 50 . 00 14,865.00 Mohawk bonds at cost, 3,090.00 $7,955.80 Expenditures — 1844. Premiums. J. J. Thomas, Essays, $40.00 B. Bradley, Barley, 10.00 U. Beach, Spring Wheat, 15.00 M. Adams, Peas, 5 .00 G. Geddes, Barley, 5 .00 T. D. Burrall, Plow, 12.00 N. S. Wright, 1st premium Wintet Wheat, 15 . 00 W. Wright, 2d premium Winter Wheat, 10 .00 G. R. Smith, Field Peas, 10.00 H. S. Randall, Ruta Baga, 8 .00 W. Risley, Carrots, 10.00 T. Weddle, Heifer, 10.00 S. McLean, Subsoil Plow, 8.00 No. 85. J 409 W. Gaylord, Essay on Insects, $50 . 00 G. McGeock, Rye, 10.00 H. S. Randall, Sheep, 25.00 R. Harmon, Essay, 20.00 W. A. S. North, Swine, 10 . 00 I. B. Comstock, Apples 3 . 00 B. Langdon, Cultivator Plow, 5 . 00 W. Deiancey, Smut Machine, 5 .00 R. H. Hall, Stump Machine, 5 . 00 Mrs. Russell, Linen, 14 .00 C. M. Pelton, Carpets and Rugs, 17 . 00 M. Kane, Vegetables, 2 . 00 D. B. Fuller, Working Cattle, 30 . 00 I. Townsend, Vegetables, 1 . 00 M. Calkins, Fat Heifer, 15 . 00 E. B. Smith, plowing, ., 6.00 D. B. Haight, Horse, 10 . 00 J. Hutchinson, Silk, 5 . 00 Ira Hubbard, Silk and Cocoons, 15.00 J. Martin, Butter, 15 .00 Mrs. C. Rider, Rag Carpet, 2 .00 J. Van Kleeck, Fat Cattle, 15 .00 W. U. Chase, Plow, etc 28.00 P. Crispell, Linen 4 . 00 do Tow cloth 1.00 do Linen diaper 3 .00 do Thread 2.00 do Stockings 1 . 00 S. Carey, Reeled Silk 10.00 W. Horrocks, Table Potatoes 3 . 00 W. Free, Tobacco 2 . 00 D. Long, Groom, 5 . 00 F. Arnold, Stockings 1 .00 P. F. Procius, Plowing, 10 . 00 W. Rose, Splitting Machine 6 . 00 D. Flanders, Grain Cradles 3 . 00 J. Taplin, Threshing Machine 15 . 00 J. Gart, Best Plowman 3 . 00 J. Lumsden, Durham Bull 10 . 00 S. Currie, Potatoes 1.00 do Cauliflowers 2 . 00 W. Wakeman, Saxon Ewes 10.00 E. Townley, Bee Hives 5.00 J. Dunham, Horse 10 00 J. G. Parker, Bull Calf '.. 3^00 D. B. Lent, Cow and Pigs 20 . 00 P. F. Knapp, Coverlid 4.00 F. Wiard, Gang Plow 15.00 N. Hull, Hearth Rug 4.00 W. F. Averell, Plowing 15 . 00 J. Wilkinson, Stockings 3 .00 410 [Senate A. Brown, Saxon Buck $5.00 D. B. Haight, Lambs 5 . 00 I. Foster, Sheep 10 . 00 L. D. Clift, Buck 10.00 D. Hasbroock, Single Horse 10 . 00 J. Archibald, Ayrshire Bull 15 . 00 S. & J. Wait, Ewes 10.00 A. B. Stockholm, Matched Horses 10 . 00 S. C. Roe, Breeding Mare 10.00 J. Sisson, Horse 6.00 C. Canfield, Horse 15.00 A. J. Skidmore, Horse 4 . 00 J. Greenfield, Horse ' 10.00 W. Salisbury, Horse 20.00 J. Doty, Working Cattle 10.00 S. Belding, Horse 6.00 W. Wakeman, Fat Heifer 10.00 D. Robinson, Fat Ox 10.00 D. D. Campbell, Fat Ox 15 .00 Geo. Mills, Fat Oxen 20.00 C. Westcott, Three Year Old Steers 15 .00 S. Comstock, Working Oxen 15 .00 J. T. Adriance, Vegetables 2.00 W. E.White, Maple Sugar 10,00 D. D. Campbell, JDurham Heifer 5 . 00 D. Robinson, Yearling Heifer 10 .00 D. D. Campbell, Durham Bull 10.00 E. Long, Horse 6 .00 W. Washburn, Stockings 1 . 00 H. & J . Carpenter, Buck 5 . 00 P. B. Powers, Rag Carpet 3.00 Scofield & Co., Woolen Cloth 5 .00 C. W. Hull, Saxon Buck 10.00 Mrs. Henry, Flannel 5 .00 L.D. Clift, Sheep 10.00 Comstock & Co., Garden Tools 3.00 B. H. Hart, Boar 10.00 J. Wilkinson, Maple Sugar 2.00 A. F. Underbill, Fat Cattle 10.00 J. Woodworth, Maple Sugar 15 .00 J. Wilkinson, Horse Cart 5 . 00 S. Barret, Stockings 2 . 00 L. F. Allen, Cow andBull Calf 15 .00 Geo. Gents, Silk 15 .00 J. Palmer, Rag Carpet 1 . 00 J. W. Wheeler, Three Year Old Steers 10 . 00 S. H. Church, Sheep, 5 .00 S. Mitchell, Floral Ornaments, , 1.00 Dedrick & Co., Fire Escape, 3.00 J. Day, Plowing • 3.00 N0.85.J 411 Smith, Lockwood & Co., Stoves, $5.00 D. W. Elting, Linen, 3.00 Norman Culver, Thread, 1 . 00 M. A. Verplanck, Flowers, 3.00 N. Culver, Blankets, 5 .00 H. P. & G. Allen, Cheese, 15 .00 Geo. Dakin, Heifer, 10.00 D. W. Elting, Fat Sheep, 5 . 00 S. Peck, Hearth Rug, 3.00 D. Robinson, Grade Heifer, 5 . 00 do. Dynamometer, 7 . 00 B. Hallock, Plowing,. . ; 4 .50 do. Cocoons, 5.00 J. M. Sherwood, back Premiums, 70 . 00 M. Adams, Exp. Corn-stalk Sugar, 100.00 W. G. Borland, Smut Machine, 3 .00 H. Delano, Plow, ' 15 .00 B. F. Smith, Subsoil Plow, 12.00 H. Travis, Butter, 5 .00 Geo. Vail, Durham Cattle, 55 .00 T. Ellison, Cow, 15 .00 J. B. Horn, for Pupils of Institution of Blind, 6.00 R. L. Pell, Fruit, Vegetables, etc., 21.00 J. Williams, Mare and Colt, 20.00 A. Bailey, Three year old Colt, 6.00 J. Donaldson, Cow, 12 . 00 C. Avery, Two lbs. Silk, 10.00 W. Horrocks, Flowers, 3 . 00 C. F. Crosby, Bull, 25.00 T. Dunn, Buck, 5.00 C. N. Bement, Bull Calf, etc., 15.00 J. R. Rathbun, Ayrshires, 25 .00 J. M'D. Mclntyre, Sheep, 20.00 R. Harmon, Lambs, 5.00 E. P. Prentice, Cow and Heifers, 30.00 Incidental Expenses. Balance due E. P. Prentice, former Treasurer, 114.23 H. O'Reilly, Postage and Wood, 12.75 M. Jordan, Furniture, 50.00 H. O'Reilly, Wood, Freight, etc., 14 .02 do. Wood and Labor, 5 . 00 do. Secretary, 100.00 do. do 100.00 do. Postage, etc., 20 . 00 do. Secretary, 50 . 00 W. Skinner, Board, 22.75 T. L. Davis, Expenses at Fair, 300.00 H. O'Reilly, Cash paid for Labor, 10.00 People's Line, Freight, 6 . 00 412 [Senate H. O'Reilly, Secretary, $100 .00 R. Harmon, Expenses at Plowing, 5 .00 B. P. Johnson, Board Bill, 21.00 Rutzer's Bill for Board, &c., 26 .00 B. P. Johnson, Postage, etc., 35 .00 do. Incidentals, 28.00 H. O'Reilly, Secretary, 50.00 B. Curtins, Cartage, etc , 14 . 96 W. & E. Mcintosh, Lamps, 13 .50 B. Fono-e, Work at Hall, 13.19 H. O'Reilly, Bills paid, 18.00 do. Secretary, 50 . 00 A. Walsh, Ribbon, etc., 32.93 Subscription to Colman's Tour, 100 . 00 J. J. Thomas, Design for Diploma, 50 . 00 C. Van Benthuysen & Co., Binding, 328.00 do. do. Paper, etc., 8.46 J. Gladding, Painting, etc., , 28 .88 E. H. Pease, Stationary, 72 . 16 H. O'Reilly, Secretary, 100.00 B. P. Johnson, Postage, 24.04 / Printing. White & Ten Eyck, « 2.63 Albany Argus, 8 . 00 Printing Notices, 1 . 00 Piatt & Schram, 25 .50 do 2.50 A. Walsh, to pay advertising Bills, 25 . 89 Albany Argus, 31 .21 Evening Journal, 34 . 33 Daily Advertiser, 13 . 82 C. Van Benthuysen & Co., 72.52 do. do 4.18 do. do 138.45 Albany Atlas, 39.25 Evening Journal, 9 . 84 $3,933.71 Balance in hands of Treasurer, including bonds, 4,022.09 $7,955.80 AMERICAN INSTITUTE. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF THE CITY OF NEW-YORK— 1844. By an amendment of the law of this State " to promote agricul- ture," which amendment was passed May 7th, J 844, the annual re- ports of this Institute, which have heretofore been submitted to the Legislature, are now required to be made to the New- York State -Agricultural Society. In compliance with this requirement, the trustees, on behalf of the Institute, respectfully submit the follwing remarks, with documents and papers annexed. The charter of this Institute was granted in 1829. Repeated attempts had been made, before that time, to establish an agricultural society in the city and county of New-York, and a temporary zeal had occa- sionally been created in its favor ; but uniformly after a short time it had subsided. That continuation of attention and effort necessary to sustain such an institution in a flourishing condition, could not be kept up. In the charter of the American Institute, designed to en- courage agriculture and the arts, not only in this State, but over the whole Union, with a permanent location, the friends of agriculture dis- covered the means of perpetuity and prosperity. In and about the city they at once rallied around this institution, particularly those who had been the most actively engaged in the societies that had been at- tempted to be established previous to that time. The connection of agriculture and the arts, as united in this institution, were found mu- tually auxiliary in promoting both. The farmer and gardener realiz- ed an interest and a popularity in their occupations never before ex- hibited ; and when the New-York State Agricultural Society was pro- posed, the farmers and gardeners of this and the adjoining counties, and even States, united, with unparalleled unanimity, in petitions that the American Institute should represent that interest for the city and county of New- York. The plan was approved by the wisdom of the Legislature. Under efficient boards of agriculture, with the aid of committees for different objects, assisted by the managers of the Fair, and the agents and clerks of the association, the institution has pro- gressed in prosperity, and an increasing zeal has been promoted in favor of agriculture and horticulture, far beyond any former example in this section of the country. At a single semi-monthly Farmers' Club there have appeared one hundred attendants. Some from our most western and northern counties, others from remote, as well as neighboring States ; every one attentive listeners, and alive to the ob- jects of the meeting. 414 [Senate The trustees will not attempt even a reference to all the records of doings, and the papers that have come under their consideration with- in the last year. Those appended will afford some partial idea of their objects and merits. Consultation meetings, composed of some of the principal officers and members of the Institute, are held daily at the Repository, to overlook the correspondence, direct the distribution of seeds, &c., ex- amine models, machines and proposed improvements, and answer in- quiries constantly making by strangers and citizens, connected with their occupations. The inquiries are almost incessant through the day for articles shown at the Repository or at the Fairs — a record of which has been kept as a directory for the accommodation of pur- chasers, &c. The Conversation Meetings have been held spring, winter and au- tumn, one evening every week. Reports of the proceedings of se- veral of these meetings are among the appended papers. The Con- versation Meetings are invaluable schools for manufacturers and me- chanics, who by their means, can in a few hours possess themselves of information, whi*^h has cost others years to acquire. Great num- bers attend, listen and learn, who never could have been persuaded to read, and would have forever remained deficient in knowledge of the highest importance in their occupations. Meetings of the Board of Agriculture and New-York Farmers' Club have been held monthly, the first and third Tuesday. The first for the transaction of the business of the Institute, appertaining to agriculture. The Club, consisting of farmers, gardeners, and friends of agriculture, have met for free conversation on the subject of their occupations. All strangers in the city have, through the public pa- pers, been invited to attend these meetings. A subject is named and published before the meeting, and a portion of the time of the meet- ing devoted to the discussion of the subject so named. All the at- tendants are invited to participate in the conversations. The trustees believe this the best mode ever devised for diffusing useful agricultu- ral knowledge, and they respectfully recommend to the State Society, that efforts be made to establish them in all suitable localities in the State. The Institute will cheerfully render their hearty co-operation in such efforts. Extracts from the proceedings of the Club are among the annexed papers. The stated meetings of the members of the Institute have been held monthly, in conformity to the charter, when members have been admitted, correspondence read, and reports of standing and special committees discussed and passed upon. All moneys re- ceived by the Institution are deposited with the treasurer, and cannot be withdrawn, except under an appropriation at one of these meetings. Each item is read, showing what the money is wanted for, before the appropriation can be made. All the books and accounts are open to every member, and all the vouchers accessible. This has prevented any defalcation in the funds of the Institute, and is not only a security against the misappli- cation of funds, but secures the confidence of the members in the No. 85.J ' 415 management of the finances, at the same time that it enables every member, from his own knowledge, to put down any out-door misrepresentation that mischief may invent and circulate. This is the more desirable, as mischief often gathers malignity, in pro- portion to the increasing usefulness and popularity of the objects of its dislike. Lectures and addresses have also frequently been delivered at the Repository, through the year, on subjects connected with the purposes of the Institute. The great room is lighted, warmed, and thrown open to the public, free of expense, to enable those whose means are limited, to obtain knowledge that shall cost them nothing. Specimens are appended. Within the last year, great additions have been made to the Libra- ry of the American Institute, and particularly of standard works on agriculture, and all its divers branches of employment ; and among these will be found the most approved periodicals of England, Scot- land, and France, which are regularly received, and on our tables generally within twenty or thirty days from the time they are pub- lished in Europe. The number of volumes of books now equal about six thousand, and a day rarely passes without some addition. The bulk of the books are of a highly useful character, selected for practical purposes with great care, and, by competent judges, be- lieved to be the most valuable in the city. This library, with the reading room, is open to the public every day, and is the continual resort of literary and scientific gentlemen, authors, compilers, &c., as well as practical farmers, manufacturers and mechanics, from all parts of the country. The Seventeenth Annual Fair of the American Institute has also been held within the past year. Taken as a whole, this exhibition very considerably exceeded either of the sixteen that had preceded. For eighteen days, Niblo's Garden, situated on Broadway, in the midst of our densest population, was the grand centre of attraction in this great city, and of vast numbers from other and distant sections of the country ; among them men occupying the highest stations, and of the most commanding talent. More than twenty thousand choice specimens from the departments of American agriculture and arts were arranged for their observation and inspection. Contributions for the 17th Fair were from about two-thirds of the States of the Union, selected from farms, orchards, vineyards and gardens, in the highest condition of cultivation j grains and roots, and delicious fruits, and flowers of more tints, variant and multiplied, than ever before met the eyes of the visiters. These were placed in the long promenade. Some of the richest contributions of fruit were from Boston and its vicinity , which are described in the horticultural reports. In the great saloon was a vast mass of fabrics, that had received their last finish of genius and skill from the hands of thou- sands of manufacturers and artisans, all stimulated by the hopes of the prize. A powerful steam engine was placed at the extreme of the first floor of the north wing of the saloon, which gave motion to a long range of labor-saving machines, agricultural and others, many 416 [Senate of which at that time received their first motion by steam, and exem- plified to the public the first effectual test of their perfection. In the room directly above, were arranged the fabrics of wool, cotton, silk, &c. The great staples of clothing, woolen fabrics in particular, evinced a progress of the highest importance, and unlooked-for excel- lence. The improvements were, by the best judges, pronounced full fifteen per cent above those of any former fair ; fabrics that would not suffer by a comparison with the best qualities from England, which had, centuries before we were a nation, put in requisition the best skill of Europe, and had protected and fostered them, regardless of expenditure, by all the means which that powerful nation could render available. On the outer side of the main building, covering was fitted up for placing the very extensive display of farming, horticultural, mechani- cal and other machines, implements, tools, &c., calculated to econo- mize labor ; some entirely new, others improved, and nearly all bear- ing the impress of increasing skill in their finish. The following extracts from some of the reports of the judges upon important articles exhibited, serve to indicate the progress and present condition of several branches of American industry, and leads to the conclusion, that with proper encouragement to those now engaged in, or who may hereafter engage in the production of the articles referred to, we shall not only have our whole supply produced at home, but have the quality equal, if not superior,, to what we should receive if supplied from abroad. The judges upon cotton goods remarked, respecting a lot of prints, '' we consider these prints to illustrate better the near approach our manufactures have made to the French^ than any in the exhibition. The committee take the liberty of calling the attention of the mana- gers of the Institute to the unexampled improvement made by our manufacturers of prints during the past year. The samples in the ex- hibition room, in the view of the committee, are quite equal, in all essentials, to those of foreign manufacture. Mouse de Laines and Balzarines are new articles of American manufacture, and too much praise cannot be awarded to those who manufactured the specimens exhibited. These articles are consumed to a large extent in this country, and the manufacturers are entitled to great commendation for their near approach, in every particular, to the imported article." The judges upon leather say, " we are not in possession of any statistical information of the quantity or amount of goods annually manufactured, but that there is a progressive improvement in the style, and reduction in the cost of manufacturing this article, we be- lieve to be apparent." The remarks of the judges upon straw and Leghorn goods, derive interest from the fact, that the Neapolitan hats, of which they speak, are an American invention. They say, " the Neapolitan hats exhi- bited, have been worn a season, and redressed. They have the ap- pearance of new goods, and prove that in point of durability they are superior to any other bonnet. The specimens of Florence braid No. 85.] 417 bonnets exhibited, show great improvements in making and finishing this description of goods." The judges on church bells say of those exhibited, " in fact, as to quality, power, brilliancy of tone, and continuous vibrations, we do not remember to have heard or seen bells of American manufacture equal to them. We doubt whether better specimens can be found in any country." The judges on fur and silk hats say, " they cannot but rejoice at the growing improvement of this important branch of American manufactures. The number of specimens exhibited was much larger than usual, and most of them do the manufacturers much credit." The judges on book -binding say of some blank-books exhibited, " they are, decidedly, the best and most beautiful specimens of Rus- sia blank-book binding. The ruling is without exception the most unique and beautiful we ever saw." The judges on hardware and cutlery say of some wood screws exhi- bited, " they are equal, if not superior, to any screws made in England," and of some bow-saws, " very superior, which John Bull cannot beat." The judges on gold and steel pens say of one parcel exhibited, " they are equal to any steel pens in the market," and of the gold pens, that " they are of very superior make and finish." At the last Fair were presented, for the first time, some specimens of smiths' anvils, which were examined by the judges on machinery, &c., who reported, that "these specimens will compare with any anvils made in any country, as it regards form and temper, and are creditable to the maker." The judges on dentistry reported, that " having examined the im- proved new style of mineral teeth, manufactured by Jas. Alcock, of New-York, feel satisfied they merit much for their utility, beauty of color and finish, and approach nearer to the natural teeth than any ever before exhibited, or offered to the profession." At the same time that all the avenues and openings in and about the buildings were crowded with visitors, a National Convention of Farmers and Gardeners, Plowing and Spading Matches, and Cattle Show, were moving on, under the guidance of the Institute, in other places, and formed other centres which collected multitudes. On four different days, during the first week of the Fair, a Silk Convention, and a National Convention of Farmers and Gardeners, met at the Repository of the Institute, near the City-Hall. Reports of both of these conventions are appended. The Silk Report is re- plete with practical facts and experiments, given in the language of the principal culturists in our country ; and if consulted by our young undertakers, will be found an invaluable guide, and prevent many discouraging sacrifices. The Farmers' and Gardeners' Convention was deeply impressed with the influence of foreign legislation on American industry in all the occupations, and especially in agriculture. Much of the report is devoted to illustrate the ingenuity employed, and its success in de- pressing the value of our surplus products, and in retarding the deve- lopments of our resources, and arresting our otherwise rapid progress [Senate, No. 85.J Bb 418 [Senate in improvements and national prosperity, and also in suggesting^ such measures as would countervail the future blighting influences of such legislation. It is hoped the reasoning, facts, and statistics presented, will be read and seriously considered ; and if our agriculturists con- cur in the conclusions which seem to have so powerfully impressed those who composed the Convention, that they then will cordially unite in such discreet means as will ensure reciprocity in our exchan- ges, trade, and intercourse with foreign countries. Both conventions adjourned, to meet again during the eighteenth annual Fair, on the call of the Institute. The ninth Plowing Match and the first Spading Match were going on, the second week, atFordham, Westchester county, which did not at all impede the harmony of the great central simultaneous move- ments at Niblo's. Both gave entire satisfaction, particularly the plowing, which, in the very high approbation universally expressed, was an exception to all that had gone before it. The spading was novel, and exhibiting muscular strength and skill in this useful exer- cise, on well selected ground, was highly applauded. The Cattle Show, held at Vauxhall Garden, a short walk from Niblo's, instead of lessening, added to the numbers, and increased the interest of the latter place. Farmers from all the surrounding coun- try took this opportunity to visit the Fair, as well as the place of the Cattle Show, which was crowded with these lords of the soil, whO' were continually engaged in the examination of the farming machines and implements, until the Fair ended. The show of cattle, as had been anticipated, was somewhat diminished by the State exhibition which had gone off before at Poughkeepsie. The exhibitors there had hardly rested from their fatigues, and many were unwilling to. incur the trouble and expense of a second exhibition. In full view of these effects, the Institute was among the first to petition for that location for the State show, deeming it due to the county of Dutch- ess, and other counties adjoining, that every accommodation and en- couragement should be extended to so respectable a portion of the farmers residing in those counties. The class of men who favored the location were so respectable, zealous and powerful, that it was then the opinion'of the Institute it would result, as it did, in a grand display, and produce a decided influence in favor of the cause of agri- culture generally. Notwithstanding, in respect to the quality of the high blood cattle, though not numerous, the number and superiority of the horses and working teams, and other animals at Vauxhall, ren- dered*"the show highly honorable to the exhibitors and the Institute. The fine teams, with vehicles attached, loaded with the rich produce of the field and the garden, that marched through the city, accompanied by a band of music, drew forth the most enthusiastic applause from the citizens wherever they appeared. Although the variety of the objects of taste, beauty and novelty^ presented to the eye were almost countless, they were not the only sources of gratification ; the Addresses delivered in the great saloon were directed most effectually to the understanding. Some of them have been printed and are appended. They will be found replete with well selected thoughts on subjects of vast moment, expressed in No. 85.J 419 the happiest manner language will permit. The Anniversary Address of Mr. Stuart, at the Tabernacle, may be pointed to, as a proud model for American orators and statesmen. Compared with the doings of former years, the last year evidences a regularly increasing and progressive prosperity. In fact, the his- tory of this Institution will show, that from a small beginning, it has grown every year in public favor, up to this time. The vast num- bers congregated during its annual Fairs greatly exceed those of any other institution in our country. Starting in the outset without funds, it was compelled to adopt the most rigid economy. The whole sala- ries paid for officers conducting it, for seventeen years, will not ave- rage one-third the sum now allowed to a single officer of some of our literary institutions, calculated for the same number of years. Still, in liberality, its course is without example. The privileges of the reading-room and library, the Farmers' Club and Conversations, the examination of machines and models on daily exhibition, are free. So, with the lectures and addresses. Room is provided by the Insti- tute, at a great annual expense, for every thing exhibited, either by the farmer, manufacturer or mechanic; whether entered for compe- tition for premium or not, they come and go without cost. Arrange- ments are even made that the farmer shall not be imposed upon by others in the price of the provender his cattle may need. Contracts are procured from respectable dealers, to supply those who come to the show, at the lowest rates, all the varieties of cattle food ; and where they can be bought has been posted up in conspicuous places at all the late shows of the Institute. Measures of this character, we respectfully recojnmend, should be universally adopted. A small expense incurred, adverse to the economical habits of the farmer, may prevent him from participating in meetings and public shows for the future, which may prevent the acquisition of that knowledge which might open his eyes to the value of knowledge generally of the high- est importance, and cause him to be a zealous seeker after it, and also afford a shining example for others. We have thus hinted at some of the doings of this Institute within the last year. That they have been approved, is evinced by the con- tinual visitations, and full attendance of members at all the meetings at the Repository, by the entries of visiters at the Annual Fairs, which, on the best calculations, vary but little from 250,000, and, above all, the almost universal approbation of the public expressed in all quarters, not only orally, but in letters and printed papers, ema- nating from sources entitled to the highest consideration. Under cir- cumstances so auspicious, the conductors of the Institute will perse- vere, most cordially co-operating with the State Agricultural Society, in the common objects committed to the charge of the two institutions. JAMES TALLMADGE, ADONIRAM CHANDLER, WILLIAM INGLIS, SHEPHERD KNAPP, EDWARD T. BACKHOUSE, T. B. WAKEMAN, March 1, 1845. GURDON J. LEEDS. 420 ISenatil THE RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES Of the American Institute of the City of JTew-Yorkyfrom March 31 ^ 1844, to Feb. 1, 1845. RECEIPTS, To Cash received from sales of tickets at the 17th An- nual Fair 1844, at Niblo's Garden, $9 , 678 35 *' received at the Cattle Show at Vauxhall Gar- den, 167 00 " lumber sold at the close of the Fair, ....... 105 00 " rents of Confectionary and Perfumery stands, &c., 299 36 Contributed by members, 1 , 625 45 Amount on hand at the date of last report, April4,1844, 1,343 01 $13,218 17 " Amount from Comptroller of State (not yet received,) say 950 00 $14,168 17 EXPENDITURES On Account of 11th Annual Fair of the American Institute^ Oct, 1844. By Printing and Publication Committee. Printing Circulars, Catalogue of Cattle, Invitation Tickets, Blanks, Handbills, Badges, $331 40 Printing Addresses, 164 79 " Horticultural Report, 71 60 " List of Premiums, 51 00 " Proceedings of Agricultural Con- vention, 86 54 Newspaper Advertisements, •. . 218 11 Preparing Silk Report, 25 00 Contingent Expenses, , . 141 28 : ,089 12 By Committee of Arrangements. Lumber and Ironmongery, $367 12 Carpenters' work, 193 88 Clerks, 96 00 Door keepers. Assistants, & Night watch, 475 00 Laborers, 1 12 50 Steam Power, including Repairs of Boiler and shafting, 35 1 76 5 Rent of Boiler House, 15 00 Gas, Oil and Candles and Lighting, ..... 398 60 3^0. 85.] 421 Horticultural Room expenses, $238 47 Muslin for tables and flags, 62 25 Cartages, 24 68 Glazinw Show Cases, 68 44 Petty Expenses, 64 81 $2,468 51 By Finance Committee, Ticket sellers and receivers, 147 00 By Committee on Room and Music for Anniversary Address. Rent of Tabernacle, $75 00 Use of Platform, 7 50 Leader of New- York Sacred Music Society and Musicians, 40 00 112 50 By Committee on Refreshments. Dinners and Teas for Managers and Guests, $261 50 Refreshments for Bands from Navy Yard and Governor's Island, 72 96 Balance on Dinner — Farmer's Jubilee,, . . 86 43 420 89 Miscellaneous Bills^ Rent of Garden and Premises — Niblo's,. $1,292 25 " Vauxhall Garden, and erecting sheds, 181 96 Expenses of Orator, 96 49 Music in Saloon, 45 00 Fire Works, 70 16 Expenses, &c. (Walker's, Boston,) 43 00 1,728 86 ^y Premium Committee. Premiums estimated at $1,360, of which has been paid $1,269.44, viz : Gold and silver for Medals, and striking, . $573 44 Silver Cups, , 283 00 Cash Premiums, 100 00 Engraving, 97 25 Diplomas — printing and filling up, ...... 117 20 Cases for Medals, 27 00 , 71 55 1,269 44 Total Expenditures* of the Seventeenth Fair, $7,246 92 *In the foregoing sum of $7,246.92, are included the items of ex- penditure for the department of Agriculture, which have been extracted and sent to the Comptroller, as follows : 422 [Senate Rent of Niblo's Garden and Premises, 1 1,292. 25 — one third, '. $430 75 Rent of Vauxhall Garden and erecting sheds, ...*...... 181 96 Lumber, and carpenter's work for the Horticultural Room, 82 25 Gas Light, $309 . 15— one-third, 106 38 Printing Circulars, Blanks, Tickets, Reports and Addres- ses, 337 10 Night-watch for Horticultural Room, 17 00 Steam power for putting in operation agricultural machi- nery, , 171 88 Advertising, 27 75 Expenses in Horticultural Room, 312 07 Clerk, door-keeper and laborers at Cattle Show, 36 00 Mounting agricultural show-bills, , . . . . 5 75 Silver Cups, .,.,..... ,....,.., 276 00 Gold and silver for Medals, and striking, : 118 63 Engraving, ^ 58 25 Medal Cases, 5 25 Diplomas, and filling up, 13 50 Cash Premiums, . . . , 70 00 Books for Premiums, , 121 15 ^2,371 67 Expenditures of the Repository of the American Institute from March 31, 1844, to February, 1, 1845, Salary of Superintending Agent, $1,250 00 " «' Clerks, 800 00 " " Recording Secretary, , .... 300 00 Services Secretary of Farmers' Club, preparing Re- ports, &c., , ...... 87 00 Collector, ,.., , 16 10 Messenger, ., o 6 00 Rent of premises 187 Broadway, . . , 50 00 Insurance on Library, 15 00 Painting book cases, tables, &c., , 38 00 Plastering, 13 50 Advertising, 31 43 Newspaper Subscriptions, , 42 07 Books for Library, 196 61 Binding books, 4 20 " Transactions of the American Institute, 85 00 Printing circulars, blanks^ «S:c., , 33 25 Stationery, .22 37 Fuel, 40 25 Lighting — camphine and candles, 28 30 Repairs of stoves, 28 40 Expenses of Agent to Albany, , . , , 26 31 No. 85.] 423 Expenses of Plow to Royal Agricultural Society, of England, $2 00 " and books, to London, 29 50 Engraving wood cuts, 5 00 Silver cup, and engraving, 8 00 Settlement of old claims : George Nowlan, expenses of Plowing Match at Harlem, in 1839, $25 00 Coleman and Stetson, being balance of sup- per during the 16th Fair,. 1843, 43 00 68 00 Petty cash book expenses, — postages, cleaning, repairs, &c., P. C. B., page 161 to 194, 148 04 Total expenses of Repository, $3 , 175 33 Recapitulation. Receipts. To cash received from Jan. 20, 1844, to Jan. 20, 1845, including balance on hand at the date of last Re- port, April 4, 1844, $13,218 17 be received from Comptroller, 950 00 $14,168 17 Expenditures. By disbursements : Balance of claims 16th Fair, 1843, $94 44 > disbursements 17th Annual Fair, 1844, 7,246 92 disbursements Repository and Library, 3 , 175 33 10,516 69 Balance on hand, $3,65148 Repository American Institute, JVew-York, February 1, 1845. By order, JAMES TALLMADGE, Pres'L GuRDON I. Leeds, Rec. Sec^y. T, B. Wakeman, Cor. Sec'y. 424 [Senate STATEMENT Of the Receipts and Expenditures of the Jimerican Institute of the City of JSTew-York, from 1839 to 1844, for Agriculture^ Com- merccy Manufactures, and the Arts : ^ RECEIPTS. EXPENDITURES. Repository Year ending April. State of N. Y. Act May 1st, 1844. Annual Fairs. Total. Reposito- ry year ending April. Annual Fairs. Total. 1840, $1,692 82 1841, 1,993 86 1842, 1,622 50 1843, 1,339 64 1844, 1,259 00 Feb. 1845, 1,625 45 12th. 1839, $8,831 41 13th. 1840, 6,581 25 14th. 1841, 7,050 00 15th. 1842, 6,741 75 16th. 1843, 8,808 80 17th. 1844, 10,249 71 $10,524 23 8,575 11 9,622 50 9,031 39 11,017 80 12,825 16 $3,472 91 3,426 25 4,239 00 2,889 83 4,011 32 3,154 73 $7,631 41 5,128 30 5,571 31 5,825 75 6,247 52 7,246 92 $11,104 32 8,554 55 9,810 31 8,715 58 10,258 84 10,401 65 $950 00 950 00 950 00 950 00 $9,533 27 $3,800 00 $48,262 92 $61,596 19 $21,194 04 $37,651 21 $58,845 25 The documents accompanying the foregoing Report were very vo- luminous— consisting of, I. Opening Address of the 17th Annual Fair, by the Hon, Luther Bradish. II. Anniversary Oration, by the Hon. A. H. H. Stuart, of Vir- ginia. III. Report of the Board of Managers of the 17th Annual Fair, IV. Reports of Committees on awarding Premiums. V. List of Premiums awarded at the 17th Annual Fair, VI. Communications from contributors. Vn. Proceedings of the Farmers' Club. VIII. Proceedings of the National Convention of Farmers, Gar- deners, and Friends of Agriculture, held at the Repository of the American Institute, on the 11th and 12th October, 1844. IX. Proceedings of the National Convention of Silk Culturists and Manufacturers, held at the same place on the 9th and 10th October, 1844. X. Conversation Meetings of the American Institute. XL List of Animals, fee, exhibited at the 17th Annual Fair. From these documents, the following selections have been made, by the advice, and with the concurrence of a committee appointed for that purpose by the American Institute, No. 85.] 425 Extracts from the Report of the Managers of the \lth Annual Fair of the American Institute, 1844. The Premium Committee have received eighty-eight written reports from the Judges in the various departments of Agriculture, Manufac- tures, and the Arts. The whole number of competitors were 1,953; of these, 717 have been entitled to the following awards, viz : — 20 Gold Medals. 29 Silver Cups. 104 Silver Medals. 444 Diplomas. $150 in cash, special awards. 36 Copies Transactions of American Institute. 6 " Colman's European Agriculture and Rural Economy. 7 " American Agriculturist. 8 " New-York Farmer and Mechanic. 5 " Transactions State Agricultural Society. 8 " Cultivator. 11 " Bridgeman's Gardeners' Assistant 2 " " Fruit Cultivators' Manual. 2 " " Florists' Guide. 2 " Farmers' Mine, 5 " Farmers' Instructor. 3 " Handbook of Plants. 2 " Productive Farming. 1 " Farmers' Manual, 4 " Brown's Trees of America. 3 " Prince's Treatise on Fruit. 1 " Prince's Treatise on the Vine. 2 " Downing's Cottage Architecture, 1 " " Landscape Gardening, 4 " Kenrick's American Orchardist. 1 " Lindley's Theory of Horticulture. 1 " Hovey's Magazine. 2 " Loudon's Ladies' Flower Garden. 1 " American Flower Garden Directory. 2 " Buist's Rose Manual. 120 volumes. The amount actually received at the door of Niblo's Garden, was $9,678, which would pay for the entrance of 38,712 persons. To this number must be added, those who either of right or by courtesy were admitted free — to wit : the members of the Institute and their families, — the contributors, who were provided also with some addi- tional tickets, — United States, State, and Corporation Officers, — the Judges, and Delegates from other Institutions, and distinguished men from all parts of the Union — Charitable Schools, &c. And to these 426 [Senate must likewise be added, the very large number who gain admittance by the transfer or loan of tickets, and other deceptive modes, which from the peculiar arrangement of the premises it was impossible to guard against. A comparison was made on several days, between the estimated number of persons who passed into the garden, and the re- ceipts at the door on the same days. It was found that not more than one out of five paid for admission, which accorded with the opinion previously expressed by the door-keepers. This conclusion is reached upon the best authority of which the case admits, and would prove that 154,848 persons had visited or at- tended the Fair. An allowance must be made for the frequent en- trance of contributors, managers, and other attendants. These facts will sufficiently explain, why so many persons should have entered the garden^ and the receipts be so small. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES. Report on the Plowing and Spading Matches ^ October, 1844. '"' These interesting scenes took place at Fordham, in Westchester county, N. Y. — access to the field was by the Harlem railroad. The president of the company furnished tickets free of charge to all the officers, agents, and committees of the Institute. The Rev. Mr. Powell volunteered his beautiful field. The plow- ing was deemed to be of a very high style of excellence, — the ground was surveyed, and marked off in lots of one-eighth of an acre each, and the order in which they were drawn by the competitors was as follows : No. 1 2 3 4 6 6 7 8 9 10 11 Name. Matthew Rae,. John Savage, . . John Rae,. . . ., John Brewster, Lewis G. Morris,. . . Oliver Cromwell, .. (Withdrawn.) Henry Mooers, C. Bathgate, jr., . . . Jeremiah Tiers, . . . . Cornelius Bergen,.. Residence. Team. West Farms, N, Y., , U U CI il Morrisania, English neighborhood, N. J., Fordham, N. Y u u Ithaca, N. ¥., . , Morrisania, do.,, Yonkers, do.,. Brooklyn, do.,. pair horses. " oxen. U (C U IC U ii U li " horses. a a '' oxen. " horses. "The competitors started off in gay style, and accomplished their work in a less time than was expected, and in an admirable manner. No. 85. J 427 The teams dropped out in the following order: No. 4, first ; No. 9, second j No. 11, third; No. 6, fourth ; Nos. 2, 3, and 10, (nearly to- gether,) fiflh ; No. 8, sixth ; No. 1, seventh ; No. 5, last. No. 8, was a side hill plow; No. 9, Mr. Burrall's wheel Plow; No. 1], Mr. Bergen's own Plow. No. 4, did the work in 19 minutes ; No. 9 in nineteen minutes 5 sec- onds ; and the longest time was 30 minutes. The Judges awarded the Premiums as follows : 1st Premium, Silver cup, to John Rae. 2nd do. Silver Medal, John Brewster. 3rd do. Diploma, Oliver Cromwell. Good Plowing, Diplomas to Charles Bathgate, Jr., and Henry Mooers. There were some animated speeches made on the ground, by citi- zens of our State, and by a distinguished Farmer from Virginia, Mr. Harnsburger, and by Mr, Ellsworth, of Connecticut. The Spading Match, being the first ever held in this country, attract- ed unequaled attention. It was difllicult to clear the ground for the ac- tive and practical gardeners, who were in sharp action for the prizes. It had never fallen to our lot to see such a skillful and rapid turning up of the turf by that instrument. The following persons entered : Matthew Roche, Westchester, Westchester co., N. Y, John Brewster, English Neighborhood, N. J. John Lodge, Morrisania, Westchester co., N. Y. James Angus, West Farms, " " Thomas Elmer, West Farms, " " Wm. P. Lodge, Hunt's Point, " " The excitement could not last long, for the gardeners turned off their lots of 200 feet square, each in the following order. 1st, Matthew Roche, in 23 minutes. Silver Cup. 2nd, Wm. P. Lodge, in 30 " Silver Medal. 3rd, Joseph Lodge, in 34 " Diploma. After finishing this interesting contest of Plow against Plow, and Spade against Spade, those citizens who belonged to the city, were conveyed home in the Harlem Railroad in one hour. (Signed,) JAMES BATHGATE, Westchester co., JV. Y. SAMUEL HARNSBURGER, Virginia. L. G. MORRIS, Westchester, JV. F. E. S. SHONNARD, Yonkers, JV, F. H. MEIGS, JYew-York, Committee. TESTING OF PLOWS. The committee to whom was referred the testing of the traction of the plows entered for competition at the 17th Annual Fair of the American Institute, report that there were a large number of plows 428 [Senate entered, but they were withdrawn, except numbers 1, 2, 3, 6, 7 and 85 which were tested in a wet and rather tough green sward soil with Chase's Dynamometer. No. 1 2 3 6 7 8 Name of Plow. Bergen Plow, a Myers' u a u a u CI eazy's " By whom entered. C, Bergen, W. Bigelow, A. Hawley, C. Bergen, C. Bathgate, jr.,. . Jon. Eastman, . . . . Avrg. width and depth of furrow. 12 by 6 12 " 6 12 " 12 " 12 " 12 " 6 6 6 6 Average draft or traction. 310 260 310 400 350 500 If the ground had been in good condition, the plows could have been operated with a less power. Your committee award the first premium. Silver Cup, to William Bigelow, for the best plow. Second premium, Silver Medal to Corn's. Bergen, second best plow. EDWARD CLARK, Chairman. REPORT ON THE FARM OF GEN. JEREMIAH JOHNSON. To the American Institute : Your Committee lately visited the farm of Gen. Jeremiah Johnsonj which is situated in the 7th ward of the city of Brooklyn. The farm contains one hundred and forty-five acres, of which about sixty- six are under cultivation. This is the only farm on Long Island re- maining in original hands, and has been cultivated by its present owner sixty years. He has long since given up the cultivation of ordinary field crops, finding it more profitable, from its proximity to a ready market, to raise garden vegetables ; and as there is more land than he wishes to manage himself, he rents twenty-six acres, in vari- ous lots, to gardeners. He has fourteen tenant houses, w^hich are small, neat dwellings, mostly occupied by those who hire garden spots from him. His dwelling is an old fashioned double house, one and a half stories high, with two wings, and is eligibly situated, having an extensive view of the East River, and parts of the cities of New-York and Brooklyn. The gardens, as they should be called, rather than the farm, are under the superintendence of Mr. Barney Johnson. He employs about twelve hands in the summer, and three in the winter. His stock consists of six cows, six horses, — which are kept in the best order, — and a suflScient number of hogs for fami- ly use. His land is kept in the highest possible state of cultivation. He informed me that they had not used less than one thousand loads of manure this year. On his premises are cow stables, which he rents to milkmen. He has the liquid manure from those stables, in No. 68.J 429 which are kept, on an average, two hundred cows. This manure runs through open drains to an artificial basin, in the centre of which is placed a pump, high enough for a wagon to pass under. This wagon is furnished with a tight box, in which the liquid is pumped. It is then drawn on the land ; by raising a fixture it can be discharg- ed, and as it runs over a board about a foot wide, placed there for the purpose, it is evenly spread. He never puts this on his growing crops ; great care seems to be necessary in the use of this, as well as other manures ; and there are many examples to be seen on this place, of the evil effects of an excessive use of manure. We were pleased to see this, for here were no kinds of manure employed, except what are of acknowledged benefit. Many of those manures which have been recently recommended, have been used elsewhere, with the most discouraging and ruinous consequences, when the quantity was exces- sive, while small quantities were followed by the most flattering re- sults. Any particular manure, then, should be properly employed, before it is condemned. This liquid, which we were speaking of, is sometimes left to remain until its watery particles evaporate, and then it assumes a consistence which enables them to remove it to another basin, and it is there mixed with weeds and other rubbish from the farm, and also with manure purchased from the city ; but very lit- tle stable manure is purchased. He prefers the street manure from New- York, and estimates it according to the part of the city from whence it is brought. General Johnson prefers the street manure, be- cause it is more suitable to his soil, — not on account of its containing less foul seeds. He thinks that the seeds which manure contains are destroyed by the heating and rotting of the manure, and attributes the abundance of weeds in cultivated lands, to the seeds which exist in the land, — believing that they may remain there in a latent state more than twenty years. To destroy the first growth of weeds, so injurious to such tender plants as carrots, onions, &c., he considers it a good plan to prepare the ground for sowing the seeds, then to cover it with a good coating of rubbish, which should be burned, then the seeds of the weeds, and also furnishes a good top dressing of manure for the young plants. He cultivates most of the vegetables sold in the markets ; but his principal crops are rhubarb, cabbages and beets. He has four acres of rhubarb, and prefers the common to any of the improved sort ; at least, they appear to do best on his land. He manures his ground well ; in the spring plows between the rows, and when fit pulls off the stems for market. He pursues this plan until currants and goose- berries are fit for market, and then lets the plants grow undisturbed. The great crop of leaves, some of which are eighteen inches broad, are suffered to fall on the ground, which they do after the first severe frost. He has about six acres of cabbages, and calculates each acre will produce five thousand heads. He plants them three feet one way and two the other, to allow cultivation, which is done with the plow and hoe. His beets are very fine. He calls them the long red French beets. We saw some pulled which measured two feet long, 430 [Senate and three or four inches in diameter j they are a fine tender table beet. He has only one acre in orchard at present. He had ten acres of the choicest grafted fruit, but nothing short of shooting would prevent his fruit from being stolen, both from the trees and after it was picked; consequently the trees were cut down and burned. He has some fine plums ; the trees are very healthy and bearing abundantly. The only care they get is such, as is necessary to k-eep a neat and clean door- yard, in which they stand, in order. He destroys the canker worm with a swab dipped in tar, with which he rubs off as much of the nests, while the worms are in them, as possible. His fences are in the best order. They are, where most exposed, tight board fences, about five feet high. The gates are furnished with a hook, and also with a chain and padlock, and are always kept locked^ when they are not drawing in or out, which saves all anxiety about their being left open Gcd(ien^a% for the admission ofpigs and cattle. His barn has been built fifiy years ; it is covered at its sides and roof with cedar shingles, which were covered with a coating of hot tar. The roof, although it has been on fifty years, appears now like a new covering. Here can be seen thorough tilling of the soil, and what land can be made to produce, and also how much better it is not to undertake to cultivate more than can be well attended to. Although Gen. Johnson rents out part of his farm, he literally cultivates all the rest. I saw the third crop growing this season upon a border, under a fence, which on most places goes to waste. All his head lands, and the grounds along his fences, have some kind of crops growing on them. His maxim is to cultivate his crops at a proper season, keep them well tilled, free from weeds, and use pleniy of manure. He considers this the most economical kind of farming and gardening. All of which is respectfully submitted. HENRY A, FIELD, Chairman of Cpmmittee. J^ew-Yorkj Oct. 25th, 1844. REPORT ON THOMAS BELL'S FARM. The Committee on Farms beg leave to report that they have visited the farm of Thomas Bell, situated on Rand ell's Island. It consists of one hundred and seventy-five acres — forty of which is salt meadow, and the remainder improved land and cultivated in general field crops. Mr. Bell rents this land from the corJ)oration of this city, and as he holds his lease only from year to year, he is deterred from extending his operations and improvements according to his superior judgment. He cultivates 'his farm for profit, and your committee were pleased with the minute calculations he makes upon every thing which relates to his productions, and with the business-like manner that all his ope- rations are conducted. Meadows, — He has ridged his land v^jhere it was wet and cold, and in this manner very much increased his crop of excellent grass, No. 85.] 431 and exterminated many weeds which before were a great annoyance to him. He cuts his hay and pastures his meadows in the fall. His fall grass is of great use to him for his milch cows, and as a compen- sation for the loss he sustains by fall pasturage, he gives his meadows a top dressing of manure every spring; in tliis way he generally gets an average crop of two tons of hay of the best quality to ihe acre. He has cut this year eighty-five tons of first quality hay, besides con- siderable of salt hay and sedge grass, which answers a good purpose for bedding for his cattle, &c. Grain Crops. — Mr. Bell raises wheat, rye and oats ; sows the two first after potatoes ; sows the grain in the fall, and seeds down in the spring ; would however sow his timothy seed in the fall, but his occu- pation of the land is so uncertain that he pursues this plan. His plan is to plow twice, sow his seed — using two bushels to the acre — and then harrowing slightly, leaving the ground as rough as possible. He thinks that the earth, by the action of the frost, crumbles down, and covers the exposed roots and feeble plants in the winter and spring, very much to their advantage. Fruit. — His orchards yield a handsome income. He has sold this year $250 worth of cherries ; last year $400 worth of first quality apples ; $150 of second quality of apples ; $200 of early apples. . Stock. — He has some full blooded Durham cows, and young stock. Mr. Bell took several premiums for his animals at this Fair, and there- fore it is unnecessary to give a description of them. He has some fine half bloods from Mr. Emmet's Durham bull, and his choicest milking cows. Dairy. — He keeps forty cows, which average eight quarts of milk daily the year round. His cows are pastured six months, and tied in their stalls only to be milked, and are fed six months on half a bushel of cut hay, four quarts meal, and four quarts ship stuff, twice daily. His hay is cut by Green's Straw Cutter ; one man can feed this ma- chine, and cut a bushel easily in a minute, and can cut enough for forty cows in about fifteen minutes. He feeds his cows in tubs, and when a cow leaves her feed it is immediately taken from her ; in this way nothing is lost. They are secured by means of a light chain hooked over their necks ; at the other extremity is a ring, which is secured to a round standard, and so arranged that it can move up and down with ease at the cow's pleasure. The stables were kept very neat and clean. The cows are curried regularly daily, and turned out ; after which the stables are always swept clean, and the manure removed to the compost heap. His cows are always selected for their quality, without regard to price, and he adopts the plan of fatting those that are not extraordinary milkers, and purchasing fresh cows \o supply their place. His Durham cow " Shakeress " is an extraor- dinary milker ; she took the first premium at the late Show ; she milks thirty-three quarts daily, after calving, for two months, and ave- rages fifteen quarts daily for the year. He has a building near his pump 10 + 15, and fifteen deep ; in one part is a well eighteen inches deep ; this is supplied with water from the pump ; all the waste wa- ter during the day passes in this well, and when it arisesto the height 432 [Senate of eighteen inches it passes off by a waste pipe. With a tackle and a pair of hooks his cans are lowered in this well, and are cooled. It takes only fifteen minutes to cool a can. By this excellent plan, he is able to milk his cows in the evening, to let them and his men have their natural rest, and send fresh cool milk to the market in the mor- ning. Swine. — Cross of the Berkshire and unknown breeds. They are a splendid lot of pigs, showing the value of a good breed from the fact that they have kept fat upon the run of the farm, without any extra care, or feed. Sheep. — He has only five ; they are the Leicester breed, and took the first premium at the late Show. Their fleeces averaged nine lbs. each first clip. Poultry. — Mrs. Bell has been very successful in raising poultry. Beside common barn-yard fowls, she has a fine flock of geese, and also seventy-five turkeys, which she raised from three hens. She feeds the young turkeys on milk curd and Indian meal. Potatoes. — His principal crop for profit is potatoes ; he manures his ground with sixty cart loads of manure to the acre, spreads his manure broadcast, plows his ground, and plants in hills. Seven acres yielded fifteen hundred and thirty-two bushels, this year, of early po- tatoes. He thinks he can obtain more merchantable potatoes from hills, but a greater quantity from drills. All which is respectfully submitted. MARTIN ELLSWORTH, CWn. Mew- York, October 2M, ISU. REPORT ON S. B. TOWNSEND'S FIELD OF WHEAT. The committee on field crops report that they visited, at the request of S. B. Townsend, Esq., of Newtown, L. I., in June last, a field of wheat containing two acres. The soil is of a mellow, sandy loam, and had, previously to being sown, been plowed and harrowed in the usual manner, and manured with sixty bushels of poudrette to the acre. The field had been very uniformly sown and cross sown with white flint wheat, at the rate of two bushels to the acre, which cost, at the time of sowing, twenty shillings per bushel. The yield was thirty- five bushels of wheat of sixty pounds, or twenty-one hundred pounds to the acre, and was very liberally disposed of by Mr. Townsend to his neighbors, at the rate of ten shillings per bushel. The kernel had been slightly attacked by a small fly, at the time your committee visited the field ; but the grain had advanced so far that it appeared to suffer little or no injury j they therefore recom- mend early sowing — say as early as the 10th of September. This field of wheat was remarkably clear from weeds, and from its No. 85.J 433 high state and careful cultivation, merits the premium of the Ameri can Institute. All which is respectfully submitted. JEREMIAH JOHNSON, ^ EDWARD CLARK, \ Committee. D. JAY BROWNE. J JYew-York, Oct. 20th, 1844. REPORT ON PETER HULST'S FIELD OF CABBAGE. The committee on field crops report : That on invitation they visited a farm in the town of Williamsburgh, L. I., cultivated by Mr. Peter Hulst. The soil is of a sandy loam, with oyster shells in a partial state of decomposition, thickly intermixed. There were twenty-five acres of this farm covered with cabbages in the proportion of 5,000 to the acre : but the field particularly examined, contained about five acres, and twenty-five thousand cabbages of a most extraor- dinary size. Twelve were selected, which weighed as follows : 34 lbs. 34, 4*2, 36, 36, 34, 34, 44, 35, 34, 39, 34—436 lbs. 36i lbs. average weight of each. There were many others in the field, and also in an adjoining one, which were planted at a later period, but which ap- peared to your committee as large as the above average. They there- fore recommend the premium of the American Institute to be awarded to Mr. Hulst. All which is respectfully submitted. JAMES TALLMADGE, EDWARD CLARK, T. B. WAKEMAN, Committee. Mew- York, October 2lst, 1844. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON INDIA RUBBER GOODS. Since the report of last year there have been many improvements. 'In the last report the estimated capital then employed was $120,000. We now give the names, location, number of operatives, and capital employed, as near as can be ascertained at this time. [Senate, No. 85. J Co 434 [Senate Name. Naugatuck India Rubber Co., . . Leveret Candee's Factory, Hotchkiss & Merriam, Lewis & Co., D. Pritchard & Co.;, Russell Manufacturing Co., . . . . J. F. Tomlinson, Litchfield Manufacturing Co., D. L. Suydam, City India Rubber Company, .. Hartshorne Company, Horace H. Day, Onderdonk, John Thornley, Hutchinson & Renyon, Bishop & Co., Smith & Son, Location. Naugatuck, Conn. New-Haven, " ii Naugatuck, New-Haven, Middletown, " Newtown, " . . . . Litchfield, " . . . . New -York city, Providence, R. I., " " . . . . New Brunswick, N. J. Philadelphia, Pa New Brunswick, N. J. New -York city, Operatives Capital 60 40 50 35 20 70 15 10 200 30 50 50 5 10 20 25 15 705 $150,000 30,000 30,000 25,0C0 15,000 100,000 15,000 10,000 100,000 40,000 25,000 10,000 3,000 5,000 10,000 10,000 20,000 S598,00O Shoes. Suspenders. Shoes. Suspenders. Clothing. Mittens. Suspenders. Shoes. General. Shoes. Variety. There are also a number of small establishments about the country employing from two to five hands each. This estimate shows an increase of capital employed since the last report of over $400,000, but it must not be understood that this is the actual increase since that time, as in fact there were some of the above mentioned establishments in operation at the date of the last report. It is certain that this branch of trade is rapidly increasing, and that most of the goods that have been produced by these manufactories during the past season, have found a ready sale, and at fair living prices. We do not think it proper to state here the profits arising from this branch of manufacture; but it is enough to say that they are second to none other in the United States. We would also observe that public attention has been much directed toward this branch of domestic manufacture during the past year. We would invite your attention particularly to the newly invent- ed article of Shirred Goods. This article is said to have originated with Charles Goodyear, Esq., and by him patented in the United States and all of Europe. Mr. G. has spent a number of years of incessant toil to bring this article to perfection ; he has accomplished it, and is entitled to the thanks of a discerning public, and the high- est premium that can be awarded by the American Institute. It is an invention of vast importance to the country, and there is no doubt that w^hen the w^ants of our own country are supplied with this arti- cle, a vast quantity will be exported annually, for it is an article that is brought into daily use among all classes of society. The next article worthy of particular attention, is the specimen of Floor Cloth. This article will ultimately take the place of Painted Floor Cloth, and we hope and trust that within the next twelve months, the foreign painted Floor Cloth cannot be imported against this domestic and far superior article ; it can be afforded much cheap- er than the common painted cloth, and offers to every housekeeper a good, serviceable American article. This is also an invention of Charles Goodyear, and has cost him much time and money to per- fect. No. 85. j 435 The next article worthy of attention, is the fabric for Maps and Charts. This only wants to be seen to be appreciated, for it will be of vast importance to our army and navy, public offices, postoffice department, schools, &c. &c. The Shoes manufactured under the Goodyear patents, are decided- ly the best and most beautiful article ever manufactured in this coun- try. We would here observe that it has been impossible for the man- ufacturers of Sheet India Rubber Shoes to supply the demand this present season, although the prices have advanced about 10 per cent. This demand is not owing to any short supply of the imported Para Shoe, but arises from the preference given to the manufactured shoe ; thus showing that this branch of the business is in a healthy and prosperous condition. The manufactured Sheet Rubber Shoe, has been in all our American markets for some five years, therefore the public have had sufficient time to decide upon the merits of this article. To prove that the public generally give the manufactured Sheet Rubber Shoe the preference, is to say that the manufacturers are and have been unable to supply the demand; and it is not only the American public that appreciate this domestic article, but thou- sands of them might be found packed snugly in the baggage trunks of Englishmen and Frenchmen to be taken home by them, as a beau- tiful specimen of American manufacture. This trade is rapidly on the increase. Lewis & Co., of Naugatuck, intend turning out from their establishment this season, not less than five hundred pairs daily. We were told by the agents of this manu- factory, that they had received orders from two houses in a neighbor- ing city, for twenty-five thousand pairs to be shipped by the first of January next. The average market price of these shoes, is one dol- lar and five cents to the trade. We mention this as only one instance. Other manufacturers have their orders for the article faster than they can supply them. We would also call your attention to the manufacture of the article of Suspenders, under the Goodyear patent, by our much esteemed and worthy citizen, D. L, Suydam. This gentleman has stepped forward and purchased the right to manufacture this article, for which we un- derstand he pays some $30,000, and from which he will without doubt reap a rich harvest. Mr. Suydam has now in his employ about 200 females in his establishment, thus giving to many worthy persons the means of gaining a living for themselves and others dependent upon them for support. We consider the manufacture of these sus- penders entitled to your highest consideration, for the workmanship is fully equal to any French manufacture. There are others that manufacture this style of goods in this city on a limited scale, and of a very beautiful style. So far as this branch of trade is concerned, we can only say, the supply has not equalled the demand. The Russell Manufacturing Company atMiddletown, Conn., manu- facture suspenders of India rubber, but not under the Goodyear pa- tent— they make them after the French and English styles, and fur. 436 [Senate nish a very superior article. The machinery used by this company is said to be of American invention and make. There are others that manufacture what is called English and French elastic webbing, but all on a limited scale. This branch of the manufacture is in a very prosperous condition. The article of imitation patent leather, made under the Goodyear patent of gum elastic, bids fair to become a very important branch of this manufacture, and is worthy of your particu- lar attention. It is an article that is brought into daily use in almost all branches of trade, and is likely to supersede the patent leather in this country. There are also the gun covers, cartridge cylinders, sword belts and mail bags. It is only necessary for us to say, that the general govern- ment after testing these articles, have given large orders to the Nau- gatuck Company, (the only manufacturers of the above,) for the dif- ferent articles for the use of our army and navy. These are also ma- nufactured under the Goodyear patent, as are also a number of other useful articles which we do not at this time particularize, but which are worthy of attention, such as duck for sails, riggings, roof cover- ings, &c. &c. To show the importance of what are termed the Goodyear inven- tions and patents, some enterprising merchants of high standing in this city, have offered Mr. Goodyear $100,000 for one-half of the right of his patents for gum elastic composition, not before however examining minutely into every branch of the business. Their saga- city shows them that this is yet to be an important business, and those best acquamted with it foresee that almost every article manufactured under these patents will soon be in demand for exportation to almost every country. We should not be surprised thai if in the course of three years the thousands of capital now employed in this manufac- ture, should swell to millions of dollars. Neither have we any doubt but that we have some one in our own land who will produce caout- chouc, equal if not superior, to that imported from South America and the Indies. The climate of some portions of Florida as well as the soil, is similar to that of South America, where the caoutchouc tree is raised; and if not found to exisi here at the present time, there can be no doubt but what it could be easily cultivated in the marshy grounds of our southern States. It was shown by the report last season, that about 250 persons were employed in the different India rubber establishments in the United States. We now show that there is not less than 700, mak- ing an increase of 450 in one year. The precise number of opera- tives we have not been able to ascertain, as many of the manufacto- ries refuse to give the required information — but it is hoped another season every manufacturer will send to the American Institute a state- ment of the number of hands employed, amount of capital, products, &c., as it can do them no harm, and is of much importance to those interested in the progress of American manufactures. We think enough has been shown to satisfy the American public, that the manufacture of India rubber goods is rapidly on the increase; No. 85.] 437 and another important feature of this business is, that it gives em- ployment to females mostly, and is a dry, light, and pleasant labor. All of which is respectfully submitted. HENRY L. NORRIS, ? ^ ... S. T. ARMSTRONG, ^ committee. JVew-York, Ociober 20th, 1844. REPORT ON COLT'S CARTRIDGE. The undersigned having been appointed by the American Institute a committee for the purpose of testing and reporting their opinions in relation to the invention and the practical use of Mr. Samuel Colt's vvrater-proof cartridge, submit the following report : That for the purpose of fully testing the cartridge, they met, on the 16th inst., on Governor's Island. The gun selected was a brass six pounder, — the inventor of the cartridge loading the piece. The gun was fired forty-five times with the ordinary percussion lock and wafer, — a priming wire, or pricker, not having been used during the firing. Fifteen rounds were fired in four and a half minutes, with- out sponging the gun or serving the vent. The gun was then exam- ined and sponged, and was found to be in a fit situation to proceed with the experiments. Ten rounds were again fired in two and a half minutes, — when, for the purpose of testing whether any deposit had been left in the gun which would ignite a cartridge, one was driven home, and allowed to remain one minute and a half, — when the experiments were resumed, and eighteen rounds fired in five minutes. The forty-fifth cartridge was then driven home, and allow- ed to remain five minutes, for the purpose of testing if the heat of the gun was sufficient to melt the foil, or cause a discharge. We however became well satisfied that any number of cartridges might have been fired with similar results. Several musket cartridges, which had been under water for three weeks, were examined by us, and the powder found to be fit for immediate use. A musket cartridge was covered with dry powder — and the powder burnt without injury to the former. The result of the experiments have fully satisfied us, that not only great economy of labor and time is saved, by the use of Colt's cartridge, but the danger to those in charge of the gun greatly di- minished. We believe also, that it can be packed with greater ad- vantage and with more safety, than any others we have seen. The cartridge can be introduced with great advantage for musketry, and the heavy cartridge-box be dispensed with., Armies, too, after ford- ing streams, will find their ammunition ready for immediate use. One advantage the cartridge possesses, is that, in the use of them, the time of sponging the gun, picking and tending vent, is gained, — and at least one-third more discharges from the battery can be made, than 338 [Senate by the present mode. We cannot say how these cartridges will bear transportation in the ammunition carts, or cassoons, as no experiment has been made. They are proof against damage from water. Several of the six pound cartridges have been kept in water for three days, and are as explosive as they could otherwise have been. After mature consideration of all their advantages, we recommend with confidence the invention ; and we predict the time is not dis- tant, when Colt's water-proof cartridges must be brought into gene- ral use. JAMES BANKHEAD, Col. 2nd Regt. U. S. Artilleryj JAMES M. M'INTOSH, U. S. Navy, ABRAHAM GODWIN, J. E. UNDERHILL, Committee. COMMUNICATIONS FROM CONTRIBUTORS. STATEMENT FROM R. L. PELL. Pelham Farm, Dec. 1st, 1844. In compliance with the request of the board of agriculture, I here- with send a description of my mode of cultivating cereal grains, for which premiums have been awarded me. In the year 1842, on the first of September, I prepared a lot of land containing twenty acres, for wheat, soaked my seed, which was the white flint, weighing sixty pounds to the bushel, in strong brine for four hours — it was then drained through a sieve, and spread thin upon the barn floor, when a dry composition was sifted on it, and was sown at the rate of three bushels to the acre. Three hundred bushels of oyster shell lime were distributed over the field per acre, and the whole harrowed in together — two men followed the harrow, one sowing at the rate of a bushel of clover seed, and the other half a bushel of timothy seed, to the acre, after which the ground was twice harrowed, and rolled. The wheat grew luxuriantly during the season, and presented throughout a perfectly healthy green appear- ance. Adjoining I sov/ed a field containing ten acres, with the same kind of wheatj in a dry state, but did not lime the land ; it grew well until it blossomed, after which it appeared sickly. When the grain was formed, insects attacked it, and the crop was totally destroyed. The straw was covered with rust, and unfit for any purpose except manure. I cut the wheat on the twenty acre lot in the milk, com- mencing on Monday morning — on Saturday it was ground into flour — the grain weighed 64 i lbs. to the bushel, and was awarded the premium of the American Institute as the best of forty-three parcels exhibited. It was supposed by many farmers that so large a quantity of lime, No. So. I 439 as 300 bushels to the acre, would have injured the land — it being a sandy loam ; the grass seed grew finely, and has yielded since, three tons of hay per acre. In 1843,1 sowed thirty acres with prepared wheat, and top dressed it with charcoal dust. It grew rapidly, and was not attacked by rust, mildew, or blight, when fields near it were almost destroyed — a small portion of the lot which had received by accident a large sup- ply of charcoal dust, produced at the rate of seventy eight and three- quarter bushels to the acre. I cut it when the straw presented a yel- lowish appearance, four inches above the ground. At that stage of its growth, a milky substance could be expressed readily from the kernels, by gentle pressure of the forefinger and thumb. It was al- lowed to remain three days on the field, when it was carried to the barn, and threshed out immediately. It weighed sixty-four pounds to the bushel, and sold for twelve and a half cents above the maiket price by weight. A few acres were left standing, and cut three weeks after, when the farmers in the neighborhood harvested their wheat. The grain was small, shrivelled, and weighed fifty-six pounds per bushel. The straw had lost its nutritious substances, was much light- er than that cut earlier, and consequently less valuable. 1 believe after the stem turns yellow near the ground, there being no connec- tion between the root and tassel, the kernel wastes daily. By early cut- ting you preserve to the straw nearly ail its saccharine matter, and thus render it almost as valuable for fodder as hay. If the straw could be re- turned immediately to the field, and plowed under, it would, in my opinion, be a more valuable manure, than if converted into excrement, by passing through the animals, for this reason : By the analysis of Sprengel, it contains potash, soda, lime, magnesia, alumina with a trace of iron, silica, sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid, and chlorine : in passing through the animal, it assists to form the whole animal economy — and, as manure, is devoid of a large portion of all the sub- stances named. The grain contains precisely the same substances, in different quantities. To prove this, I sowed some wheat on a pane of glass, and covered it with straw, not allowing any earth to come in contact wnth it. It grew as well as if it had been sown in earth, but was unfortunately destroyed by accident before it came to matu- rity. In France the experiment succeeded fully. In 1844, on the 9th of October, I cleared the tops from a potatoe field, burnt them, and returned the ashes with a view of sowing wheat. The seed was then prepared thus : soaked four hours in brine that would buoy up an egg — scalded with boiling hot salt water — mixed wath pearlash — passed through a seive — distributed thinly over the barn floor, and a dry composition sifted on it composed of the follow- ing substances : Oyster-shell lime, charcoal dust, oleaginous char- coal dust, ashes, Jersey blue sand, brown sugar, salt, Peruvian guano, silicate of potash, nitrate of soda, and sulphate of ammonia. The sun was permitted to shine for half an hour upon it, when the particles became as it were chrystalized upon the grain • in this state it was sown at the rate of two and a half bushels to the acre, directly on the 440 [Senate potatoe ground, from which the tops only had been removed, and plowed in to the depth of five inch€S with a Scotch plow, harrowed once, a bushel of timothy-seed sown to the acre, and harrowed twice. At the expiration of fifteen days the wheat was so far above ground as to be pronounced by a neighbor far in advance of his, which had been sown on the first of September, in the usual manner, without any preparation. Contiguous to it I sowed wheat prepared, on carrot and turnep ground, the tops not having been removed, and plowed the whole in together, with like success; and still adjoining, I sowed three bushels to the acre in a dry state, on potatoe ground — plowed and harrowed first ; wheat sown, and twice harrowed. The first par- cel, although plowed in to the depth of five inches, was two and a half inches high before the last appeared above ground. The following composition, of my own compounding, was then spread by hand broadcast over the whole, at an expense of three dol- lars per acre : Stable manure, dry charcoal dust, hickory wood soot, bone dust, oleaginous charcoal dust, oyster-shell lime, decayed leaves, leached ashes, unleached ashes, guano, sal-soda, nitrate of potash, fine salt, poudrette, horn shavings, refuse sugar, ammoniacal liquor, blood, sulphuric acid, magnesia, plaster of Paris, plaster from walls, ground — decayed grass, decayed straw, decayed weeds, fish, refuse oil, sea- weed, oxide of iron, and oxide of manganese — my object being to contribiite to the growing crop every substance required for its growth. By Sprengel's analysis, all cereal grains — peas, beans, carrots, pota- toes, turneps, clovers and grasses — contain chlorine, potash, phospho- ric acid, soda, sulphuric acid, lime, silica, magnesia, oxide of manga- nese, alumina, and oxide of iron ; with the exception of wheat, which has no oxide of manganese, and but a very small portion of iron. On the 29th of October, I sowed at the rate of eight bushels of wheat to the acre, on sod ground, plowed it in beam deep, and har- rowed it four times ; the result will be given next fall. If these ex- periments should result favorably, the farmer will be enabled to use his corn, carrot and potatoe ground, which is always left in the best possible tilth by those crops, for wheat or rye, instead of allowing it to remain idle, as is the present custom, until the ensuing spring. Rye. — I usually soak this grain in salt brine six hours, roll it in quick lime, and several other substances composing the grain and straw ; sow it at the rate of three bushels per acre, top dress it witli composition, when two and a half inches above the surface of the earth ; cut it in the milk, and thresh it with the flail in the winter ; it weighs sixty pounds, and has for the last two years taken the premi- um at the American Institute. A portion of the field left, and cut when the straw was perfectly brown, when threshed, yielded grain weighing fifty-six pounds to the bushel. It is a crop that should never be sown in a young orchard, as it will inevitably destroy it — at least such has been my experience on a sandy loam. I imagine the disease called ergot — a sort of fungus — so detrimental to human life, to which in some locations it is subject, is poisonous to trees, as well as mankind, many thousands of whom o. 5. J 441 have been killed by using it for bread ; it makes an excellent food for cows early in the spring ; I have sown it in May with corn and oats broadcast, and used it advantageously for soiling cows and young cat- tle ; they should be fed sparingly at first, or hoven may ensue. Oats. — I always sow this grain in the month of April, on ground plowed in the fall, and generally use the potatoe variety. I sow from three to five bushels to the acre, harrow twice, and roll twice this year, 1844. I tried the following experiment, with a field of ten acres. When the grain had grown four inches above ground, I sowed by hand my composition upon it broadcast, at an expense of three dol- lars per acre ; contiguous I sowed a ten acre field at the same time, but did not use any composition : the oats on the first field grew six feet high, and produced at the rate of seventy two bushels to the acre: while those in the adjoining field grew only eighteen inches high, and yielded at the rate of thirty-two bushels. The difference in the growth was observed by Mr. A. B. Allen, Editor of the Agriculturist, and other gentlemen. They were cut in the milk, the straw being brown four inches above the ground. They weighed forty-four pounds to the bushel, and received the first premium of the Ameri- can Institute. The straw, being full of saccharine matter, was equal to the first quality of hay for fodder — when stacked, it was salted at the rate of half a bushel to the ton. In gathering the crop, some oats were left upon the field, which ripened, and as the field received a second manuring with the composition, to benefit the young grass, grew rapidly, filled out, and matured their seed, before frost set in ; a sample of which, is in the hands of the Board of Agriculture. I think the straw of the potatoe oat is almost one-third heavier than that of the common kind. The only objection I have to the variety is that its husk is very hard. Corn. — This crop is cultivated on my place, planted in drills, twelve inches apart in the drill — drills thirty inches from centre to centre — the seed planted after having been soaked fourteen hours in strong brine, and rolled in composition ; composition is likewise spread upon the kernels, and the whole is covered by the plow. When six inches high, the earth is plowed from the corn, after five days a composition is spread upon the drills, and the earth is plowed to the corn again ; which is all the tillage it requires. When glazed, and while the stalk is still partially green, it is pulled up by the root, struck smartly against the toe, and laid down by the side of the operator ; another man follows with a team, and carries it off from the field ; it is then put in stack, where it remains four weeks, when it is husked, placed upon the barn floor, dried perfectly and cribbed ; the stalks are drawn imder cover and salted ; thus, during the winter, root and stalk are converted into manure, and the ground left in perfect order for win- ter grain, which is immediately sown, and the field seeded down to meadow, appearing like a summer fallow. The stalks, at that stage of their growth, are full of saccharine matter, and exceedingly nutri- tious for stock ; the dirt adhering to their roots is also grateful to the animal in winter. Every farmer has noticed that his horses and neat cattle will search for a spot of earth in the barn- yard, after it has 442 [Senate been some time covered with snow, and eat it with apparent pleasure. Corn, ground v/ith the cob, makes good food for stock. Last season my gardener soaked a few kernels in sulphate of ammonia from two to twenty-four hours, planted it in pots of prepared earth, and placed it in a hot bed. Those grains which hadbeen soaked twenty-four hours grew one inch in twenty-four hours after planting — when six inches high they were set out in the open ground and grew to the height of seventeen feet four inches — specimens of which were exhi- bited at the State Agricultural Show at Poughkeepsie; seeds of the same corn without any preparation grew six feet high. I sowed a large field broadcast for soiling, which was found indispensable, be- tween the seasons of harvest and aftermath. Still as a food in the green state, it was found inferior to old hay — owing to the large per centage of water it contained. Buckwheat. — This is a crop which will grow on any moderately rich, sandy soil, and is capital food for horses and cows, if crushed. It contains by analysis, a/wm, silica, carbonate of potash, carbonate of magnesia, sulphate of potash, and carbonate of lime ; and is, conse- quently, a valuable crop to plow under, for manure. I have on two occasions improved a field vastly, requiring those ingredients in larger quantities than it possessed, by turning under a crop of buck- wheat, when forming the seed. At that period it had lost much of its water by evaporation. In 1843, 1 permittee! a neighbor to sow a seven acre field on my farm, with buckwheat He used one and a half bushels of seed to the acre. At the same time, I sowed an acre near him, using only sixteen quarts. His one and a half bushels of grain yielded him thirty bushels of grain, and an immense quantity of straw. My sixteen quarts yielded me sixty-five bushels of grain, and a moderate quantity of straw, — evidently showing that a small quantity of seed only, is required to produce a lieavy crop. It is supposed by some, that buckwheat plowed under, will sour a soil, — such has not been the result in my experience. This crop I always cut before the grain has actually turned brown, and while many of the kernels are still green ; the straw may be dried, stacked, and salted for winter provender ; I find it more to my advantage to spread it upon the barn-yard ; if so used, it is unnecessary to be very particular after cutting it, — especially if cut ripe, — as the kernel never injures, even if the straw should become moldy ; the nearer it approaches that state, the more easily it may be threshed. The usual practice in the State of New-York, is to thresh it on the field, — which plan cannot be too highly censured, — flour made from such grain, is always gritty, and consequently unhealthy. Philadelphia buckwheat flour always bears a higher price in the New- York mar- ket, than our own. The probability is, they thresh in their barns. Carrots, Mangel Wurtzel, and Sugar Beets. — These crops require a deep, rich, sandy soil, rather retentive of moisture. I always plow very deep — throw the ground up into ridges, two feet apart, and sow the seed on the top, after soaking it from ten to four- teen hours in strong ley, — and before planting, roll it in composition No. 85. J ' 443 until the seeds separate. It is sown by hand, and a dry composition, containing eleven diti'erent substances, forming the component parts of the roots, spread upon it, — when it is covered with the hoe. As soon as the plants grow to the height of five inches, they are thinned to nine inches apart, and the ground plowed from them, which eradicates weeds and mellows the soil. After an interval of fi^ve or six days, it is returned to them again ; and if, by accident, any of the plants are covered with earth, they are released and set up by a man who follows the plow with a hoe. During the summer, they are frequently examined, and if attacked by insects, are immediately limed ; if the ground is clean, they will require no more attention ; if foul, ,the same process of plowing from, and to, must be perse- vered in. When ripe, a plow is run beam deep on each side of every drill, which operation exposes the root : men follow with sharp knives, lift the roots and cut off the tops which are left on the field, and plowed in with wheat, as before described. Roots so cultivated will yield at the rate of eight hundred bushels to the acre. Potatoes. — By the analysis of Sprengel, the roots and tops of po- tatoes contain respectively, as carried from the field in ten thousand pounds. Roots. Tops. Potash, 40.28 81.9 Soda, , 23.34 0.9 Lime, 3.31 129.7 Magnesia, 3.24 17.0 Alumina, 0,50 0.4 Oxide of iron, 0.32 0.2 Oxide of manganese, Silica, 0.84 49.4 Phosphoric acid, 4.01 19.7 Chlorine, 1.60 5.0 Sulphuric acid, 5.40 4.2 82.83 308.4 I have copied the above analysis to show how requisite the use of lime and potash is in the growth of the potatoe crop, and particu- larly as a top dressing — the plan having been abused by non-readers. The past summer by the use of those substances, combined with char- coal, my gardener, Mr. Cunningham, raised at the rate of nine hun- dred and ten bushels per acre; from three potatoes cut into sets, he produced three bushels. In the year 1843 I planted a field of several acres in drills, har- rowed the ground level, and top dressed it with two hundred bushels of lime and charcoal dust to the acre ; the yield was 432 bushels per acre — variety Pink Eye Kidney. At the same time the potatoes throughout my neighborhood were decayed; likewise a parcel of the same kind, planted contiguous to the above, not limed, were also decayed. This year, (1844,) I planted the same seed in the following man- 444 [Senate ner : the ground was thrown into drills and manured heavily ; the potatoes were cut into sets of single eyes fourteen days before requir- ed for planting, and covered with plaster and lime — a few, for the sake of experiment, were not so covered. At the expiration of the time specified, they were sprinkled with small, almost imperceptible globules, having life, and were consequently rejected — those limed were free. I planted them in drills on the manure nine inches apart- tops, centres and ends separately, to mark the difference in growth. The potatoes in the first three rows, three hundred feet in length, were covered with dry charcoal dust. Second three rows with oyster shell lime. Third three rows with bone dust. ; Fourth " " poudrette. Fifth " " unleached ashes. Sixth " " new mown grass and piaster. Seventh" " fine salt. Eighth " " silicate of potash. Ninth " " guano. And so on throughout the field, each alternate three rows with a dif- ferent substance, except six rows in which I planted the same seed on the manure, without any composition. And adjoining them, six rows of French potatoes, received three weeks before directly from France ; the furrows were then all reversed by the plow, and the potatoes cov- ered. After which a heavy stick was drawn by a pair of horses across the furrows, to level them. The potatoes covered with dry charcoal dust, No 1 came up first. No. 6, covered with new mown grass and plaster, .... second. No. 8, " " silicate of potash, third. No. 9, " " guano, fourth. No. 3, " " bone dust, fifth. ' No. 4, " " poudrette, sixth. No. 7, " " fine salt, seventh. No. 5, " " unleached ashes, eighth. No. 9, " " oyster shell lime, ninth. The twelve rows without composition came up later than any of the rest. When four inches high, the ground was plowed from them — and after an interval of six days, plowed to them again, the field be- ing in perfect order. They required no other attention during the season. On the third of October they were plowed out, and proved to be perfectly sound with the exception of the twelve rows planted with Pink Eye Kidney and French potatoes without composition, which were entirely rotten. Six hundred bushels were pitted immediately, and not examined before the 5th of December, when they were found to be perfectly sound. During the summer I examined fields in Dutchess, Ulster, Albany and Schenectady counties, and invariably found insects with numerous legs ensconced within the withered vine. In some in- stances a small worm, not unlike -the apple worm, but red, and very minute: the conclusion I came to, was, that these insects fed upon the albumen requisite to form the perfect potatoe — and consequently f No. 85.] 445 when dug it was either wholly decayed, from an excess having been abstracted — or if apparently sound, so much had been taken, as to produce decay by degrees — thus, after having been stored, a sort of fungus appeared upon the potatoe, and the decay is then rapid. From the above investigation, I believe, as I before stated in a conversation with Mr. A. B. Allen — as mentioned in page 354 of the December number of the Agriculturist, that the universal decay throughout the country, is caused mainly if not wholly by insects — and that lime, or any substance obnoxious to them, will, if used in sufficient quan- tity, preserve the plants until they come to maturity. The Hog. — I have on my farm an orchard containing many choice grafted sweet apple trees, planted expressly for hogs — this is the principal food on which they are fed during the season ; sometimes, by way of change, they receive sour apples — always given raw — at regular hours — the food is occasionally varied once a day, by adding garden refuse, such as cabbage leaves, cauliflower, &c., together with the slop from the house. Unless so fed, a more expensive animal can scarcely be kept — especially in a part of the country where corn can be sold from 62h to 75 cents per bushel, and other grain in pro- portion. This is a luxury my hogs never partake of — and fatter ani- mals, or more beautiful pork cannot be produced. It may lose a lit- tle in boiling; if it does, however, I have never noticed it; the loss, at all events would not equal by one-half, the difference of cost fed on corn, if the crop is raised expressly for their food. They are very prolific, producing at a birth numbers varying from six to twelve twice in each year, if found desirable by the owner. Vanlau made a cal- culation, showing that in eleven years, a single sow — averaging each litter at six pigs, formed ten generations, or 6,434,838 pigs. He further observes that were the calculations extended to the twelfth genera- tion, the result would be as great a number as all Europe could sup- port— and extended to the sixteenth generation would people the globe. When my sows are pregnant, they are kept apart from other hogs — at the birth of the young pigs, they are removed for a few hours from the dam, as they are in danger of being injured by her motions. She is fed judiciously for the first five days — after which she is allowed a full quantum of food three times each day — and never overfed. Her troughs are cleaned after every meal, her pen cleansed daily — and kept constantly littered with fine broken straw. The pigs are early accustomed to feed on milk mixed with bran, and at the age of two months weaned. They are always kept in confinement — their daily occupation is to convert rubbish into manure, a supply of which is constantly thrown into their apartments. My second brood of pigs are sent alive to the New-York market, where they usually bring a high price, and are sold to the packets as roasters. The store hogs are wintered chiefly on sugar beets and carrots, occasionally boiled potatoes — and once a week charcoal dust, which keeps them in per- fect health. Their legs should occasionally be rubbed with a corn cob, to open the pores, and cause the blood to circulate freely — other- wise staggers may ensue. I fatted two hogs, the year before last, entirely on sweet and sour 446 [Senate apples, fed alternately, for four months ; they received no other food of anv description — water, even, was denied them. They weighed when killed, two hundred and fifty pounds each — the whole hog was covered with a very thick layer of fat, perfectly white and firm — the skin was thin, and the pork pronounced by connoisseurs exceedingly fine and sweet. The hams were not inferior to Westphalia, notwith- standing they use one pound of sugar to three of salt in curing them. They will keep perfectly well all summer if placed in a barrel, and completely covered with pulverized charcoal dust. I have kept them during two summers and a winter in this manner. Calves. — When my calves are intended for the dairy, they are al- lowed to run with the dam five months — and she is well fed — having a meal of bran, independent of her daily allowance. At the expira- tion of the time specified, the calf is taken from the mother, and turned into a small field, well covered with fine grass — but not allow- ed water ; the dew is sufficient to quench her thirst ; if permitted to drink freely, they become bloated and mis-shapen. Calves intended for the butcher, are taken from the dam when one hour old, and fed upon her milk, mixed with fine Indian meal, for three or four weeks, when they are sold ; if left with the cow twenty- four hours, it is difficult to learn them to drink from the pail — and the cow forms an attachment to them, the remembrance of which lasts for several weeks, causing her much anxiety and restlessness — whereas if deprived at once, she never misses them, and becomes im- mediately docile yielding her full quantity of milk. If a bull calf, and it is intended to raise him, he should have the use of two cows, running with them, for six months — after which he may be fed the milk of one cow, mixed with tepid skim milk and Indian meal, with fine hay, for six months. By this treatment, although expensive, he will gain more in one year, than by the other mode in two — he will be very powerful and fully compensate his owner for extra feed. Oxen should be fed on dry cut hay and corn meal, occasionally ground with the cob, and oats, all summer. I find by such treatment, their flesh becomes firm, and their constitution strong, so much so that they will endure labor equal to the horse, and will work during- the whole season, without intermission, except on Sunday. I have fed them on grass all summer ; the consequence has been that they required rest at least two days in the week, and when put to hard labor protruded their tongues from their mouths and evidently suf- fered much. The reason I suppose is, that green grass contains 80 parts of water, in 100 parts — whereas the hay, having parted with the water, eaten, comparatively speaking, in one-third the bulk — yields to the animal starch, wooily fibre, phosphate of lime, albumen, sugar &c., and thus strengthens him to endure much fatigue. The ox is a pa- tient, quiet and sensible animal — and may be taught to perform many of the horse's duties — when old may be sold for beef, and is conse- quently a much cheaper animal to keep on the farm, than the horse.. Horses. — My horses are kept up the year round, and are never al- lowed to eat grass, or any green crop. They are fed twelve quarts of oats daily, and a certain quantity of hay ; occasionally their oats No. 85.] 447 are ground with a little corn, cob and all. They are allowed as much salt, ashes and sulphur as they will eat unmixed with their food ; and as much water as they will drink. Once a week, during the apple season, they are fed a few apples ; when cider is made, pom- ace is given them. Very respectfully yours, R. L. PELL. HOPS. Morrisville. JV*. Y., January 15th, 1845. Sir — At your last exhibition, I exhibited a sample of hops. I have'been growing hops for the last thirty years, and I find the soil best adapted to them, is such as will produce the best crops of grass — particularly timothy. To prepare one acre of land, I put on fifty loads of barn-yard manure, (manure taken from the yard of a distil- lery is better ;) spread it all over the ground, — then plow it three times, — drag it, and fix it in the best manner for a crop of corn ; I then furrow" it, eight feet apart both ways ; I then put in four pieces of hop root, each six inches long, — when the furrows cross, — and cover them about three inches deep ; I then plant the ground with corn, in the usual way, — being careful to have the hop hill occur be- tween the hills of corn, — and hoe the hops, same as the corn, during the season ; I then harvest the corn in the usual way, and when all is removed, I put four shovels full of manure on each hill of hops, and continue to manure them every succeeding fall, in the same way. You will see by the above, that an acre will contain about 660 hills, which will require two poles to a hill, of twenty to twenty-five feet long. I find cedar the best timber for poles. You will see that I get no hops until the second year. Then I plow among them, and ^ hoe them as I do corn. In the month of April, I put two poles to each hill, about a foot apart at bottom, leaning the tops forward, and leaving the hop hill between them, and put two vines up each pole, as soon as they grow long enough to wind once round, and tie them with woolen yarn, and wind them with the sun ; all other vines starting, must be kept down. The crop is usually ready for picking about the lOth of September, which is done as follows : The vines are cut off about four feet from the ground ; the pole is then taken down, and laid across a box, where the pickers stand to pick them from the vines ; they must be put up for the drying kiln, the same day they are picked ; the kiln of usual size, .is eighteen by thirty feet, — is made, the first story, of stone or bricks, about nine feet from the o-round to the first floor, which is timbered with joist, as common buildings, and a floor laid of lath two inches square, with a space of two inches square between them ; the floor is then covered with stout cloth, such as is used in the dairy for straining ; there should be four eighteen inch square holes at the bottom of the walls, to let in suffi- 448 [Senate cient air, — and the building, above the floor, should be provided with large windows, which are to be kept open during the process of dry- ing. In such a kiln, there should be eight charcoal fires, made at the bottom, at equal distances, which are to be kept steadily burning while the hops are drying ; spread th-em ten inches deep on the cloth floor, and not move them until the steam is done rising, when they should be gently stirred until they are dry. After the hops begin to sweat from ihe heat below, I put on to the fires four small kettles, containing one-quarter of a pound each, of roll brimstone ; and when it is consumed, add another one-quarter each, until I give three-quar- ters of a pound to each kettle. I find that brimstone improves the color of the hops, dissipates that strong vine or leafy smell, which they always have without it, and which is to be detected in any article of which the hop is an ingredient. In good seasons, an ordi- nary crop is fifteen hundred pounds to the acre. I sold my crop this fall, for $172.50. Very respectfully, EZRA LELAND. BARLEY. Holyoke Spring Farm, Lyn7i, Mass. , Jan. 21st, 1845. The Barley exhibited by- me at the last Fair of the American Insti- tute, was grown on reclaimed meadow j soil dark loam, 8 to 12 inches deep; subsoil, hard clay. In 1842 it was underdrained and a good crop of barley raised on the same field ; about 40 barrels of fish, (cost 25 cents per barrel, delivered within one mile of the place) were spread on the stubble and plowed in, and a very heavy crop of round turnep grew in the fall. In 1843 it was planted with corn, manured in the hill with manure made under the barn, a small shovel full to a hill, and in June or the first of July, two fish were put by each hill and covered with a hoe. For the crop of barley, of which a sample was exhibited, no additional manure was applied. On the 15th of April, 1844, the corn hills were split by running a large one horse plow on each side of the corn stubble. The corn was not hilled up, but at the last plowing the furrows were turned towards the corn that the surface water might easily run off, the ground being flat. When plowed for barley, the ground was wet, but dried soon after breaking and without clodding. On the l8th it was fully dry, and was then harrowed across the furrows, tearing up the cornstalks and leveling the surface ; some parts of the field were harrowed two or three times, and all so much as to effectually pulverize the soil. The seed was soaked from 12 to 18 hours in a solution of poudrette, (two quarts , of poudrette to five gallons of rain water,) and all the seed that did not sink after standing about two hours, were carefully skimmed off. About one-eighth of an acre was sown with unsoaked seed, and the difference could be very easily distinguished ; that from the soaked seed being more than a week earlier, while the straw was much longer, but there was no perceptible difference to the eye in the grain No. 85.1 449 thrashed, though the whole crop is far superior to the grain sown. The quantity sown was something more than a bushel and a half per acre, harrowed in with a light harrow ; two bushels timothy, three pecks red top, and six pounds of southern clover being brushed in both ways, and afterwards rolled with a heavy roller ; it was then laid off in lands, the drain furrows cleaned out with a spade, and grass seed scattered over them — the grass looked remarkably well this fall. On the 23d of July we attempted to cradle the barley, but the straw was of unequal lengths, the heads very heavy, and even where it stood up well, as most of it did, the fingers of the cradle did not separate it sufficiently to prevent breaking off the heads and scattering out much of the grain. It was therefore mowed and left in the swath, on account of rain, till the 29th, when it was put into loose cocks, having before been lifted up to dry it, as it lay in the swath, but not turned, as it wasted very much. We thought it none too ripe when cut, but I am assured it should have been but a few days sooner. We w^ere com- pelled by unavoidable circumstances to handle the grain two or three times ; had not such been the case, we are confident it would have averaged 58 bushels per acre, and no doubt a single acre could have been selected that would have yielded upwards of sixty bushels. The seed was bought for two and four rowed ; a small part of the yield was two, but the most of it was six rowed, little or none being four. Expense of Culture. Three and a half days labor, (half to this crop,) $5 $2 .50 Seed 5 .00 Harvesting 3.50 Threshing and cleaning 192 bushels at 5 cents, 9 .60 Rent of land, three and a half acres, 35 .00 Transportation to Boston 2 . 00 $57.60 192 bushels at 75 cents $143.62 Straw 35 . 00 $178.62 Expenses 57 . 60 Profit $121 .02 Very respectfully, (Signed) J. HAMMOND COGGESHALL. STATEMENT FROM THOMAS BELL. My farm contains in all about 145 acres, one hundred of which is upland, the balance salt meadow. In the management of it, I have not been governed by any particular rotation of crops. When the (Senate, No. 85 J Do 450 [Senate meadows run out, my practice has been to top dress, or plow them up in the fall, plant potatoes in the spring, and in the ensuing spring seed them down with oats or barley, taking care not to plow more than could be well manured. From the large stock that I have kept, I have always made enough manure for the wants of the farm. The amount of produce raised from the farm from January 1st, 1844, to January 1st, 1845, is as follows : — - Milk, from an average of 33 cows, 96,360 quarts, sold at r4 cts. per qrt. $385,44 Hay from 90 to 100 tons consumed on the farm. Potatoes, 1,900 bushels, 1,530 bushels sold at 3s. ..... 573 .75 Oats, 400 " "3s 150.00 Apples, 300 barrels, " 9s.perbrl. 337.50 Cherries, 9,500 lbs, averaging 3h cts. per lb 332 .50 $1,779.19 Having adapted my farm to dairy purposes, my object has been to obtain as much pasture and hay as would maintain the stock, of which I have kept about fifty head for the last three years without any other feed than that raised on the place from the 15th of April to the 15th of November. During the winter months, I have fed the milch cows as follows: Half bushel of cut hay, quarter of a bushel of bran, and four quarts of Indian meal, each, mixed together and made into slops, per day, with as much good hay otherwise as they would eat. Upon this feed, as much milk can be produced from a fresh cow as from the best of pasture in summer. And should the cow have been milked some time, she will generally get fit for the butcher, at the same time giving milk enough to pay for her feed. Very respectfully, (Signed) THOMAS BELL. RandelVs Island^ JV. F., October^ 1844. STATEMENT OF JOHN P. HAFF. Bloomingdale, JV. Y., Oct. 20th, 1844. At the last Annual Fair of the American Institute, I exhibited four different varieties of potatoes, raised from foreign seed. Three of the Veilotte varieties, the seed of which I obtained from France. The fourth variety is called Black Potatoe, and is from Nova Scotia. My reason for trying foreign seed, was owing in a great measure to other seed having failed or run out, and at the same time to guard against the disease which has prevailed to so great an extent in the country, called the dry rot. I have made the trial, and now report the result. The soil is clay, and in hot and dry weather very apt to bake, unless constantly moved by the plow and hoe. In preparing the ground. J had it well plowed and harrowed. In order to break the lumps, hadu No. 85.J 451 furrowed at four feet distant with cross furrowing. I then threw in each hill, before planting, a teacup full of shell lime, twenty bushes, of which I bought for one dollar, being five cents a bushel, — the pol- tatoes were cut into pieces of sets, then planted on the top of the lime and covered with the hoe. After the potatoe was well up, I gave each hill another teacup full of lime — 1 spread it well over the sure face, in the hill and around the plants — then plowed, taking care to mold the loose soil with the hoe around the plant, and at the sara- time to cover up the lime. At the second plowing, I gave each hile a third cup of lime, in the same way as the first, and then let theml take their chance. In this way I had a good crop. My potatoes were free from worms, of good size, and smooth fair skin. My neigh- bors having the same soil had an inferior crop, and much eaten with worms. Very respectfully, (Signed,) JOHN P. HAFF. NATIVE STOCK. HarsimuSj JV. J., January 11 th, 1845. The native stock exhibited by me at the late Cattle Show of the American Institute held at Vauxhall Garden, and for which premi ums were awarded for the best native cow and heifer, are of a breed not very common in this part of New- Jersey. I have owned the cow upwards of three years, during which time she has regularly milked at least ten months in each year — the average quantity of milk per day for the season is about sixteen quarts, and the yield of butter from the same is about two pounds — or about eight quarts of milk to each pound of butter. Her feed during the year is a good grass pas- ture for the summer, and the remaining part of her food is of a mixed character — chiefly good hay, with each day a little meal, beets or some trifle from the garden, when in season. When kept up, we have not observed any very methodical system in her food — except the daily quantity and quality sufficient to sustain her in good condi- tion. And I may state that much less food will keep her in good order than is required for the half blood. I own in this respect my experience is somewhat different to the account given by others keeping the cross breeds. I have found her much superior to any half blood. She has each year been put to the best native bull we could select. Her stock is excellent — the heifer being her first calf, after she came into my possession, and what is stated about the cow is equally applicable to the heifer; they each fatten well on the com- mon feed, with a little extra meal, beets or turneps. For dairy pur- poses in our part of New-Jersey, the native breed is considered much superior to any other. Very respectfully, JOSEPH CLOWES. 452 [Senate: CABBAGES. The farm of Lambert WyckofF, Esq., of Bush wick, opposite the city of New-York, was the place where the cabbages were raised. Twenty acres, or about that number, were employed in this crop. The largest cabbages were grown upon a green sward, about five acres. The ground was plowed in the fall of 1843, and [cross plowed in the spring of 1844 5 harrowed until it was well pulver- ized. The cabbage were raised und^r glass, and planted out about the middle of April. Expense of Culture per Acre. ■ 50 Cart loads of New-York Street manure, at 50c $25 .00 2 days plowing, wnth a pair of horses and one'^ man . . 6.00 3 days plowing and harrowing, 9 .00 3 times plowing the plants, , . , 3 . 00 3 times hoeing, .,..., 6 . 00 $49o00 The plants were set at about three feet by fifteen inches apart^ generally. We sold about four thousand heads from an acre — at about two dollars and fifty cents per hundred $100 .00 Deduct expenses, 49 . 00 Profit per acre,, $51.00 - (Signed) PETER HULST, JYew- York, Jan. 1st, 1845. CLOVER SEED. The Clover Seed exhibited by me was the small red kind. It was sowed with oats, without any preparation, about the 25th of April, 1843. The previous crop was corn, manured with twenty-five loads of barn-yard manure to the acre. The first crop of clover was ta- ken off about the 1st of July. The second, from which the seed was taken, was cut the 3d of September, and was housed in about a week. The yield was nine and a half bushels from four acres. The dry season was injurious to the crop. The soil was a sandy loam — a small part of it was sown with plaster the last of May, at four bush- els per acre — and a week after, perceiving there was a great differ- ence between that sowed and the other, I sowed four to five bushels more on the other part, but not with so favorable a result. The land was worth sixty dollars per acre, and the seed probably $7.00 per bushel, and cost me $1.00 per bushel to get it cleaned, besides, taking it 15 miles. The yield of timothy was nine bushels from three acres, and a part was sold for $3.50 per bushel. (Signed) WILLIAM H. BURR. Wesfportj Conn., Jan. \bth, 1845. -^ No. 85.] 453 SQUASHES. ElizabethtowTij JV. J., Jan. 22d, 1845. At the last Fair of the American Institute, I exhibited two squash- es. The seed were given me by an acquaintance, who procured them at Patagonia while on a whaling voyage. The seeds, six or eight in number, were planted a year ago last spring — only one came up, that bore four squashes. I saved the seed of the largest, and last spring I planted six hills, from which I obtained thirty squashes. The two largest were the ones I exhibited at the Fair. The one weighed thirty- seven pounds and the other twenty-nine pounds. Having last spring changed my place of residence, it was late before my garden was prepar- ed— the seeds were nof planted until the first week in May, in a soil such as is common to the gardens in this neighbrohood, and without being manured. I have been told by practical gardeners, that were the seed planted earlier, and in a stronger soil, they would have attained double the size. I observed there were none others like them at the Fair, and I am inclined to believe there are few, if any others, like them in this section of the country. Those gentlemen who have used them, are of the opinion that they are superior to any other squash, either for pies, or as a table vegetable. They keep well in winter. Very respectfully, (Signed) WILLIAM BROWK ONIONS. At the late Fair of the American Institute I exhibited a sample of white onions, the average weight of whieh were nineteen ounces — one weighed twenty-four ounces. In the spring of 1844, I sowed the seed in drills about one inch deep, and twelve inches apart, in the month of April. The soil was reclaimed bog, or meadow, which was ditched and drained a few years ago. It was manured with horse dung, and some of the up- land soil with a small portion of lime. If they had had a little more attention paid them, I think they would have grown much larger. In cultivating them, I used .a fork and spade instead of a hoe, and when they began to form, I took a little stick and removed the dirt from around them. They were ripe early in September. (Signed) ANTHONY COCKS. Goshen, JV. F., Mv. 10th, 1844. RED ONIONS. An account of a crop"of red onions raised on ten rods of ground, by David Jagger, of Runhead, Suffolk county, L, I. The soil was a reclaimed swamp having sand carted on to the depth of from six to eight inches — has been under cultivation eight or ten years. Was planted to corn the two previous years, yielding about sixty bushels of shelled corn to the acre. 454 [Senate The manure used was three one horse loads of hog and horse ma- nure, worth five shillings a load. It was carted on and plowed in about the first of April. Harrowed and raked off and sowed about the 10th of the same month. Sowed with a drill harrow, drills twelve inches apart — were hoed with a hand hoe as soon as the rows could bd distinguished, and as often after as they needed it. The whole cost of labor in plowing, sowing, hoeing and harvesting, at 75 cents per day, $7.88 Seven ounces of seed, at Is., '87 J Three loads manure, at 5s., 1.87^ $10.63 Amount harvested, 57 bushels, at 50 cents, $28 .50 Deduct expenses, • • 10 . 63 Profit of the crop, • $17.87 R. R. BAILEY'S METHOD OF RAISING CARROTS. On the first of June I took sixteen bushels of soap boiler's ashes, with twenty-five loads of dirt from meadow ditches, with which I manured about a quarter of an acre of black shelly land. Knowing it to be a bakey soil, and being aware that long or green manures are obnoxious to tap roots, I adopted this plan to make the soil light. After twice plowing, on the 12th of June I sowed the seed, in drills one foot apart, and one inch deep. I gave them one flat hoeing, then thinned them to five inches, then I hoed them very deep with a stock hoe. About the last of August I commenced digging for market. They were all of them larger than any I exhibited at the Fair. The pro- duce of the quarter of an acre was 300 bushels — being the largest crop I ever knew raised in America. Yours, very respectiully, R. R. BAILEY. Communipawj JV. J., Oct. 26th, 1844. JOHN W. WOOD'S METHOD OF RAISING TURNEPS. On the 10th of August the ground (a piece of sod of about a quar- ter of an acre,) was plowed up ; it was then slightly harrowed in the same direction as it was plowed. I then sowed broadcast five ounces of seed, and rolled it with a two-horse roll. After they were well up they were hoed twice. The product was 90 bushels, pulled up on the 6th of November. The circumference of many of them No. 85.] 455 averaged two feet each. The expense of plowing, rolling, hoeing, taking up, seed, &c., amounted to $4.75. I have invariably found that turneps, like almost all of that genus of plants, grow much better on fresh broken up ground, than on land that has been lately used for other crops, though it be v/ell manured, and in a high state of cultivation. I would also state that if it is the wish of the grower to obtain good turneps, they must be well thinned out. I am fully convinced that by thinning them from 12 to IS inches apart, they will produce more weight than 6 or 9 inches, as is usually done. Respectfully yours, JOHN W. WOOD. Bloomingdale, JV*. F., J^ov. 1st, 1844. CHRISTOPHER ALLEN'S METHOD OF RAISING CAULIFLOWERS. The seed should be sown the first week in March in a temperate hot-bed ; in a northern aspect, in about a month the plants should be pricked out in a cool bed, with a slight protection until the first of May, then planted in the open ground two feet apart. I have for fifteen years been very successful in raising cauliflower, and I find by experience that stony ground, with little manure, pro- duces finer heads than land richly manured. It is quite unnecessary to land the plants from the time they are put out. This year I have been very successful with potatoes. I recommend early planting — say about the 10th of March. On the 20th of June I had them for table use ; the kind — purple kidney. Very respectfully, CHRISTOPHER ALLEN. Stat en Island, Jan. 2d, 1845. STATEMENT OF JOHN L'HOMMEDIEU, Jr. BUTTER. The butter for which I was awarded the premium of the American Institute, was made after the following manner : After straining the milk it is put into the pans, where it remains until it has become suf- ficiently thick, and ready for the churn. When it has undergone the process of churning, the butter is removed, and placed in a wooden bowl, which should be well scalded previous to using. After stand- ing until it has become cold, the milk should be entirely worked out of it. Then wash it well with cold spring water ; put in about four 456 [Senate ounces of salt to five pounds of butter ; work it well again, and it is ready for use. (Signed.) JOHN L'HOMMEDIEU, Jr. South Middletouj Orange County j JV. F., JVov. 20th, 1844. R. PLUMMER'S METHOD OF MAKING CHEESE. When the milk is perfectly cool, I add a small quantity of annatto, so as to give the milk a yellowish cast ; then put in the rennet, and as soon as it has had its full effect, then work with the hands until the whey separates itself from the curd, and then scald with hot whey to a proper consistency, and then salt with pure salt. It should be worked down with the hands until all the whey is out, before put- ting it into the press ; and then it should remain in the press at least forty-eight hours, so as to make the cheese perfectly solid. In all the process of manufacturing, it should not be hurried, but carefully at- tended to ; almost all the bad cheese is from negligence in making. The rennet should not be used until at least one year old, and then it should be perfectly sweet. Many dairies of cheese have been spoiled from using new and bad rennet ; it gives to the cheese a very bad fla- vor, which would be avoided by using old and sweet rennet. The cheese should be bandaged on the outer edge, and the outer surface should be slightly colored and kept well dressed imtil ready for mar- ket. Very respectfully, R. PLUMMER. JYew-York, Jan. Ist, 1845. SMITH'S CORN SHELLER. ' This machine consists of a horizontal toothed cylinder six feet long, and one foot two inches in diameter. The ears of corn in the opera-r tion are confined to a part of the upper and rising side of this cylin- der, by means of a cast iron concave extending the whole length of the machine, and being shoveled or let in the machine at one end, they are driven through, and the cobs discharged at the opposite end, while the grain falls below, being admitted on either side of the cyl- inder. The operation is governed by elevating or depressing the dis- charge end, which causes the machine to operate more or less upon them ; thus securing to the operator the power of finishing his work.- This machine is capable of shelling three hundred bushels of ears per hour. F. N. SMITH. JYew-York, Oct, 1844. ' , No. 85.] 457 BRICK MAKING. Coxsackie, JV. F. October 20th, 1844. To T. B. Wakeman, Esq., Secretary American Institute : Permit me to submit to the American Institute a few facts and ob- servations for the consideration of brick makers. I have no data by which to ascertain the quantity or value of the bricks now manufactured in the United States, except the sixth census taken in 1840, which is very incomplete, and in some instances total- ly incorrect. This census purports to give the value of brick and lime manufactured jointly, with the number of men employed. It is difficult to separate them, so as to tell the proportion of the value which should be set to each. But as far as my observation extends, the value set upon both will fall short of the brick alone, estimating them at four dollars per thousand, which I think a fair average. Ac- cording to this estimate, the value of brick known to be manufactured yearly on the Hudson river alone, will exceed the value of the brick and lime manufactured according to the census in the whole State of New-York ; and the value of brick alone manufactured in the single town of Coxsackie will exceed by one-fourth all the brick and lime, as valued by the census, manufactured in Florida, Wisconsin and Iowa Territories. But the year 1840 was one of general depression in every department of business, and no department feels a depression more sensibly than the manufacture of brick, money being wanted more for other purposes than building. Estimating, then, the value of brick alone, manufactured at this time, to be equal to the value of brick and lime as given by the census of 1840, and valuing them at four dollars per thousand, we have two billions, four hundred and thirty-four millions, three hundred and forty thousand and five hun- dred bricks, amounting to the sum of nine millions, seven hundred and thirty-seven thousand, three hundred and sixty-two dollars; and estimating that it will take on an average, one man to every seventy- five thousand brick manufactured, we have employed annually in this branch of business, thirty-two thousand, three hundred and ninety persons. While every other branch of business, has been discussed, written upon and investigated in detail, this seems to have been en- tirely neglected. I have not been able to find either book, pamphlet or article giving any idea of the method pursued in this country, of manufacturing brick. And what little is found in reference to this subject in England and France, is foreign to the business, as carried on in the United States, and is of very little or no use to us. The stock out of which bricks are manufactured, varies very materially in different sections of country, and even in the same sections, the same banks sometimes containing different kinds of stock. In com- mon parlance, all kinds of slock are called clay. Pure clay is a whitish substance, without taste and grit, and is rarely, if ever, found in a primitive state : but if thus found is very valuable, being the principle material for making fire brick, crucibles, &c.; it may be manufactured bv a chemical process out of alum and potash. Not- 458 [Senate withstanding this great variety of stock, perhaps it is not generally- known that there is but one kind of clay, and it is, perhaps, seldom that the stock contains one-half, or perhaps, one-third of this article, and it is frequently the case there is but simply enough to operate as a cement for other substances ; and I have known brick made out of stock which a practical chemist informed me contained but one-thir- tieth part of clay, but the bricks were not of good quality. It would occupy too much room, and be of little practical benefit to go into nice chemical details of all the different ingredients composing the various stock for manufacturing brick, and I shall confine myself to a few facts. Most persons judge of the quality of brick by their color, red be- ing supposed to be of good quality. Red is the color most fancied for fronts ; hence, stock that will color a beautiful red, is valuable for making what are called pressed brick, which are used for fronts of buildings ; but the color has very little to do with the quality, for strength or durability ; and the manufacture has as little to do with the color, as that has to do with the strength and durability. It is the prevailing mineral in the stock, that gives the color ; when this is oxide of iron, the brick will be a beautiful red ; but if this mine- ral be absent, and magnesia prevail, it will have a whitish color ; and when copper prevails, a cream color, — the color varying according to the combinations of these and other minerals. No regular system has been, as yet, adopted for the manufacture of brick. Brick-makers in different sections, operating in entirely dif- ferent ways ; so much so, that a. skillful workman in one place, would be no better than an inexperienced hand, in another, — espe- cially in that important part of the business, molding. In one sec- tion, the stock is tempered entirely by the physical labor of man, with a spade or shovel ; in another, by the tramping of oxen, and sometimes horses are used ; and in another with what is sometimes called a hedge-hog, — a round log with wooden pins, to the outer end of which are attached oxen or horses, by which means it is made to revolve round horizontally over the stock, in a circular pit ; then, again, some use a large iron wheel, which is made to revolve on an iron shaft, in such manner as to run alternately from the outside to the centre, and back. But what is called the tub mill, or square tub with an upright shaft placed in the centre, in which are placed knives that pass through the stock, and a shaft or lever attached to the top, to which is attached a horse, is more generally in use, than any machinery for tempering mortar. The methods of molding, or forming the mortar into bricks in molds, are nearly as variable as that of tempering the stock. Formerly, the most common means used to make brick deliver from the mold, was water; but now, sand is more generally used ; molding in water is entirely a diffe- rent business from molding in sand, — and one skilled in the former mode, could not mold in sand without first learning. Then again, the manner of molding in sand at the north, is different from that practiced at the south ; and the facility with which the work is done, No. 85.] 459 varies as much as the manner of doing it. There is no general sys- tem of manufacturing brick, — the work is generally done in a rude manner, without the aid of machinery, by the physical labor of man. Great exertions have been made, for many years, to make machine- ry for molding brick, and the remnants of machines to be found in brick-yards, in every place where the business is carried on to much extent, show that brick-makers have been liberal in seconding those exertions ; but it has been found to them, in many instances, a heavy bill of expense, without benefit ; and at this time, it is the general opinion of brick-makers, that no machinery can be used advantage- ously in the different varieties of stock used. But I apprehend that attempts have too frequently been made to make machinery to do too much. Much money has been expended in efforts to make machinery to mold brick out of dry or untempered stock, by means of very power- ful pressure ; but the strong nature by which brick endure frost and weather, is put into them by Jire, and not by pressure ; dry stock may be pressed together so as to look very solid and fair before burn- ed ; but the excessive heat necessary to burn brick, expands them, and this expansion disjoints the particles, and the brick will not stand frost and weather. This, I believe, has been the general result, where experiments have been tried. If there is an exception to it, it must be owing to the peculiarity of the stock, — perhaps to the presence of some substance easily fused, which melts in burning, and cements the other materials together. But this is rarely found in stock used for making brick, — and were it even practicable to make brick in this way, it would require strong and powerful machinery, and conse- quently, too expensive for general use. Much has likewise been expended to get up machinery for mold- ing brick by steam and horse power. Machinery can be made to do almost anything, where the thing to be operated upon is uniformly the same, such as wood, iron, brass, cotton, wool, &c., — but where it is variable, as the stock for making brick must necessarily be, some- times stiff, and then more moist- — then again having stone, as most stock has more or less, and it is rarely a bed of stock is found that it is entirely free from what are called clay-dogs. It is found extreme- ly difficult to make it answer the purpose, for the reason that you can- not put judgment into a machine, — if the mortar is pressed into the molds too hard it will not deliver, and if not hard enough the corners will not be filled out. Where the motions are arbitrary, continually the same, thus far and no farther, and the stock varies as it necessa- rily will, much difficulty is experienced, and the brick made with this kind of machinery are generally very rough, and it is thought by many that nothing is saved in the expense, over the old way of mold- ing by hand. Recently a machine has been got up, which is in general use at Cox- sackie, and used at Rochester, Boston, North Haven, Conn,, and va- rious other places, which seems destined from the rapidity with which it has been adopted, to take the place of all machines, and supersede all other means of molding mortar into brick. This machine is ope- 460 [Senate rated by manual labor — it is simple in its construction, very easy to operate — much liked by laborers on that account; it receives the mor- tar directly from the tub-mill as it is ground; no extra expense being necessary in fitting up a yard for its use — makes the brick of better quality than hand work, and with greater facility— and taking the place of skill, can be operated by a common laborer, which with the increased facility makes an important saving in the expense. It is only two years since it has been introduced, but sufficiently long to test its merits. It is found to work well in every variety of stock, being so constructed as to be instantly liberated from any obstruction by stone or otherwise, and it is found not to cost fifty cents a year to keep one in repair. It is certainly worthy the attention of all who are interested in the manufacture of brick. It seems to be a fact set- tled among brick-makers, that all stock must be tempered into mortar; that all means for molding dry or untempered stock, are utterly im- practicable— and that the best, cheapest, and most convenient mode for tempering the stock into mortar, is the tub-mill I have before de- scribed. I know of no place in the United States where brick are manufac- tured so cheap, and where the business is so well arranged into a sys- tem, as on the Hudson river, between the cities of New-York and Al- bany. Large quantities of brick are shipped yearly from this section to the various ports in New-Jersey, Connecticut, and Rhode Island, and sold at a handsome profit at a price lower than they can be made in those places, to the astonishment of those there engaged in the ma- nufacture. ' I will now describe a brick-yard, and the process of manufacturing brick in Coxsackie. The floor for drying, one hundred feet wide ; the length governed according to the extent of the business ; if not made on a clay foundation it should be faced with clay, and made smooth and sufficiently inclined to carry the water off freely after rain — say about fifteen inches. Along the lower line of this inclined plane is placed the pits or vats, made in the shape of a half moon — the straight side fronting the inclined plane. They should be equal in size to the one half of a circle, nineteen feet in diameter, and three feet deep — the bottom being six inches higher than the inclined plane, made water tight, and embanked to their top. In front of each pit, at the centre, is placed the tub-mill ; each of these are planted at dis- tances of eighty-five feet apart ; on the opposite side of the drying floor, and adjoining it is the kiln-ground, on which is erected aburn- ing shed — two rows of posts being set near thirty feet, and generally extended the whole length of the yard ; on the top of these are plates which are kept from spreading apart by the weight of the roof by iron rods which connect them ; two other rows of posts are set on either side of these, and about twelve feet therefrom, to form wings ; these sheds are always kept covered except when the kiln is so hot as to endanger the upper roof, when the boards are slid therefrom on to the lower one or wings, and when the kiln is sufficiently cool, again replaced. The ground, after once being dried by burning, not being No. 85. J 461 a^ain permitted to get wet, all moisture which the ground contains, on which brick are set to be burned, must necessarily evaporate through the kiln, and takes fuel. The stock here is composed of clay, marl, and silicious earth — the prevailing mineral magnesia. It is situated in high banks, in rather a hard state ; it is first plowed, and left to be thoroughly dried in the sun ; when dry, scraped down to the foot of the bank, care being taken to have a sufficient quantity thus dried scraped into large heaps, to last through a spell of wet weather ; a man, with a horse and cart, delivers it at the pit,dumping it so as to be handy to shovel in ; a sufficient quantity of water is first put into the pit to soak half stock enough to fill it ; the stock is then shoveled in, eare being taken to spread it equally over the pit, so that every shovel full shall be thrown into water — the stock using up the water when the pit is about half full ; the proper quantity of coal dust is then spread equally over it ; water is then put in again in sufficient quantity, with the stock necessary to use it up, to fill the pit, every shovel full of the stock, as before, being thrown into the water, the stock coming as high as the water, and using it up when full ; if it is properly filled it may be agitated like a great liver ; it should then be left to soak about twelve hours, when it is fit to be shoveled into the tub-mill, which is one man's work, and the work of one horse to tem- per it — the mortar, as it is tempered, passing out of the tub-mill at the bottom in front, directly into the chamber of the molding ma- chine. It is the work of one man to operate the molding machine, making six bricks at each impression, and the work of two hands to carry the bricks, six at a time, in a mold, and lay them on the floor to dry. Many millions have been made in this way at this place, and there is never less than ten thousand put up per day, with the four hands and one horse, and frequently many more. This is called the molding gang ; it is their regular business from day to day to make the mortar, mold the bricks, and lay them on the ground to dry. There is another set of hands whose business it is to take care of the bricks in the yard, set them in the kiln when dry, or bake them on the yard if necessary, on account of dull weather, to make room for the molding gang, and shovel the stock into the pits, filling them as I have before described. These are called yard hands ; their work however is subdivided, so that as much as possible, each man shall continually do the same kind of work. Bricks are never taken from the yard until dry enough to set in the kiln ; narrow boards are placed in rows on the floor running from the kiln towards the pits, on which the bricks are placed edgewise, in rows set loose, and nine or ten high, covered with saddles in case of rain ; when dry wheeled to the kiln. Wheelbarrows made with the axle nearly under the centre of the foreboard, so as to throw^the load on to the wheel. The kiln is set with forty to forty-five lengths of brick long, the bricks being set edgewise from forty to forty-five high — the arches for fires, two lengths of brick wide, and the benches between them three lengths. The kiln is cased with rough bricks, which when it is burned are taken off" and put on another kiln, and by keeping them dry, which is easily done with a regular burning shed, with a little replenishing will case a 462 [Senate great number of kilns. Kilns are frequently burned in this way, con- taining from five hundred thousand to one million of bricks. The kiln ground is kept clean, and the bricks wheeled in readily from the drying floor ; while setting the kiln and the casing being taken off after burning, the kiln is easy of access by teams to take away the bricks. This plan of casing kilns is much preferred to that of build- ing thick, heavy, stationary walls. The quantity of brick made in one season (about five months) per each man employed is about one hundred and twenty five-thousand ; in all cases where the stock breaks up, in a hard, lumpy state, it should, if practicable, be dried and shoveled into water ; the water buoys it up, and causes the lumps to dissolve; the effect is entirely different from that of putting the stock in first and then adding the water, but when the stock is soft in the bank like putty it should be put into the pit without drying, and the water then added. Drying the stock produces a similar ef- fect to that of freezing ; the sand used in the stock is added after it is soaked ; while tempering, the quantity of coal dust from three pecks to one bushel per thousand, varying according to the stock. The use of coal dust or fine coal (worked into the stock the same as sand) has become universal on the Hudson river. It has been thought by some who were unacquainted with the matter, that the use of fine coal in this manner must injure the brick, leave them porous, &c. This, however, is a mistake, the quantity in each brick is very small. When brick receive that degree of heat necessary to vitrify, or put the stony nature into them, (though the heat has before expanded them) they contract, causing the kiln to settle ; the coal being a mi- neral unites with and enters into the stock, and the contraction closes the pores; the brick are stronger and more solid than those made without coal, but it requires great skill in burning. No one ought to undertake to burn brick in this way without at first serving an ap- prenticeship at the business ; vast quantities of brick were spoiled in learning the art ; it is a trade by itself. I shall refrain from giving a description of the process, for the reason that it might induce some persons to try the experiment, and without a practical knowledge a failure would ensue and perhaps a heavy loss. The use of coal dust saves nearly one-half of the fuel; the time of burning about four and a half days. A very large yard has been established at Cambridge, Mass., on the plan I have here marked out. One hundred thousand bricks will be made on it daily next season. The process of making brick in every section of the country north of Pennsylvania, partakes more or less of the plan I have here laid down. In Philadelphia, and throughout Pennsylvania, and the southern States generally, the process is very different. Iq Philadelphia, the stock is composed of clay loam, and silicious earth heavily impreg- nated with oxide of iron; the stock is tempered by manual labor with a spade or shovel ; it is shoveled into a heap on the ground at the place where it is dug ; water being poured on, it is left to stand over night ; the next day made into mortar ; a day's work to temper the mortar for two thousand three hundred — from thence it is wheel- ed by another man, sometimes a long distance to the floor for drying, a narrow space of ground, adjoining which is a shed, under which No. 85.] 463 the bricks are baked as soon as dry enough to handle. The mortar is dumped on to a table which is moved along the yard as the ground is covered with brick laid out to dry ; another man molds it, the mold containing but one brick, (instead of six, as at the north,) each clod intended for a brick is rolled in loam sand ; it is then thrown into the mold which has no bottom, being carried off by a boy ; the mold being drawn quickly from the table, and at the same time turning it edgewise that the briCk shall not fall out — 2,300 being the day's work. The mortar made in this way is not well mixed, many $mall lumps remaining unbroken, and the common bricks though made in this slow manner, are not as smooth as many brick makers make them where six are molded in one mold instead of one, and where the quantity molded with the same number of hands is four times as great ; but the beautiful red color they receive from the presence of oxide of iron covers up all defects. The stock in the vicinity of Boston, and many other places, make much stron- ger brick. Pressed brick, of which many are made in Philadelphia and Baltimore, are made the same as other brick, but when sufficiently dry to handle, they are put one at a time into a strong metallic mold in which they receive a powerful pressure, to make them straight and smooth ; they are then handled carefully and burned the same as other brick. Many of this kind of brick are used in New-York city, there being little or no stock on the Hudson river, (where bricks are made for the New-York market,) that will color such a beautiful red, in consequence of the presence of magnesia in most of the stock, which renders it unfit for pressed brick. If some chemical substance, not too expensive, could be mixed with the sand used for molding, that would give the outside of the brick when burned a bright yellow, or straw color, they would be very beautiful for fronts. Very respectfully, A. HALL. SILK CONVENTION. Proceedings of the second National Convention of Silk Culturists and Silk Manufacturers^ held at the Repository of the American Insti- tute,in the city ofJVew-York, October 9th and lOth, 1844. The Convention assembled in compliance with the following call of the American Institute, entitled, an Address to the Silk Culturists and Manufacturers of the United States: We, the Trustees of the American Institute of the city of New- York, address you as known friends of the silk cause in this country. We have long been fully satisfied that the soil and climate of our country are eminently suited to the culture of silk, and that our peo- ple are abundantly competent to the manufacture of this precious 464 [Senate commodity ; and therefore, that this branch of Home Industry, can be extended as rapidly as correct information on the subject can be diffused ; increasing and diversifying the employments, and augment- ing the comforts of the people, and saving millions of dollars now- sent abroad for silks, and lost to the country. By the use of appro- priate means, we believe that in twenty to thirty years the silk pro- ducts of this country may be made to enter as fully into the exchanges, and all the financial interests of the nation, as our cotton products now do. With these views, and in accordaiice with the general designs of our association, established as it was to promote all the great interests of our country, it was determined a year ago to make a special effort to bring the silk subject before the public in a form to command con- fidence, and urge the whole business forward. We therefore, under the authority of the Institute, issued circulars, proposing a JYafional Convention of silk growers and manufacturers, to be held in New- York during the sixteenth annual Fair. We also invited them to bring or send samples of their silk, raw and manufactured, for exhi- bition, and also to furnish the convention with written statements of their labors. The results are before the public. The exhibition of silks consti- tuted a prominent and most attractive feature of our Fair. In the convention we were happy to see delegates from the East, the West, the North, and the South, and that confidence in the essential merits of the silk business characterized all their deliberations, and the reso- lutions finally adopted. All their proceedings, together with nume- rous letters from all parts of the country, have been spread before the public in the form of a repori, making a pamphlet of eighty pa- ges of closely printed matter, double columns, embodying a vast amount of reliable information no where else to be found. One edi- tion has been published in New-York by Saxton & Miles. In Boston the work has been stereotyped by T. R. Marvin, through the liberal- ity of the Massachusetts Agricultural Society, and a few public spirited individuals, that it may be sold at a very low rate. We are happy also to say that the Legislature of New-York has printed tw^o thousand copies of the report, a part of the general re- port t)f the Institute, and that the newspaper press have aided much in spreading the facts thus collected. In this way the movement has resulted in great good. Public at- tention has been arrested — much prejudice has been surmounted, and a very desirable measure of public interest awakened. Our course is now a plain one. It is to follow up the good work so auspiciously commenced by a series of annual conventions and an- nual reports^ to be continued as long as the interests of the business seem to demand. Facts, facts, well attested facts, spread before th6 people, is all that is needed to make our widely extended country the greatest silk growing and silk manufacturing country on the globe. This consummation of our hopes can be secured. It must be done. We therefore announce a second silk convention, to be held at the Re- pository of the Institute, on Wednesday, Oct. 9th, at 10 o'clock, A. No. 85.] 465 M., and at the time of the seventeenth annual Fair; and we invite every grower and manufacturer in the United States to do three things: 1. Attend the convention. 2. To bring (or send, if you cannot come,) the best samples of your cocoons y reeled silks and manufactured silks, for exhibition ; for all which special accommodations will be provided, so that they may be seen and examined by the hundreds of thousands that will throng the Fair. 3. Make out for the convention a written statement of your la- bors in growing or manufacturing silk, or both, as the case may be ; and if it is out of your power to attend the convention, send it, so that it may be read to the attending delegates, and go into our next Report. Last year, we had from one hundred and fifty, to two hun- dred such statements, as our report shows. This year we hope to have ten times the number. To save room in printing, we wish to have the returns come in such a form to be put into statistical tables. You can, therefore, give us your answer by filling the blanks in the following schedules. If you cannot do it in this way, give us all the facts you have in your possession, in any form you choose. In addition to filling the blanks as above, we wish you to make any suggestions, offer any remarks, state any fact that may occur to you, or any improvement in any part of the general business, which will be preserved in the body of the report. We would urge it upon the friends of this cause to hold county and other local conventions, and collect all the cases they can, large or small. We want small experi- ments, as well as large ones ; the more the better. We would be glad to see in our report, the name of every man and woman engaged in the silk business in the United States. Gen- tlemen, it is for you and our country that we labor. We do not know of a single individual among all the officers or managers of the Institute, engaged either in the culture or manufacture of silk. Help us in this great national work. Come to the convention. Above all, send us the facts, the facts desired. In conclusion, we will, as we did last year, send a copy of our re- port to every person who will give us his experience in the business. We will also send a copy to every newspaper editor, who will pub- lish this circular, sending us the paper containing it. Will our friends see to it, that it is published in all the newspapers 1 Address T. B. Wakeman, Corresponding Secretary of the American Institute, New- York. In compliance with the foregoing call, the proceedings of the convention were punctually commenced, and witnessed the attend- ance of a good number of delegates from several different States of the Union. The meeting was called to order about half past ten o'clock, and Henry Meigs was called to the chair. On motion, the following gentlemen were appointed a committee to nominate officers. Rev. I. R. Barbour, of Oxford, Mass., Col. Clark, of New- York, J. G. Ward, of Fulton co., and J. H. Whipple, of Bennington. [Senate, No. 85.] Ee 466 [Senate The Committee then reported the following nominations : Gen. James Tallmadge, President. Jas. A. H. Whipple, of Ver • mont ; Geo. W. Murry, of New- Jersey ; James Harrison, of Con- necticut ; J. G. Ward, of New-York ; Samuel Church, of Con- necticut ; Isaac R. Barbour, of Mass. ; Henry Meigs, of New-York, Vice-Presidents. Theodore Dwight, jr., of New-York, Secretary. Charles Nicholl, of Connecticut, Assistant Secretary. A. C. Van Epps, Lucius Cary, John S. Pierce, I. R. Barbour, J. G. Ward, Business Committee. On motion, the report of the committee was adopted. Gen. Tallmadge then proceeded to the chair, as President of the Convention ; and before taking his seat, addressed the Convention as follows : Having honored me by your choice, as presiding officer of this Convention, I beg you to accept my thanks. I frankly confess to you, that while this call is unexpected, the subject on which you are assembled is one for which I have great feeling and interest ; and I beg you to believe, that whatever lies in my power to promote it, shall be done. I have said before, and repeat it now, that the culture of silk is a branch of business for the prosecution of which, America is so well calculated by nature, that it will eventually excel Europe, and even Asia. Such are the peculiarities of the climate of this country, that the air is dry through that season in which the business is to be car- ried on ; while in Europe it is damp, as is the case, also, in a great part of Asia. A moment's reflection will explain the cause of this important dif- ference. The prevailing wdnds, which are westerly, are dried, in America, by crossing the mountains, and blowing over extensive tracts of land ; while, in the Eastern Continent, they come from the water. The same cause which here produces dryness, in Europe produces moisture ; and this marked peculiarity must always affect the silk culture. It is unnecessary to remark farther on this subject, as the importance of this peculiarity cannot fail to be appreciated. There is another fact equally important, and equally in our favor. I think I can state without danger of mistake, that there is not a book published in the Italian or French languages, on the silk cul- ture, which does not commence by telling you how to hatch the silk worm eggs, by artificial means^ viz. by the heat and moisture of the human body. The common method there, is for peasant women to place them next their skin, and wear them at their labor in the field, till they hatch, and then to pour them upon the mulberry leaves to feed. On the contrary, in America, every book that is published, begins with a chapter of directions how to prevent the eggs from hatching. Here, contrary to the practice in Europe, we are obliged to use our ice-houses and cellars to prevent the worms coming out before the foliage is ready. With these facts before us, gentlemen, I maintain that, of all the habitable globe, America is best fitted for this, as one of her staple No. 85.J 467 articles. It would delight rae to put before you the information collected at the last Convention ; and I have it in my power to state, that the Committee will lay before this Convention a large amount of information, collected from different parts of the country, on the sub- ject on which they are called to deliberate. With regard to the consumption of silk, I hold it to be the duty of the patriot and statesman, when any article is consumed extensively in the country, to use his influence to promote its production at home, so that we may be rendered independent of other nations ; to do all we can to make our own people industrious, and to prevent them from looking abroad for food or clothing. Much information with regard to silk is collected and might be laid before you ; but I will ask your attention to one fact. In the State of New-York we are slow in making progress in the culture of silk, compared with those parts of the country further west. We are great consumers of the article. There is a village called Gloversville, Montgomery county, N. Y., and it may surprise you, as 1 was surprised, to learn that $500,000 are annually spent for ma- terials for making gloves ; and listen to one fact ; $10,000 a year is paid for silk to sew them with. Until lately all that silk was im- ported, and now I can tell you that the great body of it has been pro- duced in this country. Judge Meigs arose with a letter in his hand, and addressed the Pre- sident as follows : Mr. President — I never rose, sir, to say any thing with as much satisfaction as I now rise to address you. I see evidence that the public interest is awakening to the important objects of agriculture, when it receives substantial notice from a gentleman of such distin- guished character and intelligence as the writer of this letter. It is from a gentleman of Dutch descent, with a fine old Dutch name, Myndert Van Schaick, a merchant of this city for many years. He authorises me to come here this morning and to offer to the American Institute one thousand dollars — that is, one hundred dollars a year for ten years — to be paid in premiums for the encouragement of the silk manufacture. He has well considered the subject and has taken this resolution. JYew-York, July I6th, 1844. To the Hon. James Tallmadge, President of the American Institute : Dear Sir — It gives me the greatest satisfaction to perceive from this afternoon's paper, that the American Institute is seriously engaged in efforts for the promotion of the culture and manufacture of silk in this country. Your distinguished society cannot be employed in a more truly national object, or in one which will confer on its members a greater share of renown ; for I am persuaded that it is not an extra- vagant opinion to estimate the saving which the culture and manu- facture of silk will produce in the country, when the supply shall equal the demand, at not less than twenty millions of dollars per annum. I have always looked at this subject as one of the most interesting, in relation to the profitable application of industry and skill, which 468 [Senate could be proposed for the advantage of the community. I therefore offer your society $100 a year for ten years, to be distributed in pre- miums, or to be awarded in one premium yearly, for the best piece of silk stuff, twenty-seven inches wide and sixty yards in length, manu- factured in the United States, from native silk produced from worms of our own breeding. It may be alleged that the absolute certainty of our soil and climate are suitable for the production of the best kinds of silk, and that our own country furnishes a market adequate to the consumption of the fabrics that may be supplied for many years to come, at reasonable prices, furnish all the inducements which can be required to impel our wonderfully active and industrious people to undertake the culture and manufacture of this important article of trade. But the facilities for exhibition, and the premiums for skill, which your society propose to furnish, are necessary to enable exhibi- tors to compare their fabrics, and to stimulate them to the manufacture of the best description of goods. The opinions which were entertained by several gentlemen in this State, possessing great experience and ability, may be found in a report which I had the honor to make to the House of Assembly, on March J, 1832, Document No. 176. It is therein stated that — " It has been ascertained by actual experience, both in France and England, that American silk, if not superior, is at least equal to the silk of any other country. The cocoons yield more than those of France and Italy, and their produce is of as fine a texture and equal in nerve to the silk of any other country, and ■when well reeled, it loses less than the Italian in wastage." The important and conclusive facts establishing the superior quality of American silk were communicated to me by the Hon. Ambrose Spen- cer, late Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of this State, whose investigations of the subject had been extensive and thorough, and were related with all the clearness and force which distinguish his mind. It is also stated in the same Document, that " the treasury reports present the astonishing fact, that in some years the importation and consumption of silk fabrics in the United States, have been of greater value than the whole amount of bread stuffs exported ; so the indus- try and labor of the farmers of the United States have been appropri- ated to the purchase and introduction of a luxury with which the country could, with the greatest facility, supply itself, and in a few years produce a staple which would not fail to become a source of wealth." The ability of this country to furnish itself with silks was confidently asserted by Le Ray De Chaumont, who, at the period re- ferred to, was an agriculturist of high repute^ in Jefferson county, and perfectly conversant with the culture of silk in the United States. At the same time that the facts contained in those paragraphs encou- rage the culture of silk, from the consideration of the certainty of the crop or product, they also furnish an assurance of a suitable remune- ration to all those families or culturists who are able to supply the demand at prices not higher than the foreign article is sold for in this market. But it should be inculcated on all who undertake this business that permanent success is only to be achieved by economy and indus- No. 85.] 469 try, and not by the temporary stimulus of speculative movements, the futility of which has been ascertained by dear-bought experience. The extraordinary success with which this country has pursued the manufacture of cotton and woolen goods, leaves no room to doubt that an equal degree of attention applied to the culture and manufac- ture of silks, will be attended with similar results in the perfection of the fabric, and in its reputation as an article adapted as well to our foreign trade as for home consumption. As to the manufacture of cotton and woolen goods, I am inclined to believe that there is good foundation for the opinion that this branch of industry may now be established on this island to advan- tage. It is a local subject, and perhaps does not come under the rules or general policy by which your society is governed, in their selection of objects for encouragement. But the city is not an insignificant place. Its interests may even be supposed to embrace a considerable portion of the national interests. And when you come to consider, as connected with the future history of New- York, the extent and importance of my suggestions, your society may feel inclined to look at the question which I shall now present for their investigation, and to aid in its development. During the last forty years, there has been a great destitution of employment for the laboring classes of this city in the winter months. In conversing on this subject, it has frequently occurred to me, that the creation of any new occupation which would afford a means of support, not subject to the intermis- sions of business seasons of the year, was an object so desirable as to be worthy of the attention of public institutions, as well as public spirited individuals. In canvassing the merits of different projects, having this end in view, none has appeared to be more favorable than the formation of manufacturing establishments. Since the introduc- tion of the Croton river on the island, the probability that manufac- turing of cotton and woolen goods may be conducted on terms so cheap as to insure a profit to capitalists, has been very much increased. The abundant supply of water which we possess, will, if properly husbanded, be applicable to a vast extension of manufacturing pur- poses, as well in cotton and woolen goods, as in the metals and other articles of merchandize. The reduced price of coal, and the facility of its delivery on either shore of the island, are circumstances which favor the opinion that the time has arrived when almost every de- scription of manufactories may be prosecuted to advantage in this city. It is also supposed that buildings can be erected on this island at as little cost as in any part of the eastern states ; that machinery, at the present prices of fuel, can be run by the force of steam power, at not much greater expense than that of water power, if the interest on the capital invested in the purchase of the latter be computed ; that labor, of the description employed in manufacturing establish- ments, will always be abundant in this city, and at a sufficiently low rate of wages ; that this labor is for the most part without steady em- ployment, and in this city never can find sufficient occupation, unless it be in factories ; that small supplies of the raw material can always be procured in this market, thus saving the interest on the cost of 470 [Senate keeping a larger stock on hand, or if it be desirable to purchase a car- go of cotton in a southern port, it may be landed near the factory without incurring the expense of transhipment, warehousing, or in- land transportation ; that our extensive and affluent market, and the cheap and rapid communication therewith, which factories operating on this island must enjoy, would confer on them advantages, in ma- king sales of their goods, superior to any in other parts of the coun- try, and probably sufficient to counterbalance the presumed cheapness of water power over steam power ; and finally, that the use of fresh water in generating steam and cleansing boilers, is preferable to the use of salt water. There are probably some well informed and clear headed merchants and mechanics in your society, who possess the information and ability which may be required to elucidate the ques- tions on which the practicability of the project must depend. I have given you a short narrative of the opinions which have oc- curred to me in regard to it, not so much because I deem them to be indisputable, as for the purpose of exciting inquiry and remark. If a thorough investigation of the proposition should result in a general conviction, that the business offers a profitable mode of in- vesting capital on this island, and a useful mode of employing many idle hands, an important benefit will be gained for the city. The very low rate which the Croton Water Board, charges for the use of water in steam engines and factories, vdll operate as an encourage- ment to manufacturing pursuits of every description, in which water is an essential agent. A large proportion of the scientific and laboring classes of London and Paris, derive their subsistence from the wages of manufacturing pursuits. I do not know that a list of the goods, wares and merchan- dize, made in these cities, can be furnished ; but their value has some- times been reported in the newspapers in figures calculated to strike the attention of all with the greatest surprise at their vast amount, and at their vital importance in contributing to the subsistence and comfort of an immense population. Our own metropolis is as well situated as either London or Paris, for the manufacture of articles, in which they excel ; that is in silks, leather, gold, silver, iron, wood and many smaller commodities, constituting an immense aggregate of wealth, and exhibiting the most finished specimens of artistical skill and ingenuity. To these necessary, useful and ornamental products of mechanical science, in the production of which our city has been increasing every year, except during periods of political convulsion and financial prostration, may we not be able in time to add the im- portant and extensive and lucrative business of manufacturing cotton and woolen goods 1 The question is at least worthy of examination by competent hands. I wish you all health, and the society unbound-, ed success. M. VAN SCHAICK. The following resolution was then oflFered by Col. Clark, and unani- mously adopted : Resolvedj That the thanks of this convention be given to Mr. Van No. 85.J 471 Schaick, for his noble and liberal donation, and for his important remarks on American Manufactures. The president then requested information concerning the treatment of worms, houses for feeding in, and all other particulars ; remarking that open feeding, or feeding in free air, seemed to be gaining friends. Mr. A. C. Van Epps -being particularly requested, gave an account of his method, remarking as follows : I have done but little in raising silk. The present season has been in fact the commencement. The two previous years were only an in- troduction. The last season has been rather discouraging. But I believe the causes are understood and may be avoided. I began feeding in May. Within the last two years, I have collected trees from indi- viduals who had engaged in the speculation, and thrown the business in trees aside. I have in all about ten acres ; only about four how- ever, in condition to feed from ; as they have been much neglected for the last three or four years. One acre should produce more good foliage than I collected this year from my entire lot. I raised about three hundred pounds of cocoons. My first experiment was made in a very large building erected for a cocoonery at great expense, but entirely destitute of means for securing adequate ventilation. I now feed in an open shed or tent. It is covered with boards, and the sides and ends are made of canvass attached, so as to roll up at pleasure. I feed in this from the commencement. During the first two weeks it is necessary to keep the canvass down most of the time ; but after the third moulting, I keep them rolled up both night and day. It was sometimes exceedingly cold, but I think it productive of no serious injury. I believe this is now almost universally admit- ted by growers. I had this season two hatchings, ten days apart. The first fed through finely; but the second had just apparently begun to enjoy their food when I was obliged to proclaim to them " short allowances," owing to a failure in foliage. The result was, I collected what I could find within ten miles. My worms lived some eight or ten days beyond their appointed time, and left merely a token of respect. A Member. What kind of fixtures do you use for the worms to wind in ? They wound in the branches from which they had eaten the foliage. I fed them in part in Gill's ventilating cradle, and the remainder on frames embracing all the advantages of the cradle as far as ventila- tion is concerned, and more convenient in use. Would it not be a saving to give them other branches to wind in ? Some give them oak branches. They are exceedingly fond of these, but it does not seem necessary, where the mulberry trees are of any conisderable size, and properly used, as they answer every pur- pose. The trees start up again immediately. Mine were cut down the last of July, and when I left home, many of them were three feet high. In order to adopt this method the trees should be on rich soil, which I prefer decidedly. Will the gentleman explain the plan of his frames '? I suspend my frames by means of upright pieces attached to the rafters, and coming down low enough for convenience in feeding. On 472 [Senate these are nailed pieces of board about three inches wide, the whole length ; also across the ends. My frames are about five feet wide, and my worms are placed on them immediately after their third moult- ing. For a few days I feed them on boards, which are placed on slats nailed on the bottom of the sides. Across the tops of these I lay other slats about one inch square, and at first six or eight inches apart, over the worms. I first lay the branches between these for a few feedings, and then across. The worms soon find their way on to these, and in about three days it will do to remove the boards on which they first fed. This leaves them fully exposed to a circulation of pure air from above and below, and on all sides. I place boards at the sides and ends, against which most of the cocoons are placed, as it affords a good place for them to retire from the light after their public work is completed. The branches usually become from one to two feet thick before the worms get through feeding ; still, if care is taken in feeding, the foliage will be taken off so cleanly that the worms can be seen from below, through the entire thickness. Did you ever observe any dampness on your worms 7 No. The dampness so commonly complained of arises from the fact that more foliage is given the worms than they consume ; this heats and collects moisture, and frequently proves the destruction of entire crops. President. Under the old system the worms were fed on boards, which kept every thing together and caused fermentation, dampness and disease, with an offensive smell. This arrangement prevents that diflSculty, and must give a circulation and dryness, while every thing loose falls to the ground, and can easily be swept away. Jl Member. Your eggs 1 Mr. Van Epps. I preserve them in tin canisters, taking care to separate the different sheets by putting cotton batting between them ; this absorbs the moisture. I place this canister in a box of dry sand, so that it may be at least four inches thick on all sides. This box is placed in my ice-house, and surrounded by ice. It is necessary to attend to this before the weather becomes warm enough to cause the hatching process to commence. I should advise that they be put in as early as the month of February. I think eggs might be kept in this way for centuries. I have not known mine to hatch in less than two weeks after exposing them. President. Some years ago, being requested by an invalid of my family, that she might have something to employ her attention in her illness, I procured a thousand or two silk worm's eggs. As we were about to remove into the city in the autumn, some were put into a lady's bureau ; another portion were fastened to the beams in the cel- lar out of the way of the rats, and the rest were placed in the ice- house. In May, those in the bureau were found hatched and dead. The others remained unaltered. When the leaves came out they were put into the chambers, where they hatched in a few days. I after- wards visited Italy with my daughter ; and as she spoke the Italian language, I got her to inquire how the people managed to keep their silk worm's eggs from hatching. They could not understand her question, as they never have it to do. No. 85.] 473 In Naples they keep their eggs in bottles, which you will see for sale in all the little groceries and shops, as we should call them. The fact is, they never hatch without artificial heat ; and this I afterwards learned from books. The discovery was surprising to me, and con- vinced me that our climate must be better adapted to the silk worm, and of course to the silk culture, than Europe. I began to make known these facts on my return ; and this is the beginning of our par- ticular acquaintance with the fact In Europe, they are never hatched, unless by the heat of the human body, or that of manure. They are first scraped off the papers, to which they naturally adhere, and that destroys one-half. I will re- quest Mr. Barbour to make some experiments on sealing tight, and report at our next convention. Mr. Barbour. I will endeavor to do so. Eggs must be from a healthy stock, and in a healthy state. If the incipient process of hatch- ing commences before they are brought out, where they will proceed without interruption, you cannot be certain that they will be healthy. If they hatch in less than ten or twelve days after being exposed to the warmth of the atmosphere, you may be sure the hatching began before the exposure. There has been many a case of disappointment arising from this source. They appear, at first, well ; at the first moulting you lose some ; at the second, some more, and then perhaps an epidemic breaks out, and sweeps off all. Moulting is a crisis in the constitution of the worm, and then disease shows itself. It is reasonable to presume that when hatching begins in the ice-house, evil consequences will follow. Imbed the eggs in the ice. Few ice-houses are cold enough above the ice, to secure them in warm weather. My experience accords with Mr. Van Epps's. I have a tin trunk, and imbed it in the ice. Perhaps cotton or sand may not be necessary. Surround the box with ice. Make a hole, line it with straw, and put the box into it. You may keep them till midsummer, and I believe for ten years. The transition should not be sudden when you bring them out. Put them in a cellar for a day or two, and then bring them into the air, and they commence hatching sometimes at 40° or 45°. Let us follow nature. The worm lives on a tree like all caterpillars. The very same warm weather that brings out the leaf, hatches the little worm to eat it. Ji Member. Are early worms most healthy ? Yes, because most natural. A year ago, however, I had as good success in September as in June ; and that was the only case in which I have had good success in late feeding. But the case was peculiar. There was a drouth early in the season, and in August the leaves came out fresh, while September was dry and favorable ; so that the season was a good one for late feeding. The cold cannot be too great for eggs. My experience is in favor of as early feeding as possible. Ji Member. Have dried leaves been tried 1 Yes, by Dr. Stebbins, of Northampton. They must be moistened. Eggs are sometimes not put into the ice-house until in April. They should be in mid- winter, to guard against early warmth. Mr. Barbour remarked that Mr. Van Epps's method secured venti- lation. An under current of air passes below the worms and up 474 [Senate through the frames, promoting dryness and health. Mr, Van Epps keeps his curtains up most of the time. I was glad to hear it. Nine- tenths of the disasters proceed from impeded circulation. I have no doubt children in school, are often seriously injured by the want of pure air, and even many who are shut up too much at home. Last year I stretched cotton drilling over a ridge poll, with rollers fastened to the ends, on which I rolled up the sides in good weather. This year I roofed with boards, and cut up the drilling for curtains. Ji Member. Rain 1 Not hurt a whit. I believe it does harm only by its indirect ef- fects, by wetting the litter and causing it to ferment. I do not think rain or dew injure worms at all. In the native state they must take rain, dew and wind just as they come. I, and probably others, have found worms thrown out with litter, living and thriving, brought in healthy, and passed through. My sons have done it with success. You may ask, why shelter them 1 To keep off sun. It is not certain that a leafy grove is not the best place we could have. It has not been tried. When open feeding was first proposed there were as many objec- tions to it, as there are to no shelters^ but now almost every body is in favor of it. At Economy, close feeding is successful, but there an amount of labor is bestowed which I am confident cannot be generally given by the mass of feeders. They have also a peculiarly favorable situation ; a constant current of air blowing up or down the river, which draws through the building. We have occasionally two or "three days of still moist weather; and in common situations, the chances of getting a lot of silkworms through, are as forty nine to . fifty. This year I have pursued a different course from any I had before tried, combining the old and the new plans. While young I kept the worms in a close room, for they so easily become chilled while young, that they will not grow so well when exposed to the weather. When older I threw open my tent night and day. I used to think . there was great danger of cold when winding ; my fear was partly removed by Mr. Wadsworth's letter last year, in reply to one addressed to him. He said cold did not stop them. This year I was late ; the middle of July they hatched, and wound from the middle to the last of August. We then encountered ex- treme changes ; in the morning the thermometer would be at 50° to 75° and 80° and then 45°. All were still, the whole lot, as still as if dead. But the sun came up warm, and about ten o'clock they were all atwork again. I never could see any injury ; there was no loss but in time; that is of no consequence, provided they go through healthy and make good cocoons. AFTERNOON SESSION. The convention was called to order at four o'clock, by the presi- dent. Mr. Barbour then read a number of letters from silk culturists and manufacturers, from different parts of the country, amongst them the proceedings of the New-England Silk Convention. Conversation and familiar verbal communications were then resumed. Mr. Barbour. I met Mr. Gideon B. Smith, in Baltimore a few No. 85. J 475 days since, and he told me that it ought to be proclaimed north and south, that mulberry trees should always be planted on hills, and in no case in valleys ; I am strongly inclined to believe him. Mr. Swan. I wish to correct a mistake which prevails. What is called American sewing silk is not all raised in this country. There are not half enough cocoons to support the manufacturers, who are obliged to buy imported raw silk, to spin into sewing silk, not inclu- ding a great quantity used for tassels &c., which comes from Bengal, China, Turkey and Italy. The demand for cocoons is indefinite. If ten times as many cocoons were raised in America, the demand would still be high. Mr. . A gentleman whose name, for reasons of propriety, I am not about to give, a resident and manufacturer at Glasgow, has within three years, commenced a large silk plantation near John Randolph's estate, on the Roanoke river. In a few years he expects to send above one hundred hogsheads of cocoons to his manufactory. Mr. Barbour. There is no possibility of glutting our market with cocoons. They are a bad article to transport. Local filatures are needed ; but then the market will be for many years indefinite. One of the letters which have been read, stated that in one establishment they have this year purchased only $1,000 worth of American silk, and foreign to the amount of $20,000. Three times as much silk is manufactured now as three years ago ; yet in the East, most of it is foreign. But west of Philadelphia, they do not use a single pound of imported raw silk. These facts teach us, that we need entertain no fears of glutting the market. We must labor several years before we can supply existing establishments, and there are constantly new ones coming up. I have got fifty cents per pound for every pound of reeled silk I have ever sold, above what is paid for foreign. President. These two questions have been handed in to me, with a request that answers may be given. 1st. What is the duty on raw silk ? 2d. What should it be? Several Members. Two dollars. j3 Member. If duty were laid in some proper proportion on man- ufactured silk, it would help cocoons. At the last convention it was proposed to acquaint the Secretary of State with an imposition prac- ticed by importing manufactured silk with the gum in it, as raw silk, at fifty cents a pound, when it ought to have been two dollars and fifty cents. President. In compliance with that direction, I went to the cus- tom house, as President of the Convention, and studied the subject, acquainting myself with the laws and the practice. I then addressed a letter to the Secretary of the Treasury, pointing out the frauds, and stated that no more laws were necessary to correct them, but only a better administration of the existing laws. " Silk in the gum," as I informed him, implies silk unmanufactured, with the natural gum of the silk worm still upon it. But silk spun and dipped in some coarse kind of gum, merely to evade the law, ought to be seized for fraud. My letter on this subject was published and copied into many of the papers. I have further to add, only, that the Secretary thought pro- 476 [Senate per never to answer my letter, while our custom house officers here acknowledged it was a glaring fraud. Mr. Barbour resumed the reading of letters, beginning with one from Mr. Swinney. By request, Mr. Swinney made some additional statements respect- ing his method. He said that he had continued to feed in shanties after the third moulting, and prefers it. Feeds on branches, because it saves much work in collecting foliage ; and shanties save also much expense usually incurred in the erection of cocooneries. His worms are the sulphur. Mr. Barbour read other letters ; when, on motion, it was Resolved, That the letters be referred to the Business CommitteCj with discretionary power to insert them in the report. The President having invited the members to attend the Fair of the Institute, the Convention adjourned till to-morrow morning at 10 o'clock. EVENING. The assemblage at Niblo's, in the evening, was immense. So great was the throng, that thousands were unable to hear a word of the address, which was delivered by Rev. I. R. Barbour, of Oxford, Mass., and is reported by the Tribune as follows. His remarks were both retrospective and prospective. He said that the feasibility of the growth and manufacture of silk in this country, had been amply demonstrated. Our soil was adapted to the growth of the mulberry, and our climate to the healthy condition of the silk worm ; and it has been shown by actual experiment, that while the loss of worms in the silk growing countries of Europe, was from 20 to 25 per cent, here it need not be more than 5 per cent. Our silk too, was, or might be, of a better quality than that produced in other countries. Mr. B. stated, as an illustration of the rapidity with which silk may be manufactured, that in June last, a mulberry tree stood on the banks of the Ohio, the seeds of which, being planted, produced other trees ; and the leaves of those trees were used in feeding worms, and articles manufactured from the silk thus produced, were on exhibi- tion at the Fair ! He would challenge any silk growing country to beat this. The extensive difficulties which surrounded this enterprise, had been surmounted. Every one who remembered the Mulberry bub- ble, of 1836, knew what those difficulties were. Since that period, the friends of the cause had been silently at work, settling elementa- ry principles, and it would yet be seen that the cause did not follow the bad fortunes of the speculators in morus multicaulis. Intrinsic difficulties had been overcome, and it was proved conclusively, that silk-worms might be raised with as much certainty as chickens. Those who had embarked in the cause, having been for a time deluded by false ideas, were under the necessity of unlearning many things that had been taught them, and this also, they had successfully accom- plished. The great object before them, was to extend the growth of No. 85.J 477 silk throughout the United States. There was not a State where it might not be profitably produced. It had already been grown as far north as Maine. Prejudice would burn itself out in its own fires. The object was not to supersede other branches of industry, but to incorporate this among them ; thus saving to the country $20,000,000 annually — enough to keep the balance of trade in our favor. We could make our own silk, as easily as we could raise our own corn and potatoes ; and there was no more reason why we should send abroad for the one than for the others. Mr. B. was for home indus- try, (cheers,) and this, in no spirit of selfishness, but in the exercise of feelings which were an ordinance of God. Mr. Barbour concluded by expressing his thanks to the American Institute, for the interest it had manifested in the cause, under every discouragement. Public prejudice was at length subsiding ; he did not believe any body had cracked a joke over the mulberry specula- tion within the last eighteen months. He would ask the Institute still to foster this great interest, and he trusted that many friends would be induced to imitate the example of Myndert Van Schaick, who had that day made a donation of $1,000 to advance the cause. SECOND DAY— Oct. 10. The Convention met at 10 J o'clock, A. M. The President in the chair. Verbal communications being in order, Mr. Barbour described Mr. Paine's method of rearing silk worms. The building is two stories, and the ends have been opened, so that half of each end can be open- ed so as to admit the atmosphere freely. He has got, this year, about 50 bushels of cocoons, making about J50 lbs. of reeled silk. There was a time, one Saturday, that the weather was such as to render the worms torpid to such an extent that they were not fed. I was there on Monday, when it was warm, and they were feeding, as usual, in perfect health. They went on and spun well. This shows one of the advantages of open feeding. Give your worms the pure air of heaven. A Member. How was the roof covered 1 With shingles. Another Member. What kind of mulberry 1 The Alpine. AFTERNOON SESSION. Mr. Pierce. It is as easy to keep eggs as any thing else ; roll them up and put them in a tin canister ; keep them in a cellar until near spring ; then lay on ice and cover with straw, and they will keep as long as the ice, and will not hatch under fifteen days after being exposed. Mr. Barbour. Did you ever expose them to warmth in winter 1 Mr. P. I will tell you what a widow woman did near me. She picked up some silk worms thrown away, which she took home; they wound well — came out, and laid their eggs. Being ignorant of the management of them, she put them in her clock, where they remained all winter, a fire being kept up every day. They hatched out early in 478 [Senate the spring, too early for the mulberry; she gave them currant and lettuce leaves, and afterwards the mulberry ; they fed seven or eight weeks, and viTound well. President. I remarked yesterday that we once hatched eggs in abundance. Now our experiment in the cellar was to avoid frost, supposing it might destroy worm's eggs as well as hen's. Mr. Pierce. I use Gill's cradle, and think much of it. I leave out the bottom of the trough ; think it a great improvement ; some of the worms at first fall through, but can be picked up without inju- ry ; I did not use a pail full of water this season, and succeeded pretty well — better than last year. Mr. Church. Did you ever rock them ? And what per cent did you lose ? Mr. Pierce. Probably not five per cent, and only by accident — stepped on, &c. I have not found any benefit from rocking. Mr. Barhour. So far as I know there has not been a single failure this season in the new school. We have old school and new, in silk, as in politics, theology, philosophy, and every thing else. The new school give the pure air of heaven. No failures — some mishaps. Mr. J. Bolton made 800 pounds good fair quality of cocoons. I spent a night with him eight weeks ago. About six persons, within six or eight miles of me, have made three, four, seven and eight bushels. I sold eggs to a lady, who raised eight bushels of beautiful cocoons ; she spoiled them by home reeling. A few weeks since I went to Vir- ginia, and I visited Loudon, Prince William and Fairfax counties. It is well known that a tide of emigration has been flowing from the river counties of this State. For ten or fifteen years, German fami- lies from Pennsylvania have gone into Loudon county, and taken up farms. They have resuscitated those worn out lands ; shallow til- lage had led to their abandonment. Now, after deep plowing, with a good crop of clover turned in, they yield well. I found Gen. Van Ness, of Washington, preparing twenty acres of trees (mulberry) five miles from Washington, where he intends reeling. Mr. M , of Alexandria, has raised forty or fifty bushels of cocoons this year; good quality. I met several persons from different parts of Virginia, and west, who raise silk. Before I left home I had a letter from Mr. Gardener, of Lexington, Ky. Cocoons are produced there, but they have no market, and choose to sell cocoons and not reel them. They think they can grow a bushel of cocoons as easily as a bushel of corn, in open feeding, and think the labor and expense is thus reduced at least one half. All that is necessary is accurate and reliable information. President. I will make a single remark with diffidence, not know- ing that it is correct. The morus multicaulis, in low, warm land, is altogether a different thing from what it is in high situations. The leaves are large on the one, and small on the other. Another remark : If we let another tree, of similar character, grow as fast as the multi- caulis will, in a favorable situation, it will be winter killed. This is the cause of the winter killing of trees. Now^ the theory is, that the sap is thawed and put in motion by late warm weather ; and the coH weather bursts the finer vessels of the circulation. Take an example. No. 85.J 479 The catalpa is much like the multicaulis in the size of its leaves, and the rapidity of its growth ; both have pith in the centre, and throw out branches seven or eight feet long in one season. I planted a row of catalpas on a hill over the river, and others behind the hill and the house, in a warm sheltered spot, in a valley. The former grows a foot, or a foot and a half, and is never killed in the winter. They were cut down to the ground once in two or three years. We there- fore frequently condemn a tree, without understanding the different chances of vegetation given it. Again : Mr. Rappallo thinks the morus multicaulis may do for worms up to the second moulting, and not after. The white mul- berry is a hard tree ; the black second only to the locust, and if you try to cut it, beware of your axe when you strike it. These remarks are thrown out to harmonize the strong views I hear from gentlemen. Mr. Ward. I was brought into the mulberry speculation in 1841, and fed a few worms. In 184 i I was elected to the Legislature. I thought of the many trees grown, and read and consulted on the sub- ject. I am indebted to you, sir, Mr. President, and Mr. Rappallo, for information. I came to the following conclusion, viz : that our soil is good, and our climate the best in the world, so that we can raise and manufacture silk under every advantage. I have not seen any reason since to change my opinion. It can be done in every State with different degrees of success. I was astonished to find such igno- rance in members ; I talked much, and got the silk bill passed. There is still much ignorance ; it is want of information ; I think it should be attached to the business of every farm ; if a man has but one cow he cannot expect a large dairy ; if he goes into it on a small scale, he must be contented with a small profit. Mr. Barlow reported a plan of their report, and the same was re- committed to the committee for completion. Mr. Barbour remarked on the manner of publishing the report. Last year three thousand copies were published, and had a limited cir- culation, was badly printed and contained some errors. This is the commencement of a series of annual reports, and friends wished it stereotyped to keep on hand. He raised $200 at Bos- ton last year, by individual exertion, and then corrected and had the report stereotyped, and published in a neat, convenient form. He hoped this would be done this year, and with as little delay as pos- sible, and measures taken to give it an extensive circulation. After some further deliberations, it was referred to the committee for publication. Mr. J. P. Van Epps. I planted five thousand trees on a side hill in a three acre lot ; they were the Multicaulus. These we put in the ground about the middle of May ; and I had the pleasure of seeing about eight thousand cocoons made from the foliage. This is one of a thousand of them, (presenting a fine cocoon) fed through the first age on lettuce. On the twenty-seventh of July, I began to feed from the trees. Some of my worms were hatched on the road, and were not fed at all for two or three days. Two hun- dred of the cocoons weighed a pound. After their third moult, on 480 [Senate the second day, a number of them turned a rich amber color. They were set aside, and made good cocoons, two weeks before their regu- lar time. I selected a few dozens of them, which came out and laid their eggs. We have thus gone through the whole process this sea- son J planting the trees, hatching, feeding, winding and laying the eggs. Many have called to see us, some coming 20 miles. The re- mark was sometimes made, that nothing could be made out of it, that it would cost as much as they were worth to get them to market, &c. About a dozen farmers have decided to go into the business them- selves. They became convinced that more could be made from a few acres devoted to this business, than many would produce in the. ordi- nary branches of their farming. Let not the idea be held out that it is unprofitable, even on a small scale. That is, that a reasonable return will not be realized in propor- tion to the capital invested. I believe the hills of Otsego exactly fitted for it. There is no finer air or sky in the world. President. We have a native of Genoa among us, a native of Italy, long a respected resident of this city. He is connected with an as- sociation formed for carrying on the culture and manufacture of silk, with a farm on Long Island, where they propose to import artizans from Italy, well skilled in the art, as it is practiced in his native land. Mr. Rappallo, will you oblige the convention, by giving some information concerning your plan and operations, and the subject generally 7 Mr. Rappallo. Yes, gentlemen ; we have a farm of 53 acres, and 50,000 mulberry trees, 18 miles from this city. We could have cultivated the Multicaulus, but have the Morettis which will stand the climate. We do not want Italians for them, as we know how to cultivate them properly. They will merely re- quire to be kept free from weeds. We have a Frenchman who does that • we have 53 acres of Morettis, which will not only stand the cli- mate, but yield 33 per cent more foliage than other kinds of white or Italian mulberry, or any other ; and better quality, that is to say, when worms are fed with them, they give a quality of silk far supe- rior to any other mulberry. There is another thing which I wish every man to pay attention to. I have heard from different parts of this country, that after they had large crops of worms they all died. It is true, they may have died for want of ventilation ; I suspect they may have died from not having better food than the multicaulis. This is what I have been told by French manufacturers. They tell me the Moretti is far better for the worm and silk. Now we have trees which are four years old ; they have been four years in this country j and they will be fit to do something next summer. In 1831, I wrote Mr. Ambrose Spencer, and proposed to import a person from Italy, and go to the farmers' houses, and raise the worms as they do in Italy, and also to reel the silk. Mr. Spencer, then chairman of the Committee on Silk, was very desirous to have it done. I now recommend that they be imported, as they know the process practically. We should not experiment about this thing. I wish you might see the process by an experienced hand, and improve it if No. 58.J 481 possible. Persons choosing, may apply to me; I will give informa- tion. If any will join us on our farm, we will be happy; if not, we go on alone. Mr. Barbour. Have you seen the large leaf Canton and Broosa mul- berry ? Mr. Rappallo. It is not the same. The Moretti was discovered by a professor of Pavia, whose name it took. It is a scientific busi- ness in Italy. They pay great attention to it, though here they think anything will do ; inventing every day — all our experience of five or six hundred years is nothing. Mr. Barbour. It has been doubted whether the business can be made profitable on a small scale ; but let a man watch one brood of chickens from hatching till they go to market, and the profit won't be much ; yet chickens can be raised in a small way profitably. A man and his boys may have silk-worms, the boys and the silk-v^orms may be neglected, sometimes fed and sometimes not. You may ask that man, and he will say he has not gained anything. The truth is, in the northern States, the aggregate of farming is made up of combined results — many little things. The farmer has his hay, his corn, his dairy, and his vegetables. You will not find the whole amount of either of them more than $5Q or $100. Take Massachusetts, where I belong, you will not find one with $100 on any one article to send to market, on an average : but his profits come out just in this way. He has a surplus of some five or six dif- ferent articles; perhaps 100 bushels of potatoes, 100 bushels of corn, some butter, some cheese, apples, &c., and altogether realizes a pretty little sum. Mr. Leavenworth. I suggest that the committee be instructed to petition the Legislature to give a bounty for ten years. In New-Jer- sey it was repealed the first year. There is now a large mulberry plantation near Red Bank, in that State, of 1,500 acres. THIRD DAY, October 11th. The convention was called to order by the President. Mr. Barlow, chairman of the Committee on Resolutions and Ad- dress, then submitted their report. The address and resolutions were read by sections, and adopted as follows : Resolved, That, as it may be clearly inferred from the constitution and habits of the silk-worm, that it is designed by the Supreme Be- ing to be subservient to man, so it may be concluded from the singu- lar adaptation of the soil and climate of the United States to the healthful growth of the worm, and the most valuable varieties of the mulberry, that He has designed this to become a great silk producing country — and that these facts indicate to the people of these States a wide field of enterprise and industry, and to their governments a judi- cious policy of encouragement and protection. Resolved, That the production and manufacture of silk in these States is regarded by this convention as a matter of great national importance, as an essential step towards our independence of fortign countries for an article of universal necessity — as a branch of domes- [Senate, No. 85. J Ff 482 [Senate tic industry annually calculated to give employment and subsistence to great numbers of our population, and to become, in its full devel- opment, a source of vast national wealth. It would give to females and children, to the aged and the poor, the opportunity of earning for themselves, and saving for their country the twenty, fifty, and an hundred millions of dollars which must otherwise be annually drawn from it. Resolved, That the granting of State bounties for the encourage- ment of the silk culture, is a matter of sinnple justice to those who in its incipient stages embark their labor and capital in a great national enterprise, whose benefits will be shared by all, and descend in an in- creasing stream upon a countless posterity — and of obvious necessity, as that without which the enterprise must struggle with continued difficulties, and its success be indefinitely postponed. All classes of citizens are interested in the success, and the pioneers in it are entitled to the benefits of their co-operation. The nation will reap the har- vest, and should not grudge to the plowman and tiller of the seed that shall yield to its sickle an hundred fold measure. Resolved, That the friends of the enterprise in the several States of the Union be respectfully recommended to prepare and present me- morials to their respective Legislatures, praying that such encourage- ment, in the form of bounties or otherwise, may be granted to silk growers, as in their wisdom they may judge expedient ; and that ex- perience testifies that such encouragement should be continued at least ten years. Resolved, That this convention respectfully commend this subject to the enlightened consideration of the executive officers of the several States, earnestly requesting that it may be presented to their respec- tive Legislatures, as a subject of such immediate and liberal legisla- tion as may correspond with the present exigencies and future welfare of the people and country. Resolved, That a copy of the above resolutions, together with the reports of the proceedings of this convention, be sent to the executive and legislative officers of the General Government, the Governors and Secretaries of the several States, with copies for distribution among the members of the several State Legislatures. ADDRESS OF THE BUSINESS COMMITTEE. In giving expression to the views of this convention, instead of ex- pressing them in a set of resolutions, as is customary, your committee have deemed it advisable to embody them in a brief Jiddress to the People of the United States. At the call, and under the patronage of the American Institute, we have met as the friends and advocates of a great national enterprise — •tn enterprise destined at no distant day to become one of the most powerful tributaries to national independence, and auxiliary to the happiness and industry of our people. A national convention of practical silk culturists and manufacturers, from different and remote No. 85.] 483 parts of the country, met in this place one year ago. The proceed- ings at that time were of a most important and interesting character. The information collected and embodied in their published proceed- ings has told most happily on the cause we seek to advance. The superiority of our soil and climate for rearing the worm and cultivat- ing the mulberry, and the adaptation of American skill to the manu- facture of the finest fabrics, were then the subjects of consideration. That the views then entertained on these points were correct, and that silk may be produced to advantage, either on an extensive or a limited scale, the experience of another year has been making con- stant and valuable additions to the evidence then in our possession. The system of open feeding, there reported upon, mostly as an ex- periment, has this year been adopted by hundreds, and not a single failure has been reported to this convention. From the frosty re- gions of Maine to the sunny plantations of Georgia, but one voice reaches us, — that of universal confidence, and universal success, — by all who have fed on what may appropriately be termed the New School System. It should here be remarked, however, that in pro- nouncing all parts of our country adapted to the production of silk, they are not equally so. A distinction should be made between the nor- thern, middle, and southern portions. At the north, the feeding season is short, in consequence of un- timely frosts, — seldom commencing before the first and the middle of June, and rarely continuing later than the first of September, with fre- quent interruptions by cold and chilly nights and mornings. In the middle sections, (embracing some parts of New- York, and the entire valley of the Ohio, and the adjacent country,) the feeding may be commenced much earlier and continued much later, with cor- responding profit : but the southern portions of the Union exceed any other parts of the known world, for the successful prosecution of this work, and may be made to yield a better return than cotton^ to- bacco, or any other crop. These conclusions are mainly based upon the communications of growers in these several sections. All have not met with equal suc- cess,— as some still continue their attachment to the Old School Sys- tem, notwithstanding all the evidence against its practicability. We have proof, however, that they are becoming convinced of their er- rors, by their want of success 3 but even in close feeding, some are successful ; in fact, some of our most successful feeders, feed in this way ; but the labor and expense are, in all cases, materially increased. Plantations have, this year, been much enlarged, and many new cases are reported. The number and variety of manufactured silks now exhibiting at the Fair, indicate a corresponding increase and improvement in this department of the business ; so much so, that, although many thousand pounds of raw material have been produced in this country, our manufacturers are obliged to import, in large amounts, inferior foreign material, in order to keep their machinery in operation. In view of the foregoing conclusions, and the facts upon which they are founded, we would say — I. {^. WARD, I. S. PIERCE, L. GARY, J. W. CHAPPELL 484 [Senate To individuals now engaged in the Silk Culture : Press forward,— extend your operations as rapidly as possible, — and use every exer- tion in your power to induce others to follow your example. To Legislatures^ State and County Agricultural Societies : Offer liberal bounties and premiums, for the encouragement of the produc- tion of cocoons and reeled silk. To CAPITALISTS convinced of the feasibility and importance of our undertaking : Invest some of your means to render productive the experience and skill, now possessed by many whose pecuniary re- sources are so limited as to prevent their employing them to advan- tage. We would not fail here to call attention to the all-worthy ex- ample of the Hon. Myndert Van Schaick, who has so nobly led the way, by contributing $1,000, to be used by the American Institute for the encouragement of the manufacture of silk. Instead of adding further to our remarks, we have appended a valuable communication from Dr. Daniel Stebbins, of Northampton, which, by some mistake, was not included in the report of last year. All of which is respectfully submitted. A. C. VAN EPPS, I. R. BARBOUR, > Committee. To the Trustees of the American Institute : Gentlemen — It might be amusing to speculate upon the early development, rise and progress of silk culture, which succeeded the fig leaf and sheep skin clothing of early times ; but we have better evidence than the most fanciful imagination can devise. The most ancient history of the world, has frequent notice of silk and the silk tree ; and the most eminent linguists suggest that the Hebrew words, "^/ie^A" and " mwAi," might be rendered either, cotton, fine linen, or silk. Whether the Jews, at their dispersion, or any other time, carried with them the knowledge of silk culture, or whether it originated wath the Chinese, and by stealthy measures was introduced into Europe, is not needful for us to contend about. De- sirable as it might be to review the past, it would be more pleasing could we lift the curtain and ken what changes will take place within the present century. Great and important changes have taken place within a few years. Most of us remember the disastrous tree specu- lations, succeeded by almost a total apathy in the silk cause, until re- cently, when public sentiment is waking up, to establish the silk cause on a firm basis. Within the last year, great and essential improve- ments have been devised and put in operation by intelligent silk growers, more, it is hoped, for the general good than private emolu- ment. Among the early pioneers of our country, in the silk culi:ure, we No. 85.] ■ 486 hold in grateful recollection the names of a Styles, Aspinwall, Clark, and a few others, who early engaged in the introduction of silk cul- ture into the northern and eastern States, periling their time and property in the great and good cause in which they were engaged. The Rev. Dr. Wigglesworth, of Cambridge, is recorded to have raised the first silk worms in New-England, in 1737. How, and where he obtained the eggs, is not told us. Between the years 1747- 50, the Hon. Jonathan Law, Governor of Connecticut, wore the first silk cravat, and his daughter the first silk gown made of American silk of their own raising. In subsequent years, the culture of silk was attended with good success and profit, until suspended by the operation of the war of the Revolution, during which, and several years after, very little was done in New-England, except in Mansfield and its vicinity. There was then in existence no general understand- ing or union about the culture of silk : no patronage of a public in- stitution like that of the American Institute of the present day. The trees then used were of the white mulberry, but within the last ten or fifteen years, other varieties have been introduced, having a larger leaf and equally adapted to the nourishment of the worm. Since the introduction of these varieties, there has been a gradual advance in the propagation of trees and growing silk, until, and in consequence of the disaster of the tree speculation ; after which, a wanton de- struction of the mulberry extended to every part of the country where they had been introduced. Now this state of things must be counteracted, and before the country can take the stand in silk cul- ture which would be desirable, or even needful, to establish it on a footing which it merits ; and would we brighten the chain of union connected with the prosperity and independence of the United States, there must be a rapid reproduction of the mulberry tree. And as there is a great variety, each of which had been extolled by the spec- ulators, even before the respective qualities had been tested, it is of importance to select such a variety, as under all circumstances, is most deserving — producing the most nutritious foliage, retaining its verdure in the greatest perfection through the season of feeding, even to the close of the year — for which the worms have a decided prefe- rence, producing a rapid growth of the worm, and an enlarged co- coon, and affording more silk: especially if w6 are to approximate the mark which has been set up by a gentleman of high considera- tion, who has been neither interested in the raising, buying, or selling trees, but being an ardent friend to the cause, is of the opinion that we can and must raise fifty millions worth of silk per annum, in ten years. As an encouragement to effect that desirable amount, we have the appropriate soil and climate ; our habits of industry and mechani- cal tact are a sufficient guarantee that we can do much, that we can compete with the cheap labor of any country whatever ; but to carry out this position, the united aid and patronage of both sexes should be put in requisition. The influence of woman has been powerful in church and State ; the time was, when the spinning wheel was an ac- companiment for the social circle. Are there not some now living, who, in by gone days, have assisted the ladies in transporting the 486 [Senate wheel from house to house, on the social occasions 1 Indeed, I know of one. But since the introduction of machinery to take the place of hand labor, the spinning of wool, cotton and flax, in a domestic way, has become quite unfashionable, even in the most retired dis- tricts of the country. It would be a Herculean task to introduce the manufacture of wool, cotton or flax, into the families even of the wilderness, without meet- ing at the very threshold the objection, "that it would cost ten times more to manufacture the article in our houses, than it could be purchased for at the stores." Here the good man of the house is brought to a dead stand with his wife and daughter, who do not take into consideration that one pound of silk may be worth one hundred pounds of flax ; while the difference in the cost of production is such as to be greatly in favor of the silk crop — almost equal to the differ- ence between one cent and one dollar. The labor required is light and pleasant, and much more profitable than the usual crops; this is confirmed by the returns made to the New-England silk convention. Taking into view the whole circumstance and condition of the coun- try, does not the culture of silk merit the attention of the public, not only as a source of private emolument, but of great public utility, to raise and manufacture our own silk, as well as wool and cotton 1 That the culture of silk has been remunerating and profitable, is evi- dent from the great length of time it has been cultivated, and we are not entirely destitute of encouraging evidences at home. As well at- tested facts are desirable, I venture to mention the following among the testimonials of recent occurrence. A gentleman of undoubted veracity and high standing, wrote me, in substance, that he had a lot of mulberries, two years old, set upon two acres of land ; that the land would not ordinarily yield over 40 bushels of corn to the acre ; that he had kept an accurate re- gistry of expenses : that after feeding the worms and reeling the silk, he had a nett profit of two hundred dollars : that each tree had yielded him an income equal to that of thirty cents placed at annual interest. This result evidently shows, that there is an intrinsic value in the mulberry tree for growing silk, without taking into consideration the probable value of the after foliage or bark of the trees for important uses, which it is hoped another year's experiments may demonstrate. Some mulberry trees, when the roots have attained five or six years, yield abundance of good seed. Several pounds have been saved for future use, and some fine plants, from seed sown last spring, have been raised, which develop a leaf like the original. That there is a difference in the quality of foliage for producing silk, results from two experiments, which came under my observation, will prove: one of which was purposely made by Mr. Theodore Bartlett, of Northampton, to ascertain the difference of quality, if any. The worms fed, were of the same kind and hatching, — all fed with equal attention ; one parcel was fed exclusively upon the foliage of one variety of mulberry, and the worms were of larger size, and the cocoons adjudged to be one-third larger or heavier than the cocoons No. 85.] 487 made by worms fed exclusively on the foliage of another variety. The other experiment "was the result, without design, merely to grati- fy the request of the feeders ; because, as they said, they found that the worms were evidently more fond of one kind than the others. In this experiment, also, the worms were much larger than usual, — so much so, that the visitors said that it ought to be made public. The difference of size was so evident, that, in another crop, I began to feed a parcel of one and the same hatching, each upon a separate variety of mulberry. The season of the year was so late, and the ex- periment has not been resumed, having sufficient evidence by the cocoons already made, that there was a manifest difference. The examination was made by a large and respectable number of gentle- men, and the clerk of the county was selected to make the test ; who, after trying several experiments with the scales, found that five of the cocoons of the worms fed upon one variety of the mulberry, would balance eight cocoons made by worms fed upon the other va- rieties of mulberries ; which is five to eight in favor of the mul- berry used in both experiments. There has been some diversity of opinion whether a large number of worms could be fed as profitably, as in small parcels. A fact occurred last year in favor of a limited number, when the eggs of five millers produced worms to make two thousand four hundred cocoons, — which yielded one pound of very superior silk. Those who fed larger and crowded parcels, did not succeed so well in cocoons or health of the worms. Something may be attributed to careless feeding, or neglecting to feed them when it was necessary. The size and firmness depends very much upon at- tention and constant feeding, whenever they will eat. Such is the result of this year's experience ; having had worms of the same va- riety and hatching, fed at two different places, and upon the same kind of foliage. One parcel were fed attentively, from early dawn of day to the shades of evening, by persons who were paid by the pound for all the cocoons raised, and thus interested ; and the co- coons produced were about one-third larger and heavier than tlie par- cel fed by a person on monthly wages ; and in a cocoonery, too, con- structed for open feeding, in the midst of a vigorous growth of the best variety of mulberries, where fresh foliage could be gathered with the greatest facility every hour in the day. But those who fed and were paid by the pound, were often necessitated to feed with wilt- ed leaves, or branches collected from a distance at mid-day, for next morning's use ; these were sometimes sprinkled with water, to pre- serve the freshness ; and especially those collected to be used on the Sabbath. I have never known wet leaves injure the health of the worms ; leaves gathered while moist with the dew, have been kept good two or three days, fresh as when gathered. An experienced silk grower has told me, that when he was a boy, it was considered highly necessary to sprinkle the leaves with salt water ; and have myself noticed that foliage so sprinkled has been preserved longer, and the worms appeared to like it. A few years since, we were visited with an early frost, while late crops were on feed. A silk 488 [Senate f rower having a parcel of worms, wanting two or three weeks to nish, perceiving that there was danger of a frost to cut off the fo- liage, gathered, towards night, while there might be some dew on the leaves, a quantity of foliage, which he stowed into salt bags. These leaves did not heat or mold, but were well preserved for feed, so that ttie worms were enabled to form good cocoons. That our climate is peculiarly adapted to the culture of silk, is . confirmed by almost one hundred years operation, and corroborated by the silk record of President Styles, written some eighty years ago, and also by the journal of Joseph Clark. Gentlemen who have visited Canton, and are acquainted with the silk trade, uniformly agree that silk raised in the high districts of China, in a climate corres- ponding with ours, is worth, in Canton, twenty per cent over that raised elsewhere, — having a stronger fibre amd greater lustre. Another important qiiesiion to silk growers, is the best kind of silk- worm. Some are satisfied with the large sulphur kind, enveloped with a superabundance of floss ; others prefer the peanut variety, af- fording more silk than the other varieties. The superior excellency of the peanut variety, was testified by a silk manufacturer and dyer, before a court holden to take depositions to be used in a suit pending in Nantucket. It has been a common remark that silk culture, to be made profitable, should be connected with other farming business, and doing up the whole in a family way. An instance in pointhas occurred in this vicinity, where a person says he has and can make more clear profit from his small patch of Canton mulberries, than from all the products of his farm. But if worms can be fed with better success upon the open Chinese plan, in better ventilated cocooneries or tents, and the one and early crop system be adopted, and if the after foliage, and the bark of the young mulberry can be appropria- ted to any new and important use, as it is hoped may be demonstra- ted in another year, then, and in that event, the cultivator of the soil may go extensively into the business, with great safety and profit to himself, and thus contribute towards the demand for three hundred millions worth of raw silk, supposed to be annually wanted, to sup- ply ourselves and foreign countries. There are silk producing and manufacturing countries, which do not raise enough of the raw mate- rial for their own consumption. It has been said that the English market requires annually, nearly one hundred millions worth of the raw material, and do not, as we understand, raise a pound of it. Ame- rica must be very industrious for some years, to raise even enough for her own market, although it has been predicted that we must and can do it, and even more, within ten years. To accomplish which, how- ever, will require a great multiplication of trees, not only for feeding worms, but for other important purposes, which have been suggested, and. we hope will be accomplished by another year's experiment. With us the demand for silk goods must annually advance, to sup- ply the rapid increase of population. In this country as an experiment, cotton began to be raised at no great distance of time from the present ; for it is within the recol- lection of many of our inhabitants, when the whole operation was No. 85. J 489 performed by manual labor — before Whitney's improvement for sep- arating the seed from the cotton. This machine I saw placed at the head of Long Wharf, in New-Haven, in gone-by days, while a stu- dent in Yale college ; with the cotton between cylinders, to show the operation, and with what facility it could do the business. What Whitney's machine then was to encourage the growth of cotton, our inventions and improvements may be to promote the culture of silk. By uninterrupted perseverance in the culture of cotton, some sixty millions of that article is said to be annually exported, exclusive of j the immense quantity manufactured at home for our own and foreign markets ; and why may not the same perseverance in the silk cause, be attended with corresponding success, and become a great national staple 1 We have every facility requisite to diversify labor, and give employment to our increasing population. It has been estimated that two-thirds of the exports of Italy consist of silks ; and in France, silk manufactures are among the most pro- ductive sources of national wealth. Our habits of industry, perse- verance, and mechanical tact, are in our favor, and we entertain the opinion that there is no country where silk can be made of better quality, and probably at less actual expense than in America. Among the objections to our successful operations in the silk culture, is the sickness of worms, which occasionally occurred ; but it is thought that this may be obviated by the recent improvements recommended in the manner and time of feeding. A few years since, an Italian, conversant with the Italian mode of feeding, was employed in this town to feed worms. He took the business in hand in a spirited man- ner ; kept the cocoonery at a certain temperature by artificial heat. His employer, however, took a part of the worms and placed them in a separate room, kept the windows open day and night, (used no arti- ficial heat,) fed wholly with branches, and cleaned the litter but once during the whole time, and the worms wound their cocoons one whole week earlier than those fed by the Italian, to his utter astonishment, and who probably thought this a queer country. It is recorded that from time immemorial, until within a few years, in Europe, nearly one-half of the worms have annually perished, from causes, although not fully developed, yet from the mode of feeding, we can readily conjecture them. Aside from this, the culture of silk in Europe has been considered a lucrative business. Having had the perusal of President Styles' Silk Journal, and that of Joseph Clark, of olden time, it appears that the general loss of worms was estimated at about one-third. We antici- pate that this will be very much diminished by the adoption of open feeding, according to the Chinese method. This is emphatically a year of experiments, commenced but not completed. Let us hope for the best results another and another year. DANIEL STEBBINS. J^orthampton, Oct. Istj 1843. 490 [Senate COMMUNICATIONS RECEIVED BY THE CONVENTION. 1. The committee have pursued the same general plan in the arrangement of these communications, that was adopted in the last report ; omitting tlates, introductions, conclusions, &c. No separate place has been assigned to the letters of manufacturers, but they have been thrown in promiscuously with those devoted more particularly to the culture. -^'' ■ , ' 2. A number of these letters were directed to individuals, and not originally designed for this convention. 3. One striking characteristic of these letters, and one which every reader will observe, is the extensive use of the "common reel and wheel," for converting cocoons into sewings, &c. • operations requir- ing the most perfect machinery. It is unnecessary for me to remark, that all such efforts at manufacturing silk, act directly against the real interests of the cause, and should be discountenanced. We have some specimens before us of sewings made in this way, which are really beautiful. Still the same cocoons from which these samples were made, had they been used properly, might have furnished a fabric of tenfold more value. ^ The cause assigned by the writers of very many of the letters is, that they have " no market" for their cocoons ; and all seem to be united on the importance of well regulated local filatures and markets as a remedy for this evil. A remedy, it is believed, which would have the desired effect. 4. I have been obliged to copy all the proceedings and letters, and as they were placed in my hands only eight or ten days before the manuscripts were needed to accompany the annual report of the American Institute to the Legislature, have been obliged to make the preparation in the greatest possible haste, and it would not be strange if it should be found attended with some imperfections. COMMUNICATIONS. Geo. Fitch, South Bridgeton, Me. — Have fed a few worms for six years past, generally with good success. This season we have fed about 16,000 worms — had 49 lbs. cocoons : one building is thorough- ly ventilated. I have about three-quarters of an acre of white mul- berry trees, and a few hundred multicaulis, which afford much more foliage than the white, though I think worms fed on the white make the best silk. The ladies of one family have manufactured our co- coons into sewings, with nothing but our common household machi- nery. Henry Lord, Hubhardsion, Vt. — I have been experimenting some for five years, — I use the morus multicaulis. Good success. Usu- ally expose my eggs about the first of May, and feed several crops — about ten days apart — feed on solid shelves, and clean every moult- ing— can feed some ten days earlier here on the multicaulis than the white. Manufacture our cocoons into sewings and twist, and have made some cloth and hosiery from floss and poor cocoons with the addition of a little cotton, which are considered good : all done on the No. 85.] 491 common reel, wheel, and loom. Have been unsuccessful this season, raising only 62 J lbs. cocoons from eight ounces of eggs. (These "so- lid shelves" may have had something to do with this result, Mr. Lord complains, that they have no market, as a reason for their resort to the coarse machinery they now use. His is one of many cases of the same kind. Much of our silk is nearly lost for want of filatures and markets. A. C. V. E.) J. W. Chappell, Lima, Livingston county, JV. Y. — Has been en- gaged in the business six years. Three acres of land employed — 200,000 trees — $600 capital invested. Amount of cocoons prior to 1844, 420 lbs. In 1844, 660 lbs.— cost of the same for 1844, |60. — value of the same $300. A. L. Newton, Athens, Georgia. — One family of young ladies, have manufactured for themselves three or four very handsome silk dresses, which have been much admired, and at a short distance would not be thought to be domestic manufacture. Several of our citizens have succeeded well in the manufacture of sewings. I have the larg- est, and perhaps the most extensive cocoonery in the State — it is 30 by 50 feet, two stories high, all filled with shelves, and stands in an orchard of about eight acres of the morus multicaulis, well set. I have not, however, as yet, done much at raising silk, but have the fullest confidence in the business. Dr. M. A. Ward, of our town, has been longer employed than any one else in this region. We have been three years engaged, raising ten to twelve bushels annually ; also Dr. Ward, Col. Craig, and one or two more, have produced annually about the same amount, but we have no market here, and to export the cocoons we find rather expensive : so some have become rather discouraged; there are still some of us, however, desirous of going on with the business, for we believe this country and climate precisely calculated for the culture of silk. Miss Gertrude Rapp, Economy, Beaver county, Pa. Sir — In conformity to the request expressed in the circular of your Institute, of July Ist, 1844, I send you for exhibition some of our latest manufactured silk goods, as per invoice annexed and bill of lading forwarded. They, with those from other sources, will serve as facts by which all reasonable doubters may be conclusively con- vinced that the production and manufacture of silk — this new and most important branch of national industry, for the promotion of which your Institute evinces such a praiseworthy zeal — is as possible, and can be carried on as successfully in this country as in any other on the globe. I have even the pleasure to be able to maintain, that we can do here what probably has never been done in any of the old silk growing countries ; namely, to go in regular succession through the whole process of the silk business in one season, beginning with the raising and gathering of the mulberry seed, and ending with the manufacturing of the wove silk fabric. All of which I can prove by the following facts : On the 30th and 31st of May of this year, we gathered a quantity of mulberry seed from a number of choice trees of the Canton variety, (which is the earliest of all kinds we are ac- 492 [Senate quainted with.) On the following day, (June Ist,) we planted part of that seed in regular rows in several well prepared beds. In about ten days the seed came up finely, and as the weather was favorable, and no weeds suffered to grow with the young trees, they progressed beautifully ami vigorously, so that on the 1st of August we were able to commence feeding a small lot of worms on the foliage of them ; and as both trees and worms continued their growth in good proportion, the quality of the leaves was always very suitable to the age of the worms. On the 26th of the same month they commenced winding, and produced a small lot of very fine and good cocoons ; the greater part of which we reeled, spun, twisted, colored and manufactured into a ribbon ; the rest we kept for seed and other purposes, samples of which I send you with the other silk goods. They may be exhibited as a representation of the entire silk business, as performed in one season ; and after the Fair, the worthy Institute will please accept them as a present. Said samples are put together in the following manner : 1st. Some Canton mulberry seed, gathered May 30th, 1844, con- tained in a vial. / 2d. Three Canton mulberry trees, raised from that seed, sown June 1st, taken out of the ground September 23d, measuring without robots from three feet four inches to three feet six inches. 3d. A leaf from those trees. ' 4th. Three cocoons from worms fed on the foliage of said trees, hatched August Ist, spun August 26th. 5th. Three cocoons perforated by the moth, September 20th. 6th. Some silk-worm eggs produced by these moths. 7th. Two skeins of raw silk, two skeins of colored silk, and four yards of ribbon, manufactured from those cocoons. We have now feeding on the leaves of the same trees another lot of worms, which look exceedingly well and will commence spinning about the 1st of October. A third and larger quantity is feeding on the foliage of a quantity of young Canton trees, raised from seed of last year's growth, sown on the 10th of May last, many of which are now over five feet high and full of excellent leaves. From what r have said, it will likely be inferred that we give the preference to the Canton mulberry tree. We do so, for several rea- sons ; and if we were to be limited to any one kind, we should un- hesitatingly choose the Canton. But as the white Italian variety stands the winter best, we should not like to do without it, and every silk grower should be provided with a quantity of the same. We have about nine acres of common and Canton mulberry trees, and about the same number of acres should be covered with the Italian and Broosa, if those which were scattered were joined to those which are planted in regular orchard form. We commenced the raising and manufacturing of silk on a small scale in 1826, and increased it gradually as our trees, experience and knowledge increased. Of the amount of cocoons prior to 1838, we have no correct memorandum. The total for six years previous to this present is 20,766 pounds j showing an average of 3461 pounds No. 85. 1 493 per year. Last year's product was but 5111 pounds, in consequence of two severe spring frosts, and very unfavorable weather during Au- gust and fore part of September. The product of this year will be about twenty-five per cent less than that of last year, and will therefore not much exceed said ave- rage. J. H. Cobb — Suft Silk Company^ Dedham, Mass. Questions answered in order. No separate report for 1844. No. years engaged, 20 Amount of capital invested, ,... $10,000 Amount of American stock used, $1,000 do. Foreign, $24,000 Total amount used, , . . $25,000 Male hands employed, 20 Female hands employed, 100 Children employed, 10 Pounds of sewing and twist made, 5,000 Yards of ribbons, galloons, laces, cords, &c., 50,000 Pairs of stockings and gloves, 100 No. of cravats and handkerchiefs, 100 Total value of goods, .,.:. . . . $100,000 As I first started machinery for manufacturing sewings in a regular way, with the latest European improvements, and have superintended the building and operations of the New England Silk Company's silk works in this place, I hold myself competent to contract for and sup- ply machinery for the silk manufacture, and operatives skilled in the business, to go to any part of the country. I first sent the machinery to Hartford, for the old Connecticut Silk Company, and operatives to work it. I am now making making machinery on a contract, to sup- ply a factory in Canada. The mill constantly under my direction in Dedham, and now in operation, is described in my Silk Manual, page 152, 4th edition. Judge A. E. Ernest, Macon, Bibb County, Ga. — I have cultivated silk in my humble way for six years, and have bestowed much thought on the subject, and my candid opinion is there is not a finer country in the world for producing silk than Georgia. All my experiments, and the other facts I have to judge from, satisfy me beyond a doubt, that our climate is the very best. It seems to me almost impossible that any country can possess greater advantages for cultivating silk than we do. When I commenced the business I knew nothing about it, and my circumstances have been as unfavorable for getting infor- mation as could well be imagined ; and yet, under all these disadvan- tages, I have been successful, and have made the business profitable. It seems to me that my well known success is saying a good deal for the silk culture in Georgia ; more, certainly, than can be said of many new undertakings. When people undertake any branch of business of which they are 494 [Senate ignorant, they generally make wild work of it, and that is precisely what I should have done in the silk business if there had been any difficulty attending it. We can buy land in Georgia good enough to raise fine mulberry trees for almost nothing, and the mulberry grows from early in March to late in October, or early in November ; and by adopting branch feeding, (which I think is best,) and availing our- selves of all the other advantages which we possess, there is no know- ing to what extent the business can be carried on in Georgia, or the good that would result from it. It seems to me that if the silk cul- ture was once planted among us, it would give employment and bread to every poor family in the country. - Last spring I hatched my silk-worm eggs, and twenty-seven days after they commenced spinning, although they did not get all the at- tention they needed. My shelves were four by five feet, and off of each we got as much as three pecks of cocoons. Both last year and this, when my worms were spinning, the weather was extremely dry and hot, and every day, in the heat of the day, I sprinkled the worms and floors freely with cold water, and feel confident it had a good ef- fect. This year I used charcoal instead of lime, and think it prefera- ble. I use it in the same way, but in greater quantities. Since I have been endeavoring to bring the silk culture into notice in this neighborhood, I have suffered greatly for want of information on the subject. I know pretty well how to treat the silk- worm, (for they get along here under almost any treatment,) but we think it is our in- terest and that of the cause, that we carry matters farther than this ; but we lack suitable machinery to enable us to do so. Rev. Isaac YaihT ass-el, Perrysburgh Plain, Woodco., Ohio. — Has been engaged in the silk business eight years ; three acres of land em- ployed ; one thousand trees ; $100 invested. Amount of cocoons raised prior to 1844,200 lbs; amount in 1844,50 lbs. Being unac- quainted with the business, have been mostly engaged experimenting with worms and fixtures. Has made two or three reels; one similar to the Piedmontese, superior he thinks ; the other on entirely a new plan. It is turned by two treadles, or a double crank, by the reeler. The cocoons are in a copper basin, two feet long, with a division in the middle. The water is heated by a furnace at one end, fourteen inches in length, and six in diameter. The water surrounds the fire and passes back and forth, from the basin to the furnace and heats in a very few minutes. The thread passes through a small throwster which gives a twist suflficiently to take in the added fibres with facility ; and then passes through a traversing bar which spreads it on the reel in a wide skein. The thread is perfectly round, and as smooth as a polished brass wire. I trust government will do something for our encourage- ment. D. Stebbins, JVorthampton, Massachusetts. — In answer to your several questions propounded in your address, issued July 1st, 1844, I reply 1st, that my first attention to the silk business, commenced some ten or twelve years since. Second, I have now about ten acres of land apppropriated to mulberries, and am cultivating to enlarge operations, or to accommodate those who are destitute. I have jus^ No. 85.] 495 received orders for a parcel of genuine Canton, for shipment this fal to Lima, South America. Third, I do not know how many trees I have, too many however, to take the trouble to enumerate. They are chiefly of the Canton and Asiatic. Fourth, The capital invested consists of the land, trees and buildings ; some of the land being near the central part of the village of Northampton, is very valuable, and as a whole might be worth $10,000. Fifth, No stated account of the quantity of cocoons raised from year to year, the great object being to show that the business was practicable. 6th. The same reply as the preceding may be made for 1844, with the addition that considerable expense has been incurred, by outlays for building, fixtures &c., and that the returns did not equal the expectations, (see ninth answer.) 7th. The whole expense incurred in, and about the premises for labor, and material, on an additional cocoonery, hurdles, cradles and other incidental expenses for 1844, amounts to about $250 ; but it is hoped that the proceeds may cover the expenses. 8th. The value as a whole is not depreciated by the outlay, the whole now being in good order for some enterprising person, to show what can be done in coming years. 9th. The feeder for the present year, not having been accustomed to a large establishment, undertook the feeding of too many worms at a time; having plenty of foliage, over crowded them and hoped to get his $800, but did not accomplish it; with the aid of two or three children, attempted to feed 800,000 at a time ; ought not to have had over 500,000. 10th. Remarks. This year's experience sustains the position, that all things considered, early feeding is the most safe to ensure a good crop; but to have this result, constant and faithful attention, and an equal distribution of feed is requisite, day by day, or the result would be like the sample exhibited on the card, being fed on the same shelf at the edge or outside. The longer worms are kept on feed, the less silk will be produced from the same number of worms. Worms carried through under thirty days, are estimated to yield 25 per cent more silk, than those kept on feed forty days or more. The way to produce the best result, is to feed the worms faithfully and equally, especially while young, and then they will be likely to pass safely through every change to the cocoon. Gill's ventilating cradle, is an admirable contrivance for the silk-worm, and is emphati- cally a labor saving and health saving machine, calculated to produce a fine circulation of pure air among them, and expel the impure, aris- ing either from the excessive perspiration of the worm, or from the offal. Nothing offensive, should be allowed in or about the co- coonery. One great advantage of the cradle system is, the worms cannot be crowded as on shelf feeding. The silk grower being fur- nished with plenty of the genuine Canton for leaf feeding ; and the Asiatic for branch feeding ; and using the peanut variety of worms, with due attention, may reasonably expect a good return of cocoons. The present year's observation on the early production of foliage, from the different varieties of trees, has resulted in the fact, that ihe 496 [Senate genuine Canton and Asiatic are the earliest in foliage, and the least injured by severe winters. Although an early crop of worms may be, and probably is the best, yet there may be a necessity of later feeding, where the foliage is cut off by early frosts. In such cases, or when worms are prematurely hatched, the use of dry leaves pre- served, pulverized,' moistened, and given them, will answer the pur- pose of green foliage. {Prohatum est.) At any time, should sud- den cold or damp weather occur, the worms would bear a little artifi- cial heat without any injury. Our soil and climate are admirably adapted to the production of silk of superior quality, which sells for $5 per pound, while the for- eign article may be had for $4 or $4.50, and sometimes less. To promote and aid the culture of silk, some legislative bounty is requi- site to encourage beginners in the new and untried business of silk cul- ture. A bounty, together with the ingenuity, skill and perseverance of Americans, would enable us to compete with the cheap labor and cheap living of any nation. Three thousand worms have been con- sidered the average number requisite to produce a pound of silk ; but 2,000 to 2,400 of the pea-nut variety, well fed, have done the same ; yet of the Chinese variety the cocoons are so small, (not one-quarter as large as ours, and withal thin and soft,) that some 10,000 or 12,000 may be required to produce a pound of silk, as has been seen and tried in the Sandwich Islands. Mr. Titcomb, a silk grower in one of the islands, crossed the Chinese with the American, and foi^nd that the cocoons were yet so small as to require from 5,000 to 6,000 to pro- duce one pound of silk ; while of the American, 3,000 would do the same thing. It is the opinion of gentlemen of high standing that America may and will become a silk growing country. One gentle- man, who presides over one of our oldest and most eminent literary institutions, under date of June, 1844, writes me : " If this earnest waking up to a scientific and practical consideration of the subject, - (silk culture) is not soon crowned with signal success, it will not be for want of enterprise or skill in our countrymen, but merely from the high price of labor here compared with the scanty wages given in other silk growing countries ; even this consideration, though it might retard for a while the complete success of this department of produc- tive industry, will not prevent its ultimate triumph." Another gentle- man, under date of August, 1844, writes from the far west : " That the soil and climate of the west and southwestern States are admira- bly suited to the growth of mulberry, and rearing silk- worms, and that eventually, the two great staples of the western and southwestern States will be silk and wool." Some silk growers are sanguine in the opinion that the whole mulberry patch (except the roots) may be an- nually used up for valuable purposes ; it has been done by other na- tions, and if. we cannot do it we forget our character for enterprise. I allude to the use of the after foliage of the mulberry, and the bark of the annual sprouts ; the former for making paper, and the bark for manufacturing fabrics ; both have been made in France, and Mons. De Lapiere obtained a gold medal for the production ; paper has been No. 85.] 497 made in America of the leaves of the mulberry ; even in this village unbleached paper has been made for the special purpose of millers de- positing their eggs upon — a dark material agreeable to their natural habits. On this paper a letter was written to a correspondent, who, under date of Sept. 5th, writes — " that the mulberry paper excites great attention, and is liked very much for steel pens." A quantity of Canton foliage is now being cured for bleaching, to make writing paper as soon as the mills can take it. The Canton retains its verdure in great perfection, later than any other variety. Col. Green, of this place, presented me specimens of late feeding upon the Canton and multicaulis, separate from each other ; the worms fed upon the Can- ton were evidently larger — spun two days earlier — and the cocoons are sound and larger than those fed on the multicaulis ; the worms were of the same hatching, and fed with equal attention. It has been satisfactorily ascertained in this town, by competent skillful operators, that the pongee silk — so called — of foreign make, is a vegetable pro- duction— perhaps mulberry — and never operated upon by the silk- worm. There can be no reasonable doubt about the ultimate success of silk culture in some future years ; but to accelerate such a desirable event, which may constitute an important American staple of revenue, which shall not only enrich the government, but reward the labor of pre- sent enterprise, a bounty seems necessary to stimulate and encour- age the agricultural population to commence operations in a new and untried crop. We import annually some twenty millions worth of raw and manufactured silks, the product of foreign enterprise and in- dustry, to promote which we voluntarily become the consumers, in- stead of being the producers. Let the laboring class be encouraged by a reasonable bounty, until the silk culture shall be extended over the whole length and breadth of the land, and every dollar expended in bounty will be returned to the treasury one hundred fold. Michael Klyne, Reamstown^ Lancaster co.^ Penn.^ has been four years engaged ; has three and a half acres employed ; 20,000 trees ; $250 capital ; raised 608 pounds of cocoons prior to 1844, and 358 pounds in 1844; cost this year $15, value $120. Enclosed I send one skein of sewing silk made on a machine of my own construction. One hand can make six hundred such skeins in a day, from the hanks as they come from the reel. I consider the question of silk growing settled. The soil and climate being congenial, with good eggs, the silk grower has nothing to fear, but every thing to encourage him to hope for a better return than can be realised from any other agricul- tural pursuit. James Walker, Frysburgh Island^ Me., expresses much confidence in the business ; has cultivated the mulberry tree for ten years, but has fed only a few ; has made 1,200 skeins of sewings, twisted on the common woolen wheel. We cannot feed as long here as in warmer States. We begin about the middle of June and feed until in about September. Thinks the silk culture can be made as profitable here as any agricultural pursuit. Harvey Loomis, Otiscoj Onondaga co.jJV. Y. — I have been en- fSenate, No. 85.] Gg 498 ■ [Senate gaged in the business for two years. The first, I made 39 pounds of cocoons, which I had manufactured by a lady near us, who made of them 1,000 skeins, which were pronounced by tailors a first rate arti- cle, equal in every respect to the Italian, except in gloss. The fibre was stronger and better, and found a ready sale at $3 per hundred at the stores, and it there retailed at four cents per skein. This crop will bring about $35. I shall increase my orchard next spring to twice its present extent. The bounty received in this county last year was $162. JosiAH Everett, Ofisco, Onondaga co., JV, F., has about two acres of the white Italian trees, set in rows about one rod apart and about eight feet in the row; has this year raised 47 pounds of cocoons, very fine ; first crop hatched the 1st of June ; second crop, last of June, twice as large, nearly all died ; ihe nights were very cold ; fed in an upper room, lathed and plastered, with the windows up and blinds closed much of the time. (We hope soon to hear from the last at- tempt to raise silk worms in plastered rooms. It is unnecessary to say it cannot be done. — A. C. V. E.) J. M. SuMMY and D. Eberly, Manheim, Lancaster co,j Penn. — Questions answered in order. No. of years engaged ,, . . . 6 Acres of land employed before 1844 3h Now planted and prepared for planting 13 No. of pounds of cocoons prior to 1844 3366 No. of pounds of cocoons in 1844 1500 Capital invested $500 Cost in 1844 not known, as the planting and re-planting were all done by the same hands, and we are not yet near through, as we have been reeling considerably for our neighbors. John Borden, Brooklyn^ Ohio. — We have raised this year 170 pounds of cocoons, being but one half our usual crop. The reason of our failure, was an untimely hatching of our eggs, in the cellar, occa- sioned by extreme warm weather in April. I had previously removed my eggs to an ice house for our second crop, which was the only crop we raised, there being no eggs in this vicinity we could get. I should advise every silk grower to put all his eggs in an ice house before the warm weather commences. For nine years we have been invariably successful, with the excep- tion of the first and present years. We have had about 350 pounds, annually. We have two acres of trees in close drill ; the rows four feet apart. Our cocoons cost us about $1.25 per bushel. There is no market in this part of the State ; hence we reel our own cocoons and send the raw silk to New-York for market. Nett proceeds from $1 to $1.50 per bushel. The greatest and the only difficulty is, the disease of the worms, which I contend is entirely unnecessary and may be avoided by proper care. (Open sheds, or tents, will do the thing. A. C. V. E.) Timothy Wheelwright, Wells ^ Gogunquet P. 0., Me. — I have been engaged five years, and always had good success. My object has been to test the feasibility of the culture. I have been obliged to No. 85.] 499 reel and manufacture my own cocoons, from the fact that we have no market. What we have made has been on the common wheel, but pronounced a good article by those who have used it. Some of it has been wrought into gloves, mits, &c. Previous to this year I have made 110 pounds of cocoons; this year, 50 pounds. I have three acres, containing six or seven thou- sand trees of the white, and eight hundred multicaulus and Canton, which I shall multiply as rapidly as possible. Samuel Barrett, French Creekj Lewis Co., Va. — About the first of June I hatched 3,000 worms, for the purpose of testing the quality of my eggs, and as a kind of first fruits of the season ; they were more healthy, and made better cocoons than any I have before raised, 265 making a pound. J. Payson Van Epps, Fairmont JVursery, Laurens, Otsego county, JV. Y. — I will give simply in this communication, a few extracts from my Journal in the silk department, as another item in favor of the feasibility of silk culture in the United States. ^' May 28th. Have just finished planting my second load of multicaulis, nearly three acres, furrows drawn six feet apart, about 5000 trees, avera- ging three feet in length, roots and all — nicely buried, being laid ho- rizontally in the drill, the tops uniformly up hill. July 26th. My nursery looks promising still. I dare not venture to feed over 10,000 worms ; the lot of one thousand have moulted the first time, having subsisted upon lettuce mostly. September 4th. I have been very careful in preserving the leaves to the last age — cutting the stem with a pocket scissor, in order to preserve the bud. Have about fifty thousand trees and an abundance of foliage left, after taking through a very respectable crop of worms." And now, as a deduction from the above, allow me to say, that no doubts should be entertained for one moment, upon this interesting branch of American industry. If farmers will only take hold of the business in a rational manner, acquaint themselves with the habits of this interesting and valuable insect, it can be made a profitable acqui- sition. I think the American Institute deserves the thanks of the people of the United States for their efforts to settle the great ques- tion of silk growing in this country. P. H. Green, JVorthampton, Mass. — To the members of the New- England Silk Convention. — The silk culture in the United States at- tracted my attention some two or three years ago, since which I have not been an indifferent observer of what has appeared in the public prints, and other publications relating to the subject. These, with other evidence, has convinced my mind, that at no distant period silk will rank among the most important productions of our country. Being desirous of obtaining practical knowledge, early last spring, I leased in this town about five acres of land, four of which had, five yearsjbefore, been planted with from 12 to 14,000 Alpine, Asiatic, mul- ticaulis and Canton roots and cuttings. Two places were fitted up for feeding; one put under the care of a person who had fed several years, and acquired the reputation of being a good feeder. No infor- mation would be conveyed by detailing the facts attending this at- 500 ^ [Senate tempt ; it is therefore only necessary to add, that it disappointed both the feeder and myself. The other was reserved for myself, and the result more than met my expectations, being wholly unacquainted with the business. A full remuneration for the labor and other out- lays were not among my most sanguine thoughts, of course I am not greatly disappointed — still I may, I think, truly say, that had the other feeding succeeded as well as that under my own care, although no profit would have been realized, an encouraging return would have been made. Three ounces of eggs were hatched, and the worms car- ried through, feeding principally without loss, except at the time of winding, when the weather was extremely cold and unfavorable : notwithstanding, I had two hundred pounds of good cocoons from three ounces hatched. It is deemed unnecessary to trouble the con- vention with detail, and I will therefore only subjoin the result of my observation and experience from this feeding, and what has been done, and is now doing in other countries not so well situated probably as our own. I have therefore come to the conclusion, that with the in- telligence and means practiced there, silk may be made an advanta- geous crop even in Massachusetts. The culture of silk in France was established by the bounty of government, and is now a source of great national, as well as individual wealth. Nothing is hazarded in saying, if it is established here, it must be done by the united effort of gov- ernment and individuals. Since the discontinuance of the bounty, thousands of mulberry trees have been dug up in this and neighbor- ing towns; and without prompt action on the part of the Legislature, thousands now are destined to the same fate. (The above, as will be seen, was addressed to the N. E. Silk Con- vention. The letter of this gentleman to the National Convention, is of great length, and as a part of it is a recapitulation of the above, it has been omitted. A. C, V. E.) It was my design to feed three broods of worms in succession, so as to have the last brood wind up by the middle of August. In ac- cordance with this plan, I took three ounces of eggs from the cellar, when the temperature was 54° Fahrenheit, placed them in a room where it was 60° on the 13th of May; on the 17th, removed them to a room where the temperature was regulated by artificial heat, and ranged from 62° to 73*^ until the 27th, when the hatching commenc- ed—28th, 29th, 30th, and 31st, all hatched or nearly so. While the temperature was at 70° or over, the young worms were active, but became somewhat torpid when it was 64° — ranged from 65° to 70° until the 3d of June, when the whole were placed in the cocoonery. On the 4th, temperature down to 46°, worms quite torpid, supposed it all over with them, but revived on the 5th when it was 70°, and went through perfect moulting, perfectly healthy — continued so through the 2d, 3d, and 4th, — changed them after each moulting ex- cepting those put into the cradles, which were placed there immedi- ately after the third moulting, and were not again changed. Some hundreds of the worms fell into the troughs of the cradles when first put into them : supposing them to be lost, no notice was taken of them till the third day, when it was deemed necessary to wash them No. 85.] 501 out ; accordingly a bucket of water was turned into the trough at the upper end; of course the worms were carried out at the other end. This immersion, as well as fasting, had not as was expected deprived them of life; indeed, had made but little change in their appearance ; they were therefore all secured, by placing a sieve at the lower end of the trough, placed on dry shelves, food given them; and in order to ascertain whether the drenching and fasting would have any unfa- vorable effect, a particular place was assigned them; they went through feeding in all respects as the others, and made as good co- coons. Judging from this and other facts that subsequently came under my observation, I feel warranted in saying, although drenching worms for a short length of time before the fourth nioulting may do them no essential injury, yet nothing can be more fatal than to keep them in a wet or damp place, particularly when about forming and completing cocoons. Worms hatched May 28th and 29th, were put into the cradles and on the lower shelves in the loft ; the last hatched on the upper shelf, near the roof ; as they approached towards maturity, it was found that all were too much crowded, and about one-third were removed to a shed. All continued healthy, and about the first of July commenced winding. On the morning of the 4th, the tempera- ture was 50°, — on the 5th, 48°, — and several succeeding days, about the same. This was a severe shock to the worms, — indeed, it so para- lyzed a considerable portion of them, (probably from 10 to 20 per cent,) that they seemed to lose the power of making cocoons, grew chubby and died. It was apprehended that the loft, in warm weather, would become so hot as to have an unfavorable effect on the health of the worms. But instead of this, the least loss was on the upper shelf, where the last hatched were placed, and spun as early as the first hatched, and made quite as good cocoons. From the fact that the worms, while young, were not injured by being subjected to a temperature of 46°, and about the same, at a more advanced age, had such a paralyzing effect, that a considerable portion never recovered, it is inferred that a warm temperature is more essential during the last than first age of the worms. The product of the three ounces of eggs, was two hundred pounds of good cocoons. It is deemed proper to men- tion, that the lower story of the building is separated from the upper, only by a partial floor, so as to give a free circulation of air through the whole house. The windows have sliding shutters below, and in the loft, a door at each end, but no windows or other openings in the roof; also, that chloride of lime was placed, in small quantities, in all parts of the building, and fine unslacked lime sifted through a bag made of coarse cotton cloth, on the worms, in wet, damp weather, immediately after feeding. This not only absorbed the dampness, but is believed to have contributed to their general good health. I found by experience that the chrysalides could not be destroyed by the use of charcoal. A description of the plan, manner of fitting up, &c., is not thought necessary. The experiment was, however, 502 [Senate conclusivcj and it is confidently believed, that whoever makes the same attempt, will find that a portion of the chrysalides will not be destroyed. A better mode of destroying them, and which proves effective, as well as every way satisfactory, is one recommended by Mr. Banne, a distinguished French chemist, which is as follows : Dispose the cocoons in a wooden box, in a stratum of six inches deep ; upon each superficial square foot of these, half a pint of alcohol sprinkled from a water-pot so as to distribute the liquid equally over the co- coons ; (Mr. Paine says one gill per bushel is sufficient. Have you tested this 1 A. C. V. E.,) then form another stratum over these, and a farther quantity of alcohol applied, and so on until the box is full ; then closely covered up and left twenty-four hours. Instead of a box, I used a barrel' that had contained alcohol, — cut a space ten inches square in the head, — nicely fitted a board with lists on each edge, so that when it was shut down, all the air was excluded from the barrel. This did the thing perfectly. With regard to the succession of crops before mentioned, the eggs reserved for them were placed in a cellar where the temperature was fifty-four, and according to the opinion of some writers on silk cul- ture, they would not hatch without being exposed to a temperature above sixty. Contrary |to expectation, as soon as the mercury went up to this point the eggs hatched j this too, when I was wholly un- prepared for them, having neither feed, space nor time to attend to them ; of course they were lost. Not willing to relinquish mylplan altogether, about two-thirds of "an ounce of eggs were procured, which hatched the twenty-third and twenty-fourth of July ; these went through their first and second moulting on the sixth and twelfth days of their age without any loss, third nearly as well, fourth not so successful, the weather about this time, being rainy and extremely cold for the season, with constant sudden changes, which produced torpidness of the worms from which they never recovered ; a consid- erable portion of them formed cocoons, but few perfected them. The first part of the season is unquestionably the best time for feed- ing, still it is believed with proper attention to selecting feed, con- genial temperature, say about seventy or above, natural best, but if this cannot be had, artificial for later crops, may be successfully used. Much has been said and written about open feeding ; no matter how open, provided all other requsites can be had. In the humble opin- ion of the writer, whoever expects to produce a good crop of co- coons from worms subjected to wet or damp atmosphere for any length of time, and to a temperature below sixty-five, will be sadly disappointed. In Lombardy, Italy and France, the great silk grow- ing countries of Europe, the temperature in cocooneries is not only regulated with great exactitude by artificial means, and the atmos- phere corrected from time to time as occasion may require. In those countries, the feeding season lasts but six weeks, and there is certain as any other agricultural product. There the leaves from trees (not annually cut down) are used; of eourse but one crop can be produced. This is no objection to a sue- No. 85. j 503 cession of crops in New-England, where the trees are cut down in the spring, early shoots cut and fed to the worms, and later ones constantly springing up, suitable for feeding. That the United States are at no distant period to become a great silk growing country, is more than probable ; that New-England will show largely in the product is not so certain. While the foreign produ- cers and others interested, are watching with eagle eyes, the progress of silk culture in this country, at all times prepared to overstock our market with raw silk, and constantly doing so for the express purpose of checking its culture here ; while not one in five of our citizens who engage in it are remunerated for their labors and other outlays, while thousands of mulberry trees in this and neighboring towns, have been dug up, and thousands more destined soon to share the same fate, and while the whole subject requires systematic investiga- tion and revision as well as simplification, it cannot be reasonably expected that individuals, without assistance from government, will make the necessary advances to compete successfully with such formidable obstacles. Indeed it requires no prophet to predict, that should no aid from government be speedily given, the silk culture in Massachusetts will soon be numbered among the things that were. Dr. B. Blakesley, JVewark, l^ayne co.j JY. Y. — Your silk circu- lar came duly to hand, and having no remark to offer that will be in- teresting or useful, I simply forward an answer to your inquiries. It will be seen that I have eight acres of land devoted to trees ; but I have not used the fourth part of them for feeding worms. I intend to enlarge my operations so as to use the whole. No. of years engaged 4 Acres of land employed 8 No. of trees, about 200,000 Capital invested, (only half employed) f 1 , 000 Pounds of cocoons prior to 1844 581 do in 1844 334 Cost of the same in 1844 $50 Value of the same $75 Bounty on same $50 G. W. Fargo, South Solon^ Me. — Having perused whatever fell in our way on silk, we caught a little of the fever. We had a few years before planted a few white mulberry trees, out of mere curios- ity. We used their foliage last year with the best success. This greatly increased our zeal. Have enlarged our operations this year. Our first hatching was on the 1st of June; our second, the 20th of July. The first wound in thirty days ; the second, in fifty-five, after hatching. The cause of the difference was extremely cold weather during the last feeding, especially the nights ; the thermomter seldom rose to 70° at mid-day. Our experience convinces me : 1st. That the white mulberry (in this State) is best, and other va- rieties as per the following order: 1st, Broosa ; 2d, Canton; and lastly, the multicaulis. 2d. That worms will live and grow, wind and make good cocoons, on any variety of the mulberry, with proper attention. 504 [Senate 3d. That there is scarcely a farm in the State of Maine which does not include some portion of land on which the mulberry will live, and annually yield foliage for the profitable culture of silk. 4th. That the greater proportion of failures are the result of igno- rance or inattention ; mostly the latter. Perhaps, however, igno- rance may be the cause of inattention, in many instances. In rainy weather — [much less in fair weather — A. C, V. E,] — it will not do to put off till to-morrow what ought to be done to-day. 5th. That pure air and cleanliness are the main things in rearing worms. 6th. That a steady temperature of about 70° will, with proper feed- ing, greatly promote the growth and productiveness of the worm, and shorten the time of its labors ; especially at the time of winding is such a temperature indispensable. This is important at the moultings also. 7th. That wet leaves will not injure worms, if lime be used and they be more frequently cleaned. Salt is good in wet weather. 8th. That sick worms may be restored by the use of lime. (It will be a most happy thing for silk worms when this cleaning, liming, salting, warming, &c., can give place to the more successful plan of feeding on open frames or cradles, and their foliage placed before them as nature designed it should be — on the branches. — A. C. V. E.) Lucius Gary, Moreau, Saratoga co., JY. Y. — I have been engaged in the culture of silk in a small way for four years. In 1838 I raised about 33 pounds of cocoons ; in 1844 about 135 pounds, and had foliage enough to have fed 200 pounds more, which were lost in con- sequence of not having eggs. Live and learn. We have reeled the same and received encouragement to persevere. Took the premium of the American Institute in 1843 ; also the first premium at the State Fair at Poughkeepsie. (Is not this encourag- ing 1) My reeler had never seen a reel or reeled silk ; have picked our leaves and fed on shelves ; our worms wind in oak bushes. (Mr. Gary took also the first premium at the 17th annual fair of the American Institute. — A. C. V. E.) Hugh Gassiday, Eden, Effingham co.^ Ga. — Answer to questions regularly given. No. of years engaged 5 No. of acres of land employed 12 No. of trees 25,000 Capital invested, not known. No. of pounds of cocoons prior to 1844 200 do do do in 1844 230 Value of cocoons, ($3 per bushel) $70 The cocoons we have reeled, and are making into sewings, which will be worth nearly $200 in this place. Henry Ghapin, Canandaigua, Ontario co.^ JV. F. — I have not done much this season, but have been cultivating my trees to enable me to do more next year. I began on the 20th of June with an ounce of eggs, and they have done well ; were healthy, and spun good co- coons, 20 pounds. I am satisfied that early feeding is much the best. No. 85. J 505 There is no market in this part of the country. I am satisfied that the business can be made profitable. I have two acres ; all multi- caulis. Wm. R. Massey, Esq., Alexandria^ D. C. — In 1841 I fed about 30,000, which produced me some five or six bushels cocoons, the worms fed were of the small sulphur variety, and were entirely healthy. I believe I did not lose one worm in one thousand. I recollect dis- tinctly that but eight worms were found dead after they had gone be- yond their third moulting. There was no expense incurred during any of the above seasons ; I gathered the leaves and fed them my- self. In 1842, Mr. McCormick and I concluded to try an experi- ment on a larger scale ; we purchased five ounces eggs, of the mam- moth sulphur kind, and these produced us thirty-five bushels cocoons, all good ; we fed in a large room, forty-five by one hundred feet, which had been quite empty of any thing attractive to vermin, for a considerable time ; of course that season we lost but few worms by them. We purchased five ounces peanut eggs, but they proved not good, and therefore we took no account of them in our crop of that season. I reeled myself, the cocoons yielding about twenty-five pounds raw silk, exclusive of those reserved for eggs. Encouraged by our success, we embarked more largely in the business in 1843, and hatched fifteen ounces eggs at once, from which we got about forty-five bushels cocoons ; the mice by this time had found their way into our feeding room, and destroyed, I think, fully one-third of the worms. In the same room we were feeding last season at least the worms from thirty ounces eggs, by far too many for our room, unless much better ventilated than it was or could be ; yet the worms were remarkably healthy, and we should doubtless have made over one hundred bushels cocoons, but for the rats and mice, which beset us in unusual numbers, and destroying two-thirds of our crop. We gathered about forty bushels cocoons. Experience has taught us much in relation to the silk-worm. First that there needs not to be so much ado, about houses to feed in, or costly fixtures to feed on. Early feeding, in open tents, I am sure is far preferable ; having tried many experiments, I readily conclude that light, (until the time of winding,) and air, are the chief requi- sites for the health and yield of the worms. Cold, I am very sure, is not so injurious to them as heat, and a close atmosphere. Tents can be so constructed as to give the whole family of worms a con- stant supply of fresh air, antl the fixtures may be so arranged as to prevent access by vermin. Cocoons, we think, may be raised at an expense not to exceed one dollar per bushel ; we prefer the mam- moth sulphur, because the worms are more hardy, and the cocoons reel more freely. P. S. — We feed the morus multicaulis, of which we have suffi- cient to feed a million and a half of worms. Clark Avery, Perrym7/e, Madison county, JV*. F. — Pursuant to the published request of the trustees of the American Institute, I forward to you an account of my operations and success in the silk business. My labor is done by myself and family, in connection with farming 506 [Senate and domestic matters, and hence I cannot make a full report ; but, such as it is, I forward to you. 1st. I hare raised about eighty pounds of cocoons this year. 2d. Have raised about three hundred and forty-three pounds prior to this year. 3d. Have about one acre of land employed in the business. 4th. Have been engaged in the business five years. I think branch feeding, after the third moulting, is better than feed- ing leaves ; it appears to be natural and agreeable to the vt^orms, se- parates them from one another, and secures a free circulation of air ; and when they do not all moult at the same time, feeding those that are not moulting, raises the pile above those that are, and leaves them in the pile, where they are undisturbed until they have moulted, and then they immediately come to the top to partake of the foliage. Experience has taught us that a cocoonery should be well ventila- ted, and the freer the circulation of air, the better. I reel, spin, and make what I raise into sewings and twist, in my own family. We use the Piedmontese reel, and spin it on a common wheel, and make an article of such quality, that it drew the second premium, ($10) awarded to " Manufactured Silk " at the recent State Fair ; also the highest premium was awarded to our cocoons, on reeled silk, and on sewing silk, at our late county Fair. I intend continuing in the bu- siness, and enlarging my operations. Jeremiah Upham, Dudley. — I received your silk circular, soliciting facts from silk growers. In reply, I would say, 1st. My operations have been small, yet I have been more or less acquainted with growing silk for twenty years ; a few pounds each of the last four years. 2d. My experience testifies decidedly in favor of early feeding, also in favor of an abundant circulation of air. We have much more to dread from heat than from cold, especially sultry, damp weather ; hence the necessity of having our worms, especially in the last stages, in some tent or open place, where they can have a free circulation of air. 3d. With plenty of foliage, and good eggs, and a suitable place for feeding, accompanied by proper care and attention, there is no diffi- culty at all in making silk of first rate quality, and with as much pro- fit as we realize from any of our ordinary farm crops. Enoch Bacon, Southhridge, Mass. — Commenced feeding in 1842, and produced four pounds two ounces of silk, and some eggs. In 1843 produced about the same quantity, and in 1844 sixty-one pounds of cocoons. Samuel Gates, Highgate, Swanton P. 0., Vt. — Commenced by answering the questions contained in the circular. No. of years engaged, 5 Acres of land employed, 1 J No. of trees, 51,000 No. 85. J 507 Amount of capital invested, $300 Amount of cocoons prior to 1844, 223 Amount in 1844, 164 Cost of the same for 1844, . . . , $22 .75 Value of the same, not known. Has one-half acre of Alpine, and one acre of multicaulis ; prefers the latter. Has had bad luck in/eeding more than one crop in a season. In- tends to adopt the one crop system hereafter. Has formerly fed in a close building, with disease and loss, but now feeds in his orchard in^n open building, and is highly pleased and satisfied. His cocoons have been manufactured in his family into sewings, twist, shawls, &c., and meet with a ready sale. (We would not wish to discourage, in any manner, this commend- able industry ; but it would be a hundred-fold better for the cause, and for all engaged in it, could every culturist find a good market for his cocoons as soon as completed. It is pre-eminently a business of experience, and it cannot be expected that it will be carried to any very great perfection, when manufactured in such small parcels, as it must of necessity be in this way. Many of the specimens received evince a degree of skill and perfection which could hardly be antici- pated under such a divided attention. A. C. V. E.) Francis D. Wait, CantwelPs Bridge, Delaware. — In compliance with the circular of the American Institute, I will give a detail of my experience in the culture of silk, which commenced in 1838. For two or three years did not accomplish much. In 1840, '2 and '3, raised 1451 pounds of cocoons. I have 4^ acres of trees, numbering about 32,000 multicaulis ; have $1200 capital invested ; cocoons raised this year, 620 pounds, on which the bounty was $94 ; or suffi- cient to cover all expenses. I made last year 50 lbs. sewings and twist. Fed this year mostly in Gill's cradles, under a tent, but not so successful as heretofore. I did not obtain more than 50 lbs. of cocoons from an ounce of eggs ; before, nearly or quite 100. The weather has been very cold the fore part of June; the thermometer sometimes down to 48° in the morning, and could not feed until 11 o'clock ; hence our feeding was protracted to forty days. Temperature should never be under 70° if it can be avoided. Must have artificial heat. It lessens the expense, for without it the feeding is protracted ten or twelve days. This depends upon the season of course ; for sometimes you can do with- out artificial heat, and at others you cannot; therefore it is always best to have it at command. I should therefore recommend a tight shed with a cellar containing a furnace. The sides and end of the shed might be made of pannel doors or windows, hung like black- smiths' windows ; reaching down to the sill. I am now getting my cocoons reeled ; some days nearly a pound. This fall I shall have to plow up my trees and replant in the spring. In consequence of hard usage, some of them are dead, and dying, and otherwise defec- tive. My trees are now three feet apart in the row, and the rows 508 [Senate four or six feet apart. I shall try the business a year or two longer, with the hope of doing better. D. Mack, Secretary JVorthampton Association^ Mass. — Below I have endeavored to answer the inquiries, and comply with the wishes of the trustees of the American Institute, as expressed in their circu- lar. , Number of years engaged 5 Acres of land employed 30 Number of trees 145,200 Whole capital invested $1 , 000 Amount of cocoons in 1844 ^. 1 ,500 Cost of the same per bushel $2 Value of the same, 150 lbs. silk, at $5 per lb. . . . $750 Though we have thirty acres employed, we have fed all our worms from the trees grown on one- half of the lot. We use and prefer the Alpine, imported by Mr. Whitmarsh,some of which have grown this year between seven and eight feet high, with some leaves six by eight inches. We have a large quantity of well rooted trees of this variety for sale. Our cocoonery is 100 feet long by 25 wide ; enclosed with boards, several of which are moveable, for ventilation. In order to prevent noise, and to save expense, the floor is the bare earth, which we occasionally sprinkle in order to prevent dust. Ventilation is also pro- moted by raising the sills on posts, and by fourteen scuttles in the roof. There are two rows of feeding racks the whole length of the building, five tiers high with a wide alley between the rows, and narrow ones at the sides. Next year we intend to excavate a cellar to keep the foliage moist when we have a large supply on hand. The greatest obstacle to the complete success of the silk enterprise in this country, has arisen from defective reeling. Well reeled American silk is worth more than any foreign silk in market. To reel well on any reel in common use, requires considerable practice, more than can be obtained in reeling the small lots usually raised in families. It would therefore greatly benefit the cause to establish filatures where the producer can find a certain market, and from which the manufacturer could be sure to obtain well reeled silk. We have established such a filature, and will reel good cocoons for $1 per bushel, or as we are manufacturing sewings, will purchase the cocoons, or the silk after it is reeled, at a fair price. Good cocoons must be well cured, assorted, and transported. The best means of curing them is to sprinkle them with alcohol, at the rate of about one gill to a bushel. Steam, or coal gas, are also good. In sorting the cocoons; class them as follows : 1. Quality consisting of perfect cocoons, or such as are firm, com- pact, and free from all stains or spots. 2d. Such as have one end terminating in a point, but are otherwise firm and sound. 3d. Large, and free from spots, but thin and less compact than the first. 4th. Double cocoons. No. 85.J 509 5th. Those in which the worm died before completing its cocoon, 6th. Such as are spotted, or otherwise damaged. Cocoons should be transported in boxes or barrels to prevent their becoming bruised. We have also invented a reel, which will save fifty cents per pound in labor and waste, and make more and better silk than any other with which we are acquainted, and on which a beginner can in a few days make good silk. The reels are so small that they can be trans- fitted at once to the doubling frames, or the silk may remain on them and dry, or, be taken off and packed for market. By them are pro- duced the same results sought to be obtained by others, but by entirely different means, but without exposing the silk to knot or break in doubling. We shall have a model for exhibition at the Fair, and hav- ing patented the invention, shall be prepared to make them, and set them up for filatures or private families. We will also purchase the silk reeled on them if desired. We have one machine carried by water power, with eight pans con- nected together, and are heated by steam and supplied with cold wa- ter. There is one transverse motion for all the reels, which are 16 ; (two for each pan,) yet each is separately fitted to be in or out of gear. With this, Mr. Paine with seven boys, (aged from 12 to 16 years,) after a fortnight's training, can reel nine pounds per day of ten hours, and better silk than the best Canton, and with very little waste. Mr. Paine, himself, can reel two pounds a day, with half the waste made by a common reeler. An English manufacturer in this town, has procured samples of raw silk reeled in this way, to send to England, as the result of American ingenuity, and of our suc- cess in improving the silk manufacture; which samples he pronounc- ed superior in evenness, color, and finish, to any he had ever seen. We invite the friends of silk culture to examine critically our reel, and to pronounce decidedly on its merits. (We have this reel (with some improvements,) now in our filature, at New-York, and shall ere long comply with this invitation. Has Mr. P. seen the reel described in the letter of Mr. Van Tassel 1 A. C. V. E.) Edward Valentine, Silk Manufacturer, JYorthampton, Mass. — I have just seen O. D. Paine's silk reel at work. I believe it a good improvement. If I could buy my stock reeled the same way, I should buy no other. Geo. W. Fargo, Passadumkeag, Me. — Has much confidence that silk growing can be made profitable even in Maine. Says our worms wound well after about 50 to 60 days. Experience has shown us, that worms will live, and grow, and wind, being full fed at one time and half starved at another, when fed on different kinds of mulberry at different times, or on all kinds mixed. Indeed we can raise worms to perfection, if we have the feed. The cold weather retarded their progress, the nights particularly. The thermometer at no time dur- ing the summer reached 70°. A. C. Van 'Evps, Auburn, {now of the JYew-York Filature, E. JVew- York, L. I.) — My feeding has been done in a tent, 24 by 80 feet, cov- 510 [Senate ered with boards, and otherwise enclosed with canvass. In this, my eggs were hatched and worms fed. I have fed on the multicaulis, exclusively. For the last ten days I cut off about six or eight inches of the top and fed to young worms.. I think most of the objections which have been urged against this variety of the mulberry have arisen from the feeding of the tops (which are very juicy and contain but a small proportion of the saccharine matter,) to worms requiring strong- er food. One acre should produce more foliage than all my worms have eaten this season. Yet, although we fed from four or five acres, our teams were out for several days, scouring the country for eight or ten miles around Auburn, in search of mulberry. We fed two crops of about equal size. The first produced four-fifths of our cocoons. The second, being fed on various kinds of imported foliage, proved an expensive operation. Should I again meet such an emergency, I should throw my worms away by all means. The same labor and expense which this year secured for us only about 300 pounds of co- coons, under favorable circumstances would have returned at least 800 or 1,000 pounds. The cause of so small a yield of foliage from our several acres of trees, was, that nearly all of them have stood in the ground as the crash left them, without any cultivation or care whatever. The question was frequently asked us previous to this year's feed- ing, " What are your views of the silk culture ?" To which we an- swered, " This year must decide. We have good eggs, good foliage, and an abundance of the purest air of heaven. If with these we fail, adieu to the business." We knew this could not be. Now, we an- swer the same question almost daily, by saying, we should expose our eggs with as certain a prospect of success as we should plant corn or potatoes, or engage in any of the common occupations of the farmer. Abraham Erisman, Rapho, Lancaster co., Pa. — I first commenced feeding this summer. I fed the peanut variety, in three small lots, and gathered 8| bushels of cocoons. The first lot ate and wound well, as I thought, in about 33 days. About ten per cent died in their last age. The second crop was considerably neglected in the first and second ages, and in consequence of this many died. The last lot, through the pressure of other business, were not any too well attended to, and consequently I lost twenty per cent of these. (The sickness referred to is common in clear feeding, and the cause assigned is doubtless the true one, viz., "want of attendance." — A. C. V. E.) Abial S. Smart, Springfield, Vt. — My family have been engaged, in a limited way, in feeding silk-worms for the last four years, and with tolerable success. There have been raised in this town the pres- ent season over 1100 pounds of cocoons, by a dozen different feeders. There are some in the business in every town adjoining us, but no market for our cocoons very near. No filature to prepare silk for market, and we are obliged to get our cocoons wrought into sewings and twist, but cannot make a cash article of it. J. Belcher & Sons, Richford, Tioga co., JV. Y. — We commenced in the silk culture in 1839, when trees were high, and invested a capi- No. 85.J 511 tal of $ 1 ,000, and have since added $200 more, making $1 ,200. We have now about ten acres of trees, (multicaulis.) Previous to 1844 we have made about 1,900 pounds of cocoons. This year we have made 375 pounds, at an actual cost of $150, and the cocoons are not worth in market over $112. Thus, it will be seen, that the cost of raising actually exceeds the value by $38. In 1842 we made 939 from less than five acres of ground, and with less expense than we have incurred this season. Our worms have been unhealthy this year, and we know not what to attribute it to, as we have raised them in the same place, and have treated them as well as we know how with our increased experience; and yet we have not raised more than one-fifth of our worms to ma- turity. They have died some at all their moultings, but particularly when they had done eating, they would lie still upon the shelves and die. Some look perfectly natural, while others turn a dark green or almost black — while a small proportion had the yellows. We used lime plentifully, but tried others without, and could see no great dif- ference. They had the freest ventilation, both day and night. We have been thus particular, in order to elicit information from attendants at the convention. We should also like to procure a few ounces of eggs from a perfectly healthy stock, and would thank any gentleman who has them to spare, or knows who has, to give us infor- mation where we can procure them ; as far as we can learn, all in our vicinity have had similar success, or rather failures. The busi- ness was increasing amongst us, quite a number having gone into it the present season on a respectable scale, some planting out from two to four acres of trees. I fear they will become dissatisfied unless there has been better success in other parts of the country. For ourselves, we are some- what cast down, but not discouraged, and intend to persevere in our exertions to demonstrate that silk can be successfully raised in this as well as in other countries. We think our failure in the silk cause should be attributed to some peculiarity of the season, rather than to any defect in the climate generally. (We cannot say what may be the true cause of this " mishap." We have seen cases apparently the same, and did not hesitate to attribute it to one or both of the following evils, viz : First, to the progress of the eggs towards the hatching point, where it was too cold to ad- mit of their natural hatching, and not cold enough to keep them per- fectly dormant. We have no doubt this is frequently the cause of dis- ease. They should not be exposed for a moment to any atmosphere less cold than that which will preserve ice ; and care should be taken to have them placed in such an atmosphere before there is any possi- bility of the commencement of the incipient process. The other evil to which we allude was that of feeding on tight sur- faces ; for, however well the cocoonery may be ventilated, the worms cannot be sufficiently exposed to the air if on tight surfaces. These are suo-o-estions which may not be applicable to this case ; but they are certainly of great weight, and entitled to an investigation by friend B. & Sons. They have been doing too well, and have induced too many others to enter upon the work, now to become disheartened and fail. A. C. V. E.) 512 [Senate Henry Chapin, JYewport, Sullivan co., JV. H. — Is engaged both in growing and manufacturing, and answers the questions to both. No. of years engaged, 4 No. of acres of land employed, 2 No. of trees not known fully. Capital invested, , $200 Amount of cocoons prior to 1844, (lbs.) 650 Amount in 1844, 250 Cost in 1844, $25 Value of the same, $100 Manufacturing — number of years engaged, 3 Amount of capital invested, $500 Amount of American stock used, (lbs.) 175 No. females employed during fall and winter, 4 Yards of vestings, 30 No. of cravats and handkerchiefs, 167 Yards ladies' dresses, 75 Total amount of goods, $1,550 I am highly gratified in observingthe noble efforts of the American Institute, in regard to the growth and manufacture of silk. Four years experience, even in this cold climate, has fully satisfied me that the silk culture is not only practicable, but can be made to repay the culturist for his labor. In 1841 I built a silk factory on a small stream, 20 feet by 30, two stories high, with a basement ; it has twenty-seven windows. I hatch and feed my worms in my dwelling house until after the fourth moulting. I then remove them to my factory, which being plastered, I can more easily secure from mice, &c. Windows raised in warm weather, day and night ; closed in cold nights. I think artificial heat indispensable, especially at the time of winding, if the weather is cold. 1 have used air-slack lime ; I feed two crops of worms in a season ; the first crop generally the best ; I feed almost exclusively on multicaulis. Enough of good foliage, cleanliness, good air, and plenty of room, are the grand secret. My second crop this season is the best, owing, I think, to selecting the mature leaves. Martin Phelps, Pre&/e, Cortland co.^JV. Y. — Have been engaged in feeding three years ; one- half an acre employed ; 6,500 trees ; $100 capital invested. Previous to 1844 raised sixty-three pounds of co- coons ; in 1844, one hundred and eight pounds, at a cost of $29.50, valued at $52, including the State bounty. The above is a detail of my operations in this cause during the last season. Last year I sold between four and five bushels at the State prison at Auburn ; but now I understand they have discontinued the business there, which leaves us without a market. We need a fila- ture and factory in central New-York, in order to make a market for our cocoons for those of us who do not understand reeling. My operations, as you see, are on a small scale, and should the State discontinue the bounty, we should get just^about enough to co- ver the expense of hoeing the trees, and feeding ; especially if we sell for $3 or $3.50 per bushel ; but I am not discouraged. I believe the No. 85.] 513 information we get from your valuable reports, together with our ex- perience, will linally prevail, and we become a great silk growing and manufacturing country. Shaw and Weston, Burlington^ Vt. — We have been engaged in the silk business three years. The quantity of land and number of trees used is uncertain, as the leaves used by us in feeding, were col- lected from scattered trees in many different places. Whole capital invested in lands and permanent fixtures, .... $400 .00 Amount of cocoons in pounds, prior to 1844 740 Amount of cocoons in pounds in 1844 470 Cost of cocoons, $118.00 Value of cocoons $171 .00 Add State bounty of 20 cents per pound, 94 .00 $265.00 Our cocoonery and fixtures are sufficient for feeding at least four times the number of worms fed in 1844, and there should consequently, be added to the $118, only six dollars for interest on the capital invested, making the whole cost of our cocoons for this year $124. We have one acre of very flourishing multicaulis trees, principally from cut- tings planted last spring, and intend to plant ten acres more next spring, with a suitable proportion of other varieties for early feeding. In feeding the present year, we have used lime very freely, and with most satisfactory effect, our worms having been remarkably healthy. Our cocoons from worms fed without artificial heat, have averaged 194 to the pound ; while those from worms hatched from the same ki.nd of eggs, and fed in rooms kept uniformly warm by ar- tificial heat, averaged 275 to the pound. A great part of this differ- ence, however, was occasioned by greater attention and regularity in feeding the former lot of worms. Alexander Smith, Fredonia^ Chautauque co., JV*. Y. — I hatched and fed about 10,000 worms, which were remarkably healthy, and made fine cocoons ; I have made about twelve thousand skeins of sew- ings, and some twist ; besides having thrown some silk for wea- ving. The present aspect of the silk business in this region is just this : There are many beginners, and as is the case in the commencement of every other new pursuit, they are the subjects of numerous difficul- ties, and occasional failures. They generally expect too great profits from the means employed. Most of the cocoons are worked into sewings in the families where they are raised, and on no better machinery than the common reel and wheel, and cannot be induced to secure any thing better. If people could be induced to get good silk reels, and reel their cocoons as they should be, it would be better for all. Many are deterred from commencing the business for want of a ready market. I purchase all I can get, but no man can fit up a fila- I Senate, No. 85.] Hh 514 [Senate ture or factory, and depend upon American cocoons for a supply ; whereas if anything like an adequate supply could be obtained the whole business would go forward. But the greatest hindrance, and one which acts as a dead weight, is the unjustifiable partiality of our citizens for foreign manufactures. To accommodate this preference, much American silk is sold as Italian, and neither salesman or pur- chaser knows the imposition. Hence I am led to the conclusion, that unless the ladies generally can be induced to patronize the enter- prise, and prefer domestic silk whenever they can get a good article, the cause must drag along heavily for many years to come. Depend upon it, female influence is the mighty lever which must put the whole machinery in operation. I have recently sent money to New- York for the purchase of raw silk, which I should gladly have ex- pended for cocoons, but could not get them. Richard Spaulding, Jaffrey^ Jf. H. — I have been experimenting some for four years. Commenced with twenty-one multicaulis trees, and have increased them to eight thousand. Last year had five pecks of cocoons, this year between four and five bushels, and might have had as many more, had we been supplied with eggs. I feed in an unfinished room in my dwelling, and use artificial heat in cold weather. I have made me a reel after a drawing of Dale's Silk Reels, and a spinner and twister on a plan of my own. A sample of my sew- ing silk I enclose and send you. I am a farmer, and have no doubt the culture of silk can be made as profitable as any other branch. (The sample enclosed is certainly among the best samples received. A. C. V. E.) James Hamilton, Jr., Bridport, Vf. — It is six years since we commenced feeding worms. In 1839 we raised half a pound of co- coons ; in 1840 four pounds, 1842 thirty-five pounds, 1843 sixty pounds, and 1844 sixty-five pounds. We commenced feeding this year the 12th of May. The first day's hatching we fed with dry foliage, as an experiment. After the first moulting we had a heavy frost which killed most of our leaves, and we were obliged, also, to feed our second day's hatching on dry leaves. The first came up pretty fair until the third moulting, when some of them died, but did much better than those fed on green leaves ; they soon began to dwin- dle, and not more than half of them spun. We had leaves enough for twice as many as we fed, but could get no eggs. Our trees are principally multicaulis, half an acre. Dr. M. W. Vnihivs, Log-Hall, Edwards^ Depot, Miss. — Gentlemen, your address to silk growers reached me a short time since through due course of mail. My situation in life makes it impracticable for me to indulge in such luscious fare as that to which yours would invite me — visiting your meeting. I am the loser, and no one can " calculate the value" of such a loss, but he who is too poor, and yet over anxious to indulge. I am forced to give my personal attention to my business ; you will therefore please accept what little I have to offer. No. 85.J 516 I know of but one fact in support of this question, in addition to my former letter, I gave this fact to the public, through the columns of a paper devoted to agriculture and its kindred branches — the South Western Farmer — published by N. G. North, in Raymond, Miss., but will give you the particulars. The lady of my nearest neighbor, W. R. Gibbs, commenced last yearto rear the silk-worm ; being fond of experimenting, she resolved to try whether the trouble of feeding, fires, &c., might not be avoided. She procured a covering to defend from rain, and birds ; this was done by the aid of an old worn out umbrella, and some netting such as we use for mosquito nets ; the worms were placed on a multicaulis tree and the protection placed over them. I visited them several times, and know that the worms were thus exposed to all kinds of weather, and whilst they were there we had a severe rain storm, and two exceedingly cold days — wind blowing quite keen from the south- west, yet with all this, these worms were larger, and spun their cocoons earlier than those fed in a building kept warm by means of artificial heat. The experiment of this lady proves most conclusive- ly to my mind that worms will bear any degree of cold, that we have in our climate, during the season of feeding. We fed a few worms for the purpose of preserving egg^ for future use ; and as usual in an airy room, gathering our foliage in the morning while the dew was yet on them. We cleaned our frames oftener than usual, using no lime, and have been more successful than heretofore. Of Mr. Benton's success, his letter to me will fully set forth better than I can. I send you specimens of my own silk, not prepared for the purpose of exhibition. You will make due allowance for our never having seen the operation of reeling or twisting, and have no machinery except ordinary plantation reels, a common large wheel, and a wheel used for hanking thread. We use the silk we make, for manufacturing into fishing lines, and other purposes — find it far superior to that we purchase of foreign make. Our machinery is too rude to offer in competition with your northern articles, nor do I in- tend it, my object being to give you something that will show the strength, and that my adopted State should be represented hadly^ rather than not at all. In my letter of last year, which you honored by thinking it worthy to be incorporated with your proceedings, (see pages 258, 201) of State edition, friend I. R. Barbour, makes a note that he thinks " Gill's tent and cradle is better" than our gin houses. I agree with him, but as our gin houses are already built, are large and airy, and as all expenditures that can be avoided, should be in new undertakings, I beg to still recommend the gin house. My house is two stories high, 62 feet long and 22 feet wide ; the lower story (framed) about ten feet high, earthern floor, and not weather-boarded : the second story same size and about eight feet high, weather boarded with thin plank, windows and large doors which would render them as airy as necessary. The specimens sent you, are a few cocoons of the peanut variety ; the eggs presented us as such by Miss Emma Montgomery of Oktibbeha county, Miss. ; these 516 ' [Senate are from W. H. Benton. A specimen of the silk from those cocoons 120 fibres to the thread as it now is, reeled and twisted by Mrs, Wm» M. Wells and my daughter, from our cocoons. A specimen of reeling, 70 fibres, reeled by Mrs. P. and her sister Mrs. S. B. Gibbes from small yellow cocoons, eggs procured originally from Mrs. Wells. A pair of mits, the work from beginning to end done by Mrs. Whitford, a lady fifty years of age, and presented to Mrs. Philips. And last a fishing line, made from our wrought silk left in the gum, thinking that the gum would keep it slightly stiff and elastic, and also less penetrable to water. [These articles were duly received and placed in a case in the Fair, where they were seen and admired by tens of thousand of visiters. They are very fine indeed. — A. C. V. E.J W. H. Benton, (referred to in the above.) — Dear Sir : I received yours of the 20th inst.j you are aware that my object in feeding worms this year, was only to obtain a stock of eggs for the next, and to make such experiments, as to the manner of rearing, as would give light in regard to future operations. In the limited experiment of this year, I have not been able to arrive at any satisfactory result as regards the profit of the business. It was not to be expected ; nor was it a question with me. I have considered it as already settled, that it is the best mode of remunerating labor, under certain circum- stances : i. e. when the laborers are unfitted for field work. You know the kind of worms I had, the eggs being all forwarded by your kindness. There were three varieties : the light yellow, deep yellow, and white. Not having, as yet, reeled any of the cocoons, my preference for the white, is merely for its beauty and size, and most of the eggs saved, are of this variety. My worms were all mix- ed together upon the shelves, and I cannot, therefore, say which is the most healthy. I lost, probably, not more than 100, by disease, out of about 10,000 ; and that loss was, I think, occasioned by the crowd- ed state of two or three of our shelves. My feeding was altogether from the wild mulberry, but of various kinds ; one kind I found near my house, which I think far superior to the morus: leaves very large, very thin and tender, soft and flexible ; the yoiung branches have a velvet appearance, which distinguishes the tree from any other that I have seen. It however remains to be seen, whether it can be as easily propagated, for in this, I think, the great superiority of the multicaulis consists. My opinion is decidedly in favor of using cut leaves entirely, in all stages ; and as I have no doubt that this opin- ion coincides with those of the best informed ; it is not necessary to state the reaaons for it. I tried various experiments with regard to spinning. The Greek mode is to pile up mulberry branches on the shelves, crossing them in all directions, and leaving the worms to spin among them as they please, and when they please : a bad plan, for various reasons, to every one who has tried it. I tried two kinds of frames made of sawed lath; by crossing the lath, boxes were form- ed of an inch square. Other frames were made by placing the lath only one way, thus forming groves. This plan I found to be the No. 85.J 517 best, and the frames are easier made, and answer the purpose equally well. I am sorry I cannot give more assistance in making up your report. All that I can say at present, is that my expectations are fully realized. I did not expect that this year would show me what would be the profits arising from the business ; but I did expect that it would show the practicability of employing time to advantage, which would otherwise have not been wanted, for want of ability to attend to any other employment. In the spring, while the worms were hatching, and while feeding them, I was preparing in my mind an article for your paper, which I promised myself should be somewhat interesting, but concluded to defer it to another season, when further experience should render my judgment more mature. I send you some of the white cocoons : of the other, I had but few, and all the millers were suffered to come out. I think I shall next year, cross the white and the deep yellow, and produce a variety better than either. D. Stebbins, 071 mulherry paper. — Dear Sir: In your last, was a remark respecting the mulberry paper which I sent you, as being ad- mirably calculated for the steel pen, not being encumbered with the gorse of our common paper. Something may be attributed to the Eagle Mills in this place, owned by the Hon. Wm. Clark ; his mills are celebrated for an admirable finish of paper. You invite me to attend the club without fail, and give explanations. I should not dare be questioned very close, lest I should be induced to divulge a hope, which may not be realized, of producing something which has engaged my thoughts since I last wrote you. Perhaps it would be prudent to stop here; but knowing that you would favor improvement, I will merely state that 1 have the impression that there may be other uses for good mulberry paper, such as I hope may be made from the fresh gathered and pure foliage of the Canton mulberry, of a peculiar quality and finish, such as is required for certain purposes, and which is imported from China. Such a quality and finish, I hope may be effected at the Eagle Mills. I have not yet disclosed my views to the proprietor. The mills have been making thorough repairs, which may defeat my project, but hope that eventually something may be made superior to the samples you now have, which was made of very impure stock, gathered the previous year, and exposed to all weath- ers, and fit only, as I supposed, for the uses of and convenience of silk-worms. But by your last favor, and another from Mr. Ells- worth, commissioner of patents, it appears there were some good qualities in the paper sent you, although made of the poorest stock. It has been stated by a gentleman who knou^s the fact, that in the India islands, and probably in China, rags are not used for making paper of any kind, especially for the objects to which I have alluded. Thus you see I am not idle in thoughts about matters and things con- cerning the mulberry patch. Thomas Douglas, Macariz, East Florida^ Feb. 21^^, 1843. — Dear Sir : Although my experience in the silk culture may be of little value, yet being added to the general stock which is now being gath- 518 [Senate ered up by those who feel a solicitude for this branch of agriculture, it may be of some service, especially to our Territory, in all that con- cerns which you take so deep an interest. I therefore proceed with pleasure to comply with a request you made before you left for Wash- ington, to give you some information on the subject. The feeding of silk-worms began to attract attention in this region in 1838 ; few however, engaged in it. Mrs. D. that year fed a small number, by way of amusement, which succeeded so well that we were induced to continue it. In 1839, we fed about 10,000 worms, and although (from necessity) y:e kept them in a small, close ami badly ventilated room, they were throughout perfectly healthy, wound off well, and made very fine cocoons, weighing about 275 to the pound. Encour- aged by this, and believing that the culture might be carried on suc- cessfully here, become a valuable branch of our agriculture, and bring into requisition a large portion of our pine timbered lands, I deter- mined to proceed with it, and in the spring of 1840 commenced the erection of a building suited to the purpose, which I have since fin- ished. That spring I had a large crop, (or family, as the French writers would perhaps more appropriately call it,) hatch out ; but owing to the want of room for them made only about 40 bushels of cocoons. This crop wound off in April. In the succeeding month of May, I brought out another small crop from some choice eggs sent me from the north, which turned out well. In June and July, I brought out another crop of about 5,000 worms ; these were the sec- ond crop of the small " white, two crop worms," a very hardy and valuable variety ; and although we fed them in the attic story of my new cocoonery amidst the noise and dust occasioned by the carpenters and masons who were engaged in finishing it at the time, they were exceedingly healthy and wound off well in the month of August very handsomely. In 1841, we fed two crops of about 150,000 each, the first in March and April, and the latter, which consisted of the two crop worm, in May and June, and made about 100 bushels of cocoons. There being no ice-house in this neighborhood, we could not avail ourselves of the advantage of giving our eggs what is termed " a tem- porary winter," so as to cause them to hatch again that season, and were therefore compelled to forego further feeding until the ensuing spring; but during the month of March we brought out a crop of about 300,000, which worked off very handsomely in April and May, from which we made about 70 bushels of cocoons. Being too much engaged with my professional pursuits to go north to procure reelers, or the necessary apparatus for reeling, and having no knowledge of that matter ourselves, except what we have derived from our experi- ments, and little time to devote to it — we have most of our cocoons, say about 200 bushels, yet on hand. We have, however, with such apparatus as we could procure here, which is by no means the best, reeled off enough to ascertain that our cocoons, which I think would not suffer by a comparison with any made elsewhere, will make very fine, strong and excellent silk. To satisfy you more fully upon this No. 85.] 519 point, I herewith enclose you a small sample, reeled in my family, _ and saved a large quantity of eggs ; but notwithstanding a large por- tion of the latter were of the small white two crop worm above men- tioned, they did not hatch out a second time — a circumstance for which I am unable to assign any reason, unless it was owing to a long continuance of hot, dry weather, which some writers on the sub- ject say will cause that result. An ice-house having been established at St. Augustine, I, about the middle of July, placed a small quantity of my eggs, assorted, in it, in order to test the fact, whether giving them a temporary winter would cause them to hatch, and being very much pressed with business, paid no further attention to them until about the middle of September, when I took them out and spread them on a shelf in my cocoonery. In a few days they commenced hatching, and we fed them through the months of October and No- vember ; they also were healthy and wound off well. I use no arti- ficial heat, and am satisfied from my own experience that we can al- ways feed here eight months without it, and in favorable seasons nine months, during which time we can make four crops, provided we can manage our eggs so as to have them hatch out when we wish them to do so ; and I see no reason why we may not. I am aware that dif- ferent opinions are entertained on this subject. It is contended by some that retarding the hatching in the manner I have mentioned, must necessarily injure the constitution of the worms. I do not think so. Providence seems in every other respect to have adapted it to the use of man. Its want of locomotion is a remarkable instance of this adaptation ; if it crawled about like other worms we Cduld do nothing with it -, and I believe it is also adapted to that use in the particular I have mentioned — an opinion to which I am led by obser- vation and experience. This opinion, I know, is at variance with that of some writers, and amongst them Mr. Gideon B. Smith, of Baltimore, whose opinions on all questions connected with the silk culture are entitled to great weight. He says, that " the silk-worm when left to itself, exposed to the ordinary atmosphere, hatches out in the spring exactly at the time the mulberry leaves grow — that it is therefore " an annual insect," and requires exactly twelve months to pass through all the various stages of its existence." That if, for example, a silk-worm is hatch- ed on the first day of May, 1840, the eggs that it would produce, would naturally hatch on the first day of May, 1841. In this, I think he is mistaken; and with all due deference, there seems to be an in- accuracy between his premises, which are correct, and his conclusions, unless the mulberry leaves come out always at the same period of the year, which is by no means the case in this latitude. I never laid by any eggs from silk-worms that hatched earlier than about the 10th of February, until last year; yet, I have almost every winter had some hatch out whenever the temperature of the atmosphere was as high as 70° in the following December and January, which is often the case here : again, in consequence of cool weather at Ihe period of the year 520 [Senate when the worms were hatched, from which they were produced, the hatching has been retarded, indeed that is the case now — many of the worms that produced the eggs I now have on hand, were hatched on the 10th of February of last year; yet they have not hatched, owing doubtless to a backward spring, and by keeping them in a cool place. I have also retarded their hatching beyond the period of the year at which the worms that produced them were hatched, without any pre- judicial effect, so far as I could discover, upon the worms. But the Persians, it is said, possess a variety which produces eight successive crops in the year; and if I am wrong in the theory above mentioned, it will be a desideratum to introduce this species in Flo- rida, where it will find a congenial climate. I observe, that at a Silk Convention held last fall at Northampton, Mass., Mr. Samuel Whitmarsh, whose experience in the silk culture is well known, stated that he was satisfied that but one crop could be made in the year in New-England; and the principal reason as- signed by him, why more could not be raised, was that the mulberry there would not afford suitable food a longer period than was neces- sary for one crop. I use the leaf of the morus multicaulis, and that affords good forage for silk worms here at least eight months, and sometimes nine, and even ten months in the year. The advantage I anticipated for Florida from the silk culture, in relation to our pine barren lands, (as they are called,) will doubtless be realized; for although the trees raised upon those lands do not produce so large leaves as those raised on the rich hammock lands, yet they afford a better food, and the silk made by the worms fed upon them is stronger and of a finer texture. By-the-bye, I am hap- py to learn that the experiment of cultivating sugar upon the pine lands in the interior also succeeds well; the cane raised upon these, although not so large as those grown upon the swamp lands, contains much more saccharine matter to the gallon, — there is a great saving of labor therefore in handling and transporting it to the mill, and in grinding it. The same result as to the silk culture upon the pine lands has attended the effort in Georgia. A writer in the last ^'Geor- gian^'' speaking of the experiments made, then says, " that pine lands are suitable for the production of the qualities of silk, I now consider as determined, and the fact to be of great importance to the neighbor- ing counties, and especially to Savannah. " If the pine country in our rear, which has been regarded as little more than waste lands, can be made productive, and subsist a dense population, what would now seem the most visionary calculations of such a change to Savannah, and the country at large, would fall short of the reality. But I venture to predict such a change, and that whoever may live to see thirty years hence, will see '' lower country Georgia silk, quoted in the price current of Liverpool and Havre." I certainly agree with this writer ; and what will be true of Georgia, will also be true of Florida, and those who live to see that day, will also see " Florida silk" quoted in the same price cur- No. 85.J 521 rents. But while East Florida may compete with Georgia, and States farther north, in the cultivation of silk, and that too with superior advantages, she will produce several staples in the cultiva- tion of which, they cannot compete with her ; amongst the more im- portant of which will be that of sugar ; and now that the din of war has ceased, and the overflowing scourge that has so long devas- tated this fair portion of Florida has passed by, we may hope soon to see the country settled by an industrious, intelligent and enter- prising people. There is no portion of our country (or perhaps of any other,) that affords greater inducements to the immigration of that class of people, than East Florida. I have visited almost every portion of the United States, and spent many years in the noble val- ley of the Mississippi, (which might, with propriety, be called the garden of the world,) while the country was thin ; I can say with confidence, that I have seen no country where industry^ enterprise and economy y usually met with a better reward, than in East Florida. A catalogue of the crops suitable to the soil and climate, and of the spontaneous vegetable productions, would embrace almost every thing found at the north, with the addition of many others of exceed- ing value, not found in colder latitudes ; among the last, are the orange, and almost every tropical fruit ; and as to the healthiness of the climate, it is too well established to need any comment. Some portions of the army, to be sure, suffered much from disease, during the late Indian hostilities ; but I am told that an examina- tion of its statistics will show that it suffered less from that cause, in Florida, in proportion to numbers, than it did on the northern and northwestern frontier, during the last war with England. The temperature is a pleasant medium between the extremes of heat and cold. By a register of the weather, kept for two years at Charlotte Harbor, the mercury never stood, but once, as high as 90°, nor sunk, but once, as low as 50°. Further north, the extremes are somewhat greater ; but at St. Augustine, the mercury seldom rises above 90°, or falls below 30°. But, to use the language of a writer in a late number of that valuable work. The Journal of the Ameri- can Institute ; " there are other considerations of high import to the enterprising agriculturist in favor of locating in East Florida. It has been satisfactorily proved, by the late indefatigable and much to be lamented Doctor Ferine, that almost any article grown between the tropics, will flourish as well, and in some cases better, than in their native soil ; and the entire catalogue of spices, and other articles for which we now make long and perilous voyages to the opposite side of the globe, — often to unhealthy climates, and always incurring vast expense, — -can be grown in our own territory, and furnished at a cheaper rate, and in better order, than those obtained of the half civilized Asiatic Islanders. In addition to all which, cattle, horses and hogs, may be raised, in any numbers, upon our fine grazing lands, with little or no attention from man. Our lakes and rivers abound with fish, of the greatest variety and best quality; our woodlands [Senate, No. 85.] Ii 522 (Senate ■with the most valuable lumber ; and it requires not, af? in colder re- gions, the labor of one half of the year to provide for the other. When all these things are considered, in connection with the fact, that East Florida already pioduces three of the most valuable staples in the \vorld, — Sea Island cotton, rice, and sugar, — it will, I think, be readily acknowledged, that few new countries, if any other, has ever offered advantages to immigrants superior to those now offered by East Florida. But I crave your pardon, — you only asked for some account of my operations in the silk culture, and I have spun you out what I fear will be deemed a tedious article. I am, sir, yours, &c., THO. DOUGLAS. Hon. Davis Levy, City of Washington^ D. C. J. R. Barbour, Oxford, JMass. — I have been engaged in the cul- ture of silk eight years. During this period, I, ao well as others, have had many difficulties to contend with. We have had every thing to learn, and many things taught us during the high noon of the mul- berry speculation ; we have had to unlearn many of the views and theories inculcated in French and Italian publications on the silk cul- ture, which were thrown before the American public, which are either unnecessary, or positively unsuited to our soil and climate. At any rate, my own experience abundantly proves two or three things to be all that is essential to the successful rearing of silk-worms — good eggs, ample food in a suitable state, regularly administered, ample room, ample ventilation, and entire cleanliness. It is extremely injurious to give immature leaves to worms far advanced, and equally injurious to allow the air to be confined or at all tainted. For the last two years, in order to secure a perfectly pure air, I have hatched and fed my worms in my cocoonery until the third moulting, and then re- moved them to my tent, open on all sides. In this way my worms have been healthy — not losing five per cent by disease — and the co- coons (Nankin peanuts,) large and firm, yielding from twenty to twenty-two ounces of reeled silk to the bushel. This year the wea- ther was cold and dry during the last ten days of one of my crops. Several times we found the thermometer in the tent in the morning as low as 50°, and one morning as low as 47° ; of course the worms were torpid and inactive, and there was a loss of time in getting them through. But this was the only loss. They came out as above stated. When in the cocoonery, I prefer picking the leaves for my worms. When in the the tent, I cut up the bushes. On this plan of tent and branch feeding, I think we can make silk at about one-half of the ex- pense supposed to be necessary, and actually necessary upon the old plan. In my communication to the convention last year, I spokeof my location as being in a frosty valley, and as having been for two years thrown forward late into July before I could feed. I am com- pelled to say that this season in like manner, has been unpropitious to me in this respect. My neighbors upon the hills were from three No. 85.] 523 to four weeks in advance of me in their feeding operations. Late feeding is so hazardous that it is hardly worth while to attempt it, and therefore my crop has been again a diminished one. Hence I am led strongly to caution silk growers against planting mulberry orchards upon any localities subject to untimely frosts. Get upon the highest hills you can find. Our summers in the northern States are short at the best, and to lose one-third, and that the best third of the season, as I have done now for three years in succession, amounts to a very serious drawback. At the same time every year's experience and ob- servation augments my confidence in the entire practicability of the silk enterprise in this country. The elementary questions upon which the business, as a permanent branch of rural industry, is based, appear to me to be definitively settled, and nothing is now wanting but the capital and enterprise of our business men to push the enterprise vigo- rously forward, and secure the great results aimed at. New York Botanical Garden Librar 3 51 85 00257 5965 Iinif iiiimiiiii 1 1 -■,f* . ' ; ! iiiii ^ illii ilHiiiiiUiJiHiHlJil 11 ! !l lllllii. \ 1 ililjltlllli; iMjj! ill i ll 11 ill Hliii|::ail: Mil (11 ll li i|l Ihl i 1 iii liiiii I ■ j