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Hibrary of the Museum

OF

COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY,

AT HARVARD COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, MASS.

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ANS AC LLONS

OF THE

NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

22, 24 & 26 READE
NEW YORK.

MyANSAGCTIONS

OF THE

New Yorx Acapemy or ScIENCES

LATE

LYCEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

VEO LUNE EA Vi 1:

October, 1887, to June, 1888.

NEW YORK:

PUuwVBEtSHED BY LHe ACADEMY .
ina
1887-1888.

UFFIGERS, OF iE OAGADEMY.
1888.

President.
—

JOHN S. NEWBERRY,~ - - - ah A - Columbia College.

WVice-Reesidents,

OLIVER P. HUBBARD, - W. P. TROWBRIDGE.

Corzzesponding Secretary.

ALEXIS A. JULIEN, - - - - Columbia College.

Mecording Secretary.

HERMAN L, FAIRCHILD, - - - 54 West 55th Street.
GWreasurer.
HENRY DUDLEY, - - - - 301 East 17th Street.
Sibsazian.
N. L. BRITTON, - - - - Columbia College.
Council,
J. A. ALLEN, PP. o DUDLEY,
A. R. LEEDS, D. S. MARTIN,
J. J. STEVENSON, C. VAN BRUNT.
Cruzatozes,
B. B. CHAMBERLIN, GEORGE F. Kunz,
S. LOWELL ELLIOTT, F. J. H. MERRILL,

CHARLES E, PELLEW.

Finance Committee.
J. H. HInton, Chairman, S. B. BROWNELL, L. E. CHITTENDEN.

Sditoz of Pitblications.

HERMAN LEROY FAIRCHILD.

TABLE OF CONTENTS:

VOLUME VII.

BUSINESS PROCEEDINGS.

PAGE
PNCGESSIONS LO) tie; EMbTatyye sy. scisee eee Seles alte se clele ios 1, 286, 237, 246
ChaneesnnyDy-lAwWey sa eniee sine cine! wislaee eslecn es 71, 88-89, 117, 129, 1380
BlectronsorshellowSta.c..< \cierccsiehete tral cote erornce: «alsa Susi Serato choke 71
Election of Members........ 18, 44, 45, "1, 88, 117, 140, 178, 193, 243, 245
NEC tronroteOfmiGersye cs c. s cet, ce cio eis cae whee sole midere Wales aye cise piers siis 134
MemronialeNoticestaa acess seleceeins cele 1, 78, 1385, 137, 139, 236; 287, 251
Reports:
CWO mINAIGCEES ayaa srornotelerae elias ancora ersheSineiel stot w sick ws veiclonsiaetesers 115
Corresponding) SCCKELAT Ya eck wicle Sete eet isials) fae a eletalate ene 181, 245
@oum Giles ata noses ete ae 18, 44, 71, 88, 117, 135, 140, 141, 193, 243
IRGCOLdIne: Secretary... secs cle ss acre dere sien e ons sree seectslere 129, 131
Msi RAN TAT crerersctoiscasene eetecerne eo hrentiow so Tera oe Dee 138, 286, 237, 246
TMreasuler.- ces PREP RRR tt cc ra ok Maree HS, SAR in 182, 1389

Minutes of Meetings:
Business Meetings... ....1, 18, 44, 71, 88, 117, 129, 185, 140, 193, 243
Stated Meetings, 15, 39, 48, 48, 65, 68, 72, 78, 100, 118, 120, 228,
136, 139, 162, 163, 166, 178, 236, 237, 243
Miscellaneous, 1, 15, 18, 43, 44, 45, 48, 66, ile 2.) 88; tos 128) tad:
137, 189, 140, 193, 237

SCIENTIFIC PROCEEDINGS.

PAT CHECOLO Opec asec cclorelae sevsicies' wics. wieitisyeereveuelers 15, 47, 118. 134, 186, 162
AES OLA Yash = les vey oer aunlcisae so cecr siieeisr sie aly ove orelel sleie) eSele stOis edln aie dal vaca t, 21
HE MIUISb Iya eee eos ticles claves acto witve siecle one eral wits 93, 37, 124,205, 209
BAMIDTEYOLORY sons ciscieces sere © ce siSniadisiticiexein ysl sy) sie srs Wie sis sie.s alsvers cee 255
EtG] O Bay; ciarwrere Soi -parelecc ewcyerels eat sue: ayer csaverenstoterera ioe a eicteudiey Neves 45, 70, 128, 180
BIW OMILGT Olle cot care a fe k Gysetraicles dleFovey oes ice ec eacreastel tebeta ua, Mate cteltyavebeveneie larays) «)'ars 154
Geoomap liypesrtense ete esse ere Salas, ciahors ssvera castieleye etoielsh harne ciaele eisreiers 166, 248

Geology and Paleontology, 2, 6, 15, 16, 21, 44, 49, 65, 89, 100, 113,
122, 128, 138, 165, 166, 178, 194, 238, 246

EVES COU y a ersiaie ssaley ole ous, wickat Noi cubiereueh datisrsueaiy s afgietel saivladeinis s ave sislehire'e'c 194, 211
Ly PEM epaAMdo MG GI GIMe yea cic eae s « levers cote sueyals cee sree comtcietets cualetete) <saious 65
Mechanics and Engineering.......... peice ste averseticnets 69, 75, 83, 135, 1389, 164
Me teonolomimteprrserce) acre ictaie ore. siete ole ers.s «le araicaleis 6, 71, 78, 135, 194

Mineralogy, 16, 48, 61, 65, 66, 68, 89, 158, 140, 163, 164, 166, 194, 211,
236, 287, 250

vl TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Photos raph yioes ss viejersaic a ace siesta eI e aoe oles eee 100, 205
Pi] OLOGY asses eta oR laine easis a eters ACT te Oe ee Eee terete kteie sie ie 39, 68, 120
Phy SiC wise olereooenke se eh eae Tee 69, 70, 71, 71, 113, 238, 25

Physiology.and, Amatony see ecient ne ieee aries 19, 75, 80, 89, 163
WEOOIORY. tis sieeve as whee Mega, sstapouscotpeatecrstar eee 66, 162, 166, 244, 258, 255, 259
COSMO BONY i 55, cc sjeicise sloctas Sepals Meet ee Toe Perch ioe. et isie atte SOREN cae 141

PAPERS READ BEFORE THE ACADEMY.

J. A, ALLEN.

On the Structure of Birds in relation to Flight, with special
reference to recent alleged discoveries in the mechanism of the
wing January.o, Loos)) COSLTACh iss we oe 2 he meneie aie earn 89

H. CARRINGTON BOLTON.

The Counting-out Rhymes of Children; a study in International
HolikcloretOcroberies Sissi) autores dees te fle aoa we ae 39
Notes of Recent Travel in Europe (November 28, 1887), abstract.... 68
Preliminary Notice of a New Study in Folk-lore (February 13, 1888),
UOSUP OCU ca reac s ful ne Cea Oh LAL re Ay OR Ree a TS ls Te 120
Notes on the great Salt Deposit of Petite Anse, Louisiana (February
IG Fal (cis is) BOP st nets aa PRR Ae ae st ABR. ate 122
The Lunar Society, or the Festive Philosophers of Birmingham one
hundred years ago (May ‘7, A888): os (aso. vasice aye erence meee 194

JOHN C. BRANNER.
Additional Notes on the Lantern-fly of Brazil (November 28, 1887).. 66

N. L. BRITTON and H. H. RUSBY.

A List of Plants collected by Miss Mary B. Croft, 1884-85, at San
Diego, Texas, near the headwaters of the Rio Dulce (October 3,
SEK cede ot wie lb: Sueha = pe ekaratetettapianeta sats elniny taotever! dies gle eNeenete Eso. oe

THOS. L. CASEY.

On some new North American Rhynchophora (April 9, 1888), read by

BOGE os cictcisi tc wie eaiiejaichs od Mere tae Deka RE EE ERIS ors eee 162
B. B. CHAMBERLIN,

The Minerals of New York County, including a List complete to date

(Miaiy, "7, SIBSS) secs. 5 nietar sa stk eee Manele ome eine ieterecnre ik Rd age , 211
WILLIAM L. ELSEFFER.,
Data relating to the Mississippi River (April 16, 1888).............. 164

S. W. FORD.
Notes on certain Fossils discovered within the city limits of Quebec
(October 3, 1887)...... irs evan ta fata NeFatenaticte fone RetoRekeetetetereeetoe sais «aves ners
H, HENSOLDT.
The Ultimate Composition of Matter (June 4, 1888) ............... 259

TABLE OF CONTENTS. Vii

FANNY R. M. HITCHCOCK,

Notes on the Larve of Amblystoma (June 4, 1888)................. 255
Further Notes on the Osteology of the Shad (Alosa sapidissima)
(Mui OPA ISSS) Spero 1a sscusisici 21s ter ons eis 1a)/avetata'arore\ave + actaicial stensisie Darel oe 259
J. B. HOLDER.
Soaring of Birds (December 19, 1887).......... Uatove sete ils ste eléahee uaieae SO

OLIVER P. HUBBARD,

On the Sea Anemones of Swallow House or Cave in the Rocks at
Nahant, near Lynn, Mass., by Rev. Manasseh Cutler .......... 244

ALEXIS A. JULIEN.
On the Geology at Great Barrington, Massachusetts (October 17,
188

Mes Otero sles in torn SES Sis eee ite sdsiels Dole wears hake 21
JAMES F. KEMP.
The Geology of Manhattan Island (November 14, 1887)............. 49
GEORGE F. KUNZ.
Minerals from Fort George, New York City (November 14, 1887)
DOSER GCL herd kates wiaicloine otcitiecalare @erslotars ieroie or ons ealal Nel eiefoi cielssieltietoteravs to che
Precious Stones; Ten Years’ Progress in their Study and Discovery
(QWienny dk aistste)) Cea OUaE LON mek cag cneobcootoes anoucocoueouHOT 236
ALICE D, LE PLONGEON.
Eastern Yucatan; Its Scenery, People, and Ancient Cities and
Monumients/(November, 7 1887) abstract... 6... 6... ene ass 45
W. GOOLD LEVISON.
On a Method for the Absolute Measurement of the Shutter-Speed in
Instantaneous Photographic Exposures (January 16, 1888)...... 101

DANIEL S. MARTIN.
hes shieldrofeRrocks4 (OctoberdOmls8i)seerceetesaee oe ceeeiece: 17

SETH E. MEEK.
Notes on the Fishes of the Cayuga Lake Valley (April 16, 1888)..... 166

F. J. H. MERRILL.

Notes on the Age of the Limestones of Westchester Co., N. Y. (Oc-
LoOMer eH OMTSSi)MUieOUl COSETOCES ah tells cniscte se nic ciclo see eels 16

HENRY A, MO1T.
The Velocity of Gravity (December 5, 1887) without abstract....... 71

JOHN S. NEWBERRY.

Western Colorado—Its Scenery, Geology, Resources, and Future
(Octobersie 188%) withowt abstract . 2.052. cccc. cece cee eses cs:

Marbles: Their Origin, Distribution, and Quality (November 21,
LSSMMEUILOUTEAUSENO Clore cr onic onteeie oleiniere erein ose 6 Saxe

Memorial of J. Carson BREVOORT (December 19, 1887)........ 78:

Vili TABLE OF CONTENTS.

On the Genus Fdestus (January 16, 1888) read by title, without

GOSUACER So xo Ddeicietlineie ore ae we OA Risie eG noe eae eee 100
Triassic Plants from Honduras (January 30, 1888).................. 113
The Progressive Development of the Means of Attack and Defence

inehishes (Ajprils9s 1S88\iouthout Wosizaciasee etek cae sacle ete 163
Note on a New Species of Rhizodus, from the St. Louis Limestones

atpAlton, llincis|(AtpriliG; 1888) ses. cenerenerieret sere eee 165
On the Fossil Fishes of the Erie Shale of Ohio (April 80, 1888)...... 178

GEORGE E. POST.
The Races and Religions of Syria and Palestine (April 30, 1888).... 180
F. A. SAMPSON.

Notes on the Subcarboniferous Series at Sedalia, Missouri (June 4,
LBBB) giao ioc eee cis Sue atend el Pech ae aren hal aye eNeasd Hate iviets eventos iiateeleheter 246

ANDREW SHERWOOD.
Prehistoric Remains found in Tioga Co., Penn. (February 6, 1888)... 118

W. LE CONTE STEVENS.

New Apparatus for Demonstrating the Laws of Reflection and Re-
Eracwona(Mecensberslc mS8i))tmrieierre ces vciteieh sia) eral reereeite 72
The Quality of Musical Sounds (May 21, 1888), abstract............ 238

WILLIAM P. TROWERIDGE.

A Discovery by C. C. Trowbridge regarding the Purpose of the
Emargination in the Primary Wing-feathers of certain Birds

(October 17, SSSI). cis: wie cteum os cws Saini ene om are eee 19
The Mechanism of Flight in Soaring Birds (December 12, 1887), ab-
SPACES Ne Sie s widivrocarolos ates bs ee aE Sie iotene Sis elsauers Grr Gee eee 75

On the Question of Riparian Rights, as applied to compensation for
water-power impaired or destroyed, when the water of astream
is taken for public use (March 19, 1888), without abstract...... 139
A. W. VOGDES.

Description of two New Species of Carboniferous Trilobites (June
AGW LSBS)s 2 oes ee ile Siete Ree ister cer opiate NO as Soe Teco hee 247

C. B. WARRING.

Genesis! land ats Critiesi(Aprili2 1888) peierrerm tanec oie sis oie sions 141
Miracle, Law. and Evolution (April 2, 1888)...............0se...005 154

TABLE OF CONTENTS. 1X

LECTURES OF THE POPULAR LECTURE COURSE OF
1887-1888.
FRED. H. CHAPIN,

Ice and Rock Scenery in the Front Range, Colorado (May 28, 1888),
ODUAVOOE UOTTROG isn Soot bo ono Doh od eenc oo bobeEn achoso oo Goo bood ey 243

P, H. DUDLEY.

The Panama Railroad and the Interoceanic Canal now under con-
struction (March 15, 1888), without abstract. ........-....005. 135

GEORGE E. POST,

The Physical Geography and Geology of Syria and Palestine (April
DROS) Seach ony ketare) taetatars.oictes ot CreveVenito @ @ afeyctwlataisintels efeiol stoma) aici slave 166

W. LE CONTE STEVENS.

The Development of Aeronautics (January 23d, 1888), without ab-
PET ELC LA e Torey sroieia che wl ser atsicn a cco er eisro ete. of oh ocsr shoketoregal ee aveieranevene apare Orsini ee 113

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TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

October 3, 1887.
REGULAR BusiINEss MEETING.
Vice-President, Pror. W. P. TRowBrrp@s, in the chair.
Twenty-one persons present.

The SECRETARY presented to the Library of the Academy a
scrap-book filled with mutter relating to the meeting of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science, held in
New York in August.

Pror. D. 8. MARTIN made a statement, in reply to inquiry,
concerning the proposed monument to J. J. AUDUBON, which
matter was broached at the special meeting of the Academy held
August 15th. A motion was presented to appoint a committee to
solicit and receive subscriptions for a monument te be erected
over the remains of Audubonin Trinity Cemetery. The motion
being adopted, the Chair appointed as such committee Pror.
THomAs EKateston, Pror. D. S. Martin, and Dr. N. L.
BRITTON.

The Chair read an announcement of the death of SPENCER
FULLERTON Batrp, an Honorary Member of the Academy,
and spoke, from personal acquaintance, of the noble qualities of

2 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [ocr. 3,

the deceased, and of the importance and self-sacrificing charac-
ter of his work.

Mr. 8S. W. Forp presented a paper:’

NOTES ON CERTAIN FOSSILS DISCOVERED WITHIN THE CITY
LIMITS OF QUEBEC.

On the 16th of July, 1885, the writer received by registered
post from Alfred R. C. Selwyn, Director of the Geological
Survey of Canada, a small collection of fossils obtained by Mr.
T. C. Weston on the 24th of June of that year, from the strata
at or near St. John’s Market, Quebec. ‘The letter accompany-
ing the specimens appears to have miscarried, or, at least, did
not reach me; but after studying the fossils for several days, I
returned them, at the same time addressing a letter to Dr.
Selwyn, containing a brief expression of the conclusions at
which I had arrived concerning them. Among the notes which
I made at that time in relation to these fossils, I find the fol-
lowing:

‘*T'he box from Dr. Selwyn contained four (4) pieces of
lime-stone. I find upon these the following species:

‘*1. Two specimens of the glabella of Remoplewrides (?)
Schlotheimi Bill., but much smaller than the examples figured
by Billings. Also a portion of a free-cheek, probably of this
species.

“2. One specimen of a Shumardia near to, if not identical
with S. granulosa Bill. (Head).

‘*3. Portion of the thorax (consisting of seven segments) of
a species of Harpides—the species not determined.

‘*4. 'T'wo specimens of the pygidium of a Trilobite probably
identical with Bathyurus caudatus Bill., but much smaller.

“<5. Numerous specimens of a small Lingula, most probably
the young of Lingula Quebecensis Bill.

“*6. Numerous specimens of a small Leptena or Stropho-
mena, apparently undescribed.

“*7, Several specimens of a species of Graptolithus, probably
the Graptolithus (D.) pristiniformis of Hall.

** 8. Portion of the plate of a Cystidean (?).

“TJ consider the above species to be certainly ‘ Quebec;’ but
it is very remarkable that, in the case of the species Remopleu-
vides (?) Schlutheimi, Bathyurus caudatus, and Lingula Quebec-
ensis, the forms should be so much smaller than the typical

1 This paper was read, in the absence of the author, by Prof. D. §,
Martin.

1887. ] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 3

examples figured by Billings. The Harpides is also a diminu-
tive species, judging from the fragment we have of it.”

The specific conclusion to which I was led from the study of
the above-mentioned fossils was that they represented the
‘« Levis” formation of the Canadian geologists, although admit-
ting the possibility that they might be found, on further inves-
tigation, to mark a new or distinct division of that formation;
and this conclusion I communicated to Dr. Selwyn.

In a highly interesting and important paper, entitled ‘‘ Pre-
liminary Report on some Graptolites from the Lower Palwozote
Rocks on the South Side of the St. Lawrence from Cape Rossier
to Tartigo River, from the North Shore of the Island of Or-
leans, One Mile above Cape Rouge, and from the Cove Fields,
Quebec,” published in the ‘‘'Transactions of the Royal Society
of Canada for 1886,” Prof. Charles Lapworth, to whom the
graptolitic species from the several localities named were sub-
mitted, at the request of Dr. Selwyn, for identification and
study, has reported upon the graptolites collected at St.
John’s Market, Quebec, but makes no mention of the occur-
rence at that locality of any of the other species already spoken
of in this paper. It would appear from this that he was not
aware of the occurrence there of the Trilobites, Brachiopods,
etc., submitted to me by Dr. Selwyn; and this view is sustained
by the fact that, on page 6 of his Report, he says: ‘‘There is
nothing in the Cove Fields and St. John’s Market fauna that
reminds us in the slightest degree of the fauna of Puint Levis.
The fossils are the fossils of the Marsouin River fauna [7. e., ac-
cording to Professor Lapworth, a fauna ‘Trentomian’ in
character, under which designation he would also include the
Norman’s Kill fauna] or second Ordovician [7. e., Lower Silu-
rian| fauna, and have not a species in common with the first
Ordovician fauna, the typical fauna of the rocks of Point Levis.”
And further, on page 9: ‘*'The so-called Quebec rocks, of the
town of Quebec, as typified by the fossils forwarded from the
localities of the Cove Fields and St. John’s Market, are not of
Quebec age at all. ‘They are probably the newest rocks repre-
sented in the collection, and possibly shade upwards from the
Marsouin Graptolitic shales of Orleans Island and Cape Rouge.
They appear, however, to be of greater antiquity than the Utica
slates of Lake St. John, answering to the basement zone of the
British Bala, instead of to the middle zone, which seems to be
the place of the St. John shales.”

The only species cited by Prof. Lapworth from the St. John’s
market locality, are Diplograptus rugosus? Emmons and JD.

foliaceus? Murchison, and both of these, it will be observed,
are only provisionally identified. If the horizon of these species

4 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [ocr. 3,

is the same with that of the Trilobites and Brachiopods sub-
mitted to me by Dr. Selwyn, I think Professor Lapworth would
be far from warranted in asserting that there is nothing in the
St. John’s Market fauna that reminds us, in the slightest degree,
of the fauna of Point Levis, and I should expect his identifica-
tions of the two graptolitic species just cited to prove incorrect.
Moreover, the Cove Fields and St. John’s Market faune, looking
at the graptolites of these faunz alone, would appear to be dif-
ferent, since none of the species from these two localities have
thus far been shown to be identical.

With respect to the stratigraphical position of the Norman’s
Kill graptolitic slates (which Professor Lapworth thinks have
been referred with scarcely a shadow of paleontological evidence
to the Lorraine or Hudson River group) in the Lower Silurian,
many interesting facts having a bearing upon this question, that
have come under the writer’s observation during the past eighteen
years, might here be mentioned; but I shall limit myself in the
present paper to the presentation of the following: In the vicin-
ity of Schodack Landing, and at several other points in the
northwestern portion of Columbia and the southwestern portion
of Rensselaer counties, New York, the Norman’s Kill graptolitic
zone, here about fifteen feet in thickness, is excellently exposed;
and has yielded, in addition to fifteen of the Norman’s Kill
species, a smal] Lingula, and a Lamellibranch probably identical
with the Lyrodesma pulchella of Hall (Pal. N. Y., vol. 1, p. 302,
pl. 82, Fig. 12). Thestratigraphical position of this zone, judg-
ing from several good exposures which I have studied in
Rensselaer and Columbia counties, is at the summit of several
hundred feet of soft olive shales, and at the base of a series of
heavy-bedded grits or sandstones, which I am disposed to look
upon as the equivalents, respectively, of the Lorraine shales and
sandstones of northern New York. The gritty beds in question
have yielded specimens of Orthis testudinaria and Leptena
sericea, and in the Poughkeepsie Lorraine grits these are often
the only species present. Moreover, the slates of the locality
whence the Lyrodesma pulchella was originally obtained (Cohoes
Falls), abound in specimens of 7rinucleus concentricus. A band
of graptolitic slates, which I consider probably identical with
that of Norman’s Kill, also occurs opposite Albany, at a
point known as Greenbush Heights; although the rocks at this
point are much altered, and none,of the species which they have
afforded have been certainly identified. Three-quarters of a mile
east of the last-mentioned locality, slates similar to those of
Greenbush Heights are again exposed, and form the greater por-
tion of a quite prominent elevation known as ‘‘ Cantonment
Hill.” The slates of this hill (regarded as ‘‘'Taconic” by Dr.

1887. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 5

Emmons) are almost certainly of the same age with those of
Greenbush Heights, ¢. e., probably Lorraine ; although the Utica
formation may also here be represented. ‘The hill itself has, un-
doubtedly, a synclinal structure, but this fact appears not to
have been recognized by those who earlier studied it. Over a
considerable portion of its eastern slope there is a deposit of
limestone (regarded by Emmons as an outlier of the Calciferous
Sandrock resting unconformably upon his ‘‘ Taconic slate”)
which extends to and forms the summit of the elevation. This
limestone is clearly of Trenton age, and has yielded a large
number of Trenton species. ‘The facts presented at this inter-
esting locality appear to me strongly to favor the view that the
Norman’s Kill graptolitic slates are newer than the 'l'renton lime-
stone. From twelve to fifteen miles further south (in the
Schodack and adjacent regions) there are other Trenton expo-
sures, some of which I was at first led to regard as constituting
an integral portion of the Lorraine formation, but which I now
think are demonstrably not such, involved in the folds which
have there profoundly affected the gritty and slaty rocks, in-
cluding the Norman’s Kill graptolite-bearing beds already
spoken of. The facts learned in eastern New York appear to
me to demonstrate very effectually that the Norman’s Kill
eraptolite beds are entirely independent of the Trenton forma-
tion.

In preparing this brief paper, I have been fully conscious of
the fact that, inasmuch as Prof. Lapworth’s report herein re-
ferred to is only a preliminary one relating to a very vexed sub-
ject, any criticism of bis views upon doubtful points should be
marked by the most respectful moderation, and governed by a
thorough appreciation of the difficulties with which, in his
studies of the American forms submitted to him for identifica-
tion, he has had to deal.

The strata affording the St. John’s Market fossils submitted
to me by Dr. Selwyn, were placed by Sir Wm. Logan in the
Quebec group; but from later examinations Dr. Selwyn was led
to refer them to the Lorraine or Hudson River group. The list
of species given at the outset of this paper appears to the writer
to show, as already indicated, that Logan was right. It is ear-
nestly to be hoped that, if this has not already been done, these
species will also be brought to the notice of the learned English
professor, in order that all of the evidence may be considered by
him in reaching a final decision upon this important ques-
tion.

Mr. Georce F. Kunz exhibited a mass of meteoric iron from
Chattooga Co., Georgia.

6 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [oct. 3,

Remarks were offered by Mr. W. E. H1IppeEn.

Mr. Wu. Ear HIDDEN made a formal announcement of the
discovery by himself of a new twinning law in the crystals of
the mineral Zircon. He stated that it had been his privilege
to announce, in 1881 (Am. Jour. Sct., xxi., 507), the first twins
of zircons known, and to describe the law of their twinning
(= 1-i), and that chance had thrown in his way yet another ex-
ample of a second twinning belonging to this species. The new
forms came from near Green River, Henderson Co., N. C., and
exhibit twinning parallel to the pyramid 2 (2-2-1) of the first
order. Careful measurements gave a very close approximation
to the required angle for this new geniculation, close enough
to insure the two specimens thus far discovered to be more than
accidental formations. ‘The prisms are perfectly parallel and
the pyramids lie in the same zone of reflection. As associated
minerals there were identified Epidote, Quartz, Allanite, a hy-
drated Titanite (Xanthitane) and Vermiculite. Mr. Hidden re-
marked that the near future would witness the mining of zircons
by the ton, and the application of zirconia and zirconium com-
pounds to the purpose of incandescent illumination under the
Welsbach patent. A diagram of the manner of twinning was.
put on the blackboard by Mr. Hidden.

Mr. Greorce F. Kunz stated that, in the last number of the
Mineralogical Magazine, Professor Lazarus Fletcher had an-
nounced the very interesting fact that he had obtained cubes of
a new distinct form of graphite, which he had named Cliftonite,.
and which had a hardness of 2.06, was cubic in form, with
modifications of the tetrahexahedron. This is of especial interest
from the fact that this form is peculiar to the diamond, and it
suggests that perhaps the carbon in the Dunegan meteorite,
from which he obtained it, may perhaps have been in a condition
when it could have formed the diamond, but instead, this new
form of carbon was produced.

=~

1887. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

The following paper was read by title:

A LIST OF PLANTS COLLECTED BY MISS MARY B. CROFT, 1884—
°85, AT SAN DIEGO, TEXAS, NEAR THE HEADWATERS OF
THE RIO DULCE, BY N. L. Britton anp H. H. Russy.

The species here enumerated were collected by Miss Croft
during the years 1884-1886 and sent to Dr. Rusby for deter-
mination. His absence in South America has prevented their
examination until the present time.

RANUNCULACEA,

19. Anemone decapetala, L., var. HETEROPHYLLA (Nutt.)
(A. heterophylla, Nutt., mss.; Wood). We are unable to find
any characters which would entitle this plant to specific rank.
Indeed, our specimens show every gradation in _ leaf-form
from the linear lobes of the typical A. decapetala to the
nearly entire ones of the variety. A specimen collected by
Merrill, in Robertson Co., Texas,’ has both forms on the same
plant. As here recognized, the variety extends east into Ala-
bama (Buckley) and occurs also in South America, Cuming’s
specimens from Valparaiso in Herb. Torrey consisting of both
type and variety.

BERBERIDACE.
87. Berberis trifoliata, Moric.
PAPAVERACE.

98. Argemone Mexicana, L.

CRUCIFERA.
88. Vesicaria Fendleri, Gray.
90. Vesicaria lasiocarpa, Hook.
93. Draba platycarpa, 'T. & G.
94. Sisymbrium pinnatum (Ell.), Greene. (S. canescens,

91. Lepidium intermedium, Gray.

VIOLACE.

125. Lonidium polygalefulium, Vent. (L. lineare, Vorr.).

' Mentioned in the Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, xiv., p. 68.

8 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [ocr 35

POLYGALEA.

29. Polygala ovalifolia, DC.
142. Krameria lanceolata, Torrey.

PORTULACEA.

28. Portulaca parvula, Gray, Proc. Amer. Acad., xxii., 274.
16. Talinum lineare, HBK. (7. aurantiacum, Engelm.).

MALVACEA,

14. Callirhoé pedata, Gray.

174. Sida diffusa. HBK.
131. Sida physocalyz, Gray.

33. Abutilon holosericeum. Scheele. A small form.
171. Abuti/on Trxense. Tl. & G.

105. Spheralcea hastulata, Gray.
123. Spheralcea pedatifida, Gray.

34. Hibiscus cardiophyllus, Gray.

LINEA.
97. Linum Berlandiert, Hook.
101. Linum muiticaule, Hook.
MALPIGIACEA.
156. Aspicarpa hyssopifolia, Gray. A form with leaves
broader than in the original, distinctly veined and lanceolate.
GERANIACE/.

117. Geranium Carolinianum, IL.
95. Hrodium Teranum, Gray.
10. Ovalis corniculata, L. A form with close-appressed,
cinereous pubescence. .
86. Oxalis dichondrefolia, Gray.
31. Oxalis Drummondii, Gray. Fide Trelease.

RUTACEA.
$1. Thamnosma Texanum (Gray), Torr.

CELASTRINEA.
161. Schefferia cuneitfolia, Gray.

1887. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 9

RHAMNACEHA.
129. Colubrina Texensis, Gray.

AMPELIDE A.

69. Vitis incisa, Nutt. From a sketch by Miss Croft it
‘would appear that this vine has a thick, moniliform root.

LEGU MINOS&.

15. Lupinus subcarnosus, Hook.

51. Hysenhardtia amorphoides, HBK.
138. Dalea lasianthera, Gray.

147. Dalea nana, 'Vorr.
175. Petalostemon gracilis, Nutt.

84. Astragalus Nuttallianus, DC.

23. Indigofera leptosepala, Nutt.

83. Vicia exigua, Nutt.

22. Galactia heterophylla, Gray.

27. Galactia marginalis, Benth.

63. Rhynchosia Texana, T. & G.
‘103. Sophora secundiflora (Orteg.), Lag.
106. Cassia pumilio, Gray.

Proposis julifiora, DC.
162. Desmanthus Jamesii, T. & G. ?
154. Schrankia angusiata, T. & G.
155. Acacia filicina, Willd.
157. Acacia Greggii, Gray.

ONAGRARIEA.

1. Gnothera Hartwegii, Benth.

108. nothera roxea, Ait., with remarkably lyrate root-leaves.
2. Wnothera speciosa, Nutt.

111. Gaura Drummondii, T. and G.

127. Gaura sinuata, Nutt.

199. Gaura tripetala, Cay.

PASSIFLORE.

64. Passiflora tenuiloba, Engelm.

CUCURBITACEA.

68. Sicydiwm Lindheimeri, Gray. (Maximowiczia Lind-
heimeri, Cogn.)

10 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [ocr. 3,

CACTEA.

30. Echinocactus setispinus, Engelm.

UMBELLIFERA,

80. Bowlesia lobata, Ruiz & Pav.
82. Apium echinatum (Nutt.), Watson, Bibliog. Index,
Part 1., 412.
81. Apium Popei (T. & G.), Gray.
118. Cherophyllum procumbens (l.), Crantz, var, Teintwriei
(Hook.), Coulter & Rose.
120. Daucus pusillus, Michx.

RUBIACEA.

85. HoustTonta CRorri#, n. sp. Annual; depresssed-spread -
ing from a slender, straight root; stems about 25™™ long,
simple, or dichotomously branching, minutely scabrous ; leaves
5 to 10™™ long, oblanceolate, tapering into a very short petiole,
revolute, obtuse; petioles sparingly ciliate; flowers white,
minute (about 3™™ long), sessile in the axils; fruit didymous,
2™" high, short-stalked, clothed with short hairs; calyx teeth
acute, about half the length of the corolla tube.

A diminutive species in the section of H. humifusa, Gray,
Syn. Flor. Gamopet., p. 25.

26. Houstonia angustifolia, Michx. <A branching form.

76. Galium virgatum, Nutt. A smoothish, thin-leaved form.

COMPOSIT A.

53. Hupatorium Greggit, Gray.

36. Hupatorium incarnatum, Walt.

21. Liatris punctata, Hook. the var. y of Torrey & Gray,
having leaves ciliate with rigid hairs.

54. Gymnosperma corymbosum, DC. -

55. GUTIERREZIA SAROTHR# (Pursh.). (Solidago Surothre,
Pursh. Flor. Amer. Sept., ii., 540, 1814; Brachyris Hutham-
ie, Nutt., Genera, ii., 163, 1818; G. Huthamie, I’. & G.)

47, HETEROTHECA SUBAXILLARIS (Lam.). (Jnula subacil-
laris, Lam., Dict. iii., 259, 1789; A. Lamarckii, Cass. 1823.)

42. Chrysopsis villosa (Pursh.), Nutt., var. canescens (DC.),

37. Haplopappus spinulosus (Pursh), DC.
144. Aphanostephus humilis (Benth.), Gray.
Al. Aster multifiorus, Ait.
136. Frigeron tenuis, ‘Tl. & G.

1887. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 11

49. Achetogeron Palmeri, Gray ?

72. Hvax multicaulis, DC.

77. Melampodium cinereum, DC. A form near var. ramosis-
simum (DC.), Gray.

126. Hngelmannia pinnatifida, Torr. & Gray.

100. Partheniwm Hysterophorus, L.

45. Helianthus annuus, L.

173. Helianthus ciliaris, DC. <A form with narrow leaves
nearly matching Dr. Palmer’s specimens No. 616, from Juraz,
Coahuila, 1880.

169. Encelia subaristata, Gray. Differing only in the pap-
pus from £. calva (Engelm. & Gray), Gray.

38. Verbesina encelioides (Cav.), Gray, Syn. Flor. Gamopet.,
288. <A form with the involucral bracts equalling the rays.

40. Verbesina Virginica, L.

170. Coreopsis cardaminefolia (DC.), 'T. & G.

43. Cardamine, near the last, and perhaps the var. /ineari-
loba,T. & G., but the rays are yellow to the base.

39. Polypteris Texana (DC.), Gray.

96. Hymenatherum tenuilobum, DC,

133. Helenium amphibolum, Gray.

102. HELENIUM seTIGERUM (DC.). (Amblyolepis setigera
(DC.), fide Benth. & Hook., Gen. Plant., ii., 414.)

128. Gaillardia pulchella, Foug.

131. GAILLARDIA SUAVIS (Gray & Engelm.). (Agassizia
suavis, Gray & Engelm., Proc. Amer. Acad., i., 49, Dec. Ist,
1846 ; G. simplex, Scheele, Linnea, xxii., 160, 1849.)
= 46. Artemisia Mexicana, Willd., var. angustifolia, Schultz,

ip.

35. Chaptalia nutans (L.), Hemsley.

141. Perezia runcinata, Lag.

48. Pyrrhopappus multicaulis, DC. ?

135. Pinaropappus roseus, Less.

44, Lygodesmia aphylla (Nutt.), DC., var. Texana, T. & G.

OLEACE A.
13. Menodora heterophylla, Moric.

ASCLEPIADEA,

70. PHILIBERTIA VIRIDIFLORA (Torrey). (Gonolobus viridi-
florus, 'Torrey, Ann. Lye. N. Y., 1i., 219, 1828; Sarcostemma
cynanchoides, Dec. in DC., Prodr., viii., 540, 1844; P. cynan-
choides, Gray.)

62. Metastelma barbigerum, Scheele.

12 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [ocT. 3,

166. Gonolobus parviflorus (Torr.), Gray. On these speci-
mens some of the lower leaves are cordate.

POLEMONIACEA.
4, Gilia rigidula, Benth.

BORAGINEA.

148. Coldenia canescens, DC.

134. Hehinospermum Redowskii (Hornem.), Lehm., var.
strictum (Nees), 8S. Wats. (var. cupulatum, Gray).

104. Lithospermum canescens (Michx.), Lehm.

CONVOLVULACEHA.

66. Ipomea Nil (l.), Pursh. (1. hederacea, Jacq.)
67. Ipomea trifida (HBK.). Don, var. Berlandiert, Gray.
139. Convolvulus hermannioides, Gray.
143. Evolvulus sericeus, Swartz.
6. Cuscuta indecora, Choisy, var. pulcherrima (Scheele),
Engelm.
SOLANACEA.
5. Solanum eleagnifolium, Cav.
11. Physalis Fendlert, Gray, var. cordifolia, Gray, Syn. Flor.
Gamopet., Ist Ed., p. 395, ex. descr.; name not in 2d Kd.
75. Chamesaracha sordida (Dunal), Gray.
179. Capsicum baccatum, L.
132. Nicotiana repanda, Willd.
32. BoUCHETI AANOMALA (Miers). (Mierembergia anomala,
Miers, Lond, Journ. Bot., v., 175, 1846; Bouchetia erecta, DC.,
Prodr., xili., i., 588, 1852.)

SCROPHULARINEA.
50. Leucophyllum Texanwm, Benth.
92. Linaria Canadensis (L.), Dumort. A form with larger
flowers than ordinary.
OROBANCHACEZ.
153. Aphyllum multiflorwm (Nutt.), Gray.

ACANTHACE.

151. Calophanes linearis (T. & G.), Gray.
150. Ruellia tuberosa, L.
165. Siphonoglossa Pilosella (Nees), Torr.

1887. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 13

52

79.
(Go8
119.

115.

124,

168
74

VERBENACEA.

. Lantana Camara, L.
Verbena canescens, HBK.
Verbena ciliata, Benth.
Verbena officinalis, L.

LABIAT &.

. Hedeoma Drummondii, Benth.
2. Salvia balloteflora, Benth.

. Salvia Texana, Torr.

. Monarda clinopodioides, Gray.

. Scutellaria Drummondii, Benth.

PLANTAGINEA.
. Plantago Patagonica, L., var. gnaphalioides (Nutt.)

. Plantago Virginica, L.

NYCTAGINEA.

. Nyctaginea capitata, Choisy.

. Allionia incarnata, L

. Acleisanthes longijflora, Gray.

PHYTOLACCACEA.

. Rivina levis, L.

POLYGONACEZA.

Rumex Berlandieri, Meisn.
ARISTOLOCHIACEA.
Aristolochia longiflora, Engelm. & Gray.

EUPHORBIACEA.

. Euphorbia melanodenia, Torr.

. Euphorbia Peplidion, Engelm. (Determined by Dr.

Sereno Watson).

3
25
164

. Phyllanthus polygonoides, Nutt.
. Croton capitatus, Michx. (?)
. Acalypha_hederacea, Torrey.

14 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [ooT. 3,

16%. Tragia ramosa, Torrey, 1828. (7. stylaris, Muell. Arg.,
1865. )

24, STILLINGIA DENTATA (Torr.), (Sapium (?) annuum,
Torr., var. dentatum, Torr., Bot. Mex. Bound. Surv., p. 201,
1859; Stillingia Torreyana, S. Wats., Proc. Amer. Acad.,
xiv., p. 298, 1879.)

URTICACEA.
122. Urtica chamedryoides, Pursh.
73. Parieturia debilis, Forst.
AMARYLLIDE i.
18. Cooperia Drummondi, Herb.
17. Zephyranthes Andersonii (Herb.), Benth. & Hook., Gen.
Plant., ii., 724 (Habranthus Andersonii, Herb.).
LILIACE.
10%. Alliwm mutabile, Michx.
V1. Nothoscordum striatum (Jacq.), Kunth.
COMMELINACEA.

. Commelina nudifiora, L.
. Commelina Virginica, L.

CYPERACEA.
180. Cyperus aristatus, Rottb.

GRAMINEA.
(Determined by Dr. George Vasey.)

57. Panicum leucopheum, UBK., var. lewcanthum, Vasey.
178. Setaria setosa, Beauy., var. caudata, Griseb.
116. Thurberia Arkansana (Nutt.), Vasey.

56. Andropogon saccharoides, Swartz.

72. Stipa setigera, Presl.

60. Chloris cucullata, Bisch.

61. Trichloris plurifiora, Fourn.

58. Boutelouwa hirsuta, Lag., var. minor, Vasey.

59. Boutelowa racemosa, Lag.

MARSILEACEA.

121, Marsilea macropoda, Engelm.

1887. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 15

Pror. H. CARRINGTON BoLToN exhibited a photograph of the
skeleton of Iguanodon recently mounted in Brussels; and
Pror. D. 8. Martin spoke of the character and affinities of the
reptile.

Adjourned, as a business meeting, to October 17, 1887.

October 10, 1887.

STATED MEETING.
The President, Pror. J. S. NEWBERRY, in the chair.
Twenty-three persons present.

The LIBRARIAN read a notice of the proposed semi-centennial
celebration of Der Naturwissenschaftliche Verein in Hamburg,
on November 18, 1887, and it was voted to authorize the Cor-
responding Secretary to transmit the congratulations of the
Academy.

A memorial to the Congress of the United States, asking the
enactment of a law to protect forest lands, prepared by the
American Forestry Congress, was presented for signatures. It
was moved and voted to authorize the Officers: of the Academy
to sign this petition as such officers.

Pror. O. P. Hupparp exhibited an antique, brought from
Cuzco, Peru, several years ago, in the form ofa turtle, of a
bright yellow color, and obviously a hard alloy of gold.

He had found no mention of such a relic in the works of
Squier and Tschudi on South America, or in the larger work
on the excavations in theancient cemeteries of Antioquia, and it
is thought to be unique.

He gave the following

Description: Its weight, 1? oz. av. ; length head and tail,
24 in.; breadth across forelegs, 13 in.; height of head, 42 in. ;
do. carapace, ? in.; width of head including projecting eyes,
%in.; eyes, 33; In.

Head, front vertical, 2 in. ; beak, pointed, strong, recurved
under lower jaw. A beautiful three-ply braided cord +5 in.

16 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [ocr. 10,.

wide encircles the figure and covers the junction line of carapace.
and plastron, reaching behind the neck.

Carapace guite symmetrical, convex, elliptical, without figures.
Plastron a transverse central plain band 8 in. wide, with trans-
verse open space before and behind, } in. wide, exposing the
whole cavity and under surface of the carapace, which 1s studded
with small prominences, as if left in casting.

The four legs are variously figured, and the two hind ones
have, in a line near the body, three small round points.

The head is as if supported by two ligamenta (?)4in. wide,
in three bands each, the inner one with 15 small triangular per-
forations on outer curved line. These are attached on right
and left of carapace, and curve down and out over forelegs in a.
circle and a half, to the carapace in front.

On anterior plastron, right and left, at the insertion of the
legs, are two eye-bolts, through which, with a cord, the turtle
can be suspended if worn as an ornament or amulet.

Pror. HUBBARD also exhibited a specimen of claystone from
a railroad cut at Sharon, Vt., which presented a striking imita-
tion of the form of a small turtle of 1} in. diameter.

The PRESIDENT exhibited specimens of eruptive rocks from:
the base of Mt. Beckwith, Colorado, a quartz-mica-diorite, with.
crystals of sanidine and moonstone.

Mr. F. J. H. MERRILL read a paper entitled

NOTES ON THE AGE OF THE LIMESTONES OF WESTCHESTER
CO., NEW YORK.

The paper was discussed by Dr. Britton and PRESIDENT
NEWBERRY.

Pror. D. 8. Martin presented the following notice of

THE ‘‘ FIELD OF ROCKS.”

About eleven miles west of Philadelphia, on the main line of
the Pennsylvania Railroad to Pittsburg, there occurs a most re-
markable isolated deposit of large boulders, presenting a very pe-
culiar problem to the geologist, inasmuch as the locality is far
to the south of the well-determined line of the Great Terminal
Moraine.

1887. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 1%

A year or two ago, while visiting friends in this region, I had
heard the spot referred to as one of the local curiosities, but had
no opportunity to examine it. This year, on returning to the
same place, I determined to make personal inspection of the
phenomenon.

Parallel to the Pennsylvania Railroad, a little way south of
it, runs the beautifully kept and planted road known as the
‘«* Lancaster Pike;” this is crossed, some three miles west of Bryn
Mawr, and between Villa Nova and Radnor, by the ‘Spring
Mill” road, going southwest from Villa Nova station. <A few
rods beyond this crossing, on the south side of the pike, the suc-
cession of cultivated farms, grounds, and country seats is inter-
rupted by a piece of young woodland, as thick and wild with
flowers and undergrowth as though it were miles away from the
dwellingsof men. On entering it, and forcing one’s way through
the thickets, the reason soon becomes apparent for the state of
nature in which this ground has remained. The wood is filled
with boulders, many of them of great size, masses of rock in
some cases fifteen feet across and seven or eight feet high. All
are so weathered that their character is unrecognizable ; but on
chipping away fragments, they seem to be generally alike, a
dark fine-grained gneiss, with occasional thin seams of quartz.*
So remarkable was the deposit that I was at first disposed to be-
lieve that they must be boulders of decomposition ; but there is
nothing similar in the neighborhood so far as I have examined.
On the contrary, as a rule, the rock of the region exhibits very
uniform and complete disintegration into soil. Nowhere could
the ‘‘southern drift” type. of regular undisturbed passage
from surface-earth by insensible gradation into stratified gneiss,
be more clearly seen than at various points in this neighborhood,
wherever exposed ; while weathered ledges or solid outcrops are
scarcely to be found. Further west, indeed, among the Radnor
Hills, and on the Valley Forge Hills to the north, rock exposures
occur more freely. But on the other hand, occasional smaller
boulders, unmistakably such, are seen here and there in the
roadsides and fields around.

The spot is locally known as the ‘‘ Field of Rocks,” and is
certainly a remarkable feature. It was formerly, I am told, a
favorite place for ‘picnics, etc., but of late yearsit is so grown up
with young woods as to be almost inaccessible, and quite invisi-
ble from the adjacent road.

I am at a loss to frame a satisfactory theory as to these great

' Dr. Britton, on examining the pieces presented, stated that the rock

hoe perfectly familiar to him as the gneiss of the New York ‘‘ High-
ands.

18 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [ocr alr,

boulders. The drift area lies far to the north; and the decom-
posed rock of the region, above referred to, gives the clearest
evidence that no land ice has ever moved over this neighborhood.
The only explanation suggested is that of transportation by
drifting ice, the stranding of some great rock-laden floe or berg,
broken from the edge of the ice-sheet to the north or from local
glaciers on the hills to the west.

The PrestpENT briefly described the mountain region of
Western Colorado, which he had recently visited.

October 17, 1887.
ADJOURNED BUSINESS MEETING.
The President, Pror. J. S. NEWBERRY, in the chair.
Twenty persons present.

A Report of the Council made the following recommenda-
tions :—

I. The acceptance of the resignations of the following mem-
bers: Mr. Albert S. Bolles, Lt. William 8. Dana, Rev. B. F.
DeUosta, Mr. Charles H. Denison, Dr. Julius Sachs, Rev. George
L. Shearer, Mr. Joseph Yates.

II. The election of the following persons as resident members:

Mrs, Martua J. LAMB.

Mrs. Sara LOUISE SAUNDERS.
Miss Lititz EK. WARREN.

Dr. STEPHEN SMITH.

III. The payment of certain bills.

IV. That an invitation be extended to the Local Committee
of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, to
attend a meeting of the Academy, and that an appropriation be
made to pay the cost of a collation.

The recommendations were severally adopted, except the elec-
tion of members, which was deferred, under the rule, to the
Regular Business Meeting.

1887. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 19

Pror. W. C. TROWBRIDGE announced

A DISCOVERY BY C. C. TROWBRIDGE REGARDING THE PURPOSE
OF THE EMARGINATION IN THE PRIMARY WING-FEATHERS
OF CERTAIN BIRDS.

My son, C. C. Trowbridge, astudent in the Hopkins Grammar
School at New Haven, called my attention recently to a fact
which he had observed, viz., that the emarginate cuttings of
the primary feathers of certain birds are designed to enable the
birds to interlock, at will, these feathers in an extended position,
in order, presumably, to relieve the muscles of the tip of the
wing from prolonged or continuous exertion during flight.

From my own examination of the specimens which he brought

GY

to my notice I am quite sure of the truth of his observations ; but
although the facts were quite new to me, and especially inter-
esting in connection with the mechanism of flight, I hesitated
to make any announcement of the discovery until I could con- '
sult those who were likely to know whether the facts observed
had been before noticed or described.

The results of my inquiries were that, while ornithologists
have, of course, known and described the peculiar cuttings of
the feathers, the purposes subserved by the shape thus given to
them have hitherto escaped observation.

I accordingly requested my son to make such drawings from
wings in his possession as would serve to explain or illustrate
the mode by which the primaries are interlocked. The figures

20 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

hereto annexed are copied from his drawings. The first repre-
sents one of the primary feathers, and shows its peculiar emar-
gination along parts of both the upper and lower edges. ‘The
next cut exhibits the interlocked primaries as they appeared in
the wing of a red-shouldered hawk (Luteo lineatus). In this
figure it will be seen that the cutting of the lower margin of
each primary extends from the tip of the feather, a distance cor-
responding to the cutting of the upper margin of the feather
below it. In this particular case the cuttings extend about half
the length of the feathers.

The same figure shows how each of the primaries, beginning
with the outer one, can, for a distance, corresponding to these
emarginations, be thrown behind the succeeding primary, cross-
ing it in such a way that the effect is to interlock the primaries
in an open or extended position.

The muscular action by which this locking and unlocking
can be accomplished at will, appear to be as follows: Referring
again to the second figure, which represents the wing as it would
be presented to an observer standing on the ground and looking
upwards ata bird soaring above, the primaries corresponding
to the fingers of the human hand now interlocked, are capable
of being extended and opened by means of a muscle, the tendon
of which lies along the bones which form the hand. This tendon
is shown in the figure, detached from the muscle at one end and
separated from the bone. A force exerted along this tendon
opens the primaries by acting upon a lever of the third order,
but with great disadvantage as far as the leverage is concerned.

If the muscle be relaxed while the feathers are extended, the
latter will fall together like the leaves of a fan, as they are al-
ways seen when the wing is folded. This is the process of unlock-
ing. If, however, the bird wishes to lock the feathers, they are
first extended by the muscle referred to, and a rotary muscle
rotates the hand slightly in such a way that if the extensor
muscle is suddenly relaxed the primaries may fall into their
interlocked position, especially if the tips of the feathers are
bent backward by a slight stroke of the wing at the same in-
stant.

The operation of locking and unlocking may thus be per-
formed almost instantaneously and at will.

This discovery throws much light on the mechanics of flight;
especially of soaring flight.

Some birds remain soaring for hours at a time, far above the
earth, without flapping their wings. During this time, it is
hardly possible that the primary feathers could be kept extended
solely by the continued exertion of the comparatively small and
weak extensor muscle, which has been referred to. ‘The re-

1887. ] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 21

freshment of a muscle can only take place ordinarily by its re-
laxation. Even a momentary relaxation is often sufficient; but
without such relaxation, exhaustion of the muscle soon takes
lace.

; Dr. Houghton found, from numerous experiments, that the
muscles of the human arm, extended and supporting a weight
of two pounds held in the hand, became completely exhausted
in four minutes. By the interlocking of the primary feathers
of the wings of birds, the extensor muscles of their feathers are
completely relieved, and rapid exhaustion prevented. Andif we
consider, further, that when the body of the bird is suspended
or hung between the extended wings, it is probable, and, in-
deed, may be demonstrated as almost certain, that the action of
the air pressure from beneath serves to keep the whole wing
extended at the elbow without appreciable muscular effort ; the
only effort in soaring is thus merely that which gives the slight
movements to the tail and wings by which the body is guided
or steered with or against the air currents.

The PRESIDENT spoke upon the problem of the soaring of
birds, and favorably commented upon the discovery claimed by
Prof. Trowbridge.

Capt. A. W. VocpEs exhibited an album of Alg@, once the
property of Prof. Harvey, which were the types of the descrip-
tions by that author in his ‘‘ North American Alge,” published
by the Smithsonian Institution.

Dr. ALEXIS A. JULIEN read a paper entitled:

ON THE GEOLOGY AT GKEAT BARRINGTON, MASSACHUSETTS.

An examination of the limestone belt of Western New En-
gland, at various points, leads me to present the following views:

First: In proof of the local existence of smaller dolomytic
beds, distinct from the main sheet and lying at a higher hori-
zon.

Secondly: In explanation of the peculiar physical and min-
eralogical characteristics of the material of these outliers, as il-
lustrated by one in the town of Great Barrington, Massachu-
setts.

I. General Stratigraphy of the Stockbridge Limestone.

Recent geological investigations have shown that this sheet of
crystalline limestone, which, for the sake of convenient distinc-
tion, has been called the ‘‘ Stockbridge Limestone,” extends for

22 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [oct. 17,

a distance of one hundred and seventy miles, from New York to
Vermont, over an area of at least eight hundred square miles,
With this limestone, usually the bottom layer of the series, are
commonly associated beds of mica-schist, mica-slate, and gneiss,
underlying, interstratified, or overlying. Next above, comes
a layer of quartzyte (often passing into gneiss), then one of
schist or gneiss, then another layer of quartzyte (that which
forms the crest of Monument Mountain, north of Great Bar-
rington), and then a series of thin beds of gneiss, schist, quart-
zyte, and limestone (best shown at Three Mile Ridge, four
miles east of Great Barrington).

The whole series is fortunately crumpled up everywhere into
sharp folds, which, by the erosion of ages, have been worn
down or cut into at many points, thus bringing up the lime-
stone layer into view here and there. In this way it crops out
first as a coarse marble, at a point south of Pawling, in Dutch-
ess County, New York; then at many points, becoming finer
grained in its progress northward, over a stretch of seventy
miles, to Pittsfield, in Western Massachusetts, along the Hou-
satonic and two neighboring valleys; and then, for a hundred
miles farther, in fine soft marbles, to a point twenty miles
north of Rutland, in Vermont.

The uniform lithological character of this limestone-sheet is
in general strongly marked; although this is attended by a con-
siderable variation in texture, from grains 1 mm. or less in
diameter, in the northern part of the belt, to grains over 1 cm.
in diameter near its southern extremity. Its color is predomi-
nantly white, with light bluish or grayish bands, variously dis-
posed and occasionally overspreading and darkening the entire
material. These darker variegations consist of drawn-out plates
and films of clay-slate or hydromica-slate, in which, where thick-
est, a small proportion of iron pyrites is sometimes concen-
trated.

The employment of the material as an ornamental marble,
or as a building-stone at many localities, has led to abundant
determinations of its weight, compressive strength, and struc-
ture, which have been found to vary but little along its course
of outcrop.

The accessory minerals it contains are usually the same—
tremolite, magnesian mica, rutile, tourmaline, etc., together
with a species of iron pyrites which, in many localities, from
New York to Vermont, is unfortunately subject to ready de-
composition.

The common distribution along the main belt of a rather
pure Jimestone, only occasionally somewhat magnesian, may be
inferred, even by the traveller, from the numerous kilns in

1887. ]

NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

23

which much of its material has been found suited to burning
lime—and by the chemist, from a comparison of the following
published analyses of samples of this rock from the most widely
separated localities, arranged from Vermont southward.

ANALYSES OF MARBLES AND CRYSTALLINE LIMESTONES.

Locality.

Brandon, Vt.
Pittsford, Vt.

ce “ce

Hydes’ Quar-
ry, Rutland,
Vt. |

West Rutland,

Vit.
West Rutland,
Vt |

Plymouth, Vt.
Bristol, Vt.
East Dorset,
Vt. |
East Dorset,
Vt. |
Lee, Mass.

rear

West Stock-
bridge, Mass.
East Canaan,
Mass. |
Mansfield)
Woodhouse,
Eng.
Bolsover
Moor, Eng. |

Mansfield,
Eng. |

Gray.

Variety.

Florence.

White.

Dark bluish
gray.

Dark.

Light.

White, with

grayish
streaks.

|

|
Dark gray. |81.

]
|
|

Gray.

Vellow- aud
hard.

Yello wis h-
brown and |
compact.

White sili-.
ceous.

Calcium
carbonate.

99.51
99.05

98
97.

99.

O4.

51.

ol,

26.

|

Magnesium
carbonate

|
}
|
|

el
=) Sr
former) C9 0%

| Quartz and clay.

es)

| 3.55
5| 0.85
3.70

3.60

'17.98.51.40

Ferric oxide (and
alumina).
Water.

(=)
jar
ot

0.59...

O10 ore.

2) 0100.27

je eee

0.15 0.70!
| |
0.300.380)

trace 2.50

|
1.80/3.30
|

_..|With a little gra-

phite.

With a little gra-
phite.

on Pyrite, 0.18. The

lime-kiln near
this quarry in-
dicates the oc-
currenceof
more calcare-
ous layers.
Pyrite, 0.37.

Both stones re-
main perfect
in buildings of
the twelfth
century.

Unfortunately these analyses are merely chemical, unaccom-

24 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [ocr. 17,

panied by microscopical and physical examinations, and more
or less incomplete; so that we cannot obtain the exact know-
ledge we need of the mineralogical constitution of the material.
This objection equally applies to the two analyses, at the bottom
of the table, of English dolomytes, celebrated for their durabil-
ity. Chemical analysis alone may be entirely misleading in its
bearing on the practical application of such stones to building
purposes.

Their strength and durability may depend partly upon the
minerals of which they are constituted, 7. e., whether easily
cleavable, soluble, or inclined to alteration, and partly upon the
mode in which these constituent minerals are mutually arranged
and cemented. The table shows that the majority of these
marbles are nearly pure crystalline limestones, 7. ¢., consist
chiefly of calcite ; the comparative softness and solubility of the
grains, and the loose texture of their arrangement, account for
the inability of nearly all of these marbles to endure either heavy
pressure or long weathering.

Others are dolomitic limestones, their grains are comparatively
hard, strong, and insoluble; but their texture is so loose from
the feeble mutual adherence of the grains, or their content of
some soluble or oxidizable mineral, e. g., iron carbonate, is so
great, that some of these stones also may be unfitted to resist
either pressure, weather, or handling. Finally we have, in
some of the famous crystalline dolomytes of England, materials
fitted to resist all strain or attack, by their insolubility, closely
compacted texture, and in some cases the filling up of all inter-
stices by solid quartz.

Near the northern end of the limestone belt now under con-
sideration, in the fine quarry at Sutherland Falls, Vermont, an
excellent opportunity is afforded to study the genetic history of
this marble, perhaps the most compact and dense of any in that
State, and the one exceptionally well fitted in that respect for
out-door exposure as a building-stone. ‘Though remarkable for
its general whiteness and fine grain, this marble is in part varie-
gated with delicate bands of gray and bluish-gray color, which
may be straight and parallel, more or less wavy, and even broken
up into isolated patches of the grayish tints. On the face of
the strata, at the back of the quarry, a few of these bands are
more decidedly accentuated and continuous from top to bottom ;
on one side inclining downward to the left (north), and on the
other to the right (south). They thus obscurely mark the ori-
ginal stratification and the position of the axis of a synclinal
fold ; while their zigzag plications indicate the intense conden-
sation and consolidation which the material has experienced
during the process of folding. Of this action, the fine grain,

1887. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 25

hardness, great weight, and high compressive strength of this
stone are the natural results. At Lee, Massachusetts, toward
the southern end of the belt, the beds of fine white to blue-gray
marble, though but gently inclined, present similar physical
characteristics, a sparse but general distribution of magnesian
mica, tremolite, and minute particles of an unstable form of
pyrite, and a more marked inclination to laminated structure.

This lamination becomes a more decided feature in the gray
limestone of Stockbridge and the marbles of Sheffield and Canaan
to the south.

To these well-known characteristics I may add the fact of the
peculiar mode of disintegration which affects this rock, under
the influence of the weather and percolating moisture, as shown
in the sides of quarriesand outcrops throughout the distribution
of the sheet, from Vermont to Connecticut. The material be-
comes finely cracked up by a network of minute irregular crey-
ices, but is also often seamed by long cracks parallel to the
planes of bedding, especially within a few inches of the natural
division-surfaces.

The object of this review has been to impress the conclusion
of the general lithological uniformity of this limestone-sheet,
with the unimportant exception of those subordinate character-
istics which depend mainly upon local variations in mode and
degree of crystallization. On the other hand, however, it has
been found that a highly magnesian composition, approaching
more or less closely to that of a true dolomyte, belongs to certain
beds, usually accepted as portions of the same continuous sheet,
which occur mostly on each side of the central band and around
its southerly termination. There is sufficient evidence, in my
opinion, to lead us to recall the view, at one time suggested by
Prof. Dana, and to consider at least many of these dark-colored
beds, so highly magnesian as to be entirely unfit for burning to
lime, not as parts of the main limestone-sheet, but members of
a series of intermittent occurrence lying above it. Their mate-
rial differs in some mineralogical characteristics. ‘Tremolite is,
in general, entirely absent ; quartz becomes a noteworthy con-
stituent ; even the pyrite is sometimes of an entirely distinct
variety, which resists decomposition ; and the pure gray color,
common to dolomytes, often supplants the white. In spite of
the difficulty of identifying the relationship of strata folded to-
gether in complicated confusion, with important members of
the series entirely carried away at one point by erosion, at an-
other completely hid from view by overlying bodies of sand and
clay, there is ample evidence, at least in the neighborhood of
Great Barrington, and at points both to the east and west of that
place, of the occurrence of this upper dolomitic series. The

26 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [ocr. 1%,

geology in the immediate vicinity of Great Barrington has been
carefully studied by J. D. Dana.’ Its stratigraphical features
have been represented by him in a cross-section from the hill
west of the village, eastward through the village, which occupies
the low portion of the valley, to Hast Mountain, which bounds
the Housatonic valley on the east.

On the summit of the hill, at the west end of the section,
given in his paper, we find an outcrop (/) of the ‘‘ Stockbridge
limestone,” as a coarse white crystalline variety, then a stratum,
over three hundred feet in thickness, of mica-schist (and gneiss)
(s), quartzyte (7), and micaceous gneiss (s), and then a layer of
** limestone,” all these members dipping eastward at an angle
‘of 45° to 55°. Then at P, near the centre of the valley, rises
the isolated ridge of ‘‘ limestone” (/), called Mt. Peter, dipping
70° to 80° to the eastward, and again another (at 7), east of the
river (#7), on the lower slope of Kast Mountain, dipping 80° to
-85° to the westward. In regard to these outcrops of so-called
““ limestones,” Dana observes: ‘‘This section introduces a new
element, an upper stratum of limestone, overlying the upper
schist where the upper quartzyte would be looked for. The
limestone is a bluish-gray and firm granular variety. Some por-
tions are quite pyritiferous. I have been unable to find evidence
that this limestone isa continuation, in full, of that of Egre-
mont. ‘The section terminates eastward in a thick stratum of
contorted gneiss (S*), with one hundred and twenty feet of
quartzyte above. ‘The gneiss dips eastward 60° to 50° in the
outcrop nearest the limestone, diminishing eastward to 50° and
40°, with the strike about N 10° E. Some of the outcrops of
limestone and gneiss are not over ten yards apart. The uncon-
formability between the gneiss and limestone is evidence of a
fault along a fracture.”

A year afterward (October, 1873), Prof. Dana withdrew this ~
conclusion as to the existence of a second independent stratum
of limestone at Great Barrington :

‘<The importance of settling this point has led to the delay in
the publication of this continuation of my memoir. Having
been recently over the ground again, I have finally arrived at
the conclusion that the ridge of schist west of Great Barrington
is actually the course of a synclinal, and, that, therefore, the
Great Barrington limestone stratum dips under it, and is noth-
ing but the Stockbridge stratum. There is no outcropping
schist found to the south of it. Again, the connection of the
quartzyte of this ridge with that of the south end of Tom Ball
(a high ridge three miles northwest of Great Barrington), and

' Amer. Jour. Science, 3, iv. (1872), v. and vi. (1873).

1887. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. a7

the fact that Tom Ball is itself the course of a synclinal, sustains
the above conclusion. Hence I now believe that there is in the
region no second or upper limestone stratum.”

Immediately after this, Prof. Dana describes the section at
the south end of Beartown Mountain, four miles east of Great
Barrington, in which the following succession occurs, com-
mencing below :

‘¢ 1, White granular limestone, that of the valley.

. Mica-schist, a thin bed.

. Hard jointed quartzyte, 30 feet.

. Some limestone, 60 feet.

. Quartzyte, like the lower, 20 feet.

. Gheiss, 30 feet.

. (North of the road) Bluish granular limestone, crum-
bling.

. Mica-schist, 6 to 8 feet.

. Quartzyte, 100 feet (Devany’s quarry).

“©10. Gneiss (overlying the quartzyte at the quarry).”

Having had the opportunity to give special study in this region
to the dolomyte tracts in the immediate vicinity of Great Bar-
rington, on both sides of the river, I have worked out several
facts in supplement or correction of the general section of Dana
across the valfey at that point ; this I offer in modified form as
Fig. 1.

In the former section, the dolomyte of the little elevation of
Mt. Peter, rising on the west part of the valley, was represented
as lying in a stratum dipping steeply to the east. However,
there are here many slight but significant variations in the dip,
both in degree and direction, which seem to me to indicate the
presence of one or more sharp folds, though with a general east-
erly inclination.

No rock was shown in the low ground between Mount Peter
(P) and the Housatonic River (7); but I have found that the
gneiss occupies at least part of this space near the river, in a
highly tilted bed, dipping 60° to the west.

Again, in the place of the hiatus between the river (H) and
the east outcrop of the dolomyte on the right (Z), a coutinuous
outcrop of the dolomyte occurs, down to the river and even in
its very bed. Within the dolomyte tract itself, especially where
freshly uncovered in quarries, many variations of the dip occur,
which plainly indicate a series of five sharp and partly reversed
folds, traversed by two faults. This conclusion has been reached
from the following observations of the dip of the beds of dolo-
myte, ona line passing eastward from the river to the base of
East Mountain.

Lay
ce
66
6¢
ce

6¢

66

66

aie) FD CrP COW

oon: a7

TRANSACTIONS OF THE

28

*IOAIY OITMOJVSNOF ‘77
‘10j0g juno] ‘ZV

‘UOJ SULLIeg JVaLy ‘_
“‘q[nej JUeDeI B10 ‘GQ
‘q[ney yueTOUR UB ‘Dn

(yp) Atreny surydoy oy} ye pue “(,p) O1mo}VSHOFT 9} JO peq oy ut *(,p) to}0g
qunoy{ Jo sarazenb oyy 4e ‘(yp) Atrend sBS11g plo oy} Jo e718 oy} ge ‘AoTTeA, oluoyesnoH ayy Jo oyAuojop “p

‘aq Azq.renb ‘b
‘sSIoUS 10 YSIyOS ‘s

‘OU0JSOU]] OSPlIqyoo}G JO wunjzRays Surdy1apun ‘7

“Uoyhursvg ywauy yo hong sauogosnogzy ayy ybnosyy worgoas-sso.uo norbojoay

‘TL ‘ply

1887. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 29

DIP.
At level of the river, on Mr. Jason Cooley’s pro-

etn ee Cc Cpe once mpororod coe cr Berra nO a IN. 80, Ws
In lower road, just south of Cooley’s........... 30° HE. 40° 8.
Opening on Humphrey’s lot......... Reet reierera dca Wise ko)

Ledge on the slope between the two roads, on the
west side of the road, and also at northwest

corner of quarry: lamination rather wavy.. 80° W.
Ledge at roadside, at the quarry...........0.. 85° W.
By the roadside at 8S. W. corner of the quarry... ior, Wie
In quarry, at extreme S. W. corner........ acne 80. W.
A yard further to east of preceding...........+ Vertical.
At W. side of quarry, at the quartz vein....... 65, Bia. Giese

above, 70° W.

In guarry, 60 feet east of road, a bent fold.... + telow. 94° Bi.

On south side of quarry, bent fold........... . i eee a re
EO) Nis He Oar Ol QALY < «4 sce) sie 4 «= sisielele eo viele 60° W.
In quarry, 100 feet east of road........ sie) alaie sate 55° W.

Course of veins, 5° EK. and W. of N. Contorted
layers now intervene, all with high dip to

the west. InS. E. corner ofquarry........ 50° W.
Top of quarry, near the middle........ “Fee occe 80° W.
In quarry, 200 feet east of road, with wavy lami-

Tew LO ay cheat ore aveiacei/s HEL DACeD ED GaCcon eae : 85° W.

These layers assume a gentle curve, so as to be-
come nearly vertical at the bottom of the
quarry, over 30 feet below.

In quarry, 240 feet east of road, near site of old

SHIBIGINYS )opotaf 9 «| oo 2,015 ite <a> sjayalanerni tele Welerardcrcve 87° H.
8. E. corner of quarry, wavy lamination........ Vertical.
At upper end of quarry, 270 feet east of road... 80° E.
Ledge, 15 feet from gneiss outcrop. Vertical, or 85° EH. 30° N.
Ledge, 2 to 3 feet from gneiss... ...c.eseseee 70° E. 10° N.
Gneiss, at the line of contact or fault......... 2 007 eelo 7 iN,
Gneiss, a, yard. further to east. .00..sceccesees HOt ey ley N.

Gneiss, at a few yards east of line of contact.... 40° EH. 10° S.

In order to determine the true character of the contact of the
dolomyte and gneiss at the spring above the quarry at the foot
of Hast Mountain, I had a trench dug between the nearest out-
crops of the two rocks, and a good section was uncovered. It
was thus shown that the eastern limit of the dolomyte had been
reached, and that the dolomyte lamination passed from a verti-
cal position to an increasing easterly dip, which, at the line of
contact, exceeds that of the gneiss by only 14°; the amount of
the inclination of the beds of gneiss also rapidly decreases, going

30 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [ocr. 1%,

eastward. A small slip or fault (2) occurs here, as stated by
Dana, and is the cause of the welling up of the cold spring;
though the unconformability is quite small—only that which is
often observed in sharp folds, at the contact of two rocks of
different materials and pliability.

Here, as usual in western Massachusetts, even the slightest
differences in the inclination of the highly tilted layers possess
peculiar significance. ‘That they are indications of the presence
and axes of long sharp folds of the whole stratum, and not
merely of unimportant plications, is shown by their general
continuance along the strike over the whole outcrop of the dolo-
myte.

These observations, to my mind, therefore, appear to indicate
a quite different stratigraphical relationship and folding of beds
than those presented in Prof. Dana’s last paper and section on
this subject. In place of the simple monoclinal dips shown on
each side of the river, there would rather appear to be a long
series of very sharp folds; at least five occur in the dolomyte
outcrop on the eastern bank, which I have studied most care-
fully, and are shown in my section. ‘These testify also to the
comparative thinness of the gray magnesian bed thus crumpled,
which could hardly be a continuation of the thick stratum of
white Egremont marble on the west.

I am, therefore, convinced that we must return to the view
first proposed and later abandoned by my predecessor in this.
field. ‘The stratigraphical evidence is very strong that the
sheet of ‘Stockbridge limestone,” which outcrops in the white
marble of Egremont on the west, dips entirely under the.
Housatonic valley at Great Barrington, and then reappears only
as the lowest members (No. 1, or Nos. 1 and 4) of the series of
Beartown Mountain, four miles east of Great Barrington.
The blue-gray dolomyte tracts in the Housatonic valley near
that town probably correspond, in my view, to the ‘‘bluish
granular limestone” (No. 7) in the upper part of the Beartown
series.

As to the further argument of Prof. Dana, founded on the
relation of the associated quartzite at Great Barrington to that
of the Ridge of Tom Ball, I have not yet examined the latter
locality and must present my observations as they stand.

IT. The Dolomyte Stratum at Great Barrington.

Other reasons for the stratigraphical distinction which has
just been made will be found, I think, in some of the character-
istics of this local stratum.

1887. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 3k

Division-planes of the Dolomyte.

Whatever the exact system of crumpling may have been, in
that far distant time when the edges of our continent were
shrinking along the ocean-border, and the mountains of western
Berkshire were swelling up into vast folds, there can be no
question but that the heavy pressure must have resulted in
a notable condensation of all the materials thus squeezed up to-
gether. We might expect to find at such points, where the folds
were sharpest and the pressure most intense, a cementation or
soldering of materials into solid masses ; and this in fact we do
find at this point in the valley. ‘The schist or gneiss at some
places is compacted, in spite of its original slaty structure, into
a dense material which becomes a good building-stone. ‘To the
same intense pressure, soldering together the sharp folds, the
dolomyte masses which occupy the Housatonic valley are in-
debted for their consolidation and remarkable compactness.
During the folding, the main pressure was probably borne by
the upper and lower thick masses of stiff gneiss and quartzyte.
Of these the upper, of which a remnant now makes up the Hast
Mountain, then formed a great fold over the position of the
present valley. After the main folding had been accomplished,
reaction ensued, bringing down vertically upon the dolomyte
layers the superincumbent weight, with a force equal to that
required for the elevation.

By the pressure of the dolomyte, while still in a plastic state,
up against the crown of this arch, its own particles rearranged
themselves at right angles to the vertical line of pressure, so as
to produce a new horizontal bedding. An accompanynig hori-
zontal thrust of the whole mass of strata-dolomyte, gneiss, and
quartzyte, probably northward against the mass now represerted
by Monument Mountain, has produced, within the dolomyte,
another series of lines of division, vertical and running east and
west.

The original material appears to have been a thinly laminated
or slaty magnesian limestone, probably possessed of little more
compactness or strength than much of the “ Stockbridge lime-
stone’? of the layer below. By the intense pressure and the
heat thereby produced, this earthy magnesian slate was con-
verted into a crystalline marble. Where compressed in a few
folds, as at Mt. Peter, the pressure was sufficient to produce a
compact rock, which, though still slaty, has yielded a very fair
building material for over a half century to the citizens of
Great Barrington.

But on the east side of the Housatonic, the series of five
sharp and narrow overturned folds, into which the dolomyte

»

32 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [oer. 1%,

layer has been crumpled up against the huge abutting mass of
distorted gneiss which makes up the base of East Mountain, has
been soldered together into a rock of extraordinary compactness
in which the original slaty structure has been almost entirely
obliterated. d

In addition to the secondary bedding structure, by which the
stone, especially at its eastern outcrop, is divided into thick and
nearly horizontal layers, we also find many nearly vertical fis-
sures, running about N. and&., ¢. e., with the strike and lamina-
tion—evidently remnants of the old bedding-planes of original
deposit. There is besides a cross-set of strongly marked master-
joints, trending nearly E. and W. (EH. 10° N. or E, 10°S. to
W.10° S. or W. 10° N.). By these numerous division-planes the
mass of the rock is naturally cut up into huge blocks, oblong
and angular. In many of them, near the surface, the rounding
off of corners, by subterranean decay, has converted the form
into that of elongated, often egg-shaped boulders. The results
of these planes of subdivision can be readily seen in an ordinary
quarried block of the stone.

First, its elongated or sometimes flattened, slab-like shape in-
dicates the regular horizontal bedding, the position in which it
lay before it was hewn out—the ‘‘ bed,” ‘‘ free grain,” or “‘ rift ”
of the quarrymen. ‘The stone cleaves easily parallel to the
broader flat faces of such a block.

Secondly, the stone cleaves less readily in another direction,
vertical and at right angles to the former, which is generally
shown by two even faces at opposite ends of the block. This
was originally caused by the horizontal thrust of the folded
strata, and marks the ‘‘cross-grain” of the quarrymen.

Thirdly, a series of dark gray and grayish-white lines and
bands, straight or zigzag, over four faces of the square block,
indicates only the edges of the lamination-plates, marking the
lines of the original horizontal deposit of successive thin layers
of sediment. With the exception of certain slates and granytes,
these lines would show in ether rocks, e. g., sandstones and
limestones, the present surface of bedding and of easiest cleav-
age. The exception in this case is almost unique among the
magnesian limestones or dolomytes. The original slaty struc-
ture has been obliterated by the subsequent folding and pressure,
and there is no longer any tendency to cleave in this direction—
the ‘‘ mock grain ” ‘of the quarrymen. The distinction between
these three directions is of the utmost practical importance ;
since past experience with other stones always inclines a stone-
cutter to attempt to cleave such a stone in the last direction or
‘‘mock grain,” with the result of loss of labor and often the
waste of a valuable block.

1887. ]

NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

33

The quarrymen of the compact crystalline rocks of Maine
have long been accustomed to make distinctions of the same
general purpose, the splitting directions of the same stone dif-

Locality.

H. Blue Hill,
Deer Island.

Mt. Waldo.

Swanville,
Waldo Co.

Lincolnville,
Har bor Qy.,

Vinal Ha-
ven.

Sands Qy., Vi-

nal Haven.
Duschane.
Hurricane I.
Dix Island.

Spruce Head.

Round Pond.
Hallowell.

Biddeford.

fering widely in even neighboring quarries.

Remarks.

Regular sheets
1 to 4 feet
thick.

feet thick,

feet thick.

lar.

Indistinctly
laminated.
Thick sheets.

Sheets, 1 to 10)
feet thick.

Sheets irregu-

Rift. Grain.
\Vert.,E. & W.
'Vert., FN & 8. ‘
_ paral lel t coy
| joints.

On lift, par. to

‘Sheets, 3 to 8Very good,

jts.
Sheets, 4 to 8/Vert., N.W. &

S. 75 E., par. to

| sheets, dip-| head joints.
ping off
from Mt.
Vert., N. & S. |Vert.,E. & W.,
par. to head
| joints.
|Vert., par. to
vert, joints.
vert., E. &
| W. par. to
| S.E., par. to
joints.
‘Vert., par. to|/Vert., N. & S.
| E. & W. ii
E. ee W., par. Horizontal.

to main jts. |

On the lift.
Vert., E. & W.,

to head jts.
‘On the lift, or
| hor.
zontal, dip-|
ping to Was)
north.
‘Oblique to the’
2 sets of vert.
joints.

quarry on Pleasant River, Maine:

nearly par.)

Nearly hori-

|

|Vert., par. to

| the joints.

E.& W., par.to
main seams.

iMorizontale

| Hardest split-
iting direction,

In the lift.

Parallel to
main N.E.
SES EWE
joints.

Thus, in a trap

34 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [ocr. 17,

‘The rift or easiest splitting direction runs parallel to the
east and west joints; the grain, or next easiest, north and
south ; while the lift, or horizontal splitting, is hardest of all.”

On the other hand, in many of the granite quarries, ‘‘ the
rift of the stone is, as the quarrymen express it, ‘on the lift,’
that is, horizontal or parallel to the sheets,” while the grain
may be vertical, or even oblique, and an additional third split-
ting direction often exists. The relationship thus drawn between
the division-surfaces of this stone and its cleavage-planes may
be further illustrated by the table, page 33, which has been
compiled from the notes on Building-Stones in Volume X. of
the Reports on the Tenth Census of the United States.

Physical Characteristics of the Dolomyte.

The color of the stone, on its natural fracture, is an agreeable
blue-gray, with a bright sparkling surface, diversified on the
‘‘cross-grain ” plane by light gray and white lines and stripes,
more or less zigzag. These plications bear testimony to the
degree of condensation to which the material has been subjected
during the folding of the stratum.

The first influence of weathering upon afresh surface con-
sists of a seasoning effect, which somewhat darkens the stone,
sometimes even to a deeper bluish-gray, and decidedly hardens
its surface, even within a year. ‘Thus, while easily worked when
fresh from the quarry, it soon resists the edge of a tool to a
marked degree——a property probably connected with the deposit,
of calcium carbonate from the ‘‘quarry-water” or ‘‘sap” of
the rock. Thin veins of calcite are not uncommon, carrying
crystals or grains of quartz, phlogopite, rutile, etc. After long
exposure of a quarter or half century, the blue-gray color of the
dolomyte becomes mellowed by a brownish tinge.

The texture of the stone, and, to some extent, its density,
vary with its stratigraphical position. In broad folds with
gentle dip, the stone has a more slaty structure and looser
texture; in the crumpled sharp folds, it assumes an increased
compactness, hardness, and density. From an average speci-
men, in coarse powder, the specific gravity 2.853, in distilled
water at 60° F., was obtained, equivalent to a weight of about
179 pounds per cubic foot of the dry stone—an exceedingly
high density. This fine texture and homogeneity are further
shown by the absence of cavities and ‘‘ sand-holes,” such as com-
monly mar the weathered surfaces of other marbles of western
New England and of the white marble of Carrara. Another
indication is the slight absorption of water, shown by the little
change of color produced when the stone is wetted by rain, and

1887. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 35

its rapid drying afterward. A determination of the total ab-
sorption of water gave for its ratio 0.148, in percentage of the
weight of the stone, and for the proportion of empty spaces in
its interstices, or ‘‘ voids,” 0.422, in percentage of its volume.

The tenacity of the stone was determined by various tests on
a series of sawn cubes, two inches onaside. The average re-
sistance to quick compression, per square inch, was found to lie
at 16,118 pounds, between wooden plates; and at 20,208 pounds,
between cast-iron plates. The amount of condensation of such
a cube, under compression between cast-iron plates, reached
50 ten-thousandths of an inch at a pressure of 40,000 pounds,
and 90 ten thousandths at 60,000 pounds, the cube finally ex-
ploding at a pressure of 80,000 pounds within a quarter of an
hour. In the fracture of a bar of the stone, 6 inches long by
2 inches square, by rapid application of sufficient pressure at
its middle, while supported on steel faces for a distance of 4 inch
from each end, the breaking load, calculated to a 1-inch span,
was found to be 1,346 pounds for the stone on its present ‘‘ bed”
surface, and 1,144 pounds on its side, the lamination of the stone
running with the axis of the bar. The amount of deflection in
the middle of such a bar, with the pressure slowly applied in the
position ‘‘on bed,” reached 38 ten-thousandths of an inch at a
pressure of 1,000 pounds, 61 at 2,000, and 90 at 2,250; on the
side, 30 at 1,000, and 42 at 1,500 pounds.

To determine the durability of the stone, wet cubes were ex-
posed during a winter in the open air to a series of 42 successive
freezings, with alternate thaws, and a loss was found of 0.009 per
cent of the weight of the stone, per square inch of surface ex-
posed.

Microscopic EHxamination of the Dolomyte.

When a natural surface of the dolomyte is examined under
a low magnifying power, it is found to consist entirely of crystal-
line grains, so closely compacted together as to be indistinguish-
able except by slight differences in their shades of color. Most
of the grains consist of grayish-white to dark smoky-gray dolo-
mite, but particles of brass-yellow pyrite, grayish-white quartz,
and yellow scales of magnesian mica or phlogopite, can be also
easily recognized. In a thin section, the following complete
series of the constituent minerals was distinguished. Dolomite,
in compact grains, often with a fine lining, which indicates the
twinning structure. These grains varied in sizefrom 1 to 5 mm.
Calcite, in occasional compact colorless grains of similar size.
Phlogopite, in minute irregular scales, blades, and fibrous grains,
either colorless or salmon-yellow. Pyrite, in brass-yellow, bright
grains and crystals in the form of modified cubes and octahedra,

36 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [oer. 17,

from the size of nearly 3 mm. down to fine dust. Quartz, in
irregular grains, limpid, colorless, and apparently homogeneous,
often 3 mm. in length; when examined in polarized light, these
are found to separate into many small granules. Besides these,
there may be sometimes observed a dark-green, transparent
mineral, perhaps a form of amphibole, in a few minute particles,
sometimes gathered in groups, often closely associated with the
scales of phlogopite. Rutile, in afew very short and dark needles,
which are opaque. Iron-ochre, in rare brownish particles, some-
times seen in interstices of the other grains. Carbon (perhaps
as graphite), in exceedingly minute, black particles or fine dust,
scattered through the grains of dolomite in small quantity.

Instead of being homogeneous, as the mass appears in reflected
light to the eye or under a glass, the thin section reveals its
grains sharply divided by distinct lines of demarcation. No
finer material of any kind could be distinguished between the
grains, as indeed no definable interstices occur.

The practical conclusions from a study of the thin sections
are as follows:

1. The stone does not consist of larger grains bound together
by a visible cement. All are of pretty uniform size, and the
secondary cementing process, which has been indicated by the
hardening of the stone on seasoning, must be brought about by
the deposit of films of some soluble material, probably calcium
carbonate, introduced throughout this fine network of division-
planes, and so binding all the grains into a solid mass.

2. The blue-gray color of the rock seems to be chiefly pro-
duced by the dark smoky color of a certain proportion of the
dolomite grains; and these in their turn appear to owe their
color to the distribution throughout their material of a small
proportion of fine particles of carbon and of pyrite dust. J am
inclined to attribute the bluish shade of this gray color to a
play of light from the brilliant faces of the minute crystals of

rite.

a The quartz grains were not an original constituent of the
dolomyte. They possess the structure of a chemical deposit,
and fill up cavities and interstices which existed in the rock
before the period of folding. During the latter process, it is
evident, heated aqueous solutions, carrying silica, permeated
the somewhat cellular stone, caused the formation of a little
magnesian silicate (phlogopite), and filled up the cavities with
solid quartz. To this soldering effect, largely produced by the
quartz, the present compactness, solidity, and remarkable
strength of the dolomyte are due.

1887, | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 37

Chemical and Mechanical Analysis.

In the analysis of this stone, the usual chemical methods
were employed, which it is not necessary to describe in detail.
A considerable part of the stone was found to be insoluble in
acid, and it was desirable to ascertain the proportion in this of
the insoluble minerals (quartz, mica, etc.), whose identification
had already been made by the microscopical study of the thin
sections. For this purpose, a considerable amount (over 9
grammes) of insoluble residue was first obtained from a large
amount of dolomyte. The constituents in this (which of course
contained no dolomite or calcite) were separated, through their
different densities, by the usual method of mechanical analysis.
The fine powder was stirred in the concentrated solution of
cadmium borotungstate, until the heaviest mineral, pyrite (sp.
gr. 5.0) had separated; on proper dilution the phlogopite (sp.
gr. 2.8) and afterwards the quartz (sp. gr. 2.6) successively fell;
and the small amount of carbon (sp. gr. 2.1) was left floating,
and was separated by filtration,

The analysis of the stone is presented below in two forms:
in the first with the actual chemical constituents, separated by
chemical means; in the second, with the actual mineral constit-
uents of the stone, as obtained by calculation and by mechani-
cal analysis. In the latter statement, the first constituent,
dolomite, contains a little iron, manganese, and a trace of
nickel.

Analysis.

Ing Olmble;LesidU Greece sees eiiceiees 15.41
ITIVE Ng searciaty care, re ckedersPecs aie ashe ter eae ore ele 27.33
Miaomesi das setae sere cise awe ctsteinreleis ie oevane 17.89
HerrousiOxIdesysc eee eee LSI OO ae .70
HErHICOXIGek acne ois oe aes, Ieee taints 04
Mancanousioxdd ease eeicecneinieee « eles
INTCKENORIGE I eel Sieiasccusrcia cies ateare . trace
BANIURTYA TIN Ay reper craters oro tc se) ioe eke Siero .22
WarbonicGiacidhencne vise acon sake cine ae 37.80
Siliciesacias(Soluble)sevasaee eee eee .20
Sulphuniciacidh vac. saeco oe ae eee 21
BhHOsphoriciacidy.tyc sey eerie. ake seme 10
IMOISEUTER ase to einer Le acre nea trace

3.00.42

or

Dolomitere ae tice a sees ciocgabo ag deo. 67.93
Wal eitepc prion cci ory cere sist esi crticernietone LARS
HE OMHOCIEC Shee eh ic oie eee aes 84
Phlogopite...... BS OO DO Oe Sate Eee 9.33

OuaTtzeeerias otae oe Veco ohe ake ict tis eaco te 8.16

38 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [ocr. 17,

PY TIULO AG EG otslec es lalare wre tovenhere Semen ee 1.37
Graphite. 2:74) icd ter oie Pee em ere ee oes 24
(Giy PSU ei sare siete ee ciete orca teeearae eae tere 44
A PAtite? <x isc nse bigs, syntosejsiege cbeneiets cena NocE i teceasne 22

100.00

As to one of the subordinate constituents of the rock, pyrite, I
have considered its durability in another paper.’ The variety of
the mineral here present usually possesses a pure bright-yellow
color, high specific gravity (4.99), conchoidal fracture, and a
dense texture under microscopic examination—all satisfactory
indications of strong resistance to atmospheric oxidation. These
evidences of stability were further confirmed by its condition on
the weathered outcrops of the rock, on whose roughened ledges
its grains often project side by side with those of quartz, or are even
found loosened but undecomposed where the rock has decayed
and fallen into sand. So, too, its grains still sparkle brilliantly
on the surfaces of ancient masonry, exposed over a half century
to the ozonized atmosphere of the Berkshire mountain region.
Similar testimony was borne by the slow and gradual decompo-
sition of the mineral, when its crystals were subjected to the
severe laboratory test of exposure to the action of the corrosive
vapors from fuming nitric acid or from bromine. ‘The mineral
seems to have little to do with the disintegration of the rock,
and, indeed, probably contributes to its rigidity, its great strength
under compression, and the blue shade of its gray color.

The stability of the pyrite in this dolomyte layer contrasts
strongly with the unfortunate frailty of the common variety
which occurs in the marbles of the underlying ‘‘ Stockbridge lime-
stone” stratum. ‘Thus, in the marble at Lee, Mass., decompo-
sition sets in after even a few months’ exposure, and produces a
conspicuous and offensive brownish-red blotch, often a quarter
or half-inch in diameter, around a particle of pyrite barely
visible to the eye, or even long reddish streaks across the face of
the marble where a few of these particles occur in a row.

The slight brownish tint assumed by the surface of the dolo-
myte after very long exposure to the weather seems to be due to
the alteration of the colorless scales of magnesian mica into a
brown color; while the pyrite generally retains its high lustre
and bright-yellow color, rarely assuming a copper-red film of
oxidation in closed seams occupied by moisture.

This fact seems to corroborate the stratigraphical distinction
between the matrices of the mineral in the two localities; and it

1*¢On the Variation of Decomposition in the Iron Pyrites, and its
Relation to Density.” Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., III., [V., 1886-88.

1887. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 39

is hoped that this paper may inyite the attention of observers in
other portions of this limestone belt to the recognition of upper
calcareous members of the same series, not continuous with the
main sheet of crystalline limestone.

Dr. JULIEN’S paper was discussed by Mr. F. J. H. MERRILL,

Dr. N. L. Britton, Pror. W. P. TrowspripGer, Dr. H. Car-
RINGTON Bouton, and the PRESIDENT.

Dr. N. L. Brirron remarked that, in a recent boring on
Staten Island, the schist was, as reported, found at a depth of
600 feet. About 200 feet of glacial drift was pierced, containing
boulders, below which was 200 to 400 feet of cretaceous sands
and clays.

It was remarked by the PRESIDENT that the occurrence of
cretaceous strata directly upon the Archean in this locality indi-
cated the existence here during secondary time of a region of
separation between the Triassic areas of Connecticut and New
Jersey.

October 24, 1887.

STATED MEETING.

The President, Pror. J. S. NEWBERRY, in the chair.
Ninety-three persons present.
Dr. H. CARRINGTON BOLTON read a paper on

THE COUNTING-OUT RHYMES OF CHILDREN; A STUDY IN
INTERNATIONAL FOLK-LORE.

| Abstract. |

Children playing out-door games, such as ‘‘ Hide and Seek”
and ‘‘I Spy,” in which one of their number has to take an un-
desirable part, adopt a method of determining who shall bear the
burden, which involves the principle of casting lots, but differs
in manner of execution. ‘The process is called in Scotland
‘‘chapping out” and ‘‘titting out,” but in England and Amer-
ica it is commonly known as ‘‘counting-out.” It is usually
conducted as follows: a leader, generally self-appointed, having
secured the attention of the boys and girls about to join in the
proposed game, arranges them in a row or in a circle around

40 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [oct. 24,

him as fancy may dictate. He then repeats a peculiar doggerel,
sometimes with a rapidity which can only be acquired by great
familiarity and a dextrous tongue, and pointing with the hand
or forefinger to each child in succession, not forgetting himself
(or herself), allots to each one word of the mysterious formula:

One-ery, two-ery, ickery, Ann,

Fillicy, fallacy, Nicholas, John,
Queever, quaver, English, knaver,
Stinckelum, stanckelum, Jericho, buck !

This example contains sixteen words; if there is a greater
number of children a longer verse is used, but generally the
number of words is greater than the number of children, so that
the leader begins the round of the group a second time, and may-
hap a third time, giving to each child one word of the doggerel.
Having completed the verse or sentence, the child on whom the
last word falls is said to be ‘‘ out,” and steps aside. In repeating
the above doggerel, the accent falls on the first syllable of each
polysyllabic word; a very common ending is:

One, two, three,
Out goes she (or he) !

and the last word is generally said with great emphasis, or
shouted.

After the child thus ‘‘ counted-out ” has withdrawn, the leader
repeats the same doggerel with the same formalities, and, as
before, the boy or girl to whom the last word is allotted is
‘fout” and stands aside. The unmeaning doggerel is repeated
again and again to a diminishing number of children, and the
process of elimination is continued until only two of them
remain. ‘The leader then counts-out once more, and the child
not set free by the magic word is declared to be “7é,”’ and must
take the objectionable part in the game.

The word ‘‘7¢” is always used in this technical sense, denoting
the one bearing the disagreeable duty, or perhaps the distin-
guished part, in a game; no child questions its meaning, nor
have we learned of any substitute for this significant mono-
syllable; it is not safe, however, to assert that there is no equiva-
lent when we consider the innumerable whims of the army of
children. The declaration toachild: ‘“‘ You are i¢/” following
the process of counting out, seems to carry with it the force
of a military order, and is, in many cases, more promptly obeyed
than a parent’s command.

Children learn these rhymes by sound alone from their play-
mates a few years older ; though accuracy is faithfully attempted,
changes are introduced from time to time, and in the course of
generations the results would scarcely be recognized by the chil-

1887. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 41

dren of an earlier period. The round game of Scandal, which
is said to have furnished amusement to English literary celebri-
ties, illustrates the way in which oral communications are dis-
torted. Since counting-out is the main object in view, the
puerile mind is probably satisfied with retaining the rhythm, the
rhyme, the number of words, and the general construction, any
or all of these features. So far as counting-out is concerned in
the simple rhyme :

‘* One, two, three, four,
Mary at the cottage door,
Five, six, seven, eight,
Eating cherries off a plate ;”

it makes no difference whether we say Jennie for Mary, kitchen
for cottage, apples for cherries, and picking for eating; the
general effect is the same.

A very natural corruption is that of : ‘‘ One is all, two is all,
six is all, seven ” into ‘‘One-erzoll, two-erzoll, zickerzoll, zan ”
but the conversion of ‘‘ bobtail vinegar” (with which the second
line begins) into ‘‘ Baptist minister,” is a surprise. Yet the
history of the English language affords continually examples
equally eccentric; the names of old taverns in England have
undergone curious transformation at the hands, or strictly at the
mouths, of the common people. The British tar who finds his
sea-home christened ‘‘ Bellerophon,” is not long in transmuting
it into Billy Ruffian, a much more comprehensible and satisfac-
tory name to him. ‘‘ L’Hirondelle,” became in like manner
Lron Devil.

The school-boy looks upon these rhymes as merely queer
sounds and has ‘‘no compunction in making them queerer ;
and his genius leads him to tack on other nonsense provided it
rhymes.” (Hllis.)

The number of these doggerels in use among children is far
greater than commonly supposed. ‘he speaker has collected
no less than 450 current in England and America ; of these he
gave about twenty examples.

He has also succeeded in demonstrating that the custom of
counting-out obtains around the world ameng civilized and
semi-civilized races, and by correspondence and personal in-
quiry he has collected examples in the following languages :
Penobscot, Japanese, Hawaii, Marathi, Romany, Arabic, Turk-
ish, Armenian, Bulgarian, Modern Greek, Swedish, Portuguese,
Spanish, Basque, Italian, French, Dutch, Platt-deutsch, German;
and with the English above-named they number over 870.

Having established the wide distribution of the custom of
counting-out, the speaker discussed the antiquity and origin

42 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [ocT. 24,

jirst of the practice and second of the rhymes themselves. He
finds the practice to be a survival of sortilege or divination by
lot. Sortilege was practised among the ancient heathen nations
as wellas by the Israelites, and he gave many illustrations of
this, especially dwelling on the story of Achan related by Joshua.

The use of the lot at first received divine sanction, but after
this was withheld, the practice fell into the hands of sorcerers,
which very name signifies lot-taker. The doggerels themselves
the speaker regards as a survival of the spoken charms used by
the sorcerers of the Middle Ages in conjunction with their
mystic incantations. He gave numerous examples of these
charms, such as:

‘“ Huat hanat ista pista sista domiabo damnaustra.” (Cato, 235 B.C.)
and: ‘« Trririori, ririori essere, rhuder fere,”
and: Meu, treu, mor, phor,
Teux, za, zor,
Phe, lou, chri,
Ge, ze, on. (Alexander of Tralles.)

In only one instance had the speaker been able directly to
connect a child’s counting-out rhyme with a magic spell; ac-
cording to Leland the rhyme beginning:

One-ery, two-ery, ickery, Ann,

above given, is a Gypsy magic spell in the Romany language.

Tylor, in his ‘‘ Primitive Culture,” holds that things which
occupy an important place in the life-history of grown men in
a savage state, become the playthings of children in a period of
civilization; thus the sling and the bow and arrow, which
formed the weapons of mankind in an early stage of its exis-
tence, and are still the reliance of savage tribes, have become
toys in the hands of all civilized children at the present day.
Many games current in Europe and America are known to be
sportive imitations of customs which formerly had a significant
and serious aspect.

Adopting this theory, the speaker holds that games of chance
are in part survivals of the practices of the sorcerer, using this
word in its restricted and etymological meaning; he maintains,
further, that the spoken and written charms originally used to
enforce priestly power, have become adjuncts to these puerile
games, and the basis of the counting-out doggerels under con-
sideration.

The idea that European and American children engaged in
**counting-out” for games are repeating in innocent ignorance
the practices and language of a sorcerer of a dark age, is per-
haps startling, but can be shown to have a high degree of prob-

1887. } NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 43

ability. The leader in counting-out performs an incantation,
but the children grouped around him are free from that awe
and superstitious reverence which characterized the procedure
in its earlier state. Many circumstances make this view
plausible, and clothe the doggerels with a new and fascinating
interest.

Following out this idea, the speaker showed many analogies
between ancient customs and present games of children, in the
use of the pebble, of the inverted cap, in the design for which
the counting-out is applied, etc. He showed the similarity in
all languages of the rhythm, admixture of gibberish with words
having meaning, and in the use of numerals, and claimed for
these analogies indications of antiquity.

He indicated the modern origin of some of the rhymes current
in America; as for example:

One, two, three, four, five, six, seven;
All good children go to Heaven;

All bad children go below

To keep company with Guiteau.

He showed also the geographical sources of some of these dog-
gerels, and the influence of environment on them.

In conclusion he referred briefly to the Anglo-Cymric Score,
popularly supposed to be an ‘‘ Indian” method of counting, but
in reality of Welsh origin, as shown by Ellis.

Remarks were made by Mr. L. E. CHITTENDEN, PROF. FRED-
ERICK STENGEL, and by the PRESIDENT.

October 31, 1887.

STATED MEETING.
The President, Pror. J. S. NEwBERRY, in the chair.
Sixty-five persons present.

Announcement was made that the Local Committee, A. A.
A. S., had been invited to attend the next meeting of the Acad-
emy, and that a reception and collation would be given in their
honor.

Pror. J. S. NEWBERRY gave an address on

44 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [ Nov. 7,

WESTERN COLORADO—ITS SCENERY, GEOLOGY, RESOURCES, AND
FUTURE.

(Illustrated with lantern views.)

November 7%, 1887.
REGULAR BusiINeEss MEETING.
The President, Pror. J. S. NEWBERRY, in the chair.

About three hundred persons present, in the East Lecture
Room of the Library Building, Columbia College.

The Report of the Councit made the following recommend-
ations:

I. The payment of certain bills.

II. That the Recording Secretary be paid an annual salary of
three hundred dollars, the duties of the office to include the
editing of the Transactions.

III. The election of Mr. H. F. J. Porter as Resident Mem-
ber.

IV. The election of the following members as Fellows:

Pror. J. A. ALLEN, Pror. G. W. MAYNARD,
Dr. T. F. ALLEN, Mr. JoHN McDona.p,
Hon. ADDISON Brown, Mr. F. J. H. MERRILL,
Hon. EpwARD CooPER, Mr. CHARLES E. PELLEW,
Mr. C. F. Cox, Dr. Lucius PITKIN,

Mr. ANDREW E. Douatass, Mr. J. F. PoGGENBURG,
Mr Pi; DUDLEY: Dr. Henry H.: Russy,
Mr. 8. Lowett ELxiort, Dr. 8S. HANBURY SMITH,
Mr. WitiiaAM L. ELSEFFER, Rey. J. SELDEN SPENCER,
Dr. J. J. FRIEDRICH, Pror. W. LECONTE STEVENS,
Mr. L. P. GRatacap, Prof. J. J. STEVENSON,
Miss F. R. M. Hitcucock, Dr. CHaRrues F. TAYLor,
Pror. CLARENCE KING, Dr. WILLIAM J. YOUMANS.

Dr. R. H. LAmpBorn,

1887. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 45

V. The election of the following persons as Honorary Mem-
bers:

Pror, ALEXANDER AGASSIZ, Cambridge.
Rev. J. H. DALLINGER, London.

Pror. W. H. Frower, London.

Pror. 8. P. LANGLEY, Washington.

Dr. JosepH Leipy, Philadelphia.

Baron FERDINAND VON MULLER, Melbourne.
Pror. Louis Pasteur, Paris.

Str Henry Roscogz, Manchester.

Pror. H. I. Rosensuscu, Heidelberg.

Pror. JOHN TYNDALL, London.

The items of the report were severally adopted, excepting No.
IV., which was laid over one month, under the rule. The bills
were ordered paid; and the candidates for Resident and Honor-
ary membership were elected by formal ballot.

An invitation was read from the Field Committee of the
Torrey Botanical Club to the members of the Academy to join
in their Annual Field Excursion, with the Staten Island Natural
Science Association, upon election day, November 8th, 1887.

Mme. Aticr D. LE PLONGEON delivered a lecture, illustrated
with lantern views, upon

EASTERN YUCATAN, ITS SCENERY, PEOPLE, AND ANCIENT
CITIES AND MONUMENTS.

(Abstract. )

The natives of Yucatan are in many respects very interesting
people; they are the descendants of the Mayas, anciently the
most civilized of all Americans. At the time of the con-
quest, 1541, they became slaves, remaining so for many years,
and when finally made free citizens, they suffered just as much
oppression. A rebellion, in 1847, was the result, and a few
thousand nen made themselves free, waging war ever since
against the white inhabitants.

All the field laborers are natives. They are hard-working,
moral people. The comforts of life are almost unknown to
them. ‘The scantiness of their apparel awakens the pity of oc-
casional tourists, but the climate makes much clothing un-

46 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [ Nov. 7,

desirable, and those children of nature consider their feelings
more than their appearance. They are not educated, because
the white people fear that instruction would make them am-
bitious, unwilling to work in the fields and to carry burdens.

Among the many ancient cities scattered over the peninsula is
Mayapan, in utter ruin, it having been destroyed by the natives
themselves in the year 1447, when king Cocom, the last of his
dynasty, was put to death with his sons, because he was a tyrant
and introduced Mexican mercenaries to support him. Cocom’s
skull was not preserved as those of his ancestors had been.
After death, their heads were severed and boiled till the flesh
came from the bone. The posterior part of the skull was then
sawed off, the front being preserved with the jaws and teeth.
Upon this they moulded a sort of putty, imitating in appearance
the flesh that had been removed and making an exact portrait
of the deceased. ‘These faces were kept in private chapels and
regarded with great reverence. But the last of the Cocoms was
blotted out with the place in which he lived; the city being
sacked and burned when the king and his sons were killed.

Dr. Le Plongeon discovered at that place a gnomon that had
served to make astronomical computations.

Aké, 24 miles east of Merida, and said, though erroneously,
to be the site where the Spaniards won the first battle with
the natives, is a place of particular interest, because of the
chronological record, called Katwns. ‘These stand on an oblong
structure consisting of three superposed platforms, the upper
projecting over the one beneath. On it there are 36 columns,
four feet thick, formed of roughly hewn stones, placed one
above another. These are the Katuns. The people of Yucatan
divided their time into eras of 20 years, subdivided into periods
of 4 years, each year consisting of 365 days. The era of 20
years was a Katun. At the conclusion of each Katun they put
a hewn stone upon those already piled up. There seems also
to have been a great era of 180 years, for in each of these
columns there are 9 stones which, multiplied by 20, give 180.
People reckoned their age by these stones. A man 60 years old
would say: ‘‘I have three stones of years.” On the summit of
this structure at Aké there are 3 rows of columns, 12 in
each, making in all 324 stones. ‘These, multiplied by 20, give
us 6,480 years from the time the first stone was put in place
until the 36th column was crowned, which may, for aught
we know, have been long previous to the 16th century, when
the Spaniards arrived. We are therefore safe in saying that
these terraces were built at least 7,000 years ago, for to the 6,480
we must add 369 years, elapsed since the conquest. We may
also remark that these columns standing as they are would show

1887. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 47

that, during all that time, the country has been as free from earth-
quakes as it now is.

Fifteen miles east of Aké is the historic city of Izamal,
famous long before the conquest as a resort of pilgrims, these
even coming from Xibalba, now known as Chiapas and Guate-
mala. Many of the ancient monuments at Izamal have been
destroyed to build dwellings and pave streets; but there are still
some large mounds that are a source of wonder to the inhabit-
ants. One on the north of the square, has a gradual ascent of
broad steps on the south side, and an almost perpendicular one on
the north. It is built on a very extensive terrace 34 feet high,
and 272 feet wide. The mound itself is 34 feet high, its summit
being 68 feet above the ground. ‘The upper platform was nearly
23 feet square, and upon it once stood the temple of Kinich-
kakmo (fiery macaw with eyes like the sun). This goddess is
said to have descended from heaven in the form of a macaw
every day, and set fire to the offerings on her altar.

At the base of the monument, on the east side, Dr. Le
Plongeon discovered asmall opening, and, in the hope of finding
chambers, penetrated to a distance of about 30 feet, but a dry
stone wall prevented further progress. To the north he per-
ceived an aperture through which he succeeded in passing,
then found that he had no room to stand upright. On all-fours
he advanced about 45 feet, making his way among immense
blocks of stone that form the foundation of the structure.
Again the way was blocked. Retracing his steps, he noticed
that a strong current of air came through one part of the stone
wall. Accordingly he had an opening made there, and pene-
trated about 75 feet in a westerly direction. He had to crawl,
and his back touched the stony roof above. At the end of
that small passage, there was a place where he could sit up-
right. To the left there was an opening almost blocked with
earth that had sifted through between the stones. ‘The space
was too small to admit his shoulders, but looking through he
saw achamber about 13 feet long and ten wide. On its south
side there was an entrance to a subterranean passage, leading
in the direction of another large mound.

On the west side of the square of Izamal stands a mound
called by the natives Aadeel (the working hand). It was adorned
with a frieze ornamented with stucco figures in high relief,
representing human sacrifices, and surrounded by inscriptions,
some of which have been interpreted by Dr. Le Plongeon.

Among the ruins of the city of Chichen Itza, a very ancient
mausoleum was opened by Dr. Le Plongeon, and many curious
things brought to light. In a large urn were the cremated
remains of a certain prophet named Cay, who was deified after

48 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [Noy. 14,

death. Within the tomb where his ashes reposed, various ob-
jects of the temple over which he presided had also been placed;
conoidal pillars, all painted bright blue and red, and twelve
large, exquisitely sculptured snake heads, also painted in bright
colors, as well as a large statue of remarkable interest, represent-
ing a man about six feet tall.

The PRESIDENT announced a reception and collation, to be
given immediately after adjournment, in honor of the Local
Committee for the New York meeting of the American Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science.

November 14, 1887.
STATED MEETING.
The President, Pror. J. 8S. NEWBERRY, in the chair.
Forty-two persons present.
Mr. Grorce F. Kunz exhibited and described
MINERALS FROM FORT GEORGE, NEW YORK CITY.
(Abstract. )

A very interesting series of minerals was obtained during the
past few months at the rock excavations for the Old Morris
Home, at Fort George, near the end of the cable road, New
York Island. They were as follows:

Rutile, in tetragonal prisms two inches long and one-eighth
of an inch in diameter, perfectly terminated with the simple
pyramid 1. The surfaces are bright, although not polished, _

Titanite, in yellow crystals implanted on ripidolite, and only
partly transparent. A few were light green. The crystals
measured one-fourth of an inch across and one-eighth inch in
thickness, and resembled those from ‘T'avetchthal, Switzerland.

OColumbite, one crystal imbedded in orthoclase, which mea-
sured one inch in length and one-fourth inch in diameter. In
color it is black and the crystal is somewhat broken. The
prismatic faces are quite distinct, but the terminal planes are
imperfect from breaking. Also one crystal in quartzite, equal to
any from Standish, Maine, measured % inch in length and $ inch
wide. ‘This is the first known occurrence of Columbite on this
island.

Beryl, in crystals, by far the largest ever found on the island.

1887. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 49

Although the largest is only one-half of a crystal, it measures
over four inches across the prism. Another measures three
inches in width and two and one-half in length, and is perfectly
terminated with the O plane. The others were one inch in
diameter and from one to two inches inlength. One mass of
rock ten by eight inches contained seventeen beryls from one-
fourth to one inch in diameter. They were all found in a coarse
granite in which were also imbedded beautiful almandite-
garnets from one-eighth to one-fourth inch in diameter, but very
bright, one beautiful flattened crystal of transparent garnet was
found between plates of muscovite.

Muscovite, crystallized out and implanted on orthoclase, two
of these crystals measuring ten inches across. They were sym-
metrically arranged. Cleavages showing beautiful hexagonal
markings were also found.

Crthoclase, one crystal which was broken and without pyrami-
dal faces, measured six inches across.

Washingtonite, in plates two inches square and one-eighth inch
thick, penetrating the orthoclase.

Epidote in crystals, 14 inches long, } across, showing faces,
—li-1- and 7.

Mr. Kunz also exhibited a photograph of the ‘‘ Great Orange
Diamond,” which weighs ten carats more than the famous Koh-
i-nur. Found at Kimberly, South Africa.

Mr. JAmes F. Kemp presented a paper on’
THE GEOLOGY OF MANHATTAN ISLAND.

Manhattan Island is about thirteen miles in length, from the
Battery to Kingsbridge, and of a general width of two miles
below Harlem, and three-quarters of a mile above. It is inclosed
between the Hudson River on the west, the East River, Harlem
River, and Spuyten Duyvil Creek on the east and north. ‘The
direction or trend of its axis is N. 40° E. by the compass, which
is somewhat wide of the true meridian, as the city avenues are
recorded as N. 28° 584’ E., and differ but slightly from the strike
of the rocks.

The superficial area is approximately twenty square miles; the
population of the island, according to the census of 1880, is
1,163,673.7, The thickly settled portion, however, lies below
59th street, and on this area, except at its northwest corner,

1The paper was read, in the absence of Mr. Kemp, by Dr. N. L.
Britton.

2? Miscel. Doc. 1st Session 47th Congress, Vol. 24.

50 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [Nov. 14,

there is scarcely a vacant lot. From 59th to 110th streets, Cen-
tral Park and the region lying adjacent to it, are but sparsely
settled; but between 110th and 130th streets there is a triangu-
lar level valley, having Harlem at its base, and Manhattanville at
itsapex. North again, almost to the end of the island, the rocks
prevail, and the country is open, although building is rapidiy
progressing, with quickened transit and local improvements.
At 204th street, there is another cross valley and the small sub-
urb of Inwood. The geological formation of the island has ad-
mirably adapted it to be the site of a commercial metropolis.
Its miles of water front are nearly all suitable for wharfage, and
border either on deep channels or shallow ones which can be
deepened as they become needed; while at itssouthern extremity
is a broad, deep bay forming one of the finest harbors on the
coast.

Except in the upper portions, the general surface has been
«improved ” out of all resemblance to its original exterior; but
enough observations and descriptions remain to restore it. From
the Battery to 16th street or thereabouts, the surface consists
of drift, which formerly rose in irregular hills, of varying height.
At 16th street and the East River, the gneiss first outcrops and
runs in an irregular line across to the Hudson. ‘The gneiss con-
tinues, covered here and there with patches of drift, until we
reach the cross valley called by Dr. Gale (Mather’s Report) the
“¢ Manhattanville depression,” which extends from 94th street
and the East River to 130th street and the Hudson, as outlined
on the accompanying map. This valley is filled in with drift, as
is the Inwood depression further north. Between them, the
gneiss outcrops again as a rough ridge. Beyond Inwood, the
northwest corner is gneiss; the northeast is limestone, called
Kingsbridge marble.

The formation will be described in detail under the three divi-
sions:—The Drift, The Gneiss, The Limestone.

The Drift will be considered first, as it is of least importance
from a structural point of view. It will be taken up under the
divisions Alluyium and Drift Proper.

By Alluvium is understood the very recent and still forming
deposits of the rivers, consisting of a soft black mud which forms
the beds of their channels and the marshes or meadows of the water
front. There formerly was a swamp at the lower end of Broad
street, another at the lowerend of Maiden Lane, another at Ferry
street, where now is the leather district which to this day is
always spoken of as ‘‘ The Swamp ;” another began at Rivington
and extended a mile north with a width of half a mile; at the
foot of 30th street on the Hudson was still another, now, like all
those mentioned, covered with made ground and buildings.

1887, ] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 51

Along the western shore of the Harlem River there is a border
of salt marsh through its entire length, except where the rocky
shore at and fora mile above High Bridge projects into the river.
Here the process of formation is well illustrated. The tide rises
with its load of sediment, halts for a time, depositing it, and
retreats. The coarse marsh grass is continually edging up and
as the deposit rises high enough it seizes and holds it with a
tough mass of interlacing roots. So far as my observation goes,
there is no line of demarcation between the meadows and the
beds of the rivers. ‘That of the Hudson consists of a stratum of
soft mud known as silt, which rests upon sand or rock. It
weighs about 100 pounds to the cubic foot, is unstratified, and
at the top soft, but lower down becomes tougher and more com-
pact so as to be cut into blocks when excavated. Although its
deposition would seem to resemble that of clay, it differs from
clay in several important particulars.’ Gravel and filling placed
upon it gradually sink through. When mixed with water, it
readily forms a thin liquid emulsion. Its depth across the river
at 42d Street varies from 25 to 40 feet.

As the general level of the land in this vicinity has been shown
to be slowly sinking* it is probable that this river and meadow
alluvium is on the increase. Its very presence in the river chan-
nels, themselves excavated in gneiss, proves that the rivers, or
rather that the land, was formerly at a higher level. This con-
clusion will be reinforced further on by the testimony of the
drift.

Drift.—By this is understood the mixture of sand, boulders,
clay, and gravel, which, sometimes locally stratified, sometimes
indiscriminately mixed, forms the covering of the rocky founda-
tions of the island. Ags shown on the map, it occurs in three
chief localities ; first below 30th street ; second filling the Man-
hattanville depression, and third filling the Inwood depression.
It also occurs, as stated above, in patches of varying size quite
generally over the areamapped as gneiss. Its structure has been
shown by street-cuttings through the hills and by well-borings.
The structure varies with different hills. In some it is a simple
pile of earth and boulders without traces of sorting. The boul-
ders are round and water worn and are much used as paving in
the less travelled streets. ‘Trap, like the Bergen Hill, predomi-
nates, but there are representatives of nearly all the formations
north.* Occasionally the drift affords a bone or tooth. In the

1'Vide Proc, Am. Assoc. Civ. Eng., Vol. IX., p. 256. Paper on the
North River Tunnel.

? Vide Pop. Sci. Monthly, Vol. XIII., p.,652.

3 A list is given by Mr. Issachar Cozzens in ‘‘ A Geol. Hist. of Man-
hattan or N. Y. Island.” N. Y. 1848, p. 73.

52 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [Nov. 14,

Columbia Collage collection there is a Mastodon tooth from that
of Westchester Co., just across the Harlem River, and a bone
is mentioned in Cozzens, p. 75. In other hills there was some
local stratification into clay and sand and gravel beds, and at the
42d street reservoir hard pan was met with. In the Manhat-
tanville depression the surface is quite level and is diligently
tilled by the market gardeners.

The following sections exhibit the sub-surface structure with
considerable thoroughness, and cover the lower part of the city.
They have been obtained from Mather’s Report, 4th Dist. N. Y.
S. Geol. Surv., pp. 135 ff.; from a paper by I. H. Russell on the
Geol. of Hudson Co., N. J., Annals, N. Y. Acad. Sci., vol. II.,
pp. 27 ff.; and by personal inquiry. The classification into
alluvial, quaternary, and drift is that of Prof. Mather. It is
largely arbitrary and not of general application, as a comparison
of the sections will show.

Ave. D and Tenth St. Madeearth, 6 feet; marsh mud, 10 feet
(alluvial); quicksand, 12 feet; shore sand and gravel, 53
feet (quaternary); hard pan, 6 feet; coarse gravel, 3 feet
(drift); total, 90 feet to rock.

Ave. D and Seventh St. 100 feet to rock.

Ave. D and Fifth St. Made earth, 6 feet; marsh mud, 10 feet
(alluv.); quicksand and gravel, 65 feet; gray clay, 15 feet
(quat.); total to rock, 96 feet.

Ave. D and Houston St. To rock, 96 feet.

Lewis Ave. and Seventh St. ‘To rock, 93 feet.

Lewis Ave. and Houston St. ‘To rock, 94 feet.

Allen and Hester St. An old well, 40 feet; quicksand and
gravel, 20 feet; clay, 2 feet (quat.); coarse graveland sand,
5 feet (drift?); to rock, 67 feet.

Foot of Jefferson St. Diluvium, 10 feet; stratified sands,
gravel, and clay, 40; total, 50.

Rivington and Columbia Sts. Old well, 20 feet; quicksand, 10
feet (alluv.); marsh mud and clay, 20 feet; gray clay, 10
feet (quat.); total to rock, 60 feet.

St. Francis Hospital, Fifth St. 100 feet to rock.

All of these except the last three are located on an old salt
meadow which was filled in, before or about 1840, with drift
from the street cuttings inland, and soon became one of the most
densely inhabited quarters of the island. This accounts for the
made ground, followed by marsh mud and the drift proper.
Broad St. Made ground, 4 feet; yellow clay, 6 feet; gravel and

qtz. sand, 19 feet; gray clay, 10 feet; total, 39 feet to rock.

Trinity Church, Diluvial gravel and sands, 26 feet to rock.

Washington Market. Made earth, 10 feet; river mud, vegeta-

1887. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 53

ble matter, sands, clays in alternate strata, 50 feet; sand
and gravel, 10 feet; total, 70 feet.

College place. Diluvium, 20 feet; stratified sand and gravel, 60
feet; total, 80 feet.

Fulton Market. Made ground, 15 feet; strat. sands, blue clay,
and river mud, 115 feet; total, 130 feet.

‘¢ Hall’s Hotel,” north of last. The same, ending with a bed of
gravel, 126 feet to rock.

City Hall. 90 feet to rock.

New Church St. 86 feet through quicksand.

Herald Building. 40 feet (rock?).

Western Union Building. 24 feet (rock?).

Centre and Reade Sts. Coarse gravel, 30 feet; rock not reached.

Tombs. Made ground, 40 feet; black mud, 30 feet; blue clay,
5 to 10 feet; gravel to rock, over 75-80 feet.

Grand and Wooster Sts. Made ground, 40 feet; mud, clay, sand,
and vegetable matter, 20 feet; blue clay, 6 feet; coarse sand
and gravel, 6 feet; to rock, 72 feet.

Bleecker St. and B’way. Strat. sand and gravel, 42 feet; rock.

Perry and W. 11th St. Sand, 40 feet; red clay, 23 feet; to rock,
63 feet.

35 Union Square. 23 feet to rock.

415 E. 54th St. 10 feet sand to rock.

99th St. and Second Ave. Made ground, 8 feet; dock mud, 18
feet; sand, 12 feet; total, 38 feet; rock?

The great depth of made ground (40 ft.) at the Tombs, is due
to the former existence on its site of a pond or quagmire, known
as the Collect, in the bottom of which was found a peat, which,
strangely enough, was impregnated with salt." This would in-
dicate that it was formerly open to the rush of the tides, as the
saline marshes are formed elsewhere. ‘The peat had butternuts
and acorns mixed through it. he drift hills of this lower part
of the island attained, in one or two instances, a height of 100
feet above the street, but in general were 25 to 50 feet. ‘They
did not differ from the strata beneath them, except in the
absence of river mud. The question thus naturally arises,
whether or not the entire drift area, or indeed all the island
but the gneiss hillocks, was once covered as high as this, and sub-
sequently cleared by erosion. ‘The deposit of the glacier and its
flood may have been thicker yet, but, at all events, it is certain
that the island must have been 100 feet lower, to bring the high-
est drift summit under water. And, further, the subterranean
strata are 75 feet thick under this hill,? largely made up of sand

1 Cozzens, p. 27.
2 The hill was on the corner of Grand and Orange streets, not far from
the section at Grand-and’Wooster, on which the conclusions are based.

54 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [Nov. 14,

and gravel, the deposit of a swift current, and therefore of a
shallow one. ‘The rock must have been 50 feet nearer the water
level at least, during the deposition, then to have sunk until 175
feet of sedimentary strata rested onit, then to have been elevated
until 100 feet and more projected above the water. If the propo-
sition that the surface is now sinking again (see above under
alluvium) be true, the island must be beginning a second great
cycle of depression, to be followed, perhaps, by another eleva-
tion. The conclusion is irresistible that this island, and nat-
urally the neighboring country, has undergone marked changes
since the glacial epoch, and that during, or immediately after
that epoch, it stood higher than it does now.

‘The sections on the map across the drift area are generalized
from the data given above.

The division called *‘ Gneiss” above will be taken up in detail
under the headings, ‘‘Gneiss,” ‘‘ Granyte,” and ‘ Less Impor-
tant Rocks.”

Gneiss.—The gneiss formation is made up of a series of rocks
that vary from mica or hornblende schist through all intermediate
grades or varying combinations of the component minerals to a
hard, heavy-bedded quartzose gneiss. ‘They are all more or less
perfectly stratified and exhibit the evidence of bedding most
completely, but are cut across by granite veins and hold granite
interbedded with them.

1. Mica Schist.—This rock consists almost entirely of a mica,
either muscovite or biotite, whose crystals are held together by
acement of quartz. It is stratified, of small coherence and dis-
integrates easily. The mica crystals lie parallel to the bedding,
their easy cleavage being the weak point of the rock. ‘The ex-
cessive mica is what ruins the rock for building purposes, as it
makes it impossible to break it across the bedding with any cer-
tainty. The schist is the weak point of the rocks for another
reason. Being of more open structure, it is the most accessible
place of attack for disintegrating water, and, where weathering
has advanced to any extent, the schist has been the first and
most extensive sufferer. Where the strata are crumpled, the
schist has often been forced into fine wrinkles or waves whose
amplitude is as small asaninch. It is more abundant on the
east side of the island than the west.

In the district between Fifth and Fourth avenues, 49th and
57th streets, kyanite is found in considerable quantities replacing
the mica and forming a kyanite schist, but it is of no great im-
portance or extent.

2. Micaceous Gneiss.—As the proportion of mica decreases
the rock becomes harder and more coherent, graduating into

1887. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. dd

micaceous gneiss. The layers are coarser and when contorted
do not exhibit such fine crumplings as the schist.

3. Gneiss.—This is a dull gray quartzose rock, occurring in
thick and thin beds. It is most characteristically shown when
taken in sections of considerable extent. On a hand specimen
it appears simply as a structureless quartzose mass. It is often
interstratified with the schist, giving an alternation of hard and
soft layers. It contains some feldspar and mica, but quartz is
the prominent constituent.

The gneiss in general sometimes shows a tendency to break up
into large irregular rhombohedra or inclined prisms from cracks
or cleavage planes whose larger angle is about 105°. These
peculiar volumes often give a vertical face, a ‘‘step” structure.
They are well shown at the north end of Tenth avenue and at
the foot of 50th street, Kast River.

Hornblende offers a close parallel to the mica, but is very much
less abundant, There is a hornblende schist which is almost.
entirely formed of that mineral. It lies in flat crystals, bedded
parallel to each other, so that it cleaves in thin masses. Indeed,
in the early days of the city an attempt was made to quarry it as
slate. Cozzens, p. 15, describes the hornblende rock as slate,
and the name was not inappropriate. But all attempts to use
it for economic purposes were failures. Hornblende schist
graduates into hornblendic gneiss and massive hornblende.
They all lie interbedded with the gneiss in thick and thin layers,
but structurally differ little from it.

The hornblendic rocks exhibit their peculiar property of split-
ting up from the influence of the weather or water into longitu-
dinal columns, so that an exposed surface seems like an end view
of a pile of irregular logs.

The gneiss also contains many segregated quartz veins, but I
have not noticed any of considerable size on the island. The
quartz is ferruginous, vitreous, and milky.

Granyte.—The western side of the island is largely made up
of granyte, but it appears everywhere to bea veinstone, either
filling segregated veins parallel to the bedding or cross fractures.
Its structure varies from fine compact, to a very coarsely crystal-
line mixture of feldspar in large cleavage masses, mica in broad
leaves and quartz as a matrix. The feldspar is generally ortho-
clase of the pink variety, but plagioclase is by no means rare, and
often exhibits the twin structure with great distinctness. The
close-grained granite has been, and is still quarried for building
stone whenever a street is cut through it, and is much superior
to the gneiss.

The segregated veins are exhibited in many places. Along
the line of Tenth avenue, 48th to 54th streets, there is the

56 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [Nov. 14,

largest one that I have seen; although the contact is not shown,
as building or street pavement hide it, there is a width visible of
at least 100 feet. ‘That granyte may be segregated, or from no
different source than the gneiss, is shown at 95th street and
Fourth avenue where there is a boss or knob of granite, 6 ft. x
4 ft. in gneiss, apparently an individual lump. Granyte also fills
fissure-veins and cracks that run across the bedding at all angles.
At Tenth avenue and 82d street, there is one 6 feet wide, rising
15 feet above the street, and at the north end of T’enth avenue
there is one 8 feet wide, almost parallel to the bedding and visi-
ble from a long distance, as its white surface runs like a broad
ribbon across the darker gneiss. Along the river path, south of
High Bridge, there are several at a small angle with the strata,
6 inches wide, but traceable for 50 yards or more. Some of the
granite veins are very curiously and beautifully banded. Next
the walls, on each side, is a stripe of mica whose crystals or
leaves all point in towards the middle of the vein, while the
interior is filled by the veinstone. This is not compatible with
an eruptive filling, nor is the fact that the contact is everywhere
sharply defined with no injury to the gneiss.

The published descriptions of the island illustrate very well
the change in the accepted geological idea of granyte. The pre-
vailing opinion now is in favor of a metamorphic origin. But
in the sections of the island, by Mr. Cozzens (1843), an interior
of granyte is always represented as supporting the gneiss, and
occasionally welling up through it as veins.

The granyte varies sometimes to a pegmatite, and sometimes
has its feldspar a plagioclase. The feldspar weathers to kaolin and
the quartz drops away to sand. This is shown in a decomposed
vein just over the Highth avenue park wall, a block or two below
110th street. ‘There isa broad outcrop of a disintegrated and
kaolinized vein, the solid portion being too deeply buried to be
visible.

Throughout the gneiss, particularly the micaceous variety of
the east side, are found masses of a green plagioclase, presumably
oligoclase, sometimes six to eight inches in diameter. It con-
tains pyrite, calcite, and occasionally a well-formed crystal of
tourmaline. Irregular deposits or segregations of orthoclase also
run through the gneiss, varying from brick-red to lighter shade.
It appears to fill the irregular, jagged cracks from disturbance.
Tourmaline is very generally distributed through the granyte,
often in large but very brittle prisms, and the mica occasionally
is In very broad plates or leaves.

Less Important Rocks.—A very curious and interesting rock?

1 Mather’s Report, p. 582.

1887. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 57

forms a bed running from 54th street and Tenth avenue to 60th
street and the Hudson River, where it goes under the water. In
parts it is a mass of fibres radiating from centres, but elsewhere
it becomes serpentine or tale. The fibrous portion has been
called hydrous anthophyllite by Dr. Torrey, and classed with the
amphibole group by Dana,! and pronounced to be the result of
the alteration of an asbestiform tremolite. Analyses are given
in the Annals Lyc. Nat. Hist., VIII., 123, and in Dana’s Min.,
p. 242. The bed sometimes becomes a blackish serpentine with
calcite distributed, forming ophiolite. I have been unable to
find an outcrop of the bed, as it has been built over and covered
up, although stray pieces and boulders are to be found along the
river.

The preserved descriptions indicate it to have run throughout
its length close beside a granite vein. It is recorded also that
boulders of the anthophyllite were formerly distributed very
generally over the island, and in Mt. Vernon it has been col-
lected by Mr. Fowler. One is inclined to conjecture, not with-
out reason, yet with no positive proof, that the deposit must have
been more extensive than is outlined above, and have been
eroded away, or that all of its localities have not been recorded
as yet.

Epidote.—In the region about Fourth avenue and 101st street,
epidote occurs in deposits of considerable size, forming a rock.
It isa granular, sandy mass in parts, interstratified with horn-
blende in thin layers, and in other parts of a very firm compact
character. The fissures are lined with a coating of crystals,
which are small but of considerable brilliancy. I have seen it
elsewhere as a mineral in fissures, but here it is abundant enough
to be called a rock, possibly what is called by Dana, epidosyte. *

Limestone.—The northeast corner of the island consists of
limestone, known as ‘‘ Kingsbridge Marble,” and it outcrops
elsewhere further south, but in small quantities. It is firm and
massive, and in all stages of decomposition down to calcareous
sand. ‘The massive sometimes weathers into a saccharoidal form
before it crumbles to sand. The color of the limestone is a dirty
white. It has been employed as a building stone for one or two
large dwellings on the Kingsbridge Road, but is not well adapted
for such a purpose, as it 1s weak and falls an easy prey to the
weather. I have seen statements that it is dolomitic,*® but find-
ing no analyses, I have analyzed it myself. ‘wo specimens from

1 Dana’s System Mineralogy (1877), p. 242.
2 ** Man. Min. and Lith.,” p. 453.
’ Cozzens, p. 15, siates that he obtained 28% MgCOs.

58 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [ Noy. 14,

the western outcrop of the Inwood cross valley, massive and un-
weathered, gave the following results:

SiO, (Fe,0,Al,0,) Cad. MgO.
Note oid 1.34 37.23 10.26
No.2. 3.4 0.98 39.60 10.33

A sample of crumbling weathered sand from an adjacent out-
crop gave
No. 3. 9.15 3.5 27.36 8.73.
In No. land No. 2, the percentages as CaCO, and MgCO, are:
CaCO, MgCO,
No. 1. 66.4 to 21.44 and
No; 2. 70.7 to, 2169.

The rock falls far below the MgCO, percentage ofa typical
dolomite, and would be called a magnesian limestone. ‘he
third analysis indicates that the lime is more soluble or suscept-
ible to the attacks of the weather than magnesia, one-third to
one-fourth of the CaO having gone and only about one-sixth the
MgO, a ratio of about twotoone. Thisis corroborative of the ac-
cepted opinion that the presence of magnesia in a mortar makes
it more enduring. In the early part of the century quicklime
was made from it, but it was slow in slaking and was finally
abandoned ; but when time was allowed, it is said to have made
a very strong and durable cement.

The limestone contains fine crystals of white pyroxene which
are obtained by digging in the disintegrated portion. They
never have terminations so far as I have seen, but show excellent.
prismatic faces. ‘The limestone also contains nodules of foetid
quartz and felspar.

The limestone is interbedded with the gneiss, and at 122d
street and Lexington avenue’ to Fourth avenue, it is associated
with a calcareous gneiss which has the structure of gneiss, but-
effervesces. Also across the Harlem River near the Mott Haven
Station, there is an outcrop that partakes very much of the char-
acter of gneiss. As the sections show, the rocks are very closely
interbedded and fade into each other. Now, as the gneiss is
universally acknowledged to.be an altered sediment,-the conclusion
seems unavoidable that they owe their difference simply to the
chemical difference of the sediment, which was due to altered
conditions of deposition, quiteanalogous to the hornblende beds,
the granite beds, and the micaceous beds which together form
the series. So little can be positively affirmed, however, of the

1Mather’s Rep.

1887. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 59

past history of these beds that any particular or minute descrip-
tion of their process of formation must necessarily be, as yet,
largely conjectural. But they are undeniably of the same geo-
logical age as the gneiss, a consideration of great importance in
determining it, and which will be referred toagain. The extent
of the limestone area is marked out on the map; for it I am al-
most entirely indebted to the article on tke ‘‘ Limestones of
Westchester Co.” by Prof. Dana, Amer. Jour. Sci., V.. XXI.
(1881), p. 425, who has described the beds on the island with
great minuteness.

Structurally the island is a long ridge of gneiss, cut off from
the mainland by the valley of Spuyten Duyvil Creek, and broken
at Inwood and Manhattanville by two cross valleys, and in the
upper portion somewhat divided longitudinally by small valleys.
The gneiss is prolonged to the north in the main-land and
runs into the Highlands. To the southward it appears in
Bedloe’s Island! and Staten Island.2 To the west it disap-
pears under the Hudson, reappearing only opposite the southern
portion in a small outcrop in Jersey City,? now graded
away. Opposite the northern portion are the Palisades with
their trap and sandstone. The contact is not visible, being under
the river. To the east the gneiss runs under the East River and
outcrops in Astoria and Long Island City, and on Blackwell’s
Island. But south of these it has not been found. It is proba-
ble that it underlies the drift on which Brooklyn is built, but at
too great a depth to be reached by any excavations yet made.*

The island is thus a narrow gneiss ridge, with triassic trap and
sandstone on the west, and very well connected north and south
with the gneiss of the mainland. As to the age of the rocks
there is wide diversity of opinion. The island is an outlying
post ina geological battle ground which has been fought over
with great vigor, as the last thirty years or more of Svl/iman’s
Journal abundantly show. Nor is the discussion at rest yet.
Briefly, they are pronounced by the one side to be Archean, and
part of a connecting ridge between the Appalachians and the
mountains of New England. Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, the most
prominent advocate of this school, classes them with his Mon-

1 Pep. Sci. Monthly, Vol. XIII., ‘‘Geol. N. Y. Island,” by Dr. J. S.
erry.

2 Ann. N. Y. Acad.Sci., Vol. II., p. 161. ‘* Geol. Richmond Co.,”
Dr. N. L. Britton.

3 Ann. N, Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. II., p. 27 seq. ‘‘Geol. HudsonCo.,” I.
H. Russell.

4 Russell (op. cit.) givessome results of test borings for the Brooklyn
Approach of the East River Bridge.

60 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [Nov. 14,

talban system’, and indeed the description of the typical Montal-
ban series? would make a very good description of the island.
Macfarlane’ likewise pronounces them Montalban. But the ob-
jection is made by the other side that similarity of rock structure
does not imply identity of age, and that the question must
be decided by stratigraphical considerations. Working on this
line, Prof. Dana has sought to establish the connection between
these schists and the fossiliferous Lower Silurian beds further
north, and to show that they have simply been carried further in
the process of metamorphism.‘ ‘The crucial test of the conclu-
sion is the connection between the two at Fishkill, which is be-
yond the limits of this paper.

Prof. Stevens® pronounces them Taconic, and makes a separate
group, the ‘‘ Manhattan Group,” for their accommodation.
But they differ in no important particular from the mainland
and do not deserve the distinction.

The question narrows therefore to the problem of local con-
figuration. ‘lhe sections on the map show the character of the
bedding.’ The prevailing strike of the rocks is, by the compass,
N. 40 E., and the dip varies from great contortions along the
line of Third and Fourth avenues, to a general angle of 45° W.
in the eastern part, and to verticality in the western. Sections
L. M. and J. K. have been partly taken from Dana,’ but some
attempt is made to indicate surface configuration, which his sec-
tions do not show. It is interesting to note how the fold, which
is shown in the limestone at 138th street, is continued in the
contortions to the south, shown in section G. H., and doubt-
less might with truth be exhibited in the other sections, but it
was not possible to get local observations, owing to buildings. It
is very possible that it would be true to map other folds. _ Prof.
Stevens gives a section in the Lyceum Annals, Vol. VIII., p.
108 seq., in which four or five synclinals are suggested and a bed
-of limestone assumed under the Hudson. But this did not seem
to me to be warranted by the facts. If the original stratum has
been doubled up so many times, it could only have been very thin
when horizontal. Now much of its upturned edges must have
been eroded, and if we supply but very little and imagine the
folds flattened out, the bed would cover a good deal of horizontal
territory. But it does not seem reasonable that so broadly ex-

1 Chem. and Geol. Essays, p. 248.

2 Tdem, p. 244.

3Geol. Trav. Handbook, p. 68 and note.

4 Limest. Belts of West’r Co, Am. J. Sc., XX., 21 and following
numbers, especially pp. 371 and 455.

5 Annals Lyc. Nat. Hist., Vol. VIII., p. 108 seq.

6 A large chart giving a detailed description of dips and strikes is de-
posited in the Library of the Academy. [Ed.]

7Am., Jour. Sci., XX., pp. 486 and 441.

1887. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 61

tended and thin a stratum could by any possible convulsion be
doubled up together so as to give these results. The synclinal
mapped seems beyond dispute; as for dividing up the strata
each side of it, I do not feel justified in doing it.

The topography of the upper island has been treated by Prof.
Dana with great minuteness.’ The level parts or low-lying partsare
doubtless due, in large measure, as he suggests, to the former pres-
ence of limestone, which has been eroded away, and that the Har-
lem River owes its channel to the same cause. But the bend of the
river to the east at McComb’s Dam requires another explana-
tion, and as its course corresponds very closely to the direction
of the glacial scratches, it may have been directed thus by the
glaciation. The subsequent course of the East River may be
an ancient outlet of an eastern watershed, under different condi-
tions, as suggested by Dr. Newberry.* From a local survey,
I see nothing to contradict or corroborate. Prof. Dana has
noted evidence tending to show that the Manhattanville depres-
sion is due to an ‘‘ oblique wrenching and faulting of the rocks,”
and it is possible that the same movement may have caused the
breaks at Inwood and Spuyten Duyvil. Prof. Dana ascribes to
the mountain-making epoch at the close of the Lower Silurian
the outlining of the island’s important features. This may be
true, and it likewise may be that the final contortions and fold-
ings may have a connection with the great trap outburst across
the river.

Minerals.—Lists of the minerals found on the island have been
given in the New York State Report and in Cozzens’ Geology..
In the Annais of the Lyceum, Vol. VIII., there is a paper by
S. C. H. Bailey that treats the subject very fully. It is not my
intention to repeat anything said in those papers, but simply to
record afew observations made while studying the geological
formation.?

The minerals of the island fall naturally into four classes:
1. Those indigenous to the gneiss; 2. Those indigenous to the
granyte; 3. 'Those indigenous to the limestone; 4. Those resulting
from decomposition.

1. The gneiss contains masses of quartz, occasionally of some
size, and of the smoky, ferruginous, and milky varieties.
Crystals are rarely found.

The feldspar is of several varieties. Orthoclase occurs, flesh-
colored, brick-red, and a light, semi-transparent brown. Oligo-

1 Am, Jour. Sci., XX., p. 440-448.

2 Pop. Sci. Monthly, XIII., p. 652.

3In number of species New York Island has been one of the most
prolific localities in the world. The Transactions will soon contain a
list complete to the present time.

©2 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [Nov..14,

clase is of the characteristic green, and often shows on massive
pieces the twinning striations with great distinctness. The
segregated masses carry other minerals. One in the accom-
panying collection has a very good crystal of tourmaline, calcite
and pyrite with it.

Kyanite occurs over a limited area as stated above. The
Villard houses, Madison avenue and 50th street, were the oc-
eusion of bringing much of it to the surface. It is in thin
blades, and rarely shows a good blue. Prof. Dana has also found
the allied mineral fibrolite in the region just north.

Garnets are abundantly distributed through the schist, but
rarely of good crystalline form. They are then 202.

In the excavacations at 101st street and Fifth avenue, Mr.
Slack and myself have found a mineral that we determine to
be scapolite. It is white or yellowish-white, in large square
prisms, but somewhat affected by decomposition. I do not
think it has previously been recorded from the island.

Magnetite occurs in irregular masses of small size. What I
have seen is in segregated bunches of quartz.

Pyrite is quite widely disseminated, but never in very great
amounts. Dr. Gale attributes much of the disintegration of the
gneiss to its decay, but I think he overrated its effect.

Malachite occurs as a green stain in the gneiss about 100th
street and Madison avenue, but from 6 to 10 feet below the
surface. It comes from the decomposition of chalcopyrite which
is very sparsely disseminated through the gneiss.

2. Granyte.—The most interesting mineral from the granyte
is tourmaline. It occurs in prisms, often of considerable size,
everywhere in the upper island. It is very difficult to get out,
however, as itis extremely brittle. Quite often crystals are
seen broken acrossand the crack filled up by the matrix. This is
a fact to be considered in any explanation of the origin of the
granyte.

Mica occurs in broad leaves, often six inches and more across.
Some in the Columbia College collection have dendritic stains
between the laminz. In some veins the mica is a very delicate
and beautiful green.

Orthoclase occurs in large cleavage masses, and rarely in
crystals. :

3. Limestone.—Excellent, but somewhat weathered crystals
of white pyroxene may be dug from the calcareous sand near
Inwood, and with them are masses of foetid quartz and feldspar.

4, The products of the decomposition of the gneiss have
filled its cracks with secondary minerals. Stilbite is quite
common in red radiated crystals, and its allied minerals,
chabazite and heulandite, are said to have been found in ex-

1887. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 63

cavating the Fourth avenue tunnel. Epidote is now and then
seen on a fissure face, evidently the result of the decomposition
of hornblende.

Artesian Wells. The only economic subject in connection
with the rocks is the artesian well. Efforts have been made
since the beginning of the century to obtain water from wells,
both surface’ and artesian. Dr. Elwyn Waller informs me that
over a thousand exist at present. Within the last ten or fifteen
years very many artesian wells have been sunk by the oil-well
methods and the diamond drill. Many of the large breweries,
malthouses, and manufactories demand an abundant supply of
water and have found it advantageous to sink wells in preference
to paying the city water-rate. Sometimes they are successful in
striking a wet spot and a good supply is cbtained; but, as there
is no certainty from the nature of the formation, they quite as
often yield very little. Still, the straitened capacity of the
reservoirs and the small head allowed consumers have greatly
quickened the well industry. They are drilled by the
methods perfected in the petroleum districts and, indeed,
one can hardly journey very far around the city, without
seeing the tall derrick, and hearing the creak of the bull
wheel and the thud of the drill. The wells are sunk by contract
at from $6 to $12 per foot, the contractor fixing his price on
his estimate of the hardness of the rock. Much difficulty is ex-
perienced on account of this varying hardness, as the drill tends
to glance and make a crooked hole. Ordinarily the progress is
20 feet in 24 hours, The drillers say they are obliged to go
down from 400 to 1,000 feet to strike water. The following
facts have been obtained by inquiring of the drillers, and may
not be very exact.

Schaefer's) BreweLlyrn.- silos «11-15 «10 640 ft. 5,000 bbls. daily.
Gadi Sts Malt HOUseK.2-456cj,0scessios ss 414‘ 2100) * ae
Third Ave. and 67th St...... As lenialetanes 1250 < 10,000 gals.‘
SixtheAvewand DObM Stacie) ve llsis/<leotel «Ie W305 10,000 * Ug
Field’s Building, 1 Broadway......... 400 ** 57,000 * -
Hoot octh) St.. udson’ River 2. ...... «00. Unsuccessful.
2Munic. Gas Co., 11th and 45th, 2 wells, 500 ‘‘ each, 30-45,000 gals. daily.
Tenth) Aves and d9thy Ste acinar set ae 468 “* 40,000 ‘“* e¢
Wa Allis ti Ste, vNO® O29 sa cyosts sissies eisiowinrs 585 ** 20,000 <s és
HOOtRWi OO LIE Star siete: chow ors eels, nisia' sos ee 550 ‘¢ 90,000 ‘* oe
Sterns, Third Ave. and 42d St. ...... 600 ‘< 8,000 ‘< Ot

ce 6e

iki AQ. eal 4Est tS cococcocoo pau op 600 <* 80,000
99th street and Second avenue, 7 wells, 88 feet each in drift, total of
216,000 gallons per day.

1 See a very quaint and amusing incident in Cozzens, p. 30, seq.
ies figures from here on have been kindly supplied by Dr. Elwyn
aller.

64 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [Nov. 14,

That the island is not of a formation to encourage well-drilling
will appear from the chart and sections, inasmuch as it is nar-
row and the strata are not bedded at the proper angle to bring
water from a distance. What is obtained must be surface water.
And surface water from an area averaging 58,000 persons to the
square mile, not to mention horses and other animals, could not-
be expected on @ priori considerations to furnish wholesome
water. That it actually does not has been shown by the analyses
of Dr. Waller and other chemists.

Literature on the Subject.

‘A Geological History of Manhattan or New York Island,”
by Issachar Cozzens, Jr. New York, 1843.

**Report on Fourth District, N. Y. State Survey, Geology of
the Island,” by Dr. Gale. Page 518.

Paper on the ‘‘ Geology of Manhattan Island,” by Prof. R. P.
Stevens. Annals Lyc. Nat. History, Vol. VIII., p. 108. A
list of unpublished papers is there given.

H. Credner: ‘‘On the Geology of the Vicinity of New York
City.” Zeitschrift der deutschen geologischen Gesellschaft,
XVII., 1865, p. 390.

Paper on the same, by Prof. J. 8S. Newberry, Pop. Sci.
Monthly, Vol. XIII., p. 652.

Mentioned in Prof. Dana’s papers on the ‘‘ Limestone Belts of
Westchester Co.” Am. Jour. Sci., Vols. XX., XXI., XXII.

DISCUSSION.

Pror. W. E. TrRowsrIDGE spoke of the desirability of a topo-
graphical and geological survey of New York Island before it
should be entirely covered with buildings. Future questions
relating to sanitary conditions, underground railways, etc.,
would depend upon facts which could only be determined and.
preserved by such survey.

PRESIDENT NEWBERRY briefly described the geological history
of New York Island and vicinity. He regarded the chiefly
vertical strata as rendering tunnelling difficult, and water from
borings impure.

Prof. D. S. Martin spoke of the definite mineralogical char-
acter of the New York gneiss, of its continuation southeastward,
and its evident distinctness from that of the ‘‘ Highlands.”

Hon. Cuarues P. Daty referred to former features in the

TRANSACTIONS OF THE New YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, Vou, VII.
j 2 Facing p. 64

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1887. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 65

topography of the lower part of the island. He also spoke of the
desirability and certainty of some form of arcade underground
railway to meet the demands of the great population of the
future.

November 21, 1887.
STATED MEETING.
The President, Pror. J. S. NEWBERRY, in the chair.

Twenty-one persons present.

Garnets from New Haven, Conn., were exhibited by the
President.

Pror. D. 8. Martin exhibited Prof. Carvill Lewis’ map
showing the glaciation of Great Britain, which elicited remarks
from Dr. H. C. BoLTon and the PRESIDENT.

Dr. H. C. Botton exhibited an original letter, dated April
30th, 1801, written by Dr. Edward Miller, of New York, to Dr.
Elisha North, of Goshen, Conn., which contained information
bearing upon the early history of vaccination in New York City.
The circumstances under which the letter was written are as
follows:

Dr. Elisha North practised vaccination in Goshen during the
winter of 1800-01 with marked success. In the spring, a young
man by the name of Ives went to consult Dr. North for divers
slight ailments and a sore on his hand. This sore Dr. North
recognized to be a cow-pox pustule, and, on inquiry, learned that
it was produced directly from the udder of a cow while milking.
With lymph from this pustule, Dr. North vaccinated an infant
successfully, and from the infant vaccinated a Mr. Hunt. ‘This
latter going to New York on his private business while the
lymph was fresh, went, at Dr. North’s request, to call on Dr.
Edward Miller, and the New York physician thus obtained fresh
vaccine matter. The letter exhibited was one by Dr. Miller
thanking Dr. North for his kindness in sending him vaccine
matter.

The date of the introduction of vaccine matter into New York

66 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [Nov. 21,

City by Dr. Elisha North is March 25th, 1801 (Medical Reposi-
tory, 1801), and is two months earlier than the date, May 22d,
1801, at which Dr. Valentine Seaman made his first trial of
vaccination. Yet Dr. Seaman is often credited with being the
first to practise vaccination in New York City. It is interesting
to note that the lymph used by Dr. North was derived from an
American source, and not imported from England as had always
been the custom. Further details of these circumstances, with
the entire letter, will be found in the Transactions of the Conn.
Med. Society, Vol. III., p. 135, 1887.

Dr. O. P. HUBBARD related some of his early experiences with
‘small-pox, showing the efficiency of vaccination; and the PREsI-
DENT spoke of the great benefit of vaccination, and how, by its
means, small-pox had been almost banished from civilized com-
munities.

The PRESIDENT announced that the friends of the late Mrs,
Erminnie A. Smith were making an effort to secure a fund, to
be known as the ‘‘Erminnie A. Smith Memorial Prize Fund”
at Vassar College.

PRESIDENT NEWBERRY presented an informal paper upon

MARBLES; THEIR ORIGIN, DISTRIBUTION, AND QUALITY.

Pror. JOHN C, BRANNER communicated * an informal paper
entitled:

ADDITIONAL NOTES ON THE LANTERN-FLY OF BRAZIL.

In the September number (1885) of the American Naturalist,
I published a short article upon the ‘‘ Reputation of the Lan-
tern-Fly,” in which I called attention to the deadly qualities
attributed to this insect by the Brazilians, and giving what
evidence I was able to collect by personal observation and from
trustworthy authorities regarding its true character.

The article was translated into the Portuguese language, and
republished in Brazil. The Liberal Mineiro newspaper, pub-
lished in Ouro Preto (formerly known as Villa Rica) also re-
printed the article, and prefaced it with some remarks that I
translate here as affording additional testimony in regard to this

1 The communication was read by Prof. D. S. Martin.

1887. ] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 67

insect, alike as to its reputation in Brazil, its harmless nature,
and its light-producing powers.

The editor who makes these comments is Dr. Bernardo Pinto
Monteiro, one of the leading citizens of the province.

(From the Liberal Mineiro newspaper, Ouro Preto, Province
of Minas Geraes, Brazil, Dec. 19th, 1885.)

“The Gitiranaboia (Lantern-Fly).

«¢ Kverybody in Brazil knows the frightful stories told of the
terrible gitiranadoia (lantern-fly). It is well known also that
there are plenty of places in the interior of Minas Geraes where
the people travel all the time with their umbrellas up for fear
of being touched by this fatal insect—this species of winged
death !

“The people, who are so fond of everything that smacks of
the miraculous and mysterious, go on scattering these fables,
which, by simple force of continual repetition, have come to be
looked upon as the truth.

“Tt is not long since we had a kind of crusade in this country
against the ewcalyptus trees, because it was said that these trees
were the chosen resort of this dreadful insect, which insect is, as
a matter of fact, as innocent as the butterflies that hover about
the flowers in our gardens.’

*«'Those whose business it is should seek other reasons, if there
are any, for making this war upon trees that furnish good tim-
ber, and should leave the poor gitiranadoia (lantern-fly) in

eace.
: “‘For the most part, this creature owes its bad reputation to
its ill-shaped figure, and to the beak it carries beneath its body,
which, however, is as harmless as any briar.

“A good specimen of the insect known in the province of
Minas Geraes as the gitiranaboia has been given me by Dr.
Claudius Pereira da Fonseca. It is a true Fulgora, which,
although it does not produce light, is called lanternaria. It is
unquestionably the same that was nicely figured in 1788 in the
dictionary of technical terms used in natural history, and taken
from the works of Linneus by Domingos Vandelli, and it is also
the same as the one figured and referred to by Dr. John C,
Branner in his paper published in the American Naturalist.
There is scarcely a single lover of curiosities in Ouro Preto who
does not possess at least one specimen of this poor, much abused

1In 1882, Prof. C. V. Riley, U. S. Entomologist, showed me a clipping
from a Spanish-American paper in which it wasstated that these lantern-
flies bred in large numbers upon the eucalyptus trees in Southern Brazil,
and that they destroyed nearly all the cattle in that part of the country.
—J. C. BRANNER.

68 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [NOv. 28,

insect. Specimens of it are constantly being caught about the
windows and walls in this city, and thus far there has not been
a single victim to its devastating fury.”

Here follows the translation of the article upon the ‘‘ Reputa-
tion of the Lantern-Fly” taken from the September number of
the American Naturalist for 1885.

November 28, 1887.

STATED MEETING.
The President, Pror. J. S. NEwBERRY, in the Chair.
Sixty-nine persons present.

Mr. A. L. Ewine exhibited a water inclusion in quartz,
from Brazil.

Dr. H. Carrincton Bouton read a paper entitled

NOTES OF RECENT TRAVEL IN EUROPE,

(Abstract. )

Under this title Dr. Bolton spoke of his experiences and ob-
servations of a scientific and literary character during the pre-
ceding summer. After alluding to the deplorable condition of
the stokers on ocean steamers, who work in a temperature vary-
ing from 92° to 98° (outside being 67°), the speaker pointed
out the literary blunder on a tablet erected in 1882 in Westmin-
ster Abbey by the dean and chapter. It reads, to the memory
of “‘J. Lemuel Chester, L. L. D., of Columbia College,” in-
stead of LL.D., as every tyro knows it should be. In Oxford
he visited Dr. J. A. H. Murray, and the remarkable iron
*scriptorium ” in which the manuscript of the new English
dictionary of the Philological Society is preserved. He also
visited the Bodleian Library, and made some study of the por-
traits of Priestley in the Hope collection, and of Dr. Dee’s al-
chemical manuscripts in the Ashmolean collection. He exhib-
ited a photograph of the statue of Dr. Priestley erected in the
University museum.

At Brighton he examined the workings of Volk’s Electric
Railway, a line first opened in August, 1883, and extended af-
terwards to one mile in length. Cars seating thirty passengers
are run at a speed of eight miles an hour by an electric motor

1887. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 69

of ten horse power placed beneath the floor. The electricity is
generated by a fixed Crossley gas engine of twelve horse power,
which drives a Siemens dynamo, the current from which is
conducted to the rails by cables under the road. There are two
steep gradients (1 in 28, and 1 in 14) but the line is generally
level, running along the beach. ‘The expense of operating, after
four years’ experience, is said to be far less than that of steam or
horse power. Over one million of passengers have been trans-
ported without the slightest injury. A similarly constructed
railway exists at Ryde, I. W.

Crossing the channel to Jersey, the speaker was struck chiefly
by the tides, which rise forty feet, and by the cabbages, which
grow on stalks eight to twelve feet high. He spoke of the de-
creasing population, of the picturesque rocky headlands on the
north coast, of the geological features, and of the flora and
fauna of the island. Passing to France, he proceeded through
Brittany to Bordeaux. At Rennes he observed in the handsome
park “ Le Thabor,” near the Archepiscopal Palace, a long, wide,
and deep excavation, called by the people ‘‘/’Hnfer;” inquiry
established the fact that the excavation had been made by
priests of the adjoining monastery, condemned to do penance
by digging the hole and throwing up the earth. ‘The banks are
now surmounted by large and old trees. A case of the earth
being modified by man, and not a geological phenomenon.

At Bordeaux, he noticed on the occasion of the National
Féte, July 14th, a great consumption, in the evening, of barium
and strontium nitrates. On the railway between Bordeaux Dr.
Bolton was mistaken by French officials for a German spy, and
was closely interrogated by a gendarme, but on showing his
passport was suffered to proceed.

He alluded to the resemblance between Vichy and Saratoga,
to the new monument to Ampére at Lyons, of which he was a
native (born January 22d, 1775), and to some enormous hail-
stones that fell one hot afternoon in Geneva. ‘This storm was
followed next day by an atmosphere so pure that Mt. Blanc was
distinctly and uninterruptedly seen from before sunrise until
after sunset. At Montreux he examined the works of the
chemin-de-fer funiculaire ascending to Glion. The line,
which has an inclination of 57°, is constructed with a central
cogged rail, into which cogged wheels on each car are adjusted.
Two cars are so connected by cable that when one is at the top
of the incline the other is at the bottom, and the motive power
is the weight of water introduced into a reservoir beneath the
upper car; the water flows into the reservoir from a stream
above; as soon as enough enters to overcome resistance, the car
moves slowly downward, shutting off the water automatically,

70 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [NOV. 28,

and pulling up the other car with its load. At the bottom of
the incline the water is automatically discharged from the reser-
voir. Railways are now run on this plan in several places in
Switzerland. That in question is operated all the year around;
the expense is obviously very small.

In the valley of St. Nicholas, on the road to Zermatt, the
speaker noticed the method adopted by small farmers to recover
meadow land from the ravages of the glacier torrent. By con-
structing low stone walls at right angles to the stream and ex-
tending a short distance from the banks towards the centre, silt
is entrapped so rapidly that the space between the walls in
course of time becomes completely filled; a coarse grass springs
up, and the ground is redeemed. Specimens of the very fine
silt collected by him have been placed in the hands of Dr. A. A.
Julien for microscopical study.

At the Rhone glacier Dr. Bolton examined the artificial
tunnel excavated in the ice and particularly observed the very
beautiful color of the light within the tunnel; the tunnel being
serpentine, all the light within passed through a thick roof of
ice, and the color within was of a lavender blue, brilliant and
trying to the eyes. At Luzerne, the speaker visited the so-called
Gletscher-Garten, discovered in 1872-75, with its wonderful
glacier mills, the largest measuring 8 m. in width and 9.5 m. in
depth.

In Munich, Dr. Bolton had the pleasure of social converse
with Professor Charles A. Joy, a former president of the
Academy, and always its well wisher. Professor Joy sent mes-
sages of remembrance to all his friends in the Academy.

Dr. Bolton alluded to the singularly obstructive rules for ob-
taining books at the Royal Library, Munich, twenty-four hours’
notice being required, and spoke of the superb library building
at Stuttgart. In Frankfurt, the ‘‘Palmen-Garten” with its
magnificent conservatory of palms was commended to botanists.
A photograph of the interior of the conservatory was exhibited.

In Holland, the speaker made a visit to the little island of
Marken; being in the Zuyder Zee, some miles from the mainland
and accessible only by sailboats, the inhabitants have preserved,
to a notable extent, ancient costumes and customs; they have
intermarried to a very large extent, and the speaker thought the
little girls especially looked strikingly similar, as if cousins.

In Brussels, the speaker noticed another electric railway run
by a motor operated by accumulators placed beneath the seats.

Referring to London, he spoke of his personal friendship
with the descendants of the celebrated divine and chemist, Dr.
Joseph Priestley, and exhibited a historic cane now in his pos-
session, which was given to Priestley by Thomas Jefferson, third

1887. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. i

President of the United States. The cane is a Malacca stick
with a plain ebony top and a gold band. He also exhibited a
number of letters written by Priestley to Wedgwood between
1780 and 1792, and promised on another occasion to make their
contents public.

The PRESIDENT remarked upon certain topics mentioned in
the paper.

December 5, 1887.
REGULAR Business MEETING.
The President, Pror. J. S. NEWBERRY, in the chair.
Forty-three persons present.
The Report of the CounciL recommended as follows :
I. The election, as Resident Members, of

lreur, T. LL. Caszy,
JoHN N. Farrar, M.D.,
Mr. Grorce McKIBBEN.

II. The change in Chap. III., Section I. of the By-laws of the
words, one hundred, to two hundred and fifty.

Ill. The payment of certain bills.

The candidates were elected by formal ballot, and the bills
ordered paid. The second recommendation was laid over one
month, under the rule. }

The Council also announced a contribution, by Dr. H. Car-
RINGTON Botton, of $100 to the Publication Fund.

The members nominated for Fellowship, November 7th, 1887,
were elected by formal ballot. |

Dr. Henry A. Mort read a paper on
THE VELOCITY OF GRAVITY.

The PRESIDENT and Pror. TROWBRIDGE made remarks upon
the subject of the paper.

Mr. Grorae F, Kunz announced, through the Secretary,
two new undescribed iron meteorites ; one from Linville Moun-
tain, Mitchell Co., N. C., weighing seventeen ounces ; another

G2 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [pxEC. 12,

from near Clear Creek, Wyoming Territory, weighing twenty-
five and three-fourths pounds.

December 12, 1887.

STATED MEETING.
The President, Pror. J. S. NEWBERRY, in the chair.
Fifty-four persons present.

An invitation to the decennial anniversary of the Engineers’
Club of Philadelphia, on December 17, 1887, was read; also
an announcement from the Smithsonian Institution of the elec-
tion as Secretary of Samuel P. Langley.

Pror. W. LECONTE STEVENS exhibited and described

NEW APPARATUS FOR DEMONSTRATING THE LAWS OF REFLECTION
AND REFRACTION.

Various devices are in use for this purpose, the best known of
which is the circular tank introduced by Tyndall, the lower half
of which is filled with water rendered slightly cloudy in order
to trace the path of the refracted ray in it, while in the upper
half is smoky air through which the path of the incident ray is
to be traced. The lantern beam is deflected obliquely downward
by means of a mirror so as to enter the water at the centre of
the circle. Because the surface of the refracting medium must
remain level, a number of inconvenient adjustments are required
whenever the angle of incidence is varied. The index of refrac-
tion of water being only 1.33, the deviation of the ray on enter-
ing it is not very striking, and the cloudiness of the water often
constitutes an obstacle rather than an aid in demonstration, be-
cause the deflected beam becomes diffused at a very short dis-
tance below the surface.

In the present apparatus these difficulties are allavoided. The
refracting medium is a hemicylinder of polished glass, mounted
so asto turnon a horizontal axis. The radiusis 2.5 cm., the
length 5cm. The axis passes through the centre of a circle of
white cardboard whose radius may be 20cm. or 30cm. Each
of its quadrants is graduated from 0° to 90°, as shown in the
accompanying cuts, the diameter connecting the two zero points
being perpendicular to the diameter of the hemicylinder of
glass. A beam of light is sent through a horizontal slit in front

1887. ] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 73

of the lantern, transmitted through the glass at the middle, and
focussed upon the poinf A (Fig. 1), the plane surface of the
hemicylinder being perpendicular to the beam. ‘The incident,

reflected, and transmitted beams are all in the same horizontal
line. The cardboard being slightly turned toward the lantern,
the path of the beam on it is easily seen with good definition.
The room should be but half dark, so that the graduation can be

read on the circle. Turning the hemicylinder now through any
desired angle, such as 50°, the cardboard moving with it, part
of the beam is reflected and part refracted ; both beams are

74 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [pDEc. 12,

plainly seen, and the angles of reflection and refraction are
measured. It is readily observed, moreover, that, as theangle of
incidence increases from 0° to 90°, the ratio of the quantity of
reflected light to refracted light increases. ‘Turning still further,

the beam from the lantern strikes normally on the curved face
and is totally reflected within the glass at its plane face. Turn-
ing now still further, the reappearance of a refracted beam an-
nounces the critical angle, which is read on the circle.

he special advantages of this very simple apparatus are as
follows :

I. No new adjustments of the beam are required, however
the angle of incidence may be varied.

II. The high index of refraction of glass causes more noticea-
ble deviation than when water is used.

III. The beam of light, both before and after division, is
better defined.

IV. The necessary expense is scarcely anything more than
that of grinding the hemicylinder of glass.

In every particular this is more convenient than any other
apparatus for the same purpose than the writer has seen.

For the suggestion of a hemicylinder the writer acknowledges
his indebtedness to an old note-book belonging to his friend,
Prof. D. G. Eaton, who did not have the apparatus made.

Pror. D. 8. Martin spoke in commendation of the appa-
ratus, as one of great simplicity and elegance.

Pror. W. P. TRowsBripGe and PRESIDENT NEWBERRY pre-
sented observations on

1887. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 15

THE MECHANISM OF FLIGHT IN SOARING BIRDS.
(Abstract. )

Pror. TROWBRIDGE first read from Sir Samuel Baker to illus-
trate the fact that birds, the condors and buzzards, for example,
remain in the upper atmosphere for many hours at a time.
This would indicate that, through some mechanism, such birds
were largely relieved from muscular effort of the wings ; as it is
impossible for any muscle to remain for a great length of time
under continuous strain. (See Transactions, vol. VI., page
118.)

The discovery by Prof. Jeffries Wyman (Proc. Boston Soc. of
Nat. Hist., vol. V., p. 169) of the locking and stiffening of the
wrist and elbow joints in extended wings, added an important
element to the mechanism for relief of the muscles. The lock-
ing of the outer primary feathers, announced at the meeting,
October 17th, was another element. A tendon or ‘‘ tie” to
support the extended and stiffened wing, and supplement the
weak point at the shoulder, would make a complete mechanism.
From a partial examination, Prof. Trowbridge thought that
such a tendon existed.

He had found that many birds besides the soaring birds had
the notched primaries.

With regard to soaring ascent, Prof. Trowbridge remarked as
follows:

It has always excited wonder that a soaring bird can mount
upwards in what appear to be circular evolutions without flap-
ping its wings. Mechanically considered, such evolutions are
possible only when there is a horizontal or upward vertical cur-
rent of air. The ascent without flapping the wings, and a
long-continued soaring flight, are impossible in stagnant air.
Although almost self-evident, this proposition has not hereto-
fore been clearly stated, as far as [am aware, in any discussion on
the mechanics of flight, where birds mount upwards without
flapping.

But in a current of air, parallel to the earth’s surface, or
obliquely or vertically upwards, such evolutions become possible.
Suppose a bird with outstretched wings to be for a moment at
rest with reference to the earth in a moving horizontal current;
it is carried along by the wind, but not with the full rapidity of
the air-current; its course, due to the action of gravity and
the wind combined, being slightly downward. Jt soon acquires
a momentum and kinetic energy due to these forces acting
jointly, but mainly due to the velocity of the wind.

A slight movement of the tail or of the wings without flap-

76 TRANSACTIONS OF THE | DEC. 12,

ping will cause its direction to be changed, first across the wind,
and then upwards and against the current; and the living force
that has been acquired, will carry it to a plane higher than that
from which it started, and,for some distance against the wind,
but never as far backwards as the point of starting. A second
evolution like the first carries it still higher, and so on, the bird
rising ina helical path like the windings of a stairway, but
always falling off or making leeway with the direction of the
wind,

The bird may thus rise to any height. At great altitudes, if
the currents of air are nearly or quite vertically upwards, the
successive helices may be nearly over each other and nearly in
the same horizontal plane, and the bird may apparently soar ‘in
circles.”

If we now consider that the bird, in soaring under these cir-
cumstances, is quite relieved from muscular exertion, excepting
the very slight efforts necessary for changing direction, and that
these exertions may be accomplished involuntarily or uncon-
sciously, the popular idea that some soaring birds sleep on the wing
is not to be lightly denied. We all know that men sometimes
sleep while performing work which is usually done by voluntary
action and in a state of consciousness, the voluntary muscles be-
coming for a time involuntary muscles and their efforts being
unconsciously performed. Many ordinary movements during
sleep are thus effected unconsciously by all animals.

The discovery of the methods by which the most severely
strained of all the muscles of the wing may be relieved from
constant exertion, both in soaring and in other long-continued
flights during migrations, may thus enable us to solve what has
hitherto been regarded as one of the most puzzling of all the
mechanical problems of flight.

PRESIDENT NEWBERRY discussed the subject of soaring, and
read extracts from Prof. Jeffries Wyman referring to the lock-
ing and “setting ” of the joints of the wing.

He said that, in considering the anatomy of birds’ wings and
the function of flight, there were three elements under discus-
sion, apart from the flapping of the wings. These were: 1,
soaring by gyration, credit being due Prof. Trowbridge for the
only satisfactory theory; 2, ‘‘setting” of the wings by lock-
ing of the joints, credit for this discovery being due to Prof.

1 This refers to interlocking of primaries, see page 19, and locking of
winy bones, see page 75.—ED.

1887. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. tee

Wyman; and 3, interlocking of the primaries, as claimed by
Prof. Trowbridge.

Abstract of the Discussion.

Mr. CHITTENDEN thought that no single or uniform Jaw
would be found to cover all the problems involved in the flights
of different birds.

Mr. D. G, ELviot spoke in opposition to the interlocking of
the primary feathers. He claimed that if the imbrication of the
vanes of the primaries were ever reversed, it is by accident, and
that it would be a source of weakness; that there were no mus-
cles or provision for moving or rotating the quills so as to pro-
duce the interlocking at will; and that the notching or emargi-
nation was lacking in some soaring birds, and present in many
families which did not soar; and also that the notched primaries
were apart in the buzzard when soaring ; and that to an orni-
thologist the theory was absurd.

Pror. TROWBRIDGE, in reply, stated that he had found in a
recently killed bird a tendon which opened or spread the outer
primaries, and had observed such a rotation of the extremity of
the wing at the wrist as caused the primaries to assume an
oblique position, and to drop naturally into the locked state
under certain conditions.

Mr. Exxiot thought the extension and rigidity of the wings
of birds after death was rigor mortis.

PRESIDENT NEWBERRY said that the occurrence of the rigidity
of birds’ wings after being killed must be accepted as a fact.
That it was not consonant with physiological laws to have only
one set of muscles rigid in rigor mortis, and the rigidity was
more likely a matter of will. That in shooting large game it
always happened that the animal fell ina heap. The legs did
not stiffen and keep the creature standing.

Pror. J. A. ALLEN thought that a mistake had been made in
regard to the interlocking of the primaries. ‘The inversion of
the primaries would defeat the purpose of the peculiar construc-
tion of the feathers and wing. He believed that the position of

78 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [pEc. 19,

the primaries in the hawk killed by Prof. Trowbridge’s son was
probably a result of accident. The power of sustained flight
was due to the remarkable development of the pectoral muscles
and the lightness of the animal.

In reply to an inquiry, Prof. Allen said that the emargi-
nation of the primaries seemed more pronounced in birds of
swift flight, but was wanting in some birds of soaring character.
It was, perhaps, a sexual characteristic in some groups, as only
the males in some species possess it.

Mr. GEorGE B. SENNETT exhibited the wing of a frigate
bird, showing that, in this bird, the ‘‘soarer of soarers,” the
emargination of the primaries was entirely lacking. The whole
structure of the bird’s wing was to secure lightness, elas-
ticity, and stiffness; and fixedness in the position of the feathers
was a necessity. There was no movement of the quills to pro-
duce interlocking, which was a novel, but untenable theory.

Dr. H. C. Botton announced the formation of a Folk-lore
society, and the publication of a journal devoted to that subject.

December 19, 1887.

STATED MEETING.
The President, Pror. J. S. NEWBERRY, in the chair.
Fifty-one persons present,

Pror. O. P. HupBARD exhibited a cast, one-half natural size,
of a hailstone which fell at Fond-du-lac, Lake Superior, July
17th, 1869.

THE PRESIDENT exhibited samples of work by a new photo-
graving process; also, in behalf of Mr. A. R. Ledoux, a new
meteorite from Tennessee.

PRESIDENT NEWBERRY read a memorial of

4A. Garson DHrevoort.

It becomes my painful duty to announce to the Academy the
death, on December 7th, of one of its oldest and most honored

1887. ] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 79

members, Mr. J. Carson Brevoort, who resided at No. 36
Brevoort place, Brooklyn.

He was the son of Henry Brevoort, an intimate friend of
Washington Irving, and was born in this city July 10th, 1818.
After a thorough preliminary education in this country, he spent
several years in study in France and Switzerland, graduating
after a three years’ course at the Ecole Central des Arts et
Metiers, Paris, with the diploma of civil engineer. On his re-
turn to the United States, he assisted his uncle, James Ren-
wick, one of the commissioners appointed for that purpose, in
running the line of our northwestern boundary. In 1838, he
was appointed private secretary to Washington Irving, who be-
came United States Consul to Spain. He remained five years
abroad at this time, in Spain, England, France, and Germany,
returning to America in 1848. In 1845, he married a daughter
of Judge Lefferts, of Brooklyn, and from that time onward con-
tinued to reside in that city, where he became well known and
was highly honored. He long served on the Board of KEduca-
tion and the Board of Water Commissioners, and, in 1863, he was
elected President of the Long Island Historical Society, an office
he held for ten years. In 1852, he was appointed a trustee of
the Astor Library, and for two years was superintendent of that
institution. In 1861, he was made a Regent of the University of
the State of New York. He became a member of the Lyceum
of Natural History in 1840, and is believed to have been, at the
time of his death, the oldest living member of the Academy; he
was also a Patron of this Society, and an occasional contributor
to the Annals. In natural history, his specialty was ichthy-
ology, of which he had a good knowledge and the finest library
in this country. His knowledge and interests were, however,
far-reaching, and he contributed to the American Journal of
Numismatics a series of papers on ‘‘ Karly Spanish and Portu-
guese Coinage in America;” to the Historical Magazine a paper
on the ‘‘ Discovery of the Remains of Columbus;” and he read
a paper in 1871 before the American Geographical Society ‘* On
Giovanni de Verrazano and on a Planisphere of 1529, Ilustrat-
ing his American Voyage in 1524.” This was subsequently ex-

80 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [pDEc. 19,

panded, and made into a volume, privately printed, and entitled
“Verrazano, the Navigator.”

Mr. Brevoort was always a great lover and collector of books,
and his library in 1875 numbered over ten thousand volumes,
many of which were very rare and expensive. He also possessed
a valuable collection of medals and manuscripts.

Among scientific men, he held a recognized and honorable
place, but his usefulness is in no degree measured by his literary
and scientific remains. He was a man of warm heart and gene-
rous sympathies, and his books, his purse, and his counsel were
always at the service of scientific workers; while his public spirit
and philanthropy made him loved and honored as a citizen.
Mr. Brevoort inherited a large landed property which, for a time,
proved a heavy care and burden, but it ultimately brought the
fruition of his plans in ease and even wealth. His home, at the
corner of Atlantic and Bedford avenues, was one of the finest
private residences in Brooklyn. ‘There he lived for the last ten
years of his life in the enjoyment of every luxury, which he
shared with generous hospitality. A large part of his splendid
library has become the property of the American Museum of
Natural History.

The card announced a continuation of the
DISCUSSION ON THE MECHANICS OF BIRD FLIGHT,

Pror. W. P. TROWBRIDGE exhibited wings of hawks, prepared
to show the tendons for the spreading, closing, and rotation of
the primary feathers.

He reviewed the former discussion and the objections which
had been offered to his theory, and said that he had studied the
subject and treated it from the standpoint of a student of
mechanics. He proposed to show a tendon which spread the
primaries, a muscle in the palm of the hand which closed the
same, and another which rotated the hand at the wrist; also the
worn notches in the vanes. The existence of these tendons and
their muscles having been disputed, he claimed the discovery by
his own dissection.

By drawings upon the blackboard the relations of the parts of
the wing were illustrated, and by wings of the red-tailed and

1887. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 81

red-shouldered hawks, having the integuments removed, the
offices of several tendons were exhibited. One of these, he
thought, seemed to act as a ‘‘stay” or ‘‘tie” to support the
stiffened wing; another connected the two ends of the curved
ulna like the ‘‘ tie-rod ” of a girder.

He also read a list of soaring birds, chiefly hawks, which have
emarginated primaries.

Pror. J. A. ALLEN said the tendon regarded as a support or
tie was the patagium, which gives a straight line to the front.
border of the wing. ‘The structure and anatomy of birds’ wings
were so well known that he thought it impossible that any mus-
cles and tendons should have remained undiscovered by the
anatomists. He thought the emargination of the primaries had
little relation to soaring, as some birds remarkable for soaring
flight were destitute of the feature, while many birds which did
not soar possessed it. Some grouse had the primaries very much
cut away. In some pigeons and some humming-birds the emar-
gination was very pronounced. In some of the fly-catchers only
the males possessed the feature. In genera, where the females
lacked the emargination, the young males also lacked it.

Mr. D. G. Exvior denied the possibility of the rotation of the
primaries, while admitting the motions of spreading and closing.
The muscles producing the former movements, he thought, were
involuntary, being a part of the abduction or stretching of the
wing. He thought the notches in the primaries, which were
rather characteristic of the raptores, although variable within the
same genera, had no connection with the soaring.

Pro. TROWBRIDGE said that he did not claim any rotation of
the primaries individually, or apart from the rotation of the
manus.

Mr. GrorGe B. SENNETT regarded the interlocking of the
primaries as entirely a mistake.

Mr, Ernest E. Tuompson, of Toronto, Canada, being invited -
to speak, said that, as an ornithologist, he had given much atten-
tion to soaring flight, and had spent much time on the Western
plains watching, with a glass, the buzzards and hawks soaring,

$2 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [pEc. 19,

and had never seen any indication of inverted primaries. He
thought that the reversion of the imbrication could not possibly
have escaped the notice of ornithologists if it were common in
any class of birds. He had recently experimented on pigeons
with primaries interlocked, and found that it rendered their
flight impossible.

Pror. TROWBRIDGE claimed that the experiments with pigeons
were not a fair test, as the pigeon was not a soaring bird. He
also claimed that the feathers could lock by a simple natural
motion of the wing; that it was a natural position of the prima-
ries, and that it was not a fair term to call it an “inversion of
the wing.”

Pror. ALLEN thought the wings shown by Prof. Trowbridge
were so denuded and softened as to show too free movement of
the parts, and an unnatural rotation.

He had been unable, by dissection and experiment, to find any
natural movement or rotation of the wing or primaries which
could cause the latter to overlap in the reverse order or to inter-
lock. He produced a freshly-killed hawk, and Mr. SENNETT
asked ProF. TROWBRIDGE to make the primaries interlock by
any motion of the wing.

A spirited colloquy ensued. The ornithologists present claimed
that Pror. TROWBRIDGE had not demonstrated the interlocking
of the primaries.

Dr. N. L. Britton referred to the momentary flight of birds,
back downward, as he had observed in the evolutions of an aérial
fight between a fish-hawk and turkey-buzzard.

The PRESIDENT said the ornithologists should have charity for
those who were not specialists in their line. The claim by Prof.
‘Trowbridge that birds had the power to interlock their primaries
must be settled by observation, not by assertion or ridicule.
Being proposed by a student of animal mechanics, it deserved
fair consideration. Instantaneous photography might, perhaps,
‘ settle the question. The President said further that modern
improvements in the arts had been simply copying from Nature.
That the discovery of great inventions, for example the telegraph,

1887. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 83

telephone, and telescope, had been the result of groping after
Nature’s method. We had now come to the problem of aérial
navigation, which was successfully accomplished by birds. It
was the opinion of many that if man ever succeeded in this
method of locomotion, it would be not by the balloon, but by
some mechanical device in imitation of the flight of birds.

Dr. J. B. HOLDER read the following notes on the

SOARING OF BIRDS.

It is a matter of record that several notable scientific ex-
plorers, especially those who examined the fauna of South
America during the first half of the present century, were at-
tracted to the extraordinary evolutions and great apparent
buoyancy of the large soaring birds of the region. But, fora
long time, so far as we have been able to determine, attempts
to explain clearly the phenomena of soaring, in its several
phases, have been abandoned. Of late, considerable attention
has been given to the theme, and several observers have ap-
proached what seems to be the true theory.

It is our purpose here to place on record some interesting
data which will help the solution of this problem.

During the winter of 1858, while serving as medical officer
at Fort Jefferson, Tortugas, on the Florida Reef, and when
garrison duties allowed abundant time for observing the novel
and interesting objects of that semi-tropical region, one of the
first attractive circumstances was the apparently constant so-
journ of the frigate pelican (Tachypetes aquila)—called there
the ‘‘man-o’-war bird ”—or ‘‘ hawk.”

There were many of these birds, and during the winter
months they hovered over the fortress during the day, and
roosted at night on the dwarf cedars of the neighboring
keys.

Their wonderful poise and admirable faculty of soaring
soon became a theme for continued observation, particularly as
a lighthouse tower within the fortress afforded extended oppor-
tunities for view.

With a position in the lantern of the tower, and a good field
glass, one was both concealed and brought into proximity to
the birds, wholly satisfactory for purposes of observation.

Some mention of the soaring of birds by Humboldt, who ob-
served the flight of the condor in its beautiful evolutions, and
similar notices by Charles Darwin in his ‘‘ Voyage of the Beagle,”
suggested a careful series of observations, and close scrutiny of
this, the most notable flyer, in its chosen home.

84 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [pEc. 19,

During the prevalence of any considerable wind, the frigate
bird was invariably soaring over the fortress, and, rather singu-
larly as we thought, over the light-tower quite accurately and
regularly, which afforded exceedingly favorable views.

A singular fact is that at night, either in moonlight, or when
the sky is overcast, these birds are seen in their accustomed
position.

It is a well-known circumstance of this region that a gentle
breeze prevails during most of the time in the winter months,
always from the east. ‘This condition is pretty regularly
interrupted, once in fourteen days, more or less, by a ‘‘north-
er,” so-called.

The garrison ensign in this isolated post came to be a sort of
oracle from which satisfactory instruction was frequently drawn.
It could be depended on to indicate an impending ‘‘norther ”
by coming to astand a few hours in advance, the mercury then
indicating 80 degrees.

I do not recall an instance of the flight of a frigate bird at
such times, excepting an occasional dash at plunder.

The birds were then quietly roosting. This dead level of
quiet prevails but a few hours, and is anon rudely interrupted ;
the ensign veers quickly, and indicates a wholesale breeze ; the
north wind is instantly in force, and the frigate birds are almost
simultaneously at hand directly over the light-tower. In the
one feature, the heading of the birds to windward, lies the index
to the solution of the problem involved in the soaring of birds.
A remarkable circumstance is the perfect repose of the birds,
blow it ever so rudely. The heaviest gales have no effect to
lessen the perfect balance of the bird upon the elements ; it rests
as upon a pivot; scarcely leaving the field of the glass ; swaying
at times but never rudely, and never pushed aside in any direc-
tion.

This gwast condition of rest rendered observation, aided by
the nearness afforded by the tower and glass, nearly perfect.

It had been claimed, in absence of a satisfactory explanation of
the extraordinary buoyancy of such birds, that there must be
some movement of the inner coverts which was not noticed at
the altitude usually met with by the observer; and on such weak
and unphilosophical subterfuge the subject has been dropped
for many years.

There could be nothing added to our opportunity for exact
observation; the rather low position of the birds usually, when
soaring, and the nearness attained, unseen by them, were all that
could be called for, and there is no denying the fact that these
birds rest on the wind, their wings extended to the utmost, and
the entire mechanism in a state of seeming catalepsy.

1887. ] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 85

The body and wings are necessarily as one piece, as much so
practically as the component parts of a kite, with no perceptible
movement of one part upon another. These are facts; but it is
a noticeable circumstance that those who have, in earlier times,
considered the subject have not taken into account the inexo-
rable requisite, the aim of the bird to windward.

We have in the case of the frigate bird, which is regarded as
a typical soarer, a bird exhibiting the maximum of wing-
spread, and a minimum of bulk. The centre of gravity is well
forward in a small compact body; the head and neck are nearly
buried in the feathers of the thoracic region; the feet and legs
extremely small, and the tail reduced to insignificance, and
forked. We have here the elements fora soarer, from which
the typical toy kite may well have derived its principles.

Every boy who is ingenious enough to make a kite knows how
requisite it is to construct the frame carefully, and more than
all to adjust the rigging, so that the several forces which the
completed toy is to meet in the air will have been harmonized
to anicety. The beautiful poise and nearly absolute state of
quiet seen'in a good kite are the result of considerable at-
tention to details. What more natural than to compare the bird
to a kite?

But, say the mathematicians, the familiar law of mechanics
forestalls that. Weclaim that the intelligence of the bird un-
consciously modifies the action of the forces in play—the wind
and gravity—and produces equilibrium. Give the kite that in-
telligence, and cut the string. ‘The simile is rational. We
have a thin outline presented by the wings and body to the
wind. So long as that outline is preserved, and the bird has
the power to meet the requirements, it will adjust itself by
tilting, allowing gravity to oppose the wind. ‘The result is, as
we see, a state of comparative rest.

We often see a piece of paper, as mooth stiff sheet, sail off
with the wind, and, occasionally, see it rest for an instant be-
tween the two forces, the wind and gravity.

Of course, one force prevails eventually, but there is a point
reached at times which exhibits the sheet of paper in an attitude
very suggestive of the bird and the kite in their condition of
soaring, but having neither string nor intelligence, it falls.

During the year 1858, I wrote an account of these observations,
which was subsequently placed on record by Dr. William Stimp-
son, secretary of the Chicago Academy of Sciences.

I submitted them also to several officers of the United States
Engineer Corps. The latter met the statements with the reply
that a familiar law of mechanics militated against them.

I was gratified, however, by receiving from one of the officers,

86 TRANSACTIONS OF THE - [pxc..19,

Colonel Walter McFarland, a second letter, in which he said
that, upon reflection, he must admit the theory as correct.

It chanced that his charge as engineer officer at Tortugas
i given him similar opportunities for observing the frigate

irds.

Mr. Darwin, in his pleasant account of the ‘‘ Voyage of the
Beagle,” says of the condor: ‘*‘ Except when rising from
the ground, I do not recollect ever having seen one of these
birds flap its wings. Near Lima I watched some for nearly
half an hour, without once taking off my eyes. ‘They moved in
large curves, sweeping in circles, descending and ascending,
without giving a single flap.

“* As they glided close over my head, Lintently watched from
an oblique position the outlines of the separate and great ter-
minals of each wing; and these separate feathers, if there had
been the least vibratory movement, would have appeared as if
blended together ; but they were seen distinctly against the
clear sky.

‘‘The head and neck were moved frequently, and apparently
with force ; and the extended wings seemed to form the fulcrum
on which the movement of the neck, body, and tail acted.”

I wrote to Mr. Darwin, detailing the particulars of my ob-
servations. In reply I received a letter in which he says:

‘‘The same thought about the soaring of the condor formerly
passed through my mind, but on consulting with mathemati-
cians I am assured that it will not hold good.”

Doubtless, had he subsequently turned the matter over in his
mind, he would have come to the present theory.

The result of my observations was published in Harper’s
Monthly of that period, and also in the Sportsman, which was
afterwards merged in the Forest and Stream.

On coming to New York in 1869, I submitted the same to
President Barnard, of Columbia College, who claimed the su-
premacy of the law of mechanics as before applied. He did,
however, think that, with very delicate instruments, which pos-
sibly some one might hereafter invent, the true explanation
would be forthcoming.

The Duke of Argyll has, among many truisms, and after quot-
ing some hitherto appropriate lines from Solomon, ‘‘ ‘ The way of
an eagle in the air,’ he knew it not,” reached nearly the correct
conclusion, as have several other late writers.

There are many interesting phases of bird flight which I be-
lieve may be better understood by using intelligently the simile
of a sailing ship—the ‘sailing in the eye of the wind,”
“tacking,” ‘‘ jibing,” ‘‘coming in stays,” etc., but particularly

1887. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 87

the matter of tacking. There would seem to be suggestions
here of value.

Regarding the theory brought forward by Prof. Trowbridge,
which involves the supposition that certain muscles are attached
to the primary feathers, or in some way to the manus, or its
phalanges, that produce certain movements of rotation, it would
seem plainly a matter of well-known anatomical structure, and
therefore one to be instantly decided by reference to the parts
in question.

The primaries, like all other feathers, being dermal in origin
and growth, as are homologous structures of the mammalia,
namely, the claws, nails, horns, etc., have no use for muscular
attachments. All such dermal organs alike are inserted in
duplications of the skin from which they grow; the follicles
furnished to each secreting the substance from which the feather
is developed in one case, the nail in another, and scales and
other peculiar dermal appendages in others.

Movements which affect the primary quills are the result of
power applied to the bones on which the quills are situated.
The distal ends of the tendons are inserted in the manus. There
is no movement in birds’ wings like those in the hand of mam-
mals, the two principal ones are adduction, drawing the wing
upon itself, and abduction, spreading its parts.

There is an automatic movement in the dermis of birds and
mammals, which causes the familiar condition of ‘‘ goose flesh; ”
and this shrinking of the skin is the cause of the erection of
feathers as seen in fowls at times. The wrinkling of the skin
on the back of animals is due to the same cause, both the volun-
tary and involuntary exercise of the unstriped muscular tissue,
so-called, being the motors.

PRESIDENT NEWBERRY remarked that the discussion included
three quite distinct questions, which had been somewhat con-
fused :—the problem of soaring flight, ascent by gyrating, and
the interlocking of the primaries, which were to be deter-
mined by observation and experiment.

Pror. TROWBRIDGE, in closing the debate, claimed that he had
demonstrated the existence of a tendon to open or expand the
primaries, the discovery of a muscle in the manus to close the
same, and arotary motion as the function of a special muscle
which locked them.

It was voted to adjourn to January 9th, 1888.

88 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [JAN. 9,

January 9, 1888.
REGULAR BusINEss MEETING.
The President, Pror. J. S. NEWBERRY, in the chair.
Fifty-five persons present.
The Report of the CouNcIL recommended as follows :

J. The payment of certain bills.

II. The acceptance of the resignation of A. B. Judson and
Cornelius R. Agnew.

III. To change Thomas B. Gunning and J. Ward Smith from
Resident to Corresponding members. :

IV. The election as Resident Members of

JONATHAN DWIGHT, JR.,
ALBERT R. LEDOUX,
GEORGE B. SENNETT.

The recommendations were severally adopted and the candi-
dates elected by formal ballot.

It was moved by the SecRETARY, and voted, that action upon
the proposed amendment to the by-laws offered December 5th,
1887, be deferred one month.

The Secretary submitted resolutions proposing changes in the
by-laws, as follows :’

J. That the following changes be made in chapter III.

1. To insert after the word ‘‘ Patron” in the title, the
words :

And Life Members.

2. To append to Section 2, as it now reads, the words:

And shall be entitled to one copy of all the scientific publications of
the Academy, appearing subsequent to the date of their contribution.

3. To insert, as section 3, the following :

Any Resident Member may become a Life Member by contributing at
one time one hundred dollars toward the fund for the general purposes
of the Society, and shall thereafter be exempt from annual dues.

1 These changes were voted February 6th, 1888.

1888. ] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 89

II. Thatin place of Chapter VII., as now existing, the follow-
ing be substituted :

Of Sections,

1. Sections of special branches of science may be established or abol-
ished by the Academy, upon recommendation of the Council, and one
month’s notice.

2. Sections shall be organized with at least a Chairman and Secretary,
and these officers may take charge of the meeting of their section dur-
ing the presentation of its scientific business.

III. That Section 2, of Chapter VIII. be amended as follows :
To insert after the word ‘‘ Patron” the words:

Or a Life Member.

Mr. GeorcGE F. Kunz exhibited a specimen of the gold-
bearing zine blende from Wales.

Dr. N. L. Brirron announced the discovery of an Archean
plant in the limestone of Sussex Co., N. J. Specimens were
exhibited showing carbonized stipes, of a breadth from one-
eighth to one-quarter of an inch, linear and parallel, and appa-
rently alge. He named this Archwophyton Newberryanum. A
full description will be published in the ANNALS, Vol. IV.

Pror. J. A. ALLEN read a paper

ON THE STRUCTURE OF BIRDS IN RELATION TO FLIGHT, WITH
SPECIAL REFERENCE TO RECENT ALLEGED DISCOVERIES IN
THE MECHANISM OF THE WING.

(Abstract. )

After reviewing the discussions of December 12th and 19th,
from the ornithologist’s standpoint, and making some explana-
tions of a personal character, the author read as follows :

It has been said that the problem of the flight of birds (and
by implication the particular point under discussion) was a
question of mechanics, and not of ornithology or anatomy. On
the contrary, itis strictly an anatomical one, and wholly within
the domain of ornithology. 'The general subject of the flight of
birds is both mechanical and ornithological, since it involves the
consideration of the structure of a bird’s wing—its bony frame-
work, its muscles, and its general form, which latter varies end-
lessly in different groups of birds.

90 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [JAN. 9,

Before proceeding to a detailed examination of the apparatus
of flight in birds, one or two other points may be conveniently
considered here. In the opening remarks of the first evening’s.
discussion much was said on the general subject of flight, which
was well said; yet statements were made respecting the orni-
thological aspect of the case which showed the speakers to be
on unfamiliar ground. In speaking of the stroke of the wing
in an upward direction as being restricted within narrow limits,
it was said that birds are unable to strike their wings together
back to back. In point of fact, the movement of a bird’s wing
at the shoulder is nearly as free as that of a man’s arm, and we
need only visit the farmyard to see domestic fowls and pigeons
strike the backs of their wings together. Pigeons often do this.
with great force.

The continued sailing of a turkey buzzard shot dead in the
air, till it reached the ground ata considerable distance from
the point where it was killed, with its wings still extended, was.
referred to (as it had already been before the National Academy
of Sciences, and twice in Science) as a rare phenomenon, and
also as one readily explained by the new discovery. Instead of
being rare, it may be said to be an almost every-day occurrence
with sportsmen who do most of their shooting on the wing. It
certainly would not be too high to place the average as at least.
one per cent of birds killed in the air. Neither is it confined
to soaring birds, nor to birds shot while flying. It has happened
many times in my own experience in birds shot out of a tree, the
bird when struck starting to fly and expiring in the air, con-
tinuing its flight with the wings extended, but immovable, till
it reached the ground by a very gradual descent dead and with
the wings still extended. The list of instances would include
birds of all sizes and groups and manner of flight, from spar-
rows, warblers, thrushes, titmice and swallows, up to game-
birds, sea-fowl and birds of prey. How frequent is the remark
of one sportsman or bird-collector to another: ‘‘ There, you’ve
hit him hard; watch him ; he has set his wings and is coming
down; mark him and you’ll get him.” The bird is marked
down, falling, it may be, hundreds of yards away, and is found
dead with its wings still extended.

The soaring of birds has been referred to as an unsolved prob-

1 Since this was written, the incident of the buzzard has again been
alluded to in Scienze, this time by Dr. Coues, an ornithologist of unques-
tionable authority. Dr. Coues declares it has no bearing on the ques-
tion, such phenomena being the result of rigidity due to nervous
shock. This is exactly what Mr. Elliot said before this Academy in
reply to the statement in question. And it is, furthermore, a perfectly
evident explanation of all such cases.

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 91

lem. I fail to see, however, why the soaring of a toy kite does
not furnish a key to the problem, a view of the matter now quite
generally entertained. If we compare the soaring bird to a fly-
ing kite, and let the weight of the bird be represented by the
string which holds the kite at anchor, and let the expanded
wings and tail represent the body of the kite, and add the sensi-
tiveness and intelligence of the bird asa steering power, have we
not all the elements of the problem? ‘The bird instantly per-
ceives the necessity for any change of direction to maintain its
position, and adjusts itself to the requirement by a slight move-
ment of the tail or a slight inclination of the wings. I am per-
fectly familiar with a large part of the abundant literature on
the subject; but it is foreign to my purpose to discuss the matter
in the present connection, as it has been very well presented in
the paper read by Dr. Holder at the meeting of Dec. 19th.

Passing now to the mechanism of a bird in its relation to
flight, it may not be amiss to recall the fact that a bird is pre-
eminently a flying vertebrate, and that every function and every
organ, in short, the whole plan of organization, has reference to
aérial life. The general form ofa bird is that of two cones placed
base to base, the neck and head forming the apex of one and the
tail the apex of the other. It is clothed with a covering of
elastic feathers, which are imbricated backward, and conceal all
angularities of the body, presenting at all points a smooth and
rounded exterior. ‘The feathers are of the lightest texture, their
shafts largely filled with air, as are likewise all the interstices be-
tween the downy filaments. The bones are for the most part
hollow, and air-sacs are distributed throughout the body. ‘lhe
mode of reproduction is non-gestatory, and the bird is thus never
impeded by the weight of its offspring. The principal muscles,
those of flight, and the intestines, are on the lower side of the
body, and so massed as to give alow centre of gravity. The
bones that enter into the shoulder-girdle or scapular arch are
all strongly bound together, giving firm support to the fore
limbs, which are especially modified into organs of flight and
adapted to no other purpose. ‘The wings are attached to the
highest part of the body, leaving nearly its whole weight below
the axis of support, this giving the greatest possible force to the
wing-stroke.

Of the bones, the sternum, with its great length, its broad
lateral expansion, and its strongly developed keel, forms pri-
marily the basis of the mechanism of flight, giving not only a
large surface for the attachment of the immense muscles which
move the wings, but one to which all the other bones concerned in
flight are firmly bound. In front are the large coracoids, which
run from the front edge of the sternum to the shoulder joint,
into which they enter as important elements, besides affording

‘92 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [JAN. 9,

further surface for the attachment of the pectoral muscles. They
are very broad at the sternal end, where they have the character
of a strongly buttressed pillar, preventing lateral motion of the
shoulder. The clavicles, attached distally to the shoulders, unite
in front, forming an arch, which is bound by ligaments to the
keel of the sternum, thus bracing the shoulders laterally, and pre-
venting them from approaching each other. The long thin sca-
pula, running upward and backward from the shoulder joint, and
firmly bound to the thorax by strong muscles, gives stability to
the shoulder in an upward direction. The shoulder joint itself
is formed by the junction of the scapule, coracoids, and clav-
icles, where they are either anchylosed or bound firmly together
by ligaments, giving a firm support for the head of the humerus,
from which the motion of the wing proceeds. The humerus, as
already said, has great freedom of movement at the shoulder;
distally, at the elbow joint, it meets the two bones of the fore-
arm, with which it articulates by a hinge joint, admitting of
motion in but one direction, namely, in the plane of the ex-
tended wing. Any rotation is prevented by the character of the
joint itself, and a special set of short muscles in addition to the
ligaments usually present to give firmness to the joint.

The bones of the forearm have no rotatory motion whatever,
but an antero-posterior movement upon themselves, alluded to
during the evening of December 12th, as a brilliant but long-
overlooked discovery of the late Professor Wyman. I then felt
called upon to state that it was a contrivance so well known as
to be specially dwelt upon in ornithological text-books as one of
the most distinctive and striking features of a bird’s wing, and
as such familiar to every well-informed ornithologist. As Dr.
Coues has since shown in a recent letter in Science, it was dis-
covered nearly twenty years before it was made known by Wyman,
and has had, during the last fifty years, no less than four indepen-
dent discoverers. ‘This mechanism is so important, interesting,
and beautiful, that I have brought here a preparation which
shows it, and which I shall exhibit later.

At the wrist-joint, motion is possible only in the direction of
the plane of the expanded wing, the hand being incapable of
rotating at the wrist, the joint being strictly a hinge joint.
Two small bones compose the carpus, which participate in and
render possible the sliding movement of the bones of the fore-
arm. ‘The hand consists of a compound metacarpal bone,
which is really made up of three anchylosed metacarpals, to
which are attached three digits, corresponding to digits il., ili.,
and iv., of the human hand, the first and fifth digits being ab-
sent in birds. ‘The first digit in birds is usually called thumb,
though really homologous with the index finger. It has two

1888. ] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 93

phalanges, is situated near the carpus, is easily flexible laterally
as well as in the plane of the wing, and forms what is known
as the alula or bastard wing. It covers the base of the outer
primaries and has no important function. The second digit,
corresponding to the middle finger in man, consists of two
phalanges, and forms, by its size and length, the main bone*of
the digital portion of the hand. The third, corresponding to
the ring finger in man, consists of a slight spur of bone seated
on the inner edge of the metacarpal bone. ‘The pinion, or
manus, which is the part of the wing to which the primaries
are attached, thus consists of three segments: first, the meta-
carpals, forming rather more than one-half its length ; second,
the first phalange of digit il1.; third, the second phalange of
digit i1i., this latter forming the tip of wing. Practically, then,
the pinion is made up of two slender partly anchylosed meta-
carpal bones lying side by side, and surmounted by one long
finger composed of two segments. This gives two joints sus-
ceptible of slight motion, strictly in the plane of the wing,
the outer alone allowing a very slight lateral deflection.
There is no possibility of any rotation at either of these joints,
so long as the ligaments binding them together are not lace-
rated. A slight loosening of the ligaments will give the ap-
parently wide range of motion shown in the preparations ex-
hibited at the meeting of December 19th. The slight motion
furnished by the two joints in the hand facilitate the close
shutting of the primaries when the wing is folded, and their
complete extension in flight.

The muscles which enter into the mechanism of flight are
numerous and complicated. The large muscles, seated upon
the sternum, which act upon the humerus and elevate and de-
press the whole wing in flight, need not be considered in this con-
nection. ‘The muscles of the wing proper are about twenty-five
in number, and will be briefly reviewed. They may be divided
into three sets; first, those of the upper arm; second, those of
the forearm; third, those of the hand. ‘Those of the upper
arm having no special bearing on the present discussion may be
passed over without further notice. The muscles of the fore-
arm are ten in number, as follows:

1. Flexor carpi ulnaris, having its origin at the internal
condyle of the humerus, and its insertion on the ulna at the
wrist. Its important function is to keep the cubitus and meta-
carpus firm at any desired angle, besides preventing a too
strong extension of the metacarpus.

2. Musculus ulni-metacarpalis ventralis.—Originates on the
ulna, and is inserted on the second metacarpal. Aids the
preceding muscle, and tends to draw the metacarpus down.

94 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [JAN. 9,

3. Musculus ulni-metacarpalis dorsalis.—A short muscle,
originating on the ulna and inserted at the carpal end of the
third metacarpal. Helps to flex the hand.

4. Hxtensor metacarpi radialis.—Originates on the upper
outer condyle of the humerus, and is inserted on the first meta-
carpal. Helps to extend the hand.

5. Extensor metacarpi ulnaris.—It has nearly the same origin
as the last; is inserted on the second and third metacarpals, and
draws the hand down towards the forearm.

6. Flexor digitorum sublimis.—Originates at the internal con-
dyle of the humerus, and is inserted on the digits, which it helps
to flex.

%. Flexor digitorum profundus.—Originates on the inner face
of the upper third of the ulna, and is inserted into the second
or terminal phalange of the long finger, which it helps to ex-
tend.

8. Haxtensor digitorum communis.—Originates on the head of
the humerus, and is inserted on the basal phalanges of the
first and second digits. It draws the first finger against the
second, and also helps to extend the second finger.

9. Hxtensor pollicis longus.—Runs from the inner edges of
the upper third of both ulna and radius, and acts on the so-
called thumb.

10. Hatensor indicis longus.—Runs from the middle of the
radius to both the first and second phalanges of the third finger,
both of which it extends, and at the same time opens the six
outer primaries, independently of the extension of the meta-
carpus.

We come now to the muscles situated wholly within the
hand, eight in number. The new muscle claimed by Prof.
Trowbridge is situated, if I am not mistaken, in the hand, and
occupies the space between the metacarpal bones, which space
it quite fills. I clearly understood this to be the muscle in
question, and if so we may be able to identify it. Continuing
with the enumeration:

11. Musculus interosseus dorsalis. A small muscle attached
to the inner side of both the second and third metacarpals. It
extends the phalanges of the third finger.

12. Abductor indicis.—Runs from the outside of the second
metacarpal to the base of the first phalange of the second digit,
helping to extend it.

13. Flexor pollicis.—Originates on the upper part of the
second metacarpal, and runs to the base of the thumb.

14. Abductor pollicis Another thumb-muscle, to the move-
ment of which its function is strictly related.

15. Musculus interosseus palmaris.—Originates along the

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 95

internal surface of both metacarpals, and is inserted into the
base of the second phalange of the middle digit, a slip sometimes
extending to the tip of the digit. Its function is to bend the
terminal phalange of the middle finger, which runs to, and forms
the tip of the bony framework of the wing. This is Prof.
Trowbridge’s new muscle.

16. Hxtensor pollicis brevis, and 1%. Adductor pollicis are
small muscles concerned alone with the thumb.

18. Flexor digiti tertii.—Originates on the third metacarpal
and is inserted at the base of the third digit; helps to flex the
second and third fingers.

In addition to these eighteen muscles, present in most birds,
a little bundle of muscular fibres runs from the outer edge of the
ulna to the base of each of the secondary quills. These little
quill muscles are named by Sundvall Rector remigum cubiti. No
muscles, or even muscular fibres, are in any way connected with
the primaries. ‘Those running to the secondaries act as a stay,
and greatly strengthen their attachment to the ulna, to which
they are affixed merely by their extreme base. No such provi-
sion is necessary in the case of the primaries, which are deeply
imbedded in firm tissue. .

This concludes my brief synopsis of the muscles of the wing,
for aid in compiling which, and for a tracing of one of the best
drawings of the wing-muscles extant, I am indebted to my
friend, Dr. Leonhard Stejneger, of Washington, one of the most
eminent and scholarly ornithologists of the day. ‘The literature
of this part of the subject is simply immense; the minute anat-
omy of the wing having been the subject of numerous elaborate
special memoirs in various languages, running back for more
than a century. The best authorities on thesubject are German
and Scandinavian, and, so far as I know, their works are not ac-
cessible in the libraries of this city. Not being able to find the
works here I wished to consult, I was compelled to appeal for
assistance to my friend Dr. Stejneger. VPreschtl, in 1846, pub-
lished a very elaborate memoir on the anatomy of birds’ wings,
on which my synopsis is mainly based.

In the present state of avian anatomy, it is extremely rash for
any one to claim the discovery of a new muscle in the wing, or
in any other part of a bird’s body, till he has made himself
thoroughly familiar with the work of his predecessors. In illus-
tration of this point, I may say that a certain writer on the
anatomy of birds, who has published more pages of text and
many more and finer anatomical drawings than any of his con-
temporaries, has twice had the mortification of finding his al-
leged discoveries in the anatomy of the wing shown to have been
made years before he ever put pen to paper. Dr. Coues’s brief

96 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [JaNn. 9,

treatment of the muscles of birds in his excellent ‘‘ Key,” is stated
by the author himself to be of the most general character; and,
accordingly, only afew of the most important muscles concerned
in flight are mentioned, no attempt being made to treat the an-
atomy of the wing in detail. His single figure illustrating the
myology of a bird shows only the outer side of the wing, while
the new muscle occurs on the inner side, and therefore could
not be shown in Coues’s figure. Hence the statement that the
alleged new muscle is not given by Coues is perfectly correct.
It was first made known, however, as my friend Dr. Stejneger
informs me, by Vicq d’Azyr, in 1773, or one hundred and fifteen
years ago, and has been re-described many times since in the
works, too, of such standard authorities on anatomy as Tiede-
mann, Heusinger, Meckel, Schépfs, Preschtl, Milne-Edwards,
Selenka, Gervais, Alix, and many others.
+ % *# *# Hf

The structure of the feathers, their position and relation to
each other, forbid any voluntary interlocking of the primaries;
interlocking can be effected only by accident or artificial means.
The primaries, as already stated, are so constructed that the
inner vane of one feather supports and strengthens the outer
edge of the next, and combines with it to form a resisting
surface, impervious to air when the downward stroke of the
wing is made. The barbs which form the vanes of the feathers
are provided with recurved hooks which interlock so as to
strengthen the vanes themselves. All the open part of the
quills near their insertion is covered, both above and below,
with smaller rigid and compact feathers, the more effectually to
resist the air, Any overlapping of the quills in the inverse
order not only rnmples and impairs the inner vane, but lets the
air pass between the feathers, and weakens the sustaining power
of the wing. These points are not only well known, but are
dwelt upon in numerous special papers on the flight of birds, as
well as in many ornithological and anatomical works, as giving
the wing its peculiar efficiency as an instrument of flight. In
the downward stroke of the wing no air passes through, while
in the upward stroke the air finds easy passage between the
vanes of the feathers.

An important point not yet alluded to in this discussion is
the fact that the quills cannot be interlocked when the wing is
fully extended; it must be more or less relaxed to bring the
outer quills near enough together to even touch at the tip,
where the interlocking is especially claimed to occur. Itis a
matter of observation, confirmed by the experience of every ob-
server who has carefully noted the flight of soaring birds, such
especially as the turkey buzzard, eagles, and hawks, that the

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 97

sky can be clearly seen between the tips of each of the four or
five outer primaries, which do not touch each other for several
inches.’ Furthermore, when the wing is flexed sufficiently
for the tips of the primaries to overlap, the carpal bones have
so far changed their position that they no longer “ lock” the
wing, if indeed that be their function under any circumstances.
So that, could any advantage be derived from the interlocking
of the guills, the other alleged conservator of muscular force,
the interlocking of the bones of the wing, would be sacrificed.

It has been intimated that the emargination in the primaries
of hawks and other soaring birds gives evidence of interlocking,
being apparently a provision for this purpose. ‘That it has sug-
gested the theory of interlocking is quite evident, but it has no
further bearing on the subject. ‘That it is not distinctively
characteristic of soaring birds has been abundantly shown. The
purpose of this structure evidently varies in different birds.

In some birds, as the woodcock, various genera of pigeons,
fly-catchers, and humming-birds, the faleate tips of the outer
primaries give rise to musical sounds, of somewhat varying
character in different species, due to the rapidity and angle
with which they strike the air in rapid flight, the emission of
the sound being voluntary on the part of the bird, ane often
forming a part of its amatory demonstrations, as does song or cer-
tain peculiar notes in many song-birds. In herons, many water-
birds, hawks, eagles, owls, vultures, etc., it is apparently the
elimination of a part of the vane which, if present, would prove
only an impediment and an obstruction in flight. The emar-
gination extends, it will be observed, from the point where, in
the fully extended wing, the inner vane fails to fill the entire
space between two contiguous quills. ‘The vane becomes very
weak and flexible along its edge, and requires the support of the
overlying feather to keep it smooth and intact, so that were
the vane to retain its full width to the tip of the feather, on
which the air impinges with the greatest force in flight, it would
have no support from the contiguous feather, and would be too
weak to resist the air; it would consequently be more or less
rolled upward at its free edge and prevent the free closing of
the tips of the feathers ; it would not be firm enough to give
much sustaining power, would be in the way, and become folded
and rumpled in the closing of the wing. Therefore just that
useless and obstructive portion is the part eliminated by the

1A freshly killed specimen of the red-tailed hawk (Buteo borealis)
was here shown in illustration of the point that the tips of the primaries
cannot be in contact in the expanded wing of a soaring bird, and
that consequently the alleged interlocking is impossible.

‘98 TRANSACTIONS OF THE | JAN. 9,

emargination of the vane. ‘To give the portion of the vane thus
cut away sufficient strength and breadth to add its share to the
sustaining power of the wing, the vane would have to be thickened
to make it more rigid, and broadened to fill the wide inter-
val between the tips of the feathers, thus making a heavy club-
shaped clumsy tip to the feather, and obviously decreasing the
efficiency of the wing as an organ of flight.

Further evidence of the pertinency of this explanation of
emargination is afforded, when we recall the fact that emargina-
tion is confined to a certain type of wing, and that when absent
the wing is of an entirely different type as regards its general
form. The wing of the frigate-bird well illustrates the form
of wing in which there is no such emargination. It isa very
long, acutely pointed wing, in which the first primary is the
longest, the second, third, and all of the following being succes-
sively shorter, and all sharply pointed, so that when the wing is
fully extended there is practically no open space between the
tips of any of the primaries.

There are three principal types of wing in relation to its form:

I. A very long, pointed wing, in which the first primary is
the longest, and all the outer primaries are narrowed toward the
tip, and successively decrease rapidly in length, rendering no
emargination necessary. Examples: man-of-war bird, alba-
trosses, shearwaters, gulls, terns, plovers, sandpipers, swallows,
swifts, etc.

II. A short, rounded wing, in which the tip is formed by the
four or five. outer primaries, which are sub-equal in length.
Here, owing to the shortness of the wing, the tips of the pri-
maries are not separated when the wing is fully extended.
Here no emargination is necessary, and noneexists. Hxamples:
sparrows, and the smaller song-birds in general ; also rails,
quails, tinamous and many grouse.

III. A long, pointed wing, but in which the tip is formed not
by either the first or second primaries, but by the third, fourth,
and fifth, and in which the six or seven outer primaries form
the point of the wing, and are graduated in length from the
longest, which is about the fourth or fifth, outwardly to the
first, and inwardly to about the seventh or eighth. This form
of wing is typically exemplified in hawks, eagles, buzzards,
vultures, ravens, crows, etc.

Between these types of wing there is every stage of intergra-
dation, with corresponding variation in the emargination of the
primaries, in the form of wing characterized by this structure.
The true falcons have a very pointed wing, in which the longest
primary is the second ; the first is somewhat shorter, and is the

1888, ] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 99

only quill showing emargination. In this the emargination is
slight, and extends for only about two inches. If we remove
the first primary, we have a wing in which the outer primary
is the longest, the next succeeding primaries being each shorter
than the one next in front, resulting in a long pointed wing, in
which the primaries are narrowed toward the tip, and recede
successively in length, giving the same form of wing we have
in the man-of-war birds, in swallows, swifts, humming-birds,
night-hawks, ete., in which there is never any emargination.

Again, the emargination varies in extent, being limited in
many birds to the first primary alone, and to the extreme apical
portion of this; in others it occurs on the apical portion only,
say for two to four inches of perhaps the outer four to six
primaries ; while in very many birds, including the turkey buz-
zard and its allies, and many hawks, it extends to the basal
third or fourth of all the outer primaries.

Having now shown that interlocking does not and cannot
take place, it may be worth while further to point out that it is
unnecessary.

In a soaring bird, no great muscular tension is called into
action. The large pectoral muscles, which move the wings up
and down, are in a state of equilibrium, and under very slight
tension, not more than are the muscles of a man’sarm when the
arm isin au ordinary position of rest. The mechanism of the bony
framework is such, as has been already shown, that the wing is
kept extended in such a way that there can be only very slight
strain on any of the numerous muscles of the wing itself. The
extension of the primaries is automatically effected by the exten-
sion of the wing, and results in no special strain, when once the
wing is fully extended, upon any of the muscles whose function
is to flex and extend the outer or phalangeal segments of the
pinion. Hence the comparison made at the meeting of Decem-
ber 12th, of a man’s arm held extended at aright angle to the
body, in an unnatural position, with a bird’s wing held extended
in soaring, in a perfectly natural position, was wholly irrele-
vant.

The hypothesis of the interlocking of the primaries during
protracted soaring, to conserve energy and lessen fatigue, has
not only no basis in fact, but is entirely gratuitous.

DISCUSSION.

Prov. TROWBRIDGE said that he still adhered to his belief in
the rotation of the manus, and the interlocking of the tips of the
first three or four primaries, and was confident that the orni-
thologists would eventually admit it.

100 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [JAN. 16,

Pror. ALLEN replied that, according to anatomists, the bird’s
wing was constructed to guard against any rotation. He stated
that the emargination could not be the result of wear, as it
was present while the feathers were still in their sheaths;
also, that the interlocking of the feathers, or crossing of the
vanes, would cause a permanent crumpling or wrinkling of the
vane, but that hundreds of wings of hawks in the American
Museum showed the edges of the emarginated vanes smooth,
straight, and perfect; that where they had been crossed by ac-
cident, the wrinkling indicated it.

PRESIDENT NEWBERRY briefly reviewed the debate, ex-
plained some misunderstandings, and pleasantly closed the dis-
cussion.

January 16, 1888.

STATED MEETING.

The President, Pror. J. 8. NEWBERRY, in the chair.
Forty-two persons present.

The PRESIDENT exhibited a large specimen of Hdestus, and
photo-engravings of the same. He reviewed the discussion over
the character of the fossils, and stated his belief that they were
spines. He read by title a paper

ON THE GENUS EDESTUS.
(Published in the Annals, Vol. IV.)
Mr. W. Gootp LeEvISoN read a paper

ON A METHOD FOR THE ABSOLUTE MEASUREMENT OF THE
SHUTTER-SPEED IN INSTANTANEOUS PHOTOGRAPHIC
EXPOSURES.

(Illustrated with lantern views and results of experiments. )

An accurate yet simple method for determining the duration
of instantaneous exposures has long been desired by those in-
terested in photography, especially in its astronomical applica-
tions; and an experience of this necessity has led me to contrive

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 101

a method which may perhaps become available. In adopting as
a measure the vibrations of a tuning-fork it resembles the
method of Mr. Albert Londe,’ from which it differs in dis-
pensing with a standard source of light, and in avoiding the
complications arising from the individual equation of lenses, by
determining directly the speed and rate of translation of the
shutter, and therefrom the shutter exposure, which is a positive
element of quick exposures.

By acombination of the two methods it would appear that
the essential elements of an instantaneous exposure may be quite
accurately determined, for while Londe’s method deals with the
lens, mine more particularly relates to the shutter. Certain
principles which appear to be common to a large variety of
shutters have been established by the first application of the
method to the ordinary guillotine shutter. The term guillotine
shutter, borrowed from the French, is herein used to designate
any sliding shutter actuated by gravitation or a spring, whether
it move downward, sideways, or upward.

Instead of the elaborate apparatus of Londe, a beam of sun-
light, a tuning-fork, and a lens, constituted the easily arranged
apparatus I first employed, which may, doubtless, be reduced to
a portable form of such simplicity that any one may use it at a

Fic. 1.

moment’s notice. By means of the diagram, Fig. 1, it may be
explained as follows:

By reflection from a mirror, B, fixed upon one arm of a
tuning-fork, a beam of sunlight, A, from a heliostat, is directed
in a dark room through a meniscus, C, which projects it as a
minute but brilliant spot, upon the shutter, D, of a camera, LZ.
A counterpoise to the mirror must be fixed upon the opposite
arm of the fork, and then its rate be determined.

The method as conducted with the apparatus is as follows:
Upon the shutter D a light sensitive plate or film is fastened,

1 Albert Londe, La Nature, May 19 and 24, 1887.

102 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [JAN. 16,

and then the fork being caused to vibrate by a violin bow, the
spot of light swings in a vertical line, H, which is impressed
upon the film. The shutter is then released by the catch /, and,
as it flies along its course, the vibrating spot of light traces a sinu-
ous line upon the film, until the shutter reaches the end of its ex-
cursion, when a second vertical line is traced. When the film
is developed these lines appear, defined with an accuracy which
depends upon the smallness of the spot of light and the care
taken in performing the experiment.

The rate of the fork being known, both the velocity and rate
of progression of the shutter may be directly determined from
the number and proportionate width of the complete undulations
between the two vertical lines, and the measured distance
actually traversed by the shutter. The latter would corre-
spond to the distance between the two vertical lines, but for a
slight expansion of the film, which sometimes occurs during
development, and may increase their separation. The dis-
crepancy is so slight that it may be almost disregarded; more-
over the correction for it is very simple, and even this may be
avoided, by the use of a thin plate instead of a film.

Over a year ago I made a shutter to which was affixed a plate-
holder for holding a sensitive plate, and I tried to employ a
lamp as the source of light. But the shutter was too heavily
weighted by the plate, and the lamplight spot made no im-
pression on the plate. Recently, I was presented with a supply
of the French ‘‘ Perron” films, and having provided means of
using a beam of sunlight, I soon attained successful results. I
find that a spot of quite intense sunlight is required, because its
actual duration upon the film at any one point during the
transit of the shutter is very brief, yet, I have no doubt, a
lamp will be eventually employed. ‘The film referred to is so
light that its weight may be disregarded.

Fig. 2 represents a film thus treated and developed. It

Fig. 2.

moved with the shutter from left to right. Counting as one
vibration each undulation to and fro of the sinuous line, the
number found between the vertical lines is about seven. The
fork used was an E fork, a shade flat, and its normal rate 1s
not accurately known, but it was rated by the maker at
331.25 vibrations per second, when loaded with about 1032

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 103

milligrammes on each limb. The seven vibrations divided by
the rate of the fork gives directly the 4, of a second as the time
required by the shutter to fly 4.75 cm., which is the actual
distance traversed by the shutter, though the distance between
the vertical lines is a millimetre or two greater, owing to the
expansion of the film. From these data the velocity of the
shutter is easily calculated. The time of exposure, which is
another matter, may be found quite as easily by methods which
vary in different cases.

As an illustration, take first the case of ashutter of inconsider-
able thickness, having an opening of 1.905 cm., and passing
close behind an exposing aperture of the same diameter. First
must be determined the distance the shutter must traverse to
open and close the aperture. That this distance is in this case
3.81 cm. or twice the diameter of the aperture is shown by the
diagram, Fig. 3.

A. The shutter. 2B. The exposing aperture. To complete

Fic. 3.

an exposure the side A of the shutter opening must move from
a to b, twice the diameter of the aperture.

In order, therefore, to determine the time of exposure in this
case, measure 3.81 cm. upon the film Fig. 2, by taking 1.905
em., plus half the gain by expansion in each direction from a
point midway between the vertical lines. 4.75 waves can be
fairly counted in the 3.81 cm. so located, and these divided by
331.25 vibrations, the rate of the fork, give =; of a second as the
time of exposure.

If, however, the shutter be not of inconsiderable thickness, or
not close against the exposing aperture, other considerations are
involved. Suppose, for instance, we have an exposing aper-
ture of 1.27 cm. before a simple achromatic lens, and a shutter
opening of 1.9050 cm., but have the shutter so far behind the
diaphragm, as shown in Fig. 4, that when the openings are su-
perposed the diverging rays entering the aperture just fill the
shutter opening. The case seems practically the same as before,
because the shutter must still move 3.81 cm. from the beginning

104 TRANSACTIONS OF THE | JAN. 16,

to the end of an exposure, hence, the same calculation, perhaps,
applies. ‘Chis is about the arrangement in a camera I have used

Fia. 4.

a great deal, and the exposure so calculated, the 45 of a second
is nbout my slowest average instantaneous exposure.

In the following table the information afforded by the film,
Fig. 2, is condensed.

Slow shutter, 0.8 cm. headway. Rate of fork, 331.25 vibra-
tions per second, at ‘I’. 23°C. Variation, about ;3; vibrations
per degree.

Film shows 7 vibrations to 4.75 cm. 4.75 vibrations to 3.81

Tf i
= — of a second. Velocity of shutter = 47 x
B9L.25 “4G
4.75 i
4.75 = 2,132 metres per second. = — of a second ex-
331.25 70
posure.

A railway train at 50 kilometres per hour = 833.33 metres
per minute, 138.88 metres per second, and 19.8 cm. in +5 of a
second exposure. The velocity of the shutter is about 4 the
velocity of the train.

In the case of a medium exposure with the same shutter the
film, Fig. 5, is obtained. Between the vertical lines there are

Fia. 5.

VV

51 undulations, and in the middle 3.81 cm. there are 3.75 un-
dulations. These data afford an exposure of 5 of a second,
during which the railway train moves 15.77 cm., and a shutter
velocity of 3.048 metres per second, which is about 4 the velocity
of the train.

Finally, with the same shutter and a quick exposure, the film,

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 105

Fig. 6, is obtained, affording 4 vibrations between the vertical
lines, and 24 undulations within the intermediate 3.81 cm.,
which indicates an exposure of ;4, of a second, during which
the train would advance 10.4 cm., and a velocity for the
shutter of 3.933 metres per second, which is about 4 the ve-

Fia. 6.

locity of the train. Other cases can be estimated quite as
easily.

Taubes cases the distinction between slow, medium, and
quick is that which is customary in the actual use of the shut-
ter employed in these experiments. ‘The shutter is, however,
not uncommonly driven at a greater speed than that indi-
cated in the latter of these cases, in which, as being selected at
random simply to illustrate the method and not for the com-
parison of exposures, other details are omitted.

The relative velocities obtained by springs of different ten-
sions and kinds, and by shutters of various designs, are now the
subject of investigation, and will be given in a future paper, but
to other indications of the experiments already tried we may now
advert.

I have long been satisfied that the motion of a shutter ac-

y

Fia. 7.

tuated by a retractile spring is accelerated like that of a falling
body, but in greater proportion, and each graphic record of the
shutter’s motion infallibly confirms my deduction. In Fig. 7 A,

106 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [JAN. 16,

is presented the register of a common guillotine shutter, ac-
tuated by a pair of light rubber bands (No. 33 Faber), and falling
through a distance of 12.5 cm.

The acceleration increases to the end of the shutter’s excur-
sion, although it is restricted in this case by a retarding spring,
which I omitted to remove, and the rubber bands are so attached
as to be hardly stretched beyond normal length before the shut-
ter is set.

The entire number of undulations is about 12, the opening in
the shutter is 4.1 cm., twice which linear measure, plus a cor-
rection for expansion of the film, makes 9.2 cm., which, at the
middle of the record embraces 7 waves, and gives 7 of a second
as the time of exposure, for an aperture 4.1 cm. in diameter. If
it were desirable, the time of this exposure could be reduced by
so constructing the shutter that its top would run nearly to the
lens opening and the exposure occur at the last moment. ‘To
demonstrate experimentally this acceleration, I some time since
suggested a ribbon shutter, designed to operate with a head-
way of 50 cm., more or less, before exposure. No experiment
is now required to assure us of the efficacy of such a shutter.
More rapid exposures can undoubtedly be secured by in-
creasing the headway of the shutter, with a given tension, quite
as advantageously perhaps as by increasing the tension, es-
pecia ly beyond exposures of the one hundred and fiftieth of a
second,

It might be supposed that the acceleration of the large shut-
ter shown in Fig. 7 A is due in part to gravity. By its side
(Fig. 7 B) isa record of the same shutter caused to fall (?) up-
ward by the same spring tension. The difference in length
arises from the difference in expansion of the films. In the
number of undulations its upward is, perhaps, not quite the
same as its downward record, but in the acceleration the two
are nearly identical. In the British Journal of Photography
for 1887, page 205, Mr. Richard Parr, reasoning from certain
experiments, recommends an upward falling shutter as giving
greater exposure to the foreground and less to the sky. His
deduction is supported by the graphic evidence herein pre-
sented, that in ordinary shutters of moderate headway the first
half of the exposure is longer than the latter half, and that
even in the more advanced stages of the shutter’s excursion a
progressive acceleration still occurs.

In Fig. 8 is presented the record of another shutter. It is
lighter than the one first used, being made wholly of pasteboard,
and it was drawn by a thin rubber spring, 9 cm. long, stretched
in a line with the shutter to 19.1 cm. Our attention is im-
mediately drawn to the peculiar doubling of the undulating line

1888. ] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 10?

at its termination. This is caused by a rebound of the shutter,
although it struck against a felt stop. This rebound could not
occur in the three cases first presented, because a spring catch
prevented it. This catch I have used for a long time in a hand
camera, especially when making rapid exposures, because I
found that in such cases the rebound might be sufficiently great

Fie. 8.

W/V

to cause a partial reopening of the aperture, and a double ex-
posure.

Through the maze of its vagaries we can, however, easily fol-
low the primary line. This is one of four exposures made at
different times, with considerable intervals between. Theshutter
opening, and exposing aperture, were about the sameas before,
namely, 1.9 cm. in diameter. In all the films, as in this, there
are about 44 undulations between the vertical lines. All these
films expanded in different degrees, but, allowing for the expan-
sion in each case, there are about 34 undulations in the middle
3.81 cm. From this it appears that the rubber springs do not
change materially during short intervals.

These latter experiments were made with a fork of unde-
determined rate, loaded with a much larger mirror than that
formerly used. The camera with which they were made was so
constructed that two shutters, very nearly alike, one in the
usual place, the other in the focus of the lens of the camera where
the plate should register, are simultaneously released, and being
actuated by similar springs, stretched to the same extent, cross
the camera in very nearly, if not exactly, the same time. The
four exposures last referred to were made with films upon the
front shutter, in the manner previously described; but in con-
nection with two of them, one of which is the one shown, sup-
plementary exposures were made, to which a moment’s atten-
tion may be given. For each of these the camera was relocated,
so that the beam from the mirror on the fork fully covered the
opening of the lens, which focussed it toa point on the inner shut-
ter. Upon this, in each case, a film was then fastened, and an ex-
posure made while the fork was vibrating, both shutters moving
together, but no film being upon the front shutter. These ex-
posures were made in reality by the front shutter; the motion
of the back shutter, which merely served to draw out the wave

108 TRANSACTIONS OF THE | JAN. 16,

line, might have been slower or faster, perhaps, without affect-
ing the result. ‘The record obtained in each case is a line showing
nearly three waves, and closely corresponding in this respect to
the front shutter records, but tapering to infinity at either end,
precisely like the lines obtained by Londe.

One of these records is shown in Fig. 9; and beyond the end of

Fie. 9.

ORS TORU Nae Ny

the primary line is seen a supplementary figure, which indicates
« double exposure caused by the rebound of the front shutter,
and an almost simultaneous rebound of the back shutter. With
rapid shutters, the absence of this indication without the spring
catch isexceptional. By thesymmetry or distortion of this figure,
the relative movements of the two shutters may be inferred.
From these records it appears that the inner shutter contains
very nearly the same number of undulations and indicates very
nearly the same time of exposure as that upon the outer shutter.
They are made separately, and as absolute constancy in the rubber
spring can hardly be expected, a slight difference between them
might occur. But tapering as it does to infinity at each end, the
line in the last record indicates that the effective exposure with
the lens employed is somewhere about one-eighth or more less
than the shutter exposure, for the light which so faintly depicts
that proportion of its terminals would constitute but an indif-
ferent proportion of the total actinic effect on the plate. In this
case, a surplus of light was used, and Londe has shown that this
line, descending as it does in intensity from an intermediate maxi-
mum, would reach infinity, and terminate, with a weak light,
further from both the beginning and end of the exposure. This
relation between the lens and the intensity of the light may be
shown, perhaps, quite as well without a vibrating beam. In
Fig. 10 is an actual record of an immovable point of light upon

Fia. 10.

the inner shutter, the black spots indicating the limit of ex-
cursion of the shutter having been first made by special ex-
posures. To draw comparison between two different records
thus obtained, however, the velocity of the,back shutter must
remain unchanged.

1888. ] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 109:

From these indications we may advance into the realm of
speculation, and, perhaps, discern a possible means of adjusting
an exposure by a scale of tensions to the available light. Todo
this, we should, perhaps, determine by Londe’s method the
number of undulations traced by the lens upon the back shutter,
by a front shutter exposure determined by my method with a
full light. Then with a medium light slow up the front shutter
until by successive exposures a similar number of undulations be
obtained. Note the lesser tension required, and determine that
corresponding to a light requiring the slowest exposure appli-
cable to moving objects. The adjustment of the tension, which
we now do by intuition, might possibly for that shutter and lens
be thereafter done by a scale of actual velocities, only an in-
variable spring being required, and one element of uncertainty
in instantaneous exposures be thus avoided. Theshutters most
generally used are, however, not simply drop shutters, but are
so constructed as to move in an arc or circle, and in some cases
within an enclosure which prevents the attachment of a film.

One of these shutters, reputed to be very rapid, consisting of
two circular apertures passing in opposite directions, and open-
ing and closing from the centre at the diaphragm of an optimus
lens, I have examined by the modification of Londe’s method
last described, and the interesting records obtained are shown
together in Figs. 11, 12, 13 and 14. Fig. 11 was obtained with

Fias. 11, 12, 13, 14, 15.

Nes NS \

SFG TNS

|, eer TON

LS ANIN

a beam of normal sunlight. Fig. 12 with a beam of condensed
sunlight, and both with a similar slow exposure. The double

110 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [JAN. 16,

exposure is always obtained, and is not much shorter than the
primary exposure. My experience leads me to believe that a
large proportion of the instantaneous shutters in the market are
worthless, owing to this defect. The remedy for it is a large
overlap to cover, ora catch to prevent the rebound. Neither
of these precautions is usually provided. The effect of this
double exposure upon motionless objects is to give a blurred pic-
ture, usually attributed to inaccurate focussing. A large pro-
portion of failures, and the loss of many plates probably occur
from this cause.

Fig. 13 was obtained with a beam of normal, and Fig. 14 with
a beam of condensed sunlight, and both with the quickest action
of the shutter that had been employed with that lens. In both
the first and second pair of these four records, the defect of Londe’s
method, namely, its dependence on the intensity of the light, is
at once apparent. ‘To obviate this variable element, I removed
the lens, and by so locating the camera that the beam from the
meniscus, Fig. 1, focussed on the back shutter, passing centrally
through the shutter opening, which enlarged in the plane of vi-
bration of the fork, I obtained, with the same exposure, repre-
sented in Figs. 13 and 14, and a beam of normal sunlight, the
record shown in Fig. 15. ‘This appears to give the true time of
the exposure, and seems to reveal an accurate and simple method,
especially adapted for determining the time of exposure of any
diaphragm shutter whatever. ‘The velocity and expansion of
the receiving film are matters of indifference. It is only neces-
sary to divide the rate of the fork by the undulations obtained
to arrive at the time of exposure which, in this case, is about
<i}, of a second, obtained by dividing 331.25 by 24, a fair es-
timate, perhaps, of the number of undulations found in Fig. 15,
which suggests that for closer reading of the more rapid expo-
sures, a fork of much higher rate may be advantageously em-
ployed.

Instead of a sliding shutter, a rapidly rotating disk may be
employed to carry the sensitive film, which, as the weight is then
immaterial, may be a plate and the correction for expansion be
thus avoided. By means of a simple multiplying wheel I ob-
tained the record given in Fig. 16, of a Forrest ‘‘due ratio”
shutter at a slow exposure, which was chosen in order to obtain
nearly a circular tracing. It is evident, however, that by re-
volving the plate with sufficient rapidity the same result may be
secured with any exposure. Rapid rotation may evidently be
obtained by electro-magnetic devices, and either the duration of
the exposure, or with a little calculation, the rate of rotation of
the plate may be determined. Ifthe weight of a plate would

1888. NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, abla

defeat the latter purpose, the film may again be advantageously
employed.

The entire avoidance of friction seems to render this method
applicable as a new means of measurement, in many cases
other than those relating to photography. It is hoped by its
means to measure the duration of electric and lightning dis-

Fie. 16,

No

charges, and the flash given by various illuminants, such as
magnesium powder and gun cotton.

The beam of light, however, must be adapted to the kind of
shutters examined. Ina central opening shutter, for instance,
only a minute pencil of light entering the centre is necessary.
But with an ordinary drop shutter, if such a pencil be used, it
gives only the time occupied by the opening of the shutter in
passing the point where the ray enters, irrespective of the
size of the exposing aperture. In this case, the exposure may
be accurately obtained by calculation ; but if a converging beam
of light, filling the exposing aperture, be employed, the undula-
tions obtained would probably afford a close approximation to
the true time of exposure. With the assistance of this method,
every shutter might be marked by the maker with a sequence
of exposures, corresponding to certain tensions of the spring,
and afford an additional guide and gratification to the user.

Exposures varying from the 31, to z,/5 part of a second are
not uncommonly mentioned. Mr. Edward Maybridge, in his
circular of February, 1884, promised that verified exposures of
3000 part of a second would be used. Some relation of the ve-
locity of the shutter to the angular velocity of the moving object,
accounts for the apparently sharp pictures that may be taken

112 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [JAN. 16,

at a distance, of an object moving at greater velocity than the
shutter, and which at a less distance would afford but a blurred
image upon the plate. This leads, perhaps, to many illusions
respecting the rapidity of so-called instantaneous exposures.
To obtain an exposure of 4, of asecond, with an almost friction-
less shutter weighing only 8 grammes, under the conditions de-
scribed, a strain of about 250 grammes was required ; and to
attain the ;4, of asecond the strain increased to about 719
grammes, almost three times as much. ‘The proportional in-
crease required to reach the 3,55 of a second, were such an ex-
posure attainable, may be imagined.

Since, with full sunshine entering the lens, however, the ef-
fective is so much less than the actual exposure, the difference
with the weaker light used in practice must be proportionally
greater, and we must not lose sight of the probability that our
measures correspond to much shorter effective exposures.

The weather has afforded me no opportunity of taking test
pictures with exposures specially measured by the method, but
I have formerly taken many which compare favorably with those
usually credited to very high exposures. Knowing nearly the
tension used, I find by subsequent measurement that the shutter
exposure employed was approximately the one hundred and
seventieth of a second. ‘The example, Fig. 17, will serve to il-

Fie. 17.

lustrate the relation of this exposure to a moving object finely
lighted.

Should this method sustain a more critical study, and the ex-
actions of scientific application, it would appear to be the hidden

1888. ] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 118

key to several photographic problems, such, for instance, as the
determination of the comparative efficiency or individual equation
of lenses, and the proportionate exposures of various shutters.

The present contribution must terminate with acknowledg-
ments to several members of the Brooklyn Academy of Photo-
graphy for valuable assistance in promoting the advent of a
method which appears susceptible of refinement 1n an eminent
degree, yet for many practical purposes seems even in its crudest
form to afford a sufficiently accurate measurement of an instan-
taneous exposure.

Remarks were made by Mr. P. H. Dupiey and Mr. WILLIAM
BARCLAY PARSONS.

January 23, 1888.
STATED MEETING.
The President, Pror. J. S. NEwBERRY, in the chair.

A fair audience present, in the East Lecture Room of the
Library Building, Columbia College.

The first lecture of the Popular Lecture Course was delivered
by
Pror. W. LECONTE STEVENS on

THE DEVELOPMENT OF AERONAUTICS.

(Illustrated with lantern views. )

January 30, 1888.
STATED MEETING.
Mr. CorNELIUS VAN BRUNT in the chair.
Thirty-five persons present.
Pror. J. 8S. NEWBERRY presented a paper’ on
TRIASSIC PLANTS FROM HONDURAS.

In 1886, Mr. Chas. M. Rolker, a mining engineer and grad-
uate of the School of Mines, brought from the vicinity of San

‘In the absence of the author, the paper was read by Dr. N. Lz
Britton.

114 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [JAN. 30,

Juancito, Honduras, among other geological specimens, a small
fragment of metamorphosed shale full of the impressions of the
fronds of Cycads. As no Messozoic fossils had, so far as I knew,
been brought from this region before, the discovery interested
me much and I have since made earnest efforts to obtain other
specimens from the same locality. Mr. Rolker kindly seconded
these efforts and wrote to Mr. T. H. Leggett, E. M., also a
graduate of the School of Mines, who is located at San Juancito
in superintendence of a silver mine, giving him all the informa-
tion he possessed in regard to the locality of the fossils. Mr.
Leggett took up the search with enthusiasm, but until recently
without success. A few weeks since I received a letter from him
announcing the rediscovery of the plant beds and the shipment
to me of a small box of fossils. This arrived last week and al-
though the specimens are not numerous and the rock contain-
ing them is much weathered, they have furnished me some addi-
tional light upon the deposit which contains them. ‘The plant
remains are very numerous, closely packed together and the state
of preservation leaves much to be desired, but they are signifi-
cant and interesting and enable me to fix with a good degree of
certainty their geological horizon. ‘The species represented are
briefly as follows.

1. A new species of Zamites, allied to Z. occidentalis, a fossil
plant obtained by Mr. Remond, from the Upper Triassic coal-
bearing rockson the Yaki river, in Sonora, and described by me
in the report of the San Juan Expedition, p. 152, Pl. V. This
is much the most abundant fossil in the collection: the stipe
of the frond is chaffy and the pinnules are set alternately on its
upper face, and attached by their entire bases, which meet and
completely cover the stipe. ‘The pinnules are linear, from one
and a half to two inches long, rounded at the upper extremities
and traversed by numerous fine parallel nerves. The specimens
of Z. occidentalis figured in the report mentioned above are all
from the lower portion of the frond, and the pinnules are repre-
sented as attached to the sides of the stipe. Higher up their
bases are brought nearer together and perhaps finally meet.
Among all the specimens sent by Mr. Leggett none show well
the lower part of the frond, and the characters given above are
such as belong only to the upper portion. For this plant I pro-
pose the name of Zamites Rolkeri, thus connecting with it the
name of its discoverer.

2. A species of Zamites similar to the preceding in general as-
pect, but having much narrower fronds and shorter and broader
pinnules, which I name Z. Leggetti, in honor of Mr. 'T. H. Leg-
gett who was the first to obtain it. It has also a somewhat dif-
ferent nervation ; in Z. Rolkeri the nerves are all simple, fine,

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 115

parallel with each other and with the margins of the pinnules ;
in Z Leggetti, however, the bases of the pinnules toward the
base of the frond are slightly rounded and narrowed and the
nerves are somewhat divergent, bringing the plant nearer to O/o-
zumites and into the same category with Z. Feneonis, Bret.
The two plants hold much the same relation to each other as
Paleozamia auctifolium and P. Cutchensis of Oldham and
Morris, ‘‘ Fossil Flora of India,” pp. 29 and 30, Pl. XXI. and
XXII.

3. A species of Pterophyllum having very large and broad
pinnules two inches or more in length by one inch in breadth,
attached by the entire base, obliquely rounded at the other ex-
tremity and traversed by many fine, parallel nerves. This is
closely allied to Pterophyllum princeps of Oldham and Morris
(“Geological Survey of India,” Pls. X. to XIII.) and Pterophyl-
lum Braunsii and P. Blasi, Schenk (‘‘ Flora der Grenzschich-
ten, “Tat. X1.).

4. As pecies ofan Anomozamites with narrow fronds, and nearly
quadrate pinnules, of which the exterior and upper angle is
somewhat produced. This resembles A. Schaumburgensis,
Dunker (‘‘ Monog. d. Nord Deutsch. Wealdform,” p. 15, Taf. L.,
II., VI.), but perhaps more closely Anomozamites majus Bret.
sp. which is from the Rheetic.

5. A fern too imperfectly preserved for satisfactory descrip-
tion orcomparison. It hasa bi- or tripinnate frond with narrow
pinne and small, closely set falcate pinnules, resembling Asple-
nites Ottonis, Schenk, op. cit., Taf. XIV.

6. Traces of another fern are seen on some of the specimens,
having narrow, linear pinnules with a single row of fruit dots
on either side of the strong midrib. This is quite distinct from
the preceding species and is not unlike some portions of the fer-
tile frond of Pecopteris bullatus, Bunbury, so common in the
Richmond coal field.

The plants enumerated above are so much like those with
which they have been compared, all of which are from the Rhe-
tic or Upper Trias, that I feel safe in the inference that the
strata containing them are of that age.

The SECRETARY, in reply to inquiry, made a statement of
the condition of the negotiations looking toward the union of
the New York Mineralogical Club with the Academy, and Pror.
D. 8. Martin spoke of the desirability of co-operation and
union among the various scientific societies of the city.

Dr. N. L. Brirron made an informal verbal report of pro-

116 TRANSACTIONS OF THE | JAN. 30,

gress in behalf of the Audubon Monument Committee, and ex-
hibited the proposed design—a monolith in the form of a Runic

cross, with zoological and botanical decorative figures, an
illustration of which is here given.

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. ne

Contributions to the Audubon Monument Fund have been
received from the following Members of the Academy:

Gro. N. LAWRENCE, WILLIAM BREWSTER,
LAWSON VALENTINE, J. V. LAUDERDALE,
J. S. NEWBERRY, L. W. SERRELL,
RUTHERFURD STUYVESANT, JOHN I. NorTHROP,
Cart H. ScHULTZ, FREDERICK STENGEL,
SAMUEL SLOAN, W. H. INGERSOLL,
SeTH Low, EK. P. THWING,
Hiram HITCHCOCK, HENRY WHEATLAND,
J. W. GOULEY, JOSEPH LECONTE,
JOSEPH LECOMTE, EDWARD ORTON,
JOHN B. IRELAND, A. A. WRIGHT,
W. P. TROWBRIDGE, Be AL SOBER:

a

February 6, 1888.
REGULAR BUSINESS MEETING. |
Dr. ALexis A. JULIEN (Corres. Secretary), in the chair.
‘’wenty-four persons present.

The Report of the CouNcIL announced the nomination of
officers, in anticipation of the annual election, February 27th,
1858, and made the following recommendations:

I. The election as Resident Members of
Mr. John C. Henderson,
F. A. Mandeville, M.D.,
Edward H. Peaslee, M.D.

II. The payment of certain bills.

III. The adoption of the changes in the By-laws, proposed at
the meeting of January 9th, which had been referred to the
Council.

The candidates were elected by formal ballot, and the bills
ordered to be paid. The changes in the By-laws were adopted
after a long and spirited, but friendly discussion. Also the
changes proposed December 5th, 1887.

118 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [ FEB. 6,

Mr. ANDREW SHERWOOD, Corresponding Member, com-
municated a paper on!

PREHISTORIC REMAINS FOUND IN TIOGA CO., PENN.

Clearings made and once occupied by the red men were found
in this valley (the Tioga) by the first settlers; while implements
of stoneand fragments of pottery are ploughed up in several local-
ities. When the first white man penetrated these wilds, there
was in existence an Indian burial ground, which remained visible
until after the year 1830, or until the construction of the Tioga
railroad; its former location can still be pointed out by several
of the older inhabitants, who remember seeing it. It was
situated in a most romantic spot, just where the river enters
the gorge below Lamb’s Creek. The exact location is indicated
by an elm tree, about twenty rods east of the bridge which
crosses the river, and nearly half-way between the bridge and
the old Israel Mann house. Both the wagonroad and the rail-
road now pass through it, so that it is entirely obliterated. It
was originally marked by the Indians with a large stone slab
set in the ground, some six feet in height, but containing no
mark or inscription of any kind. The dead were buried in a
sitting posture, and the mounds were round. Many pieces of
pottery, as of kettles, etc., were found here when the railroad
was built. Their largest clearing was at this place, which con-
tained wild plum trees, bearing fruit in abundance after the
place was known to the whites. Other clearings are described
as having grown up to choke-cherry and other bushes, but with
corn hills still visible.

A very high floodin the river in the year 1870 removed about
a foot of soil, for a distance of several rods, from the surface of
the main road at Lamb’s Creek, where it is intersected by the
road from the depot. This revealed a number of ancient fire-
places, where were found charred wood, fragments of bones,
pieces of pottery, arrow-heads, pestles, stone wedges, and vari-
ous flint implements—most of which I now have in my posses-
sion. The pottery was unique, having been baked from clay
mixed with very small pebbles, and having the exterior rudely
ornamented, all after one design, with rarely an exception, in
which case the ware seems to have been made of clay mixed with
fine sand and made smooth inside and out. The place must
have been a camping ground, and the sand removed by the flood
was doubtless placed there long before by the same agency.

At some period in the past, probably representing a greater
antiquity than any remains mentioned above, there was a vil-

'The paper was read by Prof. D. S. Martin.

1888. ] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 119

lage on the point of land southwest from the cemetery at Mans-
field, Penn., now owned by the writer, and over which the
cemetery is being extended. The place commands a fine view
of the river valley up and down for many miles, and is by nature
one of the most delightful locations in northern Pennsylvania.
It is a neck of land, thirty or more feet in height, projecting
from the terrace of drift which borders the river plain, and was
covered with a heavy pine forest when first seen by the white
man. It contains some five or six acres, and is rich in relics ;
the soil, which is a gravelly loam, having been originally filled
with them. They were manufactured here from material ob-
tained somewhere to the north, and one can readily detect the
location of the wigwams or dwellings by the number of flint
chips, etc., found in certain places. Implements, both finished
and ina partially finished state, have been ploughed up during
mapy years, and although the writer has collected many hundreds
of them, the place is not yet exhausted, but continues to furnish
specimens whenever the ground is newly ploughed. ‘These were
made in a number (but more particularly in two) places, at
which were doubtless workshops or habitations. I have picked
up over two hundred arrow points, a number of pestles, a num-
ber of polished implements used, evidently, in the dressing of
hides, some stone axes, a large number of stones used as sinkers
on fish-nets, as well as various other things, including several
(probably ten), bushels of flattened sandstone cobbles. These
cobbles average three or four inches through the broad diameter,
and have round, pointed holes cut or pecked in one or both (gen-
erally both) sides, one-eighth to one-half inch in depth, and of
which the accompanying specimens are good examples. The
arrow points are mostly of dark-colored flint, and are as a rule
very small, though not always so, and were, I have surmised,
used and lost by boys in practising upon a mark. But one
white one has been found, a beautiful specimen of fair size
(which may have a history of its own), and a few of a yellowish,
and some of a reddish color. There are three or four different
styles represented ; one made to fasten to the arrow in the ordi-
nary manner, one made to give the arrow a revolving motion
while passing through the air, and another—the poisoned point
—made to insert into the end of the arrow without fastening,
in such a manner that it could not be withdrawn without leav-
ing the point imbedded in the flesh. The flattened cobbles re-
ferred to, with a hole picked in each side, are a riddle which I
have not as yet been able to solve. Part at least if not all were
evidently obtained from the river bed, where they have been wash-
ed down from the coal measure sandstones at Blossburg, ten miles
above; but I cannot imagine what they were used for, or how the

120 TRANSACTIONS OF THE | FEB. 13

holes were made. It would test the best of steel to make them, as
they are composed of hard quartzose sand, yet I suppose it was
done with flint.

In some instances there are two holes pecked in each side, and
afew are found of a grayish and reddish sandstone, while oc-
casionally there is a larger stone filled with the same kind of
holes, as if they had been used for anvils. These last were evi-
dently not brought from the river bed, but obtained on the
spot, as indeed may have been the case with the cobbles.

It is very singular (to me at least) that not one of the cobbles
has ever been found elsewhere in the vicinity, not even among
all the relics found at Lamb’s Creek, two miles and a half be-
low. It is a matter of equal interest that nota single fragment,
large or small, of the curious pottery found on the river flats,
at points not half a mile away, and mentioned as occurring so
frequently at Lamb’s Creek, has ever been found at this place.
The flint chips, arrow points, and these cobbles, 1 have found
in some instances imbedded in the soil directly under large pine
stumps, with which the ground was formerly occupied, and
which I grubbed out 4 few years since. In two places where I
had occasion to level the ground I found, a few inches beneath
the surface, what appeared to be ancient fireplaces, with charred
wood, bones, and arrow points.

February 13, 1888.
SraTeD MEETING.
Vice-President, Pror. O. P. HupBarp, in the chair.
Fifty-three persons present.
Dr. H. Carrincton Botton read the following paper:
PRELIMINARY NOTICE OF A NEW STUDY IN FOLK-LORE.
(Abstract. )

Dr. Bolton stated that he had begun to collect and investigate
the Terms Used in Talking to Domestic Animals.

In controlling the movements of domestic animals by the
voice, besides words of ordinary import, man uses a variety of
peculiar terms, calls, and inarticulate sounds—not to include
whistling—which vary in different localities. In driving yoked
cattle and harnessed horses teamsters cry ‘get up,” ‘‘click
click” (tongue against teeth), ‘‘gee,” ‘‘haw,” ‘ whoa,”

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 121

‘‘whoosh,” ‘‘back,” etc., in English-speaking countries ;
SCamney ees ALL, deja ClO. ebes,in) Huropean Coun-
tries.

In the United States ‘‘ gee” directs the animals away from
the driver, hence to the right, but, according to Webster’s Dic-
tionary, in England the same term has the opposite effect ;
because the driver walks on the right hand side of his team.
In Virginia, mule drivers gee the animals with the ory
““hep-yee-ee-a;” in Norfolk, England, ‘‘whoosh-wo;” in
France, ‘‘ hue” and « huhauts” in Germany “hott” and
«“hotte;’’ in some parts of Russia, ‘‘hait&é” serve the same pur-
pose. ‘I'o direct animals to the left another series of terms is
used, suchas: ‘‘haw” (U.8.); ‘‘who-haw” (Va.); ‘‘ who-
hysh” (Me.); ‘‘whoosh” (Suffolk); ‘‘ har,” also ‘‘hu” (Ger-
many); ‘‘dia” (France); ‘ vishté”” (Southern Russia).

In calling cattle in the field, a great variety of terms are
used, of which the following are examples: ‘‘ bos, bos” (Conn.);
és sake, sake” (Conn.); coo, coo” (Va.); ‘‘sook,” and ‘‘sookey,”
also ‘‘sookow ”’ (Southern U.8.); “<< koeb; koeb” (Me.);
‘*cusha ” (Scotland).

In calling sheep, “‘konan,” and ‘ konanny” (Ga.); ‘‘ k’day,
k’day ” (Conn.). In calling horses ‘‘ kope” is common in the
Southern U. S., and the Creoles of Louisiana cry ‘‘see-chuck.”
In calling hogs in the field ‘‘ chee-oo-00 ” (Va.), ‘‘ pig-ooy”
(Ill.), ‘‘chaw-awg” (Va.), ‘‘ whoop” (Ga.), are some of the
terms current in the localities named.

With the exception of whoa, gee, and haw, and some others,
these words are not found in dictionaries, and the speaker pro-
poses to form a vocabulary of them. In the cases of inarticulate
sounds, chirps, and clicks, he adopts the notation of Professor
A. Melvill Bell, author of “Visible Speech.” Of this system
and its application to the case in hand he gave illustrations on
the blackboard.

Dr. Bolton gave examples of the terms used in Germany,
France, Switzerland, Norway, Russia, Southern India, and
among the Eskimo. He pointed out certain common features
as well as some singular reversals; sounds used in one country
to start and urge horses are used in another country, or even in
another part of thesame country, tostopthem. He further gave
quotations from early literature, and referred to the explanations
occurring in certain English dictionaries of archaic and provin-
cial words.

In conclusion, he stated that this should be regarded as a
preliminary notice made for the purpose of asking assistance
of persons interested. He is desirous of collecting words and

122 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [FEB. 13,

expressions (oaths excepted) used in addressing domesticated
animals in all parts of the United States and in foreign lands.

In particular he seeks information as to:

(1) The terms used to start, hasten, haw, gee, back, and stop
horses, oxen, camels, and other animals in harness.

(2) Terms used for calling in the field: cattle, horses, mules,
asses, camels, sheep, goats, swine, poultry, and other animals.

(3) Exclamations used in driving from the person domestic
animals.

(4) Any expressions and inarticulate sounds used in ad-
dressing domestic animals for any purpose whatever (dogs
and cats).

(5) References to information in works of travel and general
literature will be very welcome.

The speaker suggests that persons willing to collect these data
may indicate the value of vowels in English by using the vowel
signs of Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary, and in cases of difficul-
ty terms may be spelled phonetically. He stated that he would
be grateful for contributions, oral or written, and that materials
used in a future publication would be credited to the con-
tributors. Correspondence should be addressed to him at the
University Club, New York City.

Remarks were made by Pror. FREDERICK STENGEL and
Mr. L. E. CHITTENDEN.

Dr. Bouton read the following paper

NOTES ON THE GREAT SALT ‘DEPOSIT OF PETITE ANSE,
LOUISIANA.

(Abstract. )

The southern coast of Louisiana, west of the Mississippi
River, is indented by several bays through which the waters of
innumerable bayous pass into the Gulf of Mexico. Near the head
of one of these bays, known as Vermilion Bay, there is a nearly
circular island of about 2,500 acres in extent, which rises above
the low marshes of the vicinity to the height of 180 feet, form-
ing a notable feature in the monotonous landscape. ‘This is
the well-known island of Petite Anse, also called Avery’s Island
after its present owners, in which occurs a remarkable deposit
of rock-salt. Petite Anse is now easily reached by rail, via
the Southern Pacific Railroad, from New Orleans as far as New
Iberia (about 125 miles), and thence, by a branch road, 10 miles
long, to the salt mine. Cotton and sugar plantations, uncul-
tivated fields, marshes, corn-fields, and cypress swamps alternate

1888, | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 123

with luxuriant forests of live-oak, gum, hickory, black walnut,
cypress, maple, and magnolia. About two-thirds of the island
are under cultivation, the most profitable crops being sugar,
salt, and Tobasco pepper-sauce. ‘Three ranges of hills can be
traced, the surface water from which has cut its way deeply
through the alluvial deposits, forming ravines, which, with
ponds, forests, and cultivated fields, make the island a picturesque
oasis in a desert of marsh and cypress swamps.

The existence of salt on this island has been known for a very
long time, as shown by the fragments of pottery, arrow-heads,
and basket work found mixed with bones of the mastodon,
buffalo, and deer, unearthed in recent excavations. The written
history of the deposit begins with 1791, when John Hays found
a brine spring while hunting. In the last century, salt was
made by boiling down the brine, and between the years 1812
and 1815 the amount produced was large. It then ceased for a
time. Later, Judge D. D. Avery became owner of the island,
and at the outbreak of the rebellion renewed operations on a
large scale; the blockade made the salt exceedingly valuable, so
that one time a bag of salt was exchanged for a bale of cotton.
On May 4th, 1862, Mr. John Marsh Avery attempted to deepen a
brine pit, and struck rock-salt at a depth of 16 to 17 feet below
the surface. The Confederate Government then instituted
mining by means of pits, and, 400-600 men being constantly
employed, the island was a scene of prodigious activity. The
Northern troops, however, seized the island April 20th, 1863, and
put a stop to the industry. During these eleven months, about
22 million pounds of salt are estimated to have been taken out,
the average price being 44 cents per pound.

The first scientific observer who visited the deposit after these
events was Professor Richard Owen in November, 1865 (Am. J.
Sci., July, 1866, p.120). In 1866, Professor Charles A. Goess-
mann visited the place on behalf of the American Bureau of
Mines (‘‘ Report of the American Bureau of Mines on the Rock-
salt Deposit of Petite Anse,” 4to, New York, 1867), and one year
later it was examined by Professor KE. W. Hilgard of the Geo-
logical Survey (Am. J. Sci., Jan., 1869, and ‘‘ Mineral Resources
of the United States,” Albert Williams, Jr., Washington, 1883).

To the reports of these gentlemen we owe some of the par-
ticulars of this notice.

The rock-salt lies only fifteen to twenty feet beneath the
surface. The surface soil is a dark loam, beneath which occur
layers of coarse and fine sand, gravel, and clay, all irregularly
stratified and in no definite direction. The salt itself occurs
as a massive crystalline rock of a saccharoidal texture, dry,
hard, and homogeneous, It is of a white color, exceptin streaks

124 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [ FEB. 13,

or bands two to six inches in width, which are quite black.
The salt appears to have a uniform character in all parts of the
mine, and is remarkable for its purity, especially in its freedom
fromcalcium and magnesium salts. It is also quite free from
potassium salts; for traces of Stassfurt salts I made especial
search in vain. The following analyses show the great purity
of this product :

Analysis by Mr. F. W. Taylor, Analysis by
(Smithsonian Institution) K. W. Hilgard.
March, 1882. 18638.
Sodium chloride, 98.731 99.880
Calcium sulphate, 1.192 0.126
Calcium chloride, Trace Trace
Magnesium chloride, 0.013 —
Silica, 0.024 100.006
Tron sesquioxide, 0.010
Water, 0.0380
100.000

Other analyses made by Professor Goessmann range from 98.88
to 99.60. It is of interest to compare this with rock-salt from
other localities.

Cheshire. Stassfurt. Berchtesgaden.

Sodium chloride, 98.30 94.57 99.85
Potassium chloride, Trace.
Calcium chloride, Trace.
Magnesium chloride, 0.05 0.97 0.15
Calcium sulphate, 1.65 0.89
Insoluble, 3.99
Water, 22

100.00 100.00 100.00

Partial analyses of the black salt have been made by Mr.
McCalla, the resident engineer and chemist, who finds that it
yields a white solution and about seven per cent of a white in-
soluble residue, chiefly gypsum. ‘The black color, therefore,
seems to be an optical phenomenon. These black bands form
well-marked folds in the salt, the space between the ridges and
above them being filled with coarser granules of salt than the
rest. Near these black bands the finest cleavage crystals of
transparent purity are found. These bands seem to indicate
that at some time the rock-mass has been subjected to lateral
pressure, causing ridges.

The geological features of the island and the origin of the salt
deposit have been discussed by both Professor Goessmann and
Professor Hilgard. ‘The former thinks it is ‘* probably of ter-
tiaryage,” and says, ‘‘many circumstances favor the theory that
the deposit isa secondary one—resulting from the evaporation of

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 125

brine springs, originating from beds of rock-salt in some older
geological formation—and nota direct residuum of the sea.
This explains the entire absence of intercalations of gypsum
and the absence of potassium and magnesium compounds.”
Professor Hilgard thinks it should be assigned to the creta-
ceous, since there is ‘‘no phase of the tertiary history of the
Gulf of Mexico that seems to admit of” the conditions required,
viz.: the long-continued evaporation of some very large body of
sea-water. He calls attention to the banded structure of the
rock-salt, and remarks that the ‘‘ Stassfurt salts” belonging to
the salt mass have long ago been washed into the general ocean.
We would call the attention of geologists to two facts which may
throw light on the questions: the occurrence on the island of
bedded sandstone and of lignite. Thesandstone is exposed at the
bottom of adeepravine about 1,500 feet from the shaft, the rock is
of a light gray color and contains little or no calcite. It is dis-
tinctly seen to be in place, and is weathered to a considerable
depth beneath the surface. Atthe base of another ravine, formed
by a rivulet cutting through the alluvium, gravel and sand, and at
a distance of about 2,000 feet from the shaft, there is an outcrop
of lignite.’ The latter is apparently several feet in width and of
good quality for economic purposes. Mr. McCalla reports
that it contains fifteen per cent of ash. Both the sandstone
and the lignite seem to dip in such a direction (S. E.),
as would cause them to run beneath the salt. This view
is also confirmed by some of the borings. Indications
of fossil plants occur in the brown coal, but at the time
of my visit it was unfortunately impracticable to dig deeply into
it, and I had to be content with a mere surface specimen.
There are four other islands stretching along the coast in the-
vicinity, but borings have failed to reveal salt on any of them.
The mine is now worked by a system of chambers and cross-
headings. The single shaft has reached adepth of 166 feet (in-
cluding the sump of 6 feet). The old workings at a depth of
90 feet have been abandoned, owing to the infiltration from
above of water carrying with it clay and sand, which rendered
the salt impure. The lower level isat adepth of 160 feet. The
extent of the excavation in the upper level is about 8 acres, and
the extreme ends of the galleries are 900 feet apart. The ex-
cavation on the lower Jevel is much smaller. The method of
operating is to run galleries about 6 to 8 feet high, and then to
work upward to a height of 40 feet, leaving between the galleries
large pillars to support the roof. The boring is done with a kind
of auger of a German pattern, imported in deference to the pre-
judices of the workmen, who are largely Stassfurt miners. The
auger is worked by hand and penetrates the salt one inch for-

126 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [ FEB. 13,

every 12 revolutions of the bit. The blasting is done with dy-
namite, of which 80 to 100 boxes, each containing 100 lbs., are
used every month, say on an average 150 lbs. daily.

After blasting down 40 feet, the salt is broken by sledges,
placed in small hand-carts, and hoisted on a platform to the sur-
face by steam power. About one hundred men are employed by the
company, of whom fifty work below the surface. ‘They workon
ten-hours time.

The rock mass is quite dry, but, owing to bad management
in the early history of the mine, water from the surface runs
into it through seams and openings; to remove this, two pumps,
capable of throwing out 100 gallons per minute, are run about
ten hours out of the twenty-four. The brine pumped out is
allowed to waste.

Ventilation is necessitated by the great quantity of dynamite
exploded daily. Air is supplied by a fan 8 feet in diameter,
4 feet wide, driven at about 250 revolutions per minute. ‘This,
it is estimated, supplies about 600,000 cubic feet of air per hour.

Pockets of an inflammable gas have been repeatedly struck,
and on a recent occasion the issuing gas waslitand burnt for an
hour or more. Perhaps this phenomenon is connected with the
underlying lignite.

The engines used for running the blower, the fan, reels,
breakers, etc., are three in number, and aggregate 250 horse-
power.

The salt brought to the surface is crushed between corrugated
rollers driven at high speed; one set breaks it into lumps from two
to three inches in diameter, and another into lumps one-half
inch in diameter and finer. It is then ground into various
grades by six buhr-stone mills, each capable of grinding 50 tons
in ten hours. The salt is sorted by jigs, revolving reels, and
blowers, the fine dust being blown out by a horizontal current
of air striking against a column of falling salt.

The salt is sent into market in eight grades: (1) Rock-salt in
lumps from 100 to 300 pounds, used by farmers, it being placed
under sheds for cattle to lick. (2) Crushed salt that passes
over 4-inch screens and through #-inch screens. (3) ‘‘ Fish
salt,” including all which passes through a }-inch screen.
(4) Coarse ground. (5) Medium ground. (6) Fine ground.
(7) For sack and barrel salt the coarser particles of grade 6 are
screened out with a wire screen of ten meshes to the inch, and
the fine dust is blown out. (8) The fine dust thus blown out
divides itself by gravity into an impalpable part (which is
thrown away, being a small percentage) and a coarser part,
which forms table salt. The salt is shipped to market in sacks
and barrels.

1888. NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 127

For the year ending July, 1887, the product was 44,000 tons.
In a busy season, the daily shipments run as high as 300 tons.
Formerly the material was transported by water, througha canal
expressly maintained for the purpose, into the bay some miles
distant; now the railway carries it exclusively.

The amount of salt in sight is very great, and the possible
extent of the deposit is enormous. Borings show that about
142 acres of ground are underlaid with salt, the extreme depth of
which has not been ascertained, though borings have been sunk
190 feet. Everywhere the character of the salt is the same, and
the mine is evidently destined to supply the market for
generations to come. At present, the owners of the property
have leased the mining privilege for a consideration to the
American Salt Company.

[Specimens of sandstone, lignite, and salt were exhibited,
the latter in transparent cleavage crystals some of which mea-
sured 4 x 3 X 2 inches. |

ABSTRACT OF DISCUSSION.

Pror. EH. T. Cox described a salt deposit in Kansas, 300 feet in
thickness and 600 feet below the surface. In the Calcasieu dis-
tricts, on a line between this and Petite Anse, were other salt
beds and vast sulphur deposits beneath quicksand. A million
dollars had been spent in trying to reach the sulphur. He be-
lieves that the Petite Anse salt and the Kansas deposit were of
cretaceous age and of similar origin.

PRESIDENT NEWBERRY spoke of the origin of rock-salt de-
posits. The most satisfactory theory was that of evaporation of
great masses of sea water and the precipitation of the various
chemical ‘‘salts” at different levels;* the pure salt being pre-
cipitated after the gypsum and before the other chlorides and
sulphates.

In the alternations of level (12 feet) of Great Salt Lake, pre-
cipitations of minerals occurred which illustrated this theory.
However, the formation of these deep deposits of salt was still
in some degree a mystery.

There were evidences at Petite Anse of an ancient salt indus-
try. But the association, in the old pits, of human remains with

1See article by Prof. Newberry in Transactions, vol. iv., p. 55. Ed.

128 TRANSACTIONS OF THE | FEB. 27,

the bones of the mastodon, might possibly be accidental, by the
crumbling of the walls of the excavations.

The idea that the North American Indians did not use salt
was incorrect.

The speaker related how, when the Ives’ expedition to the
Colorado ran out of salt, and all the food was unpalatable, that
the Indians supplied salt brought from the Virgin River; and
that they found salt springs on the Little Colorado which bore
evidence of frequent visitation. He had, however, found the
Ojibways, on the north side of the St. Mary’s River, eating
boiled whitefish without salt.

Pror. D. 8. Martin exhibited one of two specimens of Petite
Anse salt, which were the first brought to New York City. They
were secured by a newspaper correspondent who accompanied
the United States forces under Gen. Banks, which took the mine
from the Confederates.

February 20, 1888.

STATED MEETING.
The President, Pror. J. S. NEwBERRY, in the chair.
Twenty-seven persons present.

The President read an announcement of the publication of
Annales de Géologie et de Paléontologie, at Palermo, under
direction of the Marquis Antoine de Gregorio. Of this, five
parts have already been published.

Pror. D. 8. MarTIN read a paper on
THE GEOLOGY OF NEW YORK CITY AND ENVIRONS.

The topic was discussed by Pror. O. P. Hupparp, Dr. N. L.
BRITTON, and the PRESIDENT.

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 129

February 27, 1888.
SEVENTY-SECOND ANNUAL MEETING.
The President, Pror. J. 8. NEWBERRY, in the chair.
Thirty-four persons present.
REPORTS OF THE OFFICERS FOR THE PAST YEAR.
THE RECORDING SECRETARY’S REPORT.

Meetings.

The Council has held eleven meetings.

The Academy has held thirty-four meetings ; every Monday
evening during the season of the Academy sessions being occu-
pied excepting one—that of Decoration Day.

There have been twenty-two Stated Meetings, which include
four Popular Lectures; nine Regular Business Meetings; one
Adjourned Business Meeting ; one Annual Business Meeting ;
and one Special Business Meeting, held in August during the
meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of
Science.

Attendance.

The average attendance at twenty-eight ordinary meetings was
forty, including visitors. Only one meeting had a smaller at-
tendance than twenty. ‘The Popular Lectures were greeted by
the usual audiences. The meeting of November 7th, to which
was invited the Local Committee, A. A. A. 8., was a gathering
of about three hundred persons. The Special Meeting, in
August, held in the Library Hall of Columbia College, was at-
tended by perhaps a thousand persons.

Membership.

The List of Resident Members numbers three hundred and
two. During the year there have been twenty resignations and
two deaths. ‘I'wo persons have been changed from Resident to
Corresponding members, and one from Corresponding to Resi-
dent. ‘T'wenty persons have qualified. It is a matter for con-
gratulation that notwithstanding the raising of fees and dues
from five to ten dollars at the beginning of the year, the num-
ber of members is but three less than last year.

Seventeen Resident Members have become Fellows, making
eighty-four Fellows at this date.

Papers.
Forty-nine formal or announced papers have been read, as
against thirty-one the previous year. These are grouped as

130 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [FEB. 27,

follows: Gevlogy and Paleontology, eleven; Geography, seven ;
Mineralogy, seven; Zoology, six; Physics, four; Physiology,
Meteorology, and Mechanics and Engineering, three each ; and
one each in Archeology, Botany, and Chemistry. The informal
and oral communications have been numerous, as usual, and
cover a wide range of topics. Detail is unnecessary here, as the
Transactions make a full record of the scientific work.

Publications.

Volume IV. of the Transactions, which was required to make
the series complete, has been printed and distributed.

Last year’s volume, Vo]. VI., has been recently distributed.

The matter for the first four months of the current year will
soon be given to members. And it is intended that thereafter
the publication of the monthly or bimonthly numbers of the
Transactions will be prompt. To accomplish this, the co-opera-
tion with the editor of the authors of papers is necessary.

Changes of By-laws.

The only important changes of rules since the increase of
Resident Members’ charges, are the increase of the Patron’s fee to
$250, and the creation of the class of Life Members, with a fee
of $100.

Review, and Events.

In all respects the year has been prosperous and successful,
and in several particulars a year of special and unusual interest
and activity.

The doubling of the membership charges made the year one
of anxious interest. ‘The result is gratifying, as shown by the
undiminished membership and greatly increased income. (See
Treasurer’s Report.)

The publication of the History of the Society was an event of
peculiar pleasure.

It was not by intention or desire that the Academy took the
most prominent part in the preparation for, and entertainment
of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.
But circumstances so ordered it, and the successful character of
the Association meeting reflects honor upon the Academy.

In the erection of a monument to Audubon, another move-
ment of a public character has been initiated by the Academy,
and is being successfully conducted by its committee.

The process of separation, and creation of special scientific
societies, which has heretofore prevailed in the city, has been
met by a reverse tendency; and in the proposition of the Miner-

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 131

alogical Club to unite with the Academy, the friends of science
see indications of a movement which it 1s hoped may unite sci-
entific effort and influence, and strengthen the Academy.
HERMAN LERoy FAIRCHILD,
Recording Secretary.

THE CORRESPONDING SECRETARY’S REPORT.
(Summary.)

The Academy is in regular correspondence, and exchange of
publications, with three hundred and seventy-four American and
foreign Scientific Societies throughout the world, as specified
in the following table:

Winibeds States: .. cece. oe 108 Denmivarkeaeeascs eo alors: si 2
Canadarrer..cc stots steers ais.cuisve 12 INGE Walyecin: ots clejeisietale +l efor .ere 6
Mexico and West Indies... 4 Sweden:..... ... ate ater 8
South America............ 3 FRUSSISs, 52 '...ile seve since Coe 10
Great Britainy..:.... .... 48 Switzerland cis cceieveere oie 12
TANCE Nay sic Seeterecisrstenste =i0re/s 30 IROntupalies te) cicysielsreryorereveis 4
Austro-Hungary.......... 14 Spal ere ie sicrereeseieteteye © 1
Gernianiyaeece macrirecterticts 62 Ga liy rats ihetovaselovotevs) ersvelevoverey sis 9
Bel piuimy cece: ore 8 Indian Java ets. sae eter 5
Netherlands) 2).',< scrsri.1cl-'s 8 ATIS ETAT AN varcers ansicusioveierse 9
dp Eieeace ducconeenoaoneD 1

A copy of this new Exchange List has been published at the
end of Vol. VI. of the Transactions.

As our former list included three hundred and thirty-one
Societies, there has been a gain of forty-three in the total num-
ber. Highty names of societies, institutions, persons, and jour-
nals have been dropped from the old list, because no longer in
existence, or no longer in exchange with us, or because for other
reasons their continuance was no longer desirable.

In answer to the circular of the Academy, proposing exchange
and revision of our list, which was prepared and sent out in
1886, about one-third of the societies addressed have sent for-
mal replies; about one-third have virtually accepted the ex-
change by their continued action; and replies are yet arriving
every week up to date.

As a result of this circular, one hundred and twenty-three
societies and institutions new to our exchange list have been
included, nearly all of whom are now sending us their own
publications. Many of these societies are very active and im-
portant, and their publications very valuable.

The list of Corresponding Members now numbers three hun-
dred and twenty, of which seven names have been added during
the year.

[FEB. 27,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE

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1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 133

THE LIBRARIAN’S REPORT.

The Library of the Academy has been shelved during the
past year on the walls of the Herbarium Room of Columbia
College, where it was placed in September, 1886. It is quite
isolated from the main college library, the only other books in
the room being those belonging to the college herbarium. It is
open for consultation from eight o’clock in the morning until
ten in the evening.

There have been added during the year by exchange and
donation, 1,388 volumes, parts, and pamphlets.

Under the arrangement made between the Academy and the
Trustees of Columbia College, all books received since the de-
position of the library in its present quarters have been promptly
bound. This statement applies as well to volumes only in part
published at that time. In all 154 volumes have been bound
at an expense to the college of $167.93.

The books have been roughly classified on the shelves, under
subjects, preliminary to the preparation of a new card catalogue.

The Librarian feels it his duty to refer in this connection to
the large number of unbound volumes which cannot be bound
under the agreement made with Columbia College. At an ap-
proximate estimate there are not less than 800 volumes which
need binding; and some provision for the expense of this work
should be made in the near future. Unbound books in a public
library rapidly suffer deterioration, even when used, as in the
case of our library, as mere works of reference.

By appointment of the Council, the Corresponding Secretary
and the Librarian were made a committee to cause certain back
volumes and parts of the Academy’s publications to be dis-
tributed in exchange to other societies and institutions. The
greater part of the correspondence necessary in carrying out
this task has fallen to the Corresponding Secretary ; the Librarian
has personally superintended the formation of packages, and a
large amount of surplus material has thus been disposed of to
good advantage. The remaining volumes and parts have been
carefully wrapped, labelled, and an exact list of them prepared,
giving us an inventory of stock in hand. It will doubtless be
necessary to reprint certain pages of Annals and Transactions in
order to supply future demands.

N. L. Brirron,
Librarian.

The chairman of the Publication Committee, Pror. D. 8.
MARTIN, made an informal verbal report.

134 TRANSACTIONS OF THE | FEB. 27,

The following resolution, offered by the secretary, was
adopted :

Resolved, That the Council be hereby authorized to send cir-
culars of information concerning the Academy, and invitations
to join the same, to the members of the late Local Committee
of the American Association for the Advancement of Science,
and to other persons desirable as members.

The annual election of officers for the coming year was de-
clared in order. The President appointed Mr. A. L. Ewing
and Mr. John I. Northrop tellers. ‘The result of the balloting
was declared as follows :

President, J. S. NEWBERRY. '

First Vice-President, O. P. HUBBARD.

Second Vice-President, W. P. TROWBRIDGE.

Corresponding Secretary, A. A, JULIEN.

Recording Secretary, H. L. FAIRCHILD.

Treasurer, HENRY DUDLEY.

Librarian, N. L. Britton.

Councillors, J. A. ALLEN, P. H. Duptey, A. R. Leeps,
D. S. Martin, J. J. STEVENSON, C. VAN BRUNT.

Curators, H. C. Boron, B. B. CHAMBERLIN, S. L. ELLIOTT,
G. F. Kunz, F. J. H. MERRILL.

Finance Committee, J. H. HINTON, Chairman ; 8. B. Brow-
NELL, L. KE. CHITTENDEN.

The PresrDENT reviewed the history and work of the Society.
In comparing the present state with the past, he now found the
Society in a more prosperous condition than at any time during
the thirty-six years of his membership. It gave evidences of
youthfulness, vitality, and activity which presaged well for the
future.

Mr. George F. Kunz exhibited silver breast-ornaments and
two pendent earrings of silver, found with Venetian glass beads
and pottery, in a mound on Smidt’s Key, at the mouth of the
Caloosahatchie River, Florida. This locality is about one hun-
dred and fifty miles southwest of the locality which supplied
the gold ornaments mentioned at the meeting of November 8th,
1886." .

1 See Transactions, Vol. VI., p. 40. [ED.]

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 135

Mr. Kunz stated that the supposed meteorite, exhibited at the
Florida Sub-tropical Exposition, weighing two hundred pounds,
and said to have fallen at Middleburg, Florida, was only a mass
of limonite.

He also said that he had received a fragment of the Kras-
noslobodsk meteoric stone, which fell September 12th, 1886, and
was said to contain diamonds.

Dr. N. L. Brirron spoke of the death of Pror. ASA Gray,
and exhibited a large photographic portrait of him, recently
made. The PRESIDENT also spoke of the deceased, and in pur-
suance of an adopted motion appointed Dr. N. L. Brirron, Dr.
E. 8. F. Arnotp and Pror. D. 8. Martin as a Memorial
Committee.

March 5, 1888.
REGULAR BusrNEss MEETING.
The President, Pror. J. S. NEWBERRY, in the chair.

The audience completely filled the East Lecture Room of the
Library Building, Columbia College.

The Report of the Council recommended as follows:

I. The payment of certain bills.

II. The payment of $100 to the Chairman of the Publication
Committee.

III. The acceptance of the resignation of Rev. G. F. Krotel.

IV. The establishment of a Special Section of Mineralogy.

The recommendations were severally adopted.

The second lecture of the Popular Lecture Course was de-
livered by Mr. P. H. Duptey, C.E.:

THE PANAMA RAILROAD AND THE INTEROCEANIC CANAL NOW
UNDER CONSTRUCTION.

(1lJustrated with lantern views. )

136 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [maR. 19,

March 12, 1888.

No meeting held, on account of the severe storm.

March 19, 1888.
STATED MEETING.
The President, Pror. J. 8. NEWBERRY, in the chair.
Forty persons present.

Some Indian stone-implements from Mansfield, Penn., sent by
Mr. ANDREW SHERWOOD in illustration of his communication,
read February 6th, 1888, were exhibited. These were flattened
cobbles with small artificial depressions on the opposite flat sides.

Mr. ArtHuR Ho.uick said these were examples of the pre-
historic implements known among archeologists as ‘‘ hammer-
stones;” and he showed similar worked cobbles which he had
found in the shell-mounds of Staten Island. These were of
sandstone, softer in material than those from Mansfield, and
not as good in workmanship. He thought they were used for
cracking oysters.

The first ‘‘hammerstones” from Staten Island were found
in February, 1884, and were described in the Proceedings of
the Natural Science Association of Staten Island for May 10th,
1884. Since that date he had found many in the same locality;
and other places had also furnished them, for example, Keyport
and Amboy, N. J., and Glen Cove, L. I. They are of different
materials, including quartzite. Some are double-pitted on each
side, some single-pitted, some only rough-pecked, while others
are smooth or show only the natural inequality of the broad
sides. But they all have battered edges, and to such a degree in
some as to indicate harder usage than crushing mollusks.

The specimens from Staten Island are mostly in the cabinet
of the Natural Science Association of Staten Island. A number
may be seen in the American Museum of Natural History.
Figures are given in an article by Charles Rau, in the American
Naturalist, Vol. VII., entitled ‘Indian Netsinkers and

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 137

Hammerstones;” also in Dr. C. C. Abbott’s ‘‘ Primitive In-
dustry,” chap. XXIX., ‘‘ Hand-hammers and Rubbing Stones,”
and in Evans’s ‘‘ Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain,”
pp. 2138-221. References to these objects are frequent.

PRESIDENT NEWBERRY remarked that these cobbles were
doubtless employed in a variety of ways, and served the general
purpose of hammers.

The SECRETARY read a letter from Messrs. J. W. Hulke and
W. Topley, General Secretaries of the Jnternational Geological
Congress, to be held in London, in September, 1888, cordially
inviting the members of the Academy to participate in the
meeting and become members of the Congress,

PRESIDENT NEWBERRY, speaking as a member of the
American Committee, expressed his gratification with the
character of the invitation, and the broad liberal spirit shown by
the officers of the Congress, and hoped that every geologist in
the Academy would join the Congress.

The following resolutions were reported by the committee
appointed to formulate the sentiments of the ACADEMY regard-
ing the death of

Asa Grau.

Whereas, It has pleased the Almighty to remove at a ripe
old age our revered friend and Honorary Member, as well as
former efficient officer of this Academy, Professor ASA GRAY,
be it therefore,

Resolved, That we deplore in his death the loss of one of
Science’s brightest ornaments, whose indomitable energy, un-
ceasing activity, avd numerous valuable publications, placed him
at the head of workers in that branch of Natural History to
which he addressed himself with such untiring zeal, devotion,
and success.

Resolved, That eminent as he was as a naturalist, he was no
less conspicuous in the possession of those many qualities which
adorn the character of the Christian gentleman. His kindly
nature and warm geniality were manifested to all who came in
contact with him, and will enshrine him in the hearts and
memories of all who enjoyed his nearer personal aquaintance.

Resolved, That a copy of these resolutions be forwarded to
her who has been his constant companion during the greater

138 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [MAR. 26,

part of his useful life, with the sympathy of this Academy in
her affliction.

N. L. Britton.

D. S. Martin.

K. 8. F. ARNOLD.

The resolutions were unanimously adopted.

Dr. N. L. Britron exhibited a block of hornblende granyte,
(quartz-syenyte) from the Powerville quarries, Morris Co.,
N. J., of great strength and durability, with no apparent bed-
ding, and lying at the base of the Archean series and character-
istic of the class of rocks which he had designated the Massive
Group.’ It is avery tough rock of high specific gravity and dark
color, owing to the large amount of hornblende, and has recently
been employed in the construction of a large mansion at Morris-
town. ‘The quarry is situated towards the southern end of an
area of similar massive rocks underlying several square miles of
Morris County, to the north and east of Boonton. As is the
case in other areas of this group, the rock varies greatly in the
percentage of hornblende contained, and in other parts of the
same area varies toward granulyte, in which there is none of that
mineral. Evidence of original stratification is found in the
rocks of this massive group in the lamination and parallel ar-
rangement of the minerals; and very rarely, and at very wide in-
tervals, indistinct bedding planes have been detected. While
there is no proof that they have had an eruptive origin, it is very
evident that the forces of metamorphism to which they have
been subjected have completely altered their structure. They
have never been observed in the form of dykes.

The PresIpENT spoke of the character and supposed origin
of these basal rocks.

Mr. W. E. HippeN announced the finding, by Mr. William
Niven, in a pegmatyte dyke near 155th street and Eleventh
avenue, of three mineral species new to the island. These are
iolite, pinite, and xenotime. The latter is of unusual perfection.

Mr. Hidden also stated that he had received the past week,
from North Carolina, zircon to the amount of six and one-half

1 See Annual Report State Geologist of New Jersey, 1886, p. 77.

1888. ] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 139

tons. This is employed in the manufacture of the Welsbach
incandescent gaslight.

Pror. W. P. TROWBRIDGE read a paper, deferred from the
previous Monday,

ON THE QUESTION OF RIPARIAN RIGHTS, AS APPLIED TO COM-
PENSATION FOR WATER-POWER IMPAIRED OR DESTROYED,
WHEN THE WATER OF A STREAM IS TAKEN FOR PUBLIC USE.

The subject was discussed by the PREsIDENT, Mr. W. P.
But er, Mr. L. E. CRITTENDEN, and Mr. GrorGe G. DEWITT.

March 26, 1888.

StaTED MEETING.
The President, Pror. J. 8S. NEwBERRY, in the chair.
Eleven persons present, in a heavy storm.

The PRESIDENT announced the death of Dr. J. B. HoLpEr,
and spoke in praise of his character and work. In pursuance
of an adopted motion, he appointed as a committee to draft re-
solutions expressing the sentiments of the ACADEMY upon the
loss of the deceased member, Pror. J. A. ALLEN, Dr. H. C.
Botton, Pror. D. 8. MARTIN.

Remarks were made by several members upon the death of
the eminent chemist, JAMES CurTIS Boorn, of Philadelphia,
eulogizing his character and work, as an accomplished man of
science, and a gentleman of broad intellectual culture, and most
attractive personal qualities.

The TREASURER made an informal verbal report upon the
condition of the finances.

A letter from Dr. Ropert H. LAMBoRN, written to the Presi-
dent from Rome, Italy, was read by the Secretary. It refer-
red to recent archeological discoveries in that city.

140 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [ APR. 2,

April 2, 1888.
REGULAR Business MEETING.
The President, Pror. J. S. NEWBERRY, in the chair.
Fifty-seven persons present.
The Report of the CouNCIL recommended as follows :

I. The acceptance of the resignations of W. H. Rudkin and
J. Van Schaick.

II. The election of the following nominees:
For Resident Members:
Franz Boas, M.D.,
Tuomas A. EDISON,
ANDREW J. RICKOFF,
B. A. WATSON.
For Corresponding Members:
Rey. Thomas Morong, Ashland, Mass.
T. Millard Reade, Liverpool, Eng.
For Honorary Member:
Prof. Dr. G. Meneghini, Pisa, Italy.

III. and 1V. The payment of certain bills.

V. That the proposition of the N. Y. Mineralogical Club for
union with the Academy be accepted, with the following con-
ditions: The Club to retain its name and independence, and to
meet with the Mineralogical Section of the Academy, and there
to present its matter desirable for publication. The Academy to
publish the communications of the Club, giving due credit to the
Club in its publications and on the announcement cards.

The recommendations were severally adopted, and the candi-
dates elected by formal ballot.

Mr. B. B. CHAMBERLIN exhibited a white beryl, from a vein
of decomposing granite, in gneiss, on First Avenue above 42d
street. From the same vein were obtained the largest ortho-
clase crystals yet found on New York Island, some of them
being four by six inches.

Pror. D. 8S. Martin, Chairman of the Publication Com-

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 141

mittee, reported the publication of numbers 3 and 4, of Volume
IV., of the Annals.

Upon motion of the Secretary, item IV. of the Council Re-
port, presented March 5th, 1888, was adopted.

It was moved and voted that the Secretary be authorized to
issue a call for a meeting of the members of the Academy, who
are interested in mineralogy, for the purpose of organizing the
Mineralogical Section.

Dr. CHARLES B. WARRING read a paper on
GENESIS I. AND ITS CRITICS.

The last word from the standpoint of scientific criticism was
spoken by Prof. Huxley in his paper in reply to Mr. Glad-
stone, entitled ‘‘'The Interpreters of Genesis and Science,” pub-
lished a short time ago in the Mineteenth Century. He
there declares that, after making all possible allowance for the
figurative use of language, one fact stands out clearly—the
story of creation, in the light of geology, is all wrong as to the
order of life upon our globe. He says in the most emphatic
manner, as if it admitted of neither doubt nor dispute, that
Moses, or whoever wrote the account, teaches that ‘‘ the animal
species which compose the water population, the air population,
and the land population, respectively, originated during four
distinct and successive periods of time, and only during those
periods.”

Prof. Huxley says nothing about vegetation in his paper, be-
‘cause Mr. Gladstone did not speak of it; but as it is logically
included, and indeed is necessary to make the statement com-
plete, I shall include this also. Putting it all into slightly dif-
ferent words, to bring out more forcibly what appears to be the
Professor’s meaning, he charges Moses with teaching that there
was no vegetation before fruit trees, no animals before
‘‘whales,” no flying creatures before birds, no land animals be-
fore cattle.

And this, Prof. Huxley declares, is the “‘ central idea” of the
creation narrative “‘by which it must stand or fall.” The
thought arises: If an error in the order is so fatal, will he admit
the opposite, if the order is free from error?

We admit that it is not true that there was no vegetation be-
fore fruit trees. There were plants long before that, animals
long before whales, flying creatures long before birds, and land
animals long before cattle. But does Genesis teach what Prof.
Huxley charges? This is the vital question, and Prof. Huxley

142 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [APR. 2,

ignores it. We can get no help from him in answering it. He
says Genesis so teaches, but offers no proof. We must look to
the account itself. Glosses and commentaries cannot take its
place, nor can they so attach themselves to it as to make it re-
sponsible for their errors. The story itself is the best possible
and only authoritative witness as to what it teaches. ‘To that,
then, I appeal.

I think no one—certainly no scientist—will object when I say
that, in the study of this account, the meaning of words ought
not to be forced, nor the order changed; and that no one has a
right to put into the story what is not there, nor to leave anything
out of it. Nor can any opponent justly find fault, if we assume
that this chapter means just what it says. I shall, therefore,
consider grass, herbs, and fruit-trees as meaning what every-
body would understand by these words elsewhere. And, since
they are placed together by the writer, in the same division of
the creative account, I shail treat them as intended to refer to
one synchronous flora, one horizon, as geologists say. In like
manner, I take the water creatures of the fifth period to be the
marine fauna of one special horizon, and so also of the animals
of the sixth period. In other words, we have here three distinct
and successive geological horizons characterized by the presence
of these organisms.

In briefest form, then, I take as my rules of exegesis:

1st. The story means what it says.

2d. It is not responsible for what it does not say.
3d. We may not add to it.

4th. Silence neither affirms nor denies.

Professor Huxley will surely welcome such an exegesis, since
he has repeatedly lashed the ‘‘ reconcilers of Genesis and Sci-
ence” for their readiness to change and twist the meaning of
words to meet the supposed demands of science. See his vigor-
ous castigation of these unfortunate gentlemen in the paper
under consideration; see also his first New York lecture.

These rules rigidly adhered to will, if I am not mistaken, lead
to results surprising for their novelty, and even more surprising
for their relation to truths which have been regarded as pecu-
liarly within the domain of science.

I propose, then, to treat this first chapter, say to the end of
the twenty-seventh verse, as literal history. The reader will
bear in mind that I am now speaking solely of the creative
account in the first chapter, and not of the Bible in general.
‘That is composed of prose and poetry, ranging from the genealo-
gies in Chronicles to the visions of the Apocalypse, and each
part must be treated according to its own character.

If Professor Huxley’s ‘‘central idea” is found anywhere in

1588. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 143

this chapter, it must be in some part of verses 11 to 25. In
verses 11 and 12 we read that, at God’s command, ‘‘ the earth
brought forth grass, herbs, and fruit trees.” In verse 21, after
these, we read that God ‘‘created great whales and other living
creatures which the waters brought forth abundantly, and fowl
to fly in the firmament of heaven.” Yet later we read in verse
25, ‘‘God made cattle, beasts,” and other living land animals.

That is all as to the order of life. It does not say that no
plants existed before fruit-trees, no animals before ‘‘ whales”
and fowls, no land animals before cattle. If the account is re-
sponsible only for what it says, then it has no responsibility for
Professor Huxley’s ‘‘ central idea,” and can neither stand or fall
by it.

Moses (or whoever wrote the account) speaks of certain im-
portant matters, and as to all else is silent. But Professor
Huxley fills the gap with what he supposes Moses would have
said—but did not—and then exclaims, how impossible that this
account is inspired! Four distinct and vitally important errors
of fact in three brief sentences! Errors indeed, but not one of
them in the story itself. It may be said, however, if these errors
are not actually in the narrative, they are what the writer must
have meant. In other words, he intended to go wrong, but
somehow was prevented.

It is not necessary to consider what was intended. We have
to do only with what is written, and keep clear of that ‘ flexi-
bility ” which is so obnoxious to our critic.

After a most careful examination of the words of Moses, we
are, as it seems to me, justified in the conclusion that what
Professor Huxley regards as ‘‘the central idea by which the
account must stand or fall,” has no place in it, but is an inter-
polation which he has too readily accepted, a figure of straw
which his logical hammer has demolished.

What, then, is the true ‘‘ central idea” of the story ?

It is God’s creatorship of all things.

No other cosmogony has risen to that height. The Chaldean,
from which it is the fashion to say this account was taken, says
that heaven, earth, and sea preceded the gods. The ‘first tab-
let ” declares that ‘‘at this time ” (when the story begins) ‘‘ the
great gods were not made any one of them.”

In Genesis, God’s creatorship is clearly set forth from first to
last. In the beginning He created the heavens and the earth,
and in every stage it is God that does what is done.

If Genesis does not teach what Professor Huxley says it does,
it may be asked, what may we learn from it as to the grand
procession of life?

First, then, it says nothing about the first plants and animals.

144 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [ APR. 2,

Those of which it speaks belong exclusively to the end of the
long series of ‘‘ populations” which have inhabited the earth,
leaving millions of years without mention. That the writer
intended to refer to present living species is evident, not only
because the terms used apply to existing forms, and mot to the
first ones, but because he represents God as giving Adam
dominion over the animals which had just been made, and which,
in order to be under Adam’s sway, must have been contempora-
neous with him.

Secondly, the account places the appearance of the plants of
which he speaks before present water creatures and fowl, and
these before present land animals,

Is thisorder correct? Did grass, herbs, and fruit-trees appear
before present water animals and present fowl?

Count de Saporta is good authority. He says in ‘‘ Le Monde
des Plantes,” page 380:

«The vegetable kingdom acquired its characteristic traits long
before the animal kingdom had completed its own; so that prob-
ably even before the end of the Tertiary, the principal groups,
and even the genera of the plants which compose the immense
majority of our actual flore, were established in the limits which
they still occupy.”

It is quite probable that new varieties and perhaps new species
have appeared since the 'lertiary, but there seems to be substan-
tial identity between the vegetation at the close of the Pliocene,
and that of to-day.’

It seems, therefore, that the work of the latter part of the
third Mosaic period occurred in what geologists call the Tertiary.

The present vertebrate animals of the water and air come
later, for, according to Professor Dana (page 518, ‘‘ Man.
Geol.,” 3d ed.), no fish, reptile, bird, or mammal reaches back
to the Tertiary, or, in his own words, ‘‘all the fishes, reptiles,
birds, and mammals of the Tertiary are extinct.” Whether
Professor Dana is justified in so broad an assertion may be a
question, but in a general sense it is true. Living species of
‘‘whales” and many other water creatures and fowl came,

1Tf *‘desheh” means only the tender shoots of the herbs and fruit-
trees, as they broke through the ground, and not grass, then we might
place the Mosaic flora in the Cretaceous, for then there were for the
first time in the earth’s history, as Le Conte says (and every other
geologist for that matter), ‘‘angiosperms both dicotyls and palms;”
or, in the exquisitely fit language of Genesis, ‘‘ the tree bearing fruit,
whose seed is inside of it.”

But for many reasons it is most probable that ‘‘desheh” means what
we call grass, and, if so, then the epoch must have been in the Tertiary,
probably at the close, when there were living species of trees, etc.

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 145

therefore, according to geology, after the plants of to-day; and,
as they are the fauna named by Moses, it follows that the work
of the fifth Genesis period was contemporaneous with the Qua-
ternary, for in this geological period are found great whales
and other water vertebrates, and fowl, and of these far the
larger portion are still living, for ‘‘ no extinct species of fishes,
amphibians, or reptiles” of that period have been found.
(Nicholson’s ‘‘ Life History of the Earth,” page 345.) Some
few kinds of birds then living, as the moas and some other
wingless species, are now extinct, but they became so in very
recent times, long after Adam, and perhaps within one or two
centuries.

There was, it was true, at the same epoch an abundant mam-
malian fauna, but it was not composed of species now living,
for, according to Dana, page 563, ‘‘ Geol.,” ‘‘ the mammals of
the Quaternary are nearly all extinct.” Le Conte, in his ‘‘ Ge-
ology.” page 569, speaking of the mammals of the latter part of
the geological record, says, in substance, that the mammals of
the Miocene are all extinct, that after them came a new set, also
extinct, after them another, now extinct; then, in the Quater-
nary, another which also has disappeared; and, lastly, came
present species, to wit, the living mammals, the cattle and
beasts of to-day.

It would seem that, unless these and other distinguished
geologists are greatly in the wrong, the fossils attest the correct-
ness of the Mosaic order. Even if it is true—a question for
others to decide—that some present mammals came down even
from the Tertiary, they are few in number, and do not affect
the conclusion that the present land animals, as a whole, came
last of all living forms.

Nor does the fact that there was some overlapping, some
species of mollusks and others coming down from earlier times,
militate against the accuracy of the story if we take it just as it
says, neither adding to it nor taking from it, for it makes no
claim to universality. It merely says that, at acertain time, the
earth or the water was to do certain things named, and we know
that it did then. The fact that other things had been done
before does not affect the truthfulness of the account.

There is, however, in the story itself a curious implied recog-
nition of other living creatures besides those named in the fiats.
It is in the working out of this central idea—God’s creatorship—
of which I have spoken. I have said that it pervades every part
of the narrative, but in the twenty-first and twenty-fifth verses
there is a broadening of the record which, in the light of geol-
ogy, is very suggestive. In verse 20 we read: Let the waters
bring forth certain creatures, not all, or every. But in the next

146 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [APR. 2,

verse the statement widens, and God is said to have created
“every living creature,” ete., those then coming into existence
and those surviving from an earlier epoch.

In the same way, we note that, in the sixth period, God com-
mands the earth to bring forth certain creatures—not all or
every creature—but in the next verse it says: God made those,
and also ‘‘every moving creature.” Whether I am right or
wrong as to the purpose and value of that word “ every,” the
fact remains that Genesis does not deny the existence of floras
and faunas earlier than those which it mentions.

By chance, or otherwise, the variation in the wording of these
verses makes them in accord with the story of geology.

There are other matters in regard to which, it is said, that
science proves Genesis in the wrong. Each has been a point of
attack on the ground that here Genesis contradicts known phys-
ical truth. I pass over the science which was sure that Gene-
sis was not from God, because it speaks of light as existing
before the sun, an argument which will never again be ad-
vanced. Nor need we spend any time upon those, if such there
yet be, who reject this account because they think it teaches
that the heavenly bodies are held up by some kind of a firm
crystalline dome, for this has been exploded by an examination
of the Hebrew.

The principal questions yet in dispute are the ‘‘ days,” the
work of the fourth period, man’s creation, and the teaching of
this chapter in relation to evolution.

Reversing the order of these questions, I would say in refer-
ence to evolution that Genesis states facts, but presents no theo-
ries, and offers no explanations. As to the how and the why, it is
silent, except to attribute everything to God acting through
nature. The earth brings forth the plants; the waters swarm
with living creatures, and the air with fowl; the land produces
its creatures, and the only explanation offered is that God made
them all. Evolution, or production from antecedent forms,
may or may not have been God’s method, Moses saying nothing
about it, but silence is not denial.

There is, it is true, an appearance of abruptness, as if the
plants or animals came suddenly into being, a thing quite in
opposition to Mr. Darwin’s belief in gradual evolution. One
cannot but admire the flexibility of science (to borrow Professor
Huxley’s fling at Genesis in his New York lecture), when now
he reads in Professor Huxley’s lay sermons that. Mr. Darwin
unnecessarily hampered himself by insisting upon gradual evo~
lution. The evidence of geology is overwhelming (evolution-
ists admit it), that from causes which science does not under-
stand, there were times of exceptionally rapid development of

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 147

higher forms. Prof. Le Conte in his ‘‘ Evolution,” page 248,
says: ‘‘Such changes are usually more or less paroxysmal, far
more rapid at some times than at others.’”” The abruptness is
quite as marked in the strata as in Genesis.

As to man, the time has not yet come to dogmatize from the
scientific standpoint as to the mode or date of his coming into
existence. Adam, according to Genesis, was formed in the same
epoch with present cattle, beasts, and other creatures. Whether
human beings preceded Adam, no hint is given, but silence is
not denial. In later chapters there are two or three statements
which the existence of pre-Adamic men would render more easy
to understand. Scientists as yet are able to give very little in-
formation on the subject. It seems the part of wisdom to wait
until we have more knowledge in regard to man’s early history.

As to the work of the fourth period, it is claimed that Moses
teaches that the ‘‘ great lights”? were made and placed in the
heavens after there nad been grass and fruit trees; the sun after
vegetation !

The same close adherence to the letter of the account will, I
think, carry it safely by this difficulty. Read as literally as
possible, Moses says: Let the lights in the firmament (expanse)
of heaven be for to divide (a Hebraism for, let the lights in the
firmament of heaven divide) between the day and the night, and
let them be for signs and for seasons, for days and for years.
And then he says: And it was so, it was done.

This seems to settle the matter, for if the two great lights had
already obeyed the command, how could they be called into ex-
istence afterwards ? Hence the next verse does not teach that
they were made then ; it is merely one more claim to creatorship.
It is a parenthetical statement that God, to whom their obedience
had just been recorded, was their Creator. He made them,
placed them on high, assigned them their duties in reference to
our planet; and he made the stars also.

Its place in the narrative, between modern plants and modern
animals, seems to correspond most nearly to that of the Glacial
epoch. When scientists have told us what occurred during this
period and at what time the axis of the earth became inclined
twenty-three and one-half degrees, we shall be in a condition to
compare what they say with what Moses has put on record.
_ The theme is a tempting one, but lies beyond the limits of this

aper.

ri that 1 would now insist upon is, that Genesis does not
teach that the sun and moon were made so late in the world’s
history.

No part of this account has given rise to so much controversy
as the word rendered ‘‘day.” It is claimed that, according to

148 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [APR. 2,

Moses, the earth and its contents were made in the short space
of six consecutive days, and that, in consequence of so great an
error, we must refuse to admit the divine origin of the story.

The same strict adherence to every verbal detail, as strict as
that which astronomers give to the photographs which they take
of celestial phenomena, will I think carry the account safely by
this difficulty.

Suppose then that one was reading the story for the first time,
and with no belief or theory about it. In short, suppose he had
never heard of it, or of the controversies to which it has given
rise. He would note in the first four verses a statement that
certain important things were done, but no hint as to the time
occupied in doing them. He would note after this an interrup-
tion in the current of the narrative, a sort of dam thrown across
the stream. Just as the fourth of July, 1776, stretches across
the stream of American history, and marks the end of colonial
life, and the beginning of national, so the ‘first day,” the
first complete day and night, marks the end of the self-luminous
condition and the beginning of the non-luminous or true plane-
tary state. But the story does not say that anything was done
on the day.

In verses 6, 7 and 8, he would read of the condensation and
descent of the waters which in superheated vapor had covered
the earth to the depth of many hundred miles, and the an-
nouncement of its completion in the words, ‘‘ And it was done.”
Then he would note a second day clause, which interrupts the
current of the story, and divides that stage from the next, but
on which it is not said that anything was done. After this he
would read of another long stretch of work, and again find the
story interrupted, the past marked off and divided from that
which was about to follow.

Going through the narrative, he would find three more inter-
ruptions, each following and preceding a stage of work. So far
as this account says, no work was done on any one of these six
days, but all was done in the interval between them, of whose
length no intimation is given. Tried by the letter of the text,
the charge that Moses says the earth was created in so brief a
period must be dismissed. In fact, the real ground of the
charge is not anything in Genesis, but it is the wording of the
fourth commandment.

I am well aware that many regard ‘‘day” as used in this
story figuratively for a period of indefinite length. But any
varying from the intensely literal character of this chapter
seems out of harmony with its other statements, while the use
of day to denote along period would be in harmony with the
commandments; for their most marked characteristic, rhetori-

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 149

cally speaking, is that figure which is styled synecdoche, or put-
ting a part for a whole. Theft stands for all crimes against
property ; murder, for all against the person ; adultery, for all
against purity ; and so through the list ; everywhere the last of
a class is put for the whole class. So I take it, the days of
Genesis, each the last day of a long period, are used in the com-
mandment for the whole periods.

I have spoken only of the negative results arising from an exe-
gesis based upon the rigid rules laid down in the beginning of
this investigation. Its positive results are no less important,
and are worthy the serious attention of its critics.

The following statements are clearly set forth in the first four
verses.

The earth had a beginning.

It was without form’ and void.

Before motion, it was enveloped in darkness.

Motion was imparted by the same first cause that created the
heavens and the earth.

The earth then was not solid, but a mobile flowing substance
(mayim, that which flows).

The first visible effect of motion was the production of light.

Light became good (7. e., such as that of the sun), before
there was a separation between light and darkness, 7. ¢., before
day and night began.

To see the value of these statements, one needs to reverse
them, or change their order, thus:

‘<The earth never had a beginning;” then, all that we have
been taught about the sun’s loss of energy, or about the effect of
tidal friction, or Prof. Tait’s degradation of energy, is an error,

‘¢The earth never was without form and void, never was a
mobile, easily flowing substance;” then, what scientists have
taught us about the earth’s once gaseous condition is an error.

‘Darkness did not cover the deep, before motion was im-
parted;” then, the corpuscular and the undulatory theory of
light are both errors, physical impossibilities.

“Light did not become good light till after day and night
began.”

Then, what the spectroscope has told us about the poor,
three-banded spectrum of nebulous matter, gradually improving
as the gaseous substances approach a liquid or solid form, till it
becomes good light, like that of the sun, all this is an error.

The importance of these statements and their order cannot
well be overestimated.

1This is not a happy translation of ‘‘tohu.” It is ‘‘ vanity, almost
nothingness,” a term peculiarly applicable to nebulous matter, a thou-
sand times thinner than air.

150 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [APR. 2,

We pass on to the next stage.

At first, after the earth had cooled so far that day and night
began their alternation, geology tells us that it was enveloped in
aqueous vapors of enormous depth, and that the next step in
fitting it for life—vegetable or animal—was to thin out these
vapors, till, as now, there was a clear, open expanse separating
the waters above it from those below it.

The next step recorded in Genesis is wonderfully like this:
‘God made an expanse—most literally, a thinning out with
violence and noise—in the midst of the waters.”

Geology tells us, too, that the atmosphere, after this disper-
sion of the dense clouds, was loaded with poisonous gases. The
atmosphere was not good, and if the reader will turn to Genesis,
he will see that the verdict good, which is found in the five other
accounts, is omitted from this—an omission wholly inexplicable
till now.

Geology says that at first the land was under water, and so
does Genesis. They agree, too, in saying that the waters are
gathered into one place, for the oceans are parts of one great
basin.

Geology tells us that the next work was to so purify the waters
and to so enlarge and enrich the land that they became good for
modern types of plants and animals; that, after they had become
thus fitted, modern vegetation appeared, but not as yet present
living species of animals.

This story of geology reads like a paraphrase of Genesis.
There we are told the land appeared, and it and the waters were
pronounced good, and after that, there were fruit-trees and
grasses.

Geology tells of a strange climatic change after modern plants
had appeared. It tells also of ‘‘zoneless climates,” climates
apparently without change of seasons, of uniformity of environ-
ment, such that, till late in the world’s history, the same plants
grew indifferently in the highest and lowest latitudes. Since
light is one of the most important of the forces affecting plant
life, it would seem that, after the Tertiary, the axis of the earth,
from some cause unknown to science, passed from a nearly per-
pendicular position to its present obliquity.

It is remarkable that Genesis places next after present plants
a change of some kind introducing seasons, affecting the days,
and making the year an easily recognized measure of time, and
says nothing of weeks or months—an omission entirely in ac-
cordance with the fact that an increase in the obliquity of the
earth’s axis would not affect them.

After this transaction, whatever it was, came present water
animals and fowl, and, yet later, present land animals.

1888, | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 151

So far as I can judge, this brief and incomplete study of the
first chapter of Genesis shows that our rules of exegesis merely
formulate its real character, the most literal history imaginable.
It is wonderful how objections vanish, and agreements become
visible, agreements with the science of to-day, not that of the
times when the story was written. There may be conflict with
certain theories of modern date, but nothing is more changeable
than inchoate scientific theories. In such cases, the lesson of
the past is: Wait.

A poet, believing in one God, creator of all, might, perhaps,
have woven into a hymn of creation, most of the things in this
story. He could have spoken of land and water, and of plants
and animals, of the heavens, of the expanse, of a beginning
when light was not, and there was no day, and possibly he
might have dreamed of an earth once covered with water, of an
earth without form and void, of light and darkness—but could
he have placed them each in its true order?

A careful analysis shows more than thirty points where this
story touches modern science. Unlike the statements in the
Chaldean Genesis, they are not platitudes, or trifles, or absolute
absurdities, but all are important, and the falsity of some, if it
could be established, would be fatal to much of what we call
science.

Somehow it has happened (?) that Moses and modern science
have each placed these thirty or more points in the same order.

Could this have occurred by any human knowledge of the
earth’s history, or by chance?

I have made but a brief statement, a hint rather than a full
development of the argument, yet I submit that even in this
imperfect representation there is too much truth, too much
accord with the order of science, to be answered by sneers at the
flexibility of the Hebrew, or by assumption of errors which are
the interpretations of commentators in their eagerness to make
the story square with “ science,” or of scientific critics, in their
desire to demolish an account which, if true, establishes the
reality of a revelation and of miracles, for revelation is a
miracle.

A brief resumé of correspondences betwecn Genesis and Science.
Genesis says: Science says

1, In the beginning God created Science admits a creator, claims
the heavens and the earth and the a once nebulous condition when
earth was without form! and void. the earth was literally formless!

and void.

1“ Tohu” admits of several renderings, each of them more or less
applicable to nebulous matter. The best result is obtained by taking

152

2, And darkness was upon the
face of the deep.

And the spirit of God moved
upon the face of the waters (may-
him, that which flows, 7. e., fluid).

3. And there was light.

4. And God saw that it was
good, and (after that) God divided
between the light and the dark-
ness.

5. The light he called day and
the darkness he called night.

7. And God made an expanse in
the midst of the waters, and let it
divide the waters below it from
those above it.

8. And God called the expanse
heaven.

It was not pronounced good,

9. Let the waters be gathered
unto one place and let the dry
land appear.

10. And God saw that it was
good (7. e., done or completed).

12. And the earth brought forth
grass, the herb yielding seed, and
the fruit-tree yielding fruit where-
in is its seed.

And God saw it was good.

Both the above are put into one
stage of development, the third.

14. And God said: Let the lights
in the firmament of heaven (so in
the Hebrew) divide between the
day and night, and let them be
for signs and for seasons and for
days and years. And it was so.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE

[APR. 2,

A beginning implies a time be-
fore motion, and of course no light.
Science has no explanation of
the cause of motion but God’s will.

The earth at first was fluid.

Light followed motion.

The spectroscope tells us that the
poor light of nebulous matters be-
comes good light, such as that of
the sun, while the body is still self-
luminous. And only after the light
is thus perfected comes an opaque
crust and day and night.

After the crust had become
opaque it was still so hot that a
large part of the water was in the
air as clouds and vapors, and the
next step in world-making was to
get ridof them.

The end of the process was in-
dicated by such atmospheric trans-
parency that sun, moon, and stars
were visible.

The early atmosphere was not
good, for it was loaded with
poisonous gases.

When the deposition of the
waters was completed, they cover-
ed the globe as a rind covers an
orange. But the continents lay
just below the surface (Dana) and
soon began to emerge.

The completion of the continents
was effected in the Pliocene. This
fixes the date for the event in
Genesis.

In the Pliocene the earth brought
forth the flora of to-day, including
grass, herbs, and fruit-trees of
living kinds.

No farther advancement has
been made in the vegetable world
since the Pliocene.

Both completions occurred in
one period—the Pliocene.

Atsome time the daysand nights
began to be unequal, and seasons
were introduced. Astronomers
cannot tell when nor how the axis
became inclined. The evidence of
geology is that in the earlier ages
there were the same plants from

each in turn and so getting a sort

of ‘composite picture.” Nothing

can be more fitting to wkat is believed to have been the earth’s earliest

condition.

1888. |

21. And God created great
whales, and every moving creature
which the waters brought forth
abundantly, and every winged
fowl after its kind.

And God saw it was good,

25. And God made the cattle,
beasts, and everything that creep-
eth on the earth.

And God saw that it was good.

27, And God made man (Adam
in the Hebrew) in his own image,

NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,

153

the poles to the equator, and it
teaches of like environments in
high and low latitudes, of which
one of the most important is light,
Such conditions require an axis,
nearly perpendicular. (The reader
will please not to consider this
even an attempt to discuss this
period. Nothing can be done with-
in the necessary limits of this
paper.)

After the glacial epoch and, d
fortiori, after the Pliocene, present
water vertebrates appeared for
the first time, and present fowl.

No further advance has been
made in the genera, and scarcely
any in the species.

In most recent times and after
the last-named animals, the living
mammals of to-day appeared.

This was final. No new mam-
mals have been added. It ended
the long preparation for man,

Perhaps there were other races
earlier, but the race of Adam, the

progenitor of the people about
whom the Bible is mainly written,
came into being at this end of the
creation work.

It has been said that no philosophical divisions of the
‘“creation ” into six periods can be made. The following, which
is merely the Mosaic division, seems to meet the requirements.

1, The nebulous or embryonic stage, ending in an opaque
earth, with days and nights.

2. The pluvial stage, ending in a world covered with water.

3. The preparatory stage, reaching from somewhere in the
Archean to the latter part of the Tertiary, including continental
development and the finishing of vegetation.

4, The fourth stage, in which the sun and moon become time
measures, unequal days and nights and seasons were introduced.

5. The fifth stage is the final stage in the development of
water creatures and birds.

6. The sixth stage includes the production of living mam-
mals.

The most remarkable things about the account are its free-
dom from monstrosities, the agreement of its order with that
of the world’s history, and the manner in which it meets the
requirements of what a revelation should be, as they are set
forth by Dr. Draper.

154 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [APR. 2,

“‘Considering the asserted origin of this book,’ indirectly

from God Himself, we might justly expect that it would bear to
be tried by any standard that man can apply, and vindicate its
truth and excellence in the ordeal of human criticism.
As years pass on, and human science becomes more exact, more
comprehensive, its conclusions must be found in unison there-
with. When occasion arises, it should furnish us at least the
foreshadowing of the great truths discovered by astronomy and
geology, not offering for them the wild fictions of earlier ages,
the inventions of the infancy of man.”—Dr. Draper in The In-
tellectual Development of Europe.

Thus much for the positive side, now for the negative.

Genesis does not say that world was made 6,000 years ago.

It does not say that anything was done on any one of the
“ days.”

It does not speak of the first plants or water animals, or birds,
nor of the first land animals.

It does not say how they were made.

It does not say that the earth is the largest body in the uni-
verse.

It does not say that it is larger than the sun.

It does not say that the stars are less than the sun or moon.

It does not say that all plant life began at one day—nor does
it say that of either aquatic or land animals, or of birds.

Dr. WARRING then read a paper on
MIRACLE, LAW, AND EVOLUTION.
I. Miracles and Law.

I do not propose to discuss the reality of the miracles recorded
in the Bible. Those who deny their possibility, as well as many
who believe in them, look upon miracles as generically different
from those occurrences which are said to take place in obedience
to the laws of nature. There certainly is a difference. I pro-
pose to inquire what it is. Evidently it is not in the degree of
power required; for raising the dead is a less thing than the
birth and growth of an individual. It is less to set in motion a
watch that has stopped, than to make one. Causing the widow’s
oil and meal to increase was a small matter in comparison with
providing daily food for the millions that cover the earth.

Nor are miracles intrinsically more wonderful than those
things which we regard as the effect of law. Nothing is more
common, or less excites our surprise than the working of the

1 Dr. Draper is speaking of the Koran, but his words are better than
he knew.

1888. ] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 155

law of gravitation; yet, what is more wonderful than a force
which, according to Laplace, travels more than fifty million
times faster than light, itself moving with the inconceivable
velocity of nearly two hundred thousand miles in a second ?

Were to-night, in some far distant constellation, another sun
called into existence, ages would pass before its light could reach
our earth, but only a few seconds would elapse before the earth
would feel its presence.

Nor is this velocity the only or the greatest cause for wonder.
Another property of this force far surpasses that. I mean its
ability to adjust itself with omniscient accuracy to every change
in mass, or position, of bodies however widely separated.

The adjustment of position and movement of every member
of our solar system, and, I may add, of the universe, to the mass,
distance, and position of that new sun would at once begin and,
in due time, complete itself with an exactness that is perfect,
and which no human measurements can hope to equal. And
since every atom is attracted by every other atom in the universe,
it is a sober fact that the fall of a sparrow is registered in every
star fifty millions of times sooner than light can speed its way
across the abyss that separates them. Can any miracle be more
wonderful than that ?

We may extend the comparison as far as we please, and we shall
find in all cases that miracles differ from what we regard as the
effect oflaw, neither in the amount of power required nor in their
intrinsic wonderfulness.

We must, therefore, seek for some other characteristic by
which they may be distinguished. So far as I can see, this lies
in the continuity of the one, and the absence of continuity of
the other. In aworld where no vegetation had ever existed, the
production of an oak would beamiracle. ‘To us it is merely the
outworking of law, because it goes on continuously. The first
plants and the first animals came into existence by a miracle.
They continue to come into being, and now it is law. In every
law the first of the series was a miracle, and, had we been
present, would have excited our profound wonder. But often
repeated, it ceases to excite surprise, yet the thing itself is
unchanged.

The dead rising, the deaf hearing, the blind seeing, when
commanded by Christ or in His name, were miraculous occur-
rences. But if this had continued, if every time a dead man was
told in that name to rise, or a deaf man to hear, or a blind man
to see, he had obeyed, no more surprise or wonder would be excited
than now that men wake from sleep. It would be simply the
way in which nature works.

So far, then, as I can see, the peculiarity of miracles lies in

156 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [APR. 2,

their uniqueness. Each stands by itself. A miracle may be
represented by a point; law by a line; successive points make a
line. Miracles indefinitely repeated crystallize into law. In
briefest phrase, law is continuous miracle. Those, therefore, err
who rank miracles as higher or more divine than law; for as two
are more than one, and four more than three, and a series
greater than any one of its terms, so law is greater and intrinsi-
cally more wonderful than miracle. Neither admits of explana-
tion other than the will of that First Cause which lies back of
all.

Il. Miracles and Evolution.

What, it may be asked, have these to do with each other ?
Are they not catch-words that represent the opposite poles of
modern thought ? I ask your patience and attention, and, when
I have done, I hope it may be clear that they do have something
to do with each other, and that, if they represent opposite poles
of thought, they help to weld fragmentary truths into one con-
sistent whole.

Christ is represented not only as a worker of miracles, but as
the Creator, the informing spirit that produced all things which
exist, or ever did exist.

Those who believe this, and that includes all who regard the
New Testament as inspired, will, I think, agree with me when
I say we may reasonably expect to obtain from the study of His
methods, when performing His miracles, some light as to His
course when acting in His capacity of creator. Just as when we
find certain peculiarities of style or dictionin one of an author’s
books, we expect to find them to some extent, at least, in all his
works; so, if we find some peculiarity, some way of doing things
that runs through all His miracles, it would be reasonable to look
for it in His mode of doing His creative work. And I think we
are safe in saying that of two theories as to how certain things
were done, e. g., how present animals came into the world, that
which harmonizes best with His methods when working His
miracles would be the most likely to be true.

A brief study of the accounts which we have, will suffice to
show that, in Christ’s miracles, natural means, laws, and powers
go just as far as is possible for them, and then the supernatural
comes in and does what they cannot do. When, for example,
at the marriage in Cana, Christ would supply the lack of wine,
there was the water, the jars, the servants, all in the usual way.
He bade the servants fill the jars with water. They did that, and
it was as far as natural means could go; then came in His power
and added the components needed to make the water wine. This
done, the supernatural ceased, the natural again came into opera-

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENUES. 157

tion, for it was the servants that drew out the wine and bore it to
the governor of the feast.

Would He feed the hungry thousands? He commanded them
to sit down, took the bread and fishes, broke them, and gave to
the disciples to distribute. Thus far all was in accordance with
law, and it was as far as law could go. At that moment, the
divine power came in and did the one thing impossible for
nature: it caused the bread and fishes to multiply.

Even here he kept as close to the natural method as was pos-
sible. Would we have an increase in our stock of food, we take
wheat, and it produces its own kind, or barley, and it produces
barley. In all cases by natural law, we take a portion of that of
which we would have more, and it multiplies. So here. He
would have more bread, he took that, and it produced its own
kind. He would have more of the fishes, and the animal fabric
grew under his hands, and from what he had, came more of
the same kind, It was like producing like, in a strange, ab-
normal way, it is true, but no more inexplicable, in the last
analysis, than is now what we call the natural process by which
we get our food.

After the increase of the loaves and fishes, there was no further
need of miracle, all else proceeded in the usual way. ‘lhe mul-
titude ate and were refreshed in the ordinary manner, and the
disciples gathered up the fragments.

Would He supply tribute money for His disciples? He told
them what they could have learned from no power in nature,
viz,, where to throw the line to catch the fish which had seized
the glittering coin, as it sank in the water of the lake. Up toa
certain point, all was natural, the hungry fish voraciously seiz-
ing the sinking coin, the line, the fisherman; the one thing
needed to complete the transaction, the omniscience which
notes the fall of a sparrow, was supplied by Christ. The dis-
ciples did the rest. They took the money and paid the tribute.

When He raised the dead child, He brought back life and
health, but He commanded those present to give her food. She
got life from Him, but strength she was to get in the ordinary
way.

When He restored Lazarus to his sisters, he bade the Jews
standing around roll the stone away from the tomb. Then they
reached their limit. At this instant of absolute helplessness,
when nature and man could do nothing, He interposed and
gave life to the dead body, but it was the living Lazarus himself
that walked out of the sepulchre, and it was those standing by
who loosed him from the grave clothes. Christ’s exercise of
miraculous power, here also, was confined to the one thing law
could not do, the restoration of life.

158 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [APR. 2,

All the other miracles, so far as we can judge from the very
brief record, are marked by the same characteristic.

Hence, I think, we may conclude that the divine method in
miracle-working was to do only that which Nature, with her laws
and powers, could not do, and then to let herdotherest. What
was already in existence was invariably used, as far as it could be
applied, and to this was added only that which was necessary to
complete the transaction.

Hence it seems reasonable to infer that, in His work as Creator,
He used whatever was nearest to His purpose, and exerted
power above Nature only to do what she could not. As to the
rest, He left it to the outworking of natural causes.

Now for the application.

The world of to-day contains many thousand species of plants
and animals. There is indisputable evidence that the present
is only the last of a long series of ‘‘ populations,” each differing
from its immediate predecessor. Each antecedent population
was of a lower grade than its successor, until at last we reach
the dawn of life where only the lowest orders are found. Or,
conversely, starting at the beginning of life, there were for mil-
lions of years radiates, articulates, and mollusks, but no verte-
brates; then for other millions, there were water vertebrates,
but none on the land ; then for thousands of centuries, land ver-
tebrates but no mammals, and for another long period, mammals,
but none of existing kinds, and lastly those now living.

One example will suffice, although it reaches back but a little
way, yet far enough for my present purpose.

Many thousand years ago, there lived an animal which geolo-
gists have named Orohippus, or the Mountain Horse. It was
about the size of a very small Shetland pony, which in many re-
spectsit resembled. Stillit was not a horse, for it had four little
hoofs on each fore foot, and three on each of its hind ones. The
genus lived many thousand years, each generation like its pre-
decessor ; but at last “‘from some cause unknown to science,”
anew animal, in fact a new genus, appeared, different in some
respects from the Orohippus, and approximating somewhat
more to the present horse, yet not a horse, for on each of its
feet were three hoofs. ‘The Mesohippus, for so geologists have
named it, also kept on for many generations, producing at every
birth only its own likeness. After a uniform course, for we
know not how many thousands of years, there appeared another
creature, the Miohippus, very much like its predecessor, but
approaching more nearly to the horse. The middle hoof was
larger, indicating a promise of an animal in which the two side
hoofs should disappear. The Miohippus lived from generation
to generation its_uneventful life, one monotonous series of like

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 159

producing like, till at last another animal made its appearance
still in the same line of progress; the side hoofs remained, but
of diminished size, while the teeth became more like those of
the horse.

This genus (Protohippus) ran its course, and then another
{Pliohippus) came into existence with greater resemblance to
the horse, for it had single hoofs, and teeth still more equine.

Next and last came the horse, the living servant of man.

It is not possible as yet to trace the pedigree of any other
animal as satisfactorily as this; there is, however, sufficient evi-
dence to induce the belief that there has been a similar process
in all species.

The question is how to explain these facts. Scarce any one
doubts that the first life came direct from the Creator. It is
in regard to the successive populations that biologists differ.
The fact of there having been such is beyond dispute. It is
as to the manner of the successive genera coming into existence
that there is question. Only two suppositions are conceivable.
Hither each species was made de novo by the Almighty, or it
was born of some preceding creature of a different species. ‘The
former is the older theory, and claims to be in exclusive harmony
with sacred writ. It teaches that God made, e. g., the Mountain
Horse, Orohippus, from earth, air, and water, and gave it life ;
that later, from more of the same raw materials, he made the Meso-
hippus; and yet later from more earth, air, and water, he made
the Miohippus, and endowed it with life; that, after another
long interval, once more from more earth, air, and water, God
made the Protohippus, and so on down to the present horse.
There was a succession of creations, but no genetic relation be-
tween them. This theory was devised when nothing was known of
the life history of our globe, and when the plants and animals
of Genesis were thought to be the first and only ones that ever
existed.

The other theory also holds to the belief in a Creator. It,
however, teaches that only the first kinds of plants and animals
were made direct from inorganic material. It admits of special
creation sufficiently to account for the first links in the chain
of life, but claims that, from these, others of new and different
kinds were produced at some subsequent time, and from
them others, andso on down through many stages to the present.
It holds that the law of like producing like was then as now the
law, till time and environments were ready, perhaps after thou-
sands of generations, and that then ‘‘some cause unknown to
science,” an agnostic euphemism for a more or less direct act of
the Creator, so changed the factors in what may be called the

160 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [APR. 2,

personal formula of the embryos,’ that they grew up into ani-
mals of species till thenunknown. ‘Thus, for example, ‘‘ some
cause unknown to science” so changed the embryo in an Oro-
hippus, that it was born a Mesohippus; and, after many thou-
sand generations of the new species, like begetting like for all
that time, the “ cause unknown to science” sochanged the em-
bryo a second time that from the Mesohippus was born a Mio-
hippus, as if now from a panther a lion should be born, and thus
the process went on.

The first of these theories, the creation de novo for each new
species, is as unlike the course of Christ in His miracles as possi-
ble. He employed what was already in existence and nearest to
His purpose, and put forth the least possible amount of divine,
or extra-natural, power that would suffice to adapt the same to
his design. The production of new species by changes in preced-
ing forms nearest related, appears to be in perfect harmony
with His method.

Such derivation of new species from older species is the
essence of evolution, and this whether the evolution was by im-
perceptible degrees as taught by Mr. Darwin, or at once, per
saltum, a bound, as it were, at one birth, or at most, in a few
successive births, from the old to thenew. Such abrupt changes
seem most in harmony with the teachings of the miracles. In
these the thing to be done was done not imperceptibly, but at
once.

So far as I can read the record of geology, its evidence also is
in favor of abrupt changes. The links in the pedigree of the
horse are well defined; there is not an imperceptible, long-con-
tinued transition from genus to genus. There was the Orohippus,
and, after a time, suddenly the Mesohippus appears; again,
there was generation after generation of the Mesohippus, and
then, all at once, is found the Pliohippus, and so on.

In spite of an original and very strong bias the other way, bi-
ologists now admit the occurrence of sudden starts upward,
jumps in the progress of development. Prof. Huxley, in his
** Lay Sermons,” page 297, says: ‘‘ We believe that nature does
make jumps now and then.” May we not ask: Is there con-
clusive proof she ever does otherwise ? He adds: ‘‘ Mr. Dar-
win embarrassed himself with the aphorism which turns up so
often in his pages, ‘ Natura non facit saltum.’ ”’

Prof. Cope, ‘‘ Origin of the Fittest,” page 123, unwittingly
illustrates the unwillingness of the biologist to give up the
gradualism of Darwin, and the conclusiveness the other way of

1«‘The transition from type to type was done during foetal life.”
Cope, Origin of the Fittest, page 276.

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 161

the geological record. Hesays: ‘‘ The results of such succes-
sional (embryonic) metamorphoses are expressed in geological
history by more or less abrupt transitions, rather than by uni-
formly gradual successions.” It is difficult to avoid the belief
that, but for theoretical reasons, biologists, in reference to new
species, would almost adopt the motto, Natura semper facit sal-
tum. Be this as it may, evolution gives us no aid in accounting
for the changes. The survival of the fittest, however important
in determining what varieties shall survive, gives no assistance
in determining how and why the variations occurred. As Prof.
Huxley well says: ‘‘ What the hypothesis of evolution wants is
a good theory of variation.” At present it can be attributed to
nothing more definite than ‘‘some cause unknown to science.”
Miracles are equally well explained in the same way.

The believer in the Bible will ask: ‘‘ But does not this con-
flict with the story of creation in Genesis? If Genesis be true,
is it possible that present species of animals are descended from
older species, and back through many steps to the first stages of
life upon our globe?” But wherein is the contradiction ?
Genesis says only that God made, or created, the various crea-
tures named. As to how He did it, there is absolute silence,
hence, as to the mode of bringing into existence, contradiction
is impossible.

The chief interest most persons have in evolution pertains to
man’s origin. As to his higher part, the soul, few will be found
to deny that it came direct from God.

The doubt is as to his body. Did God form it directly from
the ground and atmosphere, moulding the mixture to his pur-
pose, and then give it life? Or did He take, in embryo, or after
birth, some animal nearest to his design, and enlarge its form,
shorten the length of its arms, change its hand-like feet till
fitted for man’s upright position, and enlarge the capacity of the
skull to fit it for the large brain which was to be the facile in-
strument of the soul, the go-between of the soul and the body ?
Whichever really was the mode of man’s creation, there can be,
I think, no doubt that the latter is most in harmony with
Christ’s methods when exercising His power in the miracles.
And as for the question of dignity, surely matter which under
the divine hand had been prepared and refined in all the infi-
nitely delicate machinery of a living body, though that of a
brute, was, to say the least, as worthy of man as that which had
never since its creation received the divine touch, but had lain,
raw and crude, beneath the feet of man’s predecessors.

Then there is the creation of Eve. God undoubtedly might
have made her as he did Adam. But in accordance with the
law that runs through the miracles, it would seem probable that

162 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [APR. 9,

God took material nearest fitted for His purpose, and in har-
mony with a method found all through nature, propagation by
fission, caused from a part of the man a woman to grow. It
seems to me that this was closer to nature’s methods still in
operation—like producing like—than such changes in another
simian, as occurred when one changed to a human being, and
became in the sense which we all understand, but shall never
comprehend, a living soul.

It will seem strange to many that the study of the mira-
cles of the Bible has Jed to the support of evolution, so
strange, that I fear it may hinder their giving due weight to
the argument. But, although some advocates of evolution may
appear to desire to use this theory to shut the Creator out of
His own world, it seems to me that species produced by modifi-
cation of previous species show His hand as unmistakably, nay,
I would say, show it more clearly than if moulded direct from
earth, air, and water.

The subjects were discussed by Mrs. Vireinrta K. HASCALL,
Pror. D. 8. MARTIN, the PRESIDENT, and the author of the.
paper.

April 9, 1888.
STATED MEETING.
The President, Pror. J. S. NEWBERRY, in the chair.
Seventy-one persons present in the Geological Lecture Room,
Columbia College.
A paper by Ligut. Tuomas L. Casey was read by title:—

ON SOME NEW NORTH AMERICAN RHYNCHOPHORA.
(Published in the Annals, Vol. IV.)

Mr. GeorGe F. Kunz exhibited a jadeite tablet from Hon-
duras. It measures about six and one-half by four and one-half
inches, and is one-half inch thick. One side is carved with a
rude representation of a face, with pendents hanging from the
ears. It is evidently Maya work, highly polished, and one of the
finest jadeite relics known. The perforations indicate that it
was worn as a breastplate.

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 163

Mr. Kunz suggested that the famous ‘* Leyden plate” found
in 1875, and the ‘“‘ Humboldt celt,” obtained by Humboldt, in
1803, from Sr. Del Rio, and now in Berlin, were probably parts
of one large celt, from which other pieces might also have been
taken. The dark-brown color was probably produced by heat.
There is no record of jadeite being found im si¢w on this con-
tinent, the only known locality being Burmah.

PRESIDENT NEWBERRY thought it not improbable that the
jadeite found fashioned into ornaments at many localities in
America and Europe, was of eastern origin. It seems to have
been regarded as a substance of inestimable value, a badge of
royalty, and to have passed from hand to hand forages. Its oc-
currence in Mexico suggests communication between the Old
and New Worlds, more probably by way of the East Indies.

Mr. Kunz also exhibited a new form of oligoclase, trans-
parent and glass-like, from near Bakersville, N. C. It contains
white, stellated inclusions, similar in form to those observed
in the Ceylonese moonstone; but, while the latter are crystals,
the former are merely hollow spaces. He also announced that
he had identified spessartite garnet, from Amelia Court House,
Amelia County, Va. In color hyacinth, light-brown and dark-
brown.

Pror. J. S. NEWBERRY gave an address upon

THE PROGRESSIVE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MEANS OF ATTACK
AND DEFENCE IN FISHES.

(Profusely illustrated with specimens and lantern views. )

April 16, 1888.
STATED MEETING.
The President, Pror. J. S. NEWBERRY, in the chair.
Thirty-two persons present.

Mr. WitirAm L. ELserrer presented the following :—

164 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [APR. 16,

DATA RELATING TO THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER.

The river reached a lower stage during the low-water period
of 1887 than for several years, excepting at New Orleans, where
low-water stage was relatively and exceptionally high.

The Chief Signal Officer U. S. A. has furnished me with the
following data, viz.:

At Vicksburg, the mean stage for November, 1887, ‘‘ was
minus 3.0 feet,” being ‘4.2 feet lower” than the mean for
November, 1886.

Notwithstanding this remarkably low stage of the river, the
mean stage at New Orleans during November, 1887, was ‘‘ plus
2.0 feet,” being ‘‘ one-tenth higher” than the mean for Novem-
ber, 1886.

The lowest water at New Orleans during November, 1887, was
three-tenths of a foot higher than the lowest stage in November,
1886.

The Chief Signal Officer states, in his letter to me of April 9th,
1888, as follows: ‘‘ There is shown to be a relatively high stage
of water at New Orleans. ‘The cause of this may be due to the
fact that there is a gradual obstruction to flow, owing to accumu-
lations of some sort in the vicinity of New Orleans. ‘The cause
is hardly to be looked for in the gauge, yet it is possible.”

Assuming the gauge to be correct, the relatively high stage at
New Orleans would show a deterioration in the channel of the
river. The cause of this deterioration is found in the artificial
works that have been placed in the river, in conjunction with
the deposition of sedimentary material consequent upon these
works; these together form the obstruction and heap up the
waters of the river. The artificial works referred to are at New
Orleans, and in the passes.

Mr. B. B. CHAMBERLIN spoke of some interesting quartz
crystals from New York Island. Crystals of smoky-quartz were
found mounted on pedestals of milky-quartz. The former were
one-third inch in diameter, doubly terminated with very short
prismatic faces. Of larger size were prisms of limpid quartz
with caps of amethyst, some of which are removable.

Dr. OLiveER P. Hupsarp referred to some large quartz

1888. ] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 165

-erystals from Japan, of clear quality ; one crystal being 5.94
inches in diameter.

Pror. J. S. NEWBERRY exhibited a jaw of Rhizodus, and pre-
sented the following

NOTE ON A NEW SPECIES OF RHIZODUS, FROM THE ST. LOUIS
LIMESTONE AT ALTON, ILLINOIS.

At the meeting of the Academy held May 2d, 1887, I ex-
hibited jaws, teeth, and bones of a large ganoid fish discovered
by Mr. William McAdams in the Mountain Limestone at Alton,
Ill., and this is briefly described in the Transactions of the
Academy, Vol. VI., p. 187, and named Celosteus ferox. I have
now the pleasure of exhibiting to the society portions of the
under jaw of an allied, but still larger, fish recently found by
Mr. McAdams inthe same formation. This evidently represents
a species of Rhizodus much like Rk. Hibberti, Ag., from the
‘Carboniferous limestone of Scotland, of which the great laniary
teeth are figured in most text-books on geology. The specimen
now exhibited forms the anterior half of the dentary bone, which
carries a large number of acute, conical, striated teeth, about half
an inch in length, with three great laniary teeth, of which one is
located near the symphysis, the others respectively four and a
half and seven and a half inches further back. Of these the
anterior only is perfect; this projects about two inches above
the margin of the jaw, and is deeply implanted in its substance;
the point is rounded off by wear, the sides are compressed, the
margins acute, the base strongly fluted. It differs from the
corresponding tooth in the Scotch species of Rhizodus in being
more compressed and double-edged. This has suggested the
specific name Rhizodus anceps, given to the species.

The discovery of this specimen is of special interest, as proving
the existence of an unmistakable species of Rhizodus in North
America, contemporaneous with the great Scotch ganoid, and
equally large.

Several nominal species of Rhizodus have been described
from the Carboniferous rocks of the United States, such as R.
lancifer, N., R. quadratus, N., R. occidentalis, N., allfrom the
Coal Measures of Ohioand Illinois, but it is by no means certain
that any of these belong to the same genus with R. Hibderti, Ag.

Sir William Dawson has described a fragment of a fish jaw
from the Lower Carboniferous of Horton Bluff, Nova Scotia,
under the name of Rhizodus Hardingi. 'This is apparently a
true Rhizodus, and it is probable that the genus, strictly defined,
will be found limited to the Lower Carboniferous rocks.

166 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [APR. 23,

Mr. Georce F. Kunz exhibited a diamond crystal, found
near Atlanta, Ga.; an elongated octahedron, of three and one-
eighth carats, with a yellow tinge.

Mr. Seto E. MEEK communicated a paper,’
NOTES ON THE FISHES OF THE CAYUGA LAKE VALLEY.
(Published in the Annals, Vol. IV.)

Remarks were made by the PRESIDENT, Dr. O. P. HUBBARD,
and Mr. L. E. CHITTENDEN.

April 23, 1888.
STaTED MERTING.
The President, Pror. J. S. NEWBERRY, in the chair.

A good audience present in the West Lecture Room of the
Library Building, Columbia College.

The third lecture of the Popular Lecture course was given by
Pror. GEORGE E. Post, of Beirtit, Syria, on

THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY OF SYRIA AND
PALESTINE.

The geographical region included in the above title is divided
into five parallel strips, running north and south. The first of
these is the coast.

The sea-coast plain varies in width from fifteen miles to zero,
and rises from the sea level to an elevation of 400 feet. The
plain of Philistia, in the south, is its broadest portion. It nar-
rows gradually until, at Carmel, it is not over a hundred yards in
width to the base of the promontory. From Carmel it widens
into the plain of Acre, which is about four miles broad,
and which is continuous with the plain of Esdraélon, which
bisects Palestine into northern and southern mountain chains.
North of Acre it becomes gradually narrower, until at the ladder
of Tyre and adjacent rocky promontories it disappears. North
of these passes, which are almost as defensible as Thermopylae,
the plain reappears, and is of width varying from zero or a few

1 The paper was read by Mr. A. L. Ewing.

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 167%

feet to several miles as far as the pass of Nahr-el-Kelb, which
overhangs the sea about five miles north of Beirit. From this
point to Kolmoon, the mountains come down to the sea, except
at a few points where they recede to form small plains, usually
the sites of villages. From Tripoli northward the plain gradu-
ally widens, until at *Akkar its greatest width is about five miles.
Thence it formsa narrower strip along the Nuasairy coast to Lat-
takia, from which it again broadens and extends to the foot of
Cassius, where it ends in the bold spur of this mountain which
projects into the sea.

The most noteworthy geological feature of this region is the
blown sand which piles up on the southern aspect of all the
headlands, and often overwhelms the fields and orchards, and
sometimes the villages and ruins.

A change which has taken place in the drift of these sands
in the course of twenty years, illustrates the influence of man
over geological changes. ‘The sand which is thrown up by the
sea on the shore, is that which is brought by the prevailing cur-
rents from the Lybian coast. Before the Canal of Suez was con-
structed, this sand had uninterrupted course. Since the canal
was made, however, and its approaches have been regularly
dredged, the sand is no longer brought in considerable quantities,
and the increase of the dunes is very greatly lessened. At
Beirtit, eighty years since, the inhabitants and proprietors of a
quarter of the suburbs which had been overwhelmed peti-
tioned the government to resume possession of the sandy
tract, that they might be relieved from the taxes. This was
done. Since the construction of the canal, the sand instead of
overwhelming new tracts, has partially uncovered those already
covered, and the proprietors vainly sought from the government
to re-establish their property rights over what had now become
valuable building sites.

An archeological discovery of interest was made during the
excavations for the foundations of the boys’ school in Sidon a
few years since. At a depth of several feet a Roman foundation
was met with. Beneath this was a layer of blown sand, and
beneath this a layer of ashes, charred bones, flint knives, and a
pottery whistle which could be made to sound.

The soft sandstone of the promontories of Jaffa, Tyre, Sidon,
Beirtit, Tripoli, has doubtless been formed from ancient dunes.
I have found the fossil leg-bone of a bovine quadruped, and the
fossil body of a whale’s vertebra in this sandstone.

An hour north of Beirtit, at the top of the pass over the pro-
montory of Nahr-el-Kelb, is a mass of bone breccia, made up of
the bones of extinct animals, mixed with flint chips. No human
bones were discovered among them. In a large cavern near the

168 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [APR. 23,

mouth of the river Antelias, a considerable number of flint
knives and many bones of still existing animals have been found.
Flint implements have also been found on the surface of the
sands south of Ras Beirit.

A student of the Syrian Protestant College brought to its
museum the calvarium, lower jaw, and part of the pelvis and
femur of a man, imbedded in a stalagmitic deposit taken from a
cave north of Beirit. Unfortunately he did not know the lo-
cality or the circumstances under which the specimen had been
obtained.

Among the objects of interest along the coast is the Hocene
deposit of the Lattakia Plain. This bed of marl is elevated from
250 to 350 feet above the sea, and deeply furrowed by the
branches of the streams which empty into the sea south of Lat-
takia. In the gray soil washed down the sides of these ravines
are immense numbers of shells, many of them in an excellent
state of preservation. More than forty species were collected
by the author in 1884, and the deposit has been described in an
article in Mature in 1885. Similar deposits will doubtless be
found in the plain of ’Akkar and the Marqab. The writer
found a similar deposit half-way to the summit of the hill above
the town of Zante, on the island of the same name. This de-
posit was described in Nature for 1887.

The second strip consists of the westernmost of the two great
mountain ranges, and begins at Ras Mohammed, at the head of
the Red Sea proper, at the junction of the Gulfs of Suez and
’Aqabah. The rugged range of Sinai, which occupies most of the
peninsular triangle between the two gulfs of the Red Sea, rises
steeply from Ras Mohammed to the peaks of Um-Shomer 8,300
feet, Jebel Catarina 8,400 feet, Jebel Musa, 7,600 feet, and then
sinks gradually to the sandy plain of Debbet-er-Ramleh, which
joins the heads of the two gulfs, and separates the range of Sinai
from the plateau of the Tih-Jebel Serbal, a lateral spur of the
Sinaitic range, half-way from Ras Mohammed to Debbet-er-
Ramleh, projects like a gigantic bastion to the west, overhanging
the sandy plain of Tér. The highest peak of this lateral range
reaches an altitude of 6,500 feet.

It is difficult to conceive a wilder scene of rugged desolation
than that which is unrolled before the view from the summit of
the Sinaitic range. ‘The entire absence of vegetation, and even
of soil, gives to the landscape the sharp outlines and the vivid
colors of a geological chart. The valleys are for the most part
narrow and tortuous, with steep, often precipitous sides, their
floor being nothing but the bed of an occasional winter torrent,
and strewn with gravel and boulders. In a few places there are
high banks of gravel and soil on one or both sides of the valley,

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 169

showing that there was once a chain of lakes along the wadi.
The main mass of the chain is a pink syenite, or gray granite,
but it is everywhere rent by great convulsions of the age of
igneous action, and injected with seams and dykes of green and
black diorite, and red, gray, yellow and purple porphyry. These
dykes often extend for many miles across the spurs of the chain,
traversing the intervening wadis, and can be traced by their
sharply defined margins and vivid coloring, which is not obscured
even by a lichen.

Toward the northern portion of the range the granite is over-
laid by gray, red, white, and black sandstone. ‘lhe westetn
flanks of the peninsula are all composed of jagged peaks,
carved out of these sandstone rocks. Nothing could be more
striking than the contrasts at every turn between whole moun-
tains, one white, one black, one red and one gray, often touch-
ing at their base, and other mountains with straight or contort-
ed strata of many colors, nowhere toned down or overshadowed
by vegetation, and standing out in the dry crystal atmosphere of
the desert.

In the northern part of the range, a few miles before it sinks
into the plain of Debbet-el-Ramleh, the granite dips under the
sandstone, and one can step from one to the other. Almost at
the northernmost peak of the Sinai range, several hundred feet
above the level of the road through the wadi which leads from
the foot of Surabit-el-Kadim to Debbet-er-Ramleh, there are
some horizontal strata of limestone over the sandstone. The
sharp definition of these strata, seen in their elevated position,
is one of the most interesting geological features of the peninsula.
They are the last plates of the limestone of Sinai which has sur-
vived the long process of denudation that has uncovered the
sandstone and the igneous rocks of the southern portion of the
peninsula.

The sandstone rocks of northern Sinai dip under the shifting
sand at the southern edge of Debbet-er-Ramleh.

The plain of Debbet-er-Ramleh is a strip of sandy desert about
ten miles wide, connecting the heads of the two gulfs of the Red
Sea. It is not straight but V-shaped, with its angle to the
southward. Into the angle formed by its two sides projects the
gigantic escarpment of the plateau of the Tih, which rises almost
perpendicularly several hundred feet above the plain. ‘This
plateau is the continuation of the limestone strata of which we
noted the traces on the other side of the plain overlying the
sandstone. ‘The sandstone does not re-appear in our progress
northward until we reach Lebanon, and the granite and por-
phyry do not crop out again until we strike the chain of Cassius,.
nearly 400 miles away.

170 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [APR. 23,

The plateau of the Tih, or the wilderness of the wanderings of
the Children of Israel, is a plain reaching from the Suez Canal on
the west to the ’Arabah on the east, and from Debbet-er-Ramleh
on the south to the hill country of Palestine on the north.
Several ranges of hills intersect this plateau. One of them near
its central meridian is composed of the compact cretaceous rock
of the Palestine and Lebanon chains. Another, Shuweishat-el-
*Ujmet, is composed of a crumbling cretaceous marl, of a glaring
white color, The marked physical feature of the plateau is the
system of wadis which furrow it, and unite to form the Wadi-el-
*Arish, the ancient “‘ Torrent of Egypt,” which debouches into
the Mediterranean midway between the Suez Canal and Gaza.
It is a miniature of the ‘bad lands” of our own west, but with-
out water in the bottom of the wadis or grass in the uplands.

Many parts of the floor of the Tih are covered for miles with
flint chips, many of them disc-shaped, from half an inch to an
inch or two in diameter, with more or less rounded edges and
smooth surfaces. I did not see nodules, encased in chalk, as is
common in the rocks near the sea-coast of Syria, nor was I able
to account for the vast number of these chips and their even
distribution over the almost level surface. Their rounded edges
and smooth surfaces may be accounted for by the attrition of
small particles of sand blown over them by the strong winds of
the desert.

Some parts of the white chalk cliffs of the "Ujmet are studded
with small crystalline masses of iron pyrites, and occasional
masses of gypsum. I did not stumble on any fossils in these
formations, but I did not search for them.

There are not a few tracts of arable land in the Tih, and a con-
siderable number of wells of potable water. It is probable that
water could be had by boring anywhere in the plateau. On ap-
proaching Palestine, the area of cultivable soil and the number
of springs increase. The land also rises gradually along the
central meridian until it is merged in the hill country of Judea.
The western aspect of the plateau sinks gradually toward the
sea level, and a few hours south of Gaza presents a series of east
and west ridges of sand with shallow intervening valleys, with a
considerable vegetation consisting of coarse grasses and occasional
clumps of tamarisks and other small trees or bushes. At the
bottom of all the wadis, both of Sinai and the Tih, there are
tamarisk and acacia trees; and a rich and varied desert flora re-
wards the botanist for his weary camel rides under the scorching
sun.

Dean Stanley, in his “Sinai and Palestine,” has well described
the gradual transition from the barren wastes of the Tih to the
rolling uplands of Judea. By imperceptible gradations one is

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 13

transferred from the waterless desert to a land of vineyards and
olive trees, and waving fields of grain, and villages teeming with
semi-civilized inhabitants.

The hill country of Palestine consists of an almost continuous
backbone of limestone, extending for a hundred miles. The
general height of this narrow plateau is about 2,600 feet. Here
and there it rolls in rounded summits to a height of 2,900 or
3,000 feet. A few of the peaks, as Olivet, Nebi-Samwil, Ebal,
Gerizim, Tabor, and Little Hermon, are more pronounced, and
the last four stand out as distinct mountain masses of consider-
able elevation above the general surface of the plateau, and from
1,600 to 3,000 feet above the sea. The rocks of Palestine are
not so rich in fossils as those of Lebanon, but nevertheless con-
tain many interesting species. My absence from our museum
and any notes will make it impossible to cite the names of
species. The plateau breaks away gradually to the west, and
much more precipitously to the east, where it overlooks the deep
valley of the Jordan. Narrow ravines furrow its sides, and on
the east become profound chasms, few of which, however, carry
any water save during the heavy storms of winter.

The soil which once covered the mountains of Palestine to
their summits has been washed into the valleys, and these gray
hills are often quite barren. But the limestone is constantly
disintegrating, and the peasants terrace up the mountain side,
and irrigate the new made land; it produces astonishing har-
vests.

Between Galilee and Samaria is the depression of the plain of
Esdraelon, pushing far eastward, and lowering the backbone of
the chain of hills so much that some English engineers have
conceived of the possibility of piercing this isthmus with a canal,
and letting the waters of the Mediterranean into the Jordan
valley, a project to which the Turks will never give their con-
sent. Near the eastern extremity of this valley there are out-
cropping of traprock. The frequent earthquakes in this region
show that there is still unexpended plutonic force beneath it.

Between the northern border of Galilee“and the southern
slopes of Lebanon is a strip of rocky plain, about fifteen miles
broad, elevated only a few hundred feet above the sea. Through
this plain the Leontes and the Zahardni force their way westward
to the sea.

Mt. Carmel is an isolated spur of the north and south range,
tending northward from the latitude of Samaria to the coast at
Haifa. Conder has found wild deer in this secluded range. It
ely wooded in places and has an interesting fauna and

ora.

Lebanon rises from the plain which separates it from Galilee,

172 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [APR. 23,

and runs northward for about a hundred and twenty miles, and
terminates in the valley of the Nahr-el-Kebir, the ancient Eleu-
therus. Its southern portion is called Jebel Riehdn, and is about
5,000 feet in height. In this part of the mountain there are
some deposits of copper ore, of which I have not seen specimens.
Thus far, the mines have not been worked in modern times, and
it is doubtful whether, with the scarcity of fuel for smelting pur-
peses, they would now be profitable.

At the latitude of Sidon the main chain of Lebanon begins
at the twin peaks called Tom-at-Niha, a saddle-shaped peak about
7,000 feet high, and runs northward in the form of a hog’s-back
about 25 miles in length, and 6,500 feet high, almost denuded of
trees. Nevertheless, at several points there are remnants of the
ancient forests of the cedars of Lebanon, which once clothed the
whole range.

At the latitude of Beirut there is a depression of the chain to
a pass about 5,000 feet high, over which goes the Beirfit and
Damascus carriage road, and by its side the ancient road which
probably was always the main highway from the coast to the
valley of Coelesyria and to Damascus.

Just north of the Damascus road, overhanging it, is Jebel
Keniseh (Church Mountain), so called from its resemblance to
the nave of an oriental cathedral. This peak is 7,500 feet high.
Snow lies on its top until late in July.

North of Jebel Keniseh is another depression of the chain of
Lebanon toa pass about 6,000 feet high, and then the grand
truncated pyramid of Jebel Sunnin, 8,500 feet high. This pyra-
mid is triangular at the base and apex, the sides of the apex tri-
angle being about three miles long.

The strata of both these peaks, as of almost all the elevated
regions of Lebanon, are nearly horizontal, and being quite bare
of trees and almost of all vegetation except that growing in the
chinks of the rocks, they are visible at a great distance, and form
a striking feature in the landscape.

The summits of both Jebel Keniseh and Jebel Sunnin, but
especially the latter, are honeycombed with funnel-shaped de-
pressions, some of them a thousand feet across and several hun-
dred feet in depth, caused by the subsidence of the limestone
strata in the centre. The snow collects in these excavations in
very deep drifts, and the water which melts from them perco-
lates through these funnels into immense reservoirs in the heart
of the mountain, and bursts out at different levels down the
mountainside. Two of these great springs, the Neba’-el- Leben,
(the Fountain of Milk), and the Neba’-el-’Asal (the Fountain of
Honey), gush forth at the base of the pyramid of Sunnin, as
large as the largest Croton mains, and the ice-cold water leaps.

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 173

in beautiful cascades down the mountain side to swell the waters
of the Dog River, the main body of which, however, issues as a
subterranean river from vast caverns nearly at the sea level.

Many of these subterranean streams flow away along the level
strata of the lower ranges of Lebanon, and break out in fountains
at various points. Standing on one side of a valley, one can trace
the course of such a stream on the other side of the valley by the
line of villages, surrounded with gardens, which owe their exist-
ence to the fountains fed by these underground rivers. In some
cases these streams must flow for more than a hundred miles
under the hills, before they break out in the copious fountains
of Galilee and Samaria, which can have no source but this for
their unfailing supply of water during the eight or nine months
when there is no rainfall of importance. The magnitude of the
reservoirs, which maintain the large perennial river system of
Syria, such as the Orontes, the Leontes, the Barada, the ’Awja,
the Jordan, the Mandhtir, the Zerqa, the Zerqa Ma‘in, the
Arnon, the Kishon, the Awwali, the Beirtit river, the Dog river,
the Nahr Ibrahim, the Kadisha, and the Nahr-el-Kebir, must be
stupendous.

North of Jebel Sunnin, the chain of Lebanon forms another
featureless hog’s-back about 7,000 feet high, for a distance of
about thirty miles. Opposite Tripoli, tower the loftiest peaks of
the chain, 10,500 feet in height. At the base of the loftiest of
all, amid a grand amphitheatre of mountains, on the moraine of
an ancient glacier, is the historic grove of the ‘‘ Cedars of the
Lord.”

The summit of this lofty region of Lebanon is not honey-
combed like Sunnin with funnel-shaped craters, but consists of a
shingly, friable limestone, forming two parallel chains of several
miles in length, of rounded summits five or six hundred feet in
height, with a broad, level valley between them. The snow
banks on the northern exposure of these peaks are of immense
length and depth, and generally last over the whole of the long,
hot summer, and are still unmelted when overtaken by the snows
of another winter. The region of highest elevation is about 25
miles in length. On the west face of its northern extremity is
a bold escarpment, 2,000 feet in height, beetling over the plain
of ’Akkar.

From the lofty region just described, the chain of Lebanon
descends gradually through the rugged mountains of Bano to
the valley of the Nahr-el-Kebir, the ancient Hleutherus.

The valley of the Eleutherus is a broad plain, about 1,000 feet
above the sea at its widest point, separating the chain of Lebanon
from the Nusairy mountains. It forms the western arm of the
conical depression which meets at Hems, and is in my opinion

174 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [APR. 23,

the ‘‘ Entering in of Hamath,” the northern boundary of the
promised land, but which was never in fact attained even in the
palmy days of the Hebrew monarchy.

The striking feature of the geology of the mountains of Pales-
tine and Lebanon is the generally level strata of limestone of
the Cretaceous epoch. In places, especially near the coast,
these strata are more or less tilted, sometimes quite vertical or
partly reversed. The general aspect of the stone strongly re-
sembles that of the Jura, but in many places there are large
mountain masses of white chalk like that of the cliffs of Dover.
Near the coast there are isolated flint nodules imbedded in the
limestone masses, and sometimes strata of considerable thick-
ness. In many places on Lebanon there are large numbers of
geodes of quartz, with beautiful crystals in their interior, and
others of chalcedony, generally of opalescent hues.

In many places of Lebanon, usually between the altitudes of
200 and 4,000 feet, are outcropping spurs of sandstone, generally
red but sometimes yellow, white, or of variegated colors, like the
sandstone of Wadi Magharah and Sinai. At an altitude of from
3,000 to 5,000 feet there are beds of coal, too full of earthy
materials and sulphur to be available as fuel. Iron ore is found
in considerable quantities in Lebanon, and copper ore exists
above Sidon.

Traces of glacier action are found at the cedars of Lebanon,
which grow on a moraine, and at ’Ammiq, in Celesyria, where
there is a long line of erratics extending from the mouth of a
valley of Lebanon a couple of miles over the plain, which is the
bed of an ancient lake.

The Nusairy chain is lower than Lebanon, its highest summit
not being over 4,000 feet in height. It is unexplored geologi-
cally, but is presumably Cretaceous. It runs northward to the
latitude of Basit, the ancient Poseidon, twenty miles north of
Lattakia, where it is joined by the transverse range of Cassius.

Mt. Cassius is an isolated cone, rising almost precipitously
from the sea to a height of 6,400 feet. It is a beautiful feature
of the landscape, and commands a most extended prospect over
the sea and land. Its base is granite to an altitude of about
2,500 feet, and the remainder of the mass cretaceous limestone.

The valley of the Orontes, making a sharp bend to the west,
intervenes between the ranges of Cassiusand Amanus. Amanus
is a chain about 100 miles long, extending from Jebel Musa
on the south to Ziaretdagh on the north. The southernmost
mountains of this chain are composed of igneous rocks, granite,
gneiss, porphyry and diorite, which have not reappeared since
we left them in northern Sinai. Overlying these in places is the
cretaceous limestone. As one goes northward the igneous rocks

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 175

disappear, and the mountain mass becomes wholly cretaceous.
The valley of the Ak-Su separates Amanus from Akherdagh, the
first range of the Taurus.

The eastern range of mountains, parallel to the long chain
just described, commences in the Idumean range at the Wadi-
el-Ithm, which separates it from the Arabian range stretching
away into El-Hedjaz. The main mass of this range is composed
of Nubian sandstone, of the same brilliant colors as that of
North Sinai. Underlying the sandstone in the southern portion
of the range, near the head of the Gulf of ’Aqabah, are ledges of
porphyry. The highest point of this range is the reputed Mount
Hor, on the summit of which, 5,600 feet above the sea, is the
Arabian wady of Nebi Hartin, or Aaron’s tomb.

The mountains of Moab are in reality only mountains as seen
from the west, looming up grandly over the chasm of the Dead
Sea. ‘They are properly but the crest of the plateau of Moab,
a level table-land, which has always been noted as a pasture
ground. The section of the geological formations of this region,
exhibited by the wall of the Dead Sea trough, shows Nubian
sandstone at the base, and cretaceous limestone above. About
the mouth of the great chasm of the Zerqa-M7ain are outcroppings
of basalt, forming majestic cliffs opposite the hot springs of Cal-
lirrhoé. These springs, the hottest of which has a temperature
of 148° F., are impregnated with sulphur, and a variety of cal-
careous and other salts. ‘They are in great repute among the
Arabs for chronic rheumatism, liver and spleen diseases, and
dropsy. The highest and only proper mountain of the Moabite
chain 1s Jebel Husha’, which is over 4,000 feet above the sea.

The chasm of the Zerqa (Jabbok) is the natural boundary be-
tween Moab and Gilead. From its steep northern declivity ex-
tends the mountain range, about which has lingered the name of
Gilead from the earliest historic period. It is a park-like coun-
try, abundantly watered even in summer, with fertile valleys and
admirable pasture land, stretching far away into the eastern desert.
The highest peaks are Jebel ’Ajlun, about 4,000 feet, and Sal-
’at-er-Rabadh, about 3,500 feet above the sea. From the tops of
Jebel Husha’, Jebel *Ajlun and Sal’at-er-Rabadh, but especially
the first, the views over western Palestine and the chasm of the
Jordan are surpassingly magnificent. The geological formation
of Gilead is cretaceous limestone.

The range of Gilead sinks gradually to the north and ends at
the latitude of Irbid in the plain of Hauran. The break in the
mountain chain continues northward, through the Jawalan, for
about forty miles. A series of detached cones of volcanic rock,
probably ancient craters, rising from the Jawalan plain, among

176 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [APR. 23,

which Tel-el-Faras is prominent, commences the mountain
system of Hermon and Anti-Lebanon.

The plain of Jawalan, the Leja, and Haurdan, occupy the gap
between Gilead and the Hermon range, and extend eastward to
Jebel-el-Duruz. They are composed of volcanic emissions of
more or less antiquity, and the soil is exceedingly fertile. The
black basalt of this region furnishes the building material for
most of the stone houses of Bashan. .

The detached volcanic chain of Jebel-ed-Duruz forms the
eastern boundary of this great table-land, and still presents
several well preserved craters, the most marked of which are
Tel-Shihan and Jebel-Juléb, 5,400 feet high feet. From the
latter and its two companion craters has flowed the great
lava sea of the Leja, one of the most remarkable on the globe.
The surface of this great mass, thirty miles in length and
breadth, is tossed into great waves, crested with lava foam, and
rent by deep crevasses and cafions, in which the Druzes find
their ‘‘ Refuge” (the signification of Leja) from their Turkish
and Arabic enemies.

The southern flanks of Hermon are volcanic. Lake Phiala
is an extinct crater, filled with water. But the main mass of
Hermon and its continuation northward in the range of el-Jebel-
esh-Sharqi, or Anti-Lebanon, is cretaceous limestone. A range
of old volcanic cones stretches away northward from Jebel-ed-
Duruz to, and far beyond, the latitude of Damascus toward
Aleppo.

Hermon is a little more than 9,000 feet high, and the range of
Jebel-esh-Sharqi nowhere rises higher than 7,000 feet. It sinks
gradually into the table-land, south of Hems, at the ‘‘ Enter-
ing in of Hamath,” before alluded to.

North of the ‘“‘ Entering in of Hamath,” there is no proper
mountain range, but only a series of low undulations which form
a watershed between the Orontes valley and the Syrian desert.

Between the two great mountain systems just described is the
fourth strip, the wonderful cleft of the Arabah, the Dead Sea,
the Jordan, Celesyria, and the Orontes valley.

The Arabah is a broad chasm between the plateau of the Tih
and the mountains of Idumea. A transverse dyke, of no
great altitude, about one-third the distance from the head
of the gulf of Aqabah to the Dead Sea, divides this valley into
two parts. The southern belongs to the Red Sea, while the
northern was probably a part of the much more extensive Dead
Sea of the past. ‘The floor of this great valley is seamed and
riven into deep interior valleys and cafions, and is one of the
most desolate regions on the globe. It exhibits, at various
depths, all the formations of Sinai and Palestine.

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Ley

At the southern end of the Dead Sea are extensive deposits of
rock salt, overlooking the Sabkha or salt marsh of the southern
shore. ‘The Dead Sea itself, 1293 feet below the Mediterranean,
is too salt to allow of any animal or vegetable life, and that not-
withstanding the enormous inflow of fresh water from the Jor-
dan, Zerga Ma’in, Mujib, and other tributaries. Ancient de-
posits at various elevations on the rocky walls which frown above
the sea, show clearly that the level of the water was once much
higher. Bitumen in small quantities floats upon the surface of
the sea, and is washed to the banks, a circumstance which gave
the sea its ancient name of Lacus Asphaltites. All around its
banks are the gaunt, decorticated trunks and branches of Jordan
driftwood, the skeletons of ages of death.

Near the northern end of the Dead Sea is a series of pits, the
significance of which is not known.

The Jordan valley rises gradually from the Dead Sea to the
Lake of Tiberias, which is 600 feet below the Mediterranean.
At Tiberias, and at the base of the northern spurs of Gilead, on
the opposite side of the Jordan valley, are hot springs, indicat-
ing the volcanic forces. everywhere near the surface in this
region.

From Tiberias the valley rises, until at the Huleh it is at the
sea level, and thence rises gradually to the dyke which separates
the Jordan valley from Ccelesyria, and through which the
Leontes breaks away to the Mediterranean.

The valley of Coelesyria is the bed of an ancient lake, which
had an outlet to the north through the Orontes, and to the south
through the Leontes, the former of which now rises from Lebanon,
and the latter from Anti-Lebanon. ‘The elevation of this fertile
plain is about 2,500 feet above the sea. ‘Ihe soil is a rich dark
loam, and yields abundant harvests even to the rude agriculture
of that people.

The valley of the Orontes is bounded on the west by the
Nusairy range, and on the east by the low hills formerly de-
scribed. Just before it turns westward to the sea, it breaks
through the eastern spurs of Amanus, near Darkfish, and flows
for miles at the bottom of an almost inaccessible cafion. The
floor of the valley of the Orontes, near Hems, is strewn with
basaltic masses of great antiquity.

The last of the five strips which constitute the leading physi-
cal features of this land is the plateau of the Syrian desert,
which is well-nigh unexplored. This is bounded to the east by
the watershed of the Dhohr-el-Barriyah (Backbone of the Wil-
derness), which separates it from the Euphrates valley.

The flora and fauna of this land are as rich as might have been
expected from the great diversity of elevation, physiography,

178 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [APR. 30,

geology, and meteorology, in so small an area. It was a fitting
microcosm for the isolated people who were to receive and em-
body in writing an universal religion, which was to be the basis
of the universal brotherhood of man.

April 30, 1888.
STATED MEETING.
The President, Prof. J. S. NEWBERRY, in the chair.
Forty-seven persons present.

The Secretary nominated for Corresponding Member, Pror.
GEORGE EH. Post, of Beirit, Syria, who was, by unanimous con-
sent, at once elected by formal ballot.

Pror. J. 8. NEWBERRY presented, by title, a paper
ON THE FOSSIL FISHES OF THE ERIE SHALE OF OHIO,
(Abstract. )

The Erie shale is a name given to the western extension of
the Chemung and Upper Portage rocks of New York and Penn-
sylvania. The formation consists of clay shale with flaggy sand-
stones, and has, near the eastern line of Ohio, a thickness of
about 1,500 feet; it thins westward, and in central Ohio has been
reduced to a thickness of about 100 feet, and in places is alto-
gether wanting. It forms the lake-shore from Erie to Cleve-
land, and is generally barren of fossils, but in certain localities
has furnished many of the mollusks characteristic of the
Cheraung group in New York.

Quite recently Dr. William Clark, the indefatigable collector
of fossil fishes, has discovered in the lenticular, calcareous con-
cretions in the top of the formation in the valley of the Cuya-
hoga, near Cleveland, Ohio, some remarkable fish remains which
are new to science. A series of specimens obtained from the
same region by Prof. William Kepler, of Berea, Ohio, has
recently come into my possession, and I give herewith a brief
description of them.

1. Cladodus Kepleri, nu. sp. A shark, which attained a length
of 6 feet or more, with a diameter of body of about 8 inches;
the mouth is terminal or nearly so, the teeth numerous, varying
in size from } to 8 of an inch in height, consisting of a rela-

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 179

tively large flattened, ancipital, divergently striated central cone,
with two lateral denticles set on a comparatively narrow base;
the mandibles are partially ossified, and retain their form; the
eyes are large, and were inclosed in bony capsules; the skin of
the under side of the body is transversely wrinkled and fibrous,
above granulous; the pectoral fins are perfectly preserved, show-
ing both rays and web; in the largest individual found, which
must have been 6 feet in length, they are 7 inches long by
5 inches wide at the base, conical in outline, slightly falcate,
-and show about 20 rays, which are without articulations, simple
toward the base, and forked at the summit; the dorsal and
caudal fins are not well shown in any specimen of this fish yet
obtained.

2. Actinophorus, nov. gen. ‘Tiled-scaled ganoids of medium
size, long and slender ; body cylindrical ; head pointed, bony ;
teeth numerous, conical, acute; fins without fulcra, delicate,
many-rayed ; scales narrow quadrangular, thin.

Actinophorus Clarkii, n. sp. Fish slender, about 2 feet in
length by 24 inches in diameter at the pectoral fins ; head coni-
cal, pointed, well ossified, 7 to 8 inches long; branchiostegals
numerous; pectoral fins broadly conical, somewhat falcate, 3
inches long by 14 inches wide, containing about 60 fine parallel
ossified rays; anal fin 18 inches from muzzle, relatively small,
triangular in outline ; caudal fin strongly heterocercal.

The affinities of this fish are apparently with Acrolepis, but it
differs from the fishes of that genus by the absence of fulcra
from the fins, and the thinner and more quadrangular scales.

3. Dinichthys curtus. Fishes of medium size; cranium tri-
angular, from 12 to 15 inches in length ; defensive plates of the
under side of the body relatively short and thick ; posterior
lateral plates nearly square, slightly rhomboidal, 4 inches in
diameter ; posterior process 3 inches long; anterior lateral
plates 8 inches long by 5 inches wide. This species also occurs
in the Chemung of Pennsylvania.

4, Dinichthys Terrelli (?), Newb. With the fish remains
mentioned above are portions of the body plates of species of
Dinichthys which, with the material in hand, is undistinguish-
able from that so common in the overlying Cleveland shale.

5. Dinichthys tuberculatus, n. sp. Head unknown, body
plates of smallarea, but very thick, and having exposed portions
covered with large, stellate tubercles; supra-scapular plates
about 3 inches in breadth and 3 an inch in thickness; ex-
ternal surface where not covered by the dorso-median or clavicle,
tuberculated, and marked by the incised line running from the
condyle to the posterior border, characteristic of the genus ;

180 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [APR. 30,

dorso-median plate 3 to 4 inches in diameter, strongly arched,
thick.

Pror. GeorGE E. Post read a paper on

THE RACES AND RELIGIONS OF SYRIA AND PALESTINE.

Northern Syria, in the days of Ramses II., was inhabited by
the Hittites, probably an Aryan race, whose capital was at
Kadesh, on the Orontes, near Emessa, the modern Hems.
Ramses achieved a great but barren victory at this point, 1350°
B. C., but never pushed his conquests, or even retained them.
His expedition must be considered a victorious raid, rather than
a subjugation of the country. ‘There is every probability that
the Hittites (perhaps not to be confounded with the Canaanite
race of the same name in Palestine) retained their supremacy in
northern Syria, until their sway was broken by the Greek con-.
quest, under Alexander.

Central Syria was settled by an Aramaic race, whose capital
was Damascus, and whose fortress was Anti-Lebanon while the
narrow strip of coast was the home of another branch of the
same stock, the most ancient cities of which were Arvad and
Sidon, and later Tyre and Acre. Lebanon was the great fortress:
of the illustrious Pheenician stock.

Palestine proper was settled also by an Aramaic stock, more
or less mingled with the Hamitic races of Northern Africa.

The country east of the Jordan was partly in the possession of
Aramaic colonists, and partly of the Amorites, who may be only
Aramaic mountaineers, or a mixture of Aramaic and Bedouin
stocks. The Arabs always hovered around the eastern frontiers.
of Palestine and Syria, and contributed their share to the fusion
of races in that land. ;

With the entrance of the Hebrews into Palestine, the official
language and dominant race of that section became Hebrew, but
the Canaanite peasantry were never wholly expelled or extir-:
pated, and the Aramaic lunguage, as distinguished from the
classical Hebrew, was the vernacular of the people of Palestine
at the time of Christ. This dialect, largely mixed with Arabic,
has survived in four villages east of Anti-Lebanon. The Syriac
of Lebanon and the regions to the north-east, is another branch
of the Aramaic tree. Its ripest fruit was the Peshito version,
and the ecclesiastical literature which clustered around it.

The first serious break in the continuity of the Hebrew-
Canaanite stock took place in the reign of Shalmaneser, 721
B. C., when the northern two-thirds of Palestine were depleted
by the deportation of many of their inhabitants, and the subse-
quent importation of Semitic or Hamitic colonists from Mesopo-

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 181

tamia.. The Samaritan dialect and the Samaritan race were the
results. This race is now reduced to about 150 souls, all of
whom are found in the city of Nablts, the ancient Shechem.
This sharply characterized race and language is one of the many
remarkable survivals preserved in this unique land.

The next break occurred in the reign of Nebuchadnezzar, 586
B. C., when a similar though less general fate overtook the
Jews. By the restoration, in the days of Ezra and Nehemiah,
a much purer Hebrew stock was brought back than that which
peopled Samaria. This stock seems to have gained the control
of Galilee, and little by little curtailed the influence, and dimin-
ished the numbers of the Samaritans, until in the time of Christ
the latter seem to have occupied only a portion of the small
district of Samaria.

The subjugation of all western Asia by Cyrus, about 530 B.C.,
was not followed by an infusion of Persian elements into the
population of Syria and Palestine, for it seemed to be the policy
of the Persians to interpose a series of tributary Semitic states
between their empire and that of Egypt.

When Alexander conquered Phoenicia, and his successors
became the founders of empires in northern Syria and Egypt,
the Greek race impressed itself on the people of the Phcenician
coast, and of the valley of the Orontes. Greek art prevailed
throughout Celesyria and the trans-Jordanic region; and in
Graeco-Roman days were erected the wonderful structures of
Baalbek, Palmyra, Hauran, Gilead and Palestine. Yet the
Greek language seldom did more than give duplicate names to
places, which held tenaciously to the old Semitic names as well;
and when the Greco-Roman civilization gave place to the
Arabian, the ancient names reappeared in an Arabic form, and
generally survive to the present day. It is plain that Greek
never became the language of the people, still less Latin, and
that they have retained their Aramaic race peculiarities through
all the checkered experiences of their history, to the present
day.
It is not true, however, as stated in the Encyclopedia Bri-
tannica, that the Greek race has left no traces of its physical in-
fluence. On the contrary, many of the Christian inhabitants of
the Pheenician coast have the straight nose, characteristic fore-
head, and general physiognomy of the best types of the ancient
Greeks. Many of their women are extraordinarily beautiful.

The Roman conquest left less of race impress in Syria and
Palestine than would have been inferred from its long dominion
there. When, however, it is considered that the Greek half of
the Roman empire was the nearest, it may be said that the

a

182 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [apR. 30,

Roman conquest only followed up the Greek, and intensified its
results.

The temporary triumphs of the Persian dynasty of the Sas-
sanides impressed themselves but feebly on Syria and Palestine.
The unfinished edifice of Meshitta, in Moab, and a few other in-
complete monuments, alone remain to testify their short-lived
and ineffective contact with the Holy Land.

The Arabian conquest, from 638 A. D., has not only infused a
large Arabic element into the body politic of the land, but has
brought to the surface the old Aramaic instincts of the people.
The Arabic language has indeed replaced all other dialects,
except in the four villages before alluded to, but the people of
Palestine speak it in a form largely adulterated with Aramaic
idioms and peculiarities.

The Crusades left permanent traces in the physical aspect of
the people. In some towns, as Antioch, Tripoli, Sidon, and
Bethlehem, these traits are very pronounced. The Turks have
simply encamped, as a ruling caste, in the strategic and political
centres, and have not mingled their blood much with that of the -
natives.

It will simplify inquiry into the races of this land, to say at the
outset that it will be as impossible to trace and define them with
accuracy as to separate the English into their component ele-
ments. All that follows must be considered approximative
only.

The present races traceable in Syria are, 1. The Arabic. This
is not the most numerous, though the most important, of all. It
is divided into two branches, the nomadic or Bedawin, and the
civilized or Hadhar. The number of Bedouin varies according
to the season of the year, as they migrate in search of pasture
and water. The Anazi are computed at 300,000, but they range
all the way to the Euphrates. ‘They occupy the northern por-
tions of the Syrian desert. The Beni Sakhr and ’Adwan occupy
the regions of Gilead and Moab. The Jehalin, Azazimah, and
other minor tribes, are found in the neighborhood of the Dead
Sea and the northern borders of the Tih, while the Tayyahah
and the Towarah claim the Sinaitic peninsula. Of the religion
of the Bedawin we will speak more presently.

The civilized Arabs are strongest in the great cities, as Damas-
cus, Aleppo, Hamath, Hems, Tripoli, Beirfit, Sidon, and Jeru-
salem. ‘They are not a pure Arabian stock, being largely inter-
mixed with the conquered Aramexans, Jews, Greeks, Romans,
and other races, who were incorporated by conversion into the
body-politic of Islam.

The religion of the civilized portion of the Arabs is of a strict,
orthodox, but not ultra-fanatical type. Where they are in con-

1888. ] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 183

tact with large Christian communities, as in Beirft, they are
becoming more and more liberalized, and adopting a system of
popular education, which is even extending to girls and women.

A large part of the religion of the Mohammedans is simply a
matter of custom. Women are practically excluded. Very
much of the faith of the present population is a mere fetichism.
They have great confidence in charms und incantations. Nearly
every one wears numbers of tin cases, with incantations in them,
bits of alum, teeth of animals, etc., strung on a wire which is
worn around the neck to keep off the evil eye. They are all
devout believers in genii, and in the power of the great name of
God to ward off their malign influences: most of them still
believe in astrology and fortune-telling. Of the legalized im-
morality encouraged by their system, it would be indiscreet to
speak here. The total number of the half-civilized Moslem
population of Syria and Palestine is about 750,000.

2. The Bedawin. The Bedawin are divided into two sorts,
those who live in the regions nominally under the Turkish
rule, or migrate into them during part of the year and pay
tribute, and those who are outside the tributary boundaries.
The former range over the whole country, usually after the har-
vests, or in the regions lying fallow, and pasture their flocks,
and sell their produce. These pay a fixed tax in kind to the
government, and, in case of pasturing in private lands, to the
proprietors. ‘They are not subject to the conscription. The
true desert Bedawin, who never encamp within the taxable limits,
are free from taxation, even when they bring their products to
these districts for sale, except so far as they pay octroi taxes.

The Bedawin invariably answer when asked as to their religion,
‘¢ Praise be to God, we are Moslems.” But they have little more
than the name to justify this statement. Few of them can read.
With no fixed abode, they have no places of religious worship,
except the tombs of their sheikhs and prophets, and the mosques
of the cities which they rarely if ever enter. Mohammedanism
with them is a thin varnish over the ancient heathen supersti-
tions and fetichism of the Arabian peninsula. The Towarah of
Mt. Sinai believe that the monks have the power of bringing
rain or withholding it by their religious exercises.

The tents of the Bedawin are of goats’ hair, and are impervi-
ous to rain. They are simple sheets of this strong cloth,
stretched over poles, and pinned to the earth on one side by day
and on both sides by night. There is little furniture in the
tents. The beds are rolled up in the day, and at night spread
out on mats or sacking. There are a few rude chests in a tribe,
in which the more valuable of their chattels are packed. Their
wealth is accumulated only in the shape of flocks and herds.

184 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [apR. 30,

The government of the Bedawin is patriarchal. The lex
talionis is in full force, and is the potent cause of continual
wars and raids. In Arabia there is still the possibility, with the
alliance of central Africa and south-western Asia, of new
religious moveinents that may shake the world.

3. The Mutawalis. his is a Mohammedan community of a
few thousand souls, living in central and southern Lebanon, the
plain of Coelesyria, and the Anti-Lebanon. They are probably
of Persian origin, and adhere to the Shiite sect of Islam, which
holds to the sole legitimacy of the line of Ali, the fourth Caliph.
They are a dark-skinned, black-haired, ill-favored race. The
doctrinal distinctions between the Shiites and the Sunnites.
are abstruse and exceedingly difficult of comprehension to a
Christian mind, probably not less so to a Mohammedan. In
such points as the Shiites differ from the Sunnites, it would seem
to be owing to the incorporation of Zoroastrian, Manichean, and
other heresies and mysticisms. The true distinction is probably
a political one. The rancor and animosity is, however, exceed-
ingly pronounced. A Mutawali will not eat or drink from the
same vessel as a Sunnite Moslem, or a Christian, or a person of
any other sect. The state of morality is exceedingly low among
them. They are the most ignorant and least hopeful of any of
the non-nomadic races of the land.

4. The Druzes. There is little agreement as to the origin of
the Druzes. ‘They have the physiognomy of an Aryan rather
than a Semitic race, and are by some supposed to have come
from Persia. They are well-formed, athletic, of fine personal
appearance and martial bearing, and of determined courage and
persistency in war. They speak Arabic of great purity, usually
with a very clear and classical pronunciation. Although num-
bering but 60,000 or 70,000 souls, they have maintained for
centuries their independence of both Turk and Arab. In the
frequent civil wars of Lebanon, the Druzes, although numbering
only 50,000 souls, were generally able to maintain themselves.
against six times their number of the native Christians. The
Druzes of Hauran, although but a few thousand, have been able
to this day to maintain a sort of autonomy. When hard pressed
by Turkish regulars, they take refuge in the crevasses of the great.
lava sea of the Leja, and set at defiance their pursuers. In their
natural fortification of the volcanic mountain range of Jebel-ed-
Duruz, they have a retreat for their villages quite secure from
the imbecile Mohammedans, Christians, and Bedawin of the
surrounding plains of Hauran, and lay them all under tribute.
There are also a few Druzes in Mt. Carmel and in Galilee.

In 1860, after the massacres of the Christians at Deir-el-Somr
and Hasbeiya, the Druzes were overawed by the French occupa-

18838. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 185

tion, and compelled to rebuild the ruined towns. Their chief
men were exiled, and their martial spirit curbed, although not
wholly broken. The new government of Lebanon, wisely
sketched out by Lord Dufferin, is so just and equal, and so well
maintained by a volunteer militia in which all sects are repre-
sented, that there has been no uprising of the Druzes of Lebanon
since that date. Local disturbances in the lawless district of the
Haurdan are, however, of almost yearly occurrence.

The origin of the sect is attributed to Ismael Darazi of Cairo,
in 1040 A. D. This leader supported the claims of El-Hakim-
bi-Amrillah, the sixth Fatimite caliph, who claimed to be an
incarnation of the divine intelligence. Being driven from Egypt
he took refuge in Lebanon, where he converted a great number
of the inhabitants. Haurdn was taken possession of by refugees
from this sect when worsted from time to time in its numerous
wars in Lebanon.

Although named from Darazi, the first authoritative expound-
ers of this sect branded Darazi as a heretic, and the Druzes con-
tinue to regard him as such. They regard Hamzi as a reappear-
ance of the Messiah.

The cardinal doctrines of the Druzes are, (a) The incarnation
of the indefinable, incomprehensible, ineffable, passionless Deity
ten times, last in the person of E]-Hakim-Biamrillah. The door
of mercy stood open twenty-six years, and was then finally and for-
ever closed. The number of Druzesisunalterable. The souls of
the dying go into the bodies of new-born infants, and so keep
the number of the Druzes ever the same. They believe that
there are multitudes of Druzes in China. Mohammedans at
death become donkeys, and Christians slaves, to serve Druze
masters. They make no effort to convert ; on the contrary they
keep their doctrines secret. Such as have been made known
have been surreptitiously proclaimed. Few even of their own
people are initiated, these being known as the "Oqqals. A Druze
is allowed to make outward profession of any religion which he
may fancy to be for his advantage. God knows the heart, and
what is in it, and judges by what a man really believes, and not
by what he seems. Obedience is required to the seven great
‘commandments of Hamze which are, 1st, truth in words (but
only to Druzes) ; 2d, loyalty to Druze interests ; 3d, renuncia-
tion of every other faith ; 4th, separation from all others, they
never intermarry with Mohammedans or Christians; 5th, the
recognition of the unity of God; 6th, complete resignation to
His will; 7th, complete obedience to His orders. Prayer is an
impertinence. The freedom of the will is maintained.

The initiated, who may be of either sex, meet in houses called
kKhalwes, apart from the villages, often in ‘‘ high places.” The

186 TRANSACTIONS OF THE © [| APR. 30,

rites of the Druzes have been published by numerous European
translators. ;

Polygamy is not permitted. Divorce is permitted to the hus-
band, but cannot be cancelled. Hither party is free to marry
again. They are neither willing nor desired to serve in the
Turkish army, and so are not liable to the conscription. Among
the sects born of Mohammedan influences they are thus far the
most open to Christian influences, and a number of them are
converts to Christianity.

5. The Nusairiyeh. This sect is found in the range of moun-
tains lying between Lebanon and Amanus and the adjacent
plains, and about Antioch, and in the plain of Adana. A frag-
ment of the race is found at the base of Mt. Hermon. They
may number 300,000 souls. By race they are probably Canaan-
ite, mixed of course with the various races which have overrun
the regions in which they live. They are half-heathen Moslems,
sufficiently orthodox to be drafted into the army, but with a
secret religion infected with many indigenous heathen snpersti-
tions and ceremonies. They believe in God, in the Koran, but
certainly not in all its doctrines. They are extremely ignorant,
and at a very low ebb of civilization. Their most common des-
ignation is Fellahin, 7.e., Farmers, which term in their district
serves to point ont their religious belief rather than their occu-
pation. They are less fanatical than the Mutawalis. Like the
Druzes they are martial in spirit, and are often in rebellion
against the Turkish government. A few have been converted
to Christianity by the American missionaries from Lattakiah,
who are maintaining mission schools and preaching-stations
among them. But for the persecution of the converts by the
Turkish government and the restriction of missionary operations
among them, doubtless large numbers of them would have be-
come Christians. The particulars of their religious faith, if
faith it can be called, were set forth a few years since by a
nominal convert to Christianity, Sulieman, who afterwards.
became a Mohammedan.

They do not, like orthodox Mohammedans and Mutawalis,
observe the canonical hours of prayer, and seem to have little
faith in prayer at all. They practise polygamy, and marry near
relations. Some say that they marry parents. In common with
the half-Moslem sects, they believe in transmigration of souls.
They are adherents of Ali, in this respect resembling the Muta-.
walis. They murder without pity any one known to divulge
their secrets. Some have supposed that the name assassin, a
corruption of Hashshashin (7.e., one who takes Hashish, or the
Cannabis Indica) originated among this sect, who certainly put.
it in practice against those whom they regard as traitors. The

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 187

term and the principles of the Assassins, however, originated
with the following named sect :

6. The Ismaeliyeh. 'This sect of Islam is found in small num-
bers in Syria, and only in its north-eastern parts. They are of
mixed, but principally of Persian origin. ‘Their name is derived
from Ismael, the seventh caliph of the line of Ali, whom they
follow. Like the Nusairiyeh, they are only nominal Moslems,
with a loose morality, aud a jealous and esoteric system of half-
heathen mysticism, founded on a mixture of allegorical interpre-
tations of the Koran with pagan superstitions. In the days of
their greatest prosperity, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries,
they attained a malign notoriety through the interior development
of the military and religious sect of the Assassins, whose methods
of cowardly secret murder have made the history of all Moham-
medan states so tragical. In the period of the crusades, this
society spread over Persia, Syria, and Egypt, and had the most
terrible influence over the Christian and Mohammedan dynasties
of that period. After the expulsion of the crusaders, the society
was little by little broken up, and its few remaining adherents
driven from Persia, Tartary and Egypt into the mountain fast-
nesses of northern Syria. ‘heir political power is now broken,
and they number only a few thousand peasants, who have little
sphere for the exercise of their diabolical doctrines and prac-
tices.

Before leaving the Mohammedan and semi-Mohammedan sects,
it may be remarked that, although intensely religious, they are,
with the exception of a few of the inhabitants of the larger
cities, very little instructed in their religion, and regard it more
as a matter of family inheritance than of conscientious con-
viction. ‘There is really more antipathy between Druzes and
Nusairiyah than between either and the Christians. The sec-
tarian divisions of Islam are stronger and more permanent than
those between Catholic and Protestant. The only condition of
the co-existence of the different Islamic sects in thesame district,
is political as well as religious autonomy. It is, therefore, not
with direct and primary reference to the Christians that the
political system of the Mohammedan government was adopted.
It would continue, were Christianity to disappear from all
Mohammedan states as thoroughly as it has done from Arabia.

%. The Gypsies. The number of the Gypsies of Syria is
considerable, but not accurately known. ‘They seem to be of
Hindoo origin. They speak Arabic, and their own Arabicized
Gypsy. They are nomads, subsisting by weaving sieves, cloth,
mats and sacking, and by raising asses, thieving, fortune telling,
and assisting as musicians and dancers at the weddings and

188 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [APR. 30,

festivals of the other sects. They have practically no religion,
but a modified fetichism.

8. The Jews. The Jews of Palestine and Syria are all of
European extraction, having returned after the early days of
persecution were over. ‘The greater number are of Spanish
origin. Those in Jerusalem are largely supported by the con-
tributions of their co-religionists from Europe and America.
Few of them have shown any inclination to acquire or cultivate
the soil. They are generally bankers, money-changers, or money-
lenders. Few of them have any commercial transactions. Con-
siderable inducements have been offered to them to settle in
Palestine, but they have not come in large numbers. A few
years since, when many Jews were expelled from Russia, an
effort was made to colonize them in northern Syria. But the
Turkish government took alarm, and refused to allow them to
settle, lest political complications should arise in consequence.
There certainly seems to be no belief on the part of the Jews
now in the country that they are to be its possessors, and any
such doctrine would be strenuously resisted by the Mohammedan
rulers and people, as well as by the native Christians, Druzes,
Mutawalis, and Nusairies.

9. The Samaritans are a small community of 150 souls, all
living in the city of Nablis in Palestine. They use the Arabic
language in the affairs of life, and the Samaritan, a Semitic
tongue, in their worship. They reject all of the Old Testament
except the Pentateuch. ‘They regard Gerizim as the centre of
their religious life, and themselves as the favored people of God.

10. The Greeks. ‘This sect is not composed in any distinctive
sense of persons of the Greek race, but is, on the contrary, the
most composite of all the Christian sects, as the orthodox
Mohammedans are the least specialized of the Moslem races.
It contains all the race elements which entered into the body-
politic when the Christian Church was first established, and
may be considered as the resultant of the Phoenician, Canaan-
itish, Aramaic, Jewish, Greek, and Roman elements. They call
themselves the ‘‘ Orthodox.” The Syrian branch of the Greek
Church is, perhaps, the least bigoted, and the most susceptible
of reforming and elevating influences of all the branches of that
church. It numbers about 150,000 souls, scattered through
most of the country, with the exception of the Nusairy moun-
tains, and the Maronite section of Lebanon. ‘They are taking a
good stand in the education of the young, and do not discourage
the circulation of the scriptures. ‘They have both a Greek and
an Arabic liturgy, and still adhere to the ancient calendar.

11. The Greek-Catholics or Melchites split off from the Greeks
about 150 years ago, and now form a community of about 50,000

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 189

souls, principally in Lebanon and the adjacent cities. ‘hey
are more advanced in general culture and a desire for education
than the Greeks. They have a flourishing Collegiate Institute
at Beirfit, and have adopted the Gregorian calendar. Their
liturgy is in Greek, but with an Arabic translation. The Greek-
Catholics retain the marriage privileges of the Greek Church,
but have included the later doctrines of Rome in their confession
of faith.

12. The Maronites. This body isa fairly pure remnant of
the Aramaic race. Its stronghold is in the lofty and rugged
mountains of northern Lebanon, where it maintained more or
less of independence until 1860. It numbers in all about 200,000
souls. Many Maronites are now to be found in the principal
cities of Syria and in southern Lebanon. But the seat of their
patriarch and the centre of their power is in the neighborhood
of the Cedars of Lebanon.

There is an apparently insoluble problem as to the origin of
this sect, authorities differing as to the time from the fifth to
the eighth centuries. Their first bishop was John Maro. They
were originally Monothelites, but in the twelth century, under
the influence of the Crusaders, they accepted the doctrine of
the Catholic Church. But it was not till 1465 that they were
reunited, and they did not formally subscribe to the decrees of
the Council of Trent until 1736.

In the seventeenth century the Maronites were taken under
the direct protection of the French, and the French Consul at
Beirtit for a long time exercised viceregal powers over them.

Until 1755 the Maronites and Druzes were friendly. Since
then there have been several civil wars between them, culminat-
ing in the famous massacre of 1860, which spread to Damascus.
After this lamentable outrage, a government was established
in Lebanon, quite different from any that had preceeded it.
The ruler, with the rank of Mutasarrif and title of Vizir, is
nominated by the Sublime Porte, and confirmed by the six treaty
powers, England, France, Russia, Austria, Germany, and Italy.
He must be a Christian, but not of any of the native sects.
The first of these governors was Daoud Pacha, an Armenian; the
second, Franco Pasha, a Latin from Aleppo; the third, Rustem
Pacha, a Latin from Constantinople; the fourth, Wassa Pacha, a
Latin from Albania.

The liturgy of the Maronites is the ancient Syriac. They
have a married clergy, and many peculiar ecclesiastical customs.
Their clergy are better educated than those of the other Christian
sects. Nevertheless, the Maronites are strongly ultramontane
and bigoted, and are the least progressive of the Christians of
the Levant.

190 TRANSACTIONS OF THE | APR. 30,

13. The Jacobites. This sect of Monophysites was named
after Jacob Baradeeus, a monk of Phasilta near Nisibis, in the
sixth century. A favorite illustration of their view of the ab-
sorption of the human nature of Christ in his divinity is:
“Glass is made of sand, but the whole is only glass, no longer
sand. ‘Thus the divine nature of Christ has absorbed the
human, so that the two have become one.” Wolff regards them as
of Hebrew origin, and they call themselves Bnai Israel. Never-
theless, it is not certain that they are a pure Hebrew race, the
heresy of the Monophysites having extended widely through the
Kast, infecting the Nestorians, who were certainly a mixed race,
spread through all Asiatic Turkey.

The headquarters of this sect is at Mosul, and the greater
part of the membership of 150,000 is in upper Mesopotamia.
A few are found in some villages near Damascus, where they
speak a corrupt Aramaic. <A few are scattered through north-
eastern Syria. ‘They are remarkable for their ascetic view of the
religious life, and their compact vigorous hierarchy.

14. The Armenians. Few of the members of this large and
important communion live in Syria. They are undoubtedly the
purest, except, perhaps, the Bedawin, Maronites, and Gypsies,
of all the races of the country. They claim the origin of
their faith directly from Christ, without the intervention of the
Apostles. They have a famous convent on Lebanon at Bezulmar,
and are found in most of the cities of Syria and Palestine, as
bankers and merchants. A peculiarity of the priestly dress with
them is the long black veil which hangs gracefully down their
backs. Asacommunity the Armenians of Syria are exceptionally
intelligent and wealthy.

There is also a papal branch of the Armenian church, repre-
sented by a few individuals in Syria, chiefly at Aleppo.

15. The Latins. From the days of the Crusades there has
been a Latin church in the East, composed either of survivals of
the European hosts, or those who cast in their lot with them.
They are few in number, but of great influence in the country,
owing to their being the medium of pecuniary assistance from
the Latin churches of Europe. It is through them that the
educational work of the churches affiliated with Rome is princi-
pally conducted. They have large convents and schools, and
the most imposing churches in the country have been built by
them. The Capuchin, Lazarist, Benedictine, Jesuit, and other
orders are largely represented.

16. The Copts have ecclesiastical establishments in Jerusalem,
and a few scattered members in the commercial cities. ‘They,
in common with the Abyssinians, retain the rite of circumcision.

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 191

Their liturgy, which was originally in the Coptic, has been
translated into the Arabic, their vulgar tongue.

1%. The Protestants have been firmly established in Syria and
Palestine. Those of Syria are for the most part Presbyterians,
and those of Palestine Episcopalians. They number many
thousands, and are the most intelligent and best educated of all
the people of the country. Few of them, male or female, are
unable to read. The Scriptures have been translated into pure
and classical Arabic, and are very widely circulated, not only
among Protestants, but, through their efforts, among the other
sects of the land. Since the appearance of the Protestant
version, the Jesuits have also translated the Bible. ‘The educa-
tional institutions of the Protestant missionaries are of a high
order, and have become the models for those of the other com-
munions. Before the establishment of the Syrian Protestant
College there was not a collegiate institution in Syria. There
are now six in Beirtiit, besides the above named, belonging to
the Mohammedans, the Greeks, the Greek-Catholics, the Maro-
nites, the Jesuits, and the Hebrews. The Syrian Protestant
college and the Jesuit institution are universities, with several
faculties, and large apparatus of instruction.

The existence of this large number of sects and nationalities
in Syria and Palestine, although in some senses a drawback to
the prosperity and progress of the country, favors a larger reli-
gious toleration, and the success of the educational method of
elevating the whole body politic,in no common degree. A
** Young Syria” is growing up, free from the sectarian animosities
of the past, and imbued with an ever increasing spirit of patriot-
ism and zeal for knowledge. The power of fanaticism grows
yearly less, and all sects are beginning to dwell more and more
on the brotherhood of man.

To give practical expression to this idea, the German Order of
the Temple has established an agricultural colony at Haifa, and
another at Jaffa, where the foreign colonists live in brother-
hood with the natives, and cultivate the soil according to Kuro-
pean methods.

I cannot close this lecture without alluding to the great revival
of learning which has been brought about through the influence
of Protestant missions in Syria and Egypt. Common schools
for both sexes have greatly multiplied throughout Lebanon,
Colesyria, the neighborhood of Damascus, and Palestine, and
along the Nile as far as Nubia. The native sects have been
driven, by fear of proselyteism or by a more honorable spirit of
emulation, to favor this movement. In many cases they have
aided the missionaries in their efforts; in others, they have

192 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [APR. 30,

themselves founded schools. The common schools have stimu-
lated the desire for knowledge, and led to the establishment of
academies, and these in turn to colleges and universities. The
sluggish Mohammedan government has been aroused, and schools
for Mussulman children of both sexes have been founded. ‘Text-
books have been translated and composed, scientific journals
have been established, libraries are being founded in the prin-
cipal cities, and a general movement of mind has been inaugu-
rated throughout the historic countries whose past reminds us of
what they are capable.

Already there is a beginning of political emancipation. Some
of the municipal offices in Turkey are elective. In 1876 a par-
liament of the Turkish empire sat for a while in Constantinople,
and the deputies did honor to themselves and the communities
which they represented. This parliament was not dissolved
until it had shown that the people of Turkey had begun to
grasp the principles and methods of constitutional government.
Had it remained, it would have brought this empire fairly
within the circle of modern states.

A similar experiment was tried in Cairo in the days of Arabi
Pasha, but the parliament proved too dangerous to the arbitrary
government of Egypt, and was summarily dismissed.

But the people of those lands cannot be always repressed.
They are rapidly coming to self-consciousness, and will yet assert
their manhood and claim the share in self-government for which
they are being fitted by the process of education which is going
forward. When the day of their emancipation shall have come,
there is a great future open to Syria and Mesopotamia. Fifty
millions of people can support themselves in those regions. Rail-
ways to the Persian Gulf and throughout those fertile lands will
develop their resources, and add their wealth to the world’s
commerce. Great cities will grow up on the Syrian coast, and
along the Euphrates and Tigris. Damascus, and Aleppo, and
Hamath, and Bussorah, and Mosul, and Bagdad, will assume
more than their ancient importance and wealth. And the
Arabian race, with its copious and expressive language, will
become the carrier of civilization and Christianity to the recesses
of Arabia and Africa, so long desolated by the curse of islam.

Remarks were made by the PRESIDENT and by Pror. Trow-
BRIDGE,

Upon motion of the Secretary, it was voted that the thanks of
the Academy be transmitted to the General Secretaries of the
International Geological Congress, in reply to their invitation to

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 193

the members of the Academy to participate in the meeting of
the Congress at Berlin.

May 7, 1888.
REGULAR Business MEETING.
The President, Pror. J. S. NEWBERRY, in the chair.
Seventy persons present.
The Report of the Council recommended as follows:
I. The election of the following nominees:
For Resident Members:

Pror. CHARLES B. BrusH,
BENJAMIN SILLIMAN CHURCH,
JOHN PATTEN,
WILLIAM WATERS.

For Corresponding Members:

His Excenttency R. Kuki, Tokio, Japan.
Pror. Francis AusTIN Goocu, New Haven, Conn.
Pror. SetH E. Merex, Cedar Rapids, Iowa.

II. The transfer from Resident to Corresponding Membership
of Charles G. Am Ende, William Kelley, and Simon F. Mackie.

III. The acceptance of the resignations of George Gregory
and W. M. Habershaw.

IV. The remission of certain dues.

V. The erasure of certain names from the list of Resident
Members.

VI. The payment of certain bills.

The recommendations were severally adopted, with the excep-
tion of item IV., which was laid over one month, under the
rule, and the candidates were elected by formal ballot.

The Recording Secretary reported that, in obedience to the

194 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [MAY 7,

command of the Academy, he had issued a call for the members:
of the Academy who were interested in mineralogy to meet
after adjournment of the Academy, April 16th, for the purpose
of organizing a section cf mineralogy. Such meeting was held,
and a Mineralogical Section organized. Sixteen names were af-
fixed to the roll, and Mr. George F. Kunz was elected Chair-
man of the Section, and Mr. John H. Caswell, Secretary.

Mr. ALBerT R. LEDOUX exhibited a meteorite from near
Pike Creek, thirty-five miles southwest of San Antonio, Texas.
Its weight, when found, was thirty pounds. It contained fifty-
seven per cent iron, and nine per cent silica.

The PreEsIpENT exhibited azurite, with rosette crystalliza-
tion, from the Copper Queen Mine, Clifton, Arizona. Also
garnets from New York Island, of beautiful form, dodecahedral
(I.), the edges replaced with trapezahedral face (33), like the
garnets from Alaska.

The PRESIDENT announced letters in acceptance of honorary
membership from Louis Pasteur and John Tyndall, and of cor-
responding membership from La Princesse Héléne Koltzoff-
Massalsky.

The PRESIDENT placed upon the blackboard a sketch of the
fossil shark Cladodus Keplert, which was described in the paper
read by title at the previous meeting, and remarked upon the
remarkable character of the fossil.

Dr. H. CARRINGTON BOLTON read a paper on

THE LUNAR SOCIETY, OR THE FESTIVE PHILOSOPHERS OF
BIRMINGHAM ONE HUNDRED YEARS AGO.

The Lunar Society was an informal club or association of
scientific men which flourished in Birmingham for nearly forty
years. It was founded about the year 1766, by Matthew Boul-
ton, Dr. Erasmus Darwin, Dr. William Small and their friends;
they do not seem to have numbered more than eight or ten at
any one time, and they met at each other’s houses for dinner every
month near the full moon, ‘‘inorder,” says J)r. Priestley, ‘‘ to
have the benefit of its light in returning home.” Hence the name
Lunar Society. The members were accustomed to sit down to
dinner at two o’clock, and did not part until eight, exchanging

1888, ] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 195

views with each other on topics relating to literature, science,
and arts, each contributing his quota of entertainment and in-
struction.

Each member was allowed to bring with him a friend, and
thus many distinguished guests were present at these philoso-
phical banquets. The society occasionally held ‘‘ meetings ex-
traordinary,” in honor of scientific magnates from abroad.

Among the members of the Lunar Society were the following
eminent men of science.

Matthew Boulton, F.R.S. (1728-1809), mechanical engineer
and inventor of improvements in the steam-engine. A partner
of James Watt.

Dr. Erasmus Darwin, F.R.S. (1731-1802), physician, poet,
and naturalist. Author of ‘* The Botanic Garden.”

Dr. William Small (1734-1775), an intimate friend of Dar-
win, Boulton, and Watt. He was an accomplished physician,
chemist, and mechanist. He held the professorship of mathe-
matics and natural philosophy in William and Mary College,
Virginia, for some years, but returned to England and settled
in Birmingham. :

Thomas Day (1748-1789), a wealthy, eccentric philanthropist,
best known asthe author of ‘‘Sandford and Merton.” A friend
of Capt. Keir.

Richard Lovell Edgworth, F.R.S. (1744-1817), author and
philosopher ; he contributed papers to the Royal Society. A
friend of Day and Darwin.

Dr. William Withering, F.R.S. (1741-1799), physician, bota-
nist, and chemist. He analyzed the mineral witherite named in
his honor.

James Watt, F.R.S. (1736-1819), inventor of improvements
in the steam-engine, chemist, and engineer. Partner of Boul-
ton.

Captain James Keir (17..-1814), chemist and author ; pro-
prietor of several chemical establishments at West Bromwich
near Birmingham. A friend of Darwin and Small.

John Baskerville (1706-1775), inventor of superior type, and
publisher of standard works.

Rev. Dr. Joseph Priestley, F.R.S. (1733-1804), the father of
pneumatic chemistry, theologian, and philosopher.

William Murdock (1754-1839), mechanical engineer, superin-
tendent of the works of Boulton and Watt. Inventor of the
system of lighting by gas, and of many improvements in steam
machinery.

Rev. R. A. Johnson, F.R.S., of Kenilworth.

Mr. Samuel Galton, F.R.S., a wealthy man of letters, well
skilled in chemistry and natural history.

196 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [May %,

Mr. Samuel Galton, junior, his son.

Dr. Stoke, a physician of Birmingham.

Among the guests known to have been entertained were the
following distinguished men of science and letters:

Josiah Wedgwood, F.R.S. (1730-1795), the well-known potter
and inventor of the ware called by his name.

Sir Joseph Banks, F.R.S. (1743-1820), botanist, President of
the Royal Society.

Sir William Herschel, F.R.S. (1738-1822), the most distin-
guished astronomer of the century.

John Smeaton (1724-1792), civil engineer, builder of Eddy-
stone Lighthouse.

Dr. Samuel Parr (1747-1825), eminent English scholar and
critic.

The Rev. Hugh Blair, D.D. (1718-1800), author of ‘‘ Lectures
on Rhetoric.” Professor in the University of Kdinburgh.

Adam Afzelius (1750-1836), Swedish botanist. He visited
England in 1789.

Dr. Daniel C. Solander, F.R.S. (1736-1782), Swedish Natu-
ralist and physician, Librarian British Museum.

Jean André de Lue (1727-1817), Swiss natural philosopher
and geologist. .

Dr. Pieter Camper, F.R.S. (1722-1789) Dutch naturalist
and anatomist,

Mr. John Wilkinson, iron-master, brother-in-law to Dr.
Priestley.

Mr. William Bewly, a surgeon and apothecary of Norfolk,
author of letters on the chemistry of gases. A friend of Dr.
Priestley.

Mr. Collins, an American ‘‘ rebel.”

Dr. Henry Moyes, of Edinburgh, lecturer on chemistry,
though blind. He emigrated to America in 1785.

Mr. M. Robinson Boulton, son of Matthew.

The Rev. Joseph Barrington, Roman Catholic priest of
Oscott, a small hamlet, seven or eight miles from Birmingham.
Author of several historical works.

Of the original members, two, Small and Baskerville, died in
1775. Dr. Priestley did not become a member until 1780, and,
Murdock being so much younger, must have joined still later.
Apparently, the society kept no records of its meetings, and but
scanty notices of its proceedings can be gathered from the corre-
spondence of its members.

We have given 1766 as the date of the commencement of these
social gatherings, but it is probable that they occurred still
earlier, for when James Watt visited Soho in 1768 on his way
from London to Glasgow, Dr. Small, Dr. Darwin, and Capt.

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 197

Keir were invited to meet him at ‘‘ V’hétel de Pamitié sur Hands-
worth Heath,” as Matthew Boulton styled his hospitable man-
sion. The Society had not perfected its method of conducting
affairs as late as 1776, for in this year Boulton wrote to Watt,
who had settled in Birmingham:

‘¢ Pray remember that the celebration of the third full moon
will be on Saturday, March 3d; Darwin and Keir will both be at
‘Soho. I then propose to submit many motions to the members
respecting new laws and regulations, such as will tend to prevent
the decline of a Society which, I hope, will be lasting.”

Boulton was of a thoroughly social disposition, and the form-
-ation of the Lunar Society was a natural outgrowth of his genial
character. He took pleasure in gathering about him in his
home persons of kindred tastes and pursuits, in order both to
enjoy their friendship and to cultivate his nature by intercourse
with minds of the highest pattern. He wasa favorite alike with
-children and philosophers, with noble guests and simple work-
men of Cornwall. London had not at that period absorbed to so
great a degree the active intelligence of England, especially in
the higher departments of science, art, and literature. The
men of that period, though busy with their professional duties
and domestic cares, were not so wholly engrossed in the turmoil
of business which makes life a burden for so many in the present
age, and found time for relaxation in convivial gatherings. In
Liverpool, Roscoe and Currie were the centres of a social intel-
Jectual circle; at Warrington, Aiken, Enfield, and, for a time,
Priestley, were the leading spirits of another; at Bristol, Dr. Bed-
‘does and Humphrey Davy of a third; and at Norwich, the Tay-
lors and Martineaus of a fourth. In London, Sir Joseph: Banks,
Dr. Solander, Sir Charles Blagden, Dr. George Fordyce, Drs.
Milner and Maskelyne, Captain Cook, Sir G. Shuckburgh, Lord
Mulgrave, John Smeaton, and Jesse Ramsden with Edgworth
and others, met once a week at Jack’s Coffee House, and after-
wards at Young Slaughter’s Coffee House for social converse.
This assemblage had no distinctive name. Benjamin Franklin
was a frequent attendant, and alludes to it in his correspond-
ence. But the most distinguished gatherings of all were those
of the Lunar Society at Birmingham.

The Patriarch of the Society was Dr. Erasmus Darwin, at
least until he removed to Derby in 1782. ‘‘ His fame as a doc-
tor, philosopher, and poet was great throughout the Midland
Counties. He was extremely speculative in all directions, even
in such matters as driving wheel carriages by steam.” Being
very busy with his medical practice at Lichfield, he was not very
regular in his attendance at the dinners of the Society, and ex-
cused himself for his absence by such a letter as the following:

198 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [MAY 7,

APRIL 5TH, 1778.
Dear Boutton:—I am sorry the infernal divinities who visit
mankind with diseases, and are therefore at perpetual war with
doctors, should have prevented my seeing all your great men at
Soho to-day. Lord! what inventions, what wit, what rhetoric,
metaphysical, mechanical, and pyrotechnical, will be on the
wing, bandied like a shuttlecock from one to another of your
troup of philosophers ! while poor I, I by myself I, imprison’d
in a post-chaise, am joggl’d, and jostl’d, and bump’d, and
bruised along the King’s highroad to make war upon a stomach-

ache or a fever.” .. . [Signed | Erasmus DARWIN.

The society evidently served the purpose of a scientific ex-
change, each member contributing at the monthly meeting re-
sults of his own observations, and reporting news from without
the circle. Before the establishment of weekly journals of sci-
ence, this exchange was the natural means of intercommunica-
tion, just as the Athenians gathered on Mars Hill ‘to tell or
to hear some new thing” in the political world. The society
seems further to have been chosen by persons from a distance as
a channel for announcing their own discoveries or those of
others to scientists who would appreciate and publish them.
James Watt wrote to the Irish chemist Kirwan as follows:

BIRMINGHAM, Nov. 14th, 1783.
DeAR Sir:—Your obliging communication of Mr. Scheele’s
process of making the Prussian acid gave me great pleasure,
and, according to your desire, I communicated it to our Lunar
Society last Monday, who desire me to return to you their
thanks... . JAMES WATT.

When Dr. Priestley dissolved his connection with Lord
Sheiburne, and removed to Birmingham in 1780, he was warmly
welcomed by the members of the Lunar Society as a valuable
acquisition. He had corresponded with Boulton, and was al-
ready celebrated for his publications and his discoveries in gas
chemistry. His discovery of nitric oxide dates from 1772; that
of ammonia, hydrochloric acid, and oxygen from 1774; sul-
phurous acid gas and silicon-tetrafluoride, 1775; and nitrous
oxide (laughing gas), 1776. He had published three volumes
of his ‘‘ Experiments and Observations on Air,” and was en-
gaged on a fourth. Priestley’s love of polemics in metaphysics
and theology was reflected in his work in science, and though
unassuming and gentle in disposition, his advent infused new
vigor into the society, and henceforth gave a chemical turn to:
the weighty discussions of the feasting philosophers.

In his autobiography, Priestley refers to these meetings in the
following language:

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 199

“1 consider my settlement at Birmingham as the happiest
event in my life, being highly favorable to every object I had in
view, philosophical or theological. In the former respect, I
had the convenience of good workmen of every kind and the so-
ciety of persons eminent for their knowledge of chemistry, par-
ticularly Mr. Watt, Mr. Keir, and Dr. Withering. These,
with Mr. Boulton and Dr. Darwin, Mr. Galton, and, afterwards,
Mr. Johnson, of Kenilworth, and myself, dined together every
month, calling ourselves the Lunar Society, because the time
of our meeting was the full moon.”

The invitations sent out by the host were not formal, but in
the nature of friendly letters, in which hints were given as to
the intellectual feast in store. Thus, on January 3d, 1781,
Watt wrote to Dr. Darwin: ‘‘I beg that you would impress on
your memory the idea that you promised to dine with sundry
men of learning at my house on Monday next, and that you
will realize the idea. For your encouragement there is a new
book to cut up, and it is to be determined whether or not heat
is a compound of phlogiston and empyreal air, and whether a
mirror can reflect the heat of the fire. I give you a friendly
warning that you may be found wanting whichever opinion you
adopt in the latter question; therefore be cautious. If you are
meek and humble, perhaps you may be told what light is made
of, and also how to make it, and the theory proved both by syn-
thesis and analysis.”

To this communication, Dr. Darwin sent the following curi-
ous and characteristic answer:

Beau Desert, January 6th, 1781.

Dear Mr. Watt:—You know there is a perpetual war car-
ried on between the devil and all holy men. Sometimes one
prevails in an odd skirmish or so, and sometimes the other.
Now, you must know that this said devil has played me a slip-
pery trick, and, I fear, prevented me from coming to join the
holy men at your house, by sending the measles with peripneu-
mony amongst nine beautiful children of Lord Paget’s. For I
must suppose it is a work of the devil! Surely the Lord could
never think of amusing himself by setting nine innocent little
animals to cough their hearts up. Pray, ask your learned So-
ciety if this partial evil contributes to any public good, if this
pain is necessary to establish the subordination or different links
in the chain of animation. If one was to be weaker and less
perfect than another, must he therefore have pain as a part of
his portion ? Pray, inquire of your philosophers, and rescue
me from Manicheism.

As to material philosophy, I can tell you some secrets in re-

200 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [may 7%,

turn for yours, viz., that atmospheric air is composed of light,
and the earth of water (and aqueous earth). That water is
composed of aqueous gas which is displaced from its earth by oil
of vitriol. Pray, make my best devoirs to all the Phlos., and
pray tell Dr. Priestley that I wish he would try whether a plant
insulated in % will spoil air. EK. DARWIN.

When Darwin removed to Derby, he wrote to the Society:

““T am here cut off from the milk of science, which flows in
such redundant streams from your learned Lunatics, and which,
I can assure you, is a very great regret to me.”

In another letter he said:

‘‘T hope philosophy and fire-engines continue to go on well.
You heard we sent your Society an air balloon, which was calcu-
lated to have fallen in your garden at Soho, but the wicked wind
earried it to Sir Edward Littleton’s. Pray, give my compli-
ments to your learned Society.”

On another occasion, Darwin wrote to Boulton:

**T hope Behemoth has strength in his loins. Belialand Ash-
taroth are two other devils of consequence and good names for
engines of fire.”

Judging by these letters, Darwin was certainly a lively asso-
ciate.

The meetings of the philosophers at Mr. Galton’s must have
been among the most delightful. The host was a man of supe-
rior intellectual endowments, well skilled in the exact sciences,
and a member of the Royal Society and of the Linnean Society.
He was of the Quaker persuasion, and a man of family and
opulence. He at first resided at The Five Ways about one mile
from Birmingham, but in 1785 moved to Great Barr House, a
beautiful estate of Sir Joseph Scott, about seven miles further
from town. The house was large and rambling, it had four or
five different staircases and halls, and was more like an assem-
blage of several houses under one roof. It was situated in an
amphitheatre of wooded hills, and was bordered by an old-
fashioned Dutch garden full of fish ponds. In this comfortable
mansion the Lunar Society was most hospitably entertained.
Mr. Galton’s daughter Mary Anne (afterwards Mrs. Schimmel
Penninck) characterizes the members with a graceful pen. Mr.
Boulton, whom she calls the Father of Birmingham, ‘‘ was tall
and of a noble appearance; his temperament was sanguine, with
that slight mixture of phlegmatic which gives calmness and
dignity; his manners were eminently open and cordial; he took
the lead in conversations, and with a social heart had a grandiose
manner like that arising from position, wealth, and habitual
command. He went among his people like a monarch bestow-

1888. ] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 201

ing largess. His forehead was magnificent; the organs of com-
parison, constructiveness, and of individuality were immense.
The characteristics of Mr. Watt, his partner, were altogether
different. Mr. Boulton was a man to rule society with dignity;
Mr. Watt to lead the comtemplative life of a deeply introverted
and patiently observant philosopher. He was one of the most
complete specimens of the melancholic temperament. His head
was generally bent forward or leaning on his hand in meditation;
his shoulders stooping, and his chest fallen in; his limbs lank
and unmuscular, and his complexion sallow. His intellectual
development was magnificent. . . . Whilst Mr. Boulton’s eye
and countenance had something of radiance, Mr. Watt’s were
calm, as if patiently investigating or quietly contemplating his
object. His utterance was slow and unimpassioned, deep and
low in tone, with a broad Scotch accent; his manners gentle,
modest, unassuming. In a company where he was not known,.
unless spoken to, he might have tranquilly passed the whole
time in pursuing his own meditations. But this could not well
happen; for, in point of fact, everybody practically knew the
infinite variety of his talents and stores of knowledge. When
Mr. Watt entered a room, men of letters, men of science, nay,
military men, artists, ladies, even little children thronged around
him. J remember a celebrated Swedish artist having been in-
structed by him that rats’ whiskers make the most plant and
elastic painting-brush; ladies would appeal to him on the best
means of devising grates, curing smoking chimneys, warming
their houses, and obtaining fast colors. I can speak from ex-
perience of his teaching me how to make a dulcimer and improve
a Jew’s harp.” ‘Quite different was the aspect of Dr. Wither-
ing; he was the personification of that which belongs to a
physician and a naturalist; enormous were his organs of propor-
tion and individuality, and great were his powers of active
investigation and accurate detail. His features were sharpened
by minute and sagacious observation. He was kind, but his
great accuracy and caution rendered his manner less open, and
it had neither the wide popularity of Mr. Boulton’s, nor the
attraction of Mr. Watt’s true modesty.”

Of Dr. Priestley she says: he was ‘‘a man of admirable sim-
plicity, gentleness, and kindness of heart, united with great
acuteness of intellect. I can never forget the impression pro-
duced on me by the serene expression of his countenance. He,
indeed, seemed present with God by recollection and with man by
cheerfulness,” She differed from Dr. Priestley in his religious
views, but pays a handsome tribute to his earnestness, candor,
and sincerity.

Captain Keir she characterizes as ‘‘ the wit, the man of the

202 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [MAY 7%,

world, the finished gentleman, who gave life and animation to
the party.”

Dr. Stoke she calls ‘‘ profoundly scientific and eminently ab-
sent,” and relates the following incident in which he was concerned.
“* On one occasion, when the Lunar Meeting, or ‘ Lunatics,’
as our butler called them, were seated at dinner, a blazing fire
being in the room, we were astonished by hearing a sudden
hissing noise, and seeing a large and beautiful, yellow and black
snake rushing about the room. My dear mother, who saw it
was not venomous, said to me: ‘ Mary Anne, go and catch that
snake,’ which, after some trouble, and thinking all the while
of little Harry Sandford and Tommy Merton, I succeeded in ac-
complishing. We were wondering where it could have come
from, when Dr. Stoke said that, as he was riding along, he had
seen the poor animal frozen on a bank, and put it in his pocket to
dissect, but the snake had thawed and escaped from his pocket.
The doctor praised me very much for my prowess, and as a reward
he made me a present of my prisoner, which I long kept in a
glass jar and carefully tended every day; at last, however, I
gave him his freedom.”

Of the eccentric Dr. Darwin the lady had less agreeable
reminiscences. ‘The doctor had been called professionally to
see her mother; he arrived in a worn-out, muddy ‘‘ sulky,” fitted
up with receptacles for writing and eating, stocked with sweet
confections, of which he was fond, and heaped up with books
from the floor to the front window. ‘‘ We all hastened,” she
says, ‘to the window to see Dr. Darwin, of whom we had heard
so much, and whom I was prepared to honor and venerate, in no
common degree, as the restorer of my mother’s health. What
then was my astonishment at beholding him, as he slowly got
out of the carriage! His figure was vast and massive, his head
was almost buried on his shoulders, and he wore a scratch-wig,
as it is called, tied up in a little bobtail behind.” Meanwhile,
amidst all this, the doctor’s eye was deeply sagacious, his obser-
vation most keen, and his intelligence well calculated to inspire
confidence in his patients. When conversation began, his flow
of wit and anecdote was most entertaining and astonishing, in
spite of an inveterate stammering.

Elsewhere she records the painful impression made on her by
the doctor’s irreligion.’

1 We have ventured to quote, at great length, from Mrs. Schimmel
Penninck’s graphic reminiscences, because they certainly bear the im-
press of truth and are lifelike in their portraiture. She had every ad-
vantage of forming the acquaintance of the members of the Society, her
father being active in it from the time she was eight years old until she
was five and twenty, and a tenacious memory, added to a power of

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 203

During the years 1780 to 1785, pneumatic chemistry was the
principal topic under discussion, for Priestley and Watt were each
contributing his share to the much-vexed question of the consti-
tution of water. Cavendish in London, Lavoisier in Paris, and
Watt in Birmingham were three rival claimants for the honor
of the discovery of the composition of water. Priestley, asa friend
of Watt, communicated speedily the results of his experiments,
sometimes it is reasonable to believe, over the festive board of the
Lunarians, and left the conclusions to be drawn by others. As
to the relative merits of the claimants, that is foreign to the
purpose of this essay.

The Priestley-Wedgwood correspondence’ shows that in 1783
the philosophers were greatly exercised over Priestley’s discovery
of theconversion of water intoair, the fallacy of which he himself
afterwards admitted.

The Phlogistic Theory, which had been the controlling spirit
in chemical philosophy for nearly a century, received its death-
blow at the hands of Priestley himself, when he isolated oxygen
on the 1st August, 1774. But he, as is well known, failed to per-
ceive the important bearing of his own discovery, and it was
across the channel that Lavoisier and other French chemists
were skilfully burying the corpse out of sight. The French
theory of combustion was but slowly accepted by conservative
Englishmen, and slowest of all by the friends of Priestley.

In the transition period, hydrogen was for a time believed to
be the elusive phlogiston; to this phase of doctrine, Boulton
alludes in a letter to Wedgwood dated March 30th, 1781.

‘‘ We have long talked of phlogiston without knowing what
we talked about; but now that Dr. Priestley hath brought the
matter to light, we can pour that element out of one vessel into
another, can tell how much of it by accurate measurement is
necessary to reduce a calx to a metal, which is easily done, and
without putting that calx into contact with any visible thing.
In short, this goddess of levity can be measured and weighed
like other matter. For the rest, I refer you to the doctor him-
self.”

A few months later, Priestley himself wrote to his friend,
Josiah Wedgwood: ‘‘ Before my late experiments, phlogiston was
indeed almost given up by the Lunar Society, but now it seems
to be re-established ” (March 21st, 1782),

‘discrimination of unusual delicacy, enabled her, in after years, to
record her souvenirs, Her mother was a most intimate friend of Mrs.
Priestley, and William Priestley was a playmate in her youth. (‘‘ Life
a Mary Ann Schimmel Penninck,” edited by C. C. Hankin. London,
59.)
1 See authorities at the close of this paper.

204 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [MAY %,.

Again Boulton writes to his partner, Watt, July 3d, 1781.

‘«J dined yesterday at the Lunar Society (Keir’s house); there:
was Blair, Priestley, Withering, Galton, and an American
“rebel,” Mr. Collins. Nothing new, except that some of my
white spathos iron ore was found to contain more air than any
ore Priestley had ever tried, and what is singular, it contains no:
common air, but is part fixable and part inflammable.”

On September 20th, 1785, Watt wrote to Boulton :

‘‘The Lunar Society was held yesterday at Mr. Galton’s at.
Barr. It was rather dull, there having been no philosophical
news lately, except Mr. Kirwan’s discovery of an air from phos--
phorus, which takes fire of itself on being mixed with common
or dephlogisticated air.”

We imagine that the philosophers would have hardly regarded
their feast as dull, could Mr. Kirwan have shown to them the
beautiful yet nauseating experiment of spontaneously inflamma-
ble phosphoretted hydrogen. And a modern Academy of
Sciences would be enthusiastic over such a notable discovery.’

The discussions of the philosophic convives were not, however,
confined exclusively to chemistry. The period was one of great
activity in the world of science; Laplace was applying his.
mathematical genius to the problems of astronomy ; Herschel
was sweeping the heavens with his gigantic telescopes ; Galvani
and Volta were laying the foundations of a revolution in elec-
tricity; Count Rumford in Bavaria, was devoting his great
energy to industrial and social economy; Hutton and Werner
were geologizing in their respective countries ; Hauy was syste-
matizing the innumerable crystalline forms occurring in nature;
the Mongolfier brothers were experimenting with air-balloons,.
and prophesying the yet unsolved problem of aérial navigation 3.
Capt. James Cook returned from his memorable voyages around
the world full of adventure and novelties in nature; the appli-
cation of steam to the driving of land carriages and the propel-.
ling of boats was gradually being perfected by patience and
genius. These together with the metaphysical and even the politi-.
cal questions of the day, must have engrossed the attention of the
talented friends who dined together at the full moon. ‘The pre-
dilections of their guests sometimes determined the character of
the subjects discussed. Thus, in the autumn of 1782, the
venerable engineer Smeaton, having business in Birmingham
connected with his canal, was invited to attend a meeting of the
Lunarians at the house of Watt. Watt wrote of this evening’s
proceedings to his friend Boulton, then in London, as follows :

1 Gengembre, one of Lavoisier’s pupils, had discovered inflammable:
phosphoretted hydrogen in 1783, but Kirwan’s discovery was made in-
dependently.

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 205

«¢ Smeaton grows old and is rather more talkative than he was,
but retains in perfection his perspicuity of expression and good
sense. Hecame to the philosophers’ meeting at my house on
Monday, and we were receiving an account of his experiments
on rotatives and some new ones he has made, when unluckily his
facts did not agree with Dr. Moyes, the blind philosopher’s
theories, which made Moyes contradict Smeaton, and brought
ona dispute which lost us the information we hoped for, and
took away all the pleasure of the meeting, as it lasted two hours
without coming half an inch nearer to the point.” (October
26th, 1782.)

It has been surmised that the Lunar Society discussed the
action of light upon nitrate of silver, and the application of this
phenomenon to the production of pictures. This suggestion
was made by Mr. W. P. Smith, at a meeting of the Photo-
graphic Society of Birmingham in 1863, and was based on the
discovery in Mr. Boulton’s library at Soho of certain photo-
graphic pictures on metallic plates. It was understood at the
time that Boulton’s rooms had been closed for fifty years, but
this proved to be an error, and the pictures were probably made
by a Miss Wilkinson who had access to the rooms, and who had
experimented in photography soon after its invention by Niepce.
It is well known that Thomas Wedgwood, son of Josiah, is said
to have made ‘‘silver pictures” under Sir Humphrey Davyy’s
eyes as early as 1791-93, hence during the existence of the
Lunar Society. A fac-simile of one of these early photographs
is prefixed to Miss Meteyard’s ‘‘ Life of the Younger Wedgwoods,”
but she herself throws some doubt on its authenticity.

The philosophical converse of the learned men was sometimes
enlivened by humorous interludes, suchas the following: Dr. Dar-
win, whose levity in religious matters was notorious, had invented
a speaking machine which pronounced ‘‘ papa,” ‘‘ mamma,” and
other words quite accurately. Mr. Boulton, who perhaps had
suffered from the caustic wit of the doctor, drew up the follow-
ing satirical contract.

**T promise to pay to Dr. Darwin, of Lichfield, one thousand
pounds upon his delivering to me (within two years from date
hereof) an instrument called an organ that is capable of pro-
nouncing the Lord’s Prayer, the Creed, and Ten Commandments
in the vulgar tongue, and his ceding to me, and me only, the
property of the said invention with all the advantages there-
unto appertaining.”

[Signed | M. Boutton.
Sono, September 3d, 1787.
Witness, JAMES KEIR.
Witness, W. SMALL.

206 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [MAY 7,

A wide range of topics was admitted in the discussions at the
informal meetings. Mrs. Schimmel Penninck, already quoted,
gives a vivid picture of an exciting scene in her father’s house.
It was in the summer of 1788, and Matthew Boulton presented
to the company his son M. Robinson Boulton, who had just
returned from a long sojourn in Paris. ‘‘I well remember,”
writes Mrs. Schimmel Penninck, ‘‘my astonishment at his full
dress in the highest adornment of Parisian fashion; but I
noticed as aremarkable thing that the company (which consisted
of some of the first men in Europe), all with one accord gathered
around him and asked innumerable questions, the drift of which
I did not fully understand. It was wonderful to me to see Dr.
Priestley, Dr. Withering, Mr. Watt, Mr. Boulton himself, and
Mr. Keir manifest the most intense interest, each according to.
his prevailing characteristics, as they almost hung upon his
words ; and it was impossible to mistake the indications of deep
anxiety, hope, fear, curiosity, ardent zeal, or thoughtful gravity
which alternately marked their countenances, as well as those of
my own parents. My ears caught the words ‘ Marie Antoinette,’
‘Cardinal de Rohan,’ ‘ diamond necklace,’ ‘ famine,’ ‘discontent
among the people,’ ‘sullen silence instead of shouts of Vive le
Roi!’ All present seemed to give a fearful attention. Why, I
did not then well know, and in a day or two, these things were
almost forgotten by me, but the rest of the party heard, no.
doubt, in the young man’s narrative, the distant though as yet
faint rising of the storm which a year later was to burst upon
France, and in its course to desolate Europe.”

It is proper to note that Mary Anne Galton was but eleven
years of age at the time which she describes from memory in
her later years.

In 1791 a popular outbreak occurred in Birmingham, which
threatened the very existence of the Lunar Society. A riotous
mob, led by designing men of the baser sort, took possession,.
as it were, of the town, and for four days (July 14th to 17th) pil-
laged and destroyed private property to the value of over one
hundred thousand pounds. These July riots have often been
described and details of the fanatical and violent proceedings
do not belong to this place. We can but briefly say that the
animosity was caused by political bias and religious intolerance,
and was especially directed against Dr. Priestley and his friends
who had openly expressed their sympathy with the French Re-
volution, and as Dissenters were known to be opposed to the Hs-
tablished Church. The enraged mob, at first small in number,.
but increasing to more than a thousand, attacked first a com-
pany of eighty gentlemen who were dining together at a public
house to commemorate the anniversary of the French Revolution.

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 207

The mob broke the hotel windows, and shouting ‘‘ Church and
King,” sought out Dr. Priestley, who had not dined with the
company. Not finding him, the mob rushed to the ‘‘ New
Meeting House,” of which the Rev. Doctor was pastor, and
destroyed it by fire. They then sought another Dissenting
Chapel, and, having levelled it to the ground, marched over a
mile to the residence of Dr. Priestley, which was plundered
without mercy. His philosophical apparatus was ruthlessly de-
stroyed and his library and manuscripts scattered to the winds.
Dr. Priestley and his family barely escaped with their lives and
never entered the town again. His cheerful temperament and
philosophic habit of mind supported him wonderfully, but he
never ceased to lament the loss of valuable manuscripts, in
which were recorded the results of twenty years of labor and
study.

During three succeeding days the mob continued its work of
destruction, almost unchecked by the municipal government.
They directed their attacks against the property and persons of
Dissenters, and of those holding liberal political views; the
houses of the estimable William Hutton, bookseller, of a poor
Presbyterian parson Mr. Hobson, and the more costly mansions
of Mr. Humphreys and Mr. William Russel, a particular friend
of Dr. Priestley, were pillaged and burned to the ground. The
members of the Lunar Society, popularly known as ‘‘ Lunatics,”
were the especial object of their hatred and zea]. Shouting: ‘* Vo
philosophers—church and king forever!” they attacked Edg-
baston Hall, the residence of Dr. Withering, but the timely
arrival of the light-horse terminated their wretched work of
plunder. Some persons, to escape their fury, wrote: ‘‘ No
philosophers” on the fronts of their houses. Boulton and Watt.
were not without apprehension of an attack, and placing arms in
the hands of their workmen, addressed them on the criminality
of the riotous proceedings, and obtained their promise to defend
the establishment. But Soho was spared the dreaded attack,
owing to the fact, says Watt, that most of the Dissenters lived
in another direction.

As a sequel, some of the ringleaders were executed, and the
sufferers were awarded partial compensation for their pecuniary
losses. Priestley shook the dust of Birmingham off his feet,
fled to London, and some three years later emigrated to the
wild regions of the Susquehanna in search of peace.

It requires little play of the imagination to conjure up the ex-
citing conditions of the first meeting of the Lunar Society after
these frightful disasters. We have found no record or even
allusion to this occasion, which called for all the philosophy the
learned victims could muster.

208 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [may 7%,

Dr. Priestley, while suffering an enforced separation from the
society of his fellow-philosophers, was not forgetful of them,
and in 1793 he dedicated his treatise, ‘‘ Experiments on the
Generation of Air from Water,” to his ‘‘ valued friends, the
members of the Lunar Society at Birmingham.” In this dedi-
cation, he says: ‘‘ There are few things I more regret, in con-
sequence of my removal from Birmingham, than the loss of
your society. It both encouraged and enlightened me, so that
what I did there of a philosophical kind ought in justice to be at-
tributed almost as much to youas to myself. From our cheerful
meetings I never absented myself voluntarily, and from my pleas-
ing recollection they will never be absent. Should the cause of our
separation make it necessary for me to remove to a still greater
distance from you, I shall only think the more, and with the
more regret, of our past interviews.” ‘‘ Philosophy,” he adds,
*‘engrossed us wholly. Politicians may think there are no ob-
jects of any consequence -besides those which immediately in-
terest them. But objects far superior to any of which they have
any idea engaged our attention, and the discussion of them was
accompanied with a satisfaction to which they are strangers.
Happy would it be for the world if their pursuits were as tran-
quil, and their projects as innocent and as friendly to the
best interests of mankind as ours.” Finally, he concludes by
earnestly committing them all, though in religious persuasion
differing from himself, ‘‘ to the protection and blessing of that
Great Being whose we are, and whom I| trust we all serve, aud
who established that course of nature which is the object of our
common investigation.” And then the Rev. Doctor prays
“with the greatest esteem and affection ” for a happy reunion
with them all in another state of being.

On another occasion, Priestley, writing to Watt, again ex-
pressed his affection for the members of the society in graceful
language. After thanking Watt and Boulton for the gift of a
copving machine (invented by the former), the doctor adds:
‘¢This and many other things will ever remind me of the obli-
gations I am under to you, and the pleasing intercourse I have
had with you and all my friends of the Lunar Society. Such
another I can never expect to see. Indeed, London cannot fur-
nish it. I shall always think of you at the usual times of your
meeting.” (Letter of November 2d, 1791.)

Even after his settlement in Northumberland, the doctor
continued to communicate his scientific observations to his
friends in the Lunar Society. On December 6th, 1795, writing
to his friend the Rev. Theophilus Lindsay, Priestley explains
that he forwards through Dr. Young a copy of a paper prepared
for the Philosophical Society at Philadelphia, and says: ‘‘ Please

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 209

to forward it to Mr. Galton the first convenient opportunity.
It contains several new experiments, which must be thought of
importance, especially with respect to the new French system
with which, though universally adopted, I see more and more
reason to be dissatisfied.” This paper was entitled: ‘‘ Experi-
ments and Observations Relating to the Analysis of Atmo-
spherical Air; also Further Experiments Relating to the Gen-
eration of Air from Water,” and was read to the Society
February 5th, 1796.

Still later, we find evidence that the cordial friendship of
Priestley with Boulton and Watt seems to have been unbroken,
except as distance prevented personal contact. In 1801, the
firm sent Priestley a present of a ‘‘ noble furnace and other ap-
paratus for making large quantities of air,” and the doctor, in
acknowledging the gift, wrote thus: ‘‘I send every good wish
to yourselves and all the other members of the Lunar Society,
the advantages of which I most feelingly find the want of.”
(Letter of October 17th, 1801.)

The latest reference to the Lunar Society in Priestley’s writ-
ings is probably that in the introduction to his essay, entitled:
‘‘The Doctrine of Phlogiston Established and that of the Com-
position of Water Refuted,” published at Northumberland in
1803. In this he comments on the almost universal acceptance
of the new theory of combustion, and says: ‘‘ And now that Dr.
Crawford is dead, I hardly know of any person, except my
friends of the Lunar Society of Birmingham, who adhere to the
doctrine of phlogiston.”

Dr. Priestley is not the only one who records his attachment
to this social organization and to its members individually. In
his ‘‘ Memoirs,” Richard Lovell Edgworth writes: Our Society
combined ‘‘men of very different characters, but all devoted to
literature and science. This mutual intimacy has never been
broken but by death, nor have any of the number failed to dis-
tinguish themselves in science or literature. Some may think
that I ought, with due modesty, to except myself. Mr. Keir,
with his knowledge of the world and good sense; Dr. Small,
with his benevolence and profound sagacity; Wedgwood,’ with
his increasing industry, experimental variety, and calm investi-
gation; Boulton, with his mobility, quick perception, and bold
adventure; Watt, with his strong inventive faculty, undeviating
steadiness, and bold resources; Darwin, with his imagination,
science, and poetical excellence; and Day, with his unwearied
research after truth, his integrity and eloquence—proved alto-
gether such a society as few men have had the good fortune to.

1 Miss Meteyard, the biographer of Wedgwood, says he was nota
member of the Lunar Society, but a guest.

210 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [MAY 7,

live with; such an assemblage of friends as fewer still have had
the happiness to possess and keep through life.”

As the century drew towards its end, the Lunar Society
gradually dissolved, its members dropping off one by one.
Priestley had emigrated; Thomas Day was killed by a fall from
his horse, in 1789; Dr. Withering died of a lingering consump-
tion, in 1799;* Dr. Darwin was carried off by an attack of an-
gina pectoris, in 1802; and the ever-welcome guest Josiah
Wedgwood passed away in 1795; Capt. Keir, James Watt, and
Boulton, the founder, were almost the only members surviving.
The vacant seats remained unfilled and the meetings passed into
history. The few lingering survivors found its associations too
painful to be continued. But the influence exerted by the so-
ciety did not die; it had stimulated inquiry and quickened the
zeal for knowledge of all who had come within its influence, and
this spirit diffused and propagated itself in all directions.
Leonard Horner, who visited Soho in 1809, thus refers to the
continued moral influence of the association: ‘‘ The remnant
of the Lunar Society,” he says, ‘‘and the fresh remembrance in
others of the remarkable men who composed it, are very interest-
ing. The impression which they made is not yet worn out, but
shows itself to the second and third generation, in a spirit of
scientific curiosity and free inquiry which even yet makes some
stand against Toryism and the love of gain.” (Smiles.)

Social gatherings of men having kindred intellectual interests
and pursuits have many advantages which are lacking in other
organizations of a more formal character. An Academy of
Sciences is the proper place for announcing discoveries in
every department of learning, but the parliamentary forms
necessary to dignified proceedings forbid or hamper the freest
interchange of opinions and the formation of those personal
friendships which a social organization like the Lunar Society
so admirably fosters.

One of the members of the Lunar Society, Richard Lovell
Edgworth, perceived this difference between the two classes of
associations, and states the case in well chosen words. Alluding
to the Lunar Society in his ‘‘ Memoirs,” he writes:

‘* A society of literary men and a literary society may be very
different. In the one, men give the results of their serius
researches and detail their deliberate thoughts; in the other, the
first hints of discoveries, the current observations, and the
mutual collision of ideas are of important utility. The knowl-
edge of each member of such a society becomes in time dissemi-

! During his long illness, his friends said: ‘‘ The flower of physic is
withering.”

1888. NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 211

nated among the whole body, and a certain esprit du corps,
uncontaminated with jealousy, in some degree combines the
talents of members to forward the views of a single person.”

The Lunar Society has long passed into history, and the
workers in science of this generation must content themselves
with scanty reminiscences, and with the thought that we gaze
on the smiling face of the same moon that shone on the festive
philosophers of Birmingham!

Remarks were made by the PRESIDENT.

[In preparing this sketch we have made free use of the following
works:

Muirhead’s ‘‘ Life of James Watt,” London, 1858.

Muirhead’s ‘‘ Mechanical Inventions of Watt,” London, 1854.

Smiles’ ‘‘ Lives of Boulton and Watt,’’ London, 1864.

Krause’s ‘‘ Erasmus Darwin,” London, 1879.

Edgworth’s ‘‘ Memoirs,” London, 1820, 2 vols.

Brougham’s ‘‘ Philosophers of the Time of George III.,”’ London, 1855,

Rutt’s ‘‘ Life and Correspondence of Priestley,” London, 1832. 2 vols.

Jewett’s ‘‘ Life of William Hutton,’”’ London, n. d.

‘‘Life of Mary Ann Schimmel Penninck,” by herself, London, 1859.

Meteyard’s ‘“‘ Life of Wedgwood,” London, 1865. 2 vols.

Meteyard’s ‘‘Group of Englishmen,” London, 1871.

As well as of:—

Forty-one unpublished letters from Priestley to Wedgwood, loaned to
the writer by Mrs. Robert A. Wainewright, granddaughter of the great
chemist. ]

Mr. B. B. CHAMBERLIN read a paper on

THE MINERALS OF NEW YORK COUNTY, INCLUDING A LIST
COMPLETE TO DATE.

Literature of Local Mineralogy.—Mineral Collectors.

The first record we have of New York as a mineral locality is
inthe Mineralogical Journal, conducted by Archibald Bruce,
M.D., in the year 1814, of which only one volume was issued.
The list of minerals there given is scanty, and these are chiefly
from Corlear’s Hook. Among the collectors appears the name
of Mr. Fred. S. Cozzens, one of a family which has given much
attention to local research.

In the year 1825, there was issued an important work entitled
<A Catalogueof American Minerals,” by Samuel Robinson, M.D.

The author devotes separate sections of descriptive matter to
what is now New York County, viz., New York City and island,
Corlear’s Hook, Harlem Heights, Kingsbridge, Morrisania, and
Bronx River.

The list of minerals shows no attempt at systematic arrange-

212 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [MAY 7,

ment, and according to modern ideas requires considerable
modification. Zeolite and mesotype are the indefinite titles of
stilbite and other members of the same group. ‘Tourmaline
was often termed schorl, and the two names were in close con-
junction inonecolumn. Sphene bore the singular and lengthy
title of silico-calcareous oxide of titanium.

In this work we are authoritatively informed that our island
is one of the only three localities in the United States containing
emeralds, the other two being Haddam, Ct., and Paris, Me.
These so-called emeralds were undoubtedly beryls or apatite.

In 1838, Dr. L. D. Gale undertook a systematic survey of the
island, beginning his work at Fourteenth Street and Tenth
Avenue, near the northern limits of the then populated portion
of the city. The result of his work is found in the ‘‘ Report on
Fourth District, N. Y. State Survey, Geology of the Island.”

A later chronicler of our local mineralogy was a member of
the New York Lyceum of Natural History, Mr. Issachar Cozzens,
who published in 1843 a work entitled, ‘‘A Geological History of
Manhattan or New York Island.” He is also recorded as our first
dealer in minerals.

From this time onward, the number of those interested in
local mineralogy is multiplied. Among those more or less de-
voted to the study and collection of home specimens may be
mentioned the names of Dr. Benj. N. Martin, Prof. D. 8.
Martin, J. W. Deems, L. Winslow, A. Woodward, and S. C. H.
Bailey.

The monograph of the last-named collector, read before the
Lyceum of Natural History, November, 1865, gives evidence of
the rapid advance in mineralogical research. The writer is fond
of noticing the associations of certain minerals, drawing inter-
esting parallels between home and foreign groups of crystals.

Among the important specimens found by him were rhom-
boidal biotite, hexagonal crystals of molybdenite, fine garnet
masses in a yellow schist, essonite, transparent white apatite,
orthite, and handsome zeolitic minerals from Fourth Avenue.
Rarest of all was what he believed to be graphic tellurium from
a strangerock which seemed to be neither im si¢w nor a boulder,
quite similar to the gangue of the Transylvanian mineral.

To Mr. Bailey the author is indebted for valuable suggestions
when in the year 1871 he fell into the line of students of local
mineralogy, on the object lesson plan.’

1 The author’s taste for mineralogy was aroused when a lad of 13
years of age, by meeting with an engineer from Cornwall, England, who
was about to take charge of the celebrated copper mine near Bristol,
Ct., where he was then residing. The contents of the iron-bound chest

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 213

Among later collectors is Mr. Wm. E. Hidden, to whom our
list is indebted for a series of our rarest minerals.

Mr. George F. Kunz has greatly helped in promoting the
work among others, and to this end joined the author in taking
steps for the formation of a mineralogical club. This society,
formed in the spring of 1887, is in a state of gratifying prosper-
ity, numbering nearly fifty members.

Other late collectors are Dr. J. J. Friedrich, and Mr. Wm.
Niven. The latter gentleman has met with gratifying success
in the addition of a number of important specimens to our cata-
logue.

Mineral Localities in New York County.

The first recorded locality resorted to by collectors was Cor-
lear’s Hook, a mile or more out of the city. This has been
described as a great deposit of diluvial sand, pebbles and bould-
ers or ‘‘ alluvion,” topped by a series of conical hills, fifteen or
twenty feet in diameter. The bed was very deep, shafts having
been sunk seventy to one hundred and fifty feet before reaching
bed rock. Here was found the largest number and variety of
rocks on the island.*

The largest boulder, some eighteen feet in length, came from
the serpentine locality at Fifty-eighth Street, North River. From
this was obtained asbestus and actinolite. Another boulder
supplied epidote, carbonate of lime, indicolite, and an ore which
was thought to contain nickel. Apatite and garnets were quite
plentiful. One enterprising collector discovered odlite, another
graphite, and another madrepore corals, fifty feet below the sur-
face of the deposit.

More venturesome expeditions resulted in the finding of stauro-
lite three and one-half miles from the city, on the Hudson (now
about Fortieth Street). At four and one-half miles (Fifty-eighth
to Sixty-third Streets) was the anthophyllite locality, which has
ever been to mineralogists a spot of peculiar interest. Prof.
John Torrey sent a specimen of the radiated mineral to Dr.
Thomson, of Glasgow, by whom it was analyzed and named
hydrous anthophyllite.

The gneiss quarries at Kip’s Bay and Turtle Bay, from about
Thirty-eighth to Forty-fourth Streets, East River, have been

which accompanied the engineer, consisting of instruments and rare
minerals from the old-world mines, were sufficient to entice the lad into
so fascinating a department of science. His taste, however, became
dormant for many years, until revived on his removal to this city, where
opportunity favored his former habit of rambling and research.

1 Bruce’s Min. Journal, 1814.

214 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [MAY 7,

worked for fully fifty years, and have finally disappeared. Some
of the more interesting minerals obtained here by early and later
collectors are galenite, pyrite, kyanite, stilbite, chabazite and
harmotome. A few specimens of the last-named mineral con-
tained cruciform crystals, some of which were fully an inch in
length.

ie few blocks to the westward, near Second Avenue, between
Forty-fifth and Forty-sixth Streets, a locality was opened afford-
ing some of the best zeolites on the Island. Those were rescued
by the writer from destruction one bright spring morning during
his first expedition of the season. The str ange prompting which
led him thither is an experience never to be forgotten.

The blocks bounded by Sixth and Seventh Avenues, from
Fifty-fourth Street to Central Park, included an interesting
region.

West Fifty-eighth Street, near the Hudson, to about Sixty-
third Street, is the celebrated serpentine and anthophyllite
deposit, which is well known to mineralogists the world over.
Boulders of the rock have been found far distant from the
locality, some on Fourteenth Street and Third Avenue, at Cor-
lear’s Hook, and in South Brooklyn. Some years since an attempt
was made to work up the material for commercial purposes. It
proved too hard and refractory, and the experimenter was ruined
financially in his effort.

The Harlem Tunnelat Ninety-sixth Street and Fourth Avenue
was a locality of interest to collectors in the early days of
railroad building. The various zeolites were here quite abun-
dant. The improvements in 1871-3, including the widening of
the tunnel, afforded opportunity for additional supplies, not
only of the zeolites, but of other desirable material. Some of these,
including the harmotomes discovered by the writer, have found
their way into many of the chief cabinets of the land. Lately
the veins appearing at the tunnel have been again opened at One
Hundredth Street. Parallel veins have proved even more
prolific, yielding the most abundant supplies of kyanite, tour-
malines, and garnets ever obtained on the island. Thirty-four
tourmalines were obtained from a quartz pocket by the writer,
seventeen of which were terminated. ‘The largest crystal, one
inch in diameter and five inches in length, with good terminal
planes, would be a fair companion piece to the fine Haddam
tourmaline in the collection at Yale College.

From this point westward to Central Park, one of the most
elevated sections of the island, the presence of interesting min-
erals is everywhere apparent. "The focus of interest was struck,
but only slightly, in grading Fifth Avenue at One Hundred and

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 215

Fifth Street. Here a bed of calcite yielded a few choice speci-
mens of sphene, globular chlorite, the rarer zeolites, etc.

The region in Harlem about One Hundred and Twentieth
Street, Fourth Avenue and westward, is an interesting one. It
is the chief locality of a mineral formerly known as indicolite,
now proving worthy of a new title.

Above the serpentine locality, the west side of the city has not
proved of special importance to collectors. The laying out of
Riverside Park afforded the writer good specimens of picture
mica, in considerable quantity; also specimens of the new
named mineral just alluded to.

Above Manhattanville is a moraine, affording a great variety
of boulders and pebbles, similar to the Corlear’s Hook “ alluvion”
of ‘* olden time.”

Washington Heights is proving a most interesting locality.
A granite vein at Fort George has afforded many species not
heretofore found in this locality, some of them being rare.

Towards the northern end of the island the beds of dolomite
make their appearance. That near Inwood affords malacolite or
white augite. The next deposit forms a beautiful knoll, the
site of the palatial Seamen residence, with its classic archway at
the entrance, built of the dolomite quarried on the spot.

The abandoned quarry (Thomson’s) at One Hundred and
Ninety-sixth Street was a noted resort for collectors in the early
part of the century. Rutile, malacolite, pyrallolite, phlogopite,
brown tourmalines, and necronite were the principal minerals
here obtainable.

The Government improvements along the Harlem wili doubt-
less renew opportunities for research among the dolomite
deposits.

Kast of the Harlem the beds of dolomite are numerous. That
nearest to the Madison Avenue bridge in Mott Haven, referred
to by Prof. R. P. Stevens in a paper read before this Society,"
has since been removed. Its northwestern extremity yielded a
pink variety of dolomite which awakened considerable interest
and discussion when first presented before the Academy.
(Transactions, Vol. VI., pp. 39 and 91.)

In the dolomite are occasionally found splendent and highly
modified crystals of pyrite.

In the accompanying list is a description of one secured by the
writer which has been pronounced one of the rarest found on the
continent.

In the district lately added to the city, east of the Harlem,

1 Published in Annals of the Lyceum, Vol. viii.

216 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [MAY 7,

the excavators are everywhere busy, and opportunities for col-
lectors are multiplying rapidly. Those interested in mineralogy
are eagerly awaiting what the future shall bring forth.

Number of Species.

The lists of Robinson and Cozzens numbered some thirty-five
minerals. That of Mr. Bailey in 1865 embraced about forty-five
titles.

What is deemed a complete list to date is herein presented.

Some of the less important varieties are omitted, and about
one hundred important names are placed on record—an addition
of seventy in forty-five years. Of this last seventy-five are
species.

The majority of the specimens described are from the author’s
collection.

Perhaps no city on the globe (with the possible exception of
Philadelphia) can produce so extended a catalogue. But the
inference is not to be drawn that the quantity of mineral speci-
mens is indicated by the variety. Our locality is far behind
many othersin this respect. Specimens are not so plentiful as to
be numbered among the chief bric-a-brac of the homes of our
citizens, as in the copper regions of Lake Superior. Nor cana
visitor sit down before any mass of rock fragments, as at Frank-
lin, N. J., and in the space of an hour collect a load of interest-
ing trophies.

Our blasting operations are for the most part superficial—
seldom deep enough to reach interesting material. Nor have
quarrymen any special inducement to pursue veins and open
pockets, which may be suggested or indicated at the surface.

Authorities Quoted.

Issachar Cozzens (‘‘ Geology and Min. of N. Y. Island ”). LY OF
Fred. S. Cozzens.
J. W. Nuttall.

S. C. Robinson, M.D., Catalogue of American Minerals. Rob.
J. W. Webster. J.) Wa
J. D. Dana

L. D. Gale, M.D

S. C. H. Bailey. S.°C.1H. 6.
W.E. Hidden. WEES

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 217

CLASSIFIED LIST.

(Arranged according to Dana’s Manual of 1887. Species rec-
ognized by Dana in black face type; varieties in italics.)

ACIDIC DIVISION.

SULPHUR GROUP.

Molybdenite. In well-formed crystals, E. 38th street (S.C.
H.B

BL):

Quite plentifully in excavations for Columbia College build-
ings, Fourth avenue and 49th street.

Sparingly at Madison avenue and 120th street.

Molybdite (yellow oxide of molybdenum). E. 42d street and
other localities (J. W. Deems).

Tellurium (Graphic) ? Manhattanville (S.C.H.B.).
CARBON GROUP.

Graphite. In vein of calcite in boulder. Corlear’s Hook,
1825 (Robinson’s Min.). In hexagonal crystals, in feldspar,
“near the city,” 1825 (Rob.).

BASIC DIVISION.
COPPER.

Chaleopyrite. Present with pyrite in dolomite beds of
Morrisania and elsewhere, massive specimen, Fourth ave., near
115th street.

Incrustation on gneiss, 135th street, bet. Seventh and Eighth
avenues,

Brilliant scales in veins in dolomite, Harlem Canal.

Bornite (Erubescite) (variegated copper pyrites). Fort
George (Wm. Niven, 1888).

Bournonite. Fourth avenue, 80th street (W. E. Hidden).

Malachite. In thin incrustations or aggregations of scales
in fissures of gneiss, in color a rich emerald green, 56th street,
Sixth and Seventh avenues; 117th street, bet. Madison and
Fourth avenues; Fifth avenue and 100th street ; 100th street
and Lexington avenue; Fort George (Tenth avenue and 195th
street).

Azurite. Similar in character to the above and found at
most of the same localities.

218 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [MAY 7,

LEAD.

Galenite. A few modified cubic crystals obtained at the
Turtle Bay quarry, 43d street, E. R.
Small crystals from New Aqueduct Shaft, No. 27 (A. P.
Bjerregard, 1887).
ZINC.

Sphalerite. In small amorphous masses, associated with
pyrite, 45th street and Second avenue.
In larger masses in dolomite, St. Ann’s avenue and 145th

street.
TITANIUM.

Rutile. In slender prisms of a blood-red color, sometimes
fasciated, at other times reticulated, noticeable in rocks of region
embraced between Third and Fifth avenuesfrom 100th to 105th.
streets.

Large stout prism with interesting features found by Mr. A.
Woodward, Central Avenue Quarry.

In flat prisms, of a bluish irised tint, resembling sections of a
watch-spring, found in veins of calcite in dolomite, St. Ann’s
avenue and 145th street.

In stout prisms of a dark color, Fort George.

Sparingly, Eighth avenue and 104th street.

In finely terminated prisms in dolomite, Harlem Canal.

In incrustations or sheets, resembling copper, in crevices of
albite, Fifth avenue and 104th street.

URANIUM.
Uraninite (?) 175th street and Eleventh avenue.

Autunite(?). Reported as having been discovered at Fort

George.
IRON,

Pyrite. In brilliant and perfect octahedral crystals, Kip’s
Bay Quarries (S8.C.H.B.).

In cubes with curved faces, the crystals often aggregated in
masses, 43d street, EK. R.

In drusy cubic crystals with brilliant lustre on stilbite, 45th
street and Second avenue.

In flattened cubes between leaves of muscovite (J. J. Fried-
rich, M.D.), E. 43d street.

Globular, one specimen, also a pentagonal dodecahedron.
45th street and Second avenue.

Fine examples of the cube with octahedral and trapezohedral
planes, some of about one inch in diameter, were found at the-

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 219

dolomite bed, St. Ann’s avenue, 145th street. The faces of the
trapezohedron are striated, parallel to the octahedral faces. The
same locality yielded massive pyrite.

Brilliant, finely modified crystals in dolomite, Harlem Canal
WeANt. )).
nae penetrating tourmaline, Jumel Grounds, Washington
Heights. Also at 172d street and Tenth avenue.

Massive in dolomite, Harlem and Kingsbridge.

Marcasite. In reniform and globular masses, with traces of
crystallization. Excavations for addition to Met. Museum of
Art, 1886. With calcite and quartz, Aqueduct shaft No. 22.

Pyrrhotite. Fort George.

Menaceanite. In thin brilliant plates, occasionally showing
crystal edgesand angles. 56th street, Sixth and Seventh avenues;
Fifth avenue, 104th street; Lexington avenue and 101st street ;
Morrisania.

Washingtonite. The plates sometimes an inch across, 56th
street, Sixth and Seventh avenues. (D.S. Martin.)

Crichtonite (?) In smoky quartz. Found by W. H. Pease
in the drift (I. C.). This was very probably menaccanite.

Magnetite. In seams of quartz in gneiss, 100th street, Lex-
ington avenue; Jumel Grounds, Washington Heights; 56th
street, Sixth and Seventh avenues.

Crystallized in lamellar and radiated forms, between leaves of
muscovite, Riverside Park and elsewhere.

Chromite. Octahedral crystals in serpentine, 60th street,
North River.

Limonite. Bog iron ore, in large beds abuut the island
Rob.). In low grounds east of Eighth avenue, and north of
ixth street to 32d street.

In masses often iridescent, east bank of Harlem River.

In globular forms resembling shot, 55th street, Sixth and

Seventh avenues, and elsewhere.

Columbite.’ First discovery of this mineral on the island in
the summer of 1887, at the granite vein, Fort George.

Vivianite. Associated with stilbite and epidote in fissures in
gneiss. Harlem (J. W. Webster).

Siderite. In perfect rhombohedral forms (S. C. H. B.), 57th

1 In collection of Mr, George F. Kunz. Described by him in Transa
tions of the Academy.

220 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [MAY 7,

street. In masses of rhombohedral crystals of dull color and lus-
tre, 59th street, Kighth avenue. In reticulated crusts, light gray
color, 44th and 45th streets, Second avenue.

Spherosiderite. In globes and lenticular forms, very many
of which are twinned, Fourth avenue, 85th street. Also in
globes one-half inch in diameter, 45th street, Second avenue.

MANGANESE,

Manganese (Bog). Near the city. Old record.

Dendritic Wad on orthoclase. High Bridge.

Triphylite (?). Central Park, near Seventh ave. (S.C. H. B.).
Allwadite (?) Fourth avenue (S. C. H. B.).

ALUMINIUM.

Chrysoberyl. In small crystals on orthoclase, High Bridge
(Niven, Hidden).

Kalinite. In whitish lumps and efflorescence on rock surfaces,
especially just after a rain.

East 5%th street, near East River; East 42d street, near Tun-
nel; 160th street, Eleventh avenue ; yellow variety, 68th street,
Eighth and Ninth avenues.

Copper Alum. Precipitating copper on a knife blade in a weak
solution (W. E. H.).

CERIUM, YTTRIUM, ERBIUM, LANTHANUM, DIDYMIUM. YTTROCERITE.

Fluocerite. One specimen, Fourth avenue and 90th street
(Witt: Tl):

Monazite. One or two crystals of remarkably fine form,
Washington Heights, 1888 (Niven, Hidden).

Xenotime. Described by W. E. Hidden, who found a single
erystal in 1872 at Tenth avenue and 155th street, showing planes
1, I, 3-3.

Several crystals found in the spring of 1888 by Mr. Niven had
long, square prisms, with bright terminal faces, and were identi-
fied as xenotime by Mr. Hidden. ‘These were less than 4 inch
in diameter, and about } inch in length. From 155th street and
Tenth avenue.

CALCIUM.

Fluorite. In yellow and blue cubes } inch in diameter, on
gneiss at the Hell Gate excavations (cited by W. E. Hidden).

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 221
Gypsum. Selenite crystals on a boulder. Harlem Common
Le

hein Crystallized and amorphous in feldspar, Corlear’s
Hook (Rob.).

In greenish prisms in granite “‘ near the city” (Rob.).

A few fine crystals, associated with beautifully crystallized
mica and octahedral pyrite, Kip’s Bay Quarries (S. C. H. B.).

Broken crystals of rich green color, 42d street, Second and
Third avenues.

Beautiful deep green crystals of small size, Washington
Heights.

Crystal, six inches in length, injured in extraction from
gangue, 122d street, near Riverside Drive.

Transparent white crystals, with albite and chlorite, similar
to specimens from Piedmont, H. 38th street (S. C. H. B.).

Microlite. Small octahedron in oligoclase, 39th street, Sixth
and Seventh avenues (W. E. H.).

Calcite. In veins in serpentine, 58th street and Tenth
avenue.

In veins in dolomite, St. Ann’s avenue and 145th street.

Crystallized, in thin, white rhombic plates, aggregated ina
series of cells; beautiful specimens. Harlem Tunnel, 1874.

Dog-tooth spar, sparingly, St. Ann’s avenue quarry.

Brown calcite (?). A deposit of this variety was reached some
years since in grading Fifth avenue at 105th street. Unfortu-
nately, the excavations were shallow, affording collectors a glimpse
only of a choice store of interesting minerals imbedded in the
spar. These were rutile, sphene, globular chlorite, garnets, etc.

Oolite, found by F. 8. Cozzens, Corlear’s;Hook.

Aragonite. In radiated groups of yellow prisms several
inches in length, Fourth avenue and 96th street (S.C.H.B.).

White, in veins in dolomite, a fibrous variety, the fibres lying
transversely, St. Ann’s avenue and 145th street.

Flos ferri, Fourth avenue, 1874.

Dolomite. New York county is situated on the noted line
of dolomite beds extending from Vermont to N. Carolina. Per-
haps a dozen of these deposits are within the limits of the
county. ‘lhe most southerly beds of importance are at Lexing-
ton avenue and 120th street ; Madison avenue and 135th street;
Mott Haven, near Madison avenue bridge.

Good crystallized specimens of the mineral are rarely found

R22 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [May 7,.

in the vicinity, nor has the author succeeded in finding anything
of importance nearer than Pleasantville, Westchester Co.

The dolomite deposits contain pyrite, chalcopyrite, rutile,
chlorite, ripidolite, tremolite, brown tourmalines, quartz, mala--
colite, etc. Nearly fifty years ago, the Kingsbridge quarries
were much resorted to by collectors.

Pink dolomite. This beautiful variety, first found by Mr. A.
P. Bjerregard, was exhibited at the N. Y. Academy of Sciences
during the spring of 1887, and awakened much interest among
collectors. Obtained from the dolomite bed at Mott Haven
near Madison avenue bridge.

Hydrodolomite. Morrisania, Kingsbridge.

HYDROGEN.
Water (Hydrogen Oxide).

Chalybeate Water. A spring containing the above water
situated on the ‘Incleberg’ (Murray Hill) grounds of Mr. Cos-
ter, described by Dr. 8. L. Mitchill in Bruce’s Mineralogical
Journal, 1814.

A well of the same character is noted in list of I. Cozzens..
This was located on Highth avenue near 28th street.

SILICA AND THE SILICATES.
Silica.

Quartz. Crystals in granite, Old Glass House Point (I.C.).

Crystals in granite, Bellevue (1.C.).

A few crystals nearly one inch in diameter and two inches.
long, found at the orthite locality, Broadway and 56th street.

Others of smallersize, 56th street, Sixth and Seventh avenues.

Specimens showing terminal faces only, 138th street and
Brook avenue.

Crystals of unusual interest, for this locality, in collection of
Mr. A. Woodward.

In thin plates of aggregated pyramidal planes, interlaminated
with dolomite, some specimens rather showy, many yellow or
brownish, and some iridescent, Dolomite Quarry, Central
avenue.

Milky Quartz. In masses distributed through the gneiss, the
surface often glaciated. Near Reservoir, Washington Heights.

In broad vein in gneiss, much of it laminated. West Morn-
ingside avenue.

In other localities on First, Sixth and Tenth avenues.

Smoky (Cairngorm stone), associated with kyanite, Lexing-
ton avenue and 101st street.

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 225

Crystals, also massive, Fort George (W. Niven).

Small crystals, some doubly terminated mounted on pedestals
of milky quartz, in dolomite beds, Harlem Canal.

Rose, in granite on the Island (Rob.); inferior specimens.
under Harlem R. R. track at 122d street (LL. D. Gale, 1838).

Also found at Morrisania.

Amethyst. Limpid quartz prisms with pyramidal caps of
amethyst. similar to specimens from Transylvania ; some of the
caps were ? inch in diameter and were removable, 59th street,
Sixth and Seventh avenues.

A few pale specimens obtained from a bed of quartz at 117th
street near Fourth avenue. Possibly allied to the rose quartz of
Dr. L. D. Gale at 122d street.

Ferruginous. Found everywhere, especially abundant in the
drift at Manhattanville.

Striped Jasper, often called Agate. In large and small boul-
ders deposited from the drift.

Jasper, red, brown, green, and blue. Along Harlem river.

Basanite or Touchstone. Drift of Harlem.

Chert, a yellowish jasper-like rock from the drift. Gansevoort.
street.

Silicates.
Anhydrous—Bisilicates.

Wollastonite. Fort George.

Pyroxene, Augite. Group of fine hexagonal crystals witl»
shimmering surfaces, in color a dull leek green, 56th street,.
Sixth and Seventh avenues.

Large specimen in wall, probably a ‘‘ wandering stone,” 102d!
street, Madison avenue.

Malacolite (white augite). In good crystals often doubly
terminated. At the beds of dolomite near Inwood and Thomp-
son’s Quarry, 196th street.

Pyrallolite, in dolomite, name substituted for rhoetizite (Nut-
tall). Kingsbridge.

Coccolite, along Bronx river (Rob.).
Hypersthene. Observed occasionally in boulders.

Amphibole, Hornblende. In rich black bladed masses, 56th
street, Sixth and Seventh avenues.

In crystallized masses, Fifth avenue, 100th street.

Hornblende as a constituent of hornblendic gneiss and slate,
abundant. It is often associated with epidote.

224 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [MAY 7,

Tremolite. This mineral was formerly obtained at Thompson’s
Quarry, 196th street.

At present the principal source is in boulders, in stone walls
and elsewhere.

The east bank of the Harlem has furnished fragments of dolo-
mite showing fair specimens.

Specimens also appear at the quarry on Central avenue.

Actinolite. Good specimens from boulders used in macada-
mizing, Seventh avenue at 130th street.
At the anthophyllite locality, 63d street, Twelfth avenue.

Anthophyllite (hydrous), analyzed and named by Dr. Wm.
Thomson of Glasgow. By Prof. J. D. Dana it is considered an
altered asbestiform tremolite.

Abundant in veins in serpentine, W. 60th street.

Asbestus, at the anthophyllite locality.
A white variety near Spuyten Duyvil.

Amianthus (silky asbestos). In serpentine boulders, Amity
street (I. C.) and West 58th street.

Mountain Cork, in boulders, Amity street (I. C.).

Byssolite, a green, silky variety associated with epidote like
that from Italy, 55th street, cor. Broadway.
Fibrous Hornblende, 43d street, Second avenue.

Beryl. In small yellowish-green crystals in oligoclase, ‘Tenth
avenue near Hebrew Orphan Asylum.

Aquamarine, amass of the transparent sea-green variety of
bery! known by this name has yielded a lapidary several interest-
ing gem-stones. From Washington Heights.

Large finely shaped crystals from granite vein in gneiss,
Fort George. Collection of G. F. Kunz.

White and also a very light green variety of opaque beryls,
found in a granitic vein, the feldspar of which was changing to
kaolin; First avenue above 42d street.

The early writers on New York minerals did not hesitate to
call the deep colored beryls emeralds. Robinson speaks of the
island as one of three localities in the Union affording emeralds,
the others were Haddam, Ct., and Paris, Me.

Anhydrous— Unisilicates.

Garnets. Garnets are observable in very many localities
throughout the county. They are usually opaque and of a dark-
red color. Fine specimens are not common.

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 225

A fine deposit of small garnets in a cream-colored schist was
obtained some years since by Mr. S. C. H. Bailey, at 23d street,
cor. Broadway. Larger ones finely formed, E. 42d street.

Among other deposits noticed by the writer are, 50th street,
Lexington avenue; 45th street, Second avenue; 59th street,
Sixth and Seventh avenues; 118th street near Lenox avenue;
Hell Gate excavations.

The finest crystal in color and perfection of faces and angles,
size three inches in diameter, appeared in a heap of stone depos-
ited some years since in front of the Times office. Unfortunate-
ly, it was injured in process of extraction from the gangue. It
has been partially restored. The original locality was probably
near 56th street and Sixth avenue.

A large garnet with striated faces, nearly four inches in dia-
meter, 22 ‘faces intact, in color a dull darkish brown, from
Brook avenue, near 144th street.

A similar specimen five inches in diameter appeared in the
rock at the same locality, but in too frail a condition to permit
removal.

A peculiar light red variety appeared at the kyanite locality
associated with the kyanite, occasionally in masses nearly ten
inches square, 101st street, Lexington avenue.

A lamellar variety plentiful at Lenox avenue, 119th street.

From this point eastward and northward to Mt. Morris
square, pockets and veins of garnets abound in greater number
than in any portion of thecity or county. The rocky heights of
the park are thickly studded with weathered crystals. ‘Che find
of good cabinet specimens is, unfortunately, quite limited.

Combination crystals of the dodecahedral and trapezohedral
forms, in color dark red, size 2 inch in diameter, E. 43d street,
KE. R

Under the head of extraordinary compound crystals, our city
has furnished to science the largest and most interesting garnet
yet discovered on the continent. The specimen is in excellent
condition, with sharp angles and smooth faces, size 6 inches in
diameter. Color dull red, spotted occasionally with chlorite.
It weighs nine pounds ten ounces (Cabinet of G. F. Kunz).

An unusually abundant deposit of the above-described form
of garnets was opened in the summer of 1888, at 65th street
and Boulevard.

Fssonite. Cinnamon garnet, cinnamon stone. In oligoclase,
at Tenth avenue, 135th street.

Grossularite,

Topazolite, yellow garnet, and

226 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [MAY 7,

Melanite, black garnet, found in cavities in boulders of meta-
morphosed sandstone, Manhattanville.

Zircon, in granite. Washington Heights (W. E. H.).

Idocrase [?] (Rev. E. Seymour). Dull green crystals in meta-
morphosed sandstone.

Epidote. Epidote rock is occasionally noticed throughout
New York County. It is generally associated with hornblendic
gneiss. A prominent locality is now covered by the Navarro
Flats, 59th street, Sixth and Seventh avenues.

Abundant also at 100th street, Lexington avenue, Fort George
and elsewhere.

Granular massive, 37th street, between Third and Lexington
avenues, and elsewhere (D. S. Martin).

Bright green crystallized specimens have been obtained on 57th
street, West of Ninth avenue; Lexington avenue, 44th street ;
56th street, Sixth and Seventh avenues; 55th street, Sixth and
Seventh avenues; Harlem Tunnel.

Abundant at railroad cut, Spuyten Duyvil.

Crystal 14 inches in length, good color, 59th street, Sixth and
Seventh avenues.

Remarkably good prism for this locality, 1 inch long, 4 inch
in diameter, Fort George (Wm. Niven).

Orthite. One of the most notable minerals about New York,
embracing in its composition the rare elements, Lanthanum,
Didymium, Cerium, and Yttrium.

The crystals are dark reddish brown to black in color, of a pitchy
lustre, often bent and twisted, set in white oligoclase, which is
usually stained red in the vicinity of the crystal. Found
at one locality only, 56th street, near S. E. corner Broadway.

Iolite. First found by Wm. Niven, but identified and de-
‘scribed by W. E. Hidden. Planes O, 1, i-3(?), and on the
‘other prism, O ql = 133° (132° 12’, Dana). ‘The specimen is
‘divided into basal sections. Diameters 1 x 14 inches. Color
‘grayish-green. Hardness 4. From Fort George.

Pinite. An altered iolite from the same locality.

Mica Group.

Muscovite. In large hexagonal crystals, twelve or fifteen
inches in length. Found in excavating site for car-stables,
Sixth avenue and 45th street.

Good crystals, one nearly the size of the above, ‘Tenth avenue
and 130th street.

Finely shaped crystals, 56th street, Sixth and Seventh

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 227

avenues; 45th street and Second avenue; 43d street, Second
and Third avenues.

Also in dolomite at junction with gneiss, Brook avenue and
145th street.

Good crystals, Riverside Park.

Masses of small crystals, 63d street and Broadway.

** Snear Mica,” 43d street, Second and Third avenues.

Prismatic, do.

‘* Picture” mica, excellent specimens, some 12 inches in
length, Riverside Drive and 120th street.

Striped and banded, parallel to sides of crystals, in some cases
a rich blue (S. C. H. Bailey), 45th street and Second avenue;
40th street, Second and Third avenues, and various localities.

White or silvery (perhaps sericite or a similar variety), 96th
street and Third avenue; 101st street and Lexington avenue;
126th street and St. Nicholas avenue.

Green, 93d street and Ninth avenue; 101st street and Lexing-
ton avenue; Convent Ground, Highth avenue and 128th street;
Fort George, and elsewhere.

Golden-yellow, in small leaves, in a very white oligoclase,
found in paving-material, Boulevard at 63d street.

Phlogopite. Generally in small scales. Good crystalline
shapes are quite rare. Color, a handsome light-brown. 145th
street and St. Ann’s avenue, Kingsbridge Quarries; very light
color, Quarry, Central avenue.

Biotite. Good crystals, 3 inches long, usually distorted
rhombic prisms, Seventh avenue and 135th street.

Handsome rhomboidal specimens, like those from Brevig,
Norway (S. C. H. Bailey), 57th street.

Pocket of rich black crystal masses, 56th street, between
Sixth and Seventh avenues.

Quite abundant in vicinity of Brook avenue and 138th street.

Scapolite Group.

Seapolite. Abundant in the localities below named. Good
crystals are rare and of so frail a nature as barely to permit re-
moval. Lexington avenue and 100th street, Fifth avenue and
100th street; also of a firmer quality, Fort George.

Feldspar Group.

Oligoclase. Found in many localities where blasting opera-
tions occur.

In laminated plates showing striations on the edges. Color,
white, light green, and bluish.

228 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [MAY 7,

Large specimens of a white color quite abundant at 119th
street and Lenox avenue.

In handsome cleavage plates at 92d street and Fourth avenue.

Light green variety at Riverside Park.

Dark green variety at New Aqueduct Shaft No. 27, Wash-
ington Heights.

Blue variety at Harlem.

White crystals at various localities.

Light green crystals, large size, at 46th street and Second
avenue.

Albite. Quite abundant in region between Third and Fifth
avenues, from 93d to 101st streets.

Crystallized specimens at Fifth avenne and 100th street, Lex-
ington avenue and 100th street.

Cleavelandite. In boulders, Corlear’s Hook, and near city,
40th street, Hudson River (I. C.).

Orthoclase. This mineral, as one of the three constituents of
the prevailing rock of the county—gneiss, is everywhere abun-
dant. Conspicuous masses are, however, not so common, and
the collector needs to avail himself of good opportunities for
securing fine specimens of either the laminated plates or crys-
tallized fragments. The feldspar varies in color from a dull
white through different shades of yellow and flesh-color, to a
bright red. Some of the localities were the following:

In broad flesh-colored plates with highly lustrous surfaces,
96th street and Fourth avenue; 56th street, Sixth and Seventh
avenues.

Brownish gray variety resembling perthite, 43d street, Second
and Third avenues.

Red, Fourth avenue and 120th street.

Cream-colored, 46th street and Second avenue.

White, 94th street and Third avenue.

White, slightly opaline, Harlem Tunnel.

Crystals are usually of the primitive rhombic form found lining
fissures in gneiss.

Good examples were obtained at 96th street and Fourth ave-
nues, 56th street and Sixth and Seventh avenues, and Lexington
avenue and 44th street.

More highly modified forms and larger in size usually appear
in granite veins. A few handsome specimens (in collection of
Geo. F. Kunz). among which was a remarkable twinned crystal,
were found at Fort George; also at 43d street and First avenue.
At the latter locality the feldspar of the granite vein was chang-
ing to kaolin. The mica and beryls present partook of the

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 229

change. The orthoclase crystals were of large size, some six by
four inches. Crystals of less size appear in a porphyritic rock
on the east bank of the Harlem River above McComb’s bridge
(L. Winslow).

Remarkably fine groups of modified crystals coated with albite
(G. J. Brush) were secured at 96th street near Third avenue.

Necronite (fetid feldspar), of a bluish white color, in tabular
masses in limestone, Thompson’s quarry, Kingsbridge.

Adularia. Corlear’s Hook (I. C.). In serrated columns of
aggregated crystals, Fourth avenue and 90th street.

Glassy feldspar (G. J. Brush). 57th street and Sixth and
Seventh avenues. In rocks at Bellevue (I. C.). In quartz veins
in limestone at Corlear’s Hook (Rob.) (I. C.).

Kaolin. Old road three mile stone (I. C.). Deposit of three
colors, red, yellow, white, 70th street and Fourth avenue. Vein
in Central Park and vicinity, Eighth avenue and 104th street.

Anhydrous—Subsilicates.

Tourmaline. In granite. McGowan’s Pass (I. Cozzens).
Good specimens of the black variety set in pink orthoclase,
80th street and Fourth avenue.

Large masses showing no crystal faces, and readily crumbling
into what might be taken for black sand, Morningside Park,
122d street.

Brilliant prisms of moderate size set in a bluish oligoclase.
Also crystals slightly iridescent, Tenth avenue and 172d street.

Small, but brilliant doubly terminated crystals, associated
with clear pink garnets, affording an interesting exhibit under
a magnifying giass, First avenue and 45th street.

Massive tourmaline, with pyrite, filling fissures, Jumel
grounds, Washington Heights,

Perhaps the most remarkable deposit of tourmalines in
the island, on record, was discovered by the author in the year
1885, in a vein of gray quartz traversing gneiss, parallel to
the stilbite veins near the Fourth avenue tunnel, above 96th
street. Many of the finest crystals were obtained by fractur-
ing the quartz, which yielded readily to the chisel. Nearly
twenty fine terminated crystals were among the number obtained
at this point. The largest crystal was 5 inches in length, 14
to 14 in. in diameter, with good terminal planes.

With the tourmalines appeared the choice garnets above
alluded to. Other minerals were green mica, sericite (?)
smoky quartz, epidote, albite, and a very red orthoclase.

230 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [May 7,

Radiated groupings (termed ‘‘sunbursts” by the Irish labor-
ers). 56th street, between Broadway and Seventh avenue.
Similar specimens on quartz. New Aqueduct shaft No.
8

Very handsome specimens (collection of G. F. Kunz). Wash-
ington Heights, 1888.

Groups of radiated crystals, increasing in size as they pro-
gress from point of radiation. Washington Heights, near In-
wood.

In profusion on the walls of a fissure in gneiss. Small
radiated groups of acicular crystals. 122d street and Madison
avenue.

Brown Tourmaline. Thompson’s Quarry, 196th street; Har-
lem Canal.

Green prisms, small and slender in size, noticed in association
with the brown variety (W. EK. H.). Harlem Canal.

Fibrolite. In whitish fibrous blades, at 117th street and
Fourth avenue.

Has been noticed also at Washington Heights.

At 52d street and Madison avenue (J. D. Dana).

Dumortierite. (Determination by J. D. Dana, and by J. S.
Diller).

One of the most interesting minerals of the island. Often
thought to be a blue variety of tourmaline; probably the indi-
colite of Prof. J. W. Webster.

In acicular crystals of a beautiful ultramarine blue color,
aggregated in fasces or tufts resembling clippings of hair. In my
possession are the largest crystals yet discovered; perhaps 4
inch in diameter. ‘The mineral is sparingly distributed
through a lode of red granite extending southeastwardly from
Fourth avenue at 123d street to Madison avenue at 116th
street.

Noticed by S. C. H. Bailey, at Kip’s Bay, 1865. The same
mineral I have also discovered in white oligoclase near the upper
end of Riverside Park.

Also reported to have been found on Tenth avenue at 130th
street.

Kyanite. Sparingly at the Turtle Bay quarries.

In excavations for new buildings, Columbia College grounds,
49th street and Madison avenue. Previously found at same
locality by F. 8. Cozzens (I. C.).

In excavations at 42d street and Park avenue, opposite the
Grand Central Depot, small pale blades, so abundant in the rock

1888. ] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 231

as to lead to the proposed name, “ kyanite-schist” (D. 8,
Martin).

Green and bluish varieties, probably the richest deposit ever
found in the city, at 101st street and Third and Lexington
avenues, obtained during the year 1885. The kyanite vein is
parallel to the stilbite and other veins running from north-east
to south-west, their most productive point being at the Harlem
tunnel.

Between the blades of kyanite appeared a deep-hued smoky
-quartz, also garnets and scapolite.

Sparingly at Manhattan avenue and 103d street.

Datolite. In trap boulders. Old record.

Sphene. In small rhomboidal prisms with dihedral summits
of a light dove-color (silico-caleareous oxide of titanium of Coz-
zens), in limestone. Kingsbridge (I. C.).

In light green crystals at the brown calcite locality at 105th

street and Fifth avenue.

Also at Lexington avenue and 100th street, and 96th street
and Third avenue.

Larger and finer crystals of the same color obtained (1887) at
Fort George.

A chocolate-colored variety has been noticed along the
Harlem River.

Staurolite. In terminated prisms, ‘‘three miles from the
city, near the North River” (Rob.). Also at Fort George.

Hydrous Silicates—General Section.
Laumontite. Sparingly at Fifth avenue and 104th st.
Apophyllite. In trap boulder, Manhattanville (S. C. H. B.).

Allophane. In silvery-white incrustations on boulders
(S. C. H. B., and the author).
Zeolite Section.

_Thomsonite. Reported to have been found with the natro-
lite and laumontite at Fifth avenue and 105th street.

Natrolite. In delicate snow-white globes of radiated acicular
crystals, similar to specimens from Bergen Hill.

Associated with chlorite, sphene and rutile at the brown calcite
locality, Fifth avenue and 104th street,

232 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [MAY 7,

Analcite. <A few crystals at same locality.

Chabazite. In yellow and chocolate-brown crystals 4 to $
inch in diameter, Fourth avenue and 96th street.

Ochery yellow. Large crystals, ? inch in diameter, also, violet
and fine yellow varieties, 45th and 46th streets and First and
Second avenues.

Reddish-brown crystals, 43d street, E. R.

Phacolite. Three specimens of this variety of chabazite,.
showing well-defined crystals, one yellow, the others brown,
appeared at 43d street, E. R.

Harmotome. This, one of our most appreciated local
minerals, was discovered by the writer during the Harlem rail-
road improvements in the year 1871. The crystals (compound),
averaging one-half an inch in length, were of two colors, yellow
and brown.

Some of the specimens were of remarkable beauty,
excelled by none perhaps in the United States. They have
found their way into many of the most important collections
of the country.

A deep cinnamon colored variety appeared at 43d street, EH. R.
Here the cruciform crystals were occasionally observed. Some
of these were one inch in length.

These are the only localities in the city where this mineral
was obtained. The writer has added to his collection further
specimens from Tarrytown, some of which are white, others
light cinnamon, red and pearl gray in color.

Heulandite. Abundant at the Fourth avenue excavations,
1872. Also at 43d street, E. R. A cream-colored variety at
46th street and Second avenue.

Stilbite. Seven localities on New York island have yielded
this interesting zeolite, chief of which is Harlem Tunnel and
vicinity, where the mineral, associated with heulandite, har-
motome, and chabazite, appeared in a series of pockets and vein,
running northeastward from Fourth avenue to 102d street near
Lexington avenue. The stilbite, usually of a honey-yellow color,
appeared in columnar, scopiform, sheaf-like, and radiated
masses, but rarely, as at Bergen Hill, in lamellar sections of
crystals. Some of the globular groups approached a bright red
in color, affording a pleasing contrast to the yellow hue of
simpler forms adjacent. Among radiated forms one specimen
is nearly fifteen inches square, containing twenty-six rosettes.
At 45th street, between First and Second avenues, a second
prolific locality afforded plates of stilbite two feet square.

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 233

Many interesting specimens were, in the early spring of the
year 1875, rescued by the writer just as the laborers’ carts were
about removing them to barges on the East River for transporta-
tion to distant points. Among interesting specimens were col-
umnar forms with highly polished summits, others sprinkled
with drusy pyrite, and masses of the mineral presenting cavities
lined with chalybite.

Large rosettes, of a dull yellow color, four inches in diameter,
appeared at Hast 42d street.

A white variety at Tenth avenue and 122d street.

Additional localities, E. 43d street, First avenue and 63d
street, Ninth avenue and 63d street, Eighth avenue and 108th
street.

Margarophyllite Section.

Tale. In white and yellow scales, attracting the gold-seekers,
60th street, N. R. (P. C.). Also found at Bellevue. Cream-
colored, near 60th street and Tenth avenue (D. 8. Martin).

Serpentine. An extensive bed of serpentine lies between
the Hudson river and Tenth avenue, from 63d to 58th streets.
It is usually of an olive-green color, at times nearly black.
Intermixed with calcite, so as to present a mottled aspect,
it is termed ophiolite. Clouded and veined specimens are known
as verde antique.

Precious serpentine, from the dolomite bed, Lexington avenue
and 123d street.

Chrysotile, fibres coarse and rather brittle, in the serpentine,
W. 58th street (S. C. H. B.).

Marmolite, with serpentine and anthophyllite, 63d street, near
Eleventh avenue (D. 8. Martin).

Metaxite (?). A curious radiated mineral of a yellowish-green
color, regarded by Prof. G. W. Brush as near the above, obtained
by the author at Fourth avenue and 117th street.

Hydromica Group.

Sericite (?). Supposed to be the proper name for a whitish
or yellow-white mica abundant in the neighborhood of 100th
street and Lexington avenue, and 96th street and Third avenue.

Chlorite Group.

Chlorite. In hexagonal plates, aggregated in globes in brown
spar. Fifth avenue and 104th street.

In laminated masses. Manhattan avenue and 104th street,
also at 55th street, Sixth and Seventh avenues,

234 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [MAY 7,

Pulverulent. From sewer excavations. 146th street and St.
Ann's avenue.

Lining seams in gneiss. 56th street, Sixth and Seventh
avenues. Fifth avenue, vicinity of 100th street.

Ripidolite. Very abundant in /ayers above bed of dolomite..
Central avenue Quarry.

Vermiculite. Reported as found at Fort George.

Jefferisite. Brownish and dull greenish-gray lamine lining
cavities and fissures in gneiss. Vicinity of Fifth avenue and
100th street. Sparingly at Ninth avenue and 60th street.
Also found at the various beds of dolomite.

ALPHABETICAL LIST.

(Species, and Important Varieties. )

PAGE. PAGE..
ACNE RG Ne Sas 224 Byssolite ois: Ws). Pee ee 224
PA UIT 4 BL Bk te MA Ac a 229 -"Calette: 28. oS ee 221
ANTGG) oss eens occ eee 228 Chabazite.............0- 232
Allophane... 52 6..26.05 00 231 Chalcopyrite............. 217
AMUONES sotto MAbs CAG ROO, CiCRORL*., ost n Res, niemeenne 223:
Amphibole (Hornblende)223 Chlorite................ 233
PA INET Slits toh stiches tienes 223 Chromite............... 219
VATA NENAB sane a Sends 224 Chrysoberyl............ 220
Angleite.. 520..40 0 seeaeal 232 «) Chrysotile. cc .c cose 233
ANthOphyllite. ccs viac sire 224 Cleavelandite..........00: 228
AMATO se. i.e... ielseradisd R21» (Coccolites. . ts... ase 223
Apophyllite............. 281 Copper alumin, Halle aanaee 220:
AGUMMNOTIUNG,. hanes stacleae 224 Columbite............... 219
ATragonite=.o500556sae Rela (Crpehbonite? . os aves oe 219
PSUORTUS. © Gras tact leet ee 224 Datolite.....c.. sces, oe scnee 231
AWWW | tore: balowisivis esl « 218 Dolomite............... 221
AZUEIGO 55-0 temp donriss a 217 Dumortierite............ 230
BOSONIC, tance ashen 2ea- MepIdOte: .< 6. <0. See 226
Beryl te. s chek tee Apts ESSONtle /. .s <ascicoemee 225
Bieter ee monk BIRTOLLO .....,..+ «cies eae 230
Bornite (Erubescite)....217 Fluorite................ 220

Bournonite............. 217 Fluocerite..............220

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

Galenite 27.25 Ses aesess: 218
GaEnGl siaece ee oe 224
Graphite. .o5 245... ses itas 217
GrOssUlarile ed. ceca ce eo: 225
Gypsum (Selenite)...... 221
Harmotome............ 232
Heulandite ............. 232
AHydrodolomitée .........% 222
Hypersthene............ 223
MMOCRAS toe ses | es R26
1 ICN Wh oo Gots rea ee ee 226
HOSMOT erst eile wralehaters. e'dtd ls. sts 223
VEHOCHISICO: (3 satel. a's Kes 234
1 CLT 2 es 220
AAO OGG ane Ole oe 229
My aniten O05 once ie 230
Laumontite............. 231
TAMONIUO 3.6 ose os, oo 219
Magnetite.............. 219
MGI COLUL Ester as ore hel ie 223
Malachites.c. icc... 3. 217
Manganese (oxyd.)...... 220
MareasilOsc onsen... 219
PTT IOUULE: 5 oa te’ ae alihe a 4 b40 233
OTL OM eis oat alba oc 226
MMCIORULE (2) aie ns Deh ee sees 233
Menaceanite............ 219
MITCFOlIbC ss. tic .-cers crest. t 221
Molybdenite ............ 217
MMOMYOMMC a aerate sale eine» 0 6s 21%
Momazit@. 2.2.4)... 0.2.. 220
Mountarw Cork, ss... . 224
Museovite:. ..2esec.. 2. 226
INAGTOIIGC:./oe time... . 231
INGCTONILE.:.6 0 stetet titers ss, «5,0 229
Oligoclase............... 227
OGL Be cs hrcestans Shoda ers « 221

Total number....118

235

PAGE
Opmiolites 22 ses ec teen 233
Ort On faves oe Hes 226
Orthoclases. 5... 6505s. 228
UP EMCOWULE eins msrev ee deter tee 232
PUIOZOptes 6 os 5 sce 227
Pinitews ngs Hie. 226
PUT ALOU LO aioe a aes cae anal oeoks 223
yr ileni.s 6 ots as 4 che cates 218
Pyroxene (Augite)...... 223
Pyrrhotites.: 25 52006. .,3 219
Quartz: e.6 eines Fes os 222
Mipidolite.7.2 02560 0..2)s 234
Rutiles sis sas ae. 218
SCADOMCE 2c, cio 227
ISERICULGN (©): cen, Shokan, a safece 14: 233
Serpentine.............. 233
NIQOVIC@P «cries chess co cas 219
Splialeritie.:.:......0.<0%- 218
Spheness os: cosa es, setae a1
Staurolite:...c3 b. cee PBL
SOUDIGG sc Si2o5 hie tee ar 232
LCV ek ee oat octets 233
Tellurium (graphic)..... 217
Thomsonite............. 231
TODOZOULG erates s Asis d'ysrd sts 225
Tourmaline ............ 229
Priphiylte.: os seca: 220
TREMOR sn heheheh tePeles:s 224
WRANINICG: Po. 5 eure 218
Vermiculite............: 234
WE WASINEGO cays oy dae eters. 219
Wad (Dendritic)........ 220
Washingtoniten.i. 20). os 6 < 219
Water (Chalybeate)..... 222
Wollastonite ?........... 223
MON OUING so orcc0i och. ose es 220
PAT COW oe oa. ws «ea tnd spies 226

Number of Species ...

236 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [MAY 14,

May 14, 1888.
STaTED MEETING.
Mineralogical Section.
The President, Pror. J. S. NEWBERRY, in the chair.
Forty-one persons present.

The SECRETARY read alist of Accessions to the Library for the
week ending May 14, prepared by the Librarian.

The PRESIDENT announced the death of Dr. Gerhard vom
Rath.

The PRESIDENT stated that a letter had been received from
Sir Henry Roscoe, accepting his election as an honorary member.

The PRESIDENT yielded the chair to the Chairman of the
Mineralogical Section.

Section of Mineralogy.

First meeting; with the New York Mineralogical Club
present.

The Chairman, Mr. GrorGe F. Kunz, presiding.

In the absence of the Secretary, Mr. A. L. Ewine was elected
Temporary Secretary.

The minutes of the meeting of organization, April 16, 1888,
were read and approved.

Mr. Grorce F. Kunz read a paper on

PRECIOUS STONES ; TEN YEARS’ PROGRESS IN THEIR
STUDY AND DISCOVERY,

(Illustrated with lantern views. )

Remarks were made by Mr. W. E. HIppEN, relating to the
origin of the diamond, by PRESIDENT NEWBERRY, and by the
author of the paper.

The PRESIDENT of the ACADEMY resumed the chair, and the
Academy adjourned.

1888. ] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 237

May 21, 1888.
STATED MEETING.
The President, Pror. J. 8S. NEWBERRY, in the chair.
Forty-three persons present.

The Librarian, Dr. N. L. Brirron, read a list of Accessions
to the Library for the past week.

On motion of the LIBRARIAN it was voted that the thanks
of the Academy be sent to Mr. Howard Shriver, in return for a
donation of books.

Pror. D. S. Martin and the PRESIDENT spoke of the recent
decease of two eminent archeologists whose names had long
been associated, E. G. Squier and KE. H. Davis.

Pror. W. Le Contre SreEveENns referred to the work of the
Brooklyn Institute, and, as an officer of the institution, he ex-
tended to the members of the Academy an invitation to attend
its meetings.

Mr. WittiAmM E. HippEN announced the discovery, in Mr.
Niven’s collections from New York Island, of the following
minerals new to the locality :—chrysoberyl, a fairly good crystal,
lying in feldspar ; zircon (?), showing the unit and secondary
prisms, unit pyramid, and the common zirconoid (3—38) ; mon-
azite, having the characteristic monoclinic form and basal cleav-
age, but with density of 5.5, (commonly 5.1 to 5.3) ; autunite,
in bright, light-green micaceous crystals; also gummite, and
possibly uraninite and uranotil. The uraninite is a cubo-octa-
hedron, as yet in its matrix, but its form and its associations in-
dicate its identity. ‘These minerals are from the pegmatite
veins in the gneiss near Fort George.

Mr. HIDDEN read an article from a North Carolina paper,
The Landmark, relating to the mining of zircon. Mr. Hidden
and Mr. M. H. Mallory, of New York, had contracted to deliver
50,000 poundsof that mineral. Work wascommenced in.October
last upon the Freeman and Jones lands on Green river, Henderson
County, and at the present date the delivery was almost com-
pleted. The mining operation was similar to gold washing,

238 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [MAY 21,

with ‘‘ rockers,” and at times over one hundred men were em-
ployed.

Pror. J. 8S. NewBErRRY read, by title, a paper

ON THE STRUCTURE AND ZOOLOGICAL RELATION OF THE
PLACODERM FISHES.

(Published in the Annals, Vol. IV.)

Dr. L. H. Laupy exhibited and described a new and simple
form of projecting lantern, and the several kinds of jets and
illuminants employed. Some discussion followed by Dr. Bolton,
Prof. Stevens, and Dr. Laudy, regarding the use of zirconia
pencils in place of lime for the oxy-hydrogen light. The lantern
was then used in illustrating the subsequent paper by Prof.
Stevens.

Pror. W. Le Conte STEVENS read a paper on
THE QUALITY OF MUSICAL SOUNDS,
(Illustrated with lantern views.)
(Abstract. )

The elements of a musical sound are pitch, loudness, and
quality.

The determination of pitch as an index of rate of periodic mo-
tion dates back as far as the time of Galileo, whose method was
naturally crude, in comparison with those of to-day. By means
of the siren, devised by Cagniard de la Tour, and subsequently
greatly improved by Helmholtz, and also by other methods
yet more refined, pitch is quite distinctly measurable, and its
determination is included among the oft-repeated operations of
exact science.

Loudness is appreciable only through sensation, and no means
for its exact measurement have been thus far devised. It may
be regarded as at least a function of the energy of vibration,
which in turn is proportional to the square of the amplitude of
swing; but this is not a measure of the intensity of the nerve ex-
citement which involves the sensation of loudness. If an arti-
ficial membrane be substituted for the ear, the variations of
energy imparted to it, and manifested to the ear as variations
of loudness, may be made visible and roughly measured by the
method of manometric flames. (By means of appropriate lan-
tern pictures, the construction and use of the manometric cap-
sule was here shown, and flame images analyzed by the speaker.)

1888. ] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 239

For the investigation of quality we need a method of represent-
ing musical sounds graphically before a path of research is
opened. (The speaker then gave illustrations of the application
of the graphic method, analyzing each case, and dwelling more
particularly on Koenig’s mode of compounding the parallel vibra-
tions of two forks.)

Assume a compound musical sound made up of six com-
ponents whose wave lengths form the series 1, 4, 4,4, 4, 4.
Draw all their sinusoids on the same axis, and compound these
into a single curve, remembering that each loop with its con-
vexity upward represents a momentary slight increase of inten-
sity, and each with its convexity downward a momentary slight
decrease of intensity. Then, as each compound wave strikes
the ear, there are six subordinate impressions along with the
general impression of a push and a pull on the auditory
medium. ‘These occur in a definite order, and the groups are
repeated periodically. The result is a characteristic sensation
quite different from that which arises if the fandamental sound
alone impresses the ear. The quality is more brilliant, while the
fundamental pitch remains the same. It might be quite natural
to assume, as was once commonly done, that quality must, in
some way, depend on the form of the sound wave. It was re-
served tor Helmholtz to give to this idea a firm experimental
basis, and to show that quality depends upon the number,
orders, and relative intensities of the upper partial tones which
accompany the fundamental. His demonstration was a verifica-
tion of what had previously been only guessed; for, if we vary
either the number, or the orders, or the relative intensities of
these upper partials, and plot the resultant curves, the latter
become changed in form with the change in quality.

But there is another way, independently of those just men-
tioned, in which the wave form may be varied. It is that of
varying the mode of combination of the same set of components.
The accompanying figure, due to Koenig, shows groups of
sinusoids compounded together with variations of phase between
the fundamental and the upper partials. In the group marked 0,
all begin together at the same origin, and hence with perfect
coincidence of phase. In that marked 4, there is a difference in
phase of a fourth of a wave length of the fundamental between
this and its first upper partial. In those marked 4 and 3, respec-
tively, this difference of phase is a half-wave length and three-
fourths of a wave length of the fundamental, respectively. In
figures a and 0, the amplitudes form a harmonic series de-
termined by the corresponding wave lengths, a@ including the
full series, and 4 the odd components only. In figures ¢ and d,
the amplitudes form a decreasing geometrical series determined

240 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [May 21,

by the corresponding wave lengths, c the full series, d the odd
components. ‘The variation in form is striking, and certainly
affords ground for the suspicion that the perceived quality should
vary. ‘T'o determine this question experimentally is difficult,
not only because it requires a trained ear to appreciate such dif-
ferences in quality as may be imposed, but because in no ordinary
musical instrument is there any provision for the indication of
the mode in which harmonic components are combined.

This problem was first attacked by Helmholtz, and with nega-
tive results. He used the same apparatus that was employed in
his masterly analysis of vowel sounds. (A picture of Helm-
holtz’s apparatus was here shown, and his method of work was de-

Variation in wave form with change of phase.

scribed.) ‘To secure variation of phase between any two com-
ponents of a compound sound produced by a group of forks, he
narrowed the aperture of oneof the resonators, thus throwing
it slightly out of tune and weakening the resonance. As the
result of mathematical investigation, Helmholtz reached the
conclusion that if the pitch of the resonator is depressed, the
greatest velocity in periodic motion of the air at its mouth
slightly precedes that of the fork, producing thus a difference
of phase. Suppose the resonators of the forks which yield the
upper partials to remain open, while that of the fork yielding the
fundamental is partly closed, so as to lower the pitch of the re-

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 241

sonator; then the waves from this resonator gain part of a
wave length on those of the other resonators, which still vibrate
synchronously with their forks. To allow for diminution of in-
tensity in the sound of the fundamental resonator, the others
may be withdrawn slightly from their forks. Helmholtz failed
to detect the slightest difference in quality as a consequence of
this variation in phase. His conclusion, therefore, was that the
‘‘ differences in musical quality of tone depend solely on the
presence and strength of partial tones, and in no respect on the
differences in phase under which these partial tones enter into
composition.” If this unexpected conclusion be wrong, then
either there was some fault in the mathematical deduction from
the theory of resonators, or the mere fact of throwing a resonator
out of tune so alters the conditions as to mask completely the
change of quality that might otherwise be rendered sensible.
The first of these alternatives is not very probable, for Helm-
holtz’s skill as a mathematician is unquestioned. ‘The second
may be substantiated if an independent method of experiment
is devised, by which the effect of change of phase is actually
made perceptible.

As early as 1868 M. Rudolph Koenig constructed a wave siren
which he employed in his investigations on the beats producible
by combination of sounds of known interval. This instrument
was subsequently modified and improved, and was applied by its
inventor to the investigation of musical quality. (Pictures
were here shown of two forms of wave siren, including the one
containing the Jatest improvements, and their mechanism was
explained by the speaker.) The wave siren may be described
briefly as an apparatus in which a blast of air is forced through
a narrow cleft against the edge of a moving plate or disc on
which a series of determinate wave forms have been cut. Hach
sinuosity, as it passes the cleft, interrupts the egress of air, so
that a series of compound pulses are propagated, whose group-
ing is determined by the form of the curved edge. The pitch is
determined by the wave length cut in the metal, through either
the convex surface of a cylinder which rotates on its axis or the
edge of a disc which rotates about its centre. A number of such
wave forms, each with its own wind-cleft, may be operated at
the same time, with the same speed, and with the same pressure
of air at each cleft. ‘They may be arranged to either coincide or
differ in phase to any required extent. In 1881 Koenig pub-
lished the result of his experiments with this instrument, which,
for the specific object he had in view, is far more satisfactory
than that employed by Helmholtz. His conclusions may be ex-
pressed as follows (Quelques Haupériences d’Acoustique, p.
242) :-—

242 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [MAY 21,

‘The complex sound obtained by the composition of a series
of harmonics, of even as well as of odd orders, quite independ-
ently of their relative intensity, has always its maximum of
strength and its greatest acuteness of quality for a difference of
phase of a fourth of a wave length; the minimum of strength
and the softest quality for a difference of phase of three-fourths
of a wave length; the sounds corresponding to differences of
phase zero and a half wave length lie between these two ex-
tremes in regard to both intensity and quality.

‘¢The composition of a series of harmonics, taken in the order
of the odd numbers, gives the same sound for differences of
phase one-fourth and three-fourths, and also the same sound for
differences zero and one-half; but in the first case the sound is
stronger and more brilliant than in the second.

‘“<Tf, then, quality depends indeed principally on the number
and relative intensity of the harmonics into which it can be de-
composed, the influence of the difference of phase of these har-
monics is not so small that it can properly be neglected. It
may be said that if changes in the number and relative in-
tensity of the harmonics produce differences of quality such as
are observed in instruments belonging to different families, or
such as the human voice shows in the different vowels, the
changes due to difference of phase between the same harmonics
are yet capable of producing differences of quality at least as
sensible as those which are noticeable in instruments of the same
kind, or in the same vowels sung by different voices.”

These conclusions expressed by M. Koenig have not yet re-
ceived the general credit to which they are entitled. ‘The cause
of this is found partly in the overmastering authority of Helm-
holtz’s splendid researches, which preceded Koenig’s investiga-
tions on this topic, and partly in the fact that but few persons
have had the opportunity personally to test the subject
experimentally. The present writer, while spending a few weeks
in Paris during the last summer (1887), enjoyed the privilege of
using the wave siren in company with M. Koenig, and with
satisfactory results. He noticed a distinct change of quality
with change of phase. The chief object of the present paper is
to add his confirmation to the conclusion reached by M. Koenig,
and to call attention to what is due an acoustician whose me-
chanical skill in the construction of apparatus is more than
equalled by his originality, care, and patience in investigation.

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 243

May 28, 1888.
STATED MEETING.
The President, Pror. J. S. NEWBERRY, in the chair.

A large audience present in the West Lecture Room of the
Library Building, Columbia College.

The fourth lecture of the Popular Lecture Course was de-
livered by Mr. Frep. H. CHAPIN on

ICE AND ROCK SCENERY IN THE FRONT RANGE, COLORADO.

(Illustrated with lantern views.)

June 4, 1888.
REGULAR BUSINESS MEETING.
The President, Pror. J. S. NEWBERRY, in the chair.
Forty-seven persons present.

The Report of the Council made the following recommenda-
tions :

I. The payment of certain bills.

II. The appropriation of $500 to pay for the printing of
Annals and Transactions now in hand.

III. The acceptance of the resignations of Charles 8. Bull
and Mrs. J. C. Croly.

The election as Resident Members of

EK. A. Goopripesr, M.D.,
FRANK ROOSEVELT,
W. D. SCHOONMAKER.

The items of the report were severally adopted, and the can-
didates were elected by formal ballot.

Pror. O. P. HusBarp read, by title, the following paper :

244. TRANSACTIONS OF THE [JUNE 4,

ON THE SEA ANEMONES OF SWAT.LOW HOUSE OR CAVE IN THE
ROCKS AT NAHANT, NEAR LYNN, MASS., BY REV. MANASSEH
CUTLER.

The great interest attached to this account arises from the
fact that it is believed to be a record of the earliest, if not the
only study, of this class of animals in America in the last cen-
tury, and has only now, after the lapse of ninety-seven years,
been brought from its hiding place to the knowledge of the
public, and is wholly unknown to our most eminent scholars in
this department of Natural History.

Mr. Cutler was elected a member of the American Academy
of Arts and Sciences at its first business meeting, January 31st,
1791; and as our New York Academy is one of the oldest in
the United States, it is that well the paper should appear in
its Transactions, and thus become known to science.

This account of the Sea-Anemone is found among Dr. Cutler’s
papers, p. 468, VI.’

‘*The Sea-Anemones are a most singular species of animals,
approaching nearly, if not nearest, to the connecting link be-
tween the animate and inanimate creation. We have had no
account of the discovery of the Sea-Anemone on American
shores until the year 1791.

In the month of June, 7th, Dr. Cutler, with the Rev. Dr.
Prime of Salem, in company with several other gentlemen,
visited the cavern in the rocks on the southern side of Nahant,
in Lynn, called the Swallow House, for the purpose of search-
ing for them. At the bottom of the cavern, after the tide had
receded, they found great numbers of different sizes and a great
variety of colors.

The general form of this singular animal, when moderately
contracted, is nearly like that of a truncated cone with its base
adhering to the rocks; but it has the power of assuming a
variety of shapes. The position in which some of them ap-
peared resembled a full-blown anemone; others approached
nearer the flower of a large rose or poppy, and some were
extended in an oblique direction, with the leaves so much
contracted as to exhibit only their margin in the form of a
fringe.

When the arms or leaves of the larger ones were fully dis-

1 Life of Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL.D., by his grandchildren, 2 vols.
Cincinnati, 1880. Robt. Clarke & Co.

\

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 245

played they measured 5 and 6 inches in circumference, exhibit-
ing a great variety and brilliancy of colors. Some were of the
purest white; some of the most delicate flesh color; others
tinged with purple, green and violet, and still others shaded
and variegated with the finest brown or black. On touching
the arms or leaves they instantly contract. By expanding and
contracting the leaves they collect and convey food to their
mouths, which are placed in the centre of the blossom.

On offering them bits of muscles’ they directly seized them
with their arms, conducted them to their mouths and swallowed
them.

If pieces of shells adhered to the muscles, or if small muscles
were given them, the shells were afterward discharged by the
mouth.

The Sea-Anemone is said to be viviparous. It has also the
power of reproduction. If the arms are clipped off they will
bud and grow to the usual size. And the Abbe Dicquemare
has shown by a course of experiments that, like polype, it may be
multiplied by shreds clipped from the animal. These Anemo-
nes have a progressive motion, moving but extremely slow.
Mr. Joseph Barrel, of Charlestown, who, with several other
gentlemen, was there at the same time, carried home a pebble
on which an Anemone had attached itself, and preserved it
several months in sea-water. It disengaged itself from the
stone and moved about the vessel in which he had placed it.

It has been classed among the zoophytes.”

The Corresponding Secretary, Dr. A. A. JULIEN, reported
that letters accepting honorary membership had been recently
received from the following persons :

Pror. ALEXANDER AGASSIZ,
Pro. S. P. LANGLEY,

Dr. JosePH LEIDY,

Pror. Dr. G. MENEGHINI,
Pror. Louris Pasteur,

Sir Henny Roscoe,

Pror. H. F. RoseNBuscH,
Pror. JoHN TYNDALL.

And in acceptance of corresponding membership from

CaVRE. SEBASTIANO FENZI,

! The old spelling of mussel (Ed.).

246 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [JUNE 4,

Pror. F. A. Goocu,

LA PrINcESSE HELENE KOutTzorr-MASSALSKY,
Rey. THomas Morona,

Mr. T’. MELLARD READE.

The Librarian, Dr. N. L. Brirron, read the list of Accessions
to the Library for May.

Pror. O. P. HuBBARD showed a milk tooth of a Mastodon,
from the phosphate beds of Beaufort, 8. C. The base of the
tooth, without projections, is six and one-half by three inches,
The crown is three inches high, with four ridges, each ridge
with two eminences, the inner ones notched. ‘I'he two an-
terior or smaller pair are covered by an adhering oyster shell.

The PRESIDENT remarked upon the distribution and extinction
of the animal, and the occurrence of the fossils. He had informa-
tion of a tusk, in Indiana, which is ten feet long, and weighs one
hundred and eighty pounds.

The two following papers were read by title :

NOTES ON THE SUBCARBONIFEROUS SERIES AT SEDALIA,
MISSOURI.

By F. A. SAMPSON.

Sedalia, Missouri, is near the boundary line of several geologic
terrains, the Magnesian series appearing at the surface two
miles south, and the Coal Measures a few miles west.

In the quarries close by the city, the Burlington series is only
a few feet in thickness, and rests upon the Chouteau limestones
of the Missouri Geological Survey. ‘These limestones are here of a
gray or dove-colored stone, 144 feet in thickness, as shown in an
Artesian well boring of 1,600 feet.

In the neighborhood are some pockets of coal, which have
been deposited in depressions on the Chouteau limestones.

The Chouteau limestones are referred by Prof. G. C. Swallow
(‘‘ Missouri Geol. Rep.,” 1855, p. 101) to the Chemung series, and
by Prof. James Hall (‘‘ Geol. Surv. Iowa,” 1858, p. 103) to the
same series; Prof. A. H. Worthen (‘‘ Geol. Surv. Illinois,” Vol. 1,
1866, p. 109) refers this series to the Kinderhook group, which
occupies in geological time a similar place to that of the Waverly
series of the Ohio Geological Survey.

Dr. C. A. White (“U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr.,” 12th Ann. Rep.,
1878, p. 159) remarks with regard to this series, and its fossil

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, R47

corals. The discovery of four new forms of coralsin the Kinder-
hook ‘‘ isa matter of much interest. This interest is also increased
by the fact that they are all of types which are unusual in at
least American Carboniferous strata ; and although there is no @
priori reason why the presence of these types might not be ex-
pected in Carboniferous strata, according to our present knowl-
edge such a group of corals is not without a certain Devonian
facies.”

The author describes the following new species from the Chou-
teau limestones of Sedalia. Zaphrentis calceola, White and
Whitfield ; Chonophyllum Sedaliense, White ; Michilinia (?) pla-
centa, White; M. expansa, White, and Lithostrotion microsty-
lum, White.

In the “ Trans. St. Louis Acad. Sci.,” Vol. 4, No. 3, Dr. G.
Hambach describes Pentremites Sampsoni from the Chouteau
limestone and Codonites campanulatus, Lower Burlington series
of Sedalia. Descriptions of these species are also included in the
‘* Bull. Sedalia Nat. Hist. Soc.,” 1885, p. 29.

Amongst the Paleozoic Crustacea collected at Sedalia we have
the new species described in the following paper: Phillipsia
Sampsoni and Griffithides (?) Sedaliensis from the Chouteau
limestone, and others of a new species of the genus Proetus;
one of these consists of a detached pygidium with 9 axial rings
and 7% side ribs, bordered by a prominent limb, the axis being
marked with three rows of nodes ; another specimen is entire and
was procured from a chert nodule of the Chouteau limestone.
The condition of these specimens will not permit of a detailed
description, and we therefore only indicate the appearance of
these fossils.

In the overlying Burlington series, we have so far only one spec-
imen of Phillipsia tuberculata, Meek and Worthen. The coa
measures only furnish small worn fragments of Chetetes mille
poraceus, Troost, but not in place.

Both the Burlington and Chouteau beds here include layers
of chert, and the latter also chert nodules in the limestone beds.

DESCRIPTION OF TWO NEW SPECIES OF CARBONIFEROUS
TRILOBITES.
By A. W. VoapDEs.
PHILLIPSIA SAMPSONI (n. s.) Vogdes.

Description.—General form, oval. Cephalic shield parabolic,
obtusely pointed in front, slightly broader than long. Glabella
prominent, convex and but slightly tumid ; almost twice as long
as broad, acutely rounded in front; basal lobes distinct, and

248 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [JUNE 4,

separated from the glabella by rather deep furrows. The gla-
bella has three short lateral furrows on each side, the middle one
being opposite the anterior end of the palpebral lobe. Eyes
large, reniform ; occipital ring distinctly marked, somewhat
triangular in form, and separated from the glabella by a broad
and well-defined occipital furrow; surface of the glabella coarsely
granulated.

Fixed cheeks, narrow behind, forming a palpebral lobe about
each eye. Limb smooth on its upper surface, but striated along
its outer margin. The movable cheeks probably terminate in
cheek spines, but this not indicated in the rolled specimen now
before us.

Thorax with nine segments; the axis is strongly marked by
well-defined dorsal furrows, and elevated above the plane of the
pleurz ; width greater than the length of the pleure. Pleure
grooved and faceted. Surface of test smooth. Pygidium semi-
elliptic, axis very prominent, and forming less than one-third

the width of the anterior margin, which is gently arched. Axial
rings seven. The lateral lobes are marked with six ribs on each
side, which bend rather gently downward and decrease in size as
they approach the posterior margin of the pygidium. Surface
smooth.

Dimensions. —Total length, 20 mm.; length of glabella,5 mm.;
width of same, 34 to 4 mm.; width of occipital ring, 14 mm.;
length of thorax, 8 mm.; length of pygidium, 53 mm.; width of
same, 9 mm.

Geological position and locality.—Waverly series, Sedalia,
Missouri, from the cabinet of F. A. Sampson, Sedalia, Mo.

This species of Phillipsia can readily be distinguished from
all others by its limited number of axial rings in the pygidium.

GRIFFITHIDES (?) SEDALIENSIS (n.s.), Vogdes.

Description.—Pygidium semi-elliptic; axis broad, conical,
and prominent, occupying a litile less than one-third of the
width of the pygidium on its anterior border, which is arched.
Axial rings 12. Lateral lobes marked with 11 ribs. The test
is covered with a regular series of tubercles, which run through

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 249

the centre of the ribs and axial rings. Limb of pygidium nar-
row and apparently smooth.

Geological position and locality.k—Waverly series, Sedalia,
Mo., cabinet of F. A. Sampson.

Affinities and differences.—This small pygidium approaches
in general Griffithides seminiferus, Phillips, from the English car-
boniferous limestone of Yorkshire, which has twelve axial rings
and nine side ribs; the surface being ornamented by asingle row of
tubercles along the centre of each axial ring and side rib; eight
to ten on axis and about eight on each side rib. The American
species is much smaller in size, and has a greater number of
tubercles, with an arched anterior margin instead of the straight
one usually found on Phillips’ species. Compared with Ameri-
can tuberculated forms. this species differs from Phillipsia
tuberculata, Meek and Worthen, first by having a less number
of axial rings (twelve instead of sixteen or seventeen), and also
varies in the number of side ribs (ten instead of fourteen). The
surface of P. tuberculata is marked with six small tubercles,
arranged on the axial rings so as to form six rows, and the side
lobes are each ornamented by a row of tubercles along the ribs,
varying from twelve to two, according to their length.

On Griffithides (?) Sedaliensis the test of the pygidium is
ornamented by a row of tubercles running across the axial -
rings, varying from twelve to three according to the length of
the rings. On the side ribs the number of tubercles varies, ac-
cording to length, from eleven to three. The space immedi-
ately in rear of the axis is also ornamented in the same manner.
The pygidium of Phillipsia insignis, Winchell, has twelve to
fourteen axial rings, each bearing six small tubercles, the whole
of which are arranged in six longitudinal rows, and ten side ribs.
From this species our specimen can also be readily distinguished
by its surface markings.

Compared with the pygidium of Phillipsia trinucleata. Her-
rick (Bull. Se. Lab. Denison Univ., Vol. II., 1887, p. 64), our
species has a less number of axial rings, twelve instead of seven-
teen to nineteen, and a like variation in the number of ribs.
The marginal limb of this species is broad and longitudinally
striated, whereas our species has a narrow limb, apparently
smooth.

This last characteristic has prevented us from comparisons
under the genus Brachymetopus appearing in the Waverly

roup.
F If Griffithides Sedaliensis is a true Griffithides (as its affinities
with G. seminiferus indicate), we have in these Sedalia beds a
very early appearance of a genus which heretofore was only
known to the Keokuk, Chester, and Upper Coal Measures. We

250 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [JUNE 4,

therefore hope that our friends in Sedalia will clear up its doubt-
ful affinities; and also the’range of this genus in Carboniferous
rocks.

Mr. W. E. HIDDEN reported the discovery, within the city,
by Mr. William Niven, of fine green and brown tourmalines.
The green ones are very clear, and although minute, would cut
into gems. With them occurred fine pyrite and pyrrhotite
crystals.

Mr. HIpDEN stated that he had lately received fram his mines
in Alexander County, North Carolina, a number of emeralds,
which are clear and of fine color. From one six gems have al-
ready been cut, of a probable value of $500. ‘These were found
incidentally and before the regular mining for the season had
commenced.

Mr. GeorGE F. Kunz exhibited specimens of ruby corundum,
from near Atlanta, Georgia. A mass of three hundred and fifty
pounds was found on the surface of the ground.

Also gold-bearing quartz from near Parimaribo, Dutch Guiana.
This occurs four miles from the coast, to which it is carried by
the natives.

Rhodonite, from near Cummington, Mass., was shown. For-
merly it was found in boulders, but is now found in place.

He also exhibited phenacite, from near Stowe, Maine. It was
found in a pocket, associated with topaz and smoky quartz, and
also detached. This is the first discovery of this mineral in the
United States, outside of Colorado. The crystals are lenticular,
thin, and resemble those from Florissant, Colorado. Large
cavities abound in the crystals, which might have contained a
fluid.

Mr. Kunz gave the following particulars relating to the dia-
mond, from Georgia, exhibited April 16th.

In April, 1887, Mr. Lewis M. Parker, a tenant on the farm
of Daniel Light, situated three-quarters of a mile northwest of
Marrow Station, and thirteen miles south of Atlanta, found a
diamond on the farm. The stone afterwards came into posses-
sion of Mr. W. W. Scott, of Atlanta, who sent it to me for ex-
amination. It proved to be an octahedral crystal weighing 475

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 251

carats (828 milligrams), 3 of an inch long and ¢ of an inch wide,
and measuring 9X10X7 mm. It is slightly yellow, has one
small black inclusion, and would afford a stone of from 1} to 2
carats’ weight. The specific gravity I found to be 3.527. The
surface of the stone is curiously marked with long shallow pit-
tings.

Mr. L. O. Stevens, of Atlanta, Ga., has communicated to me
that a colored man called on him during the past year with
a two-carat diamond, defective and of very poor color, which he
had found in his garden within a few miles of Atlanta. The
finder, Mr. Stevens says, has shown no desire to sell or loan the
stone.

In behalf of the Committee appointed at a former meeting,
Pror. D. S. MARTIN read a memorial notice’ of

Av. Aoseph B. Holder,

Dr. Joseph Barrett Holder was born in Lynn, Mass., October
26th, 1824. He was descended, on his mother’s side, from the
Barretts, a well-known English family during the time of
Henry VIII., while the Holders were among the early
Friends or Quakers in this country.

Dr. Holder’s immediate ancestor in America was Christopher
Holder, who came over, in the ship Woodhouse, in 1657. As a
Quaker, he came to this country to escape religious persecution.
Landing in New York, he went to Boston, where he was thrown
into jail for avowing himself a Quaker or Friend. The dif-
ferent branches of the family settled in and about Boston; and
Dr. Holder’s great-great-grandfather built a house in I-ynn in
1700, at the corner of Nahant and Sagamore streets. It 1s still
in use, though moved in 1855. Here Richard Holder, grand-
father of Dr. Holder, was born in 1757, and his father, Aaron
Holder, in 1797. The latter carried on until his death the drug
business; the house of Holder & Co. is still flourishing in
Lynn.

The subject of this notice was educated at the Harvard Medi-

1 In place of the notice read, the following more extended sketch is
here inserted.

252 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [JUNE 4,

cal School, became distinguished for his skill as a surgeon, and
was demonstrator of anatomy under Oliver Wendell Holmes.
In 1846 he began the practice of medicine in Swampscott, Mass.,
and later he moved to Lynn and became the city physician.

From his youth he had been an ardent lover of nature, and
did all in his power to encourage a love of the study among the
people. He founded the Lynn Natural History Society, and
added much to its collections. He made a trip over New York
State before the time of railroads, collecting specimens for its
cabinet, and studying the fauna, flora, geology, etc. He was
an ardent botanist and made probably the first list of plants of
Essex County, Mass. He left copious notes of their habits, time
of appearing, etc., showing that there was hardly a foot of this
locality that was not intimately known to him. He made fine
drawings of the plants, often in color, and kept what might be
called a diary of plant-life. In 1844, he made a catalogue of
the birds of Lynn and vicinity, which appeared as Bulletin
No. 1 of the publications of the Lynn Nat. History Society.
This led to his meeting the late Prof. 8. F. Baird, and the forma-
tion of a lifelong friendship. Dr. Holder early met Prof.
Agassiz, and often joined him at his home in Nahant, and for
some years made many investigations, dredging and collecting,
particularly with his intimate friend, Prof. William Stimpson.

In 1859, he was offered anappointment as surgeon in the U.S.
Engineer Department, at Tortugas, Fla., which he accepted.
This step was taken partly at the instigation of Profs, Baird and
Agassiz, and it gave him an opportunity to enter more fully into
the studies of his choice.

Arriving at Fort Jefferson, he began experimental studies,
and collected hundreds of new and hitherto undescribed species
in almost every branch of the animal (marine) kingdom. ‘These
were chiefly sent to the Smithsonian Institution and to Harvard
College, while many other colleges received specimens of his
collecting. To study better the habits of animals and the
growth of certain corals, he bad an aquarium built out into the
water, and here carried on a systematic study of the growth of
corals, watching them from day to day..

The ideas prevailing then concerning coral-growth were more

\

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 253

or lessincorrect. Dr. Holder placed bricks in the water and kept
them under daily observation, and found that a specimen of
Meandrina convexa doubled its diameter in one year. This
test-specimen is in the collection of the American Museum of
Natural History, New York, and is figured in Holder’s “ Hle-
ments of Zoology,” page 26, Fig. 24. Experiments with
branching and other corals showed the rate of growth to be
much more rapid than had been generally supposed, and many
valuable notes upon the growth of coral reefs are recorded in
his works. Dr. Holder made interesting experiments with the
Physalia, its poison, its parasitic or attendant fishes, the Holo-
thuria and Fierasper, etc., and sent specimens north of every
animal found upon the reef.

He was particularly interested in the flight of birds, and had
interesting correspondence with Darwin upon the subject. This
question Dr. Holder reviewed in his last ornithological paper, on
the flight of birds, read before the New York Academy of
Sciences, Dec. 19th, 1887.

When the war broke out, Dr. Holder became acting assistant-
surgeon in the regular army, and served throughout the war.
He also was health officer of the post, and had the medical
charge of the great prison at Dry Tortugas when it was crowded
with prisoners. Through his personal efforts, funds were
raised to alleviate the sufferings of the prisoners, who were
dying of scurvy; and only through his prudence and experience
was the prison kept from the horrors of epidemics. When he
was ordered away, and an inexperienced surgeon took his place,
yellow fever carried off almost the entire post.

Dr. Holder was a prolific writer, and, while he contributed to
many scientific publications, he was always impressed with the
value of creating an interest in nature among the masses. He
believed that a knowledge of nature and her works would exert
a refining and cultivating influence; and many of his writings
tended in this direction. These were on scientific subjects popu-
larly treated ; his idea being to divest them of technicality, so
that an interest would be aroused in the study, even among the
most ignorant. In this,he was eminently successful. He con-
tributed, in 1867-8, an elaborate series of articles on the Florida

254 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [JUNE 4,

reef to Harper’s Magazine, which, running through six months,
described his life in the great prison and the flora and the fauna
of the reef. He contributed special articles to the various
scientific publications of the day, reviewed and prepared scientific
works for the press, and for many years contributed articles to
the New York Zvening Post on the Museum of Natural History
in this city. He was particularly interested in the study of the
cetacea or whales, and one of the Bulletins of the Amer. Mus. Nat.
Hist., N. Y., is devoted to his discussion of the Atlantic Right
Whales; while many semi-scientific papers were published on
this subject in the papers of the day. He was also interested in
archxology, and contributed to the Century Magazine a valuable
illustrated paper on ‘The Stone Collars of Porto Rico, ete.,”
and many papers on allied subjects to other periodicals. At the
time of his death, he was preparing an elaborate work on an
archxological subject.

Dr. Holder was joint author with the Rev. J. G. Wood of one
of the finest popular works on natural history ever published, en-
titled, ‘‘ The Living World.” It comprised an entire review of the
animal kingdom. Dr. Holder provided the matter relating to
the American fauna, and edited the work. He also added the
account of the American fauna to Sir John Richardson’s work,
**The Museum of Natural History,” this portion of which was
later published separately as the ‘‘ American Fauna.” He was
also joint author with his son of ‘‘ Elements of Zoology,” a text-
book in the Appleton Science Series.

Dr. Holder occasionally lectured on natural history, and was
instrumental in forming various societies of natural history. He
was ever ready to assist young naturalists, and stimulate in them
a love for nature and reverence for the Power that governs it.

In 1868, Dr. Holder was ordered to Fort Monroe, Va. In 1870
he resigned to join Prof. A. S. Bickmore in the establishment
of the Museum of Natural History, Central Park, New York,
and for years that gentleman and himself carried on this great
work, and cared for the collections almost unassisted—a labor
that few not acquainted with the subject can appreciate. Dr.
Holder was at first assistant superintendent, and during the
past few years curator, of the Department of Invertebrate

1888. ] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 255

Zoology. The work was a labor of love; and all his interests
were centered in the great institution which he had seen grow
from nothing.

Dr. Holder was a member of a number of societies, among
them the Lynn Natural History Society, the Society of Kastern
Naturalists, the’American Ornithologists’ Union, the Society of
Psychological Research, patron of the Metropolitan Museum of
Art, New York City, Fellow of the New York Academy of
Sciences, etc. Dr. Holder was a member of the Society of Ortho-
dox Friends ; and of his career it can be said by those who knew
him best, that few have lived a life of such absolute purity and
uprightness, both in thought and action.

Notice was given of the recent death of Pror. R. D. Irvine,
and remarks upon his life and work were made by the PREsI-
DENT.

Miss Fanny R. M. Hitcucock read a paper entitled,
NOTES ON THE LARY® OF AMBLYSTOMA.

The following notes were made chiefly with reference to the
‘‘balancers ” of Amblystoma larve.

The eggs and larvee examined agreed in all respects with the
description and figures of Am. punctatum and were probably
the same species.

The development of Am. punctatum was described by Mr.
Samuel F. Clarke’ in 1880, but I have not, as yet, been able to
consult his paper, and have depended on the brief abstract of it
given by Balfour,’ which is here quoted :

‘‘The larva of Am. punctatum is provided with two very
long processes, like the suctorial processes in Triton, placed on
the throat in front of the external gills. They are used to sup-
port the larva when it sinks to the bottom, and have been called
by Clarke balancers. On the development of the limbs, these
processes drop off.”

In such of the Urodela as have been studied in the larval
stages, processes similar to these are present.

Suctorial discs, which are regarded as the homologues of these
processes, are found in the majority of Anura larve. Parker

1$. F, Clarke, ‘‘ Development of Amblystoma punctatum,” Part I,
External. Studies from the Biological Laboratory of the Johns Hop-
kins University. No. II., 1880.

* Balfour, ‘‘Comparative Embryology,” vol. II., p, 117.

256 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [JUNE 4,

states that they are absent in the Aglossa,* but I think they may
possibly be represented by the long tentacles of Dactylethra.

In the larve which I had under observation, the balancers
made their appearance at the same time as the external gills, as
lateral buds on the head, similar to those representing the gills,
and some distance in front of them.

From the first, the development of the ‘‘ balancers” was
strikingly like that of the gills, and at the time of hatching, the
principal difference in appearance was due to the tips of the
gills being slightly bifurcated ; this being the beginning of the
lateral branching.

The resemblance alluded to was so striking that I placed
the larve under the microscope, to see if any trace of circulation
could be found in the *‘ balancers.”’

Save that it is somewhat intermittent, the circulation is as
perfect in the ‘‘ balancers” as in the external gills, the blood-
corpuscles passing outward by an artery on the posterior aspect
of the ‘ balancer” and returning by one on the anterior aspect.
When re-entering the body, the corpuscles appear to flow forward
and downward in front of the mandibular arch. On the sixth
day after hatching, the circulation was still observable, though
very slow and irregular. On the eighth day I could no longer
detect it, and on the tenth the ‘‘ balancers” had disappeared.

That the ‘‘balancers” of Amblystoma are true external
branchie can scarcely be considered doubtful, and the suctorial
processes of other Urodela, together with the sucking discs of
the Anura, must be placed in the same category, and regarded
as representing former respiratory organs, which have become
functionally so modified as to leave but little trace of their
original nature.

An interesting question arises, as to whether the modification
of the external gills in the amphibia can be regarded as afford-
ing any explanation of the preoral suctorial discs of the larve
of Lepidosteus and Acipenser.

Concerning these, Balfour makes the following remarks.* In
the Sturgeon (Acipenser): ‘‘In front of the mouth two pairs
of papille grow out, which appear to be of the same nature as
the papille on the suctorial disc of Lepidosteus. They are very
short . . . but soon grow in length, and it is probable that they
become the barbels, since they occupy a precisely similar posi-
tion.”

In a note on the same page he says: ‘‘If these identifications

1 See Balfour, loc. cit., pp. 110 and 115.
2 Balfour, ‘‘Comp. Emb.,” p. 89.

1888. | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 257

are correct, then the barbels of fishes must be phylogenetically
derived from the papille of a suctorial disc adjoining the
mouth.”

Of Lepidosteus, he says :* ‘‘On the ventral surface of the front
of the head there is a disc which is beset with a number of pro-
cesses, formed as thickenings of the epiblast. As shown by
Agassiz, these eventually become short suctorial papille.”
‘‘The young fish on hatching immediately uses its suctorial
disc to attach itself to the side of the vessel in which it was
placed.” *

Describing the suctorial discs of the Anura, he says: “ ‘They
are probably remnants of the same primitive organs as the suck-
ing dise of Lepidosteus.” *

If the homologies suggested in these extracts are correct, we
have in the preoral processes just described, representatives of
external branchiw, and we have them also in the barbels of
fishes and of the larvee of Dactylethra.*

The labial cartilages may probably represent the remains of
an extra-branchial system connected with them.

The cilia on the gills, as on the body, are arranged in raised
clusters, which bear a close resemblance to, and are bdoutless
homologous with, the sensory organs of the lateral line. Special
lines of these organs are present, as is well known, in amphi-
bian laryee, and one line connects the bases of the fore and hind
limbs.

Gegenbaur considers that the limbs are derived from branchial
arches and rays—a view which was held for a while by Dr. An-
ton Dohrn. When, however, it was found that the paired fins
‘arose as special developments of a continuous ridge on each
side, precisely like the ridges of epiblast which form the rudi-
ments of the unpaired fins,” ° a fatal objection was supposed
to be offered to Gegenbaur’s view, and the theory now most in
favor seems to be, that the limbs are derived from continuous
lateral fin-folds.

If, however, we regard the limbs as derived from the external
branchiz and the extra-branchial system, the lateral fold could
represent a series of coalesced external gills, which might be
modified throughout its whole extent, or, it might be modified in

1Tbid., p. 95.

2Tbid., p. 98:

STibids; pa lt0:

4If asystem of preoral arches existed—and I hope in another place
to give some evidence of a different nature from that given above, in
favor of such a view—any effort to ascertain the number of original
cranial segments can scarcely be crowned with success.

5 Balfour, ‘‘ Elasmobranch Fishes,” p. 101.

258 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [JUNE 4,

parts only—the unmodified parts disappearing. The attachment
of external gills to the pectoral arch of Lepidosiren is very sig-
nificant in this connection. The branching of the gills is note-
worthy here. In most of the larve I had the branching was
unilateral, but in a few there were traces of bilateral branching.
In Salamandra atra, as figured by Wiedersheim,’ the gills are
very long, and the bilateral branching is perfect, giving them
the appearance of plumes. From such a gill as this the deriva-
tion of the Dipnoan type of limb would be very simple, while by
the suppression (or non-development) of the branches on one
side there would be a uniserial type from which other forms
could be derived.

In my specimen of amblystoma, the branches appeared first at
the distal extremity of the gills, and developed in regular suc-
cession toward the proximal. ‘The limbs appeared as lateral
buds close behind the gills, and had the circulation well estab-
lished by the fourth day after hatching. By the fifth day the
limb was elongated, and a slight bifurcation of the distal ex-
tremity was noticeable, which was very marked by the seventh
day, and the first and second digits were well separated. So far
as my observations on the living specimen are concerned, they
go to show that these digits are formed before there is any trace
of differentiation of the humerus, radius, or ulna.

If the derivation of the limbs suggested here is admissible,
the presence of a lateral fold in the Cyclostomata larve does not
necessarily imply that this group formerly possessed lateral fins,
as Prof. Dohrn supposes, but might only indicate the former
possession of external gills, which extended backward through
the body segments. ‘The branchial clefts were formerly far
more numerous than now, as is shown by Amphioxus, and I
think it probable that, in the earliest forms, they extended the
entire length of the animal.* Some of the suggestions offered
here I hope, in a later paper, to develop more fully.

1 Wiedersheim, ‘‘ Lehrbuch der Verg]. Anat.,” p. 611, f. 475, C.

° Prof. John A. Ryder has kindly allowed me to state that he find
in the embryos of the shad rudimentary gill clefts, posterior to those
which develop in the adult. Mr. Ryder has also called attention to
some facts which do not seem quite in accord with the lateral fin
theory. See ‘‘ Annual Report Commissioner of Fisheries,” 1884, pp
1,044-1,046.

1888, ] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 259

Miss Fanny R. M. Hitcucock read a paper entitled:

FURTHER NOTES ON THE OSTEOLOGY OF THE SHAD
(ALOSA SAPIDISSIMA).

(Published in the Annals, Vol. IV., No. 7.)

Mr. H. HENSOLDT gave an address upon
THE ULTIMATE COMPOSITION OF MATTER.

Adjourned to the first Monday evening in October.

Cog - TES tl Ore A A A I
» Fv DIS eh oe mr “ faut ; ee ~ ul CREAT te

Fy San ray er
e , ‘f Ate ‘ang 9. ay, TRRLOATEN 4a KG acon, Ba
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ie gat ih 1 4 Al Bi a Rid! 7 ‘ “ratl i

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GENERAL INDEX.

For names in Botany and Zoology see Index of Nomenclature follow-

PAGE
Analysistof saltece o-1- 2 sere 124
Anatomy of bird’s wing..... 91-95
Ancient cities of Yucatan... .45-48
Anglo-cymric score.. ........ 43

Annales de Geologie et de P... 128
Annals of ACADEMY....60, 61,
64, 79, 89, 141

Anthophyllite ....57, 213, 214, 224

ing.
For full Titles of Papers see Table of Contents.
PAGE

ACADEMY,

Library of, 1, 183, 236, 287, 246

FAM AIS! Ofer cieistelesiete 60, 61, 64
Accessions to library (see Con-

tents).

PNCUINOLIGCS. = ..¢s crcl hein 218, 224
PA CUUMAT TA serescrsroucsens, oorsiele oes or 229
Aérial navigation............ 83
Aeronautics, development of,.113
ENG ALO re os kis oyela aehejaisis Slav eisne se 222
NG erOL INE eye lslandaaer sae: 59-60
Age of West. Co. limestones... 16
PAIDIGO . 2 acs stele a bate 221, 228, 229
Milaciitetas: «el eee Ale aos 6
PATO PH AMEN 3) von sctalersrsisrorsrersloisions 231
PAMIIIAGITO: areca ce. cecilia co ears 220
Alluvium of N. Y, Island... .50-51
Alphab. list of N. Y. min..... 234
PAVITIIMIM ANS sor snr oreie doves a sls aysiels 37
PANIEUVININUINN S 75.5 yarns oa 2 210s ore 220

Amer, Assoc. Adv. of Science,
1, 18, 48, 48, 129, 1380, 134
Amer. Bureau of Mines....... 123
Amer. Geog: Society...... ... (9
Amer. Jour. of Numismatics... 79
Amer. Jour. of Science, 59, 64, 123

Amer. Mus. of Nat. Hist...80,
100, 136, 254, 255

American Naturalist...66, 68, 136
Amer. Ornithologists’ Union. . 255
Amethyst. ces cece oer 164, 223
Wmianthus:. 25 ccf ties sod << 224
Ammonia, discov. of....-.... 198
‘Amp hibolenscesceceeeete 36, 57, 223
MATIAICTEC cnsyenel cree eee oes ae 232
Analysis of dolomite...,... 37, 58

Gl marblestescsemeeen rt 23

Antique from Peru..... ..... 15
AMatiteraa. a. 4 38, 212, 213, 221
Apophyllitessscncacsc.. sees. 231
AQUAMATINE T= 2s a cleesle es sels 224
ATA POMC eiffel «recht Ane 221
Archean olamtion ai tects: 89
BELICS vere, cchactonscsheysie 39, 59, 188
ELINOR are erarers aie rote ev eters 153
Archeological discoveries.... 139
Ares, of Ni Yo Island... 222... 49
Artesian wells on N, Y. Island, a
ASDEStUS i. 65 5 ccs set sais 212, 224
Attendance at meetings...... 129
IMU GUN ILE: Se ah oe see ooh 218, 2387
AUDUBON, J.J., monument to,
1, 116, 130
EAN SIL 5.3 Stet ests stele, eistecel 215, 223
IAKISNOL earth is 2 onesies sisieaeios 147
AVUTICON 2% suRnies arte caw 194, 217
BAIRD, SPENCER F., death of 1
Barium WiGraters - ise eile eer 69
Basalt in Palestine...175, 176, 177
IBABATIEGG acre ror cyen =: Raveroterotors cioterete 223
Beryl..... . 48, 140, 212, 224, 228
DIOUIES che aw ar aces see oe 212, 227
Birds; flight of..:......- 20- eee

262

PAGE

Birmingham philosophers, 194-211

Bitumen of Dead Sea..... ... Ward
Bootu, JAS. CURTIS, decease

of Re ce eS 3 eee 139

BOL ALTON! OLOrc «erect ee aoa 3. 219

IBOENIG. sc oe ite eee ee oo en on 217

Boulders of ‘‘ Field of Rocks” 16

IBOUTNOMIGES V. cis ices hes sretes e.> 217
IBTACHIOPOCS a ecies <iieei= steiee 2 3)
BREVOORT, J. CARSON, memo-
TBA | as ilar beets hp ae . 78-80
British Jour. of Photography, 106
BLOMUINC.. 0 cyssderelesiousinieieeusys 38
Brooklyn Acad. of Photo-
Chih) be Racin cdao ce ac 113
Brookiyn IG OUSUUEOR Oar Bio 300 Ms 237
Brown tourmaline.. re a oeOU
By-laws, change of. (see Con-
tents).
IB YSSGIIbC. stam <igicts oeteGteneseentels 224
Cadmium borotungstate...... 37
Calcium carbonate............ 36
Calls to domestic animals. .120-122
Carbone. scsieis ss0 s 6, 86, 87, 217
@Warboniciacides + ..-seeeeee eae 37
Carboniferous fishes.......... 165
InMVeSbOMe reset ied cis ere 165, 247
ETULODIUES Siecle stereo 247
Calciferous sandrock.......... 5
Gal Gitersenwoce veces 23, 30, 37,
56, 57, 62, 215, 217, 219, 221
Wal CII on eric hic cas torseetone crore 230
Catal. of Amer. Minerals.... 211
Century Magazine............ 254
Worm. 5; eee atic 220, 226
C@habazitionsceul-cisc see 62, 214, 232
Chalcedony in Syria.......... 174
Chalcopyrite:42.. 2... 62, 217, 222
Chaldean cosmogony......... 143
Chalk cliffs of Palestine...170, 174
Changes of By-laws (see Con-
tents).
Channel of Miss. River........ 164
Chemical analysis of salt...... 124
discoveries............ 198, 203
Chemung (group... +. 4). 178-9
C@hertai ut wade. ae tae ee 223
Chlorite..... 215, 221, 222, 231, 233
Chouteau limestones.....-.... 246
Chromite sre adacucck eeeweee 219
WhrysoOberyls sacs eee): 220, 237
Chrysotilet meat arecticmcns nae 233

Classified list of N. Y. Min....
Wid ySUGONO wrasse ne «cnt eae 16

GENERAL INDEX,

PAGE
Cleavage of rocks........ 32-34
Cleavelandite....... DEP SO DIOS 228
Cliftonite meuniere nee reer 6
Coaltin. Syriaz-e ae saeee ee 174
measures in Mo.... ..246, 250
Goccolites. 32285 2 see ante oe 223
Collectors of N. Y. minerals,
SIG 212
Colorado (title): 7... 1-26 see 44
Columbia College...... 86, 129, 133
Wolumibite yy. 0 a welerentee 48, 219
Composition of matter........ 259
Contributions to AUDUBON
MOMUMTEMD le eye eel eee 117
(COP Peni ces cieiw cto overers eicpeveterieyere 217
TIDUS VCD sete fe wicrde ators 172, 174
ALUNLS cae cine ndoeceeeeee 220
@oralsfossileeca ean cece 247
erowthof.os...- «usher OS
Haw IN Aw Obihitga cogs abo 50C 213
Correspondencies of Genesis
AN GHSCLen Celine aeeeee 151
Corresponding Members,
electionOb aaa veer 120, 140, 145
number Ofs ce once 131
Corresponding Secretary, 131, 133
FEPOULE stele ciserste trea 181, 245
Corundum 2. scien cveusisie sic 250
Cosmogony of Genesis..... 141-154
COUNCIL (see Contents).
Counting-out rhymes, etc... .39-43
Cove Field’s fauna............ 3
@reationsenceerene 141-154, 159-162
Cretaceous rock-.5- see 39
of Syria... ...168, 174, 175, 176
Crichtonite (2) RRS Gd on 219
Crystals of Zircon........ .. 6

CUTLER, REV. MANASSEH, pa-

per on Sea anemones... 244
Cystidss. Seer ick eed chan cts eieus 2
Datolitey\ si. scdee Askren 231
Davis, BD. Hy, death of aie 237
Deer in Syrlayr ass leer yet
Dermal appendages.... ... .. 87

Description of new trilobites... 247

Development of aeronautics... 115
Devonian fishes.....-........ 178-9
Diamond onsite 6
from) Georgia. ase 166, 251
great orange... .........- 49
Koh-i-nursas jcc eoseemete 49
origin of... ieee b eee 236
DidymivM... eee eee 220, 226
Diorite, from Colorado...... ~ 206

GENERAL INDEX.

PAGE
Dionite insSyria’ << sci. <\er 168, 174
Discoveries by Priestley...... 198
Divination..... Brlohetaietsiel sty sores 42
Dor-Noowhesparreceiaceeacs 221

Dolomyte, 21, 58, 215, 217, 218,
219, 221) 204, 227
Domestic animals, ter ms used,

Wn Sad ccdue panos =o6 120-122
Drift, glacial...... 18, 39, 50-54, 59
Dues‘and Hees... 2......: 129, 180
Dumortierltenas.ecces es = 6 230
Dunegan meteorite........... 6
DUNES Ole yt ae le erie <el-iele 167
Durability of dolomyte. .24, 34- a

Ol Pyro ccs ce ccc Jods:
Earthquakes in Palestine..... i
ANP YGUICAUANE Bei. acclcis 3 -c6 47
IDE oH Eb tho Gat. oe pe ogOodanoe 147
Hastern Yucatan, etc........ 45-48
Election of Fellows......... 44, 71
of members (see Contents).
Olof CEES Herm cries ee 134
Hlectric railway.....-.-..-. 68, 70

Emargination of wing feathers,

19-21, 75-78, 80-87, 89-100
Embryology of amblystoma.. 255
Himeraldsssnceeoe eee 212, 224, 250
Engineers’ Club of Phila..... 72
HMocene Of Sy Tia seeienisiees: ole els 168
IDDGORWANE -aacasooaenmoocuueC 57
Epidote, 6, 49, 57, 63, 218, 219,

23, 226
Erasure of names............ 193
IDV DINA Gama opudaooecoe mones 220
BRIT DESCILGs ccyeiscie ie islnvelsive elerels 217
Eruptive rocks from Colorado, 16
EISSONULENa/ao sis cin here ote 212, 225
PUCHUN OR OSO ek ciacacia casa aie 254
Events of the year........... 130
UO LUTTOW. ge 2 w/cisic ie s'eie)ais = 158-162
xchange lists. «cree. - 131, 183
Fauna of Syria and Palestine,
Welais alets}
Hees ang uUes yas. 129, 150
Feldspar, 55, 56, 58, 61, 62, 217,
221, 227
Fellows, election of.... 44, "1, 129
HerriciOwdGrse Weiss v0 4 <oicses 37
METROUS OXING eae ctarcso.c 000 «6 37
Ferruginous quartz.........-+ 223
etid feldspar gaseseiren cir. > 229
TWAS ohob0586 onbccone 58, 62
Pibrolitey. «2/08 csene « 62, 230
Fibrous hornblende......... 224

PAGE

SO VGLG) Of, ROC Kai stale a etstal<telens 16-18
Fishes, fossil (see Fossil).

of Cayuga lake.........-. 166

of Devonian of Ohio.. ..178-9

placodermircms ss ce see 238

Flight of birds, ..19-22, 75-78,

80-87, 89-100

Flint chips in Palestine....... 170
nodules in Syria........-. 174
implements in Syria..... 167-8

Flora of Syria and Eeestates

irri. alts)

Mloridareefin a sas. sence meres ” 954

IOS fT: oe eo Shee clare ns ieote eiets 221

HIMOCELIGCs feces sioeieatorsieis of s.0r6 220

BlWworiteszeacers ov o aetetelocieme'- 220

MOUKETOrEs face cig ci erevere otel iniele 39-43
New, Study is eee 120-122
BOClCUYeioelsiis delete eielalere fel 78

‘“¢ Forest and Stream” ......0:+ 86

IOSSU COLA Steeteiterevers siete cies 247
CLUSTAC CHa cron aa ctaretore sista 247

fishes of Carbon.......... 165
fishes of Erie shale, Ohio, 178-9

DlantSaeeee eet 89, 113-115
shark from Ohio...... 178, 194
Yossils, from phosphate beds, 246
Gy dritts ieee oe 51, 52
in Palestine........... eit
aS AHElSoGdocooga0c 167-8, 171
EO oeeeaGHosG scodo0dac 2-5
Frigate bird, soaring of...... 83-86
Front range, Colorado .. .... 243
Galenite ss 25 sseres:ctis soles « 114, 218

Garnet, 62, 65, Te 212, 218,

214, 217, 221, 224, 229, 231
spessartite fro om Virginia, 163
Genesis-I:, et. 3.5...5...- 141-154
Geological’ survey of Canada.. 2
MMM ONS Ss erectile 246
MOWiBierercets siete le chelslelsie/eieuciere 246

IW MELO Tal Goemb oO OOO CO DOO 246

INE Ye, SIAN etrcteniatele 64.
ONIONS es se eciccreieee 246
MPerritOries. je elses 246
Geology of Gt. Barrington.. .21-39
of Manhattan Island..... 49-64

of New York City (title).. 128
Glacial drift...18, 89, 50-54, 59, 65

iba fey Astls SaggeuGOUoOD 178, 174
Glacialiepoch.)7-.1 «11. -«- ,. 147, 158
Glacienee acc cvereig vet slepsieieleysie 70
Gneiss..... Nab data ti rameet cvckehecns 17

at Gt. Barrington. . . .22, 26-29

264

Gneiss in Syria............... 174
of N. Y. Island, 50, 54, 56,
58-62, 64, 140, 218, 217, 219,

222, 226, 228, 234

Gold-bearing quartz.. ....... 250

Gran, te. .:.cteod Neier eters tests 34
hornblendic, from N. J...
TMS Wada asm anos 168, 169, 174
of N. Y. Island, 54-56, 61,

62, 140, 219, 222

Graphiter) = 5. 12/% 6, 23, 36, 88, 213
Graptolitess. sce sacar <a): 2,3
Gra Wat AUTOM ya yescrcse op cesh eer teloys 155
Gravity, velocity of... ...... 71
GRAY, ASA, decease of... .182, 135
MEM OVIALOL. . ees le oO
Great Barrington, geology of, a
ie

‘*Great Orange Diamond ”’.... 49
Grossularite: fener. oi irenerver 225
Gumimites ico. nsaanee esi ele 237
Gry PSU ee iaeyeiceserrce 38, 127, 221
in Palestine.......... apn 2)
Hailstone at Fon-du-lac ..... 78
‘“ Hammer-stones ”........ 2. 136
Harmotome sic 1-550 214, 232
Harper’s Magazine........ 86, 254
Ele ulandites. cssec meses 62, 232
iio hland's jOneiss.<.1ccicrisicle 17
Historical Magazine.......... 79
History of the SOCIETY....... 130
HOoLpErR, Dr. J. B., decease of, 139
Mem Orialmcraceree serene 251

Honduras, Triasic plants from,
118-115

Honorary Members, election
Ofias Sok sticietaers $ eitenss 140, 245
TUM ETS OF srs, «. sesvele: eke ckerey: 132
FHornblendeti cic «cies s 55, 63, 223
SCHISb cc poice cr seipersostee 54, 55
Hot springs in Palestine...... 175
Hudson River formation...... 3, 5

Human remains in Syria...
‘‘ Humboldt celt,” jadeite.... 163
Hydroch. acid, discovery of.. 198

Hydrodolomites oe ..ch cea ace 222
ER yGr OS Om i.:510'5 «1s ie’ sisicerein ere = 222
Hydrous anthophyllite.....57, 213
Ely persthenes 5% e+ o> cen Sols 223
MGOCTABCs aeMesin is ceases seers 226
ApPUBNOMOM. (es 78% sees seers 15
Tndian Velics!<... ce. 118-120, 136
Indians, use of salt........... 128

indicolite ss! <) sc1s1-.a 213, 215, 230

GENERAL INDEX.

PAGE
Instantaneous photography,
100-112
Interlocking of primaries... .19-21
Internat. Geol. Congress..187, 192
135

Interoceanic canal............
TONG avr be eraeoeeret atone 138, 226
Tron. 5. cian Ge ee rake 37, 218, 219
meteoric, from Georgia... 5
IRVING, PROF. R. D., death of, 255
JAMOUGES 5.0) occ 10) <101 cia sta laterite 163
tablet: ... sss senteenetion ,- 162
ASPET ssi aie: se: dnorors wre love eiohareversporene 223
JOeMEerisite.9.;. <5 .a cies Meteora 234
JOY, ERO. \CHAS, “Anrjsctcastets 70
Kialinité. 2.0. css aves cee 220
Kaolin... ......--.00, e245 ccoueen
IG AGUS): Jos cacteys crsscis tisk pie 46.
Kingsbridge marble...... 50, 57-59
Kyanite...54, 62, 214, 222, 225, 230:
Kyanite-schist .........-..-.- 231
Lantern-fly of Brazil.......... 66-
Lantern, projecting.......... 238
anthem oe ae cisins cers ate 220, 226:
Larvee of Amblystoma........ 255
Maumontitese .ncce cea 231
law and Miracles.. ..sese cee 154
BUCA: ood cate os vate tae Ornate 217
levis formations cesacese) eee 3
‘‘ Leyden Plate,” jadeite.. 163
Liberal Mineiro (newspaper).. 66
Librarian's report: .-. Jo-ecee 133
Library of ACADEMY, 1, 133,
236, 337, 246.
Id Tt eexoseode . 149, 152, 155, 205:
refraction Of... ssi cel ¢ 2-74
RAINES: a. hs letee oot coisas sederstoteretere 37
Limestone, of Alton, Ill...... 165

of Gt. Barrington.......
of N. Y. Island..50, 57, 61, 62
ATL

Of Balestines «5 s.sju6 saci
of Stockbridge... ..2/..:. si 21-39:
of Syria, 168, 172, 173, 174,
175, 176
of Westchester Co........ 16.
of W. New England...... 21
OF Quebec... .... eee e eee 2:
EAMOMIte! 20.0.3. oes emeoene 219
List of exchanges............ 131
of ieniberss.). <0 ce oe 129)
of N. Y. Minerals, 211, 217, 2384
Olgplants; ClCi. ecm 7-14
Literature on geology of N. Y.
island tS.sn ee Seton tatele

GENERAL INDEX.

PAGE
Literature of local mineralogy 211

Localities of N. Y. minerals.. 2138
Long Island Hist. Society..... 79
Lorraine formation......... 45.65
unar Societys.) .-3-~< .. 194-211
LYCEUM OF NAT. HISP, .....0: 49
Tami Nat. Hist. Soc. 3... - 252, 255
Maenesiave teria sacs. 37, 58
MEENA) Goo ogousnodonoon 62, 219
Malachitex 2 sccscosec ccc: 62, 217
Malacolitemceatciecicc 8 - 215, 223
Mian Pamese oer) -tel-veiaisiers)c,* <1 « 37, 220
Mancanous Oxider7.s\s)-isie0 | 37
Manhattan 2roup\j.cencs<s- 2s 60
Island, geology of....... 49-64
Map of N. Y. Island (facing).. 64
Marbletia cscs. <= scenes. 22,31, 66
ANALYSIS OLen meets ae 23, 58
of Lee, Mass.. 25
of, Ne Ye Tsland.. Hes ste "150, ‘51-59
IMATCASILG) foe ces Sisies'e 219
Marl AM SYPIA. asjsicee<s -s os) es 168
Warmiolite cer. « geste. leis 2, 0 233
Marsouin River fauna........ 3
Mastodon tooth .............. 52
bones! OF 7 sense seins angers cys 128
Mausoleum at Chichen Itza... 47
VERIVAISIN: «ccc ietciicisis verre raters 4 5-48
Mechanism of flight..... 20-21,

75-78, 80-88, 89-100
Meetings of ACADEMY. . . 129
MGIANILG Haccnisioma cece ose 226
Membership of AcAD., 129, 181, 132
Members of Lunar Society. ..194-5
Memorial notices (see Contents).

MIGHACCANTLOs = ce gens siricleitclecie > 219
We tails (2) vers si stele c\ereise’s ccc/eiereiere 235
Meteorite, Dunegan......... 50
LOTIG Spe ataiecta else sfovaeioversyats 135
GEOG Ate, 5.0 eels) caa die weiss 5
N. Carolina...... Siento ate ral
EVUSST A Byes clvey teat tei sear evel o.6i0 135
MOR ASaRics spore vyd tel segue oistere 194
WEY. OHSUTI OE 2050's xfs ayers. a 72
Metrop. Mus. of ATE, sass socks 255
Micayascadeene cme ¢ 22, 20, 27,

35, 37, 38, 54, 55, aS "62, "926, 228
Mica- schist etionone 22, 26-28, 54
Mica Slaten. a q-secteies wreic-0.0' <1 22
MIT CLOMEGs «sau nerteeretonns seis 221
Dilly. quartz: sepyaectiare) «ess 222
Mineralogical Club, 115, 131,

140, 236

Journal,.... Vaneolls 222

265

PAGE

Mineralogy, section of... ..135,
140, 141, 194, 236

Minerals of N. Y. Co.,...40-49,
138, 211-235, 237, 250

alphab. list of...... daogad eee!
collectorsiofer mua eon 211
locailtiesiofiie yecaesee «eee 2138
Number Ofteaas a erase. 216
Minine Of Zircon sneer 237
Miocene yee eR ores as ceicisieua ek. 145
Miracles and Evolution. ...156-162
andsWawerarae eee nie 154-156
Mississippi Rivera elec eels 164
Missouri Geol. Surv .......... 246
Molybdenite.......... .. 212, 217
IMONyDGItCE! eS arros seisserere tere the 217
MOnaZite emcee eerie 220, 237
Montalban system........... 59-60
Monument to AUDUBON..... alg
Monuments in Yucatan... ... 4
IMOONStONE® secee viele sees 16, 163
Mountainlcornkeee ence ee cee 224
limestone.of Ti... ... 165
Mountains of Syria........ 166-178
Muscles, exhaustion of..21, 75, 76
OL birdisi wan Peer leeters acre 93-95
MI SCOVILG = sora cneveicteisoysctevetors 49, 226
MnTSUCAl SOUNCSaeruteieetesiee ete 238
National Acad. of Sciences.... 90
INatrOlitemet ee seis «es onc oaers 231
Nat. Sci. Assoc. of Staten
STON es act hee ete os ae 136
IN(THEUTROSE POS Oe ORO AGED DOO 168
Naturwiss. Verein in Ham-
(WW sananae EDD O.GOU EOS 15
INGECrOnIte’ 4.2. fesse ede « 215, 229
New York Island
BGC) Olen cralrcpelsieieetcis ose 400 ee 59-60
geology of...... ... 49-64, 128
literatumerofe acne Acie. rete 64
map of (facing) Mas Nei pss ares 64
minerals of . ; .61-62,
64, 138, 211- ~935, 287, 250
structure Of eee Kid alee wiels 59-61
SUBVEY, Obese ane eos Seslard avout 64.
topography of......... 61, 64
N. Y. Mineralogical Club, 115
131, 140, 286
INTCKOIRE Rr yc tccs Giese at icine 37, 2138
OXAC OW yar. so Mise, 5 4s eisreisieeoe 37
Nineteenth Century. .... 000+ 141
Nitrate:of silver. 222.42. access 205
MHFTOEGOL edanccoo 1s boaueuc 38
oxide, discovery of....... 198

266

PAGE
Nitrous oxide, disc. of........ 198
Norman’s kill fauna.. ....... 3
Notes on Lantern-Fly......... 66
Nubian Sandstone..... A AS ie" 175

Number of N. Y. Minerals.... 216

Officers, reports of (see Con-
tents).
election of.. Fon ey!
Oligoclase . . 56, ‘61, "62, “163;
"901" 204, 207, 229) 230

QOolite ns ice stisceasecee 213, 221
Opbiolite:..ke28.eaceeae cee 57, 233
Ordovician fauna... (j5.:.+-> 3
Originiol ma yy.ic24) sees 161-162

of salt deposits........... 127

OL SPECIES) vai! as)s sees 158-162
Onrthite:j-j.b0-2\6 casement 212, 222, 226

Orthoclase. ..48, 49, 55, 56, 61,

140, 220, 228, 229

Osteology of the shad........ 259
Oxygen, discov. of............ 198
Palestine, geography of....166-178
eologysOLs sees .166-178
races and religions of, .180-192
Panama railFOad. 2. viens Ga 135
Papers read... <:.:.%.</2 ee oa 129
Res imatitelcmcmsteie siete sr -i6 56, 237
Periods of creation........... 153
Perthite scence cece 228
Peruvian antique............. 15
Petite Anse salt deposit... .122-127
IPNaCOlibe yroriane ese akeselerctefeleroers 232
PENACILC: oi shestoene 516s oe eats 250
Philosophers of Birmingham.. 194
Phlogistic theory......... 203, 209
Phlogopite..... 35, 36, 37, 215, 227
Pugspharciied hydr ogen...... 204
Phosphoric acid (ose. 6.0... 37
Photographic exposures. ...100-112
Picture mica: «. eee a tatateieletele 227
PINIGO! 25 1c5s cee siete ealoomceco
Parks COLO eS eercicieteieteriie wievals 222
Placoderm dishes;). <0. -)-- 0c 238
PIAGCIOCIABC ie dios) si Baan as eee Le 56
Plants of Essex Co., Mass..... 252
frOMUTOXAS Hele cicicse ctelae ier 7-14
([PITOGENE Aacien cle Lesiestovetais ais 152, 1538
Porphyry, in Syria........168, 174
Precious serpentine... anise sce eoe

stones; €tG. i! i). se. sees eo
Prehistoric remains in Tioga

GOsUEB aerwaas bsnstee 118-120

PRIESTLEY, JOSEPH..........68, 71

GENERAL INDEX.

PAGE.
Primary wing feathers, 19-21,
75-78, 80-87, 98-100
Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist. 75
Protection of forest lands..... 15
Publication Com. Report...... 133.
Publications of ACADEMY, 130,

Pulverulent chlorite....... .. 234
Pyrallolite. 0. .s.o0cs8756 215, 229-
Pyrite... . 06 55/4 56, 62, 214, 215,
217, 218, 221, 222, 229, 250
in N. Y. Island s/h2eeer 56, 62
in Stockbmedze: limestones,
22, 25, 35, 37, 38

Pyrites, in Syria.\\.¢..3eesees 170

IPYTORONC 5:5. 5:62 o's beleeiere 58, 62, 223

Py TrhOtitere. cies sieceae 219, 250

Quality of musical sounds.... 238

Quartz ctcic ise. «ccc meee 6, 164
in N, Y. Island, 55, 58, 6t,

62, 219, 329. 250

in Stockbridge limestone,
30, 36, 37, 38

in, Syriaisi vs. 04s te eaten 174
crystals from Japan...... 165
water inclusion in........ 68
Quartz-mica-diorite .......... 16.
Quartz-syenite................ 138
Quartzyte....... 22, 25, 27, 31, 48
Quaternary vi.niise cise selects 145
Quebee fossils... 2.1.0). cle. 2-8
Races and Religions of Syria
and Palestine....... 180-192
Recording Secretary’s report,
129-130
Reflection of light........... 72-74
Refraction of light... ...... 72-74
Refreshment of muscles..... 20-21
Religions of Syria and Pales.,
180-192
Remains of Mastodon......... 246
Reports of Officers (see Con-
tents).

Resident members,
election of (see Contents).

NuUuMberlOlsasumen eee 129, 140:
resignation of, 18, 135, 140,

198, 243

Rhodonite:. <..2cheeeee eee 250

Rhone glacier: <..%« 00s 70

Rhymes, ‘‘ counting out”.
Riparian Rights, etc. (title)... 139
Ripidolite........ 0.06% 48, 222, 234

GENERAL
PAGE
Rose Qui Sareleisieis) Shuoaas plete oe 223
Rutile, 22, 36, 48, 215, 218, 221,
222, 231
Daltanalysisvofye cscs ee 124
deposits, in Kansas... ... 127
inPalestines.+ acetic s ale fry
in Petite Anse......... 122-127
OPI GIN OE: se anes oko erstovelor 127
Sandstone of N, Y. and Ohio, 178
Of Sylar cls cisie .168, 174, 175
SAnidine: 2 Ae. wae elckeredea = sss 16
San Juan expedition......... 114
Scapolitesa-mee-icr- - 62, 227, ae
Scenery in Colorado.......... 243
Schisheec neritic: 22-29, 39, 54, 62
Schorliece ccs Steteiaiatele wisvarsvarore 212
RSIS CLCTIGE she yer e Seiesc ein eisece eles 90
Scientific papers, 129-180 (see
Contents).
Scientific Societies........ 130-131
Section of Mineralogy, 135,
140, 141, 194
Sea Anemones, etc........... 244
NOLEMILGC Sy cfereis:0' aoie ssc Slasleeis cies 221
SEnICItG (0) iaaecciscls scot e akelace 233

Serpentine, 57, 2138, 214, 215,
219, 221, 224, 238

Shad iaeaserse ie eres een aes 259
Shark, fossil, from Ohio, 178, 195
Shell-moundsse seme eee aces 186
Shells, of Eocene of Syria..... 168
Shutter-speed in photographic
EOXPOSULES sr icreleleeieiere 100-112
SIGMOLIUC se .iaeeic cotsisisin elo Saree erste 219
UTC ops aiuis sl cceinerersi siete Sse) 36, 222
SUI CICFACI Gam mea ace oe 37
Silicon-tetrafluoride, disc. of,. 198
Silliman’s Journal........... 59
Sllmmian LOssilss ea... os scroce 2-5
Silver ornaments............. 134
SESUiVOLEPICHUYES!-7. s.c.s\01610 o:\0)e10 205
Skeleton of iguanodon....... 15
SMITH, Mrs. ERMINNIE A.,
Memorial Prize Fund.. 66
Smithsonian Institution ...21, 72

Smoky quartz........ 222, 231, 250
Soaring of birds, 20-21, 75-78,
80-87, 89-100
Soc. of Hast. Naturalists ..... 255
Soc. of Psycholog. Research... 255
Sontileces Sesser ea ae ese. 42
Sound, quality of musical.....
Spessartite garnet............
Spheerosiderite.............-0: 220

INDEX. 267

PAGE
Sphalerite.: + 62. wwcemeraneeuaes 218
Sphene's 0/3 ..,e00 212, 215, 221, 231
SQUIER, 1. G:, death of....... 237
Staten Id. Nat. Sc. Assoc.. 45
Sceaurolitey.: o.orecsnasere 213, 231
Stilbite, 62, 212, 214, 219, 999) 232

St. John’s Market fauna, 3, 4, 5

St. Louis limestone........... 165
Stockbridge limestone....... 21-39
Btroneicollarse yess eae a eee 254

implements.......... 119, 136
Strontium nitrate. ........... 69

Structure of birds’ wings, 19-
21, 75-78, 80-87, 89-100
of Nias) Island. 09-08
Stureeonsee ccs cise ccwle teosts rele 257
Subcarboniferous series of Mo., 246

Subsidence of N. Y. Island, 51, 54.
MUIPNUE. ona5 c'arc,ctce cite ware 127, 217
AIM OV TIAi a ssteciceie steers ae 174
SULPHUFIG ACIG)s 2). << ce canes « 37
Sulphurous acid, disc. ofa. 198
‘* Swallow House,” near Na-
LAE 1 Core Sto Cee ere 244
DYCHIUe, OF SyTia..'f.0 ced ce), 169’
Syria and Palestine, Geology
OPS eet itis 166-178
Races and Religions of, 180-192
MACOMICESTOUD. selererremersicries 60
BIA ECT ae ete use) do eisiticles elec 5
PRA Ghats vncks eeNeat ela o vleles ees 57, 2383
Tellurium (graphic). ..... 212, 217
Mentianycc see cee 144, 145, 150, 153
SL EREONOMOT Oar reniers. tie clerre 237
Thomsonite......... Reterertorerale 231
ARUGAIUIGO fe crore os crere oreetere tee oie 6, 48
ANU WONG Co pn OAS 212, 218, 231
TOPAZere cats svsvers vaeslcvsclsieysiercioers 250
Mopazolivey seve soc “cen 225
Topography of N. Y. Island... 61
Torrey Botanical Club........ 45
Mouchstonemeece sede cleicecee 223
Tourmaline, 22, 56, 63, 212, 214,
215, 222, 229, 250
DEB eicdeicls- vaceieiies sess 59, 61
IM Palestine js 0.0./0\ sis s1ec0 +: 171
Treasurer’s report........ 132, 139
Tremolite...... 22, 25, 57, 229° 224.
Trenton limestone. sane eteteriere ») 5
IPTIAGSIC AT CRS? «(5 5 [a 1:cis sie ereve sve) 39
plants from Honduras, 113-115
Hho opecosd. BUDOUSD GOODS 59
TYIObIGESe. ao cs sies oeice sie. 2, 3, 247
NOW SPOCLES! s/c /eles sic; ssiees eine 247

268

PAGE
Triphy lit. .c:s/'cic.ccosimacteereee 220
Twinning of Zircon........... 6
Ultimate comp. of matter.... 259
Underground streamsin Syria, 173
Univ. of State of N. Y....... 79
Upper Coal Measures......... 250
Wmaninite (2) srt testers - 218, 237
Wiraniinpal (csi. See as 287
AGRA OTU wet escteaee area jie cath s 132
WEGOIIEN TONS on ne gnecucondnas 65
Velocity of gravity........... 71
Venetian glass beads....... . 134
Wierda Antique ..teijii seis ake ose ® 233
\WearnauihiGequeoonooe7ouo ce 6, 234
Wiivianite: te cottense ote 219

Volcanic remains in Syria and
Palestine, 169, 174, 175,
176

76, 177

Volk’s Electric Railway...... 68
Von -RatTH, DR. GERHARDT,

Geatheot- cirtecr.b aelectee 236

Wad"(Dendritic) ict ctaniertes/clet 220

GENERAL INDEX.

[PAGE
Washingtonite.. <cn.csnrcbts 49
Water (Chalybeate).......... 222
Water of Miss. River......... 164
Western Colorado, ete. (title), 44
Wales iv oes + sdlaus ctccteueeles 254
remains in Syria .... 167
Wing-feathers, 19-21, 75-78,

80-87, 89-100

Wing muscles. cas 47am 93-95
Wollastonite (?)...... Basa otiooc 223
Work of the Society.......... 134
Manthithanes 152)ss io ecnie tiene 5
EXGNOHINIC ewes etarat oes .. 138, 220
SV UGITIIIANG Ee sencterers omer aise 220, 226
Mitrocenites on... snc snasoe eae 220
SYA CALAN: foroveneterevey tororo) ecto deyetets 45-48
Zeolite...... 212, 214, 215, 231, 232
LANCAR Kalave'oe vacausttslna ae ctetometere 218
ZAT COMM te esc stele siete 6, 188, 226, 237
ZATCOWMEL, ctelevs ie sid tis in wren 238
ZAPEOD MINING ..., ute stanton aie 237

INDEX OF NOMENCLATURE.

Botany and Zoology.

PAGE
Abutilon holosericeum........ 8
NEKENS Osea e jets ceilece's eres 8
BNC GCIAMPA. Wma tsar eis als oissua ores 170
UUTETIANLY ar sec) 11x diseinte s Gs a 9
Gree oie Pte Se aetna s 9
Acalypha hederacea.......... 18
Acanthacee. . ere as
Acheetogeron Palmeri........ ili|
Meipensere 280 shen 257
Acleisanthes longiflora........ 138
Actinophorus Clarkii.... .... 179
Agassizia suavis.......,.... 5 il
ENO LOSSAIM Te ERAS ote Acie crs ot ciate 256
ANE eee oot rei en Se eee 21
Allionia incarnata........... 13
Auliumlrmauitalbwless eames ce eee 14
Alosa sapidissima............ 259
AMAT Y WLC! 35 ce cise Coes sac 14
Amblyolepis setigera......... 11
Amblystoma punctatum., .255, a
PMIPCHOUG: |r Secccss ca Sees.
PAMERIEDIUR DL cs oisencirsnis ont ca eee Gwe. dices 957
ADD MOS os « Ron ean nens MOr 259
Andropogon saccharvides. 14
Anemone decapetala... ......
heterophylla ......... .. v
Anomozamites majus......... 115
Schaumburgensis ...... 115
PNTDIEV As erica eters so s.< catoacs 256
Aphanostephus Ihumiulis,...... 10
Aphyllum multiflorum........ 12
Apium echinatum............ 10
IP OPCLa., ca sere ey eters: oss 10
Archzophyton Newberryanum 89
Argemone Mexicana.......... 7
Aristolochiacess. 25:73 5850 .. 13
Aristolochia longiflora. A stents 13
Artemisia Mexicana.......... 11

PAGR

Asclepiadeses ifs -aecese so oe 11
Aspicarpa hyssopifolia........ 8
Asplenites Ottonis......... .. 115
ASter mil titlonusse see eee ce 10
Astragalus Nuttallianus...... 9
Bathyurus caudatus.......... 2
Berberidace@utisc).«.sceese a+ a
iBerberis tritoliatan ..ssese. 2 Tf
IBOTASINESs 4. seeuee eerie ees 12
Boucheti anomala........... 12
Bouchetia erecta.............. 12
Bouteloua hirsuta........:.... 14
RA COMIOSA ym cfele ei ictelclelelclels 14
Bowlesia lobatad....0...0+5..; 10:
Brachy metopus.. <2 sve ses o-'- 250
Brachyris Euthamie.......... 10
Buteoiboreallisse.-ie: ae OF
INNIS ALUSH +. PM eee arcsec 20
WAGER tai tae owe te sere trepnciers 10
Calophanes linearis........... 12
Callirhoé pedata-.:....2---- 8
Capsicum baccatum.......... 12
Cardamine, lineariloba........ 11
Cassiapumiilion eee ses sles ciers 9
Celagtrines.. <.cciescek 3 65.4 8
@OCACed ees dees aks sh cee 254
Cheerophyllum procumbeus... 10
Cheetetes milleporaceus,...... 247
Chameesaracha sordida....... 12
Chaptalia mutans, ...ic.cccs=00 Lt
Chloris cucullata. .. 5.0.00... 14
Chonophyllum Sedaliense..... 247
Chiysopsis: villosageaess cee 10
Codonites campanulatus...... 247
@oolosteusifieroxiaysccme ace 165

270 INDEX

Coldenia canescens...........
Colubrina Texensis...... ....
Commelinacez ...... .......
Commelina nudiflora.
Wir einiGa eat ereraccsn«.:
Comipositwsy..-eee eee
Convolvulaceze.......... aire
Convolvulus hermannioides...
Cooperia Drummondi........-
Coreopsis cardaminefolia.....
Crotoncapitatusectacse ce sos
CruUciwiencoa tere ose wise oloniorie
@ucurbitacesnaneeeseesceoee
Cuscutaandecoras-. eee
Gy clostomatas ...\cn.m. cs acto
Cy peraceze
Cyperus aristatus.............

ey

Dactylethra
Daleatiasiantheran cesses

Daucus pusillus
Desmanthus Jamesii..........
Pinichthyscurhuss.. ccs. ocr

Morrell yee eupexepr ace esos

cer ee ne

rugosus

Echinocactus setispinus.......
Echinospermum Redowskii...
NGI 66 ncocogapacseocas6or
SuUbatmStataperriaejte meet
Engelmannia pinnatifida..
[TIS erOns teNUWIS: . 2. ue cielses «©
Erodium Texanum...........
Hucalyptus ........
Eupatorium Greggii
acehanehabieny oo gcongoboeod
Kuphorbiacez................
Euphorbia melanodenia.......
Peplidion:.cks «cyecissel otras
Hyax multicanlish. seer -er
Evolvulus sericeus............
Eysenhardtia amorphoides. .

Bie:atelele/asein

Fulgora lanternaria...........

Gaillardia pulchella...........
simplex
suavis

Galactia heterophylla.....
MAL SINGS). cc's wees sie beele

SC ee ey

12
259

OF NOMENCLATURE,

Galimmiavingatuimaaen.eeeeceee

Gaura Drummondii..........
sinuatat ea. eee
tripetala j.\. sce dee amee se

Geraniacesssace cee

Gilia rigidula:* = 2) 2.3 aeen eee ae
Gonolobus parviflorus.........
VITiGiflOrus: 52). acc se ele
GTEC TAA 4 nog ues GObOC
Gr aptolithus pristinifor mis..
Griffithides Sedaliensis, 247,
248,

SHrOtMTEre i waclicdemmere
Gymnosperma corymbosum..

Habranthus Andersonii.......
Haplopappus spinulosus......
Hiarpid esi cias ets. he saree oye 2,
Hedeoma Drummondii....
Helenium amphibolum
Setl@erum. sees

ee ee eee

Hibiscus cardiophyllus,.......

Houstonia anyustifolia........
Croftiz... soak sisters
loWbbeMRUIUEES Goad ceusAcdncuse

Hymenatherum tenuilobum. .

Indigofera leptosepala...
Inula submaxillaris.........-
Tonidiumyilineanes-er.ec eee
polygalefolium..... ....
Ipomeea hederacea..........+-

Ce

hegumimos2)... ... < 25 sects
Lepidium intermedium.......
Lepidosteus
Lepteena...... 2. css genes es
SCVICeAa: saucer emer
Leucophyllum Texanum..
iairis punctatarasc.ese eee
Liliaceze
Linaria Canadensis.... ......

a

PAGE

250

INDEX OF NOMENCLATURE.

PAGE
TIM OSs, «is eg F erdis esas te etetoxs's 8
Lingula Quebecensis......... 2
Linum Berlandieri........ SA:
MU ticaulense loo eee 8
Lithospermum canescens..... 12
Lithostrotion microstylum.... 247
Lupinus subcarnosus......... 9
Lygodesmia aphylla.......... 11
Lyrodesma pulchella......... 4
Malpiciacec:-peeece sees ees > 8
Malvaceae: farm. s)- nik screess = 8
Miarsileacegesscisicies s lec sc. 14
Marsilea macropoda.......... 14
Mastodon.............52, 128, 246
Maximowiczia Lindheimeri.. 9
Meandrina convexa.......... 253
Melampodium cinereum...... 11
Menodora heterophylla....... 11
Mesohippuseettere ces). - <1: 158, 190
Metastelma barbigerum...... 11
Michilinia expansa............ 247
DlACeM tas, ici cereian stoic 215i 247
Mirohippusese ee... 158, 159, 190
Monarda clinopodiodes....... 13
Nicotiana repanda.,.......... 12
Nierembergia anomala....... 12
Nothoscordum striatum...... 14
INV CtagziMeze, 5.5 iio de sicee ns cers 3
Capitaltalye ys cqenerererrcccrtel eta 13
(Hnothera Hartwegii......... 9
T.OSC Als fe, < crehs isis le erciee eve erst cie 9
SBPCCLOSaey..< pricy ctetetcisieveys tse 9
Oledceree. Sacigsteectetye ne sevice 11
Onaerariesss...seulecs eet oe io
Orobanchacererna. sce. - s+.)
Orchippus. . soiltitsy, ist), 160
Orthis testudinaria...........
@Ofozamitess eee cise ves s 115
Oxalis corniculata............ 8
dichondrefolias. 2.2 .5..--- 8
Drummond. s...-..+-+- 8
Paleozamia auctifolium...... 115
Cutchensis..... Hisksie/suover sore 115
Panicum leucophzum,. ..... 14
[Rapa veracedn erick = «is... ; Wi
Parietaria debilisi..... 2... 4
Parthenium hysteropherus... 11
Passiflora tenuiloba.......... 9
IPASSIL OLEH cen bateieetatteevs s+. 9
Pecopteris bullatus........... 115

Pentremites Sampsoni...... 247

PAGE
Perezia runcinata....... .... 11
Petalostemon gracilis......... 9
Philibertia viridiflora......... 11
cynanchoidestercdeee cl 11
Phillipsia insignis; ...2...... 249
SaMpPSOMIes eo iyererls 247, 249
trinucleatamayasc ener 249
tuUberculataeey eee 247, 249
Phyllanthus polygonoides. . 13
iPhysalis)Hendlenivy cers ese 12
phy tolaccaceze:a- =) aoe melee 13
Pinaropappus roseus.......... 11
Rlantaeineosrsect cs) sisieseisiel = 13
Plantago Patagonica..... .... :
WAT INT Cap Peace veveleereres
Lohip pusmee ccm secre 159, 1
Polemoniacez................
Polygala ovalifolia..... aerate 3
1200) hr deg2) ae San oes eee ae ee 8
IROlyFONACEES rarer leisiee cree els 13
Pelypteris Texana............ ig
Portulaca parv wl anes oe ele 8
IRORbULAGCCaS Ttereysre- eo alerstetedel i= 8
TEIROL A) ae bites vor rome Ore Been 247
iProposis| julitiora.7- ...-c-. ++ 9
rotohippuste s-seb cere 159
Pterophyllum Blasii. ........ 115
BAUS cae i criseisielerere rs 115
PLINCEDS ie sictevoueraa stele! ois 115
Pyrrhopappus multicaulis.... 11
Rann cullacecatyercmcielsi selciere a
Remopleurides Schlotheimi... 2
IRM INNATE 5 Gooocod cosoone 9
RDIZOdUSAe yaacnte eee teeters < 165
ANCCPSi Fosse sictey cleric sects 165
[SED KO DRONES amine nies hapnlod C 165
EM Bertie «mas eaenstine a take 165
lan Clie nes fs ereeerrciestoe 165
occidentalis........ ...., 165
QUWadratusts a -crtesels cvereie 165
Rhynchophoran.. 1 cls lls 162
Rhynchosia Texana.......... 9
Ione) IEDR Goonconbgo a6o- 3
WwbIaCese Basco era tte crs 10
Ruellia tuberosa.............. 12
Rumex Berlandierim.....- 18
EUG AG COO esa. eps vorcla nine ’s, siseyelanentors 8
Salvia ballotzeflora............ 13
INSS <2 1E eG GeO Cos Oro Cr 13
Sapium (?)annuum........... 14
Sarcostemma cynanchoides... 11
Scheefferia cuneifolia.........

202

PAGE

Schrankia angustata..... ... 9
Scrophulanrinetes-- erect 12
Scutellaria Drummondii...... 3
Setaria Setosas siisce.ayoeies eos 14
Shumardia granulosa.... ... 2
Sicydium Lindheimeri........ 9
Sidaihusan pes tase eo sea ke 8
phiysocalysce ca tof- co pies 8
Siphonoglossa Pilosella. ..... 12
Sisymbrium pinnatum........ 7
GAMER COIS waite tye re-weievepesctar i
Solamaeeaarnicr cts en ciserexaene rs 12
Solanum eleagnifolium....... 12
Solidago Sarothre..... ...... 10
Sophora secundiflora..... .. 9
Spheeralcea hastulata......... 8
pedatitidas sa, case ccc. 8
Stillingia dentata............ 14
MOLTO YAM Ais cie/cs cee sineiste 14
Sblipa setigerar eo... wes ems 14
Strophomenas..- 4-62. -e- 2
Tachy petes aquila. ¢. 0. . sci <:- 83
Talinum aurantiacum..... .. 8
IMC ATC ee ee tee scree ee 8
TAM aris Kees cits Sek eereterslcsers 170
Thamnosma Texanum........ 8
Thurberia Arkansana......... 14

INDEX OF NOMENCLATURE.

PAGE

iracia Tamosar. once eee 14
Stylaris scenester 14
Trichloris pluriflora.......... 14
Trinucleus concentricus...... 4
Wimibelhiferseti.o-see aceeeoee 10
Wirodelais:) .c aceeeryentaereceee 256
Warticacess... acta be eee 14
Urtica chameedryoides...... 14
Werbenacess... on so sees 13
Verbena canescens...........- i183
CHILE MGR SEG oe ea e's c 13
OmICMalish- a.2 6c 40s 13
Verbesina encelioides........- 11
WIRING. 2 oo «a. :ie she, se 11
Viesicaniahendleri-.... sence 7
LaslOCar pas ison ink eels 7
Nicia exi@uaen ..... .<actsaacmee 9
Vilis- ImeIrsanenciescec so oeeee 9
Wilolacese freee ciseeiiane eee 7
Zamites Feneonis......... .. 115
We gr etti ew yaecionscwiestes 114, 115
occidentalis). sence eee 114
IROMKECIN sock seek cone 114
Zaphrentis calceola,.......... 247
Zephyranthes Andersonii..... 14

OCTOBER-NOVEMBER, 1887

PRICE OF THE TRANSACTIONS.

To residents of the City of New York, not members of the Academy,
$5.00 per annum. To non-residents, $3.00 per annum, 40 cents per number.
To resident and honorary members, they are free; extra copies, 30 cents |
per number,

TRANSACTIONS

New York AcabEMY OF SCIENCES

4887-1888

EDITED BY
HERMAN LEROY FAIRCHILD,

Recording Secretary.

PUBLISHED FOR THE ACADEMY,
In Eight Monthly Numbers, from October to May, inclusive.

CONTENTS.

PAGE
Proceedings:*October 3) co. oxratetin nage eos a oe a ee ee 1
Monument: tod eJ--Andu bone wae sects couse mien oo clement ae 1
Death of Spencer! - Bards. sate miatecrine, a cales See nee 1
Notes on Fossils from Quebec. By S. W. ForD................. 2
Remarks'on Zircon, etc. “By W..E. HIDDEN *...3 2s... 2200: ~ cece 6
New Form of Graphite. By GrorGE F. KuNz ..... 6
List of Plants from Texas collected by Miss CROFT, By N. 7
BRITTON andetls Hy RUSBY. o.onk poe eee tei ae eke <opaartd
Photographvof louanod onycsas.wce ees sneer aoe aaa tito 15
Proceedings October 10s. cisceinecinc > eek Cok eee ee Sareea eceeo
Antique from ‘Peru. * By O:-P> HUBBARD oo 55 cc2 sci. erole a Pete ereacias 15
Notes on Age of Limestones of Westchester tee N. Y. (title).
IB yal 1d) El MRR UR ie ete tiesto sets et ere ie cee eroen ae ic eke eyes eae eae 16
They shieldrolRocks: 32 By_DuS) MAR TING ceaceiocan erect hetans 16
Proceeding s:sOcbober Misses asiiecon tes ae Das teeieiers, Pa ee ene Seema 18
Purpose of Emargination of Primary Wing-feathers. By W. P.
TROWBRIDGEip ar cite mistetesdetcee Fo oi etais ein ive oie cuotoe niet teers eter 19
Geology at Great Barrington, Mass. By A. A. JULIEN... ...... 21
Deep Boring on Staten Island. By N. L. BRITTON........ ..... 39
Proceedings: 7Octobersc4 cosur scion crs aa oe tore emer ene fereieke et eer ete alts 39
Counting-out-rhy mes of Children: By Hil C{sBOLTONAL esc se ees 39
Proceedings? October-al scan os heS cas ce com k totee eine ioe kisi ee wisieg pas . 48
Western Colorado (title). By J. S. NEWBERRY............0.200. 44
IEA doyeeyerehuayerse Orrell ole eae cksgunaeo abonacooncoonue oc i srstatenn ave thee 44
Hellowselectionvot. cit estes ie coisicietas cel aielelamnateter ss) hotel eel siateleteteieten 44
Honorary Meuwbers, election of. ....0 20.0 12+ scacees cinseses .. 45

Eastern Yucatan (lecture). By Mme. ALICE D. LE PLONGEON.. 45

Proceedings: November 14.55 cg. | saa stots e's «core. creye stain eeele 48
Minerals from Fort George, New York City. By G. F. Kunz.... 48
Geology of Manhattan Island. By GrorGE F, KEMP......... cake

DECEMBER-MARCH. Nos. 3,'4, 5, 6.

PRICE OF THE TRANSACTIONS. |

To residents of the City of New York, not members of the Academy, |
$5.00 per annum. To non-residents, $3.00 per annum, 40 cents per number.
To resident and honorary members, they are free; extra copies, 30 cents
per number,

TRANSACTIONS

New York Acabemy or ScIENCES

1887-1888

EDITED BY
HERMAN LEROY FAIRCHILD,

Recording Secretary.

PUBLISHED FOR THE ACADEMY,
In Eight Monthly Numbers, from October to May, inclusive,

CONTENTS.

PAGE
Proceedings: November 200 so... rece cre renee ca wale m sicia mea spn 65
Vaccination introduced in New: Yorks....- =. case... > sce tees 65
Marbles\(title)BysJaio. NEWBERR Yes emeeeninie te eee eee eens 66
Notes on Lantern-fly.. By J. C. BRANNER..........005 seecvess 66
Proceedings November 28. sis deere eee ees eele eens ors efotere 68
Notes of recent Travel in Europe. By H. C. BOLTON .......... 68
Proceedings: December 5....... P58 AOS O EMO Or EE rc aoOS S500 F< 71
Velocity of Gravity (title)... By H. A. MoTT.............-02c.0 reattl
Proceedings: December 1oi oss nrtn. Se Bkcewin etelttaye cx ayes ye ete ele eee 72
Apparatus for demonstrating Refraction, etc. By W. LECONTE
RS TEAVIENG | (5,52 tosoreicistajole ater oie iere re ph etait fesatsialelovcue a atencane veto (ete cae cietaane 72
Mechanism of Flight. By W. P. TROWBRIDGE.... ........0.0: 75
Discussion Of papernscc . selecsiidda oesiten = yeiisttaelae ete ee eee aire
Proceedings: "December 19)... eieee «eileleie sie eccrine ieisiatel siete eet 78
Memorial of J“CARSON BREVOORT. (02. 'sileasiey ce eleroiie= ete mieiotere 78
Discussion on Mechanics of Bird-flight....:.-..<. 22... 025.200. 80
Soarmevof Birds. Byrd. Bb saOLDERm dele seer eer ieetetiarcileeteleire 83
PFOCCeCINEs: <oaUUMAT Ve a sis7. oo tarea bet A, oe nidne Siete isle © winteleita © Mints pubes 88
Proposedi@han ges in siy alas eva pee era eee te telelelcietelei os oletaieeieeeisieos 88
Amc hoc ame bl aiibits ct ei corsiere feist iets sel ite uct tvettteh rele oy -.ole's eters (oncieteretchets 89
Structure of Birds in relation to Flight, etc. By J. A. ALLEN... 89
Discussion of ‘paper.cyn 55. 5: sieouwinic) ow eee ee ~ 0 oo cle aie ae eer 99
le woeey-obnveass Amir. Miso on aclaneocded oodontdeooddnbodncodSolaqqaC 100
On the genus Edestus (title). By J. S. NEWBERRY......... .... 100
Measurement of Instantaneous Photographic Exposures. By
IW Gr LRVISON Soe fo ae ace spinicie sie soins oe s\tintetesraivians aetna 100

(Continued on third cover page.)

Proceedings FI ANMALY: Comers wiciela:< jeje e/yaccisieis: 2/s,c4s;5 s e olernloleleu/avare Maisie ene 6 118
The Development of Aeronautics (title). By W. LECoNTE

SONI. a cooacod0 oo OgaoU RO ODED HL OSISNO Cob odcE SbadHeudGOS00C 118

PFOCECAINGS +) ANUAGY G0 sererteetelare-etele cic) sia\cve)1cbets a) -ieieineleinva avele clereiensiole 118

Triassic Plants from Honduras. By J.S. NEWBERRY........... 113

ANID ON MOMUIMICMO se citie. = drelsin cteselcieicte. Ades (as +<.< svaietnia'e vlelevere Setele 116

IProceedings she DEUAar ya Oise cies casa isha eotereis chek Gravalesel tier clelaalavele! simone aa wre 117
Prehistoric Remains from Tioga Co., Penn. By ANDREW SHER-

NAO (01 Do eric CGC CeO ODIO AICS BC SU OR CREO. OSS Rare ret cumatrae 118

HeTOCCCOIN SS VE COLUALY, LOL scree sic\ «i askelststefeve terete ctateielevencrelsy ais ce iciaiers! teleleve 120
Preliminary Notice of a new Study in Folk-lore. By H. C,

ESO LEO tein lore ops tejoiae ese: shatinel cin edmatetereyohciay at cacliaco miata re cueicta mis lors cle etateta ee 120

Notes on Salt Deposit of Petite Anse, La. By H.C. BOLTON.....122

DISCUSSION Ae ears stones er snstsveneve tome tsponeaadalcletwe. a utteloseaa eaetave eit totale vejeys eave 127

PLOCCCAINGS EH ODLUALY: SO sioic\ struc ceyayatans chemise 2 sho lace atelcwie cath t's eels 128

Geology of New York City and Environs (title). By D. S. MARTIN.128

ETOCCCOMIES WE CDEUAE Vet -tnis1- ci ycfee emit vines. anon ee hy are bist ea Sse 129
HeportstoL OMecerse ntsc. cciaseeies Sree ate ees vigebetetexeka 129
Bleetronot OGiCersieyscaisles sterslic esse ete e's Saas A eeacale Wo toee ak 184
Silver Ornaments from Florida, etc. By G. F. Kunz .......... 134

SPOR EROS SMa CM: Osi asses sie sea ci oil MORI Oe oh oe a eens ce La he obits 135

The Panama Railroad and Canal (title). By P. H. DupLEy..... 135

EP EOCCCUMI Ee MMLATEC Hig Moe a1, Snicte, teites: ates sateen oo iciavesa:cke eels vail. tale aetee 136
Proccedmes-« Marehy 19-3... 222 sks otis e eos tren isi esis Soa est 186
pallammerstones, ) by AR THURM El OMUmECKs so nemeniccere le sce cet 136
Enternational Geological: Congress! Ps a.2 cdc aditle ses cdateame ees 137
Memorial Of ACh GHyAsy soe d sore iecers c SatetlecutS weedio a Vidar Avs eoersie 1387
Basal Rock of Archzean Series. By N. L. BRITTON............. 138
Minerals new to N. Y. Island. By W. E. HIpDEN.............. 138
Riparian Rights, etc. (title). By W. P. TROWBRIDGE............ 139
PLOCCOUEME SM MAECH «26. sc <iacteve weer eap atric Saat ona 'e le arsialeln ciara ne elare mie. Seale 139
Deathsor Mra ds: ELOlder ys cases Melveacs «sists core. o's a tawduemecse 139
Letter from R. H. Lamborn..... CCE COOLS EE ERO OLT Cty BIA ek 139
Proceedings: Me ear meets ..) houlenatences 320.5 GOR BODES ADEA S OO EEG 00 140

Minerals from N. Y. Island. By B. B. CHAMBERLIN

=
|

NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,

Late LYCHUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.
Organized 1817.

The Meetings of ti.z Academy are held in Hamilton Hall, Columbia Col-
lege, 49th Street and Madison Avenue, on Monday evening of each week, be-
ginning at 8 o'clock, from October to May, and are open to the public. On
the evenings devoted to the Popular Lecture Course, admission is by tickets,
which are free, on previous application.

OFFICERS OF Tie ACADEMY;
1888—1639.

President :
JOHN S. NEWBERRY, Columbia College, N. Y. City.

Vice-Presidents :
OLIVER P. HUBBARD. WILLIAM P. TROWBRIDGE.

Corresponding Secretary : Treasurer :
A. A. JULIEN, Columbia College. HENRY DUDLEY, 301 East 17th St.
Recording Secretary : Librarian:
H. L. FAIRCHILD, 54 West 55th St. N. L. BRITTON, Columbia College.
Coune!l:
J. A. ALLEN, A. R. LEEDS, J. J. STEVENSON,
P. H. DUDLEY, D. S. MARTIN, C. VAN BRUNT.

Financ: Committee:
J. H. HINTON, Chairman, S. B. BROWNELL, L. E. CHITTENDEN.

Committee ef Publication :

D. S.MARTIN, Chairman, H. L. FAIRCHILD, J. S. NEWBERRY,
J. A. ALLEN, A. R. LEEDS, W. P. TROWBRIDGE.

Library Committee :
H. L. FAIRCHILD, 0. P. HUBBARD, A. A. JULIEN.

Committee on Nominations:

P. H. DUDLEY, HENRY DUDLEY, C. VAN BRUNT.
Curators:
H. C. BOLTON, B. B. CHAMBERLIN, S. L. ELLIOTT,
G. F. KUNZ. F. J. H. MERRILL.

PRESS OF STETTINER, LAMBERT & CO., 22, 24 & 26 READE ST., NEW YORK.

Wom. Vi El APRIL-MAY. NOS.

of y, = , Y ( . é ee
Nv bi Eick OFS@HE TRANSACTIONS.\\e, Wr

To residents of the City of New York, not members of thi oe ae
$5.00 per annum. To non-residents, $3.00 per annum, 40 ST rnumber. |
To resident and honorary members,¢they are freeg™epftra copies, 30 cents |

per number. \ oa

,

HERMAN
Reco

YROY FAIRCHILD,

ing Secretary.

PUBLISHED FOR THE ACADEMY,
In Eight Monthly\Numbers, from October to May, inclusive.

ie. Re
oh PAGE
Proceedings: April 2 (continued) Oa MS. Gs i .is-0:s sews +4 eyeleleye ois 141
Genesis I. and its Critics. By (-B. WARRING..............+ «- 141
Miracle, Law, and Evolution. By C. B. WARRING ...... ...-. 154
a

Proceedings: April 9.......0 + ..0+: GSS. 55s ts 162

On some new North Amevica - | — (title). By IT. i:
CASEY)... . eal < RMNEEE< . 5 5 0 Soo vine dices omen 162
Jadeite Tablets. tieamiess<: yp (oi eae eS ais 162

The Progressive Developaient of the Means of Attack and De-
fence in Fishes (title), By J. S. New beRRY.... ..........00: 163
Proceedings.:, A Pigaweaenety Oe CERT EENS 5 n cee eee ee ene ener 163

Data relating to the Mis Spi River. By W. L. ELSEFFER.......164
Note on a New Species — Rhizodus, from the St. Louis Lime-
stone at Alton, Hh 47 g.S. BIEWHOMEY........0.. rs ce 165
Diamond from Georgia. % a
Notes on the Fishes of thg’Cayuga Lake ‘ ailey (title). By Sern

Proceedings: April 30...... eons Sole 178
On the Fossil Fishes of the Erf@Shale-cf Ohio. By J. S. New-

Eroceedines) Mayaten..) ciierrmre cee cites > AOC SE Wo BCIGUGE 193
The Lunar Society, or the Festive Philosophers of Birmingham
one hundred years ago. By H.C. BOLTON .................. 194
The Minerals of New York County, including a list complete to
date) By, Boss CHAMBERIING ay ctesieus boise saloh is ise euieie SG ress.e 211
Proceedings: May 14 (Section of Mineralogy)....... 0... ..00seeeees 236
Precious Stones; Ten Years’ Progress in their Study and Discov-
ehyn (title) Dy “GRORGE: Ba FOUN: stem, «cise ccerecisare« owt eee 236
Proceed iss May, ole aaigee wraieieaiesict als siclas 00 « lecipmraleleeeerd aia ste Sie eas we 237
Ne waa eral stapes corse te ested olathe eutishaaiare hae Site a ear Sree 2387
PAUASO OT IY Gb O00 ON ea Era er eR Reantc tD el OR ROMER ISIS CCIE ERE CLIC eR 237
On the Structure and Zoological Relation of the Placoderm Fishes
(tle) See Biyrlego NUE WBE RNie Mr aratorecslelesinrnic xe dic craic sic/aee eleva alt lace 238
A Newshorm of Brojectings Mantermin.: i | secls censce cies c ces 238

The Quality of Musical Sounds. By W. LE ConTE STEVENS... .238

PROCCE AIT eave lO meron lovenare aVeiessareicivrereten lareae ise a, h'e reales aie mites votew stor seo uale bs 243
Ice and Rock Scenery in the Front Range, Colorado (title). By

EPR ECD yy ek ad © EP NOUN a Ses yaa lah cule 's apna 6 00s abs eral el sta viestiawid's wend ais: dikiave 243

EP TOCCEMIN OS HIM VAs ersceiarysyaiesa s eisiais cvele si Sleiccr aris eid eins oe elevators 243

On the Sea Anemones of Swallow House, etc. By O. P. HUBBARD..244

OD UO ie MaASbOd ON s....- anemia eine le scisia ei givels sataia.cs aee tyres S's.%s 246
Notes on the Subcarboniferous Series at Sedalia, Mo. By F. A.

CMIES ON tapes teratelis citer pslatalnre ejoleleretet ite emia etsIaaT® siajessisaecetela le < « 246
Description of Two New Species of Carboniferous Trilobites. By

NON ss, . V-OGDEBt tebe hate tecctee wahiptinls s =.s's wee nea I an oo dance 247
ING War NGUMCLA Sob cic cx sterctnre ae hers tee! ictiars's ecn's wus eaanereeahenn sma ees 250
MemorialoneOr. JOSEPH’ By HOLDER: .!. cm). <ssemmameswies vite 251
Notes on the Larvee of Amblystoma. By Fanny R. M. Hircu-

CORES Gh glid “> 6 ob 55 SEER IRIOREClOn.) DMOnDanariclen Cowon co Sac baoe 255
Further Notes on the Osteology of the Shad (title). By FANNY

Pep ated cp EtG EUG OC LeIMVR ssc s\e@ seia'ss.sie shag aseios Sora clmmrmatbiads ise Sine 259

The Ultimate Composition of Matter (title). cs H. HENSOLDT. ..259

NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,

Late LYCHUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.
Organized 1817.

The Meetings of the Academy are held in Hamilton Hall, Columbia Col-
lege, 49th Street and Madison Avenue, on Monday evening of each week, be-
ginning at 8 o’clock, from October to May, and are open to the public. On
the evenings devoted to the Popular Lecture Course, admission is by tickets,
which are free, on previous application.

OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY,
14888—1889.

President :
JOHN S. NEWBERRY, Columbia College, N. Y. City.

Vice-Presidents :

OLIVER P. HUBBARD. WILLIAM P. TROWBRIDGE.
Corresponding Secretary : Treasurer :
A. A. JULIEN, Columbia College. HENRY DUDLEY, 301 East 17th St.

Recording Secretary : Librarian:
H. L. FAIRCHILD, 54 West 55th St. N. L. BRITTON, Columbia College.

Council :

J. A. ALLEN, A. R. LEEDS, J. J. STEVENSON,
P. H. DUDLEY, D. S. MARTIN, C. VAN BRUNT.

Finance Committee:
J. H. HINTON, Chairman, S. B. BROWNELL, L. E. CHITTENDEN.

Committee of Publication :

D. S. MARTIN, Chairman, H. L. FAIRCHILD, J. S. NEWBERRY,
J. A. ALLEN, A. R. LEEDS, W. P. TROWBRIDGE.
Library Committee:

H. L. FAIRCHILD, O. P. HUBBARD, A. A. JULIEN.
Committee on Nominations:

P. H. DUDLEY, HENRY DUDLEY, ©. VAN BRUNT.
Curators:

H. C. BOLTON, . B. B, CHAMBERLIN, §. L. ELLIOTT,
G. F. KUNZ. F. J. H. MERRILL.

+ PRESS OF STETTINER, LAMBERT & CO., 22, 24 & 26 READE ST., NEW YORK

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