TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETT OF EDINBURGH. Jj

VOL. I.

EDINBURGH:

PRINTED FOR J. DICKSON, BOOKSELLER TO THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
SOLD IN LONDON BY T. CADELL, IN THE STRAND.

M.DCC.LXXXVIII.

•

'••

V^, S ' Jm K.'"Ar>...

T O T H E

KING.

SIR,

1 AM defired by the Members of The Royal
Society of Edinburgh, humbly to requeft
Your MAJESTY to accept the firft fruits of

their Philofophical and Literary labours*

To

vi DEDICATION.

To Your MAJESTY, as the Founder and
Patron of the Society, they, of right, fhould
be prefented.

.

IF they fhall be found worthy of the ap-
probation of a MONARCH, who has diftin-
guifhed His Reign by the utility of His In-
ftitutions for improving the elegant Arts,
as well as by the fplendour and fiiccefs of
His undertakings to extend the knowledge
of Nature, The Royal Society of Edin-
burgh may hope to occupy a refpeclable
place among thofe Bodies of learned Men,
who, by their united efforts, have contri-
buted,

DEDICATION. vii

buted, fo eminently, to the progrefi of
Science and of Tafte in Europe. I am,
with the higheft relpecl,

Your MAJESTY'S dutiful fubjecl:,

and devoted fervant,

BUCCLEUGH.

O N T E N T

OF THE

FIRST VOLUME.

PART I.*

» f

HISrORT of the SOCIETT.

»

INTRODUCTION, Page 3.

Charter of the Society, 7.

Laws of the Society, II.

Account of Experiments on Antimony, by Mr James Ruflell, 16".

Dr Roebuck on the filling of Corn, 17.

The Earl of Dundonald on Sea-Salt, - 19.

Dr Anderfon on Cajl Iron, 26.

Cafe communicated by Dr Andrew Duncan, - 27.

Mr Wilfon 072 the Solar Syjiem, - 28.

Dr Blane's Account of the Hurricane at Barbadoes, 30.

Count de Windifchgratz's Problem, 37, 45.

Mr Smellie on In/lincl, - 39.

b AP-

*N.B. PAUT I. comprehending the HISTORY, is contained under one fet of pages; and

PART II. comprehending the PAPERS, is contained under two lets, vix. PAPERS of the-
PHYSICAL CLASS under the one, and PAPERS of the LITERARY CLASS under the other-

x CONTENTS.

APPENDIX.

MEMBERS DECEASED, - _ Page 46.

I. Biographical Account of William Lothian, D. D. _ .A*.

•II. Biographical Account of Sir George Clerk- Maxwell, Baronet, 51.
III. Biographical Account of Matthew Stewart, D.D. -- 57.

LIST of DONATIONS prefented to the ROYAL SOCIETY of Edinburgh, 77.

LIST of all the MEMBERS or FELLOWS of the ROYAL SOCIETY of
Edinburgh, . _ 83.

Office-Bearers of the SOCIETY, 98.

PART II.
PAPERS READ BEFORE THE SOCIETT.

1.

PAPERS OF THE PHYSICAL CLASS.

I. Experiments on the Motion of the Sap in Trees . JJyDr John Walker, 3.

II. The Theory of Rain. By Dr James Hutton, - 41.

III. On the Caufes which affeft the Accuracy of Barometrical Mea-

furements. By Mr John Playfair, - . 87.

IV. On the Ufe of Negative Quantities in the Solution of Problems by

Algebraic Equations. By Mr William Greenfield, - 131.

V. Experiments and Obfervations upon a remarkable Cold which ac-

companies the Separation of Hoar Frojl from a clear Air. By
Mr Patrick Wilfon, - _ I46.

VI. An Account of the Method of making a Wine, called by the Tartars

Koumifs ; with Obfervations on its ttfe in Medicine. £y Dr
John Grieve, . 178.

VII.

CONTENTS. *i

VII. An Improvement of the Method of correcting the obferved Di-
Jiance of the Moon from the Sun or a Fixed Star. By the
Reverend Mr Thomas Elliot, Page 191.

VIII. Account of a remarkable Agitation of the Waters of Loch Tay :
in a Letter from the Reverend Mr Thomas Fleming to
Mr John Playfair, 200.

IX. AbJlracJ of a Regifter of the Weather, kept at Branxholm for ten

years. Communicated by the Duke of Buccleugh, 203.

X. Theory of the Earth. By Dr James Hutton, 209.

XL The Orbit and Motion of the Georgium Sidus, determined di-
rectly from Obfervations . By Mr John Robifon, 305.

XII. Abjlracl of a Regijler of the Weather, kept at Hawkhill from

1771 to 1776. Communicated by Mr John Macgowan, 333.

II.

PAPERS OF THE LITERARY CLASS.

I. Effay on the Origin and Structure of the European Legi/latures.

By Mr Allan Maconochie. Part I. 3.

II. A Dijfertation to prove that Troy was not taken by the Greeks.

By Mr John Maclaurin, - ^-

III. An Ode on the Popular Superjlitions of the Highlands. Written

by the late Mr William Collins : And communicated by the
Reverend Dr Alexander Carlyle, - 63.

IV. An EJ/ay upon the Principles of Hijlorical Compojition, with an

Application of thofe Principles to the Writings of Tacitus. By
Mr John Hill. Part I. . 76.

V. On the Dramatic or Ancient Form of Hijlorical Compaction. By

Mr William Richardfon, - _ oo(

VI. A Grammatical Effay on the Nature, Import and Effett of certain

Conjunctions ; particularly the Greek AE. By Mr John Hun-
ter> *. / 113.

VII.

Xll

CONTENTS.

VII. EJfay on the Origin and Structure of the European Legi/laturcs. '

By Mr Allan Maconochie. Part II. Page 135.

VIII. An EJfay upon the Principles of Hiflorical Compojition, with an

Application of thofe Principles to the Writings of Tacitus.

By Mr John Hill. Part II. 1 8 1 .

%* The Society is indebted to Robert Adam, Efq; for the Dejign of the engraved
Frontiffiece.

TRANS-

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.

V O L. I. PARTI.
HISTORT OF THE S-OCIEfY.

H I S T 0 R T

o F

THE SOCIETY.

THE inftitution of Societies of learned men, who
have united their labours for the cultivation of Phi-
lofophy, or of Literature, is of an ancient date in
feveral polifhed nations of Europe. It is, however,
for the honour of Great Britain to have fet the firft example
of an inftitution for thefe purpofes, incorporated by charter
from the Sovereign, and carrying on its refearches under his
patronage. A hint of this kind, to the Prince then reign-
ing, is found in the works of Lord BACON *, who recom-
mends, as one of the opera vere bafilica, the eflablifhment of
Academies or Societies of learned men, who ihould give, from

(A) time

* BACON de Augment. Sclent. 1. 2.

4 HIS TORT of the SOCIETY.

time to time, a regular account to the world of their refearches
and difcoveries. It was the idea of this great philofopher,
that the learned world fhould be united, as it were, in one
immenfe republic, which, though confifting of many de-
tached dates, fhould hold a ftridl union and preferve a mutual
intelligence with each other, in every thing that regarded the
common intereft. The want of this union and intelligence he
laments as one of the chief obftacles to the advancement of
fcience ; and, juftly confidering the inftitution of public foci-
eties, in the different countries of Europe, under the aufpices of
the Sovereign, to be the beft remedy for that defect, he has
given, in his fanciful work of the New Atlantis, the delinea-
tion of a Philofophical Society, on the moft extended plan, for
the improvement of all arts and fciences ; a work, which,
though written in the language, and tinctured with the colour-
ing of romance, is full of the nobleft philofophic views. The
plan of Lord BACON, which met with little attention from the
age in which he lived, was de (lined to produce its effecl: in a
period not very diftant. The fcheme of a Philofophical College, by
COWLEY, is acknowledged to have had a powerful influence in
procuring the eftablifhment of the Royal Society of London,
by charter from CHARLES II. * ; and COWLEY'S plan is mani-
feftly copied, in almoft all its parts, from that in the New At-
lantis. The inftitution of the Royal Society of London was
foon followed by the eftablifhment of the Royal Academy of
Sciences at Paris ; and thefe two have ferved as models to the
Philofophical Academies of higheft reputation in the other
kingdoms of Europe.

IN Scotland, fimilar aflociations for the advancement of
fcience and of literatxire have, even without the benefit of
Royal patronage, and with no other fupport than the abilities
of their members, attained to no common degree of reputa-
tion.

IN

* SPRAT'S Hiftory of the Royal Society of London, 2d edit. p. 59.

BISTORT of the SOCIETT. 5

IN Edinburgh, a Society was inflituted in 1731, for the im-
provement of medical knowledge, by collecting and publifhing
EfTays and Obfervations on the various branches of Medicine
and Surgery, written by the members themfelves, or communi-
cated to them. The Secretary of this Society was the elder
Dr ALEXANDER MONRO, the firft profeflbr of Anatomy in the
Univerfity of Edinburgh, and the founder of the medical
fchool which has fince attained to fuch eminence and celebrity.
Under his care, the Tranfadlions of this Society were publifhed
at different periods, in five volumes 8vo, with the title of Me-
dical EJ/ays and Obfervations, &c. ; a work which has undergone
many editions, which has been tranflated into many foreign
languages, and is honoured with the encomium of HALLER,
as one of the mod ufeful books in the fciences of Medicine,
Anatomy and Surgery.

SOON after the publication of the above mentioned volumes
of Medical Eflays, viz. in 1739, the celebrated Mr MACLAURIN,
profeffor of Mathematics in the Univerfity of Edinburgh, con-
ceived the idea of enlarging the plan of this fociety, by ex-
tending it to fubjecls of Philofophy and Literature. The infti-
tution was accordingly new-modelled, by a printed fet of laws
and regulations, the number of members was increafed, and
they were diftinguiih'ed, from that time, by the title of The
Society for improving Arts and Sciences , or, more generally, by the
title of The Philofopbical Society of Edinburgh. They chofe for
their Prefident JAMES Earl of Morton, afterwards Prefident of
the Royal Society of London : Sir JOHN CLERK of Pennycuik,
one of the Barons of Exchequer, and Dr JOHN CLERK, were
elected Vice-prefidents ; and Mr MACLAURIN and Dr PLUMMER
Secretaries of the inftitution. The ordinary members were
fome of the moft diftinguiihed men of letters in Scotland at
that time.

A FEW years after the Society had received its new form, its
meetings were interrupted, for a confiderable fpace of time, by

the

6 HISTORY of the SOCIETT.

the diforders of the country during the rebellion in 1 745 ; and
no fooner was the public tranquillity re-eftablifhed, than it fuf-
fered a fevere lofs by the death of Mr MACLAURIN, whofe
comprehenfive genius, and ardour in the purfuits of fcience, pe-
culiarly qualified him for conducting the bufinefs of an infti-
tution of this nature. The meetings of the Society, however^
were renewed about the year 1752; and the new Secretaries,
who were the celebrated Mr DAVID HUME and Dr ALEXANDER
MONRO, junior, were directed to arrange and prepare for the
prefs fuch papers as were judged worthy of being fubmitted to
the public eye. The fir ft volume of the Tranfactions of the Philo-
fophical Society of Edinburgh was accordingly publifhed in 1 754,
under the title of EJJays and Obfervations, Phvfical and Literary ;
the fecond volume was publifhed in 1756, and the third in
1771.

IT has been always obferved, that inftitutions of this kind
have their intervals of languor, as well as their periods of bril-
liancy and activity. Every afTbciated body muft receive its vi-
-gour from a few zealous and fpirited individuals, who find a
pleafure in that fpecies of bvifinefs, which, were it left to the
care of the members in general, would be often reluctantly
fubmitted to, and always negligently executed. The tempora-
ry avocations, and, ftill more, the deaths of fuch men, have the
molt fenfible effect on the focieties to which they belonged.
The principle of activity which animated them, if not utterly
extinguilhed, remains long dormant, and a kindred genius is re-
quired to call it forth into life.

FROM caufes of this kind, the Philofbphical Society of Edin-
burgh, though its meetings were not altogether difcontinued,
nppears to have languilhed for fome time, till about the year
1 777, when its meetings became more frequent, and, from the
uncommon zeal and diflinguifhed abilities of the late HENRY
HOME, Lord KAIMES, at that time elected Prefident of the in-

ftitution.

HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 7

ftitution, its bufinefs was conduced with renewed ardour and
fuccefs.

ABOUT the end of the year 1 782, in a meeting of the Profeflbrs
of the Univerfity of Edinburgh, many of whom were likewife
members of the Philofophical Society, and warmly attached to
its interefte, a fcheme was propofed by the Reverend Dr RO-
BERTSON, Principal of the Univerfity, for the eftablifhment of
a New Society on a more extended plan, and after the model of
Ibme of the foreign Academies, which have for their object the
cultivation of every branch of fcience, erudition and tafte. It
appeared an expedient meafure to folicit the Royal Patronage to
an inftitution of this nature, which promifed to be of national
importance, and to requeft an eftablifhment by charter from
the Crown. The plan was approved and adopted ; and the
Philofophical Society, joining its influence as a body, in fecond-
ing the application from the Univerfity, his Majefty was mod
gracioufly pleafed to incorporate THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF
EDINBURGH, by the following Charter :

GrEORGIUS, Dei Gratia, Magnte Britannia, Francis, et Hiber-
ni<z Rex, Fidel Defenfor^ OMNIBUS probis bominibus, adquospree-
fentes Liters nojlrce pervenerint, Salutem. %UAND 0 §>UIDEM,
Nos confiderantes quod Petitio bumilis Nobis oblata fuerit ', a Henrico
Duce de Buccleugh, Roberto Dundas Armigero, Domino Praftde
Curia SeJJlonls ; Jacobo Montgomery Armigero^ Domino Capitali
Barone Curies Scaccarii in Scotia ; Thoma Miller Armigero, Do-
mino Juftitiario Clerico; Joanne Grieve Armigero, Domino Pra-
pojito Civitatis Edinenjis ; Domino Alexandro Dick Baronet to j
Domino Georgio Clerk Baronetto; Reverendo Gulielmo Robert-
fon, 5. 5. Theologies Doff ore, Academlee Edinenjis PrafeEio; Gu-
lielmo Cullen et Alexandro Monro, Medicina Doftoribus; Hu-
gone Blair et Joanne Walker, 5. Theologies Doftoribus; Adamo
Fergufon, Legum Doffore, et Andrea Dalzel, Joanne Robifon,
ft Allano Maconochie, in Academia Edinenji Profeffbribus ; Hay

Campbell

8 HISTORY of the SOCIETT.

Campbell Armigero, Solicitatore nojlro Generali pro Regno Scotia;
Jacobo Hunter-Blair et Adamo Smith, Armigeris, et Joanne
Maclaurin, Gulielmo Nairne, et Roberto Cullen, Armigeris, Ad-
•vocatis j ab Us fcilicet, atque in eorum nomine : In qua Petitions
enarratur, Eruditorum bominum Societates ufu compertas ejje admo-
dum idoneas ad promo-uendam Scientiam, et bonum de re Liter aria
Judicium, ubicunque gentium injiitutte fnerint j Atque adeo multos
ejfe homines, aut Loco aut Literis eminentes, qui votum diu extulerinty
ut Societas Liter aria Edinburgi injlitueretur, ad Statum illius partis
Imperil nojlri qna Scotia vocatur accommodata, perfuajijjimum ba-
bentes ejufdem Labores et Indagationes emolumento Reipublica baud
afpernando futuras : S^uem ad finem Petitores fupradi£los fpecJantes
Societatem inter fe,Ji modo Patrocinio noflro digni baberentur, inire
conflituiffe, eofdemque fubmiffe fperare Nobis pro gratia noflra placi-
furttm, ut eos in unurn Corpus formemus, una cum aliis quicutique in
eorum numerumjint cooptandi, ad Societatem conjlituendam^ qua non
folum in Scientiis Matbefeos, Pby/ices, Cbemiee, Medicines et Hijlo-
r'uz Natura/is, verum etiam in Us qua ad Archceologiam^ Pbilologiam
et Literaturam fpeftant, verfetur : Precantes igitur, ut Us conceda-
mus regiam noflram Cartam^feu Liter as patentes, fub Sigillo intus
fcript. Nominantem, Conflituentem, Erigentem, et Incorporantem di-
cJos Petitores ) et alios quaks poflea ajjiimentur feu eligentur Socii, In
unum Corpus Politicum et Corporatum,feu legalem Incorporationem,
per Nomen et 'Titulum, et fub Ordinationibus in bis poflea diElis :
ET" NOS certiores fatJi Confilium Petit or um ejje laudabile et dignum
quod promoveatur : IGITUR Conftituimus •, Ereximus et Incorpora-
vimus,ficuti Nos, regia nojlra prerogativa, et Gratia fpeciali, pro No-
btfmetipjis noflrifque regiis Succejforibus, per has prtefentes, Conjlitui-
mus, Erigimus, et Incorporamus PRJEFATOS Henricum Ducem
de Buccleugh ; Robertum Dundas Annigerum, Dominum Prte-
fidem Curia Scffionis j Jacobum Montgomery Armigerum, Domi-
num Capitalem Baroiiem Curia Scaccarii in Scotia; Thomam Mil-
ler Armigerum, Dominum Juftitiarium Clericum ; Joannem Grieve
Armigerum, Dominum Prapojitum Civitatis Edinenfis ; Dominum

Alexandrum

HISTORY of the SOCIETT. 9

Alexandrum Dick Baronettum j Dominion Georgium Clerk Ba~
ronettum; Referendum Gulielmum Robertfon, S. S. Tbeologia
Doclorem, Academics Edinenjis Prafeclum ; Gulielmum. Cullen et
Alexandrum Monro, Medicines DocJores ; Hugonem Blair et
Joannem Walker, iS. Theologies DocJores z Adamum Fergufon,
Legum DocJorem, et Andream Dalzel, Joannem Robifon et Alla-
num Maconochie, in Academia Edinenji ProfeJJores j Hay Camp-
bell Armigerum, nojlrum Solicitatorem Generalem pro Regno Scotia;
Jacobum Hunter-Blair et Adamum Smith, Armigeros, et Joan-
nem Maclaurin, Gulielmum Nairne, et Robertum Cullen, Ar-
migeros, Advocates, atque alias viros quales pojiea ajjiimentur feu eli-
genturSocii, IN UNUM CORPUS POLITICUM ET COR-
PORATUM, vel LEGALEM INCORPORATIONEM, per
Nomen et Titulum REGALIS SOCIETATIS EDINBURGI,
ad promovendas Literas et Scientiam utilem, utque talis exijlens, el
per tale nomen Perpetuitatem habeat et SucceJJionem ; atque ut potens
et capax Jit caper e, tenere etfriti proprietate reali feu perfona/i, et
peter e, Caufas agere,defendere etrefpondere,etconveniriinjus,trabi,
defendi et refponderi in omnibus feu ullis no/Iris Curiis Judicature :
ET NOS poteftatem damus Petitoribus primum eorum Congrejjum
temndi, quarto die Luna men/is Junii proximi, in Bibliotheca Acade-
mia Edinenfts, bora duodecimo meridiana, cum potejlate comperen-
dinandi, atque, vel ad diclum Congrejjum, vel ad tempus in quod
idem, per majorem Suffragiorum numerum eorum qui aderunt, com-
perendinatus fuerit, eligendi Praftdem et tot Socios quot idoneos ad
comple/idam Societal em judicaverint ; ibique, necnon ad eorum Con-
gre/us fubfequentes, ordinandi Canones, ad quos Res Socielatis ftnt
adminiftranda , Prafifquc et Sociijint eligendi j qui, tamen, Canones
mutari vel augeri pojjint, majore fuffragante numero Sociorum qui
ad ullum Congrejjum Societatis aderunt, Ji modo qua funt mutanda
vel adjicienda, propojita fuerint in CongreJJu babito uno menfe ante
ilium Congrejjum ubi de his judicandum fit: ET NOS ordinamus,
ut cunfta Res antiqua, Tabula publica, Librique Manufcripti, quos
acquifwerit dicJa Societas, deponantur in Bibliotheca Facultatis Ju-

(B) ridiccE,

10 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

ridica, atque ut univerfa Corpora qua; ad Hiftoriam Naturalem
pertinent, quceque eadem Societas acquiftverit , deponantur in Mufao
Academic Edinenjis, ita ut utraque CollecJio aperta Jit Sociis, et e
re publica fit, quantum fieri potefl : ET dicTi Petitores, atque it ex
quibufcunque pojlea conjlabit dicla Societas, per has Lit eras patentes,
potejiatem habebunt privatas ferendi Leges ad ejus adminiftrationem
idoneas, et in aliis rebus procedendi, agendi etfaciendi, congrue cum
Generali Lege et Praxi nojlri Regni Scotia in talibus cajibus. IN
CUJUS RE I TESTIMONIUM, prafentibus Sigillum no-
Jlrum per Unionis TracJatum cujlodiena. et in Scotia, Vice et Loco
magniSigilliejufdem, utend. ordinal, appendi mandavimus : A PUD
Aulam nojiram apud St James's, vigejimo nono die men/is Martii,
1783. ' anno Domini millejima feptingentefimo et oflogefimo tertio, Regnique

nojlri anno vigejimo tertio.

Per Signaturam Manu S. D. N. Regis fuprafcript.

jane 23. THE firft general meeting of the Royal Society of Edinburgh

the was held, in terms of the above Charter, on Monday the 23d
society. ^ Q{ june ^g^ ^j the Right Honourable THOMAS MILLER

of Barfkimming, Lord Juftice-Clerk, was chofen Prefident of
the meeting.

IT was then unanimoufly refolved, That all the members of
the Philofophical Society of Edinburgh mould be aflumed as
members of the Royal Society : And it was likewife refolved,
That the Lords of Council and Seffion, the Barons of Exche-
quer for Scotland, and a feledl number of other gentlemen,
mould be invited to a participation of the Society's labours.

THE meeting afterwards proceeded to eftablifli the form or
conftitution of the Society, and to frame a fet of regulations
for its future proceedings.

Mr JOHN ROBISON, Profeflbr of Natural Philofophy in the
Univerfity of Edinburgh, was unanimoufly elected General Se-
cretary, and Mr ALEXANDER KEJTH, writer to the Signet,Trea-
furer of the Society.

THE

«

HISTORY of the SOCIETY. n

I

THE meeting was then adjourned to Monday the 4th day of
Auguft 1783.

THE Society having met, in terms of the adjournment, the Se-
cretary gave in a lift of thofe noblemen and gentlemen who had
accepted of the invitation to become members. He alfo informed
the meeting, that he had been directed by the Vice-Prefident
and members of the Philofophical Society of Edinburgh, to de-
liver their minute-book, and all fuch diflertations and papers
as were in their Secretary's hands, to the Royal Soceity. The
minute-book and papers were accordingly received, and given
in charge to the General Secretary.

THE members then confidered anew the ftatutes and regula-
tions which had been propofed at laft meeting, and enacted a
body of fundamental laws, afcertaining their conftitution, and
directing their future proceedings.

IT is judged unneceflary to give a minute account of thefe
laws. The public is interefted only in what relates to the fcien-
tific proceedings of the Society, the general duties of its mem-
bers, and the election of candidates.

THE Royal Society of Edinburgh confifts of Ordinary and Ho-
norary members ; and the honorary places are reftricted to per-
fons refiding out of Great Britain and Ireland.

THE election of new members is appointed to be made at
two dated general meetings, which are to be held on the fourth
Monday of January, and the fourth Monday of June.

A CANDIDATE for the place of an 'ordinary member muft
fignify, by a letter addrefled to one of the members, his wifh
to be received into the Society. He muft then be publicly
propofed at leaft a month before the day of election. If
the propofal be feconded by two of the members prefent, his
name is to be inferted in the lift of candidates, and hung up

(B 2) in

1783-

Auguft 4.
id General
Meeting.

Laws of the So-
ciety.

Election of
Members.

12

HISTORY of the SOCIETT.

The Society di-
vided into two
Clafles.

The Phyfical

Clafs.

The Literary
Clafs.

in the ordinary place of meeting. The election is made by bal-
lot, and is determined in favour of a candidate, if he mail have
the votes of two thirds of thofe prefent, in a meeting confining
of at leaft twenty-one members.

THE general bufinefs of the Society is managed by a Prefi-
dent, two Vice-Prefidents, with a council of twelve, a General
Secretary, and a Treafurer. Thefe officers are chofen by bal-
lot, annually, on the laft Monday of November. All public
deeds, whether of a civil or of a literary nature, are tranfacled
by this board, and proceed in the name of the Prefident or
Vice-Prefident.

IT is requefted and expected of each of the members, that he
will favour the Society, from time ,to time, with fuch eflays or
obfervations on fubjects of fcience, literature, or other ufe-
ful knowledge, as his leifure and opportunities may render con-
venient.

As it was thought that the members would have a greater
inducement to punctual attendance on the meetings of the So-
ciety, if they had fome general intimation of the nature of
the fubjects which were to be confidered, and made the to-
pics of converfation, it was therefore refolved, to divide the
Society into Tivo Cla/fes, which mould meet and deliberate fe-
parately.

The one of thefe clafles is denominated the PHYSICAL CLASS,
and has for its department the fciences of Mathematics, Natural
Philofophy, Chemiftry, Medicine, Natural Hiftory, and what-
ever relates to the improvement of Arts and Manufactures.

THE other is denominated the LITERARY CLASS, and has
for its department Literature, Philology, Hiftory, Antiquities,
and Speculative Philofophy.

EVERY

HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 13

EVERY member is defired, at his admiffion, to intimate which
of thofe clafles he wifhes to be more particularly aflbciated with ;
but he is, at the fame time, entitled to attend the meetings of
the other clafs, and to take part in all its proceedings.

EACH of the clafles has four Prefidents and two Secretaries,
who officiate by turns.

THE meetings of the Phyfical Clafs are held on the firft Mon-
days of January, February, March, April, July, Auguft, Novem-
ber and December ; and the meetings of the Literary Clafs
are held on the third Mondays of January, February, March,
April, June, July, November and December, at 7 o'clock after-
noon.

AT thefe meetings, the written eflays and obfervations of the
members of the Society, or their correfpondents, are read pu-
blicly, and become the fubjecls of converfation. The fubjecls
of thefe eflays and obfervations are announced at a previous
meeting, in order to engage the attendance of thofe members
who may be particularly interested in them. The Author of
each diflertation is likewife defired to furnifli the Society with
an abftracl of it, to be read at the next enfuiiig meeting, when
the converfation is renewed with increafed advantage, from
the knowledge previoufly acquired of the fubjecl.

AT the fame meetings are exhibited fuch fpecimens of natu-
ral or artificial curiofities, fuch remains of antiquity, and fuch
experiments, as are thought worthy of the attention of the So-
ciety. All objects of natural hiftory prefented to the Society,
are ordered by the Charter of the Inftitution to be depofited, on
receipt, in the Mufeum of the Univerfity of Edinburgh, and
all remains of antiquity, public 'records, or ancient manufcripts,
in the Library belonging to the Faculty of Advocates at Pldin-
burgh.

THE.

Times of meet-
ing.

Bufinefs of the-
Meetings.

14. HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

\

THE ordinary members, whofe ufual refidence is in the city of
Edinburgh, or its immediate neighbourhood, are expected to at-
tend regularly the monthly meetings ; and are required to de-
fray, by an annual contribution, the current expences of the in-
flitution. The members who refide at fuch a diftance from
Edinburgh, that they cannot enjoy the advantages arifing from
a regular attendance on the meetings of the Society, are not
fubjected to any contribution for defraying its expences, but
have a right to attend thofe meetings when occasionally in Edin-
burgh, and to take part in all their proceedings.

Committee for THE compilation of the printed tranfactions of the Royal So-

Publication. . r . r .

ciety or Edinburgh, is to be made in the following manner :
The papers read at the monthly meetings, and depofited in the
hands of the Secretaries of the two clafTes, are fubjected to the
review of the Committee for publication , which confifts of the Pre-
fident, Vice-Prefidents and Council, the General Secretary and
Treafurer of the Society ; together with the Prefidents and Se-
cretaries of the two clafles. This Committee makes a {election
of papers, and determines the order in which they are to be
publifhed. It is not, however, to be underflood, that thofe pa-
pers which do not appear in the Tranfactions of the Society,
are thought unfit for the public eye. Several papers have been
communicated with the fole view of furnifhing an occafional
entertainment to the members ; and that end being anfwered,
have been withdrawn by their authors : EfTays, obfervations,
and cafes, are often read at the meetings of the Society, in or-
der to obtain the opinions of the members on interefling or
intricate fubjects : Some papers intended for a future publica-
tion have been withdrawn for the prefent by their authors, in
order to profit by what has occurred in the converfations which
the reading of the papers has fuggefted ; and others, of acknow-
ledged merit, the Committee has found it necefTary to referve

for

HIS TORT of the SOCIETY.

for a fubfequent volume. Nor is the publication of any paper
to be confidered as exprefling any concurrence in opinion with
the author. It only intimates that the Committee judges the
paper to be worthy of public notice, on account of the ufeful
information it contains, the hints which it may fuggeft, or the
ingenuity which it difplays.

AFTER the enactment of the Laws of the Society, the meet-
ing proceeded to the election of the office-bearers of the enfu-
ing year. [See the Lift fubjoined to Part firft of this vo-
lume.]

4

THE Phyfical Clafs of the Royal Society of Edinburgh met,
for the fir ft time, on the 4th of November 1783 ; and Dr WIL-
LIAM GULLEN, ProfefTor of Medicine in the Univerfity of Edin-
burgh, was requefted to take the chair. The meeting then
proceeded to the election of four Prefidents and two Secretaries,
for directing and recording the proceedings of this Clafs. [See
the Lift of the office-bearers fubjoined to Part firft of this vo-
lume.] The meeting then appointed a Committee for framing
regulations for conducting the bufinefs of the Phyfical Clafs.

THE Literary Clafs of the Royal Society of Edinburgh met,
for the firft time, on the iyth of November 1783, and the Re-
verend Dr ROBERTSON, Principal of the Univerfity, was re-
quefted to prefide. The firft bufinefs of the meeting was the
election of four Prefldents and two Secretaries, for directing
and recording the proceedings of this Clafs. [See the Lift of the
office-bearers fubjoined to Part firft of this volume.] The meet-
ing then appointed a Committee for framing regulations for
conducting the bufinefs of the Literary Clafs.

Pbyf. Cl. AT a meeting of the Phyfical Clafs of the Royal
Society, the Reverend Dr WALKER read the firft part of a pa-
per,

1783.

Auguft 4.
Eleaien of the
Office-bearers.

Nov. 4.
I ft Meeting of
the Phyfical
Clafs of the
Royal Society.

Nov. 17.

I ft Meeting of
the Literary
Clafs.

Dec. 9.

Paper by Dr
Walker.

i6

HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

Account of ex-
periments on
Antimony by
Mr Ruflell.

per, entitled, Experiments on the Motion of the Sap in Trees.
The paper is publifhed in this volume. [No. I. Phyf. Cl. ]

AT the fame meeting, Mr JAMES RUSSELL, furgeon, read an
account of fome experiments made by^him on antimony. The
object of thefe experiments was to find an eafy and a cheap me-
thod of obtaining a folution of regulus of antimony in the mu-
riatic acid, with a view to the preparation of tartar emetic, ac-
cording to the directions in the laft edition of the Difpenfatory
of the Royal College of Phyficians in Edinburgh > the ufe of
butter of antimony, as there directed, implying a very tedious,
complicated, and expenfive procefs. Mr RUSSELL endeavoured
to obtain pure dephlogiflicated muriatic acid in a fluid form,
by adding to it the black calx of manganefe, (freed from par-
ticles of iron by digeflion with vitriolic acid, and afterwards
calcined by heat,) and then diftilling it : But he found it im-
poffible to condenfe the fumes of the muriatic acid when thus
dephlogiflicated, (as it appeared to be by the black calx of manga-
nefe becoming white,) thoxigh he ufed a very long-necked retort,
and had the receiver, containing water, immerfed in fnow ;
for this acid, contrary to what happens to all the others, be-
comes much more volatile on being dephlogiflicated.

HE then tried the effect of the vapours of this dephlogifli-
cated muriatic acid on regulus of antimony placed in the re-
ceiver, and in the neck of the retort. This fucceeded to his
wifh ; the regulus difTolving quickly and copioufly. As regu-
lus of antimony is an expenfive preparation, he made a trial of
crude antimony inflead of it ; and he found that the mu-
riatic vapours very foon difTolved the metallic parts of it, and
at lafl began to decompofe the fulphur, as, on trial, he found
they did pure flowers of fulphur. This he judged to be of
little confequence to the ultimate object, as the affinity of the
muriatic acid to antimony is much flronger than that of the

vitriolic.

HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

vitriolic. From a retort with fome manganefe in it, he diftilled 1783.

five ounces of muriatic acid on two ounces of crude antimony,
moifte'ned with water, raifing the heat towards the end of the
procefs, to make the fand-pot red-hot. After the procefs, there
were found in the receiver fome fulphur, fome undecompofed
antimony, and a complete folution of the metal in the muriatic
acid. This folution had all the properties of butter of antimo-
ny ; and its precipitate, either by means of water or alkalis, was
exactly fimilar to the common one. Some tartar emetic, pre-
pared from it, appeared, as to all its chemical properties, to be
without fault ', but Mr RUSSELL had not tried it medicinally.
The quantity of precipitate, obtained from five ounces of acid
and two of antimony, was about half an ounce. This muft
be perfectly free from all mixture of a mercurial fait or corro-
five fublimate, which, it has been fufpected, may be found in
the common preparation. It may likewife be obtained with
much more eafe, and at lefs than a tenth part of the expence.

Lit. Cl. Mr ALLAN MACONOCHIE, Advocate, read the firft Dee. 15.

r T\-rr • i ^ • • i <- n r i • Diflertation by

part of a Dillertation on the Origin and Structure of the ancient Mr Macono-
European Legiflatures. The Diflertation is printed in this vo-
lume. [No. I. Lit. Cl.~\

Pbyf. Cl. Dr WALKER read the continuation of his paper
on the motion of the Sap in Trees. [No. I. Pbyf. C/.]

Dr ROEBUCK read fome Obfervations on the ripening and
filling of Corn.

SUMMER 1782 having been remarkably cold and unfavoura-
ble, the harveft was very late, and much of the grain, efpeci-
ally oats, was green even in October. In the beginning of Oc-
tober, the cold was fo great, that, in one night, there was pro-
duced on ponds near Kinneil, in the neighbourhood of Bor-

(C) rowftounnefs,

Jan. 5.

Dr Walker on
the fap of Trees.

Dr Roebuck on
the filling of
corn.

i8

HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

1784.

Jan. 5.
Dr Blane on
the difeafes of
the fleet

Jan. 13.
Mr T. Robert-
fon on inflexion
in languages.

ftounnefs, ice three quarters of an inch thick. It was appre-
hended by many farmers, that fuch a degree of cold would ef-
fectually prevent the further filling and ripening of their corn.
In order to afcertain this point, Dr ROEBUCK felected feveral
ftalks of oats, of nearly equal fulnefs, and immediately cut
thofe which, on the moft attentive comparifon, appeared the
bed, and marked the others, but allowed them to remain in the
field fourteen days longer ; at the end of which time, they too
were cut, and kept in a dry room for ten days. The grains of
each parcel were then weighed ; when eleven of the grains
which had been left ftanding in the field, were found to be
equal in weight to thirty of the grains which had been cut a
fortnight fooner, though even the beft of the grains were far
from being ripe. During that fortnight, (viz. from October 7.
to October 21.) the average heat, according to FAHRENHEIT'S
thermometer, which was obferved every day at 8 o'clock in the
morning and 6 in the evening, was a little above 43. Dr ROE-
BUCK obferves, that this ripening and filling of corn in fo low
a temperature, {hould be the lefs furprifing to us, when we re-
flect, that feed-corn will vegetate in the fame degree of heat ;
and he draws an important inference from his obfervation, viz.
That farmers mould be cautious of cutting down their unripe
corn, on the fuppofition, that, in a cold autumn, it could fill no
more.

Mr Profeflbr DUGALD STEWART read the firft part of a pa-
per, communicated by Dr BLANE, Phyfician to the Fleet lately
in the Weft Indies, giving an account of the Difeafes in that
fleet in 1782 and 1783. It is unneceflary to give here any ab-
ftract of this paper, as the fubftance of it is publimed by Dr
BLANE in his Obfervations on the Difeafes of Seamen.

Lit. CL The Reverend Mr THOMAS ROBERTSON, minifter
of Dalmeny, read the firft part of a Diflertation on the Theory

of

HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

of Inflection in Languages. This paper, and its continuation,
which was read at the next meeting of the Literary Clafs, form-
ing a detached chapter of a work compofed by Mr ROBERTSON
on the Theory and Hiflory of Languages ^ which he intends to of-
fer to the public in a future volume of his Enquiry into the Fine
Arts ; it was, on that account, judged improper to prefent it
here in a mutilated or imperfect form.

A GENERAL meeting of the Royal Society was held for the
election of Members.

Pbyf. CL Mr ProfefTor DUCALD STEWART read the remain-
der of Dr BLANE'S Paper on the Difeafes of the Fleet in the
Weft Indies in 1782 and 1783. [See fupra, Jan. 5. 1784.]

Dr HUTTON read the firft part of a Diflertation, entitled,
The Theory of Rain, which is printed in this volume. [No. II.
Pbyf. <7/.]

Dr WALKER read a paper, communicated by the Earl of
DUNDONALD, containing an account of a new method, invent-
ed by his Lordfhip, for purifying fea-falt. His Lordfhip, who
was prefent, added, viva voce, fome obfervations on the fubject,
which the Society requefted he would communicate in writing
at a fubfequent meeting.

THE Earl of DUNDONALD'S procefs for purifying fea-falt
proceeded upon this obfervation, That the common fea-falt pof-
fefTes a confiderable mixture of ingredients, which render it, in
a great degree, unfit for preferving victuals. Thefe ingredi-
ents appear, by experiment, to be naufeous, bitter and cathartic
falts, having an earthy bafis, (magnefia falita and magnefia vi-
triolata or Epfom fait) which are intimately mixed with the
proper fea-falt.

(C 2) To

1784.

Jan. 26.
Gen. Meeting.

Fob. 2.

Dr Blane on the
difeafes of the
fleet.

Dr Button's
theory of rain.

Earl of Dundo-
nald on fea-falt.

20 HISTORY of the SOCIETY*.

To purify common fait, by diifolving it in water, decom-
pounding the bitter falts, and precipitating their earthy bans,
by adding a fixed alkali, whether foffil or vegetable, is a tedi-
ous procefs, and by far too expenfive to be employed for ceco-
nomical or mercantile pnrpofes. It is even imperfect ; as it is
almoft impoffible, after that procefs, to feparate from the fea-
falt the Glauber fait, or vitriolated tartar, or fait of Sylvius,
which are produced according as trie foflil or vegetable alkali
is ufed.

Lord DUNDONALD obferved, That hot water faturated with
fea-falt, will flill diflblve a great part of the bitter earthy falts.
His method, therefore, of purifying the common fait from thefe
bitter falts is, To take a conical vefTel, having a hole in the fmall
end of it, which is to be undermoft ; to place it, filled with
common fait, in a moderate* heat ; to take one twentieth part of
the fait contained in it, and putting it in an iron pan, to dif-
folve it in its proper proportion of water, fo that the water
{hall be completely faturated with the fait ; and then to pour
this folution boiling hot on the fait in the conical veflel, which
is to be purified. The boiling water being already faturated
with fea-falt, will diffolve no more of it, but will diflblve much
of the bitter earthy falts ; and this folution will gradually drop
out at the hole in the bottom of the cone. When it ceafes to
drop,'the fame procefs is to be repeated by means of frefh por-
tions of the fame parcel of fait, already partly purified, till it
be brought to the required degree of purity. Lord DUNDO-
NALD reckons, that three fuch wafhings make the common fait
of this country purer than any foreign fait ; that each wafhing
makes it 4.4 times purer than before ; fo that (difregarding
fractions) after the fecond wafhing it will be 20 times, after the
third 91 times, after the fourth 410 times, and after the fifth
1845 times purer than at firft.

THE fuperiority of fait thus purified to common fait, is
equally obvious to the tafte, and by its effect in preferving fifh,

flefh

HIS TORT of the SOCIETY.

21

1784.

Feb. 16.
MrT. Robert-
foo on infledtion
in languages.

Mr Maclaurin
on the Cege of
Troy.

r

flefh and butter ; for it hath been often and carefully tried.
Lord DUNDONALD conceives, that the fimplicity, facility and
cheapnefs of -this method of purifying fait fhould recommend
it to common practice, as it is an object of great public impor-
tance. He adds, that as all fait made by boiling has a portion
of uncombined magnefia mixed with it, it is proper to add a
little muriatic acid to the firft brine poured on the fait, in order
to diflblve the magnefia, and carry it off.

Lit. Cl. The Reverend Mr THOMAS ROBERTSON, minifter
of Dalmeny, read the remainder of the Eflay begun by him,
January 23. on the Theory of Inflection in Languages.

*

Mr JOHN MACLAURIN, Advocate, read a Diflertation to prove
that Troy was not taken by the Greeks. This Diflertation is
publifhed in this volume. [No. II. Lit. £"/.]

Pbyf. CL The Reverend Mr JOHN PLAYFAIR read the firft
part of an Eflay on the Caufea» »rhk|^afl;ect the Accuracy of
Barometrical Meafurements ; which,-;, j^publiihed in this vo-
lume. [No. III. PbtfCL]

AT this meeting Dr ALEXANDER MONRO was elected a Pre-
fident of the Phyfical Clafs, in. the room of Sir GEORGE CLERK>
MAXWELL, Baronet, deceafed.

Lit. Cl. Mr Profeflbr DUGALD STEWART read aa Eflay on the
Idea of Caufe and Effect, and on the Object of Natural Philofo-
phy. This Eflay the author afterwards withdrew, on account
of its connection with other papers which he did not chufe to
publifli at prefent.

Mr Profeflbr DALZEL, one of the Secretaries of the Lite- Biographical
rary Clafs, read a fhort biographical Account of the deceafed LO*U*
Dr WILLIAM LOTHIAN, the firft member whom the Society

had

March i.
Mr Playfair on
barometrical
meafurements.

March 15,
Mr D. Stewart
on caufe and
cffeft.

22

HISTORY of the SOCIETT.

1784. had the misfortune to lofe. Having found it to be the gene-
ral opinion of thofe members with whom he had an opportu-
nity of converfing upon the fubjecl, that fuch biographical ac-
counts would form a proper appendix to the hiftorical part of
thefe Tranfa&ions, he had prepared this brief detail, preceded
by fome general obfervations, as an introduction to future ac-
counts of the fame kind. The plan was approved of by the
Society ; and the Reader will find this Effay followed by others
of a fimilar nature, forming an appendix to the hiftorical part
of this volume.

April it.
Mr Greenfield
on negative
quantities in
algebra.

Dr Button's
theory of rain.

Earl of Dundo-
nald on fea-falt.

Pbyf. Cl. THE Reverend Mr WILLIAM GREENFIELD read a
paper on the ufe of Negative Quantities, in the Solution of Pro-
blems by Algebraic Equations ; which is publifhed in this vo-
lume. [No .IV. Pbyf. Cl.]

Dr HUTTON read the continuation of his paper on the Theo-
ry of Rain, publiftied in this volume. [No. II. Pbyf. Cl.]

Dr WALKER read a, letter from the Earl of DUNDONALD,
giving an account of fome further experiments on the purifica-
tion of fea-falt, which his Lordihip communicated in compliance
with the requeft of the Society, at their meeting in February.
The fubftance of the Earl's obfervations will beft appear from
the following table. Each portion of fait was purified by four
warnings, according to the method formerly defcribed.

T A B L E.

of the soar Err.

TABLE.

Salt employed. Purified Salt. Magnefia 1'alita.
Magn. vitriol.

Ib. oz. Ib. ox. Ib. oz.

Salt hot from the pan

firft drawn, ^56 oo

49 oo

6 05

•J-of fait employed.

Salt hot from the pan

laft drawn, 56 oo

33 09

22 06

f Ditto.

Medium of the above, 56 oo

41 04

i4 °5

2

_>,

$ Ditto.

"u

Salt 6 weeks old, 56 oo

'«

0

47 oo

7 °°

rt

QJ

c

•f Ditto.

Salt firft drawn, drip-

*^z
•
_c

"o

™

ctf

ped 24 hours, 56 po

'••:

52 12

£

0}

3 °°

cr

V

TT- Ditto.

Salt laft drawn, drip.

B

o

Q

ped 24 hours, $6 oo

44 °8

II OO

J3

u

f Ditto.

Medium of the two

1

laft, 56 oo

48 10

7 oo

^

•f Ditto.

Spanifh great Salt, 10 oo

9 "5T

oo OO-J-

•arks Ditto.

Bafket fine Salt, .3 oo .

3 °°

oo oo .

1784.

Dr CULLEN delivered to the Society five volumes written by
Dr SAMOILOWITZ of St Peterfburg, prefented at the requeft of
the Author, to the Royal Society of Edinburgh. The titles
of thefe are to be found in the lift of Donations, at the end of
Part I. of this volume.

Lit. Cl. Dr JAMES ANDERSON read obfervations on a pecu-
liarity in the Englifh language, ufually called a Genitive Cafe.

Dr ANDERSON is of opinion, that the Englifh noun admits
of no inflection by cafes, and therefore that the term genitive
cafe is improper. He contends that the addition of the letter s
•with an apoftrophe, to a noun, as Johnsflaff, is not an inflection
of the noun, and therefore cannot be termed a Cafe. He afErms
that when a noun undergoes a change of this fort, it ceafes to be
itfelf a noun, and becomes immediately a definitive ; the office
of which is to limit and render more precife the general mean-
ing of another noun, with which it is neceflarily connected.
Thus the general word Jtaff has its meaning limited, by the

prefixing

Books from Dr
Samoilowitz.

April i p.
Dr Anderfon
on the Englifh
genitive.

HISTORY of the

1784.

Mr Hill's effay
on hiftoriral
compofition.

Ode of Collins
on the fuperfti-
tions of the
Highlands.

June 5.
Mr Wilfon's ex-
periments, ire.
•on cold.

prefixing of the definitive John?,. He further obferves, how-
ever, that all Englifli nouns do not admit of this converfion into
definitives. The names of animated beings, or corporeal ob-
jects, he confiders as readily fufceptible of fuch a change ; but
fuch nouns as fignify abftract ideas, as bolinefs, diligence, ivhite-
nefs, he confiders as incapable of being thus convertible into de-
finitives. He concludes, by recommending to grammarians,
as an object worthy of inveftigation, the afcertaining the differ-
ence betwixt fuch definitives and adjectives, to which they bear
a near refemblance.

Mr Profeflbr JOHN HILL read the firft part of an Eflay on the
Principles of Hiftorical Compofition; with an Application of thefe
Principles to the Writings of TACITUS. The EfTay is printed in
this volume. [No. IV. Lit. Cl.~\

THE Reverend Dr ALEXANDER CARLYLE read a Poem com-
pofed by the late Mr WILLIAM COLLINS, on the Superflitions of
the Highlands of Scotland, addrefled to JOHN HOME, Efq; au-
thor of Douglas, &c. being the. Ode mentioned by Dr SAMUEL
JOHNSON in his life of COLLINS, which the biographer there
gives up for loft. An authentic copy of this beautiful Poem,
from the manufcript in Mr COLLINS'S hand-writing, is printed
in this volume, preceded by a particular account of the manner
in which it has been preferved and difcovered. [No^lII. Lit.

a]

Pbyf. Cl. Dr WALKER, one of the Secretaries of the Phyfi-
cal Clafs, read a paper by Mr PATRICK WILSON, Profeflbr of
Aftronomy in theUniverfity of Glafgow, containing Experiments
and Obfervations on a remarkable Cold which accompanies the
Separation of Hoar-froft from a clear Air. The paper is pu-
blifhed in this volume. [No. V. Pbyf. Cl.] ,

Mr

HISTORY of the SOCIETT.

Mr JOHN CLERK, junior of Eldin, Advocate, read a ftiort biogra-
phical account of Sir GEORGE CLERK-MAXWELL of Pennycuick,
Baronet, late Prefident of the Phyfical Clafs of the Royal So-
ciety of Edinburgh. This account is printed in the Appendix
to the hiftorical part of this volume.

Lit. Cl. Mr ALEXANDER FRASER-TYTLER, one of the Se-
cretaries of the Literary Clafs, read an EfTay, written by Mr
ProfefTor RICHARDSON of Glafgow, on the Ancient or Drama-
tic Form of Hiftorical Compofition j which is printed in this
volume. [No. V. Lit. Cl.~\

Mr Profeflbr DALZEL, the other Secretary of the Literary
Clafs, read a paper, written by Mr Profeffor HUNTER of St
Andrew's, entitled, A Grammatical Eflay on the Nature, Im-
port and Effect of certain Conjunctions. The EfTay is printed
in this volume. [No. VI. Lit. £/.]

A GENERAL meeting of the Royal Society was held for the
election of general Office-bearers for the enfuing year ; when
his Grace the Duke of BUCCLEUGH was re-elected Prefident,
and the Right Honourable Lord JUSTICE-CLERK, and the
Right Honourable HENRY DUNDAS of Melville, Vice-Prefi-
dents. The General Secretary and Treafurer of the preceding
year were continued in office.

Pb\f. Cl. Dr BLACK read a paper, communicated by Dr
JOHN GRIEVE, late Phyfician to the Ruffian army, containing
an Account of the Method of making a Wine, called by the
Tartars Koumifs. The paper is published in this volume.

[No. vi. phyf. a.-]

THERE were alfo read two Medical Cafes, communicated by
Dr MUDIE, Phyfician at Montrofe ; the one, An Inflance of a

complete

1784.

Biographical
account of Sir
George Clerk,
Baronet.

,June n.
Mr Richardfon
on hiftorical
compofition.

Mr Hunter on
certain con-
junctions.

June 48.

General meet-
ing.

July i«.
Dr Grieve on
Koumifs.

Medical cafes.

26 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

1784. complete and permanent Cure in Afcites ; the other, A Cafe of
fevere nervous fymptoms occurring from a flight fuperficial
wound.

i9.
On the Europe-

Auguft 2.

Dr Anderfon
on caft iron.

el. Mr ALLAN MACONOCHIE, Advocate, read the re-
mainderof his Diflertation on the Ancient European Legifla-
tures ; which is printed in this volume. [No. I. and No. VII.
Lit. C/. ]

Pbyf. CL Dr JAMES ANDERSON read a paper on fome ceco-
nomical ufes to which caft iron may be applied. He obferved,
That, in feveral mechanic arts, malTes of great weight, fize
and ftrength, are required for bruifiiig or grinding various fub-
ftances ; that it is often difficult to procure ftones of fufficient
fize and ftrength for thefe purpofes ; that caft iron, though
proper in point of ftrength, and eafily made of almoft any
fize or Ihape, is fometimes inconvenient from its weight, and is,
for many purpofes, too expensive. He propofed, therefore,
that, inftead of pure iron, the moulds in which fuch mafles are
to be caft fhould be nearly filled with ftones, or what would be
ftill better, with bricks, as thefe could be. eafily moulded into
the exact (hape required ; a proper fpace being left for an axle
where needed, and an interftice between the outermoft of them
and the mould ; that then melted iron mould be poured in to
fill up every chink. This iron, cooling and confolidating, will
unite or cement the ftones or bricks firmly together, and cover
them with an uniform furface of metal. Thus, Dr ANDERSON
thinks, that mafles of any fize, (hape and weight, and of fuffi-
cient ftrength, may be procured at a cheap rate ; as a very
fmall quantity of metal would be fufficient for a cement and
coating to the ftones or bricks.

IN the fame way, the Doctor thinks many architectural orna-
ments might be made very cheap and very durable ; and he
fuggefts the application of this method to the important pur-

pofe

HISTORY of the SOCIE^T.

27

1784.

pofe of bridge-building, where very large ftones are often re-
quired for the comtruction of arches. Inftead of fuch large
ftones, he propofes to ufe compound mafTes, fuch as thofe above
defcribed, cemented with iron, and exactly moulded, fo as to
form, if required, an entire rib of an arch without a fiflure j
and he thinks that, in this way, a number of arches might be
accurately and firmly put together.

Mr ROBISON, General Secretary, read a paper, communicated Mr

* aftronomical

by the Reverend Mr THOMAS ELLIOT, Minifter of Cavers, con- problem.
taining an Improvement on the Method of correcting the ob-
ferved Diftance of the Moon from the Sun or a Fixed Star.
The paper is publifhed in this volume. [No. VII. Pbyf. £/.]

THERE was likewife read an account, by Dr ANDREW DUN- Medical cafes.
CAN, of a cafe of obftinate fingultus, in which the beft effects
had been produced by the ufe of vitriolic acid. A gentleman,
in the 73d year of his age, was feized with a violent hiccough,
which continued without intermiffion for feveral hours. Dr
DUNCAN prefcribed for him a mixture containing a drachm of
acidum vitriolicum tenue, united with four ounces of mint-water,
of which a table-fpoonful was to be taken every half hour.
The firft dofe put a flop to the fingultus. About twelve hours
afterwards, there was a return of the fit ; which, however, yield-
ed inftantly to a fecond fpoonful of the mixture ; nor was there
afterwards any occafion to repeat the dofe.

Lit. Cl. Dr GREGORY read the Introduction to an EfTay to-
wards an Inveftigation of the exact Import and Extent of the
common Notion of the Relation of Caufe and Effect in Phyfics,
and of the real Nature of that Relation. Parts of the Eflay it-
felf were 'afterwards read by him at feveral fubfequcnt meetings
of the Literary Clafs ', but he did not incline, that either the

(D 2) EfTay

Nov. 15.
Dr Gregory's
eflay on caufe
and effea.

28

HISfORT of the SOCIETY.

1784. Eflay itfelf, or any abftracl of it, fhould appear in this volume
of the Society's TranfadUons.

Dec. 6.

the

Mr Fleming on
Loch Tay.

Mr Wilfon on
the folar fyftem.

A GENERAL meeting was held for th'e election of the Office-
bearers of the ClafTes. [See the Lift fubjoined to Part I. of
this volume.]

Phyf. CL Dr WALKER read the concluding part of his
paper on the Motion of the Sap in Trees, which is publimed in
this volume. [No. I. Phyf. Cl.~\

THE Reverend Mr PLAYFAIR read a letter from the Reve-
rend Mr THOMAS FLEMING, Minifter of Kenmore, giving an
Account of an unufual Agitation in the Waters of Loch Tay, on
the 1 2th of September laft. The letter is publimed in this vo-
lume. [No. VIII. Phyf. <7/.]

Mr JOHN ROBISON, General Secretary, informed the Society,
that, a few days ago, Mr JAMES RUSSELL, one of the members,
had offered to him the perufal of a paper, written by a friend,
and containing fome thoughts on a method for difcovering by
obfervation, whether the centre of the Solar Syftem was in mo-
tion ; with other interefting matters in aftronomy. Mr ROBI-
SON, recolledling that Mr PATRICK WILSON, afllftant Profeflor of
Aftronomy at Glafgow, had long ago communicated to him in
converfation, fome curious fpeculations on this fubject, told Mr
RUSSELL, that, before perufing his friend's paper, he would
write an account of what he could recolledl of Mr WILSON'S
fpeculation on that fubjecl. This account he now laid before
the Society, in order to afcertain the title to originality or
priority, in any thing which may have occurred to both of
thefe Gentlemen.

THE fum of this account is, That about the year 1767 or
1768, Mr WILSON entertained an opinion that the aberration

of

HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 29

of the fixed ftars indicated the proportion between the orbital
velocity of the earch, and the velocity of light in the vitreous
humour of the eye. This opinion foon led him into various
difcuffions, and, in particular, made him fuppofe, that the aber-
ration of the fixed ftars, when determined by obfervations
made with a telefcope filled with water, would be different from
the aberration determined by obfervations made with a com-
mon telefcope. Mr WILSON has given an account of fome im-
portant and unexpected confequences refulting from thefe fpe-
culations, in the Philofophical Tranfactions of London. About
the year 1775 or 1776, Mr WILSON began to entertain an opi-
nion that the centre of the folar fyftem was in motion, and in
1777, communicated to Mr ROBISON, and others, a paper on
this fubject. The water-telefcope was, by this time, become
familiar to his thoughts ; and it occurred to him, that it might
be employed for deciding this queftion, and even for determin-
ing the direction and velocity of this motion ; by means of the
difference between the obferved aberration of the fixed ftars and
the aberration which mould refult from the earth's orbital mo-
tion alone. But various objections and difficulties occurred in>
the profecution of this attempt, and Mr WILSON foon after-
thought of another method.

IF the earth be carried, with a great velocity, towards a fixed
ftar, whofe rays are made to deviate a little by an achromatic
prifm, it will follow, that a conftant angle of incidence will
give different angles of total deviation, according to the veloci-
ty of the motion ; and this difference will be both, real and ap-
parent. Therefore,

i. LET the telefcope of a meridional quadrant be furniflied
with a prifm, refracting a few degrees in altitude. Search, by
meridional obfervations, for fuch ftars as exhibit altitudes in-
confiftent with Dr BRADLY'S aberrations : The differences
will indicate an aberration caufed by a motion of the earth, dif-
ferent from its orbital motion round the fun.

2. FURNISH

HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

1784.

Dec. 20.
Efiay by Mr

Dalzd.

1785.

Jan. 3.

Mr Playfair on
barometrical
meafurements.

Dr Blane's ac-
count of the
hurricane »t-
Barb.icloes.

2. FURNISH a telefcope with a plain mirror, inclined to its
axis in an angle of 45°, and a feries of achromatic prifms re-
fracting 90°. Suppofe the telefcope to be directed to a point
of the heavens, 90° diftant from a ftar which is viewed through
it. Suppofe alfo the earth to be at reft, and the images of this
flar, formed by the refracted and by the reflected light, to coin-
cide. Then fuppofe the earth to be in motion towards this ftar :
The images will feparate, both on account of a change in the
total deviation of the refracted light, and alfo on account of
a tranfverfe aberration, to which the refracted image is liable,
by the motion of the telefcope.

3. IF a long achromatic telefcope be directed to a fixed ftar,
towards which the earth is moving, the focal diftance of the te-
lefcope will be lengthened. The augmentation will indeed be
very fmall, but Mr WILSON has fallen upon very ingenious
methods of increafing it, fo as to make it become fenfible.

Lit. CI. Mr Profeflbr DALZEL read an Eflay towards an Ex-
planation of the Pleafure arifing from certain Scenes, Reprefen-
tations and Defcriptions of Diftrefs : But he did not incline
that the Eflay, or any account of it, fhould be given in this vo-
lume.

Phyf. CL The Reverend Mr JOHN PL AY FAIR read the fe-
cond part of his Paper, on the Caufes that affect the Accura-
cy of Barometrical Meafurements, publiflied in this volume.
[No. HI. Phyf. Cl.~]

Dr GREGORY read a paper communicated by Dr BLANK,
giving an Account of the Hurricane at Barbadoes on the loth
of October 1780.

THERE had been nothing that could be called a hurricane
felt at Barbadoes for more than a century before 1780, fo that

the

HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 31

the inhabitants began to think themfelves exempt from fuch
calamities, and accordingly had no edifices of fufficient ftrength
to withftand the force of a hurricane.

ON the gth of October 1780, it began to blow hard at Bar-
badoes ; but it was not apprehended till next day that there
would be any thing more than fuch a gale as often happens at
that feafon. But, on the evening of the roth, the wind rofe to
a prodigious degree of violence.

AT 8 o'clock it began to make impremon on the houfes, by
tearing off the roofs, and overthrowing fome of the walls.
The hurricane was thought to be at its greateft height at mid-
night, but did not abate confiderably till 8 o'clock next
morning. The ravage made during this night, on every
object of nature and art, was complete and dreadful. The
inhabitants, without diftinclion of age, fex, or condition,
^ were driven from their houfes, for fear of being buried in the
ruins of them, and were obliged to pafs the night in the fields,
expofed to the impetuous wind, to the cold, which was very re-
markable, confidering the climate, to inceflant torrents of rain,
and to the terrors of thunder and lightning, which were violent
and almoft conftant.

MULTITUDES perifhed, either by clinging too long to the
buildings for fhelter, in attempting to fave what was valuable,
or by unavoidable accidents from the falling of walls, roofs,
and furniture, the materials of which were projected to great
diftances. The number of lives loft was eftimated from returns
made to the Governor, at more than 3000 ; but feveral parifli-
es had given no returns.

BY the violence of the wind, the bodies of men and cattle
were often lifted from the ground, and carried for feveral yards.

ALL the fruits of the earth then (landing were deftroyed,
moft of the trees on the ifland were torn up by the roots, and
many of them were ftripped of their bark.

ALL

32 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

ALL the houfes on the ifland fuflfered more or lefs. Many
of the private houfes were levelled with the ground, all of them
unroofed, and the whole of their carpenter-work and furniture
deftroyed. The large elegant church of Bridgetown was redu-
ced to a heap of ruins.

THE fea rofe fo high as to deftroy the Fort, carrying the
great guns many yards from their platform, and demolifhing the
houfes near the beach. A fhip was driven on more againft one of
the buildings of the naval hofpital, which, by this mock, and
the impetuofity of the wind and fea, was entirely ^deftroyed and
fwept away. The Mole-head was fwept away, and ridges of
coral rock were thrown up, which flill remain above the fur-
face of the water : But the harbour and road have, upon the
whole, been improved, being deepened in fome places fix feet,
in others as many fathoms ; and the anchoring ground in the
road is much better, by the crufl of coral, which had been the
grow.th of ages, being torn up, and leaving a foft oozy bottom.
Many fhells and fifh were thrown on more, which had been
heretofore unknown.

THE fufferings and lofles by fea were alfo great and cala-
mitous. The wind was too violent for any fhip to ride it out,
and they all puftied to fea, where mod of them perimed by the
mere violence of the weather, without being driven any where
on fhore. Out of twelve of his Majefty's fhips of war that
were expofed to it, five have been totally loft ; and out of the
crews of thefe, not more than ten or twelve perfons have been
faved.

Dr BLANE was fatisfied, both from what he had an opportunity
of obferving himfelf, and from the teftimony of thofe who had
beenprefent during the hurricane, that an earthquake attended it ;
and he is convinced that it is not a vulgar prejudice or error to
fuppofe, that in hurricanes a concuffion of the earth does oc-
cur different from what can proceed from the mechanical im-
petus of the wind. The flags in the floor of the Great Church,

at

HISTORY of the SOCfETT. 33

at Bridgetown were fet at angles to each other, though they
were flickered from the wind, and nothing had fallen on them
that could produce fuch an effect ; calks had changed their po-
fition in cellars below ground ; maffes of rock were removed,
which the mere force of air and water did not feem capable of
effecting ; and there were chafms in the earth, which feemed
to indicate fome internal agitation. The inhabitants, both of
Barbadoes and St Lucia, felt the earthquake plainly ; and at
St Lucia the earthquake happened fome hours after the greateft
feverity of the gale.

THIS hurricane chiefly affected Barbadoes, (which is in lati-
tude 13°) the middle Caribbee iflands, Martinique, St Lucia,
and St Vincent's. It was felt, but very (lightly, at Antigua, St
Chriftopher's, the Virgin iflands, and at Grenada. At Tobago,
they had rough weather at the time, which did no material
damage. It is remarkable, that the more northern Weft India
iflands, from latitude 17° to the tropic, are feldom exempt
from hurricanes, for more than feven or eight years together*
At Barbadoes, it has been already obferved, there had been no-
thing of this kind for above a century.

THE extent of this hurricane, from north to fouth, was pretty
well afcertaihed by the accounts from the different iflands al-
ready mentioned. But there were no means of afcertaining,
with equal accuracy, how far it extended from eaft to weft. A
{hip that arrived at Barbadoes fix days after, had a gale of wind
about the time of the hurricane, which was not particularly
violent, and was remarkable only for this, that the wind blew
all round the compafs ; a circumftance which diftinguiflies the
hurricane from all other gales within the tropics ; the courfe
of nature being fo far inverted, that the direction of the trade-
winds, at other times conftant, is not then obferved. At Bar-
badoes, indeed, the greater part of the hurricane was from the
N. E. ; but an hour or two after midnight, it was, for a little

(E) , time,

34 HIS TORT of the SOCIETY

time, due W. and was more or lefs from all the intermediate
points. In places but a few miles diftant, people difagreed in
their accounts of its violence and direction at the fame point of
time. It was very irregular in thefe refpecls at other places ;
for on the ifland of St Lucia they had it not at any time from
the weft j but the Montague and Ajax, the {hips that were
driven from that ifland, had it from all points.

THE progrefs of it weftward was very flow, confidering the
violence of the wind. This, Dr BLANE thinks, was owing to
the various directions in which it blew. At St Vincent and St
Lucia, which are not above twenty leagues to leeward of Bar-
badoes, it was thirteen or fourteen hours later in coming on,
and was ,not near fo violent. At St Domingo they had it in a
flill lefs degree on the I3th and I4th of Odlober. It has fince
appeared, that there was in England the mofl violent ftorm that
has been known for many years, the very day of the hurricane
at Barbadoes.

IT was remarked, that the fhips which put before the wind
during the hurricane, were not carried with the velocity which
might have been expected from the violence of it. A mer-
chant-fhip, with the crew on board, was driven from her an-
chors at Barbadoes, all the compafles were broken, and, after
toiling about for two days and two nights, the people found
themfelves at the mouth of Carlifle bay, the very point whence
they fet out, at a time when they might reafonably have fup-
pofed themfelves 100 leagues from it.

THERE was much lightning during the hurricane, chiefly in
large iheets and fteady blazes, and little of the forked and dart-
ing kind. At St Lucia, there was much of what the French
called feu de St Elme, which Dr BLANE fuppofes to be the ignis
fatuus.

THERE was in the N. E. an Aurora Borealis, an unufual ap-
pearance in the W eft Indies.

DURING^

HISTORT of the SOCIETT. 35

DURING the whole night, a rumbling noife was heard in the
Iky, now and then interrupted by a momentary paufe. There
were no obfervations made, either with the thermometer or
barometer; but the wind was remarkably cold. Dr BLANE
was informed by Dr WARNER of Antigua, that, during ano-
ther hurricane which happened at that ifland, the barometer,
near the level of the fea, fell to 27/3-. It is known, that, in the
Weft Indies, the barometer (lands, with little variation, fome-
where between 29 and 30.

THE influence of the hurricane on peoples health was very
remarkable. Inftead of producing ficknefs, it feemed to have
the very oppofite efFecl. There was lefs ficknefs after, than
there had been before it ; and moft of thofe who were fick at
the time of it were benefited by it, except the very old and de-
licate, who fuffered, either from mechanical violence, or the
fubfequent want of flicker. It had a vifible good eflfecT: on the
difeafes of the climate, fevers and fluxes. Chronic diarrhoeas,
the confequence of dyfenteries, were alfo cured by it. But the
difeafes on which it operated moft vifibly and fenfibly were
pulmonic complaints. Some recent cafes of phthifis, and even
the acute ftate of pleurify, were cured by it. Nay, in the more
advanced and incurable ftate of phthifis, the hec~Uc fever was,
in a great meafure, removed, and a temporary alleviation at
leaft procured. Dr BLANE mentioned particularly the cafe of
a lady of his acquaintance, who was ill of a pleurify at the
time of the hurricane, and pafled more than ten hours in the
open air, fitting generally in a plafh of water from the rain that
fell ; flie had no more of her complaint, nor any return of it ;
and Dr BLANE faw her a few weeks after in better looks and in
a better general ftate of health than flie had enjoyed for a
great while before. It was a general obfervation, that people
had remarkably keen appetites for fome days after the hurri-
cane ; and many people, who ufed to be thin and fallow, Dr
BLANE faw looking frefh and plump a few weeks after it,

(E 2) though

1784.

Regifter of the
weather at
JBranxholm.

1785.

Jan. 17.

Mr Frafer-Tyt-
ler on the Scan-
dinavian na-
tions.

Jan. 24.
Gen. Meeting.

36 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

though the unhealthy rainy feafon was there harojy over.
Thefe fafts, which appear fo very wonderful, Dr BLANE men-
tions with confidence, they being confirmed by a concurrence
of teftimony, and, in fome meafure, by his own obfervation.

Dr WALKER prefented and read the title of a paper, commu-
nicated by his Grace the Duke of BUCCLEUGH, Prefident of
the Society, containing a Regifter of the Quantity of Rain that
fell, the height of the Barometer and Thermometer, and the
general bearing of the Wind at Branxholm for ten years, ending
December 31.1 783. The Regifter is publifhed in this volume.
[No. IX. Pbyf. Cl.}

Lit. Cl. Mr ALEXANDER FRASER-TYTLER read a Diflerta-
tion on the Character, Manners and Genius of the Ancient
Scandinavian Nations. He did not incline that the Diflertation,
or any abitracl: of it, mould be publiihed.

A GENERAL meeting of the Royal Society was held for the
eleclion of Members.

Donations. j)r WALKER laid before the meeting a colleclion. of fpe-

chnens of natural hiftory, and other curiofities, which had
been prefented to the Royal Society. Thefe are enumerated in
the Lift of Donations, printed at the end of Part I. of this vo-
lume.

Feb. 2 1.
Mr Hill on hi-
ftorical compe-
tition.

March 7.
Dr Button's
theory oi the
earth.

Lit. Cl. Mr Profeflbr. JOHN HILL read the remainder of his
EfTay on Hiftorical Compofition, published in this volume.
[No.. IV. and VIII. Lit.Cl.]

Phyf. Cl. Dr BLACK, in the ab fence of the Author, read the
firft part of Dr HUTTON'S Theory of the Earth, which is pub-
liihed in this volume. [No.. X. Pbyf, C7.]

Lit.

HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

37

Lit. Cl. Dr GREGORY read a fecond part of his EfTay on
the general Notion of the Relation of Caufe and Effect. [See
fupra, Nov. 15. 1784.]

AT a meeting of a Committee of the Royal Society, Mr Ro-
BISON, General Secretary, prefented to the Society from THO-
MAS HUTCHINS, Efq; his paper on the Congelation of Mercu-
ry, and from Dr HUTTON of Woolwich, his Logarithmic Ta-
bles.

1785-

March n.
Dr Gregory on
caufe and ef-
fect

Pbyf. Cl. Dr HUTTON read the fecond part of his Theory April 4.
of the Earth, published in this volume. [No. X. Pbyf. CL] theory* of

earth.

May if\.
Donations.

Lit. Cl. The Reverend Dr MACFARLAN read a Difcourfeon
the Advantages of Manufactures, Commerce and great Towns,
to the Population and Profperity of a Country. The Author
having publifhed this Difcourfe, it becomes unneceflary here to
give any account of its contents.

A GENERAL meeting of the Royal Society was held for the
election of the Office-bearers for the enfuing year. Thofe of
the preceding year were unanimoufly continued in office.

Pbyf. CL Dr WALKER read an Eflay on the Flowers of
Mufcous Plants. He did not incline that any account mould
be given of the EfTay in this volume.

AT a meeting of the Council of the Royal Society, Mr Corn-
miffioner SMITH informed the members, that he had received a
letter from the Count de WJNCISCHGRATZ, dated BrmTells,
May 8. 1785, on the fubjecl of a problem propofed by that
nobleman to the learned men of all nations, which has for its
object, the diminution of the number of law-fuits by fome re-
quired method, which, at the fame time, mall impofe no new

reftraints

June 20.
Dr Macfarlan
on manufac-
tures, &c.

June 27.
General meet-
ing-

Dr Walker on
mufcous plants.

Jily 9-

Count de Win-

difchgratz's

problem.

38 HISrOR T of the SOCIETY.

reftraints on natural liberty. The problem, as announced in
a printed programma, which accompanied the Count's letter
to Mr SMITH, is as follows :

PRO omni poflibili inflrumentorum fpecie, quibus quis fe
obftringere, fuumve dominium in alterum, quibufcunque
ex motivis, et quibufcunque fub conditionibus transferre
poteft, formulas tales invenire, quae omnibus cafibus indivi-
duis conveniant, atque in quovis cafu fingulis duntaxat termi-
nis, iifque pervulgatis expleri opus habeant, qui termini,
aeque ac ipfae formularum expreffiones ejufmodi fint, ut quem-
admodum in mathefi, nullum dubium, nullum litigium lo-
" cum, habeat."

A PRIZE of a thoufand ducats is offered to any perfon who
mail furnim a complete folution of this problem. Should there
be no complete folution, a prize of five hundred ducats is offer-
ed to the author of that fcheme, which mall be judged to
approach the neareft to a folution. The Count propofes, in
the printed programma, that all writings which mall be offer-
ed in the competition for thefe prizes, mail be judged of by
three of the moft diftinguifhed Literary Academies in Europe.
In his letter to Mr SMITH, he informs him, that the three
learned bodies which he has chofen for that purpofe are : The
Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, the Royal Society of Edin-
burgh, and one of the Academies of Germany or Switzerland,
which he mail afterwards name. As a recompence for the
trouble they may be put to in this decifion, he offers the fum
of 50 louts d'or to each of thefe learned bodies, to be affigned
by them as a prize for the folution of any queftion which they
fhall propofe. Count de WINDISCHGRATZ intimates, that the
Academy of Sciences at Paris has accepted of the office required
of them ; and he defires that Mr SMITH will communicate his
requeft to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and inform him
whether that body is willing to undertake the office of deqi-

ding

HISTORT of the SOCIETY.

ding in the competition along with the Academy of Sciences,
and the other Academy to be yet named.

Mr SMITH fignified to the meeting, that although he enter-
tained great doubt whether the problem of the Count de WIN-
DISCHGRATZ admitted of any complete and rational folution,
yet the views of the propofer being fo highly laudable, and the
object itfelf of that nature, that even an approximation to its
attainment would be of importance to mankind ; he was there-
fore of opinion, that the Society ought to agree to the requetl
that was made to them. He added, that it was his intention
to communicate his fentiments on the fubjecl to the Count,
by a letter, which he would lay before the Council at a fubfe-
quent meeting. — The Council were of opinion, That the So-
ciety mould acquiefce in the Count de WINDISCHGRATZ'S pro-
pofal, but fhould decline to accept of the recompence offered.
The farther confideration, however, of the affair was poftpo-
ned, till Mr SMITH fhould communicate to the Council the
draught of his intended letter to the Count, on the fubjedl of
his problem.

Phyf. CL Dr GREGORY read a paper communicated by Dr
HOPE, giving an account of a remarkable cafe, attended with
anomalous -fymptoms, and terminating fatally ; in which, on
cliffeclion, the difeafe appeared to have proceeded from a large
gall-flone flicking in the neck of the gall-bladder.

Lit. CL Dr GREGORY read a continuation of his Effay on
Caufe and Effect. [See>/>™, Nov. 15. 1784.]

Phyf.Cl. Mr WILLIAM SMELLIE read an Effay on Inftind.
As this Effay makes a part of a larger work, which the author is
preparing to lay before the Public, he did not wifh it mould ap^
pear at full length among the Differtations printed in this vo-
lume*

1785*

Aug. i.

Cafe communi
cated by Dr
Hope.

Nov. 11.
Dr Gregory on
caufe and effedl.

Dee. 5.
Mr Smellie on

4o fflsrORT of the SOCIETT.

lume. The following abftracl, however, is given of its prin-
cipal contents.

MANY theories have been invented with a view to explain
the inftinclive actions of animals, but none of them have re-
ceived the general approbation of Philofophers. This want
of fuccefs may be referred to different caufes ; to want of at-
tention to the general ceconomy and manners of animals ; to
miftaken notions concerning the dignity of human nature ; and,
above all, to the uniform endeavour of Philofophers to diftin-
guifh inftinclive from rational motives. Mr SMELLIE endea-
vours to {hew that no fuch diftinclion exifts, and that the rea-
foning faculty itfelf is a neceffary refult of inftincl.

HE obferves, that the proper method of inveftigating fub-
jecls of this kind, is to collect and arrange the facts which
have been difcovered, and to confider whether thefe lead to
any general conclufions. According to this method, he exhi-
bits examples, Firft, of pure inftincls : Secondly ', of fuch inftincls
as can accommodate themfelves to particular circumftances and
fituations : Thirdly, of fuch as are improveable by experience
or obfervation : And, laftly, he draws fome conclufions.

BY pure inftincls are meant fuch as, independently of all in-
ftruclion or experience, inftantaneoufly produce certain aclions,
when particular objects are prefented to animals, or when they
are influenced by peculiar feelings. Such are, in the human
fpecies, the inftincl of fucking, which is exerted by the infant
immediately after birth, the voiding of faeces, the retraction of
the mufcles upon the application of any painful ftimulus. The
love of light is exhibited by infants, even fo early as the third
day after birth. The paffion of fear is difcoverable in a child
at the age of two months.

AMONG the inferior animals, there are numberlefs pure in-
ftincls. Caterpillars fhaken off a tree in every direction, turn
immediately to the trunk, and climb up. Young birds open
their mouths on hearing any noife, as well as that of their mo-
ther's

HISTORY of the SOCfE?l~. 41

ther's voice. Every fpecies of infe£t depofits its eggs in the
fituation moft proper for hatching and affording nourifh-
ment to its future progeny. Some fpecies of animals look not
to future wants j others, as the bee and the beaver, are endowed
with an inftinct which has the appearance of forefight. They
conftruct magazines, and fill them with provifions. Bees
difplay various remarkable inftincts. They attend and feed
the female or queen. When deprived of her, all their labotirs
ceafe till a new one is obtained. They conftruct cells of three
different dimenfions ; for working bees, for drones and for fe-
males ; and the queen in depofiting her eggs, puts each fpecies
into its appropriated cells. They deftroy all the females but
one, left the hive mould be overstocked. The different in-
ftincts of the common bee, of the wood-piercing bee, and of
that fpecies which builds cylindrical nefts, with rofe-leaves, are
very remarkable.

EQUALLY fingular are the inftincts of wafps, and ichneumon
flies, which though they feed not themfelves upon worms, lay up
ftores of thefe animals for the nourifliment of their young.

BIRDS build their nefts of the fame materials, and in the fame
form and fituation, though they inhabit very different climates.
They turn and fhift their eggs, that they may be equally heated.
Geefe and ducks cover up their eggs till they return to the
neft. The fwallow folicits her young to void their excrement
over the neft, and affifts them in the operation. The fpiders, and
many infects of the beetle-kind, when put in terror, counterfeit
death. This is not, as has been fuppofed, a convulfion or ftu-
por, but an artifice ; for when the object of terror is removed,
they recover immediately.

OF inftincts which can accommodate themfelves to peculiar
circumftances and fituations, many inftances may be given from
the human fpecies ; but thefe being improveable, fall more pro-
perly under the third clafs.

(F) THOSE

42 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

THOSE animals are moft perfect, whofe fphere of knowledge
extends to the greateft number of objects. When interrupted
in their operations, they know how to refume their labours,
and to accomplifh their purpofes by different means. Some
animals have no other power but that of contracting or extend-
ing their bodies. But the falcon, the dog, and the fox, purfue
their prey with intelligence and addrefs.

IN Senegal, the oflrich fits upon her eggs only during the
night, leaving them in the day to the heat of the fun. At the
Cape of Good Hope, where the heat is not fb great, fhe fits up-
on them day and night. Rabbits, when domefticated, are not
inclined to burrow. Bees augment the depth of their cells, and
increafe their number, as occafion requires. A wafp carrying
out a dead companion from the neft, if he finds it too heavy,
cuts off the head, and carries out the load in two portions. In
countries infefted with monkeys, birds, which in other coun-
tries build in bufhes or clefts of trees, fufpend their nefts at the
end of {lender twigs. The nymphaz of water-moths, which
cover themfelves with cafes of draw, gravel, or fhells, contrive
to make their cafes nearly in equilibrium with the water : When
too heavy, they add a bit of wood or ftraw j when too light,
a bit of gravel. A cat, when (hut into a clofet, has been known
to open the latch with its paws.

THE third clafs of inftincls comprehends all thofe that are
improveable by experience and obfervation.

THE fuperiority of man over the other animals, feems to de-
pend chiefly on the great number of inftincls with which he is
endowed. Traces of every inftincl which he pofieffes are dif-
coverable in the brute- creation, but no particular fpecies enjoys
the whole. On the contrary, mod animals are limited to a
fmall number. This appears to be the reafori why the inftincls
of brutes are ftronger, and more fteady in their operation than
thofe of man, and their actions more uniform.

MOST,

HISfORT of the SOCIETT. 43

MOST human inftincts receive improvement from experience
and obfervation, and are capable of a thoufand modifications.
One inftinct counteracts and modifies another, and often extin-
guifhes the original motive to action. The inftinct of fear is
often counteracted by ambition and by refentment : The inftinct
of anger, by fear, by fhame, by contempt, by companion. Of
modified, compounded, and extended inftincts, there are many
examples. Devotion is an extenfion of the inflinct of love, to
the firft Caufe or Author of the univerfe. Superftition is the
inftinct of fear extended to imaginary objects of terror. Hope
is the inftinct of love directed to future good. Avarice is
the inftinct of love directed to an improper object. Fear is like-
wife an ingredient of this attachment. Envy is compounded
of love, avarice, ambition, and fear. Sympathy is the inftinct
of fear transferred to another perfon, and reflected back upon
ourfelves. In this manner all the modified, compounded or ex-
tended paflions of the human mind, may be traced back to
their original inftincts.

THE inftincts of brutes are likewife improved by obfervation
and experience. Of fuch improvement, the dog, the elephant,
the horfe, the camel, afford numerous and ftrong inftances.

FROM thefe and other examples, given of the different claffes
of inftincts, Mr SMELLIE argues, that inftinct is an original
quality of mind, which, in man, as well as in other animals,
may be improved, modified, and extended, by experience.

SENSATION implies a fentient principle or mind. Whatever
feels, therefore, is mind. Of courfe, the loweft fpecies of ani-
mals is endowed with mind. But the minds of animals have
very different powers ; and thefe powers are expreffed by pecu-
liar actions. The ftructure of their bodies is uniformly adapt-
ed to the powers 'of their minds ; and no mature animal at-
tempts actions which nature has not enabled it to perform: The
inftincts, however, of animals, appear often previoufly to the
expanfion of thofe inftruments which nature intended they

(F 2) fhould

44 HISrORT of the SOCIETY.

mould employ. This view of inrtincT: is fimple : It removes
every objection to the exiftence of mind in brutes, and unfolds
all their actions by referring them to motives perfectly fimilar
to thofe by which man is actuated. There is perhaps a greater
difference between the mental powers of fome animals, than be-
tween thofe of man and the mod fagacious brutes. Inftincts
may be confidered as fo many internal fenfes, of which fome
animals have a greater, and others a fmaller number. Thefe
fenfes, in different fpecies, are likewife more or lefs ductile ;
and the animals poflefling them are, of courfe, more or lefs
fufceptible of improving, and of acquiring knowledge.

THE notion that animals are machines, is therefore too ab-
furd to merit refutation. Though not endowed with mental
powers equal to thofe of man, they pofTefs, in fome degree, eve-
ry faculty of the human mind. Senfation, memory, imagina-
tion, the principle of imitation, curiofity, cunning, ingenuity,
devotion, or refpect for fuperiors, gratitude, are all difcoverable
in the brute-creation. Every fpecies too has a language, either
of founds or geftures, fufficient for the individuals to commu-
nicate their wants to each other ; and fome animals under-
ftand in part the language of man. The language of infants
is nearly on a par with that of brutes. Brutes, without fome
portion of reafon, could never make a proper ufe of their fenfes.
But many animals are capable of balancing motives, which is
a pretty high degree of reafon. Young animals examine all ob-
jects they meet with, and in this inveftigatton they employ all
their organs. The firft periods of their life are dedicated to
fludy. When they run about and make frolicfome gambols,
it is nature fporting with them for their inftruction. Thus
they gradually improve their faculties, and acquire an inti-
mate knowledge of the objects that furround them. Men who,
from peculiar circumftances, have been prevented from ming-
ling with companions, and engaging in the different amufe-
ments and exercifes of youth, are always awkward in their

movements,

HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 45

movements, cannot ufe their organs with eafe or dexterity, and 1785.
often continue, during life, ignorant of the moft common
objects.

AT a meeting of the Council of the Royal Society, the fub- Dec- '3-
jecl of the Count de WINDISCHGRATZ'S Problem was refumed, fifcbcntrt '"
and Mr Commiffioner SMITH read to the Meeting the draught pr°
of a letter written by him to the Count, ftating objections to
the poffibility of a complete folution of his problem, but inti-
mating, at the fame time, that the Royal Society of Edinburgh
had agreed to co-operate with the other two Academies, in de-
ciding on the merit of all EfTays or Diflertations which mould
appear in the competition for the prizes propofed, though they
declined to accept of the recompence offered in the Count's
letter. The Council approved of Mr SMITH'S letter, a copy of
which they requefted of the Author, in order to be preferved
among their papers, as he did not incline that it mould be pub-
limed in the Tranfa<5lions of the Society.

A P P E N-

46 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

APPENDIX.

MEMBERS DECEASED.

SINCE the inftitution of the Royal Society of Edinburgh,

the following Members have died, viz.

William Lothian, D. D. fenior Minifter of Canongate. Decem-
ber 17. 1783.

Sir George Clerk-Maxwell, Baronet, of Penny cuik. January 29.
1784.

Matthew Stewart, D. D. Emeritus ProfefTor of Mathematics in
the Univerfity of Edinburgh. January 23. 1785.

Andrew Cro/bie, Efq; Vice-Dean of the Faculty of Advocates.
February 25. 1785.

Robert Bruce, Efq; of Kennet, one of the Senators of the Col-
lege of Juftice. April 8. 1785.

Sir Alexander Dick, Baronet, of Preftonfield. November 10. 1785.

Alexander Wilfon, M. D. ProfefTor of Practical Aftronomy in the
Univerfity of Glafgow. October 16. 1786.

John Hope, M. D. King's Botanift in Scotland, and Profeflbr of
Medicine and Botany in the Univerfity of Edinburgh.
November n. 1786.

Robert Hamilton, D. D. Emeritus Profeflbr of Divinity in the
Univerfity of Edinburgh. April 2. 1787.

Sir James Hunter-Blair, Baronet, of Dunfkey. July I. 1787.

William Irvine, M. D. Lecturer on Chemiftry in the Univerfity of
Glafgow. July 9. 1787.

THE following BIOGRAPHICAL ACCOUNTS of the three firft
of thefe ha've been read at different meetings of the Clafles.

I. ACCOUNT

APPENDIX. 47

1. ACCOUNT of WILLIAM LOTH UN, D. D.

\Readly Mr D^LZEL, March 15, 1784.]

TH E cuftom adopted by feveral learned Societies or Acade-
demies abroad, which requires, that a profefled panegyric
on every one of the Members, after his death, mould firft be
read before the Academy, and then printed in the hiflory of
their tranfaclions, has not met with a general approbation, ei-
ther in England or in this country. For although characters
have frequently appeared in the republic of Letters, whofe
mining talents have, with fufikient propriety, employed the
power of eloquence in their praife, every Member of an Aca"
demy cannot be deemed the proper fubjecl: of a laboured enco-
mium. The Britifh character, naturally my and referved, is
apt to look with an eye of fufpicion, upon any difcourfe that
comes decorated with the pompous title of Eloge.

BUT though to write a profefled panegyric on every deceafed;
Member of our Society might, with reafon, be thought often-
tatious and improper ; yet fuch is the merit and juftly acquired
literary fame of fome of our number, that, to permit them to
fink into the grave, without any public teftimony of our regard,
would argue a culpable degree of infenfibility and referve.
There are names in our catalogue, whofe praife will be publicly
celebrated, and whofe fame will defcend to pofterity, in fpite
of the filence which we might think proper, to obferve ; and as
they muft (land forward in the Biographical Annals of Great
Britain, where can an authentic memorial of them be fo pro-
perly preferved as in the Regifters of this Society ?

IT,

48 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

IT feems proper alfo, that, at the death, even of every one of
the Members, a fhort notice of him fhould be inferted in our
Records : Mention ought to be made there of his birth and
death, of the remarkable incidents of his life, and the claim
he had to be inrolled among the Members of the Royal Society
of Edinburgh ; fuch a fhort and fimple account having been
previoufly read at a meeting of the Clafs to which he more
particularly belonged.

BUT whoever has diftinguifhed himfelf in a fuperior degree
in the republic of Letters feems to have a claim to higher and
more public honours. Nor could the mofl faftidious referve be
offended, if the memory of fuch a character were celebrated
at an aflembly of the whole Society.

THESE obfervations have been fuggefted by the recent lofs of
a worthy Member of our Literary Department. And as the
omiflion of this firfl opportunity of introducing a practice,
which feems fo laudable, might be afcribed to negligence, or
to an imperfect difcharge of that truft with which the Society
has honoured its Secretaries, I flatter myfelf the Meeting will
hear, with indulgence, the following fhort and fimple account
of the perfon to whom I have alluded.

Account of WILLIAM L 0 THIAN, D. D. fenior Minifter of Canongate,

Dr Lothian. . * . . rr-j'ii

and Member of this Society, was born in the city or Edinburgh
on the 5th of November 1740. Before he was fix years old,
he loft his father Mr GEORGE LOTHIA^N, a refpectable Surgeon ;
and his mother alfo having died when he was an infant, the
charge of his education devolved on other relations.

HE had his academical education in the Univerfity of Edin-
burgh ; and both during the ufual courfe of Literature and
Philofophy, and during his application to the ftudy of Theo-
logy, he was diftinguifhed for diligence and promifing talents.

THE

APPENDIX. 49

THE ftudents inf that Univerfity have long been accuftom- Account of

Dr Lothian.

ed to form themfelves into Societies, in which they canvafs
various fubjects in Literature and Science, with fuch ardour
and liberality of fentiment, as tend greatly to their improve-
ment, both in knowledge and in public fpeaking. Into feveral
of thefe Mr LOTHIAN was admitted, particularly into one
which was well known, at that time, by the name of the Belles-
Lettres Society ; and many of the Members, who at prefent
make a diftinguimed figure in public life, recollect, that he
held an eminent place in their eftimation.

Mr LOTHIAN was licenfed to preach the Gofpel in October
1762, and ordained Minifter of Canongate in Auguft 1764.
As a Preacher, his method of inftruction was fimple and per-
fpicuous, his fentiments rational and manly, and his manner
unaffected and perfuafive.

FOR many years before his death, he was afflicted with an
alarming and painful difeafe ; yet he exerted the activity of his
mind and the remaining vigour of his conftitution with fuch ef-
fect as enabled him to perform all his clerical functions, not only
with propriety, but with apparent eafe. He even found leifure
to write the Hiftory of the United Provinces of the Netherlands, a
part of which work he publifhed in 1780, after having ren-
dered it as perfect as the diftrefTed habit of his conftitution
would permit. Previous to the appearance of this publication,
the Univerfity of Edinburgh had conferred on him the degree
of Doctor in Divinity.

IN his laft illnefs, which was of long duration, and attended
with moft excruciating pain, his patience and fortitude fup-
ported his fpirit in an extraordinary degree. He expired on
the i yth of December 1783, having only completed the 43d
year of his age.

HE was married, in the year 1776, to his coufin Mrs ELIZA-
BETH LOTHIAN, who furvives him, by whom he has left four
fons and one daughter.

(G) As

5o HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

Account of As a member of the Church of Scotland. Dr LOTHIAN fol-

Dr Lothian.

lowed, with firmnefs, that courfe of conduct which feemed to
him to be the moft proper. And the appearances which he
made in the Ecclefiaftical Courts exhibited fuch marks of found
underflanding, and fuch firmnefs of mind, as procured him
great refpecl. Indeed, his contemporaries and younger bre-
thren, among whom his acquaintance was very extenfive, al-
ways repofed the higheft confidence in his judgment, his ho-
nour and his integrity, and fpoke in the ftrongeft terms of the
fincerity and warmth of his friendfhip.

WHEN this Society was honoured with a Royal Charter of
Incorporation, Dr LOTHIAN was naturally thought of as a pro-
per perfon to be inrolled among the number of its Members.
But an early death has deprived us of the advantage of his la-
bours.

BESIDES the above mentioned Hiftory, he publimed two Ser-
mons, which are to be found in the fecond volume of a Collec-
tion, entitled, The Scotch Preacher, printed at Edinburgh in the
year 1776.

II. ACCOUNT

APPENDIX. sl

II. ACCOUNT of Sir GEORGE CLERK-MAXWELL, Baronet.
\_Read by Mr JOHN CLERK, junior, July 5. 1784.]

SIR GEORGE £Z,E#A:-My/ZJFELL of Pennycuik, Baro-
net, one of the Prefidents of the Phyfical Clafs of this So-
ciety, was born at Edinburgh on the laft day of October 1715.
He was the fourth fon of Sir JOHN CLERK of Pennycuik, one of
the Barons of Exchequer in Scotland : His mother was a
daughter of Sir JAMES INGLIS of Cramond.

His more early ftudies were carried on at the Univerfity of
Edinburgh, under the eye of his father, who was himfelf a
man of letters, and from whom he appears very early to have
caught a ftrong tafle for Natural Hiftory, Antiquities and the
Theory of Commerce, particularly in fo far as thefe branches of
knowledge related to his own country. He afterwards went to
Leyden, where he rimmed his ftudies under the immediate in-
fpection of the celebrated BOERHAAVE, who had been the
friend of his father ; and, before his return home, he vifited
Several parts of France and Germany.

AFTER fettling in his native country, his turn of mind led
him to ftudy, with great diligence, the commercial interefts of
Scotland, and to be zealous and active in promoting them. He
applied himfelf to the introduction and encouragement of va-
rious home-manufactures. In particular, he eftablifhed, at a
confiderable expence to himfelf, the Linen Manufactory at
Dumfries. He likewife fet on foot many different projects for
working lead and copper mines. In thefe laudable under-
takings, the public advantage outweighed with him every other

(G 2) confideration >

52 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

cu*" confideration ; for his fchemes were profecuted frequently to
the detriment of his private fortune.

IN 1755, be addreffed two Letters to the Truftees for Fifhe-
ries, Manufactures and Improvements in Scotland, containing
Obfervations on the common mode of treating Wool in this
country, and fuggefting a more judicious fcheme of manage-
ment. Thefe were publiflied, by direction of that Board, in
1756 : And the method there recommended having been uni-
verfally followed in practice, has been of real advantage to the
public, by improving the quality of Scottifh wool. He like-
wife, in 1761, wrote a paper on the Advantages of Shallow
Plowing, which was read to the Philofophical Society, and is pub- •
limed in the third volume of their EfTays.

IN 1741, Mr CLERK was appointed Lord Treafurer's Re-
membrancer in Exchequer ; and, when the forfeited eftates
were put under the management of Commiffioners in 1752, he
was fixed on as a proper perfon to fill a place at their Board.
In 1760, he was named one of the Truftees for Fifheries, Ma-
nufactures and Improvements : And in 1763, Commiffioner of
the Cuftoms in Scotland.

His conduct in the difcharge of the public trufts thus com-
mitted to him, was fuch as gained him the efteem and confi-
dence of his colleagues. The two Boards of Truftees, in par-
ticular, often committed affairs of importance to his fole 'ma-
nagement ; and he never failed to acquit himfelf to their entire
fatisfaclion. Nor was his ability in their bufinefs more remark-
able than his delicacy : For fo fcrupulous was he, that though
he had juftly acquired confiderable influence at thofe Boards,
he was never fufpecled of having once employed it in improper
endeavours to ferve his perfonal friends. In the courfe of his
duty as a Commiffioner of the Cuftoms, he faithfully improved
every opportunity of doing fervice to the Revenue.

ONE inftance, among many, deferves particular notice, both as
being a proof of the confidence repofed in him by the Board of

Cuftoms,

APPENDIX. 53

Cuftoms, and as a remarkable public event, in which he was, Account of sir

George Clerk.

though not oftenfibly, one of the chief actors. For many years
before 1764, the Ifle of Man had been a fource of^great hurt
to the Revenue, by being under the fovereignty of the family
of ATHOL; as it was exempted from duties, and confequently a
receptacle for all the fmugglers who frequented the well coafl
of Scotland. In 1764, Mr GRENVILLE, who was then Mini-
fter, turned his thoughts towards the means of correcting the
abufes occafioned by the fituation of the ifland, and applied to
the Board of Cuftoms for fuch information as was neceflary to-
wards forming a plan for that purpofe. Mr CLERK was ap-
pointed by the Board to make a furvey of the -fouth-weft coafl,
where the fmugglers from the Ifle of Man landed their goods.
He executed the commiflion with great accuracy, and was foon
after fent for by the Board of Treafury to make his report.
He advifed, that the fovereignty of the ifland fhould be pur-
chafed, and the fame laws extended to it by which the reft of
the Britifh dominions were regulated, as the moft effectual
means of fupprefling the illicit trade. Mr GRENVILLE, from
motives of frugality, was at firft extremely averfe to a purchafe
of the fovereignty. As the public purfe was then extremely
low, and the object: of the purchafe of fo great a value, he pre-
ferred a plan, which, together with fome other regulations, was
to iiicreafe the number of cruifers on the ftation. He had
even gone fo far as to form it into a bill, which he intended to
have laid before Parliament, but was at laft prevailed upon to
give it up, after a perfeverance of feveral months in the inten-
tion ; during which time, Mr CLERK, in many converfations
with him on the fubject, laboured to convince him, that, with-
out being adequate to its end, it would have loaded the public
with a much greater expence than the fum neceflary to pur-
chafe the fovereignty. At laft, Mr CLERK'S plan was followed,
in almoft every eflential particular, by Adminiftration, and it has
been attended with the moft beneficial confequences. The

fmuggling

54 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

Account of sir fmuggling trade, though it ftill fubfifts, is now confined ta
thofe who are poflefTed of extenfive capitals ; whereas, before
this aft of Parliament, every farmer's fervant who could
purchafe half a cafk of fpirits, was engaged for his mare. The
confequence is, that the whole inhabitants on the fouth-wefl
coaft, who had followed fcarcely any other employment than this
pernicious traffic, to the entire neglecl of their hufbandry and
manufactures, now earn their fubfiftence by a more honefl ap-
plication of their induftry. The face of the country, which
formerly never could raife a fufficient quantity of grain to fup-
port its own inhabitants, is totally changed, and every year it
affords a plentiful fupply to the neighbouring counties.

Mr CLERK was well acquainted with every branch of Natu-
ral Hiftory. To Mineralogy he had paid particular attention,
from its immediate connection with his mining operations.
His knowledge of Geography was fo full and accurate, that he
could defcribe, from memory, almoft any city or remarkable
place in the known world.

HE was likewife a fkilful engineer and draughtfman, as ap-
pears from various roads, bridges, and other public works, in
this country, executed under his direction, or on plans which
he delineated. Nor were his talents in defigning confined to
this more mechanical fpecies of drawing. He could feize and
delineate, with uncommon fpirit, every ludicrous expreflion of
character ; and his drawings in this line are in great requeft
with the curious. His mind had likewife a bent to the army;
which, however, was never gratified by adlion, excepting for
a few months during the rebellion in 1745. At that time, he
joined a military aflbciation of gentlemen, named the York/hire
Hunters, who attended the royal army ; and he was, on differ-
ent occafions, employed by the Duke of CUMBERLAND, (who
knew him well) and, in particular, to conduct the forces to the
proper ground for opening the fiege of Carlifle.

Mr

APPENDIX. 55

Mr CLERK had an excellent tafte for the fine arts, and was
felicitous to encourage them. As one inftance of this, he had
the principal concern in eftablifhing and procuring an endow-
ment for the drawing- fchool in the Univerfity of Edinburgh,
where twenty pupils are inftructed gratis in the art of defigning.
Thefe are felected from among fuch young people, of either
fex, as give figns of genius, who are deflined to apply to thofe
profeflions in which a {kill in that art is requifite. This infti-
tution has contributed more than any other circumftancc, to
the great improvement of ornamental manufactory, which this
country has made during the laft twenty years. And whoever
recollects the old patterns of carpet, damafk, gauze, and other
manufactures of that fort, and compares them with thofe of
the prefent day, muft allow the fuperior elegance of defign
now exhibited in thofe productions, and which may reafonably
be afcribed, in a great meafure, to the happy effects produced by
the inftitution we have mentioned.

HE married, at a very early period of life, his coufin-german
DOROTHY CLERK-MAXWELL, heirefs of Middlebie in Dum-
fries-ftiire, by whom he had fix fons and feven daughters, of
whom only two fons and two daughters furvived him. He
fucceeded to his elder brother Sir JAMES CLERK, in the title of
Knight Baronet, in the year 1783.

DURING the latter years of his life, his conftitution and fpi-
rits fuffered many fevere fhocks from family misfortunes. He
loft, within a mort time, three fons, a daughter, and a grandfon,
all of whom had arrived at years of maturity, and promifed to
be the comfort of his old age. Of thefe, his third fon GEORGE,
who had been fome years at the Bar, died in 1776. WILLIAM,
his fifth, a Lieutenant in the ift regiment of foot ; ROBERT,
his fixth, a Lieutenant in the 56th, and GEORGE CRAIGIE
younger of Glendoick, his grandfon, a Captain in the 4oth regi-
ment, all perifhed in the fervice of their country, within the
period of a few months. The laft mentioned of thefe, in the

end

56 HISTORY of the SOCIETT.

Account of sir end of 178 1, was killed at the ftorm of New London, juft as he
had mounted the rampart j ROBERT died at Gibraltar, about
the fame time; and WILLIAM was killed at the fiege of St
Chriftopher's, in the beginning of 1782. Thefe four young gen-
tlemen were all of the moft promifing expectations ; and it is
rarely that one family fuftains fuch accumulated misfortunes.
Sir GEORGE'S daughter died of grief for the lofs of her brothers
and nephew. In addition to thefe calamities, the moft acute bo-
dily pains gradually wafted his conftitution. He bore all his di-
ftrefTes with unfhaken fortitude to the laft, and attended to the
duties of the public Boards of which he was a Member, with
his wonted affiduity and perfeverance, till within a few days of
his death, which happened on the 2 pth of January 1784. It
will be fortunate for his country, if many are left behind him,
as fincerely attached to its welfare, and as active and diiinter-
efted in promoting it.

III. ACCOUNT

APPENDIX. 57

III. ACCOUNT of MATTHEW STEWART, D. D.
[Read by Mr JOHN PLATFAIR, April 3. 1786.]

THE Reverend Dr MATTHEW STEWART, late Pro-
feflbr of Mathematics in the Univerfity of Edinburgh,
was the fon of the Reverend Mr DUGALD STEWART, Minifter
of Rothfay in the Ifle of Bute, and was born at that place in
the year 1717. After having finifhed his courfe at the gram-
mar-fchool, being intended by his father for the Church, he
was fent to the Univerfity of Glafgow, and was entered there
as a ftudent in 1734. His academical ftudies were profecuted
with diligence and fuccefs ; and he was fo happy as to be par-
ticularly diftinguilhed by the friendfhip of Dr HUTCHESON
and Dr SIM SON. With the latter, indeed, he foon became very
intimately connected ; for though it is faid, that his predilection
for the Mathematics did not inftantly appear on his application
to the fludy of that fcience, yet the particular direction of his
talents was probably obferved by his mafter before it was per-
ceived by himfelf. Accordingly, after being the pupil of Dr
SIMSON, he became his friertd ; and during all the time that
he remained at the Univerfity of Glafgow, purfuing the ftudies
of Philofophy and Theology/ he lived in the clofeft intimacy
with that excellent Mathematician, and was inftructed by him
in, what might not improperly be called, the arcana of the an-
cient Geometry. That fcience was yet involved in fbme de-
gree of myftery ; for though the extent of its difcoveries was
nearly afcertained, its analyfis, or method of inveftigation, was
but imperfectly underftood, and feemed inadequate to the dif-

(H) coverics

58 HISTORY of the SOCIETT.

coveries which had been made by it. The learning and genius

Dr Stewart. J

of VIVIANI, FERMAT,HALLEY,and of other excellent Mathema-
ticians, had already been employed in removing this difficulty ;
but their efforts had not been attended with complete fuccefs.
Dr SIMSON was now engaged in perfecting what they had begun,
and in rending the encroachments, which he conceived the mo-
dern analyfis to be making upon the ancient. With this view,
he had already publimed a treatife of Conic Sections, and
was now preparing a reftoration of the Loci Plant of APOLLO-
NIUS, in which that work was to refume its original elegance
and fimplicity. To thefe, and other ftudies of the fame kind,
he conftantly directed the attention of his young friend, while
he was delighted, and aftonifhed at the rapidity of his pro-
grefs.

Mr STEWART'S views made it neceffary for him to attend
the lectures in the Univerfity of Edinburgh in 1741 j and that
his mathematical ftudies might fuffer no interruption, he was
introduced by Dr SIMSON to Mr MACLAURIN, who was then
teaching, with fo much fuccefs, both the Geometry and the
Philofophy of NEWTON. Mr STEWART attended his lectures,
and made that proficiency which was to be expected from the
abilities of fuch a pupil, directed by thofe of fo great a matter.
But the modern analyfis, even when thus powerfully recom-
mended, was not able to withdraw his attention from the an-
cient Geometry. He kept up a regular correfpondence with
Dr SIMSON, giving him an account of his progrefs, and of His
difcoveries in Geometry, which were now both numerous and
important, and receiving in return many curious communica-
tions with refpect to the Loci Plant, and the Porifms of EUCLID.
Thefe laft formed the moft intricate and paradoxical fubject in
the hiftory of the ancient Mathematics. Every thing concern-
ing them, but the name, had periftaed. PAPPUS ALEXANDRINUS
has made mention of three books of Porifms written by EU-
CLID, and has given an account of what they contained ; but

this

APPENDIX. 59

this account has fuffered fo much from the injuries of time,
that the fenfe of one propofition only is complete. There was
no diagram to direct the Geometer in his refearches, nor any
general notion of the fubject, or of the form of the propofitions,
to ferve as a rule for his conjectures. The taflc, therefore, of re-
ftoring thefe ancient books, which DrSiMsoN now impofed on
himfelf, exceeded infinitely the ordinary labours of the Critic
or the Antiquary ; and it was only by uniting the learning and
diligence of thefe two characters, with the fkill of a profound
Geometer, that he was at laft fuccefsful in this difficult under-
taking. He had begun it as early as the year 1727, but feems
to have communicated the whole progrefs of his difcoveries to
Mr STEWART alone.

WHILE the fecond invention of Porifms, to which more ge-
nius was perhaps required than to the firft difcovery of them,
employed Dr SIMSON, Mr STEWART purfued the fame fubject
in a different, and new direction. In doing fo, he was led to
the difcovery of thofe curious and interefting propofitions, which
were publifhed, under the title of General Theorems, in 1 746.
They were given without the demonftrations ; but did not fail
to place their Difcoverer at once among the Geometers of the
firft rank. They are, for the moft part, Porifms, though Mr
STEWART, careful not to anticipate the difcoveries of his friend,
gave them no other name than that of Theorems. They are
among the moft beautiful, as well as moft general propofitions
known in the whole compafs of Geometry, and are perhaps only
equalled by the remarkable Locus to the circle in the fecond book
of APOLLONIUS, or by the celebrated theorem of Mr COTES.
The firft demonftration of any considerable number of them, is
that which was lately communicated to this Society *, though I
believe there are few Mathematicians, into whofe hands they
have fallen, whofe fkill they have not often exercifed. The unity
which prevails among them is a proof, that a fingle, though ex-

(H 2) tenfive

* By the Reverend Dr SMALL.

60 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

tenfive view, guided Mr STEWART in the difcovery of them
all. It feems probable, that, while he aimed at extending Geo-
metry beyond the limits it had reached with the ancients, he
had begun to confider the Locus ad quatuor rettas, beyond which
their analyfis had not reached. With this view, he, no doubt,
thought of extending the hypothefes of that problem to their
utmoft generality ; that is, to any number of perpendiculars
drawn to an equal number of lines, and to any power what-
ever of thefe perpendiculars. In doing this, he could not fail
to meet with many curious porifms ; for a porifm is nothing
elfe than that particular cafe, when the data of a problem are fo
related to one another, as to render it indefinite, or capable
of innumerable folutions. Thefe cafes, which rarely occur,
except in the conftruclion of very general and complicated
problems, mud always intereft a Geometer, becaufe they trace
out the divifions of his fubjecT:, and are ufually diftinguifhed
by an elegance and fimplicity peculiar to themfelves. Such, ac-
cordingly, were the propofitions which Mr STEWART now com-
municated to the world. He fupprefled his inveftigations, how-
ever, which were geometrical, and which, if given with all the
precifion required by the forms of the ancient Geometry,
would probably have occupied feveral volumes.

THE hiftory of thefe geometrical difcoveries has led us to
neglect the order of time. For Mr STEWART, while engaged
in them, had entered into the Church, and, through the patro-
nage of the Earl of BUTE and the Duke of ARGYLE, had ob-
tained the living of Rofeneath. It was in that retired and ro-
mantic fituation, that he difcovered the greater part of the pro-
pofitions that have juft been mentioned. There, alfo, he ufed
to receive the vifits of his friend Mr MELVIL, whofe ingenious
obfervations in the Phyfical and Literary EJJays, give us caufe to
regret that he was fo early taken from the world of fcience *.

IN

* Obfervations on Light and Colours, Phyf. and Lit. Eflays, vol. ii. art. 4.

APPENDIX. 61

IN the fummer of 1746, the Mathematical Chair in the Uni-
verfity of Edinburgh became vacant by the death of Mr MAC-
LA UR IN. The General Theorems had not yet appeared ; Mr
STEWART was known only to his friends ; and the eyes of the
public were naturally turned on Mr STIRLING, who then re-
fided at Leadhills, and who was well known in the mathemati-
cal world. He, however, declined appearing as a candidate for
the vacant chair j and feveral others were named, among whom
was Mr STEWART. In the end of this year, the General Theo-
rems were publifhed, and gave to their Author a decided fupe-
riority above all the other candidates. He was accordingly
elected ProfeiTor of Mathematics in the Univerfity of Edin-
burgh, in the beginning of September 1747.

THE duties of this office gave a turn fomewhat different to
his mathematical purfuits, and led him to think of the moft
fimple and elegant means of explaining thofe difficult propofi-
tions, which were hitherto only acceffible to men deeply verfed
in the modern analyfis. In doing this, he was purfuing the ob-
ject which, of all others, he moft ardently wifhed to attain, viz.
the application of Geometry to fuch problems as the alge-
braic calculus alone had been thought able to refolve. His fo-
lution of KEPLER'S problem was the firft fpecimen of this
kind which he gave to the world ; and it was impoffible to have
produced one more to the credit of the method he followed, or
of the abilities with which he applied it. When the Aftrono-
mer, from whom that problem takes its name, difcovered the
elliptical motion of the planets, and their equable defcription
of areas round the fun, he reduced the problem, of computing
the place of a planet for a given time, to that of drawing a
line through the focus of an ellipfe, that mould divide the area
of the femi-ellipfe in a given ratio. It was foon found, that
this problem did not admit of an accurate folution ; and that
no more was to be expected, than an eafy and exact approxima-
tion. In this, ever fince the days of KEPLER, the Mathema-
ticians

62 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

ticians of the firft name had been engaged, and the utmoft re-
fources of the integral calculus had been employed. Exit though
many excellent folutions had been given, there was none of
them at once direct in its method and fimple in its principles.
Mr STEWART was fo happy as to attain both thefe objects.
He founds his folution on a general property of curves, which,
though very fimple, had perhaps never been obferved ; and
by a moft ingenious application of that property, he mows
how the approximation may be continued to any degree
of accuracy, in a feries of refults which converge with prodigi-
ous rapidity. Whoever examines this folution will be aftonifh-
ed to find a problem brought down to the level of elementary
Geometry, which had hitherto feemed to require the finding of
fluents and the reverfion of feries ; he will acknowledge the rea-
fonablenefs of whatever confidence Mr STEWART may be here-
after found to place in thofe fimple methods of inveftigation,
which he could conduct with fo much ingenuity and fuccefs ; and
will be convinced, that the folution of a problem, though the
moft elementary, may be the leaf! obvious, and, though the eafieft
to be underftood, may be the moft difficult to be difcovered.

THIS folution appeared in the fecond volume of the Eflays
of the Philofophical Society of Edinburgh, for the year 1756.
In the firft volume of the fame Collection, there are fome
other propofitions of Mr STEWART'S, which are an extenfion of
a curious theorem in the fourth book of PAPPUS. They have
a relation to the fubjecl of porifms, and one of them forms the
pift of Dr SIMSON'S Refloration. They are befides very beau-
tiful propofitions, and are demonftrated with all the elegance
and fimplicity of the ancient analyfis.

IT has been already mentioned, that Mr STEWART had form-
ed the plan of introducing into the higher parts of mixed Ma-
thematics the ftrict and fimple form of ancient demonftration.
The profecution of this plan produced the Tratts Phyftcal and
Mathematical^ which were publiflied in 1761. In the firft of

thefe,

APPENDIX. 63

thefe, Mr STEWART lays down the doctrine of centripetal
forces, in a feries of propofitions, demonftrated (if we admit
the quadrature of curves) with the utmoft rigour, and re-
quiring no previous knowledge of the Mathematics, except the
elements of plain Geometry, and of Conic Sections. The good
order of thefe proportions, added to the clearnefs and fimpli-
city of the demonflrations, renders this Tract the beft elementa-
ry treatife of Phyfical Aftronomy that is any where to be
found.

IN the three remaining Traces, our Author had it in view to
determine, by the fame rigorous method, the effect of thofe
forces which difturb the motions of a fecondary planet. From
this he propofed to deduce, not only a theory of the moon, but
a determination of the fun's diftance from the earth. The for-
mer is well known to be the moft difficult fubject to which Ma-
thematics have been applied. Though begun by Sir ISAAC
NEWTON, and explained, as to its principles, with fingular fuc-
cefs ; yet, as to the full detail and particular explanation of each
irregularity, it was left by that great Philofopher, lefs perfect than
any other of his refearches. Succeeding Mathematicians had been
employed about the fame fubject ; the problem of the Three bodies
had been propofed in all its generality, and in as far as regards
the motion of the moon, had been refolved by a direct and ac-
curate approximation. But the intricacy and length of thefe
calculations rendered them intelligible only to thofe, who were
well verfed in the higher parts of the Mathematics. This was
what Dr STEWART propofed to remedy, by giving a theory of
the moon that might depend, if poffible, on Elementary Geo-
metry alone, or which mould, at leaft, be the fimpleft that the
nature of things would allow. The Tracts were deftined to
ferve as the bafis of this investigation. We are not, however,
to imagine, that Dr STEWART intended to proceed in the fame
direct manner that CLAIRAULT, and fome other Geometers,
had done. It is not probable, that he believed this to be with-
in

64 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

Dr Stewart *n *^e power of pure Geometry. His defign undoubtedly was,
to purfue that method of approximation which Sir ISAAC
NEWTON had begun, and which CALLENDRINI, MACHIN and
WALMSLEY had greatly improved; and, by ufing the methods
of Geometry, he hoped to reduce the problem to its ultimate
fimplicity. Such an undertaking was worthy of a great Geo-
meter, and of a Philofopher, who confidered that one of the
chief obftruclions to the advancement of knowledge, is the
difficulty of fimplifying that knowledge, which has already
been acquired. We muft regret, therefore, that the decline of
Dr STEWART'S health, which began foon after the publication
of the Tracts, did not permit him to purfue this investigation.
THE other objecT: of the Tracts was to determine the diftance
of the fun, from his effect in difturbing the motions of the
moon. The approach of the tranfit of Venus, which was to
happen in 1761, had turned the attention of Mathematicians
to the folution of this curious problem. But when it was
confidered, of how delicate a nature the obfervations were from
which that folution was to be deduced, and to how many acci-
dents they were expofed, it was natural, "'that fome attempt
fhould be made to afcertain the dimenfions of our fyftem, by
means lefs fubjecl to difappointment. Such accordingly was
the defign of Dr STEWART; and his enquiries into the lunar
irregularities had furnifhed him with the means of accom-
plifhing it.

THE theory of the compofition and refolution of forces
enables us to determine what part of the folar force is employ-
ed in difturbing the motions of the moon ; and, therefore,
could we meafure the inftantaneous effect of that force, or the
number of feet by which it accelerates or retards the moon's
motion in a fecond, we fhould be able to determine how
many feet the whole force of the fun would make a body,
at the diftance of the moon, or of the earth, defcend in a fe-
cond, and, confequently, how rmich the earth is, in every in-

ftant,

APPENDIX. 65

ftant turned out of its rectilineal courfe. Thus, the curvature
of the earth's orbit, or, which is the fame thing, the radius
of that orbit, that is, the diftance of the fun from th| earth,
would be determined. But the fact is, that the inftantaneous
effects of the fun's difturbing force are too minute to be mea-
fured ; and that it is only the effect of that force, continued
for an entire revolution, or fome confiderable portion of a re-
volution, which Aftronomers are able to obferve.

THERE is yet a greater difficulty which embarraffes the folution
of this problem. For, as it is only by the difference of the forces
exerted by the fun on the earth and on the moon, that the mo-
tions of the latter are difturbed, the farther off the fun is fup-
pofed, the lefs will be the force by which he difturbs the
moon's motions ; yet that force will not diminifli beyond a
fixed limit, and a certain difturbance would obtain, even if the
diftance of the fun were infinite. Now the fun is actually
placed at fo great a diftance, that all the difturbances, which
he produces on the lunar motions are very near to this
limit, and therefore a fmall miftake in eftimating their quanti-
ty, or in reafoning about them, may give the diftance of the
fun infinite, or even impoffible. But all this did not deter Dr
STEWART from undertaking the folution of the problem, with
no other affiftance than that which Geometry could afford. In-
deed, the idea of fuch a problem had firft occurred to Mr MACHIN,
1 who, in his book on the Laws of the Moon's Motion, has juft
mentioned it, and given the refult of a rude calculation, (the
method of which he does not explain) which affigns 8" for
the parallax of the fun. He made ufe of the motion of
the nodes, but Dr STEWART confidered the motion of the
apogee, or of the longer axis of the moon's orbit, as the
irregularity' beft adapted to his purpofe. It is well known,
that the orbit of the moon is not immoveable, but that,
in confequence of the difturbing force of the fun, the long-
er axis of that orbit has an angular motion, by which it

(I) goes

66 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

Soes back about three degrees in every lunation, and completes
an entire revolution in nine years nearly. This motion, though
very remarkable and eafily determined, has the fame fault, in
refpe<5t of the prefent problem, that was afcribed to the other
irregularities of the moon ; for a very fmall part of it only de-
pends on the parallax of the fun; and of this Dr STEWART,
as will afterwards appear, feems not to have been perfectly
aware.

THE propofitions, however, which defined the relation be-
tween the fun's diftance and the mean motion of the apo-
gee, were publifhed among the Tracts in 1761. The tranfit
of Venus happened in that fame year : the Aftronomers re-
turned, who had viewed that curious phenomenon from the
mod diftant ftations j and no very fatisfadlory refult was ob-
tained from a comparifon of their obfervations. Dr STEWART
then refolved to apply the principles he had already laid
down; and, in 1763, he publifhed his eflay on the fun's di-
ftance, where the computation being actually made, the paral-
lax of the fun was found to be no more than 6". 9. and his di-
ftance, of confequence, almoft 29875 femidiameters of the
earth*.

A DETERMINATION of the fun's diftance, that fo far exceed-
ed all former eftimations of it, was received with furprife, and
the reafoning on which it was founded was likely to be fubjecl:-
ed to a fevere examination. But, even among Aftronomers, it
was not every one who could judge in a matter of fuch diffi-
cult difcuffion. Accordingly, it was not till about five years
after the publication of the Sun's Diftance, that there appeared
a pamphlet under the title of Four Proportions, intended to
point out certain errors in Dr STEWART'S inveftigation,
which had given a refult much greater than the truth. A
difpute in Geometry was matter of wonder to many, and

perhaps

* About 118,541,428 Englilh miles.

APPENDIX. 67

perhaps of fatisfaction to fome, who envied that fcience the
certainty of its conclufions. On account of fuch, it muft be
obferved, that there are problems fo extremely difficult, that, in
the folution of them, it is poflible only to approximate to the
truth j and that, as in Arithmetic, we neglect thofe fmall frac-
tions, which, though of inconfiderable amount, would exceed-
ingly embarrafs our computations ; fo, in Geometry, it is fome-
times neceflary to reject thofe fmall quantities, which would
add little to the accuracy, and much to the difficulty of the in-
veftigation. In both cafes, however, the fame thing may hap-
pen j though each quantity thrown out may be inconfiderable in
itfelf, yet the amount of them altogether, and their effect on the
lad refult, may be greater than is apprehended. This was jufl
what had happened in the prefent cafe. The problem to be re-
folved is, in its nature, fo complex, and involves the eftimation
of fo many caufes, that, to avoid inextricable difficulties, it is
neceffary to reject fome quantities, as being fmall in comparifon
of the reft, and to reafon as if they had no exiftence. Dr
STEWART, too, it muft be confefTed, had an additional motive
for wifhing to fimplify his inveftigation. This was, his refolu-
tion, to employ in it no other method than the Geometrical,
which, however excellent in other refpects, is inferior to Alge-
bra, for the conducting of very complicated reafonings. The
fkill of this moft profound and experienced Geometer, could
not remedy that defect ; and he was reduced to the neceffity of
rejecting quantities, which were confiderable enough to have a
great effect on the laft refult. An error was thereby introduced,
which, had it not been for certain compenfations, would have
become immediately obvious, by giving the fun's diftance near
three times as great as that which has been mentioned.

THE Author of the pamphlet, referred to above, was the firft
who remarked the dangerous nature of thefe fimplifications,
and who attempted to eftimate the error to which they had

(I 2) given

68 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

Siven rife- In tllls laft> however, he has not completely fuc-
ceeded ; and that, too, by committing a miftake fnnilar to that
which he cenfured in Dr STEWART, and by rejecting quanti-
ties not lefs than fome which he retained. He obferved, how-
ever, what produced the compenfation that has been taken no-
tice of, viz. the immenfe variation of the fun's diftance, which
correfponds to a very fmall variation of the motion of the
moon's apogee. It is doubtful, whether Dr STEWART was
fully apprifed of this circumftance j becaufe the geometrical
method, elegant and beautiful as it is, rarely prefents a gene-
ral view of the relations, which the magnitudes it treats of
bear to one another ; and many of thefe relations may, there-
fore, efcape the moft profound Geometer, which an Algebraift,
of more ordinary abilities, would not have failed to difcover.

THERE are other of this Author's ftriclures, which we can-
not admit as juft, but which we will not attempt here, either
to enumerate or refute. Yet it were doing great injuftice to
his remarks not to acknowledge, that, befides being juft in the
points already mentioned, they are, every where, ingenious,
and written with much modefty and good temper. The Au-
thor, who concealed his name, and permits it now, for the
firft time, to be publicly mentioned, was Mr DAWSON, a fur-
geon at Sudbury in Yorkfhire ; a man, as it mould feem, who
might have enjoyed more of the fame, had he been lefs fatis-
fied with the pofTeffion of knowledge.

A SECOND attack was foon after this made on the Sun's Di-
Jlancc, by Mr LANDEN j but by no means with the fame good
temper which has been remarked in the former. He fancied
to himfelf errors in Dr STEWART'S inveftigation, which have
no exiftence ; he exaggerated thofe that were real, and feemed
to triumph in the difcovery of them with unbecoming exulta-
tion. If there are any fubjedls on which men may be expected
to reafon difpaflionately, they are certainly the properties of

number

APPENDIX. 69

number and extension ; and whatever pretexts Moralifts or Di- Account of

. . . Dr Stewart.,

vines may have for abufing one another, Mathematicians can
lay claim to no fuch indulgence. The afperity of Mr LAN-
DEN'S animadverfions muft not, therefore, pafs uncenfured,
though it be united with found reafoning and accurate difcuf-
fion. The error into which Dr STEWART had fallen, though
before taken notice of by Mr DAWSON, was firft exactly deter-
mined in the work before us *. But Mr LANDEN, in the zeal
of correction, brings many other charges againft Dr STEWART,
the greater part of which feem to have no good foundation.
Such are his objections to the fecond part of the inveftigation,
where Dr STEWART finds the relation between the difturbing
force of the fun, and the motion of the apfides of the lunar
orbit. For this part, inftead of being liable to objection, is de-
ferving of the greateft praife, fince it refolves, by Geometry
alone, a problem which had eluded the efforts of fome of the
ableft Mathematicians, even when they availed themfelves of
the utmoft refources of the integral calculus. Sir ISAAC NEW-
TON, though he aflumed the difturbing force very near the
truth, computed the motion of the apfides from thence only at
one half of what it amounts to in reality ; and fo, had he been
required, like Dr STEWART, to invert the problem, he would
have committed an error, not merely of a few thoufandth
parts, as the latter is alleged to have done, but would have
brought out a refult double of the truth f. MACHIN and
CALLENDRINI, when commenting on this part of the Prlici-
pia, found a like inconfiftency between their theory and obfer-
vation. Three other celebrated Mathematicians, CLAIRAULT,
D'ALEMBERT and EULER, feparately experienced the fame dif-
ficulties,

* IT is but juftice to remark, that Mr LANDEN had probably never feen Mr DAWSON'S
Proportions at the time his own were published, the whole impreflion of them, almofr,
having been burnt by a fire which confumed the warehoufe where they were lodged.

f Prin. Math. lib. 3. prop. 3.

70 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

ficulties, and were led into an error of the fame magnitude.
It is true, that, on refuming their computations, they found,
that they had not carried their approximations to a fufficient
length, which when they had, at laft, accomplimed, their re-
fults agreed exactly with obfervation. Mr WALMSLEY and
Dr STEWART were, I think, the firft Mathematicians, who,
employing in the folution of this difficult problem, the one the
algebraic calculus, and the other the geometrical method, were
led immediately to the truth ; a circumftance fo much for the
honour of both, that it ought, by no means, to be forgotten. It
was the bufmefs of an impartial critic, while he examined our
Author's reafonings, to have remarked, and to have weighed
thefe confiderations.

WE may add, that the accurate meafurement of the fun's di-
ftance, and the complete theory of the moon's motions, with
which fcience has been enriched, fince the time to which we now
refer, fufficiently vindicate the principle of Dr STEWART'S inve-
ftigation, and (how how much reafon he had to expect, that the
former might be inferred from the latter with confiderable ex-
aclnefs. M. MAYER, from one of the lunar irregularities, com-
putes the fun's parallax to be 7". 8, nearly a mean between the
parallax already mentioned, and that which has been deduced
from the tranfit of Venus in i 769 *.

ON the whole, therefore, while it muft be acknowledged,
that Dr STEWART'S determination of the fun's diftance is, by
no means, free from error, it may fafely be afTerted, that it con-
tains a great deal which will always intereft Geometers, and al-
ways be admired by them. Few errors in fcience are redeemed
by the difplay of fo much ingenuity, and what is more fingu-
lar, of fo much found reafoning. The inveftigation is every
where elegant, and will, probably, be long regarded as a fpeci-
men of the mod arduous enquiry which has been attempted by
mere Geometry ; at the fame time, the miflake into which the
geometrical method has betrayed this great Mathematician, will

ferve

* Theoria Lunue, fetf. 51.

APPENDIX. 71

ferve as a proof that it is not equal to fuch difficult refearches ;
and that in thofe cafes, efpecially, where approximation is to be
ufed, it is neceflary to facrifice the rigour of the ancient de-
monftration for the accuracy of the modern analyfis.

THE Suns Dijlance was the lad work which Dr STEWART
publifhed ; and though he lived to fee the animadverfions made
on it, that have been taken notice of above, he declined enter-
ing into any controverfy. His difpofition was far from pole-
mical ; and he knew the value of that quiet, which a literary
man mould rarely fuffer his antagonifts to interrupt. He
ufed to fay, that the decifion of the point in queftion was now
before the public ; that, if his investigation was right, it would
never be overturned, and that, if it was wrong, it ought not to
be defended.

A FEW months before he publifhed the Eflay jufl mention-
ed, he gave to the world another work, entitled, Propojitiones
Geometrica More Veterum Demonftratce. This title, I have been
told, was given it by Dr SIMSON, who rejoiced in the publica-
tion of a work fo well calculated to promote the ftudy of the
ancient Geometry. It confifts of a feries of geometrical
theorems, for the moft part, new ; invefligated, firft, by an
analyfis, and afterwards fynthetically demonftrated by the in-
verfion of the fame analyfis. In the former, the propofition to
be inveftigated is fuppofed true ; from thence confequences are
deduced, and the reafoning is carried on till fome confequence
is drawn that is already known to be true. A neceflary con-
nection is thus traced between the propofition that was fuppofed
true, and another that is certainly known to be fo ; and, thus,
an ingenious method is laid down for making the knowledge
of any truth fubfervient to the difcovery of its demonflration.
This method made an important part in the analyfis of the
ancient Geometers ; but few examples of it have been pre-
ferred in their writings, and thofe in the Propofitiones Geometric*?,
are, on that account, the more valuable.

Dr

72 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

•

^r STEWART'S conftant ufe of the geometrical analyfis had
put him in poffeflion of many valuable proportions, which did
not enter into the plan of any of the works that have been •
enumerated. Of thefe, not a few have found a place in the
writings of Dr SIMSON, where they will for ever remain, to mark
the friendship of thefe two Mathematicians, and to evince the
efteem which Dr SIMSON entertained for the abilities of his pupil.
In the preface to his Conic Sections, in which he acknowledges,
that all the theorems, diflinguifhedby the letter x, were commu-
nications from Dr STEWART, he calls him, " egregix indolis et
" peritise virum ;" and in that to his Porifms, after pointing
out many proportions that had been fuggefted by PAPPUS,
and a few that had been adopted from, PERM AT, he adds," Alia
" quasdam adjecta funt quorum praecipua mihi propofuit, et
" aliquorum conftrudlionem dedit eximius Geometra MAT-
" THJEUS STEWART, a quo materia hsec jam egregie eft ex-
" culta, poftea, ut fpero, multum excolenda."

THERE is alfo a theorem of Dr STEWART'S publifhed in Dr
SIMSON'S edition of EUCLID'S Data, which I take notice of,
chiefly as it affords me an opportunity of paying a tribute to the
memory of a man, whofe high rank did not prevent him from
cultivating a fcience, which it enabled him to patronize. In the
note, where Dr SIMSON acknowledges that communication, he
mentions another theorem, alfo publifhed among the Data ',
" Thefe proportions (fays he) were communicated to me by
" two excellent Geometers, the firft by the Earl STANHOPE, the
" fecond by Dr MATTHEW STEWART."

To this Nobleman, for whofe abilities and worth Dr STEW-
ART entertained the higheft refpect, he made a vifit in
the courfe of a tour through England, foon after the pub-
lication of the Effay on the Sun's Diflance, and received
from him very fingular marks of attention. At a later pe-
riod, when he lamented the lofs of Dr SIMSON, he had the

confolation

APPENDIX. 73

confolation to fee a lading monument raifed to the fame of his
friend, by the munificence of Lord STANHOPE, who, by the
publication of Dr SIMSON'S pofthumous works, has obliged
the - world with a reparation of the moft curious fragment of
the Greek Geometry.

SOON after the publication of the Sun's Dlftance, Dr STEW-
ART'S health began to decline, and the duties of his office be-
came burdenfome to him. In the year 1772, he retired to the
country, where he afterwards fpent the greater part of his life,
and never refumed his labours in the Univerfity. He was,
however, fo fortunate as to have a fon, to whom, though very
young, he could commit the care of them with the greateft con-
fidence. Mr DUGALD STEWART, having begun to give lectures
for his father from the period above mentioned, was elected
joint ProfefTor with him in 1775, and gave an early fpecimen
of thofe abilities, which have not been confined to a fingle
fcience.

AFTER mathematical ftudies (on account of the bad date of
health into which Dr STEWART was now falling) had ceafed to
be his bufinefs, they continued to be his amufement. The
analogy between the circle and hyperbola had been an early ob-
ject of his admiration. The extenfive views which that analo-
gy is continually opening ; the alternate appearance and dif-
appearance of refemblance in the midft of fo much diffimili-
tude, make it an object that aftonifhes the experienced, as well
as the young Geometer. To the confideration of this analogy,
therefore, the mind of Dr STEWART very naturally returned,
when difengaged from other fpeculations. His ufual fuccefs ftill
attended his investigations ; and he has left, among his papers,
fome curious approximations to the areas, both of the circle and
hyperbola. For fome years toward the end of his life, his health
fcarcely allowed him to profecute ftudy even as an amufement.
He died January 23. 1785, at the age of 68.

(K) THE

74 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

habits of ftudy, in a man of original genius, are ob-
jects of curioiity, and deferve to be remembered. Concerning
thofe of Dr STEWART, his writings have made it unneceflary
to remark, that, from his youth, he had been accuftomed to
the mod intenfe, and continued application. In confequence of
this application, added to the natural vigour of his mind, he re-
tained the memory of his difcoveries in a manner that will
hardly be believed. He rarely wrote down any of his invefti-
gations, till it became necefTary to do fo for the purpofe of
publication. When he difcovered any propofition, he would
put down the enunciation with great accuracy, and, on the
fame piece of paper, would conftrudl very neatly the figure to
which it referred. To thefe he trufted for recalling to his
mind, at any future period, the demonftration, or the analyfis,
however complicated it might be. Experience had taught him,
that he might place this confidence in himfelf without any
danger of difappointment j and for this fingular power, he was
probably more indebted to the activity of his invention, than
the mere tenacioufnefs of his memory.

THOUGH he was extremely ftudious, he read few books, and
verified the obfervation of M. D'ALEMBERT, that, of all the
men of letters, Mathematicians read leaft of the writings of
one another. His own inveftigations occupied him fufficient-
ly ; and, indeed, the world would have had reafon to regret the
mifapplication of his talents, had he employed, in the mere ac-
quifition of knowledge, that time which he could dedicate to
works of invention.

IT was his cuftom to fpend the fummer at a delightful re-
treat in Ayrfliire, where, after the academical labours of the
winter were ended, he found the leifure neceflary for the pro-
fecution of his refearches. In his way thither, he frequently
made a vifit to Dr Si MS ON at Glafgow, with whom he had lived
from his youth in the moil cordial and uninterrupted friend-

ihip.

A P P E N'D I X. 75

{hip. It was pleafmg to obferve, in thefe two profound Mathe-
maticians, the moft perfect efteem and affe&ion for each other,
and the moft entire abfence of jealoufy, though no two men
ever trode more nearly in the fame path. The fimilitude of
their purfuits, as it will ever do with men fuperior to envy,
ferved only to endear them to one another. Their fentiments
and views of the fcience they cultivated were nearly the fame ;
they were both profound Geometers ; they equally admired
the ancient Mathematicians, and were equally verfed in their
methods of inveftigation j and they were both apprehenfive,
that the beauty of their favourite fcience would be forgotten
for the lefs elegant methods of algebraic computation*. This
innovation they endeavoured to oppofe ; the one, by reviving
thofe books of the ancient Geometry which were loft ; the
other, by extending that Geometry to the moft difficult enqui-
ries of the moderns. Dr STEWART, in particular, had remark-
ed the intricacies, in which many of the greateft of the modern
Mathematicians had involved themfelves in the application of
the calculus, which a little attention to the ancient Geometry
would certainly have enabled them to avoid. He had ob ferved,
too, the elegant fynthetical demonftrations that, on many oc-
cafions, may be given of the moft difficult propofitions, invefti-
gated by the inverfe method of fluxions. Thefe circumftances
had, perhaps, made a ftronger impreffion than they ought, on
a mind already filled with admiration of the ancient Geometry,
and produced too unfavourable an opinion of the modern ana-
lyfis. But, if it be confefled, that Dr STEWART rated, in any
refpeft too high, the merit of the former of thefe fciences,

(K. 2) this

* ON the reverfe of a miniature picture of Dr SIMSON, now in the pofleflion of Mr
Prof. STEWART, is an infcription, written by Dr MOOR, late Profeflbr of Greek at Glaf-
gow, an intimate friend of Dr SIMSON, and a great admirer of the ancient Geometry:
GEOMETRIAM, SUB TYRANNO BARBARO SAEVA SERVITUTE DIU siyjALENTEM, IN

LIBERTATEM ET DBCCS ANTKipUM VINDICAVIT VNH*.

Account of
Dr Stewart.

76" HISTORT of the SOCIETT.

this may well be excufed in the man whom it had conducted
to the difcovery of the General Theorems, to the folution of KEP-
LER'S Problem, and to an accurate determination of the Suns
diflurbing force. His great modefty made him afcribe to the
method he ufed, that fuccefs which he owed to his own abi-
lities.

DONATIONS

APPENDIX. 77

DONATIONS prefented to the ROYAL SOCIETY of Edinburgh.

[N. B. The numbers refer to the order in which the articles are deposited in the
Mufeum of the Univerfity of Edinburgh.]

By his Grace the Duke of Buccleugh.

The Head, Horns and Bones of the BISON Scoticus, found in
a peat-mofs upon the Duke's eflate in Roxburghshire*
No. i. — 4.

By Dr Alexander Monro.
Thirty-eight coloured Drawings of Birds, of the fouthern he-

mifphere. No. 5. — 42.
The Head and Horns of the Arnee, from Bengal. No. 43.

By the Honourable Lord Dunjinnan.

A painting in oil, of the Head and Horns of an Elk, found in
a marl-pit in Forfarihire. No. 44.

By the Honourable Lord Hailes.

A large Mafs of the Rock at Gibraltar, containing Bones.

No. 45.

The Ear of a Whale, from Greenland. No. 46.
The Head of a Fifh, petrified. No. 47.
The Vertebra of three different fpecies of animals, petrified.

No. 48. 49. 50.
GloJJopetra, belonging to two different fpecies of Shark. No. 51.

52.
Two cruftaceous animals petrified. No. 53. 54.

Three

lions.

78 HISTORY of the SOCIETT.

Lift of Dona- Three different fpecies of Echinus petrified. No. 55. 56. 57.
Four different fpecies of Nautilus petrified. No. 58. — 62.
Six different fpecies of turbinated Shells petrified. No. 63. — 68.
Ten fpecies of turbinated Shells petrified. No. 69. — 78.
Three fpecies of Shells. No. 79. — 8 1 . '
Four fpecies of Madrepore. No. 82. — 85.
Red Coral from the Mediterranean. No. 86.
Six fpecies of Gorgonia. No. 87. — 92.
SPONGIA Aculeata. LIN. No. 93,
OSTREA Folium. LIN. No. 94.
Two Indian Arrows poifoned. No. 95.

By Captain Fairfax of the Navy.
Five fpecies of Fifhes from the Spanifh main. No. 96. — 100.

By the Reverend Dr Boivmaker, Minifter of Dunfe.
Two fpecies of Serpents from Florida. No. 101. 102.

By the Right Honourable Lord Daer.

A collection of Indian Arms, Apparel and Utenfils, from the
South Seas j made during Captain CooKs laft voyage.
No. 103. — 177.

A collection of Indian Arms, Apparel and Utenfils, and of Na-
tural Productions, made in the South Sea iflands, and on the
weft coaft of America, by Mr Anderfon, Surgeon to Captain
Cook. No. 178. — 274.

By the Earl of Hopetoun.

A cabinet of Foffils, containing the following articles :

Fifty-five fpecies and varieties of antique Marbles. No. 275. — 33$.

Six fpecies of Florentine MarBles and other Landfcape Stones.
No. 339.— 344.

Seventeen fpecies and varieties of the Phengites, or antique Ori-
ental Alabafler. No. 345. — 41 1 ,

Thirty

APPENDIX. 79

Thirty-five fpecies and varieties of thofe antique Stones which

are called by the Italians Pietre dure. They all belong to the

filiceous clafs, and to the following genera :
Jafper, Heliotrope, Petrofilex, Sinople, Lazuli, Chalcedony, Agate,

Mocbo, Jafper Agate, Egyptian Pebble, Onyx, Sardonyx, and

Camea.
Nine fpecies of antique Porphyry, Serpentine, and Granite.

No. 539.— 554.

Earths, three fpecies. No. 555. — 557.
Cryftallized Shorls, two fpecies. No. 558. — 565.
Garnets, three fpecies. No. 566. — 569.
Semipellucid Gems, five fpecies. No. 570. — 574.
Steatitical Stones, fix fpecies and varieties. No. 575. — 583*
AmiantuS) two fpecies. No. 584. 585.
Zeolitical Stones, four fpecies. No. 586.- — 598.
Verd d'EcoJ/e, Davila, cat. 2. p. 125. n. 4. No. 599.
Nickel and Cobalt, two fpecies. No. 600. — 605..
Cubical Marcafite. No. 606.
FERRUM Hematites. (3 nigrum, LIN. No. 607.
Grey, black and yellow Ores of Copper. No. 608. — 616.
Eight fpecies and varieties of Lead Ores. No. 617. — 636.
Varieties of Copper Ore. No. 637. — 643.
Varieties of Silver Ores. No. 644. — 660.
A large mafs of green antique Jafper polifhed. No. 66 1.
An Axe of black Whinftone, fuppofed to have been ufed by the

Druids in their facrifices. No. 662.
Petrified Corals from Weft Lothian. No. 663. 664. 665.
An ancient Amulet, called by the vulgar an Adder Stone. No. 666..
Three fpecies of Indian Nuts. No. 667. 668. 669.
Two Goa Stones. No. 670. 671.

By John Macgowan, Efqj Edinburgh.

GORGONIA Norvegica, the great Norway Sea Shrub. No. 672.
CROTALUS Dryinas. LIN. No. 673.

Two

Lift of Dona-
tions. •

8o HIS TORT of the SOCIETY.

Two fpecimens of a large Snake from America. No. 674. 675.
The Roots of an Oak-tree inofculated. No. 676.

By Dr William Cullen.
LACERTA Bullaris. LIN. No. 677.
Four fpecies of Weft India Infeds. No. 678.— 68 1.
Five fpecies of Weft India Serpents. No. 682. — 687.

By Mr James Bruce, Edinburgh.
Two fpecies of Scots Birds preferved. No. 688. 689.

By James Bofwell, Efq; of Auchinleck.
A collection of Weft India Animals :
Infects, nine fpecies. No. 690. — 698.
Lizards, eight fpecies. No. 699. — 707.
Serpents, twelve fpecies. No. 708. — 721.

By Mr James Dickfon, Bookfeller, Edinburgh.
Fourteen Coins of Silver and five of Copper, chiefly Scottifh.

By Dr Samoilowitz of St Peterfburgh.

Memoire fur la Pejle qui en 1771 ravagea F Empire de RuJJie: Par
M. De Samoiloiuitz : And four other fmall publications, rela-
tive to the fame fubjecl.

i
By Mr Thomas Hutchins.

Experiments for afcertaining the point of Mercurial Congelation.
8vo. Lond. 1784.

By Dr Hutton of Woolwich.
Mathematical Tables. 8vo. Lond. 1 785.
An authentic Narrative of the DifTenfions and Debates in the
Royal Society of London. 8vo. 1784.

By

Lift of Dona-
tions.

APPENDIX. 81

By Dr Blane.
Obfervations on the Difeafes of Seamen. 8vo. Land. 1785.

By Dr Robert Boyd,

Judicial Proceedings before the High Court of Jufticiary, &c .
4to. Edin. 1779.

By H. F. A. De Rou/el, M. D. and Profeflor of Medi-
cine in the Univerfity of Caen.

Diflertatio de variis Herpetum Speciebus, &c . 8vo. Cad. 1 779.
Recherches fur la petite Verole. 8vo. A Caen 1781.

By Joannes-Francifcus Cofte, &c.

De Antiqua Medico-Philofophia Orbi novo adaptanda, Oratio
habita in Comitiis Univerfitatis Virginiae : Jan. 12. 1782.

By M. Dionis du Sejour, of the Royal Academy of

Sciences of Paris, fyc.

Fraite Analytique des Mouvemens apparent des Corps Celebes.
Tom. i. 410. Paris 1786.

By M. VAbbe Tre/an, (a Rouen.)

EJJat fur la Fluids Elefirique, par feu M. le Comte de Tre/an,
(/on Pere.) 2 toms. 8vo. *

(L) LI S

* Other Donations have been received, a Lift of which is referved for Vol.. II.

APPENDIX. 83

January i. 1788.

LIST of nil the MEMBERS or FELLOWS of the ROYAL SOCIETY
of Edinburgh.

I.

MEMBERS upon the Lift at the firft meeting of the PHYSICAL
CLASS, Nov. 3. and of the LITERARY CLASS, Nov. 17. 1783.

[JV. B. * prefixed denote" a Member formerly of the PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,
and f a Member now deceafed. P added denotes of the PHYSICAL CLASS, and L of
the LITERARY CLASS.]

i. RESIDENT MEMBERS.

«

A.
Alexander Abercrombie, Efq; Advocate. L.

* "James Anderfon^ LL. D. P.

B.

* Mr Benjamin Bell, Surgeon. P.

* JrfePb Black, Al. D. Profeffor of Medicine and Chemiftry in

the Univerfity of Edinburgh. P.
Hugh Blair ', D. D. Emeritus Profeflbr of Rhetoric and Belles

Lettres in the Univerfity of Edinburgh. L.
Robert Blair, Efq; Advocate. L.
Jobn Bruce, M. A. Profeflbr of Logic in the Univerfity of

Edinburgh. L.
\ Robert Bruce, Efq; of Kennet, one of the Senators of the

College of Juflice. P.
George Buchan-Hepburn, Efq; Advocate. L.

(L 2) Hay

Refident Mem-
bers.

84 HISTORY of the SOCIETT.

C.

Hay Campbell^ Efq; now Lord Advocate. L.
John Campbell^ Efq; of Stonefield, one of the Senators of the
College of Juftice. L.

* f Sir George Clerk-Maxwell, Baronet, of Pennycuik. P.

John Clerk) Efq; now Sir John Clerk , Baronet, of Pennycuik. P.
John Clerk) Efq; of Eldin. P.
William Craig, Efq; Advocate. L.

* f Andrew Crojb'ie, Efq; Advocate. P.

* Henry Ctillen, M. D. Phyfician to the Royal Infirmary. P.
Robert Cullen, Efq; Advocate. Z,.

* William Cullen, M. D. Profeflbr of the Praftice of Phyfic in

the Univerfity of Edinburgh. P.

D.

Sir John Dalrymple> Baronet, one of the Barons of the Exche-
quer. P.
Andrew Dalzel, M. A. Profeflbr of Greek in the Univerfity

of Edinburgh. L.

John DavidfoH) Efq; Clerk to the Signet. Z..
f Sir Alexander Dick) Baronet, of Preftonfield. P.

* Andrew Duncan, M. D. Phyfician to his Royal Highnefs the

Prince of Wales.

Right Hon. Henry Dtindas, now Treafurer of the Navy. L.
f Right Hon. Robert Dundas of Arnifton, Lord Prefident of the
Court of Seflion. L. ||

Robert DundaS) Efq; Advocate, now his Majefty'.s Solicitor-
General of Scotland. L.

E.

James Edgar , Efq; Commiflioner of the Cufloms. Z,.
David Erjkine, Efq; Clerk to the Signet. L.
Colonel James Edmond/loune) of Newton.

Adam

j| Died Dec. 13. 1787, after the Lift of Deceafed Members was printed. See above, p. 46.

APPENDIX. 85

V

77 Refident Mem*

bers.

* A 'Jam Fergufon, LL. D. Emeritus ProfefTor of Philofophy in

the Univerfity of Edinburgh. L.
George FerguJ/bn, Efq; Advocate, one of the Commiflaries of

Edinburgh. P.

James FerguJJon, Efq; of Pitfour, Advocate. L,
Major-General John Fletcher- Campbell, L.
Sir William Forbes, Baronet, of Pitfligo. L.
Major Andrew Frafer. P.

G.

* John Gardiner, M. D. Edinburgh. P.

Cofmo Gordon, Efq; one of the Barons of Exchequer. L.

* Sir James Grant, Baronet, of Grant. P.

William Greenjield, M. A. Profeflbr of Rhetoric in the Univer-
fity of Edinburgh. P.

* James Gregory, M. D. ProfefTor of the Theory of Phyfic in

the Univerfity of Edinburgh. P.
Right Hon. John Grieve, Lord Provoft of Edinburgh. L.

H.

Alexander Hamilton, M. D. Profeflbr of Midwifery in the Uni-
verfity of Edinburgh. P.

* James Hamilton, M. D. Phyfician to the Royal Infirmary. P.
f Robert Hamilton, D. D. Emeritus Profeflbr of Divinity in the

Univerfity of Edinburgh. L.

Robert Henry, D. D. one of the Minifters of Edinburgh. L.
John Hill, "A. M. now LL. D. Profeflbr of Humanity in the

Univerfity of Edinburgh. L.

* Francis Home, M. D. Profeflbr of Medicine and of Materia

Medica in the Univerfity of Edinburgh. P.
George Home, Efq; one of the Clerks of the Court of Seifion. L.
John Home, Efq; of KildufF. L.

John

85 HISTORY of the SOCIE7T.

Mem- * .j- j^ fj0pe^ M> D< p-. R. s. LoND. King's Botanift in Scotland,
and Profeflbr of Medicine and of Botany in the Univerfi-
ty of Edinburgh. P.
David Hume, Efq; Advocate, and now Profeflbr of Scots Law

in the Univerfity of Edinburgh. L.
Andrew Hunter, D. D. Profeflbr of Divinity in the Univerfity

of Edinburgh. L.

•\ James Hunter-Blair, Efq; afterwards Sir James Hunter-Blair^,
Baronet. L.

* James Hutton, M. D. Edinburgh. P.

K.

* Alexander Keith, Efq; Clerk to the Signet. P.

L.
j- William Lothian, D. D. Jen'wr Minifter of Canongate. L.

M.

* Allan Maconochie, Efq; Advocate, Profeflbr of Public Law in

the Univerfity of Edinburgh. L.

* John Macgoivati, Efq; P.

John Macfarlan, D. D. Minifter of Canongate, and Almoner

to his Majefty. L.
Henry Mackenzie, Efq; L.
John Maclattrin, Efq; Advocate ; now one of the Senators of

the College of Juftice. L.
William Macleod-Bannatyne, Efq; Advocate. L.
Right Hon. 'Thomas Mille r of Barfkhnming, Lord Juftice Clerk ;

now Lord Prefident of the Court of Seflion. L.

* William Miller, Efq; of Glenlee, Advocate. L.

Right Hon. James Montgomery, Lord Chief Baron of Ex-
chequer. L.

* Alexander Monro, M. D. Profeflbr of Medicine, and of Anato-

my and Surgery in the Univerfity of Edinburgh. P.

William

APPENDIX. 87

\

William Morehead, Efq; L. Jjtaiii«5

* Jo/fo Morthland, Efq; Advocate. Z»

N.
William Nairne, Efq; of Dunfinnan, Advocate ; now one of

the Senators of the College of Juftice. L.
Fletcher Norton, Efq; one of the Barons of Exchequer.

P.

* John Playfair, M. A. now ProfefTor of Mathematics in the

Univerfity of Edinburgh. P.
John Pringle, Efq; Advocate. L.
Mark Pringle, Efq; Advocate. L.

R.

David Rae, Efq; of Efkgrove, one of the Senators of the

College of Juftice. L.
James Robertfon, D. D. Profeflbr of Oriental Languages in the

Univerfity of Edinburgh. L.
William Robert/on, D. D. Principal of the Univerfity of Edin-

burgh. L.
William Robertfon, Efq; Advocate. L.

* John Robifon, M. A. Profeflbr of Natural Philofophy in the

Univerfity of Edinburgh. P.
Adam Rolland, Efq; Advocate. L.

* Mr James Rufelt, Surgeon. P.

* John Ru/ell, Efq; Clerk to the Signet. L.

* Daniel Rutherford, M. D. now King's Botanift in Scotland,

and Profeffor of Medicine and of Botany in the Uni-
verfity of Edinburgh. P.

S.

* Mr William Smellie, Printer in Edinburgh. P.

* Adam Smith, LL. D. F. R. S. LOND. Gommiflioner of the

Cuftoms in Scotland. Z,.

John

88 HISTORY of the SOCIETT.

Men- * jobn Steedman, M. D. Edinburgh. L.

* Charles Stuart, M. D. P.

David Stewart- Moncriejf, Efq; one of the Barons of Ex-
chequer. P.

* Dugald Stewart, M. A. formerly Profeflbr of Mathematics,

now of Moral Philofophy, in the Univerfity of Edin-
burgh. P.

* f Matthew Stewart, D. D. Emeritus Profeflbr of Mathematics
in the Univerfity of Edinburgh. P.

* Alexander Frafer-Tytler, Efq; Advocate, Profeflbr of Civil Hi-

flory, and of Greek and Roman Antiquities, in the Uni-
verfity of Edinburgh. L.
William Tytler, Efq; of Woodhoufelee, Clerk to the Signet. L.

W.

* John Walker, D. D. M. D. Regius Profeflbr of Natural Hi-

ftory, and Keeper of the Mufeum in the Univerfity of
Edinburgh. P.
George Wallace, Efq; Advocate. P.

* Andrew Wardrop, M. D. Edinbxirgh. P.

V.

James Veitch, Efq; of Elliock, one of the Senators of the
College of Juftice. Z,.

2. NON-RESIDENT MEMBERS.

A.

* William Alexander, M. D. London. P.

* John Amyatt, Efq; King's Chemift, London. P.

John Anderfon, M. A. F. R. S. LOND. Profeflbr of Natural
Philofophy in the Univerfity of Glafgow. P.

Mr

APPENDIX. 89

* Mr Thomas Anderfon, Surgeon, Leith. P.

Archibald Arthur, M. A. Profeffor of Moral Philofophy in the
University of Glafgow. L.

B.

His Grace Henry Duke of Bucckugb. L.
Right Hon. John Earl of Bute. P.

* Mr William Barron, Profeffor of Logic in the Univerfity of

St Andrew's. L.

James Beattie, LL. D. Profeffor of Logic and Moral Philofo-
phy, Marifchal College, Aberdeen. L.

* Gilbert Blane, M. D. F. R. S. LOND. Phyfician to St Thomas's

Hofpital, London. P.
Ebenezer Brownrigg, M. D. Cumberland. P.

* Patrick Brydone, Efq; F. R. S. LOND.

* James Byres, Efqj Architect at Rome.

C.

George Campbell, D. D. Principal of Marifchal College, Aber-
deen. L.

Alexander Carlyle, D. D. Minifter of Inverefk, and Chaplain
in ordinary to his Majefty. L.

John Chalmers, D. D. Principal of King's College, Aberdeen. L.

William Chalmers, M. D. Profeffor of Medicine, King's College,
Aberdeen. P.

Mr John Cook, Profeffor of Moral Philofophy in the Univer-
. fity of St Andrew's. L.

Patrick Copland, M. A. Profeffor of Mathematics, Marifchal
College, Aberdeen. P.

* Mr Alexander Ctimming, Watchmaker, London. P.
Patrick Cummin, M. A. Profeffor of Oriental Languages in

the Univerfuy of Glafgow. L.

|

(M) Alexander

90 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

Non-Refident r\

Memben.

Alexander Donaldfon, A. M. Profeflbr of Oriental Languages,

Marifchal College, Aberdeen. P.

James Dunbar, LL. D. Profeflbr of Philofophy, King's Col-
, Aberdeen. L.

F.

Sir Adam FerguJJbn, of Kilkerran, Baronet, LL. D. L.
Robert Findlay, D. D. Profeflbr of Divinity in the Univerfity

of Glafgow. Z,.
James Flint, M. D. Profeflbr of Medicine in the Univerfity of

St Andrew's. P.

G.

Alexander Gerard, D. D. Profeflbr of Divinity, King's College,

Aberdeen. L.
James Gillefpie, D. D. Principal of New College, St An-

drew's. L.
Thomas Gordon, A. M. Profeflbr of Philofophy, King's College,

Aberdeen. L.
Henry Grieve, D. D. Minifter of Dalkeith, and Chaplain in or-

dinary to his Majefly. L.

H.

Robert Hamilton, LL. D. Profeffor of Natural Philofophy,

Marifchal College, Aberdeen. P.
William Hamilton, M. D. Profeflbr of Anatomy in the Univer-

fity of Glafgow. P.
George Hill, A. M. now D. D. Profeflbr of Divinity in the

Univerfity of St Andrew's. L.
John Hunter, A. M. Profeflbr of Humanity in the Univerfity

of St Andrew's. L.

•

George

APPENDIX. 91

T Non-Refidcut

Members.

George Jardine, M. A. ProfefTor of Logic in the Univerfity of

Glafgow. L.

f William Irvine, M. D. Ledlurer on Chemiftry in the Univerfity
of Glafgow. P.

L.

John Lejlie, A. M. Profeflbr of Greek, King's College, Aber-
deen. Zi.

* James Lind, M. D. Haflar Hofpital. P.

* James Lind, M. D. Windfor.

Reverend Mxjohn Logan, formerly Minifter of South Leith. L.

* Andrew Lumifden, Efq;

M.

Jofeph MfCormlck, D. D. Principal of the United College of
St Salvator and St Leonard, St Andrew's. L.

Hugh M'Leod, D. D. Profeflbr of Church Hiftory in the Uni-
verfity of Glafgow. Z,.

Roderick M'Leod, A. M. Sub-Principal of King's College,
Aberdeen. P.

John Main, D. D. Minifter of Newton. L.

* Donald Monro, M. D. London. P.

* John Mudie, M. D. Montrofe. P.

O.

William Ogilvie, A. M. Profeflbr of Humanity, King's College,
Aberdeen. P.

R.

William Ricbardfon, A. M. Profeflbr of Humanity in the Uni-
verfity of Glafgow. L.

Thomas Reid, D. D. Emeritus Profeflbr of Moral Philofophy in
the Univerfity of Glafgow. L.

(M 2) ' Reverend

92 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

M°em£n'dent Reverend Mr Thomas Robertfon, Minifter of Dalmeny. L.

* John Roebuck, M. D. Kinneil. P.

John Rofs, M. A. Profeflbr of Oriental Languages, King's
CoHege, Aberdeen. P.

S.
George Skene, A. M. Profeflbr of Natural Hiftory, Marifchal

College, Aberdeen. P.

Robert Small, D. D. Minifter of Dundee. P.
f Hary Spens, D. D. Profeflbr of Divinity in the Univerfity of
St Andrew's. L. ||

* Edward Stevens, M. D. Barbadoes. P.

* Alexander Stevenfon, M. D. Profeflbr of Medicine in the Uni-

verfity of Glafgow. P.

* Reverend Mr John Stewart, Minifter of Lufs. L.

George Stuart, LL. D. Emeritus Profeflbr of Humanity in the

Univerfity of Edinburgh. L.

Right Hon. James Stuart-Mackenzie, Lord Privy-Seal.
John Stuart, A. M. Profeflbr of Greek, Marifchal College,

Aberdeen. L.

T.

* William Trail, D. D. Prebendary of Down. P.

V.

I

Nicholas Vilant, M. A. Profeflbr of Mathematics in the Univer-
fity of St Andrew's. P.

W.

James Williamfon, D. D. Profeflbr of Mathematics in the Uni-
verfity of Glafgow. P.

* f Alexander Wilfon, M. D. Profeflbr of Pradical Aftronomy in
the Univerfity of Glafgow. P.

Reverend

{ Died Nov. 27. 1787, after the Lift of Deceafed Members was printed. See above, p. 46.

APPENDIX. 93

Reverend Charles Wilfon, D. D. Profeflbr of Hebrew in the

Univerfity of St Andrew's. L.
Patrick Wilfon, A. M. and now Profeflbr of Practical Aftrono-

my in the Univerfity of Glafgow. P.
* William Wright, M. D. from Jamaica. P.

Y.

John Young, A. M. Profeflbr of Greek in the Univerfity of
Glafgow. L.

3. FOREIGN MEMBERS.

'

Honorary. Foreign Mem-

bers.

* M. le Comte de Buffon,

* Father Giam Batifla Beccaria, Profeflbr of Natural Philofophy

in the Univerfity of Turin.

* M. le Comte de Carburi, firft Profeflbr of Medicine in the Uni-

verfity of Turin.

* M. Fougeroux de Bondaroy, of the Royal Academy of Sciences,

Paris, and of the Inftitute of Bologna.

* Benjamin Franklin, Efq; LL. D.

* William Franklin, Efq;

f M. le Comte de Lauraguais.

* John Rogerfon, M. D. firft Phyfician to the Emprefs of Ruflia.
' M. Sue, fenior, of the Royal Academy of Surgery at Paris.

Ordinary.

* P. Camper, M. D. Holland.

* Lionel Chalmers, M. D. South Carolina.

* Matthew Gut brie, M. D. St Peterfburg.

* Lorentz Crell, M. D. Profeflbr of Chemiftry at Helmftadt.

* Alexander Gordon, M. D. South Carolina.

MEMBERS

-94 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

II.

MEMBERS chofen fince the firft Meetings of the Clafles.

THE following were elected at the General Meeting of the
Society, Jan. 26. i 784, all Ordinary Members :

i. RESIDENT.

Sir David Carnegie, of Southeik, Baronet. L.

Sir James Hall, of Dunglafs, Baronet. P.

John Clerk, Efq; junior, of Eldin, Advocate. P.

John Dryfdale, D. D. one of the Minifters of Edinburgh, Prin-
cipal Clerk of the Church of Scotland, and Chaplain in or-
dinary to his Majefty. L.

Mr William Creech, Bookfeller in Edinburgh. L.

2. NON-RESIDENT.

Thomas Hutchins, Efq; Secretary to the Hudfon's Bay Company,

London. P.

John Moore, M. D. London. P.
Mr Matthew Boulton, of Birmingham. P.
Mr James Watt, of Birmingham. P.
Robert Fall, Efq; of Dunbar. L.
Right Hon. Archibald Earl of Dundonald. P.
Nevil Majkelyne, D. D. Aftronomer-Royal. P.
James Robert/on, M. D. of Oxford. L.
John Grieve, M. D. P.
The Reverend Mr Archibald Alifon. L.
Sir John Henderfon, of Fordell, Baronet. L.

3. FOREIGN.

M. Sue, junior, of the Royal Academy of Surgery, Paris. P.
P. Sim. Pallas, M. D. of the Imperial Academy of St Peterf-
burg. P.

M.

APPENDIX. 95

M. And. Jo. Lexell, ProfefTor of Aftronomy at St Peterfburg. P.
M. le Clerc de Sept Chenes, Secretary of the Chamber and Clofet
to his Moft Chriflian Majefty, Paris. L.

THE following were elected at the General Meeting, June 28. Members choren,

07 J June 18.1784.

1 784, all Ordinary Members : v

i. RESIDENT.

Reverend Mr Robert Walker, Minifter of Canongate. L.
Henry Brougham, Efq; of Brougham-hall. L.

2. NON-RESIDENT.

Robert Lifton, Efq; LL. D. his Britannic Majefty's Minifter at

the Court of Madrid. L.

Reverend Mr Matthew Murray, Minifter of North-Berwick. L.
Right Hon. Edmund Burke. L.
Reverend Mr Walter Young, Minifter of Erfkine. L.

THE following were elected at the General Meeting, June 24. Members chofen,
1785, all Ordinary Members :

i. RESIDENT.
Robert Arbutbnot, Efq; Secretary to the Board of Truftees. L.

2. NON-RESIDENT.

Right Hon. George Earl of Morton. P.
Right Hon. Dunbar Earl of Selkirk. L.
Right Hon. the Lord Daer. P.
The Honourable Charles Greville. L.
Sir William Hamilton, Knight of the Bath. P.
James Ramfay, Efq; of Auchtertyre. P.

Benjamin

96 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

Benjamin Vaughan, Efq; of London. P.

George Young, M. D. Phyfician to the Military Hofpital in the

Weft Indies. P.
James Hare, M. D. Eaft Indies. P.

THE following were eledled at the General Meeting, Jan. 23.
1786, all Ordinary Members :

i. RESIDENT.
Robert Blair, M. D. Regius Profefibr of Practical Aftronomy in

the Univerfity of Edinburgh. P.
Alexander Millar, Efq; Advocate. L. •

2. NON-RESIDENT.

Right Hon. James Earl of Hopetoun. L.
Right Hon. the Earl of Ancram. L.
Sir Robert Murray-Keith, Knight of the Bath. /,.
Colonel William Fullarton of Fullarton, F. R. S. LOND. Z,.1
Thomas A/lie, Efq; F. SS. R. & A. LOND. Keeper of the Records

in the Tower of London. L..
Charles Hutton, LL. D. F. R. S. LOND. ProfcfTor of Mathematics

in the Military Academy at Woolwich. P.
Handyfide Edgar, M. D. Jamaica. P.

•Memberschofen, THE following were elected at the General Meeting, Jan. 22.
jM.M.i787.' j^g^ an Ordinary Members :

i. RESIDENT.

William Stewart, Efq; Advocate. L.

George Brown, Efq; Commiflioner of the Cuftoms. L.

James Home, M. D. Edinburgh. . P.

James

APPENDIX. 97

James Finlajfon, A. M. Profeflbr of Logic in the Univerfity of
Edinburgh. L.

2. NON-RESIDENT.

James Playfair, D. D. Minifter at Meigle. L.
Adair Crawford, M. D. Phyfician to St Thomas's Hofpital, Lon-
don. P.

Thomas Perchal, M. D. F. R. S. LOND. at Manchefter. P.
John Haygarth, M. B. F. R. S. LOND. at Chefter. P.

3. FOREIGN.

M. k President de Firfy, Dijon. P.
John Bawunin, Efq; of Ruflia. L.

(N) OFFICE-

g8 ffTSfORr of tie SOCIETT.

OFFICE-BEARERS of the SOCIETY.

General office- GENERAL OFFICE-BE \RERs, ekdled at the firfl and fecond
General Meetings, holden June 23. and Auguft 4. 1783.

Prefident.
Etis Grace the Duke of BUCCLEUGH.

Vice-Prefidents.
Right Hon. Henry Dundas. \ 7^o.M/7/^r,Efq;Ld.Juflice-Clerk.

Secretary. Treafurer.

Mr John Robifon, \ Mr Alexander Keith.

Counfellors.

Dr Alexander Monro»
Dr John Hope.
Dr Jofeph Black.
Dr James Huttnn.
Mr Dugald Stewart.
Mr John Playfair.

Mr Baron Gordon*

Lord Elliock.

Major- Gen. Fletcher-Campbell.

Mr Commiflioner Smith.

Dr Adam Fergufon.

Mr John Maclaurin.

OFFICE-BEARERS of the two CLASSES, elected at the
Meetings, Nov. 3. and Nov. 17. 1783.

PHYSICAL CLASS.
Prefidents.

Sir James Grant, Bart. I Sir G. Clerk- Maxwell, Bart. *

Dr William Cullen. \ Dr Francis Home.

Secretaries.
Dr James Gregory. \ Dr John Walker.

LITE-

* March I. 1784, Dr Alexander Monro was elefted a Prefident of the Phyfical Clafs in
the room of Sir George C/eri deceafed.

A P P E N-D 1 X.

99

LITERARY CLASS.

Prefidents.

flay Camp&elI,}LCq}'Ld. Advocate. I Lord Elliocl.
Dr William Robertfon. \ Dr Hugh Blair.

Secretaries.

t **•

Mr Alexander Frafer-Tytkr. \ Mr Andrew Dalzel.

THE fame OFFICE-BEARERS were continued by re-election till
Nov. 27. 1786, when, in confequence of a new regulation, all
the Office- Bearers were elected on that day, the election to be
continued, at a General Meeting annually, upon the laft Mon-
day of November.

OFFICE-BEARERS of the Society, elected for the enfuing year,
Nov. 27. 1786, and re-elected Nov. 26. 1787.

Prefident.
His Grace the Duke of BUCCLEUGH.

Vice-Prefidents .
Right Hon. Henry Dundas. \ Lord Dunjinnan.

Secretary.
Mr John Robifon.

Dr James Hutton.
Mr George FerguJ/on.
Mr Benjamin Bell.
Mr Dugald Stewart.
Mr John Playfair.
Dr Daniel Rutherford.

I

Treafurer.
Mr Alexander Keith.

Counfellors.

Lord Elliock.

Major-Gen. Fletcher-Campbell.

Mr Commiflioner Edgar.

Mr William Miller.

Dr Adam Fergttfon.

Mr John Maclaurin»

PHYSICAL

General Office*

Bearers.

ioo HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

Office-Bcarers PHVSK-AT PTAQQ

oftheClafles. , rHYSlCAL ^LASS.

Prefidents.

Dr William Cullen. i Dr Alexander Monro.

Dr Francis Home. \ Dr Jofeph Black.

Secretaries.
Dr James Gregory. \ Dr John Walker.

LITERARY CLASS.
Prefidents.

Mr Baron Gordon.

Mr Commiffioner Smith.

Dr William Robertfon.
Dr Hugh Blair.

Secretaries.
Mr Alexander Frafer-Tytler. \ Mr Andrew Dahel.

END OF THE H I S T 0 R T.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.

V O L. I. P A R T II.

PAPERS READ BEFORE THL SOCIETY.

I.

PAPERS OF 'THE PHYSICAL CLASS.

I. E x P E R I M E N T s on the Motion of the SAP in TREES. By
JOHN WALKER, D.D. M. D. F. R. S. EDIN. and Regius Pro-
fejjbr of Natural Hi/lory in the Univerjity of EDINBURGH.

\Readby the Author , Dec. 8. 1783, and Jan. 5. 1785.]

THE difcovery of the circulation of the blood in animals was
foon followed by conjectures concerning the exiftence of
a like circulation in the fap of vegetables. Thefe conjectures
gave rife to the firft improvements in vegetable phyfiology,
which may be dated from the appearance of a fet of queries
concerning the motion of the juices of plants, publimed in
the Philofophical Tranfactions, anno 1668. Thefe queries im-
mediately engaged Dr BEALE and Dr TONGE, and afterwards
Dr GREW, Mr WILLOUGHBY, Mr RAY, and Dr LISTER, to en-
ter upon the fubjec*l ; who, in a great variety of obfervations,
ftruck out the firft confiderable difcoveries in the vegetable ceco-
nomy.

THEIR obfervations, however, fell fhort either of proving
or difproving a circulation of the fap : Nor have the difcoveries
of a variety of Philofophers, fince that time, been able to demon-
ftrate either fide of the queftion ; which ftill remains a contro-
verted and undetermined point in the hiflory of vegetation.

To trace the progrefs of the fap, in the way of experiment,
feems to be the only method by which we can expect to arrive

at

4 On the MOT '10 N of

at a fatisfaclory folution of this intricate queftion. For this
purpofe, thofe trees which are faid to bleed are the moft conve-
nient ; or thofe which, at a certain feafon of the year, have fuch
an exuberance of fap, that it flows freely from them upon a
flight incifion. PLINY* mentions twice the bleeding of the
mulberry ; but he fpeaks of it as an extraordinary phenomenon,
and feems to have been unacquainted with the bleeding of the
vine. The trees of this fort are indeed more frequent in the
cold than in the warmer climates. Some trees of our own
country do not bleed, fuch as the oak, a/hr elm, a/pen, hazel \
and hawthorn. Of thofe that bleed, the birch and the plane are
the moft remarkable ; and upon thefe the experiments here re-
lated were performed.

IN the laft age, the following important query was propofed
on this fubject by Dr LISTER f :

" WHETHER or not does the fap begin to move in all the parts
" of a tree at a time?"

FIFTY years afterwards, this queftion, ftill unrefolved, was
again refumed by Dr HALES :£, who, in arguing againft the cir-
culation of the fap, exprefles himfelf thus :

" IF, fays he, early in the fpring, the oak, and feveral other
" trees, were to be examined near the top and bottom, when the
" fap firft begins to move, fo as to make the bark eafily run or
" peel off, I believe it would be found, that the lower bark
" would be firft moiftened ; whereas the bark of the top-branches
" ought firft to be moiftened, if the fap defcends by the bark."

OF late years, M. BONNET, when reafoning in favour of a
circulation, and againft this fuppofition of Dr HALES, delivers
the following remarks :

" Is it eafy, fays he, exadlly to fix the time when the fap
" begins to rife in trees ? That fluid rifes at firft in very fmall

" quantity ;

* Nat. Hift. lib. xvi. cap. 38. — Lib. xxiii. cap. 7.
f Philof. Tranf. anno 1671, p. 2122.
J Vegetable Staticks, vol. i. p. 141.

fbe SAP in TREES, 5

" quantity ; its progrefs is always rapid ; it fpeedily reaches the
" tops of the branches, from whence it quickly pafles again to-
" wards the roots *."

BUT after the doctrine of the circulation of the fap has been
agitated for above a century paft ; after fo many obfervations,
and fuch lengthened philofophical difcuffions upon the fubjecl: ;
is it not furprifmg that this enquiry, firft darted by Dr LISTER,
and fince fuggefled by Dr HALES, mould have been fo much
overlooked, and mould ftill remain undetermined by experiment,
when it is evidently the previous and leading enquiry on the
fubjea ?

M. BONNET, indeed, in the above paffage, feems to think,
that the decifion of this queflion by experiment mufl be ex-
tremely difficult, if not impracticable. But that this is far from
being the cafe, will appear from the fequel of the prefent paper.

THE principal experiment here recorded was therefore made,
in order to know whether all the parts of a tree bleed at once,
or by fucceffion : How far the afcent and diffufion of the fap
depends on the temperature of the air : To trace the route which
it obferves, and to obtain fatisfaction concerning what is called
its recidivatioTiy and in feveral other particulars relative to its
movement.

FROM this experiment alfo, fome light was expelled concern-
ing a noted problem in vegetation, Why the terminating buds
of trees are the firft which are difclofed in the fpring.

THE tree on which this experiment was made, was a vigorous
young birch, thirty feet high, and its ftem twenty-fix inches in
circumference at the ground.

ON the i ft of February, there was a hole bored in the trunk
of this tree, clofe by the ground, and one of its branches
cut at the extremity, in order to difcover when and where the
running of the fap would firft appear. This was repeated every

fecond

* BONNET fur 1'Ufage des Fcuilles, p. 284.

6 On the MO TlO N of

fecond day till the jth of March, during which time the tree
at both places was always dry.

MARCH 5.

FAHRENHEIT'S Thermometer, at noon, in the made, 46. j at
midnight, 38.

ON this day, which had been preceded by the three warmefl
days fince the ift of February, when an incifion was made in
the trunk of the birch, juft by the ground, I now found a
moifture in the wood, not to be perceived before, which made
my finger fenfibly wet ; but there was no more moifture in the
bark than formerly. The extremities of the branches were cut,
and found likewife dry.

NOTE i. THIS day, twenty-one triangular and equilateral inci-
fions were cut in the trunk of the tree, on the north fide.
The bafe of thefe triangles was an inch long, and the inci-
fion itfelf an inch deep, both the bark and wood being taken
out. Thefe incifions reached from the ground to the height
of twenty feet, and were exactly one foot diftant from each
other.

2. BY incifion, when not otherwife defcribed in thefe experi-
ments, is meant a fedlion through the bark into the wood.

3. WHEN an incifion does not communicate any fenfible moifture
to the finger, it is faid to be dry ; and moift, when it makes
the finger fenfibly wet. By bleeding is meant fuch a copious
flow of the fap as is fufEcient to form a drop or ftream from
an incifion.

4. BY the fap is meant the lymph, the watery or alimental fap
of a tree, and not any peculiar, proper, or venal juice ; be-
ing the general fluid from which the peculiar milky, gummy,
or refinous juices of trees are formed by fecretion, and in a
way fimilar to the fecretion of the different animal fluids from
the general mafs of blood.

MARCH

Tbt SAP in 7REES. 7

MARCH 8.

Thermometer, at noon, 44. ; at midnight, 35.
THE loweft incifion upon the tree was moift in the wood, as

on March 5. but the bark was dry, and no moifture appeared

in any of the upper incifions.

EXPERIMENT i. This day, I cut the extremities of one of
the branches. Both wood and bark were dry as formerly;
but the fap ifTued vifibly between the wood and bark. It
flood in finall globules, but was not fufficient to form any
drop.

COROLLARY i. Here it appears, as it did on feveral other oc-
cafions, that the fap rifes between the wood and the bark to
the extremities of the branches, before it reaches thofe parts
either by the wood or the bark ; yet it is denied by
Dr GREW and M. BONNET, that the fap ever afcends at all
between the wood and the bark.

MARCH 9.
Thermometer, at noon, 45. ; at midnight, 38.

MARCH i o.

Thermometer, at noon, 46. ; at midnight, 40.
LITTLE farther change was obferved on thefe days ; only the
loweft incifion upon the tree was more moift than formerly, and
the fecond incifion, a foot higher, began likewife to appear moift.
The fap alfo between the wood and the bark in the young
branches was ftill more vifible, while the wood and bark them-
felves were dry.

MARCH 11.

Thermometer, at noon, 49. ; at midnight, 44.
THIS day, the loweft incifion upon the tree at the ground, and
the fecond, a foot above it, did, for the firft time, begin to bleed.
The third incifion was only moift, and all above it were dry, as

formerly,

8 On tbe MOTION (/

formerly ; only {hewing a little more moiflure between the wood

and bark.

OBSERVATION i. The fap then on this clay, which was the
warmefl fince the ift of February, with bright fun-fhine, had
rifen a foot, or a little more, in the trunk of the tree, fo as to
bleed at an incifion.

OBS. 2. At this incifion, a foot from the ground, the fap flowed
only from the wood. The bark, which was of a confiderable
thicknefs, was quite dry, and not a drop was formed till the
wood was penetrated. The moiflure between the wood and
bark was indeed confiderable, but not fufficient to bleed.

EXP. 2. This day incifions were made upon another birch, which
was found to bleed copioufly, both in its trunk and branches.
The fap, therefore, in this tree was farther advanced, by feve-
ral days, than in that which was the chief objecT: of our ex-
periments. The latter rofe in one trunk, and flood in a thin
foil and expofed fituation. The former was a younger tree,
had a great number of luxuriant fuckers, confequently more
vigorous roots, and was placed in a deep rich foil, in a low
warm part of the wood. To thefe differences may be attri-
buted the more forward afcent of the fap in this tree above
the other.

EXP. 3. A little pafl fix o'clock in the evening, when the fun was
fet, the two incifions which bled at mid-day were dried up ;
nor did the fap ifTue at a new incifion made a foot from the
ground. But an incifion made at that height in the other
tree, through which the fap was wholly difFufed, flill bled.

MARCH 12.'

Thermometer, at noon, 49. j at midnight, 41.
THE two loweft incifions bled as on the former day ; and the
third incifion, two feet from the ground, began to bleed for the
firfl time ; but the fourth incifion, and thofe above it, were flill
dry, as were all the branches.

OBS. 3.

SAP in TREES. 9

OBS. 3. When the birch is in a bleeding ftate, no fap iflues
upon incilion, till the knife has penetrated through the bark.
The fap then appears in fuch plenty, between wood and bark,
as to run ; and runs (till more plentifully if the incifion paffes
into the wood. But not a drop of fap can be made to ifTue
from the bark, whatever way it is cut.

OBS. 4. It appears, that, in the beginning of the bleeding feafon,
when the thermometer, at noon, is about 49. or between 46.
and 50. and at midnight about 42. or between 40. and 44.
that the fap rifes about one foot in twenty-four hours, in the
trunk of the birch, if not formerly raifed by a greater heat.

BY other trials, it was found, that, in the fame feafon, when the
thermometer, at mid-day, is about 45. and, at midnight,
about 38. the fap then afcends only about one foot in two days ;
and that it does not afcend at all unlefs the mid-day heat is
above 40.

MARCH 13.

THE incifion one foot high bled ; but the incilion two feet
high, and all above it, were dry.

Thermometer, at noon, 44. ; at midnight, 42.
OBS. 5. It is here obfervable, that the incifion two feet high was
this day dry, although it had bled the day before. The caufe
is obvious from the thermometer. The cold of 41. during
the preceding night, had bound up the fap ; and the heat of
44. during the day, was not able to make it bleed at the height
to which it had been advanced by the heat of 49. on the pre-
ceding day.

MARCH 14.

Thermometer, at noon, 48. ; at midnight, 45.
THIS day the fourth incifion, at the height of. three feet, be-
gan to bleed ; the fifth was moift, but all above it were dry as
formerly.

B OBS. 6.

io On the MO ? 1 0 N of

OBS. 6. The incifion, one foot from the ground, bled in the even-
ing, more than an hour after the two incifions above it were
dried up.

OBS. 7. This day, the bark would not peel off the young
branches of the tree ; but the epidermis feparated more freely
from the bark than formerly.

MARCH 15.
Thermometer, at noon, 52. j at midnight, 44.

Thermometer, at noon, in the fun, 67.
THE fifth incifion, four feet high, bled for the firfl time; but

the fixth incifion, and all above it, ftill refufed to bleed ; yet the

fixth was more moifl than formerly, efpecially between wood

and bark.

OBS. 8. It was now found, that the incifions did every day ceafo
to bleed upon the removal of the fun, the uppermofl giving
over firft, and the reft fucceflively downwards. The fap had
now rifen in the tree to the height of four feet. The fifth
incifion ceafed to bleed this day at three in the afternoon.
The four incifions below it gave over bleeding one after ano-
ther, and were all dry at five o'clock ; the fun having become
clouded, and the thermometer fallen to 44.

MARCH 16.
Thermometer, at noon, 47. ; at midnight, 37.

THE five loweft incifions bled as on the former day ; but the
fixth ftill continued dry.
COR. 2. It appears, that the fap will not rife much higher by

the heat of 47. than it did on the preceding day by the heat

of 52. but will maintain its afcent, and bleed at the fame

height*

MARCH

the SAP in TREES. n

MARCH 17.

Thermometer, at noon, 44. ; at midnight, 42.
THE four lower incifions bled this day. The fifth, which had
bled on the two preceding days, was only moift.
COR. 3. When the thermometer falls to 44. the fap cannot run
at the fame height at which it ran when the thermometer was
at 47.

• OBS. 9. It was now obferved, and always found to be the cafe
afterwards, that each incifion bled fparingly at firft, and more
plentifully as the fap afcended higher. The moft copious flow
of the fap was always from the loweft incifions. When the
birch tree, therefore, is to be pierced, in order to procure a
large quantity of its fap, it will be found proper to make the
incifions as near the ground as poflible.

MARCH 18.
Thermometer, at noon, 47. 3 at midnight, 42.

THE five lower incifions bled, as on the former days ; but the

fixth ftill continued dry.

OBS. 10. The fap, by the temperature of the air, is capable of
remaining long ftationary. During the four laft days, it flood
nearly at the height of four feet, without afcending farther.
Ift another experiment, the fap continued ftationary for five
days, at the height of two feet, the thermometer, during that
time, never being above 43. at noon, nor above 36. at midnight.

MARCH 19.
Thermometer, at noon, 48. ; at midnight, 41.

Thermometer, at noon, in the fun, 65.

THE fixth incifion did this day bleed for the firft time ; the fe-
venth was moift, and the reft dry. But though the incifions in
the trunk above the fixth, and fome that were made in the
branches, did not bleed ; yet they did all along gradually and
vifibly increafe in moifture.

B 2 COR. 4,

12 On the MO TlO N of

COR. 4. Hence we find, that a tree does not become fuddenly re-
plete with fap, as has been generally thought. The fap does
not mount into a tree by one, but by feveral fucceflive tides.
The moft copious of all thefe, and the mod remarkable, is
that which brings on the bleeding. It is this tide, whofe pro-
grefs we trace in the prefent experiment ; but it is evidently pre-
ceded by feveral lefTer ones, which communicate a moifture
to the tree, though not in fuch quantity as to bleed.

THAT a degree of fap afcends in trees immediately upon the fal-
ling of their leaves, appears from the vegetation of catkins,
during winter, upon the birch, the alder, and the hazel. But
in autumn, the trees are left fo devoid of fap, by the expence
of the former fummer and the fall of the leaf, that it is not
till fpring, and the return of a fufEcient degree of heat, that
they become fo impregnated with fap as to be capable of
bleeding.

MARCH 20.

Thermometer, at noon, 44. ; at midnight, 43.
THE fifth incifion bled, and thofe below it ; but the fixth,

which had bled the day before, and all above it, were dry.

EXP. 4. On this day, and on feveral other occafions, an incifion
made on the fouth fide of the tree bled always more plen-
tifully than an incifion at the fame height on the north fide.

COR. 5. The ligneous circles in the trunks of trees are common-
ly eccentric, the centre of the circles being placed at a diftance
from the centre of the tree. M. DU HAMEL afcribes this ec-
centricity to the cafual infertion of roots, and the irruption of
branches, which determines the fap to move in greater abun-
dance on one fide of the tree than another. And it is unque-
ilionable that this fometimes happens. But when the centre
of thefe circles (lands nearer the north than the fouth fide of
the tree, and the circles themfelves on the fouth fide are con-
fiderably broader than thofe on the north, which is ufually

the

The SAP in 7 RE ES. 13

the cafe, the eccentricity is to be afcribed to a different and
more general caufe, which is pointed out in the above experi-
ment.

FOR as there is a more copious flow of the fap on the fouth than
on the north fide of trees, owing to the one being more in the
fun, and the other in the made, this muft naturally affect the
fhape of their trunks ; the fap on the fouth fide being more
plentiful, there the growth of the wood muft, of courfe, be
more confiderable. And this again fuggefts the reafon, why
the wood on the north fide of a large tree is often found
harder and more durable than that on the fouth fide ; becaufe
it is of a flower growth, and confequently of a more eompaxfl-
ed fubflance.

MARCH 21.
Thermometer, at noon, 48. ; at midnight, 43.

Thermometer, at noon, in the fun, 60.
THE feventh incifion bled to-day for the firft time ; the eighth

was a little moift, but all above it were ftill dry.

OBS. ii. So far up as the tree bled, which was now fix feet, the
bark feparated eafily from the wood, and a great deal of moi-
flure appeared between them. Above this, the fpace between
the wood and bark grew gradually drier, and the bark was,
with more difficulty, feparable from the wood. Upon many
trials, it was found, that, in the birch, the bark feparates from
the wood upon the fap's afcent, and not before; nor any
higher than where the fap will ftream upon incifion; and
that wherever the tree will bleed, there the bark not only
parts eafily from the wood, but the epidermis feparates rea-
dily from the bark, the teguments of the bark from one ano-
ther, the alburnum both from bark and wood, and even the
ligneous circles are rendered eafy to be detached from one
another.

COR. 6,

14 On the MOTION of

COR. 6. As the afcent of the fap thus renders all the ftrata of
a tree eafily feparable j and as this is the cafe in the lower parts
of the tree, fo far as the fap has afcended, while thefe parts
remain firmly attached to one another in the upper parts of
the tree, to which the fap has not afcended j it is therefore
evident, though contrary to what is generally fuppofed, that
this phenomenon is occafioned by the fap in its afcent, and
not by any return of the fap downwards from the extremities
of the tree.

COR. 7. As the ligneous circles, during the afcent of the fap,
do thus fubfift in a loofe and unconnected ftate, the felling
of timber, during that period, ought by all means to be
avoided. This period of the fap's afcent varies jconfiderably
in different trees. In the plane, it may be dated from the
25th of December to the 25th of March ; in the birch, from
the i ft of March to the 26th of April ; in the oak, from the
20th of March to the ift of June j and it would be of ufe,
were the period of the afcent of the fap afcertained in like
manner in the other foreft trees. The oaks, which are cut
for their bark in April and May, during the afcent of the fap,
afford a foft and perifhable timber, compared to thofe which are
cut in the depth of winter. And the fame is the cafe with all
the plane-trees cut in the months of January and February, com-
pared to thofe which are cut in the month of November. To
obtain timber in its greateft perfection, I believe it cannot be
cut too foon after the fall of the leaf, as it is then in its moft
faplefs ftate, and the ligneous circles more firmly compacted
than at any other feafon.

MARCH 22.

Thermometer, at noon, 45. ; at midnight, 40.
THE feven lower incifions bled as on the former day ; the eighth
was wet, but all the upper ones remained dry.

OBS. 12.

The SAP in TREES. 15

OBS. 12. On the day an incifion began to bleed, the one imme-
diately above it .appeared always moifter than formerly. This
moifture appeared firft, and in greateft quantity, between the
wood and bark, and always {hewed itfelf firft on the loweft
fide of the incifion.

OBS. 13. At whatever height an incifion bled, all the incifions
below it conftantly did fo at the fame time.

MARCH 23.
Thermometer, at noon, 46. ; at midnight, 42.

Thermometer, at noon, in the fun, 68.

THE eighth incifion, which was feven feet high, bled for the
firft time ; the ninth was moift, but all above it dry.
OBS. 14. At 7- feet high flood the firft branch upon the tree,
marked A*, which was about three feet long. It was this day
cut at the extremity, and was found very moift, but not fo as
to form a drop. The next branch above it, marked B, was
placed eight feet high, and was eight feet long. This, being
alfo cut at the extremity, was found drier than the former.

MARCH 24.

Thermometer, at noon, 47. j at midnight, 35.
THIS day the ninth incifion began to bleed ; the tenth was
moift, but thofe above it dry as formerly.

EXP. 5. The fap having now mounted to the juncture of feveral
branches, the branches B and C were cut at the extremity,
but without bleeding. The branch D was alfo cut at the ex-
tremity, and, in like manner, refufed to bleed. But when
this branch was bent down into the perpendicular direction
D E, and kept fo bent by the cord G H, the incifion at the
extremity did then begin to bleed, and in five minutes con-
tinued to drop. Yet the branch below it C, that remained
in its lateral pofition, had its incifion at the extremity ftilldry.

COR. 8,

* Vide Plate I. Fi&. i.

16 On the MOTION of

COR. 8. The motion of the fap then is accelerated by the per-
pendicular pofition of the branches ; a leading facl, not only
in the motion of the fap, but in the ftruclure of the veflels
which convey it. And from which at prefent we may thus
far conclude, that the motion of the fap of trees is not the
fame with that of fluids in capillary tubes, as has been gene-
rally thought, but defcends with a greater force than it afcends;
and confequently its motion muft depend upon fome different
principle.

COR. 9. From this experiment we may likewife infer, that the
fap makes its way fooner, and in greater quantity, to the extre-
mity of pendent than of erec~l branches. Hence the reafon
appears, why the gems upon pendent branches always burft
fooner than upon thofe which are in an upright pofition.
And it is probably alfo for the fame reafon, that moll fruits
are of a brifker growth, and of a larger fize, upon thofe
branches which hang down, than upon fuch as are eredl.

OBS. 15. In the branches, A, B, C, D, to which the fkp had
now afcended, we remarked a\confiderable alteration in the
buds, though very little change had been obferved in them
for fix weeks before. They now began to fwell, and their
fcales to fhoot from under one another ; but the buds upon
the fuperior branches, to which the fap had not yet afcended,
were not fo fwelled, but compact as formerly.

MARCH 25.

Thermometer, at noon, 42. ; at midnight, 34.
Continued fun-mine all day. Thermometer, in the fun, atnoon,63.
THE ninth incifion continued to bleed, but all the fuperior in-
cifions were dry.

OBS. 1 6. The inverted branch D E continued this day to bleed
at the fe&ion E, while the branches B and C, placed be-
low it, but in their natural pofition, were only moift at their
extremities.

OBS. 17.

The SAP in TREES. 17

OBS. 17. At five o'clock in the afternoon, the ninth, eighth, and
feventh incifions had ceafed to bleed ; but ftill the inverted
branch, though placed above them, bled at the extremity, and
continued to do fo till it was dark, when all die other inci-
fions upon the tree were dried up.
To obferve the effects of an inverted pofition of the branches

upon the motion of the fap, the two following experiments were

alfo made :

EXP. 6. On the iftof March, two branches of a birch, the one
placed five, and the other fifteen feet high, were tied down with
their extremities pointing directly to the earth. The buds on
thefe two inverted branches fwelled larger, broke fooner, and
threw out larger leaves, than any other buds upon the tree.

EXP. 7. At the fame time, and in the fame manner, two other
branches of a birch were inverted, in every refpedl fimilar to
each other. All the extremities of the one were cut ; but
thofe of the other were left entire. That branch whofe ex-
tremities were cut, continued to drop at every twig during
the whole bleeding feafon ; yet the buds upon this branch
fwelled larger and broke fooner than thofe upon the other
branch, which had been fuffered to remain entire.

COR. 10. From thefe experiments, I fhall only draw this obvi-
ous, though not unimportant conclufion, That wherever the
afcending fap moves moft freely, and in the largeft quantity,
there, the buds fwell to the largeft fize, and difclofe them-
felves foonefl.

OBS. 1 8. At five this afternoon, the ninth incifion, eight feet
high, on the north fide of the tree, was dried up ; yet an in-
cifion, at the fame height, on the fouth fide, continued to bleed
till funfet, and was bleeding when the incifion, only fix feet
high, on the north fide, was become quite dry.

COR. II. This obfervation fuggefts a fact, relative to the caufe
of the fap's motion, which deferves to be noted : That the
motion and bleeding of the fap does not proceed from a force

C communicated

i8 On the MOT ION of

communicated to it from the root, but from the action of
heat. The fouth fide of the trunk was this day far more
confiderably heated than the north fide ; and therefore, in the
evening, we found it bleed on the fouth fide, at the height of
eight feet, when it refufed to bleed, at the height of fix feet,
on the north fide.

MARCH 26.

Thermometer, at noon, 39. ; at midnight, 36.
THE feventh incifion bled ; but the eighth and ninth were

dry, though they had bled the two former days.

OBS. 19. On this day, and at all other times, whenever an in-
cifion bled on the trunk of the tree, all the incifions below it
bled likewife.

OBS. 20. In the courfe of this experiment, we have found the
uppermoft incifion fometimes dry, though it had bled the day
before ; but here we find the two uppermoft incifions dry,
which had bled the two former days. The caufe is evident
from the thermometer, which this day flood lower than on
any of the preceding days of obfervation.

AT this feafon, fo like is the fap in a tree, to the fluid in a ther-
mometer, and fo dependent in its motion on the heat and cold
of the atmofphere, that, by looking at the thermometer be-
fore I went abroad, I came now to guefs nearly the height at
which I mould find the tree bleeding.

OBS. 21. The inverted branch D E bled this day plentifully at
E, though the two incifions below it refufed to bleed ; as did
alfo the branches below it, which were in their natural po-
fition.

COR. 12. If at any time we woxild wifh to obtain a large quan-
tity of the fap of the birch, or of any other bleeding tree, it
would appear, therefore, to be a ufeful practice, to bend the
branches into a perpendicular pofition, and to cut them at
their extremities.

COR. 13-

The SAP in TREES. 19

COR. 13. We find, that when the parts of a tree are not fully re-
plete with fap, they- will bleed with a certain degree of heat,
but will refufe to bleed with a fmaller de'gree : That the more
a tree is replenished with fap, the lefs degree of heat is necef-
fary to make it bleed, and vice verfa. On the I3th of March,
the third incifion refufed to bleed with the heat of 44. ; but
on this day, the feventh incilion bled with the heat of 39.

MARCH 27.

Thermometer, at noon, 45. ; at midnight, 40.
THE eighth incifion bled ; but the ninth, which had bled for-
merly, was dry. The inverted branch continued to bleed at its
extremity E.

MARCH 28.

Thermometer, at noon, 49. ; at midnight, 43.
THE eighth incifion bled ; but the ninth was dry, as on the
preceding day. The inverted branch continued to bleed plen-
tifully at its extremity.

OBS. 22. The buds on the inverted branch were now fwelled
to a larger fize, and were evidently more forward than any
others upon the tree, though this was only the fifth day fince
the branch was placed in that poflure.

EXP. 8. On the 23d inftant, I had cut feven incifions, a foot
diftant from each other, upon the branch B. Thefe incifions
were cut deep, near to the pith of the branch, perpendicular
to the horizon, and were made with a view to folve the two
following queries :

1. WHETHER the fap makes a fwifter progrefs in young than
in old wood ? And,

2. WHETHER, at this time, there was any defcending fap to be
difcovered in the tree ?

THE experiment upon this branch afforded full fatisfa&ion con-
cerning both thefe queflions.

C 2 As

20 On the M 0 Tl 0 N of

As to the firft, the fap had iffued on the 24th inftant at the ninth
incifion, which was juft below the infertion of this branch,
but had been kept from afcending higher, for three days pad,
by a great degree of cold. During thefe days, I watched
every morning to find when the fap would appear at the lowefl
incifion upon the branch ; but the cold was too great to fuffer
it to make any progrefs till this day. Accordingly, all the
feven incifions on the branch did this day bleed fucceflively,
from the bottom to the top, between nine o'clock in the morn-
ing and two in the afternoon.

COR. 14. In anfwer to our firfl enquiry, we therefore find, that
the fap moved in this young branch feven feet in one day ;
but when the thermometer was at the fame degree of 49. the
fap moved in the trunk of the tree only at the rate of feven
feet in feven days. We may therefore, in general, conclude,
that the fap makes a fwifter progrefs in young than in old
wood ; and that, in fome cafes, the proportional difference is
no lefs than feven to one.

ON the 1 6th of March, the birch on which this experiment was
made, being about thirty feet high and thirty-five years old,
bled no higher than four feet above the ground; but a younger
birch, {landing clofe by it, being only about fourteen years
old, did, on that day, bleed at the top, or fifteen feet high.
Many fuch inftances might be adduced to mew, that the fap
runs more freely, and with a quicker afcent, in young than
in old wood. In confequence of this, the young trees of
every fpecies, ccetcrls paribus^ difclofe their leaves in fpring
fooner than thofe which are old.

OBS. 23. As to the fecond enquiry, the firft bleeding of thefe
feven incifions on the branch B was attentively marked, that
I might know whether the fap would firft appear on the under
or upper fide of each incifion, or on both at the fame time.
Accordingly, this morning, the fap made its firft appearance
upon the loweft fide of the loweft incifion, at h ; and fo fuc-

ceffively,

The BAP in TREES. 21

ceffively, upon the lower fide of all the other incifions, mark-
ed i, and flowed plentifully, while the upper fide of all the
feven incifions, marked k, remained dry.

COR. 15. The refult of thefe trials then amounts to this: That
there was at prefent no defcending fap from the branches :
That the whole fap of the tree was in an afcending flate : That
it had now reached about nine feet high in the trunk j be-
yond which height it was flill dry, and refufed to bleed.
BEING aflured of this, I now applied myfelf to examine an
experiment of M. DU HA MEL, upon which he founds his doc-
trine of a defcending fap in the bleeding feafon.
EXP. 9. This experiment was made, by fawing two inches deep
into the tree, at L, one foot from the ground. - Another inci-
fion, of the fame depth, was made three inches below, both
being horizontal j and the wood and bark between the two
were completely extracted. The fap was then perceived to
flow as plentifully from the furface of the upper incifion at
m, as from that of the under incifion at n.
COR. 1 6. From this experiment, M. DU HAMEL* fuppofes, that,
in the bleeding feafon, there is not only an afcending but a
defcending fap. Finding the fap to iflue from both incifions,
he concludes, that it moves at the time in two different
directions, or both upwards and downwards. The facts
which he delivers in the above, and in other experiments,
which I alfo repeated, are certainly true ; but this conclufion
which he draws from them is xinqueftionably erroneous.
IT is evident, from the whole train of our experiment, thatr
from the earlieft fpring to the prefent day, the 28th of March,
all the fap which flowed in the birch was in an afcendmg
flate, and that there was no defcending fap whatever from
the extremities of the tree towards the root. But when
once any part of a tree comes to be replete with this afcend-

* Phyfique des Arbres, torn. i. p. 66.

£{ i .q -i Jov .yoite'i aiu&H +•

a* On the MO 710 N of

ing fap, we find it will run out in any direction, either up-
wards or downwards, wherever an incifion is made.

MARCH 29.

Thermometer, at noon, 46. ; at midnight, 42.
THE eighth incifion bled ; but the ninth was ftill dry. The

inverted branch bled ftill freely at E. The feven incifions on

the branch B did not bleed.

OBS. 24. Dr TONGE *, in the laft century, firft noticed what he
termed the recidhation of the fap, that is, its fubfidence or
defcent in a tree during the cold of the night. This opinion
was alfo adopted by Dr HALES f, who fays, " That the fap
" in all vegetables does probably recede, in fome meafure,
" from the tops of branches, as the fun leaves them." It is
an opinion that has fince been generally admitted, and the
phenomenon itfelf termed the ocillatory motion of the fap.

SUCH a motion of the fap, however, appeared very queftion-
able, on feveral occafions, in the courfe'of our prefent expe-
riment. Often, when the fap was rifen to a confiderable
height in the tree, the incifions which had formerly bled
would be found dry in a cold morning j but a warm gleam
of the fun would, of a fudden, fet them a-bleeding, not
fucceflively, but all at once. This feems to prove, that the
fap does not defcend when the incifions ceafe to bleed by an
increafe of cold, but is only bound up.
To verify or invalidate this conclufion, the following experi-

.ments were made :

EXP, 10. March 28. A luxuriant young birch, two inches in
diameter, was this day cut over, a foot above ground. Be-
ing cut at mid-day, both fedlions bled for two hours j but
the under one more plentifully than the other. The upper
fection became quite dry on the approach of night. The

tree

* Philof. Tranf. anno 1668. p. 855.
f HALES Staticks, vol. i. p. 145.

The SAP in TREES. 23

tree thus cut, being kept in the fame upright pofitioa in
which it grew, on the two following days it bled a little
about mid-day ; b\it on each day it became dry, that is,
the fap ceafed to defcend whenever the cold of the evening
began to take place.

EXP. ii. February 10. At four o'clock afternoon, during a keen
froil, two branches, each five feet long, were cut off a plane-
tree. The under fedlions bled rapidly, and the fap freezing
as it ran, in half an hour there was a long icicle hanging at
each feclion. The two feparated branches, being kept per-
pendicular in the open air for half an hour, appeared only
moifl at the place where they were cut, but did not bleed.
One of them being brought into a warm room, bled copi-
oufly for an hour. The other having been flill kept in the
open air, had not feparated a drop during that time ; but,
upon being removed into the room, it bled freely like the
former.

COR. 17. From thefe experiments, we are, therefore, flill led to
conclude, that the fap does not defcend by cold : That when
a tree eeafes to bleed by an increafe of cold, this effe6l is not
produced by a fubfiding or defcent of the fap ; but that, by
the cold, it feems only to be arrefled and held in a ftate of
flagnation.

THE recidivation or ocillatory motion of the fap, by the cold of the
night, though long held by philofophers, appears, therefore,
to be an erroneous opinion, which has little or no. foundation
in nature.

COR. 1 8. In the lafl experiment, we have the force of the fap's
motion, and the influence of the cold upon that force;
weighed, the one againft the other. The freezing cold was
not able to prevent the motion of the fap upwards, but was
powerful enough to obftruc"l its motion downwards. Here,
as it was found in many other cafes, the force of the fap

afcending

24 On. the M 0 T 1 0 N of

afcending at the under feclion of the branch, was greatly fu-
perior to its force in defcending at the upper fedion.

MARCH 30.

Thermometer, at noon, 50. j at midnight, 43.
THE eighth incifion bled ; but the ninth continued dry. The

inverted branch (till bled freely at E. The under fections of

the feven incifions on the branch B bled j but their upper fec-

tions were as yet dry.

OBS. 25. The ninth incifion ftill refufed to bleed, though the
heat of this day appeared fufficient to elevate the fap to that
height ; but between the eighth and ninth incilions, there
were two large young branches, which feem to have led off
the fap fafter than the old wood of the trunk.

OBS. 26. From what has been noticed of the branches D and
B, we find, that a young branch bleeds fooner than an inci-
fion in the trunk, placed even below the infertion of the
branch. This evidently arifes from a quicker and more eafy
flow of the fap in young than in old wood; by which means,
the branch comes to be fooner replete with fap than the ad-
joining part of the ftem.

MARC H 31.
Thermometer, at noon, 62. ; at midnight, 40.

THE feventh incifion upon the trunk bled ; but thofe above
it were dry. The fedion of the inverted branch at E continued
to bleed. All the feven incifions upon the branch B were
dry.

OBS. 27. When I found the thermometer fo much higher this
day than it had been at any time during the feafon, I went
out, expecting to find the tree bleeding at a greater height
than it had hitherto done : But in this I was difappointed ;
for all the incifions above the feventh, even the eighth and
ninth, which had formerly bled, were perfectly dry. This

was

fbt SAP in 'TREES. 25

•was the firft inftance of many which afterwards occurred, to
ihew, that, in the early fpring, a tree bleeds by heat, and, as
the feafon advances, by cold.

APRIL i.

Thermometer, at noon, 50. ; at midnight, 34.
No obfervation becaufe of rain.

APRIL 2.

Thermometer, at noon, 46.; at midnight, 39.
THE feventh incifion, being the one immediately under the
branches, bled ; but the eighth, and all the other incifions above
it, upon the trunk, were dry. The inverted branch D E Hill
bled at E, but not in fuch abundance as formerly.
OBS. 28. It is remarkable, that the eighth and ninth incifions,
which had formerly bled, were dry for fome days paft, though
the four branches above them bled freely. It appears, that,
when the fap rifes to the juncture of branches, it is there led
off rapidly by the younger wood. By this means, the branches
become replete with fap ; the adjacent parts of the trunk are
drained, and ceafe to bleed ; while the fap, in the younger
wood of the branches, flows plentifully.
ANOTHER cafe, analogous to this, was found in the following
experiment :

EXP. 12. The grey willow* is a tree which does not bleed ; but
when the fap afcends in fpring, it rifes vifibly between the
wood and bark, though not fo copioufly as to bleed ; yet
wherever it arrives in fufEcient quantity, it makes the bark
feparate eafily from the wood, as in the birch, and probably
in all other trees.

ON the igth of April, the bark of this tree was found to fe-
parate freely from the wood, where the branch was of four
years growth. It feparated ftill more freely where the branch

D was

* Salix caprea, LIN.

26 On the MO T 1 0 N of

was only of three or two years growth ; and moft readily of all
in the laft year's moots. At the fame time, the bark refufed to
feparate freely in the above branch, where its growth was feven
years old, and was ftill more adhefive in the trunk, which was
about twenty years growth, and half a foot in diameter.
COR. 19. Were it not for the light obtained by the former expe-
riments, we might be led to conclude from this trial, that the
fap which appears in fpring, between wood and bark, defcends
from the extremities of a tree towards the root, and probably
in a way of circulation : But we have found, that the fap
which runs in fpring, between wood and bark, afcends diredl-
ly, and in a very gradual manner, from the root. The refult of
this experiment, therefore, coincides exactly with the above
obfervation, and mews, that the younger wood does power-
fully draw off the fap from the older : That, by draining the
trunk, the fap accumulates in the branches ; and that, in
young wood, we find a greater quantity of fap than in the
older wood through which it has paffed in its way from the
root.

APRIL 3,.

Thermometer, at noon, 49. j at midnight, 44.
No obfervation becaufe of rain.

APRIL 4.

Thermometer, at noon, 53. ; at midnight, 44.
THE tenth incifion bled this day, but very fparingly. The
inverted branch D E bled at E. The incifions on the branch B
bled at their under factions, and alfo at their upper fections, but
in much lefs quantity.

OBS. 29. This laft appearance feems to favour the idea of a cir-
culation, if it might be fuppofed, that the fap, which iffues
from the upper fections of the incifions, is the effect of a re-
gular return from the vipper extremities of the tree. But it

is

ttc SAP in 'TREES. 27

is to be noticed, that, wherever the fap has afcended, the whole
body of the wood is replete with it : That, upon incifion,
it ifTues from the wood downwards, and in every other di-
rection ; and that this happens before any fap has yet arrived
at the upper extremities of the tree.

APRI L 5.
Thermometer, at noon, 50. ; at midnight, 41.

APRIL 6.

Thermometer, at noon, 48. ; at midnight, 40.
No obfervation was made on thefe days.

APRIL 7.

Thermometer, at noon, 49. j at midnight, 42.
THE eleventh incifion bled ; and the inverted branch bled at E.

\ ,

APRIL 8.

Thermometer, at noon, 48. ; at midnight, 40.
THE eleventh incifion continued to bleed.

APRIL 9.

Thermometer, at noon, 50. ; at midnight, 44.
THE twelfth incifion bled this day.

APRIL 10.

Thermometer, at noon, 53. ; at midnight, 49.
THE thirteenth incifion began this day to bleed for the firft
time ; but all the incifions above it were ftill dry. The invert-
ed branch alfo bled at E.

OBS. 30. This day I attended carefully to the ifluing of the fap,
both from the upper and under incifions of the branch B, and
found, that it flowed in each incifion, both from the ligneous
circles, and from between them. It evidently appeared, how-

D 2 ever,

28 On the M 0 7 1 0 N of

ever, to flow from the veins feparating the circles, before it
iflued from the circles themfelves j which ferves to fhew, that
the fap runs more freely in the one than in the other, as we
foxmd before, that it runs more freely between the wood and
bark than in the wood itfelf.

OBS. 31. It was alfo this day remarked, that, in all the incifions
upon the branch B, the fap appeared fooner, and flowed
more copioufly from the outer than from the inner circles of
the wood. To be further affured of this, a number of
branches, both of the birch and plane, were cut over, when
the fame appearance "conftantly took place, and which con-
firms the obfervation formerly made, " That the fap is more
" expeditioufly and plentifully conveyed by young than by
" old wood."

DURING the nth, I2th and i3th of April, the thermometer,
at noon, flood at 45. 44. and 43. refpeclively ; and, at midnight,
at 36. 35. and 39. Thefe degrees of cold arrefled the fap. It
iflued fparingly at the thirteenth incifion, and at all the xuider
incifions, but went no higher.

APRIL 14.

Thermometer, at noon, 55. ; at midnight, 46.
THE fourteenth incifion bled this day for the firfl time ; but
all the incifions above it were flill dry. The inverted branch
alfo bled.

OBS. 32. It was again carefully obferved, by new incifions on
the branch B, whether, according to M. DU HAMEL, there
was an afcending fap by the ligneous circles, and a defcending
fap by their veins j but it was found, as formerly, that the
fap proceeded from both in the fame direction. It iflued, in-
deed, in lefs quantity, from the tipper than from the under
feclions.. When 'a thin flice of wood was taken off a cica-
trifed or dried fe&ion, the fap iflued from the veins before it

made

The SAP in TREES. 29

x

made its appearance from the circles ; and when the place
cicatrifed was only in part cut away, the veins would appear
moiftened with the fap, while the circles theinfelves remained
perfectly dry. Thefe appearances, I imagine, made M. DO
HA MEL fuppofe, that there was a diftincT: defcending fap by
thefe veins. Such appearances do, indeed, at fir ft fight, very
naturally lead to this fuppofition ; but, on farther infpecHon,
muft be referred to the caufe already eftablifhed, the more eafy
and copious flow of the fap between the circles than in the
circles thenifelves.

APRIL 15%

Thermometer, at noon, 49. ; at midnight, 48.
THE fourteenth incifion bled as yefterday. The fifteenth was
very moift, but did not bleed.

APRIL 16.

Thermometer, at noon, 56. ', at midnight, 50.-
THE fifteenth and fixteenth incifions bled this day for the
firft time.

OBS. 33. In the courfe of thefe experiments, this was the firft
inftance in which the fap moved two feet in twenty-four
hours. But the thermometer, in the made, flood higher than
it had hitherto been, and there was bright funfhine during
the whole day.

APRIL 17.
Thermometer, at noon, 51. ; at midnight, 47.

APRIL 1 8.

Thermometer, at noon, 50. ; at midnight, 47.

DURING both thefe days the fixteenth incifion. bled ; but the
feventeenth, though wet, did not bleed. This feemed to be ow-
ing to fome vigorous young branches which led off the fap,
and thereby prevented its rife, for a time, in the ftem.

APRLL

30 On the MOTION of

APRIL 19.

Thermometer, at noon, 54. ; at midnight, 50.
THE feventeenth incifion did, for the firft time, bleed.
OBS. 34. When the tree firft began to bleed, the dreaming of
the fap was confined to two, three or four hours, about the
middle of the day ; but as the heat of the feafon advanced,
and the tree became more replete with moifture, the running
of the fap commenced early in the morning, and continued
till very late in the evening. It is likewife to be noticed, that,
in the evening, the fap often continued to flow from in-
cifions in the branches, when thofe upon the trunk were
dried up ; and that it alfo run longer from inverted than
from upright branches.

APRIL 20.

Thermometer, at noon, 56. ; at midnight, 49.
THE eighteenth and nineteenth incifions bled to-day, for the
firft time. There was warm funfhine during the whole day.

APRIL 21.

Thermometer, at noon, 54. ; at midnight, 47.
THIS day the twentieth incifion bled.

APRIL 22.
Thermometer, at noon, 52. ; at midnight, 45.

THE twenty-firft incifion, which was made a few days before,
and which was the higheft that could be made on the tree, did
this day bleed for the firft time. It was twenty feet from the
ground.

APRIL 24.

Thermometer, at noon, 56. ; at midnight, 50.
THIS day the tree bled, in all its parts, at every incifion upon
the trunk, and at every twig cut at the extremities of the

branches.

APRIL

The SAP in TREES. 31

APRIL 30.

Thermometer, at noon, 60. j at midnight, 52.
THE vernation, or budding of the tree, now took place, that
is, the young leaves were mot forth fo far, as to be of an equal
length with the hybernaculum.

THIS day all the incifions, in the upper part of the tree, were
dry. A little fap ftill iffued from the four ihcifions upon the
trunk, that were next the ground. But frefti incifions being
made in different parts of the branches, they all refufed to bleed.

MAY i.

Thermometer, at noon, 58. j at midnight, 50.
ALL the incifions, both on the trunk and branches, were dry,
excepting one, a foot from the ground, which ftill continued
moift, though it did not bleed.

COR. 20. It appears then, that the fap does firfl ceafe to flow in
the branches ; and that it continues, for fome little time, to
flow in the lower parts of the trunk, after the upper parts are
become dry.

MAY 2.

Thermometer, at noon, 60. ; at midnight, 53.
INCISIONS being now made over the whole tree, from the
root to the extremities of the branches, they were all found per-
fectly dry. The young leaves were now fhot forth in length,
confiderably beyond that of the hybernaculum.
OBS. 35. It feemed now natural to conclude, that the tree ceafed
to bleed, and that the wood was every where become dry, by
the evaporation occasioned by the leaves which were now
fhot forth. The two following experiments, however, {hew,
that this appearance is owing to a different caufe.
EXP. 13. A young birch, i| inch in diameter, was cut over at
the beginning of the bleeding feafon, a foot from the ground,,
and, on the trunk that remained, there was no bud. This

trunk

33 On the MOTION of

trunk continued to bleed during the feafon, but it gave over
bleeding at the fame time with the other trees. The wood
became dry, the fap flowed between wood and bark, which
were then eafily feparable from one another, and the bark it-
felf became moift, though it had neither buds nor leaves
upon it.

EXP. 14. All the buds were ftripped off one fide of another
birch tree and all the buds on the other fide, were left en-
tire. Both fides of the tree, however, ceafed to bleed at the
fame time. The wood turned dry, the fap flowed between the
wood and bark, and the bark became moift on that fide of the
tree which was deprived of its buds, in the fame manner,
.and at the fame time, in which thefe alterations took place
on the fide of the tree which retained its buds, and whofe
leaves were now confiderably expanded.

COR. 2i. The drying up of the fap, therefore, in the wood of
trees, about the time of their vernation, proceeds not from
the evaporation occafioned by their leaves, but from a general
communication and diffufion of the fap from the wood -into
the bark, at that feafon. To this caufe, likewife, and not to
any influence of the leaves, is to be afcribed the running of
the fap between the wood and bark, during the feafon of
Sjer nation.

MAY 10.

Thermometer, at noon 63. ; at midnight, 50.

THE leaves of the tree were now expanded, and the wood was

every where quite dry. The fap flowed between the wood and

the bark, fo as to wet the finger, and bled fenfibly. The bark did

not, .in any degree, bleed ; but was every where more moift and

( fucculent than -when the fap flowed in the wood. The bark

peeled eafily from the wood, the alburnum from both, and its

fibres were more eafily feparated from one' another than at any

period while die fap ran in the wood.

C O N-

<Tbe SAP in 'TREES. 33

CONCLUSION.

IN the courfe of this paper, many particular obfervations and
corollaries have occurred, refpecting the motions of the fap and
the vegetatiori of trees ; but there ftill remain fome general con-
clufions to be drawn from the whole train of the experiments.
As to the truth of the experiments, I can have little doubt, as
they were all twice performed in two different years, and fome
of them repeated on other occafions j but the juflnefs of the
conclufions drawn from them muft be entirely fubmitted to the
determination of the Society.

§r.

WHETHER or not all the parts of a tree bleed at once, or by
fucceflion, is a queftion that feems to be folved, in a fatisfactory
manner, by thefe trials.

WE find the bleeding fap begins firft to flow at the root, to
afcend flowly xipwards, and to bleed fucceflively as it afcends, to
the very extremities of the tree.

IN the year in which thefe experiments were made, the fap
required forty- three days, from the nth of March to the 22d
of April, to mount twenty feet high in the trunk of the birch ;
that is, upon an average, it afcended nearly fix inches each day.
During another year, however, the fap was found to rife twenty
feet, in the trunk of the fame birch, in thirty-three days ; that
is, from the 7th of March to the 8th of April, which was about
nine inches each twenty-four hours. In another year, the fame
birch did not begin to bleed at the ground till the ayth of March.
Such a variation is to be expected, as the feafons vary j and to
this difference in the bleeding of the fap, is to be afcribed that
remarkable diverfity, in the time of vernation, obferved by the
fame tree in different years.

34 On the M OTIO N of

§ 2.

M. DU HAMEL *, who beftows a great deal of attention upon
this fubjecl, is dubious, whether the fap of trees, in the bleeding
feafon, be in an afcending or defcending ftate, and is felicitous
that the point fhould be determined by experiment. In anfwer
to this enquiry, it feems clear, by the above trials, that, from the
1 1 th of March, when the fap firfl began to run at the bottom
of the trunk, till the 3oth of April, when the tree began to un-
fold its leaves, the whole fap of the tree was in a progreffive
flate upwards : That it was liable, indeed, to fall back, or to run
out, upon incifion, in any direction ; but that, during the whole
bleeding feafon, there was no juft appearance of any defcend-
ing, returning, or circulatory fap.

§3-

WE may next attend to the tradl obferved by the fap in its a-
•fcent during the bleeding feafon.

IN none of the experiments here related, could any fap be per-
ceived to arife, either by the pith or the bark. The whole fap
was conveyed upwards by the wood, and between the wood and
bark ; but beyond this canal, no flow of the fap could be dif-
cerned in any exterior part of the tree.

IT alfo appears, that the fap moves both in the fubflance of
the ligneous circles, and in the veins by which they are fepa-
rated : That, in both, it is in an afcending ftate : That it moves
more expeditioufly in thefe veins than in the circles themfelves ;
and that it moves more freely in young than in old circles, and,
of courfe, more freely in the exterior than in the interior part
of every trunk and every branch.

IT is afferted by Dr GREW f, and by Meffrs BONNET £, LA
BAISSE, and Du HAMEL, that, in the bleeding feafon, all the

fap

* Phyfique des Arbres, torn. i. p. 66.
f Anatomy of Plants, Lond. 1682. fol.
\ BONNET fur 1'Ufage des Feuilles, p. 65.

SAP in TREES. 35

fap is confined to the wood of the tree, and that no part of it
moves between the wood and the bark. In many of the above
experiments, I was convinced, that this opinion has arifen from
fome miftake. The flow of the fap, between the wood and
bark, was daily and evidently perceived \ likewife, that it was
there always in an afcending (late ', and that it even moved more
freely, and with greater rapidity, in this channel, than in any
part of the fubflance of the wood.

§4.

THE caufe of the afcent of the fap in trees, is a curious and
important point in the hiflory of vegetation, but ftill involved in
obfcurity. Many opinions have been formed on the fubjecT:,
but thefe only at random, or, at beft, only from a general view
of vegetation. The caufe ftill remains fecret ; nor is it likely
that it will ever be brought to light, but by means of minute
and accurate experiments.

THE afcent of the fap has been afcribed, by fome, to fermen-
tation *, and, by others, to a certain force communicated to it
from the root ; but without any evidence to mew, that fuch
caufes even exifl.

THE afcent of the fap by filtration was an opinion rather more
plaufible j but it is oppofed by fome of the principal phenome-
na. Did the fap afcend like water in a fponge, or in capillary
tubes, why mould its motions be affected, nay even almoft en-
tirely regulated by heat and cold ? Or why, as has been found
in thefe experiments, fhould its motion be accelerated by placing
a branch in an inverted petition ?

FROM Dr HALES'S experiments, it has been concluded, that
the perfpiration of the leaves is the great agent in the motion
and elevation of the fap. But, from the experiments here re-
lated, it is evident, that the fap afcends with great vigour in
trees, even when they are deftitute of leaves.

E 2 THE

* HENCKEL. Flora Saturnizans, cap, 4.

36 On the MO T 1 0 N of

THE afcent of the fap was afcribed by LUDWIG *, to the expan-
fion of the air with which it is impregnated ; and, with more
reafon, by others, to the expanfion of the air contained in the
trachea, or air-veflels of the plant. As thefe veffels exifl only
in the wood, and as it is by the wood chiefly that the afcending
fap is conveyed, this, no doubt, forms a prefumption, that they
contribute, in fome degree, to the elevation of the fap. But,
as we have found, that the fap moves with more force upwards
than in any other direction ; and that, in certain circumftances,
it is made to flow and afcend by cold as well as by heat, the
expanfion of air cannot, therefore, be admitted, in any fhape
whatever, as the caufe of its afcent.

THE above experiments leave us flill in the dark, as to the pre-
cife caufe of the afcent of the fap. They fhew, indeed, upon
many occafions, that heat is the prime agent in producing this
effecT: ; and that, probably, by the expanfion of the fap itfelf,
rather than of any air, either contained in it, or in the trachea.
The incifions upon the birch ran freely in the day-time, efpeci-
ally during funfhine, but dried up regularly, as the cold of the
evening advanced. With a few exceptions, we find the afcent
of the fap conflantly promoted by heat, but retarded and even
arrefted by cold : Yet the precife manner in which heat and cold
produce thefe effects does not appear. It is likely that there are
other caufes which co-operate. Thefe probably are lodged in
the ftruclure of the plant, and to difcover them, would require
a more minute examination of that ftruclure, than has as yet
been beftowed upon it.

§5-

FROM the preceding experiments, we may now attempt a fo-
lution of that curious queftion in vegetation, why the termina-
ting buds of branches are the firft which difdofe themfelves in
the fpring ? This phenomenon has been often imagined, and

particularly

* LUDWIG Inftitutiones Regni vegetabilis, Lipf. i"JS7> 8vo. p. 183.

The SAP In TREES. 37

particularly by M. BONNET *, to be a conclufive argument, in
favour of a circulation of the fap. It is fuppofed, that the fap
rifes from the root, by the wood of a tree, to the extremities of
the branches, and that from thence it returns again by the bark
to the root, in a circulatory manner. It is therefore concluded,
that the bud which terminates a branch muft be the firft that
breaks in the fpring, becaufe it receives the firft vifit of this re-
turning fap. The above experiments, however, enable us to ac-
count for this curious appearance in a different manner.

WE have had frequent opportunities to remark, that the fap
moves with greater rapidity, and in greater plenty, in young
than in old wood.

THAT inverted branches, in which the fap flows more copi-
oufly, than in thofe which are creel, do bud the fooneft.

THAT young trees bud more early than thofe which are old ;
and that the fap runs longer in young than in old wood.

ALL which facts evidently lead to this conclufion, That, as the
buds towards the extremities of branches are placed upon the
youngeft wood, where they receive the. moft copious flow of the
fap, they muft, for this reafon, fwell more early, and difclofe
themfelves fooner than fuch as are fituated upon older wood.
From the early breaking of the terminating buds upon branches,
no proof can, therefore, be deduced in favour of a fuppofed
circulation.

§6.

THE fubtile and ingenious theory of the generation of plants,
given by LINN.EUS f , which is countenanced by many excellent
facts, is further confirmed by thefe experiments ; which ftrong-
ly infinuate, that the tree is rather deftined to fupport the pith,
than the pith the tree ; the pith, according to that theory, be-
ing eflentially neceflary, not fo much for the vegetation of the
plant, as the formation of the feeds.

IN

* BONNET, p. 285.

Generatio ambigena, Amoen. Acad. vol.

38 On the MOTION of

IN our experiments, no fap could, at any time, be difcerned
either to afcend or defcend by the pith. It is a fubftance quite
unqualified for this purpofe. It contains no lymphatics } and,
fo far as I know, none of the peculiar fap-vefTels of any tree
are ever fituated in the pith * ; a fingularity which is not to be
found in any of the other parts of a plant.

THE fubftance of the pith very much refembles that of the
cellular texture of plants, but is, notwithftanding, of a very dif-
ferent nature f. The cellular texture freely imbibes and tranf-
mits water ; but the fubftance of the pith obftinately repels it.
I have often feen colotired liquors rife in the bark and wood of
trees, efpecially in the wood of the elder, but not a particle was
admitted by the pith, though a fubftance, to appearance, much
better adapted for imbibing a fluid. All thefe circumftances
lead to fufpec"l, that the pith has little or no mare in fupporting
the wood, the bark, or the general vegetation of the tree, and
that its principal ufe is to aid the formation of the fruit.

ACCORDINGLY, in the numerous fedlions of trunks and
branches made in the foregoing experiments, the buds were
constantly obferved to" be connected with, and, in a manner,
rooted, in the pith, by means of the diametral infer -lions |. It
may alfo be every where obferved, that no bud exifts upon any
tree, without a connection with the pith ; and that buds are al-
ways in greater abundance where the pith is moft copious.

IT is fuppofed by LINNJEUS §, that the pith draws the nou-
rimment from the bark ; but the argument he ufes in fupport
of this pofition does, by no means, prove it. On the contrary,
it rather appears from our experiments, that the pith muft draw
its nourifliment from the woodj becaufe, during the whole

fpring

* M. DU HAMEI, imagine?, that there are in the pith both iiaiffeaux frofres, and lym-
phatiques.

\ M. DU HAMEL thinks, that the pith and the tlffit cellulaire are the fame fubftance..
J THE radiated lines of wood, which extend from the pith to the bark.
J Amcen. Acad. vol. 6. p. 325.

The SAP in 'TREES. 39

fpring feafon, the wood was replete with fap, while the bark was
dry. Befides, when the trunk of a tree, for a certain fpace, is
decorticated quite round, the pith, in the decorticated part, lives,
and all the parts of the tree above it, fo long as the wood con-
tinues green, and conveys fap, which it will do for years. The
wood appears to be the great fource of nourifhment to all the
parts of the tree. It is probable, that, from this alone, the pith
is nourifhed, and that its communication with the bark is not
to draw nourimment from it, but to afford fome important aid
to the growth of the buds.

§ 7-

THE important conjecture of Dr HALES, mentioned in the
introduction to this paper, and on which he thought the truth
or falfehood of the doctrine of a circulation chiefly depended,
has been, in the courfe of thefe experiments, completely ve-
rified.

WE have found, that, in the early fpring, the fap firfl begins
to move at the bottom of a tree, and proceeds gradually up-
wards through all its parts : That the lower bark is firfl moifl-
ened, by a fap afcending from the root, and not by a fap de-
fcending from the branches, which was generally fuppofed.
And further, that, from the firfl movement of the fap in the
fpring, till the time of vernation, no defcending fap whatever
can be difcerned in the tree.

THESE, indeed, are important points againfl the doctrine of
a circulation, but I do not think that they completely difprove
it. They only prove, that there is no circulating fap in a tree
during a certain feafon of the year, that is, from the time the
tree begins to bleed till the appearance of the leaves. To de-
cide the matter finally, it is neceflary, that the route of the fap
mould alfo be traced, by accurate experiments, from the time
the leaves firfl appear, till the defoliation of the tree in autumn.
What the refult of fuch an enquiry might be, I cannot deter-
mine :

4° On the M 0 77 0 N of, &c.

mine : And mail only obferve, that, from a few trials made
with this view, I have been led to fufped, that, while a tree is
in leaf, its fap obferves a very different courfe, and moves by
laws very different from thofe, by which it is regulated in the
bleeding feafon.

it.

Ox THE Mo TIOX or TIIK SAT IX TREK S .

To front? 4ff fffaperr of Atfk>'f . (I .

B

II. The THEORY of RAIN. By JAMES HUTTON, M. D.
F. R. S. EDIN. and Member of the ROYAL ACADEMY of
AGRICULTURE at PA R i s.

PART I.

Invejligation of the Law of Nature, on which is to be founded a
Theory of Rain.

[Read by the Author •, Feb. 2. 1 784.]

THERE is ail atmofpherical appearance which is not explain-
ed by the known laws of heat and cold. It is the breath
of animals becoming vifible, in being expired into an atmo-
fphere which is cold or moift ; and the transformation of tranf-
parent fleam into the ftate of mift, when mixed with air which
is of a colder temperature. Natural philofophers have certainly
confidered thefe appearances as being explained in the general
law by which heat and cold are communicated among contigu-
ous bodies, otherwife they would have endeavoured to point
out this particular law, which feems to depart from a more ge-
neral rule, or does not follow the natural courfe of things ob-
ferved on other occasions. The fubjedl of this paper is to in-
veftigate a certain rule which, in the cafe now mentioned, may
be difcovered as directing the action and effects of heat and
cold ; and to form a theory of rain upon that invefligated rule,
concerning the evaporation and condenfation of water.

THE air, infpired by an animal, may be confidered as a men-
ftruum diffolving water upon the warm and humid furface of
the lungs, and as thus becoming faturated with humidity in
this degree of heat. When this folution is again cooled, then,

F according

42 THEORY of RAIN.

according to the known laws of condenfation, water muft be
feparated from the menftruum, and become vifible by reflecting
light. In like manner, water may be rendered an invifible
elaftic fluid, by means of heat alone ; and this fluid, in being
cooled, will be condenfed into water, and appear vifible. But
it is now to be fhown, that, when breath or fleam becomes vi-
fible, in mixing with the atmofphere, this effect is not produced
in confequence of the general principles of heat and cold : That,
for the explanation of this appearance, there is required the
knowledge of a particular law ; and that the effects of heat or
cold, in relation to air and vapour, proceed not always in ratios
which are equally increafing or diminifhing.

IN order to determine the actual ratio of the difTolving
power of air, in relation to water in different degrees of
heat, or the ratio in which the power of heat converts fluid
water into elaftic fleam, we muft confider the feveral ratios in
which this operation may proceed ; for if, among all the con-
ceivable ways of proceeding, there fhall be but one with which
natural appearances fhall correfpond, it will then be reafonable
to conclude, that this correfponding ratio is the particular law of
nature, and that appearances of this kind are thus to be explained.

THE diflblving power of air, in relation to water, may be
fuppofed to diminifh as heat is increafed; but this would be in-
confiftent with natural appearances in general. Such a fuppo-
fition, therefore, would be now fuperfluous. This power might
alfo be conceived as not affected with the increafe or diminu-
tion of the degree of heat ; and this fuppofition is agreeable to
the folution of fea-falt in water : But, as it is certainly not the
cafe with air and vapour, neither is this fuppofition to be made.
The general rule of diflblving and evaporating bodies, is to in-
creafe with heat. This is now to be admitted as the cafe with
water evaporating in air, or when, by means of heat alone, it
is converted into fleam ; and it is only the ratio or meafure of this
operation which here is to be made the fubject of confideration.

THERE.

THEO R T of RAIN.

43

THERE are juft three different ratios, in which this operation
of heat on water may be conceived as proceeding.

1. THE folution may vary at the fame rate with the heat, fo
that equal increments of heat mall be accompanied by equal in-
crements of diffolved vapour.

2. IT may vary at a greater rate, fo that while the heat in-
creafes by equal differences, the quantity of diffolved vapour
mall increafe by differences which are continually augmenting.

3. IT may vary at a lefs rate than the heat, fo that while the
heat increafes by equal differences, the quantity of diffolved va-
pour mall increafe by differences which are continually dimi-
nifhing.

THESE three rates of
evaporation, or folution of
water in air, may be re-
prefented geometrically,
thus : Let the ftraight
line C H reprefent the
fcale of the thermometer.
Let the perpendicular or-
dinates, am, b r, be taken in the proportion of the quantity
of water, which can be held in folution, by a given quantity of
air, of the temperatures a and b. Draw the ftraight line m r.
Draw alfo the curve m d e f r, having its convexity turned to-
wards C H ; and the curve m v k I r, having its concavity
turned towards C H. It is evident, that the ordinates to the
line m r will mark the progrefs of heat, and alfo of a folution,
varying at the fame rate with the heat. In like manner, the
ordinates to the curve m d ef r, will mark the progrefs of fo-
lution, varying at a greater rate than the heat ; and the ordi-
nates to the curve m g k I r, will mark the progrefs of folution,
varying at a lefs rate than the heat : For thefe ordinates are
taken in the proportion of the quantity of water diffolved in

F 2

air.

44 THEOR T of RAIN.

air, of the different temperatures, indicated by the points of the
line C H, from which they are drawn.

LET us now confider thefe three rates of aqueous folution,
with a view to know the effec~l of mixing together faturated
portions of the atmofphere of different temperatures. For this
purpofe, let it be obferved, that the ordinates to the line m rt
drawn from the point of C H, which denotes the temperature
of the mixture, will always reprefent the quantity of water con-
tained (whether diffolved or not) in an unit of the mixture ;
for the ordinates m a, r £, were taken in the proportion of the
quantities contained in an unit of air of the temperatures a and
b ; and it is to be prefumed, that, upon mixture, the heat, and
alfo the water, are uniformly diffolved ; and, therefore, both
the heat and water, contained in an unit of the mixture, vary in
the fame proportion, and may be expreffed by the fame meafure.

IN the iuppofition of equable folution, let us mix equal por-
tions of faturated air, of the temperatures 10. and 40. the
mixture will produce a temperature 25. which will be reprefent-
ed by the ordinate o p. This ordinate alfo reprefents the qxian-
tity of water contained in an unit of the mixture. But it alfo
reprefents (in the prefent fuppofition) the quantity of water,
held in folution by an unit of air of the temperature 25.

INSTEAD of equal portions, let two parts of a faturated fohi-
tion, of the temperature 40. be mixed with one part of a fatu-
rated folution, of the temperature 10. the temperature pro-
duced will be 30. and will be expreffed by u q ; which will alfo
exprefs both the water contained in an unit of the mixtxire, and
the quantity of water held in folution by the unit.

IN like manner, two parts of the temperature 10. mixed with
one part of the temperature 40. produces a mean temperature
20. ; and the ordinate c n expreffes the heat, mixture, and folu-
tion of the unit.

EVERY mixture, therefore, that can be made of this folution
will be found equally faturated, as are its conftituent parts, and

will

THEORTofRAIN. 45

will have neither excefs nor deficiency of the diffolved fubftance.
This, however, is not the cafe in the other two rates of folu-
tion ; for, as in thofe two cafes the ordinates of heat and folu-
tion are not the fame, the medium of heat will not exprefs a
folution faturated with humidity, or a mixture in which there
is not fuperfluity of the diffolved fubftance. Let us now con-
fider thefe more particxilarly.

IN the curve m d efr, which reprefents the increasing rate of
folution, let equal portions of the folution in 40. and in 10. be
mixed, then the medium of heat in 25. will have for the ordi-
nate of mixture, that is to fay, the quantity of water contain-
ed in this mixture o p, whilft o e is the ordinate of folution,
that is to fay, the quantity of water that may be diffolved in
this degree of heat, confequently, e p is the quantity of water
that cannot be retained in folution, in this medium temperature
produced by the mixture.

IF two parts of the folution in 40. be mixed with one of that
in 10. the medium temperature will be 30. ; and, if two parts
of the laft be mixed with one of the other, the medium tempe-
rature produced will be 20. In thofe two cafes, fq and dn are
the quantities which will be feparated from the folution.

IN like manner, may be found the effect of any mixture of
two portions in different temperatures, and the quantity of wa-
ter that would be feparated on thefe occafions afcertained, if
the actual curve of evaporation were known, or that rate in.
which the folution of water in air proceeded.

THE progrefs of folution, inftead of being in an increaung
rate, may be in one that decreafes, in relation to the progrefs of
heat. In that cafe, the mixture of two portions of the folution
in different degrees of heat, inftead of producing a feparation
of fuperfluous moifture in the medium temperature, by reafon
of the fuperiaturatioii, as in the former cafe, will be followed
by an increafed power for the evaporation of water, by having
an underfaturation in the mixed mafs.

THIS

46 THEORTofRA IN.

THIS proportion will be illuftrated in the curve rngklr,
which reprefents the decreasing rate of folution. Let equal
portions in 40. and 10. be mixed, and let the ordinate be raifed
in the medium degree of heat 25. ok will then be the whole,
power of folution, or the quantity of water that air is capable
of diflblving in this degree of heat ; but o p is the quantity of
water that is actually in this mixture ; confequently, the air. is
here underfaturated with humidity by the quantity p k.

IF two parts of 40. {hall be mixed with one in 10. or two of
10. with one in 40. the quantities of underfaturation will be
changed, and q I and n g will exprefs thofe quantities, in rela-
tion to the mixtures in the medium temperatures.

THUS, in every mixture of folution in this decreafing rate of
folution, there will be found an underfaturation of the air,
with regard to the difTolved moifture, inflead of a fuperfatura-
tion, which is found in all the mixtures of the folution in the
increafing rate.

LET us recapitulate :

IF the folution of water in air increafes with heat in an equal
rate, no mixture can be made of portions, in different degrees
of heat, that will produce either fuper or underfaturation j but
the mixture, like the conftituent portions, will be always fatu-
rated without fuperfluity.

IF the folution of water in air increafes with heat in a de-
creafing rate, the mixture of two faturated portions, in dif-
ferent degrees of heat, will produce no condenfation of humi-
dity, but, on the contrary, will be capable of difTolving more
aqueous fubftance.

IF, on the other hand, the folution of water in air increafes
with heat in an increafing rate, the mixture of two faturated
portions, in different degrees of heat, will produce a condenfa-
tion of humidity, as being fuperfaturated in the medium tem-
perature of heat.

THIS

THEORY of R A IN. 47

THIS laft cafe properly applies to the phenomena of breath,
and fleam, which have been rendered vifible, in mixing with
air that is colder than themfelves ; and it explains the various
appearances that may occur, in mixing together feveral portions
of air, more or lefs faturated with humidity, and in different
temperatures of heat and cold : For

IT is not every mixture of the atmofpheric fluid, in different
temperatures, that mould, according to the theory, form a vifi-
ble condenfation ; this effect requiring, in that atmofphere, a
fufficient degree of faturation with humidity. Neither is it ne-
cefTary, for this effect, that the two portions to be mixed fhould
each be faturated with humidity up to the temperature in which
it then is found ; it is fufficient, that the difference in the tem-
peratures of thofe portions to be mixed fhould more than com-
penfate the defect in point of faturation. But, if a mixture
fhall be made of two portions of the atmofphere, both fully fa-
turated with humidity, then, however fmall may be the differ-
ence of their temperatures, there is reafon to believe, that a con-
denfation, proportionate to this difference, will take place.

HAVING thus explained the atmofpherical appearance of vifi-
ble mift, produced in the mixture of invifible fluids, we may
now apply this rule of condenfation as a principle for the theory
of rain.

RAIN is the diflillation of water, which had been firfl dif-
folved in the atmofphere, and then condenfed from that flate of
vapour or folution. It is the explanation of this condenfation
that muft form the theory of rain. So far, therefore, as the
condenfation of aqueous vapour has been explained, and fo far
as the evaporation, of water from the furface of the globe is un-
derftood, we have a theory for the general appearance of rain.

WATER, indeed, is condenfed in a cloud equally as in rain,
and yet clouds may fubfift without rain. But, it is evident,
that, without condenfation of aqueous vapour in the atmofpherej
no rain could be produced j and that, however different caufes

may

48 THEORY of R4IN.

may influence water condenfed in the atmofphere, and operate
varioufly, in either retaining it longer in a fufpended ftate, or
bringing it fooner to the ground, the condenfation of the wa-
ter is properly the caufe of rain. We may now endeavour to
confirm this theory of rain, in having again recourfe to natural
appearances.

THE mod convincing experiment, in confirmation of the
theory, would be, to have rain or mow produced by a mixture
of portions of the atmofphere, properly conditioned for the con-
denfation of the contained vapour. But fuch an experiment
as this we alfo have. M. DE MAUPERTUIS, in his Difcours fur
la mefure de la terre, fays, That, at Tornea, upon the opening of
a door, the external air immediately converts the warm vapour
of the chamber into mow, which then appears in what he
calls " de gros tourbillons blancs." A fimilar appearance happen-
ed at St Peterfburgh, anno \ 773. I have it from Profeflbr Ro-
BISON, who faw it. It was in a crowded aflembly, the compa-
ny fufFering from the clofenefs of the room, a gentleman
broke a window for relief. The cold air ruming in, formed a
vifible circumgiration of a fnowy fubflance.

THE law of nature, on which this theory of rain is founded,
may be now coiifidered in relation to its final caufe ; or how
far it may appear to be conceived in wifdom for the purpofe of
this world, as affording a proper climate for plants and animals.

HAD the law, refpecling aqueous evaporation in the atmo-
fphere, been conceived in any other manner than that which
has been now found eftablifhed in nature, the fummer's heat,
which is the caufe of vegetation, could never have been attend-
ed, as at prefent, with refrefhing mowers of rain. By the cir-
culation of the fluid atmofphere, the heat of torrid regions is
carried away, and the cold of frigid regions is brought to tem-
perate the exceflive heat that is excited upon the furface of the
earth in the fummer folftice ; but, if no condenfation of hu-
midity in the atmofphere could be produced by the mixture of

its

THEORY of RAIN. 49

its parts, however faturated with aqueous vapour, and in dif-
ferent degrees of heat, the natural cold of the polar regions, and
the contingent cold of fnows, accumulated, during winter, up-
on the higher countries, however tranfported to warmer re-
gions, would be altogether ineffectual for the purpofe of form-
ing clouds and condenfing rain.

THE prefent fyftem of the atmofphere is fo calculated as
that every mixture of different portions of that fluid, unequal
in their degrees of heat, and faturated with humidity, muft
procure a condenfation of water. This fyftem, therefore, of
the atmofphere, with this particular law in relation to heat and
cold, is calculated to produce rain, by the continual mixture of
its parts, which are in different temperatures.

IN this fyftem, we fhall fee, that the cold regions of the po-
lar circles are not ufelefs and inactive in the operations of this
world. In like manner, the frozen regions of the Alpine fitua-
tions of the Continent, ferve a purpofe, in the conftitution of
this earth, by preferving, in the accumulated fnows, a ftore of
the winter cold for the fummer feafon ; and thus preparing cold
portions of the atmofphere to be mixed with the warmer por-
tions, faturated with humidity, and ready to produce rain *.

WHILE the atmofphere is thus tempered, by tranfporting the
heat and cold of diftant regions, the regions of the earth moft
diftant from the fea, may be fupplied with mowers of rain at
every feafon of the year, or at any feafon, according to the ar-
rival of thofe ftreams of the atmofphere which are in the pro-
per conditions for producing, by their mixture, a medium de-
gree of heat, and a fuperfaturation or condenfation of aqueous
vapour. This wife fyftem of things, or this ufeful purpofe in
the ceconomy of the world, could not have been accomplifhed
without that particular law of nature reflecting aqueous con-
denfation ; for, if the mixing together of the atmofpheric
ftreams produced no condenfation, the fummer hemifphere of

G the

* THE explanation of this propofition depends upon Dr BLACK'S theory of latent heat.

50 THEORY of R A IK

the globe would be parched with drought, and the winter he-
mifphere deluged with rain.

To fee this, let us confider the fummer hemifphere of the
globe, warmed by- the influence of the afcending fun. From
the laws of hydroftatics, it will appear, that there fhould
be formed, on this occafion, two oppofite currents in the at-
mofphere above this half of the globe, the one moving along
the furface of the earth, from the polar region towards the equa-
tor, the other flowing above, in a contrary direction. This
circulation, therefore, being fuppofed, let us fee what follows,
according to the ac"lual conftitution of things. On the one
hand, the evaporation of the winter's moifture from the furface
of the continent, warmed by the fummer fun, mud tend to
faturate with humidity the polar atmofphere, as it acquires an
evaporating power from- its increaling heat ; on the other hand,
the progrefs of the upper current, from the tropic towards the
pole, in having its degree of heat diminifhed by the general
cooling caufe, will naturally bring the mafs to a point of fatu-
ration with the aqueous vapour which it had received. In this
ftate of things, the two oppofite currents in the atmofphere,
while feparate, might pafs on without condenfing humidity fuf-
ficient to produce rain ; but the moment that fufEcient portions
of thofe faturated flreams fhall mix, not only cloud, but fhowers
will be produced ; becaufe the fudden formation of a mean de-
gree of heat, in the mixture of two portions in different tem-
peratures, mufl condenfe a quantity of vapour fufEcient to form
rain.

RAIN having fallen in a place, in confequence of the mix-
ture in the atmofphere above, this will naturally be followed by
clearnefs in the fky and funfhine, which is fo neceffary for
warming the furface of the earth, and for giving health and vi-
gour to growing plants.

BUT, without the particular law now invefligated, refpec"ling
evaporation and condenfation of vapour, neither rain nor dew

could

THEORY of RAIN. 5»

could be produced upon the fummer hemifphere of die globe,
nor perhaps ever in tropical latitudes ; evaporation would every
where take place, more or lefs ; the general tendency would be
to faturate the atmofphere with water, or fill it with vapour in
its greateft heat ; and the mixture of the different parts of the
atmofphere would only conduce to temper the faturation, with-
out producing any condenfation of vapour in the mean degrees
of heat. But when, in confequence of the declining fun, the
influence of the general cooling caufe mould prevail, the at-
mofphere would gradually become clouded, and be darkened.
This cloudinefs would increafe to a general diftillation of the
condenfed vapour j and this diftillation would be uniformly
continued, until the returning fummer flipuld change the ftate
of condenfation to that of evaporation,

SUCH a fyftem as this, of fix months rain and fix months
drought, conftantly fucceeding, would not have prefented us
with all that variety of beautiful objects which we now behold ;
nor would it, like the prefent conftitution of this world, appear
calculated with all that wifdom of defign which we may per-
ceive to be in the poffibility of things ; for fuch an uniform
excefs of cloud and condenfation, on the one hand, and of fun-
ihine and evaporation, on the other, would not appear to fulfil
the intention of providing fuftenance and fatisfadlion, as far as
pomble, for every living thing ; whereas, in the actual fyftem,
now under contemplation, while both the extremes of drought
and of wetnefs are fo wifely avoided, temperate drought and
moifture, rain and funftiine, fo beneficial to the ceconomy of
this world, are every where beftowed with the moft provident
attention, but not without a variety of different degrees ; which
moft evidently marks out perfection in the defign, where fuch a
multitude of different beings, dependent on the various tem-
perament of thofe oppofite elements, are to be provided with
the neceffary conditions for their life, for the maturity of the
individual, and for the continuation of the race.

G 2 PART

$a THEORY of RAIN.

"PART 11.

The Theory of Rain applied to natural Appearances.
{Read by the Author ', April 12. 1784.]

TTAVING formed a theory of rain, founded upon a general
•*• -*• law refpecting the condenfation of aqueous vapour con-
tained in the air, it is now propofed to make fome application
of this theory to natural events, in conlidering the meteorolo-
gical obfervations of the globe, and endeavouring, either to ex-
plain appearances that are not otherwife underftood, or, from
thofe appearances that are evident in themfelves, to draw con-
clufions in confirmation of the theory.

UPON this occafion, where there is an indefinite variety in a
feries of particular obfervations, it is necefTary to inveftigate
fome order in thofe events, and to form a generality among
phenomena, which will then be phyfical truths, and may be
compared with the theory.

i^, IT may be required to fhow fome reafbn why, on all the
furface of the earth in general, there are always feafons of rain,
whether regular or irregular. Here the fubject of enquiry will
properly refpect the generality of rain.

C^/K, IT will be proper to confider fuch regular periodical
rains, as may be found with the circumftances attending their
production, which then would ferve to try the theory, or to il-
luftrate it. Here the regularity of rain will be the object in
view, and not its generality.

3<//j', IT will be neceflary to examine the apparent exceptions
from the doctrine founded on the theory, or thofe appearances
of irregularity in nature that do not flow from the theory, al-
though they may be in perfect confiftence with it, and might
be explained, had we the peculiar circumftances which are the

occasion

TffEO R T of RAIN. 53

occafion of the event. Here, again, the fubjecl: to be dif-
cufTed will be the apparent exception from the generality of
rain.

4////P, THE proportional quantities of rain falling in the dif-
ferent fituations of the earth may be made an object: of our at-
tention, in order to illuftrate the theory, as well as to explain
appearances. Here a comparative eflimate will be made of cli-
mates in relation to rain.

5/£/y, and la/l/y, HAVING thus confidered the particular ap-
pearances of the globe in general, fo far as our imperfect know-
ledge of them reaches, we may next examine a particular place,
fuch as is bed known, in relation to the appearances in general
of rain. The meteorological obfervations of our own climate
will here be the proper object of examination, with a view to
confirm the theory, and to form general rules, which may be
occafionally applied, either to any particular meteorological re-
gifter, or to every obfervation of change in our weather, that
is, fuch as {hall be attended with circumflances proper for judg-
ing of the principle.

I. Of the Generality of Rain.

LET us fuppofe the furface of this earth wholly covered
with water, and that the fun were ftationary, being always ver-
tical in one place, then, from the laws of heat and rarefaction,
there would be formed a circulation in the atmofphere, flowing
from the dark and cold hemifphere to the heated and illumi-
nated place, and returning above, from the heated place, in
all directions, towards the place of greateft cold.

As there is, for the atmofphere of this earth, a conftant cool-
ing caufe, this fluid body could only arrive at a certain degree
of heat ; and this woxild be regularly decreasing from the cen-
tre of illumination to the oppofite point of the globe, moft di-
ftant from the light and heat. Between thofe two regions of
extreme heat and cold, there would, in every place, be found

two-

54 THEORY of RAIN.

two ftreams of air, flowing in oppofite directions. If thofe
ftreams of air, therefore, fhall be fuppofed as both fufficiently
faturated with humidity, then, as they are of different tem-
peratures, there would be formed a continual condenfation of
aqueous vapour, in fome middle region of the atmofphere, by
the commixtion of part of thofe two oppofite ftreams.

HENCE there is reafon to believe, that, in this fuppofed
cafe, there would be formed, upon the furface of the globe,
three different regions, the torrid region, the temperate, and the
frigid. Thefe three regions would continue flationary ; and
the operations of each would be continual. In the torrid re-
gion, nothing but evaporation and heat would take place ; no
cloud could be formed, becaufe, in changing the tranfparency
of the atmofphere to opacity, it would be heated immediately
by the operation of light ; and thus the condenfed water would
be again evaporated. But this power of the fun would have a
termination ; and it is there that would begin the region of
temperate heat, and of continual rain. , It is not probable, that
this region of temperance would reach far beyond the region of
light j and, in the hemifphere of darknefs, there wou^d be
found a region of extreme cold and perfect drynefs.

LET us now fuppofe the earth as turning on its axis, in the
equinoctial fituation. The torrid region would thus be changed
into a zone, in which there would be night and day ; confe-
quently here would be much temperance, compared with the tor-
rid region now confidered ; and here perhaps there would be
formed periodical condenfation and evaporation of humidity,
correfponding to the feafons of night and day. As temperance
would thus be introduced into the torrid extremity, fo would
the effect of this change be felt over all the globe, every part of
\vhich would be now illuminated, confequently heated in fome
degree. Thus we would have a line of great heat and evapora-
tion, graduating each way into a point of great cold and con-
gelation. Between thefe two extremes of heat and cold, there

would

THEORT of RAIN. 55

would be found, in each hemifphere, a region of much tem-
perance, in relation to heat, but of much humidity in the at-
mofphere, perhaps of continual rain and condenfation.

THE fuppofition now formed muft appear extremely unfit for
making this globe a habitable world, in every part ; but, ha-
ving thus feen the effect of night and day, in temperating the
extremities of heat and cold in every place, we are now pre-
pared to contemplate the effects of fuppofing this globe to re-
volve around the fun, with a certain inclination of its axis. By
this beautiful contrivance, that comparatively uninhabitable
globe is now divided into two hemifpheres, each of which is
thus provided with a fummer and a winter feafon. But our
prefent view is limited to the evaporation and condenfation of
humidity ; and, in this contrivance of the feafons, there muft
appear an ample provifion for thofe alternate operations in every
part y for, as the place of the vertical fun is moved alternately
from the one tropic to the other, heat and cold, the original
caufes of evaporation and condenfation muft be carried over all
the globe, producing either annual feafons of rain, or diurnal
feafons of condenfation and evaporation, or both thofe,. feafons,
more or lefs, that is, in fome degree.

THE original caufe of motion in the atmofphere is the influ-
ence of the fun heating the furface of the earth, expofed to that
luminary. We have now fuppofed that furface to be of one
uniform fhape, and fimilar fubftance; from whence it has fol-
lowed, that the annual progrefs of the fun, perhaps alfo the di-
urnal progrefs, would produce a regular condenfation of rain
in certain regions, and the evaporation of humidity in others ;
and this would have a regular progrefs in certain determined
feafons, which would not vary. But nothing can be more di-
ftant from this fuppofition than is the natural conftitution of
the earth ; for the globe is compofed of fea and land, in no re-
gular fhape or mixture, while the furface of the land is alfo ir-
regular, with refpect to its elevations and depreffions, and vari-

ous,

S6 THEO RT of RAIN.

ous, with regard to the humidity and drynefs of that furface
•which is expofed to heat as the caufe of evaporation. Hence a
fource of the moft variable motions in the fluid atmofphere,
always affected with the heat of each particular part of the fur-
face with which it comes in contact ; hence a tendency to fatu-
rate every part of the atmofphere with aqueous vapour, more
or lefs, fo far as other natural operations will admit ; and hence
a fource of the moft irregular commixture of the feveral parts
of this elaftic fluid, whether faturated or not with aqueous
vapour.

ACCORDING to the theory, nothing is required for the pro-
duction of rain befides the mixture of portions of the atmo-
fphere, fufficiently faturated with humidity, and in different de-
grees of heat. But we have feen the caufes of faturating every
portion of the atmofphere with humidity, and of mixing the
parts that are in different degrees of heat. Confequently, over all
the furface of the globe, there fliould happen occasionally rain
and evaporation, more or lefs j and alfo, in every place, thofe
viciffitudes fhould be obferved to take place, with fome ten-
dency to regularity, which, however, may be fo difturbed as
to be hardly diftinguifliable upon many occaiions. Variable
winds, and variable rains, fliould be found in proportion as
each place is fituated in an irregular mixture of land and wa-
ter ; whereas regular winds fhould be found in proportion to
the uniformity of the furface ; and regular rains, in proportion
to the regular changes of thofe winds, by which the mixture
of the atmofphere neceffary to rain may be produced. But, as
it will be acknowledged, that this is the cafe in almofl all this
earth, where rain appears according to the conditions here fpe-
-cified, the theory is thus found to be in conformity with na-
ture, .and natural appearances are thus explained by the theory.

2. Of

THEORT of RAIN. 57

2. Of the Regularities of Rain.

THE variable rains and falls of fnow, which happen irregularly
in moft places, having been explained from the natural conftitu-
tion of this globe, from the proper difpofition of its folid and its
fluid parts, and from the periodical influence of heat and cold,
occafioned by the motion and poiition of this globe, in relation
to the fun, we mall find it eafy to underftand the more regular
periodical appearances, with regard to rain, which happen in a
few places of the earth.

IN looking for a regular periodical caufe for the mixture of
portions of die atmofphere, in different degrees of heat, and fuf-
ficiently faturated with humidity, nothing appears fo promifing
as the trade-winds in the Indian fea, blowing one half of the
year in one direction, and, during the other half, in a contra-
ry direction ; for, as thefe ftr earns of atmofphere are limited,
they muft ibmewhere produce a mixture of different portions
of that fluid mafs j and, in finding rain to be the confequence
of thefe regulated events, or as correfponding to thefe probable
caufes, we mall have reafon to conclude, that thofe mixed por-
tions of the atmofphere have been fumciently faturated with hu-
midity, and in different temperatures, in relation to heat. But
this is actually the cafe ; we find, in this place, regular appear-
ances, with regard to rain, which correfpond to the regular
caufes now afligned, for the commixtion of the atmofphere.
This correfpondency, therefore, while it explains thofe natural
appearances, confirms the theory.

THE iflands which are placed under the line, in the middle
of the Indian ocean, feem to form for themfelves conditions of
periodical condenfation, that correfpond to the diurnal influence
of the fun, and to the noclurnal motions in the atmofphere.
It is not here pretended to explain, a priori, how, in fuch places,
either always, or at certain feafons, there fhould be daily periods
of rain. It is enough to find that fuch is the fa£i, and that

H it

58 THEORY of RAIN.

it can be explained by no other theory but this, in which
we find a diurnal caufe of mixing together the different parts
of the atmofphere, by means of heating the mountains, and
furface of the earth, by the great illumination of the fun, thus
rarefying fome parts of the atmofphere, and producing com-
motions in the fluid mafs of air which furrounds the ifland.

THESE periodical commotions in the atmofphere of iilands in
tropical fituations muft not be confidered as a thing doubtful in
its nature, or a matter merely conjectural. The fac"l is well af-
certained in the fea and land breezes that are felt regularly
blowing every day in thofe oppofite directions. This is the
fact ; and that rain mould accompany thefe commotions follows
from the theory provifionally ; that is, in cafe of the proper
conditions for the condenfation of vapour being found in the
atmofphere thus mixed. Now, thefe conditions are not always
found where we find the breezes. But, in the iflands now un-
der confideration, fituated under the line, and in a fea that muft
be hotter than any other upon the globe ; a fea, either confined
conftantly between the tropics, or continually fupplied from the
tropical region of the Pacific ocean, it is not unreafonable to
fuppofe that fufEcient faturation with aqueous vapour may be
found in the atmofphere ; nor that, in the diurnal commotions
of this fluid, there may be portions of it mixed in different de-
grees of heat.

IT is, in like manner, that the periodical rains which happen
regularly upon the different coafts of the peninfula of India
muft be explained. The regular monfoons in thofe feas occafion
the tranfportation of air, faturated with aqueous vapour, which
has flowed along the furface of the fea, here to be elevated and
mixed with thofe portions which, having loft their heat to a
fufEcient degree, are in a condition to produce, by their com-
mixture, a condenfation of water upon the land. Nothing can
better illuftrate this explanation than the great annual and periodi-
cal rains which happen upon this continent, and which are ex-
hibited

rHEORTcfRAIN. 59

lubited upon fo large a fcale, that it is almoft impoflible to have
them explained in any other manner. Let us examine thofe cir-
cumftances which cannot be miftaken, and which may be fu£-
ficient for deciding in this queftion.

FROM the eaflto the weft of this great tropical continent of Afia
and Africa, the rivers inform us, that it rains in the feafon of the
fummer folftice ; and that, on the contrary, fair weather is here
produced by the removal of the heating caufe. We cannot fup-
pofe,that heat is an immediate caufe for the condenfation of aque-
ous vapour ; nor can we fuppofe that this efFecl mould not be pro-
duced by cold ; for this would be no lefs than to fuppofe in na-
ture an inconnftency, which never has appeared. While, there-
fore, we allow the laws of nature to be fleady, the effe<5l of the
lummer fun, in this continental fituation, muft be, to elevate
the heated air, and to have its place fupplied by that which has
come, fraught with aqueous vapour, from the neighbouring
feas : But being arrived here, upon this heated continent,
this humid air muft be elevated into the higher regions of the
atmofphere, and either be tranfported from thence towards the
polar regions, there to be gradually condenfed, as the cooling
caufe takes place, or it muft here fall in rain, by finding a caufe
for its condenfation. Upon the fir ft fuppofition, no rain mould
be found here during the fummer feafon ; or the rivers, by
which we are to judge of this event, mould be at the loweft af-
ter fummer. But, as the oppofite of this is true, the rivers be-
ing then in their fwelled ftate, it neceflarily follows, that the
humid atmofphere, tranfported from the fea, muft have its
water condenfed upon this heated continent in the fummer fol-
ftice ; and there is not, at prefent, any other principle known,
by which this operation might take place, or any other theory
by which thofe natural appearances of periodical rain might
be explained,

THE fummer fun, which proves a caufe of rain in certain rer
gions, where feas, affording great evaporation from their heat,

H 2 are

60 TH E 0 R T nf RA IN.

are in the neighbourhood, proves, on the contrary, a caufe of
drought in other regions, where the fource of water, or evapo-
ration, is more fcanty, or at a diftance. A winter continent,
heated by the elevation of the fummer fun, mould be more dif-
pofed to have drought than rain, during the period of its heat,
unlefs fome tranfient ftreams of atmofphere, proper for the
purpofe, mould reach this place, and happen to meet : There
would thus be occafioned mowers of rain, of great importance
to the vegetation of the place, but not to be confidered as a ge-
neral feafon of rain.

BUT the cafe is altered, upon the declining of the fummer
fun. The atmofphere, upon this continent, then becoming ei-
ther faturated to its degree of heat, or cooled to its degree of
faturation, is difpofed to produce rain, with every mixture
which is in a different temperature. Hence a fource of autum-
nal rains and winter fnows, which may fall with all the regu-
larity of the tropical rains ; and of this we alfo have informa-
tion, from the regular covering of thofe northern continental re-
gions, with a permanent fnow ; an event that happens with
great conftancy, and may be confidered as a regular periodical
rain.

HAVING thus found rain as being properly caufed, upon two
oppofite principles, a vertical or highly elevated fun, and the
removal of that caufe of heat, no place mould be found, upon
the furface of this earth, where rain may not happen, more or
lefs, from the one or other of thofe caufes. But there are
places where it is faid never to rain : And now the queftion is,
how far thefe appearances may be confiflent with the theory of
general rain which has been given.

3. Of apparent Exceptions from the Generality of Rain.
THE argument for the generality of rain has been founded
upon thefe two principles, firft, That mixed portions of the at-
mofphere are, by means of a certain law of nature, qualified

for

7HEO RT of RAIN. 6»

for the production of rain ; and, idly, That there is, in the
conftitution of this terraqueous globe, caufes for mixing the
different parts of the atmofphere, particularly, during fummer,
or by the influence of the fun. Had the rule, eftablifhed
by nature, for the evaporation of water and condenfation of
vapour, followed any other ratio than that which has been in-
veftigated in the theory, no mixture of the atmofphere could
have produced either mift or rain, and the regions of conden-
fation muft have been limited to the regions of cold, 'where, in
all probability, there muft have been continual rain, with no
other variation, perhaps, than a little change in the limits of
the condenfing regions, each of thefe two regions increafing and
diminifhing alternately, with the feafons of winter and fummer.
IN the a<5lual fyftem of the globe, the cafe is different, and
there is ample provifion made, in general, for rain ; but, in
the theory which has been given with regard to a certain part
of that fyftem, there is required, for the production of rain,
certain circumftances and conditions which do not flow imme-
diately from the heating and cooling caufes exerted every
where upon the globe. If thofe conditions, therefore, are not
obferved in certain places, no rain fhould there appear, not-
withftanding the nature and fituation of fuch places mould be
fimilar to thofe of other places where abundant rain is found.
But, if it be reafohable to conclude, that, in fome particular
fituations, there fhould not be found the proper conditions for
mixing together portions of the atmofphere, fufnciently fatura-
ted with humidity, and in different degrees of heat, or that
thefe fhould occur but feldom, then, in finding upon the
whole earth precifely fuch a fpot or two, in which feldom or
very rarely it is found to rain, we might be allowed to fuppofe
a failure in the conditions proper for rain in thofe places ; and
to conclude this from the effect, where it is not poffible to fee
farther into the caufe.

THE

62 'THE OR T of RAIN.

THE lower Egypt, and a narrow fpot upon the coaft of Peru,
are the only examples that we have of this fingular occurrence.
It would have been impoflible, a priori, to have concluded, that,
of all the places upon the earth, thefe two fhould have been thofe
in which rain fhould not happen ', the knowledge of man, in
tracing future effecls from known caufes, will ever be, perhaps,
too imperfect for fuch an undertaking, where it is necefTary,
not only to value every condition neceffary in the data, but al-
fo every quantity and degree in thofe different conditions ; but,
though we may not form that judgment a priori, yet, finding
that thefe are the only places in which rain does not fall, we
may be allowed to conclude, that fuch is the natural flate of
the winds about thofe places, as to prevent the proper conditions
for producing rain.

This conclufion is alfo, in fome meafure, confirmed from
ULLOA'S obfervations with regard to the wind, which appears
to blow fo fleadily upon the coafl of Peru, that either continual
rain might be here expected, or no rain at all, upon this coaft.
In this laft cafe, we would have reafon to conclude, that the va-
pours from the fea were carried over the coaft to be condenfed,
by mixing with other ftreams of cold atmofphere in the moun-
tainous regions of the Andes, where it rains fo abundantly for
moft part of the year.

IF, on the one hand, we fuppofe the wind blowing conti-
nually from the fea, without mixing with a ftream of air pro-
per to condenfe humidity, it muft pafs over this heated coaft,
without letting fall a drop of rain. If, on the other hand, we
{hall fuppofe the trade- wind, which has come over the Atlantic,
to be continued over the ridge of the Andes, weftward, after
having depofited much rain in this hilly region, there would
be alfo no reafon to fuppofe, that this current of atmofphere,
pafling over the heated coaft, fhould there find conditions pro-?
per for condenfing its humidity.

BUT

THEORY of RAIN. 63

BUT the queftion is not, if, in any fituation upon the fur-
face of the earth, a judgment might be formed, a priori , of no
rain happening, during a certain courfe of time, which to us
feems endlefs ; the contrary is the refult of reafoning from the
theory of aqueous condenfation, and from the natural confti-
tution of the globe. But here are two little foots upon the
earth where it almoft never rains, contrary to a conclufion of a
generality in the phenomenon of rain. It muft, however, be con-
fidered, that this generality was not a thing abfolute in the
conclufion, and neceflary in the univerfal of the cafe. It was
only abfolutely neceflary in fome places ; and it was, from the
indefinite variety of cafe, in all probability, moft general. But
this generality will admit of fuch an exception as may be con-
fident with the theory.

Now it is nowife inconfiftent with the theory to fuppofe,
that there fhould be, upon the globe, a few places, in which the
concurrence of the various conditions neceflary for producing
rain fhould not be found : That the greater part of the earth
fhould be found without rain, would certainly be inconfiftent
with the theory ; but that a particular fpot or two, containing
no diverfity of climate or of country, no variation of moun-
tain and of valley, fhould be found without rain, inftead of
tranfgrefling the neceflary conclufion of a generality with re-
gard to rain, confirms the theory, in prefuming the neceflity
for the concurrence of certain circumftances or conditions,
which are required in order to condenfe humidity in air.

THE caufe of rain, though often exerted, will not be al-
ways fufEcient to produce the full efFecT: ; for a fcanty con-
denfation of aqueous vapour will not defcend in rain, but re-
main fufpended in a vifible form, and thus produce mift upon
the furface of the earth, and clouds in the atmofphere above.
There are alfo fome fituations in which the effecT; of the fum-
mer fun is, to form a certain haze, that diminifhes very much

the

64 THEORTofRAIN.

the intenfity of heat which the diredl rays of that luminary
would produce.

THUS there are an indefinite variety of appearances to be
produced from this fimple principle of aqueous condenfation ;
for, in taking the gradation from the one extreme of tranfparent
atmofphere to the other of the denfeft cloud, and from the fal-
ling of the gentleft mift and dew to the heaviefl rain, hail and
fnow, we have an indefinite variety of appearances, all flowing
from one fimple principle.

4. Comparative EJlimate of Climates in relation to Rain.

IT has been now obferved, that the places in which it feldom
or never rains are, in a manner, as nothing, and ought only to
be confidered, upon the globe, as a point or two, where rain,
fo variable in its quantity, appears to ceafe. Here, therefore,
may be confidered as placed the leaft quantity ; and from this
to the greateft quantity, there is a confiderable latitude, and an
indefinite gradation.

IT will be neceffary to reduce thefe particular obfervations
to a generality, and thus to have fome fac"ls to which the theory
may be applicable. But, in order to have the theory tried by
thofe appearances, it will be neceffary to ftate the principles up-
on which, according to the theory, the differences in the quan-
tity of rain in each place mould depend. We may thus form
fome general principles, by which the natural appearances, with
regard to the quantities of rain, may be compared.

IN each place of the earth, the general quantity of rain de-
pends upon two feparate principles, which may be varioufly
compounded. The firft principle upon which the formation of
rain depends, according to the theory, being the mixture of
different flreams of the atmofphere, the quantity of rain mufl
depend, in the firft place, upon circumftances favourable to this
mixture, or this meeting of different winds.

THE

THEORY of R4IN. 65

THE meeting together of different ftreams of air is not fuffi-
cient for the production of rain ; it is alfo required, that thofe
ftreams of air be in degrees of heat fufiiciently different to pro-
duce a proper condenfation ; but as every place, except the
poles themfelves, may be confidered as fituated between two
different regions, the one hotter and the other colder than it-
felf, any place in which circumftances are found favourable for
the commixtion of different winds, may be confidered as having
alfo this condition favourable for the condenfation of rain ;
and thus thefe two conditions, the mixture of winds, and the
proper temperatures of thofe winds, may be comprehended
under this firft principle.

THE fecond principle to be now confidered, is the quantity of
humidity contained in the ftreams of air which are mixed for
the production of rain. Here is a diftinct principle, which is
perfectly different from the firft ', and, according to the theory,
the quantity of rain in any place, cateris paribus, will neceffa-
rily depend upon this principle. There being thus two different
principles for determining the quantity of rain, we muft al-
ways have an eye to each of thofe principles, in comparing na-
tural appearances with the theory. With this view, it will be
proper to confider feparately thefe two principles as the caufe of
rain ; and it will be eafy to underftand the compounded effect
of both, after afcertaining what mare of operation may belong
to each.

WERE the furface of this globe uniform, or a perfect fphe-
rical form, whether of fea or land, it does not appear how
there fhould be produced any wind, or ftreams of air, but what
were regular, in being determined by the influence of the fun
and motion of the earth, by which the different parts of that
furface would come varioufly, but regularly, to be affected by
the influence of this luminary. But the furface of this globe
is compofed of fea and land ; and this diverfification is various
and irregular. Here is, therefore, a fource of variable winds,

I or

66 THEORT rf RAIN.

or different ftreams of air, which may mix for the production
of rain. The furface of the earth is alfo diverfified with plains
and mountains, woods and barren defarts ; and here is fixed
another fource of variation ; firft, for the various heating of that
furface ; fecondly, for the production and mixture of different
ftreams of air ; and, laftly, for the influencing or determining
the quantities of rain in each place.

MOUNTAINS, in general, may be confidered as conducing
much to the mixing of different ftreams of air ; for, by the
heating of the fides of thofe mountains, more directly expofed
to the rays of the fun, there are neceffarily formed partial
ftreams, or occafional currents, in that fluid mafs of atmofphere ;
and thefe currents muft tend to mix its different parts. Moun-
tains, alfo, in oppofing the more general ftreams or currents of
the atmofphere, muft deflect thofe currents in their courfe, and
form a fource for the meeting together of currents coming
from the different fides of thofe ridges, and from the oppo-
fite quarters of the fame fide. Therefore, mountains and
their neighbourhood may be confidered as being, caterls pa-
ribus, more favourable to the production of rain than plains
and low countries little above the level of the fea. But, as this
conclufion is found, in general, to be verified from experience,
the theory here receives frefh confirmation from natural appear-
ances.

THUS, it will appear, that the effects commonly afcribed
to moxmtains, viz. breaking the clouds by their mechanical
operation, and attracting them by their electric quality, and
fuch like operations, are erroneous, or unneceffary for explain-
ing the general appearance of mountainous filiations having
more rain and thunder than the plains. Neither is the cold,
natural to the tops of mountains, to be confidered as productive
of rain, in cooling and condenfing the atmofphere ; for the
cold upon the top of a mountain is the effect of the atmofphere;

this

THEORTofRAIN. 67

this place being no colder, in general, than any other in the
neighbouring atmofphere at the fame height.

ACCORDING to this principle, there mould be more rain upon
the land than upon the fea, which, being a plane, and homo-
geneous in its nature, has neither the fame power to produce
ftreams of air, nor to mix together thofe which it may produce.
We find this alfo confident with experience. There is lefs rain, in
general, upon the fea than upon the land, fo far as we may
judge from all that we know. In the conftant trade-winds,
there is very little rain ; but, in the variable winds adjoining
to the trade-winds, rain falls in abundance, which is ftrictly
agreeable to the theory. So certain alfo is this general princi-
ple, that the mofl experienced feamen and beft obfervators have
made the remark, that, in thofe great oceans, the appearance of
a cloud at a diflance was an indication of an ifland, which they
feldom failed to find from that indication.

THE fecond principle in the caufe of rain is the different
degrees of humidity that may happen to be in the ftreams of
air which are mixed. Here we mall alfo find a great fource of
variation as to the quantity of rain to be produced in equal cir-
cumftances, /'. e. with a perfect fimilarity in die other requifite
conditions. It is not, however, fo eafy to exemplify the reality
of this principle from actual obfervation, as it is with regard to
the other, which had been fo evident as to have been received
into a general opinion. We mall, therefore, be obliged to look
out for fome appearances, by which the theory may be confirm-
ed, in proving the two following general propofitions :

ift, THAT the place where the greateft quantity of rain mould
fall, cceter'u paribus, is in the land contiguous to a great fea in a
tropical fituation.

zdfy, THAT the place where the leaft quantity of rain fhould
fall upon the earth," ceeteris paribus, is the moft inland part of
the continent of Europe and Afia, in a cool or temperate lati-
tude.

I 2 IP

68 THEORY of R A I N.

IF thefe two proportions be true, the theory, fo far as de-
pends upon this principle of condenfation, will be confirmed.
It is, therefore, now propofed to give an example in each of
thofe propofitions, from the comparifon of which examples with
the obfervations made in other places, we may arrive at the
truth, and find the propofitions proved.

THE firft of thefe is with regard to the greatefl quantity of
rain. Nobody will doubt of the Eaft Indies being a place pro-
perly correfponding to the terms of the proportion ; and it has
been found, that 104 inches of rain have there fallen in one
place in a feafon ; which is at leaft three times the quantity
•which generally falls in the regions fubjecl to our obfervations.

WITH regard to the fecond cafe, I know of no meteorologi-
cal regifter to confult, by which the comparative drynefs of the
region, fpecified in the propofition, might be determined ; but
there are fome notorious facts from which this conclufion may
be formed, by taking a proper compafs in our reafoning.

THE Cafpian fea, fo far as it remains ftationary, in neither
increafing nor diminifhing, affords a meafure of the evaporation
from the furface of that fea, in relation to the rain that falls up-
on the country, which is drained by the rivers running into it ;
converfely, it affords a meafure of the quantity of that rain,
in relation to this evaporation. But this country is in the very
place which we would obferve, with refpecl: to the quantity of
rain, as being near the centre of the greatefl continent. If,
therefore, we could find a fimilar example in a different fitua-
tioii of the globe, we fhould then, in making a comparifon,
find data for drawing fome conclufion concerning the quanti-
ties of rain which fall upon thofe different places. The lakes
in North America will afford this comparifon. The medium
latitude of thefe lakes is about 45 ° . ; and this is nearly that of
the Cafpian fea ; consequently, cteteris paribus^ there fhould be,
in thofe inftances, an equal evaporation from equal furfaces.

WE

THEORY of RAIN. 69

WE may next compare the two extents of land which fupply
with water thofe two compared evaporating furfaces. If, in
thofe two cafes, the furfaces of land, collecting rain, be equal-
ly proportioned to the furfaces from which that water is to be
evaporated ; and, if we (hall fuppofe, that the quantity of rain
which falls upon thofe two furfaces of land, is equal in propor-
tion to their fpaces ; in that cafe, we mould conclude, that all
the water received into thofe lakes might be evaporated, as it is
in the Cafpian fea. If, on the contrary, an immenfe quantity
of water i flues annually from thofe lakes, while there is reafon
to conclude, from the comparison of the Cafpian, that all the
received water fliould be evaporated, we mall then have rea-
fon to conclude, that there falls much more rain upon this in-
land place of North America, than upon a fimilar fituation in
the great continent of Europe and Aiia. The facl: is, that the
Cafpian receives its water from a furface of land, larger, in.
proportion, than that from whence the lakes of America are
fupplied ; confequently, there mould no water ifliie from the
lakes, but all evaporate, according to this rule.

IN this calculation, the evaporation has been fuppofed to be
equal, from equal fpaces, on the furface of the Cafpian and the
lakes. But it may be alleged, that the evaporation from the
lakes may be lefs than that from the Cafpian ; confequently, there
might appear to be a redundancy of water, in this cafe, from
the lakes, although the proportion of rain might be no greater.
This argument, upon another occafion, might be conclufive ;
but, in this cafe, where a greater power of evaporating water
muft attend the lefTer quantity of condenfed vapour, as flowing
neceflarily from the fame caufe, viz. the great diftance from
the fea, to allege a greater evaporating power upon the furface
of the Cafpian than on that of the lakes, is evidently to give
up the argument ; unlefs the greater evaporation fhall be fuppo-
fed to arife from a different caufe j and here the only caufe of

this

70 THEORY of RAIN.

this kind that occurs is a greater degree of heat; which may
be now considered.

THERE is no doubt that there would appear to be lefs heat
in the climate of North America than in that of Europe, com-
paring equal latitudes j but, unlefs this greater cold arifes from
fome other caufe than that which produces the greater quantity
of condenfed vapour, this argument from the temperatures,
in relation to heat and cold, would be no more conclusive than
that from the drynefs of the climate. Now, it muft be evident,
that, upon a continent where there is a greater quantity of con-
denfed vapour, there muft be more clouds to intercept the heat
of the fun, or its influence in heating the furface of the earth ;
and alfo, there muft be more of that heat loft, in relation to
our fenfation, by being employed in evaporating the greater
humidity from the furface of that earth. The proper conclu-
fion is, that the greater cold, in the climate of North America,
compared with the climate of the Cafpian, arifes from the fame
caufe which produces the greater quantity of rain; at leaft,
that this is the cafe in a great meafure, and that we have no
rule for valuing the effecT: of any other caufe.

HAVING thus found, that a greater quantity of rain falls
upon a given furface in the fmaller continent of the new
world, than upon a fimilar one in the greater continent of the
old, the theory is fo far confirmed; as, according to this theo-
ry, there mould be found more favourable circumftances, or
conditions, for the condenfation of aqueous vapour in the at-
mofphere, and the production of rain in the fmaller than in
the greater continent.

5. The Theory applied to Meteorological Obfervations.

HAVING compared the general appearances of the globe, in

relation to rain, with the theory, and having found that perfect

correfpondency betwixt them, which is neceflarily required in

phyfical truths, we may now confider the general appearances

of

THEOR T of RAIN. 71

of a particular place upon the globe, fuch as the ifland which
we inhabit. Becaufe, having the opportunity of making me^
teorological obfervations for this place, we ought to find, in
thofe obfervations, a certain confirmation of the theory, if it
is juft ; and we mould alfo be able to form a certain explana-
tion of thofe natural appearances, fo far as the theory, fliall be
admitted.

IN fuch an ifland as this of Great Britain, fituated in a region
of variable winds and temperate heat, more or lefs influenced,
on the one fide, with the mod extenfive continent of the earth ;
on the other, with the Atlantic ocean, there is reafon to con-
clude, that fhowers will often happen, without extreme quanti-
ties of rain falling at any one time ; and that the climate of
this country, with refpect to drought and moifture, will incline
towards the latter. This is alfo found to be the cafe, com-
paring Britain with the drier regions of the continent. But
what is moft interefting at prefent, will be to obferve what are
the concomitant circumftances of thofe frequent fliowers which
fall in this variable climate ; for here the beft opportunity may
be afforded of having the doctrine confirmed, in finding the
conditions required in the theory for the obferved effect.

BEFORE entering on this fubjecl, where latent caufes are to
be concluded from obferved effects, it will be neceffary to men-
tion fome circumftances which, from the nature of things,
render thefe obfervations of phenomena lefs conclufive, on ma-
ny particular occafions, although nowife deficient, on the whole,
for afcertaining truth, if properly considered.

IN confidering the meteorological obfervations of this coun-
try, with a view to illuftrate and confirm the theory, three
things occur, as requiring feparate attention : I/?, The motion
of the wind, or the quarter from, whence it comes. 2^/c, The
degree of heat, or indication of the thermometer placed in the
atmofphere. Lqftly, The changed weight of the atmofphere,
or indication of the barometer, Thefe three variable things-

are:

72 THEORY cf RAIN.

are to be confidercd in relation to the perceived effects, rain or
drought, which are fuppofed to happen in confequence of one
or more of thofe three caufes ; that thus we may endeavour to
difcover which of thefe is to be efteemed the proper caxife, and
which to be conlidered as only a concomitant appearance.

NOTHING appears to us fo diftinct as the motion and direction
of the wind, yet nothing is fo fallacious as the reafoning from
this appearance, confidered as a caufe in the changes to be pro-
duced in the atmofphere, and as explaining thofe effects of
change which we perceive. In making our obfervations on the
wind, we are limited to a fpot, which may be confidered as a
point in the line of the wind's direction ; and, from our obfer-
vations in this fpot, we are apt to conclude with regard to ope-
rations which include a great extent. When, for example, the
wind blows from the weft, in our obfervation, we fay, it has
come along the Atlantic ; when, from the eaft, that it has come
from the continent of Europe ; yet, unlefs we fuppofe the wind,
in moving, to preferve a ftraight line, or direct courfe, it muft
be evident, that, in thofe two cafes, the wind, inftead of
coming, as we imagine, from the eaft or weft, may truly
have come from the north or fouth. Now, to any one who
confiders attentively the nature of motions in the fluid at-
mofphere, it muft appear, that a ftraight line is that, of all
others, which there is the leaft reafon to conclude mould take
place in the variable winds of the globe ; but thefe are the
winds only with which we are now concerned.

IT will likewife be evident how great a difference there is be-
tween a weft or eaft wind and a fouth wind, on the one hand,
or a north wind, on the other. Now, what a confufion, in our
reafoning, muft fometimes follow this prefumption of our
principles ? For, if we may confound a fouth wind, in our ob-
fervations, with a wind coming to us directly from the weft,
we muft alfo be fubject to miftake a north wind upon a like oc-
calion, ;. e. in taking it for a weft wind. Thus, therefore, in

reafoning

THEORY of RAIN. 73

reafoning from our obfervations, a fouth wind and a north
wind, things as different in their qualities as oppofite in their
directions, will fometimes be confounded.

THE practical obfervation to be now made from this is, that
we fliould always allow the appearance, with regard to the di-
rection of the wind, or place from whence it came, to be cor-
rected by thofe concerning the temperature of this fluid, in re-
lation to heat and cold, fo far as there is reafon to conclude
that this indication of the thermometer is a thing of greater
certainty than that of the wind's direction.

THERMOMETRICAL obfervations, with regard to the tempe-
rature of the atmofphere, are, from their nature, variable. The
furface of this earth is heated by the influence of the fun ; and
the atmofphere, in contact with this furface, is heated by com-
munication of temperature : Or, in like manner, it is cooled,
upon another occafion, when it happens to be warmer than the
furface of the earth. But, whatever may be the temperature
of the atmofphere, there is, in general, a certain allowance to
be made for the diurnal influence of the fun j and this is found
out, by experience, both with regard to its quantity upon the
fcale of the thermometer, and to the time of its periodical ap-
pearance in the rotation of the earth.

HAVING thus learned to make allowance for the diurnal va-
riation of the thermometer, its variable temperature, as an in-
dication in our meteorological journal, is next to be confidered,
and the caufes of that change, It muff be evident, that nothing
can contribute fo much to change the temperature of the atmo-
fphere, as change in the direction of the wind, fuppofing, that,
in our obfervation, it gives no falfe indication. It is impof-
fible, that the fouthern atmofphere mould be tranfported over
this ifland, without giving heat above the mean temperature of
the feafon at which the obfervation is made ; or that the wind
ihould come directly from the north, without producing the
oppofite effect. Therefore, we are obliged to eftablifh this

K. principle,

74 THE 0 R T of R A IN.

principle, that whatever degree of heat or cold is felt exceeding
the mean temperature, or that which is proper to the feafon of-the
obfervation, muft be attributed to the motion of the atmofphere
from the fouth or north, although the direction of the wind,
upon the little fpot of our obfervation, may have given another
indication.

THE atmofphere moving from the eaftern or weftern regions
is not neceffarily either warmer or colder than the place of our
obfervation ; but it may be occafionally either the one or the
other ; and, from the known nature and circumftances of fuch
places, there are alfo rules to be formed for judging of thefe
occurrences. It would, however, be foreign to our prefenc
view to enquire into thefe rules ; and it is only neceflary to ob-
ferve, upon the whole, that there is no fteady caufe for either
heat or cold, in general, being tranfported to us, in the cafe of
the atmofphere being moved directly from the eaft or weft.

HENCE will appear the truth of that general rule which was
propofed for judging of the region from whence the atmofphe-
ric ftream has moved to us, viz. that we mould afcribe more to
the heat and cold of that fluid, compared with our mean tem-
perature for the feafon, than to the direction in which the ftream
pafTes over our head. The obfervations which relate to the ba-
rometer may now be confidered.

THE barometer is as juft a meafure of the weight or com-
preflion of our atmofphere, as is the thermometer of its degree
of heat or cold. But natural philofophers, obferving the con-
nection of changes in the barometer, with the difpofition of the
atmofphere to rain,- have judged, that one of thofe things flood
in relation of a caufe to the other ; and, finding, that often the
mercury in the barometer fell from its ftationary place before
the change from fair to rainy weather, they have concluded,
that rarity in the atmofphere was an immediate caufe of rain.
If fuch a conclufion as this could be admitted upon found prin-
ciples, the theory now given, with regard to the phenomenon of

rain,

THEORY of RA IN. 75

rain, would be ufelefs or uncertain ; but, that fuppofhion with
regard to the effect of rarity in the atmofphere, fo far from be-
ing fupported by the truth of obfervation, or from phyfical
principles, is deftitute of every confirmation.

WHATEVER fhall be fuppofed the caufe of rain, one thing is
evident, that the neceffary confequence of the falling of rain
from the atmofphere is to make that atmofphere more light, pro-
portionally to the quantity of water which, after being fepa-
rated from the air, is fupported by the earth on which it falls.
But there do not fall fuch quantities of rain in thefe regions,
as to explain the quantity of loft preffure, indicated by the ba-
rometer upon thefe occafions ; therefore we are obliged to re-
ject the confederation of the appearance of the barometer, either
as the caufe or the effect of rain ; although, inafmuch as they
are connected with the caufes of rain, the indications of the
barometer are found, from experience, to be of fome ufe in the
prognoftication of that event.

THOSE great changes in the atmofphere, which occafion the
remarkable rifings and fallings of the barometer, are not partial,
as happening to a narrow fpot around the place of obfervation,
but are of great extent. This appears from the comparifon of
different regiflers ; for, at the diftance of 400 miles, and perhaps
much more, two barometers proceed nearly in the fame man-
ner, rifing and falling, in general, almofl in the fame ratio ', but,
within that diftance, rainy weather often happens in one place,
while it is fair weather in another ; confequently, in fuppofing
either the levity of the atmofphere, or its gravity, to occafion
rain, we fhould be led into abfurdity, by concluding the fame
caufe as producing contrary effects, or a caufe exifting without
its proper effect.

INSTEAD of fuppofing the changed compreffion of the atmo-
fphere to be an immediate caufe of rain, let us fuppofe this
. change to be the confequence of fome great emotion produced
in that fluid body ; then, as different parts of the atmofphere

K 2 come

76 THEORY of RAIN.

come naturally to be mixed on thofe occafions of inteftine mo-
tion, we fhould have, according to the theory, an immediate
caufe fomewhere, in all probability, for the condenfation of
humidity, or production of rain. It does not, however, ap-
pear why the falling barometer mould indicate rain any more
than the rife of the mercury ; at the fame time, it may be
made to appear how, in general, the gradual rife of the ba-
rometer, to its greateft ordinary height, and its continuation in
this growing ftate, mould naturally indicate fair weather, or
much fair weather, in the quarter of the globe concerned with
thofe obfervations.

IN order to perceive this, let us fuppofe fuch fair weather to
take place, and that there is an undifturbed atmofphere in this
quarter of the earth ; then it will appear, that the neceffary eva-
poration from the furface of the globe muft gradually increafe the
weight of the atmofphere, or its height, or both. But, in this
cafe, the mercury in the barometer muft rife with a gradual
progrefs, while there is no motion in this quarter of the atmo-
fphere, fufficient to caufe a general rain, or to make a change in
this natural ftate of the barometer. Thus, though, perhaps,
there is not any condition of the barometer that pofitively indi-
cates rain, we have, from the obfervations of that inftrument, a
pofitive indication of fair weather.

BUT, though this indication of fair weather be pofitive in
its nature, as being founded on principle, and not on fuppofi-
tion; yet it is only true conditionally; that is, providing no
other caufe interferes, or that the ftationary place of the mer-
cury be not occafioned by the contrary operation of different
changes. This deceitful occurrence, however, though often
happening in fmall degrees, will rarely prevail to fuch an ex-
tent as might render doubtful, in general, the pofitive indica-
tion of the barometer, in relation to fair weather.

HAVING thus obtained a pofitive indication of what may be cal-
led the fair-weather feafbns, and the raiay feafons, requiring com-
motions

fHEORT of RAIN. 77

motions of the atmofphere, which may naturally occafion the
mercury to fall, we fliall, in this manner, have explained the
indications of the barometer, fo far as connected with the caufe
of rain : At the fame time, it is not pretended to explain, upon
this principle, why the falling of the barometer fliould, in ge-
neral, be a neceflary indication of rain, any more than the fud-
den rifing of the mercury in that inflrument.

IN the temperate regions of the earth, there are great
changes of the barometer, compared with thofe which happen
in the torrid region between the tropics, where they are but
fmall. This alfo fhould be the cafe, according to the nature
of things ; that is to fay, in confidering heat and cold, upon
the furface of the earth, as the caufes of motion in the portions
of the atmofphere which come more immediately within the
compafs of our obfervations. The torrid region, however
greatly affected by the diurnal motion of the earth, or influ-
ence of the fun, is but little affected by the annual progrefs,
which, to all the reft of the earth, from the 4oth degree of la-
titude, is fo extremely interefting. This region of perpetual
fummer, having, on each fide, a temperate region, can never
have the tranquillity of its atmofphere molefted with extreme
rarefaction and condemnation, like the temperate zone, bounded,
on the one fide, with this torrid region, and, on the other,
with a region that experiences fuch an extreme vicimtude in its
temperature. The changes from fummer to winter, and from
winter to fummer, neceffarily produce great motions in the at-
mofphere ; but it is only in the atmofphere of the temperate
regions that the effect of thofe motions is fek upon the ba^
rometer.

THE tranquillity of die barometer, in the equinoctial fitua-
tion, does not arife from the want of a moving caufe to actuate
the atmofphere in that region ; for there die fun, which may be
confidered as the prime mover of the machine, is at all times
powerful. But this tranquillity arifes from defect in die joint con-

fpiring

78 rHEO RY of RAIN.

fpiring together of all thofe caufes, which, in the temperate zone,
excite to fo great changes in the preffure of the impending at-
mofphere. This moving caufe in the equinoctial region is more
equable than it is any where elfe, except perhaps at the poles ;
and it is always exerted nearly in the fame direction, in forming
a motion from eaft to weft. When it is otherwife, that is,
when fome cafual change interrupts the equable progreflion of
the atmofphere, the moil violent effects may appear, in particu-
lar places, for a fhort fpace of time, without much change in
the general quantity of the atmofphere in this region, by which
the ftation of the mercury in the barometer is determined ;
confequently, the barometer, which is much . affected by the
motions of the atmofphere in the temperate regions, mould
be but little affected with thofe motions in the middle region.

To conclude, the barometer is an inftrument neceffarily con-
nected with motions in the atmofphere ; but it is not equally
affected with every motion in that fluid body. The barometer
is chiefly affected by thofe motions by which there are produced
accumulations and abftractions of this fluid, in places or regions
of fufEcient extent to affect the preffure of the atmofphere upon
the furface of the earth. But as every commotion in the atmo-
fphere may, tinder proper conditions, be a caufe for rain, and
as the want of commotion in the atmofphere is naturally a
caufe of fair weather, this inftrument may be made of great
importance for the purpofe of meteorological obfervations, al-
though not in the certain and more fimple manner in which it
has been, with the increafe of fcience, fo fuccefsfully applied
to the meafuring of heights.

HAVING thus eftabliflied this principle, that the barometer
is but little affected with the fall of rain, we may now employ
fome general obfervations of this inftrument, to difcover or illu-
ftrate certain operations in the atmofphere, which are more im-
mediately connected with the caufe of rain in the region now

considered.

IT

THE OR T of R4IN. 79

IT is found, that, in the tropical or equinoctial region, the
variation of the barometer is fmall, compared with that in the
temperate zone, notwithftanding there may be greater falls of
rain in the firfl than in the laft. But, if the power for evapo-
rating water, and of condenfing vapour, increafes in a higher
ratio than the equable progrefs of heat and cold, it muft ap-
pear, that, to produce the fame quantity of aqueous condenfa-
tion in a hot region, in which the atmofphere is faturated with
vapour, a fmaller quantity of the atmofphere, of different tem-
peratures, to be mixed for that purpofe, will be required ; and,
converfely, a greater quantity of the atmofpheric ftreams muft
concur for producing the fame quantity of rain in the temperate
regions, not equally faturated with vapour ; confequently, greater
temporary accumulations and local abftraclions of the atmo-
fphere, in the one region than in the other. Hence, a greater
rife and fall of the barometer, accompanying the changes of the
weather, in relation to rain and drought in the temperate than
in the tropical region.

THUS, certain natural appearances, which are perfectly in-
confiftent with the levity of the atmofphere being the imme-
diate caufe of rain, find an eafy explanation in the prefent
theory, which requires the mixture of feveral portions of the
atmofphere in different temperatures of heat. We may now
proceed to confider the natural appearances which generally at-
tend rain in this ifland, with a view to recommend the theory, in
mowing that fuch mixtures actually take place.

i. IF the mixing together of different ftreams of the atmo-
fphere be the caufe of rain, calmnefs, or fteady breezes, mould
be the attendants of fair weather ; but this, in general, is the
cafe. The converfe of this is alfo true ; for partial mowers ne-
ver happen without wind, although general rains, or fuch as
are produced in the higher regions of the atmofphere, may be
attended with a calm, or fall without difturbance, in the place
of our obfervation. Now, the truth of the propofition is mani-

fefted

8o THEORY of RAIN.

fefted in this, that, by people who reafon from the immediate
obfervation alone, wind is attributed to the Ihower as an effect,
when it may more truly be confidered as (landing in the rela-
tion of a caufe.

2. WHEN, in calm weather, rain begins, it is reafonable to
expect that this mould be followed by wind ; and, in like
manner, if in windy weather it begins to rain, it may be rea-
fonable to expert that the wind mould calm, after a certain pe-
riod, with the rain. Thefe undoubtedly are the general ap-
pearances j and thefe appearances are explained upon this prin-
ciple, that wind is the caufe of rain, and that, in the oppofition
of winds, a calm may be produced.

3. DURING a calm and clear fky, mowers never happen ;
but, with fqualls of wind, fudden mowers appear. In calm
weather, before it rains, the heaven is all overclouded, and
the rain becomes general, equable, and not in fpots : But, when
attended with wind, the rain is unfteady ; one while, the fpot
around us is involved in the thickeft cloud and heavy rain j
another while, it is under the cleareft Iky ; and thefe alternate
operations in the atmofphere of thickening and clearing conti-
nue during the fqually weather.

4. THESE facts are from my own obfervation ; and they ne-
cefTarily imply the mixture of hot and cold flreams of air for
the production of rain. But fometimes this operation is a thing
vifible in itfelf ; for when, by means of the motion of the
clouds, the atmofphere is perceived to be moved in oppofite di-
rections, here, it is evident, nothing is required befides the pro-
per conditions, in thofe mixing flreams, for the condenfation of
rain. Now, I have had it from experienced feamen, men of
great knowledge and obfervation, that, in our channel, they had
often occafion to remark this oppofition in the winds, or the
clouds going againfl the wind, as being a fure mark of heavy
rain to follow,

5. THE

THEO RT of RAIN. 8s

5. THE changes in the temperature of our atmofphere attend
the alterations of rain and fair weather, no lefs evidently than
thofe changes happen, in confequence of changes in the ftreams
of wind. If the wind has blown from the fouthern and warm-
er regions, replete with humidity, it brings warm weather, and
this may continue to be fair ; but, when rain fucceeds, it is ge-
nerally found, that a change of wind fucceeds the rain, and then
the air becomes more cold. In like manner, if a cold north
wind prevails, it may continue fair ; but, when rain fucceeds,
there is commonly a change in the wind, and alfo in the tem-
perature of the atmofphere. And, in general, as many alte-
rations as mall happen in the prevalencies of thofe different
winds, or ftreams of hot and cold atmofphere, fo many repeti-
tions have we of the rain.

UPON the coaft of Hudfon's bay, while the thermometer is
at 90°. with calmnefs and a fky perfectly ferene, it is common
for a fudden guft of wind to come from the north-weft, with
fuch violence as to threaten overfetting every thing ; and along
with the blaft, there comes a mower of fnow or hail. This
lafts only a very Ihort fpace of time ; it clears up, grows calm
and ferene, as before ', but the temperature of the air has much
changed ; from 90°. the thermometer will fall to 50°. for a
fhort fpace of time, and then it gradually rifes to the ordinary
heat. This obfervation, which I have from my friend Mr
GRJSME, a gentleman of great accuracy, who lived long in
that country, points out clearly the agitation of the atmofphere
as being the caufe of rain, and not its confequence. It alfo
demonftrates the fudden mixture, in the atmofphere, of air
which, for the feafon, is extremely cold, compared with the ge-
neral temperature of the atmofphere upon this continent.

BUT, in the application of thefe general rules to particular
cafes of obfervation, it muft always be confidered, that though
inteftine commotion, or mixture of the atmofphere, be necefla-
rily required in order to produce rain, it is not every mixture

L or

82 THEO RT of RAIN.

or commotion in the atmofphere that will be followed by this
effect ', for* though mixture of the atmofphere be a neceffary
condition in the caufe of rain, it is not the only condition ;
and, therefore, the fame appearances, in relation to the winds,
and to the different temperatures of the atmofphere, may be
obferved, while rain, as the effect, may either follow or not,
according as the third condition may or may not take place :
That is, that the mixed atmofphere be fufficiently faturated with
vapour or humidity ', which is a thing that cannot perhaps be
made the fubject of our obfervation.

6. RAIN happens in the hotteft weather, and in every degree
of temperature, down to the freezing point ; it requires, there-
fore, much attention to obferve the changes of temperature in
the atmofphere that ufually attend the production of rain, in
all this range of the thermometer from 80°. to 32°. But, about
the freezing point, the effects of heat and cold are fo manifeft,
in the fluidity and congelation of water, that a perfon can
hardly avoid making obfervations which will tend to confirm
the theory.

WHEN, after fettled froft, it begins to fnow, the cold is al-
ways found to relent, and the thermometer to rife to the freezing
point, or nearly, however low it may have been before. But
after the fnow has fallen, and the fky becomes clear, the cold in-
creafes, until it again refumes its former intenfity, or even pro-
ceeds to a greater degree. This is an appearance which is eafily
explained in the theory ; and it is an appearance which every
perfon, who can make an obfervation, has it frequently in his
power to verify.

7. THE climate which we inhabit has, for character, tempe-
rance in extreme ; our winters and our fummers differ but lit-
tle from each other in their mean temperatures. There is, in
this ifland, but little fteady determination for the wind, which,
in general, is extremely variable. The variable nature of our
winds cannot be the effect of the temperance of our climate >

but

RT of RAIN. 83

but the temperance of our climate may, in fome meafure, be
produced in confequence of the variable nature of our winds.
So far as this is the cafe, that the mixture of different dreams
of the atmofphere temperates the heat and cold of our air, this
operation mould be attended with proportionate condenfation
of aqueous vapour. Here the theory is brought to the ted of
obfervation. But, before deciding the point in queftion, let us
underftand what it is which, in obfervation, mould be decifive
with refpecl: to the theory.

IT is not the quantity of rain which falls during the year,
nor in any portion of it, that affords a principle by which to
form a judgment in relation to the prefent queftion ; for it is
the continuance of rain, and not the quantity, that is the objedl
of enquiry. The number of days and hours, throughout the
year, in which it rains, is, no doubt, a proper fubjecl for our
obfervation, in order to form an eftimate with regard to the
point in queftion ; but it is not itfelf that point in queftion.
The point is the condenfation of aqueous vapour in the atmo-
fphere ; and though no rain can fall without the condenfation
of aqueous vapour, there may be much condenfation of that
vapour, without rain, as a teftimony of that event. Thus we
are led to direct our obfervation to other phenomena befides
rain ; appearances which may be equally conclufive, in relation
to the point to be decided, with rain itfelf. Now, thefe appear-
ances, in which the condenfation of aqueous vapour is equally
demonftrated with that of rain, are no other than cloudinefs
in our atmofphere.

THE queftion refpecling the theory being now brought to
this ifl~ue, with regard to obfervation, it may be demanded,
what is the proportion of ferene fky and cloudinefs in the at-
mofphere that properly belongs to this climate ? Here is a que-
ftion propofed, that requires not extreme exactnefs in its anfwer.
I believe every body, from their recollection, will allow, that,
for one day or hour of clear funfhine, there are two or thr-ee of

L 2 cloudinefs

84 THEORT of R

eloudinefs in the atmofphere ; and this is fufEcient for deter-
mining the queftion, whether or not the condenfation of aque-
ous vapour be prevalent in the climate of this ifland ?

8. CLOUDINESS in the fky being a demonftration of aque-
ous condenfation in the atmofphere, in like manner as is the
cafe with rain, this appearance may now be examined with re-
gard to- the temperature of the air, in relation to heat and cold,
that commonly attends on this occafion. Let us begin with
fummer ; and fuppofe the weather to be warm ; that is, precife-
ly in the natural temperature of the feafon. There is no que-
flion with regard to the effecl of a clear iky, or continued
funfhine : Heat is certainly the effecl of funfhine ; and this
heat is accumulated in the earth, cateris paribus, in proportion
to the intenfity of the light and the duration of the illumina-
tion. The queftion now to be examined is this, what mould
be the effecl of condenfation of aqueous vapour in the atmo-
fphere at this feafon, and in this fummer temperature ; that is
to fay, whether mould heat or cold be the confequence of this
operation ?

NOTHING is fb eafy as the anfwer to this queftion. We fup-
pofe the atmofphere in the mean temperature of the fummer-
feafon, and that a condenfation of aqueous vapour is produced
by the admixture of a current of atmofphere in a different tem-
perature. Now, as this effecl may be produced by the admix-
ture of air, either hotter or colder than our atmofphere, which
is fuppofed to be quite ferene, the effecl muft be a change of
the temperature of our atmofphere, either to a greater or a lefa
degree of heat than its mean temperature for the feafon, accord-
ing as the fupervening atmofphere, producing eloudinefs in our
fky, mail be either hotter or colder, in its temperature, than
that in which we had been involved immediately before.

FROM this conclusion, we will now draw a praclical obferva-
tion, which may be of fome utility in trying the theory and
explaining appearances. If the heat of the atmofphere be,

at

THEORT of RAIN. 85

at any time, above its mean temperature for the feafon, and a
change {hall happen from a ferene flcy to cloudinefs, we have
reafon to expect, that the extreme heat will be temperated, and
the atmofphere confequently cooled. But, if the temperature
of our atmofphere be below its mean heat for the feafon, then,
from the change of clearnefs for a cloudy {ky, we have reafon
to look for a change from cold to hot.

FROM this alfo we have a proper explanation of a general ap-
pearance, with regard to the ferenity of the fky, in every cli-
mate, and in the oppofite feafons of fummer and winter ; for
this ferene fky, or clear atmofphere, is perfectly confident with
the two extremities of temperature ; that is, with that of heat,
upon the one hand, and of cold, upon the other. It is only a
mixture of thofe two extremes, that is to fay, of hot and cold
atmofphere, which produces, at the fame time, cloudinefs to
the fight, and temperance in relation to the fenfe of heat and
cold. Thus will be explained a common obfervation, with re-
gard to the weather of this country, that the air is always cold,
below its mean temperature for the feafon, when the iky is
clear. The country people allege that it is then froft, even in
the midft of fummer. They probably find hoar-froft early in
the morning, efpecially in the higher parts of the country ; and
furely the making of ice in Bengal juftifies that obfervation.

g. THE formation of hail is evidently upon the fame principle
as that of fnow. The one is, therefore, equally with the other,
explained by the theory. There are, however, peculiarities in
the production of hail, which do not take place in that of fnow j
but thefe peculiar circumftances are to us, perhaps, unknown ;
and as there is nothing in the appearance of hail that is, in any
refpect, inconfiftent with the theory, the confounding of fnow
and hail brings no error into our fcience, nor affects the doc-
trine with the leaft uncertainty. Hail is evidently formed by
the collection of fmaller molecules^ which ultimately are of the

nature

86 'THEORY of RAIN.

nature of fnow ; and it is probably by means of electrical at-
traction, that this collection is performed.

i o. THERE is one appearance more, that often attends rain,
and, therefore, mould be considered ; this is thunder, which fo
frequently accompanies violent and fudden rain. But, as we
are ignorant of any principle upon which electricity mould be
the caufe of condenfing aqueous vapour in the atmofphere, this
is not the place for examining what may be the effects of elec-
tricity, with regard to aqueous vapour condenfed from its ela-
ftic ftate, farther than that it is moft reafonable, and alfo con-
fiflent with appearances, to fuppofe a more fudden attraction of
the condenfed particles of water, than what happens upon other
occafions, where even a degree of electrical repulfion may pre-
ferve them from immediate contact, and protract the fall of
rain, by fufpending the condenfed vapour in form of mifl.

III.

III. On the C A u s E s which affeft A

TRICAL MEASUREMENTS. By JOHN PLATFAIR^ A. M.
F. R. S. EDIN. and Prof ej/br of Mathematics in the Univerfity
o EDINBURGH.

\Readby the Author, March I. 1784. and Jan. 10. 1785.]

'HP HOUGH the labours of M. DE Luc, and of the excellent
•*• obfervers who followed him, have brought the barome-
trical meafurement of heights to very great exactnefs, they
have not yet given to it the utmoft perfection it can attain.
Some caufes of inaccuracy are ftill involved in it ; of which
we ought, at lead, to eftimate the effects, if we cannot correct
them altogether. The allowance made on account of the tem-
perature of the air, implies in it a hypothefis that has not been
examined, nor even exprefled ; and many other circumftances
that affect the denfity of the atmofphere, have either been whol-
ly omitted, or improperly introduced. The object of the pre-
fent paper is to correct the errors that arife from thefe caufes,
or, where that cannot be done, to affign the limits within which
thofe errors are contained.

i. THE mpft important correction introduced by M. DE Luc,
is that which depends on the temperature of the air. His ob-
fepvations led him to conclude, that, at a certain temperature,
marked nearly by 69°^ of FAHRENHEIT, the difference of
the logarithms of the heights of the mercury in the barome-
ter, at the upper and the lower flations, gave the height of the
former of thofe ftations above the latter in i oooths of a French
toife ; but that at every other temperature above or below
69° |, a correction of .00223 of the whole was to be added or

fubtracted

88 CAUSES which affeS the ACC URAC Y

fubtracted for every degree of the thermometer. By obferva-
tions ftill more accurate, it has been found, that the tempera-
ture at which the difference of the logarithms gives the height
in Englifh fathoms, is 32° ; and that the correction at other
temperatures is .00243 of that difference, for every degree of
the thermometer *. The manner of eflimating the tempera-
ture of the air, adopted in all thefe obfervations, was the fame j
an arithmetical mean was taken between the heights of the
thermometers, at the upper and lower ftations, and was fup-
pofed to be uniformly diffufed through the column of air in-
tercepted between them. M. DE Luc, however, was fenfible
that this fuppofition was inaccurate ; and General ROY, too, has
obferved, that " one of the chief caufes of error in barome-
' trical computations proceeds from the mode of eftimating
" the temperature of the column of air from that of its extre-
' mities, which muft be faulty in proportion as the height and
' difference of temperature are great f." It will appear, how-
ever, that this eftimation, though adopted merely on account
of its Simplicity, and probably on no other principle than the
general one of taking a mean between two obfervations, which,
taken fingly, are inaccurate, comes nearer to the truth than
there was any reafon to expect.

2. IT is certain, that the atmofphere does not derive its heat
from the immediate action of the folar rays. Thefe rays, in
traverfing that fubtle and tranfparent medium, are but (light-
ly refracted, and, meeting with little obftruction, neither lofc
nor communicate much of their influence. We are aflured of
this by many experiments ; and we know, that air, in the fodus
of a burning glafs, is never heated till fome folid body be in-
troduced.

* General ROY makes the fixed temperature 32°, and the expanfion for i°, = .00245,
at a medium. Sir G. SHUCKBURGH makes the fixed temperature 31*^, and the expanfion,
as here afllgned, viz. .00243. Pi>i/. Tranf, 1777. It is fufficient for us at prefent to know
thefe numbers nearly. According to the formula laid down hereafter, they will all re-
quire to be corrected.

+ rial. Tranf. 1777.

Of BAROMETRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 89

troduced. The atmofphere, therefore, is warmed by the earth,
from the furface of which a quantity of heat is contirmally
flowing off, and afcending through the different ftrata of the
air into the regions of vacuity, or of sether. But this afcent,
on the whole, is uniform; becaufe there is a certain tempera-
ture which, though varied by periodical viciffitudes, remains
under every parallel the fame, as to its mean quantity. Eve-
ry ftratum, therefore, of the atmofphere, whatever be its height,
gives out, at a medium, the fame quantity of heat that it re-
ceives j in other words, its mean temperature is conflant, and
neither increafes nor decreafes, on the whole.

3. LET there be three flrata, then, of the atmofphere of the
fame thjcknefs x, and contiguous to one another ; fo that, if x
be the diflance of the firft from the furface of the earth, that
of the fecond may be x + x, and of the third x + zx. Let Z>, b\b\
be the heats of the flrata, and A, A', A", their denfities refpec-
tively : Then, fince the quantity of heat, communicated in an
inflant from one flratum of a fluid to a contiguous ftratum,
mufl be, as the difference of their temperatures, multiplied in-
to the denfity of the colder, and divided by the denfity of the
warmer, the heat communicated, in an inflant, from the firft

flratum to the fecond, = (b — b'}— ; and that communicated by

the fecond to the third, = (b'—b"}—, . But, fince the difference
of A and A" is indefinitely fmall, as alfo that of A' and A", we
have— = i, and ^-— i ; fo that the heat gained by the mid-
dle flratum is = b— b', and that loft by it — b' — b''. Now, thefe
two quantities muft be equal, in order that the temperature of
the ftratum may remain uniform, that is, h — b'~-h' — b" ; or, in
other words, the heat of the firft ftratum exceeds the heat of
the fecond, as much as the heat of the fecond exceeds the heat
of the third. Therefore, the heat of the fucceffive ftrata muft
decreafe, by equal differences, as we afcend through equal

M fpaces,

90 CAUSES which affeEl the ACCURACY

fpaces, into the atmofphere ; and, in general, the differences
of temperature muft be proportional to the differences of eleva-
tion.

IT is to be underftood, however, that this law is fubject to
certain anomalies, both annual and diurnal, and thofe inter-
mixed with other accidental irregularities, which it would be
difficult, perhaps impoflible, to afcertain. All that can be faid
of it is, that it is the law which nature tends to obferve, and
that the fum of the deviations from it, on the one fide, is pro-
bably equal to the fum of thofe on the other. In an effect that
is perpetually fubject to the action of accidental and unknown
caufes, the difcovery of a mean, from which the departures on
the oppofite fides are equal, is all that we can reafonably ex-
pect ; and it is fufficient for us to know, that, though any par-
ticular conclufion may involve an error, yet, if a multitude
of inftances be taken, the errors will certainly correct one ano-
ther.

4. IF, therefore, H be the heat at the furface of the earth,
and h the heat at any given height a, above the furface, the

heat, at any other height, as #, will be H . At a

a

medium, it is found, that FAHRENHEIT'S thermometer falls a
degree for every 300 feet that we afcend into the atmofphere ;
ib that, if x is expreffed in fathoms, the heat, at that height,

. _ x

5°*

5. BUT though we are thus led to conclude, that the decreafe
of heat in the fuperior flrata of the atmofphere is proportional
to their elevation, there is no reafon to fuppofe, that the con-
denfation produced by that decreafe is alfo uniform. Indeed,
the experiments of General ROY have placed it beyond all doubt,
that the variations in bulk of a given quantity of air are, by
no means, proportional to its variations of temperature. Thofe
experiments, though very numerous, are too few to afcertain

exactly

Of BAROMETRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 91

exactly the law which connects thefe variations, and we mufl
have recourfe to reafoning, in order to fupply this defect. Let
us fuppofe that air of a given temperatiire, for inflSnce, of 32°,

by the lofs of one degree of heat, is contracted — or the part m of

its whole bulk; its bulk, therefore, when of the temperature 3 1 °,
will be i — m. By the lofs of another degree of heat, its tem-
perature will be reduced to 30°, and its contraction will not
be m, as before, b\\t m(i—m), which, fub tracked from I — m,
its bulk, when of the temperature 31°, will give its bulk when

of the temperature 30°, = I — 2m+mz — (i— mf. In like man-
ner, after the lofs of 3° of heat, the bulk of the fame given

quantity of air is {hewn to be (i— m) ; and, in general, its bulk
is as that power of i — m, which is denoted by the difference

between 32° and the given temperature. If, therefore, b be

32 — h
the heat of a given quantity of air, (i — m) will be the

fpace occupied by that air, fuppofing always that the compref-
fing force is given.

6. THIS formula affigns a finite magnitude to the air as long
as the diminution of its heat is lefs than infinite ; for as

i— m is lefs than unity, when h becomes negative and infi-

32— A
nite, ( i — m) becomes then, and not till then, = o. When

32-A

b is affirmative, and greater than 32, (i — m} becomes

greater than i, and increafes continually, being infinite
when h is infinite. When 32— b is not very great, then

32-b

(i—m) =!+(,&— 32) m nearly, which agrees with the hy-
pothefis of uniform contraction and dilatation in moderate
temperatures.

THIS formula alfo reprefents, with tolerable exactnefs, the
experiments which General ROY made with the manometer, ex-

M 2 cepting

92 CAUSES which affetl the ACCURACY

cepting in one circumftance ; for the formula makes the expan-
fion increafe with the heat continually, though not uniform-
ly ; wherea? the experiments give the greateft expanfion be-
tween the temperatures of 60° and 70°. But this feems to
be fo anomalous a fact, that it looks more like .fome accidental
effect, produced from the particular manner of making the
experiments, than a part of that law of nature, which connects
the variations of bulk in bodies with their variations of tem-
perature.

7. EOT this is not the only irregularity to which the ex-
panfion of air by heat, and its contraction by cold, appear to
•be fubject. We learn from the manometrical experiments of
the fame excellent obferver, that a given variation of tempera-
ture is accompanied with more or lefs variation of bulk, accord-
ing as the* air is comprefled by a greater or a lefs force. Air,
for inftance, comprefled by the weight of an entire atmofphere,
was expanded by the 180 degrees from freezing to boiling, no
lefs than 484 of thofe parts, whereof, at the temperature 32°,
it occupied 1000. But the fame air, when comprefled only by
i of an atmofphere, was, by the fame difference of heat, ex-
panded no more than 141 parts; and that though the heat of
boiling water was applied to it for an hour together. It is not
eafy either to aflign the caufe, or to determine the law of this
inequality. GeneraLRov has, indeed, conftructed a table of the
correction to be made on account of it ; which proceeds on
the fuppolition, that the expanfion, for one degree of heat, de-
creafes in the fame proportion that the column of mercury in
the barometer exceeds a given length. This given length is
nearly — 4.5 inches ; fo that if b be the length of the column of
mercury in the barometer, and .00252 the expanfion for one de-
gree of heat, when the barometer is at 30 inches, and the tem-
perature of the air 3 2 ?, then - :— x -00252, will be the expanfion

of air of the fame temperature, for the fame change of heat,

when

Of BAROMETRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 93

when the mercury in the barometer flands at the height b. But
this formula cannot be juft, otherwife air, comprefled by no
greater a force than that of 4.5 inches of mercury, would be
incapable of dilatation by heat, or contraction by cold.

8. IT will agree equally well with the experiments, and will
involve no contradiction, even in the extreme cafes, to fuppofe,
that the expanfion for a certain degree of heat is as a certain
power of the compreffing force. If this power be called /<*, m
being the expanfion for i degree of heat, when the mercury in
the barometer is of the height l>, the expanfion for any other

height of the mercury, as P, will be — m ; and combining this

b

with the former formula for expanfion (§ 5.), we have the fpace
which air occupies, as far as it depends on temperature,

32 — h

— (j 2£1) • From -a compari'fon of General ROY'S expe-
riments *, ju appears to be between ~ and -f ; and it mufl be
confefTed, that it is very difficult to affign its value within near-
er limits. The form of the correction, however, if not its
abfolute quantity, may be found from what is here determined.
The lafl of thefe mufl be afcertained by future experiments.

9. THESE inequalities belong to the temperature of the air ',
there is another that depends wholly on the compreffion. In
deducing the rule for the meafurement of heights by the baro-
meter, it has hitherto been fuppofed,. agreeably to the experi-
ments of Mr BOYLE and M. MARIOTTE, that the denfity of the
air, while its temperature remains the fame, is exactly as the'
force that comprefTes it. But the experiments referred to were
not accurate enough to eflablifh this law with abfolute preci-
fion ; and they left room to fufpect a deviation from it, either
when the compreffing force is very great or very fmall. Accord-
ingly, from experiments defcribed in the gib. vol. of the Mem.
of Berlin, it appears that the elaflicity of air of the temperas

ture.

* Tab. 2. and 3. p. 701. 703. Tranf. 1777. part 2.

94 CAUSES 'which affeft the ACCURACY

ture 55°, or the comprefling force, increafes more flowly than
the denfity ; fo that, if the comprefling force be doubled, the
denfity will exceed the double by about a tenth part, &c. The
law of this variation is exprefled with tolerable exactnefs, by
fuppofing, that if D be the denfity of the air, and F the force

comprefling it, then D — F , « being a very fmall fraction,
nearly .0015.

10. IT muft be acknowledged, that new experiments are ne-
ceflary to afcertain the law of this inequality \vith precifion.

But as the formula D—F is very general, and might be
rendered ftill more fo, withoxit affecting the method of integra-
tion that is to be employed, the refult of that integration may
be ufeful when our phyfical knowledge becomes more accurate.
In the mean time, it may not be improper to remark, that the
precife knowledge of the law which connects the comprefling
force with the denfity of elaflic fluids, is an object well deferving
the attention of natural philofophers. The determination of that
law may go far to decide the queflion, whether the particles
of fuch fluids are in contact or not ; that is, whether the elafti-
city of each particle be a force that extends beyond the nearefl
particles, Uke the forces of magnetifm and gravitation ; or one
which, like that of a fpring, extends only to the bodies which
are next it. It is an enquiry, therefore, of no lefs importance
in general phyfics than in that particular fubject which we have
here undertaken to examine.

11. THERE is one other correction to be applied to the height
of a mountain, as it is ufually found from obfervations of the
barometer. This arifes from the diminution of gravity, whe-
ther we afcend or defcend from the furface of the earth. The
effect of that diminution is to produce a twofold error ; be-
caufe, on the fuppofition of uniform gravity, the weight of each
particle of air is computed too great, and the weight of the co-
lumn of mercury in the barometer, that is not on the furface, is

alfo

Of BAROMETRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 95

alfo reckoned too great. The effect of both thefe errors is of the
fame kind, tending to make the height lefs than it is in reality ;
yet it is only the firft of them, and that too the leaft confide-
rable, which has hitherto been taken into account.

12. IT were to be wifhed,that, to the caufes here enumerated,
and that are to be introduced into the computation, we could
add the operation of moifture, in altering the weight and ela-
fticity of the air. But the law of that operation has not yet
been difcovered ; and it will be fufficient to point out, in the
conclufion of this paper, a method by which it may be deter-
mined from obfervations of the barometer itfelf.

BEFORE proceeding to the inveftigation of the effect which
all thefe inequalities together muft produce, it is proper to re-
mark, that the two inequalities in the expanfion of air, taken
notice of (§ 5. and 7.), after having been difcovered by Ge-
neral ROY, were applied by him to correct the height of moun-
tains, meafured by the barometer ; but that it is, by no means,
certain, that he has given to thofe corrections the precife form
which they ought to have. This, indeed, cannot be known, un-
lefs the effect of each inequality, on a fingle ftratum, be firft in-
troduced into the differential equation between the denfity of
the air and the height above the furface, and the amount of its
effect on a whole column of air be deduced from thence by in-
tegration.

13. LET j, then, be the denfity of the air, at any height x
above the furface of the earth, the heat at the furface be-
ing — Hy expreffed in degrees of FAHRENHEIT'S thermometer.
If alfo x be fuch a number, that x# gives the degrees by which the
thermometer ftands lower at the height x than at the furface
(§4.), the temperature at the height x will be=H — *x; and,
if the expanfion of a given quantity of air, which occupies
the fpace i, and is of the temperature 32°, for i° of heat, be
called OT, then, abftracting at prefent from that inequality of

expanfion

96 CAUSES which affeSl the ACCURACY

expanfion which depends on preflure, we have the fpace occu-
pied by that fame quantity of air, 'when it is of the temperature

32—
H — A#, equal to (i— m) : Or, making 32 — H— r, we have

the required fpace =: (i— m)

Now, if the given quantity of air, of which the bulk has
been fuppofed — i, and the temperature = 32°, be compreffed
by a column of air of the fame denfity and temperature with
itfelf, but of the height/, and if its denlity, in this cafe, be
alfo called i ; then, in the cafe of its having any other tempe-
rature, as H — AX, and being comprefTed by any other force, as

—fyx, or the weight of the fuperincumbent air at the height *-,

T /"vv

we have i : y : : p : - TT^> and likewife

(i— »z).

—fvx

y - — "

i— m)

No account is here taken of the diminution of gravity, any
more than of the departure of the law of the elafticity of air
from diredl proportionality to the denfity ( § 8.), becaufe it is
convenient to confider the problem at firft under the more fim-
ple view, where only the two firft inequalities are intro-
duced.

13. SINCE y — T+/X7 we have

py(i — m) = —/yx, and
. i — m) (i — m

py ' x

Or, —

(i— m)

Hence

Of BAROMETRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 97

Hence, making log.(i — m) — g,

py_ . x

— _ — •

P 1°£>y+p log- C = —

z)

IF D denote the denfity of the air at the furface of the earth,
D will be the value of y> when x — o, and fo

p (log. D+ log. C") = - - - -. Therefore

plog.C— -- pkg.D; and fo by fubftituting for
\?(i— »z)

. C, p(log.y—log. D) + - i^ - - =

or changing the figns,
. D—log.y)

THIS equation exhibits, in general, the relation between the
denfity of any ftratum of air, and the height of that flratum
above the furface of the earth, on the fuppofitions that the heat
of the atmofphere decreafes uniformly as wfiTafcend, and that
the contraction produced in air by cold, obferves the law defcri-
bed in § 5. It might be confidered as an equation to a
curve, of which the abfciffae reprefented the height of the diffe-
rent flrata of the atmofphere, and the ordinates, the denudes of
thofe flrata : This curve would evidently be different from the
logarithmic, but would be found to have certain relations to it
not uninterefling, and not difficult to trace, if we had leifure
for fuch a digreffion.

N 14. LET

98 CAUSES

14. LET us now fuppofe that z is the whole height to be
meafured, and that A is the denfity at that height, the tempera-
ture there being alfo found — /&, by obfervation. If then x be-
come = 2, and y =. A, we will alfo have AZ =: H — b, and T+AZ zr

H—h

32 — H+H — h = 32 — h =: r — b, making r — 32. Alfo A =. - .

z

Therefore, by fubflituting thefe values of y, x, A, and T+AZ, in
the preceding equation, we have,

Hence, by tranfpofition, ttfc.

Sp (#—£) (log. D—log. &—(H—b) g) - z (( i— »i) — ( I-HB) } J

and x - gp (H~b^ (log' D~log- A~ C^~ ^)cf ).

Li — r h — r

(I— OT) — (I— OT)

THUS the height of any column of air is exprefled in ter.ms of
the denfity, and of the temperature at the top and bottom of it \
the equation for the height, though an exponential one in its
general form, admitting of an eafy refolution, from the circum-
ftance of AZ being given by the obfervations of the thermome-
ter.

15. THAT this formula may be applied to the meafurement
of heights, it is neceflary to introduce into it the lengths of the
columns of mercury in the barometer, inflead of the denfities of
the air, at the lower and upper flations. Let b be the height at
which the mercury ftands in the lower barometer, and (3 that at
which it ftands in the higher barometer j then, fince b is the
compreffing force at the furface of the earth, we have

Of BAROMETRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 99

D = - ;r^j j and, for a like reafon, A = - ^y There-

(i— m) (i — ni)

fore, log.D = log.b — (r — H}g, and — /o^.A = — log.$+(r — h}g.
Hence log.D — /C^.A = log.b — log.$+(H—h}g, and fubftituting for
log. D— log. A in the formula of the laft feclion,

_

H-r h-r

(i — m) — (i — m)

1 6. THIS is the exacT: value of z, or of the whole height to
be meafured, on the fuppofition that the heat of the atmofphere
decreafes uniformly as the height increafes ; and that the con-
tradlion for a given difference of heat decreafes according to the
law defcribed in § 5. But, in order that it may be more con-
venient for computation, and may be more eafily compared

with the formula now in ufe, the quantity - jj—

muft be reduced into a feries. Now

(i — TW) — (i — m)
rr - r —

H—r a — r

—TO) — (i — m)

(i—m) - ^ gu(. from ^g nature Of logarithms, (g being,

H h

(i — m) — (i — m)

as before, the logarithm of i — m)

H H*g* #V

~ - + —- + &c- And

—(i— « = —!— bj— — — feff. Therefore

H

N 2 and

ico CAUSES which affeff the ACCURACY

and

H+b

Hence « —p(hg.b — %.

17. THESE feries will not converge faft, unlefs rgy Hg, and
hgt be all of them quantities much lefs than unity. Now, as m,
or the expanfion of air of the temperature r, for i ° of heat, is,
in fact, very fmall, being nearly — .00245, an<^ as g> or ^Q ^°ga-
rithm of I — »z, muft, of confequence, be nearly = — m =.
— .00245, it is plain, that, in all moderate temperatures, thefe
feries will converge with great rapidity ; though, in extreme
cafes, where z is fuppofed vaftly great, and where h may be ne-
gative, and alfo great, the feries in the denominator may con-
verge fo flowly that recourfe muft be had to the formula in
§ 15. from which no quantities are rejedled.

WHEN »z, and, of confequence, gt are very fmall, and when
H and h do not differ much from r, the preceding formula,
agreeably to a remark in § 6. will comprehend the cafe of uni-
form expanfion, and will give the fame expreffion for the height,
that would be derived from confidering only the equable de-
creafe of heat as we afcend in the atmofphere. Now, as in the
cafe fuppofed, we may rejecl all the powers of g but the firft,
and may alfo fuppofe g — — /», we have

z = fC<4-~ — r«) (log.b—log. (3).

18. THIS

Of BAROMETRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 101

1 8. THIS laft is precifely the formula of M. DE Luc, if we
give to />, r, and m, the proper values *. It was difcovered by
that ingenious and indefatigable obferver, without any enquiry
into the propagation of heat through the atmofphere, the prin-
ciple on which it depends ; and, that fo near an approximation
to the truth mould have been thus obtained, is to be confidered
as a fingular inftance of fagacity or of good fortune. -For if the
heat of the air diminifhed, not in the fimple ratio of the increafe
of the height, but in that of any power of it, fo as to be exprefs-

ed by H — A*", then, by computing as has been done above, we
mould find z = p(i+m(- : rp log. — . Here the tempe-
rature from which r, or the fixt temperature, is to be fubtracl-

. . H+b , nH+b .

ed, is not , but : and this is a formula which con-

2 7Z+I

jefture or experiment alone would fcarcely have difcovered.

IT is farther to be remarked of the formula
z — p(i+m ^ rp log. -—• that it is rigoroufly juft, if we

IT 1 L

fuppofe the temperature — - to be uniformly difFufed through

the column of air, of which the height is to be meafured, as
is done by Dr HORSLEY in his theory of M. DE Luc's rules f ;
but that, on a fuppolition, more conformable to nature, of the
heat diminifhing in the fame proportion as the height increafes,
it is only an approximation to the truth, or the firft term of a
feries, whereof the other terms are rejected as inconsiderable.

19. THE

* If we take M. DE Luc's rule, as improved by the later obfervations of General
ROT and Sir GEORGE SHUCKBURGH, /> — 4342.9448 :r the modulus of the tabular loga-
rithms multiplied by 10000 : r — 32° and m — .00245 nearly. It is unneceflary to re-
mark, that the logarithms underftood in all thefe formulas are hyperbolic logarithms, and
that the multiplication of them by p is faved, by ufing the tabular logarithms^ and ma-
king the firft four places of them, excluding the index, integers.

f Phil. Tranf. vol. 64. part I.

102 CA USES which affca the ACC URACY

19. THE amount of the terms which are thus rejected comes
now to be considered ; and it will be afcertained with fufficient
accuracy, if we compute the fecond term of the feries, or that
which involves in it m * . Now ;

*+rf+— i

2

ffj*

and £• = %.(i — »0 = — m-\ --- SsV.

fo that ,f* =

Therefore, by fubftitution, H*

4 2 12

THIS is the coefficient of phg.—, which gives 0, corrected
both for the temperature of the air and the firft inequality of
expanfion, (§ 5). The term (— — -- A m, is M. DE Luc's cor-

\ 2 /

redlion, as has been already obferved, the third term, viz.

i r H+h r*—r(H+b) H*+AHb+b\

( --- — ^ -- v T ' H -- 3J: — 3--]»z% contains not only

\ 2 4 2 12 /

a part which depends on the equable decreafe of heat as we
afcend in the atmofphere, but alfo one which arifes from the
above mentioned inequality of expanfion.

2-0. THE

Of BAROMETRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 103

20. THE term involving m * , that has now been computed,
will rarely amount to any thing confiderable. The coefficient
of it vanifhes when both H and b are equal to r, but increafes
as thefe two quantities recede from r on either fide. In no in-
ftance where the barometer is to be applied to actual meafure-
ment, will the correction probably be found greater than in de-
termining the height of Cora9on above the level of the South
Sea, where If, or the height of the thermometer at that level,
was 84°!, and £, or the height of the thermometer at the top
of the mountain, 43° i ; the coefficient of m2 comes out, in
this cafe 4-426, and m3 being = .000006 — (.00245)% the cor-

rection = .00259, or nearly — of the height of the moun-

tain, as found before any correction was applied, or = 40 feet
nearly. It is to be remarked, too, that, for every value of H,
or of the temperature at the lower flation, there are two values
of b, or the temperature at the upper ftation, that make the co-

r

efficient, ---- --- 1 -- , and, of confe-

242 12

quence, the correction depending on it equal to nothing. This
is evident from the nature of the coefficient ; but, as the law by
which this laft increafes and decreafes is, by no means, fimple,
it were convenient to have it reduced into a table, for the dif-
ferent values that might be affigned to H and b, from which it
would be immediately obvious in what cafes it was to be taken
into account, and when it might fafely be omitted.

BUT though this correction may fometimes be of confe-
quence enough to be included in the meafurement of heights,
it is certain that it may be fafely neglected in the computation
of the other corrections. For the error thereby committed in
the eftimation of a new correction, will be nearly the fame part
of the former correction, that the new one is of the whole

height. If, for inftance, the new correction be — of the

whole

104 CA USES ivhirb *Jia the ACCURACY

whole height, the error committed in eftimating it will be
but of the former correction ; and, if that did not ex-

Z OO

ceed — , the error in queftion will not exceed of the

400 40000

whole height.

21. IN computing the effect of the fecond inequality of ex-
panfion, defcribed § 8. we may, therefore, abftract from the laft
inequality, and may even fuppofe, with M. DE Luc, that the
temperature, which is a mean between thofe of the extremities
of a column of air, is uniformly diffufed through that column.
Let the excefs of that mean, above the temperature r, or*

r —f; and let (3, the height of the mercury in the up-

permofl barometer, be confidered as variable. Then taking the
formula of § 8. and fuppofing m to be the expanfion for i ° of
heat, when the mercury in the barometer is of a given height,
which we mall here call y *, (to avoid the confufion that would
arife from naming it, as in the art. above referred to) and
retaining all the other denominations as before, we have

—fyx

y — j •> ,

j ~— f ~~ .

/» ^\ &

Hence py(i+-^--\ — —fyx, fo that, taking the fluxions,

py

* According to the experiments of General ROY, above quoted, the expanfion of air,
for 1° of heat, at the temperature 32°, is .00245 nearly, that air being comprefled at
the fame time by the weight of a column of mercury 29.5 inches high. As we have
fuppofed m, in the preceding computations, to be .00245, we muft fuppofe y — 29.5.
The formula fuppofed here to give the fpace occupied by the air, fo far as heat is con-

cerned, viz, i-^-'-L ft , is changed from the exponential expreffion of 5 8. in confequence

if

of what has been juft obferved about the effedl of neglecting one inequality in the com-
putation of another.

Of BAROMETRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 105

ft, — i

_

pfmB v pfmuvQ 8 . ,,..,.

py+ja K J +FJ WK - - = —yx, and, dividing by j,

*"

•
yy

To exterminate from this equation y and yt it is to be re

marked, that v = - ^ — ~r , and that therefore

'

M /«l ^tufa Q

— — — — — — — . Hence, by fubffttution, x

v ft "

^— i ^u— i _ a a 3 jtt— j

* — JL + {^._A — (i+f*)>|3 P f*

2 2 2 p—

But

.
therefore x = p( — | -- JjW_ -- 1 ^ ^g other terms deftroying

*

one another. By integration, then,'* — p( — hg.$ — ^-^--+C).

If C be taken fuch that x may vanifh when (3 — by the height.
of the mercury in the lower barometer, we will have

/» *\\

b fm(b —3 )
.— + J ^ ^

W
O 22. THAT

io6 CAUSES which ajfeff the ACCURACY

22. THAT it may appear wherein this formula differs from.

(K ft

the ordinary one, inftead of b and P , we muft introduce
log. bt and log. (3, which, when b and P are not very unequal, may
be done without difficulty. For we have

I".

b_

7:

&
.P

IA* / fl \3 ;**/ U \» rm r

.— + — ( kg . — ) -f — (%. — J + tfc. Therefore

/*•
y

That is> &-P = plof* + £&%**£& > reJeainS a11 ^

« /^ .,* jj

& P

terms which involve powers, of log.—) of /o^.—-, and off*, high-
er than the fquare. Hence alfo,

ifm bQ .

''P '

f*v"

/*/OT 3

23. THIS

Of BAROMETRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 107

23. THIS formula includes the correction to be made for
that inequality of the expanfion of air by heat which depends
on its compreffion, and which was defcribed at the yth and 8th

articles. The firfl term of the formula, viss.p lof.—t is the differ-
ence of the tabular logarithms of b and (3. The fecond, viz*

fmplog.—^ is M. DE Luc's correction, and the fame that was
R

already invefligafced, §17. The third, viz.

l-*— l°S- — r X P log.-— is the correction for the above mentioned

2 7 F

inequality of- expanfion. It is of a form very convenient for
computation; for the former correction being rr

fmpkg.—^ we need only multiply it by --&<?• — to have
the third term of the formula, or the correction required. It
mufl be remembered, that %• — fignifies the hyperbolic loga-

t b£

nthm of — r.
X

THE exact amount of this correction cannot be known, till
I* be defined by experiments on the expanfibility of air under
different degrees of compreflion ; thofe which General ROY has
made, though excellent, not being perfectly fufEcient for that

purpofe. If we fuppofe p— — , and if, as an example, we

2

take b — 29 inches, and (3 — 24, y being — 29.5, then we will

&P f*

find log. — =. — .22 nearly, which, multiplied into — , or into

— , is • j-g nearly, and this multiplied into M. DE Luc's

correction, gives the correction for the compreflion. The
former is, therefore, to be diminifhed by jgj before it be applied

O 2 tO

xo8 CAUSES -which afefi the ACCURACY

to the difference of the tabular logarithms, to give the true
height of the one barometer above the other. In other cafes,
the proportional part, to be added or fubtracled, will be greater
as 0 becomes lefs, or as the height becomes greater : It will be
= o, when b@ = y2; affirmative, when ij3 is greater than y2;
and negative when it is lefs.

24. THERE remain to be confidered the two corrections that
depend, one, on the relation between the denfity of the air and
the force comprefling it > the other, on the diminution of gra-
vity as we afcend from the furface of the earth. It was ob-
ferved (§ 9.), that, if D denote the denfity of the air, and F

l+n

the compreffing force, D — F . But the force, compreffing
a ftratum of the atmofphere at the height x above the furface
of the earth, and of the denfity j', which, on the fuppofition
of uniform gravity, is denoted by — fyx, on that of gravity
decreafing as the v power of the diftance from the centre of the

- 9

earth, is denoted by — '(• yx ; where s is the femidiame-

J (-T+*) '

ter of the earth. This is evident, becaufe the weight of each
ftratum of air is proportional to its denfity, multiplied into the
accelerating force which draws the particles of it toward the
earth. Now, let q be the length of fuch a column of mercury,
that air, compreflfed by it, would be of the fame denfity with
the mercury itfelf, which denfity, in all the preceding invefti-
gations, is underflood to be conftant, and to be = i * j

r

then,

* THE mercury in the barometers is fuppofed to be reduced to a fixed temperature, by
the application of a correction on account of the thermometers attached to them, after the
manner of M. DE Luc, or of General ROY ; the latter reduces the mercury always to the
temperature of 32°. When the difference of temperature is not very great in the two
•barometers, the correction of their heights may be made according to the very ingenious
remark of the aftronomer royal. Phil. Tranf. vol. 64. part i. f. 164.

Of BAROMETRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 109

— — yx

then, , : , : : -±, and

•

In which formula, all the inequalities that have been enume-
rated are expreffed, except that which was confidered in the two

T+A*

preceding articles. Hence, multiplying by q(r — /») , and
taking the fluxions, there comes out,

"»~

--y v(i— m)

--j J^

Dividing therefore by y,

•* 5 and making^1" = vt and, confequently,

— n 75^ ~2-' • i

,*- y = v, We have

i+ra^

• , , *T» MA P- , N *•-<•" .

V (l1 — ?«) * 2_ ^ fi — Til) X =

xx \ x

5- (J+A:)

This

no CAUSES which affeft the ACC URA CT

This equation will become integrable if it be multiplied by

— *x

(i — ;«) , for it is then

ns

j r f m

and io v ft — ;

a I • >x

' (/+*) (!— OT)

H-n

But i; — j; = y , therefore,

a I » **

V (,+*) (!_«)
25. IT is neceflary to introduce (3 into this formula, by fub-

ftituting for /, its value, = — - j^-j — « — ^7 j and, therefore, as

5 (i— w)

3 -

we

q 0+*) (i—ffz)

(i— m) ' m. i+« n/

»« n ~ (j / > *x

S P

or

Of BAROMETRICAL MEASUREMENTS. in

or c _

' »« H ' Q

(s+x) (i— m)

26. IN the cafes which actually take place in nature, v is
either equal to + 2, or to — I. It is equal to + 2, when the
barometer is raifed above the furface of the earth, and to — r,
when it is depreffed below it. When * = + 2, the laft equa-
tion becomes

n Ztt t 2

.q (j+y) (l— m} nt_/- x ___

in n n I 2 ?vw

/ ft - (J+*)(i— m)

When x is fuppofed very fmall in comparifon of s, the fluent
f -- 2 - A* may ^e exPreu"e(i by a feries, converging with

^ 0+*) (I— OT)

fuch rapidity, that the two firft terms will be fufficient for the

prefent purpofe. Now, as

2

I / 2*N . ns2 &

— [i -- ) nearly, — / - - - becomes
s2 t s J J q / *x

(i — ffz)

_ n , _ *x 2^\ " / I 2* 2 \

— — / (l — m) x (i— — ) ~ (— ).

?/V s' **\ *S *P ^V

? C1— m)

n

Therefore, -^i

)' To define C, « muft be put

:= o,

1 12 CAUSES which affeEl the ACCURACY

= o, and |3 = b, fo that

o

_ g ( * "0. + _f_( 1_ + _*^ \ . if this vajue be fubftituted for

7 2 O O

T

?, and if all the terms be divided by (i — m) , we {hall have

n in n

q (s+x~) a n I i i

— -f

THE approximation which has been ufed here for finding

•

the fluent /— — - - — , is fufficiently exadl, becaufe no
'

terms have been rejecled but fuch as are divided by s2, and
which, of confequence, are extremely imall in refpedl of the
reft.

27. WE are now to fuppofe, that x becomes equal to z, or
to the whole height that is to be meafured ; then alfo,

H—b
= r— h, x = - } and T = r— H, as in § 14. ',

z

n in n

and fo by fubftitution, i£±L — J_ _

21 n n —

—h} (i — TO)

Of BAROMETRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 113

nz / r

r-H ( ~~H-3

£_£)(!— «i) \ (i— my

2* ,

fa *'(«-*)

qs(H-

. / H-r

O <y O 9* \ 77^ / * v

-&/O -i"^ \ »»* / /T *M^

-A)

— r

. THE value of z is to be found from this equation ; and as*
the firft ftep in the approximation, we may fuppofe s fo great in
refpedl of a, that s+z =. s, nearly j and, alfo, that all the
terms divided by s vanifh ; which, in fadl, is the fame thing with,
fuppofing the force of gravity to be uniform. We have, then,

*y ~ . \~

z — ^-7 T-

(i — m) — (i — my

28. THIS is the exac~l value of z, on the fuppofition that gra-
vity is uniform, and that the elafticity of the air is. not fimply

as its denfity, but as the power of it denoted by — — . But

.r . I +"

if we content ourfelves with an approximation, which the

finallnefs of n renders eafy, the logarithms of b and (3 mav be

introduced,

1 14 CAUSES which affett the ACCURACY

introduced, and the formula will become fimilar to that which
was formerly iiiveftigated. For — , or

i

—" n1 2 n3 "3

P - i — nlog.$ + — •(%.*) -- - (log.b} + &c. When n

is very fmall, as in the prefent cafe, this feries converges with
extreme rapidity ; and the terms involving » 3 , &c. may fafely
be rejected. . Therefore,

n2

— -- - = I — nlog.$-\ -- (%.(3) — I + nlog.b -- (log. b} =
/3 b

I+" / « 2 n 2\

q g (H— h}(log. b — log.£— — ( log. b} + ~- (log. (3) j

* 2

Hence, z= - H-r

• /•

(i — ffz) — (i — »z)

29. WHEN n vanifhes altogether, the value of s, affigned by
this formula, coincides, as it ought to do, with that which was
inveftigated, on the fuppofition of the denfity being precifely as
the compreflion j for by applying the reduction of 'art. 17. we
have,

But when », though very fmall, does not vanifh altogether, by
the fame reduction,

z = q

If, therefore, we fuppofe 7 to be equal to py or to 4343

fathoms,

Of BAROMETRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 115

fathoms, which muft be nearly true ; and, if we call A
the height, or the value of z, computed from the formula

z — P\l+m(— r))%--jr, the correction to be applied on

account of », will be Alog.bfi.

2

30. IT is not, however, now a matter of indifference in what
meafure the lengths of the columns of mercury in the baro-
meters are exprefled, as it was, when only the ratios of thefe co-
lumns entered into the computation. They muft be exprefled
in terms of the fame meafure, wherein the height of the moun-
tain is required, and wherein q has been already determined.
For, if we take the exact expreflion for the height,

I

t

MS r-^-A or that to which it may be re-

H — r h—r ' *

(l — rri) — (i — ffz)

duced, z =

— - ~» h is evident>

n

that — — can have no definite fignification, unlefs ^, (3,

n n

«(3 nb

and q be all exprefled in terms of the fame meafure. As the

i+n

conveniency of computation requires that p or q fhould be ex-
prefled in fathoms, fo b and P muft alfo be exprefled in parts
of a fathom. The fame is true of the logarithmic expreflion,

— log.b$, to which the preceding one is reduced. Thus, if

b — 30 inches, and (3 = 20 inches, we muft make b — — ,

P a. and

CAUSES which affca the ACCURACY

and (3 = — , fo that *(3 = — ^— , half the hyperbolic logarithm

of which, or that of 5 . , is = — 1.0782, and this multiplied

o \/o

into — », fuppofing « — .0015, gives -I- .0016 to be multiplied
into A, or the height as already approximated. The correction

here is, therefore, about 6 of A. In other cafes, it will ex-

ceed this proportion as b$ diminifhes, but (becaufe £|3 will rare-

25 \ i

ly be greater than - ) . its minimum will be about - . In

144 770

the meafurement of great heights, therefore, this equation may
deferve to be confidered.

3 1 . WE come now to find the correction which muft be made
on the ordinary rule, on account of the diminution of gravity
as we afcend from the furface of the earth. By § 27. we have,

f

H~r

22 A— r 2Z h—r

(i—m) +______ (i — /«) . an jjj^g we

(i—m) +______ (i — /«) \ .

ready, that z = - R_r -- - nearly, if we fub-
(i — ;«) — (i — m)

ftitute this value of js, or rather that which was before derived

from

Of BAROMETRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 117

/ a n\

, H+h \l q q\

from it, viz. % = ?(i+OT(— rJJ ~ • — I , in all the

\«|3 nb /

terms of this equation, into which s enters as a divifor, we
mall have a new and more accurate value of z, and, by a like
procefs, might from thence obtain one ftill more accurate, if
it were neceflary.

Now, if this be done, and if the correction depending on «
be fuppofed fufEciently determined by the computations of the
two preceding articles, fo that it may now be neglected altoge-
ther ; and if m alfo be fo fmall, that all the powers of it, higher
than the firft, may be neglected, we obtain,

,H+b x\ , b

.\ . p, ,H+b ^\,

)J log— + JL^+m(£Z. -- r)J log.—

32. THE firft term of the preceding equation is the height
corrected by M. DE Luc's method ; the fecond term, viz.

2p3/ H+h * b

— [i+m( --- r)\ log.— , is the correction for the diminu-

S » 2 / p

tion of the weight of the quickfilver in the uppermoft barome-
ter j and the third term, or —(I+m(— -- >")) (lo£'~&

the correction for the gradual diminution of the weight of the
air in the different ftrata between the lower and the upper fta-
ftion. The laft of thefe two corrections, which, in all ordinary
cafes, is alfo the lead, is the only one of them to which, it would
feem, that any attention has hitherto been paid. The other, or the
effect of the diminution of the gravity of the quickfilver, was
included in this inveftigation, when, at § 25. we fubftituted for

y,

1 1 8 CAUSES which afeff the ACCURACY

/

V its value, I+s T+Aa. . It is found by making as j- to

q

.
r)J , f0 twice the height, computed by the ordi-

nary method, to a fourth proportional, which is to be added to
that height.

THE correction for the diminimed gravity of the air is a
third proportional to the femi- diameter of the earth, and the
height, as computed by the ordinary rule. For different moun-
tains, therefore, this correction is in the duplicate ratio of their
heights.

THESE corrections are both additive, and for fuch a moun-
tain as Coracon may be equal, the fir ft to 42, and the fecond to
12 feet.

33. IN the meafurement of depths below the furface of the
earth, /3 is greater than #, and v •= — i, fo that the compreffing

/ rs—x .\l+n
force, at any depth x below the furface, is = (J — - — J*J ,

where the fluent is affirmative, not negative, as in all the pre-
ceding inftances, becaufe the air* which, by its weight, com-
preffes the ftratum at the depth x, is on the fame fide of that
ftratum with #, whereas it was before on the oppofite fide.

Making, therefore, y = T+A* , we have,

p(i— m)

by proceeding as above,
H+b x 0 p*i ,H+b

In

Of BAR OME TRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 1 1 9

In this formula, the fecond term, viz. (i+m( OV0<S"-7

j- \ 2 Ib

is juft half the correfponding term in the preceding formula,
(§ 31.) with a contrary fign, fo that the correction for the di-
minution of the gravity of the quickfilver takes away from a
depth, as it adds to an elevation. The correction

p2f H+b \*f (3 *

— ( i+m( r) [log. -j- retains the fame fign in bc-th cafes,

2J"V 2 / V t> J

but in this is only half of what it was in the former. That
thefe laft corrections fhould be each half of the correfponding
one in the preceding cafe, might have been concluded from
this, that, by any fmall afcent above the furface of the earth,
the force of gravity is twice as much diminifhed as by an
equal defcent below it. The reafon of the change of the figns
in the fecond term is alfo fumciently obvious.

34. THOUGH thefe corrections fuppofe that z is fmall in re-
fpect of /, yet they would afford a fufficient approximation to
the truth, were we to reafon concerning much greater depths
under the furface of the earth than any to which man can pe-
netrate. For example, on a fuppofition that the atmofphere
was continued downwards within the earth, its denfity being
always as its compreflion, and its temperature every where the
fame, (and, for the greater cafe of computation equal to r),
let it be required to find, at what depth its denfity would be-
come equal to that of mercury. To refolve this problem, it
muft be remembered, that the denfity of mercury, throughout
all this computation, has been fvippofed = i, and p equal to
the height of a column of mercury, which, gravitating every
where with the fame force as at the furface, would, by its pref-
fure, give to air the denfity i . If a barometer, therefore, were
carried down to the depth at which air was as denfe as mercu-
ry, the mercury in it would rife to the height p, or to 4343
fathoms nearly, fuppofing, at the fame time, that its own gra-
vity were not diminifhed. Now, on this fuppofition, (by § 33.)

any

1 20 CA USES which affett the ACCURACY

>

any depreffion below the furface, as, z — plog.^-r + — (log.—\

b is * b I

the temperature being fuppofed — r, and the term

P2 I3
l°£--r being left out, as relating only to the diminution of

S O

the weight of the quickfilver in the lower barometer. If, then,
b, or the column of mercury in the barometer at the furface,

be 30 inches, or — of a fathom, and (3 •=. 4343, we find/>%--r- =

joooo x tabular log. 10423 — 401 80 fathoms — 45. 6 miles near-

P2 I & \ 2

ly. The fecond term, — \0&'~r) » (or tne fquare of the for-
mer divided by the diameter of the earth), = + .25 of a mile,
fo that z — 45-85 miles nearly. The approximation might be
carried to much greater exac~lnefs if it were necefTary ; but
this is fufficient to {hew, that, at a lefs depth under the furface
than 46 miles, the denfity of air would become equal to that of
quickfilver ; and if this conclufion appear, in any degree, pa-
radoxical, it need only be confidered, that, abftracYmg from
any diminution of the power of gravitation, the denfity of air
would be nearly doubled by every 37 miles of defcent below
the furface of the earth.

35. IF, again, we would form any conelufion concerning the
limit to which our atmofphere may extend upwards, we muft

J (J+JC)

refume the formula, y ~ - j+^— —

9 ('— «0

and, if we would abftracl from the effect of the cold in the
higher regions to reduce the atmofphere within narrower
limits than thofe to which it would otherwife extend,

we

Of BAROME TRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 1 2 1
we may fuppofe the temperature r+f to be uniformly dif-

fufed through it, and fo for (i — m) we may fubftitute

i
i+fm. Putting alfo a = g(i+fm)l+" , and making s+x, or the

_r

diftance from the centre, =:% ay1'' " — — /s'v~"yv ; where-
fore, taking the fluxions, dividing by y, and integrating,

To define C, fuppofe that y =. D when x == o, or when v = s •;

n
a

then, "C = — D ' +0 — i).r ; and fo,

n

/ _1_ JL_\

— ' D 1+a I+"l — r»—

and making . = 2,

M

36. Now, if « be aflarmative, as has been fuppofed, this for-
mula, becaufe of the negative exponent of y, gives s infinite,
when y rz o. The atmofphere, therefore, on this fuppofition,
admits of no limit. But, if we fuppofe » to be negative, that
is, if we fuppofe the denfity to be as the power i — n of the
compreflion, inftead of i+», the formula of the laft article be-
comes

And

122 CAUSES which affeEi the ACCURACY

And if we now fuppofe the atmofphere to terminate, or y to

I— «

become = o, then — = s(i -}, and the entire height of

71 \ *y J

the atmofphere, or v = — •

a r.i—1

s D

n

THIS value of'v may either be finite, infinite, or negative,
according to the different magnitudes affigned to n and Z>. If

thefe be fuch that s is equal to — D , it is obvious that v is

n

n

infinite ; but if s be greater than — D , v muft be finite

and affirmative. If s be lefs than — D . then v is negative ;

n

by which we are to underftand, that the height of the atmo-
fphere is, as it were, more than infinite, or that its denfity is
finite, even at an infinite diftance. It muft be remarked, too,
that, when » is very fmall, as it muft be in the cafe of the

i — n

earth's atmofphere, D being nearly = i , we have v —

s •—

n

As a •= 4343 fathoms, (on the fuppofition that the temperature
of the atmofphere is 32°,) and as s — 3491840, it follows, from
this formula, that, according as n is greater than .00125, equal
to it, or lefs, the denfity of the atmofphere will vanifh at a fi-
nite, an infinite, or not even at an infinite diftance.

37. BUT to return to what is the more immediate objedt

of this paper, it will now be proper to bring into one view

the

Of HA ROME TRICAL MEASUR EMENDS. 1 23

the different corrections that have been inveftigated. We muft,
therefore, recollect, that the coefficient p is the length of a co-
lumn of mercury, which, preffing on air of the temperature r,
would give to it the denfity of mercury, (which is denoted by
unity), fuppofing, at the fame time, that the denfity of air is as the
force comprefling it. Hence p is likewife the height of a homoge-
neous column of air, of any denfity whatever, which, by its pref-
fure, would make air of the fame denfity with itfelf ; or it is
the height to which the atmofphere would extend above the
furface of the earth, if it were reduced to the fame denfity
throughout, which it has at the furface of the earth, when it is
of the temperature r. It has been" found by experiment, that,
when r = 32°, p is nearly equal to 4342.94 8 fathoms, which
number is the modulus of the tabular logarithms multiplied by
10000. This determination, however, is only to be confidered
as approaching to the truth, if we are to have regard to the fol-
lowing corrections. Inftead of />, in fome of thefe inveftigations,
we have ufed q to denote the height of a column of mercury,
which, fuppofing the condenfation of air to be as the power
i + « of the comprefling force, would, by its preflure, give to

air the denfity of mercury, or the denfity i; q cannot differ
much from/>, but its precife length is to be determined only by
experiment. In what follows, p is put for the numeral coeffi-
cient, whatever it may be, by which the formula muft be mul-
tiplied to give the height in fathoms, or in any known mea-
fure.

THE expansion of air for one degree of heat, the temperature
being 32°, and the height of the barometer 29.5 inches, is

— m — .00245 nearly, f* is the exponent of a power fuch that

&

39.5 being denoted by y, x m =. the expanfion for one

^
y

degree of heat, when the mercury in the barometer (lands at
(3. The value of /* is not certainly known ; it is probably be-

tween

124 CAUSES which affeft the ACCURACT

tween I and —. n is a number fuch, that the denfity of air

is as the power i+n of the compreffing force ; it is fuppofed
= .0015.

THE heights of the mercury in the barometers, at the lower
and upper ftations, are b and (3 ; H and h are the temperatures,
marked by FAHRENHEIT'S thermometer at thofe ftations re-

fpectively, and- r is put = /.

39. THEN, the firft approximation to the height, without

b

any correction, is, z — piog.-—.

$

imo. The firft correction, M. DE Luc's, (§ 17.) —
/H+h b

zdo. THE correction for the decreafe of heat in the fuperior
ftrata of the atmofphere, and for the firft inequality of ex-
panfion, (§ 19.) =

H+b r(r—H—h} H^+^Hb+h2\ b

4

ia

3//o. THE correction for the fecond inequality of expanfion,
or for its variation by a given change of temperature, according

um/H+b s b bQ

to the prefTure, (§ 22.) : + — (— - -- r) plog.— x %.— j

or, if E be put for M. DE Luc's, or the firft equation, this laft —
+ - - log . — - . But as i* does not appear to be very fmall,

ft. n

it will be more accurate to compute ^— - — —•¥—* , which in-

fffy

eludes in it both the firft and third corrections (§ 21.).

4/r.

Of BAROMETRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 125

4/0. THE correction on account of the departure of the law
of the elafticity of air, from that of the direct ratio of the den-

fity, (§ 29.) = — -^-p(i+m(- '• — r)) log.— x log. bp. In this

equation, b and (3 muft be exprefTed in the fame meafure with
pi that is, in fathoms.

5/0. FOR the diminution of the weight of the quickfilver in.
the upper barometer, there is an equation to be applied =

6/0. ON account of the diminifhed gravity of the air in a-
fcending from the furface of the earth, there is a fixth correc-

/ , ^,

rection = + £-(i + w(— - -- 0) f^.y) .

WHEN a depth below the furface is to be meafured, the fifth
equation becomes negative and lofes the multiplier 2 j the fixth
remains affirmative, bxit is divided by 2.

40. THESE equations, even exclufive of the firft, may, in
the meafurement of great heights, amount to a confiderable pro-
portion of the whole. In the inftance of Cora9on, 15833 feet
above the level of the fea, the greateft height to which the ba-
rometer has ever been carried, the firft equation exceeds noo
feet, and the third appears not to be lefs than — 300. The re-
maining corrections are, indeed, lefs confiderable ; but, being
all affirmative, they mufl not be entirely neglected. And, on the
whole, it is certain, that, though the firft equation alone will
give the height fufEciently exact, while it does not exceed
five or fix thoufand feet, yet, at greater elevations, the cor-
rections that have now been enumerated muft all be taken intoa
account. To facilitate the computation by means of them,
they ought to be reduced into tables adjufted to their proper ar-
gtiments, after the values of p, m and r are accurately deter-

mined,,

.

126 CAUSES which affeEl the ACCURACY

mined, by comparing the formula that has been given here
with obfervations. But this would lead into difquifitions far
exceeding the bounds of the prefent inquiry, the object of
which is, to afcertain the form, rather than the abfolute quan-
tity of thefe corrections.

41. IT is evident, that, in the preceding inveftigation, as
well as in all the other methods of meafuring heights by the
barometer, it is fuppofed, either that the one of the barometers
is vertical to the other, or that a perfect aequilibrium prevails
through that part of the atmofphere intercepted between
them. The determination of the conftant quantity in the fore-
going integrations, by fuppofing that b — j3 when x — o, or that
the mercury in the two barometers ftands at the fame height in
them, when they are at the fame diftance from the furface of
the earth, obvioufly involves in it either the one or the other
of thefe conditions. But the laft of them, the asquilibrium of
the atmofphere, never takes place ; and, therefore, it is necefla-
ry, in order that barometrical meafurements be perfectly accu-
rate, that the one barometer be immediately above the other,
or, at leaft, that the horizontal diftance between them be very
fmall. If this be not the cafe, the unequal diftribution of the
heat through the different parts of the fame ftratum of air will
render it impomble to deduce the difference of the heights of
the barometers from a comparifon of the columns of mercury
contained in them.

FOR inftance, let there be three barometers; the Jirji at
the furface of the earth, the fecond raifed up into the air per-
pendicularly above the^^r/?, and the third removed into a colder
climate, but raifed up alfo into the air, fo as to have in it a co-
lumn of mercury of the fame length with that in the fecond.
Thefe two laft, when compared together by M. DE Luc's, or
by the preceding rules, will appear to be at the fame height
above the furface, or above the firft barometer. But, if each
of them be compared with the Jirfl^ the fecond will appear

more

Of BAROMETRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 127

more elevated above it than the third, becaufe of the greater
cold fuppofed to prevail in the region where this laft barometer
is placed. Here, therefore, are two different determinations of
the height of the third ftation above the firft, neither of which
has any claim to be preferred to the other. It is evident, there-
fore, that, in barometrical meafurements, there is always a de-
gree of uncertainty introduced by the horizontal diflance be-
tween the two ftations, and that, befide thofe accidental errors,
which are of the lefs confequence, that, in a number of obfer-
vations, they may nearly compenfate for one another.

IT mufl be confefled, too, that we have not at prefent the
means of removing this uncertainty, nor even of afcertaining
its limits with tolerable exactnefs. Thefe depend on a problem
which is no longer to be refolved by the principles of flaticks,
but requires the motions of an elaftic fluid, under various de-
grees of compreffion and rarefaction, to be determined. The
folution, therefore, is extremely difficult ; and no refult, fuffi-
ciently {imple to be of ufe in thefe computations, is ever likely
to be obtained from it.

IT would, however, be of confequence to determine, by obfer-
vation, the mean height of the barometer at the level of the fea
in the different regions of the earth. That mean height is not
every where the fame. Under the line, it appears, from the ob-
fervarions of M. BOUGUER, to be 29.852 inches, reducing the
mercury to the temperature of 55° ; and in Britain, it is 30.04,
reducing the mercury to the fame temperature. The mean
temperature of the air, as well as its mean weight in different
climates, will alfo require to be determined before the art of
levelling extenfive tracts by the barometer can be brought to-
perfection.

42. THERE is another caufe of error which, had the effects
of it been fufficiently known, ought, no doubt, to have entered
into this invefhigation. Moifture, when chemically united to
air, or difTolved in it, fo as to compofe a part of the fame ho-
mogeneous

128 CAUSES -which affeEl the ACCURACY

mogeneous and invifible fluid, appears to have a powerful effect
to encreafe the elaflicity of the air, and its expanfion for every
additional degree of heat which it receives. In experiments
-with the manometer*, it has been obferved, that, till the
moifture was diffolved in the air, it had no fenfible effect: on its
elaflicity j but that, as foon as it began to diffolve, the expan-
fion, for one degree of heat, was encreafed, and continued to
be fo, for every fucceflive addition of heat, from thence to the
boiling point, where it became nine times- that of dry air.
From this, too, it probably proceeded, that, at Spitzbergen,
within ten degrees of the pole, a place where the circle of per-
petual congelation in the atmofphere, approaches near to the
furface of the earth, and where the air may naturally be fup-
pofed to be very dry, the ufual rule for the meafurement of
heights was found to err greatly in excefs, and it appeared, that
the denfity of the air was greater than could have been inferred
from its compreffion and its temperature.

43. THOUGH the judicious and accurate experiments of Ge-
neral ROY have afcertained this effect of humidity, and have
even gone far to determine the law of its operation, yet, for
want of a meafure of the quantity of it, contained, at any
given time, in the air, it is impoflible to make any applica-
tion of this knowledge to the object under our confideration.
While I was reflecting on this difficulty, it occurred, that the
barometer itfelf might become a meafure of the humidity
of the air, and that the error committed in the meafuring of a
known height, if all other circumftances were taken in, would
determine the quantity of that humidity. For, if we fuppofe,

that the formula z •=. p(i+m( r^log. — gives the true

height between the flations at* which two barometers have
been obferved, when the moifture diflblved in the air is of
its medium quantity, (which we may call unity), then, if that

moifture

* See General ROY'S experiments, fedtion 2. Phil. Tranf. vol. 67. part 2.

Of BAROMETRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 129
moiflure be either increafed or diminifhed, the expreffion
p (i+m(- -- r)J hg'-j- will no longer be equal to the true

height, but muft be multiplied into i +» in order that it may
be equal to z. No.w; this fraction + *• reprefents the excefs or
defect of the moiflure diflolved in the air above or below its
mean quantity ; or, more exactly, it is proportional to the in-
creafe or diminution of the elafticity of the air arifing from

/ H 4- h . \ . b .

that caufe. When^(i+»(— - -- ^Jlog.— is lefs than the

true height, the fraction TT muft be affirmative, and indicates an
increafe of elafticity, and, confequently, of moifture in the air.

The contrary happens when p (i+m(— -- r)J log. — is greatr
er than the true height. To determine v, fince * —

z

/ H+b N . b
Or if the error, that is z — P ^r-f?«(— r)) log. — = <?,

then TT = Tj-n : r > or it • —

44. To apply the barometer, therefore, for the purpofes of
hygrometry, let there be two barometers fixed, the one at the
top, and the other at the bottom of a high tower, or hill of
moderate elevation, and let them be obferved at the fame in-
ftant, together with their correfponding thermometers. If the
difference of their heights, computed from thence, be equal
precifely to the true difference, then is the moifture difTolved in
the air no way different from its mean quantity; but if the
difference of the heights fo computed, be greater or lefs than the
truth, then *-, as above determined, will give the quantity
by which the actual moifture in the air is lefs or greater than
the mean quantity. The height at which the one barometer
fliould be placed above the other, ought not to be fo fmall that

R the

130 CAUSES which qffeSl the ACCURACY, &c.

the unavoidable errors of obfervation, (which may amount to
five feet), may be confiderable in refpect of the whole ; nor fo
great as to introduce error from other caufes. It ought not,
therefore, to be lefs than 100, nor much greater than 500 feet.

45. IN this manner, we (hall have a meafure, not indeed of
the abfolute quantity of humidity diilblved in the air at a given
time, but of the differences of the humidity diflblved in it at
different times. Our hygrometer, therefore, will afford a fcale
for the meafuring of moifture, not unlike that which the ther-
mometer affords for the meafuring of heat ; and both deduced
from the changes produced on the bulk, or the fpecific gravity
of certain bodies. The beginning, or zero, of this fcale may al-
fo be fixed by a certain and invariable rule, if we aflume m, in
the preceding formula, (or the expanfion of air for one degree
of heat), of a given magnitude, as, for inflance, .00245, and
conceive the fcale to begin when «• — o, or when the formula,
thus adjufled, gives the true height.

THE hygrometer with which we will be thus furnifhed,
feems well adapted to the purpofes of aftronomy. For it mea-
fures the humidity chemically united with the air, and not
merely the difpofition of the air to depofit that humidity,
which, though much connected with the changes of the wea-
ther, has little to do with the aftronomical refraction. It is
true, that the fractions n may not be directly proportional to
the differences of the humidity of the air, nor to the changes
of refracting power, which thofe differences of humidity may
produce ; but they are probably connected with thefe laft,
by fome fixed and invariable law, which future experiments
may be able to afcertain. Nor can this application of the ba-
rometer fail of leading to fome ufeful conchifion ; for if, on
trial, it fhall be found, that the operation of humidity in
changing the fpecific gravity of the air, is over-ruled or con-
cealed by the action of more powerful caufes, the difcovery,
even of this fact, will give a value to the obfervations.

IV.

IV. On the USE of NEGATIVE Q^J A N T I T I E S in the SOLU-
TION O/'PROBLEMS ^ALGEBRAIC EQJJATIONS.
% WILLIAM GREENFIELD, M. A. F. R. S. EDIN. Mini-
Jier of St Andrew's Church, and ProfeJJor of Rhetoric in the'
Univerftty, of EDINBURGH.

[Read by the Author > April 12. 1784.]

BY the introduction of letters into algebra, to denote all the
quantities, both known and unknown, involved in an
equation, this very important advantage was .gained, that the
final equation exhibited both a general rule for the folution of
all fimilar problems, and alfo the limitations within which fuch
problems were poflible.

THIS, however, could not be underftood univerfally, if the
figns -f- and — were not ufed in that extenfive fenfe in which
they are now taken. For there are innumerable problems, which
require us to confider fome of the quantities, as capable of ex-
ifting in two oppofite fituations. Thus the diftance of a flar
from the horizon, may include both its elevation at one time,
and its depreffion at another. Hence, in the general invefliga-
tion of this diftance, two different cafes arife, which may feem
to require two different equations.

MATHEMATICIANS, however, came naturally to confider
fuch oppofite fituations as analogous to addition and fubtrac-
tion. And, upon this ground, they made the equation to
which the problem was reduced in the one cafe, ferve alfb for
the other, in the following manner : If it was one of the un-
known quantities which had changed its fituation, they took a
negative root ; if it was one of the known quantities, they

R 2 changed

132 On tie USE of NEGATIVE

changed its fign in the equation. It is evident how vaft an ac-
ceffion was thus gained to the elegance and univerfality of al-
gebraical folutions.

ALBERT GIRARD appears to have been the firft who obferved
this ufe of negative roots. In his work, publifhed in the year
1629, entitled, Invention nouvelle en Algebre, he mentions it with
great diftindnefs, and as a matter unknown before *.

MONTUCLA, who acknowledges that he never faw the work
of GIRARD, infills very ftrenuoufly that DES CARTES was the
perfon, to whom we owe our knowledge of the nature and ufe
of negative roots ', that it was he, who firft introduced them
into geometry and algebra f. But without derogating from
the very extraordinary merit of that philofopher, we muft beg
leave, in this matter, to differ fomewhat from MONTUCLA.
For, according to his own account, the work of GIRARD
was publifhed in 1629, whereas the Geometry of DES CARTES
was not publifhed till feven or eight years afterwards, in

163? t-

WE may, perhaps, go farther, and add, that although DES
CARTES indeed obferved, that the fhifting of a line or point
from one fide of a given line or point to the other, made no
change in the equation, except in the figns + and — , yet he
did not fee, in its full extent, all the advantage to be derived
from the ufe of negative quantities. This will appear not altoge-
ther improbable from the following circumftances : In the third

book

* I HAVE not been able to procure the book ; but the following paflage, quoted by Dr
HORSELEY, feems to warrant what has been aflerted : " Jufques icy nous n'avons encore
" explique a quoy fervent Us folutions par mains, quand il y en a. La folution par
" moins s'explique en geometric en retrogradant, et le moins recule la oil le + avance."
And, after giving an inftance, he adds ; " Et ainfi faudrd-t-il entendre de toutes fblu-
" tions par moins ; qui eft une chofe de confequence en geometric incognue aupara-
41 vant." HORSELEV'S NEWTON, vol. 1.^.171. note (»)•

f MONTDCLA Hift. de Math. vol. 2. p. 85.

J MONTUCLA Hift. de Math. vol. 2. p. 82. & 84.

On lie USE of NEGATIVE QUANTITIES. 133

book of his Geometry, where he treats exprefsly of the nature
of equations, he takes no notice of thofe which have all their
roots negative j and, in the fecond book, where he mentions
his new method of confidering curves, he fays nothing of ne-
gative abfciflae and ordinates, although the analyfis of curves
is, of all the parts of mathematics, that which moil obvioufly
fuggefts and requires the ufe of the negative roots.

IN fact, the ufe of negative quantities appears not to have
been, either at this time, or for fome time afterwards, familiar
to mathematicians. This is evident from the Elementa Cur-
varum of JOHN DE WITT, a work, at that time, of fome me-
rit, but which will be confidered, rather as affording a curi-
ous piece of information in the life of that great man, than as
adding to a fame, which is fo far fuperior to all literary emi-
nence. In this work, which is publifhed by SCHOOTEN at the
end of his edition of DBS CARTES'S Geometry, no notice is
taken of negative abfciflae and ordinates : So that the^author is
obliged to confider feparately two or more equations, which
every mathematician at prefent, from the view of negative
quantities, which is now become familiar, would confider as
one fingle equation, denoting for one and the fame line refer-
red to the fame axis, the relation between the abfciffse and or-
dinates, through all the different cafes of their fituation with re-
fpecl to each other, that is, through all the angles of the co-
ordinates. Thus, in his fecond book, where he confiders the
lines of the firft and fecond order, beyond which he does not
go, he demonftrates, in the four firft theorems, that the four

b x
following equations belong to ftraight lines : i. y

it/

bx bx bx

2. y = -- \-c.; 3- y = -- cs 4-y = --- \-c- But he does

Q> d Cl

not fhow, either in this or any other part of the work, that
each of thefe equations, by changing the figns of y or », gives
the relation between the abfcifs and ordinate, when the one or

the

i34 On the USE of NEGATIVE

the other is taken in an oppofite fituation j and that the fecond
and fourth equation ought to be confidered as one, and as be-
longing to the fame ftraight line referred to the fame axis.

EVEN long after this time, we find, that Dr WALLIS, al-
though, in his Algebra, he confiders at fome length the meaning
and ufe of negative qviantities, yet, in his Arithmetic of Itifi-
mtes, falls into a ftrange miftake, which leads us to fufpeft,
that his notions on this fubjecl: were not perfectly clear. For,
obferving that his general expreffion for hyperbolic areas would,
in certain cafes, be a fraction with a negative denominator, he
did not perceive, that this exprefled the area on the other fide
of the ordinate, inftead of the area fought ; but he contents
himfelf with faying, that the denominator of the fraction be-
ing lefs than nothing, denoted the area to be more than infinite.

THAT even fome time afterwards, the ufe of negative quan-
tities had not become familiar, appears from the aftonifhment
which Dr HALLEY exprefles at his own difcovery of a formula,
which, by the mere change of the figns, gave the focus both of
converging and diverging rays, whether reflected or refradled
by convex or concave fpecula or lenfes. And Mr MOLYNEUX
fpeaks of the univerfality of HALLEY'S formula as fomewhat
that refembled magic. t

THUS it appears to have been long, before mathematicians
ventured to employ negative quantities fb freely, as we now per-
ceive them to be employed. The reafon of which probably
was, that no fatisfadlory account had been given of the
grounds upon which the conclufions drawn from them are
founded. But the confiftency of thefe conclufions, with all the
mod indifputable truths of the mathematical fciences, and the
great beauty and advantage, derived from the very general fo-
lutions which are thus obtained, gradually eftablifhed their ufe.

STILL, however, a complaint remains, which appears to be
too well founded, that the Method of negative quantities, as
has been the cafe with fome other rules of the art, is fupport-

ed,

On the USE of NEGATIVE QUANTITIES. 135

cd, rather by induction, and analogy, than by mathematical de-
monftration. But fomething more than this is to be expected
from mathematicians ; and their knowledge of algebra will ftill
be confidered as imperfect, if there be any of its operations
which they cannot, in every letter and fign of it, explain as a
feries of juft reafoning, capable of being exprefled in common
language. Now, it does not appear that our inftructors in ma-
thematics have enabled us to do this in the cafes to which we
allude, that is, where negative quantities are found, without
any intimation of the quantities from which they are fubtract-
ed. In coniidering the abftract operations of addition, fub-
traction, multiplication, SsV. we may indeed take negative
quantities by themfelves : For here the meaning is obvious ; we
are examining, in what manner fuch operations will affect thofe
quantities, which are fubtracted from other quantities. But
when we come to apply thefe operations to the bufinefs of al-
gebra, the refolution of equations, it is not fo eafy to perceive,
nor does it appear to have been fufficiently explained, in what
light we are to confider negative quantities, or how mathemati^
cians are to be juftified in the ufe which they make of them.
The very vague and unfatisfactory, and often myfterious ac-
counts of the matter, which are given even by writers of the
greateft eminence, ferve only to Ihew, that although they are
fatisfied of the certainty of the method, yet they perceive that
fomething ftill remains which ought to be explained, and of
which no good explanation has been given.

Mr Baron MASERES, indeed, has publimed a large work,

which he entitles, " A Diflertation, on the ufe of the negative

' iign in algebra ; containing a demonftration of the rules ufu-

' ally given concerning it, and mewing how quadratic and

' cubic equations may be explained, without the conlideration

' of negative roots." But this difTertation contributes little to

remove the difficulties complained of. For even allowing the

author to be right in his notion, that it would be better " if ne-

" gative

136 On theVSE of NEGATIVE

" gative roots had never been admitted into algebra, or were
' again difcarded from it * •" yet ftill he has carried us to the
length only of cubic equations. The truth is, that the whole
bufinefs of algebra might be carried on without the confidera-
tion of the negative roots. The difference between fuch a fyftem
and the prefent, is precifely this j that wherever a problem re-
quired us to confider any of the quantities, as exifting in oppo-
fite fituations ; wherever, for inftance, a line or a point was to be
confidered, as fituated firft on the right hand, and then on the
left y it would be neceflary, to find and to refolve a feparate equa-
tion for each of thefe cafes. Thus, in the analyfis of any par-
ticular curve, it would be neceflary to have a feparate equation
for each of the four angles of the co-ordinates ; except, indeed,
the axes were fo chofen, as to make us certain that there were
fome of thefe angles, in which no part of the curve was to be
found. Since, therefore, the ufe of negative quantities frees us
from this inconvenience,, which, in many cafes, particularly in
the analyfis of curves, would be exceedingly perplexing ; and
fince it evidently affords fo great elegance and univerfality to
algebraical folutions ; to find our author gravely declaring that
he can fee no advantage in it, is perfectly aftonifliing : As it is
to be lamented, that he did not exert his induftry and ingenui-
ty, rather to confirm than to deflroy ; rather to demonftrate, how
far we might rely on the method of negative quantities, than
to overturn at once fo great a part of the labours of the modern
algebraifls.

WHAT follows is an attempt to explain this fubjecl, without
confidering the negative fign in any other light, than as the fign
of fubtra&ion ; and without propofing any alteration in the
received fyftem of algebra.

* Diflert. on the Neg. Sign, p. 34.

I. Of

On the USE of NEGATIVE QUANTITIES. 137

I. Of the Negative Roots of Equations.

I . Of Determinate Equations.

IN the folution of problems by means of equations, the
analyft fixes upon one or more quantities, by the determination
of which all that is required may be known or performed.
We fhall at prefent fuppofe that there is only one quantity to be
determined. The problem {hews the conditions which are re-
quired of this quantity ', and thefe conditions, as far as they
can be fo ^xprefled, are reduced to .an equation of the common
form,

L . . . a + bx+cx2 + Wf. rr o.

Here, according to the common method in the general notation
of equations, the fign + denotes, at pleafure, either the addition
or fubtradUon of the terms to which it is prefixed.

IN many cafes, nothing elfe is required, but to determine
the magnitude of the quantity fought. There the pofitive roots
alone can determine the magnitude j fo that if the equation
has no pofitive roots, or none which come within the limits of
the problem, then the problem is impomble.

BUT let the problem require us to determine, not only the
different magnitudes of the line AB (#),

but alfo, with refpec"l to each of thefe B •& _ ^
magnitudes, whether it lies on the right

or left of the given point A. Here we fuppofe the problem to
be fuch, that whether we reduce it to an equation, upon the
fuppofition that AB lies to the right, or upon the fuppofition
that it lies to the left, there is no circumftance, except only the
oppofite fituation of ABy to make any difference in thefe equa-
tions.

IN this cafe, we make either fuppofition at pleafure ; as, for
ihftance, that it lies to the right ; and, on this fuppofition,

S we

138 On the USE of NEGATIVE QUANTITIES.

we exprefs the conditions required of AB in an equation, as,

L . . . a + bx + ex* + ISc. — o.

Then, in determining the magnitude of AB in this direction,
the politive roots are to be employed.

Now, on the other fide of A, take MAt which we fhall de-
note by X ; and let it be of any

magnitude, not lefs than any of M ^ _ ^ _ f
the negative roots of L. It is evi-

dent that L may be reduced to the form

•

A

+ BX +BX

+ CX* 4- iCXx + Cx*

* * - °'

And this again may be reduced to the form

N . . . . A+BX+x + CX+x+Vc. - o.

THE equation Ar, therefore, is another expreffion of the con-
ditions required of x, upon the fuppofition that it lies to the
right of A.

BUT if we make the contrary fuppofition, that AB lies to
the left of A ; then fince this is the only alteration in the con-
ditions which the equation N requires of x ; therefore, the con-
ditions required of it, when it lies to the left of Ay will be ex-
prefled in the equation

N' . . . A+B(X—x) + C(X—xy+tfc. - o.

Now, this equation may be reduced to the form

A

By

On the USE of NE GAT WE $UAN?mES. 139

BY comparing this equation with M and L, it will be evi-
dent that it may be reduced to the form

L' . . . a — bx+cx* — t£c. — o.

THIS equation L', therefore, exprefTes the conditions required
of AB, when it lies to the left of A j and, confequently, the po-
fitive roots of L determine the different magnitudes of AB in
that fituation.

BUT L' differs from L, only by having changed the figns of
the terms involving the odd powers of x. Therefore L and L
have the fame roots, except only that the pofitive roots of the
one are the negative roots of the other.

THEREFORE, the negative roots of the equation L, to which
the problem is reduced, upon the fuppofition that AB lies to
the right of A, are the pofitive roots of the equation to which it
would be reduced, upon the fuppofition that AB lies to the left
of A. Therefore, thefe negative roots are the determinations
ofAB in this laft fituation.

AGAIN: Let it be required to determine, not only the di~
Jlance of time between a certain event and a given inflant ; but
alfo, whether the event happened after or before the given in-
flant. Then reduce the problem to an equation, Z,, upon either
fuppofition, as, for inflance, that it happened after ', and by af-
fuming Xt a period of time immediately before the given in-
flant, we can fhew, as above, that the negative roots of L will
be the determination of the epoch, when it happened before
the given inflant.

IN like manner, let it be required to determine, not only the
momentum of the force which afts in the right line
AB, but alfo, whether it acls in the direHion AB, ^ %

or in the direction BA. Then, if we reduce the
problem to an equation, upon the fuppofition that it ads in the
direction AB, we are to aflume X, an additional force adling in
the fame direction.

82 IN

On the USE of NEGATIVE

IN like manner, let it be required to determine, not only the
value of a certain fum of money, but alfo, whether it is part of
a certain perfon's Jlock, or whether it is part of his debts.
Then, if we reduce the problem to an equation, upon the fup-~
pofition that it is part of his flock ; we are to aflame X a fup-
pofed additional quantity of ftock.

THERE are cafes, therefore, where the quantity foxight is to
be confidered in two different fituations, which may be repre-
fented by addition and fxtbtraction from another aflignable
quantity of the fame kind ; and where there is nothing in the
problem, except only this oppofite fituation, which can produce
any difference in the equations to which it is reducible upon
each fuppofition. From the preceding obfervations it will ap-
pear what may be underftood by the negative roots, and how
mathematicians are juftified in the conclusions which they draw
from them in fuch cafes.

THE negative roots are fometimes alfo ufeful in the folutioni
of problems relating to abflrael quantities. For the equation

L . . . a-\-bx-\-cx* -f- &c. n o
has the fame roots with the equation:

L' . . . a — bx+cx* — <b'c. — o,

except only that the negative roots of the one are the pofitive
roots of the other. Wherever, therefore, any problem pro-
ducing the equation L, is fo connected with any other problem.
prodticing the equation L', that they may be confidered as dif-
ferent cafes of the fame problem, or that the confideration of
the one fuggefls the other ; there it is evident, that the negative
roots will be ufeful, by affording, from either of thefe equa-
tions, the folution of both problems. Thus, the equation
** + * = a, gives us, not only the number, which, added to its
fquare, makes a fum equal to a j but alfo, by the negative root,

the

On the USE of NEGATIVE QUANTITIES. 141

the number which, fubtracted from its fquare, leaves a remain-
der equal to a.

WHAT has been faid is eafily applicable to thofe problems,
where more than one quantity is to be determined.

2. Of Indeterminate Equations.

IN problems which are folved by indeterminate equations,
there is often nothing elfe required, but to determine the dif-
ferent magnitudes of one or more of the variable quantities, cor-
refponding to any given magnitudes of the remaining variable
quantities. There the pofitive roots alone can determine thefe
correfponding magnitudes ; fo that if there be no pofitive roots-,
or none which come within the limits of the problem, then the
problem is impoffible.

BUT let the problem require us to determine, not only the
different correfponding magni-
tudes of the lines AE (#) and
EC (y) ; but alfo, with refpect to
each of the values of #, whether it

lies to the right or left of the given M BAB

point A ; and with refpecl to each
of the correfponding values of y^
whether it is to be taken above or
below the line AE. Here we fup-
pofe that, whether AE lies to the
right or left, and whether the cor-
refponding line EC is to be taken

upwards or downwards, there is nothing, except only thefe op-
pofite fituations of AE and BC, to make any difference in the
equations, to which the problem would be reduced upon each of
thefe fuppofitions. Then, we make any of thefe fuppofitions
at pleafure ; as for inftance, that AB lies to the right, and that
EC lies above AB ; and on this fuppofition, we exprefs the con-
ditions

142 On the USE of NEGATIVE QUANTITIES.

ditions required of thefe quantities in an equation of the com-
mon form, as,

L . . . a + bx + c+dxt + ex+t + &c. •= o.

Then, in determining the correfponding magnitudes of AB
and EC in thefe directions, the pofitive roots are to be em-
ployed.

Now, on the other fide of Ay in the line AB, take MA,
which we mall denote by X, not lefs than any of the negative
values of x j and in the line AC, below A Bt take AL, which
we mall denote by T, not lefs than any of the negative values
of y. It is evident, that the equation L may be reduced to the
form

A
+ BX + Bx

cr + . . . + Cy

M . . . ^ + DX1 + zDXx +....+ JDat'

ETx + EXy -\ ---- + Exy

+
+ Vc.

And this equation may be reduced to the form
N . . . A+B(X+x)+C(r+y) + D(X+x

= o.

= o.

+ FT* +....+ iFTy -i ---- + • . • + Fy*

}

THIS equation N, therefore, is another expreffion of the con-
ditions which are required of the variable quantities, upon the
fuppofition that x lies to the right of A, and that y lies above
AB.

BUT if we make the fuppofition that x lies ftill to the right of
A, but that y lies below AB ; then, fince this is the only al-
teration in the conditions which the equation N requires of x
and y \ therefore the conditions required of them, upon this
new fuppofition, will be exprefled in the equation

N' . . . A+B (JSr+«) + C (T—y) +D (X+xy +E (X+x~) .(r— j) +

We. = o.

Now,

On the USE of NEGATIVE QUANTITIES. 143

Now, by reducing this equation to the form of M, and com-
paring it with L, it will be evident, that it is the fame with the
following equation j

L' . . . a-\-bx — cy+dx* — exy+fy* -j- &c. — o.

THIS equation L\ therefore, exprefles the conditions re-
quired of the variable quantities, when x lies to the right of At
and when y lies below AB. And, consequently, the corre-
fponding pofitive roots of L' are the determinations of the cor-
refponding magnitudes of AB and JBC in this fituation.

BUT L' differs from L, only by having changed the figns of
the terms involving the odd powers of y. Therefore, L' and L
have the fame roots, except only that the pofitive values of y in
the one, are its negative values in the other.

THEREFORE, in the equation L, the pofitive values of x, and
the correfponding negative values of j, are the determinations
of the correfponding magnitudes of AB and BC, when AB
lies to the right of A, and when BC lies below AB.

IN the fame manner, it may be fhewn, that the negative va-
lues of x, and the correfponding pofitive values of y, are the de-
terminations of AB, BC, when AB lies to the left, and BC lies
above AB.

AND, lajlly, That the correfponding negative values of x and
y, are the determinations of AB, BC, when AB lies to the left,
and BC lies below AB.

THE obfervations which have been made under the head
of determinate equations, are equally applicable to thofe which
are indeterminate. And the foregoing demonftration may be
eafily extended to any number of indeterminate quantities.

II, Of

144 On tie USE of NEGATIVE

II. Of the Negative Quantities which are not the Roots of the
Equation.

BESIDES the roots of the equation, or the quantities to "be
determined, problems frequently occur, which require us to
confider fome of the given quantities, as capable, confiflently
with the conditions of the problem, of exifting in one or other
of two oppofite fituations, which may be reprefented by addi-
tion and fubtraction.

SUPPOSE, for inftance, that the given lines AB — a, AC — bt
may be taken either on the right
or left of the given point A ; and
let the problem be reduced to an
equation, upon the fuppofition
that they are each taken to the
right. This equation, when or-
dered according to the powers of
a and b, will be reprefented by
.the following general formula :

L . . .

+ &c. = O.

IN the lines AB, AC, and on the left of the point A, take
AM = A, AN — Bt of any magnitudes, not lefs refpedively
than a, b.

THEN the equation L may be reduced to the form,
P

M . . .

+ RB +'...+ Rb

+ SA1 +

+ SA l 4- iSAa 4- ... + Sfl*

4- TAB + TBa + TAb + . . . + Tab

4- F.S* 4- . ,4- zVrBb+ . . 4- .

, 4- VT>%

= 0.

And

On the USE of NEGATIVE ^UANflfJES. 145
And this again is reducible to the form,

N . . .

tfc. = o.

THIS equation, therefore, is another expreflion of the condi-
tions of the problem, upon the fuppofition that AB, AC are
taken to the right of A.

Now, by reafoning in the very fame manner as before, it is evi-
dent, that when AB or AC is taken to the left, the conditions
of the problem will ftill be exprefled by an equation, which will,
in all refpecls, be the fame with /,, except only, that the quan-
tity which has changed its fituation, will change its fign.

FROM the whole, the two following conclufions feem to be
<iemonftrated.

1. WHERE the problem allows us to confider x, any of the
unknown or indeterminate quantities, as capable of exifting in
two oppofite fituations, which may be reprefented by addition
and fubtraclion ; then the equation, which exprefles the condi-
tions required of x in one of thefe fituations, and whofe pofitive
roots determine the magnitudes of x in that fituation ; the fame
equation, by its negative roots, will determine the magnitudes
of x in the oppofite fituation.

2. WHERE the problem allows us to confider a, any of the
given quantities, as capable of exifting in two fuch oppofite fi-
tuations j then the equation which exprefles the conditions of
the problem, upon the fuppofition that a is in one of thefe
fituations, will be reduced to the equation expreffing the con-
ditions of the problem on the contrary fuppofition \ by fimply
changing the fign of «, or, in other words, the fign of the
terms involving the odd powers of a.

V.

V. EXPERIMENTS and OBSERVATIONS upon a REMARK-
ABLE COLD which accompanies the S E p A R A T i o N o/* H o AR-
FROST/TO?« # CLEAR AIR. By PATRICK WILSON, M. A.
F. R. S. EDIN. and Profeffor of AJlronomy in the Univerfity of
GLASGOW,

[Communicated by Dr BLACK ; and read by Dr WdLKER^ Secretary ,
Julys- 1784-]

I

SECT. I.

MACFARLANE Obfervatory, Glafgow College, Feb. 14. 1784.

N the feventieth and feventy-firfl volumes of the London
Philofophical Tranfactions, the reader will find an account
of fome Experiments and Obfervations made here upon cold in
the years 1780 and 1781.

THOUGH, at firft, I had no other view but that of keeping a
regifter of the very cold weather which fet in on the i3th Ja-
nuary 1780, yet I was foon led to extend the plan of my obfer-
vations, upon meeting with a new phenomenon, which appear-
ed to me to deferve fome attention. This phenomenon confid-
ed in a conflant difference of temperature of the fnow which,
at that time, covered the fields,- and that of the air at a few feet
above : the fnow being the coldefl.

HAVING, by careful and repeated trials, fully affured myfelf
of the fad, I was infenfibly drawn to form fome conjectures as
to the caufe. The moft obvious fuggeflion was, that fuch an
excefs of cold depended upon an evaporation from the fnow ;
efpecially when it was confidered, that this fubftance, from its

fpongv

EXPERIMENTS and OBSERVATIONS, &c. 147

fpongy and flaky contexture, muft expofe a vaft quantity of fur-
face to the action of the external air.

THIS view of the matter appeared to me ftill more probable,
from having formerly been witnefs to a very quick evaporation
of icy films from the furface of polifhed metal at very low tem-
peratures ; and from other experiments, demonllrating the ac-
tual evaporation of ice, of which I had read an account in the
French Memoirs.

HAVING always been a great admirer of Dr FLACK'S Philo-
fophy, in regard to heat and cold, and considering the prefent
phenomenon as an immediate confequence of his law of eva-
poration, I refolved to attend to it further, in all its circum-
ftances, from a defire of extending a little the boundaries of
that induction which, in his hands, has been fo fertile in gene-
ral principles of fo much importance.

IN the two papers above quoted may be feen by what fteps,
as opportunities offered, I followed out this defign, and how
very early I was perplexed by facts which feemed ftrongly to
evince, that no evaporation whatever was going on when the
excefs of cold, at the furface of the fnow, was perceivable.
On the contrary, the further the experiments were puflied, the
ftronger were the prefumptions, that the air, fo far from ab-
forbing from the fnow, or wafting it by evaporation, was all
the while depofiting hoar-froft profufely upon its furface, as
well as upon all other bodies with which it had a free commu-
nication.

THE following extract from the paper of the year 1780, will
fet this in a ftrong light, and will mow, how far my firft im-
preffions were obliged to yield to the authority of facts.

' ON Sunday night, January 23. 1780, feveral things were
' laid out at the Obfervatory, fuch as flieets of brown paper,
' pieces of boards, plates of metal, glafles of feveral kinds,
; &c. which all began to attract hoar-froft, feemingly as foon

as they had time to cool down to the temperature of the air.

T 2. " The

148 EXPERIMENT'S and OB SER VA TIONS

The meets of paper, being thin and eafily cooled, acquired
it fooneft, and, when beheld by candle-light, were beauti-
' fully fpangled over by innumerable reflexions from the mi-
1 nute cryftals of hoar-froft which had parted from the air.

1 EVIDENT fymptoms of the fame difpofition of the air to

' depofit hoar-froft occurred on all the former nights of ob-

ferving, and the tubes of the thermometers were fo much

1 crufted with it, that it required fome attention to keep that

1 part which correfponded to the fcale quite free." At the end

of faid paper is the following fcholium :

THESE experiments, indeed, rather favour the opinion of

1 the excefs of cold at prefent treated of, depending upon a

principle the very reverfe of evaporation. But till opportu-

' nities offer, in this, or in a colder climate, of making more

' experiments, it will be too early to fay any thing very de-

' cided concerning the nature and extent of a cooling procefs

1 which has fo recently come under obfervation. All that can at

1 prefent be affirmed is, that, in certain circumftances, fuch a

1 procefs takes place ; and that it depends probably upon fome

1 principles different from evaporation. At the fame time, fome

" of the experiments fhow, that a free communication betwixt

' the fnow and external air, perhaps whilft in motion, is ne-

" ceffary ; but in what manner this promotes the refrigeration

' does not as yet appear."

THE experiments gone through this firft feafon, rendering it
fo difficult to account for the phenomenon by an evaporation
from the fnow, the next ftep was, to comprehend, if poffible,
by what other means fuch a cooling procefs could be maintain-
ed, confiftently with thofe general principles which were al-
ready known to have a real exiftence ; and to this point, I con-
fefs, I frequently turned my thoughts, from a fufpicion of there
being fomething fingular and undifcovered at bottom.

ACCORDINGLY, before the return of the fucceeding winter,
feveral views occurred, concerning which it was propofed to

make

Upon a REMARKABLE COLD. 149

make an appeal to experiment as foon as the froft mould afford
an opportunity.

FIRST of all, it did not feem impoflible, that the air, in fuch
low temperatures, might impart fome faline ingredient to the
fnow, along with the hoar-frofl it fo freely depofited ; and, by
that means, produce a conftant liquefaction at the furface, which,
though very inconfiderable, might be fufficient to prevent the
fnow from acquiring the warmth of the higher air. I was led
to this random fufpicion, by having obferved that mow, after
lying for fome time on the ground, acquired a certain degree
of firmnefs at the furface, as if the parts there had caked toge-
ther by the gradual intervention of fome fluid medium ; and
this, too, in cafes where fuch an effect feemed not to depend
upon the influence of the fun in the day-time.

IT was imagined alfo, that, in fevere froft, the fnow fpread
abroad upon the face of a country might poflefs a power of de-
purating the atmofphere from any phlogiflic taint ; and thus,
according to fome late difcoveries of my very ingenious friend
Dr CRAWFORD, there would be a conftant production of cold,
by the air in contact with the fnow, abforbing fenfible heat, as
it was gradually fo purified.

THAT property of ice, mentioned by MAI RAN, of expand-
ing in volume whilft expofed to the action of a fharp and in-
creafing froft, joined ,to the prefumption from analogy, that bo-
dies, when fo expanding, muft become colder by an increafed
capacity for heat, feemed alfo, in. fome meafure, applicable to
the prefent difficulty.

ONE other conjecture was, that the hoar-froft, in the act of
feparating from the air, and forming upon the fnow, might af-
fume fome particular arrangement, favourable to a fudden in-
creafe of its capacity for retaining heat, and thereby give rife
to a continual abforption of it; and, of courfe, to a cooling
procefs.

THESE,

150 EXPERIMENT'S and OBSERVATIONS

THESE, and fuch like, were the furmifes which offered them-
felves previous to my entering upon the fubje<5l for the fecond
time, and which I was defirous to bring to the teft of experi-
ment, not without fome hopes of being able to account for the
phenomenon in queftion, by principles already known and fa-
miliar to tis. This attempt, however, ended very unfuccefs-
fully, as may be feen by the account given in my paper for the
year 1781. Indeed, neither the weather, nor other hinder-
ances, then admitted of purfuing the experiments far ; though
ftill enough was accompliihed to mow fomething anomalous
and obfcure in regard to the caufe fought after.

IN this ftate, the fubjed lay by till the commencement of
the late rigorous feafon, when, having occafion to be frequent-
ly at the Obfervatory at late hours, on account of the approach
of the Georgium Sidus to its oppofition, I was again led to re-
fume the experiments upon cold.

IN order to proceed with more certainty and expedition, I
had now ready a fet of ticklifh thermometers, with naked balls
and flender ivory fcales, and all very nearly agreeing, as to their
dimenfions and diflance betwixt the fixed points. Thefe ther-
mometers, upon which I fet a high value, were the laft my fa-
ther ever conflrudled ; and for which he felec~led very €xac~t ca-
pillary tubes, having their bores, according to his improved
method, fo much of a flattened oval form, as to prefent a very
obvious broad pillar of quickfilver upon the fcale, notwith-
ftanding the fmallnefs of the balls ; a property highly conve-
nient, efpecially when nice experiments are to be carried on by
candle-light, and in the open frofty air.

MY father's (late of health not permitting him to encounter
the inclemency of the weather in fuch night-obfervations, my
firft objecl was, a repetition of feveral of the experiments for-
merly made, before proceeding to others, which, by this time,
had been planned with a view of carrying forward the enquiry.

DECEMBER

Upon a REMARKABLE COLD. 151

DECEMBER 28. 1783.

ACCORDINGLY, this night, betwixt ten and eleven o'clock,
one of the thermometers was expofed to the free air in the Ob-
fervatory-park, four feet from the ground, and at a confidera-
ble diftance to windward of the hoxife. To an arm which
projected from a flender frame of wood, the thermometer was
fo applied, as to prefent itfelf floping, not far from a horizon-
tal pofition, for the greater convenience of quickly reading off
the .degrees. Near by the frame, another thermometer was
laid down upon the furface of the fnow, which covered the
ground to a confiderable depth. At this time, the heavens
were very clear all around, and the motion of die air from the
eaft, fo foft as only to bend a little the flame of the candle, when
fteadily held out.

AT eleven o'clock, the thermometer in air pointed to + 5,
and the one upon the fnow to — 7, the difference being
twelve degrees. Half an hour after, they pointed to + 4 and
— 7 ; and every thing wore the appearance of a fine fettled
frofty night.

I NOW returned to the Obfervatory to attend to fome aflro-
nomical bufinefs. After lighting up the tranfit-room, I fet the
meridian telefcope to the altitude of a flar, which preceded the
planet in right afcenfion, and which was very fbon to pafs the
mid wire at a certain fecond by the clock. When the time
drew near, I looked for it in the field of view without finding
it. Having glanced at the index to be certain that the inftru-
ment was rightly direcled, I looked for the flar again, but
could perceive nothing. Stepping now forward, and turning
my back towards the candles, the better to behold the heavens
through the tranfverfe flit in the roof, I immediately difcover-
ed, that the flar-light there was wholly gone. This was quite
unexpected, as about five or fix minutes before, the heavens-,

when

152 EXPERIMENTS and OBSERVATIONS

when feen through the fame opening, promifed a very good ob-
fervation.

UPON going abroad, I found the face of things entirely
changed, the heavens being now overcaft, not however by
clouds, but by a thick uniform haze or fogginefs above, which
obfcured even the ftars of the firft magnitude. Being now
out of doors, I thought of vifiting the thermometers j and,
upon approaching them with fome caution, I found, not with-
out -furprife, that the excefs of cold, at the furface of the fnow,
had almoft quite vanifhed. The thermometer in air pointed to
-K6, two degrees higher than before, and the one upon the
fnow to + 4 : This was at fifty minutes paft eleven. Till half
paft twelve the fogginefs above continued rather to increafe,
when both thermometers pointed exactly to the fame degree
+ 7 j which, at fo low a temperature, and from the fuddennefs
of the change, I could not help regarding as very remarkable,
efpecially as nothing fimilar to this had occurred in my former
obfervations.

By half an hour after one in the morning, the ftars be-
gan again to mine out j when now I was amufed to find the
excefs of cold at the furface of the fnow returning. The air,
by this time, was + 8, and the fnow + 4. As the morning ad-
vanced, the atmofphere turned more and more ferene, and the
thermometers came to differ no lefs than eight degrees. The
obfervations made at this time are fet down in the following
regifter :

DECEMBER

Upon a REMARKABLE COLD.

'53

DECEMBER 28. 1783, at night.

AIR.

SNOW upon
the ground.

1 1 o'clock, Quite clear,

+ 5

— 7

ii 3*0 Ditto,

+ 4

— 7

ii s'o Overcaft,

+ 6

4-4

12 3*0 More overcaft,

+ 7

+ 7

Morning.

i 3*0 Turning a good deal clearer,

+ 8

-4-4

I 4'5 Still more fo,

+ 8

+ 2

a a'o Clear every where, except an ill

defined cloud in N. E.

+ 9

+ 4

3 ' Ditto, except a fmall ill defined

cloud near zenith,

+ u

+ 3

3 4*5 Very clear, except fome better

defined clouds near horizon,

from N. to N. E.

+ 12

+ 4

DECEMBER 29. 1783.

FROM fun-fetting till paft ten o'clock this night, the heavens
were fometimes clear and fometimes overcaft, which induced
me to go to the Obfervatory in hopes of feeing the planet, and
of tracing farther the effects of fuch a fluctuation of the atmo-
fphere upon the thermometers. On my way, I was overtaken
by a low fog or mift, and the thermometers being immediately
expofed, as before pointed, as follows :

DECEMBER 29. 1783, at night.
Mift increafing, and very thick,

ii ao

ii 3'o

11 4'5 Ditto

12 I'D Ditto,

12 i '5 Still very thick

AIR.

+ 12
+ 12
+ 12
+ 12

SNOW upon
the ground.

+ 3
+ 9
+ 10

+ 10
+ 12

u

DECEMBER

154

EXPERIMENTS and OBSERVATIONS

DECEMBER 30. 1783.

THIS night the thermometers were affected ftill more remark-
ably by the viciffitudes of the atmofphere, the fnow not only
acquiring the fame temperature as the air, when the heavens
were overcaft, but thereupon becoming confiderably warmer.
This fingular reverfe will be found in the following regifter :

DECEMBER 30. 1783, at night.

AIR.

SNOW upon
the ground.

7

o'clock, Clear all over,

— i

— 9

9

Ditto, wind gentle E.

4

12

10

Ditto,

— 4

12

II

2/0 Wind a little before this (hifted

from E. and E. by N. to S.

and now fome clouds in S. W.

— j

— 8

II

3'5 Cloudy all over, wind S. S. W.

blowing out the candles,

o

+ 4

12

Ditto,

o

+ 4

12

3'o No intervals of fky, but a gene-

ral uniform cloudinefs which

hid all the ftars,

+ i

+ 4

Morning.

I

3*0 Ditto,

+ 3

+ 9

2

Particles of fnow beginning to

fall,

+ 6

+ 10

2

3*0 Ditto,

+ 6

+ 10

3

3*0 More fnow falling than before,

+ 10

+ H

THE fnow fcale, expofed from nine o'clock till eleven o'clock
and twenty minutes, gained two-tenths of an ounce of weight.

THE fame, when expofed from the time laft mentioned till half
paft one in the morning, loft .07 of an ounce.

WITH

Upon a REMARKABLE COLD. 155

WITH a view to fome more exact ftatical experiments than
thofe made in the year 1781, I had now prepared a flat circu-
lar fcale, made of white iron, two feet in diameter, and turned
up at the circumference about half an inch. In place of cords
for hanging it to the balance, it was found more commodious
to fubflitute pretty ftrong wires, by which the fcale could be
lifted up and fet down, and carried backwards and forwards,
without ever interfering with the fnow upon its furface, as
fometimes was the cafe when cords were ufed on former occa-
fions. This fcale was covered with fnow quite to the brim,
and, when cooled in die open air, it was applied to a good ba-
lance, and exactly counterpoifed, by adding at lafl to the oppo-
fite fcale very fmall drops of lead-fhot. That no part of the
external furface of the fcale might communicate with the air,
it was placed upon a round board, which had in "it a circular
fpace, juft deep enough to receive the fcale up to the brim. In
this ftate, where nothing, therefore, but the fnow which co-
vered it communicated with the air, it was expofed abroad
four feet from the ground upon a fmall table, at nine o'clock.

NOT only by repeated trials of the weight of this fcale, but
alfo by clofe infpection by candle-light, I wanted to determine
at what times the air was depofiting hoar-froft, or taking the
fame up in the way of evaporation ; and particularly to mark
the connection betwixt thefe contrary dates of the air in the
lower regions and a ferene or clouded atmofphere, upon which
lafl the variable temperature at the furface of the fnow feemed
fo immediately to depend.

FOR this purpofe, befides the fnow-fcale, there were expofed
a variety of bodies, fuch as glafs, metal plates, meets of dark
coloured paper, a plank of wood, china, &c.

UPON frequently examining all thefe bodies by candle-light,
from nine o'clock till twenty minutes pad eleven, it was quite
manifeft, that they were drawing hoar-froft from the air, and
in the fame order as is mentioned in the quotation from the ex-

U 2 periments

156 EXPERIMENT'S and OBSERVATIONS

periments made in the year 1780, except in one inftancer
which fhall be particularly taken notice of in the fequel.
Agreeably to this, it was found alfo, that the fnow-fcale was
all the while gaining weight, as marked in the foregoing re-
gifter. From the regifter alfo, it is manifeft, that this depofi-
tion of hoar-frofl took place whilft the air was ferene, and
whilfl there was an excefs of cold at the furface of the fnow.

FROM twenty minutes after eleven till half an hour paft one
in the morning, there were very plain indications of all thefe
fubftances furrendering to the air, though indeed flowly, the
hoar-frofl which had been before imparted to them ; whilft the
fnow-fcale, as is marked in the regifter, was lofing weight.
From the regifter it alfo appears, that all this happened when
the heavens were overcaft, and when the fnow upon the ground
was of a higher temperature than the air.

DURING inoft part of the winter, the atmofphere was ex-
tremely liable to change from a ferene to a foggy or clouded
ftate, and vice ver/a. Thefe alternations affecting the cooling
procefs at the furface of the fnow, in fo particular a manner, I
was frequently led to repeat the obfervations and ftatical expe-
riments which have juft now been defcribed, without meeting
with any difference in the circumftances worthy of being men-
tioned. The phenomena of the nights of December 28. and
30. occurred frequently afterwards in the fame order, but
particularly in the night of January 25. when the heavens were
overcaft three times, and turned twice clear in the fpace of fix
hours.

REMARKS.

FROM the foregoing regifters, obfervations, and experiments,
as alfo from thofe of the years 1780 and 1781, it feems evident,
that the fnow continued colder than the air four feet above it,
only fo long as it was attracting hoar-froft at its furface ; and
that whenever this attraction ceafed, and even when it was fol-
lowed

Upon a REMARKABLE COLD. 157

lowed by a flow evaporation, the fnow turned quickly as warm
and fometimes warmer than the air.

How difficult foever it may be, upon known principles, to
account for the connection between the excefs of cold at the
furface of the fnow and its attracting hoar-froft, it is yet eafy
to underftand how the fnow may become as warm or warmer
than the air above, notwithflanding an evaporation takes place.
For though, from Dr BLACK'S general laws, a certain wafte or
abforption of fenfible heat muft thereby infallibly enfue, it is
evident, that a much drier ftate of the air, and a much more
rapid evaporation, may be necefTary to prevent the vippermoft
ftratum of fnow from being heated by the much warmer fnow
immediately beneath : For, on December 30. when the froft
was very intenfe, the fnow was fo warm as + 24, at a little
more than three inches below the furface. And this I take to
be the reafon why the excefs of cold, at the furface of the fnow,
fo readily difappears when the attraction of hoar-froft is fu-
fpended, and, along with it, that active cooling procefs which
feems, fome how or other, to be its concomitant.

WHEN the atmofphere, after having been, for fome time,
very ferene, becomes fuddenly clouded, it is certain alfo, that
this change muft be attended with the extrication of much fen-
fible heat in the higher regions, where thofe vapours are con-
gregated. A ftore of heat, fo produced, muft foon affect the
mafs of air which lies below. It is well known alfo, that the
lower air, thus riling in its temperature, will be lefs difpofed
than before to give out any matter in the form of hoar-froft,
or may be even enabled to abforb this from the furface of the
fnow, and of other bodies, in the way of evaporation. Hence
may be underftood, how, upon the fudden formation of clouds
or fog, the thermometer, expofed to the air, always rofe fome
degrees ; and how, in confequence of this increafe of tem-
perature, the fnow-fcale, and other bodies, no longer attracted
any hoar-froft ; and, finally, how the excefs of cold at the fur-
face

EXPERIMENTS and OBSERVATIONS

»

face of the fnow, . confidered as a phenomenon, either wholly
or in a great meafure depending upon a conftant attraction of
hoar-froft, always vanifhed when the heavens were overcaft, or
when any fog -or hazinefs interrupted the clearnefs of the lower
air.

THERE is, however, one circumftance to be found in the re-
gifter of December 28. which feems repugnant to the explana-
tions that have now been attempted. From midnight till
near four o'clock that morning, the air continued to rife in its
temperature, and at fuch a rate as feems incompatible with the
conftant giving out of hoar-froft, and with the correfponding
excefs of cold, which took place at the furface of the fnow,
unlefs we fuppofe, that the warmer air, which fucceiuvely
arrived at the place of obfervation, was, at the fame time,
more and more charged with vapours, for which, it muft be
confefled, we have very little or no evidence.

A DIFFICULTY of this kind coming in the way of our gene-
ral reafonings upon fuch phenomena, rather leads to a fufpi-
cion of there being fome other principles concerned, which as
yet may have altogether efcaped obfervation. I have been
the more inclined to harbour fuch a fufpicion, lince reading
lately in the Berlin Memoirs for 1780, a Differtation by
M. Ac HARD upon the difpofition of the air to Ihed night-dew,
in which there are fome curious remarks. It is much to our
purpofe here to take notice, that this author mentions particu-
larly the fudden overcafting of a ferene fky, as having fre-
quently come under his obfervation ; and that it was always
accompanied with moft fenfible and defultory changes in the
eledricity of the lower air. The fcope of M. ACHARD'S Me-
moir, is, to {how how much electricity is concerned in the
phenomena of the atmofphere, and how neceflary it is, in all
our meteorological refearches, to have refpecl to the operations
and effeas of fuch a principle. According to this author, the
different difpofitions of the air, as to giving out and taking in

moifture,

Upon a REMARKABLE COLD. 15,9

moifture, depend much upon its ftate of electricity. It might,
therefore, be much worth while to examine experimentally, how
far the fame principles may co-operate with the more general
caufes above affigned, in regulating the affinity betwixt the air
and the hoar-froft difTolved in it ', and how far the like pheno-
menon of cold may take place upon the feparation of night-
dew from a clear air in milder feafons.

IF the watery principle, when united to the air in a warm as-
well as in a very cold temperature, exifted in the ftate of vapour,
or under any other form and conftitution fimilar in both cafes,
one fhould expect fome difference in the phenomena, when, in
the firft cafe, it is yielded to bodies in the form of moiflure,
and, in the lafl, in the form of hoar-froft ; becaufe we are cer-
tain, from Dr BLACK'S difcoveries, that the fame quantity of
the fame kind of matter under the one and the other of thefe
two forms, contains a very different quantity 4of abfolute heat.

UPON the prefent fuppofition, therefore, if it mould be found,
that the cold produced when bodies attract moifture from the
air, is no greater than what is produced when they attract hoar-
froft, this would amount to a proof, that the cooling procefs is
much more active in the laft cafe than in the firft ; or, in other
words, that the wafte of fenfible heat, effected by the unknown
caufe, is much greater, in the act of feparation, when the aic
depofits hoar-froft, than when it depofits moifture.

SECT. II.

HAVING now been affured, by fo many arguments drawn
from experiment, that the excefs of cold at the fnow had a con-
ftant dependence upon its attracting hoar-froft from the air,. I
was next defirous of learning, whether an equal degree of cold
would obtain when the hoar-froft was attracted by fubftances
of a fimilar loofe contexture.

THE

1 60 EXPERIMENTS and OB SER VA TIONS

THE iflue of experiments, made with this view, feemed to
offer an alternative, according to which any farther refearches
might be conducted to greater advantage : For as yet, I was
uncertain, whether fo anomalous a phenomenon originated
from fome property of fnow in relation to the air at the time
of giving out its hoar-froft, or whether it depended upon the
mere feparation of hoar-froft from the air, by that affinity
which bodies in general have to hoar-froft. I accordingly be-
gan with the following trial :

JANUARY 24. 1784.

THIS night, the heavens being very ferene, and the wind
coming gently from the eaft, and every thing without doors
greedily attracting hoar froft, the fnow-fcale, formerly men-
tioned, was expofed upon a long frame, four feet high. To-
wards the other end of the frame, T placed a circular board, of
the fame diameter, covered with fine flinty fand, free of duft,
much like that made ufe of for fand-glafles. A thermometer
was laid upon the fnow in the fcale, and another upon the
fand, with their naked balls, within a few inches of the moft
leeward fide. A foot to windward, and at an equal diftance
from the fcale and board, and even with their furface, another
thermometer was expofed to the air. After waiting a confi-
derable time, with fome curiofity, to know the iflue of this ex-
periment, I returned to view the apparatus at half an hour
after ten o'clock, when, at once, I found reafon entirely to re-
linquifli all my former conjectures, by which, I thought, I
might poflibly account for the phenomenon, by fome proper-
ties peculiar to fnow : For now I faw diftinftly, that the excefs
of cold was moft remarkable at the furface of the fand. At
this time, the thermometer expofed to the air, which afterwards
fweeped the apparatus, pointed to +14, whilft the one upon
the fnow pointed to + 10, and that upon the fand to + 8. I
continued to obferve till half an hour after one in the morning ;

and

Upon a REMARKABLE COLD.

161

and that upon the fand to -4- 8. I continued to obferve till half
an hour after one in the morning ; and the following regifter
{hows how the thermometers pointed according to their feveral
fituations :

JAN. 24. 1784, at night.

AIR.

Snow-
fcale.

Sand-
board.

SNOW upon
the ground.

10 30' o'clock,

+ 14

+ 10

+ 8

ii 15'

I3

10

8

ii 20'

ii

8$

^

+ 5

ii 40'

12

8J

7

ii 55' -

IO

74

6

6

12 45'

12

9

7

i 30'

12

IO

8

6

BY examining the thermometers fo frequently I had occauon
to remark, that the balls and ftems of the two which lay upon
the fnow and fand were crufted with hoar-froft much foon-
er than the other which was to windward in the air. The
one upon the fand contracted hoar-froft the fooneft, and, what
at the time I thought ftrange, more early than the fourth ther-
mometer which I had laid down upon the fnow at the ground.
In regard to the thermometer in air, I mould rather think it
attracted no hoar-froft whatever, properly fpeaking, and that
what was difcernible upon it proceeded from accidental minute
floating particles which clung to the glafs, and afterwards en-
tangled more of the fame kind : For the ball of this thermo-
meter was not, like the one belonging to the fand, crufted over
with an uniform dead filver whitenefs, but was befet with a
number of fmall tufts or prickles of the hoar-froft, whilft the
intervals of glafs between them were entirely clear.

WITH a view to a repetition of the ftatical experiment, I had
carefully afcertained the weight of the fnow-fcale and fand-

X board

1 6a EXPERIMENTS and OB SE R VA 27 ONS

board immediately before I firft fet them out ; and after they
had remained abroad from forty-five minutes pad nine till near
two o'clock in the morning, they were again weighed, when
the fand had gained four-tenths of an ounce, and the fnow
very nearly three-tenths.

A LITTLE after midnight, a thin circular board, which had
been previoufly cooled, was put over the fand, and fupported
at the diftance of about an inch and a half above the furface.
After feventeen minutes, it was removed, when the thermome-
ter on the fand pointed lower than the one in air by only two
degrees ; and probably, for the greateft part of this interval,
the cooling procefs had abated.

IN a letter with which I had been favoured this day from Dr
BLACK, by whofe correfpondence upon this fubjecl; I think
myfelf highly honoured and obliged, there was fuggefted an
experiment with gauze to be laid over the thermometer, which
was accordingly tried. For this purpofe, I fattened with pack-
thread a piece of open gauze to a hoop of eight inches diameter
and an inch deep ; and, when the thermometers were fheltered
in this manner, the quickfilver commonly rofe nearly two
degrees.

JANUARY 26. 1784.

HAVING now found, that the fand was more efficacious than
the fnow in promoting this fingular kind of refrigeration, I
this night repeated the lafl experiment with fine powder of
wood charcoal, the loofe fhavings of brafs gathered from a
turner's lath, a friable amalgam of quickfilver and tin, the
fand and the fnow, to fee if there would be any remarkable
difference in the cold produced by fubflances differing fo much
in their nature and denfity. The apparatus confifled of circu-
lar boards, two feet in diameter, which I ranged in order upon
a long flender frame, fet at right angles to the direction of any
air that was {lining. I then covered them with the various

materials

Upon a REMARKABLE COLD. 163

materials I had colleded, and laid a thermometer upon each,
near the leeward fide, as ufual.

THE refult was, that all, except the fnow, kept nearly of the
fame temperature, full fix degrees below that of the air, at the
fame height, and immediately to windward, which then was
+ 12. The fand feemed rather the coldeft, and the fnow ob-
viou-fly neareft to the heat of the air.

IN the mean time, the feparation of hoar-froft from the air
was very manifeft. It was moft difcernible to the fight upon
the fand and charcoal duft, though the manner of attaching
itfelf to thefe fubflances was very different. On the fand, it
fhowed itfelf by making the furface all over fparkle with an in-
finity of minute bright points, whilft, on the charcoal duft, it
fettled without fuch contiguity, and formed into many broken
filaments, of a dull hue, which here and there lay cluftered as
if aiming at fome ftellated arrangement.

THE prefent experiment was made about midnight, when
the heavens were very clear, and the wind at eaft and one point
fouth, and fo brifk as to trail horizontally the flame of the
candle till it fometimes went out. Now and then this gentle
current came fuddenly ftraight downwards for a few feconds, as
was apparent from the manner in which it affected the flame of
the candle.

So long as I was employed abroad at this time, there was no
fluctuation in the ftate of the atmofphere, nor any alternation
in the cooling procefs. Laft night, however, the cafe was very
different, as has been already mentioned. The experiments
then made were chiefly with the fnow-fcale and fand board.
When the heavens were overcaft, both foon acquired the tem-
perature of the air, which then was very ftill. It was found,
too, by ftatical experiments, that the fand acquired an addition
to its weight, when it happened to be for fome length of time
colder than the air ; but when the cooling procefs was inter-
rupted, and the fand continued for fome time of the fame tem-

X 2 perature

1 64 EXPERIMENTS and OBSERVATIONS

perature as the air, the fcale gradually became lighter, though
in a fmall degree.

REMARKS.

IN eftimating the degree of refrigeration at the furfaces of
the various fubftances upon the board, the thermometers were
always laid down at the leeward fide, as has been fo frequently
mentioned. This was foon found to be a neceflary precaution ;
for, when expofed in any other fituation, the cold mown was
lefs confiderable. I was, indeed, led very early to fufpect fuch
a refult, upon confidering, that this very cold air, though
prone to give out hoar-froft, might not all at once be difpofed
to part with what was redundant, though folicited by bodies
capable of receiving it. The confequence of this feemed to be,
that any given portion of this very cold air, in flitting flowly
over the fand, ?fff . would part with more and more hoar-froft,
and, on that account, become colder and colder, fo as to be
coldeft of all near the leeward fide ; or, in other words, would
be thrown into a Jit of continual refrigeration in its paflage over
the boards, which circumftance was found to be agreeable to.
experience.

THIS fact, therefore, feems very confonant to all the reft, as
indicating, in another way, the relation between the reparation
of hoar-froft from the air, and the apparent wafte of fenfible
heat. Having brought this topic into view, it may perhaps be
worth while to purfue it, for a moment, a little farther.

IT has been already obferved, that the thermometer upon the
fand-fcale was much fooner crufted over with, hoar-froft than
the one in air to windward. This, indeed, is what might have
been expected, on account of the laft of thefe two fituations be-
ing the warmeft. But as the thermometer upon the fnow at
the ground was always colder, than that upon the fand, it does
not fo readily appear, how this laft mould have attracted hoar-
froft fooner than the firft. This fact feems to fhow, that any

portion

Upon a REMARKABLE COLD. 165

portion of air, by being thrown into a fit of continual refrige-
ration, by the action of the furface over which it travels, is,,
upon its arrival at the leeward fide, and during the fit, difpofed
to part with a greater quantity of hoar-froft in a given time,
than what otherwife it would do, even though equally cold.
According to this idea, were the furface fo much extended as
to bring the fit of refrigeration to a maximum, and fo put an
end to it, before the arrival of the air at the leeward fide, a
body at this leeward fide would acquire hoar-froft more flowly
than another lying fomewhat more to windward, to which the
air can reach whilft in the fit of cooling. Thus, therefore, in
regard to the greater part of the air, which fweeps the endlefs
continuous furface of the fnow upon the ground, we may con-
ceive the fit of refrigeration as confummated ; on which ac-
count, it will be lefs difpofed than that which crofTes the fand
upon the fcale to give out its hoar-froft : And, in this way, the
fatfl vmder confideration may be accounted for.

FROM a defire of making fome more formal experiments
upon the air whilft in this progrefs of cooling, by the action,
of furfaces expofed to it, I provided a wooden canal, fifteen feet
long, a foot wide, and fifteen inches deep. This canal, open
at both ends, and with its bottom covered with the fine fand,
I intended to have expofed on fome favourable night for the
frofty air to glide along it ; and by thermometers placed at cer-
tain intervals, as well as plates of metal, &c. which I could
bring to the teft of a balance, to have determined the greateft
degree of cold, and the rate of cooling, and of giving out hoar-
froft, from the windward to the leeward end : But before I
could conveniently enter upon this experiment, I was flopped
by the thaw. Perhaps a platform of deals laid clofe to one
another, and covered, with fand, would be a much. better appa-
ratus ; as the more a furface, defigned for fuch a purpofe, is ex-
tended in breadth, the warmer air would the lefs readily flow
in fidewife, fo as to mar the effecT: produced by the flow cur-
rent

166 EXPERIMENT'S and OBSERVATIONS

rent advancing to leeward. It would not be wonderful, though
fomewhere upon an elevated and detached platform of this
kind, we fhould find an artificial cold greater than what pre-
vails at the fame time on the fnow at the ground ; as the
warmer fnow, which lies immediately beneath, at lead for the
mod part, muft more or lefs counteract the cooling procefs kept
up there.

BUT to return from this digreffion, I now come to relate the
mofl ftriking experiment I had an opportunity of making this
winter, during the time I was occupied in fuch cold vigils.

IN fome of the fereneft and ftilleft nights, having frequently
amufed myfelf by attending to the capricious arrangement of
the hoar-frofl as it fettled upon different bodies, I was led to
remark, that quickfilver was a long while of attracling any,
and even at lafl fparingly, and chiefly at thofe places of its fur-
face which were fullied by a dufty film. This naturally fug-
gefted a comparifon of quickfilver and the fand, as to their
powers of contributing to the cooling procefs at their furface.

FOR the apparatus, I borrowed from a cabinet-maker two
mahogany tea-trays, of an oval form, twenty-two inches by
feventeen, and near an inch deep, infide meafure.

JANUARY 29. 1784.

ABOUT nine o'clock at night, I placed them out in the park
upon a flight plane-tree table, about a foot afunder, and with
their longer axes pointing to windward. After levelling one of
the trays, its bottom was completely flooded over with quick-
filver, to the amount of twenty-four pounds weight, which
Meflrs HILL and MONTEATH, furgeons and druggifts here,
moft obligingly lent me for that purpofe. The bottom of the
other tray was covered to the depth of a quarter of an inch
with the fine flinty fand. Upon each of the furfaces of the
fand and of the quickfilver, I laid down a thermometer, with
the ball near to the leeward end as ufual, and expofed a third

to

Upon a REMARKABLE COLD.

167

to the air, about a foot to windward, and even with the trays.
I then left them for an hour to cool ; after which I continued
to obferve them now and then for two hours more. During all
this time, I found, that the thermometer placed upon the
quickfilver continually pointed higher than the other upon the
fand, as fet down in the following regifter :

JAN. 29. 1784. at night.

10 o'clock,

AIR.

+ 4

Tray with
quickfilver.

+ 3

Tray with
fand.

„-,_ T

Excefs of cold on
the quickfilver.
I

Ditto on
the fand.

5

10 30'

+ 3

+ 2

. T

I

4

11
I I 30'

+ 3
+ 3

+ »

-Ml

— ^

— 1$

I
Ij

4i
4*

12

+ 4

+ 2

O

2

4

To make fure of every thing in this experiment, especially
as the extremes of temperature were but inconfiderable, I fome-
times changed the thermometers, and fhifted the fand-tray
from the right to the left fide of the other, without at all alter-
ing the report. Whilfl this experiment was going forward, I
difcerned plainly all the common fymptoms of the hoar-froft
joining the fand, and fettling upon the infide and outfide wood
of both trays. Though at length, fome made its appearance
upon the face of the quickfilver, yet I am apt to think, that
the cold generated all around by the hoar-froft which attached
itfelf to the wood, was the chief caufe of the quickfilver keep-
ing below the temperature of the air to windward.

IT afterwards occurred to me, that, in this experiment, it
would have been proper to have filled the tray with quickfilver
to the very brim, and to have defended the outfide wood from
the air by fome rare fubftance. Had things been fo managed,
and the other tray completely filled alfo with fand, and defended
in the fame manner, I am perfuaded the refult would have been
more remarkable ; and that the qxiickfilver, thus expofed with

an

i68 EXPERIMENTS and OBSERVATIONS

an unfullied face, would have kept as warm as the air to wind-
ward, how much foever the fand might have been colder.

BUT taking the refult of this experiment as we found it, we
may fafely regard it as an inftance of what may be called the
fame volume of air in one part, laying down its vapour in the
form of hoar-frofl, and in another, paffing away without fuch
a decompofition taking place. In the former cafe, we accord-
ingly found the correfponding cold produced, but very fmall
indications of any fuch thing in the latter.

As quickfilver thus refifts the hoar-frofl, fo may fome other
fubflances ; and, on the contrary, there may be fome much
more fitted than others to promote this fort of decompofition of
the air in low temperatures. But this fuggefls a variety of ex-
periments which I have had no opportunity of purfuing. Cer-
tain late appearances have made me think of trying a broad
furface, made up of a combination of wool-cards, having ob-
ferved fomething like a preference of fharp points in the fettling
of hoar-frofl.

THOUGH it would require many more experiments than our
opportunities have allowed of, to underfland fully feveral points
belonging to this Enquiry ; fuch as, the fits of refrigeration of
the air, and the correfponding aptitude to part with its hoar-
frofl, yet the foregoing experiments, regiflers, and obfervations,
when attentively confidered and compared with one another,
and with thofe narrated in the two papers publifhed in the
London Philofophical Tranfaclions, feem to confpire in fupport
of the following

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS:

That when bodies attraft hoar-frofl; from a clear air, there is a cold

produced at their furfaces ; and that this cold docs not originate

from any peculiar qualities of bodies upon -which the hoar-frojl fettles,

any farther than as fome bodies are capable of attracling from the

air more or lefs of it in a given time :

That

Upon a REMARKABLE COLD. 169

'That the difpofition of the air of thus parting with hoar-frqft, and
the cold which accompanies that feparation^ has a conftant depen-
dence upon the general ferenity of the atmofpbere, and is always in-
terrupted upon the fky being overcajl with clouds orfogginefs^ efpe-
cially near to the place of obfervation.

THE analyfis which has now been detailed, though imperfect
in many refpects, feems, however, to demand our aflent to
thefe general proportions, how anomalous foever they may ap-
pear.

THE nature or effence of the thing we call HEAT is fo far re-
moved beyond the immediate reach of our fenfes, that we
need not wonder though new facts relating to it come into
view, and even though they cannot immediately be traced up
to any general laws hitherto eftablimed. If, upon mature re-
flection, the prefent phenomena cannot be accounted for in
this way, they ought, on that very account, to challenge our at-
tention the more, as opening to us the neceffity of enlarging
oxir flock of principles, and inviting us forward to fo defirable
a work.

IN the^£/? proportion above laid down, it is afTerted, that the
cold produced is in proportion to the quantity of hoar-frofl fe-
parated from the air in a given time. This, however, muft be
underftood with fome limitation, and may not perhaps hold
true, if we compare together the degrees of cold and quantities
of hoar-froft feparated in different ftates of the air.

THE import of the proportion only is, " That, at any given
" time, the more hoar-froft the air imparts to bodies over
" which it paffes in a clear ftate, the greater is the cold then
" produced." For it is very conceivable, that, according to
the different ftates of the air, in different feafons, or in different
nights of the fame feafon, arifing from its being more or lefs
charged with vapour, or perhaps with electricity, or fome other

Y latent

170 EXPERIMENTS and OBSERVATIONS

latent principles, the quantity of hoar-frofl given out, com-
pared with the correfponding cold, may be very different.

IN the paper of the year 1781, it is faid, " That laft year
" there was a much more copious giving out of hoar-frofl at
" times when the difference of temperature was not more re-
" markable ;" and, from this fact, I was then difpofed to con-
clude, that the cooling procefs had no immediate dependence
upon the feparation of hoar-froft. But, from the facts which
have been afcertained this winter, it feems neceffary to correct
this opinion in the extent above explained. It ought alfo to be
confidered, that the comparifon above qxioted between the
years 1780 and 1781, had refpect to the temperature of the
fnow upon the ground only ; and it is evident, that this may,'
cceteris paribus, differ more or lefs from that of the air, accord-
ing as the fnow has fallen more or lefs recently, or is more or
lefs deep, upon warm or upon frozen ground.

IT may alfo be proper here to take notice of what may be
called a fpurious kind of hoar-frofl, which is attended with no
cold whatever at fettling upon bodies. I mean that which trees
and buildings are fo apt to be decorated with during a mifl in
frofly weather ; in which cafe it is obvious, that the hoar-frofl
was previoufly formed in the air, and floated in it, and was not
formed in the act of being depofited upon the body.

SECT. III.

THOUGH the night-obfervations of this and the former win-
ters afforded fo many examples of cold thus depending upon
the feparation of hoar-froft from the air, I come now to men-
tion one, and the only one inflance wherein, during the night,
this condition of things was totally reverfed, and when the
fame phenomenon, of an excefs of cold at the furface of the
fnow, took its rife from a moft manifefl evaporation.

JANUARY

Upon a REMARKABLE COLD. 171

JANUARY 28. 1784.

ABOUT nine o'clock this night, the excefs of cold was four,
five, and fometimes fix degrees. The circumftances of the wea-
ther, indeed, were now very particular. With the air fo warm
as +27, the fky was quite clear, whilft a ftrong wind blew di-
reclly from the north. At the fame time, too, the heavens
were illumined with a moft vivid difplay of the Aurora Borea-
lis, which (hooted from the north, round by the eaft, and up
beyond the zenith towards the fouth, where the wandering ir-
radiations all converged, fb as to form an imperfect crown.

DURING this play of the elements, there were no longer to
be found the fmalleft traces of that hoar-froft about which I
had fo often been employed in calmer and in colder times.
Early in the afternoon, I had laid out a parcel of things, which
might fhow me the ftate of the air when night fliould come.
But neither upon them, nor upon the wooden fpars of the
wicket which opens from the fofle round the Obfervatory to the
park, nor upon its fide-flones, nor the hedge, nor the thorn-
tree near by, was there to be feen the fmalleft particle. Every
thing around was entirely gripped of hoar-froft by this dry and
devouring gale.

THE fand-board and fnow-fcale, fet out as formerly, gave
now a very different report. The thermometer on the fand
never cooled a fraction of a degree below the temperature of
the air, whilft the fweeping wind cooled down the fnow feveral
degrees. Evaporation in all this was fo evidently concerned,
that it would have been abfurd to have tried if the fand had
loft weight in that way. But, at any rate, fuch an attempt
would have been difficult, as the fand was fo liable to be dif-
perfed by the wind, that I was obliged to lay it very thick upon
the fcale, and to flicker it a little under the lee of the hedge.
Being, however, defirous to know, at what rate the fnow wafted
by evaporation in this fituation, I got the white iron fcale, with

Y 2 fnow

i72 EXPERIMENTS and OBSERVATIONS

•

fnow comprefTed upon it, muffled from the wind by a piece of
open gauze. In this ftate, when expofed for two hours, it
loft fix- tenths of an ounce. Now and then 1 looked to fee if
any of the fnow was drifting away throxigh the gauze, but
could perceive none traverfing the beams of the candle, when,
the lantern was held in the mofl favourable pofition for detect-
ing fuch a thing j and I rather think that the whole wafle was
owing to evaporation.

SINCE the above date, I have fometimes, in the courfe of
obfervations, made commonly from nine o'clock in the morning
till mid- day, found the like excefs of cold upon the ground
fnow, proceeding from actual evaporation j and this too when
the weather was much more calm. But, on all thefe oceafions,
it was evident, that the air was rifing quickly in its tempera-
ture, as the fun approached the meridian. On this account,
may it not be fuppofed, That the air was acquiring, not only a
power of keeping diflblved what, during the night, it would
have depofited as hoar-froft, but of caufing fuch an evaporation
from the fnow, as to produce an obfervable cold by that pro-
cefs ? Whatever there may be in this fuppofition, the fact is
certain as above ftated.

WHEN the air is not very frofty, I am inclined to think,
from the above obfervations, that a cold, in confequence of
evaporation in the day-time, takes place not unfrequently, and
that this may be one caufe of that profufe giving out of hoar-
froft which night brings along with it, when the work of refri-
geration is ftill continued by that other procefs which has been
the fubject of this EfTay.

THE following I have always found to be a characteriftical
diftinction between the two procefTes, befides the others already
mentioned. A thermometer freely expofed, with its ball en-
vironed with a fmall mafs of fnow, falls fenfibly below the
temperature of the air which meets it, when evaporation goes
on. But in the moft active ftate of the other procefs, I never

obferved

Upon a REMARKABLE COLD. 173

•

obferved fuch a thermometer in air point fenfibly below another
befide it, whofe ball was perfectly clear. In fliort, the whole
features of the one procefs, compared to thofe of the other, are
fo diffimilar, as to fhew evidently they depend upon principles of
a very different nature.

IN the profecution of fo dark a fubjecl, we have proceeded
hitherto entirely in the way of analyfis, and have been careful
to prevent any fuppofition or conjecture from mixing with, or
affecting our conclufions. But having now arrived at what ap-
pears to be a general and leading fact, and of fo anomalovis a
kind, the fituation obliges us, more or lefs, to take up with fur-
mifes, as guides to farther experiments ; in the view of finally
reconciling the prefent phenomena with what we already know
concerning the nature and properties of heat.

WHEN fuch a cold is produced, as that which has been con-
fidered at fo much length, the queftion is, What becomes of
the fenfible heat which thus conftantly difappears ?

FROM the experiments mentioned in the paper of 1781, we
are difpofed to think, that this heat does not enter into the com-
pofition of the hoar-frofl which is given out by the air.

IF, however r it fhould be found, that the air itfelf, at the
moment the decompofition takes place, has its capacity for re-
taining heat much increafed, fuch a circumftance would im-
mediately folve the difficulty. For, by this means, the air,
when parting with any given portion of hoar-froft, might ab-
forb, not only the whole heat, which, according to Dr BLACK'S
law, ferved to keep the hoar-froft diflblved, but alfo^ it might
abforb a portion of the fenfible heat belonging to the body or
furface upon which the hoar-froft fettles ; and thus occafion a
diminution of fenfible temperature, or the cold in queftion.

BUT regarding the air, in thefe extreme colds, and whilft the
hoar-froft is diflblved in it, as a chemical mixt, it may be de-
manded, What reafon is there for fuppofing that the capacity of
the air for heat fhould increafe at the moment it gives out its

hoar-

i74 EXPERIMENTS and OBSERVATIONS

hoar-froft to bodies attracting it ? To this it may be anfwered,
fince we are confefledly dealing in furmifes and conjectures,
that, poffibly, in the mixed fubject we are now contemplating,
there may be a third ingredient, of an electrical or phlogiftic
kind, and which is neceflarily feparated from the air along with
the hoar-froft.

ACCORDING to this view, with the help of Dr CRAWFORD'S
general fact mentioned above, we could account for the cooling
procefs, by faying, that it depends upon the incrcafed capacity
of the air for heat, in confequence of its being dephlogifticated
by the mediation of a third fubftance, namely, the hoar-froft,
which, by a predominant affinity, in certain cafes, is made to
part from the air, and unite itfelf to the attracting fubftance.

IT would require, however, many nice and well ordered ex-
periments, before the merits of a fuggeftion, fo arbitrary as this
is, could be determined.

BUT how much foever we may be at a lofs to underftand in
what manner cold is produced by the feparation of hoar-froft
from a clear air, or what becomes of the xenfible heat which,
in that procefs, conftantly difappears, yet, by regarding the
thing itfelf as a general fact, now demonftrated by a competent
induction, it feems already to offer us fome afliftance in explain-
ing, by the fynthetical method, certain phenomena connected
with our fubject. Of this, what has been mentioned of the
two thermometers, page 172. may ferve as an example.

IN the firft cafe, we know fo much of the nature of evapo-
ration as to be certain, that any portion of air, relatively dry,
at meeting the finall mafs of fnow furrounding the ball, muft
produce cold, more or lefs, even by the moft tranflent contact.
By a conftant fucceffion, therefore, of fuch evaporating air, the
mercury in the thermometer will be made to fink very fenfibly
below that of another expofed to the fame current, having no
mow round its ball.

BUT

Upon a REMARKABLE COLD. 175

BUT when the air is in a contrary (late, and difpofed to give
out hoar-froft, the ball, with the fnow round it, may be con- .
fidered, according to the new ideas we have acquired, as not
affording furface enough for the extrication of hoar-froft from
any portion of air, during fo momentary a contact, in paffing
to leeward. For, from feveral phenomena already infifled upon,
it feems evident, that an action, continued for fome length of
time, is neceffary for unlocking the hoar-froft from the air, and
conveying it to the attracting furface. Hence the thermometer
with the fnow round the ball, in the circumftances fuppofed,
fhould not be cooled more than the current of air in which it
is placed ; and thus this characleriftical diftinction. betwixt the
two' procefles may be accounted for.

I N like manner, may be underftood, how it is in the clearefl
and ftilleft nights only, that the cold at the furface of the boards
was obferved to be moil remarkable. For, according to what
has been juft now mentioned, any very rapid motion of the
air acrofs thefe furfaces, feems inconfiftent with the extrication
of hoar-froft, upon which the refrigeration depends.

FURTHER, in the paper of the year 1780, an account is given
of an experiment, which confifted in blowing the ambient cold
air upon the fnow where the thermometer lay, and of fanning
the fame brLfltly with a piece of ftiff paper faftened to the end
of a long ftick, in expectation that the thermometer would
point lower by an increafed evaporation. This experiment
was made pretty early, and whilft I was in the perfuailon, that
the obferved excefs of cold depended entirely upon evaporation.
The refult, however, was, that the thermometer, inftead of
pointing lower by fuch means, always rofe feveral degrees.
Though this circumftance was thought odd and unaccountable
at the time, yet the true reafon of it feems now to offer itfelf
very plainly. For, from the explanations attempted in the two
foregoing paragraphs, it would appear, that, by the operations
with the bellows and fan, we had all the while been difturbing

that

i ;6" EXPERIMENTS and OBSERVATIONS

that more leifurely and intimate communion betwixt the air

and the fnow, which is necefTary to the extrication of hoar-froft ;

and that accordingly the thermometer approached confiderably

nearer to the temperature of the air.

THAT the extrication of hoar-froft requires an action con-
' tinued for fome length of time, upon a given portion of

' air,"

is a proposition of fome moment, becaufe, taken along with the
other general fact, it enables us fo eafily to explain certain col-
lateral phenomena which fo much characterife this kind of
cooling procefs j fome examples of which have now been pro-
duced. On that account, it might be worth while to eftablifh
the propofition farther, by more direct experiments. For this
purpofe, a fimple apparatus might be conftracted for making
the air, in night-obfervations, to pafs with different rates of ve-
locity over the cooling furfaces, in order to difcover how much
the extrication of hoar-froft, and the cold produced at the lee-
ward fide, depends upon an undifturbed and leifurely commu-
nication between the air and the fubftances expofed. As to the
iflue, I am already almoft entirely convinced, that, were the
natural flow paflage of the air over the furfaces changed fud-
denly, by machinery, into a rapid current, the thermometers
at the leeward fide would very foon rife, if not to the fame, at
leaft nearly to the fame temperature as the air to windward.

IT might alfo be proper to try how far, and for what length
of time, a confiderable quantity of cold air, when {hut up on
all fides from the external atmofphere, would, by a leifurely
and fucceflive application of all its parts to a furface of fand,
&c. keep up a cooling procefs ; and even for this experiment,
it would be no difficult matter to contrive a proper apparatus.

IT is now full time that we relieve the reader, who may have
followed us fo far in a difcuffion which has {welled to a much
greater extent than originally was intended, and where fo per-
petual a recurrence of the fame phrafeolpgy, jiow necefiary fo-

ever

Upon a REMARKABLE COLD. 177

ever to the illuftration of fo new a fubjec"l, muft doubtlefs have
been felt as tedious. We mall, therefore, conclude with ob-
ferving, that experiments of this kind fall moft properly under
the province of thofe philofbphers who live in climates where
the winter is of longer continuance, and attended with more
rigour, and a more permanent ferenity of the atmofphere.
Here, in this latitude, the opportunities are fo rare, and, when
they do occur, fo tranfient, that our progrefs in fuch an expe-
rimental enquiry muft advance only by flow fleps. To thofe,
therefore, more favoured by fituation, would we humbly re-
commend a farther profecution of a fubject, which, betides its
entire novelty, feems, upon feveral other accounts, to have a
claim to fome attention.

VL

VI. y&z ACCOUNT of the Method of making a W i N E, called by
the TA R T A R s KO UMIS S ; with Obfervations on its Ufe
in Medicine. By JOHN GRIEVE, M. D. F. R. S. EDIN.
and late Pbyfician to the Ruffian Army.

{Read by Dr BLACK, July 12. 1784.]

IN an age like the prefent, when few things in nature feem
to have eluded the refearches of philofophy, when the com-
munications of learning are as well eftabliihed as thofe of com-
merce, it may appear fomewhat furprifing, that one of the
moil important productions of milk mould ftill remain, in a
great meafure, unknown to the mod enlightened parts of Eu-
rope.

THE production I mean is the vinous liquor which is pro-
cured by fermentation from mares milk. And it was fcarcely
to be expected, that, after it had efcaped the obfervation of
men the moft fkilled in chemiftry, it fhoxild be taught us by a
horde of Tartars, whofe rank in fociety is not above that of
Barbarians.

EVEN in Ruffia itfelf, it was with difficulty I could learn the
particulars of the preparation ; and though it has been ufed,
for fome ages, by feveral tribes of people who belong to that
empire, yet, in the year 1781, when I firft began to think of
employing it in medicine, it was as little known in what may
be called Rujfia proper, as it is now in Great Britain. If the
academicians of St Peterfburgh gave fome accounts of it, thefe
accounts have never excited the attention of the phyficians of
Ruffia.

THIS neglect is moft probably to be afcribed, partly to the
obfcure relations of travellers, and partly to the pride of fyftem,

which

Method of making a WINE, &c. 1 79

which men of learning are too often apt to indulge, in rejecting
as incredible whatever does not coincide with their own pre-
conceived opinions.

ON confulting the authors who have made mention of this
fubject, I find, that they give little fatisfaclory information
concerning it. They all agree, that a vinous liquor, from
mares milk, was ufed by fome of the Tartar nations, under the
name of KOUMISS ; but none of them enter into a detail of
the procefs by which that wine was prepared, much lefs does
any one of them point out the purpofes, either in ceconomy or
medicine, to which it may be applied.

MARCUS PAULUS VENETUS gives fome account of it in his
Hiftory of the Eaftern Nations *, which was publifhed as long
ago as the thirteenth century. He fays, it was ufed by the
Tartars as their common beverage, but makes no mention of
the method of preparing it.

STRAHLENBERG, in his defcription of the Ruffian empire f,
relates fame circumftances of the preparation ; but his method,
if followed, could not be attended with fuccefs ; for he men-
tions, that the Kalmucks take off the thick fubftance, which, in
confequence of fouring, rifes to the top of the milk, and em-
ploy this in their food, while they ufe the remaining li-
quor either for drink or diftillation. Now, this is not only
contrary to the ufage of that people, when they wifh to obtain
a fermented liquor of any ftrength ; but experience proves, that
no perfe:cT: fermentation can be produced, unlefs all the parts of
the milk be left united in their natural proportion.

GMELIN, in his Hiftory of a tour which he made through
Siberia J, pays more attention to the Tartar method of diftilling
a fpirit from the wine of milk, than to the fermenting procefs
by which that wine is procured.

Z. 2. THE

*-De Region. Oriental, lib. I. cap. 57.

•J-. Befchreibung des Ruflichen Reichs, p. 319.

£ GMELIN'S Reifle durch Siberien^ t. I; p. 273.

180 Method of making a WINE,

THE latefl writer that I find mentioning Koumifs, is the cele-
brated profeflbr of natural hiftory in St Peterfburgh, DrPALLAS *.
His account is as circumftantial as could well be expected from
a traveller, whofe object was natural hiftory in general ; yet
the principles on which the fermentation depends, as well as
the mode of conducting the procefs, are not fufficiently ex-
plained in his work.

THESE accounts, however imperfect, might have led philo-
fophers, long before this time, to a difcovery of the true me-
thod of fermenting milk, had not the writings of NEWMAN if,
an eminent German chemift, contributed to deceive them.
He was himfelf impofed upon by one LUCAS, a Dominican
monk, who afcribed its fermentation to the flour of millet and
the grains of barley, which, he faid, the Tartars added to it,
and to the wine-cafk in which the operation was performed.
NEWMAN, it would feem, was unwilling to admit of the fer-
mentability of milk, becaufe it was contrary to the ideas he
had entertained of an animal liquor ; and, therefore, adopting
the oppofite opinion, he feems glad to have an authority, how-
ever weak, to fupport it.

YOLTELEN $, too, a chemift of Holland, affords a ftriking
example, how eafily men are mifled, even in matters of fcience,
by their own prejudices. He had no doubt of the exiftence of
a fermentable principle in milk, inafmuch as it contained a
certain quantity of a faccharine fubftance. He knew alfo,
that the whey contained the fugar in folution ; it was on it,
therefore, that he inftituted his experiments ; he added even
more iugar to the whey than the natural proportion ; but no
vinous fermentation could, by any means, be produced in it.
Nor did even his want of fuccefs undeceive him. He never
once imagined, that the butyraceous and cafeous parts of the
milk were no lefs neceflary to its fermentation than the faccha-
rine and ferous.

Even

* Fhyficalifh. Reife durch einig. provintz. des Ruflifch. Reichs, t. I. p. 316.

f NEWMAN, Chem. experimental, t. I. part 2. p. 18.

J Obfervat. de ladle humane cum afinino et ovillo comparato, p. 54.

Called by the Tartars KOUMISS.

Even MACQUER, in his Chemical Dictionary *, has fallen in-
to an error of the fame kind. Speaking of whey, he fays, " In
" whey is contained diffolved, a confiderable quantity of ex-
" tractive fubftance, of the nature of the faccharine juices, and
" it is accordingly fufceptible of the fpirituous fermentation.
" The Tartars certainly make from it a fpirituous drink, or
" kind of wine." From this it appears he had not made the
experiment.

THE following method of making Koumifs, is that which I
adopted in my own practice with fuccefs. It is common among
the Bafchkir Tartars^ who inhabit that part of the government
of Orenbourg which lies between the rivers Kama and Volga. It
was communicated to me by a Ruffian nobleman, in whofe cafe
I was confulted, and who was the firft who made ufe of it by
my advice. He went into that country on purpofe to drink it;
and, as he refided for fome time there, he could not be mif-
taken with refpecl to the procefs.

TAKE of frefh mares milk, of one day, any quantity ; add to
it a ^fixth part of water, and pour the mixture into a wooden
veffel ; ufe then, as a ferment, an eighth part of the foureft
cows milk that can be got ; but, at any future preparation, a
fmall portion of old Koumifs will better anfwer the purpofe of
fouring j cover the veffel with a thick cloth, and fet it in a
place of moderate warmth ; leave it at reft twenty-four hours,
at the end of which time, the milk will have become four, and
a thick fubftance will be gathered on the top ; then, with a
ftick, made at the lower end in the manner of a churnftaff,
beat it, till the thick fubftance above mentioned be blended in-
timately with the fubjacent fluid : In this fituation, leave it
again at reft for twenty-four hours more ; after which, pour it
into a higher and narrower veffel, refembling a churn, where the
agitation muft be repeated, as before, till the liquor appear to
be perfectly homogeneous; and, in this ftate, it is called Koumifs ;

of

* MACQUER Di&ionary of Chemift. p. 432.

182 Method of making a WINE,

of which the tafte ought to be a pleafant mixture of fweet and
four. Agitation muft be employed every time before it be ufed.

To this detail of the procefs, he fubjoined, that, in order to
obtain milk in fufficient quantity, the Tartars have a cuftom
of feparating the foal from, the mare during the day, and al-
lowing it to fuck during the night. And, when the milk is to
be taken from the mare, which is generally about five times
a-day, they always produce the foal, on the fuppofition, that Ihe
yields her milk more copioufly when it is prefent.

To the above method of making Koumtfs, which I have
tranflated as literally as poflible from the original Ruffian manu-
fcript now in my pofleflion, I will add fome particulars, taken
from other communications with which I was favoured by Tar-
tars themfelves. For though I think no addition necefTary to
render it either more fimple or more intelligible, yet I think it
my duty to with-hold nothing which may, in any wife, throw
light on fo efTential a part of my fubjedl.

ACCORDING to the account of a Tartar who lived to the
fouth-eaft of Orenbourg, the proportion of milk and fouring
ought to be the fame as above ; only, to prevent changing the
veffel, the milk may be put at once into a pretty high and nar-
row veflel ; and, in order to accelerate the fermentation, fomc
warm milk may be added to it, and, if neceflfary, more fouring.

FROM a Tartar whom I met with at the fair of Macarieff 'upon
the Volga, and from whom I purchafed one of the leathern bags *.

which.

/— *»,

* THIS bag was made of a horfe's hide undrefied, and,
by-having been fmoked, had acquired a great degree of
hardnefs. Its fhape was conical, like the figure in the
margin, but was, at the lame time, fbmewhat triangular,
from being compofed of three different pieces, fet in a
circular bafe of the fame hide. The futures, which
were made with tendons, were fecured by a covering on
the outfide, with a doubling of the fame Ikin, very clofe-
ly fecured. It had a dirty appearance, and a very dif-
agreeable fmell. On being afked the reafon of this, he

faid, " The remains of the old Koumifs were left, in order to fupply a ferment
" new milk."

Called by the far tars KOUMISS. 183

which are ufed by the Kalmucks for the preparation and car-
riage of their Koumifs, I learned, that the procefs may be much
fhortened by heating the milk before the fouring be added to
it, and as foon as the parts begin to feparate, and a thick fub-
ftance to rife to the top, by agitating it every hour, or oftener.
In this way, he made fome in my prefence in the fpace of
twelve hours. I learned alfo, that it was common, among
fome Tartars, to prepare it in one day during fummer, and that
with only two or three agitations ; but that in winter, when,
from a deficiency of mares milk, they are obliged to add a
great proportion of that of cows, more agitation and more time
are neceflary. And though it is commonly ufed within a few
days after the preparation, yet, when well fecured in clofe
veflels, and kept in a cold place, that it may be preferved for
three months, or even more, without any injury to its qualities.

HE faid farther, that the acid fermentation might be pro-
duced by four milk, as above, by a four paile of rye-flour, by
the rennet of a lamb's flomach, or, what is more common, by
a portion of old Koumifs ; and that, in fome places, they faved
much time, by adding the new milk to a quantity of that al-
ready fermented, on being mixed with which, it very foon un-
dergoes the vinous change. It was according to the firft pro-
cefs, however, that all the Koumifs which I have employed in
medicine was prepared.

FROM all thefe accounts, it appears, that three things are ef-
fential to the vinous fermentation of milk. Thefe are heat,
fouring, and agitation. Heat is neceflary to every fpecies of fer-
mentation, and fouring is perhaps not lefs fo, though not in fo
fenfible a degree as in the prefent cafe ; but the chief art of fer-
menting milk confifts in agitation. This laft circumftance has
wholly efcaped the attention of chemifts, notwithflanding it
appears to be confonant to the operations of nature in other fpe-
cies of fermentation. In fermenting vegetable juices and in-
fufions, nature has, no need of the afliftance of art ; the in-

teftine

1 84 Method of making a WINE,

teftine motion which accompanies the fermentation is fufficient
to produce the degree of agitation which feems neceflary to
keep the parts of the fluid in mutual contact, or to fit them for
mutual action. Milk, on the contrary, is no fooner foured
than a feparation of its parts takes place ; the cream rifes to
the top, while the cheefe either falls to the bottom, or is fufpend-
ed in the whey. When thefe parts are brought, however, into
clofe contact with one another, by agitation, and this repeated
at proper intervals, a vinous liquor is produced j of the medi-
cal virtues of which I mail now treat.

FROM the time I had heard of Koumtfs, I had conceived an
opinion of its importance in the cure of certain difeafes. I
judged, that a preparation of milk, which could not be curdled
by the juices of the flomach, while, at the fame time, it pof-
fefTed all its mitritive qualities, with the fuperaddition of a fer-
mented fpirit, might be of effential fervice in all thofe diforders
where the body is defective either in nourifhment or flrength.

THE cafe of the above mentioned nobleman, who commu-
nicated to me the firft procefs, gave me an opportunity of
trying, how far my conjectures were well founded. He was in
that ftate which feemed to me ftrongly to indicate the ufe of
fuch a medicine as Koumifs. I accordingly advifed him to it.

AT twenty-fix years of age, he laboured under a complica-
tion of chronic complaints. A confirmed lues venerea, injudi-
cioufly treated, with three fucceflive falivations by mercury,
added to bad management of himfelf under thefe, had given
rife to his difeafe. His body was much emaciated ; his face
was of a livid yellow colour ; his eyes were funk, and round
his eye-lids there was a dark made ; he felt a fevere pain in his
breaft, and that was accompanied with a confiderable cough
and mucous expectoration ; his appetite and digeftion were
greatly impaired ; he had frequent tremblings and faintings \
he began to feel the fymptoms of hectic fever. In a word, his
whole appearance was confumptive, and he was fo weak that

he

Called by the Tartars KOUMISS. 185

he required afliftance to get into the carriage in which he was
to be conveyed into Tartary.

AFTER drinking Koumifsfix weeks only, he returned perfectly
free from all the above fymptoms, and was become fo plump
and frefh-coloured, that, at firft fight, it was with difficulty his
friends could recognife him. As he did not come immediately
to Nifcbne-Novogorod, where I then was, he wrote me a letter,
the fubftance of which, as far as it related to this fubjecl, I
ihall give here.

AFTER telling me the fudden and remarkable change the
Koumifs had produced, during the firft few days ; that he ceafed
to be diflurbed in his fleep ; that his nervous and dyfpeptic
fymptoms left him ; that he felt as if his vefTels had been
diflended with a frefh cooling liquor ; that he became cheerful;
that it ferved him both for food and drink j that though he
ufed it to the quantity of a gallon and a half, and fometimes
even more, in the twenty-four hours, yet he always drank it
with pleafure, and without intoxication ; that his body, during
its ufe, was regularly open ; but that his urine was fo much in-
creafed, that he was ufually excited to make water every hour :
He proceeded to exprefs himfelf in the following ftrong terms,
which ferves to mow how much he had profited by it.

" I AM difpofed to confider Koumifs, (fays he) with all defe-
" rence to you, as an univerfal medicine, which will cure every
" difeafe, if you do not chufe to except fever ; for I am per-
" fuaded, that the moft fkilful phyfician, with all the drugs of
" the fliop, could not have reflored me to the health I now en--

THE next cafe in which it was employed, though not fo def-
perate as the former, gave fufHcient proofs of its nutritive and
ftrengthening qualities. A lady, who had been witnefs to its
•uncommon efficacy in the nobleman's cafe above mentioned,
was encouraged to try it in her own. It was not convenient for

A a her

1 86 Method of making a PFINE,

her to go herfelf to Tartary, and therefore fhe had it fent to her,
well fecured in cafks, during the autumn.

SHE had been long fubjec"l to a train of nervous diforders.
By thefe, fhe was much extenuated, and reduced to a ftate of
extreme weaknefs and irritability. She ufed it for about a
month, at the end of which time, the functions of her nervous
fyitem were reftored, and, with health and vigour, fhe acquired
a plumpnefs and frefh complexion.

THE following year, I refolved to try it at Nifchtte-Novogorod
under my own eye. As mares milk could not be obtained in
fufficient quantity in town, it was made at the feat of a noble-
man, not far diftant, from which it was occafionally tranfport-
ed. The feafon was far advanced, however, before a cafe was
prefented, in which its efficacy might be tried. At laft, about
the middle of AuguftjiySz, I was confulted by the General Go-
vernor's nephew. He had all the fymptoms of incipient
phthifis ', pain of breaft, dry cough, occafional haemoptyfis, and
great emaciation ; he was not, however, become hectic. His
two elder brothers had died of true pulmonary confumptions.
He had taken much medicine, in a different part of the coun-
try, and had obferved a very flricl antiphlogiflic regimen ; but
though milk had conftituted the greateft part of his diet, yet
there were no figns of recovery. He drank Koumifs for about
two months only, and that in rather an unfavourable feafon j
but the confequence was, that all the above fymptoms difap-
peared, and his flefh and ftrength returned ; nor was there any
reafon to apprehend a relapfe, at the time I left that country.

ABOUT the fame time, I advifed its ufe to another young
nobleman, who had laboured under an abfcefs in the left fide,
about the region of the twelfth rib. As he had then refided in
a remote part of the country, no attention had been paid to it ;
on the contrary, by improper applications, the fides of the ul-
cer were become hard. He had loft his flefh and ftrength j he
had occafional faintings j and there were all the appearances of

incipient

Called by the Tartars KOUMtSS. 187

incipient hedlic. By the ufe of Koumifs for about fix weeks, pro-
per chirurgical dreflings being at the fame time applied, his
health was perfectly re-eflablifhed.

THERE were fome other cafes in which I employed it with
equal fuccefs ; but of which, as being lefs important, I omit
the detail.

ALL thofe who drank it agreed in faying, that, during its ufe,
they had little appetite for food j that they drank it in very
large quantities, not only without difguft, but with pleafure j
that it rendered their veins turgid, without producing languor ;
that, on the contrary, they foon acquired from it an uncommon
degree of fprightlinefs and vivacity ; that even in cafes of fome
excefs, it was not followed by indigeftion, headach, or any of
the fymptoms which ufually attend the abufe of other fer-
mented liquors. To this may be added, that the Bafchkir Tar-
tars, who, towards the end of winter, are much emaciated, no
fooner return in fummer to the ufe of Koumifs, than they become
ftrong and fat *.

FROM all thefe circumftances, I think myfelf entitled to in-
fer, that this wine of mares milk may be applied to many of
the purpofes of medicine. From the mild acid which it con-
tains, may it not be confidered as a cooling antifeptic ? From
its vinous fpirit, may it not become an ufeful ftimulant, cor-
dial, and tonic ? And, from its oily and mucilaginous parts,
may it not prove a valuable article of nourimment ? If chronic
difeafes, as is generally allowed, depend on a debility of the fo-
lids j and if they are difficult of cure, becaufe the organs,
which ought to fupply the body with nourimment and ftrength,
do not only themfelves partake of the general weaknefs, but
are too often, by the indigeftible nature of the food with which

A a 2 they

* THE author of a hiftorical defcription of all the nations which compofe the Ruffian
empire, fays, fpeaking of Koumifs, " Elle eft fort nouriflaute, et peut tenir lieu de tout
" autre aliment. Les Bafchkirs s'en trouvent tres bien, elle les rend bienportans et
" gais j elle leur donne de 1'embonpoint, et de bonnes couleurs," Defcrip, de tout, les
Nat. de fEmf. Ruf. t. 2. />. 118.

1 88 Method of making a

they are overcharged, ftill more debilitated j may not a fub-
ftance of eafy digeftion, which at once flrengthens the ftomach
and nouriflies the body, become a powerful remedy in all fuch
cafes ?

AND if acute difeafes, efpecially of the febrile kind, are fre-
quently attended with fymptoms of weaknefs and putridity,
may it not be found, from its antifeptic and tonic powers, to
be an ufeful corrector of the one, and reftorative from the
other ?

MAY not the fudden change it produced, in the firjl cafe, in
the ftate of the patient's feelings, and efpecially of his deep,
point it out as of ufe in all cafes of exceflive irritability ?

MAY not the effect it had in reftoring his ftomach to its
functions, recommend it in dyfpepfia ? And may not the vi-
gour and plumpnefs which enfued from its ufe, indicate it in
cafes even of confirmed atrophy ?

HAVE we not reafon to believe, that it may be ufed to ad-
vantage in the cure of nervous diforders in general, from the
manner in which it operated in the fecond cafe? And in the in-
cipient, perhaps even in the advanced ftages of phthifis, from
the rapid and effectual change it occafioned in the pulmonary
fymptoms of the third?

AND may not its efficacy in the fourth cafe, encourage us to
employ it in all cafes of fuppuration or ulcer, in which the bo-
dy is threatened with hectic fever ?

WHETHER all thefe queftions can be anfwered in the af-
firmative, mufl be determined by future experience ; and, if
they fhould, perhaps the fcarcity of mares milk in this coun-
try would greatly circumfcribe its utility.

HENCE enquiries will naturally be made, whether other fpe-
cies of milk admit of a fimilar vinous fermentation, and what
proportion of fpirit they contain. As thefe have never been the
objeft, however, of my attention, I will here give the fubftance

of

Called by the Tartars KOUMISS. 189

what I have been able to learn from others refpedling that which
is the inoft common, the milk of cows.

Dr PALLAS*, in the work above quoted, fays, that cows
milk is alfo fufceptible of the vinous fermentation, and that
the Tartars prepare a wine from it in winter, when mares milk
fails them ; that the wine prepared from cows milk, they call
Airen ', but that they always prefer Koumifs when it can be got,
as it is more agreeable, and contains a greater quantity of fpi-
rit ; that Koumifs on diftillation yields of a weak fpirit one third,
but that Airen yields only two ninth parts of its whole quan-
tity y which fpirit they call Arlka.

THIS account is confirmed by OSERETSKOWSKY, a Ruffian f,
who accompanied LEPECHIN, and other academicians, in their
travels through Siberia and Tartary. He publifhed lately a
DifTertation on the ardent fpirit to be obtained from cows milk.

FROM his experiments, it appears, that cows milk may be fer-
mented with, or even without, fouring, provided fufficient time
and agitation be employed ; that no fpirit could be produced
from any one of its conflituent parts taken feparately, nor from
any two of them, unlefs inafmuch as they were mixed with
fome part of the third j that the milk, with all its parts in their
natural proportion, was the moft productive of it j that the
clofer it was kept, or, which is the fame thing, the more diffi-
cultly the fixed air is allowed to efcape during the fermentation,
(care being taken, however, that we do not endanger the burft-
ing of the veflel), the more fpirit is obtained. He alfo informs
us, that it had a fourer fmell before than after agitation ; that
the quantity of fpirit was increafed, by allowing the fermented
liquor to repofe for fome time before diftillation ; that from fix
pints of milk, fermented in a clofe veffel, and thus fet to repofe,
he obtained three ounces of ardent fpirit, of which one was

confumed

* Phyficalifch. Reife durch verfchied. provintz. des Ruflifch. Reichs, t. I. p. 316.
£t 317.

\ Specim. inaug. de Spir. Ardent, ex laft. Bub. Argentorat. 1778.

190 Method of making a WINE, &c.

confumed in burning ; but that from the fame quantity of the
fame milk, fermented in an open veflel, he could fcarcely obtain
one ounce.

THESE particulars of the fermentation of mares and cows milk
are an interefting addition to the fa&s concerning fermentation
in general ; a fubject fo very obfcure and imperfectly under-
ftood, that I mall not hazard any remarks on it. My princi-
pal intention was, to point out to phyficians what appears to
me a powerful means which may be employed by them on ma-
ny occaiions in the cure of difeafes.

VII.

VII. An IMPROVEMENT of the Method of correcting the O B-
SERVED DISTANCE of the MOON from the S u N or a
FIXED STAR. By the Rev. Mr THOMAS ELLIOT^ Mini-
Jier of the Gofpel at Cavers.

[Communicated by Mr RoBISON, General Secretary > Aug. 2. 1784.]

PROBLEM.

HAVING the apparent diftance of the Moon's centre from
a fixed Star, or from the centre of the Sun, together with
the apparent altitudes of their centres, to find the true diftance.

SOLUTION.

THE difference between the apparent and true altitudes, and
the angles which the Moon and Star make with the zenith and
each other, muft be known before the feveral corrections of di-
ftance are computed.

THE difference between the apparent and true altitude of a
Star is the refraction in altitude, given p. 2. of Tables requi-
Jite to be ufed 'with the nautical ephemer is. If the diftance was taken
from the Sun in place of a Star, his refraction may be corrected
by fubtracting from it his parallax in altitude, given at the end
of the requifite tables, and the difference ufed inftead of the re-
fraction of a Star ', and, if great accuracy is required, the mean
refractions may be corrected by the barometer and thermome-
ter, according to Dr BRADLEY'S rule, p. 130. requifite tables.

To find the difference between the apparent and true altitude
of the Moon, the horizontal parallax, given in the ephemeris
for the preceding noon or midnight, muft be reduced to the
time of obfervation, according to the inftructions in the requi-

1 92 Method of correcting the DISTANCE

file tables. Then to the arithmetical complement of the loga-
rithmic cofine of the moon's altitude, add the proportional lo-
garithm of the reduced horizontal parallax, the fum will be the
proportional logarithm of the parallax in altitude j from the
parallax in altitude fubtract the refraction in altitude, and the
remainder will be the difference between the apparent and true
altitude of the moon ; which call the corrected parallax.

IF, at the time of obfervation, the moon and ftar are in the
fame vertical, which may fometimes happen in low latitudes,
no angles are to be found. They will be in the fame vertical,
and on the fame fide of the zenith, if the apparent diftance and
lefler altitude together are equal to the greater altitude. In
which cafe, the fum of the corrected parallax and ftar's refrac-
tion, added to the apparent diftance when the moon's altitude
is greateft, or fubtracted from it when the moon's altitude is
leaft, will give the true diftance. They will alfo be on the fame
vertical, but on oppofite fides of the zenith, if the apparent di-
ftance, added to the fum of the altitudes, is equal to 180°. In
this cafe, the difference of the corrected parallax and ftar's re-
fraclion, fubtrafled from the apparent, will give the true di-
ftance ; except when the moon is fo near the zenith, that the
corrected parallax becomes lefs than the ftar's refraction, in
which cafe the difference muft be added to the apparent di-
ftance.

IF the apparent altitudes are equal, the angles at the moon
and ftar will alfo be equal, and may both be found at once, by
adding the logarithmic tangent of the common altitude to the
logarithmic tangent of half the apparent diftance, the fum,
rejecting radius, will be the logarithmic cofine of each of the
angles at the moon and ftar, and each of them will be acute,
or lefs than 90°.

WHEN the altitudes are unequal, the angles may be found
by the following method ;

To

Of tie MOON from the SUN. 193

To the logarithmic cotangent of half the fum of the appa-
rent altitudes add the logarithmic tangent of half their dif-
ference, and from the fum fubtract the logarithmic tangent of
half the apparent diftance, the remainder will be the logarithmic
tangent of a i ft arc.

THE fum of arc ift and half the apparent diftance, will be a
2cl arc.

THE difference of arc ift and half the apparent diftance, will
be a jd arc.

To the log. tangent of arc 3d add the log. tangent of the
greater altitude, the fum, rejecting radius, will be the log. co-
fine, either of the angle itfelf at the higher object, between the
other object and the zenith, or of its fupplement to 180°, as
arc i ft is lefs or greater than the half diftance. As the applica-
tion of the Jirji and third corrections depends on the quality of
the angles, it muft be obferved, that, if arc ift is lefs than the
half diftance, the angle itfelf will be found, and will be acute ;
but if arc ift is greater than the half diftance, the angle found
will be the fupplement of the angle at the higher object to 180%
and the angle itfelf will be obtufe, or greater than 90°. Ne-
verthelefs, if the greater altitude is that of the Moon, the co-
fine thus found is to be ufed in computing thejirjl correction of
diftance.

To the log. tangent of arc ad add the log. tangent of the
lefler altitude, the fum, rejecting radius, will be the log. cofine
of the angle at the lower object, between the other object and
the zenith, and will always be acute.

THESE two angles being known, the feveral corrections of
diftance will be found as follows :

i. To the arithmetical complement of the log. cofine of the
angle at the Moon, add the proportional logarithm of the cor-
rected parallax, the fum will be the proportional logarithm of
the firfl correction, which is to be added to the apparent di-

B b ftance

194 Method of correcting the DISTANCE

ftance if the angle at the Moon is obtufe, and fubtracted if
acute.

2. ADD together the proportional logarithms of the fum and
difference of the corrected parallax and firfl correction of di-
ftance, and take their fum, which, for, diftinction, call the
rectangle logarithm. To the rectangle logarithm, add the con-
ftant logarithm 1.5819, and the log. tangent of the diftance
once corrected, the fum of thefe three logarithms, rejecting ten
from the index, will be the proportional logarithm of the fecond
correction of diftance, which is always to be added, except the
diftance is more than 90°, in which cafe it is to be fubtracted.

To half the rectangle logarithm add the log. fine of the di-
ftance twice corrected, the fum, rejecting ten from the index,
will be the proportional logarithm of a correction, to be fub-
tracted from the angle at the Star, or to be added to its fupple-
ment.

3. To the arithmetical complement of the log. cofine of the
corrected angle at the Star, add the proportional logarithm of
the Star's refraction, the fum will be the proportional logarithm
of the third correction, which (contrary to the firjt] is to be
fubtracted from the diftance, if the angle at the Star is obtufe,
and added if acute.

THESE three corrections, applied as above directed, will give
the true diftance of the Moon from the Sun or a fixed Star.

THERE is, indeed, a. fecond correction for the Star's refraction,
fimilar to the fecond correction for parallax j but in moft cafes
it will not amount to i" ; and even when the Star's altitude is
only 5°, and the diftance only 20°, it will not exceed 2"\ : It
may, therefore, generally be omitted. But, if it is defired,
this correction may be found in the fame manner as the fecond.

4. ADD together the proportional logarithms of the fum and
difference of the Star's refraction and third correction of di-
ftance, the conftant logarithm 1.5819, and the log. tangent of
the diftance thrice corrected, the fum of thefe four logarithms,

rejecting

Of the MOON from the SUN. 195

rejecting ten from the index, will be the proportional logarithm
of a fourth correction, which, added to the diftance, thrice cor-
rected, will give the true diftance.

THE following method of finding the angles at the Moon
and Star will perhaps be more familiar to fome ; as it is the
fame with the method commonly ufed to find the apparent
time from the angle at the pole between the meridian and the
Sun or a fixed Star j and though it is not quite fo concife as
the former, it has this advantage, that it gives both the angles
without any ambiguity. When- this fecond method is ufed, the
logarithms mould be taken to at leaft five places of figures, be-
fides the index.

1. 1*0 find the Angle at the Moon.

ADD together the apparent zenith diftance of the Star, the
apparent zenith diftance of the Moon, and the apparent di-
ftance of the Star from the Moon's centre ; take their fum, half
their fum, and the difference between the half fum and the ze-
nith diftance of the Star ; then add together the arithmetical
complements of the log. fines of the Moon's zenith diftance and
the apparent diftance of the objects, and the log. fines of the
half fum, and the difference between the half fum and the ze-
nith diftance of the Star. Half the fum of thefe four loga-
rithms will be the log. cofine of half the angle required, which
being doubled, .will give the angle at the Moon between the ze-
nith and the Star.

2. To jind the Angle at the Star.

A-DD together the zenith diftances of the Moon and Star, and
the apparent diftance, and take their fum and half fum as be-
fore ; but now take the difference between the half fum and
the zenith diftance of the Moon ; then add together the arith-
metical complements of the log. fines of the Star's zenith di-
ftance and the diftance of the objects, and the log. fines of the

B b a half

196 Method of corretting the DISTANCE

half fum and the difference between the half fum and the ze-
nith diftance of the Moon. Half the fum of thefe four loga-
rithms will be the log. cofine of half the angle, which, being
doubled, will give the angle at the Star between the zenith and
the Moon.

THE angles being found, the feveral corrections of diftance
are to be computed and applied according to the rules already
given.

INVESTIGATION.

IN the fpherical triangle MZS, let Z reprefent the zenith,
M the apparent place of the Moon, S the apparent place of the
Star, and MS the apparent diftance of the Star from the Moon's
centre. Let Zp be a perpendicular arc let fall from Z upon-
MS, produced if necefiary, and let m be the middle of the bafe,
fo that Mm or Sm be equal to half the diftance of the objects.
If the zenith diftances MZ and SZ are equal, the triangle will
be ifofceles, and the angles ZMS and ZSM will alfo be equal,
and Zp will fall upon MS in m ; but if MZ and SZ are un-
equal, Zp will fall upon MS at fome diftance from tn, either
within or without the triangle, and the angles ZMS and ZSM
will alfo be unequal. Then (by cafe 1 1. obliq.fpber. triang.) pm
will be the Jirjl arc, equal to the diftance between the perpen-
dicular and die middle of the bafe ; half the bafe added to pm
will be the fecond arc, equal to the diftance of the perpendicu-
lar from the lower object ; and the difference between half the
bafe and pm will be arc third,, equal to the diftance of the per-
pendicular from the higher object. It is evident that, when
pm is lefs than half the bafe, the perpendicular muft fall within
the triangle, and the angles, both at M and S muft be acute ;
on the contrary, when pm is greater than half the bafe, the per-
pendicular muft fall without the triangle, and the angle at that
object which is next the perpendicular will be obtufe ; and

ZSp

Of the MOON from the SUN. 197

ZSp (fig. i.) will be the fupplement otZSM, and ZMP (fig. 2.)
will be the fupplement of Z MS to 180°.

Zp being perpendicular to MSt the two triangles ZpM and
ZpS will both be right-angled at p. The hypothenufes MZ
and SZ are the zenith diftances of the objects, or the comple-
ments of their apparent altitudes, and the legs MP or SP are
the fecond or third arches. Then (by cafe 6. right ang. fpher.
triang.} the cotangent of the hypothenufe, or, which is the
fame, the tangent of the altitude, multiplied by the tangent of
the leg, and divided by radius, gives the cofine of the angle
between the hypothenufe and that leg j by which the angles
ZMS and ZSM will be found.

THE other method of finding the angles is prop. 17. fpher.
triangles^ prefixed to SHERWIN'S Tables, revifed by CLARK ; and
is the fame with that given in the reqttifite tables for finding the
horary angle.

THE fine of the horizontal parallax being to the fine of the
parallax in altitude, as radius to the fine of the zenith diftance,
(KEIL'S AJlron. left. 21.) the fine of the horizontal parallax,
multiplied by the fine of the zenith diftance, or, which is equal
to it, by the cofine of the altitude, and divided by radius, will
give the fine of the parallax in altitude.

LET Lq reprefent the parallax in altitude, and Mq the re-
fraction in altitude, then Mq fubtracted from Lq will leave LM
the corrected parallax, equal to the difference between the ap-
parent and true altitude of the Moon. Let SR be equal to the
Star's refraction ; then L will be the true place of the Moon,
and R the true place of the Star, and LR the true diftance.
Let La be a perpendicular arc from L, falling upon MS, pro-
duced if neceflary, and let Re be a perpendicular arc from R,
falling upon LS, produced if neceflary with the diftance LS
draw Lb, and with the diftance LR draw Rd ; then LR and Ld
being radii from the fame centre, or rather arches from Z,, as a
pole, to the fame parallel, will be equal to one another 5 and,

for

198 Method of correcting the DISTANCE

for the fame reafon, SL and Sb will be equal to one another :
Then the feveral corrections and corrected diftances will be as
follows :

ifl correction Ma, diftance once corrected Sa.

zd correction ab, diftance twice corrected Sb, equal to SL.

2>d correction Sc, diftance thrice corrected Lc.

4tb correction cd, diftance four times corrected Ld, equal to
LR the true diftance. Radius i.

THE firjl correction Ma is equal ML multiplied by the co-
fme of LMS.

THE arc La being perpendicular to MS, the two triangles
MaL and SaL will both be right-angled at a. It has been
proved, that SL and Sb are equal ; therefore ab, which is the
fecond correction, will be the difference between SL and Sa ; and
is found by the following proportion : The rectangle under the
^tangents of half the fum, and half the difference of LM, the
hypothenufe, and aM, one of the legs, is equal to the fquare
tangent of half La, the other leg ; and the rectangle, under the
tangents of half the fum and half the difference of SL and Sa,
is alfo equal to the fquare tangent of half La, (HEATH'S Aftron.
p. 330.) Hence the fquare tangent of half La, divided by the tan-
gent of half the fum of SL and Sa, will be equal to the tangent
of half the difference of SL and Sa, that is, to the tangent of
half ab ; and twice the fquare tangent of half La, divided by the
tangent of half the fum of SL and Sa, will be equal to the tan-
gent of ab. The proper divifor, therefore, for finding this fe-
cond correction juftly, is the tangent of Sa increafed by half ab.
But, as this will not make the correction |" lefs than when Sa
is made the divifor, fuppofing the diftance not under 20°, it
was thought needlefs to mention it in the precepts.

IN fuch a fmall triangle, where the corrected parallax is the
hypothenufe, which can never exceed 56'^, the difference be-
tween the arcs themfelves and their fines or tangents is fo very
inconfiderable, that they may be taken indifferently for one ano-
ther

Of the MOON from the SUN. 199

ther, without any fenfible error j and, by this means,rthe calcu-
lator may avail himfelf of that convenient and ufeful table of
the proportional logarithms, and fave a great deal of trouble in
making proportions for feconds. When the arcs themfelves
are taken inftead of the tangents of the arcs, it will fhorten
the operation, and the refult will be the fame, if half the rec-
tangle under the fum and difference of LM and aM is fubfti-
tuted for twice the rectangle under half the fum and half the
difference of LM and aM ; each of them is equal to half the
fquare of La, or twice the fquare of half La, and half the fquare
of La, divided by the tangent of half the fum of SL, and Sa is
equal to ab.

WHAT is called the rectangle logarithm is the proportional
logarithm of the fquare of La ; its half is the proportional lo-
garithm of La, and La, divided by the fine of LS, is equal to
the angle LSa, which being fubtracted from ZSM, leaves
ZSL, equal to the oppofite angle dSR, fig. 2. ; or, when the an-
gle at the Star is obtufe, as in fig. i . the angle pSi, equal to the
oppofite angle LSa, being added to the fupplement of the angle
at the Star, makes the angle ZSi equal to the oppofite angle
LSR or dSR, whence the remaining corrections are found in
parts of the arc Ld.

THE third correction Sc is equal to SR, multiplied by the co-
fine of cSR.

THE fourth correction cd is the difference between Lc and LR,
and Re being perpendicular to Ld, makes the triangles ScR and
Lc R right-angled at c, fo that cd is found by the fame propor-
tion as ab.

VIII.

VIII. ACCOUNT of a REMARKABLE AGITATIONC/"/^
Waters o/'Locn TAY: In a Letter from the Reverend
Mr THOMAS FLEMING, Minifler of Kenmore, to the Reve-
rend JOHN PLAYFAIR, M. A. F. R. S. EDIN. and now
ProfeJJbr of Mathematics in the Univerjity of EDINBURGH.

[Read by Mr PLATFAIR, Dec. 6. 1784.]

DEAR SIR, Kenmore Manfey Nov. 4. 1784.

I DID not return from the excurfion on which I was when I
had the pleafure to fee you at Dundee till laft Tuefday night.
On my arrival, I found your letter refpeding the phenomenon
that lately happened in this neighbourhood. Although ill
qualified to give you fatisfadtion upon this fubjedl, I {hall,
however, comply with your defire, and give you the moft accu-
rate account of that phenomenon which I have been able to
obtain.

ON Sunday the iath of September, about nine o'clock in the
morning, an unufual agitation was obferved in LOCH TAY, near
the village of Kenmore. That village ftands at the eaft end of
the lake, having the river, which there iflues from the lake, on
the north fide, and a bay, about i 60 yards in length and 200 yards
in breadth, on the fouth. The greater part of this bay is very
lhallow, being generally no more than two or three feet deep j
but before it joins the body of the lake, it becomes fuddenly
very deep. At the extremity of this bay, the water was ob-
ferved to retire about five yards within its ordinary boundary,
and in four or five minutes to flow out again. In this manner,
it ebbed and flowed fucceflively three or four times during the
fpace of a quarter of an hour, when, all at once, the water

rufhed

Agitation of LOCH 7 'AT. 201

rufhed from the eaft and weft, in oppofite currents, towards a
line acrofs the bay, and about the edge of the deep, rofe in
the form of a great wave, to the height of five feet above the
ordinary level, leaving the bottom of the bay dry, to the diftance
of between 90 and i oo yards from its natural boundary. When
the oppofite currents met, they made a clafhing noife, and foam-
ed ; and the ftronger impulfe being from the eaft, the wave,
after rifing to its greateft height, rolled weftward, but {lowly,
diminilhing as it went, for the fpace of five minutes, when it
wholly difappeared. As the wave fubfided, the water flowed
back with fome force, and exceeded its original boundary four or
five yards ; then it ebbed again about ten yards, and again return-
ed, and continued to ebb and flow in this manner for the fpace
of two hours, the ebbings fucceeding each other at the diftance
of about feven minutes, and gradually lefTening till the water
fettled into its ordinary level.

AT the fame, time that the undulation was obferved in the
bay on the fouth fide of the village, the river on the north was
feen to run back ; the weeds at its bottom, which before
pointed with the ftream, received a contrary direction ; and its
channel was left dry above twelve feet from either edge. Un-
der the bridge, (which is fixty or feverity yards from the lake),
the current failed, and the bed of the river appeared where
there had been eighteen inches of water.

DURING the whole time that this phenomenon was obferved,
the weather was calm. It could barely be perceived, that the
direction of the clouds was from N. E. The barometer (as far
as I can recollect) flood the whole of that and the preceding
day about 29-3- inches.

ON the next, and the four fucceeding days, an ebbing and
flowing was obferved nearly about the fame time, and for the
fame length of time, but not at all in the fame degree as on the
firft day. A fimilar agitation was remarked at intervals, fome

C c days

202 Agitation of LOCH

days in the morning, other days in the afternoon, till the

of October, fince which time no fuch thing has been obferved.

I HAVE not heard (although I have made particular enquiry)
that any motion of the earth was felt in this neighbourhood,
or that the agitation of the water was obferved any where but
about the village of Kenmore.

I HOPE the above account will furnifh an anfwer to moft of
the queftions contained in your letter. If there be any other
circumftance about which you wilh to have farther information,
it will give me pleafure to be able to communicate it. I am,

Dear Sir,

Your moft obedient humble fervant,

THOMAS FLEMING.

•K B. THE village of Kenmore is fituated nearly in the parallel of 56*, 35', and about
I ° •weft of the meridian of Edinburgh. Loch Tay extends from thence fomewhat more
than 15 miles W. S. W. Its medium breadth is not much lefs than a mile, and its
depth muft be very confiderable, if one may judge from the 'height of the adjacent
tpountains.

IX.

V

IX. ABSTRACT of a REGISTER^* /£<? WEATHER, kept at
Branxbolmfor Ten Tears, ending December 31. 1783.

[Communicated by the Duke ofBuccLEUGHtPre/ident,.jFan. 3. 1785.]

IN the regifter from which this abftracT: is taken, the num-
bers were marked every day at nine o'clock A. M. The
quantity of rain was meafured by means of a tin-cylinder,
guarded by a wooden box, and funk in the earth, into which
the rain was received through a funnel, whereof the area was
quadruple that of the cylinder. A gage, which floated on the
furface of the water in the cylinder, had a rod fixed to it, divided
into inches and tenths, which patted through the pipe of the
funnel. The fourth part of the rife of this index marked the
depth of rain which had fallen fince the laft obfervation, and
thefe obfervations wexe generally made once in twenty-four
hours.

BRANXHOLM is fituated on the Tiviot, about'ten miles from its
fource, and near the ridge from which the country declines to-
ward the eail and weft feas. It is about forty-four miles S. W.
by W. of Berwick, and thirty-five N. £. of the head of the
Solway frith.

C c 2 ABSTRACT

REGISTER of the WE4THER.

ABSTRACT for 1774.

ABSTRACT for 1775.

Wind,

Month.

Rain.

Barom.

Therm.

Elx w')1

Days.

Jan.

.300

29.284

23

8

Feb.

3-425

28.900

J

23

March,

•75°

29.380

23

8

April,

1.900

29.080

12

18

May,

3-45°

29.220

28

i

3

June,

3.600

29.100

6

24

July,

2.450

29.213

3i

" O

Aug.

4.500

29.184

7

24

Sept.

3-35°

29.083

20

10

Oft.

•95°

29.700

7

24

Nov.

2.250

29.200

14

16

Dec.

2-325

29.361

9

22

Rain,

29.250

i85

1 80

Mean,

29.225

Wind,

Month.

Rain.

Barom.

Therm.

E'X Wlf

Days.

{an.
eb.

5-35°
4.600

29.040

28.800

36.00

38.00

rr> ro

M

18

25

March,

2.450

28.150

40.30

5

26

April,

.700

28.563

46.30

4

26

May,

i-475

29-353

5'-36

5

26

June,

1.500

29-233

57-°5

T9

ii

July,

3-573

29.074

58-5°

9

22

Aug.

4-425

29.000

56-5J

4

27

Sept.

4.300

29.040

53-5°

ii

19

Oct.

4-55°

29.000

44.16

2

28

Nov.

4.000

29.100

33-9°

16

M

Dec.

1.650

29.122

34-65

7

24

Rain,

38-573

99

266

Mean,

28.956

45-85

ABSTRACT for 1776.

ABSTRACT for 1777.

Month.

Rain.

Barom

Therm

Wind,
EIy w'r

Days,

Jan.*
Feb.

Snowlies
6.070

29.070

28.500

26.OO
34-72

21
8

10
21

March,

'•375

29.140

39.00

II

20

April,

1-55°

29.300

45.40

J

2<;

May,

•725

29-333

48.00

12

19

June,

1-375

29-445

54-7°'

6

24

July.

3-425

29.303

?8-^

4

27

Aug.

2.900

29.120

56.00

J

26

Sept.

2.750

29.150

5°-3°

9

21

oa.

1.800

29.230

45.00

9

22

Nov.

2.450

29.050

38.00

ii

19

Dec.

1-875

29-130

36.06

10

21

Rain,

26.295

in

2??

Mean,

29.147

44.31

, ,

Month.

Rain.

Barom.

Therm.

Wind,
Eiy wly

Days.

Jan.

1-875

29.084

30.90

2O

ii

Feb.

3-383

29.171

3M3

17

ii

March,

'•55°

29.032

38.00

9

22

April,

2.825

29.263

40.00

J7

13

May,

1.800

29.032

49.40

ii

2O

June,

2.450

29.180

51.90

10

20

July,

2.050

29.161

54-45

15

16

Aug.

2.450

29.180

57.00

4

27

Sept.

•75°

29.283

53-9°

2

28

Ocl .

7.400

29.000

45-9°

14

i7

Nov.

2.750

29.100

39.00

4

26

Dec.

.250

29.110

34-23

17

14

Rain,

26.533

140

225

Mean,

29-!33

43-84

ABSTRACT

* The height of the rain-gage, when the fnow melted on the 1 7th of February, is io-
cluded in the fum of that month.

REGISTER of the WEATHER.

205

ABSTRACT for 1778.

ABSTRACT for 1779.

Month.

Rain.

Barom.

Therm.

Ely w'y

Days.

Jan.

2.200

29.200

32-550

8

23

Feb.

.600

29.000

34.650

8

20

March,

6.2OO

29.371

35.800

20

II

April,

1.925

28.323

42.500

15

15

May,

2.200

29.300

52.160

6

2I

June,

2.400

29.230

57-270

4

26

J^y»

5.500

29.130

59.000

8

23

Aug.

i-775

29.320

56.320

8

23

Sept.

2.200

29.300

50.066

10

20

oa.

6.250

28.950

40.700

21

IO

Nov.

4.400

28.890

38.500

16

14

Dec.

4-35°

29.000

39- * 3°

8

23

Rain,

36.400

132

233

Mean,

29.084

44.888

Wind,

Month.

Rain.

Barom.

Therm.

£,!/ wlr

Days

Jan.

1-397

29.500

33-770

11

20

Feb.

1.700

29.700

43.700

oo

28

March,

.250

29-35°

41.900

12

19

April,

2.650

28.160

42.600

1

29

May,

3-°25

29.100

49.000

12

19

June,

2.075

29.280

55-2oo

22

8

J«iy,

4-975

29.150

61.400

10

21

Aug.

1.050

29.300

59\8oo

14

17

Sept.

4-975

29.045

52.77'=

*>

28

Oft.

4-45°

29.126

46.100

6

25

Nov.

i-i75

28.900

38.000

8

22

Dec.

3-97°

28.887

30.030

"4

17

Rain,

31.692

112

253

Mean,

29.125

46. 190

ABSTRACT for 1780.

ABSTRACT for 1781.

Month.

Rain.

Barom

Therm.

\Vind|

f,- 1 y vy 1 y

Days.

[an.

Froft.

29.160

25.605

2O

11

Feb.

1.250

29.000

32.290

IO

J9

VI arch,

2-95°

29.000

42-613

I

3°

April,

2.500

28.900

40.700

20

10

May,

4.025

29.090

50.226

4

27

fune,

2.1OO

29-213

55.000

8

22

fuly,

2.050

29.280

5»-355

9

22

Aug.

.250

29.430

59.000

21

IO

Sept.

3-35°

29.000

54.900

1S

*5

oa.

4.700

29.230

44.260

II

20

Nov.

J-975

28.180

34.600

IO

20

Dec.

•35°

29-530

35-700

10

21

Rain,

25.500

139

227

Mean,

29.085

44-445

Month.

Rain,

Barom.

Therm.

WiM,
EIT Wly

Days.

Jan.

1.300

29.142

32-300

I?

16

Feb.

3.600

28.920

38.000

4

24

March,

.200

29-445

41.580

7

24

April,

1.850

29.100

44.500

9

21

May,

M7J

29-355

49.540

2 0

II

June,

2.000

29.200

55-I30

21

9

July,

1.700

29.440

60.640

14

17

Aug.

6.250

29.100

58.000

*5

16

Sept.

1.125

29.160

52-5fo

IO

20

oa.

•95°

29.360

46.200

I

3°

Nov.

4-250

29.000

38.000

7| 23

Dec.

4.600

29.000

35-45°

13

18

Rain,

29.300

136229

Mean,

29.185

46.000

ABSTRACT

206 REGISTER of the WEAT HER.

ABSTRACT for 1782.

ABSTRACT for 1783.

Wind.

Month.

Rain.

Birom.

Therm.

Eir w1'

Days

Jan.

7-45°

29.900

36.000

5

26

Feb.

2.400

29.214

3I-643

18

10

March,

3-850

28.900

35.260

»3

18

April,

1.900

29.100

38.600

27

3

May,

5-5°°

28-960

45-562

'5

16

June,

1.650

29.250

55-50°

5

2i

J«iy,

i-75°

29.194

58.226

8

23

Aug.

3.700

28.300

54.000

5

26

Sept.

4.700

29.16^

49-333

12

28

Ocl.

3-15°

29.300

41.500

J4

17

Nov.

.800

28.220

32.466

'9

ii

Dec.

i-35°

29.226

33.260

«3

18

Rain.

38.200

Mean.

29.061

42.612

».54

211

Month.

Rain.

Barom.

Therm.

Wind,

E'J w'y

Days.

Jan.

3.025

28.700

34.000

5

26

Feb.

3.650

28.920

35.800

12

16

March,

1.700

29.026

35.000

*7

14

April,

.IOO

29.447

4^433

12

18

May,

l-525

29.210

47.322

12

19

June,

2.300

29-*37

54.100

12

18

July,

3-75°

29.245

62.450

8

23

Aug.

2.700

29.200

56.600

J3

18

Sept.

3-775

28.987

52.800

7

23

oa.

4.450

29.074

45.000

o

31

Nov.

3.700

29-J54

37-33°

10

20

Dec.

1.050

29.184

33-7oo

17

M

Rain.

3I-725

I25

240

Mean.

29.107

45-°45

ABSTRACT for all the preceding Years.

Wind,

Year.

Rain,

Barom.

Therm.

E'y W'y

Days.

1774,

29.250

29.225

185

180

1775,

38.573

28.956

45.8500

99

266

1776,

26.295

29.147

44.3100

in

225

1777.

29-533

29.133

43.8400

140

225

'778>

36.400

29-035

44.8880

132

233

*779»

31.692

29.125

46.1900

112

253

1780,

25.500

29.085

44.4450

139

227

1781,

29.300

29.185

46.0000

J36

229

1782,

38.200

29.061

42.6070

154

211

1783,

31-7^5

29.107

45.0449

"5

240

Medium of 10 Years,

31.648

29.106

133-3

231.9

Ditto , 9 Years

44-793°

COMPARATIVE

REGISTER of the WE4THER.

207

2

£

~0

a
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OH

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P

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U

IH

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W

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< "*

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fi

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CO

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vfifOOiOOOOOOOOO
r^oo xor» O xoxnxoioo vom
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xOirjvOiriO O OvoO O O O

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100

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208

REGISTER of the WE4THER.

R E S U L T of the preceding Companion.

Year.

Dalkekh.

Branxholm.

Langholm.

J773>

^5-473

32.652

38.850

J774»

27.925

29.250

34-405

'775»
'776,

29-55°
20.650

38.573
26.295

39-3°°
34.161

J777>

22.025

29-533

36-95°

Medium

2S-'246

31.2606

36.733^

X.

X. THE OR* of the EARTH; or a» INVESTIGATION^ /&?
Laws obfervable in the Compofition, Diffolution, and Reparation
of Land upon the Globe. By JAMES HuTTON, M. D.
F. R. S. EDIN. and Member of the Royal Academy of^Agrlcul-
ture at PARIS.

[Read March *j . and April 4. 1785.]

PART. I.

Profpett of the SubjccJ to be treated of.

WH EN we trace the parts of which this terreftrial fyftem
is compofed, and when we view the general connection
of thofe feveral parts, the whole prefents a machine of a pecu-
liar conftruc"Uon by which it is adapted to a certain end. We
perceive a fabric, creeled in wifdom, to obtain a purpofe wor-
thy of the power that is apparent in the production of it.

WE know little of the earth's internal parts, or of the mate-
rials which compofe it at any confiderable depth below the fur-
face. But upon the furface of this globe, the more inert mat-
ter is replenifhed with plants, and with animal and intellectual
beings.

WHERE fo many living creatures are to ply their refpeclive
powers, in purfuing the end for which they were intended, we
are not to look for nature in a quiefcent ftate j matter itfelf
muft be in motion, and the fcenes of life a continued or re-
peated feries of agitations and events.

THIS globe of the earth is a habitable world; and on its fit-
nefs for this purpofe, our fenfe of wifdom in its formation

D d muft

2io THEORToftbe EARTH.

muft depend. To judge of this point, we muft keep in view,
not only the end, but the means alfo by which that end is ob-
tained. Thefe are, the form of the whole, the materials of which
it is compofed, and the feveral powers which concur, counter-
act, or balance one another, in procuring the general refult.

THE form and conftitution of the mafs are not more evident-
ly calculated for the purpofe of this earth as a habitable world,
than are the various fubftances of which that complicated body
is compofed. Soft and hard parts varioufly combine, to form a
medium confidence adapted to the ufe of plants and animals ;
wet and dry are properly mixed for nutrition, or the fupport of
thofe growing bodies ; and hot and cold produce a temperature
or climate no lefs required than a foil. Infomuch, that there
is not any particular, reflecting either the qualities of the ma-
terials, or the conftruction of the machine, more obvious to
our perception, than are the prefence and efficacy of defign and
intelligence in the power that conducts the work.

IN taking this view of things, where ends and means are
made the object of attention, we may hope to find a principle-
upon which the comparative importance of parts in the fyftem
of nature may be eftimated, and alfo a rule for felecting the
object of our enquiries. Under this direction, fcience may
find a fit fubject of inveftigation in every particular, whether
offorjn^ quality r, or afirive poiver, that prefents itfelf in this fyftem
of motion and of life j and which, withoxit a proper attention
to this character of the fyftem, might appear anomalous and.
incomprehenfible.

IT is not only by feeing thofe general operations of the globe
which depend upon its peculiar conftruction as a machine, but
alfo by perceiving how far the particulars, in the conftruction
of that machine, depend upon the general operations of the
globe, that we are enabled to underftand the conflitution of this
earth as a thing formed by defign. We mail thus alfo be led
to acknowledge an order, not unworthy of Divine wifdom, in

THEORY of the EARTH. 211

a fubjecl which, in another view, has appeared as the work of
chance, or as abfolute diforder and confufion.

To acquire a general or comprehenfive view of this mecha-
nifm of the globe, by which it is adapted to the purpofe of be-
ing a habitable world, it is neceflary to diflinguiih three dif-
ferent bodies which compofe the whole. Thefe are, a folid bo-
dy of earth, an aqueous body of fea, and an elaflic fluid of air.

IT is the proper fhape and difpofition of thefe three bodies
that form this globe into a habitable world ; and it is the man-
ner in which thefe constituent bodies are adjufted to each other,
and the laws of action by which they are maintained in their
proper qualities and refpeclive departments, that form the
Theory of the machine which we are now to examine.

LET us begin with fome general fketch of the particulars
now mentioned.

iy?, THERE is a central body in the globe. This body fup-
ports thofe parts which come to be more immediately expofed to
our view, or which may be examined by our fenfe and obferva-
tion. This firft part is commonly fuppofed to be folid and in-
ert ; but fuch a conclufion is only mere conjecture ; and we
{hall afterwards find occafion, perhaps, to form another judg-
ment in relation to this fubject, after we have examined ftriclly,
upon fcientific principles, what appears upon the furface, and
have formed conclufions concerning that which muft have been
tranfacted in fome more central part.

idly^ WE find a fluid body of water. This, by gravitation,
is reduced to a fpherical form, and by the centrifugal force of
the earth's rotation, is become oblate. The purpofe of this
fluid body is eflential in the conftitution of the world j for, be-
fides affording the means of life and motion to a multifarious
race of animals, it is the fource of growth and circulation to
the organized bodies of this earth, in being the receptacle of
ihe rivers, and the fountain of our vapours.

D d 2

212 THEORY of the EARTH.

, WE have an irregular body of land, raifed above the
level of the ocean. This, no doubt, is the fmallefl portion of
the globe ; but it is the part to us by far moft interefting. It
is upon the furface of this part that plants are made to grow j
confequently, it is by virtue of this land that animal life, as
well as vegetation, is fuftained in this world.

Lqftly, WE have a furrounding body of atmofphere, which
completes the globe. This vital fluid is no lefs neceflary in the
coaflitution of the world than are the other parts j for there is
hardly an operation upon the furface of the earth, that is not
conducted or promoted by its means. It is a neceflary condi-
tion for the fuflenance of fire ; it is the breath of life to ani-
mals ; it is at leaft an inflrument in vegetation j and while it
contributes to give fertility and health to things that grow, it
is employed in preventing noxious effects from fuch as go into
corruption. In Ihort, it is the proper means of circulation for
the matter of this world, by raifing up the water of the ocean,
and pouring it forth upon the furface of the earth.

SUCH is the mechanifm of the globe; let us now mention
fome of thofe powers by which motion is produced, and activi-
ty procured to the mere machine.

FIRST, There is the progrefiive force, or moving power, by
which this planetary body, if folely actuated, would depart
continually from the path which it now purfues, and thus be
for ever removed from its end, whether as a planetary bo-
dy, or as a globe fuftaining plants and animals, which may be
termed a living world.

BUT this moving body is alfo actuated by gravitation, which
inclines it directly to the central body of the fun. Thus it is
made to revolve about that luminary, and to preferve its path.

IT is alfo upon the fame principles, that each particular part
upon the furface of this globe, is alternately expofed to the in-
fluence of light and darknefs, in the diurnal rotation of the
earth, as well as in its annual revolution. In this manner are

produced.

THEORY of the EARTH. 213

produced the viciffitudes of night and day, fo variable in the
different latitudes from the equator to the pole, and fo beauti-
fully calculated to equalize the benefits of light, fo varioufly
diftributed in the different regions of the globe.

GRAVITATION and the vis incita of matter thus form the
firft two powers diftinguifhable in the operations of our fyftemr
and wifely adapted to the purpofe for which they are employed.

WE next obferve the influence of light and heat, of cold and
condenfation. It is by means of thefe two powers that the va-
rious operations of this living world are -more immediately
tranfacted ; although the other powers are no lefs required, in
order to produce or modify thefe great agents in the ceconomy
of life, and fyftem of our changing things.

WE do not now enquire into the nature of thofe powers, or
invefligate the laws of light and heat, of cold and eondenfa-
tion, by which the various purpofes of this world are accom-
plifhed; we are only to mention thofe effects which are made
fenfible ta the common underftanding of mankind, and which
neceffarily imply a power that is employed. Thus, it is by the
operation of thofe powers that the varieties of feafon in fpring
and autumn are obtained, that we are bleffed with the viciffi-
tudes of fummer's heat and winter's cold, and that we poffefs
the benefit of artificial light and culinary fire.

WE are thus bountifully provided with the neceflaries of
life ; we are fupplied with things conducive to' the growth and
prefervation of our animal nature, and with fit fubjects to em-
ploy and to nourifh our intellectual powers.

THERE are other actuating powers employed in the opera-
tions of this globe, which we are little more than able to enu-
merate J fuch are thofe of electricity and magnetifm.

POWERS of fuch magnitude or force, are not to be fuppofed
nfelefs in a machine contrived furely not without wifHom ; but
they are mentioned here chiefly on account of their general
effect , and it is fufficient to have named powers, of which the

actual

214 THEORY of the EARfH.

actual exiftence is well known, but of which the proper ufe in
the conftitution of the world is ftill obfcure.

WE have thus furveyed the machine in general, with thofe
moving powers, by which its operations, diverfified almoft ad
infinitum^ are performed. Let us now confine our view, more
particularly, to that part of the machine on which we dwell,
that fo we may confider the natural confequences of thofe ope-
rations which, being within our view, we are better qualified
to examine.

THIS fubject is important to the human race, to the pofTeflbr
of this world, to the intelligent being Man, who forefees events
to come, and who, in contemplating his future intereft, is led
to enquire concerning caufes, in order that he may judge of
events which otherwife he could not know.

IF, in purfuing this object, we employ our fkill in refearch,
not in forming vain conjectures ', and if data are to be found,
on which Science may form juft conclufions, we fhould not long
remain in ignorance with refpect to the natural hiflory of this
earth, a fubject on which hitherto opinion only, and not evi-
dence, has decided : For in no fubject is there naturally lefs de-
feel: of evidence, although philofbphers, led by prejudice, or
mifguided by falfe theory, have neglected to employ that light
by which they fhould have feen the fyftem of this world.

BUT to proceed in purfuing a little farther our general or pre-
paratory ideas. A folid body of land could not have anfwered
the purpofe of a habitable world ; for a foil is necefTary to the
growth of plants j and a foil is nothing but the materials col-
lected from the definition of the folid land. Therefore, the
furface of this land, inhabited by man, and covered with
plants and animals, is made by nature to decay, in diffolving
from that hard and compact flate in which it is found below
the foil ; and this foil is necefTarily wafhed away, by the con-
tinual circulation of the water, running from the fummits of
the mountains towards the general receptacle of that fluid,

THE

THEORY of the EARTH. 215

THE heights of our land are thus levelled with the fhores ;
our fertile plains are formed from the ruins of the moun-
tains ', and thofe travelling materials are flill purfued by the
moving water, and propelled along the inclined furface of the
earth. Thefe moveable materials, delivered into the fea, can-
not, for a long continuance, reft upon the more ; for, by the
agitation of the winds, the tides and currents, every moveable
thing is carried farther and farther along the {helving bottom
of the fea, towards the unfathomable regions of the ocean.

IF the vegetable foil is thus conftantly removed from the fur-
face of the land, and if its place is thus to be fupplied from
the diflblution of the folid earth, as here reprefented, we may
perceive an end to this beautiful machine ; an end, arifing from
no error in its conflitution as a world, but from that deftrucli-
bility of its land which is fo neceffary in the fyftem of the
globe, in the ceconomy of life and vegetation.

THE immenfe time necefTarily required for this total deftruc-
tion of the land, muft not be oppofed to that view of future
events, which is indicated by the fiireft facls and moft approved
principles. Time, which meafures every thing in our idea,
and is often deficient to our fchemes, is to nature endlefs and
as nothing ; it cannot limit that by which alone it had exiflence ;
and as the natural courfe of time, which to us feems infinite,
cannot be bounded by any operation that may have an end, the
progrefs of things upon this globe, that is, the courfe of na-
ture, cannot be limited by time, which muft proceed in a con-
tinual fucceffion. We- are, therefore, to confider as inevitable
the deftruclion of our land, fo far as effected by thofe opera-
tions which are neceflary in the purpofe of the globe, confider-
ed as a habitable world •, and fo. far as we have not examined-
any other part of the ceconomy of nature, in which other ope-
rations and a different intention might appear.

WE have now confidered the globe of this earth as a machine,
coiiftruaed upon chemical as well as mechanical principles,

by

-

216 THEORT of the EARTH.

by which its different parts are all adapted, in form, in quality,
and in quantity, to a certain end j an end attained with cer-
tainty or fuccefs ; and an end from which we may perceive
wifdom, in contemplating the means employed.

BUT is this world to be confidered thus merely as a machine,
to laft no longer than its parts retain their prefent pofition,
their proper forms and qualities ? Or may it not be alfo con-
fidered as an organized body ? Such as has a conftitution in
which the necefTary decay of the machine is naturally repaired,
in the exertion of thofe productive powers by which it had been
formed.

THIS is the view in which we are now to examine the globe ;
to fee if there be, in the conftitution of this world, a repro-
ductive operation, by which a ruined conftitution may be again
repaired, and a duration or ftability thus procured to the ma-
chine, confidered as a world fuftaining plants and animals.

IF no fuch reproductive power, or reforming operation, after
due enquiry, is to be found in the conftitution of this world,
we fhould have reafon to conclude, that the fyftem of this
earth has either been intentionally made imperfect, or has not
been the work of infinite power and wifdom.

HERE is an important queftion, therefore, with regard to
the conftitution of this globe j a queftion which, perhaps, it is
in the power of man's fagacity to refolve ; and a queftion which,
if fatisfactorily refolved, might add fome luftre to fcience and
the human intellect.

ANIMATED with this great, this interefting view, let us
ftrictly examine our principles, in order to avoid fallacy in our
reafoning ; and let us endeavour to fupport our attention, in
developing a fubject that is vaft in its extent, as well as intricate
in the relation of parts to be ftated.

THE globe of this earth is evidently made for man. He
alone, of all the beings which have life upon this body, enjoys
the whole and every part ; he alone is capable of knowing the

nature

THEORY of the EARTH. 217

nature of this world, which he thus pofTefTes in virtue of his
proper* right ; and he alone can make the knowledge of this
fyflem a fource of pleafure and the means of happinefs.

MAN alone, of all the animated beings which enjoy the be-
nefits of this earth, employs the knowledge which he there re-
ceives, in leading him to judge of the intention of things, as well
as of the means by which they are brought about ; and he alone
is thus made to enjoy, in contemplation as well as fenfual plea-
fure, all the good that may be obferved in the conftitution of this
world ; he, therefore, mould be made the firil fubjecl: of enquiry.
Now, if we are to take the written hiftory of man for the
rule by which we mould judge of the time when the fpecies firft
began, that period would be but little removed from the pre-
fent ftate of things. The Mofaic hiftory places this beginning
of man at no great diftance ; and there has not been found, in
natural hiftory, any document by which a high antiquity
might be attributed to the human race. But this is not the
cafe with regard to the inferior fpecies of animals, particularly
thofe which inhabit the ocean and its mores. We find in na-
tural hiftory monuments which prove that thole animals had long
exifted ; and we thus procure a meafure for the computation of
a period of time extremely remote, though far from being pre-
cifely afcertained.

IN examining things prefent, we have data from which to
reafon with regard to what has been ; and, from what has ac-
tually been, we have data for concluding with regard to that
which is to happen hereafter. Therefore, upon the fuppofition
that the operations of nature are equable and fteady, we find,
in natural appearances, means for concluding a certain portion
of time to have necelTarily elapfed, in the production of thofe
events of which we fee the effects.

IT is thus that, in finding the relics of fea-animals of every
kind in the folid body of our earth, a natural hiftory of thofe
animals is formed, which includes a certain portion of time ;

E e and

2i8 THEORY of the EARTH.

and for the afcertaining this portion of time, we muft again
have recourfe to the regular operations of this world. We
fhall thus arrive at facts which indicate a period to which no
other fpecies of chronology is able to remount.

IN what follows, therefore, we are to examine the conftruc-
tion of the prefent earth, in order to underftand the natural
operations of time pad ; to acquire principles, by which we
may conclude with regard to the future courfe of things, or
judge of thofe operations, by which a world, fo wifely ordered,
goes into decay ; and to learn, by what means fuch a decayed
world may be renovated, or the wafte of habitable land upon
the globe repaired.

THIS, therefore, is the object which we are to have in view
during this phyfical inveftigation ; this is the end to which are
to be directed all the fteps in our cofmological purfuit.

THE folid parts of the globe are, in general, compofed of
fand, of gravel, of- argillaceous and calcareous ftrata, or of the
various compofitions of thefe with fome other fubflances, which
it is not neceflary now to mention. Sand is feparated and
fized by firearm and currents ; gravel is formed by the mutual
attrition of ftones agitated in water ; and marly, or argillaceous
ftrata, have been collected, by fubfiding in water with which
thofe earthy fubftances had been floated. Thus, fo far as the
earth is formed of thefe materials, that folid body would appear
to have been the production of water, winds, and tides.

BUT that which renders the original of our land clear and
evident, is the immenfe quantities of calcareous bodies which
had belonged to animals, and the intimate connection of thefe
mafles of animal production with the other ftrata of the land.
For it is to be proved, that all thefe calcareous bodies, from the
collection of which the ftrata were formed, have belonged to
the fea, and were produced in it.

WE find the marks of marine animals in the moft folid parts
of the earth, confequently, thofe folid parts have been formed

after

THEORY of the EARTH. 219

after the ocean was inhabited by thofe animals, which are pro-
per to that fluid medium. If, therefore, we knew the natural
hiftory of thofe folid parts, and could trace the operations of
the globe, by which they had been formed, we would have
fome means for computing the time through which thofe fpecies
of animals have continued to live. But how {hall we defcribe
a procefs which nobody lias feen performed, and of which no
written hiftory gives any account ? This is only to be invefti-
gated, jirft, in examining the nature of thofe folid bodies, the
hiftory of which we want to know ; and, zdly. In examining
the natural operations of the globe, in order to fee if there now
actually exift fuch operations, as, from the nature of the folid
bodies, appear to have been neceflary to their formation.

BUT, before entering more particularly into thofe points of
difcuffion, by which the. queftion is to be refolved, let us take
a general view of the fubject, in order to fee what it is which
fcience and obfervation muft decide.

IN all the regions of the globe, immenfe mafTes are found,
which, though at prefent in the mod folid ftate, appear to have
been formed by the collection of the calcareous exuvice of ma-
rine animals. The queftion at prefent is not, in what manner
thofe collections of calcareous relics have become a perfect folid
body, and have been changed from an animal to a mineral fub-
ftance ; for this is a fubject that will be afterwards conlidered ;
we are now only enquiring, if fuch is truly the origin of thofe
mineral mafles.

THAT all the maffes of marble or limeftone are compofed
of the calcareous matter of marine bodies, may be concluded
from the following facts :

iy?, THERE are few beds of marble or limeftone, in which
may not be found fome of thofe objects which indicate the
marine origin of the mafs. If, for example, in a mafs of
marble, taken from a quarry upon the top of the Alps or

E e 2 Andes,

220 THEORY of the EARTH.

Andes *, there mall be found one cockle-fhell, or piece of coral,
it muft be concluded, that this bed of ftone had been original-
ly formed at the bottom of the fea, as much as another bed
which is evidently compofed almofl altogether of cockle-fhells
and coral. If one bed of limeftone is thus found to have been
of a marine origin, every concomitant bed of the fame kind
muft be alfo concluded to have been formed in the fame man-
ner.

WE thus mall find the greateft part of the calcareous mafles
upon this globe to have originated from marine calcareous bo-
dies ; for whether we examine marbles, limeftones, or fuch fo-
lid mafles as are perfectly changed from the ftate of earth, and
•are become compact and hard, or whether we examine the foft,
earthy, chalky or marly ftrata, of which fo much of this earth
is compofed, we ftill find evident proofs, that thofe beds had
their origin from materials depofited at the bottom of the fea ;
and that they have the calcareous fubftance which they contain,
from the fame fource as the marbles or the limeftones,

2^/y, IN thofe calcareous ftrata, which are evidently of ma-
rine origin, there are many parts that are of a fparry ftru<5lure,
that is to fay, the original texture of thofe beds, in fuch places,
has been diflblved, and a new ftructure has been aflumed,
which is peculiar to a certain ftate of the calcareous earth.
This change is produced by cryftallization, in confequence of
a previous ftate of fluidity, which has fo difpofed the concreting
parts, as to allow them to aflume a regular ihape and ftruclure
proper to that fubftance. A body, whofe external form has

been

* " CETTE fbmmite elevee de 984 toifes au deffas de notre lac, et par confequent de
" 1172 au deilus de la mer, eft remarquable en ce que 1'on y voit des fragmens d'hultres

" petrifies. Cette montagne eft dominee par un rocher efcarpe, qui s'il neft pas in-

" acceflible, eft du moins d'un bien difficile acces} il paroit prefqu'entierement compose
" de coquillages petrifies, renfermes dans un roc calcaire, ou marbre groflier noiratre.
" Les fragmens qui s'en detachent, et que 1'on rencontre en montant a la Croix de fer,
" font remplis de turb.inites de differences efp.eces." M. DE SAUSSURE, Voyage dans .let
Jlpes, p. 394.

of the EARTH. 221.

been modified by this procefs, is called a cryjial ; one whofe in-
ternal arrangement of parts is determined by it, is faid to be
of & fparry JlruEJure ; and this is known from its fracture.

$dly, THERE are, in all the regions of the earth, huge mafles
of calcareous matter, in that cryftalline form or fparry ftate, in
which perhaps no veftige can be found of any organized body,
nor any indication that fuch calcareous matter had belonged to
animals j but as, in other mafles, this fparry ftructure, or
cryftalline ftate, is evidently aflumed by the marine calcareous
fubftances, in operations which are natural to the globe, and
which are neceflary to the confolidation of the ftrata, it does
not appear, that the fparry mafles, in which no figured body
is formed, have been originally different from other mafles,
which, being only cryftallized in part, and in part ftill retain-
ing their original form, leave ample evidence of their marine,
origin.

WE are led, in this manner, to conchide, that all the ftrata
of the earth, not only thofe confifting of fuch calcareous maf-
fes, but others fuperincumbent xipoii thefe, have had their ori-
gin at the bottom of the fea, by the collection of fand and
gravel, of fhells, of coralline and cr.uftaceous bodies, and of
earths and clays, varioufly mixed, or feparated and accumu-
lated. Here is a general conclufion, well authenticated in the
appearances of nature, and highly important in the natural hi-
ftory of the earth.

THE general amount of our reafoning is this, that nine
tenths, perhaps, or ninety-nine hundredths of this earth, fo far
as we fee^ have been formed by natural operations of the globe,
in collecting loofe materials, and depofiting them at the bottom
of the fea ; confolidating thofe collections in various degrees, and
either elevating thofe confolidated mafles above the level on
which they were formed, or lowering the level of that fea.

THERE is a part of the folid earth which we may at prefent
neglect, not, as being perfuaded that this part may not alfo be

found

THEORY of the EARTH.

found to come under the general rule of formation with the
reft, but as considering this part to be of no confequence in
forming a general rule, which fhall comprehend almoft the
whole, without doing it abfolutely. This excluded part confifls
of certain mountains and maffes of granite. Thefe are thought
to be ftill older in their formation, and are very rarely, at leaft,
found fuperincumbent on ftrata which muft be acknowledged
as the productions of the fea.

HAVING thus found the greater part, if not the whole, of the
folid land to have been originally compofed at the bottom of the
fea, we may now, in order to form a proper idea of thefe
operations, fuppofe the whole of this fea-born land to be again
difperfed along the bottom of the ocean, the furface of which
would rife proportionally over the globe. We would thus have
a fpheroid of water, with granite rocks and iilands fcattered
here and there. But this would not be the world which we in-
habit ', therefore, the queftion now is, how fuch continents, as
we actually have upon the globe, could be erected above the le-
vel of the fea.

IT muft be evident, that no motion of the fea, caufed by
this earth revolving in the folar fyftem, could bring about that
end ; for let us fuppofe the axis of the earth to be changed
from the prefent poles, and placed in the equinoctial line, the
confequence of this might, indeed, be the formation of a con-
tinent of land about each new pole, from . whence the fea
would run towards the new equator ; but all the reft of the
globe would remain an ocean. Some new points might be dif-
covered, and others, which before appeared above the furface
of the fea, would be funk by the rifing of the water ; but, on
the whole, land could only be gained fubftantially at the poles.
Such a fuppofltion as this, if applied to the prefent ftate of
things, would be deftitute of every fupport, as being incapable
of explaining what appears.

BUT

THEORT of the EARTH. 223

BUT even allowing that, by the changed axis of the earth,
or any other operation of the globe, as a planetary body re-
volving in the folar fyftem, great continents of land could
have been creeled from the place of their formation, the
bottom of the fea, and placed in a higher elevation, com-
pared with the furface of that water, yet fuch a continent as
this could not have continued ftationary for many thoufand
years ; nor could a continent of this kind have prefented to us,,
every where within its body, mafTes of confolidated marble,
and other mineral fubftances, in a (late as different as pomble
from that in which they were, when originally collected toge-
ther in the fea.

CONSEQUENTLY,. befides an operation, by which the earth
at the bottom of the fea fhould be converted into an elevated
land, or placed high above the level of the ocean, there is re-
quired, in the operations of the globe, a confolidating power,
by which the loofe materials that had fubfided from water,
fhould be formed into mafles of the moft perfect folidity, having
neither water nor vacuity between their various conftituent
parts, nor in the pores of thofe conftituent parts themfelves.

HERE is an operation of the globe, whether chemical or me-
chanical, which is necefTarily connected with the formation of
our prefent continents : Therefore, had we a proper underftand-
ing of this fecret operation, we might ' thereby be enabled to
form an opinion, with regard to the nature of that unknown
power, by which the continents have been placed above the fur-
face of that water wherein they had their birth.

IF this confolidating operation be performed at the bottom
of the ocean, or under great depths of the earth,. of which our
continents are compofed, we cannot be witnefles to this mine-
ral procefs, or acquire the knowledge of natural caufes, by im-
mediately obferving the changes which they produce ; but
though we have not this immediate obfervation of thofe changes
of bodies, we have, in fcience, the means of reafoning from

diftant

224 'THEORY of the EARTH.

diftant events; confequently, of difcovering, in the general
powers of nature, caufes for thofe events of which we fee the
efFeds.

THAT the confolidating operation, in general, lies out of the
reach of our immediate obfervation, will appear from the fol-
lowing truth : All the confolidated maffes, of which we now
enquire into the caufe, are, upon the furface of the earth in a flate
of general decay, although the various natures of thofe bodies
admit of that diflblution in very different degrees *.

FROM every view of the fubject, therefore, we are directed
to look into thofe confolidated mafTes themfelves, in order to
find principles from whence to judge of thofe operations by
which they had attained their hardnefs or confolidated (late.

IT muft be evident, that nothing but the moft general ac-
quaintance with the laws of acting fubftances, and with thofe
of bodies changing by the powers of nature, can enable us to
fet about this undertaking with any reafonable profpect of fuc-
cefs ; and here the fcience of Chemiflry muft be brought parti-
cularly to our aid ; for this fcience, having for its object the
changes produced upon the fenfible qualities, as they are called,
of bodies, by its means we may be enabled to judge of that
which is poflible according to the laws of nature, and of that
which, in like manner, we muft confider as impoflible.

WHATEVER conclufions, therefore, by means of this fcience,
fhall be attained, in juft reafoning from natural appearances,
this muft be held as evidence, where more immediate proof
cannot be obtained j and, in a phyfical fubject, where things
actual are concerned, and not the imaginations of the human
mind, this proof will be confidered as amounting to a demon-
ftration.

PART

* STALACTICAL and certain ferruginous concretions may feem to form an exception
to the generality of this propofition. But an objection of this kind could only arifc
from a partial view of things ; for the concretion here is only temporary, it is in confe-
quence of a folution, and it is to be followed by a diflblution, which will be treated of in
its proper place.

7HEORT of the EARTH. 225

PART II.

An Invefligation of the Natural Operations employed in confolidating
the Strata of the Globe.

THERE are juft two ways in which porous or fpongy bo-
dies can be confolidated, and by which fubflances may
be formed into mafles of a natural fhape and regular ftruclure ;
the one of thefe is fimple congelation from a fluid ftate, by
means of cold ; the other is accretion ; and this includes a fepa-
ratory operation, as well as that by which the folid body is to
be produced. But, in whichever of thefe ways folidity is to be
procured, it muft be brought about by firft inducing fluidity,
either immediately by the action of heat, or mediately with
the afllftance of a folvent, that is, by the operation of folution.

THUS, fire and water may be confidered as the general agents
in this operation which we would explore. We are, therefore,
to confider well, what may be the confequences of confolidation
by the one or other of thofe agents ; and what may be their fe-
veral powers with refpedl to this operation.

IF we are not informed in this branch of fcience, we may
gaze without inftruc~lion upon the moft convincing proofs of
what we want to attain. If our knowledge is imperfect, we
may form erroneous principles, and deceive ourfelves in rea-
foning with regard to thofe works of nature, which are wifely
calculated for our inftruction.

THE ftrata, formed at the bottom of the fea, are to be con-
fidered as having been confolidated, either by aqueous folution
and cryftallization, or by the effect of heat and fufion. If it
is in the firft of thefe two ways that the folid ftrata of the
globe have attained to their prefent ftate, there will be a cer-
tain uniformity obfervable in the effects ; and there will be ge-

F f neral

226 THEORY of the EARTH.

neral laws, by which this operation mufl have been conduced.
Therefore, knowing thofe general laws, and making juft ob-
fervations with regard to the natural appearances of thofe con-
folidated mafTes, a philofopher, in his clofet, mould be able to
determine, what may, and what may not have been tranfacted
in the bowels of the earth, or below the bottom of the ocean.

LET us now endeavour to afcertain what may have been the
power of water, acting under fixed circumftances, operating
upon known fub fiances, and conducting to a certain end.

THE action of water upon all different fubftances is an ope-
ration with which we are familiar. We have it in our power
to apply water in different degrees of heat for the folution of
bodies, and under various degrees of compreffion j confequent-
ly, there is no reafon to conclude any thing myflerious in the
operations of the globe, which are to be performed by means
of water, unlefs an immenfe compreffing power mould alter the
nature of thofe operations. But compreffion alters the relation
of evaporation only with regard to heat, or it changes the de-
gree of heat which water may be made to contain j confequent-
ly, we are to look for no occult quality in water acting upon
bodies at the bottom of the deepeft ocean, more than what can
be obferved in experiments which we have it in our power to

WITH regard again to the effect of time. Though the con-
tinuance of time may do much in thofe operations which are
extremely flow, where no change, to our obfervation, had ap-
peared to take place ; yet, where it is not in the nature of things
to produce the change in queftion, the unlimited courfe of time
would be no more effectual, than the moment by which we
meafure events in our obfervations.

WATER being the general medium in which bodies collected
at the bottom of the fea are always contained, if thofe maffes
of collected matter are to be confolidated by folution, it muft
be by the diffolution of thofe bodies in that water as a men-

ftruum,

THEORY of the EARTH. 227

ftrunm, and by the concretion or cryftallization of this diflblved
matter, that the fpaces, firft occupied by water in thofe mafles,
are afterwards to be filled with a hard and folid fubflance ; but
without fome other power, by which the water contained in
thofe cavities and endlefs labyrinths of the flrata, fliould be fe-
parated in proportion as it had performed its talk, it is incon-
ceivable how thofe mafles, however changed from the ftate of
their firft fubfidence, mould be abfolutely confolidated, without
a particle of fluid water in their compofition.

BESIDES this difficulty of having the water feparated from
the porous mafles which are to be confolidated, there is another
with which, upon this fuppofition, we have to ftruggle. This
is, From whence fliould come the matter with which the num-
berlefs cavities in thofe mafles are to be filled ?

THE water in the cavities and interflices of thofe bodies com-
pofmg ftrata, muft be in a ftagnating ftate ; consequently, it
can only a£l upon the furfaces of thofe cavities which are to be
filled up. But with what are they to be filled ? Not with wa-
ter ; they are full of this already : Not with the fubftance of
the bodies which contain that water ; this would be only to
make one cavity in order to fill up another. If, therefore, the
cavities of the ftrata are to be filled with folid matter, by means
of water, there nvuft be made to pafs through thofe porous maf-
fes, water impregnated with fome other fubftances in a diflblved
ftate ; and the aqueous menftruum mull be made to feparate
from the diflblved fubftance, and to depofit the fame in thofe
cavities through which the folution moves.

BY fuch a fuppofition as this, we might perhaps explain a
partial confolidation of thofe ftrata ; but this is a fuppofition,
of which the cafe under confideration does not admit ; for in
the prefent cafe, which is that of materials accumulated at
the bottom of the ocean, there is not proper means for fepa-
rating the diflblved matter from, the water included in thofe
enormous mafles ; nor are there any means by which a circula-

F f 2 tion

228 THEORY of the EARTH.

tion in thofe mafTes may be formed. In this cafe, therefore,
where the means are not naturally in the fuppofition, a philofo-
pher, who is to explain the phenomenon by the natural opera-
tion of water in this fituation, mud not have recourfe to ano-
ther agent, Mill more powerful, to affift his fuppofition, which
cannot be admitted.

THUS, it will appear, that, to confolidate ftrata formed at
the bottom of the fea, in the manner now confidered, opera-
tions are required unnatural to this place ; confequently, not to
be fuppofed in order to fupport a hypothec's.

BUT now, inftead of enquiring how far water may be fup*
pofed inftrumental in the confolidation of ftrata which were
originally of a loofe texture, we are to confider how far there
may be appearances in thofe confolidated bodies, by which it
might be concluded, whether or not the prefent ftate of their
confolidation has been actually brought about by means of that
agent.

IF water had been the menftruum by which the confolidating
matter was introduced into the interftices of ftrata, mafTes of
thofe bodies could only be found confolidated with fuch fub-
ftances as water is capable of diflblving ; and thefe fubftances
would be foxmd only in fuch a ftate as the fimple feparation of
the diflblving water might produce.

IN this cafe, the confolidation of ftrata would be extremely
limited ; for we cannot allow more power to water than we
find it has in nature j nor are we to imagine to ourfelves unli-
mited powers in bodies, on purpofe to explain thofe appear-
ances, by which we mould be made to know the powers of na-
ture. Let us, therefore, attend, with every poflible circum-
fpection, to the appearances of thofe bodies, by means of which
we are to inveftigate the principles of mineralogy, and know
the laws of nature.

THE queftion now before us concerns the confolidating fubr
ftances of ftrata. Are thefe fuch as will correfpond to the dif-

folving

THE 0 R T of the EA R Tff. 229

folving power of water, and to the ftate in which thofe fub-
ftances might be left by the feparation of their menftruum ?
No ; far, far from this fuppofition is the conclufion that necef-
farily follows from natural appearances.

WE have ftrata confolidated by calcareous ipar, a thing per-
fectly diftinguifhable from the ftalac"lical concretion of calca-
reous earth, in confequence of aqueous folution. We have
ftrata made folid by the formation of fluor, a fubftance not
foluble, fo far as we know, by water. We have ftrata confoli-
dated with fulphureous and bituminous fubftances, which do
not correfpond to the folution of water. We have ftrata con-
folidated with filiceous matter, in a ftate totally different from
that under which it has been obferved, on certain occafions, to
be depofited by water. We have ftrata confolidated by feld-
fpar, a fubftance infoluble in water. We have ftrata confoli-
dated by almoft all the various metallic fubftances, with their
almoft endlefs mixtures and fulphureous competitions j that is
to fay, we find, perhaps, every different fubftance introduced
into the interftices of ftrata which had been formed by fubfi^
dence at the bottom of the fea.

IF it is by means of water that thofe interftices have been
filled with thofe materials, water muft be, like fire, an univer-
fal folvent, or caufe of fluidity, and we muft change entirely
our opinion of water in relation to its chemical character. But
there is- no neceffity thus to Violate our chemical principles, in
order to explain certain natural appearances; more efpecially
if thofe appearances may be explained in another manner, con-
fiftently with the known laws of nature.

IF, again, it is by means of heat and fufion that the loofe
and porous ftruclure of ftrata fhall be fuppofed to have been
confolidated, then every difficulty which had occurred in rea-
foning upon the power or agency of water is at once removed;
The loofe and difcontinuous body of a ftratum may be clofed
by means of foftnefs and compreffion j the porous ftruclure of

tho;

230 THEORY of the EARTH.

the materials may be confolidated, in a fimilar manner, by the
fufion of their fubftance ; and foreign matter may be intro-
duced into the open ftruclure of ftrata, in form of fleam or ex-
halation, as well as in the fluid ftate of fufion ; confequently,
heat is an agent competent for the confolidation of ftrata,
which water alone is not. If, therefore, fuch an agent could
be found acting in the natural place of ftrata, we muft pro-
nounce it proper to bring about that end.

THE examination of nature gives countenance to this fuppo-
fition, fo far as ftrata are found confolidated by every fpecies of
fubftance, and almoft every poffible mixture of thofe different
fubftances ; confequently, however difficult it may appear to
have this application of heat, for the purpofe of confolidating
ftrata formed at the bottom of the ocean, we cannot, from na-
tural appearances, fuppofe any other caufe, as having actually
produced the effects which are now examined.

THIS queftion, with regard to the means of confolidating
the ftrata of the globe, is, to natural hiftory, of the greateit
importance ; and it is efTential in the theory now propofed to
be given of the mineral fyftem. It would, therefore, require
to be difcufled with fome degree of precifion, in examining
the particulars ; but of thefe, there is fo great a field, and the
fubjecl is fo complicated in its nature, that volumes might be
written upon particular branches only, without exhaufting
what might be faid upon the fubjecl j becaufe the evidence,
though ftrong in many particulars, is chiefly to be enforced
by a multitude of facts, confpiring, in a diverfity of ways, to
point out one truth, and by the impoflibility of reconciling all
thefe facts, except by means of one fuppofition.

BtTT, as it is neceflary to give fome proof of that which is to
be a principle in our reafoning afterwards, I fliall now endea-
vour to generalize the fubject as much as poflible, in order to
anfwer that end, and, at the fame time, to point out the par-
ticular method of enquiry.

THERE

THEORY of the EARTH. 231

THERE are to be found, among the various ftrata of the globe,
bodies formed of two different kinds of fubftances, ftliceous bo-
dies, and thofe which may be termed fulpbureous. With one
or other, or both of thofe two fubftances, every different con-
folidated flratum of the globe will be found fo intimately mix-
ed, or clofely connected, that it muft- be concluded, by what-
ever caufe thofe bodies of filiceous and fulphureous matter had
been changed from a fluid to a concreted ftate, the ftrata muft
have been fimilarly affected by the fame caufe.

THESE two fpecies of bodies, therefore, the filiceous and the
fulphureous, may now be examined, in relation to the caufes of
their concretion, with a view to determine, what has been the
general concreting or confolidating power, which has operated
univerfally in the globe j and particularly to {hew, it has not
been by means of any fluid folution, that ftrata in general have
been confolidated, or that thofe particular fubftances have been
cryftallized and concreted.

SILICEOUS matter, phyfically fpeaking, is not foluble in
water j that is to fay, in no manner of way have we been
enabled to learn, that water has the power of difTolving this
matter.

MANY other fubftances, which are fo little foluble in water,
that their folubility could not be otherwife detected of them-
fe,lves, are made to appear foluble by means of filiceous matter;
fuch is feld-fpar, one of the component parts of rock-granite.

FELD-SPAR is a compound of filiceous, argillaceous, and cal-
careous earth, intimately xmited together. This compound fi-
liceous body being, for ages, expofed to the weather, the calca-
reous part of it is diflblved, and the filiceous part is left in form
of a foft white earth. But whether this difTolution is perform-
ed by pure water, or by means alfo of an acid, may perhaps
be queftioned. This, however, is certain, that we muft con-
fider filiceous fubftances as infoluble in water.

THE

232 THEORY of the

THE water of Giezer in Iceland undoubtedly contains this
fubftance in folution ; but there is no reafon to believe, that it
is here diflblved by any other than the natural means j that is,
an alkaline fubftance, by which liliceous bodies may be rendered
foluble in water.

IT may be, therefore, afTerted, that no filiceous body lia-ving
the hardnefs of flint, nor any cryftallization of that fubftance,
has ever "been formed, except by fufion. If, by any art, this
fubftance mall be diflblved in fimple water, or made to cryftal-
lize from any folution, in that cafe, the aflertion which has been
here made may be denied. But where there is not the veftige
of any proof, to authorife the fuppofition of flinty matter be-
ing diflblved by water, or cryflallized from that folution, fuch
an hypothefis cannot be admitted, in oppofition to general and
evident appearances.

BESIDES this proof for the fufion of filiceous bodies, which
is indirect, arifing from the indifTolubility of that fubftance in
water, there is another, -which is more direct, being founded
upon appearances which are plainly inconfiftent with any
other .fuppofition, except that of fimple fluidity induced by
heat. The proof I mean ,is, the penetration of many bodies
with a flinty fubftance, which, according to every collateral
circumftance, muft have been performed by the flinty matter
in a fimply fluid ftate, and not in a ftate of diflolution by «.
folvent.

THESE are flinty bodies perfectly infulated in ftrata both of
chalk and fand. It requires but infpection to be convinced.
It is not poflible that flinty matter could be conveyed into the
middle of thofe ftrata, by a menftruum in which it was dif-
folved, and thus depofited in that- place, without the fmalleft
.trace of 'depofition in the furrounding parts.

BUT, befides this argument taken from what does not appear,
the actual form in which thofe flinty mafles are found, ctemon-

flrates,

THEORY of the EARTH. 233

ft rates, firft^ That they have been introduced among thofe ftrata
in a fluid flate, by injection from fome other place, idly^ That
they have been difperfed in a variety of ways among thofe ftra-
ta, then. deeply immerfed at the bottom of the fea j .and, laftly^
That they have been there congealed from the ftate of fufion,
and have remained in that fituation, while thofe ftrata have
been removed from the bottom of the ocean to the furface of
the prefent land.

To defcribe thofe particular appearances would draw this pa-
per beyond the bounds of an eflay. We muft, therefore, re-
fer thofe who would enquire more minutely into the fubject,
to examine the chalk-countries of France and England, in
which the flint is found varioufly formed ; the fand-hills inter-
fperfed among thofe chalk-countries, which have been alfo in-
jedled by melted flint ; and the pudding-ftone of England,
which I have not feen in its natural fituation. More particu-
larly, I would recommend an examination of the infulated
mafles of ftone, found in the fand-hills by the city of Bruflels ;
a ftone which is formed by an injection of flint among fand,
fimilar to that which, in a body of gravel, had formed the
pudding-ftone of England *.

ALL thefe examples would require to be examined upon the
fpot, as a great part of the proof for the .fufion of the flinty
fubftance, arifes, in my opinion, from the form in which thofe
bodies are found, and the ftate of the furrounding parts. But
there are fpecimens brought from many different places, which
contain, in themfelves, the moft evident marks of this injec-
tion of the flinty fubftance in a fluid ftate. Thefe are pieces of
foffil wood, penetrated with a filiceous fubftance, which are
brought from England, Germany, and Lochneagh in Ireland.

IT appears from thefe fpecimens, that there has fometimes
been a prior penetration of the body of wood, either with

G g irony

* ACCURATE defcriptions of thofe appearances, with drawings, would be, to natural
hiftory, a valuable acquifition.

234 THEORT of the EARTH.

irony matter, or calcareous fubftance. Sometimes, again, which
is the cafe with that of Lochneagh, there does not feem to have
been any penetration of thofe two fubftances. The injected
flint appears to have penetrated the body of this wood, im-
merfed at the bottom of the fea, under an irnmenfe compref-
fion of water. This appears from the wood being penetrated
partially, fome parts not being penetrated at all.

Now, in the limits between thofe two parts, we have the
moft convincing proofs, that it had been flint in a fimple fluid
ftate which had penetrated the wood, and not in a ftate of fo-
lution.

Firft, BECAUSE, however little of the wood is left unpene-
trated, the divifion is always diftincl: between the injected part
and that which is not penetrated by the fluid flint. In this
cafe, the flinty matter has proceeded a certain length, which is
marked, and no farther ; and, beyond this boundary, there is
no partial impregnation, nor a gradation of the flintifying ope-
ration, as muft have been the cafe if filiceous matter had
been depofited from a folution. 2dly, The termination of the
flinty impregnation has afTumed fuch a form, precifely, as
would naturally happen from a fluid flint penetrating that
body.

IN other fpecimens of this mineralizing operation, foflil
wood, penetrated, more or lefs, with ferruginous and calcare-
ous fubftances, has been afterwards penetrated with a flinty
fubftance. In this cafe, with whatever different fubftances the
woody body fhall be fuppofed to have been penetrated in a ftate
of folution by water, the regular ftruc~hire of the plant would
ftill .have remained, with its vacuities varioufly filled with the
petrifying fubftances, feparated from the aqueous menftruum,
and depofited in the vafcular ftruclure of the wood.

THERE cannot be a doubt with regard to the truth of this
propofition ; for as it is, we frequently find parts of the confo-
Ldatea wood, with the vafcular ftruclure remaining, perfectly

in

THEORY of the EARTH. 235

in its natural fhape and fituation ; but if it had been by aque-
ous folution that the wood had been penetrated and confolida-
ted, all the parts of that body would be found in the fame na-
tural fhape and fituation.

THIS, however, is far from being the cafe ; for while, in
fome parts, the vafcular ftruclure is preferved entire, it is alfo
evident, that, in general, the woody ftruclure is varioufly bro-
ken and diflblved by the fufion and cryftallization of the flint.
There are fo many and fuch various convincing examples of
this, that, to attempt to defcribe them, would be to exceed the
bounds prefcribed for this diflertation j but fuch fpecimens are
in my pofTeffion, ready for the infpe&ion of any perfon who
may defire to ftudy the fubject.

WE may now proceed to confider fulphureous fub fiances,
with regard to their folubility in water, and to the part which
thefe bodies have acted in confolidating the flrata of the globe.

THE fulphureous fubftances here meant to be confidered, are
fubftances not foluble in water, fo far as we know, but fufible
by heat, and inflammable by means of heat and vital air.
Thefe fubftances are of two kinds j the one more fimple, the
other more compound.

THE moft fimple kind is compofed of two different fubftan-
ces, viz. phlogifton, with acid or metallic fxibftances ; from
which refult, on the one hand, fulphur, and, on the other, me-
tals, both properly fo called. The more compound fort, again,
is oily matter, produced by vegetables, and forming bituminous
bodies.

THE firft of thefe is found naturally combined with almoft
all metallic fubftances, which are then faid to be mineralized
with fulphur. Now, it is well known, that this mineralizing
operation is performed by means of heat or fufion j and there
is no perfon fkilled in chemiftry that will pretend to fay, this
may be done by aqueous folution. The combination of iron
and fulphur, for example, may eafily be performed by fufion j

G g 2 but,

236 THEORY of the EARTH.

but, by aqueous folution, this particular combination is again
refolved, and forms an acido-metallic, that is, a vitriolic fub-
ftance, after the phlogifton (which refufes aqueous folution) has
been feparated from the compofition, by means of the joint
operation of vital air.

THE variety of thefe fulphureo-metallic fubftances, in point
of compofition, is almoft indefinite ; but, unlefs they were all
foluble in water, this could not have happened by the action of
that folvent. If we mail allow any one of thofe bodies to have
been formed by the fluidity of heat, they muft all have been
formed in the fame manner j for there is fuch a chain of con-
nection among thofe bodies in the mineral regions, that they
muft all have been compofed, either, on the one hand, by
aqueous folution, or, on the other, by means of heat and fu-
fion.

HERE, for example, are cryftallized together in one mafs,
firft, Pyrites, containing fulphur, iron, copper ; 'idly, Blend^
a compofition of iron, fulphur, and calamine j 3^, Galena,
confiding of lead and fulphur ; ^tbly, Marmor metallicum, being
the terra ponderofa, faturated with the vitriolic acid j a fub-
flance infoluble in water ; 5/£/y, Fluor, a faturation of calcare-
ous earth, with a peculiar acid, called the acid of fpar, alfo in-
foluble in water j bthly, Calcareous fpar, of different kinds, be-
ing calcareous earth faturated with fixed air, and fomething
befides, which forms a variety in this fubftance ; laftly^ Siliceous
fub/lance, or Quartz cryjlals. All thefe bodies, each poflefling
its proper fhape, are mixed in fuch a manner as it would be end-
lefs to defcribe, but which may be expreffed in general by fay-
ing, that they are mutually contained in, and contain each
other.

UNLESS, therefore, every one of thefe different fub fiances
may be diffolved in water, and cryftallized from it, it is in
vain to look for the explanation of thefe appearances in the ope-
rations of nature, by the means of aqueous folution.

ON

fHEORT of the EARTH. 237

ON the other hand, heat being capable of rendering all thefe
fubftances fluid, they may be, with the greateft fimplicity,
tranfported from one place to another ; and they may be made
to concrete altogether, at the fame time, and diftinclly feparate
in any place. Hence, for the explanation of thofe natural ap-
pearances, which are fo general, no further conditions are re-
quired, than die fuppofition of a fufficient intensity of fubter-
raneous fire or heat, and a fufficient degree of compreffion upon
thofe bodies, which are to be fubjecled to that violent heat,
without calcination or change. Exit, fo far as this fuppofition
is- not gratuitous, the appearances of nature will be thus ex-
plained.

I SHALL only mention one fpecimen, which rmift appear
mofl decifive of the queflion. It is, I believe, from an Hun-
garian mine. In this fpecimen, petro-filex, pyrites, and cin-
nabar, are fo mixed together, and cryftallized upon each other,
that it is impoflible to conceive any one of thofe bodies to have
had its fluidity and concretion from a caufe which had not af-
fecled the other two. Now, let thofe who would deny the fu-
fion of this filiceous body explain how water could diflblve
thefe three different bodies, and depofit them in their prefent
fhape. If, on the contrary, they have not the leaft fhadow of
reafon for fuch a gratuitous fuppofition, the prefent argument
mud be admitted in its full force.

SULPHUR and metals are commonly found combined in the
mineral regions. But this rale is not univerfal j for they are
alfo frequently in a feparate flate. There is- not, perhaps, a
metal, among the great number which are now difcovered, that
may not be found native, as they are called, or in their metallic
flate.

METALLIC fubftances are alfo thus found in fome proportion
to the difpofition of the particular metals, to refift the minera-
lizing operations, and to their facility of being metallized by
fire and fufion. Gold, which refufes to be mineralized with

fulphur,

238 THEORY of the EARfH.

fulphur, is found generally in its native ftate. Iron, again,
v Inch is fo eafily mineralized and fcorified, is feldom found in
its malleable ftate. The other metals are all found more or lefs
mineralized, though fome of them but rarely in the native
ftate.

BESIDES being found with circumftances thus correfpond-
ing to the natural facility, or to the impediments attending the
metallization of thofe different calces, the native metals are alfo
found in fuch a fhape, and with fuch marks, as can only agree
with the fufion of thofe bo dies j that is to fay, thofe appear-
ances are perfectly irreconcileable with any manner of folution
and precipitation.

FOR the truth of this aflertion, among a thoufand other ex-
amples, I appeal to that famous mafs of native iron, difcovered,
by Mr PALLAS, in Siberia. This mafs being fo well known
to all the mineralifts of Europe, any comment upon its fhape
and ftructure will be unneceflary *.

WE

* SINCE this Diflertation was written, M. DE LA PETROCSE has difcovered a native man-
ganefe. The circumftances of this mineral are fo well adapted for illuftrating the pre-
fent doclrine, and fo well related by M. DE LA PEYROUSE, that I fliould be wanting to
the intereft of mineral knowledge, were I not to give here that part of his Memoir.

" LORSQUE je fis inscrer dans le journal de phyfique de 1'annee 1/80, au mois de Jan-
vier, une Diflertation contenant la claffification des mines de manganefe, je ne connoif-
fois point, a cette epoque, la mine de manganefe native. Elle a la couleur de fon r6gu-
le : elle falit les doigts de la mgme teinte. Son tifiu paroit aufli lamelleux, et les lames
femblent affefter une forte de divergence. Elle a ainfi que lui, 1'eclat metallique ; com-
me lui elle fe laifle applatir fous le marteau, et s'exfolie fi 1'on redouble les coups ; mais
une circonftance qui eft trop frappante pour que je 1'omette, c'eft la figure de la manga-
nefe native, fi prodigieufement conforme a celle du regule, qu'on s'y laifleroit tromper,
fi la mine n'e'toit encore dans fa gangue : figure tres-eflentielle a obferver ici, parce qu'elle
eft due a la nature meme de la manganefe. En effet, pour reduire toutes les mines en ge-
neral, il faut employer divers flux approprie"s. Pour la reduction de la manganefe, bien loin
d'ufer de ce moyen, il faut, au contraire, eloigner tout flux, produire la fufion, par la feule
violence et la promptetude du feu. Et telle eft la propenfion naturelle et prodigieufe de la
manganefe a la vitrification, qu'on n'a pu parvenir encore a reduire fbn regule en un
feul culot j on trouve dans le creufet plufieurs petits boutons, qui ferment autant de cu-

lots

THEORT of the EARTH. 239

WK come now to the fecond fpecies of inflammable bodies
called oily or bituminous. Thefe fubftances are alfo found va-
rioufly mixed with mineral bodies, as well as forming ftrata of
themfelves ; they are, therefore, a proper fubjecl for a particu-
lar examination.

IN the procefs of vegetation, there are prodxiced oily and re-
finous fubftances ; and from the collection of thefe fubftances
at the bottom of the ocean, there are formed ftrata, which have
afterwards undergone various degrees of heat, and have been
varioufly changed, in confequence of the effects of that heat,
according as the diftillation of the more volatile parts of thofe
bodies has been fuffered to proceed.

IN order to underftand this, it muft be confidered, that,
while immerfed in water, and under infuperable compreffion,
the vegetable, oily, and refinous fubftances, would appear to be
unalterable by heat ; and it is only in proportion as certain che-
mical feparations take place, that thefe inflammable bodies are
changed in their fubftance by the application of heat. Now,
the moft general change of this kind is in confequence of eva-
poration, or the diftillation of their more volatile parts, by
which oily fvibftances become bituminous, and bituminous fub-
ftances become coaly.

THERE is here a gradation which may be beft underftood by
comparing the extremes.

ON

lots fepares. Dans la mine de manganefe native, elle n'eft point en une feule made j
elle eft difpofee egalement en plufieurs culots fepare's, et un peu applatis, comme ceux
que 1'art produit j beaucoup plus gros, a la verite, parce que les agens cle la nature doi-
vent avoir une autre €nergie, que ceux de nos laboratoires } et cette reflemblance fi ex-
afte, femble devoir vous faire penfer que la mine native a etc produite par le feu, tout
comme (on regule. La prefence de la chaux argentee de la manganefe, me permettroit
de croire que la nature n'a fait que reduire cette chaux. Du refte, cette mine native eft
tres-pure, et ne contient aucune partie attirable a 1'aimant. Cette mine, unique jufqu'il
ce moment, vient, tout comme les autres manganefe que j'ai decrites, des mines de fer
de Sem, dans la vall&e de Viedsrfos, eu Comte dc Foix." Journal de Pbv/tque, Janvier
1786-

240 TH E 0 R T of the EAR ? H.

ON the one hand, we know by experiment, that oily and
bituminous fubftances can be melted and partly changed into
vapour by heat, and that they become harder and denfer, in
proportion as the more volatile parts have evaporated from,
them. On the other hand, coaly fubftances are deftitute of fu-
fibility and volatility, in proportion as they have been expofed
to greater degrees of heat, and to other circumftances -favour-
able to the diffipation of their more volatile and fluid parts.

IF, therefore, in mineral bodies, we find the two extreme
ftates of this combuflible fubftance, and alfo the intermediate
ftates, we muft either conclude, that this particular operation
of heat has been thus actually employed in nature, or we muft
explain thofe appearances by fome other means, in as fatisfaclo-
ry a manner, and fo as fhall be confident with other appear-
ances.

IN this cafe, it will avail nothing to have recourfe to the falfe
analogy of water diflolving and cryftallizing falts, which has
been fo much employed for the explanation of other mineral
appearances. The operation here in queftion is of a different
nature, and neceflarily requires both the powers of heat and
proper conditions for evaporation.

THEREFORE, in order to decide the point, with regard to
what is the power in nature by which mineral bodies have be-
come folid, we have but to find bituminous fubftance in the
inoft complete ftate of coal, intimately connected with fome
other fubftance, which is more generally found confolidating
the ftrata, and affifting in the concretion of mineral fubftances.
But I have in my pofTeflion the moft undoubted proof of this
kind. It is a mineral vein, or cavity, in which are blended to-
gether coal of the moft fixed kind, quartz and marmor metalli-
cum. Nor is this all ; for the fpecimen now referred to is con-
tained in a rock of this kind, which every naturalift now-a-days
will allow to have congealed from a fluid ftate of fufion. I
have alfo fimilar fpecimens from the fame place, in which the

coal

THEORY of the EARTH. 241

coal is not of that fixed and infufible kind, which burns with-
out flame or fmoak, but is bituminous or inflammable coal.

WE have hitherto been refting the argument upon a fmgle
point, for the fake of fimplicity or clearnefs, not for want of
thofe circumftances which fhall be found to corroborate the
theory. The (Irata of foflil coal are found in almoft every in-
termediate (late, as well as in thofe of bitumen and charcoal.
Of the one kind is that foflil coal which melts or becomes fluid
upon receiving heat ; of the other, is that fpecies of coal, found
both in Wales and Scotland, which is perfectly infufible in the
fire, and burns like coaks, without flame or fmoak. The one
fpecies abounds in oily matter, the other has been diftilled by
heat, until it has become a caput mortuum, or perfect coal.

THE more volatile parts of thefe bituminous bodies are
found in their feparate flate on fome occafions. There is a ftra-
turn of limeftone in Fifefhire near Raith, which, though but
(lightly tinged with a black colour, contains bituminous mat-
ter, like pitch, in many cavities, which are lined with calcare-
ous fpar cryftallized. I have a fpecimen of fuch a cavity, in
which the bitumen is in fphericles, or rounded drops, immerfed
in the calcareous fpar.

Now, it is to be obferved, that, if the cavity in the folid
limeftone or marble, which is lined with calcareous cryftals con-
taining pyrites, had been thus encrufted by means of the fil-
tration of water, this water muft have diflolved calcareous fpar,
pyrites and bitumen. But thefe natural appearances would not
even be explained by this diflblution and fuppofed filtration of
thofe fubftances. There is alfo required,^?, a caufe for the
feparation of thofe different fubftances from the aqueous men-
ftruum in which they had been diflolved : zdly, An explana-
tion of the way in which a diflolved bitumen fhould be formed
into round hard bodies of the moft folid ftrudure : and, laftlv,

ft * \f J *

Some probable means for this complicated operation being per-

H h formed,

242 THEORY of the EARTH.

formed, below the bottom of the ocean, in the clofe cavity of
a marble ftratum.

THUS, the additional proof, from the facts relating to the bi-
tuminous fubflances, confpiring with that from the phaenome-
na of other bodies, affords the ftrongeft corroboration of this
opinion, that the various concretions found in the internal parts
of ftrata have not been occafioned by means of aqueous folu-
tion, but by the power of heat and operation of fimple fufion,
preparing thofe different fubflances to concrete and cryftallize in
cooling.

THE arguments which have been now employed for proving
that ftrata have been confolidated by the power of heat, or by
the means of fufion, have been drawn chiefly from the infolu-
ble nature of thofe confolidating fubftances in relation to wa-
ter, which is the only general menflruum that can be allowed
for the mineral regions. But there are found in the mineral
kingdom, many folid mafTes of fal gem, which is a foluble fub-
ftance. It may be now enquired, How far thefe mafTes, which
are not unfrequent in the earth, tend either to confirm the pre-
fent theory, or, on the contrary, to give countenance to that
which fuppofes water the chief inftrument in confolidating
ftrata.

THE formation of fait at the bottom of the fea, without the
affiftance of fubterranean fire, is not a thing unfuppofable, as
at firft fight it might appear. Let us but fuppofe a rock placed
acrofs the gut of Gibraltar, (a cafe nowife unnatural), and the
bottom of the Mediterranean would be certainly filled with
fait, becaufe the evaporation from the furface of that fea ex-
ceeds the meafure of its fupply.

BUT ftrata of fait, formed in this manner at the bottom of
the fea, are as far from being confolidated by means of aqueous
folution, as a bed of fand in the fame fituation ; and we can-
not explain the confolidation of fuch a ftratum of fait by
means of water, without fuppofing fubterranean heat employed,

to

THEORY of the EARTH. 243

to evaporate the brine which would fucceflively occupy the in-
terftices of the faline cryftals. But this, it may be obferved, is
equally departing from the natural operation of water, as the
means for confolidating the fediment of the ocean, as if we
were to fuppofe the fame thing done by heat and fufion. For
the queftion is not, If fubterranean heat be of fufficient inten-
fity for the purpofe of confolidating ftrata by the fufion of
their fubftances ; the queftion is, Whether it be by means of
this agent, fubterranean heat, or by water alone, without the
operation of a melting heat, that thofe materials have been va-
rioufly confolidated.

THE example now under confederation, confolidated mineral
fait, will ferve to throw fome light upon the fubject ; for as it
is to be fhewn, that this body of fait had been confolidated by
perfect fufion, and not by means of aqueous folution, the con-
folidation of ftrata of indiflbluble fubftances, by the operation
of a melting heat, will meet with all that confirmation which
the confiftency of natural appearances can give.

THE fait rock in Chefliire lies in ftrata of red marl. Jt is ho-
rizontal in its direction. I do not know its thicknefs, but it is
dug thirty or forty feet deep. The body of this rock is perfectly
folid, and the fait, in many places, pure, colourlefs and tranfpa-
rent, breaking with a fparry cubical ftructure. But the great-
eft part is tinged by the admixture of the marl, and that in va-
rious degrees, from the flighted tinge of red, to the moft per-
fect opacity. Thus, the rock appears as if it had been a mafs
of fluid fait, in which had been floating a quantity of marly
fubftance, not uniformly mixed, but every where feparating
and fubfiding from the pure faline fubftance.

THERE is alfo to ;be obferved a certain regularity in this fe-
paration of the tinging from the colourlefs fubftance, which,
at a proper diftance, gives to the perpendicular fection of the
rock a diftinguifliable figure in its ftructure. When looking at
this appearance near the bottom of the rock, it, at firft, pre-
11 h 2 fented

244 THEORY of the EARTH.

Tented me with the figure of regular flratification ; but, upon
examining the whole mafs of rock, I found, that it was only
towards the bottom that this ftratified appearance took place ;
and that, at the top of the rock, the moft beautiful and regular
figure was to be observed ; but a figure the moft oppofite to that
of ftratification. It was all compofed of concentric circles ;
and thefe appeared to be the fe&ion of a mafs, compofed alto-
gether of concentric fpheres, like thofe beautiful fyftems of
configuration which agates fo frequently prefent us with in mi-
niature. In about eight or ten feet from the top, the circles
growing large, were blended together, and gradually loft their
regular appearance, until, at a greater depth, they again ap-
peared in refemblance of a ftratification.

THIS regular arrangement of the floating marly fubftance in
the body of fait, which is that of the ftrudlure of a coated
pebble, or that of concentric fpheres, is altogether inexplicable
upon any other fuppofition, than the perfecl fluidity or fufion
of the fait, and the attractions and repulfions of the contained
fubftances. It is in vain to look, in the operations of folution
and evaporation, for that which nothing but perfecl fluidity or
fufion can explain.

THIS example of a mineral fait congealed from a melted
ftate, may be confirmed from another which I have from Dr
BLACK, who fuggefted it to me. It is an alkaline fait, found
in a mineral ftate, and defcribed in the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions, anno 1771. But to underftand this fpecimen, fome-
tliing muft be premifed with regard to the nature of foflil al-
kali.

THE foflil alkali cryftallizes from a diffblved ftate, in com-
bining itfelf with a large portion of the water, in the manner
of alum ; and, in this cafe, the water is eflential to the confti-
tution of that tranfparent cryftalline body ; for, upon the eva-
poration of the water, the tranfparent fait lofes its folidity, and
becomes a white powder. If, inftead of being gently dried,

the

THE ORY of the EAR T H. 245

the cryftalline fait is fuddenly expofed to a fufficient degree of
heat, that is, fomewhat more than boiling water, it enters into
the ftate of aqueous fufion, and it boils, in emitting the water
by means of which it had been cryftallized in the cold, and
rendered fluid in that heated ftate. It is not poffible to cryftal-
lize this alkaline fait from a diflblved ftate, without the combi-
nation of that quantity of water, nor to feparate that water
without deftroying its cryftalline ftate.

BUT in this mineral fpecimen, we have a folid cryftalline
fait, with a ftrudure which, upon fracture, appears to be fpar-
ry and radiated, fomething refembling that of zeolite. It con-
tains no water in its cryftallization, but melts in a fufHcient
heat, without any aqueous fufion. Therefore, this fait muft
have been in a fluid ftate of fufion, immediately before its con-
gelation and cryftallization.

IT would be endlefs to give examples of particular facts,
fo many are the different natural appearances that occur, at-
tended with a variety of different circumftances.

THERE is one, however, which is peculiarly diftinct, admits
of fufHciently accurate defcription, and contains circumftances
from which conclufions may be drawn with clearnefs. This
is the iron-ftone, which is commonly found among the argilla-
ceous ftrata, attendant upon fo{fil coal, both in Scotland and in
England.

THIS ftone is generally found among the bituminous fchiftus,
or black argillaceous ftrata, either in feparate mafles of various
fhapes and fizes, or forming of itfelf ftrata which are more or
lefs continuous in their direction among the fchiftus or argilla-
ceous beds.

THIS mineral contains in general from 40 to 50 per cent, of
iron, and it lofes near one third of its weight in calcination.
Before calcination it is of a gray colour, is not penetrable by
water, and takes a polifh. In this ftate, therefore, it is perfect-
ly folid ; but being calcined, it becomes red, porous, and tender.

246 THEORY of the EARTH.

THE fadl to be proved with regard to thefe iron-ftones is this,
That they have acquired their folid (late from fufion, and not
in concreting from any aqueous folution.

To abridge this difquifition, no argument is to be taken
from contingent circumftances, (which, however, are often
found here as well as in the cafe of marbles) ; fuch only are to
be employed as are general to the fubjecT:, and arife necefTarily
from the nature of the operation.

IT will be proper to defcribe a fpecies of thefe ftones, which
is remarkably regular in its form. It is that found at Aberlady
in Eaft Lothian.

THE form of thefe iron-ftones is that of an oblate or much
comprefled fphere, . and the fize from two or three inches dia-
meter to more than a foot. In the circular or horizontal fec-
tion, they prefent the moft elegant feptarium * ; and, from
the examination of this particular ftructure, the following con-
clufions may be drawn.

Fir/t, THAT the fepta have been formed by the uniform
contraction of the internal parts of the ftone, the volume of
the central parts diminifhing more than that of the circum-
ference ; by this means, the feparations of the ftone diminifh,
in a progreflion from the centre towards the circumference.

id, THAT there are only two ways in which the fepta muft
have received the fpar with which they are filled, more or lefs,
either, jirft, By infinuation into the cavity of the fepta after
thefe were formed ; or, zdly, By feparation from the fubftance
of the ftone, at the fame time that the fepta were forming.

WERE the firft fuppofition true, appearances would be ob-
fervable, fhewing that the fparry fubftance liad been admitted,
either through the porous ftruaure of the ftone, or through
proper apertures communicating from without. Now, if either
one or other of thefe had been the cafe, and that the ftone had
.been confolidated from no other caufe than concretion from a

difTolved

* Plate I.

THEORY of the EARTH. 247

diflblved flate, that particular ftru&ure of the ftone, by means
of which the fpar had been admitted, muft appear at prefent
upon an accurate examination.

THIS, however, is not the cafe, and we may reft the argu-
ment here. The fepta reach not the circumference j the furface
of the ftone is folid and uniform in every part j and there is
not any appearance of the fpar in the argillaceous bed around
the ftone.

IT, therefore, neceflarily follows, that the contraction of the
iron-ftone, in order to form fepta, and the filling of thefe cavi-
ties with fpar, had proceeded pan paffu ; and that this opera-
tion muft have been brought about by means of fufion, or by
congelation from a ftate of fimple fluidity and expanfion.

IT is only further to be obferved, that all the arguments
which have been already employed, concerning mineral con-
cretions from a {imply fluid ftate, or that of fufion, here take
place. I have feptaria of this kind, in which, befides pyrites,
iron-ore, calcareous fpar, and another that is ferruginous and
compound, there is contained filiceous cryftals j a cafe which is
not fo common. I have them alfo attended with circumftances
of concretion and cryftallization, which, befides being extreme-
ly rare, are equally curious and interefting.

THERE is one fact more which is well worth our attention,
being one of thofe which are fo general in the mineral regions.
It is the cryftallizations which are found in clofe cavities of the
moft folid bodies.

NOTHING is more common than this appearance. Cavities
are every where found clofely lined with cryftallizations, of
every different fubftance which may be fuppofed in thofe
places. Thefe concretions are well known to naturalifts, and
form part of the beautiful fpecimens which are preferved in the
cabinets of collectors, and which the German mineralifts have
termed Drufen. I {hall only particularize one fpecies, which
may be defcribed upon principle, and therefore may be a pro-
pen

248 THE ORY of the EAR T H.

per fubject on which to reafon, for afcertaining the order of
production in certain bodies. This body, which we are now
to examine, is of the agate fpecies.

WE have now been confidering the means employed by na-
ture in confolidating ftrata which were originally of an open
ftructure ; but in perfectly folid ftrata, we find bodies of agate,
which have evidently been formed in that place where they
now are found. This fact, however, is not ft ill that of which
we are now particularly to enquire ; for this, of which we are
to treat, concerns only a cavity within this agate ; now, what-
ever may have been the origin of the agate itfelf, we are to
mew, from what appears within its cavity, that the cryftalliza-
tions which are found in this place had arifen from a {imply
fluid ftate, and not from that of any manner of folution.

THE agates now in queftion are thofe of the coated kind, fo
frequent in this country, called pebbles. Many of thefe are
filled with a filiceous cryftallization, which evidently proceeds
from the circumference towards the centre. Many of them,
again, are hollow. Thofe cavities are variously lined with cry-
ftallized fubftances j and thefe are the object: of the prefent
examination.

•

BUT before defcribing what is found within, it is neceflary
to attend to this particular circumftance, that the cavity is per-
fectly inclofed with many folid coats, impervious to air or wa-
ter, but particularly with the external cortical part, which is
extremely hard, takes the higheft polifli, and is of the moft
perfect folidity, admitting the paflage of nothing but light and
heat.

WITHIN thefe cavities, we find, frft, The coat of cryftals
with which this cavity is always lined ; and this is general to
all fubftances concreting, in fimilar circumftances, from a ftate
of fufion ; for when thus at liberty they naturally cryftallize.
idly, We have frequently a fubfequent cryftallization, fet upon
the firft, and more or lefs immerfed in it. $dly, There is alfo

ibmetimes

THEORY of the EARTH. 249

ibmetimes a third cryftallization, fuperincumbent on the fe-
cond, in like manner as the fecond was on the firft. I {hall
mention fome particulars.

I HAVE one fpecimen, in which the primary cryftals are fili-
ceous, the fecondary thin foliaceous cryftals of deep red but
tranfparent iron-ore, forming elegant figures, that have the form
of rofes. The tertiary cryftallization is a frofting of fmall fili-
ceous cryftals upon the edges of the foliaceous cryftals.

IN other fpecimens, there is firft a lining of colourlefs filice-
ous cryftals, then another lining of amethyftine cryftals, and
fometimes within that, fuliginous cryftals. Upon thefe fuligi-
nous and amethyftine cryftals are many fphericles or hemi-
fphe'res of red compact iron-ore, like haematites.

IN others, again, the primary cryftals are filiceous, and the
fecondary calcareous. Of this kind, I have one which has, up-
on the calcareous cryftals, beautiful tranfparent filiceous cryftals,
and iron-fphericles upon thefe.

Lajily, I HAVE an agate formed of various red and white coats,
and beautifully figured. The cavity within the coated part of
the pebble is filled up without vacuity, firft, with colourlefs
filiceous cryftals ; fecondly, with fuliginous cryftals ; and, laftly,
with white or colourlefs calcareous fpar. But between the fpar
and cryftals there are many fphericles, feemingly of iron, half
funk into each of thefe two different fubftances.

FROM thefe facts, I may now be allowed to draw the follow-
ing conclufions :

F'trfi ', THAT concretion had proceeded from the furface of
the agate body inwards. This necefTarily follows from the na-
ture of thofe figured bodies, the figures of the external coats
always determining the fhape of thofe within, and never, con-
trarily, thofe within affecting thofe without.

'idly, THAT when the agate was formed, the cavity then con-
tained every thing which now is found within it, and nothing
more.

I i

2jo THEORY of the EARTH.

, THAT the contained fubftances mufl have been in a fluid
ftate, in order to their cryftallizing.

Loflly, THAT as this fluid flate had not been the effect: of fo-
lution in a menftruum, it muft have been fluidity from heat
and fufion.

THKRE are in jafpers and agates many other appearances,
from whence this lafl conclufion may be formed with great cer-
tainty and precifion ; but it is hoped, that what has been now
given may fufHce for eftablifhing that propofition without any
doubt.

IT muft not be here objected, That there are frequently
found filiceous cryftals and amethyfts containing water ; and
that it is impoffible to confine water even in melted glafs. It
is true, that here, at the furface of the earth, melted glafs can-
not, in ordinary circumftances, be made to receive and inclofe
condenfed water ; but let us only fuppofe a fufEcient degree of
compreflion in the body of melted glafs, and we can eafily
imagine it to receive and confine water, as well as any other
fubftance. But if, even in our operations, water, by means
of compreflion, may be made to endure the heat of red hot
iron without being converted into vapour, what may not the
power of nature be able to perform ? The place of mineral
operations is not on the furface of the earth; and we are not
to limit nature with our imbecility, or eftimate the powers cf
nature by the meafure of our own.

To conclude this long chemico-mineral difquifition, I have
fpecimens in which the mixture of calcareous, filiceous and
metallic fubftances, in almoft every fpecies of concretion which
is to be found in mineral bodies, may be obferved, and in
which there is exhibited, in miniature, almoft every fpecies of
mineral tranfaction, which, in nature, is found upon a fcale of
grandeur and magnificence. They are nodules contained in
the whinftone, porphyry, or bafaltes of the Calton-hill, by
Edinburgh ; a body which is to be afterwards examined, when

it

THE ORT of the EAR ?H. 251

it will be found to have flowed, and to have been in fufion, by
the operation of fubterraneous heat.

THIS evidence, though moft conclufive with regard to the
application of fubterraneous heat, as the means employed in
bringing into fufion all the different fubftances with which
ftrata may be found confolidated, is not directly a proof that
ftrata had been confolidated by the fufion of their proper fub-
ftance. It was neceffary to fee the general nature of the evi-
dence, for the univerfal application of fubterraneous heat, in
the fufion of every kind of mineral body. Now, that this has
been done, we may give examples of ftrata confolidated with-
sout the introduction of foreign matter, merely by the foftening
or fufion of their own materials.

FOR this purpofe, we may confider two different fpecies of
ftrata, fuch as are perfectly fimple in their nature, of the moft
diftinct fubftances, and whofe origin is perfectly undc rftood,
confequently, whofe fubfequent changes may be reafoned upon
with certainty and clearnefs. Thefe are the filiceous and cal-
careous ftrata ; and thefe are the two prevailing fubftances of
the globe, all the reft being, in comparifon of thefe, as no-
thing ; for unlefs it be the bituminous or coal ftrata, there is
hardly any other which does not neceffarily contain more or lefs
of one or other of thefe two fubftances. If, therefore, it can
be fliewn, that both of thofe two general ftrata have been con-
folidated by the fimple fufion of their fubftance, no defideratum
or doubt will remain, with regard to the nature of that ope-
ration which has been tranfacted at great depths of the earth,
places to which all accefs is denied to mortal eyes.

WE are now to prove, Jirft, That thofe ftrata have been con-
folidated by fimple fufion ; and, idly^ That this operation is
univerfal, in relation to the ftrata of the earth, as having pro-
duced the various degrees of folidity or hardnefs in thefe bodies.

I SHALL firft remark, that a fortuitous collection of hard bo-
dies, fuch as gravel and fand, can only touch in points, and

I i 2 cannot,

252 THEORY of the EARtH.

cannot, while in that hard ftate, be made to correfpond fo pre-
cifely to each other's fhape as to confolidate the mafs. But if
thefe hard bodies fhould be foftened in their fubftance, or
brought into a certain degree of fufion, they might be adapted
mutually to each other, and thus confolidate the open ftruclure
of the mafs. Therefore, to prove the prefent point, we have
but to exhibit fpecimens of filiceous and calcareous ftrata which
have been evidently confolidated in this manner.

OF the firft kind, great varieties occur in this country. It is,
therefore, needlefs to defcribe thefe particularly. They are the
confolidated ftrata of gravel and fand, often containing abun-
dance of feld-fpar, and thus ^graduating into granite ; a body,
in this refpedl, perfectly fimilar to the more regular ftrata which
we now examine.

THE fecond kind, again, are not fo common in this country,
unlefs we confider the {hells and coralline bodies in our lime-
ftones, as exhibiting the fame example, which indeed they do.
But I have a fpecimen of marble from Spain, which may be
defcribed, and which will afford the moft fatisfadlory evidence
of the fact in queftion.

THIS Spanifh marble may be confidered as a fpecies of pud-
ding-ftone, being formed of calcareous gravel ; a fpecies of
.marble which, from Mr BOWLES'S Natural Hiftory, appears to
be very common in Spain. The gravel of which this marble
is compofed, confifts of fragments of other marbles of different
kinds. Among thefe, are different fpecies of oolites marble,
fome fhell marbles, and fome compofed of a chalky fubftance,
or of undiflinguifhable parts. But it appears, that all thefe
different marbles had been confolidated or made hard, then
broken into fragments, rolled and worn by attrition, and thus
collected together, along with fome fand or fmall filiceous bo-
dies, into one mafs. Lqftly, This compound body is confoli-
dated in fuch a manner as to give the moft diftinft evidence,

that

THEORY of the EARTH. 253

that this had been executed by the operation of heat or fimple
fufion.

THE proof I give is this, That befides the general conforma-
tion of thofe hard bodies, fo as to be perfectly adapted to each
other's fhape, there is, in fome places, a mutual indentation of
the different pieces of gravel into each other ; an indentation
which refembles perfectly that junction of the different bones
of the cranium, called futures, and which muft have necefTarily
required a mixture of thofe bodies while in a foft or fluid Mate.

THIS appearance of indentation is, by no means, fingular or
limited to one particular fpecimen. I have feveral fpecimens of
different marbles, in which fine examples of this fpecies of
mixture may be perceived. But in this particular cafe of the
Spanifh pudding-flone, where the mutual indentation is made
between two pieces of hard {tone, worn round by attrition,
the foftening or fufion of thefe two bodies is not fimply render-
ed probable, but demonllraied.

HAVING thus proved, that thofe ftrata had been confolidated
by fimple fufion, as propofed, we now proceed to {hew, that
this mineral operation had been not only general, as being
found in all the regions of the globe, but univerfal, in confoli-
dating our earth in all the various degrees, from loofe and in- .
coherent {hells and fand, to the moft folid bodies of the filice-
ous and calcareous fubftances.

To exemplify this in the various collections and mixtures of
fands, gravels, fhells and corals, were endlefs and fuperfluous.
I {hall only take, for an example, one fimple homogeneous body,
in order to exhibit it in the various degrees of confolidation,
from the ftate of fimple incoherent earth to that of the mod fo-
lid marble. It muft be evident that this is chalk j naturally a
foft calcareous earth, but which may be alfo found confolidated
in every different degree.

THROUGH the middle of the ifle of Wight, there runs a
ridge of hills of indurated chalk. This ridge runs from the

ifle

254 THE ORY of the EAR <TH.

ifle of Wight directly weft into Dorfetfhire, and goes by Corf-
caftle towards Dorchefter, perhaps beyond that place. The fea
has broke throtigh this ridge at the weft end of the ifle of
Wight, where columns of the indurated chalk remain, called
the needles ; the fame appearance being found upon the oppo-
fite more in Dorfetfhire.

IN this field of chalk, we find every gradation of that foft
earthy fubftance to the inoft confolidated body of this indurated
ridge, which is not folid marble, but which has loft its chalky
property, and has acquired a kind of ftony hardnefs.

WE want only further to fee this cretaceous fubftance in its
moft indurated and confolidated ftate ; and this we have in the
north of Ireland, not far from the Giants Caufeway. I have
examined cargoes of this limeftone brought to the weft of Scot-
land, and find the moft perfect evidence of this -body having
been once a mafs of chalk, which is now a folid marble.

THUS, if it is by means of fufion that the ftrata of the earth
have been, in many places, confolidated, we muft conclude,
that all the degrees of confolidation, which are indefinite, have
been brought about by the fame means.

Now, that all the ftrata of the mineral regions, which are
thofe only now examined, have been confolidated in fome de-
gree, is a fact for which no proof can be offered here, but muft
be fubmitted to experience and enquiry ; fo far, however, as
they fhall be confidered as confolidated in any degree, which
they certainly are in general, we have inveftigated the means
which had been employed in that mineral operation.

WE have now confidered the concretions of particular bo-
dies, and the general confolidation of ftrata ; but it may be
alleged, that there is a great part of the folid mafs of this
earth not properly comprehended among thofe bodies which
have been thus proved to be confolidated by means of fufion.
The body here alluded to is granite ; a mafs which is not ge-
nerally ftratified, and which, being a body perfectly folid, and

forming

THEORY of the EARTH. 25-5

forming fome part in the ftruclure of this earth, deferves to be
confidered.

THE nature of granite, as a part of the ftruclure of the
earth, is too intricate a fubjedl to be here confidered, where we
only feek to prove the fufion of a fubftance from the evident
marks which are to be obferved in a body. We fhall, therefore,
only now confider one particular fpecies of granite ; and if this
mall appear to have been in a fluid ftate of fufion, we may b'e
allowed to extend this property to all the kind.

THE fpecies now to be examined comes from the north coun-
try, about four or five miles weft from Portfoy, on the road
to Huntly. I have not been upon the fpot, but am informed
that this rock is immediately connected or continuous with the
common granite of the country. This indeed appears in the
fpecimens which I have got ; for, in fome of thefe, there is to
be perceived a gradation from the regular to the irregular fort.

THIS rock may indeed be confidered, in fome refpects, as a
porphyry ; for it has an evident ground, which is feld-fpar, in
its fparry ftate ; and it is, in one view, diftinctly maculated with
quartz, which is tranfparent, but fomewhat dark-coloured *.

CONSIDERED as a porphyry, this fpecimen is no lefs fingular
than as a granite. For, inftead of a filiceous ground, maculated
with the rhombic feld-fpar, which is the common ftate of por-
phyry, the ground is uniformly cryftallized, or a homogeneous
regular feld-fpar, maculated with the tranfparent filiceous fub-
ftance. But as, befides the feld-fpar and quartz, which are the
eonftituent parts of the ftone, there is alfo mica, in fome
places, it may, with propriety, be termed a granite.

THE fingularity of this fpecimen cdnfifts, not in the nature
or proportions of its eonftituent parts, but in the uniformity
of the fparry groxmd, and the regular fhape of the quartz mix-
ture. This filiceous fubftance, viewed in one direction, or
longitudinally, may be confidered as columnar, prifmatical,

oc

* Plate II, fig. i. 2. 3.

256 THEORY of the EARTH.

or continued in lines running nearly parallel. Thefe columnar
bodies of quartz are beautifully impreffed with a figure on the
fides, where they are in contact with the fpar. This figure is
that of furrows or channels, which are perfectly parallel, and
run acrofs the longitudinal direction of the quartz. This is
reprefented in fig. 4. This ftriated figure is only feen when,
by fracture, the quartz is feparated from the contiguous fpar.

BUT what I would here more particularly reprefent is, the
tranfverfe fection of thofe longitudinal filiceous bodies. Thefe
are feen in fig. i. 2. and 3. They have not only feparately the
forms of certain typographic characters, but collectively give
the regular lineal appearance of types fet in writing.

IT is evident from the infpection of this foffil, that the fpar-
ry and filiceous fubftances had been mixed together in a fluid
ftate ; and that the cryftallization of the fparry fubftance,
which is rhombic, had determined the regular ftructure of the
quartz, at leaft in fome directions.

THUS, the filiceous fubftance is to be confidered as included
in the fpar, and as figured according to the laws of cryftalliza-
tion proper to the fparry ground ; but the fpar is alfo to be
found included in the quartz. It is not, indeed, always per-
fectly included or inclofed on all fides j but this is fometimes
the cafe, or it appears fo in the fection. Fig. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. and
i o. are thofe cafes magnified, and reprefent the different figured
quartz inclofing the feld-fpar. In one of them, the feld-fpar,
which is contained within the quartz, contains alfo a fmall tri-
angle of quartz, which it inclofes. Now, it is not poffible to
conceive any other way in which thofe two fubftances, quartz
and feld-fpar, could be thus concreted, except by congelation
from a fluid ftate, in which they had been mixed.

THERE is one thing more to be obferved with regard to this
curious fpecies of granite. It is the different order or arrange-
ment of the cryftallization or internal ftructure of the feld-fpar
ground, in two contiguous parts of the fame mafs. This is to

be

THEORY of the EARTH. 257

be perceived in the polifhed furface of the (lone, by means of
the reflection of light.

THERE is a certain direction in which, viewing the ftone,
when the light falls with a proper obliquity, we fee a luminous
reflection from the internal parts of the ftone. This arifes
from the reflecting furfaces of the fparry ftructure or minute
cracks, all turned in one direction, confequently, giving that lu-
minous appearance only in one point of view.

Now, all the parts of the ftone in which the figured quartz
is directed in the fame manner, or regularly placed in relation
to each other, prefent that fhining appearance to the eye at one
time, or in the fame point of direction. But there are parts of
the mafs, which, though immediately contiguous and properly
continuous, have a different difpofition of the figured quartz ;
and thefe two diftinguifhed mafles, in the fame furface of the
polifhed ftone, give to the eye their fhining appearance in very
different directions. Fig. 3. fhows two of thofe figured and
fhining mafles, in the fame plane or polifhed furface.

IT muft be evident, that, as the cryftallization of the fparry
ftructure is the figuring caufe of the quartz bodies, there muft
be obferved a certain correfpondency between thofe two things,
the alinement (if 1 may be allowed the expreflion) of the quartz,
and the fhining of the fparry ground. It muft alfo appear,
that, at the time of congelation of the fluid fpar, thofe two
contiguous portions had been differently difpofed in the cryftal-
lization of their fubftance. This is an obfervation which I have
had frequent opportunities of making, with refpect to mafles
of calcareous fpar.

UPON the whole, therefore, whether we fhall confider granite
as a ftratum or as an irregular mafs, whether as a collection of
feveral materials, or as the feparation of fubftances which had
been mixed, there is fufBcient evidence of this body having been
confolidated by means of fufion, and in no other manner.

K k WE

258 THEORY of the EARTH.

• WE are thus led to iuppofe, that the power of heat and ope-
ration of fuiion muft have been employed in confolidating
ftrata of loofe materials, which had been collected together and
amafled at the bottom of the ocean. It will, therefore, be pro-
per to confider, what are the appearances in confolidated ftrata
that naturally mould follow, on the one hand, from fluidity
having been, in this manner, introduced by means of heat,
and, on the other, from the interftices being filled by means of
folution ; that fo we may compare appearances with the one and
other of thofe two fuppofitions, in order to know that with
which they may be only found confident.

T«E confolidation of ftrata with every different kind of fub-
ftance was found to be inconfiftent with the fuppofition, that
aqueous folution had been the means employed for this pur-
pofe. This appearance, on the contrary, is perfectly confident
with the idea, that the fluidity of thefe bodies had been the ef-
fect of heat ; for, whether we fxippofe the introduction of fo-
reign matter into the porous mafs of a flratum for its confoli-
dation, or whether we fhall fuppofe the materials of the mafs ac-
quiring a degree of foftnefs, by means of which, together with an
>mmenfe compreflion, the porous body might be rendered folid ;
the power of heat, as the caufe of fluidity and vapour, is equal-
ly proper and perfectly competent. Here, therefore, appear-
ances are as decidedly in favour of the lafl fuppofition, as they
had been inconfiftent with the firft.

BUT if ftrata have been confolidated by means of aqueous
folution, thefe mafTes fhould be found precifely in the fame
ftate as when they were originally depofited from the water.
The perpendicular fection of thofe mafles might ihew the com-
preflion of the bodies included in them, or of which they are
compofed ; but the horizontal faction could not contain any fe-
paration of the parts of the ftratum from one another.

IF, again, ftrata have been confolidated by means of heat,
acting in fuch a manner as to foften their fubftance, then, in

cooling,

7HEORT of the EARTH. 259

cooling, they muft have formed rents or reparations of their
fubftance, by the unequal degrees of contraction which the
contiguous ftrata may have fuffered. Here is a moft decifive
mark by which the prefent queftion muft be determined.

THERE is not in nature any appearance more diftincl than
this of the perpendicular fiflures and feparations in ftrata.
Thefe are generally known to workmen by the terms of veins
or backs and cutters ; and there is no confolidated ftratum that
wants thefe appearances. Here is, therefore, a clear decifion of
the queftion, Whether it has been by means of heat, or by
means of aqueous folution, that collections of loofe bodies at
the bottom of the fea have been confolidated into the hardeft
rocks and moft perfedl marbles.

ERROR never can be confiftent, nor can truth fail of having
fupport from the accurate examination of every circumftance.
It is not enough to have found appearances decifive of the que-
ftion, with regard to the two fuppofitions which have been now
confidered, we may farther feek confirmation of that fuppofi-
tion which has been found alone confiftent with appearances.

IF it be by means of heat and fufion that ftrata have been
confolidated, then, in proportion to the degree of confolidation
they have undergone from their original ftate, they fhould, c<z-
teris paribitS) abound more with feparations in their mafs. But
this conclufion is found confiftent with appearances. A ftratum
of porous fand-ftone does not abound fo much with veins and
cutters as a fimilar ftratum of marble, or even a fimilar ftratum
of fand-ftone that is more confolidated. In proportion, there-
fore, as ftrata have been confolidated, they are in general inter-
fecled with veins and cutters ; and in proportion as ftrata are
deep in their perpendicular fedlion, the veins are wide, and
placed at greater diftances. In like manner, when ftrata are thin,
the veins are many, but proportionally narrow.

IT is thus, upon chemical principles, to be demonftrated,
That all the folid ftrata of the globe have been condenfed by

K k 2 means

z6o THEORY of the EARTH.

means of heat, and hardened from a ftate of fufion. But this
propofition is equally to be maintained from principles which
are mechanical. The ftrata of the globe, befides being formed
of earths, are compofed of fand, of gravel, and fragments of
hard bodies, all which may be confidered as, in their nature,
fimple ; but thefe ftrata are alfo found compofed of bodies
which are not limple, but are fragments of former ftrata, which
had been confolidated, and afterwards were broken and worn
by attrition, fo as to be made gravel. Strata compofed in this
manner have been again confolidated ; and now the queftion is,
By what means ?

IF ftrata compofed of fuch various bodies had been confoli-
dated, by any manner of concretion, from the fluidity of a
diffolution, the hard and folid bodies muft be found in their
entire ftate, while the interftices between thofe conftituent parts
of the ftratum are filled up. No partial fracture can be con-
ceived as introduced into the middle of a folid mafs of hard
matter, without having been comnumicated from the furround-
ing parts. But fuch partial feparations are found in the mid-
dle of thofe hard and folid maffes ; therefore, this compound
body muft have been confolidated by other means than that of
concretion from a ftate of a folution.

THE Spanim marble already defcribed, as well as many con-
folidated ftrata of filiceous gravel, of which I have fpecimens,
afford the cleareft evidence of this fact. Thefe hard bodies are
perfectly united together, in forming the moft folid mafs ; the
contiguous parts of fome of the rounded fragments are inter-
laced together, as has already been obferved ; and there are par-
tial flirinkings of the mafs forming veins, traverfing feveral
fragments, but perfectly filled with the fparry fubftance of the
mafs, and fometimes with parts of the ftone diftinctly floating
in the tranfparent body of fpar. Now, there is not, befides
heat or fufion, any known power in nature by which thefe ef-
fects might be produced. But fuch effects are general to all

confolidated

THEORY of the EARTH. 261

confolidated mafles, although not always fo well illuftrated in
a cabinet fpecimen.

THUS we have difcovered a truth that is confirmed by every
appearance, fo far as the nature of the fubjecl now examined
admits. We now return to the general operation, of forming
continents of thofe materials which had been depofited at the
bottom of the fea.

PART III.

Invefligation of the Natural Operations employed in the Production of
Land above the Surface of the Sea.

WE feek to know that operation by means of which maf-
fes of loofe materials, collected at the bottom of the
fea, were raifed above its furface, and transformed into folid
land.

WE have found, that there is not in this globe (as a planet
revolving in the folar fyftem) any power or motion adapted to
the purpofe now in view ; nor, were there fuch a power, could
a mafs of {imply collected materials have continued any confi-
derable time to refift the waves and currents natural to the fea,
but muft have been quickly carried away, and again depofited
at the bottom of the ocean. But we have found, that there had
been operations, natural to the bowels of this earth, by which
thofe loofe and unconnected materials have been cemented to-
gether, and confolidated into mafTes of great ftrength and hard-
nefs ; thofe bodies are thus enabled to refift the force of waves
and currents, and to preferve themfelves, for a fuflicient time,
in their proper fhape and place, as land above the general fur-
face of the ocean.

WE

262 THEORY of the EARTH.

WE now defire to know, how far thofe internal operations of
the globe, by which folidity and {lability are procured to the
beds of loofe materials, may have been alfo employed in raifing
up a continent of land, to remain above the furface of the fea.

THERE is nothing fo proper for the erection of land above
the level of - the ocean, as an expanfive power of fufficient
force, applied directly under materials in the bottom of the fea,
under a mafs that is proper for the formation of land when
thus erected. The queflion is not, how fuch a power may be
procured ; fuch a power has probably been employed. If,
therefore, fuch a power mould be confident with that which
we found had actually been employed in preparing the erected
mafs ; or, if fuch a power is to be reafonably concluded as ac-
companying thofe operations which we have found natural to
the globe, and fituated in the very place where this expanfive
power appears to be required, we mould thus be led to perceive,
in the natural operations of the globe, a power as efficacious
for the elevation of what had been at the bottom of the fea in-
to the place of land, as it is perfect for the preparation of thofe
materials to fer.ve the purpofe of their elevation.

IN oppofition to this conclusion, it will not be allowed to al-
lege, that we are ignorant how fuch a power might be exerted
under the bottom of the ocean ; for the prefent queflion is not,
what had been the caufe of heat, which has appeared to have
been produced in that place j but, if this power of heat, which
has certainly been exerted at the bottom of the ocean for confo-
lidating flrata, had been employed alfo for another purpofe,
that is, for raifing thofe flrata into the place of land.

WE may, perhaps, account for the elevation of land, by the
fame caufe with that of the confolidation of flrata, already in-
vefligated, without explaining the means employed by nature
in procuring the power of heat, or fhewing from what general
fource of action this particular power had been derived j but, by
finding in fubterranean heat a caufe for any other change, be-

fides

THEORY of the EARTH. 263

fides the confolidation of porous or incoherent bodies, we fhall
generalize a fad, or extend our knowledge in the explanation of
natural appearances.

THE power of heat for the expanfion of bodies, is, fo far as
we know, unlimited j but by the expanfion of bodies placed
under the flrata at the bottom of the fea, the elevation of thofe
flrata may be affected j and the queflion now to be refolved re-
gards the actual exertion of this power of expanfion, How far
it is to be concluded as having been employed in the production,
of this earth above the level of the fea.

BEFORE attempting to refolve that queflion, it may be proper
to obferve, there has been exerted an extreme degree of heat
below the ftrata formed at the bottom of the fea ; and this is
precifely the action of a. power required for the elevation of
thofe heated bodies into a higher place. Therefore, if there is
no other way in which we may conceive this event to have been
brought about, confiftent with the prefent flate of things, or
what actually appears, we fhall have a right to conclude, that
fuch had been the order of procedure in natural things, and
that the flrata formed at the bottom of the fea had been ele-
vated, as well as confolidated, by means of fubterraneous
heat.

THE confolidation of flrata by means of fufion or the power
of heat, has been concluded from the examination of nature^
and from finding, that the prefent flate of things is inconfiflent
with any other fuppofition. Now, again, we are confidering
the only power that may be conceived as capable of elevating
flrata from the bottom of the fea, and placing fuch a mafs
above the furface of the water. It is a truth unqueflionable,-
that what had been originally at the bottom of the fea, is at
prefent the highefl of our land. In explaining this appearance,
therefore, no other alternative is left, but either to fuppofe flra-
ta elevated by the power of heat above the level of the prefent
fea, or the furface of the ocean reduced many miles below the

heightr

264 fHE ORT of the EAR

height at which it had fubfifted during the collection and indu-
ration of the land which we inhabit.

Now, if, on the one hand, we are to fuppofe no general
power of fubterraneous fire or heat, we leave to our theory no
means for the retreat of the fea, or the lowering of its furface ;
if, on the other hand, we are to allow the general power of
fubterraneous heat, we cannot have much difficulty in fuppo-
fing, either the furface of the fea to have fubfided, or the bot-
tom of the ocean, in certain parts, to have been raifed by a
fubterranean power above the level of its furface, according as
appearances mall be found to require the one or other of thofe
conclufions. Here, therefore, we are again remitted to the hi-
ftory of nature, in order to find matter of fad by which this
queftion may be properly decided.

IF the prefent land had been difcovered by the fubfiding of
the waters, there has not been a former land, from whence
materials had been procured for the conftrudion of the prefent,
wh?n at the bottom of the fea ; for there is no veftige remain-
ing of that land, the whole land of the prefent earth having
been formed evidently at the bottom of the fea. Neither could
the natural productions of the fea have been accumulated, in
the ihape in which we now find them, on the furface of this
earth ; for how ihould the Alps and Andes have been formed
within the fea from the natural productions of the water ? Con-
fequently, this is a fuppofition inconfiftent with every natural
appearance.

THE fuppofition, therefore, of the fubfidence of the former
ocean, for the purpofe of difcovering the prefent land, is befet
with more difficulty than the fimple erection of the bottom of
the former ocean ; for, firft, There is a place to provide for the
retirement of the waters of the ocean ; and, 2^/y, There is re-
quired a work of equal magnitude ; this is, the fwallowing up
of that former continent, which had procured the materials
cf the prefent land.

ON

THEORY of the EARTH. 265

ON the one hand, the fubfiding of the furface of the ocean
would but make the former land appear the higher j and, on
the other, the finking the body of the former land into the fo-
lid globe, fo as to fwallow up the greater part of the ocean after
it, if not a natural impoflibility, would be at leaft a fuperfluous
exertion of the power of nature. Such an operation as this
would difcover as little wifdom in the end elected, as in the
means appropriated to that end 3 for, if the land be not wafted
and worn away in the natural operations of the globe, why
make fuch a convulfion in the world in order to renew the
land ? If, again, the land naturally decays, why employ fo ex-
traordinary a power, in order to hide a former continent of
land, and puzzle man ?

LET us now confider how far the other propofition, of flrata
being elevated by the power of heat above the level of the fea,
may be confirmed from the examination of natural appear-
ances.

THE flrata formed at the bottom of the ocean are neceflarily
horizontal in their pofition, or nearly fo, and continuous in
their horizontal direction or extent. They may change, and
gradually afrume the nature of each other, fo far as concerns
the materials of which they are formed ; but there cannot be
any fudden change, fracture or difplacement naturally in the
body of a ftratum. But, if thefe flrata are cemented by the
heat of fufion, and creeled with an expanfive power acting be-
low, we may expect to find every fpecies of fracture, difloca-
tion and contortion, in thofe bodies, and every degree of de-
parture from a horizontal towards a vertical pofition.

THE flrata of the globe are actually found in every poflible
pofition : For from horizontal, they are frequently found verti-
cal ; from continuous, they are broken and feparated in every
poflible direction ; and, from a plane, they are bent and doubled.
It is impomble that they could have originally been formed,
by the known laws of nature, in their prefent flate and pofition;

L 1 and

266 THEORY of the EARTH.

and the power that has been necefTarily required for their
change, has not been inferior to that which might have been
required for their elevation from the place in which they had
been formed.

In this cafe, natural appearances are not anomalous. They
are, indeed, infinitely various, as they ought to be, according
to the rule ; but all thofe varieties in appearances confpire to
prove one general truth, viz. That all which we fee had been
originally compofed according to certain principles, eftabliftied
in the conftitution of the terraqxieous globe ; and that thofe
regular competitions had been afterwards greatly changed by
the operations of another power, which had introduced appa-
rent confufion among things firft formed in order and by rule.

IT is concerning the operation of this fecond power that we
are now enquiring ; and here the apparent irregularity and dif-
order of the mineral regions are as inftruclive, with regard to
what had been tranfacted in a former period of time, as the or-
der and regularity of thofe fame regions are conclufive, in re-
lation to the place in which a former flate of things had pro-
duced that which, in its changed ftate, we now perceive.

WE are now to conclude, that the land on which we dwell
had been elevated from a lower fituation by the fame agent
which had been employed in confolidating the ftrata, in giving
them {lability, and preparing them for the purpofe of the living
world. This agent is matter actuated by extreme heat, and ex-
panded with amazing force.

IF this has been the cafe, it will be reafonable to expect, that
fome of the expanded matter might be found condenfed in the
bodies which have been heated by that igneous vapour ; and
that matter, foreign to the ftrata, may have been thus intro-
duced into the fractures and feparations of thofe indurated
mafles.

WE have but to open our eyes to be convinced of this truth.
Look into the fources of our mineral treafures ', afk the miner,

from

THEORY of the EAR%H. 267

from whence has come the metal into his vein ? Not from the
earth or air above, not from the flrata which the vein traverfes ;
thefe do not contain one atom of the minerals now cotifidered :
There is but one place from whence thefe minerals may have
come ; this is, the bowels of the earth, the place of power and
expanfion, the place from whence muft have proceeded that in-
tenfe heat by which loofe materials have been confolidated into
rocks, as well as that enormous force by which the regular flra-
ta have been broken and difplaced.

OUR attention is here peculiarly called upon, where we have
the opportunity of examining thofe mineral bodies, which have
immediately proceeded from the unknown region, that place
of power and energy which we want to explore ; for, if fuch
is the fytlem of the earth, that materials are firfl depofited at
the bottom of the ocean, there to be prepared in a certain man-
ner, in order to acquire folidity, and then to be elevated into
the proper place of land, thefe mineral veins, which contain
matter abfolutely foreign to the furface of the earth, afford the
mod authentic information with regard to the operations which
we want to underftand. It is thefe veins which we are to con-
fider as, in fome meafure, the continuation of that mineral re-
gion, which lies necefTarily out of all poffible reach of our ex-
amination. It is, therefore, peculiarly interefling to know the
flate in which things are to be found in this place, which may
be confidered as intermediate between the folid land, upon the
one hand, and the unknown regions of the earth, upon the
other.

WE are now to examine thofe mineral veins ; and thefe "may
be confidered, firfl, in relation to their form, independent of
their fubftance or particular contents ; and, fecondly, in relation
to the contained bodies, independent of their form.

IN examining confolidated flrata, we remarked veins and
cutters as a proof of the means by which thofe bodies had been
confolidated. In that cafe, the formation of thefe veins is

L 1 2 a

268 THEORY of the EARTH.

a regulated procefs, determined by the degree of fufion, and
the circumflances of condenfation or refrigeration. In refpect
of thefe, the mineral veins now to be examined are anomalous.
They are ; but we know not why or how. We fee the effect ;
but, in that effect, we do not fee the caufe. We can fay, nega-
tively, that the caufe of mineral veins is not that by which the
veins and fiffures of confolidated ftrata have been formed ; con-
fequently, that it is not the meafured contraction and regulated
condenfation of the confolidated land which has formed thofe
general mineral veins ; however, veins, fimilar in many refpects,
have been formed by the co-operation of this caufe.

HAVING thus taken a view of the evident diftinction between
the veins or contractions that are particular to the confolidated
body in which they are found, and thofe more general veins
which are not limited to that caufe, we may now confider what
is general in the fubject, or what is univerfal in thefe effects of
which we wifh to invefligate the caxife.

THE event of higheft generalization or univerfality, in the
form of thofe mineral veins, is fracture and diflocation. It is
not, like that of the veins of ftrata, fimple feparation and mea-
fured contraction j it is violent fracture and unlimited difloca-
tion. In the one cafe, the forming caufe is in the body which is
feparated ; for, after the body had been actuated by heat, it is
by the reaction of the proper matter of the body, that the
chafm which conftitutes the vein is formed. In the other cafe,
again, the caufe is extrinfic in relation to the body in which the
chafm is formed. There has been the moft violent fracture and
divulfion ; but the caufe is ftill to feek ; and it appears not
in the vein ; for it is not every fracture and diflocation of the
folid body of our earth, in which minerals, or the proper fub-
ftances of mineral veins, are found.

WE are now examining matter of fact, real effects, from
whence we would inveftigate the nature of certain events which
do not now appear. Of thefe, two kinds occur ; one which has

acted

THEORT of the EARTH. 269

acted in relation to the hardnefs and folidity, or the natural
conftitution of the body ; the other, to its fhape or local fitua-
tion. The firft has been already considered ; the laft is now the
fubject of enquiry.

BUT, in examining thofe natural appearances, we find two
different kinds of veins j the one necefTarily connected with
the confolidating caufe ; the other with that caufe of which we
now particularly enquire. For, in thofe great mineral veins,
violent fracture and diflocation is the principle ; but there is no
other principle upon which flrata, or mafles formed at the bot-
tom of the fea, can be placed at a height above its furface.
Hence, in thofe two different operations, of forming mineral
veins, and erecting ftrata from a lower to a higher place, the
principle is the fame ', for neither can be done without violent
fracture and diflocation.

WE now only want to know, how far it is by the fame power,
as well as upon the fame principle, that thofe two operations
have been made. An expanfive force, acting from below, is
the power mofl proper for erecting mafles ; but whether it is a
power of the fame nature with that which has been employed
in forming mineral veins, will befl appear in knowing the na-
ture of their contents. Trrefe, therefore, may be now confi-
dered.

EVERY fpecies of fracture, and every degree of diflocation
and contortion, may be perceived in the form of mineral veins ;
and there is no other general principle to be obferved in exa-
mining their form. But, in examining their contents, fome
other principle may appear, fo far as, to the diflocating power
or force, there may be fuperadded matter, by which fomething
in relation to the nature of the power may be known. If, for
example, a tree or a rock fhall be found fimply fplit afunder,
although there be no doubt with regard to fome power having
been applied in order to produce the effect, yet we are left mere-
ly to conjecture at the power. But when wedges of wood or

iron

270 THE ORY of the EAR T H.

iron, or frozen water, fhould be found lodged in the cleft, we
might be enabled, from this appearance, to form a certain
judgment with regard to the nature of the power which had
been applied. This is the cafe with mineral veins. We find
them containing matter, which indicates a caufe ; and every in-
formation in this cafe is interefting to the theory.

THE fubflances contained in mineral veins are precifely the
fame with thofe which, in the former part of this paper, we
have confidered as being made inftrumental in the confolidation
of ftrata ; and they are found in every fpecies of mixture and
concretion.

BUT, befides this evidence for the exertion of extreme heat,
in that procefs by which thofe veins were filled, there is ano-
ther important obfervation to be gathered from the infpec"lion
of this fubjecl. There appears to have been a great mechani-
cal power employed in the filling of thefe veins, as well as that
necefTarily required in making the firft fraclure and divulfion.

THIS appears from the order of the contents, or filling of
thefe veins, which is a thing often obferved to be various and
fucceflive. But what it is chiefly now in view to illuftrate, is that
immenfe force which is manifefled in the fradlure and difper-
fion of the folid contents which had formerly filled thofe veins.
Here we find fragments of rock and fpar floating in the body
of a vein filled with metallic fubftances j there, again, we fee
the various fragments of metallic mafles floating in the fparry
and filiceous contents.

ONE thing is demonftrable from the infpe&ion of the veins
and their contents ; this is, the fucceflive irruptions of thofe
fluid fubflances breaking the folid bodies which they meet, and
floating thofe fragments of the broken bodies in the vein. It
is very common to fee three fucceflive feries of thofe opera-
tions ; and all this may be perceived in a fmall fragment of
flone, which a man of fcience may examine in his clofet, often

better

THEORY of the EARTH. 271

better than defcending to the mine, where all the examples are
found on an enlarged fcale.

LET us now confider what power would be required to force
up, from the mofl unfathomable depth of the ocean, to the
Andes or the Alps, a column of fluid metal and of ftone. This
power cannot be much lefs than that required to elevate the
higheft land upon the globe. Whether, therefore, we mall con-
fider the general veins as having been filled by mineral fleams,
or by fluid minerals, an elevating power of immenfe force is
flill required, in order to form as well as fill thofe veins. But
fuch a power acting under the confolidated mafTes at the bot-
tom of the fea, is the only natural means for making thofe
mafTes land.

IF fuch have been the operations that are necefTary for the
production of this land ; and if thefe operations are natural to
the globe of this earth, as being the effect of wifdom in its
contrivance, we fhall have reafon to look for the actual mant-
feftation of this truth in the phenomena of nature, or thofe ap-
pearances which more immediately difcover the actual caufe in
the perceived effect.

To fee the evidence of marble, a body that is folid, having
been formed 'of loofe materials collected at the bottom of the
fea, is not always eafy, although it may be made abundantly
plain ; and to be convinced that this calcareous ftone, which
calcines fo eafily in our fires, fhould have been brought into
fufion by fubterraneous heat, without fuffering calcination,
muft require a chain of reafoning which every one is not able
to attain. But when fire burfts forth from the bottom of
the fea, and when the land is heaved up and down, fo as to de-
molifh cities in an inftant, and fplit afunder rocks and folid
mountains, there is nobody but muft fee in this a power, which
may be fufficient to accomplifh every view of nature in erect-
ing land, as it is fituated in the place mofl advantageous for
that purpofe..

THE

272 1HE ORT of the EAR T H.

THE only queftion, therefore, which it concerns us to decide
at prefent, is, Whether thofe operations of extreme heat, and
violent mechanic force, be only in the fyftem as a matter of acci-
dent ; or if, on the contrary, they are operations natural to the
globe, and necefTary in the production of fuch land as this
•which we inhabit. The anfwer to this is plain : Thefe opera-
tions of the globe, remain at prefent with undiminiihed activi-
ty, or in the fulnefs of their power.

A ftream of melted lava flows from the fides of Mount ./Etna.
Here is a column of weighty matter raifed an immenfe height
above the level of the fea, and rocks of an enormous iize are pro-
jected from its orifice fome miles into the air. Every one ac-
knowledges that here is the liquefying power and expanfive
force of fubterranean fire, or violent heat. But that Sicily
itfelf had been raifed from the bottom of the ocean, and that
the marble called Sicilian Jafper, had its folidity upon the fame
principle with the lava, would ftumble many a naturalift to ac-
knowledge. Neverthelefs, I have in my poffeffion a table of
this marble, from which it is demonftrable, that this calca-
reous ftone had flowed, and been in fuch a flate of fufion and
fluidity as lava.

HERE is a comparifon formed of two mineral fubftances, to
which it is of the higheft importance to attend. The folidity
and prefent ftate of the one of thefe is commonly thought to
be the operation of fire ; of the other, again, it is thought to
be that of water. This, however, is not the cafe. The im-
mediate ftate and condition of both thefe bodies is now to be
confidered as equally the effect of fire or heat. The reafon of
our forming fuch a different judgment with regard to thefe two
fubjects is this ; we fee, in the one cafe, the more immediate
connection of the caufe and the effect, while, in the other, we
have only the effects from whence we are in fcience to invefti-

gate the caufe.

BUT

THEORT of the EARTH, 273

BUT, if it were neceflary always to fee this immediate con-
nection, in order to acknowledge the operation of a power
which, at prefent, is extinguifhed in the effect, we fhould lofc
the benefit of fcience, or general principles, from whence parti-
culars may be deduced, and we fhould be able to reafon no bet-
ter than the brute. Man is made for fcience ; he reafons from
effects to caufes, and from caufes to effects ; but he does not
always reafon without error. In reafoning, therefore, from ap-
pearances which are particular, care muft be taken how we ge-
neralize ; we Ihould be cautious not to attribute to nature, laws
which may perhaps be only of our own invention.

THE immediate queftion now before us is not, if the fubter-
raneous fire, or elevating power, which we perceive fometimes
as operating with fuch energy, be the confolidating caufe of
ftrata formed at the bottom of the fea ; nor, if that power be
the means of making land appear above the general furface of
the water ; for, though this be the end we want to arrive at ul-
timately, the queftion at prefent in agitation refpects the laws of
nature, or the generality of particular appearances.

HAS the globe within it fuch an active power as fits it for
the renovation of that part of its conftitution which may be
fubject to decay ? Are thofe powerful operations of fire, or fub-
terraneous heat, which fo often have filled us with terror and
aftonifhment, to be confidered as having always been ? Are
they to be concluded as proper to every part upon the globe,
and as continual in the fyftem of this earth ? If thefe points in
queftion mall be decided in the affirmative, we can be at no
lofs in afcertaining the power which has confolidated ftrata, nor
in explaining the prefent fituation of thofe bodies, which had
their origin at the bottom of the fea. This, therefore, fhould
be the object of our purfuit ; and, in order to have demonftra-
tion in a cafe of phyfical enquiry, we muft again have recourfe
to the book of nature.

M m THE

274 THEORY of tie EARTH.

THE general tendency of heat is to produce fluidity and
foftnefs ; as that of cold is, on the contrary, to harden foft
and fluid bodies. But this foftening power of heat is not uni-
form in its. nature) it is made to ac"l with very different effect,
according to the nature of the fubftance to which it is applied.
We are but' limited in the art of increafing the heat or the cold
of bodies ', we find, however, extreme difference in their fub-
ftances with refpecl: to fufibility.

A FUSIBLE fubftance, or mineral compofition in a fluid ftate,
is emitted from thofe places of the earth at which fubterrane-
ous fire and expanfive force are manifefled in thofe eruptive
operations. In examining thefe emitted bodies, men of fcience
find a character for fuch productions, in generalizing the fub-
ftance, and underftanding the natural conftitution of thofe bo-
dies. It is in this manner, that fuch a perfon, finding a piece
of lava in any place of the earth, fays with certainty, Here is a
ftone which had congealed from a melted ftate.

HAVING thus found a diftinguifhing character for thofe
fufed fubftances called, in general, lavas, and having the moft
vifible marks for that which had been actually a volcano, natu-
ralifts, in examining different countries, have difcovered the
moft undoubted proofs of many ancient volcanos, which had
not been before fufpedled. Thus, volcanos will appear to be
not a matter of accident,- or as only happening in a particular
place, they are generaHo the globe, fo far as there is no^ place
upon the earth that may not have an eruption of this kind ; al-
though it is by no means necefiary for every place to have had
thofe eruptions.

VOLCANOS are natural to the globe, as general operations ;
but we are not to confider nature as having a burning moun-
tain for an end in her intention, or as a principal purpofe in
the general fyftem of this world. The end of nature in placing
an internal fire or power of heat, and a force of irrefiftible ex-
panfion, in the body of this earth, is to confolidate the fediment

collected

THEORY of the EARTH. 275

collected at the bottom of the fea, and to form thereof a mafs
of permanent land above the level of the ocean, for the purpofe
of maintaining plants and animals. The power appointed for
this purpofe is, as on all other occafions, where the operation is
important, and where there is any danger of a fhortcoming,
wifely provided in abundance ; and there are contrived means
for difpofing of the redundancy. Thefe, in the prefent cafe,
are our volcanos.

A VOLCANO is not made on purpofe to frighten fuperflitious
people into fits of piety and devotion, nor to overwhelm devoted
cities with deftruction ; a volcano fliould be confidered as a fpi-
racle to the fubterranean furnace, in order to prevent the unne-
cefTary elevation of land, and fatal effects of earthquakes ; and
we may reft allured, that they, in general, wifely anfwer the
end of their intention, without being in themfelves an end, for
which nature had exerted fuch amazing power and excellent
contrivance.

LET us take a view of the moft elevated places of the earth ;
if the prefent theory is juft, it is there that we fhould find vol-
canos. But is not this the cafe ? There are volcanos in the An-
des ; and round the Alps we find many volcanos, which are in
France upon the one fide, and in Germany upon the other, as
well as upon the Italian fide, where Vefuvius ftill continues to
exhibit violent eruptions.

IT is not meant to allege, that it is only upon the fummit of a
continent volcanos fliould appear. . Subterraneous fire has fome-
times made its appearance in burfting from the bottom of the fea.
But, even in this laft cafe, land was raifed from the bottom of the
fea, before the eruption made its exit into the atmofphere. It
muft alfo be evident, that, in this cafe of the - new ifland near
Santorini, had the expanfive power been retained, inftead of be-
ing difcharged, much more land might have been raifed above
the level of the ocean.

M m 2 Now,

276 THEORY of the EARtH.

Now, the eruption of that elaftic force through the bottom
of the fea, may be confidered as a wafte of power in the opera-
tions of the globe, where the elevation of indurated (Irata is an
object in the exertion of that power j whereas, in the centre
of a continent fufficiently elevated above the level of the fea,
the eruption of that fiery vapour calculated to elevate the land,
while it may occafionally deflroy the habitations of a few, pro-
vides for the fecurity and quiet pofleffion of the many.

IN order to fee the wifdom of this contrivance, let us confi-
der the two extreme places at which this eruption of ignited
matter may be performed. Thefe are, on the one hand, with-
in a continent of land, and, on the other, at the bottom of
the ocean. In the one cafe, the free eruption of the expanding
power fhould be permitted > becaufe the purpofe for which it
had been calculated to exift, has been accomplifhed. In the
other, again, the free eruption of that powerful matter fhould
be reprefled j becaufe there is referved for that power much of
another operation in that place. But, according to the wife con-
ftitution of things, this muft necefTarily happen. The erup-
tion of the fiery vapour from volcanos on the continent or land,
is interrupted only occafionally, by the melted bodies flowing
in the fubterraneous chimney ; whereas, at the bottom of the
ocean, the contact of the water necefTarily tends to clofe the
orifice, by accumulating condenfed matter upon the weakeft
place.

IF this be a juft theory of the natural operations of the
globe, we mail have reafon to expect, that great quantities of
this melted matter or fufible fubftance may be found in form
of lava, among the ftrata of tke earth, where there are no vi-
fible marks of any volcano, or burning mountain, having exifl-
eft. Here, therefore, is an important point to be determined ;
for, if it fhall appear, that much of this melted matter, analo-
gous to lava, has been forced to flow among the ftrata which
had been formed at the bottom of the fea, and now are found

forming

THEORY of the EARTH. 277

forming dry land above its furface, it will be allowed, that we
have difcovered the fecret operations of nature concocting fu-
ture land, as well as thofe by which the prefent habitable earth
had been produced from the bottom of the abyfs. Here, there-
fore, we mail at prefent reft the argument, with endeavouring
to fhew that fuch is actually the cafe.

IT appears from CRONSTEDT'S Mineralogy, that the rock-
ftone, called trap by the Swedes, the amygdaloides and the
fchwarts-ftein of the Germans, are the fame with the whin-
flone of this country. This is alfo fully confirmed by fpeci-
mens from Sweden, fent me by my friend Dr GAHN. What-
ever, therefore, {hall be afcertained with regard to our whin-
ftone, may be fo far generalized or extended to the countries of
Norway, Sweden, and Germany.

THE whinftone of Scotland is alfo the fame with the toad-
flone of Derbyfhire, which is of the amygdaloides fpecies ; it
is alfo the fame with the ragftone of the fouth of StafFordfhire,
which is a fimple whinftone, or perfect trap. England, there-
fore, muft be included in this great fpace of land, the mineral
operations of which we explore j and alfo Ireland, of which
the Giants Caufeway, and many others, are fufficient proof.

IN the fouth of Scotland, there is a ridge of hills, which ex-
tends from the weft fide of the ifland in Galloway to the eaft
fide in Berwickfhire, compofed of granite, of fchiftus, and of
filiceous ftrata. The Grampians on the north, again, form
another range of mountains of the fame kind ; and between
thefe two great fields of broken, tumbled and diftorted ftrata,
there lies a field of lefTer hardnefs and confolidation, in gene-
ral ; but a field in which there is a great manifeftation of fubter-
raneous fire," and of exerted force.

THE ftrata in this fpace confift, in general, of fandftone,
coal, limeftone or marble, ironftone, and marl or argillaceous
ftrata, with ftrata of analogous bodies, and the various compo-
fitions of thefe. But what is to the prefent purpofe is this,

that,

278 THEORY of the EARTH.

that, through all this fpace, there are interfperfed immenfe
quantities of whinftone ; a body which is to be diftinguiflied
as very different from lava ; and now the difpofition of this
whinftone is to be confidered.

SOMETIMES it is found in an irregular mafs or mountain, as

Mr CRONSTEDT has properly obferved ; but he has alfo faid,

that this is not the cafe in general. His words are : " It is

' oftener found in form of veins in mountains of another

' kind, running commonly in a ferpentine manner, contrary

" or acrofs to the direction of the rock itfelf."

THE origin of this form, in which the trap or whinftone ap-
pears, is moft evident to infpeclion, when we confider that this
folid body had been in a fluid ftate, and introduced, in that
ftate, among ftrata which preferved their proper form. The
ftrata appear to have been broken, and the two correfpondent
parts of thofe ftrata are feparated to admit the flowing mafs of
whinftone.

A FINE example of this kind may be feen upon the fouth
fide of the Earn, on the road to Grief. It is twenty-four yards
wide, ftands perpendicular, and appears many feet above the
furface of the ground. It runs from that eaftward, and would
feem to be the fame with that which crofles the river Tay, in
forming Campfy-lin above Stanley, as a lefler one of the fame
kind does below it. I have feen it at Lednoc upon the Am-
mon, where it forms a cafcade in that river, about five or fix
miles weft of Campfy-lin. It appears to run from the Tay
eaft through Strathmore, fo that it may be confidered as having
been traced for twenty or thirty miles, and weftwards to Drum-
mond caftle, perhaps much farther.

Two fmall veins of the fame kind, only two or three feet
wide, may be feen in the bed of the Water of Leith, traverfing
the horizontal ftrata, the one is above St BERNARD'S well, the
other immediately below it. But, more particularly, in the
ihire of Ayr, to the north of Irvine, there are to be feen upon

the

THEORY of the EARTH. 279

the coaft, between that and Scarmorly, in the fpace of about
twenty miles, more than twenty or thirty fuch dykes (as they
are called) of whinftone. Some of them are of a great thick-
nefs ; and, in fome places, there is perceived a fhort one, run-
ning at right angles, and communicating with other two that
run parallel.

THERE is in this country, and in Derbyshire *, another re-
gular appearance of this ftone, which CRONSTEDT has not
mentioned. In this cafe, the flrata are not broken in order to
have the whinflone introduced, they are feparated, and the
whinftone is interjected in form of ftrata, having various de-
grees of regularity, and being of different thicknefs. On the
fouth fide of Edinburgh, I have feen, in little more than the
ipace of a mile from eaft to weft, nine or ten mafles of whin-
ftone interjected among the ftrata. Thefe mafles of whinftone
are from three or four to an hundred feet thick, running pa-
rallel in planes inclined to the horizon, and forming with it an
angle of about twenty or thirty degrees, as may be feen at all
times in the hill of Salifbury Craggs.

HAVING thus defcribed thefe mafles, which have flowed by
means of heat among the ftrata of the globe, ftrata which had
been formed by fubfidence at the bottom of the fea, it will
now be proper to examine the difference that fubfifts between
thefe fubterraneous lavas, as they may be termed, and the ana-
logous bodies, which are proper lavas, in having iflued out of a
volcano f. ^

THERE

* See Mr WHITEHURST'S Theory of the Earth.

•(- The Chevalier de Dolomieu, in his accurate examination of ./Etna and the Lipari
iflands, has very well obferved the diftindion of thefe two different fpecies of lavas ; but
without feeming to know the principle upon which this eflential difference depends. No
bias of fyfiem, therefore, can here be fuppofed as perverting the Chevalier's view, in
taking thofe obfervations ; and thefe are interefting to the prefent theory, as correfpond-
ing perfectly with the fads from whence it has been formed. It will be proper to give-
the ap count of thefe in his own words.

LA

28o THEORY of the EARTH.

THERE can be no doubt that thefe two different fpecies of
bodies have had the fame origin, and that they are compofed
of the fame materials nearly j but from the different circum-
flances of their production, there is formed a character to thefe
bodies, by which they may be perfectly diftinguifhed. The
difference of thofe circumftances confifts in this j the one has
been emitted to the atmofphere in its fluid ftate, the other only
came to be expofed to the light in a long courfe of time, after
it had congealed under the compremon of an immenfe load of
earth, and after certain operations, proper to the mineral re-
gions, had been exercifed upon the indurated mafs. This is
the caufe of the difference between thofe erupted lavas, and our
whinftone, toadflone, and theSwedifh trap, which may be termed
fubterraneous lava. The vifible effects of thofe different opera-
tions may now be mentioned.

IN the erupted lavas, thofe fubftances which are fubject to
calcine and vitrify in our fires, fuffer fimilar changes, when de-
livered from a compremon which had rendered them fixed,

though

LA zeolite eft tres-commune dans certains laves de 1'Ethna ; il feroit peut-etre poflible
d'y en rencontrer des morceaux aufli gros que ceux que fournit 1'ifle de Ferro6. Quoi-
que cette fubftance femble ici appartenir aux laves, je ne dirai cependant point que tou-
tes les zeolites foient volcaniques, ou unies a des matieres volcaniques ; celles que 1'on
trouve en Allemagne font, dit-on, dans des circonftances differentes ; mais je doit an-
noncer que je n'ai trouve cette fubftance en Sicile, que dans les feules laves qui evidem-
ment ont coule dans la mer, et qui ont etc recouvertes par fes eaux. La zeolite des la-
ves n'eft point une dejecVion volcanique, ni une production du feu, ni meme un matiere
que les laves aient enveloppee lorfqu'elles etoient fluides ; elle eft le refultat d'une opera-
tion et d'une combinaifon pofterieure, auxquelles les eaux de la mer ont concouru. Les
laves qui n'ont pas etc fubmergees, n'en contiennent jamais. J'ai trouve ces obferva-
tions fi conftantes, que par-tout ou je rencontrois de la zeolite, j'etois sur de trouver
d'autres preuves de fubmerfion, et partout ou je voyois des laves recouvertes des depots
de 1'eau, j'etois sur de trouver de la zeolite, et un de ces fails tn'a toujours indique 1'au-
tre. Je me fuis fervi avec fucces de cette obfervation pour diriger mes recherches, et
pour connoitre 1'antiquite des laves. Mineralogie de Volcans, par M. Faujas de Saint-
Fund. Here would appear to be the diftindlion of fubterraneous lava, in which zeolite
and calcareous fpar may be found, and that which has flowed from a volcano, in which
neither of thefe are ever obferved.

THEORY of the EARTH. 281

though in an extremely heated ftate. Thus, a lava in which
there is much calcareous fpar, when it comes to be expofed to
the atmofphere, or delivered from the comprefling force of its
confinement, efFervefces by the explofion of its fixed air ; the
calcareous earth, at the fame time, vitrifies with the other fub-
ftances : Hence fuch violent ebullition in volcanos, and hence
the emiffion of fo much pumice-ftone and afh.es, which are of
the fame nature.

IN the body of our whinftone, on the contrary, there is no
mark of calcination or vitrification. We frequently find in it
much calcareous fpar, or the terra calcarea acrata, which had
been in a melted ftate by heat, and had been cryftallized by
congelation into a fparry form. Such is the lapis amygdaloides •,
and many of our whinftone rocks, which contain pebbles
cryftallized and varioufly figured, both calcareous, filiceous,
and of a mixture in which both thefe fubftances form diftincl;
parts. The fpecimens of this kind, which 1 have from the
whinftone or porphyry rock of die Calton-hill, exhibit every
fpecies of mineral operation, in forming jafper, figured agate,
and marble; and they demonftrate, that this had been per-
formed by heat or fufion.

I DO not mean to fay, that this demonftration is direcl: ; it is
conditional, and proceeds upon the fuppofition, that the bafal-
tic or porphyry rock, in which thofe fpecimens are found, is a
body which had been in a melted ftate. Now, this is a fuppo-
fition for which I have abundance of evidence, were it re-
quired ; but naturalifts are now fufficiently difpofed to admit
that propofition ; they even draw conclufions from this fact,
which, I think, they are not fufficiently warranted in doing ;
that is, from this appearance, they infer the former exiftence
of volcanos in thofe places. For my part, though I have made
the moft ftric"l examination, I never faw any veftige of fuch an
event. That there are, in other countries, evident marks of
volcanos which have been long extinguiihed, is unqueftionably

N n true;

282 'THEORY of the EARTH.

true ; but naturalifts, imagining that there are no other marks
of fubterraneous fire and fufion, except in the production of a
lava, attribute to a volcano, as a caufe, thefe effects, which only
indicate the exertion of that power which might have been the
caufe of a volcano.

IF the theory now given be juft, a rock of marble is no lefs
a mark of fubterraneous fire and fufion, than that of the ba-
faltes ; and the flowing of bafaltic flreams among ftrata broken
and difplaced, affords the mofl fatisfatflory evidence of thofe
operations by which the body of our land had been elevated
above the furface of the fea ; but it gives no proof that the
eruptive force of mineral vapours had been difcharged in a
burning mountain. Now, this difcharge is eJTential in the pro-
per idea of a volcano.

BESIDES this internal mark of an unerupted lava in the fub-
ftance of the ftone or body of the flowing mafs, there are
others which belong to it in common with all other mineral
ftrata, consolidated by fubterraneous fire, and changed from,
the place of their original formation ; this is, the being broken
and diflocated, and having veins of foreign matter formed in
their feparations and contractions.

IF thefe are mineral operations, proper to the lower regions
of the earth, and exerted upon bodies under immenfe compref-
fion, fuch things will be fometimes found in the unerupted
lavas, as well as in the contiguous bodies with which they are
aflbciated. If, on the contrary, thefe are operations proper to
the furface of the earth, where the diflblving power of water
and air take place, and where certain ftala&ical and ferruginous
concretions are produced by thefe means ; then, in erupted lavas,
we mould find mineral concretions, which concretions fhould
be denied to bodies which had been confolidated at the bottom
of the fea ; that is to fay, where, without the operation of fub-
terraneous fire, no changes of that kind could have taken
place, as has already been obferved. But in the unerupted fpe-

cies

THEORY of the EARTH. 283

cles of lava, that is to fay, in our whinftone, every fpecies of
mineral appearance is occafionally to be found. Let thofe who
have the opportunity to examine, fay, what are to be found in
proper lavas, that is, thofe of the erupted kind. Sir WILLIAM
HAMILTON informed me, when I mewed him thofe mineral
veins and fpars in our whinftone, that he had never obferved
the like in lavas.

WE have now formed fome conclufions with regard to the
nature and production of thofe parts of the land of this globe
which we have had the means of examining perfectly ; but
from the accounts of travellers, and from the fpecimens which
are brought to us from diftant parts, we have reafon to believe,
that all the reft of the earth is of the fame nature with that
which has been now confidered. The great mafles of the earth
are the fame every where ; and all the different fpecies of earths,
of rocks or ftone, which have as yet appeared, are to be found
in the little fpace of this our ifland.

IT is true, that there are peculiar productions in the mineral
kingdom which are rare, as being found only in few places j
but thefe things are merely accidental in relation to the land,
for they belong in property to thofe parts of the mineral region
which we never fee. Such are, the diamond of the eaft, the
platina of the weft, and the tin of Cornwall, Germany, and
Sumatra. Gold and filver, though found in many countries,
do not appear to be immediately neceflary in the production of
a habitable country. Iron, again, is univerfal in the operations
of the globe, and is found often in that profufion which equals
its utility. Between thefe two extremes, we find all other mi-
nerals, that is to fay, here and there in moderate quantity, and
apparently in fome proportion to their ufe. But all thefe fub-
ftances are to be confidered as the vapours of the mineral re-
gions, condenfed occafionally in the crevices of the land ; and
it is only the rocks and ftrata (in which thofe mineral veins are
found) that are now examined with regard to their original

N n 2 compofition

284 THEORY of the EARTH.

compofition at the bottom of the fea, as well as to that opera-
tion by which thofe bodies had been indurated in their fub-
ftance, and elevated from the place in which they had been,
formed.

THUS, we have fufficient reafon to believe, that, in knowing
the conftruction of the land in Europe, we know the conftitu-
tion of the land in every part of the globe. Therefore, we
may proceed to form general conclufions, from the knowledge
of the mineral region, thus acquired in ftudying thofe parts
which are feen.

HAVING thus found, firjl, That the confolidated and indu-
rated mafles of our ftrata had fuffered the effects of violent heat
and fufion j idly. That thofe ftrata, which had been formed in
a regular manner at the bottom of the fea, have been violently
bended, broken and removed from their original place and fitxi-
ation ; and, la/lly, Having now found the molt indubitable
proof, that the melting, breaking, and removing power of fub-
terraneous fire, has been actually exerted upon this land which
we examine, we cannot hefitate in afcribing thefe operations as
a caufe to thofe effects which are expofed to our view. Now,
thefe may be confidered as confifling in the folid ftate and pre-
fent fituation of thofe ftratified bodies, originally formed by
fubfidence in the ocean ; appearances which cannot, in reafon,
be afcribed to any other caufe, and which, upon this principle,
are perfectly explained.

IT is not meant to fpecify every particular in the means em-
ployed by nature for the elevation of our land. It is fufficient
to have {hewn, that there is, in nature, means employed for the
confolidating of ftrata, formed originally of loofe and incoherent
materials ; and that thofe fame means have alfo been employed
in changing the place and fituation of thofe ftrata. But how
defcribe an operation which man cannot have any opportunity
of perceiving ? Or how imagine that, for which, perhaps, there
are not proper data to be found ? We only know, that the land

is

THEORY of the EARTH. 285

is raifed by a power which has for principle fubterraneous heat ;
but how that land is preferved in its elevated ftation, is a fub-
ject in which we have not even the means to form conjecture ;
at leaft, we ought to be cautious how we indulge conjecture in
a fubject where no means occur for trying that which is but
fuppofition.

WE now proceed, from the facts which have been properly
eftablifhed, to reafon with regard to the duration of this globe,
or the general view of its operations, as a living world, main-
taining plants and animals.

PART IV.

Syjlem of Decay and Renovation obferved in the Earth.

*

PHILOSOPHERS obferving an apparent diforder and confu-
fion in the folid parts of this globe, have been led to con-
clude, that there formerly exifted a more regular and uniform
ftate, in the conftitution of this earth ; that there had happen-
ed fome deftructive change ; and that the original ftructure of
the earth had been broken and difturbed by fome violent ope-
ration, whether natural, or from a fupernatural caufe. Now,
all thefe appearances, from which conclufions of this kind have
been formed, find the moft perfect explanation in the theory
which we have been endeavouring to eftablilh ; for they are the
facts from whence we have reafoned, in difcovering the nature
and conftitution of this earth : Therefore, there is no occafion
for having recourfe to any unnatural fuppofition of evil, to any
deftructive accident in nature, or to the agency of any preter-
natural cavife, in explaining that which actually appears.

IT

THEORY of the EARtH.

IT is neceffary for a living or inhabited world, that this
ihould confifl of land and water. It is alfo neceffary, that the
land fhould be folid and ftable, refitting, with great power, the
violent efforts of the ocean j and, at the fame time, that this
folid land fhould be refolved by the influence of the fun and
atmofphere, fb as to decay, and thus become a foil for vegeta-
tion. But thefe general intentions are perfectly fulfilled in the
conftitution of our earth, which has been now invefligated.
This great body being formed of different mixed maffes, ha-
ving various degrees of hardnefs and folubility, proper foil for
plants is fupplied from the gradual refolution of the folid parts ;
fertility in thofe foils arifes from the mixture of different ele-
mentary fubftances ; and ftability is procured to that vegetable
world, by the induration of certain bodies, thofe rocks and
flones, which protect -the fofter maffes of clay and foil.

IN this manner, alfo, will eafily be explained thofe natural ap-
pearances which diverfify the furface of the earth for the -ufe
of plants and animals, and thofe objects which beautify the
face of nature for the contemplation of mankind. Such are,
the diftinctions of mountains and valleys, of lakes and rivers,
of dry barren defarts and rich watered plains, of rocks which
ftand apparently unimpaired, by the lapfe of time, and fands
which fluctuate with the winds and tides. All thefe are the ef-
fects of fleady caufes j each of thefe has its proper purpofe in
the fyftem of the earth ; and in that fyftem is contained ano-
ther, which is that of living growing bodies, and of animated
beings.

BUT, befides this, man, the intellectual being, has, in this
fubject of the mineral kingdom, the means of gratifying the
:defire of knowledge, a faculty by which he is diftinguifhed
from the animal, and by which he improves his mind in know-
ing caufes. Man is not fatisfied, like the brute, in feeing
things which are ; he feeks to know how things have been,
;and what they are to be. It is with pleafure that he obferves

order

THEORT of the EARTH. 2&7

order and regularity in the works of nature, inftead of being
difgufted with diforder and confufion ; and he is made happy
from the appearance of wifdom and benevolence in the defign,
inftead of being left to fufpecl in the Author of nature, any of
that imperfection which he finds in himfelf.

LET us now take a view of that fyftem of mineral ceconomy,
in which may be perceived every mark of order and defign, of
provident wifdom and benevolence.

WE have been endeavouring to prove, that all the continents
and iflands of this globe had been raifed above the furface of
the ocean j we have alfo aimed at pointing out the caufe of this-
tranflation of matter, as well as of the general folidity of that
which is raifed to our view ; but however this theory fhall be
received, no perfon of obfervation can entertain a doubt, that
all, or almoft all we fee of this earth, had been originally formed
at the bottom of the fea. We have now another object in our
view ; this is to inveftigate the operations of the globe, at the
time that the foundation of this land was laying in the waters of
the ocean, and to trace the exiftence and the nature of things,,
before the prefent land appeared above the furface of the
waterSi, We fhould thus acquire fome knowledge of the fyftenv
according to which this world is ruled, both in its prefervatiort
and production ; and we might be thus enabled, to judge, how
far the mineral fyftem of the world fhall appear to be contrived
with all the wifdom, which is fo manifeft in what are termed
the animal and vegetable kingdoms.

IT muft not be imagined that this undertaking is a thing
unreafonable in its nature j or that it is a work neceflarily be*
fet with any unfurmountable difficulty ; for, however imper-
fectly we may fulfil this end propofed, yet, fo far as it is to natu-
ral caufesthat are to be afcribed the operations of former time,
and fo far as, from the prefent ftate of things, or knowledge
of natural hiftory, we have it in our power to reafon from effect
to caufe, there are, in the conftitution of the world, which we

now

288 THEORY of the E4RTH.

now examine, certain means to read the annals of a former
earth.

THE object of enquiry being the operations of the globe,
during the time that the prefent earth was forming at the bot-
tom of the fea, we are now to take a very general view of nature,
without defcending into thofe particulars which fo often occu-
py the Speculations of naturalifts, about the prefent ftate of
things. We are not at prefent to enter into any difcuffion with
regard to what are the primary and fecondary mountains of
the earth ; we are not to tonfider what is the firft, and what
the laft, in thofe things which now are feen j whatever is moft
ancient in the ftrata which we now examine, is fuppofed to be
Collecting at the bottom of the fea, during the period concern-
ing which we are now to enquire.

WE have already confidered thofe operations which had
been neceflary in forming our folid land, a body confifting
of materials originally depofited at the bottom of the ocean ;
we are now to inveftigate the fource from whence had come
all thofe materials, from the collection of which the prefent
land is formed ; and from knowing the ftate in which thofe
materials had exifted, previoufly to their entering the compo-
fition of our ftrata, we fhall learn fomething concerning the
natural hiftory of this world, while the prefent earth was form-
ing in the fea.

WE have already obferved, that all the ftrata of the earth
are compofed either from the calcareous relicts of fea animals,
or from the collection of fuch materials as we find upon our
mores. At a grofs computation, there may perhaps be a fourth
part of our folid land, which is compofed from the matter that
had belonged to thofe animals. Now, what a multitude of
living creatures, what a quantity of animal ceconomy muft
have been required for producing a body of calcareous matter
which is interfperfed throughout all the land of the globe, and
which certainly forms a very confiderable part of that mafs !

Therefore

THEORY of the EARTH. 289

Therefore, in knowing how thofe animals had lived, or with
what they had been fed, we fhall have learned a moft intereft-
ing part of the natural hiftory of this earth ; a part which it
is necefTary to have afcertained, in order to fee the former ope-
rations of the globe, while preparing the materials of the pre-
fent land. But, before entering upon this fubjecl, let us exa-
mine the other materials of which our land is formed.

GRAVEL forms a part of thofe materials which compofe our
folid land ; but gravel is no other than a collecYion of the frag-
ments of folid flones worn round, or having their angular
form deflroyed by agitation in water, and the attrition upon
each other, or upon fimilar hard bodies. Confequently, in
finding mafles of gravel in the compofition of our land, we
mufl conclude, that there had exifted a former land, on which
there had been tranfacled certain operations of wind and wa-
ter, fimilar to thofe which are natural to the globe at prefent,
and by which new gravel is continually prepared, as well as old
gravel confumed or diminifhed by attrition upon our mores.

SAND is the material which enters, perhaps in greatefl quan-
tity, the compofition of our land. But fand is no other than
fmall fragments of hard and folid bodies, worn or rounded
more or lefs by attrition ; confequently, the fame natural hifto-
ry of the earth, which is inveftigated from the mafles of gravel,
is alfo applicable to thofe maffes of fand which we find forming
fo large a portion of our prefent land throughout all the earth.

CLAY is now to be confidered as the laft of thofe materials
of which our ftrata are compofed j but, in order to underftand
the nature of this ingredient, fomething mufl be premifed.

CLAY is a mixture of different earths or hard fubftances,
in an impalpable ftate. Thofe fubftances are chiefly the filice-
ous and aluminous earths. Other earths are occafionally mixed
in clays, or perhaps always to be found in fome fmall portion.
But this does not affect the general character of clay ; it only
forms a fpecial variety in the fubjecl. A fenfible or confidera-

O o ble

290 THEORY of the EARTH.

ble portion of calcareous earth, in the competition of clay, con-
ftitutes a marl, and a fufficient admixture of fand, a loam.

AN indefinite variety of thofe compofitions of clay form a
large portion of the prefent flrata, all indurated and confolidated
in various degrees ; but this great quantity of filiceous, argil-
laceous, and other compound fubflances, in form of earth or
impalpable fediment, correfponds perfectly with that quantity
of thofe fame fubftances which muft have been prepared in
the formation of fo much gravel and fand, by the attrition of
thofe bodies in the moving waters.

THEREFORE, from the confideration of thofe materials which
compofe the prefent land, we have reafon to conclude, that,
during the time this land was forming, by the collection of
its materials at the bottom of the fea, there had been a former
land containing materials fimilar to thofe which we find at pre-
fent in examining the earth. We may alfo conclude, that
there had been operations fimilar to thofe which we now find
natural to the globe, and neceflarily exerted in the actual
formation of gravel, fand and clay. But what we have now
chiefly in view to illuftrate is this, that there had then been in the
ocean afyftem of animated beings, which propagated their fpecies,
and which have thus continued their feveral races to this day.

IN order to be convinced of that truth, we have but to exa-
mine the ftrata of our earth, in which we find the remains of
animals. In this examination, we not only«difcover every ge-
nus of animal which at prefent exifts in the fea, but probably
every fpecies, and perhaps fome fpecies with which at prefent
we are not acquainted. There are, indeed, varieties in thofe
fpecies, compared with the prefent animals which we examine,
but no greater varieties than may perhaps be found among the
fame fpecies in the different quarters of the globe. Therefore,
the fyftern of animal life, which had been maintained in the
ancient fea, had n9t been different from that which now fub-
fifts, and of which it belongs to naturalifls to know the hiflory.

IT

THEORT of the EARTH. 291

IT is the nature of animal life to be ultimately fupported
from matter of vegetable production. Inflammable matter
may be confidered as the pabulum of life. This is prepared in
the bodies of living plants, particularly in their leaves expofed
to the fun and light This inflammable matter, on the contra-
ry, is confumed in animal bodies, where it produces heat or
light, or both. Therefore, however animal matter, or the pa-
bulum of life, may circulate through a feries of digefting
powers, it is conftantly impaired or diminishing in the courfe
of this ceconomy, and, without the productive power of plants,
it would finally be extinguifhed.

THE animals of the former world muft have been fuftained
during indefinite fucceflions of ages. The mean quantity of
animal matter, therefore, muft have been preferved by vege-
table production, and the natural wafte of inflammable fub-
ftance repaired with continual addition •, that is to fay, the
quantity of inflammable matter necefTary to the animal con-
fumption, muft have been provided by means of vegetation.
Hence we muft conclude, that there had been a world of
plants, as well as an ocean repleniflied with living animals.

WE are now, in reafoning from principles, come to a point
decifive of the queftion, and which will either confirm the
theory, if it be juft, or confute our reafoning, if we have erred.
Let us, therefore, open the book of Nature, and read in her
records, if there had been a world bearing plants, at the time
when this prefent world was forming at the bottom of the fea.

HERE the cabinets of the curious are to be examined ; but
here fome caution is required, in order to diftinguifh things
perfectly different, which fometimes are confounded.

FOSSIL WOOD, to naturalifts in general, is wood dug up
from under ground, without enquiring whether this had been
the production of the prefent earth, or that which had preceded
it in the circulation of land and water. The queftion is im-
portant, and the folution of it is, in general, eafy. The vege-

O o 2 table

292 THEORY of the EARTH.

table productions of the prefent earth, however deep they may
be found buried beneath its furface, and however ancient they
may appear, compared with the records of our known times,
are new, compared with the folid land on which they grew ;
and they are only covered with the produce of a vegetable
foil, or the alluvion of the prefent land on which we dwell,
and on which they had grown. But the foflil bodies which
form the prefent fubjecl of enquiry, belonged to former land,
and are found only in the fea-born ftrata of our prefent earth.
It is to thefe alone that we appeal, in order to prove the cer-
tainty of former events.

MINERALIZED wood, therefore, is the object now enquired
after ; that wood which had been lodged in the bottom of the
fea, and there compofed part of a ftratum, which hitherto we
have confidered as only formed of the materials proper to the
ocean. Now, what a profufion of this fpecies of foflil wood
is to be found in the cabinets of collectors, and even in the
hands of lapidaries, and fuch artificers of polifhed flones ! In
fome places, it would feem to be as common as the agate.

I SHALL only mention a fpecimen in my own collection. It
is wood petrified with calcareous earth, and mineralized with
pyrites. This fpecimen of wood contains in itfelf, even with-
out the ftratum of ftone in which it is embedded, the mod
perfect record of its genealogy. It had been eaten or perfo-
rated by thofe fea-worms which deftroy the bottoms of our
mips. There is the cleareft evidence of this truth. Therefore,
this wood had grown upon land which ftood above the level of
the fea, while the prefent land was only forming at the bottom
of the ocean.

WOOD is the moft fubftantial part of plants, as {hells are the
more permanent part of marine animals. It is not, however,
the woody part alone of the ancient vegetable world that is
tranfmitted to us in the record of our mineral pages. We
have the type of many fpecies of foliage, and even of the

moft

THEORY of the EARTH. 293

moft delicate flower ; for, in this way, naturalifts have deter-
mined, -according to the Linnaean fyftem, the fpecies, or at
leaft the genus, of the plant. Thus, the exiftence of a vegeta-
ble fyftem at the period now in contemplation, fo far from be-
ing doubtful, is a matter of phyfical demonftration.

THE profufion of this vegetable matter, delivered into the
ocean, which then generated land, is alfo evidenced in the
amazing quantities of mineral coal, which is to be found in
perhaps every region of the earth.

NOTHING can be more certain, than that all the coaly or bi-
tuminous ftrata have had their origin from the fubflance of ve-
getable bodies that grew upon the land. Thofe ftrata, though,
in general, perfectly c'onfolidated, often feparate horizontally in
certain places j and there we find the fibrous or vafcular ftruc-
ture of die vegetable bodies. Confequently, there is no doubt
of foflil coal being a fubftance of vegetable production, how-
ever animal fubftances alfo may have contributed in forming
this collection of oleaginous or inflammable matter.

HAVING thus afcertained the ftate of a former earth, in
which plants and animals had lived, as well as the gradual pro-
duction of the prefent earth, compofed from the materials of
a former world, it muft be evident, that here are two opera-
tions which are neceflarily confecutive. The formation of the
prefent earth neceflarily involves the deftruction of continents
in the ancient world , and, by purfuing in our mind the natu-
ral operations of a former earth, we clearly fee the origin of
that landj by the fertility of which, we, and all the animated
bodies of the fea, are fed. It is in like manner, that, contemplating
the prefent operations of the globe, we may perceive the actual
exiftence of thofe productive caufes, which are now laying the
foundation of land in the unfathomable regions of the fea, and
which will, in time, give birth to future continents.

BUT though, in generalizing the operations of nature, we
have arrived at thofe great events, which, at firft fight, may

fill

294- 1-HE ORT of the EAR TH.

fill the mind with wonder and with doubt, we are not to flip-
pofe, that there is any violent exertion of power, fuch as is re-
quired in order to produce a great event in little time ; in na-
ture, we find no deficiency in refpecl: of time, nor any limita-
tion with regard to power. But time is not made to flow in
vain ; nor does there ever appear the exertion of fuperfluous
power, or the manifestation of defign,-not calculated in wifdom
to effect fome general end.

" THE events now under confideration may be examined with
a view to fee this truth ; for it may be enquired, why deftroy
one continent in order to creel another ? The anfwer is plain ;
Nature does not deftroy a continent from having wearied of a
fubjecl which had given pleafure, or changed her purpofe, whe-
ther for a better or a worfe ; neither does me erecl a continent
of land among the clouds, to fhew her power, or to amaze
the vulgar man : Nature has contrived the productions of ve-
getable bodies, and the fuftenance of animal life, to depend
upon the gradual but fure deftruction of a continent ; that is
to fay, thefe two operations necefTarily go hand in hand.
But with fuch wifdom has nature ordered things in the cecono-
my of this world, that the deftruclion of one continent is not
brought about without the renovation of the earth in the pro-
duction of another ; and the animal and vegetable bodies, for
which the world above the furface of the fea is levelled with
its bottom, are among the means employed in thofe operations,
as well as the fuftenance of thofe living beings is the proper
end in view.

THUS, in underftanding the proper conftitution of the pre-
fent earth, we are led to know the fource from whence had
come all the materials which nature had employed in the con-
ftruc*lion of the worjd which appears ; a world contrived in
confummate wifdom for the growth and habitation of a great
diverfity of plants and animals ; and a world peculiarly adapted

to

THEORT of the EARTH. 295

to the' purpofes of man, who inhabits all its climates, who mea-
fures its extent, and determines its productions at his pleafure.

THE whole of a great objec~l or event fills us with wonder
and aftonifhment, when all the particulars, in the fucceffion of
which the whole had been produced, may be confidered with-
out the lead emotion. When, for example, we behold the py-
ramids of Egypt, our mind is agitated with a crowd of ideas
that highly entertains the perfon who underftands the fubjecl: ;
but the carrying a heavy {tone up to the top of a hill or moun-
tain would give that perfon little pleafure or concern. We
wonder at the whole operation of the pyramid, but not at any
one particular part.

THE raifing up of a continent of land from the bottom of
the fea, is an idea that is too great to be conceived eafily in all
the parts of its operation, many of which are perhaps unknown
to us ; and without being properly underftood, fo great an idea
may appear like a thing that is imaginary. In like manner,
the co-relative, or correfponding operation, the deftruclion of
the land, is an* idea that does not eafily enter into the mind of
man in its totality, although he is daily witnefs to part of the
operation. We never fee a river in a flood, but we mud ac-
knowledge the carrying away of part of our land, to be funk
at the bottom of the fea ; we never fee a ftorm upon the coaft,
but we are informed of a hoflile attack of the fea upon our
country ; attacks which muft, in time, wear away the bulwarks
of our foil, and fap the foundations of our dwellings. Thus,
great things are not underftood without the analyzing of many
operations, and the combination of time with many events hap-
pening in fucceffion.

LET us now confider what is to be the fubjecl of examina*
tion, and where it is that we are to obferve thofe operations
which muft determine either the (lability or the inftability of
this land on which we live,

OUR

296 7" HE ORY of the EAR ? H.

OUR land has two extremities ; the tops of the mountains, on
the one hand, and the fea-fhores, on the other : It is the interme-
diate fpace between thefe two, that forms the habitation of
plants and animals. While there is a fea-fhore and a higher
ground, there is that which is required in the fyftem of the
world : Take thefe away, and there would remain an aqueous
globe, in which the world would perifh. But, in the natural
operations of the world, the land is perilhing continually ; and
this is that which now we want to underftand.

UPON the one extremity of our land, there is no increafe,
or there is no acceflion of any mineral fubftance. That place
is the mountain-top, on which nothing is obferved but conti-
nual decay. The fragments of the mountain are removed in
a gradual fucceffion from the higheft flation to the lowed. Be-
ing arrived at the fhore, and having entered the dominion of
the waves, in which they find perpetual agitation, thefe hard
fragments, which had eluded the refolving powers natural to
the furface of the earth, are incapable of refilling the powers
here employed for the definition of the land*. By the attri-
tion of one hard body upon another, the moving ftones and
rocky fhore, are mutually impaired. And that folid mafs,
which of itfelf had potential {lability againfl the violence of
the waves, affords the inflruments ,of its own deflrudlion, and
thus gives occafion to its aclual inflability.

IN order to underftand the fyflem of the heavens, it is ne-
ceflary to connect together periods of meafured time, and the
diflinguifhed places of revolving bodies. It is thus that fyflem
may be obferved, or wifdom, in the proper adapting of powers
to an intention. In like manner, we cannot underftand the
fyftem of the globe, without feeing that progrefs of things
which is brought about in time, thus meafuring the natural
operations of the earth with thofe of the heavens. This is pro-
perly the bufinefs of the prefent undertaking.

OUR

'THEORY of the EARTH. 297

OUR objecl is to know the time which had elapfed fince the
foundation of the prefent continent had been laid at the bot-
tom of the ocean, to the prefent moment in which we fpecu-
late on thefe operations. The fpace is long ; the data for the
calculations are, perhaps, deficient : No matter ; fo far as we
know our error, or the deficiency in our operation, we proceed
in fcience, and (hall conclude in reafon. It is not given to man
to know what things are truly in themfelves, but only what
thofe things are in his thought. We feek not to know the pre-
cife meafure of any thing ; we only underftand the limits of a
thing, in knowing what it is not, either on the one fide or the
other.

WE are investigating the age of the prefent earth, from the
beginning of that body which was in the bottom of the fea, to
the perfection of its nature, which we confider as in the mo-
ment of our exiftence ; and we have neceffarily another sera,
which is collateral, or correfpondent, in the progrefs of thofe
natural events. This is the time required, in the natural ope-
rations of this globe, for the deftrudlion of a former earth j
an earth equally perfect with the prefent, and an earth equally
productive of growing plants and living animals. Now, it
muft appear, that, if we had a meafure for the one of thofe
correfponding operations, we would have an equal knowledge of
the other.

THE formation of a future earth being in the bottom of the
ocean, at depths unfathomable to man, and in regions far be-
yond the reach of his obfervation, here is a part of the pro-
cefs which cannot be taken as a principle in forming an efti-
mate of the whole. But, in the definition of the prefent
earth, we have a procefs that is performed within the limits of
our obfervation ; therefore, in knowing the meafure of this
operation, we fhall find the means of calculating what had
patted on a former occafion, as well as what will happen in the

P p compofition

298 THEORY of the EARtH.

compofition of a future earth. Let us, therefore, now attempt
to make this eftimate of time and labour.

THE higheft mountain may be levelled with the plain from
whence it fprings, without the lofs of real territory in the
land ; but when the ocean makes encroachment on the ban's of
our earth, the mountain, unfupported, tumbles with its weight j
and with that acceffion of hard bodies, moveable with the agi-
tation of the waves, gives to the fea the power of undermining
farther and farther into the folid bans of our land. This is
the 'operation which is to be meafured ; this is the mean pro-
portional by which we are to eftimate the age of worlds that
have terminated, and the duration of thofe that are but begin-
ning.

BUT how (hall we meafure the decreafe of our land ? Every
revolution of the globe wears away fome part of fome rock
upon fome coafb ; but the quantity of that decreafe, in that
meafured time, is not a meafurable thing. Inftead of a revo-
lution of the globe, let us take an age. The age of man does
no more in this eftimate than a fingle year. He fees, that the
natural courfe of things is to wear away the coaft, with the at-
trition of the fand and ftones upon the more ; but he cannot
find a meafure for this quantity which mall correfpond to time,
in order to form an eftimate of the rate of this decreafe.

BUT man is not confined to what he fees ; he has the expe-
rience of former men. Let us then go to the Romans and the
Greeks in fearch of a meafure of our coafts, which we may
compare with the prefent ftate of things. Here, again, we are
difappointed ; their defcriptions of the mores of Greece and of
Italy, and their works upon the coaft, either give no meafure
of a decreafe, or are not accurate enough for fuch a purpofe.

IT is in vain to attempt to meafure a quantity which efcapes
our notice, and which hiftory cannot afcertain ; and we might
juft as well attempt to meafure the diftance of the ftars with-
out

THEORY of the E4RTH. 299

out a parallax, as to calculate the deftruction of the folid land
without a meafure correfponding to the whole.

THE defcription which POLYBIUS has given of the Pontus
Euxinus, with the two oppofite Bofphori, the Meotis, the Pro-
pontis, and the Port of Byzantium, are as applicable to the
prefent ftate of things, as they were at the writing of that hi-
ftory. The filling up of the bed of the Meotis, an event
which, to POLYBIUS, appeared not far off, mud alfo be con-
fidered as removed to a very diftant period, though the caufes
ftill continue to operate as before.

BUT there is a thing in which hiftory and the prefent
ftate of things do not agree. It is upon the coafl of Spain,
where POLYBIUS fays there was an ifland in the mouth of the
harbour of New Carthage. At prefent, in place of the ifland,
there is only a rock under the furface of the water. It muft be
evident, however, that the lofs of this fmall ifland affords no
proper ground of calculation for the meafure or rate of wafting
which could correfpond to the coaft in general ; as neither the
quantity of what is now loft had been meafured, nor its quali-
ty afcertained.

LET us examine places much more expofed to the fury of
the waves and currents than the coaft of Carthagena, the nar-
row fretum, for example, between Italy and Sicily. It does
not appear, that this paflage is fenfibly wider than when the
Romans firft had known it. The Ifthmus of Corinth is alfo
apparently the fame at prefent as it had been two or three
thoufand years ago. Scilla and Charibdis remain now, as they
had been in ancient times, rocks hazardous for coafting veflels
which had to pafs that ftrait.

IT is not meant by this to fay, thefe rocks have not been
wafted by the fea, and worn by the attrition of moving bo-
dies, during that fpace of time ; were this true, and that thofe
rocks, the bulwarks of the land upon thofe coafts, had not
been at all impaired from that period, they might remain

P p 2 for

300 THEORY of the EARTH.

for ever, and thus the fyftem of interchanging the place of fea
and land upon this globe might be fruftrated. It is only
meant to affirm, that the quantity which thofe rocks, or that
coaft, have diminifhed from the period of our hiftory, has
either been too fmall a thing for human obfervation, or, which
is more probable, that no accurate meafurement of the fubjecl,
by which this quantity of decreafe might have been afcertained,
had been taken and recorded. It muft be alfo evident, that a
very fmall operation of an earthquake would be fufficient to
render every means of information, in this manner of menfu-
ration, unfatisfadory or precarious.

PLINY fays Italy was diflant from Sicily a mile and a half;
but we cannot fuppofe that this meafure was taken any other-
wife than by computation, and fuch a meafure is but little cal-
culated to afford us the juft means of a comparifon with the
prefent diflance. He alfo fays, indeed, that Sicily had been
once joined with Italy. His words are: " Quondam BRUTIO
" agro cohserens, mox interfufo mari avulfa *." But all that
we can conclude from this hiftory of PLINY is, that, in all
times, to people confidering the appearances of thofe two ap-
proached coafts, it had feemed probable, that the fea formed a
paffage between the two countries which had been once united ;
in like manner as is ftill more immediately perceived, in that
fmaller disjunction which is made between the ifland of Anglefey
and the continent of Wales.

THE port of Syracufe, with the ifland which forms the greater
and lefler, and the fountain of Arethufa, the water of which
the ancients divided from the fea with a wall, do not feem to be
altered. From Sicily to the coaft of Egypt, there is an uninter-
rupted courfe of fea- for a thoufand miles; confequently, the
wind, in fuch a ftretch of fea, mould bring powerful waves
againft thofe coafts. But, on this coaft of Egypt, we find the
rock on which. was formerly built the famous tower of Pharos ;

and

*. Lib. 3. cap. 8. ,

'THEORY of the EARTH. 3or

and alfo, at the eaftern extremity of the port Eunofte, the fea-bath,
cut in the folid rock upon the fhore. Both thofe rocks, buf-
feted immediately with the waves of the Mediterranean fea,
are, to all appearance, the fame at this day as they were in an-
cient times *.

MANY other fuch proofs will certainly occur, where the dif-
ferent parts of thofe coafts are examined by people of obferva-
tion and intelligence. But it is enough for our prefent purpofe,
that this decreafe of the coafts in general has not been obferved ;
and that it is -as generally thought, that the land is gaining up-
on the fea, as that the fea is gaining upon the land.

To fum up the argument, we are certain, that all the coafts
of the prefent continents are wafted by the fea, and conftantly
wearing away upon the whole ; but this operation is fo ex-
tremely flow, that we cannot find a meafure of the quantity in
order to form an eftimate. Therefore, the prefent continents
of the earth, which we confider as in a ftate of perfection,
would, in the natural operations of the globe, require a time
indefinite for their deftruclion.

BUT, in order to produce the prefent continents, the de-
ftruclion of a former vegetable world was neceflary j confe-
quently, the production of our prefent continents muft have
required a time which is indefinite. In like manner, if the
former continents were of the fame, nature as the prefent, it
muft have required another fpace of time, which alfo is inde-
finite, before they had come to their perfection, as a vegetable
world.

WE have been reprefenting the fyftem of this earth as pro-
ceeding with a certain regularity, which is not perhaps in na-
ture, but which is necefTary for our clear conception of the
fyftem of nature. The fyftem of nature is certainly in rule,
although we may not know every circumftance of its regula-
tion. We are under a neceffity, therefore, of making regular

fuppofitions,

*; Lettres fur 1'Egypte, M. SAVARY.

302 THEORY of the EARTH.

fuppofitions, in order to come at certain conclufions which may
be compared with the prefent flate of things.

IT is not necefiary that the prefent land fliould be worn
away and wafted, exactly in proportion as new land fhall ap-
pear ; or, converfely, that an equal proportion of new land
fhould always be produced as the old is made to difappear. It
is only required, that, at all times, there fliould be a juft pro-
portion of land and water upon the furface of the globe, for
the purpofe of a habitable world.

NEITHER is it required in the actual fyftem of this earth,
that every part of the land fliould be diflblved in its ftructure,
and worn away by attrition, fo as to be floated in the fea.
Parts of the land may often fink in a body below the level of
the fea, and parts again may be reftored, without waiting for
the general circulation of land and water, which proceeds with
all the certainty of nature, but which advances with an imper-
ceptible progreflion. Many of fuch apparent irregularities may
appear, without the lead infringement on the general fyftem.
That fyftem is comprehended in the preparation of future land
at the bottom of the ocean, from thofe materials which the
diflolution and attrition of the prefent land may have provided,
and from thofe which the natural operations of the fea afford.

IN thus accomplifhing a certain end, we are not to limit na-
ture with the uniformity of an equable progreflion, although
it be neceflary in our computations to proceed upon,equalities.
Thus alfo, in the ufe of means, we are not to prefcribe to na-
ture thofe alone which we think fuitable for the purpofe, in
our narrow view. It is our bufinefs to learn of nature (that
is by obfervation) the ways and means, which in her wifdom
are adopted ; and we are to imagine thefe only in 'order to find
means for further information, and to increafe our knowledge
from the examination of things which actually have been. It
is in this manner, that intention may be found in nature ; but

this

THEORY of the EARTH. .303

this intention is not to be fuppofed, or vainly imagined, from
what we may conceive to be.

WE have been now fuppofing, that the beginning of our pre-
fent earth had been laid in the bottom of the ocean, at the com-
pletion of the former land ; but this was only for the fake of di-
ftinc"lnefs. The juft view is this, that when the former land of
the globe had been complete, fo as to begin to wafte and be im-
paired by the encroachment of the fea, the prefent land began
to appear above the furface of the ocean. In this manner we
fuppofe a due proportion to be always preferved of land and
water upon the furface of the globe, for the purpofe of a habi-
table world, fuch as this which we poflefs. We thus, alfo, al-
low time and opportunity for the tranflation of animals and
plants to occupy the earth.

BUT, if the earth on which we live, began to appear in the
ocean at the time when the laft began to be refolved, it could
not be from the materials of the continent immediately pre-
ceding this which we examine, that the prefent earth had been
conftrucled ; for the bottom of the ocean muft have been filled
with materials before land could be made to appear above its
furface.

LET us fuppofe that the continent, which is to fucceed our
land, is at prefent beginning to appear above the water in the
middle of the Pacific Ocean, it muft be evident, that the mate-
rials of this great body, which is formed and ready to be brought
forth, muft have been collected from the deftruction of an earth
which does not now appear. Confequently, in this true ftate-
ment of the cafe, there is neceflarily required the definition
of an animal and vegetable earth prior to the former land ; and
the materials of that earth which is firft in our account, muft
have been collected at the bottom of the ocean, and begun to
be concocted for the production of the prefent earth, when the

land immediately preceding the prefent had arrived at its full
extent.

THIS,

304 7 'HE ORT of the EAR <T H.

THIS, however, alters nothing with regard to the nature of
thofe operations of the globe. The fyftem is ftill the fame.
It only protracts the indefinite fpace of time in its exiftence,
while it gives us a view of anoti: ' diftincl: period of the living
world ; that is to fay, the world .ich we inhabit is compofed
of the materials, not of the earth which was the immediate
predecefTor of the prefent, but of the earth which, in afcendmg
from the prefent, we confider as the third, and which had pre-
ceded the land that was above the furface of the fea, while our
prefent land was yet beneath the water of the ocean. Here are
three diftincl fucceffive periods of e; "tence, and each of thefe
is, in oxir meafurement of time, a thing of indefinite duration.

WE have now got to the end of our reafoning ; we have
no data further to conclude immediately from that which ac-
tually is : But we have got enough ; we have the fatisfadlion
to find, that in nature there is wifdom, fyftem, and confiftency.
For having, in the natural hiftory of this earth, feen a fucceffion
of worlds, we may from this conclude that there is a fyftem in
nature ; in like manner as, from feeing revohitions of the pla-
nets, it is concluded, that there is a fyftem by which they are
intended to continue thofe revolutions. But if the fucceffion
of worlds is eftabliihed in the fyftem of nature, it is in vain to
look for any thing higher in the origin of the earth. The refult,
therefore, of our prefent enquiry is, that we find no veftige of a
beginning, — no profpedl of an end.

XI.

EXPLANATION of PLATE I. THEORY of the EARTH.

FIG. i. Section of an iron-ftone feptarium, cut horizontally, as
it lies in its bed.

FIG. 2. Another feptarium, cut both horizontally and perpen-
dicularly.

FIG. 3. Part of a feptarium, the divifions of which are more
in ftraight lines.

All thefe three are of the fame dimenfions with the
fpecimens.

FIG. 4. Part of Fig. 3. reprefenting the portion included within
a, by c, d, e, which is magnified, in order to mow the
cryftallifed cavity of the fepta.

XI. fbe ORBIT and MOTION of the GEORGIUM SIDUS
determined direHly from Obfervations, after a very eafy and
ftmple Method. By JOHN ROB I SON, M. A. F. R. S. ED IN.
and ProfeJJor of Natural Philofopby in the Univerjity of
EDINBURGH.

{Read by the Author^ March 6. 1786.]

TH E accuracy of modern obfervations has difcovered irre-
gularities in the motions of Jupiter and Saturn, which
our knowledge of the laws of planetary gravitation has not as
yet enabled us to explain. I have, therefore, long thought it
probable that there may be planets without the orbit of Saturn,
of fufficient magnitude to occafion thefe irregularities. This
conjecture is confirmed by the difcoyery of a new planet.

ON the i3th of March 1781, Mr HERSCHEL, an aftronomer
of great ardour and ingenuity, obferved a Star, near the foot of
Caftor, whofe fteady light attracted his attention. He immedi-
ately applied to his telefcope a higher magnifying power, and
difcovered an augmentation of its apparent diameter. Two
days after, he obferved that it had changed its place ; and,
taking it for a comet, he wrote an account of his obfervation
to Dr MASKELYNE, Aftronomer-royal, who got fight of this
Star on the i7th of March. An account of this difcovery was
foon given to the other aftronomers of Europe, who have con-
tinued to obferve it with unceafing attention. I did not obtain
a fight of it till Auguft 1782.

ALMOST at its firft appearance, the Englifh aftronomers fup-
pofed it to be a Planet. They were led to this opinion by va-
rious circumftances which rendered it very probable j fuch as,

Qjl its

306 I'be Orbit and Motion of

V

its vicinity to the Ecliptic, the direction of its motion, and
its being nearly ftationary at the time of its difcovery, in fuch
an afpecl: with refpedl to the Sun, as correfponds to the ftation-
ary appearance of the Planets. The French aftronomers ima-
gined it a Comet, although it had not that train of faint light
which ufually diftinguifhes thofe bodies ; and, in the courfe
of the year 1781, endeavoured to determine the elements of
its motion on this fuppofition, but could not find out fuch as
would correfpond with its fuccenlve appearances. They at laft
found themfelves obliged to fuppofe, that it moved round the
Sun in an orbit nearly circular. Mr LEXEL, Profeflbr of aftro-
nomy at St Peterfburg, was the firft who attempted a compu-
tation of its motion on this principle j and mowed that a circular
orbit, the radius of which is about nineteen times the diftance
of the earth from the fun, would very nearly agree with all
the obfervations made during the year 1781. The firft diftindl
information which I got of it was in June 1782, from Mr MINTO,
a gentleman of this place, who communicated to me a feries of
excellent obfervations made by Profeflbr SLOP at Pifa. This
feries contained the means of determining with accuracy the
ftationary points of the Planet in October 1781 and March
1782, and its oppofition in December 1781. From thefe, I was
enabled to afcertain with great eafe, the radius of its circular
orbit. For, at its ftationary appearance, we have the fquare of

f2 j

the cofine of its elongation from the Sun — — , r being the

?'3 T

J -»•

radius, and the earth's mean diftance being i. The oppofi-
tion in December 1781, gives us one place of the Planet as
viewed from the Sun, independent of all hypothefes. % With
thefe data, it was eafy for me to determine the apparent place of
the Star for any time, and compare it with obfervation ; and
the refult of this comparifon was fuch as to £how, that the opi-
nion was very nearly true, the greateft errors not amounting

to

fhe GEORGIUM STDUS. 307

to more than what might reafonably be attributed to the inac-
curacy of obfervation.

ASTRONOMERS were every where engaged in the fame re-
fearch ; and it occurred to fome of them, that the Star might
poffibly have been obferved before, by thofe who were employ-
ed in making catalogues of the Zodiacal Stars. Mr BODE of
Berlin had juft published a valuable work, in which all the
catalogues of the Stars were included. He had recourfe to
his papers, where he had marked all the difference of thefe
catalogues, in order to difcover whether any Star, obferved
by one aftronomer, and omitted by another, might not be
this Star of Mr HERSCHEL, paying attention to thofe diffe-
rences only which he could find in the parts of the Zodiac,
through which the nearly determined orbit of this newly dif-
covered Planet might be fuppofed to pafs. Among others, he
found the Star, No. 964. of MAYER'S Catalogue, not obferved
by others, and but once obferved by MAYER, who could
not therefore difcover any motion in it. Mr BODE imme-
diately examined the heavens, and could not find this Star.
He farther found, that the elements of the new Planet affigned
to it that very apparent place, in the month of September
1756, one of the years in which MAYER was occupied with
thefe obfervations. On examining the regifter of MAYER'S
obfervations, it was found, that he had obferved the Star, No. 964.
on the 2jth of September 1756. This was notified to Mr BODE,
in September 1781. He immediately made this information
public ; and it has fince been currently fuppofed, that the Star
obferved by MAYER was the Planet of HERSCHEL.

IT was found, even before the end of 1782, that the circu-
lar hypothefis was not exacl:, and that the angular motion of
the Planet round the Sun was increafing. This mowed, that
the Planet was not moving in a circle, but in an excentric orbit,
and was approaching to the Sun. Aftronomers, therefore, be-
gan to inveftigate the inequality of this angular heliocentric
motion, in order to difcover jhe form and pofitiou of the ellipfe

2 defcribed

308 The Orbit and Motion of

defcribed by the Planet. This was a very difficult taflc ; for
the very fmall inequality of the motion fhowed that the orbit
was nearly circular ; and the arch already defcribed was not
much more than the fiftieth part of the 'whole circumference.
The folution of the problem requires us to determine, from
the variation of curvature difcoverable in this fmall arch, to
what part of the circumference it belongs. This requires the
utmoft accuracy in the obfervations, and great fagacity in making
deductions from them *. But, taking it for granted that the
p64th Star of MAYER'S Catalogue was the new Planet, the
problem becomes fufceptible of a very eafy folution ; for that
Star is fituated more than a quarter of a revolution from the
place of the Planet in 1782, and fo fortunately, that almoft
the whole effect of the excentricity and inequality of the mo-
tion is accumulated. Aftronomers, therefore, availed them-
felves of this obfervation of Mr BODE, and quickly found, by
repeated trials, elements of the motions, which correfponded
perfectly with MAYER'S obfervation, and all thofe made fince
Mr HERSCHEL firft got fight of the Planet. But they do not
all feem difpofed to confefs their obligation to Mr BODE.
Some of them affect to have deduced their elements directly
from obfervations, by the formulae expreffive of the elliptical
motion of the Planets, and to be agreeably furprifed with after-
wards obferving the coincidence of their elements with this ob-
fervation of MAY^R. They have not given a detail of their
methods of inveftigation.

OF

* THE firft perfon who obtained any direft information of the elliptical orbit ofthe
Planet was the celebrated Abbe BOSCOVICH, who, in October or November 1781, dedu-
ced elements of its orbit from the obfervations of Mr MECHAIN. His method is ex-
ceedingly ingenious, and remarkable for that fimplicity and geometrical elegance which
charatterife all his performances. It did not come to my knowledge till the beginning
of this prefent year 1787, when 1 found it in the Collection which he publiflied at Baflano,
in 1785, in five volumes. He makes ufe ofthe fame phyfical principles which I employed
in January 1783, to determine the orbit by the two oppofitions which had then been ob-
ferved, combined with another obfervation, made at the diftance of a fydereal year
from one of the oppofitions. This method 1 communicated to Dr MASKEJ.YNE in 1783.

The GEORGIUM SID US. 309

OF all the theories of this Planet which I have feen, that of
M. DE LA PLACE, communicated to the Royal Academy of
Sciences at Paris, appears the moft accurate, and very nearly
correfponds to the obfervations which have been made fince
the time of its publication. This theory was announced to the
public in the Connoiffance des Mouvemens Celeftes, as deduced di-
reclly from the recent obfervations, by a method peculiar to
M. DE LA PLACE. This I hoped to find in an excellent differ-
tation on the elliptical motion of the Planets, published by him
in 1784. But, although I found this work full of new and va-
luable information, as might be expected from this eminent
mathematician, I was difappointed in my hopes of learning
the procefs by which he had deduced his theory of the new
Planet. He has, indeed, infer ted in this work the elements of
its orbit, and the four obfervations which he had employed for
determining them, by a new method of confidering the plane-
tary motions, with which he was then occupied, but which he
does not explain. When I compared M. DE LA PLACE'S theo-
ry with thofe obfervations, I found fuch differences as would
have allowed him to make choice of elements confiderably dif-
ferent. It appears, therefore, that, before applying his method,
he has corrected the obfervations on fome juftifiable principle,
which I regret exceedingly that he has not communicated, fince
he has been fo fuccefsful in the ufe of it. It would, doubtlefs,
have been much more deferving of the notice of mathema-
ticians than the empirical one which I have adopted in the fub-
fequent part of this paper.

IN fpring 1784, I framed a fet of elements which corre-
fponded with the obfervations made at that time with abundant
accuracy. Mr MINTO, whom I have already mentioned, alfa
communicated to me elements, little differing from mine, and
equally accurate. Both thefe were deduced from a fuppofition
that the Star obferved by MAYER was the new Planet. We had,
by this time, great advantages over our predeceflbrs j for a

much.

•5io The Orbit and Motion of

much larger portion of the arch had been obferved ; and,
•which was of immenfe conlequence, three opoofitions had
been obferved, which gave us three positions of the Planet,
independent of all hypothefes. The arches defcribed be-
tween thefe oppofitions being thus determined, free from all
uncertainty, the acceleration of the Planet's motion became
known ; and a method now offered of determining, by inter-
polation, its heliocentric place, at any intermediate moment,
with very great accuracy. And now, by chufing fuch obfer-
vations of the Star as mould give a great difference between
the heliocentric arid geocentric place, the radius of the earth's
orbit became a bafe, by which we could meafure, with confi-
derable accuracy, its diftance from the Sun. Thus, having
both its pofition and diftance from the Sun, we could aflign its
abfolute place in the heavens, and confequently the form of its
path.

IN the beginning of 1785, another oppofition was obferved,
and thus a method obtained of deducing the elements direttly.
But this required a procefs fo extremely complicated, in order
to obtain tolerable accuracy in the refult, that I had not the
courage to attempt it. I waited patiently till a fifth oppofition
mould be obferved with four intercepted arches. This, I faw,
would afford a method extremely fimple and eafy, and, at the
fame time, fufceptible of confiderable accuracy. It is this me-
thod which I have now the honour to lay before this Society ;
and I hope that the Gentlemen who hear me will not think it
altogether unworthy of their attention : For it is furely defirable
not to reft our knowledge of the motions of this Planet on mere
conjecture, whatever probability there may be of its truth from
the coincidence of obfervatioris. I nruft, at the fajne time,
acknowledge beforehand, that the refult of my inveftigation
has not enabled me to determine the elements of its motion
with perfect certainty. It has, on the contrary, convinced me,
that, if we do not admit that the new Planet is the fame with

964

The GEORGIUM SIDUS. 3n

964 of MAYER, near half a century muft elapfe before the ele-
ments of its motion can be determined with a precifion equal
to that which is attained in the cafe of the other Planets. But
the method affigns certain limits, and thefe not very wide, with-
in which all the circumftances of its motion muft be compre-
hended. This alone muft be regarded as a confiderable attain-
ment.

THE heliocentric place of the Planet in oppofition to the Sun,
on the 2 1 ft of December 1781, was determined by me, from
obfervations made on the i9th and 28th of that month, by
Dr MASKELYNE, combined with obfervations made by Profef-
for SLOP at Pifa, on the 22d, 23d, 27th, and 28th. The helio-
centric place at the oppofition 1782, was determined from ob-
fervations made by Dr MASKELYNE on the I4jth and 28th of
December, combined with thofe of Profeflbr SLOP on the 22d,
25th, and 26th of that month. The place of oppofition in
1783 was determined from my own obfervations on the 26th,
27th, 28th of December, and the jth of January following.
The place at oppofition January 3d 1 785, was determined from
my own obfervations on the 28th and 2Qth of December, and
the i ft and 6th of January. The place at oppofition 1786,
was determined from my own obfervations on the 29th, 3oth»
and 3ift of December, and the ift, 3d, and 8th of January.
The method which I took for combining thefe obfervations, in
order to get rid of the inaccuracy to which each of them was
liable, was as follows : The arch described between any two
fucceflive oppofitions gave me a pretty near approximation to
the diftance of the Planet from the Sun, by means of the Kep-
lerian~law, that the fquares of the angular motions are inverfe-
ly as the cubes of the diftances. The heliocentric angular
motion, at any oppofition, muft be very nearly a medium be-
tween the angular motions with which the arches, intercepted
between it and the preceding and following oppofition, would
be uniformly defcribed. Thus I obtained, with fufficient ac-
curacy,

312 The Orbit and Motion of

curacy, the heliocentric angular motion at the three interme-
diate oppofitions. The angular velocities at the two extreme
oppofitions were determined with equal accuracy, by fuppofing,
that the changes of angxilar velocity followed a regular law.
Thus I was enabled to determine the geocentric motion for a
few days before and after appofition, and confequently to af-
fign, from each obfervation, the precife time and place where
the Planet would be in oppofidon to the Sun. Thefe determi-
nations differed from each other in no cafe i o". It is demon-
ftrable, that the aflumptions made for this combination of ob-
fervations could not produce an error of 2". I therefore,
with confidence, took the means of thefe determinations for
the places of the Planet, in its apparent oppofitions to the Sun.

THE times and apparent longitudes and latitudes of the Planet
.are exprefled in the following table;

M. T. Ed. Long. L,at. N.

h. ' " i. • ' " ' "

1781. Dec. 21. 17.44.33 3.00.52.11 15.07

1782. Dec. 26. 08.56156 3.05.20.29 18.56
.1783. Dec. 31. oo. 46. 24 3. 09. 50. 52 22. 10
.1785. Jan. 3. 17. 28. 56 3. 14. 23. 02 25. 40
1786. Jan. 8. 10.39.31 3.18.57.05 28.52

MY manner of obferving obliged me to compare the Planet
with two fixed Stars which did not differ from it, or from each
other, more than one degree in declination. This obliged me
to employ fome Stars which are to be found in MAYER'S Cata-
logue alone. I have, therefore, always made ufe of -this Catalogue.
If, therefore, the following theory be confronted with an ob-
fervation, where the geocentric place of the Planet is deduced
from a comparifon of it with a Star in its neighbourhood, and if
the place of this Star be deduced from BRADLEY'S, or DE LA
CAILLE'S Catalogues, the longitude will be found about 6" too
fmall, or as much too great.

THE

The GEORGIUM SIDUS. 313

THE manner of obfervation, and the inftrument which I make
ufe of, appear to me to have feveral advantages which are not un-
worthy of the attention of Aftronomers. An account of them
will therefore be communicated on fome future occafion.

FROM thefe places, it is eafy to determine the inclination of
the Planet's orbit to the plane of the Ecliptic, and the place of
its Node, which are as follow :

j. o " '
Long. Node, Jan. i. 1786. 2.12.48.45

Inclin. Orbit, 46. 26

I WAS now enabled to reduce thefe Ecliptic places to the or-
bit itfelf, and thus to determine the arches of this orbit de-
fcribed during the intervals between the oppofitions.

I THEN took the oppofition which was obferved on the 31(1
of December 1783 for an epoch, to which all the obfervations
mould be reduced. The interval of time between this and the
preceding oppofition was 369^. 15 b. 49'. 28". I counted
back another equal interval, which brought me within a few
minutes of the time of oppofition 1781, and I computed (by
means of the heliocentric motion, already determined for that
oppofition with fufficient accuracy) the place of the Planet for
the beginning of the above mentioned interval. In like man-
ner, I computed its place for two equal intervals of 369 d. i$h.
49' 28", reckoned forward from the epoch. Thus I obtained
four angles in the orbit, defcribed in equal intervals of time.
The differences of thefe angles mowed the inequality of the
Planet's angular motion. From this inequality alone, we are
to determine the chief elements of its excentric orbit.

I IMMEDIATELY found, that thefe differences, ftrictly taken,
had irregularities which are inconfiftent with the moft remark-
able circumftances of the Planet's motions. It appeared, there-
fore, that the obfervations muft be corrected, as far as is con-
fiftent with the probability of their inaccuracy. With refped

R r to

214 The Orbit and Motion, of

•

to the obfervations of Dr MASKELYNE and Mr SLOP, made
with inftruments equal to any in Europe, this inaccuracy
fhould not be fuppofed greater than 5". With refpecl to my
own, I will allow it to amount to 10".

THE queftion is now, upon what good principle we may
prefume to correct the obfervations. When the Planet appears
flationary, we have the beft opportunity of afcertaining its
diftance from the Sun, by means of an imperfect knowledge
of its angular motion, . the earth's diftance from the Sun afford-
ing a bafe moft advantageoufly fituated. Mr MINTO has com-
municated to me Mr SLOP'S obfervations of the Planet when in
this fituation. On 1782, March, 6 d. 6h. 14. 56". M. T.
Greenwich, the apparent longitude of the Planet was obferved
2 j. 28°. 49'. 27". on the Ecliptic. The five obferved oppofi-
tions give us the firft and fecond differences of the heliocentric
motion at thofe oppofitions. By thefe means we obtain, by the
ufual methods of interpolation, the heliocentric place of the
Planet at the time of the above obfervation, and this without
an error amounting to 2". By comparing this with the geo-
centric place, we obtain the Planet's diftance from the Sun
=: 18,9053. By making a fimilar interpolation for March 7^.
(? b. 14'. 56", we obtain another heliocentric place of the Planet.
The difference of thefe two places gives the diurnal heliocen-
tric motion — 43 ",4365. But a Planet defcribing round
the Sun a circle whofe radius is 18, 9053, will have its diurnal
motion = 43", 1647.

FROM this it is demonftrable, that the Planet's diftance from
the Sun is greater than half the parameter of its orbit ; and
that its true anomaly, or diftance from its aphelion, is more
than 90° *. On the other hand, we find, from the continual ac-
celeration of its motion, that, at the oppofition 1785, the Planet

had

* FOR the angular velocity of a body in an ellipfe, is to that of a body in a circle, at
the fame diftance, in the fubduplicate ratio of the half parameter to the diftance*

tte GEORGIUM SIDUS. 315

had not yet arrived at its perihelion. Hence it is demonflrable,
that the differences of the arches defcribed in equal times
fhould form a feries of numbers continually decreafing, very
flowly at firft, but afterwards more rapidly.

UPON this principle, we may venture to correct the obferva-
tions. In this correction there is ftill a choice ; for we may
make the decreafe of the feries either more or lefs rapid. The
ellipfes which arife from the extremes of the feries formed up-
on this principle, will evidently be the limits which compre-
hend the principal elements of the eccentric motion ; and,
fince we allow ourfelves very little liberty in the correction, it
is prefumable, that thefe limits will not be very wide.

FROM the above obfervation of the Planet in its ftationary
point, we find that its angular velocity does not greatly exceed
that of a Planet revolving in a circle j and a fimilar ufe being
made of Mr MASKELYNE'S firft obfervations, will mow, that
the heliocentric motion of the Planet in April 1781 hardly ex-
ceeded the motion in a circle at the fame diftance. We may,
therefore, prefume that its true anomaly does not much exceed
90°. Therefore, the feries of firft differences, adapted to this
fituation, muft decreafe very flowly, whilft the fecond differen-
ces muft increafe alfo very flowly. This will appear by exa-
mining the tables of any of the Planets. I fhall, there-
fore, begin by giving to the fecond differences a very fmall
increafe, and to the firft differences a very fmall diminu-
tion. This will be done by a correction not exceeding 3" in
any of the obfervations ; and this muft be allowed to be far
within the limits of probability. The firft obfervation has its
longitude diminiflied i" ; the fecond has its longitude increafed
2-7" ; the third has its longitude increafed by the fame quanti-
ty, and the fourth and fifth have their longitudes increafed 3".
The times correfponding to the above mentioned equal inter-
vals, and the correfponding corrected longitudes, cleared from

R r 2 the

316 The Orbit and Motion of

the effects of aberration and mutation, and reduced to the orbit,
and to the epoch of oppofition 1783, are as follow :

M. T. Green.

b. ' " s. • ' "

1781. Dec. 21. 17. 20. 17 3. oo. 53. 50

1782. Dec. 26. 09. 09. 45 3. 05. 21. 16,5

1783. Dec. 31. oo. 59. 13 3. 09. 50. 37,5

1785. Jan. 3. 16.48.41 3.14.21.52

1786. Jan. 8. 08. 38. 09 3. 18. 54. 58

THESE give us the following intercepted arches, with their
firft and fecond differences :

O ' "

4. 27. 26,5 ' "

4. 29. 21 I

4. 31. i4»5 2

4- 33- °6

FROM thefe data, the elliptical orbit of the Planet is to be
conftrucled. Various methods prefent themfelves of doing
this, depending on the equations between the mean and true
anomaly. But I found that, unlefs the quantities involving the
fourth power of the excentricity were introduced into the equa-
tion, I could not determine the place of the aphelion with to-
lerable accuracy. The equation in this form would be alrnoft
intractable. I therefore fearched for a method which would be
more fimple, when applied to the prefent cafe, which has been
rendered £b particular, by the determination already obtained of
the quarter of the orbit in which the Planet has been obferved.
The following method occurred to me, and is, indeed, as obvi-
ous as it is fimple, while it is alfo fufceptible of great accu-
racy.

LET AGP (fig. i.) be the elliptical orbit of the Planet, P the
perihelion, S the focus in which the Sun is placed, and O the

centre ;

The GEORGIUM SID US. 317

centre ; and let A, B, C, D, E, be the places of the Planet in its
fucceffive oppofitions to the Sun ; draw the chords AB, BC,

CD, DE, AC, CE, and the radii veclores AS, BS, CS, DS, ES.
We may fuppofe that the points x and y, where the chords AC,

CE, are interfered by the radii veclores BS, DS, are in the
middle of thofe chords. For, let us fuppofe that thofe chords
are bifecled in x and y by radii SB and SD, the rectilineal tri-
angles ABS, BCS are equal, and the fegments cut off by the
chords AB, BC are very nearly equal ; thefe fegments are very
fmall in comparifon with the triangles ABjc, Bj^C, and thefe
triangles are very fmall in comparifon with the triangles AxS>
XCS. Therefore, the elliptical feclors ABS, BCS, are very near-
ly equal, and B is very nearly the place of the Planet at the fe-
cond oppofition.

LET the angles ASB be = u, BSC = i>, CSD = *, DSE =jr»
ASC = w, CSE = as, AxS = j£, and CyS = y.

Then, AS : A^ —Jin. % :Jin. u,

and Cj£, or Aj£ : CS -=.Jin. -v :Jin. %.
therefore, AS : CS —Jin. v '.Jin. ut

alfo, ES : CS —fin. x :fin.y.

THUS, we have obtained the ratio of the three diftances AS, CS,
ES, and we have the angles ASC, CSE, given by obfervation.
This is all that is necefiary for conftrucling the ellipfe, by
means of the 2ift prop, of NEWTON'S Principia, B. I. or of a
theorem to be delivered afterwards.

THIS ellipfe will be found to have its femitranfverfe axis
about nineteen times the earth's diftance from the Sun, and its

excentricity about — of its femitranfverfe axis, and the angle

PSC about 73°. As it approaches very near to the form of the
ellipfe really defcribed by the Planet, we may difcover, by its
means, the errors which have arifen from the fuppofition that
the fectors ASB, BSC, are equal, when AJC is equal to xB.

FOR

318 The Orbit and Motion of

FOR this purpofe, bifedl AE in F, draw OFx and SFc ; make
x.c to Cc, as cS to cF ; draw CpS, and draw OK parallel AE : It
is evident that «c maybe confidered as a ftraight line parallel to
EA ; the fegments ExF, F«A, are equal, and the triangles EFS,
FSA, are equal ; therefore the elliptical fpaces ExFS, xFSA are
equal; but the triangles *cF, CcS are equal, their altitudes be-
ing reciprocally as their bafes j therefore, the elliptical fectors
ACS, CSE, are equal, and C is the place of the Planet at the
third oppofition. Now, cF is nearly equal to the verfed line of
cA, which is an arch of about 9°, and is therefore about

— of cS. xc is to cF as OK to KF; and therefore xc is nearly

OO

— ofcF, or -T- — ofcS. Ccis^— of xc. or — 5 — of cS.
20 looo 80 128000

Therefore the angle CSc does not exceed two feconds. If a fi-
milar conftruc"lion be made for the points B and D, it will be

found that the angles BSb, DSd, will not exceed -g- of a fecond.
For BS, CS, DS, are nearly equal, and bH and dG are nearly
— of cF j therefore Bb and Dd are nearly —? of Cc.

HENCE it is evident, that this fimple and obvious conflruc-
tion will give the elements of the orbit with all the accuracy
that can be attained by any direct methods from our obferva-
tions, becaufe the errors of obfervation are much greater than
this j and if the obfervations are not equalifed according to
fome probable principle, as has been attempted above, elements
cannot be obtained which will be confiflent with them all. The
corrections which muft be made for this equalifation are much
greater than this error ; and, therefore, no direct methods can
give more accurate elements.

THIS error, fmall as it is, may be very eafily corrected, by
computing its quantity in the ellipfe already conftrucled. This

computation

GEORGIVM SIDUS. 319

computation muft be exceedingly near the truth, becaufe the
ellipfe is very near the truth. But the trouble of this previous
conftrudlion may be avoided by means of the following confi-
derations : The triangles xFc, <?Gd, are nearly fimilarj and
therefore, cF : dG =. AE1 : CE2 nearly ; therefore the trian-
gle xcF : <?Gd = AE4 : CE4 nearly; alfo, Sc = Sd nearly;
therefore, Cc : Dd (or, ?F : ?G =) AE4 : CE4 nearly ; but AE
is nearly double of CE j therefore, ?F : y.G = 16 : i nearly ^
alfo, ?F : XH — 16 : i nearly.

Now, CS : Cy —Jin. y '-Jin. xr

and Cy : Ey = Cy : Ey,

and Ey : ES =.Jln.y :Jin.y,

therefore, CS : ES = Cy xjin. y : Ey Xjin. x.

Let ,CS : eS —Jin.y '.Jin. x,

then, ES : eS = Ey*: Cy,

and ES : Ee - Ey : Cy — Ey, = Ey : 2yG.

IN like manner, make CS : aS — Jin. u : fin. v, and we fhall
have AS : Aa — AX •' 2XH nearly, = Ey : 2yG nearly, "and
Ee : Aa = ES : AS nearly, and therefore Ee nearly equal to
Aa.

Make AS : So ~Jin. z '.Jin. iv,

then, (becaufe SE : AS — E<pxjin. w : Apxjin. z)

we have SE : So — E^ : Af,

and SE .: Eo = E«p : A^ — Ef, =r. A^ : 2^F nearly,

or SE : Eo = 2Ey : 32yG, = Ey : i6yG nearly^

Hence it follows that Eo is nearly equal to eight times Ee,

Lajlly, Make aS : St — Jin. z \fin. iv, then we fhall have
aS : S« = AS : So, and Aa : «o = AS : SE, and therefore «o
nearly equal to Aa, or to Ee j therefore e« is nearly fix times

HENCE

320 The Orbit and Motion of

HENCE may be derived the following rule for approximating
to the true ratios of AS and ES to CS :

Make CS : aS =.fm. u :Jin.v,
CS : eS —fin.y :Jln.xt
eS : «S —fin. ia :fin. z,
aS : iS —Jin. z '.fin. w.

Then make AS = aS + -^-, and ES = eS — -^-. Then the

o o

points A, C, E, will be in the circumference of an ellipfe, of
which S is the focus, and O the centre, and having the fedlors
ASC, CSE, very nearly equal.

THE approximation will be much eafier, and almoft as ac-
curate, if — of the difference of the logarithms of aS and *S
be added to the logarithm of aS, for the logarithm of AS, and

— of the difference of the logarithms of t S and eS be fubtradl-
o

ed from the logarithm of eS for the logarithm of ES.

IT may even be fufficient to add — of the difference of the

logarithms of eS and «S to the logarithms of aS, and to fub-
tracl it from the logarithm of eS.

THE following Theorem may be of ufe for conftrucling the
ellipfe, and, I believe, is new :

LET DAP be an ellipfe, (fig. 2.) of which O is the centre,
S the focus, and ap the directrix ; from any three points A, C,
E, draw lines Aa, Cc, Ee, perpendicular to the directrix ; draw
the radii AS, CS, ES ; draw AK, xCH, and «E, perpendicular
to Aa, and AG, CF, perpendicular to ES, and Sp perpendicular
to ap.

LET

Me GEORGIUM SIDVS. 321

LET AS be = a, CS = c, ES = et the angle ASE = #,
CSE = y, and ESP = z.

IT is evident that EH : EK = « : tA, = CS — ES : AS-— ES,
— c — e : a — e j alfo, SF z: c.cof^y, SG r= a.cof,x, CF = c.Jinyyt
and AG = «./?«, * ; alfo, the angle FCH = G AK, = ESP, = z.

THEREFORE, FH = CE.tan,zt = cfm,y.tanyz, and GK =
a.Jin,x.lan,z i therefore, EH =: e — c.cof,y + c.Jin,y.tantz) and
EK. =: e — a.cof, x + a.ftn, x.tan, z \ therefore, c — e \ a — e —
e — c.cof,y + c.Jin, y.tan, z : e — a.cof, x + a.Jin,x.tan,z, and
(c — e].(e — a.cof,x) + (c — e).a.Jin,x.tat), z = (a — e].(e — c.cof,y)
+ (a — e).c.Jin, y.tan, z. This gives,

.(e—a. cof, x) —

JL tlflj /o *— -~ "

~" /- x 7 /• ^ «

c.(a — e)Jinty — a.(c — e),Jin,x

Or, more conveniently for logarithms,

c, (a—e}. cofy—a. (c—e} coftx—e.(a—c}

J.Un.% _ - 7 - r - -~ - 7 - r - -x -

c.(a—e}.fm,y—a.(c—e).fin, x
Then, by the common theorems, we have the excentricity t =

— - - - — - * . the mean diftance being- = i. The
e . cof, z—a. cof, 0+z)

aphelion and perihelion diftances are I + « and i — t. By their
means, we obtain the mean anomalies correfponding to the true
anomalies OSA and OSE. The difference of the mean anoma-
lies is to 360°, as the time between the appulfes of the Planet
to the points A and E to the time of a fydereal revolution.
The fquare of a fydereal year is to the fquare of the time of
this revolution, as i to the cube of the Planet's mean diftance
from the Sun.

This procefs gives us the following elements :
Mean Diftance, 19,08247

Excentricity, 0,9006

Periodic Time, - 83,359 Years.

S f Mean

322 The Orbit and Motion of

o • ,,

s

Mean Anomaly at E, 4. oo. 32. 51

Longitude of the Aphelion, ?for the Epoch 11.23.09.51
Longitude of the Node, SI783,Dec. 31. 2. 12. 46. 14

Inclination of the Orbit, - oo. oo. 46. 25

THESE elements agree with all the obfervations made fince
Mr HERSCHEL'S difcovery of the Planet, with abundant accura-
cy, the differences being as often, and as much, in defect as in
excefs. When I compared them with MAYER'S obfervation of
the Star, No. 964. I found the calculated place of the Planet
only 3'. 52" to the weftward of the Star, and i" to the north-
ward. As thefe elements feem to be formed on good prin-
ciples, I cannot help being of opinion, that that Star was the
Planet now obferved. If, in forming the elements, I had fup-
pofed that the fecond differences of the arches were conftant,
(a fuppofition quite allowable,) I mould have obtained elements
almoft precifely the fame with thofe which I formerly deduced
from the fuppofition that the Star, No. 964. of MAYER'S Cata-
logue, was the Planet. This afTumption would not have occafi-
oned an alteration of one fecond in any of the places above ufed.

ALTHOUGH it now appeared unneceflary to make any farther
trial, I made another correction of the obfervations, fo as to
produce a feries of fecond differences, which mould decreafe
as rapidly as was confiftent with the probable inaccuracy of
the obfervations. This gave me the following elements :

Mean Diftanee, 19^8254

Excentricity, 0,88461

- O ' //

o

Mean Longitude, ? 1786 Jan. i. 3. 23. 1.7. 03

Long, of Aphelion, $M. T. Green. n. 17. 32. 54

y. d. h. •

Periodic Time, 84". 06. 04. 48

THESE elements alfo agreed very well with the obfervations
fince HERSCHEL'S difcovery ; as alfo with MAYER'S obfervations :
But if thefe elements be compared with the obfervation of the

ftation

TbeGEORGIUMSIDUS. 323

flation in March 1782, they produce an angular motion, which
differs confiderably from what appears by interpolation, mow-
ing that the mean diftance is confiderably too great.

IT refults from this invefligation, that the elements of the
orbit are contained between thefe extremes, and are probably
much nearer to the firft fet. A confiderable time mufl elapfe
before they can be determined with accuracy, from obfervations
made fince March 1781. But the probability that MAYER ob-
ferved the Planet is fo great, that I am decidedly of opinion
that it is the fame with No. 964. of his catalogue. If ihis be
granted, we can obtain the elements with all the accuracy that
is attained in the other Planets : For the place of MAYER'S Star
is within fix degrees of tne Aphelion, as determined by the firft
fet of elements, and all the erfec~ls of its excentricity are nearly
accumulated in 1781 ; and are therefore moft eafily deduced
from the obfervations. I mall therefore fubjoin another fet of
elements accommodated to this fuppofition ; they were formedb y
me about two years ago in the ufual way, by repeated trial, till
the refult mould agree with MAYER'S obfervations, and with
all the others which I had then collected. I have not found
any reafon fince that time to make any change, unlefs perhaps
the inclination of the orbit may be increafed about 10".
Mean Diftance, 19,0858

Excentricity, °>9°737

Mean Longitude, 1786 Jan. I. Noon. M. T. s. °

Green. 3.23.41.13

Longitude of the Aphelion, u. 23. 10. 38

Longitude of the Node, - 2. 12. 48. 45

Inclination of the Orbit, - oo. oo. 46. 26

h. ' "

Periodic Time in Days, 30456. or. 40. 48
Mean diurnal Motion, 42

I MAY juft obferve in this place, that if I were difpofed, with
fome aftronomers, to admit that the Star, No. 34. Tauri of the
Britannic Catalogue, is the new Planet, the elements formed on

Sf2 the

324 The Orbit and Motion of

the fuppofition of the moft rapid decreafe of the fecond diffe-
rences will agree very well with FLAM^TEAD'S obfervation of
that Star on December 1 3. 1 690, being only 40", or perhaps on-
ly 1 2", to the weftward of it. But the latitude differs more
than two minutes from FLAMSTEAD'S latitude, which is right-
ly deduced from the Zenith diftance. This is too great an er-
ror for him to commit in the obfervation, and we mould there-
fore reject the fuppofition on this account alone. But there are
ftronger reafons for rejecting it, arifing from the difagreement
of thofe elements with the obfervations made on the ftations of
the Planet in October 1781, and March and October 1782,
which give us a very near approximation to its diftance from
the Sun. When compared with obfervations of the Planet
near its ftationary points in the Spring, they give the geocentric
longitude confiderably too great, while they give it too fmalL
for the fimilar obfervations in Autumn.

THE appearance of this Planet has ferved to exercife the in-
genuity of mathematicians, by a problem confiderably different
from that afforded by the motions of comets in very excentric
orbits ; and, by this means, has favoured the public with ma-
ny improvements in analytical knowledge. My profeffional
duty has made me confine myfelf chiefly to the fearch of
fuch methods as might be very intelligible to perfons pofleffed
of fmall degrees of mathematical knowledge. The method
now exhibited has this advantage in an eminent degree ; and
therefore, although it will not engage the attention of fkilful
mathematicians, I hope it will be ufeful, becaufe it may incite
beginners to a zealous profecution of this noble ftudy, by mow-
ing them fome of its moft pleafing gratifications. I may add,
that the method now exhibited is one of the moft likely to give
us an accurate knowledge of the Planet's motion. Another pe-
riod of four years will enable us to apply it to arches of double
extent, which will diminifh the errors arifing from the unavoid-
able inaccuracy of obfervations to one fourth of their prefent
quantity, and a comparifon of the new elements with thofe now

given.

TbeGEORGIUMSIDUS. 325

given, will enable us to diminim them as much again. When
it is confidered, that in th'ofe elements no attention has been paid
to the gravitation of the Planet to the other fix, it will ftill more
clearly appear how abundantly accurate they are for the pur-
pofes of aftronomical computation.

I TOOK another method of obtaining elements, by means of
the ratio of three diftances from the Sun ; namely, by interpo-
lating heliocentric places of the Planet, for the times of its vici-
nity to its ftations, and comparing thefe with its geocentric
places. It is eafy to fee, that this method alfo is fufceptible of
great accuracy, after having obferved five oppofitions, which
give us fecond and third differences of the heliocentric places,
and therefore afford a proper application of the methods of in-
terpolation. Elements deduced in this way, almofl perfectly
coincided with the above. I alfo obtained, in January 1784, a fet
of elements very nearly the fame, by means of the three oppo-
fitions which had then been obferved, and by the help of a
theorem which I make ufe of in my elements of phyfical aftro-
nomy, viz. That the velocity of a body, in any point of the
path which it defcribes by the adlion of a centripetal force, is
that which it would acquire if uniformly impelled by the cen-
tripetal force along \ of that chord of the ofculating circle
which pafTes through the centre of forces.

I SHALL here fubjoin tables for computing the motion of
this Planet.

TABLE I. contains the Radical Mean Longitudes of the Planet,
Aphelion, and Node ; for the Mean Time of noon at Green-
wich, at the beginning of the Aftronomical Year, that is, for
the Mean Noon of the 3 1 ft of December immediately preceding.,
It alfo contains the Mean Sydereal Motions of the Planet for
months, days, and hours, and the preceflion of the Equinoxes
at the beginning of each month. The fydereal motions are
chofen in preference to the tropical, becaufe the motions of the
aphelion and node are not yet known. One application of the

preceffion of the equinoctial points, is therefore fufficient.

TABLE

326 'The Orbit and Motion of

TABLE II. contains the Elliptic Equation of the Planet. The
argument is the Mean Anomaly, or the Mean Longitude of the
Planet — the Longitude of the Aphelion.

TABLE III. contains the Logarithm of the Planet's diftance
from the Sun, the Earth's mean diftance being i. The argu-
ment is the Mean Anomaly of the Planet.

TABLE IV. contains the Heliocentric Latitude of the Planet,
the Reduction to the Ech'ptic, and the Reduction of the Loga-
rithm of the diftance from the Sun. The argument is the Or-
bital Longitude of the Planet— the Longitude of the Node.

TABLE V. contains the Geocentric Aberration of the Planet,
for reducing its true to the apparent place. The argument is
the Elongation of the Planet from the Sun.

EXAMPLE.

REQUIRED the heliocentric place of the Planet for 1787,
January 13^. 04 £. 56' oo" M. T. Greenwich.

s. ° ' " s. ° ' " s. ° ' "

1787. M. Lon. Plan-3. 28.00. 12,5 Lon. Aphel. n. 23. ri. 28 Lon. Nod. 2. 12.49. 35
b.oo. oo. oo 3.28.09.35 3. 23. 32. 35

AT Mot 9' 13>2

7,1 M. An. 4.04.58.07 Arg.Lat. i. 30.43.00

1,7 Hel. Lat. N. 30. 15

Log. dift. 0 1.2694179

3.28.09.34,5 Red. Log. 168

Eq. Orbit, 4. 36. 59,3

Log. curt. dift. 1.2694011

3-23-32-35>2
Free — Red. 7, 4

Flan, for M. Eq*. 3. 23. 32. 27,8

IT will be remarked, that the deviations from obfervations
made near the vernal ftations are in defect, while thofe near the
autumnal ftations are in excefs. Hence it may be prefumed, that
the mean diftance and periodic time are fomewhat too fmall,
and the aphelion too far advanced on the ecliptic. I did not
remark this till after I had computed the tables ; and it is a te-
dious taflc to make the computation a-new. I have publiflied
them, not in the perfualion that they are perfect, but becaufe
none have as yet been publifhed in Britain, and I have feen on-
ly thofe of DE LA PLACE and ORIANI, both of which are lefs
confiftent with obfervations than mine.

GEORGIUM SID US.

3*7

TABLE I.

RADICAL MEAN PLACES, AND MOTIONS.

M. Lon. Plan.

Lon. Aphel.

Lon. Node.

1

D

M. Mot.

JH

Mot.

s ° '

S

o / //

S °

/ *

a

1756

ii. 13.43.43,1

II. 22. 25. 48

2. 12. 23. 35

0.42,5 || j

1,8

1781

3.02.01. ,6,5

io. 23. 06. 26

2.12.44.34

1.25,1

1 2

3,6

1782

3. 06. 20. 59,0

1 I. 23. 07. l6

2. 12. 45. 24

2- 07,7 |f 3

5,3

1783

3. 10.40. 41,0

11.23. 08. 07

2. 12. 46. 14

2. 50,2

4

1784

3. 15. oo. 23,0

11.23. 08.57

2.12.47.05

3- 32,7

5

8,9

1785

3. 19. 20. 48,0

11.23.09.48

2- 12. 47« 55

i

4. 15,3

6

10,6

1786

3. 23. 40. 30,5

ii. 23. io. 38

2. 12. 48. 45

•j

4- 57,9

7

12,4

1787

3. 28.00.12,5

II. 23. II. 28

2.12.49.35

5. 40,5

8

14,2

1788

4. 02. 19. 54,7

I I. 23. 12. 19

2. 12. 50. 26

(

6. 23,0 1| 9

16,0

• 789

4. 06.40. 19,5

11.23. 13.09

2. 12. 51. l6

IO

io

17,7

1790

4. ii. oo. 01,7

II. 2

'3* J3- 59

2. 12. 52. 06

II

rUi'j

in

19,5

1791

4. 15. 19. 23,9

11.23. 14. 50

2. 12.52.57

12

8. 30,7

12

21,3

1792

4. 19. 39. 06, 1

11.23.15.40

2. 12. 53. 47

13

9. 13,2

P3

23,1

1793

4. 23. 29. 30,9

11.23.16.31

2. 12. 54. 32

Ii

9-55,8

P4

24,8

1794

4. 28. 19. 13,1

II. 32. 17. 21

2. 12. 55. 28

15

10. 38,3

h

26,6

'795

5.02.38.55,3

ii. 23. 18. 12

2. 12. 56. l8

16

11.20,9

16

28,4

Vionth. M. Motion.

P.Eq

17

12. 03,4

P7

30'1

N. B. In taking out

18

12.46,0

1 8

3J»9

o / « .

"

the M. Mot. for any day

19

13. 28,5

P9

33,7

an. o
reb. o

oo. oo. 00,0
oo- 21. 59,1

O,O

4,3

in a leap year, after the
291)1 of February, reckon
one day more.

20

21

14.11,1

4- 53,6

20
21

5,5
37,2

VI ar. o

oo. 41. 50,6

8,3

J

22

5- 36,2

32

39,0

Apr. o

1.03.49,8

12,5

23

6. 18,7

23

40,8

VI ay, o

I. 25. 06,4

16,7

24

7- 01,3

|24

42,5

une, o

1.47. 05,5

20,9

IT

7-43,8

25

uly, o

2. 08. 22,1

25,1

6

8. 26,4

26

Aug. o

2. 30. 21,3

19,3

7

9. 08,9

27

Sept. o

2. 52. 20,4

33,6

b

9-51,5

;28

oa. o

3* J3* 37»°

37,8

9

o. 34,o

'29

Nlov. c

3.- 35- 36,1

c

1.16,6

!3°

)ec. c

3. 56. 52,8

*6,i

i

I«59,i

3i

328

The Orlit and Motion oftht

j

TAB. II. ELLIPTICAL EQUATION.

Arg. M. An.

o

I.

II.

1

—

Diff.

—

Diff.

—

Diff.

o

i

0 / "

1 H

O ' H

/ it

0

o. oo. 00,0

5*) o O

2. 3 5 22,4

4 A A *1

4- 34- 36»5

2 C7 1

30

— i

2

3

4
5

o. 05. 23,0
o. 10. 46,0
o. 16. 08,8
0.21.31,3
o. 26. 53,5

• *3>u
5- 23,0

5- 22,8

5- 22,5

5- 22,2

2.40. 07,1
2. 44. 49,6

2. 49- 29,5
2. 54. 06,7
2.58.41,2

• 44>/
4- 42,5
4- 39,9
4- 37,2
4- 34,5

4-3 T *7

4« 37- 34,2
4. 40. 27,4

4- 43, J5,8
4- 45- 59,5
4- 48- 38,4

*" a/,/
2. 53,2

2. 48,4

2- 43,7

2- 38,9
*? 1/i 1

29
28

27
26

25

6

7
8

9

o. 32. 15,4

o. 37- 36,7
o. 42. 57,4
o. 48. 17,5

5* 21, y

5-2i,3
5« 20,7
5- 20,1

3- °3« I2,9
3- °7- 4i,7
3- I2- 07,5
3- l6- 3°,3

• 3*»7

4. 28,8
4- 25-8

4. 22,8

4.51. 12,6

4- 53- 4i,7
4- 56. 05,7
4- 58. 24,9

*« 34, ^
2. 29,1
2. 24,0
2. 19,2
2. 14,1

24
23

22
21

10

o. 53- 36,8

U T« C

3- 20. 49,9

4r(\ A

5. oo. 39,0

2. 08 9

2O

ii

o. 58- 55,3

5- lo,j

3- 25- 06,3

• 1U>4

5. 02. 47,9

2 07 8

19

12

13
14

15

i. 04. 12,9
i. 09. 29,5
i. 14. 45,0
i. 19. 59,4

5. 16,6
5- 15,5

e* T ^ *>

3- 29- 19,5
3- 33- 29,3
3- 37- 35,7
3- 4i- 38,7

4. 09,8
4- 06,4
4- 03,0

5. 06. 50,2
5- 08. 43,4

*• ^J,"
I- 58,5

i- 53,2
i- 47,9
1/196

18

17
16

15

16

i. 25. 12,6

5- I3-2

3- 45- 38,0

• 59»3

i cz 8

5- 12. 13,9

• H^,U

14

18

19

20

i. 30. 24,4

I- 35- 34,9
i. 40. 43,9

i-45-5i,3

5- IJ,8

5- 10»5

5- 07,4

3- 49- 33,8
3- 53- 25,8
3. 57. 14,1

4. oo. 58,4

3- 55, 8
3- 52,0
3- 48,3
3-44,3

5- 15- 22,7
5- 16. 48,8
5. 18. 09,5

i. 26,1
i. 20,7

13

12
II

10

5- 05,7

3- 40,6

1. 15,0

21
22

23
24

25

i. 50. 57,0
i. 56. 01,1

2. 01. 03,4
2. 06. 03,7
2. II. 02,2

5- 04,1
5- 02,3

4- 58',5
4- 56,3

4- 54,3
4. 52,1

4- 49,9
4- 47»6

4. 04. 39,0

4- °8- 15,5
4. ii. 48,0

4. 1 8. 40,6

3- 36,5
3- 32,5
3- 28,4
3. 24,2

3-11,2

3- 07,0
3- 02,3

5- 19- 24,5
5- 20. 33,9
5- 21. 37,7
5- 22. 35,7
5- 23. 28,0

1.09,4

1.03,8

o. 58,0
o. 52,3
o. 46,6

o. 40,7

o. 34,9
o. 29,1
o. 23,1

9

8

7
6

5

26

27
28
29
30

2.I5-58,5
2. 20. 52,8

2- 25. 44,9
2. 30. 34,8

2. 35. 22,4

4. 22. 00,5

4. 25. 16,0
4. 28. 27,2
4- 31- 34,2
4- 34- 36,5

5- 24- 14,6
5- 24- 55,3
5- 25- 3°,2

5- 25- 59,3
5. 2<5. 22,4

4
3

2

I
O

+

+

+

|| XI.

X.

IX.

XII. ABSTRACT of a REGISTER of the WEATHER, kept at
HAWK HILL, near Edinburgh; containing Obfervutions of the
Thermometer, the Quantity of Rain and Evaporation , from
1771 to 1776 inclujive.

[Communicated by Mr M.A CGO WA N. ]

THIS Abftraft contains the medium heat for the half of
each month, and is a continuation of that inferted in
the lad Volume of the Phyfical and Literary EJJays.
HAWKHILL is fituated IT mile N. E. of Edinburgh.
THE Obfervations of the Thermometer were made everyday
at 8 o'clock A. M.

Months.

1771.

»772-

lit and zd hall's.

Ther.

Rain.

Evapor.

Ther.

Rain.

Evapor.

Deg.

Inch.

Inch.

Deg.

Inch.

Inch.

January,

I

31.80

32.40

2

34-56

1.043

°-343

30.56

2.68 1

o.ooo

February,

I

35-°°

29.42

2

38.28

1.165

3-395

32.46

1-385

o.ooo

March,

I

35-8o

36.00

2

36.00

0-538

0.958

38.00

1.685

0.805

April,

I

38-46

43.20

2

44.86

0.440

2.540

42.60

1.299

2.549

May,

I

47.66

48.93

2

53-12

I-385

3-335

49.31

2.024

3-854

June,

I

54-46

55-93

2

5693

0.482

4.382

58.40

2-997

4-367

July,

I

59.06

60.26

2

57-93

1.848

4.248

57.06

3.688

4.188

Auguft,

I

57-26

58.00

2

56.00

3-229

3-429

56-75

2.710

3.018

September,

I

52.46

53.60

2

5°-93

1.742

1.942

49.46

3.261

Oftober,

I

46.86

5°-73

3-294

2

46.75

5-59 *

1.491

46.88

3-5'3

November,

I

41.46

44- 1 3

2

42.26

3-765

0.815

39-33

5-659

0.749

December,

I

43-53

42.00

2

39.12

0.966

0.666

37-Ji

1.282

0.572

Sums,

22.194

24-544

32-184

23-558

Means,

!45-«5

45-53

u

u

334

REGISTER of the WEATHER.

Months.

1773-

I774-

i ft and id lialfs

Therm.

Rain.

Evapor.

Therm.

Rain.

Evapor.

Deg.

Inch.

Inch.

Deg.

Inch.

Inch.

January,

i

39.06

28.46

2

38-06

3.526

1.436

29-75

2.775

February,

I

32.14

34-H

3-699

2

38.00

'•^54

0.504

38.28

2.024

March,

I

40.46

34.06

2

43.66

1.225

1.695

40.18

0.859

1-759

April,

I

42.40

43- 1 3

2

48.80

3-53°

3-53°

43-13

i-737

3-387

May,

I

44-33

46.73

2

52.81

1.827

3-477

46.50

3-49°

3-540

June,

I

54-x3*

54.80

2

56.26

0.873

3-673

55-40

3.868

3.268

J^y,

I

56-33

57.40

2

59.06

1.405

6.805

57-5°

i-5'3

4-463

Auguft,

I

60.40

58-I3

2

56.12

1.283

3-583

56-37

4.818

3.168

September,

I

S3-26

52.40

2

49-33

3.680

51.00

2.925

2.525

Oftober,

I

47.20

5-385

51.06

2

4487

2.955

45-5°

I-305

2.105

November,

I

4i-53

40.63

2

34-93

3-369

0.119

35-5°

2.179

2.179

December,

I

35.60

37-4°

2

37-25

3-9'J

i-7i5

37-25

2.692

o.ooo

Sums,

28.842

31.922

30-185

30.693

Means,

46.08

44.86

Months.

REGISTER of the WEATHER.

335

Months.

1775'

1776.

ill and id halt's.

Therm.

Rain.

Evapor.

Therm.

Rain.

Deg.

Inch.

Inch.

Deg.

Inch.

January,

i

39.10

33-33

VO

o

2

36-5°

4-591

2.040

25.16

3.262

£

February,

I

37-64

36-32

bb

2

40.50

3.014

2.214

35-00

2-355

£r

March,

I

39.80

57.60

2

40.31

1.586

2.836

44.12

1.465

V)

m

April,

I

44-83

43-6o

£

2

48.83

0.578

3.928

48.20

1.213

bo

May,

I

52.60

47-36

c

2

52.88

1.422

5,272

51.22

0.626

0

June,

I

55-66

55.00

8

2

57-53

1.209

•3-309

56.00

2.367

a.

July,

I
2

58.20
60.06

5.806

3-556

58.16
60.56

3-075

«

V

jz

Auguft,

I

59.10

58.60

4J

2

56.21

2.364

2-5H

54-86

2.410

£

September,

I

53-2°

55.00

4J

•

2

53-33

3.820

1.920

48.60

2-755

B
-fi

Odober,

1

48.86

48.60

IM

2

4M5

5-309

2.109

45-38

J-735

November,

' I

38.00

45.80

3

2

37'93

3-6l5

0.165

36-13

2.750

-o

December,

I

41.16

42-54

S

2

36.00

0.760

0.660

33-°°

2.080

•Sums,

34.298

30-754

26.093

Means,

47.08

45-84

Greateft

336

REGISTER of the WEATHER.

Greateft Degrees of Cold and Heat, obferved at Hawkhill,
from 1766 to 1776 inclufive.

1767. January 17. at 8| h. P. M.

1768. January 3. at loh. P. M.

17. at 8 h. A. M.
1772. February i. at yf h. A. M.

N. B. At Selkirk the thermometer,
fame morning, continued from 6 h.
to 8 h. A. M.

1774. January 12. at yh. A. M.

•N. B. Selkirk at 8 h. A. M.

And the preceding night at iah.

1776. January 31. at8h. A.M.

Same h. at Obfervatory, Hawkhill,
At Botanic garden, at 6 h. A. M. faid
day,

1770. Auguft 5. at 3Jh. P. M. - -

FAHR.
Therm.

I7-50
17.00

17.00
I2.OO

17.00

12. OO

8.00
14.00

IT.OO

5.00
81.15

Proportion of the Weft Wind to the Eaft for every Month, de-
duced from Obfervations made at Hawkhill from 176410
1771 both inclufive.

N. B. The South Wind, and all to the Weft of the Meridian, are
reckoned Weft. The North Wind, and all to the Eaft of the Me-
ridian, are reckoned Eaft.

Months.

W. wind. E. wind.

Months.

W. wind. E.wind.

January,

22.0

9.0

July,

17.9

U-i

February,

1 8.6

9.6

Auguft,

21.3

9-7

March,

17.6

13-4

September,

20.4

9.6

April,

15-9

14.1

Oaober,

23-9

7-i

May,

14-5

16.5

November,

22.0

8.0

June,

15.6

14.4

December,

II.O

For the whole year, 229.7 Weft, 135.5 Eaft.

END OF PAPERS OF THE PHTSIC4L CLASS.

I,

li

'

The GEORGTUM S I D U S.

3*9

TAB. II. ELLIPTICAL EQUATION.
Arg. M. An.

III.

IV.

V.

—

Diff.

Diff.

—

Diff.

o

0 ' //

O f //

/ H

o

3

O

5. 26. 22,4

o. 17,4

o. 11,4
o. 05,4
o. 00,6
o. 08,6

o. 11,5

o. 1 8,6
o. 24,6

o. 3°,7
o. 36,8

o. 42,7
o. 48,9

o. 55,2
i. 00,7

i. 07,2

i- I3,1
i. 19,1

i- 25,3
i- 3*»5
i- 37»3

!• 43»3
i. 49,6

i- 55,3
2. 01,4

2. 07,4
2. 12,9

2- 19,5

2. 24,8

2.31,0
2. 36,6

4-51- 23,4

2. 42,8
2. 48,4

2. 53,8
,3. 00,1

J3- °5,°
3- 10»9
3- 1 6,4
3- 21,7
3- 27,3
3- 32,5
3- 38,0

3- 43,2
3- 48,3
3- 53,4
3- 58,6

4- 03,4
4. 08,4

4- 13.2
4. i 8,0

4. 22,7

4. 27,2

4- 3L7
4. 36,2

4. 40,6
4.44,8

4.48,9

4- 53,°

4- 57,°
5. 00,8

5- 04,7

2. 52. 12,4

5.08,1
5- 12,0

5- 15,3
5- 18,7
5- 21,9

5-25,1
5.28,1

5-3!,°
5-33,8

5- 36,5
5- 39»o

5-4i,5
5- 43,7
5- 46,o
5- 47,9

5- 5°,o

5- 5i,9
5- 53,5

5-55,i
5- 56,6

5- 57,9

5- 59,o
6. 00,2
6. 01,0
6. 01,9

6. 02,5

6. 03,0
6. 03,5
6- 03,7
6. 03,8

I
2

3

4

5

5. 26. 39,8
5. 26. 51,2
5- 26. 56,6
5. 26. 56,0
5. 26. 48,4

4. 48. 40,6

4- 45- 52,2
4. 42. 58,4

4-39'58,3
4- 36. 53,3

2. 47- °4,3

2. 41. 52,3

2. 36. 37,0
2.31. 18,3

2. 25. 56,4

29

28-

2?
26

25

6

7

8

9

10

5. 26. 36,9
5.26. 18,3

5- 25- 53»7
5- 25- 23,°
5. 24. 46,2

4- 33- 42,4
4. 30. 26,0

4- 27, 04,3
4- 23- 37>°

4. 20. 04,5

2- 20. 31,3
2. 15. 03,2
2. 09. 32,2
2- 03. 58,4
1.58.21,9

24
23

22

21
20

ii

12

!3
14
15

5. 24. 03,5
5. 23. 14,6

5. 22. 19,4
5.21. 18,7

5.20. 11,5

4. 1 6. 26,5
4- 12. 43,3

4. 08. 55,0
4. 05. 01,6
4. 01. 03,0

I. 52. 42,9
1.47.01,4
I.4I. 17,7

1-35-31,7

i. 29. 43,6

J9

18

J7
16

J5

16

J7

18

19

20

5.18.58,4

5- 17- 39,3
5. 1 6. 14,0

5- 14- 42,5
5. 13. 05,2

3» 56. 59,6
3- 52. S1,2
3. 48. 38,0
3. 44. 20,0

3- 39- 57,3

1-23-53,6
i. 18. 01,7

I. 12. O8,2
I. 06. 13,1

i. oo. 1 6,5

J4
J3

12
II

10

21

22

23
24

25

5- 11.21,9'
5- 09- 32,3
5- °7- 37»o
5- 05. 35,6
5. 03, 28,2

3- 35- 3°,J

3- 3°- 58,4

3. 26. 22,2
3. 21. 41,6

3. 16. 56,8

0.54. 1 8,6
o. 48. 19,6
o. 42. 19,4
o. 36. 1 8,4
o. 30. 1 6,5

9
8

6

5

26
27
28
29

3°

5-01- r5,3
4- 58. 55,8
4- 56. 31,0

4. 54. 00,0

4- 5 1- 23,4

3. 12. 07,9
3. 07. I4,9
3.02.17,9
2. 57. 17,1
2. 52. 12,4

o. 24. 14,0
o. 1 8. 11,0

0. 12. 07,5

o 06. 03,8
o. oo. 00,0

4
3

2
I

O

1 +

+

+

VIII.

Vll.

VI.

T t

330

The Orbit and Motion of

TAB. III. Logarithm of the PLANET'S Diftance from the SUN.

Arg. M. An.

0

I.

II.

0

Logar.

Diff.

Logar.

Diff.

Logar.

Diff.

9

o

1.3008817

1.2984548

1.2916063

3°

f\ *7

Tn T n

1(\ T A

I

2

3

4

5

1.3008790
1.3008708
1,3008571
1.3008379
1.3008133

27
82

137
192
246

1.2982929
1.2981260
1.2979542

1-2977775
1-2975959

1669
1718
1767

1816

1.2913149
1.2910200
1.2907217
1.2904202
1.2901155

•i914

2949
2983

3OI5

3°47

29
28
27
26

25

T SnC

20*78

6

7

1.3007833
1.3007478

JUU

355

1.2974094
1.2972182

iOU^j

1912

1.2898077
1.2894968

au/°
3109

24

8

9

10

1.3007068
1.3006604
1.3006085

q.10

464
5*9

1.2970224
1.2966165

J959

2006

2053

/> TO/-}

1.2891828
1.2888659
1.2885462

3l6,9
3197

2'7'> C

22
21

20

ii

12

14

1.3005512
1.3004886
1.3004206
1.3003473

1.3002684

573
626

680

734

788

RAI

1.2964065
1.2961920

1-295973°
1-2957495
1.2955216

2145
2190

2235
2279

O 09 A

1.2882237
1.2878985
1.2875708
1.2872406
1.2869080

3^ZJ
3252
3277

3326

2.2CO

19

18

17
16

16

18

20

1.3001842
1.3000947
1.2999999
1.2998998
1.2997945

895
948

1001

1.2952892
1.2950525
2.2948116
1.2945664
1.2943170

£344

2367
2409
2452
2494

O C 2£

1.2865730
1.2862358
1.2858964

1.2855550
1.2852116

OO3U
3372

3394
3414
'3434

2AC/1

14

12
II

10

21

22

23
24

25

1.2996839
1.2995679
1.2994467
1.2993203
1.2991888

1160

1212
1264
1315
1266

1.2940635
1.2938060

1-2935445
1.2932790

1.2930095

•'•Dij

2575
2615

2655
2695

1*722

1.2848662
1.2845190-
1.2841702
1.2838198
1.2834680

5'tj't

3472

3488

3504

2.^2.2

9

8

6

5

26

27
28
29

3°

1.2990522
1.2989105
1.2987636
1.2986117

1.2984548

13UU
1417
1469

1519
1569

1.2927362
1.2924592
1.2921786
1.2918943
1.2916063

•'•/ 56

2770
2806
2843
2879

1.2831148
1.2827603
1.2824045
1.2820476
1.2816896

3JO

3545
3558

3569

358o

4
3

2

I
0

Logar.

Diff.

Logar.

Diff.

Logar.

Diff.

XI.

X.

IX.

fbt GEORGIUM SIDUS.

31*

TAB. III. Logarithm of the PLANET'S Diftance from the SUN.

Arg. M. An.

III.

IV.

V.

0

Logar.

Diff. | Logar.

Diff.

Logar.

Diff.

0

o

1.2816896

oegg

1 1.2710423

9 OO C

1.2627235

3°.

i

2

3
4

5

1.2813308
1.2809712
1.2806110
1.2802503
1.2798891

OJ00

3596

3602

3607
3612

^(\ rf\

1.2707098
1.2703799
1.2700528
1.2697288
1.2694078

3325

3299
3271

3240
3210

•3 T*?n

1.2625225
1.2623274
1.2621382
1.2619552
1.2617785

i95i

1892

1830
1767

29

28

27
26

25

6

7

8

9

10

1.2795275
1.2791656

1.2788036
i. £784416
1.2780797

JUIU

3619
3620
3620
3619

1.2690899
1.2687754
1.2684644
1.2681570
1.2678533

3X79

3145
3110

3°74
3°37

1.2616080
1.2614439
1.2612863
1.2611352
1.2609906

1641

1576
1511
1446

24.
23

22
21

2O

3616

3614
3609
3604

3597
acRo

2999

2960
2921

2880
2837

1380
1312

1245
1176
1107

ii

12

13
14
15

1.2777181

I.2773567
1.2769958
1.2766354

1.2762757

J-2675534
1.2672574
1.2669653
1.2666773
1.2663936

1.2608526
1.2607214
1.2605969
1.2604793
1.2603686

18

3

15

16

17
18

19

20

1.2759168

1.2755589
1.2752020

1.2748461
1.2744915

o3°y

3579
3569
3559
3546

3C 1 1

1.2661143
1.2658396
1.2655695
1.2653041
1.2650434

Z79o

2747
2701
2654
2607
"j cdn

1.2602647
1.2601677
1.2600777
1.2599948
1.2599190

1039

970
900
829
758
688

14
13

12
II

IO

21

22

24

25

1.2741384
1.2737868

1.2730884
1.2727420

OJ61
3516

3483
3464

1.2647875
1.2645367
1.2642911
1.2640507
1.2638157

^ooy

2508
2456

2404

235°

T^C\C\

1.2598504
1.2597888

1 -2597345
1.2596874
1.2596475

616

543

399

9
8

6

5

26

27

1.2723976

1.2720553

3444
3423

1.2635861
1.2633620

2241
2186

1.2596148

1-2595893

327

255
182

4
3

28
29

3°

1.2717152

I.27I3775

1.2710423

3377
3352

1.2631434
1.2629305
1.2627235

2129

2070

1.2595711
1.2595601
1.2595564

no

37

2

I
O

Logar.

Diff.

Logar.

Diff.

Logar.

Diff.

VIII.

Vll.

V.

33*

The Orbit and Motion of, &c.

TABLE IV.

TAB. V.

o. N.
VI. 5.

_ —

I. N
VII. S

-n- -

II. N.
VIII. S

j

Elong.

Ab.

Lat.

Red

R.lo

Lai

Red

R.Iog Lat.

Red

R.lo

o

/ /»

n

/ /.

«

, „

It

0

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«

PAPERS OF 'THE LlfERART CLASS.

II.

PAPERS OF THE LITERART CLASS.

I. ESSAY on the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of the EUROPEAN
LEGISLATURES. By ALL^N M^CONOCHIE, Efq; Advo-
cate, F. R. S. EDIN. and ProfeJJor of Public Law in the U»i~
•uerfity of EDINBURGH.

PART I.

Of the Period previous to the Conqueji of the Weftern Empire.
{Read by the Author, Dec. 15. 1783.]

INTRODUCTION.

TH E fall of the feudal fyftem was accomplifhed, in the prin-
cipal ftates of Europe, at a period when the revival of
learning had difrufed in fociety a fpirit of reflexion, and com-
municated, to the better fort, fome knowledge of the hiflory of
the Greek and Roman republics-. As it was, in general, the
kings who conducted the attack on the privileges of the feudal
nobility, the principal part of the fpoils had fallen naturally to
their {hare. But the people were warlike, the nobles were ftill
animated with the pride of rank, of family, and of their ancient
confequence, and men, in general, had begun to fpeculate on
their rights, and were unaccuflomed to perceive, with fatisfac-
tion, the whole powers of government centred in the crown.

a 2 Hence

4 On the ORIGIN and S TR UCTUR E of

Hence the rights of the kings, of the nobility, and of the peo-
ple, came to be a matter of general difcuflion : And as men are
ufually prejudiced in favour of the wifdom of their remote
anceftors, and derive their more common notions of their poli-
tical rights from what was cuftomary in ancient times, the me-
rits of the difpute were univerfally fuppofed to turn on the
hiftorical queftion of facl:, What conftitution was adopted by the
original founders of each particular nation.

HENCE the firft refearches into the ancient hiflory of the Eu-
ropean governments were made with a view to fupport the te-
nets of political factions. Thofe who wifhed to gain the favour
of courts laboured to prove the ancient fovereignty of the
Gothic kings, and founded their fyftems on the defpotic powers
of the leader of a conquering army, and the abfolute nature of
a right of conqueft ; from whence they inferred, that the pri-
vileges of the ariflocracy were ufurpations on the crown, and
the rights of the people the grants of its bounty. The parti-
sans of the people again endeavoured to trace the political rights
of the commons to a remote antiquity, and exhibited them as
underflood and exercifed in the fulleft manner in the earlieft
ages of the conftitution j and they contended, that the happi-
nefs of thofe times was to be reftored only, by the people re-
fuming the conftitutional powers which kings and nobles had
alternately ufurped. In fine, thofe who had imbibed from the
Greek and Roman claffics, or from family-conneclions, a pro-
found reverence for ariftocratic virtues, together with a propor-
tionable averfion to plebeian manners, delighted to efpoufe the
caufe of the falling nobility, to difplay the ancient powers of
the order, and to confute their antagonifts, by tracing the cir-
cumfcribed limits of the royal prerogative in remote times, the
oppreffions under which the commons laboured, and the little
importance they pofTefTed in national affairs.

IN this way, opinions with regard to the original ftruclure of
the European governments entered into the creeds of contend-
ing

ttc EUROPEAN LEGrSLATURES. 5

ing factions j and though thefe, in courfe of time, ceafed to be
the fubject of profeiTedly polemical writing, their influence is
dill fenfible in guiding the views of the hiftorian, and blunting
the difcernment of the philofopher and politician. The hiflo-
riographer of France, even in thefe days, maintains the abfo-
lute legiflative authority of the Merovingian princes. The
Abbe MABLY, and Englifh authors of no inferior reputation,
Lord LITTELTON, Dr STUART, &c. affirm the remote antiquity
of the reprefentation of the commons; and MONTESQUIEU and
HUME have conferred their fanction on the ariftocratic fyftem.
When a controverfy is thus circumftanced, men of information
are apt to indulge fcepticifm, and abandon the fubject ; while fe-
cond-rate authors feize it as lawful game, court popularity, by
aflerting errors that fuit the tafte of the times, and treat thofe
with abufe who venture to reject them.

BUT there is, in fact, no period where there is better encou-
ragement to hope that an enquiry may be purfued with fuccefs.
The very fcepticifm of the literary world, which has begun to
efcape from the factions of the laft century, if not fuffered to mar
its induftry, will give enlargement to its views, and candour to
its difquifitions. Many important facts in the hiflory of rude
nations, akin to thofe which founded^the Gothic governments,
have been afcertained : Many ancient records, to which the pu-
blic had formerly no accefs, have been publifhed j and the ef-
forts of great men, during the prefent century, to render hifto-
ry an object of philofophical fpeculation, have roufed a fpirit of
enlightened obfervation, and taught perfons, poflefled of lite-
rary curiolity, how to direct their refearches.

I FLATTER myfelf thefe obfervations will afford me fome
apology, for prefuming to treat of a fubject which has former-
ly drawn the attention of fo many perfons of the firft abilities.
My fentiments on it are the refult of an enquiry, to which
duty, as well as inclination, prompted me ; and, if they have
no other merit, I truft they will at leaft be attended with

the

6 On the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of

the advantage of fuggefting an object for the labours of the
fociety, highly interefting to us as citizens, as well as lovers of
fcience.

WHEN we confider, with impartiality, the controverfy about
the ancient European conftitutions, the firft reflection that fug-
gefts itfelf is, that there muft be fome foundation in truth for
the different opinions that have been adopted with regard to
them. The partizans of each of the three fyftems produce evi-
dence which goes a certain length in fupporting it. There is,
therefore, reafon to fuppofe, that all the fyftems are chiefly erro-
neous, in fo far as they are exclusive of each other ; and that
there muft be an hypothefis, which, if difcovered, would folve
every difficulty, and involve in itfelf the doctrines of all the
fyftems, to a certain extent.

PROCEEDING on this idea, and reflecting what this hypothe-
fis may be, we are foon fatisfied that it muft be fome very fim-
ple one. It is agreed on all hands, that the conquerors of the em-
pire were in a very rude ftate of fociety at the aera of their fettle-
ments. Their difpolition to emigrate as nations is alone fufEcient
to demonftrate, that hufbandry was very imperfectly practifed
among them, and that their principal dependence was on their
flocks and herds. In fuch circumftances, we may be aflured,
that the practice taken notice of by C^SAR and TACITUS, arva
per annos mutant et fupere/l ager, ftill prevailed ; and, of courfe,
that as yet exclufive and permanent property in land had not
been generally introduced, and that a feparation of profefllons
was unknown. Their fituation, therefore, created no call for
an improved jurifprudence, or for much exertion of legiflative
wifdom j and without this call, laws cannot be numerous, nor
government complicated *.

BUT

* EVEN fo late as the period fince which the Swedifh lavrs have been preferved, there
are traces of .the fame migratory ftate of fociety having prevailed. " Coluerunt difcreti
" et diverfi," faysSaERKHOOK, " sedificiis tranfitoriis, et in annum aut menfem pofitis :"

Wherefore,

fbe EUROPEAN LEGISLATURES. 7

BUT it is not enough to be affured, that the arrangements of
fociety among the conquerors were extremely {imple, or that an
independence, natural to rude men, ftill prevailed, and was
equally inconfiftent with defpotifm in chiefs, and with that fpi-
rit of fubordination, and Tyflematic ftrufture of laws, on which
civil liberty depends. We muft endeavour to learn rexacTly what
the flrudhire of fociety among the Gothic nations was, while
ftill remaining in their original feats ; and to afcertain the influ-
ence which fettlement, in the cultivated provinces of the em-
pire, where laws and government had been long eftablifhed, ne-
ceflarily produced on the political fituation of the conquerors.

A VERY flight view of the hiftory of Europe points out
abundant materials for this extenfive enquiry. The nations of
this continent appear to have followed almoft the fame route to
civilization, advancing only with more or lefs celerity, in pro-
portion as they were fituated in countries more or lefs fruitful,
and more or lefs expofed to foreign intercourfe. At the com-
mencements of hiftory, we find the rifing republics in the neigh-
bourhood of the Mediterranean poflefled of inftitutions and
traditions which indicate that they had recently emerged from
that fituation in which the more inland nations on the north
of them ftill remained. After a few centuries had elapfed,
Gaul and South Britain are found, at the invafion of C^SAR, a
tranfcript of Greece and Italy and Spain, when baniming their
kings and eftablifhing republics. Germany, more inland, re-
tained ftill her rude form, her extenfive confederacies, and dif-
pofition to emigration ; while Finland, Caledonia, and Scandi-
navia, were little different from a North American wildernefs.
Thefe countries, however, became formidable before the fall of
the weftern empire ; and Scandinavian tribes crofTed the Baltic,

and

•

Wherefore he adds, the leges vetujliffimx directed the farmer to have a houfe fj>r himfelf,
and trinas for the flaves, cattle and corn, he might carry about with him in his journey-
ings, to be put up when he fojourned in one place, " perinde ut fepes excepta tantum
" ea quae villam includeret," p. 295.

8 On the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of

and repeopled the countries which the conquerors of the Ro-
mans had abandoned. Germany then proceeded as fouthern
Europe had done before her. She became fit to coalefce with
Gaul under the government of the Franks ; and petty dates, rifing
on the coads of the Baltic and German ocean, addicted to navi-
gation and military adventure, redored in the north fomewhat
of the early ages of Greece and Italy.

IN the mean time, the feudal law, characlerifed by its do-
medic fubordination, its tenures, its hereditary offices, and its
titled nobility, and deftined to create very lading and very fin-
gular impremons on the European governments and manners,
began to appear in the empire of the Franks. The wealth of
Gaul naturally made the inconveniences arifing from the imper-
fection of the German laws, be felt there with extreme feverity.
Men accordingly had there recourfe to the expedient which they
have univerfally reforted to for protection, wherever the progrefs
of property has outdripped that of law. When law is in its
infancy, and wealth has accumulated, though the political union
is loofe, and the authority of the magidrate feeble, the domedic
authority of the heads of families is drong, and the union among
their branches firm and intimate. The love of power, therefore,
induces the opulent to extend their houfeholds,by employing their
furplus wealth in engaging retainers ; and the defire of fafety
prompts the lefs opulent to court admifilon into thefe little focieties,
and to promife fupport in return for protection. Hence the per-
fonal relation of patron and client was edabliflied j and the great
importance of this relation, in turbxilent times, naturally led
men to have recourfe to the Roman arts of conveyancing, (which
were dill preferved among the natives) for afcertaining its ob-
ligations, and rendering it permanent and adequate to the pro-
tection of their property. In this way, lands, already ufed as the
means of purchafing retainers, came alfo to be impledged in
condituting this relation ; which, of courfe, from being per-
fonalj temporary, and dependent on mutual inclination, gra^

dually

fbe EUROPEAN LEGISLATURES. 9

dually became indifibluble, hereditary and real. The family
of MARTEL endeavoured to avail itfelf of the feudal combina-
tions, in order to ftrengthen its own authority, and to intro-
duce fome firmnefs into the fubordination of the citizens. By
thefe means, they grew into the conftitution of the ftate, and
were enabled, during the convuHions which tore it in the fall of
that houfe, to reduce every political inflitution in the French
empire, under the forms of their arrangements.

SPAIN, when advancing by fimilar fteps to Gaul, was over-
whelmed by the Saracens, in the beginning of the eighth cen-
tury. But as Catalonia foon after fell under the dominion of
CHARLEMAGNE, the feudal tenures naturally found their way
into that province, and were afterwards difrufed through the
reft of Spain, which was reconquered piece- meal, and chiefly by
combinations of adventurers, who had to defend a's well as con-
quer their acquifitions ; and who muft have found, that the feu-
dal tenures were inftitutions extremely well fuited to their
fituation. The Anglo-faxons, already accuftomed to the per-
fonal relation of vaflalage, and, through their connexions with
the continent, beginning to employ the feudal tenures, received
them, at the eftablifhment of the Normans, as the laws of their
conqueror. The other European nations were, however, in diffe-
rent circumftances. As they were pofleffed of little wealth, their
combinations for its protection were lefs general and lefs confoli-
dated ; and as they had efcaped conquefts by nations where the
feus obtained, they adopted them only by flow degrees, and in a
very partial manner. Among nations, as among individuals, the
practices of the more fkilfol are imitated by thofe who are lefs
accompliflied and informed. Hence the northern kingdoms im-
ported the feudal laws, becaufe they were the laws of their more
cultivated neighbours ; becaufe they were better calculated than
their own loofe cuftoms, to afcertain their rights ; and becaufe
it flattered the vanity of their grandees, to bear titles fimilar to
thofe of the dignified nobility of France and the German em-

b pire.

io On the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of

pire. NAs in thofe nations, however, the feudal law was a plant
of foreign growth, it was feldom able to acquire the vigour it
poflefled in its native foil. The reftraints and forfeitures, which
the Lombard lawyers had ingrafted on it, were frequently
rejected ; its titles of honour very often remained empty names,
without political confequence ; and, as it was in this manner
employed merely for mow, or for the afcertaining of private
rights, much of the ancient conftitution of the government was
preferved unimpaired.

IF thefe obfervations are in any meafure juft, the hiftory of
the conftitution of the different European nations may be much
elucidated by inftitutions afcertained to have exifted in their
fifter countries, during the correfponding periods of their pro-
grefs. The rife of the conftitutions of the Greek and Italian
ftates will derive light from what is known of the Gaulic, Ger-
man and Scandinavian tribes. The Norwegians, Angles, Saxons,
Jutes and Danes, of the feventh, eighth and ninth centuries, will
be found to referable the Germans of GZESAR and TACITUS.
The conftitutions of the Anglo-faxons, of the Franks before the
feus, of the Vifigoths in Spain, and of the Norwegians in Ice-
land, ought to be extremely fimilar. And the more modern go-
vernments of Denmark, Sweden, Poland and Hungary, may be
expected to retain more of the ancient Saxon and Scottifh confti-
tutions, than can be expected in the prefent Britifh government,
new modelled by the feudal law, and fubjected, for ages, to the
gradual bxit powerful influence of legiflative wifdom and nation-
al cultivation.

HAVING recourfe, as occasion requires, to the ample field of
evidence pointed out by thefe obfervations, I fhall endeavour to
afcertain the form of government of the Gothic nations in their
original feats ; I fhall examine the alterations it underwent upon
their fettlement in the Roman provinces ; and I fhall attempt to
trace its progrefs and revolutions under the predominancy of the

feudal fyftem *.

PART

* THIS laft part is not publiihed in the prefent volume,

The EUROPEAN LEGISLATURES. n

P A R T "I.

SECTION I. Of the Government of the German Nations while in their
original Territories.

THE German nations, when defcribed by CJESAR and TA-
CITUS, exhibited the fame difpofition for emigration and
conqueft, which afterwards, in the times of ALARIC and CLOVIS,
gained them poflemon of the Roman provinces. We may,
therefore, look into the ftrufture of fociety, which thefe great
authors defcribe, for the caufes of this reftlefs fpirit j and we
may likewife infer, from the permanency of a temper fo cha-
radleriftic of national manners, that, during this long interval,
the political circumftances of the Germans had continued near-
ly unchanged. Having, therefore, recourfe to the lively picture
which CJESAR and TACITUS have left us, a little attention to
the general circumftances of the Germanic nations will enable
us to perceive in it, with fufficient precifion, the forms of their
conftitution, and the nature of their government.

THE Germans lived in a country interfered with woods,
rivers and mountains. However much, therefore, they were in-
clined to indulge in the indolence of the paftoral life, their coun-
try did not permit them to refide, like Tartars, in moveable ha-
bitations. Hence they fojourned in annual huts, and cultivated
a little fpot of ground for a crop, in aid of the produce of their
cattle. Hence, too, they found it every where neceflary to have
ftrong holds, to which they carried their property in time of
danger. Thefe holds or pagi, as the Greeks and Romans called
them, were the natural refort of the tribes in their neighbour-
hood, and feem to have been every where the firft embryos of
the towns and little ftates with which ancient Europe fo much
abounded. The pagus was ufually fituate on an eminence, on

b 2 an

12 On the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of

an ifland in a river, or in the recefTes of a wood ; and it was for-
tified by palifadoes and mounds of earth.

THE point of union, which was thus formed among a few
tribes, neceffarily produced aflemblies of the whole warriors
belonging to them, and the election of one of their chiefs to
be their king or common leader. He held his office for life ; be-
caufe it was men almoft independent that gave it him, who ne-
ver doubted but that they could deprive him of it at pleafure,
and who continued him in it, becaufe they had no motive to
change him for another *. It was likewife ufually conferred at
his death on a perfon of his family. No diftindion could be
lefs invidious, or therefore would more readily fix the fuflfrages
in favour of a candidate, than his relationship to a deceafed
chief. Thus it is faid, Reges ex nobilitate fumunt. The chiefs of
the tribes that reforted to the pagus were the natural counfellors
of the king, as their -influence was the principal means of en-
gaging the warriors in any common meafure. Thefe chiefs
were, no doubt, like the kings, ufually elected out of particular
families. TACITUS thus mentions the election of the chiefs of
the fubordinate tribes : " Eliguntur in iifdem conciliis principes
"• qui jxira per pagos vicofque reddunt. Centeni fingulis ex plebe
" comites, concilium fimul et auctoritas adfunt." De Mor. Germ,
c. 12.

BUT though each pagus acknowledged, in general, no fuperior,
yet the circumilances of fociety induced numbers of them to con-
federate ; and, when wars happened, a common leader of the con-
federacy was chofen of courfe. Men who live on the produce of

herds

* Dr STUART, and fome other authors, have laid it down as certain, that thefe chiefs
held their offices only for a year. I cannot, however, difcover any good authority for
this opinion, though favoured by MONTESQUIEU, contrary to the fpirit of his fyftem. It
is oppofed by the univerfal practice of rude nations. The appellation of kings, applied
univerfally to the chiefs of rude tribes, is inconfiftent with it. And as the kings of modern
Europe were always underftood to hold their offices for life j and as, in general, the great
provincial magiftrates, in the ages after the conqueft of the empire, did fo likewife, un-
lefs deprived, there feems every reafon to beKeve, that the office of a German chief was
equally permanent.

The EUROPEAN LEGISLATURES. 13

herds can fubfift together in great bodies ', and the leifure they en-
joy, and the whole habits of their lives, prompt them to engage in
military enterprifes. In this way, leagues for offence, and, of
courfe, for defence likewife, are univerfally formed ; and the
confederates, in order to carry on their common undertakings,
naturally choofe a leader, whofe powers endure as long as there
is ufe for them. Thus, fays CAESAR, " Quum bellum civitas
" aut illatum defendit aut infert, magiftratus qui ei bello prac-
" fint, ut vitse necifque habeant poteflatem deliguntur. In pace
" nullus eft communis magiftratus, fed principes regionum, at-
" que pagorum, inter fuos jus dicunt, controverfiafq; minuunt-"
STRABO obferves the fame of the Lucanian ftates, a part of the
ancient confederacy of the Samnites : To» piv m> «AAOI» xgntt

" ( VIZ. «f w>» ) ifynoxf onwlo- (v ft roif iroXj/xoi? r'fiijo (3«irjA{Uf, uVo run

" M/*»^WW» «?xaf-" Lib. 6. 254.

THESE leagues, of a number of cantons or pagi, feem to have
been attended, in perhaps every nation under heaven, with one
very important inftitution, viz. a diftribution of the confede-
rates into regular numbers. A great body of men, who carry
on war for a considerable length of time, muft foon perceive the
advantage, and even neceflity of order and arrangement ; and
the moft fimple of all arrangements, is the regulating by numbers
the contingents that each pagus mould furnifh. As foon again
as this meafure is adopted^ each pagus is under the neceflity of
taking a fimilar method for raiiing and managing its contingent.
Each tribe belonging to a pagus will, of courfe, be called on.
to furnifh a certain number, and each great family in the tribe
a portion of this number. By this means, every canton, and
the parts of a canton, come naturally to be characterifed by
their refpeclive contingents, and the whole country itfelf feems
to be arranged into a feries of divifions for military purpofes.
" Definitur et numerus : fays TACITUS, centeni ex fingulis pagis
" funt : idque ipfum inter fuos vocantur, et quod primo nume-
" rus jam nomen et honor eft." De Mor. Germ. cap. 6. We

find

14 On the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of

find this fpecies of arrangement, not only in all countries where
the Germans eftablifhed themfelves, but among the Ifraelites,
as appears from the Mofaic inftitutions ; among the Tartar na-
tions, as far back as their hiftory reaches ; among the ancient
Hates of Greece * and Italy ; and the Roman legion itfelf feems
to have derived from the fame fource its original form f.

IT is natural to fuppofe, that, when a confederacy of neigh-
bouring pagi had long fubfifted, a feeling of fomewhat of na-
tional union will be apt to arife. The common leader, occa-
fionally chofen for a war, will be fo often elected, as at laft to
retain his powers for life. He will therefore become a king,
like the chief of apagus, and will be a princeps regionis, with fe-
veral principes pagorum, in fuch a fubordination to him as the
chiefs of vici, or of primary tribes, were originally to the
chiefs of pagi. Thefe combined pagi again may become the
allies of a great and lefs confolidated confederacy. Thus TA-
CITUS defcribes particularly the great confederacy of the Suevi;
and he enumerates above thirty of the nations belonging to it.
C.ESAR fays $, That each pagus or nation belonging to this confe-
deracy fent forth i ooo men to war every fummer j by which
means, as it confifted of an hundred pagi, an allied army of
100,000 men was annually formed. But TACITUS again men-
tions, that, in one fingle nation of the Suevi, viz. the Semnones,
there were an hundred pagi. It appears, therefore, that the

Semnones

* HOMER (peaks of decurix as known ;

IIoAAai Kit fraca^if Sivwetlt oivc^oio. II. lib. 11. V. 128.

And he attributes to NESTOR, the inftitution of the Greeks fighting by tribes and curiae ;

'ftf <pj»i1j>! tp^ntfrifif a-fiyy Qv\» 2i ipt/Xois' II. lib. ii. v. 362.

•f IT is ^remarkable, that the nature, univerfality and antiquity of this inftitution fhould
have efcaped Prefident MONTESQUIEU'S obfervation. He attributes it to the Merovingian
.princes, CLOTAIS.E and CHILPERJC, and fays, it was introduced into both France and
England, in order that each diftri£l ftiould anfwer for any robberies committed in it.
Efprit des Loix, lib. 30. c. 17. Dr STDART has entertained more juft notions of it. Dif-
fertation on the Englifli conftitution. Note, p. 231.

J De Bello Gall. lib. 4. cap. i.

the EUROPEAN LEGISLATURES. 15

Semnones were themfelves a national confederacy, at the fame
time that they were only a lingle ally in the great league of the
Suevi.

WE have evidence, that this military arrangement coincided
with the natural diftinclions of tribes and families. At the fame
rime that TACITUS mentions the former, he obferves as to the
latter, That " non cafus nee fortuita conglobatio turmam aut cu-
" neum facit, fed familiae et propinquitates." And C-ass AR men-
tions, that lands were occupied " gentibus cognationibufque *."

SUCH being the general arrangement of the Germans, it is
eafy to perceive the nature of thofe aflemblies, about which there
has been fo much difcuflion. All writers agree in the gravity
and decorum of the aflemblies of favages. The chief fits in
council with the aged, the warriors forming a circle around
them. The chief, or the feniors, begin the deliberation, but
all take a decent part in it, and the whole refolve j " the con-
" fent of the youth being as eflential as that of the old f."
Again, after the warriors are fubjec~led to a degree of mili-
tary order, we may reafonably conjecture, that it will be em-
ployed in their political aflemblies. All rude nations love pa-
rade ; and as, on fuch occafions, it contributes much to deco-
rum, as well as difcipline, their aflembly muft tend to become
a military review, at the fame time that it retains the character
of a political and religious convention. It is true, the defcrip-
tions of CESAR and TACITUS do not countenance this notion

of

* THWROCS, or rather perhaps an anonymous author of a chronicle, as old as 1358, when,
mentioning the fettlement of the Hungarians in Panonia, under their feven leaders, may
alfo be urged in fupport of this opinion. " Et unicuique exercitui, capitaneum fpecialem
" prwficientes, centurionefque ac decanos, more folito conftituerunt. Et unufquifque
" exercitus 30,857 continebat. Nam in fecundo eorundem de Scythia egreflu de cen- •
" tumetofto tribubus ducenta et ledecim millia, deunaquaque,yt/!S. tribu, duo millia ar-
" matorunv excepto familiae numero eduxifle perhibeatur." Scriptores rerum Hungari-
carum, 410, v. i. p. 100.

\ PEN'S letter to the Pennfylvanian traders. See alfo KOLBEN of the Hottentots,
Hift. Gen. des voyages, t. 6. p. 500. AllbCoLDEn's hiftory of the fix nations, 4ffc, &c.

1 6 On the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of

of order and regularity in the German diets. At the fame
time, as TACITUS relates, that they affembled in arms, it 0an
fcarce be doubted, that, by degrees, the regularity of a mi-
litary review would be introduced. It is, indeed, not eafy to
conceive, how the vafl multitudes of armed men, mentioned as
affembling on public affairs, could obferve any order, unlefs ar-
ranged in regular divifions. We know like wife, that the Tartars
affembled in their curiltay in this manner, each tribe arranged
under its proper banner. We know, that the ancient Greek
ecclefia * and the Roman comitia were alfo military mufters and
reviews. We know, that the affemblies of the Weapontact in
modern Europe were likewife employed for this purpofe. And
we know, that the Franks, who attended the affemblies call-
ed mallum^ placitum, and parliament , were obliged to appear in
arms f, and thofe who had banners, to carry them along with
them. The Irim, in the fame manner, wore arms in their na-
tional and provincial conventions. And I {hall afterwards have
occafion to obferve, .that the pofpolite in Poland, and the ancient
diet of the German empire, affembled in a military form. We
may reafonably then hold, that the ftrudlure of the different
gradations of affemblies, among the ancient Germans, was ex-
tremely uniform, and wore a military afpecl. In each affem-
bly, its proper chief would prefide, accompanied with a council
of the chiefs of thofe tribes which reforted to it ; and the war-

riors

* HOMER thus relates the aflembling of the Greeks in diet when befieging Troy :

}JA«3c» «{ ayofr.r. II. lib. ii. V. 92.

f THE affembly of the Franks in the campus martius of the cities of Gaul, defcribed
by GREGORY of Tours, is manifeftly a military review. " Tranfado vero anno, juflit
" (fciz. Clovis) omnem cum armorum apparatu advenire phalangem, oftenfuram incam-
" po martio fuorum armorum nitorem ;" and he is mentioned as going through the ranks
and examining their condition, lib. ii. c. 27. And when, under the fecond race, the
Franks were called forth to aflemble in military array, their magiftrates were named ca-
pitanei, and the .meeting a placitum. Capit. A. D. 807. This military appellation is
common to all the great magiftrates in both the Gothic and Sclavonic nations. Vay vode,
banuus, heretoge, are often tranflated capitanei, duces, <b"c.

The EUROPEAN LEGISLATURES. 17

riors of fuch tribes would attend in military array, under the
chiefs of their fubdivifions. At any rate, we are certain, that
the warriors Attended in perfon, and in arms, whether in regu-
lar array or not ; and every perfon, in the leaft acquainted with
the character of rude nations, will be perfuaded, that the per-
fonal prefence of the warriors was not a matter of mere form.
It is only by the opportunity of perfuanon, which numerous af-
femblies afford, and by that deference to the authority of perfons
of eminence, and that contagious enthufiafm which are there
felt, that men, untamed by laws or cultivation, can be induced
to purfue common meafures. Hence national diets are the
great engine by which leaders condxidl affairs, before govern-
ment acquires its powers : And accordingly, attendance on them
is among the firfl duties of the citizen that are enforced. But
when government has once attained its energy, kings and ma-
giflrates have no occafion for numerous councils, in order to ac-
complim their purpofes. On the contrary, they dread them as
rivals or maflers j and they know, that the lefs formidable they
can render them, by diminiming their numbers or their influ-
ence, their own power becomes in proportion uncontrolled *.

THERE is, however, abundance of direct evidence, that the
warriors were not mere fpectators of the deliberations of their
chiefs in the German afTemblies. TACITUS exprefsly mentions
their approving or rejecting, by certain known figns, the propo-
fals or advices that perfons, diftinguifhed by their functions,
their age, defcent, eloquence, or reputation in war, thought pro-
per to offer. And he, in particular, remarks, that thofe who
were of confequence enough to deliver their fentiments in this
manner, pretended to no right to command compliance with
them, but only hoped to influence or perfuade.

c THE

* AND again, when government becomes feeble, there are examples of national aflem-
blies reappearing. In the fall of the weftern empire, the government, finding itfelf un-
able to animate the torpid and disjointed mafs of the Gaulic nations, attempted to roufe
its powers by the aid of national aflemblies. SIRMOND not. ad Sidon. apolin. p. 245.
See alfo DUBO'S Hift. Cret. t. i. p. 241, — 255. And to a finiilar caufe is chiefly to be
attributed the entry of the plebeians into the European legiflatures.

i8 On the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of

THE accounts left us by TACITUS, of the powers exercifed by
thefe affemblies, fcarce require any commentary. They were
held regularly at dated intervals, and alfo on occafion of any
extraordinary occurrence. Religion was employed to preferve
moderation and decency in them, and feafting to promote fo-
ciality and good humour. Without doubt, every affair that
created a public interefl was there agitated. We find according-
ly, that capital crimes were there tried, and probably no where
elfe ; fince even the leaders of the nation in war could not pu-
nifh military offences without the fanction of the priefts. And, in
general, it is only a popular affembly, or a prieflhood, that can,
with fafety, venture to award punifhments, in ages where revenge
is virtue *. An individual that prefumed to condemn on his own
judgment would have the whole relations of the criminal, and,
of confequence, in procefs of time, the whole nation for his
foe. It is ftated by LIVIUS, as one of the great caufes of um-
brage againft the laft TARQJJIN, that he took upon him to try
citizens without the aid of councils.

THE functions of the chiefs, we may reafonably judge, were,
in general, minifterial. Even in battle, they conducted their ar-
mies rather by example than by authority. We may be fure,
therefore, that, in peace, where the expediency of obedience is
lefs obvious, their authority would be ftill weaker ; and that,
on all occasions, when any exertion of power was to be made,
they would feek for a fanction to their condxict from the judg-
ment of others. In judicial matters, there can be no doubt
that they performed merely the functions of magiftrates, not of
judges. They received a large proportion of the fines, which
were the punifhment of crimes. This itfelf {hows, that it could
not belong to them, who were to reap a profit from the punifh-
ment,

* AND war, rather than a profecution at law, the ufual confequence of an injury. See
the Rules, introduced by the Anglo-faxon laws, for reftraining thefe private wars withia
certain limits. W, L..L. Sax.faffitn*

The EUROPEAN LEGISLATURES, tg

mem, to decide on the propriety of inflicting it * ; whereas,' if
it was their bufinefs to apprehend and accufe, 'to take the judg-
ment of the judges, and to carry it into execution, the fine was
no more than a neceflary reward to ftimulate their activity in
repreffing wrongs, and coinpenfate the rifk, as well as labour,
which, in the infancy of government, muft attend this duty.
Independently, however, of this general prefumption, the hifto-
ry of all the ancient judicatures in Europe affords every where
the moft convincing evidence, that the chiefs of the German
and other conquering tribes exercifed only minifterial powers
in matters of judicature. I can, however, but juft touch on it.
In the firft ages after the German conqueft, we find the flaves of
the kings, and of the provincial chiefs, exercifing moft fre-
quently, in the adminiftration of juftice, the functions of their
mafters. Thefe functions then nmft have been purely mini-
fterial ; for we know that no flave, nor even an emancipated per-
fon, could bear witnefs where a freeman was concerned ; and * -
moft certainly, therefore, could never have been his judge. Ac-
cordingly, the effects of this ftate of the judicial power are
equally confpicuous and extenfive. The functions of the king
in the trial of peers in a bed of juftice in France ; the functions
of the high fteward of England, the reprefentative of the king
in the trial of Britifh peers ; the functions of every baron, or
deputy of a baron, in the court of the barony, of the bans and
vayvodes in Hungary and Poland, of the lagmen in Sweden,
of the fherifF and hundreder in England f ; in fhort, the di-

c 2 ftinction

* IN the eaft, where the priefthood has ftripped the people of the judicial power, no
part of the fines for delinquencies are paid to the judges.

f I QUOTE the following ftatute as evidence, not only of the diftin&ion being obferved
in Scotland, but of the anxiety of our anceftors to feparate the judicial and minifterial
functions : " Statuit dominus rex quod nullus juftitiarius vicecomes vel ballivus, fedeat
" ad judicium faciendum fuper appellatione et refponfione coram eis facia. Sed cum ad
" judicium venerint ; exeant de curia ; et libere tenentes de curia judicium faciant ; et re-
" vocato jufticiario, vicecomite vel ballivo, in curiam, judicium penes eos faftum coram
" ipfo judice reddatur." 3>uon. attach, cap. 66. There is a fimilar regulation in the
eftablifhments of St LEWIS, from which, no doubt, the law of the Scottilh barons was
borrowed.

20 On the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of

ftinclion between the judges of the facft and the law, which is
to be found almoft univerfally in nations arifing from a rude
ftate, all manifeftly flow from this common fource, and, of con-
fequence, unite in eftablifhing it as a principle of importance in
the hiftory of the public law of Europe. In all rude nations,
the laws are few, fimple and precife j and it never occurs to
their imagination, that any doubt can arife about the interpre-
tation of them. When, therefore, their public aflemblies have,
on the accufation of the injured, or of the chief,- convicted a
perfon of a violation of the law, the pronouncing, as well as
executing the fentence, is committed, as a matter of courfe, to
the chief, though he was to profit by the conviclion. In pro-
cefs of time, however, as law becomes complicated, there is
room for doubt as to its interpretation, and the chief has re-
courfe to the afliftance of afleflbrs or deputies for this purpofe.
Hence it happens, that the king, in almoft all countries, is na-
turally the fource, both of the jtidicial procedure by which
courts of juftice exercife their power, and of that magiftracy
which interprets the law, while the nation*, as naturally try, or
delegate thofe who try, how far individuals have, in fact, com-
mitted the wrongs of which they are accufed. We have exam-
ples in the kings and afchons of Athens, in the kings, confuls
and pretors of Rome, as well as in the Gothic magiftracy, of the
former powers, and of the latter, in the trials by the fuflrages
of the Greek and Roman tribes, of the county courts and na-
tional aflemblies in modern Europe; and in thofe by the ^«IT»IT«I
or arbiters, delegated from the tribes in Greece, the judices pe-
danei, delegated from the Roman tribes, the fcabini from the
Gothic and French tribes, the nembda from the Swedifh, he-
red fougd from the Danifh, the judices nobilium from the
Hungarian, and the lawmen, and their fucceflbrs the juries,

from the Anglo^faxon and Norman aflemblies f.

THE

* Enlightened, but, I apprehend, by no means bound by this interpretation.
\ THIS origin of juries has been controverted by very learned writers j but, I think,
it is capable of being eftablilhed. And the only plaufible arguments againft it feem to

me

The EUROPEAN LEGISLAfUR ES. 2 r

THE constitutional authority of the German chiefs was pro-
bably not more extenfive in political than in judicial affairs.
It appears from C^SAR, that they had the prerogative of
regulating the annual eflablifhments of the tribes *. This,
however, it is likely, was no more than one of thofe res mino-
res, about which, TACITUS fays, the chiefs alone confulted :
" Facilitatem partiendi camporum fpatia preftant, arva per an-
" nos mutant et fupereft ager." In fuch a country, it was no
greater prerogative in a king to diflribute the lands, than to
choofe a camp for an army is in a general. It was, betides, a
thing of that nature which a national diet could not well ar-
range ; and, therefore, like the journeyings of a Tartar horde,
was naturally left to the difcretion of the chief, who would,
however, confult, of courfe, with the fubordinate chiefs on the
bufinefs. The neceffity of obferving an order in the pofition
of the tribe is likewife proved by the old laws of Sweden,
which directed, with anxiety, the arrangement (litus and ordo)
of the cottages of villagers ; and that they mould be furrounded
with a pallifado, in order, no doubt, that the inhabitants might
make their defence with greater facility and effect, in cafe of
an attack. Sbernhook, 295.

IN military affairs, the power of the chiefs would be moft

confpicuous. Although the choice of peace or war lay with the

people, the conducting of military operations was neceffarily

committed to die chiefs. " De majoribus rebus omnes con-

' fultant, ita tamen ut ea quoque, quorum penes plebem arbi-

1 trium eft, apud principes pertractentur," Mor. Germ. c.\\. A

confiderable

me to have arifen from not making fufficient allowance for thofe varieties which ought
to be expedled among inilitutions of the fame kind in different countries, elpecially when
the companion is made at different ftagcs of their progrefs.

* " NEQJJE quifquam agri modum certum aut fines proprios habet; fed magiflratus ac
" princeps in annos fingulos gentibus cognationibufque hominum qui una coierunt quan-
" turn eis et quo loco vifum eft attribuunt agri, atque anno poll alio tranfire cogunt."
Bell. Gall. c. 21. " Agri pro numero cultorum, ab univerfis per vicos occupantur,
" quos mox inter fe fecundum dignationem partiuntur." Mor. Germ. 26.

22 On the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE oj

confiderable degree of coercion muft be exercifed by a leader, in
a warlike expedition that continues for any length of time, and
the natural privilege of diftributing the booty, and the mere
fplendor of precedence, muft augment greatly his influence.

THESE remarks, I flatter myfelf, will fufEciently point out
my idea of the general ftruc"lure of the German governments.
Men, ftill cherifhing the independence of the favage flate, were
forced to take meafures for the defence of their riling property.
That property occafioned wars, and wars introduced confederacies,
military arrangements, and fome degree of fubordination. This
fubordination, however, did not deprive the minute tribes, of
which the confederacies ultimately confided, of their internal
powers. A petty chief, with his tribe, formed by intermarriages
into a clan, which claimed a common blood, were like the an-
cient pf«Tf •«• of Attica, or tribules of Italy ; fo many communi-
ties, poflefled of judicative, legiflative and executive powers,
within themfelves, fimilar to thofe exercifed by the national
confederacy. In this way, the form of fociety was nearly inde-
flruclible ; and even thofe revolutions which wars occafion
would probably contribute to preferve it. When a nation proved
unfortunate, its parts coalefced under a different name, and the
country was, as formidable and warlike as before. Thus we
find, in TACITUS, the names of nations which afterwards diftin-
guiihed the conquerors of the empire. But, in his time, they,
in general, were the names of only remote and inconfiderable
flates, which arofe not to confequence till the confederacies, that
were then predominant, had given way in the courfe of contend-
ing with the Roman arms. And again it feems reafonable to con-
jeclure, that this warfare was the principal caufe of preferving
in vigour, during fo many centuries, the fpirit of emigration
and conquefl in Germany. By difcouraging agricxilture, it
retained the Germans in the paftoral life, and, of confequence,
cherilhed in them the inclination, as well as fupplied the means
for great enterprifes. Hence thofe extenfive confederacies, fo

effential

We EUROPEAN LEGISLATURES. 23

eflential to-fuch enterprises, and efpecially to wars carried on
by barbarous tribes againfl the Roman legions, remained in full
energy ; and that progrefs in the arts of induftry was prevent-
ed, which otherwife, in the courfe of a few centuries, would
naturally have transformed every pagus into a little republic,
and its ardent and aclive affociations with its neighbours, into
the cold alliances of agricultural ftates.

THE foregoing idea of the general form of the government
of the Germans is ftrongly confirmed by what we know of the
ancient conftitution of Sweden and Iceland. Iceland was
peopled by a feries of Norwegian colonies, who fled their coun-
try, on the conqueft of it by HAROLD with the beautiful hair,
in A. D. 878. The colonies formed little communities with
elective chiefs. Thefe, by degrees, combined together, and held
tuTemblies, under a common leader, in each of the four great
provinces into which the ridges of mount Hecla divide the
ifland : And, at laft, thefe four provinces likewiie confederated*
and formed a republic, under one chief magiftrate, in A. D. 928.
The whole country was arranged into regular divisions, cal-
led provinces, hundreds, and reeps. The magiflrates held their
offices for life. At the diets, whether of the diftricts or of the
nation, the magiftrate celebrated religious rites ; and it is, in
particular, mentioned, that the lagman, or chief of the nation,
performed human Sacrifices at the alting, or great annual afTem-
bly. In it too, befides the arrangement of political matters, ap-
peals were received from the provincial courts, and rejudged in
its prefence, and under its infpeclion, by the former judges ;
and the lagman' s bufinefs was to carry into execution what the
alting ordered. The judges of each diftridt were called repftio-
rar ', and chofen, by the diet, among the wealthieft and moft
refpeclable of its members *. There was a fucceflion of thirty-
eight lagmans, which continued till 1262, when the republic

was

* THESE probably correfponded to the fcabini and red boran, or lawmen of the Franks
and Saxons,.

24 On the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of

•was deflroyed by the Danes. I have taken this account from
the Icelandic hiftorian ARNGRIMUS JONAS, a native of the
ifland, and a perfon who appears to have had abundance of au-
thentic materials for his work.

THE Swedifh government feems to have arifen in the fame
manner as that of Iceland, without the intervention of foreign con-
queft, or any very violent domeftic revolution. The moil ancient
written law in Sweden is thought to be about as old as the pe-
riod of CHARLEMAGNE. Each province had its own peculiar
laws, which were collected fucceffively into different codes, and,
though not entirely the fame, refembled each other extremely.
SHERNHOOK fays, that the original courts of juflice were the pro-
vincial afTemblies or lagmanfting, but that, in procefs of time,
the provinces were divided into hajredas or trientes, and thefe
again into fierdings or quadrantes. He fays, the haeredas de-
rived their name from yielding a certain number of military forces.
In the province of Upland, they were termed hundreds, and
the chiefs hundreders ', for each diftrict, whether haereda or
fierding, had chiefs *. The chief of the province was called
lagman, which he tranflates legumvir, and was fupreme magi-
flrate, in both civil and religious affairs, as long as the provin-
ces remained independent. The lagmanfting judged appeals,
and punifhed the chiefs and judges of haeredas and fierdings,
who judged corruptly, or refufed juflice j and groundlefs appel-
lants were likewife punimed. After the provinces confederated,
a common chief, or king, arofe, and a national diet, called the
landfting, was annually held. The lagmans and the digni-
fied clergy, after the nation became Chriftian, formed the fe-
nate in this affembly. The people at firft chofe the lagmans.
After the rife of a king, it appears from the ancient laws, that
he had a right to feled; the lagmans out of leets, prefented to
him by the people of the refpeclive diftricls. In fome provinces,
however, the lagman had rendered his office hereditary, had af-

fumed

* THIS is precifely the arrangement of Denmark.

r» •

The EUROPEAN LEGISLATURES. 25

fumed the title of duke, and had ufually named a deputy, who
had the title of lagman. But GUSTAVUS ERICSON deprived
both the people and the dukes of their privileges in this parti-
cular ; and, of confequence, the lagmans ceafed to form the fe-
nate of the national diet. " Ut enim ex judicibvis his, (fo
" SHERNHOOK terms the lagman), olim fenatores, ita hodie ex
' fenatoribus his, judices provinciales conftitmintur."

I SHALL not detain the Society with pointing out the perfect
coincidence between the general ftruc~lure of the ancient Swedifh
and Icelandic conftitution, and that which I have attributed to
the Aborigines in Germany ; nor, after what is ftated in die
introduction to this paper, do I think it neceffary to make any
remarks to mow, that I am entitled to avail myfelf of the re-
femblance in fupport of my opinion *.

INDEPENDENTLY, however, of the general form of the Ger-
man governments, there were fome circumflances in the nation-
al manners, which, though not immediately entering into the
ftrudlure of the conftitution, demand particular attention, be-
caufe they contained fources of future revolutions. In the
ftate of favages, or when men fubfift on fpontaneous produce,
the political union hardly exercifes any control over individuals.
Nothing is more common than for a fingle perfon to pro-
pofe to his tribe to make war; and, though the tribe re-
jedl the meafure, to perfift and go to war, either by himfelf, or
with the afliftance of a few that relifh his propofal. After-
wards, when farms and herds are known, men ftill retain the
right of avenging their own wrongs j and their new poffeffions
are a fort of dominions, which they rule with a fpecies of that

d independent

* WHAT we know of the rude governments of the Welfh, Irifh, Danes, and Caledo-
nians, correfponds with the idea of that of the Germans, given in the text. Every
where the clans chpfe their chiefs from particular races, and confederated clans chofe
their regu/iandfubreguliin the fame manner. L. L. WALLI/E, 164. and 184. Traftat.
varii de Reg. Dan. WARE'S antiquities of Ireland. LESLIE, BUCHANAN, fajim. The
tanift was chofen in the lifetime of the chief, and fucceeded him at his death. Even
at this day the Scots clans conceive they are entitled to change their chief, if he aft dif-
gracefully.

26 On the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of

independent fovereignty, with which, in the favag.e (late, they
governed their own conduct. The jus vitas et necie, compe-
tent to the Germans over wives, children and flaves, is mention-
ed by TACITUS. And we find, after the conqueft of the Ro-
man provinces, the rights of making war and levying troops
every where recognifed, as one of the powers of the private
proprietor. It has been thought, that this right of waging war
was a privilege ufurped by the feudal nobles ; but a further en-
quiry has fully proved, that it was an inheritance tranfmitted
down to them from the origin of the nation. And, in facl, it
was not an inheritance which had been preferved by them entire ;
for, either from apprehenfion of the end of the world approaching,
or other caufes of more fteady operation, they had gradually
fubmitted it to various reftri6lions } and, in particular, that they
fhould only ufe it in revenge for perfonal injuries, and not on
account of property or intereft*. I have marked below, abun-
dant evidence of this right of making war f j but I cannot
forbear mentioning, in particular, that ARM GRIM us JONAS tells
us of ,a ftranger that acquired vaft eftates to himfelf in Iceland,
during the fubfiftence of the Icelandic republic, by a fort of
right of conqueft, refulting from his victories in wars with
individuals J.

IN a ft ate of fociety where men retained fuch a degree of in-
dependence, it is manifeft, that, in proportion as property be-
came

* BEAUMANOIR coutume de Clermont, cap. 59.

| Ordenamiento de Alcala, tit. 29. HURBERTS Statuta Poloniae, voce Guerra, p. 190.
L L. Alfred. § 28. L L. Jnae, \ 9. L L. Edin. \ i. BOUQUET Droit public, p. 312.
and 447. L L S. Steph. r. Reg. Httngar. cap. 33. Codes of the Barbarians, paffim.
where family wars are fuppofed. L L. Robert! i. c. 20. Eftablifhments de St Louis,
et Ordinances des Rois de France, paffim. But, efpecially, BEAUMANOIR, loc. cit.
where he enters into a full detail about it.

t In- COOK'S laft voyage, the following cuftom among the iflanders of the Pacific
eicean is mentioned : " If a perfon kill another in a quarrel, the friends of the deceafed
" aflemble and engage the furvivor and his adherents. If they conquer, they take pof-.
" feflion of the houfe, lands and goods of the other party j but, if conquered, the reverfe
" takes place,." Vol. ii. />. 173.

Tie EUROPEAN LEGISLATURES. 27

came confiderable, it would be employed as means to gain
power and protection. It is remarked by travellers, that all
lavage nations are hofpitable, fond of interchanging prefents,
and of public feafting ; but, among them, fuch indulgences
are practifed merely on account of the pleafure they afford,
whereas the introduction of wealth in the fources of fubfiftence
produces a variety of interefts formerly unknown, and hofpi-
tality is practifed, and prefents beftowed, as the means of
procuring fecurity, diftinction, or power. Hence among the
Germans, every wealthy perfon had his retainers that fre-
quented his table, and received from him protection, and va-
rious favours, in return for their aid, and for the prefents
they gave him. The chiefs, in particular, whofe hofpitality
was fupported by prefents from the whole members of their
tribes, naturally ftrove to diflinguim themfelves by their follow-
ers, and to attract around them the enterprifing youths of the
firfl families in the ftate. TACITUS * makes particular men-
tion of this inftitution, and terms the retainers comites, pro-
bably a literal tranflation of the German leuch or leude. Au-
thors have very frequently confounded thefe with the principes
vicorum et pagorum which, in the preceding chapter, he di-
flinguiihes by the fame name of comites ; and where perhaps
they have not confounded them, they have never, as far as I
recollect, pointed out clearly the diflinction between them. No
two orders of men, however, could be more different ; and the
defcription of both is fo accurate, that there feems to be no room
for miftake. The chiefs of diftricts were elders, were civil ma-
giflrates, were military leaders, the heads of the nation, and
the natural counfellors both of prince and people j~ , refpectable
by their experience, gravity and authority. But the retainers
of the king were young men, his guards, his own perfonal par-
tizans, fupported by his munificence, courters of his favour,
expectants of promotion from it, and fworn to maintain his

d 2 glory,

* Cap. 13. -J- KOLBEN of the Hottentots.

28 On the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of

glory, and defend his perfon, at the expence even of their life *.
After mentioning, that the young men were folemnly intro-
duced into the diets, and there armed, TACITUS obferves in
fubftance f , that it was no mame to be numbered among the
retainers of a great man. Diflinc"Uon and power confifted in be-
ing always furrovtnded with a circle of chofen youths. They
were an ornament in peace, and in war a fafeguard. It was a
matter of great emulation among the chiefs, which fliould have
the braveft and mofl numerous retainers. The fame, merely
of a fuperiority in this refpec"l, was often decifive of a war.
It was alfo a matter of emulation among the retainers, which
mould be firfl in favour with his chief ; for there were diffe-
rent ranks among them according to that favour J. Their fer-
\ice was proportionably zealous. To have furvived their chief
in battle was an indelible difgrace. Their mofl facred obliga-
tion

* I WILL not, however, prefume to determine, that, even fo early as TACITUS, the
principes vicorum may not, in general, have been retainers of the kings. It would,
no doubt, be a natural object of policy for the kings to extend their influence, by efta-
blifhiug a domeftic relation between them and the fons of the chiefs of tribes ; and thefe,
when promoted to be chiefs, might, though abfent, preferve their claim to this relation,
while younger men, or perfon s of lefs confequence, would attend in the royal houfehold.

•J- NEC rubor inter comites afpici. Gradus quinetiam et ipfe cotnitatus habet, judicio
ejus, quern feclantur : Magnaque et comitum emulatio, quibus primus apud principem
fuum locus ; et principum, cui plurimi et acerrimi somites. Haec dignitas, hoe vires,
magno femper ele&orum juvenum globo circumdari, in pace decus, in bello prsefidium.
Nee folum in fua gente cuique, fed apud finitimas quoque civitates id nomen, ea gloria
eft, fi numero ac virtute comitatus elnineat : Expetuntur enim legationibus, et muneri-
bus ornantur, et ipfa plerumque fama bella profligant. Cum ventum in aciem, turpe
principi virtute vinci ; turpe comitatui, virtutem principis non adsequare. Jam vero in-
fame in omnem vitam ac probrofum, fuperftitem principi fuo ex acie receffiiTe. Ilium de-
fendere, tueri, fua quoque fortia fafta gloria ejus adfignare, prsecipuum facramentum eft.
Magnumque comitatum non nifi vi belloque tuere : Exigunt enim principis fui liberali-
tate ilium bellatorem equum illam cruentam viclricemque frameam. Nam epulae, et
quamquam incompti, largi tamen apparatus pro flipendio cedunt. Materia munificentiae
per bella et raptus. Nee arare terrain, aut expe&are annum, tam facile perfuaferis,
quam vocare hoftes et vulnera mereri : Pigrum quinimmo et iners videtur fudore adqui-
rere, quod poflis fanguine parare. De Mor. Germ. c. 13. 14.

J Somewhat probably like thofe of DAVID'S mighty men.

The EUROPEAN LEGISLATURES. 29

tion was to defend him, and to promote his glory. War was,
however, effential to retain them. The battle-horfe, the viclo-
rious fpear, were prefents that they expected, and a plentiful and
open board was the wages of their fervice. But it was to war
alone that recourfe could be had for the means of this munifi-
cence ; for war, and not labour, fuited the national temper, and
furnifhed a neceflary occupation to a numerous youth, averfe to
induftry, and fond of adventure.

SUCH a body poffefled the fame refemblance to the chiefs of
pagi, that the celeres and jW«{ of the Roman and Lacedemonian
kings bore to the fenators of Rome and Sparta. DIONY-
sius, after defcribing the celeres, gives the following account
of the <W£if, which may be properly enough fubjoined to TA-
CIT us 's picture of the German leuchs : " n«f wen/on; («»f •A«x^a»j!*»-

" n»oi{) at yivKtoTonoi ruv viwv puXaxfj txrav T«» (3<x<nA£«n. 'Oi; i^avra xa,T» rvf
" weAfjuBf wafatrTrtiTTaif, «T7r£ii(ri rt a<r» x/ Trt^oif." Dionyjl Hujic. Rom. Antiq.
lib. 2.

PART I.

SECTION II. Of the Opinions , that the feudal Tenures and feudal
Nobility commenced in ancient Germany.

IT will naturally be expected, that, before proceeding to trace
the government of the Germans after their eftablifhment in
the empire, I fhould take notice of certain opinions, entertained
by authors of eminence, which are extremely adverfe to the
foregoing account of its original ftruclure. It has been very
generally thought, that, immediately upon the conqueft, the
governments became feudal ; and M. DE MONTESQUIEU, and
many others, hold, that the feudal fubordination, and that he-
reditary nobility which made fo diflinguiftied a figure under

the

30 On tie ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of

the predominancy of the feus, actually fublifted in the woods
of Germany *. Accordingly, this opinion has been urged in
behalf of the fyflem which exhibits the European governments
as originally ariflocratical, and is indeed fo obvioufly allied
with it, that it is certainly here neceflary to confider a little the
evidence on which it refls.

I. THE arguments for this extreme antiquity of the feus are
founded, either on particular facls with refpecl to the peculiar
manners of the Germanic nations, or on a general theory of the
powers of the chiefs of rude tribes. The arguments of the
former clafs, I muft confefs, appear to me to reft on very infuf-
ficient grounds. M. DE MONTESQUIEU traced the feudal te-
nures, in the prefents of the war-horfe, or of the bloody fpear,
and in the feafts which the German chiefs gave to their retain-
ers in return for military fervice. But the Abbe de MABLY
has juftly pbferved, that, in the fame way, the prefent Europe-
an armies might be termed feudal vaffals, holding their pay as
a fief on condition of their fervice.

Dr STUART f, after very properly remarking, that territories
are appropriated by communities, long before feparate eftates in
land are acquired by individuals, lays it down, that the feudal re-
lation of lands commenced in the fubordination of the domains
of the weaker communities to thofe of the ftronger. He ac-
cordingly traces the origin of fiefs, in the dependent ftate of cer-
tain of the German and Gaulic tribes on others j and he con-
firms his hypothefis by the Cimbri, in the times of MARIUS,
having demanded lands from the Romans, and offering, in re-
turn,

* I OUGHT likewife, perhaps, to take notice of the abfolute fovereignty which has been
attributed to the German kings, and of a reprefentation, like that of the commons, fup-
pofed to have been known to the German tribes. But, I believe, thefe notions have ne-
ver obtained much credit with the learned world, nor have been thought by it to reft on
any thing more folid than the delufion of fyflem.

•$• Diflertation on the Englitti conftitution, View of fociety in Europe, and other works.

The EUROPEAN LEGISLATURES. 31

turn, to affift them in their wars. But, in every age, nations
find it expedient to arrange themfelves under the protection of
their more powerful neighbours ; and where an alliance on
equal terms is not to be obtained, the prote&ion muft be paid
for by a tribxite in money, or a contingent of troops, to be em-
ployed in executing the meafures of the more powerful ftate.
If fuch a flipulation is to be accounted a feudal contract, Athens
and Lacedemon were the feudal lords of Greece, and Rome the
feudal lord of half the known world. If there were any evi-
dence, that alliances of this fort had been formed by a fur-
render of the territory of the protected to the dominion of the
protector, or that territories were conceived to have been pledg-
ed in fecurity of thefe treaties, then, no doubt, a flriking re-
femblance between them and the feudal relation of modern-
times would be eftablifhed. But no fuch evidence has been pro-
duced ; and the fluctuating ftate of thefe alliances in Gaul, and
the little progrefs the Germans had made in municipal law, can
leave no doubt, that they were confidered as merely perfonal.
contracts, and, in truth, poflefled neither the folidity of a real
vaflalage, nor any connection with the fubtile diftinction be-
tween the dominium directum and dominium utile of land .*.

Mr MILLAR has treated, with much ingenuity, the argu-
ment founded on the natural progrefs of rude nations f. He
fuppofes, that the chief will naturally, at the feparation of
farms, have very large domains afligned him, great part of which
he will employ in creating eftates at will for his retainers, whov
in return for this precarious poffemon, muft labour or fight for

him

* CSSAR. relates, lib. 6. c. ir. deEeli.Galh That the Sequani and JEdui were the.
heads of fa&ions in Gaul. The Sequani, by the aid of the Germans, fo got the better of
the .SLdui, " ut magnam partem clientium ab ^Eduis ad fe tranfducerent obfidefque, ab/
" iis principum filios acciperint, et publiee jurare cogerent, Nidi/ fe contra Seyuano?-
" concilii moturos, et partem Jinitime^agri per vim occupatam poffiderunt." Things changedr
after CESAR'S arrival. The JEdai recovered their old clients, and they, .and CSSAR.'*.
other friends, the Remi, obtained many new ones.

-)• Origin of Ranks, p. 194. and 260,

32 On the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of

him when he requires them. And, on this ground, and on
the power thence conferred, and on the gradual furrender thus
occafioned, of the eftates of fmall proprietors, in confideration
of protection, he explains the rife of a feudal relation in many
diftant countries, and that right of property and inheritance
over their dominions, which travellers have afcribed to feveral
kings in Africa and the eaft *, as Benin, Congo, &V.

I HAVE not, however, been able to difcover any example of
the retainers of the chief of a rude tribe holding lands from
him in this manner. The lots of the Romao clients were as
much their own as the larger eftates of their patrons were theirs.
The Italian equites received a war-horfe and a ring, which may
probably, at firft, have been marks of royal favour, but we do
not hear of ufufrucluary eftates being allotted for them. Be-
fides, we may be very certain, that, long after farms are fepa-
rately cultivated, land is in great abundance, and to be got for
the occupying. To prefent, therefore, in fuch times, a retain-
er with uncultivated land would be no favour j and as to lands

which

* IN the quarto edition, Mr MILLAR ftated this dodlrine more ftrongly. He there lays
it down, that the chief, in conlequence of his ancient prerogative of prefiding over the
joint labours of the community, will, at the leparation of farms, impofe fuch conditions
and limitations on the mares of individuals, as render them dependent on him for the
continuance of their pofleflion : And that, in this way, and by the extent of his peculiar
domains, his authority becomes almoft unlimited. It is evident, that, if this opinion were
well founded, the government of all fmall and rude communities of hufbandmen would
be defpotic, which is certainly not the cafe. And, accordingly, the argument on
which it refts, though ingenious, admits of being obviated. The chief arranges the
annual farms of rude tribes, and poffibly, too, may prefide over the labour of the
tribe, if employed on a common farm ; but, as may be reafbnably conjectured from the
independent fpirit of uncultivated men, and, as is proved by the fales of lands by the
American tribes, the chief is not, on that account, reckoned the proprietor of their ter-
ritory. That, like the fpontaneous produce of it, is accounted the common right of the
•whole freemen. And afterwards, when the annual farm becomes perpetual, or portions
of land are feized upon by individuals, land is ftill in fuch vaft abundance, that the fpots,
thus occupied, are naturally confidered as the right of the poffeflbr, as abfolutely as the
crop which he formerly reaped from his annual farm, or the prey which he feized in the
iports of the field. Accordingly, we do not find, that, in any of the original monarchies
of Greece, Italy and Gaul, the kings were ever confidered as the proprietors of their do-
minions.

fbe EUROPEAN LEGISLATURES. 33

which a petty chief had flaves to cultivate, he would always find
it prudent to retain the whole produce of them ; becaufe, if be-
flowed in hofpitality, it would procure him much greater influ-
ence, than if the poffefuons, which yielded it, were diflributed a-
mong a few individuals. Afterwards, again, when the greater part
of the foil is appropriated by individuals, the diftricls which re-
main uncultivated are commons, over which the neighbouring
inhabitants have eftablifhed rights of fervitude, and cannot be
touched by a chief, till government is armed with all its powers *.
Forfeitures and conquefls are the true fource of the overgrown
domains of princes j and, where the latter have not happened,
the former are fcarcely able to compenfate thofe difmember-
ments, which provisions for younger branches of the royal fa-
mily necefTarily occaiion f.

WITH regard to the powers of certain African and Afiatic kings,
and the circumftances of refemblance, obferved by travellers, be-
tween the ftate of property in their dominions and the feudal ar-
rangements of it in Europe, I fhall only remark, that there are
many particulars, connected with the feudal fyftem, which are not
char acteri flic of it ; and, therefore, though discovered elfewhere,
will not juflify the inference that they refulted from feudal in-
flitutions. Thus, in many countries, armies are paid in lands ;
in many, every proprietor yields military fervice ; and, in ma-
ny, the opulent acquire confequence by means of clients and
retainers. But the Singular and diflinguifhing circumflance
from which the feudal law acquired its character, and to which
its more remarkable effec'ls are to be afcribed, (fuch as, patrimo-
nial magiflracies, titles of honour, fcale of fubordination, and all

e thofe

* IN Sweden, the king is vefted with the diftrifb which were formerly the common do-
mains of communities. But no fingle community would beftow fuch a gift on its chief;
whereas, where there is a number united under a king, every one may be prevailed upon
to give up its own, in order to get government fupported, by means of fimilar conceflions
from the reft.

f EVEN confifcation for capital crimes feems to have been unknown to the Romans be-
fore the Lex Cornel, de profcrip. CICERO pro domo. Breach of fidelity was capital in
both patron and client, but furely was not attended with forfeiture of eftates.

34 On the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of

thofe various mackles, by which it feparated ranks, and rendered
governments at once feeble and indifToluble) appears to be pe-
culiar to Europe. I believe the nations of this continent alone
afford an example of the relation of patron and client being
made real; or, in other words, the patrimonial interefts of both
parties in a land eftate rendered dependent on their fidelity in
fulfilling its duties*.

II. THE feudal nobility make fo confpicuous a figure in the
hiftory of the middle ages, that it is nowife furprifing authors
Ihould have judged, that the German conquerors were originally
fubjecl to an ariflocracy, which afterwards became the rulers of
their new eftablifhments. Accordingly, Mr HUME has held,
that the principal proprietors of land were, without any election,
the conflituent members of the legiflative affemblies of the Anglo-
faxons. Moft authors of eminence that treat of the feudal inftitu-
tions have reafoned on the fuppofition, that there was an order of
nobles which enjoyed the firft rank of fociety among the German
nations, at the period of their emigration. And M. DE MONTES-
QUIEU has fpecified the leudes or fidels (appellations which he
confiders as fynonimous) as forming this order, and enjoying
the exclufive capacity of being eligible to offices, and of receiv-
ing from the crown ufufructuary grants of land, (called fifes or
benefices) on condition of military fervice. And while he confi-
ders the leudes as the fame with thofe perforial friends and retain-
ers of the kings, termed comkes by TACITUS, (an opinion which
is now, I believe, univerfally admitted to be juft) he reprefents them
as a noblejje d"1 origins or patrician order, in which the antruftions,
or thofe leudes who attended more particularly on the court,
formed the firft clafs. He quotes expreffions, employed in the

codes

* I AM befides apt, in the prefent cafe, to believe, that the historical fafts referred to
have been mifunderftood. Hiftoire ge'nerale des voyages, t. 6. p. 28. Ibid, p. 255.
^63. 265. 264. 321. 318. The governments on the Gold Coaft are obvioufly the produc-
tion of conqueft and fuperftition, and the nobles appear to be very independent, and to
be proprietors of their eftates.

The EUROPEAN LEGISLATURES. 35

codes of the Barbarians, or other ancient works, as evidence of
his opinion ; and he confirms it, by attempting to mow its fif
nefs to explain circumftances in the hiflory of the Franks. I
mail, with due refpect, Hate a different opinion, confider the evi-
dence that ftands againft it, and fupport it by evidence which
appears to me conclufive in its favour.

IF the Germans were diftributed into clans, as the terms co-
gnationes, gentes^familia, et propinquitates, ufed by CMS AR and TA-
CITUS as defcriptive of their arrangements, clearly import, and
as the laws in their codes, with refpect to family feuds, prove, I
think we may be certain, that no fuperior clafs of men, feparated
in blood from other freemen, was recognifed among them. A
clan always efteems itfelf of the blood of its chief. He is no
more than the elder branch of a family, from which the mean-
eft of his followers, as well as himfelf, are vain of deriving
their defcent. He owes their attachment to this prejudice ;
and he knows too well the value of it, and how much his influ-
ence depends on the ftrength of it, to attempt weakening it, by
laying claim to a diftinction from fuperiority of blood, till
combinations with his equals, or the progrefs of laws, infpire
him with different views.

AMONG the Germans, no doubt, as well as every where elfe,
the virtues and eminence of the parents reflected luftre on their
progeny. And this, I conceive, is all that we ought to under-
ftand by the nobility of race, which is fo often mentioned as
belonging to individuals * ', though we believe, that the perfonal
honour of being admitted among the domeftic companions

e 2 of

* THE ranks among the Ifraelites, before the captivity, illuftrate this opinion. The
whole freemen of every tribe held that they were defcended of the fame blood ; but each
confiderable branch of a tribe had a head, and each tribe a prince or chief; and thefe
elders, as they were called, being ufually chofen from particular families, formed numbers
of diftinguifhed races in the nation.

IT may alfo be obferved, that, in rude times, men are determined, in their marriages,
more by the perfonal attractions of women than by thofe of wealth, rank, and interelr,
which dictate fo powerfully in cultivated ages. Hence, as in early times, women of the
higheft perfonal endowments will ufually fall to the lot of men who have attained di-

ftinftioij :

• •

36 On the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of

of the king .was frequently conferred on the fons of thofe
who had enjoyed it ; and that the fons of the fubordinate chiefs,
when "candidates for the offices of their deceafed fathers, derived
great advantages from their defcent.

THE arguments which have been ufed for a noblejje d' origins,
neither aim at obviating the foregoing obfervations, nor reft on
circumftances that have been found to bear examination.
The monopoly of offices which the fidels enjoyed is evidently
of no confequence, when it is understood, that the term Ji-
del was applied to every perfon that took the oath of alle-
giance *. The leudes were certainly, in their origin, the per-
fonal companions of the kings ; and there is furely neither evi-
dence nor argument for their having become a hereditary order
previous to the Gothic conquefts f . The high competitions, af-
terwards prefcribed for wrongs committed againft them, and (till
higher for thofe againft the upper clafs of them, called antrnj}ionsy
were no more than confequences of their perfonal connection
with the fovereign, and their refidence at court, where crimes
incurred a triple penalty ^. And the expreffions, which are fre-
quently to be found, relative to diftinclions of rank among the
freemen, inftead of vindicating the exiftence of a patrician or-
der, do, in fadt, {how, from the loofenefs with which they are
ufed, that no fuch order was recognifed in the ftate. Nothing
may more fafely be depended on as evidence that orders of nobi-
lity were unknown, than the want which authors betray of precife

terms

flinflion ; the families of chiefs will naturally, in the courfe of a few generations, acquire
that marked fuperiority in charafter and figure, which travellers have often obferved
and miftaken for an indication of an original diverfity in the race, and for the remains
of ancient conquefts and intermixtures of nations.
* BOUQUET Droit publique, p. 105.

•f ON the contrary, it is remarkable, that the fignification of the term feems to have been
enlarged on the continent till it loft its peculiar import, and became at laft co-extenfive with
that oifdelis. .Thus we read, "Cumque Lingonas civitatem venifiet Dagobertus, tantam
" in univerfis Leudibus fuis, tarn fublimibus quam pauperibus juftitiam," 'lye. FREDEG.
Chron. 5 58. See alfo \ 87. In this way, it probably produced the term lieges homines j
and it was no doubt natural enough for a king to call his g ens d'armes companions,

J BOUQUET Droit publique, p. 103.

The EUROPEAN LEGISLATURES. 37

tdrms for diftinguiming the fuperior ranks of perfons. And
accordingly, we have full evidence, that even the terms expref-
five of free birth and noble defcent continued to be ufed indif-
criminately, low down in the feudal times *.

THIS laft circumftance, I apprehend, while it proves there
was no patrician order among the conquerors, indicates alfo the
origin of the genuine nobility of Europe. That nobility, as it
is deftitute of all titles of office or honour, exhibits no trace of
owing any part of its luftre to the favour of kings, or to ufur-
pations of magiftracy. But its numbers, its prerogatives, the
documents of its hiftory, and its character, concur to prove,
that it is the remains of nations of freemen, and derives its ho-
nours from having preferved, uncontaminated by fervile or ig-
noble occupations, that high fpirit which, as independent war-
riors, and as equals, the conquerors of Europe received pure
and unadulterated from the bounty of nature.

THE (late of perfons in thofe European nations which have
been fartheft removed from innovation is entirely agreeable to
this opinion. In A. D. 1480, about 300,000 nobles aflembled
in the diet of Poland. The Polifh polpolite, or comitia paluda-
ta, is, in truth, an aflembly of the freemen and warriors of

the nation f. The fimple burgefles can hardly be faid to be

as

* MONTESQJJIEU quotes the term optimates, in the Burgundian laws, as evidence of a
hereditary nobility. But it might exprefs magiftrates, or antrufttons, or men of wealth.
Nothing c^n be more loofe than the manner in which terms of this kind were employed.
GREGORY of Tours often applies the term valde ingenuus to perfons; and he Teems to have
nowordforcharadterifingthe defcendents of the priores regni,orfeniorescivitatum. Again,
he fays of one of his predeceflbrs, " Civis Turonicus de inferioribus popnli ingenuus ta-
" men." In a charter of Carloman, it is faid, " Et congruum obfequium ficut homines in-
" genui exhibeant, ne eorum ingenuitas, vel nobilitas vilefcat." See alfoHEiNEC. Antiq.
Germ. v. ii. p. 52. etfeq. Abrege" de Renault, ad ann. 1270. The terms patentes, po-
tcntiores, boni generis, nobilioris generis, de nobilioribus, are the only means even the laws
have for defcribing perfbns of more confequeuce than others. BALUZ. p. 2/8. 334. <b?c.
L L. Vifig. lib. 6. t. I. c. 2. Mention is often made of the ingenuitas regni aflembling.
HOODY, p. 188. Francs homines was, even in feudal times, a term fynonimous with
gentlemen or noblefle. THAUMASSIERE Notes on Aflifes de Jeruf. p. 270.

f CROMER, bifliop of Warne, fays, " Eft par! dignatione Polonica nobilitas, nee eft
*' ulla ia ea patritiorum comitumve difcrimen." And PROCHNIEK.EGO fays, in his de-

fcription

58 On the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of

as yet naturalized ; for they cannot, by law, hold property
in land without the liberties of their refpeclive towns. And as
to the hufbandmen, their fervile condition is well known. In
the fame manner, in Hungary, the nobles form the nation.
The maxim of the lawyers is, Nobilitas liberorum nomine intelligi-
tur *. The hufbandmen are fervi adfcriptitii. The inhabi-
tants of towns are flill confidered as emancipated flaves, whofe
teftimony is admiffible againft a noble only for a debt of a flo-
rin, or under, unlefs the cafe happens within the city to which
they belong. Hence the aflemblies of even the" fubdivifions of
their counties confift only of nobles ; and their decanus, or ti-
thing man, who was always accounted a fimple freeman in an-
cient times, in France, England, and Spain, and one, by no
means, of much confideration, is accordingly, at this day, in
Hungary, a noble and a magiftrate, exercifing the very func-
tions which the ancient laws of the weflern nations attributed
to their magiftrate of the fame name.

THERE can be no doubt, likewife, that, in Sweden and Den-
mark, before the emancipation of adfcriptitii, freemen and no-
bl§s were precifely fynonimous terms. And, in truth, only the
emancipated adfcriptitii of the crown appear to have there ob-
tained the full right of citizenfhip.

EVERY perfon acquainted with the documents extant of the
ancient ftate of Europe will find, that they fo clearly refer to a
diftribution of ranks, fimilar to what we have been obferving,
that they cannot be underftood on a different fxippofition. I
mall cite one example of this which appears to be extremely
decifive. In the fucceeding parts of this paper, there will be
occafion to found a great deal on the following general fa6l f,
viz. That, at the conqueft of the weftern empire, the for-

nier

fcription of Poland, " Sunt in regno titulo Ducali infigniti, fed qui cum reliquis nobih-
<' bus jure utuntur communi — unde tanta omnium et par libertas."

* WER.BEUCS, p. 10.

| .Which almoft every monument of the names in queftion may be quoted in evidence o&,

The EUROPEAN LEGISLATURES. 39

iner arrangement of the Germans into /#<§•/*, centuries and
decenaries, immediately appeared in the Roman provinces,
which were every where divided and fubdivided into diftricts,
diftinguimed by thefe or correfponding names ; and that, in
each of thefe diftricts, the former fpecies of fubordination re-
mained, viz. a chief, who was magiflrate in peace, and leader in
war, and an aflembly of the warriors of it, competent equally
for deliberation and action. The chiefs, or governors of pagi
or large diftricts, were called, in the Latin of thofe times, duces,
comites, gardingi, banni, vaivodas, heretogas, aldermanni. The
heads of fubdivifions were named after them refpectively, quin-
gentenarii, centenarii, decani. The higher magiftrates had de-
puties that affifted them in their functions. Thefe were called
in Latin vicarii, and fometimes vicecomites ; but, in general,
they retained the names which, in their native language, belong-
ed to their principals. Thus they had the titles of gerefas, graffs,
grieves, fcyregraffs, margraffs, thiuphads, laghmans, &c.

IN procefs of time, the military and enterprifing fpirit of the
conquerors was greatly damped, by the influence of their new
fituation, and various regulations were thought of to enforce
compliance with their common duty, as defenders of their ac-
quifitions. Among thefe, we find, in the code of the Viligoths,
called the fuerojufgo f, a law which enacts, that, if the duke,
count, or warden, failed in their duty, they forfeited their
goods, and were liable to punifhment ; and that, as to all in-
ferior perfons, viz. thofe who called out the army, or thofe who
were called out, then, " Non folum ducentis iclibus flagellorum
" verberati, fed et turpi decalvatione foedati fingulas infuper li-
" bras auri cogantur exfolvere ;" and that, if they had not
fubftance to defray this fine, they fhould be condemned to

flavery.

* PAGUS is ufed in the ancient codes and early writers as fynonimous with civitas and
comitatus. Civitas fometimes is employed for urbs, but generally in the fenfe of municr-
pium, or of a fubordinate ftate, comprehending a town and territory. Greg. Tur. lib. 7.
§ 6. 12. 13. 33. <iyc. CESAR, <b'c. ufes pagus in this way, feptem Helvetiorum pagi, <fev,
The French pais, and German termination gaw, are fuppofed to be derived from it,

i Lib. 9. tit. 2. 1. 9.

40 On the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of

flavery. We have it, in the fame law, fpecifically pointed out,
that the perfons fubjedl to this punifliment were the leaders of
the fubdivifions of covinties, viz. the decani, centenarii, quin-
gentenarii, thiuphadi, together with the fervi dominici, or un-
der-ftewarts and fervile inhabitants of the royal domains,
and all the freemen, arranged by their diftrids, whether Goths
or Romans. Nor were the moft confiderable proprietors not in-
cluded in this enumeration j for we find it directed, that thofe
who are included in it mould bring with them to the army the
tenth part of their flaves in arms ; and, in the preamble, it is
complained, that people conceal their flaves, though poflefled of
multitudes employed in agriculture, and do not bring with
them to the army the twentieth part of their family. On .the
other hand, the law not only mows, that it was deftined to ex-
tend to every perfon, cunElis populis regni, but it fpecifies the ma-
joris loci perfonae to be the dux, comes, five etiam gardingus, all
others being clafled as inferiores perfonge, although mention is
notwithstanding made of feniors leading their vaflals and com-
manding them in the army. Thus the circumftance, viz. fu-
periority over vaflals, that was afterwards fo charadleriftic of
feudal greatnefs, was not then held to diftinguifh a perfon from
the reft of the nation ; but a feudal lord is clafled as a perfona
inferior, and is menaced with fine, whipping, and even flavery,
equally with the loweft freeman.

WE have here, therefore, a very clear defcription of the ranks
of perfons, viz. magiftrates, freemen, and different clafles of
men of fervile condition * ; and we are fure, that there was
no patrician order diftincl; from the other freemen, for feveral
reafons : iy?, No clafs of perfons is mentioned which coxild form
fuch an order ; whereas, in a law framed for calling forth the

nation

* WE find the fame orders fpecified in the following paflage of an ancient author:
' Vetus confuetudo pro lege apud Francos et Suevos inolevit, ut fi quis nobilis, minifteri-
' alis, vel colonus, coram fuo judice pro hujufmodi exceffibus reus inventus fuerit, an-
' tequam mortis fententia puniatur, ad confufionis fuae ignominiam, nobilis canem, mini-
' fterialis fellam, rufticus aratri rotam, de comitatu in proximum comitatum geftare co-
' gatur." Lib. 2. de Ge/l. Federic. c. 18. See alfo L L. Alleman. tit. 90.

The EUROPEAN LEGISLATURES. 41

nation in arms, a nobility, belonging to a warlike people, muft
have made a diftinguifhed figure, zdly, It is inconfiftent -with
the idea of a patrician order, to comprehend them within the
def'cription of perfonse inferiores, and rank them under the low-
eft magiftrates ; yet it is manifeft, that the enumeration in the
law affords no other place for them. 3^/y, Though the account
given of the perfons inferiores mows there was no patrician
order then recognifed, that defcription of perfons is enumerated
among them, which afterwards, when the lower ranks were
emancipated, and the third eftate formed, was diftinguifhed as
noble. This clafs, therefore, by comprehending tithing men
and hundreders, which, in the eaft of Europe, are offices held
by nobles only, and alfo feudal lords and vafTals, who, retaining
the profeffion of arms, compofed the noblefle of after ages in
the weft of Europe, proves, that we have no occafion to look
farther for the origin of a patrician order, nor reafon to ima-
gine, that it is poffible to difcover it at the emigration from Ger-
many, diftinguifhed, by hereditary honours, from the reft of
the conquerors. Accordingly, we find the Vifigoths enacting,
that every freeman of the national blood might offer himfelf as
a candidate for the crown *. We find, that family names, fo
efTential to patrician diftinctions, were fcarcely known in Eu-
rope till the twelfth century f. And we find, that the nobili-

/ ty

* MONTESQUIEU attributes the ele&ion of military leaders, on account of merit only,
to the national adherence to the royal blood in the appointment of kings, and fuppofes
the power of the mayors of the palace proceeded from the old cuftom, that duces ex virtute
funiunt. But the monarchs who founded the European ftates were themfelves duces, and
owed their authority to that character, and not to their more hereditary one of being
chiefs of petty tribes. Clovis, Alaric,Genferic, were the Brennufes and Armiiiiufes of then-
times. Hence the thrones of Europe were long, dejure, purely elective. The ancient
form of creating a king was exaftly that which TACITUS defcribes in the election of a dux;
and the forms of the modern coronations are (till that of an election. The major palatii
•was originally no more than the principal domeftic of the king.- We find majores domus
noftrse mentioned in the plural number, and one quitting the office for a bifhoprick. It
•was the great extent and growth of the houfehold which rendered the mayors fo powerful.

\ SPELMAN, in his letters to ROSECRANTZ, fays, He had not obferved a cognomen gentile
attributed to a Lombard, Frank, Saxon, or Dane, in the firfl ages after the conqueft. Dr

Hi CUES

4i On the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of, See.

ty of Europe inherit neither appellations, as a peculiar order,
nor titles of honour, nor official functions, except fuch as they
manifeflly have acquired from the feudal arrangements.

IN order to prevent miftakes, it is neceflary to add further,
that the intermixture of nations which the conqueft produced,
the freedom which men of profeffions that appeared ignoble to
the conquerors pofleffed, and which men of fervile condition
acqiiired, and the differences which were conftantly increasing
between the wealth of individuals, neceffarily introduced a real
diverfity in the ranks of freemen. Accordingly, in the more
uncultivated diftricts, where the tribes or clans of the predomi-
nant nations retained, for fome time, their genealogies, fuch
tribes arrogated a degree of fuperiority ; and, in the richer
countries, though the clans foon difappeared, wealth and de»
fcent not only produced fuch diftinctions as we know arife from
them in civilized times, (diftinclions then attended with no ab-
folute feparation of ranks) but, by means of the vaft influence
which the imperfection of law fuffers them to ufurp, introduced
into the flruclure of fociety, and even into the codes of politi-
cal inftitutions, a manifeft tendency to the conftruclion of that
patrician order and ariftocratic authority, which, during the feu-
dal ages, nearly monopolifed the fovereignty of the European
nations *.

HICKES thinks, that the praftice of ufing two names came to prevail in England in the
Norman times ; and that, during the crufades, the cognomen became a nomen gentile.
Drffert. p. 29.

* THE Bavarian laws enaft, that, in cafe of blows given in a tumult or meeting, the
offender fliould pay a fine, " untcuique fecuntlum fuam genealogiam." And, in cafe of a
fedition, while the principal perfons engaged in it (called, however, fimply homines) in-
curred a fine of 200 folidi, the populi minores and liberi paid only 40 folidi. fit. 2.
c. 3. and 4. And, in c- 20. five genealogies are mentioned which are entitled to a double
fine ; and the Agilolfingi, from among whom the duke was chofen, had right to a quadru-
ple fine. In A. D. 797,. the nobiliores paid, for difobeying a fummons, four folidi,
while the ingenui paid two, and the liti one. BALUZ. />. 278. By L L. Vifig. lib. 6. tit. i.
robiles potentiorefque perfonae, ut primates palatii, eorumque filii, were not to be ex-
pofed to torment, on account of an accufation of theft, <£rr. ; and a perfona inferior was
forbid to accufe nobiliorem fe ve! potentiorcm.

It

II. ^DISSERTATION to prove that TROY was not taken by
/&? GREEKS. By JOHN MACLAURIN, Efq; Advocate, and
F. R. S. EDIN.

\Read by the Author, Feb. 16. 1784.]

Non anni domuere decem, non mills carinee. VIR.G.

T T cannot well be difputed, that, till the Greeks were poflef-
-•- fed of the art of writing, they could have nothing that de-
ferved the name of hiftory. When that art was introduced
among them is uncertain ; but there is reafon to believe, it was
not known to them at the time of the Trojan war, as there is
no mention of any writing in all the works of HOMER; for
the tablets, of which he fpeaks in one paffage, did not contain
any writing, but only marks or figns *. At any rate, it cannot
be fuppofed, that writing was much known or practifed, at that
time, or indeed for long after. It appears from many charters,
and other deeds, in this country, that men of the firft families
and fortunes in it could not, a few centuries ago, write their

f 2 names j

* Iliad, vi. 168. So ECSTATHIUS fays exprefsly ; and the reafon he afligns, is, that let-
ters were the invention of later times. He might have added, that it appears from
feveral other paflages in HOMER, that with him yjaip«» does not fignify to write, but to
trace or mark ; nor <rriu.it a letter, but a mart, orjign, or credential. Diad vii. 175. 187.
1 8 8. 189. ; andOdy(T. xxiv. 328. And a-n/jixhas unqueftionably this fignification in xxiii. 206.
In this paflage refpe&ing Betteropt>on,had Madam DACIER and Mr POPE adverted to this,
they would not have tranflated this paflage as they have done. Hopi 2e «' r>yxa1* Auyga,
clearly means, that he gave him a token or credential that was meant to be deftruftive
to him ; and yp«i]/a« S^fttf^fm cr»AXa, that he traced in thefe folded tables many marks
or figns, that gave to underftand he was defirous of his death. There is, likewife, no
mention of writing in the ^Eneidj which mews, that VIRGIL thought it the invention of
later time*.

44

ROT not taken

names ; yet it is clear, from our having the ufe of coined mo-
ney in commerce, and of cavalry in war, as well as from feveral
other circumftances, that we were more civilized in thofe days
than the Greeks could pretend to be when they firft invaded
Afia.

THOSE, therefore, of the Greek writers who chofe to relate
ancient events might fhape their ftories as they pleafed. There
could be nothing to contradict them, but a vague and confufed
tradition, (if there was fo much) which, it is plain, would, at
no time, be much regarded, and would foon be forgot or dif-
believed, if the accounts of thefe writers were more flattering
or favourable to their countrymen. Indeed) the Greeks feem
all along to have had a natural inclination to pervert and falfify
facts, and this drew upon them the fever eft reproaches from the
lovers of truth.

id Gracia mendax

.Audet in hijloria.

IT may, perhaps, be faid, that this is no more than the af-
fertion of a Roman fatirift, which ought not to be liflened to.
But it is eafy to fupport JUVENAL'S teftimony by that of fome
of the moft judicious Greek writers themfelves. DIODORUS
SICULUS informs us, that the ancient hiftorians contradicted
one another fo much, that thofe of later times, who felt they
had talents for writing hiftory, abandoned all remote, and be-
took themfelves to recent periods ; and THUCYDIDES {hews,
that not only with regard to ancient, but even as to recent
events, the Greeks, his contemporaries, were very ill informed.
In his introduction, he exprefies himfelf as follows : ' It is
" very difficult to find out the truth as to ancient affairs ; for
" men content themfelves with reports as to paft events, with-
" out being at the trouble to examine them, even though they
** relate to their own country." And he refers for proof, to the

celebrated

By the GREEKS. 45

celebrated ftory of HARMODIUS and ARISTOGITON. Of this
he gives the detail in his fixth book ; " Becaufe neither^ the
" Athenians, or others, knew who was the tyrant at the time,
" or what was the real fac"l that happened." Poems had been
compofed, and flames erected, in honour of thofe men, as be-
ing the champions of liberty, and the deliverers of their coun-
try, by a bold ftroke, in putting its tyrant to death ; bxit it ap-
pears, from the narrative of THUG YD IDES, that all this was un-
deferved, and proceeded from a grofs miftake ; for they did not
kill HIPPIAS, who was the tyrant, but his brother HIPPAR-
CHUS ; and him, not from a love of their country, or hatred of
tyranny, but from very unworthy motives, which it would be
indelicate to explain *.

IF the Athenians, the moft enlightened people of Greece,
could be fo milled as to an event which happened but eighty-
two years before the Peloponnefian war, what liberties might
not HOMER take, in relating the circumftances of an expedition
which preceded, by many centuries, the age in which he lived,
and as to which, in all probability, there was no record or
writing whatever ?

IT is, indeed, fuppofed by the author of the life of HOMER,
commonly afcribed to HERODOTUS, that he was only 168 years
later than the Trojan war ; but, from what THUCYDIDES fays,
it mould feem that he thought he was long pofterior f to it ;
and that, in fad:, he was fo, is apparent from feveral paflages in
his works. In one place, he fays, that DIOMEDE lifted, bran-
diflied, and threw a flone, which two men," fuch as men are
now-a-days, would not be able to carry j and, in another, that
HECTOR lifted, brandifhed, and threw a flone, which two men,
fuch as men are now-a-days, would not be able to heave from
the ground into a cart j but fo great a degeneracy could not

have

* IT took its rife from a-«»?ij«n*. THUCYDIDES fays AMSTOQITON ti%s>

46 TR 0 T not taken

have happened in a century and a half. Befides, that he wrote
from report^ and knew nothing certain, he himfelf declares, in
his addrefs to the Mufes, with which he introduces the catalogue
of the Grecian {hips and forces ; which implies, that he was not
only very long pofterior to the event he chofe for his fubjecl, but
that there was no record or hiftory of it extant when he wrote.

MANY proofs might be brought of HOMER'S (lory being ge-
nerally difbelieved or doubted of among the ancients. A few
{hall be mentioned : And, firft, I refer to the hiftory of HELEN'S
birth. LJEDA, the wife of TYNDARUS, was delivered (it is
faid) of two eggs, in one of which were POLLUX and HELEN,
in the other CASTOR and CLYTEMNESTRA. The former being
.the offspring of JUPITER, metamorphofed into a fwan, were im-
mortal j the latter, coining from TYNDARUS, fubjecl to diffo-
lution. And, it is added, that, when CASTOR drew near his
end, his brother begged of the gods that he might be exempted
from death as well as himfelf. This, it feems, could not be al-
together complied with ; but, to gratify him as far as fate would
permit, it was decreed that they mould live and die by turns.
This is evidently an allegory, and generally thought to be an
aftronomical one. Now, if HELEN was not a real, but an al-
legorical perfonage, what becomes of the Trojan war ?

THE flory of the egg is not to be found in HOMER ; but the
alternate life and death of CASTOR and POLLUX is mentioned
in the Odyffey *, though not confiftent with a paffage in the
Iliad, to be afterwards quoted, which declares them both dead.
Madame DACIER, in a note on this paffage of the Iliad, fays,
that the fable of CASTOR and POLLUX was pofterior to HOMER;
but the paffage of the Odyffey, juft now referred to, proves the
contrary. HORACE feems to have thought, that the whole had
been invented -before HOMER'S time, as he .commends him for
riot having begun with the egg :

Nee gemtno Trojanum bellum ordltur ab ovo.

But

1* xt. 302.

By the GRE E -K S. 47

But there would have been no place for the compliment, if he
could not have committed the fault. Be this as it may, the
allegory is certainly of a very ancient date, and proves, that
the authors of it did not believe HOMER'S account of the Tro-
jan war. Indeed, it goes further : It proves, they did not be-
lieve there had been a Trojan war at all ; in fupport of which
opinion, much may be faid and has been faid *.

2«fy, IT is clear that HERODOTUS difbelieved, or very much
doubted the Greek account of the Trojan war, That very in-
telligent and inquifitive hiftorian informs us f, That he afked
the Egyptian priefts, whether what the Greeks alleged to have
happened at Troy was a foolijh Jlory J ? And he fays they told
him, that PARIS and HELEN, in their pafTage from Sparta to
Troy, were overtaken by a florm, which drove them to Egypt,
where fome of their fervants having difclofed the crime they
had committed, PROTEUS, who then reigned at Memphis, feized
and detained their perfons, and the effects which they had
brought with them : That when the Greeks came before Troy,,
and demanded back HELEN and her effects, the Trojans an-
fwered, that they had neither, both being in Egypt ; but the
Greeks, not believing this, befieged the town, and took it ; and
then MEN EL A us, finding that what they had faid was true, pro-
ceeded to Egypt, where his wife and goods were reftored to him.
HERODOTUS then quotes feveral paffages of the Iliad to prove,
that HOMER knew HELEN was not in Troy, but in Egypt, and
had perverted the fact for the fake of his poetry. He adds,
that he, too, fubfcribes to what was faid with regard to HELEN'S
not being in Troy, for this reafon, that it was impomble to be-
lieve PRIAM fo devoid of underftanding, as that he would have

expofed

* See PERNETY'S Fables Egyptiennes et Grecques devoilees, torn. ii. And that
trie hiftory of the Trojan war was no more than an allegory is taken for granted by
GEBELIN DE LA Coon, in his Monde Primitif, ii. 400. j and by BRYANT, in his My-
thology.

f Lib. 2. J M*T«ies Tuye;.

48 TROY not taken

expofed his kingdom to deftrudtion for a woman, if he had had
her to deliver up.

THIS is a very curious paflage. It proves clearly, that HE-
RODOTUS, before he converfed with the Egyptian priefls, doubted
extremely of the account given by the Greeks of the Trojan
war. He feems, however, to have altered his opinion, in con-
fequence of what they told him MENELAUS had reported when
he came to Egypt. That account, if true, removed, no doubt,
the chief difficulty he had, which was, the incredibility of
PRIAM'S refufal to reflore HELEN, when demanded by the
Greeks j but, if he had reflected a little, he muft havet>een fa-
tisfied, that it could not be true that HELEN' was not in Troy
during the fiege. If me had not been there, it is impoflible to
believe that the Greeks would not have difcovered this in lefs
than ten years. They mufl very foon have come at the facl:.
When they did, they would have retired, if the recovery of
her and her effeds was the object of the war. Or, fuppofing
that the hope of plunder would have made them continue it,
yet MENELAUS furely would have gone for her to Egypt him-
fdf, or, at lead, fent fome perfon thither to enquire about her.
Indeed, the affertion of the Trojans was, of itfelf, fufficient to
have induced him to take that trouble. This has been remark-
ed by RICCIUS*, who juflly maintains, that HOMER'S ftory as
to this point is the more credible of the two : " Quis vera non
" videat, magis prce fe ferre fpeciem fabulae id quod narrabant
" facerdotes, qxiam quod habet HOMERUS; eftne, qusefo, veri-
" fimile in ea ambiguitate perdurare voluiffe Graecos decem
" annos ? 'Cum recipiendae HELENA tarn efTet cupidus MENE-
" LAUS, non mitteret ftatim aliquos in yEgyptum qui exquire-
" rent, an vere apud PROTEUM ilia detineretur ? Non id oin-
" nino faciendum cenferent frater AGAMEMNON fupremus co-
•" piarum imperator, NESTOR aliique duces ? Quse major abfur-
-** ditas, qua: inlignior imprudentia, quae cramor ftoliditas de

" Grsccis

* Diflert. HOMER, vol. ii. diiT. 40. p. 216.

By the GREEKS. 49

" Graecis ducibus virtute et confilio celeberrimis confingi un-
'* quam poflit ?"

SEVERAL ancient authors thinking it improbable that HELEN
was in Troy, and feeing the force of the argument againft the
fuppofition of her not having been there, contrived a fiction to
reconcile the two accounts, viz. That VENUS had created a fhape
or figure fo exactly like HELEN, that PARIS carried the coun-
terfeit* with him to Troy, believing it to be the celebrated
Beauty herfelf. EURIPIDES'S tragedy of HELEN turns entirely
upon this ; and MUSGRAVE, in his notes, conjectures, that the
ftory had been contrived by HELEN, in conjunction with the
Egyptian priefts, to re-eftablifh her character after her return to
Greece. It is plain, however, that, according to the Egyptian priefts
and HERODOTUS, HOMER has falfified the ftory in one material
circumftance ; if fo, it is impoflible to fay where he would flop.

$dly, Although THUCYDIDES, in his introduction, does fup-
pofe the truth of the Grecian expedition againft Troy, and re-
fers to HOMER for feveral particulars, yet he once and again
enters the caveat, " if any credit is to be given to his poems."

Lqftly> PAUSANIAS fays, in fo many words, that he gives
more credit to HOMER than the generality of people do. The
expreflion in the original f is rather ftronger ; and it is certain,
that feveral ancient authors, whofe works unfortunately have
not reached us, arraigned HOMER of falfehood, in treatifes
written on purpofe to convict him of it §. I will not quote
from LUCIAN, as his levity might be objected to, but only ob-
ferve, that, if the common chronology be juft, he had good
reafon to laugh at the fuppofition of PARIS falling in love with
HELEN, or of her being an object of contention to Afia and
Greece, as it is xtemonftrable that me muft have been about an
hundred years of age when Troy was taken j for, according to

g the

* 'EiJ«A«f. f 'o/ Aether, p. 1 60. edit. 1696.

§ See an enumeration of them in the preface toPhiloftr. Heroica, p. 603. edit. 1709.

5° ?R 0 T not taken

the common chronology, feventy-nine years elapfed between the
Argonautic expedition and the taking of Troy ; now fhe was
the twin-fifter of POLLUX, who was one of the Argonauts, and
who fought and beat a famous boxer in the pafTage to Colchis,
and therefore cannot be fuppofed, at that time, under eighteen
or twenty. BAYLE, in his dictionary, has taken notice of
HELEN'S great age ; and a witty author has compared her to
the famous NINON DE L'ENCLOS, who made an affignation on
the day {he entered her eightieth year. But this ridicule flrikes
only againft the common chronology ; for HOMER fays nothing
to afcertain the period of time that elapfed between the two ex-
peditions. From a circumftance, however, which he does men-
tion, and which will be taken notice of by and by, it appears,
that fhe could not be under forty when Troy was taken.

AFTER what has been ftated, I may venture, I imagine, to
proceed with lefs timidity than I otherwife could have done, to
endeavour to fhew, that the account given by the Greeks of
their expedition againft Troy is incredible and inconfiftent with
itfelf ; and that (if ever there was at all a Trojan war) Troy was
not taken by them, but that they were obliged, by thofe who
defended it, to raife the liege, and retire with lofs and difgrace.

SEVERAL of the arguments to be urged in the fequel upon
this fubjecT; are taken from a very curious diflertation by a
Greek author, Dio CHRYSOSTOMUS, who lived in the time of
TRAJAN, and acquired great reputation by his works, from the
purity of his ftyle, and the elegance and depth of his fentiments
and reflections. He has written two diflertations upon HOMER j
in one of them*, he makes his panegyric as a poet; but, in the
other f, takes him feverely to talk as an hiflorian. The firft
mentioned, which is in praife of the poet, is taken notice of by
almoft every commentator who has publifhed an edition of hie
works ; but not one of them makes the leaft mention of the
other. Hence it is not much known.

THIS

* Orat. Iv. -f- Orat. si,.

By the GREEKS. 51

THIS laft may be divided into two parts. Thefirft part contains
an account of the Trojan war, quite oppofite, in moft particu-
lars, to that of HOMER j and this, CHRYSOSTOM fays, he made
up, partly from information, which he too pretends to have ob-
tained from an Egyptian prieft, and partly from what appeared
to him to be moft probable. The other, and by, far the moft
valuable part, is an argument to prove, that HOMER'S account
muft appear, when examined with attention, to be falfe, abfurd,
and contradictory to itfelf. As the detail which CHRYSOSTOM
gives is not vouched or authenticated in any fhape, I fhall ftate
no more of it than is necefTary for underftanding the argu-
mentative part of his difcourfe, which merits the greateft atten-
tion. CASAUBON, who writes fome notes on this author, fays
of this diflertation ; " Dignus plane liber hie, quern legant
" philologi, et quicunque in veterum fcriptis cum judicio capiunt
" verfari ; quamvis et pro HOMERO multa dici pofTunt."

IT is not, however, my intention to tranflate this part of the
difcourfe, nor even to abridge it, but only to felec"l from it the
arguments that appeared to me the moft conclufive and ftriking,
to enforce them by fome additional confiderations, and to add
fome obfervations that have occurred to myfelf in reading and
reflecting on this very important and interefting article of an-
cient hiftory.

ACCORDING to this author, HELEN, the daughter of TYN-
DARUS, king of Sparta, was, by far, the moft beautiful woman
of her time, and had a great number of fuitors, amongft whom
were MENELAUS and PARIS. The latter was preferred by. the
lady to all the reft, on account of the graces of his perfon and
addrefs ; and his magnificent prefents obtained the confent of
TYNDARUS, her father, who befides was defirous of connecting
himfelf with Afia. Upon this MENELAUS, and the other Greeks,
partly from refentment of the affront which they thought they
had received, and partly from the hope of plunder, invaded

g 2 Troas.

5 2 TROY not taken

Troas. Many auxiliaries came to the affiftance of PRIAM, and
an obftinate and bloody war enfued, in the courfe of which
great numbers fell on both fides ; but the Greeks had all along
the worft of it. They loft, a great number of troops, and fome
of their braveft commanders. HECTOR, according to this au-
thor, inftead of being flain by ACHILLES, himfelf flew both
ACHILLES and AJAX ; though HOMER, to cover this difgrace,
has made the former, who was the braveft of the Greeks, perifh
by the hand of PARIS, the moft daftardly of the Trojans, the
latter by his own. At laft, after fufFering an infinity of hard-
mips and lofles, the Greeks were glad to retire as they beft
could. He gives a very long detail of the war ; but, for the
reafon already mentioned, I enter not upon it, but proceed to
the real evidence he offers of the falfity of the common ftory.

IN confidering this matter, it will be proper to view the cir-
cumftances and fituations of perfons and affairs, as at four dif-
ferent periods : \ft, Before the voyage of PARIS to Sparta.
2^7)', As at the time of his arrival there, ^dly, During the war.
And, lajlly^ After the taking and facking of Troy.

IT is, by no means, probable that PARIS would fall in love
with a woman whom he had never feen ; and ftill lefs fo, that
he would form the defperate and nefarious project of carrying
her off from her hufband, a powerful king, who lived at a coii-
fiderable diftance, and beyond feas.

CHRYSOSTOM might have added, that the force of this ob-
jection was forefeen ; and that to obviate it^was invented what
is called the judgment of PARIS ; for it was not the fhepherd of
Ida that conceived this plan ; he was put upon it by VENUS, who
promifed him fuccefs in reward of his having adjudged the
apple to her.

BUT further, PARIS could not get a fhip, or a crew, without
the confent or connivance of his father ; yet it cannot be be-
lieved, that PRIAM, an old, wife and good king, would give any
countenance to fuch an undertaking.

LET

By the GREEKS. 53

LET it be fuppofed, however, that PARIS, fomehow or other,
got a (hip and crew, and arrived at Lacedzmon, when MENELA-
us and her brother were abfent, (for it is furely neceffary to fend
them away) j and let it be flill further fuppofed, that he had
been able to perfuade her to forfake her hufband, her 'child,
and her country, and to follow, to her own eternal difgrace,
a young adventurer to a flrartge land ; yet ftill infurmountable
difficulties flood in the way of his carrying her off. For it
muft be obferved, that Lacedaemon was not a fea-port town,
but a mediterranean place, being many miles up the country,
as appears from the map ; and further, that PARIS did not on-
ly carry off HELEN, but her effects, which confided in bulky
good's, fuch as, wearing apparel, carpets, tapeftry, and veffels
of different kinds. It was impoffible, therefore, for PARIS to
carry her off fecretly. He muft have done it openly and avow-
edly, and in the face of the fun ; and a number of horfes and
carriages were neceffary to tranfport the lady and her baggage
from Lacedjemon to the fea-port. Now, fuppofing MENELAUS
abfent, is it poffible to believe that his fubjec~ls would have fat
with their arms acrofs, and beheld the wife and the wealth of
their king carried off by a handful of banditti ?

IT is not eafy to figure a tolerable anfwer to this objection.
The author of one of the fpurious hiftories of the Trojan war
in Latin felt its force, and to avoid it, pretends, that PARIS met
with HELEN in the ifland of Cythera, near the coaft of Sparta.
But this is inadmiffible ; for, in theory? place, HOMER exprefs-
ly fays, in a variety of paffages, that HELEN was brought from
Lacedsemon to Troy ; and, idly, Not only fhe, but all her valu-
able effeds were carried off; and fhe certainly would not have
thefe with her,- when upon an excurfion to an ifland in the
neighbourhood.

WE come now to the period of the war. It is very furprifing
that the Trojans did not deliver up HELEN to the ambaffadors

fent

J4 TROT riot taken

fent from Greece, as the demand was not only founded in ju-
ftice, but enforced by the threat of an invafion. It is ftill
more furprifing, that they fliould perfift in their refufal, when
they faw themfelves attacked with 1200 mips and 100,000 men.
What is mod aftonifhing of all is, that they did not reftore her
upon the death of PARIS, but married her to his brother DEI-
PHOBUS. Here CHRYSOSTOM argues, and with great plaufibi-
lity, that this is perfectly incredible, upon the fuppofition that
PARIS had poffefled himfelf of her by a crime ; but by no
means fo if he obtained her in marriage with her father's con-
fent ; for then the grofTeft injuftice was on the fide of the
Greeks ; and it is not at all furprifing, that the Trojans mould
have been willing to fuffer the laft extremities rather than fub-
init. This laft fuppofition is further confirmed by this circum-
ftance, that CASTOR and POLLUX, the brothers of HELEN, did
not go upon this expedition. They both were alive at the time
of her pretended elopement *.

TEN years elapfed, after the elopement of HELEN, before the
Greeks laid fiege to Troy. This we learn from her lamentation
over the dead body of HECTOR ; for there me is made to fay
exprefsly, that me was now in the twentieth year of her ab-
fence from her native country f ; and as it is agreed, that the
fiege of Troy lafted ten years, it follows, that the fame period
had elapfed from her being carried off to the landing of the
Greeks in Afia. This circumftance CHRYSOSTOM has overlook-
ed ; but it feems to delerve attention. So long a delay cannot
well be accounted for.

THE fcholiaft upon the above paflage, who feems to have fore-
feen the obfervation, fays, that this time was fpent in affembling
the Grecian army ; but as the Grecian princes lived at no great
diftance from one another, and all their men were accuftomed
to the ufe of armsy it could not be difficult to bring them foon
together ; and if it be fuppofed, that they came to the place of

rendezvous

* IL iii. 236. f IL xxiv. 765.

By the GREEKS. 5-5

rendezvous at different times during this long period, it is not
eafy to fee how they could be fubfifted , befides, it cannot be
doubted, that MENELAUS would haften the invafion as much-
as poflible.

AT this rate, the beauty of HELEN mufl have been upon the
wane when the fiege began, and~quite over by the time it ended.
For which reafon, Mr WOOD regrets, that HOMER introduced
the circumftance into his poem, as it is far from being agree-
able, and not at all material. He might have added, that it is
not confident with the exceflive encomiums which even the old
men of Troy beftow on her charms, in the tenth year of the
fiege j or the extravagant compliment they pay her, that it was
not at all furprifing the Greeks and Trojans mould have fuffer-
ed fo much and fo long for her. The probability is, that this
circumftance was invented by HOMER to give an air of credi-
bility to fome others ; particularly, to account for the abfence
of CASTOR and POLLUX. In the third book of the Iliad, HELEN
exprefles great furprife becaufe me did not fee her two brothers
among the Grecian commanders. This was in the tenth year
of the liege; and HOMER adds," But^they had both died at La-
cedsemon a long time before." This proves they were alive at
the time of the elopement ; and that he thought it neceffary to
account for their not being at the fiege.

THE Greeks, however, did at laft make their appearance be~
fore Troy ; but the town was not taken till after a ten years
fiege *. This is the moft puzzling circumftance of all ; efpe-
cially when it is confidered, that HOMER tells us it had been
taken formerly by HERCULES with only fix mips, and had by
him been levelled to the ground.

THE

* M. FOURMONT, in. a differtation, in torn. 5. ties Mem. de I' Acad.deslnfcrip. pretends,
that the fiege began only three weeks or a month before the quarrel between AGAMEM-
NON and ACHILLES, -which happened in the beginning of the tenth year j and that the
reft of the time had been fpent in expeditions againft different places in Afia. M. FOUR-
MONT fays, unanfwerable objections may be made to HOMER'S account on the other fup-
pofition. The Abb6 BANIER has written an anfwer to this diflertation, in which he proves, .
from feveral paflages in HOMER, that the fiege lafted ten years ; but has been, by no •
means, able to anfwer the objections that arife from that fuppofition. See tom-.j.

56 ? R 0 Y not taken

THE Greeks, by HOMER'S account, were always greatly fupe-
rior in numbers to the Trojans and their auxiliaries ; and, for
more than nine years, they had ACHILLES with them *, whom
HOMER has, on all occafions, reprefented as perfectly irrefidi-
ble to the Trojans. How then came it about that the war laded
fo long ?

THE only anfwer that can be made to this is, that the Trojans
kept within their walls as long as ACHILLES appeared; and this
HOMER himfelf fuggefts f, though it is contradictory to feveral
other pafTages, where it is faid, that many battles had been
fought, and great numbers flain on both fides.

BUT this will not prove fatisfactory, when it is confidered,
that ANDROMACHE, in the interview me has with HECTOR in
the fixth book, tells him, that the city was to be come at, and
the wall eafily fcaled ^; and that Aj AX, AGAMEMNON, MENE-
LAUS, and DIOMED, had three times attempted it. If fo, what
hindered ACHILLES to florm the town the day after he landed ?
How came AJAX, and the other chiefs, to be fo long in threat-
ening an afTault ? Madame DACIER, in a note on this paf-
fage, fays, That the art of reconnoitering was not known, at
this time, even to the Greeks. The abfurdity of the anfwer
fhews the force of the obfervation. A wolf, fox, or other
bead of prey, that wants to get into a fold or clofe where fheep
or cattle are confined, would walk round it to difcover at what
place the fence was lowed.

BUT further, fuppofing the town to have been impregnable,
how came the Greeks not to take it by blockade ? They had a
powerful fleet, the Trojans none ; fo that it was eafy to hinder
the town from being fupplied-with proviiions by fea ; and it
was equally eafy to have drawn lines around it, which would
have cut off all communication between it and the country;
the infallible confequence of which would have been, that the
Trojans mud have furrendered as foon as their dock of provi-

fions'

* II. viii. 558. | II. vii. 352.5 xviii. 287. t II. vi". 434.

By the GREEK S. 57

(ions was confumed. As the Greeks did not draw lines around
the town, whilft, at the fame time, we are told they threw up
a rampart before their own {hips, and as the Trojans received
fuccours from their neighbours at different times, the fair con-
clufion is, that the Greeks were not matters of the country, nor
fuperior to the Trojans in the field, but, on the contrary, found
themfelves overmatched. If it {hall be faid, that the art of
drawing lines was not known to the Greeks, I anfwer, that the
method they took to fecure their mips proves the contrary to
be true ; and, had they been ignorant of that art, (if fo fimple
an operation deferves that name), they never would have
thought of the fiege, as they had no artillery or machinery of
any kind for making a breach in the walls : Befides, without any
art or labour, they could have placed bodies of troops fo as to
intercept all the Trojan convoys.

HOMER admits, that the Greeks fuffered more before Troy
than any mortal man could relate * : That they loft a great num-
ber of men, many excellent officers, and that AJAX, ANTILO-
CHUS, PATROCLUS, and ACHILLES, the greateft hero of them
all, perifhed in the expedition. This, of itfelf, affords a pre-
fumption that they were not fuccefsful. It is very improbable
that ACHILLES fell by the hand of PARIS ; the truth feems to
be, that he died by that of a better man. HECTOR pofTefTed
himfelf of his armour, which is not at all furprifing, if he flew
its owner ; but cannot otherwife be explained : For, as to
the ftory of PATROCLUS drefung himfelf in the armour of
ACHILLES, and being flain and flripped by HECTOR, it cannot
poflibly be true. ACHILLES was by far the ftrongeft and flate-
lieft of the Greeks : HECTOR was nothing to him; and PATRO-
CLUS again was nothing to HECTOR, as is evident from the
anxiety with which ACHILLES charges him not to encounter
HECTOR. Now, when HECTOR did get ACHILLES'S armour,
he found he could not ufe it > and, therefore, HoMERf makes

h JUPITER

* Odyfl". iii. 105. t Book xvii. 210.

58 T ROY not taken

JUPITER interpofe to fit it to his body ; though, after all, the
god did not perform the work fufficiently j for HECTOR owed
his death to fighting ACHILLES in that armour, as an aperture
ftill remained near the throat, through which ACHILLES drove
his fpear. If then the armour of ACHILLES could not be ufed
by HECTOR, how is it poffible, that it could be ufed by PATRO-
CLUS, who was fo much inferior to him ? It is palpable, that he
muft have been almoft as ill fitted with it as DAVID was with
SAUL'S. HOMER himfelf admits*, that PATROCLUS could not
wield ACH ILL ES'S fpear, how then could he fupport, not to fay
march and fight, under the load of his armour ?

IT cannot be denied, that ACHILLES fell during the fiege j
and it is evident the Greeks muft have been lefs able to take
the town, after this and their other lofles, than before. Ac-
cordingly it is admitted by HOMER and his followers, that they
did not take it by force, but it is pretended they took it by ftra-
tagem. HOMER'S account of which, is precifely as follows f:
EPEUS made a wooden horfe, into which ULYSSES and the Gre-
cian chiefs -went with a body of troops ; the reft of the Greeks
burnt their tents, and fet fail. Upon this, the Trojans came
down, and, along with them, HELEN. She, attended by DEI-
PHOBUS, went three times round the horfe, calling each of the
Grecian leaders by his name, and mimicking the voice of his
wife. This made them all, except ULYSSES, defirous to get out,
or return an anfwer ; but he reftrained them, and clapped his
hand oh the mouth of one of them, who was more eager to fpeak
than the reft, and kept him gagged in that manner till HELEN
retired. The Trojans then drew up the machine to their citadel,
and held a confultation as to what they mould do with it. Some
were for cutting it up ; fome for precipitating it from the rock;,
but others thought it ought to be allowed to remain as a propi-
tiatory figure. This laft opinion prevailed, and the Greeks came

- out

* II. xvi. 140, •}• Odyff. viii. 500.5 iv. 271. .

By the G R E E K S. 59

out of it, and, after an obftinate ftruggle, vanquifhed the Tro-
jans, and plundered the town.

THE abfurdity of all this is too grofs and glaring to need re-
futation. VIRGIL faw well the objections to which it is liable,
and, to obviate them, has flrained his invention to the utmoft,
but in vain. According to him, this horfe was huge as a moun-
tain*; and it was necefTary it mould, as it was to contain an
army in its belly. It fell to the lot of ULYSSES, MENELAUS,
NEOPTOLEMUS, the maker EPEUS, and five other leaders, to en-
ter this machine ; which they did, with a body of armed men
that filled it. The reft of the Greeks failed to Tenedos, which
was in fight f, and there hid% themfelves on the defart more.
The Trojans, thinking them gone for good, came down, and
confulted about the difpofal of the horfe, as in HOMER. But
upon LAOCOON, who oppofed its introduction into the city, be-
ing devoured by two ferpents, they put wheels to its feet, and
ropes to its neck, and drew it up to the town, through a breach
made on purpofe in the wall. The Greeks at Tenedos returned at
midnight, having the benefit of a bright moon-mine ; and thofe
in the horfe having defcended by means of a rope, opened the
gates to them, and the Trojans, being buried in fleep and wine,
were eafily maftered.

EVERY perfon who reads this with the leaft attention muft
perceive, that VIRGIL had better have couched the ftory in ge-
neral obfcure terms, as HOMER does. By being particular, in-
ftead of mending the matter, he makes it worfe ; and there is
one ftriking incongruity, into which it is aftonifhing he mould
have fallen. Tenedos, he fays, was in fight ; and, no doubt,
it was ; for its diftance from the Trojan fhore is but forty ftadia,
or five miles ; it was a bright moon-mine, and Troy flood on
a hill ; how then could a great army be hid from the Trojans
on a defart fhore ? At any rate, it is impoflible, that 1200 fhips
could be concealed from them. They muft have feen the fleet

h 2 at

* ./Eneid. ii. f In copfpe&u. \ Condunt.

60 T ROT not taken

at lead. If fo, it cannot be believed, that they would have
made a large breach in their wall, when the enemy was fo near.
But it would be improper to dwell longer here. Since the
town, it is admitted, was not taken by force, and fince the flra-
tagem by which it is alleged to have been taken is abfurd and
impracticable, the fair conclufion is, that it was not taken at
all, and that we mould have read the r.epulfe of the Greeks in
verfe, if time had not envied us the works of the poets of
Troy.

LET us now fee what happened, according to the Greek wri-
ters, after Troy was, as they pretend, taken and facked. If the
Greeks had been, in reality, victorious, it is natural to fuppofe
that they would have returned home in a body, in good order,
obferving due difcipline and obedience to their general. But,
inftead of doing fo, HOMER tells us *, that they quarrelled
among themfelves, differed about the courfe they mould fleer j
that fome went one way, fome another, and that feveral were
fhipwrecked.

BUT this is not all : If the Greeks had been, in reality, vic-
torious, thofe who returned would have been received as con-
querors, with open arms by their families, and with acclama-
tions by their fubjecls. But the re verfe of this confefledly hap-
pened. AGAMEMNON, their captain-general, upon his arrival,
was flain in his own houfe, by a villain who had debauched his
wife in his abfence. Would fuch have been his fate, had he ap-
peared at the head of an army of conquerors ? And not only was
he himfelf flain, but, according to HOMER, all thofe who return-
ed with him ; yet this exploit was performed, he fays, byyEcisTH us,
with no more than twenty men ; and he reigned feven years in
AGAMEMNON'S ftead f, till he was afTaffinated, in his turn, by
ORESTES. DIOMED was foon driven from his country, and
NEOPTOLEMUS from Peloponnefus ; and, according to the ac-
count of the former in VIRGIL, all who were concerned in the

expedition

* Odyff. iii. 136. f Ibid. iv. 530..

By the GREEKS. 61

expedition againft Troy were difperfed over the earth, and fuf-
fered every where remarkable hardfhips and diftrefs,

F"<?/PRIAMO miferanda mantis JEn. xi. 259.

THE wretched fituation in which ULYSSES found his affairs
at home is defcribed, at great length, in the Odyfley, by HOMER
himfelf. But unlefs it had been well underftood, that the af-
fairs of the Greeks before Troy were defperate, no fet of men
would have dared to have pofTefled themfelves of his hotife, in-
fulted his wife, and devoured his fubftance, as he could have re-
turned and puniflied them in a few days ; for we learn from
HOMER * and HERODOTUS f, that the paflage from Troy to
Pthia and Sparta could be performed in three days, and Ithaca
was not much further off.

ON the other hand, let us take a view of what (it is fuppofed)
happened to fome of the Trojans after the pretended capture
and deftru(flion of their town. J£NEAS failed with twenty
{hips, and a great number of people, to Italy, where he obtain-
ed a very good fettlement indeed, for himfelf and his follow-
ers. So did ANTENOR ; and, what is ftill more wonderful, HE-
LENUS goes and occupies a part of Greece, eftablifhing himfelf
in Epirus. It certainly never was before heard of, that a con-
quered people fent out colonies to take pofleffion of part of the,
country of its conquerors J.

I COULD offer many more circumflances and confiderations
in fupport of my propofition, partly from CHRYSOSTOM, (whofe
excellent diflertation I have, by no means, exhaufted) and part-

iy

* II. ix. 663. f Lib. ii. c. 117.

J SUCH is the account given by VIRGIL, DIONTSIUS HALICARN. and others ; and it is-
generally followed. But it muft be obferved, that HOMER fays nothing of HELENUS'S fet-
dement in Epirus, or of ^.NEAS'S in Italy. On the contrary, he fays, that JEnsAS and
his defendants reigned over the Trojans. See Iliad, and WOOD'S Life of HOMER.
This, however, feems as little reconcilable to the Greek account of the capture of the
city as the other.

62 -yj? 0 T not taken, fcfc.

ly from what I have noted myfelf in the courfe of my re-
fearches on this queftion j but, were I to do fo, this paper
would fwell to a treatife : Befides, I have faid enough, I ima-
gine, to undeceive men as to this matter ; at leaft, enough to
make them think upon it with attention and impartiality j
which, if they do, I have no doubt that they will very foon un-
deceive themfelves.

To conclude : As it is a matter of indifference to us now-a-
days, whether the Greeks or Trojans prevailed, there is no rea-
fon why the foregoing argument mould be read with diflike or
regret : On the contrary, it is the favourable fide of the que-
ftion j for, if it leflens ACHILLES, who had nothing but per-
fonal courage and ftrength to recommend him, it exalts HEC-
TOR, whom his enemies admitted to be the bed and braveft
man of his nation ; and, above all, it does juftice to HELEN,
the fineft woman of antiquity, by reftoring to her that charac-
ter of which poetic calumny has too long deprived her.

Fortunati ambo ! ft quid mea carmina poffunt. JEn. ix. 446.

III.

III. An ODE on the POPULAR SUPERSTITIONS of the
HIGHLANDS of SCOTLAND, confidered as the SubjecJ of
Poetry. Written by the late Mr WILLIAM. COLLINS: And
communicated to the R o Y A L SOCIETY of EDINBURGH , by
ALEXANDER CARLTLE, D. D. F. R. S. EDIN. Minijler of
] N VERESK, and Chaplain in ordinary to his M A j E s T Y.

INTRODUCTION TO THE POEM.

AT a meeting of the Literary Clafs of the Royal Society, held
on Monday igth April 1784, the .Reverend Dr CAR-
LYLE read an ode, written by the late Mr WILLIAM COLLINS,
and addreffed to JOHN HOME, Efq; (author of DOUGLAS,
£sV.) on his return to Scotland in 1749. The committee ap-
pointed to fuperintend the publication of the Society's Tranf-
aclions, having judged this ode to be extremely deferving of a
place in that collection, requeftedMr ALEX. FRASERTYTLER, one
of their number, to procure from Dr CARLYLE every degree of
information which he could give concerning it. This informa-
tion, which forms a proper introduction to the poem itfelf, is
contained in the two following letters.

Mr ALEX. FRASER TYTLER to Mr JOHN ROBISON,
General Secretary of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.

Dear Sir,

AT the defire of the Committee for publifhing the Royal So-
ciety's Tranf actions, I wrote to Dr CARLYLE, requefting of him
an account of all fuch particulars regarding Mr COLLINS'S poem
as were known to him, and which were, in his opinion, proper
to be communicated to the public. I received from him the*

inclofed;

64 INTR ODUCTION to •

inclofed anfwer, and he tranfmitted to me, at the fame time,
the original manufcript in Mr COLLINS'S handwriting. It is
evidently the prlma cura of the poem, as you will perceive
from the alterations made in the manufcript, by deleting many
lines and words, and iubftituting others, which are written
above them. In particular, the greateft part of the twelfth
ftanza is new-modelled in that manner. Thefe variations I have
marked in notes on the copy which is inclofed, and I think
they mould be printed : For literary people are not indifferent
to information of this kind, which Ihews the progreflive im-
provement of a thought in the mind of a man of genius.

THIS ode is, beyond all doubt, the poem alluded to in the
life of COLLINS by JOHNSON, who, mentioning a vifit made
by Dr WARTON and his brother to the poet in his laft illnefs,
fays, " He {hewed them, at the fame time, an ode, infcribed to
" Mr JOHN HOME, on the fuperftitions of the Highlands,
" which they thought fuperior to his other works, but which
" no fearch has yet found." COLLINS himfelf, it appears from
this paffage,, had kept a copy of the poem, which, confidering
the unhappy circumftances that attended his laft illnefs, it is
no wonder was miflaid or loft ; and, but for that fortunate
hint given by JOHNSON, it appears from Dr CARLYLE'S letter,
that the original manufcript would, in all probability, have un-
dergone the fame fate.

STRUCK with the fingular beauty of this poem, of which, I
believe, no man of tafte will fay that Dr WARTON and his bro-
ther have over-rated the merit, I could not help regretting the
mutilated form in which it appeared ; and, in talking on that
fubjecT; to my friend Mr HENRY MACKENZIE of the Exchequer,
(a gentleman well known to the literary world by many ingenious
productions) I propofed to him the tafk of fupplying the fifth
ftanza, and the half of the fixth, which were entirely loft.
How well he has executed that talk, the pxiblic will judge;
who, unlefs warned by the inverted commas that diftinguifh

the

An ODE of Mr COLLINS. 6j

the fupplemental verfes, would probably never have difcovered
the chafm. Several hemiftichs, and words left blank by Mr
COLLINS, had before been very happily fupplied by Dr CARLYLE.
Thefe are likewife marked by inverted commas. They are a
proof that this poem, as Dr CARLYLE has remarked, was ha-
ftily compofed ; but this circumftance evinces, at the fame time,
the vigour of the author's imagination, and the ready command
he poflefled of harmonious numbers.

I am, dear Sir,

Yours,

To ALEX. FRASER TYTLER, Efq;
S I R,

I SEND you inclofed the original manufcript of Mr COLUNS'S
poem, that, by comparing with it the copy which I read to
the Society, you may be able to anfwer moft of the queries put
to me by the Committee of the Royal Society.

THE manufcript is in Mr COLLINS'S handwriting, and fell
into my hands among the papers of a friend of mine and Mr
JOHN HOME'S, who died as long ago as the year 1754. Soon after I
found the poem, I fhewed it to Mr HOME, who told me that it had
been addrefled to him by Mr COLLINS, on his leaving London
in the year 1 749 : That it was haftily compofed and incorrect ;
but that he would one day find leifure to look it over with
care. Mr COLLINS and Mr HOME had been made acquainted
by Mr JOHN BARROW, (the cordial youth mentioned in the firft
ftanza), who had been, for fome time, at the univerfity of Edin-
burgh ; had been a volunteer, along with Mr HOME, in the
year 1746; had been taken prifoner with him at the battle of
Falkirk, and had efcaped, together with him and five or fix
other gentlemen, from the caftle of Down. Mr BARROW re-
fided in 1749 at Winchefter, where Mr COLLINS and Mr HOME

i were,

66 INTRODUCTION to an ODE of Mr COLLINS.

were, for a week or two, together on a vifit. Mr BARROW wag
paymafter in America, in the war that commenced in 1756, and
died in that country.

I THOUGHT no more of the poem, till a few years ago, when,
on reading Dr JOHNSON'S life of COLLINS, I conjectured that
it might be the very copy of verfes which he mentions, which
he fays was much prized by fome of his friends, and for the
lofs of which he exprefles regret. I fought for it among my
papers ; and perceiving that a flanza and a half were wanting,
I made the moft diligent fearch I could for them, but in vain.
Whether or not this great chafm was in the poem when it firfl
came into my hands, is more than I can remember, at this di-
fiance of time.

As a curious and valuable fragment, I thought it could not
appear with more advantage than in the Collection of the Royal
Society.

I am, Sir,

Your moft obedient fervant,

I

ALEX. CARLYLE.

An ODE on the POPULAR SUPERSTITIONS g/"/^ HIGH-
LANDS o/*ScoTLAND, confider'ed as the Subjett of Poetry.

I.
H , thou return'ft from Thames, whofe Naiads long

Have feen thee ling'ring, with a fond delay,
Mid thofe foft friends, whofe hearts, fome future day,

Shall melt, perhaps, to hear thy tragic fong.
Go, not unmindful of that cordial youth *,

Whom, long endear'd, thou leav'ft by Lavant's fide ;
Together let us wifh him lading truth,

And joy untainted with his deftin'd bride.
Go ! nor regardlefs, while thefe numbers boaft

My fhort-liv'd blifs, forget my focial name ;
But think far off how, on the fouthern coaft,

I met thy friendfliip with an equal flame !
Frefh to that foil thou turn'ft, whofe ev'ry vale

Shall prompt the poet, and his fong demand :
To thee thy copious fubjecls ne'er mall fail ',

Thou need'ft but take the pencil to thy hand,
And paint what all believe who own thy genial land.

II.

THERE muft thou wake perforce thy Doric quill,
'Tis Fancy's land to which thou fett'ft thy feet >
Where flill, 'tis faid, the fairy people meet

Beneath each birken fhade on mead or hill.
There each trim lafs that fkims the milky (lore
To the fwart tribes their creamy bowl allots ;

* 2 By

* See the preceding letter from Dr CARLTLE.

68 ODE on the POPULAR SUPERSTITIONS of

By night they fip it round the cottage-door,

While airy minftrels warble jocund notes.
There every herd, by fad experience, knows

How, wing'd with fate, their elf-£hot arrows fly ;
When the fick ewe her fummer food foregoes,

Or, ftretch'd on earth, the heart-fmit heifers lie.
Such airy beings awe th' untutor'd fwain :

Nor thou, though learn'd, his homelier thoughts neglect j
Let thy fweet mufe the rural faith fuftain :

Thefe are the themes of fimple, fure effecl:,
That add new conquefls to her boundlefs reign,
And fill, with double force, her heart-commanding ftrain.

III.

EV'N yet preferv'd, how often may'ft thou hear,

Where to the pole the Boreal mountains run,
Taught by the father to his lift'ning fon

Strange lays, whofe power had charm'd a SPENCER'S ear.
At ev'ry paufe, before thy mind pofleft,

Old RUNIC bards (hall feem to rife around,
With uncouth lyres, in many-coloured veil,

Their matted hair with boughs fantaftic crown'd :
Whether thoxi bid'ft the well-taught hind repeat *

The choral dirge that mourns fome chieftain brave,.
When ev'ry fhrieking maid her bofom beat,

And ftrew'd with choiceft herbs his fcented grave ^
Or whether, fitting in the fliepherd's fhiel f,

Thou hear'ft fome founding tale of war's alarms ;
When^ at the bugle's call, with fire and fteel,

The fturdy clans pour'd forth their bony fwarms,
And hoflile brothers met to prove each other's arms.

'Tis

* Firft written, relate.

f A kind of hut, built for a fummtr habitation to the herdfmen, when the cattle are
Tent to graze in diftant failures.

The HIGHLANDS of SCOTLAND. 69

IV.

'Tis thine to fing, how framing hideous fpells

In SKY'S lone ifle the gifted wizzard " fits *,"
' Waiting in" wintry cave " his wayward fits f ;"

Or in the depth :£ of UIST'S dark forefts dwells :
How they, whofe fight fuch dreary dreams engrofs,

With their own vifions oft aftonifti'd § droop,
When o'er the wat'ry ftrath or quaggy mofs

They fee the gliding ghofts unbodied troop.
Or if in fports, or on the feftive green,

Their " piercing || " glance fome fated youth defcry,
Who, now perhaps in lufty vigour feen

And rofy health, {hall foon lamented die.
For them the viewlefs forms of air obey

Their bidding heed * *, and at their beck repair.
They know what fpirit brews the ftormful day,

And heartlefs, oft like moody madnefs ftare
To fee the phantom train their fecret work prepare*

V.

1 1 " OR on fome bellying rock that fhades the deep,

" They view the lurid figns that crofs the fky,
" Where, in the weft, the brooding tempefts lie,

1 And hear their firft, faint, milling pennons fweep.
! Or in the arched cave, where deep and dark

The broad, unbroken billows heave and fwell,

" lit

* COLLINS had written, feer.

•J- COLLINS had written, Lodg'd in the wintry cave with and had left the line" im-

perfed : Altered and the chafin fupplied by Dr CARLYLE.
J Firft written, gloom.
\ Firft written, afflitted.
|| A blank in the manufcript. The word piercing fupplied by Dr CARLYLE.

* * Firft written, mar}.

t f A leaf of the manufcript, containing the fifth ftanza, and one half of the fixth, is
here loft. The chafm is fupplied by Mr MACKENZIE.

70 ODE on the POPULAR SUPERSTITIONS of

' In horrid mufings rapt, they fit to mark

The labouring moon ; or lift the nightly yell
' Of that dread fpirit, whofe gigantic form

The feer's entranced eye can well furvey,
Through the dim air who guides the driving ftorm,
" And points the wretched bark its deftin'd prey.
' Or him who hovers, on his flagging wing,

' O'er the dire whirlpool, that, in ocean's wafte,
" Draws inftant down whate'er devoted thing

The failing breeze within its reach hath plac'd —
" The diftant feaman hears, and flies with trembling hafte.

VI.

1 OR, if on land the fiend exerts his fway,

' Silent he broods o'er quickfand, bog, or fen,
' Far from the melt' ring roof and haunts of men,
When witched darknefs {huts the eye of day,
' And Ihrouds each ftar that wont to cheer the night ;
' Or, if the drifted fnow perplex the way,
With treach'rous gleam he lures the fated wight,
" And leads him floundering on, and quite aftray."
What though far off, from fome dark dell efpied

His glimm'ring mazes cheer th' excurfive fight,
Yet turn, ye wand'rers, turn your fteps aiide,

Nor truft the guidance of that faithlefs light ;
For watchful, lurking 'mid th' unruftling reed,
At thofe mirk * hours the wily monfter lies,
And liftens oft to hear the pafling fleed,

And frequent round him rolls his fullen eyes,
If chance his favage wrath may fome weak wretch furprife.

VII.

AH, lucklefs fwain, o'er all unbleft indeed !
Whom late bewilder'd in the dank, dark fen,

Far

* Firft written, fad.

The HIGHLANDS of SCOTLAND: 71

Far from his flocks and fmoking hamlet then !

To that fad fpot " his wayward fate {hall lead * :"
On him enrag'd, the fiend, in angry mood,

Shall never look with pity's kind concern,
But inftant, furious, raife the whelming flood

O'er its drown'd bank, forbidding all return.
Or, if he meditate his wifh'd efcape

To fome dim hill that feems uprifing near,
To his faint eye the grim and grifly fhape,

In all its terrors clad, fhall wild appear.
Meantime, the wat'ry furge fhall round him rife,

Pour'd fudden forth from ev'ry fwelling fource.
What now remains but tears and hopelefs fighs ?

His fear-fhook limbs have loft their youthly force,
And down the waves he floats, a pale and breathlefs corfe.

VIII.

FOR him, in vain, his anxious wife mall wait,

Or wander forth to meet him on his way j
For him, in vain, at to-fall of the day,

His babes fhall linger at th' unclofing "f gate.
Ah, ne'er fhall he return ! Alone, if night

Her travell'd limbs in broken flumbers fteep,
With dropping willows dreft, his mournful fprite

Shall vifit fad, perchance, her filent fleep :
Then he, perhaps, with moift and wat'ry hand,

Shall fondly feem to prefs her fhudd'ring cheek J,
And with his blue fwoln face before her fland,

And, fhiv'ring cold, thefe piteous accents fpeak :
Purfue || , dear wife, thy daily toils purfue

At dawn or dufk, induftrious as before ;

Nor

* A blank in the manufcript. The line filled up by Dr CARLTLE.
•f- Firft written, cottage.

J Firft written, Shall feem to prefs her cold and Jhudd' ring cheek.
| Firft written, proceed.

72 ODE on the POPULAR SUPERSTITIONS of

Nor e'er of me one haplefs thought renew,

While I lie welt'ring on the ozier'd fhore,
JDrown'd by the KAELPIE'S * wrath, nor e'er fliall aid thee more!

IX.

UNBOUNDED is thy range ; with varied ftile

Thy mufe may, like thofe feath'ry tribes which fpring
From their rude rocks, extend her fldrting wing

Round the moid marge of each cold Hebrid ifle,
To that hoar pile which ftill its ruin mows "f ^

In whofe fmall vaults a pigmy-folk is found,
Whofe bones the delver with his fpade upthrows,

And culls them, wond1 ring, from the hallow' d ground!
Or thither where beneath the fliow'ry weft

The mighty kings of three fair realms are laid $ :
Once foes, perhaps, together now they reft.

No flaves revere them, and no wars invade :
Yet frequent now, at midnight's folemn hour,

The rifted mounds their yawning cells unfold,
And forth the monarch's ftalk with fov'reign pow'r

In pageant robes, and wreath'd with flieeny gold,
And on their twilight tombs aerial council hold.

BUT

* A name given in Scotland to a fuppofed fpirit of the waters.

f ON the largsft of the Flannan {/lands (ifles of the Hebrides) are the ruins of a chapel
dedicated to St FLANNAN. This is reckoned by the inhabitants of the Weftern Ifles a
place of uncommon fandtity. One of the Flannan iflands is termed the IJle of Pigmies ;
and MARTIN fays, there have been many fmall bones dug up here, reftmbling in mniia-
•ture thofe of the human body.

t THE ifland of lona or Icolrnkill. See MARTIN'S Defcription of the Weftern Iflands of
Scotland. That author informs us, that forty-eight kings of Scotland, four kings of Ire-
land, and five of Norway, were interred in the Church of St OURAN in that ifland. There
were two churches and two monasteries founded there by St COLUMBUS about^. D. 565.
BED. Hifl. Eccl. I. 5. COLLINS has taken all his information refpefting the Weftern
Ifles from MARTIN j from whom he may likewife have derived his knowledge of the po-
pular fuperftitions of .the Highlanders, with which this ode mows fo perfeft an ac-
quaintance.

The HIGHLANDS of SCOTLAND. 73

X.

BUT O ! o'er all, forget not KILDA'S race*,

On whofe bleak rocks, which brave the wafting tides,
Fair Nature's daughter, Virtue, yet abides.

Go, juft, as they , their blamelefs manners trace !
Then to my ear tranfmit fome gentle fong

Of thofe whofe lives are yet fincere and plain,
Their bounded walks the rugged cliffs along,

And all their profpect but the wintry main.
With fparing temp'rance, at the needful time,

They drain the fainted fpring, or, hunger-preft>
Along th' Atlantic rock undreading climb,

And of its eggs defpoil the Solan's neft.
Thus bleft in primal innocence they live,

Suffic'd and happy with that frugal fare
Which tafteful toil and hourly danger give.

Hard is their mallow foil, and bleak and bare j
Nor ever vernal bee was heard to murmur there !

XI.
NOR need'ft thou blufli, that fuch falfe themes engage-

Thy gentle mind, of fairer flores poffeft ',
For not alone they touch the village breaft,

But fill'd in elder time th' hiftoric page.
There SHAKESPEARE'S felf, with ev'ry garland crown'df,

In mufing hour, his wayward fillers found,
And with their terrors dreft the magic fcene.
From them he fung, when mid his bold defign,

Before the Scot afflicted and aghaft,.

h The

* The character of the inhabitants of St Kilda, as here defcribed, agrees perfectly with
the accounts given by MARTIN and by MACAULAY, of the people of that ifland- It is the
moil wefterly of all the Hebrides, and is above 130 miles diftant from the main land of
Scotland.

f THIS ftanza is more incorrect in its ftrufture than any of the foregoing. There is
apparently a line wanting between this and the fubfequent one, In mujtng hour^tt-c. The
deficient line ought to have rhymed with fcene.

74 ODE on the POPULAR SUPERSTITIONS of

I

The fhadowy kings of BANQUO'S fated line,
Through the dark cave in gleam y pageant pad.

Proceed, nor quit the tales which, fimply told,
Could once fo well my anfw'ring bofom pierce j

Proceed, in forceful founds and colours bold
The native legends of thy land rehearfe ;

To fuch adapt thy lyre and fuit thy powerful verfe.

XII.
IN fcenes like thefe, which, daring to depart

From fober truth, are ftill to nature true,
And call forth frefh delight to fancy's view,

Th' heroic mufe employed her TASSO'S art !
How have I trembled, when at TANCRED'S ftroke,

Its gufhing blood the gaping cyprefs pour'd ;
When each live plant with mortal accents fpoke,

And the wild blaft up-heav'd the vanifh'd fword * !
How have I fat, when pip'd the penfive wind,

To hear his harp, by Britifh FAIRFAX ftrung.
Prevailing poet, whofe undoubting mind

Believ'd the magic wonders which he fung !
Hence at each found imagination glows ;
Hence his warm lay with fofteft fweetnefs flows ;

Melting it flows, pure, num'rous, ftrong and clear,
And fills th' impaflion'd heart, and wins th' harmonious ear f.

ALL

* THESE four lines were originally written thus :

How have I trembled, -when, at TANCRED'S_/&^,

Like him IJla/i'd, and all his pajjlons felt ;
When charm' d by ISMEN, through the foreft wide,

Bark'd in each plant a talking fpirit dwelt !

•j- THESE lines were originally written thus :

Hence, fure to charm, his early numbers flow,

Though Jlrong, yet fweet

Though faithful, fuieet ; though Jlrong, of Jimple kind.

Hence, with each theme, fie bids the bofom glow,
While his warm lays an eafy pajjagejind,

Pour'd through each inmojl nerve, and lull tV harmonious ear*

The HIGHLANDS of SCOTLAND. 75

XIII.

ALL hail, ye fcenes that o'er my foul prevail,

Ye " fpacious *" friths and lakes which, far away,
Are by fmooth ANNAN fill'd, or pafVral TAY,

Or DON'S romantic fprings, at diflance, hail !
The time fhall come when I, perhaps, may tread

Your lowly glens, o'erhung with fpreading broom,
Or o'er your ftretching heaths by fancy led :

Then will I drefs once more the faded bow'r,
Where JOHNSON fat in DRUMMOND'S f " focial J" fhade,

Or crop from Tiviot's dale each " claffic flower,"
And mourn on Yarrow's banks " the widow'd maid||."
Meantime, ye Pow'rs, that on the plains which bore

The cordial youth, on LOTHIAN'S plains attend,
Where'er he dwell, on hill, or lowly muir,

To him I lofe, your kind protection lend,
And, touch'd with love like mine, preferve my abfent friend.

* A blank in the manufcript. The word fpacious fupplied by Dr CARLYLE.

\ BEN JOHNSON undertook a journey to Scotland a-foot in 1619, to vifit the poet
DRUMMOND, a{ his feat of Hawthornden, near Edinburgh. DRUMMOND has preferved in
his works, fome very curious heads of their converfation.

$ A blank in the manufcript. Social fupplied by Dr CARLYLE.

|j Both thefe lines left imperfect ; fupplied by Dr CARLYLE. This laftftanza bears more
marks of haftinefs of compofition than any of the reft. Befides the blanks which are
.fupplied by Dr CARLYLE, there is apparently an entire line wanting after the feventh
line of the fianza. The deficient line ought to have rhymed with broom.

k 2

IV. An ESSAY -upon the PRINCIPLES of HISTORICAL
COMPOSITION, with an Application of thofe Principles
to the Writings of TACITUS. By JOHN HILL, M. A.
F. R. S. ;EDIN. and ProfeJJor of Humanity in the Univerftty of
EDINBURGH.

PART I.

\Read by the Author, April 19. 1784.]

literary exertions put the author's abilities to a feverer
teft than the competition of hiftory. The poet may create
a fubjecl for himfelf, or he may adopt one that is bxit imper-
fectly known. In the competition of an epic poem, he indrafts
and pleafes by exhibiting fuch a train of actions as might have
taken place, and, unlefs he violates probability, his invention
may bid defiance to reftraint. If his work be imperfect, he has
himfelf to blame, as thofe very powers which give the form to
his fubjedl, gave it firft its exigence.

THE orator, again, is more clofely circumfcribed. Not only
is his fubjecl: known to have exifted, but its circumftances, if
not witnefled by his hearers, may, for certain, become matters
of proof. In fpite of every prejudice upon the part of his au-
dience, he profefTedly takes a fide. He is allowed to fuppofe,
that his opponents either are ignorant of certain facts, or are
viewing them in a falfe light. He applies the addrefs of elo-
quence to their fancy, and the force of argument to their rea-
foa ; and reckons every ftratagem fair by which he can correct
the errors that are involuntary, and confute thofe that are
feen.

THE

ESSAY upon the PRINCIPLES, &c. 77

THE hiftprian is in a fituation more trying, in certain re-
fpedls, than either the poet or the orator. He muft unite in-
duftry with genius, as by fevere labour alone, he has to learn
what his fubjeft is. He muft make the moft of a train of facts
too well eftablifhed to be altered, and the fources of his intel-
ligence are generally open to his readers. Having no prejudice
to combat, and no fide to fupport, he can hardly make the
weaknefs of his reader the tool of his addrefs. In the ftyle
of his narration, he muft exhibit a variety that will fuit the
meaneft, as well as the moft fplendid actions. Though he is
not allowed to fabricate, yet he is required to em'bellim. His
ornaments, by being the genuine, though the beft drefs of his
materials, muft fix the reader's attention, without mifleading
his judgment.

FROM the perception of truth with which hiftorical narration
is accompanied, it is of all kinds of writing the moft inftruc-
tive. Men liften more ferioufly to what they believe, than to
the moft exquifite fable which fancy can devife. The tale
pleafes by a temporary conviction of its truth; but though the
moral drawn from it be juft, yet the impreflion left behind is
eafily effaced.

HISTORY then is not only a nice, but a dignified fubject of
criticifm *. It prefents to the race which exi'fts, monuments of
the wifdom and the weaknefs of its forefathers. It demands no
reverence for its precepts, that is not founded upon a convic-
tion of their propriety. It imparts wifdom, without expofing
men to thofe evils which are its ordinary price ; and upon eve-
ry rock that proved fatal to early adventurers, it leaves a bea-
con for the fecurity of others.

IN order to eftat>lim a canon for judging of the merit of
every hiftorical work, we mail try to delineate thofe qualities
which mould predominate in the hiftorian's character. Let us

view

* PULCHRDM imprimis videtur, non pati occidere quibus seterahas debeatur, aliorum-
que famam cum fua extendere. PLIN. lib. 5. efi/l. 8,

78 ESSAY upon the PRINCIPLES

view his mind then in refpecl to Feeling, to Imagination, and
to Judgment ; and confider them as the leading powers to which
fubordinate ones are to be referred. The due union and the
due extent of thefe conflitutes that mental temperament, which,
by making beauty the vehicle of inftruclion, muft, at once,
pleafe the tafle and inform the underftanding.

IT may be thought, perhaps, that, as the three powers men-
tioned cannot be fuppofed requifite in the hiftorian alone, fa
no analyfis referring to them can be held truly defcriptive
of his character. All the fine arts, however, are clofely allied.
" Habent quoddam commune vinculum (fays CICERO), et quafi
' cognatione quadam inter fe continentur." Though the con-
ftituents of eminence be the fame in the whole, yet thefe are
highly diverfified by the applications and the balance required
in each. A flight difference in the leading powers of mind
forms all the variety which genius in the different arts exhibits.
If thofe principles then that are, at any time, adopted to form a
ftandard for juft execution in any one of them be not, in fome
degree, general, it may be held as certain that they are not
found.

BY feeling is to be underftood that nice fenfibility which
catches even the flighteft impreffion, and in which there fubfifts
a due proportion between the emotion and the caufe of its ex-
citement. Thofe characters of feeling that are adverfe to juft
execution in the works of tafle arife both from its deficiency
and its excefs. In the one cafe, nature has done too little, in
the other fhe has done too much. That calloufnefs which pro-
ceeds from the want of feeling excludes impreffions of which
others are confcious, and thofe falfe irritations which proceed
from its excefs fuggeft emotions which, by the fober, are deem-
ed unnatural, becaufe they were never felt by them. It is in
that juft medium, which is equally removed from the extremes
mentioned, that feeling becomes the inftrument of genius. The
mafterly execution of an able writer pleafes and even improves

that

Of HISTORICAL COMPOSITION. 79

that tafte, in which the balance is not delicate ; and the enjoyment
of the reader is jointly proportioned to the abfolute juftnefs of
the author's feelings, and to the correfpondence between them
and his own.

BY perceptions thus delicate, the hiftorian's character muft
be highly improved. His defcriptions muft be tender, as be-
ing founded on thofe nice circumftances that efcape an or-
dinary eye ; and though his fenfibility muft multiply the
grounds of defcription, yet the correctnefs of his feeling leads
him to fuch only as are juft. Hiftorical narration is more fre-
quently faulty from that bluntnefs of perception, by which the
minute qualities of objects are concealed, than from that defect
in judgment, by which the leaft proper are felected. The de-
tail often becomes prolix from the dulnefs of the writer. One
of true feeling adopts a concife energy, which reaches both the
heart and the underftanding. He permits his reader to pafs little
that is worthy of his notice, and he with-holds it from that on-
ly which is really beneath it.

FROM an hiftorian of this defcription a delicate fenfe of what
he owes to himfelf and to his reader is expected. If the ftrain
of his narration ceafes, at any time, to be dignified, it is to re-
move, by variety, what would otherwife become tirefome.
Quaint ornaments in his ftile he rejects as deformities. To the
approbation of the judicious, he cannot be fuppofed indifferent;
but he ftforns thofe condefcenfions with which the herd of
readers is pleafed*. A remark that is obvious and common
finds no place in his narration ; and, from a fenfe of perfonal
dignity, he would rather leave the more ignorant uninformed,
than difguft the difcerning. His fenfibility to every moral fen-
timent, not only detects the leaft fymptom of what is good or
bad in human conduct, but is accompanied with an immediate
approbation of the one and abhorrence of the other. He re-
cords

* INTELLIGES aftum hoc, ut tu fcires quid illi placeret, non ut ille placeret tibi.
SEN. Ep. 100.

So ESSAT upon the PRINCIPLES

cords the truth as he finds it,, without magnifying the virtues of
his friend,, or extenuating thofe of his enemy.

Though POLYBIUS repeatedly compares that hiflory in which
a due regard has not been paid to truth, to an animal without
eyes, yet the comparifon does, in reality, fuggefl Tefs than may
be affirmed *. An hiftorian without fidelity is worfe than ufe-
lefs ; he is injurious to mankind. Upon the credit of his nar-
ration, the happinefs of future generations may reft- By an er~
ror in point of fact, every philofopher may be mortified with
circumftances, which, by confuting his theory, limit his ufeful-
nefs, and impair his fame.. In fuch cafes,- however, the evil is
perfonal. If fociety remains unenlightened, it remains alfo un-
hurt j while, by an error in the hiflory of men, oppreflive efta-
blifhments may be formed, and the happinefs of nations de-
ftroyed.

JUST feeling, then, in the mind of an hiftorian is the bafis of
many excellencies. By means of it, his defcriptions become de-
licate, his narration interefling, his manner dignified, and his
fidelity unqueftionable.

BUT, befides an acute and judicious fenfe of things that exift,
a lively apprehenfion of fuch as are ideal is required of an hi'-
ftorian. The intimations of feeling carry along with them a
belief of the reality of their objects, while the fuggeftions of
fancy are accompanied with no fuch fentiment. If judgment is
required to correct that fenfibility which would otherwife be-
come feverim, it is fully as needful, to correct that vigour of
imagination, which, would end in extravagance.

FROM the feverity of thofe attentions to truth, which no good
hiftorian can facrifice, it may be underftood, perhaps, that ima-
gination is a power, which he ought rarely, if at all, to exert.
This, however,, is not the cafe. Imagination may be a dange-
rous

* 'On xaQxTif tyi^t^s tr*p«.ros -rut t^txn f%*tgf&i<ra> a%(t»iTt(i TO afar, «r*>s *£ Ifc£>tcs t»i etfii

Of HISTORICAL COMPOSITION. 81

rous inftrument in the hands of the unwary, but it is a power-
ful one in the hands of the judicious. He who relates thofe
great tranfactions, in which the paflions of men have been in-
terefted, muft enter into the fcenes which he defcribes, and muft
{peak the language of thofe who bore a part in them. A cold
narrative that is literally true would often be a falfe picture,
Expreffion, befides, is as fufceptible of modifications as the fenti-
ment to which it gives vent. During the influence of paffion,
figurative language indicates the degree of emotion excited in
the fpeaker, and ftimulates the hearer's feelings till they accord
with his own. Even the illiterate fuffer no delufion by that
play of fancy which gives energy to fpeech. They, as well as
the learned, inftinctively ftrip the animated conception of what
is adventitious, and interpret meaning with the moft precife ex-
act nefs.

ALTHOUGH the hiftorian, by the exertions of his fancy, may
often introduce ornament with advantage, yet he muft beware
of employing it to excefs. An impertinent profufion of beau-
ties tallies not with that dignity of manner which he mould af-
fume and maintain. It is either tfte fign of that flippant cha-
racter, which is beneath him, or it is the refource of one, con-
fcious of his own coldnefs, and borrowing from art the figns
of that animation which nature has denied him.

BUT imagination is of ufe to the hiftorian, not only when he
is heated with his fubject, and thereby led to adopt figurative
language, but alfb when he means to defcribe. The vivacity
of thofe conceptions which he is able to excite in others may
equal, but will never furpafs the vivacity of his own. By
means of fancy, he can feize the circumftance moft character-
iftic of each object. From a juft confcioufnefs of the laws of
aflbciation in his own mind, he difcovers what thefe fhould
be in thofe of others who have an equally correct tafte. By
laying hold of one or a few circumftances wifely, he may pro-
duce a very powerful effect. He may give exiftence to ani-
mated defcription, inftead of a lifelefs, becaufe a verbofe detail.

/ THIS

82 ESSAY upon the PRINCIPLES

THIS double ufe of imagination in the compofition of hifto-
ry is perfectly confiftent with the definition at firft given of that
power. There is always reality in the emotion excited by figu-
rative language; but, at fome times, there is none in the fubject
of it, and, at other times, the qualities of that fubject are not
perceived precifely as they exift. A defcription, too, if rigidly
interpreted according to the letter, would be virtually deftroyed.
Principles ftrictly logical are not to be applied to terms deno-
ting an exertion of fancy \ becaufe they carry along with them
more or lefs latitude, according to the intention of the fpeaker
at the time. The aggregate of thefe terms fuggefts fome what
different from that which it naturally excites. It only begins
the picture which the fancy of the hearer muft complete, and
leaves that tafk to be performed by this delicate faculty, for
which the powers of expreflion fimply are unfit.

BY a fine imagination, then, the hiftorian's language acquires
energy, and his defcriptions livelinefs. The power may improve
his expreflion (we have found) without adulterating his matter.
It may, in fome inflances, be too ftrong, and, in others, too
weak. In either cafe, the feelings of the writer and the reader
may be in unifon, without hitting their due pitch; and the
high purpofes of language, as the inflrument of nice interpre"
tation, muft be thereby defeated.

IN die account already given of the powers of feeling and
imagination, a reference has been made to another one, whofe
province it is to control the exceffes of both. When the two
former are feeble, the perfon in whom this is the cafe, muft,
for ever, keep the rank which nature has afligned him. Na
provifion is made for multiplying the avenues by which percep-
tions can enter his mind, nor for increafing his power of form-
ing ideal combinations of fuch as do. By means of judgment,
however, luxuriance may be corrected, though deficiency can-
not be fupplied ; and fuch a balance may be eftablifhed among
the different powers, as will conftitute the perfection of each.

JUDGMENT

Of HISTORICAL COMPOSITION. 83

JUDGMENT ftands oppofed to feeling, as the operations of
the latter are prior in the order of nature ; the one pafling fen-
tence upon perceptions, which the other has previoufly furnifh-
ed. It ftands oppofed to imagination, as there is belief in the
reality both of the fubjecl and the decifion. Different, nay op-
pofite judgments may be formed of one thing ; but, if fimple
apprehenfions be different, their fubjecY cannot be the fame.

TRUE judgment enables men to difcern both the truth of
propofitions fairly dated, and the propriety of fentiment and
conduct in every particular inftance. As the hiftorian's judg-
ment is proved, not only by his reflections on the conduct of
others, but by what he does himfelf ; fo the fir ft indication of
the degree in which he pofTefTes this power is to be feen in his
choice of a fubject. The rule in HORACE is alike applicable to
writers of every kind :

Verfate diu^ quidferre recufent^

t^uid valeant humeri *.

Real abilities are generally accompanied with a juft notion of
their extent. This confcioufnefs, at the fame time, renders nei-
ther the pofleffor prefumptuous, nor the obferver jealous. True
difcernment deftroys every thing like arrogance in the former ;
and, where there is a clear fuperiority, men repine not at that
fubordination in talents which nature herfelf has eftablifhed.

ALTHOUGH the higheft abilities will make the moft of all
hiftorical fubjects, yet, among thefe, there is fuch a difference as
to give room for a judicious choice. Ordinary genius would be
foiled where the moft diftinguifhed can beft mew itfelf. The
difficulty of hiftorical fubjects depends upon the ftate of the
facts to be recorded. When thefe are of very ancient or of
very recent date, it tries the hiftorian's judgment, upon the one
hand, to diftinguifh the fpurious from the genuine, and to
make the moft of information that is perhaps but fcanty } and,
upon the other, to fhun the odium of parties, without negledl-

/ 2 ing

* HOR. de Arte Poetics, v. 39.

84 ESS4T upon the PRINCIPLES

ing what he owes to himfelf *. He muft poflefs the fubtilty of
the politician, whofe tranfactions he relates, fo as to perceive the
intricacies of his character, and the mofl latent motives of his
conduct. If he does, he will draw the picture with exactnefs j.
if he does not, he muft miflead pofterity, for whofe benefit
chiefly he profeffes to write.

THE judgment exhibited in the choice of a fubject may be
held a fecurity for the diftinct arrangement of all its parts.

Cut lefla pot enter er'tt rett

Nee facundla defer et huncy nee lucidus or do.

When the hiftorian exhibits events that took place nearly at the
fame time in different places, the diftinctnefs of his detail muft
become manifeft as thefe multiply, and the difficulty of main^
taining a due unity in his fubject is thereby increafed. The
disjointed record of a journalift deferves not the appellation of
hiftory. That unity mentioned, too, is alike neceffary, whether
the fubject be a fingle tranfaction in one ftate, (fuch asCATiLiNE's
confpiracy), or the continued tranfactions of a nation.

THOUGH the cenfure of DIONYSIUS of Halicarnaffus upon
THUCYDIDES be fevere, it is not without foundation. In the
opinion of that great critic, the attention of the hiftorian cannot
be too much turned to this, ro n^viKun^ov f*fjo?, the nice ceconomy
and divifion of his fubject. For the want of due order, no
compenfation can be made, and every arrangement that breaks
the detail improperly, defeats the purpofe of all arrangement,
which is perfpicuity. The train of events recorded fhould be
precifely that which took place j and the connection between

caufes

* To tamen jam nunc cogita, quse potiflimum tempora aggrediar. Vetera et fcripta
aliis ? parata inquilitio fed onerofa collatio : Intadta et nova ? graves offenfae, levis gra-
tia. Nam prater id, quod in tain is vitiis hominum plura culpanda Turn, quam laudan-
da, turn fi laudaveris, parcus : Si culpaveris, nimius fuifle dicaris : Quamvis illud plenif-
time, hoc reftriclifiime feceris. EI.IN. lib. 5. ef. 8.

Of HISTORICAL COMPOSITION. 85

caufes and effects as difcernible in the hiftory as it before was
in the fcenes to which it refers. An hiflorian's bufinefs, ac-
cording to LUCIAN, is to relate things as they were done-*.
The reader's experience is thus increafed, as if he had been ac-
tually engaged in the affairs which he contemplates, and he be-
comes prepared for occurrences by which he would have been
otherwife embarrafTed \ .

THE hiflorian's impartiality, which is a quality of the higheft
importance, is always proportioned to the flrength of his judg-
ment. Fidelity and impartiality are fometimes confounded,
though the one is an attribute of the heart, and the other of the
underftanding. An hiftorian of fidelity never means to de-
ceive ; an hiftorian that is impartial is not apt to be deceived
by circumflances that relate either remotely or immediately to
himfelf. In the relations of the former, we look for what is
ftriclly true ; in thofe of the latter, for fuch a flate of facls as
exhibits no prejudices into which we and others are unable to
enter. We condemn the want of fidelity, as leading to a de-
figned violation of truth ; but we pity the weaknefs that would
miflead involuntarily, and is biafled by circumftances that are
purely perfonal. LUCIAN reqxiires of the hiftorian to diveft
himfelf of every poflible ground of partiality ; " to have the in-
" difference of a ftranger in judging of his own works ; to be of
" no ftate ; to form his own laws ; to acknowledge no king, and
;< to fpeak the truth without regard to the opinion of parties J."

BUT judgmeiit not only divefts the hiftorian of any unjuftifi-
able attachment to what concerns himfelf, but enables him to
fee even indifferent objecls in their true light. By means of
this, he is difpofed neither to depreciate what is really important,
nor to over-rate what is really mean. In examining the proba-
bility

* Ts 2u 'Zvyy^otlfw; tf/ev it, us ar^a^v nirnt.

•J- OCCASIONES autem redeunt in orbem, et quod olim erat cornmodum rurfus adhiberi-
et prodtfTe poteft. BACON di siug. Scient. lib. 2. c. 12.

{, xx J awoAic, «t/TO»0(*o;j iSa<rlA£i/To;3 a TI ra$i n
at St> If of.

86 ESSAY upon the PRINCIPLES

bility of dubious events, ha is not fo credulous as to acquiefce
in flight evidence, nor does he flubbornly reject fuch as fliould
convince him. His mind, like a faithful mirror, reflects every
thing precifely as it is feen. As his facts are genuine, fo his ob-
fervations will be pertinent. Knowing, alfo, that men refufe
the praife that is too eagerly courted, he will introduce his own
remarks with caution, and will chufe rather to furprife with
depth in the body of his detail, than to difappoint expectations
that he had formally fummoned. My Lord BACON'S obferva-
tion upon this part of the character of an hiflorian is judicious
and happily exprefled : " Licet enim hifloria quaeque prudentior
; politicis praeceptis et monitis veluti impregnata fit, tamen
' fcriptor ipfe fibi obfletricari non debet*."

JUDGMENT, then, in the mind of an hiflorian, befides giving
the other powers their due value, is itfelf the foundation of ma-
ny capital qualities. It enables him to chufe and to arrange his
fubject, fo as to do moft juflice to his own abilities, and to give
mofl inflruction to his reader. It fecures the fairnefs of his de-
cifions, in fpite of thofe perfonal connections with which mofl
men are blinded. It fuppofes fagacity in his opinions as to
pafl things that are doubtful, and future things that are con-
tingent. While it makes him view objects as they are, and fe-
cures his reader againfl the impertinence of obfervations that
are either trifling or mifplaced, it >eprefles the weak vanity that
leflens the merit which it means to exaggerate.

To one or other of the three powers, of feeling, of imagina-
tion, or of judgment, (it fliould feem), all the qualities of a
great hiflorian are to be referred. Induflry and preliminary in-
formation hare been allowed to be neceflary ; but thefe tend
only to do juflice to thofe primary powers. Nothing has been
faid as to the principle of tafle ; becaufe, according to the ob-
fervation of the ingenious author of The eflay xipon the fub-
lime and beautiful, this is, in reality, no diflinct power, but is
the refult of the whole of the powers fpecified when combined.

The

* BACON de Aug. Scient. 1. 2. c. 10.

Of HISTORICAL COMPOSITION. 87

The characters of an author's ftyle, too, are fixed by thofe of his
mind. It is delicate, lively and accurate, according to his fen-
fibility, his fancy, and his judgment j and its comparative ex-
cellence is determined by the abfolute ftrength of each power,
and the general balance that fubfifts among the whole.

AFTER attempting to eftablifh a ftanclard, by which the me-
rit of any hiftorical work is to be tried, I mean now to apply
it particularly to the writings of TACITUS. In doing fo, I pro-
pof e to give examples that will indicate the ftrength of the three
powers dated, taken feparately, and in the order in which they
have been defined. After contemplating certain inftances, in
which our author's fuperiority, with refpecl to each, will be evi-
dent, others may perhaps be fuggefted, in which his greateft
admirers cannot free him from cenfure.

THOUGH it is difficult to determine which of the three
powers mentioned predominated in the mind of TACITUS ', yet,
from the nature of his fubjeds, his fenfibility was often exer-
cifed in an uncommon degree. Inftances of this are fo nu-
merous, that we muft felect a few only of the moft ftriking.
Let us take that of the death of GERMANICUS, and of the ftate
of his widow AGRIPPINA, in the end of the fecond and begin-
ning of the third book of the Annals.

THE fituation of GERMANICUS, juft before his death, (it muft
be remembered), was fingular. He had long been the favourite
of the Romans, on account of the agreeablenefs of his man-
ners, and the high military character that he had acquired at a
very early period of life. He was the adopted fon of TIBERIUS,
who, having become jealous of his popularity, had called him
from the conqueft of Germany, which he had nearly comple-
ted. He was difmiffed from Rome, under pretence of fettling
certain differences in the eaft. His conduct there was invidi-
oufly watched by Piso, the governor of Syria, who was in the
emperor's confidence. He was certain, when upon his death-
bed, that he had been poifoned by Piso ; and, while he com-
plains

88 ESS4T upon the PR INCIPL E S

plains of the hardnefs of his fate, he conjures the friends who
flood around him to avenge his injuries. " Non hoc prseci-
" puum amicorum munus eft, profequi defunctum ignavo
" queflu ; fed quae voluerit meminifTe, quas mandaverit exfe-
" qui. Flebunt GERMANICUM etiam ignoti : vindicabitis vos,
" fi me potius quam fortunam meam fovebatis. Oftendite po-
" pulo Romano Divi AUGUSTI neptem, eandemque conjugem
' meam : numerate fex liberos. Mifericordia cum accufanti-
" bus erit: Fingentibufque fcelefta mandata, aut non credent
' homines, aut non ignofcent."

OUR author's defcription is not lefs delicate in the cafe of
AGRIPPINA going on board a fhip for Rome, furrounded with
her children, and carrying the afhes of her hufband. The fight
of this feems to have affected the Spectators deeply, and the de-
fcription is not lefs moving than the fpectacle. ; Miferan-
" tibus cunctis quod femina nobilitate princeps pulcherrimo
" modo matrimonio inter venerantis gratantifque afpici folita,
" tune feralis reliquias finu ferret, incerta uhionis, anxia fui
" et infelici fecunditate fortunse toties obnoxia." This laft cir-
cumftance is very happily laidliold of. The number of AGRIP-
PINA'S children, which was once a blefling, had now become
a curfe. It only enlarged the mark at which the father of her
hufband was to direct his malice.

UPON her approach to the coaft of Italy, another fcene pre-
fents itfelf, equally affecting, from the unfeigned fympathy
of the fpectators, and the deep grief of AGRIPPINA herfelf.
" Atque ubi primum ex alto vifa clams, complentur non mo-
*' do portus et proxima maris, fed mcenia, ac tecta, quaque
" longiffime profpectari poterat, mcerentium turba, et rogitan-
tium inter fe, " Silentione an voce aliqua egredientem exci-
perent." Neque fatis conftabat quid pro tempore foret : Cum
clams paulatim fucceflit, non alacri ut adfolet remigio ; fed
cunctis ad triftitiam compofids. Poftquam duobus cum li-
beris feralem urnam tenens egrefTa navi, defixit oculos ; idem

" omnium

'

Of HISTORICAL COMPOSITION. 89

" omnium gemitus, neque difcerneres proximos, alienos, viro-
" rum feminarumve planclus : Nifi quod comitatum AGRIPPIN.&
" longo moerore fefTum, obvii et recentes indolore anteibant."

THE death of Or HO, in the 48th chapter of the fecond book
of the hiftory, prefents another fcene, in which the delicacy of
our author's feelings is manifeft. In both cafes, by a previous
narration, in which the art of the writer is judicioufly conceal-
ed, he prepares the reader completely for thofe flrokes in
which his genius is to break forth. OTHO, after the defeat of
his army, is reprefented as defpairing of future fuccefs, and as
having formed the refolution of putting an end to his exiftence.
He announces this refolution to his friends, with fuch art, as
at once to maintain his own dignity, and to move their compaf-
fion. He reproves his nephew SALVIUS COCCEIANUS for dread-
ing the vengeance of VITELLIUS, upon whofe generofity (he
thought) he might throw himfelf with confidence ; and finimes
his advice thus : " Proinde erec"lo animo capefTeret vitam, neu
" patruumfibi OTHONEM fuiffe, aut oblivifceretur unquam, aut
" nimium memtniiTet."

THE exhortation of ^ENE AS to his fon ASCANIUS has been
much admired : .

Et te animo repetentem exempla tuorum,

Et pater ^ENEAS et avunculus excltet HECTOR*.

IN point of delicacy, in a fimilar fituation however, the hifto-
rian has got beyond the poet. By the ufe of the adverb nimiutn,
OTHO not only fugg efts to COCCEIANUS what the world would ex-
peel from him as his relation, but delicately infinuates, that the
remembrance of the xincle's virtues would furnifh no apology
for the nephew's defecls.

THE ftrength of feeling exhibited by TACITUS always keeps
pace with the trying circumftances in which his characters are
placed. Of this we have a ftriking example in the account
given of the trial of SORANUS and his daughter SERVILIA, in

m the

* VIRG. JEo. xii. 439.

90 ESSAT upon the PRINCIPLES

the 30th chapter of the i6th book of the Annals. During the
many unjuil profecutions under NERO, SORANUS was accufed
of intimacy with RUBELLIUS PLAUTUS, who had been banim-
ed, and alfo of mifbehaviour as a proconful. His daughter,
from (Irong affection to her injured father, had fold her clothes
and jewels, in order to confult the magicians as to the event of
his trial. On this account, the, too, was ordered to appear be-
fore the fenate. " Igitur accita eft in fenatum, fteteruntque di-
' verfi ante tribunal confulum, grandis aevo parens ; contra fi-
' lia intra vicenmum setatis annum, nuper marito ANNIO POL-
' LIONE in exilium pulfo, viduata defolataqxie : Ac ne patrem
' quidem intuens, cujus onerafTe pericula videbatur. Turn in-
' terrogante accufatore, an cultus dotales, an detraclum cervici
' monile venum dediiTet quo pecuniam faciendis magicis facris
( contraheret ? Primum ftrata humi, longoque fletu et filentio,
' poft altaria et aram complexa ; " Nullos, inquit, impios deos,
1 nullas devotiones, nee aliud infelicibus precibus invocavi,
' quam ut hunc optimum patrem, tu CJESAR, et vos Patres fer-
' varetis incolumem. Sic gemmas et veftes et dignitatis infignia
' dedi, quomodo fi fangtiinem et vitam popofciflent. Viderint
ifti, antehac mihi ignoti, quo nomine fint, qxias artes exerce-
ant : Nulla mihi principis mentio, nifi inter numina fait.
1 Nefcit tamen miferrimus pater: Et fi crimen eft, fola deliqui."
' Loquentis adhuc verba excipit SORANUS proclamatque, " Non
' illam in provinciam fecum profeclam, non PL AUTO per setatem
' nofci poruiffe ; non criminibus mariti connexam ; nimis tan-
' turn pietatis ream, fepararent a fe quamcunque fortem fubi-
" ret." Simul in amplexus occurrentis filiae ruebat, nifi inter-
1 jecli liclores utrifque obftitiflent."

A BEAUTIFUL conteft is here prefented between the ftrong-
eft parental and filial attachments. The defcription is the lan-
guage of nature throughout. Every circumftance is carried its
due length, without bordering upon extravagance. No tragic
poet, whofe fancy is allowed a latitude which is denied the hi-

ftorian,

Of HISTORICAL COMPOSITION. gi

ftorian, could exhibit even the fcene he had created, with more
exquifite delicacy than TACITUS defcribes this that had actually
taken place.

BUT the fine'Hfeelmg of our author is apparent, not only upon
fuch gloomy and fuch trying occafions as thofe mentioned, but
in the more ordinary tranfactions of life. When HORTALUS,
a defcendant of the great HORTENSIUS, applied to the fenate, as
mentioned in the 38th chapter of the 2d book of the Annals, for
an allowance to enable him to rear that family, which, at the
command of AUGUSTUS, he had procreated, even the fervile
fenators were mocked with TIBERIUS'S refufal. The emperor
perceiving this, agreed to give a paultry donative to his male
children. Some of the fenators indeed exprefled their thankful-
nefs ; but HORTALUS was filent. " Egere alii grates ; filuit HOR-
" TALUS, pavore, an avitae nobilitatis etiam inter anguftias for-
! tunae retinens." This lad conjecture, as to the caufe of
HORTALUS'S ulence, could be formed only by a perfon delicately
fenfible of what was due to himfelf. More than fufficient vio-
lence had been done to the feelings of HORTALUS, when he con-
/fefled his poverty and begged relief. The niggardly behaviour
of TIBERIUS gave him a right to infult the emperor, and, by
an expreflive filence, to tell him, in the face of his fenate, that
though he had been forced to implore his bounty, yet he de-
fpifed his character.

That TACITUS was a ftrictly moral writer, and expreffed, at
all times, the ftrongeft love of virtue and deteflation of vice, is
evident throughout his works. A fenfe of his duty as an hifto-
rian feems often to have forced him to relate what he would
have wimed to conceal. He appears to feel for thofe miferies
of others, which, as a rigid moralift, he allows to be the juft
confequence of their vices. In the 6th chapter of the 6th book
of his Annals, he defcribes TIBERIUS as completely wretched,
and agrees with SOCRATES as to the caufe of this unhappinefs.
'* Neque fruftra praeftantiffimus fapientiae firmare folitus eft, fi

m 2 " recludantur

92 ESSAY upon the PRINCIPLES

' recludantur tyrannorum mentes, pofTe afpici laniatus et idlus ;
' quando Ut corpora verberibus, ita faevitia, libidine, mails con-
' fultis animus dilaceretur. Quippe TIBERIUM, non fortuna
' non folitudines protegebant, quin tormenta pecloris fuafque
1 ipfe poenas fateretur."

THE high independence of fpirit pofTefled by TACITUS, may
be inferred from what he fays both of himfelf and of others.
In the 63d chapter of the ad book of the Annals, he condemns
MAROBODUUS for continuing in exiftence as the prifoner of
TIBERIUS. " Confenuitque multum imminuta claritate, ob
" nimiam vivendi cupidinem."

THIS fame independent fpirit is fometimes feen conjoined
with his love of truth. As the reign of NERO was not very
diflant from the times in which he wrote, of courfe, by attack-
ing the fervility of the fenate, he muft have offended many peo-
ple of the firft rank. Their difpleafure, however, he defpifed,
when put in competition with his own honour and veracity.
" Neque tamen filebimus, fi quod fenatufconfultum adulatione
" novum aut patientia extremum fuit*."

FROM the inftances quoted, it appears, that TACITUS pof-
fefled, in no ordinary degree, thofe qualities of an hiftorian,
that are dependent upon feeling. Few circumftances, from
their minutenefs, could efcape his obfervation. He felt ftrong-
ly the fined emotions, which the mofl trying lituations of his
characters could excite. He was, at all times, the friend of
virtue. A regard for poflerity feems chiefly to have prompted
him to exert his powers as an hiftorian ; and, 'from the fame
benevolent principle, he is always fcrupulcufly careful, not to
affirm with certainty when there could be the leaft reafon for
doubt.

THE power of imagination, as we obferved, enables the hifto-
rian to write with energy, by the proper ufe of figurative lan-
guage, and to felect thofe figures that are the fitted for defcrip-
tion. Upon examining the ftyle of TACITUS attentively, k

will

* Ann. 1. 4. c. 64., •

Of HISTORICAL COMPOSITION. 93

will appear, that he ufes figures more fparingly than is com-
monly imagined. Thovigh the general train of his narrative
be nervous, yet few parts of it are highly embelliihed. The
figures that he employs are ufed more frequently with a defiga
to explain his idea, than to annoxmce the ftrength of his emo-
tion ; and even when he has this laft purpofe in view, he often
employs interrogations, and fuch other modes of fpeech, as are
the ordinary language of paflion.

FROM the juftnefs of TACITUS'S discernment, his fimiles are
remarkably happy. They are, indeed, rarely,' but they are al-
ways judicioufly introduced. It is, in every inftance, clear,
that he had perceived the refemblance ftrongly and diftinctly him-
felf ; and, by making the allufion, fome good purpofe is complete-
ly ferved. Thus, to give a lively idea of the torpid indolence of
VITELLIUS, in the 36th chapter of the jd book of his Hiftory,,
he compares him to thofe lazy animals, which, when the calls of
nature are fatisfied, have no other object of defire. " Sed um-
1 braculis hortorum abditus, ut ignava animalia, quibus fi ci~
! bum fuggeras jacent torpentque ; praeterita, inftantia, futura
! pari oblivione dimiferat." The expreffion in the end of this
fentence is both bold and happy. The term dimiferat intimates,
a kind of activity even in the indulgence of floth ; and the term
obliviOy applied to the prefent and the future, infinuates, that
both perception and foreught were extinguimed, like the impref-
fions of memory when effaced.

ONE of the boldefl, and, at the fame time, one of the hap-
pier! figures to be found in TACITUS, is that at the end of his
life of AGRICOLA. It is, at once, an inftance of the profopo—
peia and the apoftrophe, as it fuppofes life in his father-in-law
who was dead, and gives prefence to a perfon who was abfent.
The high refpect entertained for the memory, and the deep
grief felt for the death of AGRICOLA, juftified the ufe of thefe.
bold figures ; and, as they are introduced with propriety, _,fo>
they are fupported. with the utmoft art. " Tu vero felix,

" AGRICOLA.

94 ESSAY upon the PRINCIPLES

' AGRICOLA non vitae tantum claritate, fed etiam opportunita-

' te mortis. Ut perhibent 'qui interfuerunt noviffimis fermo-

' nibus tuis, conftans et libens fatum excepifti, tanquam pro

" virili portione innocentiam principi donares. Sed mihi filias-

" que prseter acerbitatem parentis erepti, auget mceftitiam, quod

" aflidere valetudini, fovere deficientem, fatiari vultu, complexu,

" non contigit. ExcepifTemus certe mandata vocefque, quas

*' penitus animo figeremus. Nofter hie dolor, noftrum vulnus :

" Nobis tarn longaj abfentiae conditione ante quadriennium

" amiflus es. Omnia fine dubio, optime parentum, aflidente

" amantifTima uxore, fuperfuere honori tuo : Paucioribus tamen

' lacrymis compofitus es, et noviffima in luce defideravere ali-

" quid oculi tui."

THE delicacy, joined to the ftrength of painting, which is
difcernible in the pafTage now quoted, {hows fufficiently, that
though TACITUS employs figures feldom, yet his doing fo arifes
from no defect in his powers. The frequent ufe of thefe is, in
fact, a ftratagem to which writers of ordinary genius feel
themfelves driven. They wifh to borrow a device from art, to
conquer a barrier eftabliihed by nature. For a device of this
kind, TACITUS had no occafion. The ordinary train of his
narration is fufficiently animated to fummon and to retain his
reader's attention ; and, when he chufes to leave this train, he
knows perfectly how to rife with propriety, and to defcend
without falling.

THE inftances of fine defcription are fo numerous in TACI-
TUS, that it is not eafy to determine which ought to be fe-
lected. In all his attempts to defcribe, brevity is ftudied. When
he defcribes the plague at Rome, in the 1 3th chapter of the
1 6th book of his Annals, he employs a few fentences, but
each fentence is full of meaning. " Omne mortalium genus
" vis peftilentiae depopulabatur, nulla caeli intemperie quae oc-
" curreret oculis. Sed domus corporibus exanimis, itinera fu-
" neribus complebantur. Non fexus, non aetas periculo vacua.

" Servitia

Of HISTORICAL COMPOSITION. 95

" Servitia perinde ac ingenua plebes raptim extingxii, inter con-
" jugum et liberorum lamenta, qui dum amdent, dum deflent,
" fsepe eodem rogo cremabantur. Equitum fenatorumque inte-
" ritus, quamvis promifcui, minus flebiles erant, tanquam.com-
' muni mortalitate, faevitiam principis praevenirent."

THIS defcription we muft own to be inferior to that of the
plague at Athens by THUCYDIDES* But the Greek hiilorian (it
muft be remembered) had fuffered from the difeafe himfelf ',
had feen its direful effects, combined with thofe of war j and
had refolved to enumerate its fymptoms, for the benefit of po-
fterity, in the courfe of fix chapters. TACITUS means to relate
only what he had heard. He does not feem to have copied
THUCYDIDES ; though he, too, mentions, that numbers of car-
cafes lay neglected in private houfes, upon the ftreets, at the
fides of fountains, and in the temples. " 'o $»%&> t

' a\>.a xai i/ixjoi or aAXnXcif «,ir<tQtr,rxwr({ exiuro. xai ti> r»t( o^oi;

T»J TK VdKTOS tVtVVfMK. TOt, Tf I

irXix w, aura fvan-oSuKrxovTw* *."

LUCRETIUS, in the defcription he gives of the plague at the
end of his fixth book, has copied THUCYDIDES clofely, but
feems to have come fliort of the fimplicity and mafterly ele-
gance of the hiftorian.

THE iituation of OCTAVIA, after her divorce from NERO,
forms one of the moft highly finimed defcriptions in the writings
of TACITUS. After the tyrant had efpoxifed POPPJEA, under
the appearance of gratifying the wifhes of his people, whofe re-
fentment he in fact dreaded, he took back his injured wife.
By the arts of POPPJJA, however, which were fkilfully direct-
ed againft his weaknefles, he difmiffed OCTAVIA again, and
bribed one of his minions, to fcreen his injuftice, by declaring
that flie had been guilty with him. Upon this, the innocent
OCTAVIA was banifhed to the ifland of Pandateria, and the fen-
timents of the fpectators upon this undeferved feverity, are the
ground of the defcription mentioned. " Non alia exfulvifen-

"" tiuoa.

XI?. A,

96 ESSAY upon the PRINCIPLES

*' tium oculos majore mifericordia affecit. Meminerant adhuc
" quidam AGRIPPIN^E, a TIBERIO, recentior JULI^; memoria
" obverfabatur, a CLAUDIO pulfae. Sed illis robur astatis af-
" fuerat. Laeta aliqua viderant, et praefentem faevitiam me-
" lioris olim fortunae recordatione allevabant. Huic primus
*' nuptiarum dies loco funeris fuit, dedxiclae in domum, in qua
** nihil nifi lucluofum haberet, erepto per venenum patre, et
" ilatim fratre. Turn ancilla domina validior. Et POPPJEA
" non nifi in perniciem uxoris nupta. Poftremo crimen omni
" exitio gravivis *."

THIS defcription is as artful in facl, as it is artlefs in appear-
ance. The circumftances faid to move the companion of the
fpeclators, are marked with wonderful judgment ; and the
beautiful climax exhibited in the arrangement of them, pro-
duces a very uncommon effecl. Their feelings firft reft upon
the difference between the fituation of OCTAVIA, and that of
other women of diftinclion who had been fubjecled to the like
fate. They next reft upon her perfonal difgrace, as an emprefs,
becoming fubjecl; to a fervant ; next upon the immediate de-
fbruclion threatened her by this marriage of POPPJEA ; and laft
of all, upon the falfe accufation of having been unfaithful to
her hufband, and guilty with a mifcreant, which no form of
deftruclion could equal. The conditions upon which the fancy
operates fuccefsfully are here fulfilled. It has full room to
work, and its exertions are not clogged by an unmeaning ver-
bofenefs.

FROM fulfilling the conditions now mentioned, THUCYDIDES
has acquired immortal honour by his defcription of the retreat
of the Athenian army, in the yth book of his Hiftory. The
barbarity of the conquerors and the diftrefs of the vanqxuihed
appear equally incredible, though a few circumftances only
are employed to fuggeft thefe. During the paffage of the
Athenians over the river Affinarus, from the extremity of fa-
tigue

* Ann. 1. 14. c. 63.

Of HISTORICAL COMPOSITION. 97

tigue and of thirft, they feem driven to a kind of frantic de~
fpair. Though the ftream in which they then flood was pol-
luted with mud, and with the blood of their countrymen, yet
they are reprefented as fighting about the water in this corrupted

ftate. " K«I TO uVwj Eu9uj <fi£p9af TO • «XA vrhv r.osov trrmro re o'juou TU injXw u'(

CO!/ Xat TTlplfAKjyiTOV HV T5I{

TACITUS paints, in the moft lively colours, the diftrefs of
VITELLIUS upon the fuccefs of the Flavian party, and the di-
ftracted ftate of his mind upon returning to his palace, which
he had before left, and then found deferted. " Dein mobilita-
" te ingenii, et quse natura pavoris eft, cum omnia metuenti
" praefentia maxime difplicerent, in palatium regreditur, vaftuin
" defertumque ; dilapfis etiam infimis fervitiorum, aut occur-
" fum ejus declinantibus. Terret folitudo, et tacentes loci ;
" tentat claufa ; inhorrefcit vacuis : FefTufque mifero errore, et
" pudenda latebra femet occultans, ab JULIO PLACIDO tribuno
" cohortis, protrahitur. Vinctae pone tergum manus, laniata ve-
" fte, fcedum fpectaculum ducebatur, multis increpantibus,
" nullo illacrymante. Deformitas exitus mifericordiam abftu-

" lerat-f-."

BUT the uncommon talent for defcription pofTefTed by TA-
CITUS, is often manifeft from his judicious felection of a fingle
anecdote, as explanatory of character. Of this we have a remark-
able inftance in the 35th chapter of the ift book of the Hiftory.
When the old emperor GALBA was ftill fitting in his palace, and
hearing expreffions of loyalty, which, after the fuccefs of OTHO,
he fufpecled to be infincere, one JULIUS ATTICUS comes up to him,
declaring that he had flain the ufurper with the bloody dagger
which he then held in his hand. The emperor's reply was fuch
as could hardly have been expected. " Commilito, inquit, quis
" juflit ?" This fingle anecdote is fo completely characteristic,
as almoft to fuperfede the neceflity of the judicious comment
that follows : " Infigni animo ad coercendam militarem licen-

n " tiam,

* 09t«:/J. TO JCJ. xtp. -nl'. f Hift. 1. 3. c. 85.

98 ESSAY upon the PR I NCI PL E S, &c.

' tiam, minantibus intrepidus, adverfus blandientes incorrup-

" tus."

IN point of imagination, then, the genius of TACITUS is by
no means deficient. Though he ufes figurative language fpa-
ringly, yet he is highly fuccefsful when he does. Many of his
defcriptions may be held perfect in their kind, and will bear a
comparifon with thofe of the moft diftinguifhed hiftorians of
Greece. In all of them brevity is ftudied, and flriking circum-
ftances judicioufly feized. Thefe are held forth to the reader
with fuch art, as neither to check the operations of his fancy,
by fuggefting too extenfive a fubjec"l, nor to ftop thofe operations
completely, by fuggefting one that is too narrow.

IN the fequel of this paper, I fhall produce fome proofs of
that foundnefs of judgment in TACITUS, which is the diflinguim-
ing quality of a great hiflorian. I mall afterwards point out
his fuppofed faults, in certain refpecls, by an application of that
criterion which may have evinced his merits in others ; and
fhall try to mark particular deviations in his ftyle, from that
pure ftandard which was exhibited during the Auguftan age *.

* SEE the Second Part of this Paper afterwards.

V.

V. On the DRAMATIC or ANCIENTFORMO/'HISTORICAL
COMPOSITION. By WILLIAM RICHARDSON, M. A.
F. R. S. EDIN. and Prof effbr of Humanity in the Unherfity of
GLASGOW.

\Readby Mr FRASER frTLER, Secretary, June 21. 1784.]

IN comparing ancient with modern hiflorians-, we meet with
one remarkable circvimflance in which they differ. The an-
cient hiflorians are dramatic, the modern narrative. The an-
cients exhibit eminent perfons delivering long fpeeches, adorn-
ed, as the occafion may require, with all the graces and force of
eloquence. This is feldom done by the moderns. If it is ever
necefTary to give an account of what may have been delivered
on an interefting fubjecl by an eminent fpeaker, they tell us, ex-
cepting in fuch works as may be accounted tranflations. or in
fuch hiftories, as thofe of BUCHANAN and GUICCIARDINI,
written manifeflly after the models of antiquity, That he made
ufe of fuch or fuch arguments ; and, adhering flridlly to the
narrative form, they never venture on the bolder tafk of dif-
playing him in his own perfon, delivering a long oration.

I. IT is probable, however, that the earlieft ancient hiflorians
were not induced to a practice fo peculiar to themfelves by cri-
tical confiderations. They adopted it without any reafoning
about its advantages. They could ftate no comparifon between
it and any other form of hiftorical compofition. They knew no
other, and were led to it, both in its beginnings and continua-
tion, by the particular fituation and circumftances in which
they were placed. This may be illuftrated by a few remarks.

n 2 The

ioo On the ANCIENT FORM

The earliefl hiftorians were mere narrators of facts. They were
not very anxious either about inveftigating caufes or tracing ef-
fects. If they were deiirous of inftructing their readers or
hearers, (for the earliefl hiftories were often recited to a nu-
merous audience), they were no lefs defirous of amufing them.
In fuch compofitions, therefore, they were led to imitate con-
verfation. Their hiftories were, in truth, no other than oral
narratives and ftories committed to writing. But, in converfa-
tion, the narrator of an interefting ftory becomes animated in
his narrative ; and if, like the ancient Greeks, he poffefs fen-
fibility, the fpirit exhibited in his ftory will be proportioned to
the vivacity of his feelings. Lively feelings, however, lead per-
fons, in relating or defcribing the actions or conduct of others,
to become dramatic ; that is, to tell us the very words or fay-
ings of the perfon they defcribe ; and not only fo, but to recite
them as if he himfelf were the fpeaker. Now this animated
mode is imitated by the earlieft writers who defcribe human
actions. They do fo at firft, becaufe it is done in converfation ;
they continue the practice, becaufe it is lively and interefting.
As, in converfation, the fpeeches or fayings attributed to the
perfon whofe conduct was delineated, were fhort 4 they were
alfo fhort in the earlieft, and perhaps moft agreeable form of
written hiftory. Of this the facred hiftorians and HERODOTUS
afford us fufficient proof. It was not till after hiftorical com-
pofition had been fome time in ufe, that it prefented to us long
fpeeches and elaborate declamation. Its earlieft fpecies, there-
fore, may be termed colloquial, as diftinguifhed from that
which, belonging to the clafs of dramatic hiftory, followed foon
after, and may be termed oratorial. Perhaps there was an in-
termediate ftep. Poets were earlier than hiftorians ; and, in
their reprefentations of hviman actions, were, for the reafons
above mentioned, colloquial and dramatic. Such are the poems
of HOMER. The propenfity, therefore, which early hiftorians
had to afTume the dramatic form was, by the practice of their

predeceflbrs,

Of HISTORICAL COMPOSITION. 101

predeceflors, both juftified and enforced. Hiftorians, from
imitating converfation, came to imitate public fpeaking, and
became oratorial. This change, however, was not merely an
extenfion, fo to fay, of the preceding method. It was produced
by other caufes. The earlieft ancient hiftorians were natives,
or recorded the deeds and revolutions, of independent republics.
In thefe flates, public fpeaking was very generally pradlifed,
and was often the caufe of important events. The war between
Athens and PHILIP, promoted by the oratorial powers of DE-
MOSTHENES; and the flight of CATILINE from Rome, occa-
fioned by the eloquence of CICERO, are illuftrious proofs.
But not only did fpeeches, delivered in legiflative or deliberative
afTemblies, in the fenate or in the forum, produce important ef-
fects ; other fpeeches, funeral orations and allocutions, were,
fbmetimes followed by very fignal confequences. Ancient hi-
ftorians, therefore, were obliged to give us an account of fuch
fpeeches ; and, having before them the example of poets and
very early hiftorians, they adopted their method. They had
alfo fome other inducements. In the progrefs of improvement,
the art of public fpeaking came to be highly cultivated. Rhe-
torical talents conferred great reputation, and the ftudy of ora-
tory became univerfal. It is not furprifing, therefore, that hi-
ftorians fhould embrace fuch obvious opportunities as their fub-
jedls afforded them, of difplaying their abilities in a fpecies of
compofition fo much efteemed. It has been remarked, that
fymptoms of this paflion for oratory, fo prevalent in. Greece
and Rome, may be difcovered, even in fbme of their poets*
Such was the origin, and fuch the different kinds of dramatic
or rhetorical hiftory.

II. IT is obvious, that, fo far as amufement is concerned,
the method praclifed by LIVY, THUCYDIDES, and other ancient
hiftorians, has great advantages. It is a livelier method. It
brings us, as it were, to the very fcene of action. We are wit-

nefles

102 On the ANCIENT FORM

nefTes of the " very deed ;" we are prefent in the fenate, in the
forum, or on the field of battle. Nor is this effect wonderful ;
for hiflorians, by adopting the dramatic method, have an op-
portunity of diverfifying their labours, not only with the orna-
ments, but with the impetuofity of rhetorical diction. Some
of the ipeech.es in LIVY are as animated and defcriptive as the
pleadings of CICERO. The advantages of the rhetorical form,
in point of vivacity and amufement, are particularly manifefl,
when an hiftorian, in relating an important event, has occafion
to explain the ftate of parties, with the particular views and in-
tentions of fuch leading men, efpecially in civil difTenfions, as
may have oppofite interefts. Such detail in modern hiftory be-
comes often very tedious and unengaging, though it may have
coft the writer much laborious refearch, and may be in itfelf
important ; yet the reader very frequently tires, and counts the
pages. How much more interefting is it, when this informa-
tion is conveyed to us indirectly, in an eloquent fpeech, and
with all the graces of rhetorical expreffion ! It was neceflary for
THUCYDIDES to inform his reader, that the ftate of Athens was
accufed by their neighbours of depredation, and tofet before him
the various interefts, views or condition of thofe Grecian re-
publics that entered early into the Peloponnefian war ; and this
he does in the moft agreeable manner, in the fpeeches he attri-
butes to ambafTadors, or other perfons in high office, among
the Spartans, Corinthians, and Athenians. How diftinctly, and
with how much fpirit does LIVY fet before us the different
rights, powers and pretenfions of the patricians and plebeians
at Rome, in the orations of APPIUS and CANULEIUS ! Add to
all this, that the dramatic method gives us an interefting difplay
of character. Who is not more ftruck with the character of a
Lacasdemonian, in the following fpeech attributed to STHENE-
LAIDAS *, than if it were defcribed in a more direct, and even
in a more circumftantial narrative ! The Corinthian ambafladors

at

* THDCYD. lib. I.

Of HISTORICAL COMPOSITION. 103

at Lacaedemon had reprefented, that the prevailing power of
Athens had rendered it neceflary for the Spartans to interpofe.
The Athenian ambafladors, then prefent, reply to them in a long
harangue : They wifh to hinder the Lacaedemonians from enter-
ing immediately into hoftile meafures ; and take occafion to
magnify and enumerate the mighty deeds of the Athenians,
their power, and the fervices they had done to the Greeks.
Thereupon STHENELAIDAS tells them, " I really do not under-
" ftand the long harangue of the Athenians. They expatiate in
" their own praifes ; but fay not a fingle word about the wrongs
" they have done to our allies, and to Peloponnefus. If they
" behaved well on a former occafion againft the Medes, they
1 behave ill at prefent, and deferve the feverer correction, that,
" having known and pradlifed what is right, they are now ad-
' dieted to evil. But our conducl has, at all times, been uni-
" form ; and, if we act properly at prefent, we fhall neither
" neglect the wrongs fufFered by our friends, nor delay to afilft
' them j for, in their fufferings, there is neither delay nor re-
' fpite. Other ftates may have money, and mips, and horfes ;
" but we have good friends, whom we muft not abandon to the
' Athenians. Nor is there any need for enquiries, or difcuf-
' fions in words ; it is not by words alone that we and our
' friends are injured. Forthwith, and with all our might, we
" muft give them aid. Nor let any one tell us, when we fuffer
' injury, that we ought to reflect and deliberate. It is the bu-
' finefs of thofe who meditate injury to reflect. Therefore,
' Lacardemonians, let us adl confiftently with the dignity of
' Sparta : Let us refolve on war ; nor allow the Athenians to
" become too powerful, nor fuffer our allies to be opprefled ;
" but, confident in the favour of Heaven, let us take up arms
" againft the guilty."

* ;

III. SINCE, therefore, the dramatic form has fo many advan-
tages ) fince it animates a narrative j gives an opportunity to

the

104 On the ANCIENT FORM

the hiftorian of borrowing affiftance from the graces of elo-
quence ; imparts fpirit to details, otherwife unengaging ; and
gives an interefting difplay of character ; why ihould it be
given up by the moderns ? Do they acknowledge themfelves
more deflitute of fancy, fenfibility, and powers of eloquent
diction than SALLUST or TACITUS? Other reafons have been af-
figned, and they deferve to be examined.

TRUTH," it may be faid, " is the foundation of hiftory.
An hiftorian muft give a faithful account of facts, elfe he is
no hiftorian ; he is a novelift, a teller of tales, a romance-
writer, and that of the worft kind ; for he would impofe upon
us as actual truth, what is even deftitute of probability. Now,
as it is not probable, that the fpeeches afcribed by ancient hi-
ftorians, to the great perfons of whom they write, were ever
delivered by them in the very form their hiftorians have given
them, they are guilty of deviation from truth and incur the
cenfure we have expreffed. Though G&SAR and CATO might
have delivered fuch orations as SALLUST has afcribed to them,
it is not very likely that GALGACUS and CORIOLANUS Ihould
have delivered the long fpeeches attributed to them by TA-
CITUS and DIONYSIUS. The Romans and Caledonians, at the
period when thefe men appeared, were illiterate and unim-
proved. The practice feems to have arifen among the loqua-
cious Greeks, and to have been copied by the imitative Romans.
It is, as was mentioned, a manifeft violation of truth ; and
if an hiftorian, in any cafe whatfoever, appears regardlefs of
veracity, how can we depend upon him on other occafions ?
He impairs his own credit, and the whole. of his evidence be-
comes fufpected. Therefore, according to this view of the
matter, the felf-denial of modern hiftorians. does them great
honour. Rather than trefpafs againft the truth, and weaken
the force of their evidence in matters fo highly important, as
the knowledge of pad events, they deny themfelves all the or-
naments they might derive from the difplay of eloquence ;

and,

Of HISTORICAL COMPOSITION. 105

and, with a manly confcioufnefs of the dignity conferred by
their great office, they defpife the praife of rhetorical inge-
nuity."

THIS argument feems very weighty. I mall, therefore, con-
fider, in the firjl place, How far the dramatic form may be cal-
led a deviation from truth or probability ; and, 2dly, Suppofing
it to be fo, whether the feverity of the rule has not been relax-
ed in other particulars of higher moment, both by ancient and
modern hiftorians, but without deflroying, or even weakening
their credit.

i. How far, then, may the dramatic form be confider-
ed as a deviation from truth or probability ? Were there no
public fpeakers in Greece or in Rome ? In the deliberations
of Athenians and Romans, concerning affairs o^ the laft im-
portance, were there no public orators ? Were there no funeral
harangues ? And were there no allocutions ? Was it not cufto-
mary for a commander, about to engage in battle, to afTemble
his army, and pronounce, in their hearing, fuch animated
fpeeches as tended to roufe and preferve their fpirit ? Did not
ambafTadors pronounce elaborate orations ? When the lonians
folicited affiftance from the Greeks againfl the Perfians, are we
not told by HERODOTUS, that PITHERMUS, deputed for that
purpofe, arrayed himfelf in purple, and delivered an eloquent
oration to the people of Lacedasmon ? Ambafladors among the
Romans were originally termed pleaders * ; they are fo termed
by VIRGIL, who never, foxfar as I know, deviates from the
truth of nature in his delineation of manners. And ILIONEUS,
who feems to have been the chief fpeaker among the Trojans,
delivers himfelf with great eloquence both at Carthage and to
King LATINUS. Or can we fuppofe, that thofe fpeeches, de-
livered fo frequently, and on fo many occafions, had not very

o powerful

* TUM fatus ANCHISA deleftos ordine ab omni
Centum oraiores augufta ad mcenia regis
Ire jubet, £,n. vii. Ijjo.

io6 On the 4 NCI EN? FORM

powerful effects in the great interefls of republican ftates ?
Thefe are facts which cannot be denied. If fo, they ought
certainly to be recorded. But are they to be recorded in the
very general manner now mentioned ? Is the hiflorian to do no
more than {imply tell us, that certain perfons, upon certain oc-
cafions, delivered fpeeches, on one fide or other, in fome mo-
mentous debate ? A reader, entering with fpirit into the nar-
rative, would be defirous of knowing what arguments were em-
ployed ; for if an effect, worthy of being tranfmitted to pofte-
rity, was produced by fuch fpeeches, the arguments they con-
tained were, without doubt, its efficient caufe. Therefore, if
they are known, a faithful and intelligent writer will be very
loath to fupprefs them, otherwife he becomes unfaithful. The hi-
florian, then, muft give us an account of fpeakers, and of
fpeeches, and of the arguments which they contain ; but mufl
he proceed no farther ? The rigid feverity of modern criticifm,
and the laudable love of truth, fo peculiar to the moderns, pro-
nounce an inviolable prohibition. He muft not pretend to tell
us, nor even to conjecture the method or arrangement obferved
by the fpeaker, and much lefs the words of the fpeech. It is,
then, about the mere words of the fpeaker, or perhaps his me-
thod, that there is any difpute ; and all the charge brought
againft ancient hiftorians amounts to no more than that they
alter the expreflion, and give the arguments of a fpeaker in the
firft perfon, rather than in the third. If they had done, as has
been practifed in fome hiftories of England ; if they had told
us, that fome peer or commoner had faid That fuch and fuch
were his views and conclufions, there would have been no tranf-
greflion ; and LIVY and THUCYDIDES are no otherwife blamed,
than for exhibiting their fpeakers in the firft perfon : Yet, fure-
ly, the faithful hiftorian is a recorder of facts rather than of
words. HERODOTUS in one inftance, has done the very thing
which this criticifm requires. He has given us the inelegant,
though figurative language, fpoken by fome Perfian ambafladors

at

Of HISTORICAL COMPOSITION. 107

at the court of a Macedonian prince * ; and has accordingly in-
curred the juft, but reluctant blame of LONGINUS f. Or would
you have a modern hiftorian, in giving an account of the
fpeeches in the Hoxife of Commons, give us the Irifh of one,
the broad Scotch of another, or vulgar Englifh of a third ? Or,
in telling us the converfation of fome foreign minifter, ignorant
of the Englifh tongue, would you have him deliver it in the
original German or Dutch ? In fuch cafes we make ufe of
tranilation. Yet the idioms of modern European languages are
fo different from one another, that we fhall find it, on many
occafions, utterly impoffible to give a literal tranflation of the
very words. We mufl have recourfe to circumlocution, and
to fuch metaphorical expreflions, as prefent very different images
from thofe of the original. HELVETIUS has been charged,
and I think not unjuftly, with having offered to the public, as
an original poem, a tranflation of the firfl fcene of ELFRIDA if ;
yet the difference between the two performances is much greater
than that between prefenting the views and arguments of a pu-
blic fpeaker, as delivered by himfelf, or as related by an hi-
ftorian. Add to all this, that there can be no violation of ve-
racity, when there is no intention of deceiving, much lefs when
the reader is warned of his danger, and, in the very manner
in which fpeeches are introduced, is guarded by the writer him-
felf againfl impofition. TACITUS introduces the fpeech of
GALGACUS with the words, " in hunc modum locutus fertur,"
" is faid to have harangued after the following manner ;" and
the fpeech of AGRICOLA with " ita differuit," " thought pro-
per thus to addrefs them." THUCYDIDES prefixes to a fpeech
by the Corinthian ambaffadors, " inrw ^on»Sl" " they fpoke fuch
things ;" and to that of STHENELAIDAS," && ™y AaxtJaipono.f «'£,"

02 "he

* Lib. v. 1 8.

•)- De Sublim. feft. 3.

\ MASON'S Memoirs of the life and writings o£Mr GRAY, p. 296. edit. 410.

io8 On the ANCIENT FORM

" he fpoke to the Lacedaemonians in this manner." SALLUST'S
introduction to the fpeech of CJESAR is of the fame kind ; and
the fame obfervation may be illuftrated in a variety of pafTages
in LIVY. To what has been offered on this head, I mall add
the following advice from LUCIAN, a writer of confiderable
judgment, and who treated fabulous hiftory with very little in-
dulgence. " When it is necefTary to make any one fpeak, you
" muft take care to let him fay nothing but what is fuitable to
" the perfon, and to what he fpeaks about, and let every thing
" be clear and intelligible : Here, indeed, you may be permit-
" ted to play the orator, and (hew the power of eloquence."

UPON the whole, therefore, of this argument, I have little
difficulty in concluding, that the charge of deviation from
truth, in the dramatic form of hiftorical compofition, is ill-
founded, or admits of great palliation.

2. BUT, fuppofing the cafe were otherwife, " Has not the
flrict rule of veracity been relaxed in other particulars of higher
moment, both by ancient and modern hiflorians, without de-
ftroying or even weakening their credit?" And, if fo, why
may not fome indulgence be fhewn to thofe writers who
would enliven the detail of facts with the fpirit of oratorial
language ?

HISTORIANS, very frequently, not only record facts and events,
but endeavour to trace and explain their caufes. The caufes,
however, of great events often lie in the human mind ; in the
paffions and judgments of powerful men. It thus becomes ne-
cefTary to inveftigate motives, detect: inclinations, and explore
the labyrinths of the human heart. How difficult a tafk !
How difficult, on many occafions, todifcover the motives of our
own conduct ! How difficult to afcertain the principles of action
that inftigate thofe perfons with whom we are daily converfant !
How much more difficult to afcertain the motives of men who
lived many centuries ago, and with whofe private or peculiar

habits

Of HISTORICAL COMPOSITION. 109

habits we are little acquainted ! Every inveftigation of this fort
muft be attended with uncertainty. Yet hiftorians have, in
this refpecl, been undaunted. They have proceeded boldly in
unfolding the mazes of the human heart, in delineating cha-
racters, and in explaining great revolutions by the paffions, de-
fires, or interefts of famous men. In fome cafes, motives are
very obvious. When THUCYDIDES tells us, that the Lacedae-
monians entered into the Peloponnefian war, not fo much to
protect the other Grecian ftates, as to hinder Athens from grow-
ing powerful, we aflent very readily to his opinion. In like
manner, when a modern hiftorian, of uncommon elegance,
informs us, in his hiflory of America, that " PIZARRO, intoxi-
*' cated with the fuccefs which had hitherto accompanied his
" arms, and elated with having again near a thoufand men un-
" der his command, refufed to liften to any terms * ;" we give
eafy credit to his account. At the fame time, the only fact, of
which we have fufficient evidence, is, that PIZARRO refufed to
liften to any terms. The motives alleged, though probable,
are fuggefted by conjecture. The fame obfervation is more
fully illuflrated in the following pailage from MIDDLETON'S
life of CICERO, tranflated almoft literally from Dio CASSIUS.
" JULIUS CESAR alfo was a zealous promoter of this lawf,
" from a different motive than the love either of POMPEY or
" of the republic. His defign was, to recommend himfelf by
1 it to the people, whofe favour, he forefaw, would be of more
1 ufe to him than the fenate's, and to caft a frefh load of envy
" on POMPEY, which, by fome accident, might be improved af-
' terwards to his hurt ; but his chief view was, to make the
" precedent familiar, that whatever ufe POMPEY might make of
" it, he himfelf might one day make a bad one." Had this hiftorian
been CJESAR'S father-confeffor, he could not have been more

intimately

* Dr ROBERTSON'S Hift. of America, vol. ii. p. 255. edit. 410.
t THE Manilian law.

no On the ANCIENT FORM

intimately acquainted with his intentions and inclinations.
Add to thefe illuftrations, the various accounts given us by
different hiftorians, of the motives that influenced LUTHER
in cafting off his allegiance to the pope of Rome. By fome, he
is reprefented as being actuated folely by the love of truth, and,
according to others, by refentment. In thefe, and a variety of
other inflances, we fee hiftorians of the higheft reputation ad-
vancing their own opinions and conjectures, as matters of fact.
This practice, indeed, is much more common, and more unre-
ftrained among modern than among ancient writers, and is
ufually considered as a great improvement in hiftorical com-
pplition. It is for this, more than for any thing elfe, that
TACITUS is fo much an object of adoration. Yet this prac-
tice, fo very fafliionable at prefent, often leads an hiftorian
into more flagrant violations of truth, and into bolder aflump-
tions, than if he pretended to give us the language fpoken by
fome famous fpeaker. The dramatic hiftorian afcribes to his
illuftrious perfons, probable words and phrafes. The narrative
hiftorian, with intrepid boldnefs, afcribes to them probable mo-
tives, paflions and inclinations. The firft indulges conjecture
in thofe things merely that are external, and that regard the
form and manner. The fecond is indulgent to himfelf in thofe
that are material and internal, and advances, as facts, his own
gueffes concerning the nioft delicate fprings of action. Since,
therefore, the ftrict rule of veracity is tranfgreffed in this par-
ticular, with fo much applaufe, why, in an inftance of lefs im-
portance, and when the tranfgreffion would be attended with
advantages of another kind, may not criticifm abate fome of
its rigour? Nay, in comparing what was formerly faid with
what has now been obferved, the dramatic hiftorian feems- to
have the higher title to this indulgence, that he feems, in truth,
to be the more faithful writer of the two. The narrative hi-
ftorian gives you his facts and conjectures mingled together,

and

Of HISTORICAL COMPOSITION. in

and with equal authority j fo that it requires more patience and
difcernment than belong to a great many readers, to diftinguifh
what ought to be received with immediate belief, from thofe
things that depend for their evidence on the conjectural judg-
ment of the narrator. Hiftorians of another kind, (and this,
in general, is the practice of XENOPHON and LIVY), give you
their fads and their conjectures apart; Their facts conftitute
the narrative, and their views of characters and motives are

^K

thrown into thofe fpeeches, which, as we have feen, are not of-
fered by the writers themfelves as of equal authority with their
relation of external events.

I HAVE thus endeavoured to point out the caufe of the dif-
ference, Mated at the beginning of this difcourfe, between the
ancient and modern forms of hiftorical compofition, and have
fuggefted fome conliderations by which the practice of antiqui-
ty may be juftified. The fame confiderations do not extend to
the hiflory of modern European nations ; for the practice could
not be fupported by the fame views of probability. In the re-
volutions of modern nations, public fpeaking has been of little
importance. We have not now any funeral orations for politi-
cal purpofes ; other circumftances of military difcipline have
fuperfeded the ufe of allocution ; our ambafladors have little
occafion for rhetorical powers ; and we may add, that the deli-
berations of the Britifh parliament are not much influenced by
the oratory of even the mod eloquent fpeakers. We may alfo
obferve, that the object of modern hiflorians feems a good deal
different from that of the ancient : They are become more phi-
lofophical ; they difcover more accuracy in explaining caufes,
and more penetration in deducing effects. Oratory was the fa-
fhion in ancient times ; philofophy is the fafhion at prefent.
The ancient hiflorian was often defirous of exciting fympathe-
tic feelings, and of pleafing the fancy ; the modern hiftorian is
chiefly defirous of informing the underftanding. Both methods

are

H2 On the ANCIENT FORM, &c.

are liable to perverfion. The ancient hiftorian was tempted to
go too far in queft of rhetorical embellimment ; the modern
may be equally mifled by the love of philofophical theory.
Great would be the merit of that writer who could unite the
elegant graces of the ancient hiftorian, particularly of the col-
loquial kind, with the accurate refearch and comprehenfive dif-
cernment of the modern.

VI.

VI. ^GRAMMATICAL ESSAY on the NATURE, IMPORT,
and EFFECT of CERTAIN CONJUNCTIONS -t particu-
larly the Greek AE. By JOHN HUNTER, M. A. F. R. S. ED IN.
and Profejjor of Humanity in the Univerjity of ST ANDREWS.

\Read by Mr D4LZEL, Secretary, June 21. 1784.]

LEVIA quidem heer, et parvi forte, Jt per fe fpe&entur, momenti. Sed ex dementis con-
Jlant, ex principles oriuntur, omnia : Et ex judicii confuetudine in rebus minutis adhibita,
pendet fapijfimf etiam in maximis vera atque accurata Scientia.

SAM. CLARKE Praef. ad HOM. Iliad.

IT is a maxim in phyfics, that " an effec"l ought not to be
" afcribed to the joint operation of many caufes, if fewer
" are adequate to the production of it." Fruflra fit per plura,
quod fieri poteft per pauciora. This maxim is no lefs juft when
applied to language. It is equally unphilofophical in grammar
and in phyfics, to multiply without neceffity the principles from
which the phenomena are to be explained.

IN the Englifh, however, and in other languages, certain
words are clafTed by the grammarians as different parts of fpeech,
according to varieties obferved in the application of them, even
when thefe varieties are merely accidental. Thus, in the fentence,
" I came after his departure" the word AFTER is clafled with the
Prepofitions ; while, in this other, " I came after he departed" it is
claffed with the Conjunctions. The word AFTER is, however, the
fame in both fentences ; its meaning is the fame, and its ejfeEt
precifely the fame. The only circumftance of difcrimination
is, that, in the firft example, it is prefixed to a noun fubllantive,

to — bis

H4 On the Engli/h Conjunction TOO,

— his departure ; in the latter, it is prefixed to a nominative and a
verb— he departed. But even the nominative and verb thus ap-
plied do not conSlitute a proposition ; they do not contain an in-
dependent aSTertion > they exprefs no more than a fpecifying
circumftance annexed to the other proposition, " I came ;" and,
whenever they are rightly apprehended by the mind, they are
ftript of their propofitionary form, and Slated abJlraElly under a
new phafis — his departure. Thus confidered, then, the two pro-
pofitions are fynonymous in every refpect, excepting the apparent
grammatical nature of the words — his departure, and — he departed ;
and even thefe are reduced to one grammatic form in the mind,
whenever the import of the propositions is rightly apprehended.

FROM thefe obfervations it Should feem that there is no fuf-
ficient reafon for claSIing the word AFTER, in the one cafe, with
the Prepojitions, and, in the other, with the Coajunffioaj ; Since, by
the feeming change of its regimen, no real change is made, ei-
ther in its grammatical nature, or in its Signification.

OF this unphilofophical method of arranging the fame words
in diSFerent claSTes, I Shall mention two other inftances, chiefly
with a view to prepare the way for a conjecture which I am to
oSFer with regard to the nature and import of one of the Greek
particles ; which inSlances will ferve to illuftrate and confirm that
conjecture, and will, in their turn, be illustrated by it*.

I. THE EngliSh prepofition TO is very variously applied. Be-
ing extremely general in its Signification, it is confequently ca-
pable of various fpecial applications. One of its fpecial ufes is to
mark addition TO. Thus DENHAM,

" Wifdom he has, and, TO his wifdom f, courage j
" Temper TO that, and, unTO all, fuccefs."
In this example, every fucceeding circumstance is, by the pre-
pofition

* IN the progrefs of the effay, it will appear, that the reafoning proceeds upon an
analogy much more ftridt and clofe than here it feems to do.

•f I1PO2 T>! 8-opMt.

'The Latin AT, and the Greek AE. 115

pofition TO, marked as an addition to the preceding. " Wifdom
*' he has, and courage additional to his wifdom," &c . In this ac-
ceptation of the word TO, the object which it governs, or to
which it marks fomething elfe as added, is frequently not ex-
preffedy or not formally ftated along with the prepofition, The
reafon is, that it readily occurs to the mind, being mentioned
in the context immediately before. Thus DENHAM might, with
equal propriety, have faid,

" Wifdom he has, and courage TOO," Esfr.

This mode of expreflion would have been more concife and
equally intelligible as the other, " Wifdom he has, and cou-
' rage TO bis uvifdom" &c.

NOT only is the object governed by TO omitted, when it is
reprefented by a noun fubftantive in the context, but alfo when
it is involved in a propofition. Thus Mr POPE,

" Let thofe eyes that view

The daring crime, behold the vengeance TOO."

So " He made him prifoner, and killed him TOO." In the one
example, the circumftance of beholding the vengeance is ftated as
an addition to the viewing the crime ; and, in the other, the killing
him is ftated as an addition to the making him a prifoner. In both
examples, the object governed by TOO is not formally ftated ;
and, in both alfo, it is involved in a preceding propofition. It
is the amount of that propofition taken abftraclly, or as a Noun
fubflantive.

ALTHOUGH all thefe ufes of the word TO are really one and
the fame, differing in nothing but this, that the object: govern-
ed by it is, in fome of them, exprejjed^ and, in others, not expref-
fed\ yet the grammarians have confidered them as different,
and have claffed TO, in the one cafe, with the Prepofitions, and,
in the other, with the Conjunctions, or with the Adverbs. This
circumftance, together perhaps with the accented pronunciation

p 2 o'f

n6 On the Englijh Conjunction 700,

of TO, when the object governed by it is not exprefled, has
given rife to a difference in its orthography, the writing it
with two Os inftead of one. And the two words have ultimate-
ly come to be univerfally considered as different, infomuch that
even the fuppofition of their being the fame is not likely to be
liftened to without prejudice.

IN the parent Saxon language, however, both ufes are com-
prifed under one form, to ; and, even in the Englifh, as late as
the reign of Queen ELIZABETH, they were both written with
one 0. This appears from the fpecimens prefixed to Dr JOHN-
SON'S Dictionary, as a hiftory of our language previous to that
period. Thus, Sir THOMAS MORE, fpeaking of fortune and
one of her quondam favourites,

' She glydeth from hym, and her giftes TO ;
' And he her curfeth, as other fooles do."

And to the accented pronunciation of TO, when its object is
not exprefled, that is, by no means, a fufficient reafon, either
for claffing or for writing it differently, being a circumftance
common to it with every prepofition whatfoever. All of them,
when their objects are expreffed, may be accented or not accent-
ed, according to the meaning, or fhade of meaning, intended
to be conveyed. But, when their objects are not exprefled, they
are commonly * accented : " To fland by" " to come e«," ' to
" run ///," " to rum out" &c.

FROM thefe obfervations, it mould feem, that the word TOO,
though generally confidered as different, and though ranked by
grammarians in a different clafs of the parts of fpeech, is really
the fame with the prepofition TO, in its fpecial meaning of ad-
ditional to. This has been fhown from the famenefs of their
meaning and ejfecj^ as well as of their original orthography, and

the

* IN facl: they are always accented, though their accent may fometimes be obfcured
by an equal or fuperior accent given to an adjoining word, as, " He did not walk in,.
*• hut rujhtf in,"

The Latin AT, and the Greek A E. 117

^

the circumflances of apparent diverfity have been accounted for.
This, then, I think, may be fairly admitted as one inftance
wherein the various clafling of the fame word, founded on im-
perfect and partial views, tends to deceive, by leading us to
fuppofe gramma tic differences which are not real, and to confider
words as different, when they are really the fame.

II. I SHALL fubjoin a fimilar example from the Latin lan-
guage. The Latin prepofition AD, like the Englifh TO, is ex-
tremely general^ and confequently capable of various fpecial ap-
plications. One of thefe is to mark one object as added to ano-
ther *. " AD hoc, promiffa barba et capilli efferaverant fpeci-
" em oris f-" " Additional to this, his long beard and hair
' had given a wildnefs to his afpect."

BUT the object governed by AD, when ufed in this fpecial
meaning, is often not expreffed, or not formally ftated ; and,
in that cafe, like the Englifh prepofition TO, AD is claffed with
the conjunctions, and written differently, AT. Thus, as ABS,
compounded with que, produces AB&que, fo AD compounded
with que produces ATque, i. e. \vque. " BRUTUS ATque CJES AR,"
" BRUTUS and C^SAR TOO ;" " BRUTUS, and CESAR addi-
" tional to BRUTUS." " C^SAR DUMNORIGEM cepit, ATque in-
" terfecit." " CESAR made DUMNORIX prifoner, and killed him
" TOO." In this example, \ih& killing DUMNORIX is ftated as added
to the making him a prifoner. In thefe examples, it is evident,
that AT marks one object as added to another, and differs from.
AD, when ufed in the fame fpecial meaning, in nothing but the
fupprejjing of the object governed by it.

EVEN when AT appears by itfelf, and without que fubjoined,
it feems to be fometimes ufed in the fame fpecial meaning.
Thus TERENCE, — " PH. Fac, ita ut juffi, deducantur ifti.

" PA.

* Added to — where accumulation only, or the increafe of number or magnitude, is at-
tended to.

•f- Liv?.

liS On the Englijh Conjunction 'TOO,

" PA. Faciam. PH. AT diligenter. PA. Fiet. PH. AT ma-
" ture*." By the means of AT, the circumftances of dili-
gence and hajle are fupsradded to the action commanded. " PH. It
" is not enough that you do it, you muft do it carefully TOO.
" PA. Well; it mail be carefully done. PH. In good time TOO."

BUT further : Another of \\\t fpecial applications of the prepo-
lition AD, is to mark one object as united or joined to f another,
and that, too, whatever be the nature of the objects, whether
they be fuch as are commonly united, or fuch as appear incongru-
ous^ and whofe union is contrary to expectation. Of the firft
kind is this example from LIVY : " AD imperium. dictatoris,
" cuncta mota acies ;" " Joined TO the command of the dictator,
" the whole army was in motion" — /'. e. " AT, the command,"
&fr. In this example, there is nothing incongruous in the ob-
jects united ; their union is even confidered as neceflary, the
movement of the army being joined to the command of the dictator ;
as an ejfetl to its canfe. Of the fecond kind is the following in-
ftance : " AD imperium dictatoris, difcedere nolebant ;" " AT
" the command of the dictator, they refufed to depart." In this
laft example, the fentence is conftructed in the fame manner as
in the other. Two events are reprefented as conjoined, a refufal
to depart and the command of the dictator ; and the fame prepofi-
tion AD is employed to mark their union. From our knowledge,
however, of the power vefted in the Roman dictator, we per-
ceive, that thefe events are, in fome meafure, incongruous, and
their union confeqxiently unexpected. And this perception of
incongruity in the objects united leads us to give to AD the
force, not of TO fimply, but of TO with emphafis, or EVEN TO.
" Joined EVEN TO the command of the dictator, they refufed
" to depart" — /. e. " EVEN AT the command" &c.

Now it is in this laft manner, viz. to mark the unexpected union
of incongruous objecJs, that AD, when the object which it governs

is

* Eun. Ad. ii. Sc. i.

f Joined to, in refpeft of time, as caufe and e/etf, &c.

The Latin 4?, and the Greek AE. 119

is not formally dated, /'. e. AT, the conjunction, is moft common-
ly applied, " Aulam tyranni frequentabat, AT patriam amabat ;"
literally, " He frequented the court of the tyrant ; joined EVEN
" TO that, he loved his country." " He was a courtier and a
" patriot TOO." By means of AT, the circumftance of loving
his country is ftated as united /o the other, viz. his frequenting the
court of the tyrant. — The character of a patriot is reprefented as
united to that of a courtier in the fame perfon.

CICERO, in his addrefs to CJESAR in behalf of MARCELLUS*,
has the following fentence : " Nihil eft opere aut manu fadum,
" quod aliquandononconficiat et confumat vetuftas ; AT vero haec
" tuajuftitiaetlenitas animi florefcet quotidie magis." Here firft
one truth is ftated — " There is nothing made by the labour or
" hand of man which length of time may not wafte and deftroy."
Then, by means of AT, another circumftance is ftated &s joined
EVEN TO this truth, viz. " That CESAR'S juftice and gentlenefs
" of difpofition lhall flourim every day more and more." It
is r\otjimply aflerted, that " CESAR'S juftice fhall flourim," but
that it fhall flourim, conjoined even to the truth of the other po-
fition — " That every work of the hand muft perim" — a pofition
which we conceive to be almoft incompatible with it. Inftead
of AT vero, CICERO might have ufed AT tamen. " Every work
" muft perifh, yet JOINED EVEN TO THAT, your juftice fhall
" flourim." The former circumftance lhall not prevent the truth
of the latter. In thefe, and in all fimilar examples, the two
objects or events, however incongruous they mnyjeem to be,
are actually united ; and of their union, AT appears to be the
fymbol f.

THE

* Cap. 4.

•J- THE frequent application of AT, to mark the union of incongruous objefts, firft gave rife
to the habit of annexing an emphatic meaning to it ; and, when once this habit was form-
ed, the word neceflarily raifed an expectation of fomething incongruous to follow. And
hence it has come at laft to be miftaken for a fymbol of incongruity or oppofition.

IT would be difficult to collect examples of all the various applications of the word
AT, that may be met with in the Latin authors. In thofe, however, that moft frequently

occur,

J20 On the Englt/h Conjunction TOO,

THE word AT is indeed called an adverfative, and is common-
ly imagined to mark, not the union, but the oppofition of objects.
But,

i. THE authority of QUINCTILIAN is explicit in favour of
our hypothefis. In treating of the Latin orthography, he has
the following obfervation : " Ilia quoque fervata eft a multis
" differentia, ut AD, quum effet prcepofitioy D literamj quum

" autem

occur, it is evidently expreflive, not of oppojttion, but of union. When there is no incon-
gruity in the objeds united, and confequently nothing unexpected in their union, the ef-
fect of it will be perceived by rendering it TO fimply ; and, when the objects united ap-
pear incongruous, by rendering it TO with emphafis, or EVEN TO.

I. To fimply — as in the form of furrender recorded by LIVT, [Lib. I. cap. 38.]
41 Deditifne vos populutnque Collatinum in meam populique Romani ditionem ? De-
" dimus. AT ego recipio ;" " Joined TO that, I receive them." ET might have been
ufed in this inftance. In imprecations, and the like, it reprefents the amount of the
prayer, as joined to an aclion mentioned, perceived, dreaded, <&'r. i. To an aflion men-
tioned; as in TERENCE ; " CH. Faftum eft hoc, DAVE ? DA. Fadtum. CH. Hem ! quid
" ais,Scelus ? AT tibi dii dignum fadis exitium duint !" 2. To an action perceived ; as in
VIRGIL, when PRIAM, upon feeing his fon killed by PYRRHUS, exclaims :

" AT tibi pro fcelere, exclamat, pro talibus aufis,

" Di, fi qua eft ccelo pietas, quae talia curet,

" Perfolvant grates dignas, et prsemia reddant

" Digna, — qui nati coram me cernere letum

" Fecifti, et patrios fcedafti funere vultus." [jE/i. ii. 535.]

II. EVEN TO — as in TERENCE ; " Si ego digna hac contumeM fum maxime, AT tu
•" indignus qui faceres tamen ;" " Joined EVEN TO that, it was unworthy of you to do
41 it." So when CHR.EMES, after he has heard many circumftances tending to prove that
PAMPHILA is his daughter, fays, " AT mihi unus fcrupulus etiam re.ftat." " Joined EVEN
" TO [what I have heard] there ftill remains one difficulty." i. e. " All I have heard is
"" not fufficient to remove it." It is afed precifely in this manner, when it introduces
an objeElion, or the anfwer to an objeEiion. I. An objeElion ; as in CICERO pro MILONE j
" AT valuit odium, fecit iratus, <&c." " Joined EVEN TO [what you have faid] his hatred
" got the better of him, he a&ed from paffion :" i. e. " For all that you have faid," &T.
" All that you have faid does not hinder the deed to have proceeded from hatred or paf-
" fion." 2. The anfwer to an objeElion ; as, " Domus tibi deerat ? AT habebas. Pecu-
*' nia fuperabat ? AT egebas." " You will fay you wanted a houfe ; joined EVEN TO
" that, you had one," ire. It is ufed in this manner too, when it introduces the circum-

Jlances of an action which tend to heighten our furprife. " Vidit CLODIUS necefle efle
" MILONI proficifci Lanuvium illo ipfo, quo profeftus eft, die ; itaque antevertit. AT

" quo

The Latin A T, and the Greek AE. 121

" autem conjunftio, T acciperet *." From this paffage, it is evi-
dent, that the conjunction AT was originally written AD : That
the difference in their orthography, though obferved by many,
was not, at that time, univerfally obferved ; and that this dif-
ference was introduced to diftinguifh the conjunction from the
prepofition. The fortune of the Latin AD appears, therefore,
to have been fimilar to that of the Englifli TO. Both of them
are prepofitions, and of the fame fignification. Both of them,
when the object which they govern is not formally flated, have
been reckoned conjunctions; and, in both, a difference of ortho-
graphy has at laft obtained to diftinguifh the conjunction from
the prepojition.

2. THE proportions, whereof AT is faid to mark the oppofi-
tion, are both of them true, and they exprefs truths which are
co-exigent. They cannot, therefore, be oppofite in one of the
acceptations of that term. They may be apparently incompati-
ble, but they are not really fo. Thus, in the example formerly
mentioned, " Aulam tyranni frequentabat ; AT patriam ama-
1 bat," — the two characters of courtier and patriot, however in-
congruous they mzyfeem to be, are reprefented as united in the
fame perfon. Considering the matter a priori, then, it feems
reafonable to imagine, that, on fuch occafions, a term would
be employed to mark the union, which is uncommon and unexpebled,
rather than the oppofition or incongruity , which is apparent. Ac-
cordingly, we find, in fact, that thofe of the conjunctions call-

q ed

" quo die ? Quo, ut ante dixi, infaniffima concio ab ipfius mercenario tribuno plebis eft
" concitata : Quern diem ille, quam concionem, quos clamores, nifi ad cogitatum facinus
" approperaret, nunquam reliquiflet }" — " On what day, TOO ?" <b"c. This is an inftance
extremely fortunate for our purpofe ; bccaufe, although the afiton of CLODIUS and the
time which he chofe for it appear incongruous, yet the praftice of the Englifh language
admits of our rendering AT literally ; " CLODIUS was beforehand with him, on a day
" TOO when his prefence'was neceflary at Rome."

IN the foregoing examples, which comprehend all the common applications of AT, it
leems to mark the union, [expetfed or not eKpeSief], not the oppojttion, of the objefts con-
nefted by it.

* Lib. i. cap. 7.

122 On the Engli/h Conjunflion TOO,

ed adverfative, whofe fignification can be afcertained, are figni-
ficant, not of oppofition, but of union, or fomething that is equi-
valent: Of this kind are the Greek, "put, accented on the pe-
nult, and it ; the Latin, etji, verum, vero, tamen, verum tamen ;
the French, cependant, and perhaps encore ; the Englifli, yet, ne-
verlbclefs, notivithftanding, &c. It might, however, be reckoned
tedious, were I to attempt to ftate the precife import of each of
thefe, and to fhow, that their effect, in a fentence, is confonant
to their fignification, and arifes out of it.

3. THE adverfative appearance of AT feems to have arifen
from the circumftance of its raifing an expectation, that fome-
thing feemingly oppofite, or incongruous, is to follow. Thus,
when it is faid, " CJESAR fuit vir fortis, pmdens, clemens ;
"AT ," the word AT is no fooner heard, than an ex-
pectation is raifed, that fomething oppofite to the qualities pre-
vioufly mentioned — fomething difadvantageous to the character
of CJESAR, is to follow. And hence, from its raifing this ex-
pectation, it has been concluded, that AT itfelf is fignificant of
oppofition : But that this conclusion is by no means necejjary,
will appear from the following obfervations.

WHEN objects or qualities, confidered as in their own nature
oppofite or incongruous, are obferved to co exift, it feems more
necefTary to intimate their co-exi/lence, than if no fuch oppofition
were felt. The perception of their natural incongruity leads
to the giving a marked intimation of their union, when they
happen to be united. " GESAR fuit vir fortis, prudens, cle-
" mens ; AT ambitiofus, patriae proditor," &c. It might have
been imagined, that fuch oppofite qualities could not unite in
the fame perfon; and, therefore, it appeared neceflary, that
pointed intimation fhould be given of their union ; and, for
that purpofe, the word AT is employed. The fame circum-
ftance, viz. the perception of the incongruity, alfo leads the
hearer to interpret the fymbol of union in the fame emphatic
manner , that is, to give to AT the force, not of TO limply,

but

the Latin Aft and the Greek AE.

but of TO with emphafis, or EVEN TO. " CESAR poflefled
" fortitude, prudence, clemency ; joined EVEN TO that, he
" was ambitious, and a traitor to his country."

Now, this emphatic meaning, which men were accujlomed to
annex to AT, in confequence of its being fo very frequently
employed to mark the union of incongruous objects, will fum
ciently account for its raifing an expectation that fomething ap-
parently oppofite, or incongruous, is to follow : For, no foon-
er is this emphatic meaning given to it, than fuch an expecta-
tion is raifed, — and mujl be raifed, becaufe an emphatic intima-
tion of union' fupfiofes an incongruity in the objects united, and is
given in confequence of a perception of that incongruity. 'Thus,
" CJESAR poflefled fortitude, prudence, clemency ; joined EVEN
"TO that ." When thefe laft words are heard, we im-
mediately expect that fomething is to follow, apparently oppo-
fite to what is contained in the firft member of the'fentence.
We are prepared for fuch attributes as — ambitious and a traitor to
his country. Thus, then, from the emphatic meaning given
to AT, an expectation was raifed that fomething incongruous
was to follow ; and, from its railing this expectation, the word
has prepofteroufly been imagined to exprefs that incongruity or
oppofition, which it only prefuppofes.

ANY emphatic intimation of union, thrown into a fentence,
will raife an expectation that fomething incongruous is to be
fubjoined ; and the reafon is the fame in them all, namely, that
every fuch intimation is given on the fuppofition, that the ob-
jects are perceived to be naturally incongruous. " C^SAR was

" brave, prudent, merciful; at the fame lime, he was ."

Or, " CJESAR was brave, prudent, merciful ; notwithftanding that,

" he was ." In thefe, as well as in the Latin example,

we are led to expect that fome circumftance in the character
of CESAR is to follow, which we mould not have expected to
be united with the qualities, bravery, prudence, and clemency.
Yet the words, at the fame time, do not exprefs oppofition, and not-

q 2 •with/landing

124 Oa ^e Englijh Conjunction 7 '0 0 ',

ivitbjlanding exprefTes almoft the contrary. I appeal, then, to the
judgment of every candid man, whether the circumftance
of AT raifing an expectation of fomething oppoiite to follow,
ought to be confidered as fufficient to found the conclufion,
that AT itfelf denotes oppofidon ; and, if- it is not, I know no
other ground on which fuch a conclufion is founded.

WHAT, then, are the views, or confiderations, upon which
the words, at the fame time, and notwithjlanding, are ufed in the
preceding examples ? When, in contemplating the various qua-
lities which conftitute the character of C^SAR, we obferve them
to be fuch as, from their nature, are generally conceived not to
co-exifl, — this view of them leads us to obviate the general pre-
judice, by intimating that (in this particular inftance) they ex-
ifted at the fame time. When, again, we confider them as na-
turally oppojite, or conceive, that the one clafs of them has a
natural tendency to oppufe or prevent the exiftence of the other,
this view of them leads us to intimate, that (in this inftance) it
did not oppofe it ; and it is for that purpofe that we employ the
word notwithftanding. In the fame manner precifely, when a
Roman viewed thefe qualities as naturally incongruous, he was
thereby led to give notice that (in this particular inftance) they
were united ; and, for this purpofe, the word AT, i.e. AD, is em-
ployed.

IT mould feem, then, that the conjunction AT is an intima-
tion^ not of oppofttion, as is generally fuppofed, but of union ;
and that the habit of annexing" an emphatic meaning to it, is
fufficient to account for its raifing an expectation, that fome-
thing apparently oppofite or incongruous is to be fubjoined.

ACCORDINGLY, if, in any inftance, we give to AD, even in
its undi/guifed form, the emphatic fenfe of even to, a fimilar ex-
pectation will be raifed. " AD imperium dictatoris ."

*' EVEN AT the command of the dictator ." When thefe

words are heard, we inftantly expect fomething to be added,
which but ill accords with our notions of a dictator's authority,

whether

The Latin AT, and the Greek AE. 125

whether it be a refufal to depart, or any thing elfe of a like na>
ture. " AD imperium dictatoris difcedere nolebant." " EVEN
" AT the command of the dictator, they refufed to depart."

Now, in this lad example, and in every other of the fame
kind, by varying the dructure of the fentence, AT may be in-
troduced indead of AD, without even the flighted variation in
the meaning. " Dictator imperabat ; AT difcedere nolebant."
Wherein, then, does this lad mode of expremng the idea dif-
fer from the former ? In the former, the dictator's giving the
command is not afferted ; it is prefuppofed, and appears only in
the abjlraft form of imperium ditlatot is, governed by AD ; where-
as, in the latter, it is formally ajjerted ; " DicJator imperabat •"
but the abflracJ amount of the afTertion, viz-. " imperium diRatoris"
is not repeated as the object governed by AT. In the one, the
formal offer tion is omitted ', and the abftraEl amount of the affertion
is expreffed '; in the other, the abjlracl amount is omitted, and the
formal ojfertion is expreffed. In thefe circumstances, and in thefe
only, the two modes of expreffion feem to differ.

FROM the preceding obfervations and examples, it appears,
that AT is nothing elfe but the prepofition AD, taken in the fpe-
cial meanings — added to — joined to, and not having the object
which it governs formally expreffed ; and that however oppolite
the objects may appear to be which it unites, yet it does not
exprefs their oppofition.

THE word AT, as it denotes addition, might, indeed, be €on-
fidered as implying difference ; for if an object is dated as ad-
ditional to another, it mud be at lead numerically different from
that other. And, indeed, AT agrees with the Greek «AA«, the
Latin caterum, and the~French mais, in this refpect, that all of
them imply difference, but none of them oppoftlion. The lad of
them particularly, mais, (inagis], like the Latin AT, implies
difference, only becaufe it denotes addition.

WE have now feen, that the Englifh TOO and the Latin AT,
are really the fame with TO and AD ; that they are, in truth,

nothing

126 On the Engli/h Conjunction TOO,

nothing more than fpecial applications of thefe ; and we have
mown on what thefe fpecialities depend, and that their effect in
a fentence is actually fuch as, by their original fignification,
they may be fuppofed to produce j or, what amounts to the
fame thing, that the effect of them may be fatisfactorily ex-
plained, by reforting to their proper and primitive fignification.

III. LET us next enquire, whether the preceding obfervations
can throw any light on the nature and import of the Greek par-
ticle AE, for the fake of which, chiefly, they have been premifed.

1. THIS particle is, not uncommonly, found after the accufa-
tive cafe of proper names of places, when motion TO thefe places
isexpreffed. " IA,<*AE,"— " To Troy," fcfr.

2. NOT only is it thus affixed to proper names, but alfo to
common, or appellative, nouns, and in the fame fenfe ; " eix«AE," —
" To a houfe." " «yo?^AF.,"— " To the forum." " «A«AE,"—
" To the fea," fcfr.

3. IT is not affixed to the accufative fingular only, but fre-
quently alfo to the accufative plural, " e»x«AR." When, how-
ever, the accufative plural ends in j, it is often difguifed by a
tranfpofition, the letters S and <r being tranfpofed for the fake
of the found. Thus, " A9«**?AE," — " To Athens," is com-
monly written " ASu-aZE." So " X«/*«ZE," — " To the ground j"
" ©«e«ZE,"— " To Thebes," &c.

4. IT is not only applied, in this manner, to the place to
which real motion tends, and at which it is conceived to termi-
nate, but alfo to that object, whatever it be, to which any ac-
tion is directed as njinal caufe. Thus HOMER*, " M» ayo^tvt q>t£i»-
" A " — literally, " Do not fpeak to flight." Let not your fpeech
tend to flight ; let not flight be the objeEl, or final caufe, to -which
it is directed. The Latins ufe ad, and the Englifti to, in the
fame manner. " Hoc fecit ad honorem meum," — " He did
" this to my honour ;" where his doing this is, in like manner,
confidered as tending to my honour.

THE

* Iliad. «'. 252.

The Latin A'Tt and the Greek AE. 127

THE word AE was, indeed, but feldom joined with an accu-
fative cafe by the Attic writers, and only in fome expreflions
which the grammarians confider as adverbial. May we not,
however, conclude from the facts juft now ftated, that, with
the more early Greeks, and even with HOMER, it was conuder-
ed as a prepofition governing the accufative, and equivalent to
the Latin AD, or the Englifh TO ? It is, indeed, always put af-
ter the noun which it governs ; but that makes no difference as
to its real grammatical nature : For though a pre-poCition put af-
ter^ is, in truth, a contradiction, yet it is no uncommon occur-
rence in moft languages. The Latins ufe nobif-cum, tantif-/ter,
&c. and we there-/*?, where-/e, and others fimilar. Thefe laft
alfo our grammarians confider as adverbs ', but they are com-
pound words, in which the prepofition TO is palpably one of
the component parts. And the facts before ftated render it, in
fome degree, probable, that the Greek AE is fometimes, in like
manner, a prepofition put after the word which it governs, and
equivalent to TO.

ON this hypothefis, then, that AE is a prepofition fignifying
TO, it is reafonable to imagine — i.That, though it is, in itfelf,
extremely general^ yet, like the correfponding word in other
languages, it may be ufed in the fpecial meanings of —added
to — -joined to, 8cc. And — 2. That the object, governed by it, may
be not formally ftated, but left to be collected from a preceding
noun or prepofition. In fhort, that it mould follow the fame ana-
logy of application as the Latin AD and the Englifh TO, when
they are called conjunctions. Accordingly we find, that it does
ib in fact. When ULYSSES, in the pth book of the Iliad, enu-
merates to ACHILLES the prefents intended for him by AGA-
MEMNON, he does it in this manner :

" ryw TCI

** \TT' aTrufSf TfiTroJa;, Sixa. AE p
. ** AlSMM AE Atj3ri]aj taxoai, StaStKo, A! i

*• v- 26

128 On tie Englijh Conjunction 7" 00,

In this example, by means of ft, each fucceeding article is re-
prefented as TO, /. e. additional to the preceding article. " Se-
" ven tripods — ten talents of gold TOO" — /'. e. " Ten talents of
" gold additional to the feven tripods." This inflance is pre-
cifely nmilar to that formerly qtvoted from DEN HAM, except
that the object governed by ft, and to which the fucceeding
article is added, is not repeated along with Si. In DEN HAM
it is,

" Wifdom he has, and, TO bis wifdonl, courage" —

which, if expreffed according to the Greek idiom, in the exam-
ple quoted from HOMER, would be,

" Wifdom he has, and courage TOO."

In the above example, then, the word ft is ufed in the fpecial
meaning of additional to, and the object which it governs is not
formally Jlated, but is collected from a preceding noun.

Again, XENOPHON, defcribing the Perfian polity, fays, —

" AiJa<r>«s<r» TB; TrutSag iruqtgotvt/W jtjWxgg-t AE irnfifo^ roif «fj£80-»." —

" They teach the children temperance ; they teach them, TOO,
" obedience to the magiftrates." In this example, by means of
St, their teaching the children obedience to the magiftrates — is repre-
fented as additional to their teaching them temperance. Here alfb the
object governed by S\ is not expreffed ; it is collected from the
preceding propojition — SiS»<rxs<ri -rat ir*i$»t <rwpfo<ruv»iK. It is the amount
of that propofition, taken as a fubftantive. So HOMER, in the
beginning of the Iliad, fays, that the anger of ACHILLES —

A* ipS'i/xas; v)/uX*{ *'^

In this paffage, firft one event is Mated, " The anger of ACHIL-
'* LES brought numberlefs woes upon the Greeks ;" — then another,

The Latin At, and the Greek AE. 129

;>' It fent many brave fouls to PLUTO before their time"" and, by
the means of $, the lafl event is reprefented as additional to the
former. " It fent, TOO, to PLUTO many brave fouls of he-
" roes." In this example, alfo, the object governed' by SI is
not exprefled. It is, however, obvioufly fuggefted by the con-
text ; being the amount of the preceding propofition taken ab-
Jlraftly, or as a noun fubftantive. It is unneceflary to multiply
examples. Every page of every Greek author abounds with
them ; for of this kind are all. thofe in which the fenfe. leads us-
to render & — and.

BUT i\ is often faid to denote oppofttion. In truth it never
does. In this refpect it agrees exactly with the Latin AT. The
events which it unites may appear oppofite ; but St does not in-
timate their being fo : It only marks the one as added, or united,
to the other. This I am warranted: in affirming, by the autho-
rity of the learned, ingenious, and mod laborious HOOGEVEEN,
an authority that will not be queftioned, at leaft as to the fatfs
of the Greek langxiage. His word& are : — " A« ponitur et pro
1 AAAA Sun-fog jjca x«i EKa*1iwjua]ixu, five MEN prsecedit, five non. vel
' pottus dicam fententise diverfse aut adverfanti additur, ita ut
1 vicem T» AAAA explere videatur ; non enim ipfi particula Si ea
** poteftas attribuenda eft, fedfententia cui apponitur *."

FURTHER, — That the fame word mould be employed to de-
note fometimes the union, and fometimes the oppofttion of objects,
is a fuppofition, in itfelf, extremely improbable ;, becaufe, in
that cafe, the nature of the objects themselves could alone de-
termine which of thefe fignifications we ought, in any particu-
lar inftance, to affix to it ; and, if fo, their opposition might
be difcovered without the help of this ambiguous fymbol of it~
At, indeed, like the Latin AT, is often employed to mark the
union of incongruous objects ; and, like AT too, it has then
been imagined to exprefs that oppofition which it only prefup-

r pofesr-

* Doftr. Particul.-L. Gr. p. 245,

130 On the Engli/h Conjunction TOO,

pofes. Thus, when ORESTES, in EURIPIDES, makes the follow-
ing obfervation —

AE oux t%xfw ot
*Oi in ii

it is faid, that ft ftates an oppofition between the name and the
reality of friendship : But, when the obfervations formerly made
on AT, and the fignification of S\, afcertained by the preceding
examples, are taken into confideration, it feems much more
reafonable to fuppofe, that, even here, it retains its proper fig-
nification of union. Literally thus — " For the friends that are
' not friends in adverfity have the name of friends, not the reality
( TOO." " Nomen, AT non rem habent." Two propofitions
in facl are ftated, viz. " That the friends that are not fuch in
* adverfity have the name of friends ;" and fecondly, " That
*' they have not the reality :" And, by the means of Si, inti-
mation is given, that — (whatever might have been expecled) the
latter is united to the former. This feems to be the precife
meaning of the paflage ; and it is elicited without depart-
ing from the known fignification of <&. Let us take an exam-
ple ftill more ftriking. Suppofe that it is faid of a perfon —
" wli JUEV not, i<r1i AE repot" — " He is young, but he is wife."
The fame perfon is reprefented as pofTefling at once the two
feemingly incongruous qualities of youth and wifdom. Can any
perfon allege, that, in this example, it is reafonable to depart
from the known fignification of $, and to eonfider it as denoting
oppojition ? The oppofition between youth and wifdom is fufiucient-
ly apparent, without any expreffed fymbol of it. Is it not
more reafonable to fuppofe Si to give notice, that — (whatever
might have been expecled — however oppofite or incongruous thefe
qualities may fecm to be) they are (in this particular inftancc)
united'. That bis being wife is reprefented as joined EVEN TO his
being young ? This, at leaft, is the intimation that every perfon

feels

* Oreft. 455.

The Latin AT, and the Greek AE. 131

feels himfelf prompted \JQ give, when he obferves the union of fuch
incongruous qualities.

IT fliould feem, then, that the conjunction SI, even when it is
faid to mark oppofition, and tranflated but, ftill retains its ge-
nuine fignification of union y — with this variation, however, that
from the perceived incongruity of the objedls, and the unex-
peclednefs of their union, we ought to give it, in fuch inftances,
the force, not of TO {imply, but of TO with emphafis, or —
EVEN TO.

BUT St, when it appears in the form of SL prepo/ition governing
the accufative, is not accented, — aXv/*7mAE — K*I<TWAE, &c. ; where-
as $\ the conjunction is always accented. If they are one and the
fame, whence arifes this difference ? This circumftance, among
others, has led the very learned and ingenious author quoted
above, to imagine them to be altogether different, and of dif-
ferent origin. His words are : — " Casterum quoties AE iyxx»t>i1<x^
' non conjunctio eft, fed fyllabica adjedio, nee quicquam cum
' particula Si commune habet *. But, notwithftanding this feem-
ing difference between them, and notwithftanding the great au-
thority now quoted, we cannot hefitate to regard them ftill as the
fame word. For, if rightly confidered, this difference as to ac-
cent, in the pronunciation at leaft f, inftead of being an objec-
tion, is really a confirmation of our hypothefis J. We have
feen already, that the prepofitions, when the object which they
govern is expreffed, are commonly not accented, — " He came to
' Rome." In like manner ft, when its accufative is expreffed,
ought, upon this analogy, not to be accented, — " nXu^wo»AE :"
That, on the other hand, when the objedl governed by them
is not exprefled, or not formally ftated, the prepofitions are then
accented, " Wifdom he has, and courage too" AS, therefore, when

r 2 the

* Doftr. Particul. L. Gh p. 262.

•f WITH regard to the accentual marks, they feem to have owed their origin to an un-
fuccefsful attempt to perpetuate a particular mode of pronunciation.

J As far at leaft as a thing fo little known as the nature of Greek accent can be allow-
ed to have weight in the prefent cafe.

•IJ2 Oft the Englijh Conjunction TOO,

the object which it governs, or to which it marks fomething as
united or added, is not exprefled, — that is, ft the conjunction —
ought, upon the fame analogy, to be then accented. Were this
a proper occafion for fuch a difcuffion, it might even be mown,
that this analogy, in giving and with-holding the accent, is not
arbitrary, but founded on principle.

MAY we not then conclude, with fome degree of probability,
that At the conjunction is not a different word from A« the prepoji-
tion, or poft-fix, but only a fpecial application of it ? If this con-
clufion be admitted, it appears, that the conjunctive ufe of the
Latin Ad and the Englifh To illuftrates the nature and ufe of the
Greek conjunction A« ; and that /'/, in its turn, ferves to illu-
ftrate and confirm the account that was given of them. All of
them reprefent the fame idea ; and, in the three taken together,
there appears a beautiful gradation in the application of it.
The Englim Too being applied as afimple intimation of union, is
accounted an additive only ; the Latin At, giving commonly an
emphatic notice of unexpected union, is considered as an adverfa-
tive ; and the Greek At, being applied in either way indifferently,
will appear additive or adverfative, according to the degree of ern-
phafis given to it, that is, according to the nature of the objects
which it unites.

BUT what real knowledge have we gained in the progrefs of
this long enquiry ? The anfwer is, — That the clajfiag difparate phe-
nomena, and referring them to one common principle, is held to
be fcience in Phyfics, — and why fliould it not alfo be accounted
fcience in Grammar*? But, not to give an anfwer which may

feem captious, we have feen

i. THAT

* THE obfervation in the text, although extremely common, appears to miftak* the
half of fcience for the whole. It is undoubtedly the part of fcience to inveftigate what,
in diflimilar objefts, is generic, or common to the whole : But to difcern and to mark
what \sfpecific, or peculiar to each, is nolefs the bufmefs of fcience ; and, 'as it is com-
monly of greater difficulty, fo it is at lead of equal importance. The author, therefore,
has attempted, whether fuccefsfully or not, to afcertain what is peculiar with regard ei-
ther to grammatical nature, or to Jignification, in the various applications of the words
he has difcuffed.

*The Latin A 5T, and the Creek AE. 133

-I. THAT Prepofttions, in various languages, govern not only
nouns fubftantive, but alfo claufes of fentences beaiing the
form of propofitions ; but that fuch claufes are then equal to
nouns in their effeff, the abftracJ amount of them only being
regarded : And, confequently, that, by this feemlng change
of their regimen, no real change is made, either in the gram-
matical nature, or in the fignification of the prepofitions
themfelves.

2. THAT, whether the object governed be a noun fubftantive,
or the amount of a propolition taken as a noun fubftantive,
that object is often not formally ftated, being obvious from

1 the context ; but that neither does the formal ftatement, or
the omiflion of the governed object, make any change, either
in the grammatical nature, -or in the fignification *of the pre-
pofitions.

3. THAT the fpecialities attending thefe prepofttions, when they
are called conjunctions, depend, in as far as the exprejfion is
concerned, on one or other, or both of the following cir-
cumftances, viz. the governed objects being involved in a propo-

Jition, or its not being formally Jiated.

4. THAT the adverfative appearance of fame of the conjunctions
called adverfative^ arifes folely from the emphatic meaning gi-
ven to them, when employed to mark the union of objects

feemingly oppofite or incongruous ; but that, though they may
prefuppofe, they do not exprefs fuch incongruity or apparent
oppofition.

£. BY having mown that the conjunctions Too, At, and AI, are
the fame with the prepofitions To, Ad, and Af, we have difco-
vered their ftrict and proper fignification, and are thereby
enabled to annex to each of them a precife idea, inftead of
having a vague and confufed feeling of their effeft.

Lq/ily, BY having afcertained the grammatical nature of certain
conjunctions, we have advanced one ftep towards the deve-
lopement of the nature of the Conjunction itfelf, — I mean the

part

134 On the Englijh Conjuntlion TOO, &c.

part offpeech fb called, — which is ftill a Dejideratum in grain-
mar, the nature of it being, perhaps, lefs underftood than
that of any other of the parts of fpeech *.

* THE author is fully fenfible that, in feveral places of this effay, he has ufed expref-
fions which, to an Englifh reader, muft appear extremely uncouth. Convinced as he is,
that the word AD or AT, and AE, however varioufly applied, are always reprefentative
of the fame idea, he has attempted to hold that circumftance up to view, by ufing always
the fame Englifh word, fo, in tranflating them. Now, in this attempt, fuch uncouth-
nefs was unavoidable ; for it happens that the Greek, Latin and Englifh languages have
not followed always the fame range in the application of thefe words, although they are
in themfelves ftri&ly fynonymous. And whenever the ufage of our language does not
correfpond with that of the Greek or Latin, a literal tranflation cannot be attempted,
without a manifeft violation of the propriety of the Englifh idiom : — In truth, it frequent-
ly happens that words of the fame generic meaning are found in very different fpecial appli-
cations, in different languages. For example, the Greek prepofition ANTI, and the Latin
ANTE, not only reprefent the fame idea, viz. priority, but they are really the fame word;
and yet the fpecial applications of them are by no means correfpondent with each other,
ANTE, in Latin, never marking oppofition, nor ANTI, in Greek, priority in refpeft of
time. — On the other hand, words that are very different in their original import, fre-
quently produce the fame ultimate effedl. Thus the words AD and EX are not only of
different, but nearly of oppofite meaning ; and yet, of the two expreffions, " AD fuam
" naturam fingere caeteros," and " EX fua natura fingere caeteros," the effect is ulti-
mately the fame.

VII.

VII, ESSAY on the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of the EURO-
PEAN LEGISLATURES. By ALLAN MJCONGCHIE,
Efq; Advocate y F. R. S. ED IN. and Profejbr of Public Law
in the Univerftty of EDINBURGH.

PART II.

S E C T I O N I. Of the Legiflature of the German Nations during the
firjl Ages after their Eflablijhment in the Roman Provinces *.

[Read by the Author, July 19. 1784.]

T T is reafonable to fuppofe, that the founders of the European
•*• flates would, at leaft for foine time after their conquefts, re-
tain much of their former political arrangements. The idea,
therefore, which I have formed of their legiflatures in their
new fituation may, in a great meafure, be anticipated from the
obfervations contained in the preceding part of this paper. At
the fame time, the change from the wilds of Germany to the
cultivated provinces of the empire was very great : And it is
neceflary to furvey, in general, the afpecl which, on this event,
the German governments might be expected to exhibit, in order,
either to form an accurate conception of the general hypothefis
I have adopted, or to perceive the propriety and application
of thofe difcuflions which are intended for its fupport.

AT the clofe of an expedition of a German confederacy
which had been crowned with conqueft, I apprehend that their
general, or common leader, would not lay down his authority as
in ordinary cafes, where victory, rather than new fettlements,

formed

* See PART I. at the beginning of PAPERS OF THE LITERARY CLASS in this VOLUME.

i3<5 On the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of

formed the objecl of the war. The influence he muft have ac-
quired in the courfe of the conqueft, and a general fenfe that
the fecurity of the new acquifitions depended on preferving the
union which had gained them, would neceflarily perpetuate
his office, and render it regal. The confederated tribes, again,
in accommodating themfelves to their new fituation, woxild
adhere as much as poffible to their ancient habits. The con-
quered country would like their old domains be parcelled out,
gentibus cognationibufque hominum ; and thefe tribes would, of
courfe, give their names to their new fettlements, and would
arrange themfelves into thofe divifions and fubdivifions, pagi or
ihires, hundreds and tithings, by means of which alone their
civil, political, and military affairs had formerly been tranfact-
ed. The old afTemblies would flill be celebrated, the old mili-
tary parade exhibited, and the old religious rites folemnized.

As the conquerors were generally much inferior in numbers
to thofe they had fubdued, and as their habits of independence,
and their contempt for the mercenary troops which they had
been accuftomed to vanquilh, muft have rendered it impracti-
cable to keep on foot a ftanding army, the importance of
preferving military fubordination and arrangement among
themfelves was, without doubt, univerfally perceived, and the
rncafures that appeared eflential for this purpofe muft,. there-
fore, have been adopted, whatever might be the inconveni-
ences with which they were attended. On this account, not
only the military exercifes and evolutions, formerly praclifed at
the aflemblies of each pagus and its fubdivifions muft have
been continued, but it would be univerfally found neceflary to
have once a-year at leaft a general mufter of the whole confede-
racy, and to attribute to their general or king the right of
calling forth the nation in arms when he faw caufe, and of en-
forcing the obfervance every where- of thofe regulations which
had been made at their general meetings, by common confent.

AT

The EUROPEAN LEGISLATURES. 137

AT fuch general mufters, the king would hold a council, with
the chiefs of the different tribes, about fxich affairs as could not
be tranfacted without the national concurrence ; and what they
refolved on would, when propofed to the multitude, be in ge-
neral approved of: But, on fome lingular occafions, the people
might entertain different fentiments from their chiefs ; and
inftances, therefore, may have occurred, not only of fuch propo-
fals being rejected, but of oppofite refolutions being embraced.
THE power by which the king exercifed his new authority
, would naturally be founded in the influence of his old retainers,
and in the habits of the vanquifhed natives, which mufl have
univerfaily difpofed them to attribute to him the prerogatives
of the imperial crown. From this laft fource, the forms of
official bufinefs, which, as far as preferved, were neceffarily con-
dueled by the vanquifhed, would, wherever the king was con-
cerned, retain the language of defpotifm : And in this way,
likewife, as the conquerors would, at their firfl fettlement, have
more lands than they could well occupy, the greater part of the
imperial fifes (thofe vaft domains which monopolized the Ro-
man provinces) would remain to the king: And, without
doubt, the right of diflributing the lands at the fojourning of
the tribe, which was the known and ancient prerogative of the
German chiefs, would greatly facilitate his acquisition of the
fifes, without envy or difpute. Thus the king would become
the mofl confiderable proprietor in the nation, and his vafl pof-
feffions would enable him to multiply exceedingly the ancient
numbers of his retainers, and to afford them, in return for
their fervices, more valuable rewards than the battle-horfe, or
the conquering fpear.

THE retainers of the fubordinate chiefs would, in like manr
ner, be multiplied and rewarded with lands. Under the em-
pire, the municipia, as well as the emperor, had their proper
domains, from the produce of which they defrayed the public
expences of the community. Befides thefe domains, there were

/

1 38 On the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of

large commons allotted for the promiscuous ufe of the inhabi-
tants of particular diftricts ; and the devaftations of the con-
queft left large tracts of land deflitute of proprietors. Now,
independently of the grants which the fubordinate chiefs might
fpare from their own large eftates, they muft evidently have
had great influence in the difpofal of fuch public, common or
wafle lands. PofTefTed of the prerogative of diflributing the
lots of the citizens ; inheriting, for the naoft part, a confider-
able family-intereft, which the wealth of the conqueft had con-
firmed ; entrufted, in the firft inftance, with the care of the
public treafure and the public fafety, and free from the jea,-
lous factions of an independent ftate, it muft foon 4iave be-
come a matter of courfe for them to make grants of fuch lands
to their favourites and retainers *". The conditions of ths
grants were, no doubt, various. Some, we know, were liks
the lots of the citizens conferred in full property ; but, among
people who had acquired wealth by conqueft, before either laws
or government were ripe to guard it, the natural and ordinary
terms of all fuch tranfactions muft have been military fervice,
yielded on the one hand, and lands and protection conferred in
return. Thefe grants were termed benefices, and the grantees
beneficiaries ; and, in this way, a great number of the more
enterprifing and better fort of people wcr.e not only diftinguifh-
ed, as before the conqueft, by their particular attachment and
fidelity to certain chiefs, but came to be fubjedted to the fpe*
cific obligation of yielding to the king, or to other great men>
an extent of military fervice,. much beyond what they owed to
their country, in common with the reft of the nation..

BUT however much this practice may have added to the
powers of the magiftracy, or whatever revolutions in government
it afterwards produced., there is no reafon to imagine, that, in

early

* IN Sweden, the towns, hundreds, and. provinces had/eac'oof them commons, bearr
ing refpe&ively the technical names of -lamfalt, haradzalmaining, and land almaining^
grants of which tvcre obtained from the chief magiftf atcs, vix. lagman, hereda, <b"c. ; and
fuch public and common lands are natural appendages to all rude communities..

The EUROPEAN LEGISLATURES. 139

early times, it affected, in any fhape, the ftructure of the le-
giflature. As attendance around their chiefs at the national af-
femblies was a condition by which benefices were field, the be-
neficiaries would be more punctual than others in frequenting
the diets ; but it is not to be thought, that, on fuch occafions,
the royal beneficiaries were either admitted into the council of
the king and chiefs of pagi, or deliberated apart from other
freemen.

I LIKEWISE apprehend that there is no fufficient reafon for con-
ceiving, that either the acquifition of the Roman towns by the
conqueft, or the embracing of Chriflianity after it, would make
any material innovation in the form of the original German legi-
flature. The government of the Roman towns was well fuited to
combine with the German political arrangements. Moft of them
had, in fact, been originally pagi *, and ftill retained vefliges of
their primary ftructure ; and thofe that had been founded in
civilized times were, modelled after Rome, herfelf unqueftion-
ably a production of rude ages. The curiales, or ancient bur-
gefTes, were every where arranged into wards or tithings under
headfmen elected by them, called decuriones. The curiales
formed a popular afTembly; the decuriones a fenate. Magi-
ftrates chofen by them, and holding their offices for a limited
time, exercifed a fubordinate jurifdiction ; and, like thofe of
Rome, judges, felected from the order of decuriones, tried law-
fuits. Befides, each confiderable town ufually chofe a great
man to be its protector and patron, and was like wife fubjected
to one or more magiftrates, inverted with military and civil
powers, and appointed by the emperor.

NOTHING, then, could be more natural than that the muni-
cipia mould, immediately on the conqueft, acquire the afpect
of the German pagi. The new fettlers naturally mixed with

/ 2 the

* THERE were above an hundred fovereign ftates in Gaul, and many more in Spain,
when fubdued by the Romans ; and there were jij free cities in Gaul under the
empire.

1 40 On the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of

the curiales, tranfacted the affairs of the community, and yield-
ed military fervice, under their tithing men or decuriones, led
by a comm m chief, called a gr off, burgraff, or counf, in the
fame way as the inhabitants of the country diftricts.

THE cohveriion to Chriftianity was, however, an event that,
though it created no change in the general ftructure of the le-
giflature, muft have naturally augmented the numbers of the
deliberative body which prefided in it. As Chriftianity inca-
pacitated the leaders of tribes from officiating as chief priefts at
thofe religious rites which were ufually celebrated at the open-
ing of public affemblies, the biihops and abbots came naturally
to difcharge this duty on fuch occafions. In this way, they
muft have fhared in the rank, by fharing in the functions of
the chief; and the fituation in which they thus appeared at the
opening of all political conventions, would enable them to join,
with much effect, in the deliberations which enfued ; and their
fuperior knowledge, their facred character, and their influence
with the people, would foon acqxiire them power equal to their
rank. They muft, therefore, have been well entitled to demand
admiflion into that council, which was formed by the king and
the lay chiefs, at the national affemblies ; and, as they balanced
the authority of thofe chiefs, we cannot doubt, that the king
would be difpofed to give the utmoft effect to their claim. Ac-
cordingly, we every where find the dignified clergy prefiding
along with the lay magiftrates, in the provincial affemblies of
every degree in all the Gothic nations, and enjoying every ad-
vantage, in point of rank and authority, in their national diets.
— As to the inferior clergy, they muft long have continued
blended with the body of the freemen. It was by degrees only
that eccleliaftics were at; firft exempted, and afterwards prohi-
bited from yielding military fervice j and we may be fure, that,
in a rude age, the clerical character muft be unable to extin-
guilh fuddenly that of the warrior.

THE

The EUROPEAN LEGISLATURES.

•

THE leading propofition in the foregoing hypothecs is, that
the diets of the European Mates were originally national aflein-
blies, containing, dejure, the whole warriors belonging to them,
conduced by their local chiefs or magifbrates, who, together
with the king and dignified ecclefiaftics, formed a fenate or
council that, in general, directed the common refolves. I pro-
pofe, in this part of the paper, to confider the grounds of this
proportion, in the firfl place ; and then, chiefly with a view to
our own country, examine the evidence relative to the delibera-
tive council which I have afcribed to the diets, and to the
fituation of towns, in order to juflify the hypothecs, in dating
that the former was an aflembly of the magiftracy, and that the
latter reforted to the diets, in the fame manner as the country
diftrids.

CONSIDERING how certainly we know, that the warriors or li-
ber I homines of every tithing and hundred were bound to attend
perfonally, not only on the meetings of thefe diflricts, but in the
general meetings of the province or mire, where they not only-
were reviewed by the chief magiftrate, but aflifled in the judicial
and political deliberations which the bufinefs of their quarter
reqxiired, it might have been imagined, that a natural analogy
would have led authors to agree in the fuppofition, that the na-
tional diet was nothing more than an aggregate of the provin-
cial diets, in the fame manner as the provincial diets were ag-
gregates of thofe of lefler -diftricls. The difficulty we feel in
accommodating our rcafonings to a period, when both the bu-
linefs and the amufement of a freeman confided in making-
war, and when the habits of the migratory life of fhepherd
tribes were ftill recent, and rendered the manners of fociety ex-
tremely different from our own, is the only reafon I can offer
for this opinion having met with little attention or regard.
Strong arguments in favour of it, from the hiftory of the an-
cient German nations, I flatter myfelf, will be fuggefled from
what has been flared in the former parts of this paper. Thofe

I42 On tie ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of

from the hiftory of latter times, I hope, will be found equally
fatisfactory.

WE have no details refpecling the diets on the continent, pre-
vious to the rife of the houfe of Martel. GREGORY of Tours,
in a pafTage formerly quoted, mentions the Franks aflembling in
their champ de mars " per phalanges * ;" in other places, he calls
their national council an exercittts ; and we have frequent men-
tion of fimilar conventions "f, before as well as after DAGOBERT I.
when the power of the mayors of the palace came to engrofs
that of the crown. The champs de mars were fields belonging
to the great cities of Gaul, allotted for the recreation of the in-
habitants, and named after the campus martius in Rome. And,
as the aflemblies of citizens and reviews of the troops were
held in them, it was natural they fhould likewife be chofen for
the meetings of the diets of the Franks, whether general or pro-
vincial. We ufually find mention made of thefe aflemblies as

celebrated

* THUS he mentions a placitum, in which GONTRAN appointed CHILDEBERT the heir
of his kingdoms ; and tells, that there " GONTRAN cohortabatur omnem exercitum,"
and feafled them for three days. Lib. 7. § 33. In the fame way, when CLOTAIRE
marched againft the Saxons, and they offered terms of accommodation, which the king
approved of, and propofed to his people, he relates, that they (Franci) repeatedly rejeft-
ed them j and when CLOTAIRE declared to them, " Si abire volueritis, ipontanea voluntate
" nou fequar," that " ipfum vi detrahentes interficcre voluerunt, fi cum illis abirc dif-
" ferret." Lib. 4. § 14. See alfo lib. 6. § 45. An ancient author writes, " Franco-
" rum regibus moris erat kal. Mali, prasfidere coram tola gente, et falutare et falutari, ob-
" fequia et dona accipere. SIGEBERT ad aun. 662 pontan. orig. Franc." Lib. 6. p. 485.

-{•WHEN, in A. D. 575, SIGEBERT wanted to dethrone his brother CHILPERIC, he wasaf-
faffinated by two pueros Tarvuancnfes, who had been hired by the wife of CHILPERIC,
and aflifted at his election to the throne with this view. The election was like that of
CLOVIS, by the nation aflembled. " Colledus eft ad eum omnis exerdtus, impofitumque

" fupra clypeum, regem t\irafupcr fe Jlatuunt : dixitque Fredegundis (fciz. pueris.)

" Ite ad cuneum SIGEBERTI, et adfimulate ut eum fupra vos in regem elevare debeatis."
Gefla Francor. § 32. ; and GREG. lib. 4. § 46. When, about A. D. 612, THECDEBERT
claimed ALSACE from THIERRI, the hiftorian relates, " Unde placitum inter hos duos re-
* ' ges ut Francorum judicio finiretur in Saloiffo (Seltz.) caftro inftituunt. Ibjque THEU-
" DERICUS (or THIERR.I) cum SCARITJS tantum decem millibus acceffit, THEUDEBERTDS
" vero cum magno exercitu Auftrafiorum." Fredeg. Chron. § 37. When BRUNEHADT,
the JEZEBEL of the North, was put to death by CLOTAIRE, it was " advocato agmine
" Francorum et Burgundiorum, et omnibus vociferantibus Brunihildum morte urpiffi-
'* ma -cfTe condignam." Gejla Francor. \ 40. Again; " Cum autem denunciatum fiiit
•** f taciturn qua die ad prxliandum convenire deberent." 5 3O>

The EUROPEAN LEGISLATURES. 143

celebrated in the fpring, previous to a military expedition ; to
which, I apprehend, they, in the fame manner as in the moft
ancient times, were a iieceffary prelude *. On thefe occanons,
the name of placitum exerdtale is often afcribed to them, while
the term placitum fimply is attributed to all diets without ex-
ception, where judicative and political authority was ex-
ercifed. This circumftance itfelf looks as if thefe affemblies
had differed only in their objecl. The power and means of
convoking them, and die perfons that they confifted of, muft
have been the fame in both ; and, without deliberative powers-,
we cannot conceive any thing more abfurd than to have beftow-
ed the name of placitum on an affembly of the national force.

BUT, though we have no particular defcription of the Me*
rovingian placita, or malla f , we find every where evidence^
that all affairs of confequence were tranfacted in them. Tha
may or of the palace was chofen in them '$.; differences among the
royal family, and with foreign nations, were decided in them |j ;
and the Salic law feems to have owed to them its fanclion §.

UNDER

* See PEPIN'S Expediton to Italy. FreJeg. Clran. Contia.

•f- MAEL, in German, an aiTembly or^convivium.

J Fredeg. Chron. cap. 43. et 89. And, I apprehend, the kings themfelves likewife..
In a difpute between CLOTAIRE II. and the children of THIERR.I, CLOTAIRE makes this
reply to an embafly from the latter : " Judicio Francorum eleilo, quicquid precedente do-
" mino a Francis inter eohleni judicabitur, pollicetur fe implere." Ibid. \ 40. In
the fame way, the conttaiit expreffiorv ufed in the Chronicles to record n fucceflion
to the crown, is, " Et filium ejus Franci fuper fe rcgem ftatuunt." Gejl: Franc. \ 43.
The very ceremony of the coronation of the French kings, as practifed in modern
times, is that of an election by the grandees, aflembled within the church of Rheims,
and an approbation of the people aflembled without. In fact, however^ the Chronicles
often mention elections in-exprefs terms.

\ Thus AISTXJLFCS, king of the Lombards, engaged, " Ut omnia per judicium Fran-
" corum emendaret ;" and it was " per facerdotes et optimates Francorum," that he
obtained peace. Fredeg. Cbron. Continual. In the fame way, " GUNTRAN et CHILPERIC
" pacem fecerunt, pollicentes alter alterutrum, ut quicquid faccrdotes vel feuk/res popu-
" li judicarent, pars parti componeret quse terminum legis exceflerat." GREG. Tur.
lib, 6. ^ 31.

5 IN the preamble of the compilation of it, as corre&ed under CLOTAIRE II.. the au-
thority it proceeded from is thus defcribed : " Temporibus CLC^TARII regis, una cum

" principibua

144 0« the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of

UNDER the Carlovingians, we have much more particular ac-
counts of thefe affemblies. The moft unambiguous expref-
fions of hiftorians indicate that they were national *.

HINCMAR relates, that, at the placita, the " Epifcopi abbates,
f velhujufmodi honorificentioresclerici,fibimet honorificabiliter
' a cactera multitudine primo mane fegregarentur ;" and that a
fimilar feparation took place, as to the comites, " vel hujufmodi
' principes." Thefe, he fays, formed two councils, which met
together in one, when the affairs under deliberation required it.
Here, then, we have the magiftracy, or governors of towns
and counties, and the dignified clergy, forming a fenate, and
feparated from the multitude of whidi the reft of the diet
was compofed. And it will be particularly obferved, that this
multitude were, by no means, as has often been pretend-
ed, a rabble of attendants and fpeclators ', for it is related,
that no " inferiores perfonas" were admitted among them ; and
that their functions were to hear the refolves of the lay and ec-
clefiaftical magiftracy ; and fometimes (in cafes, I fuppofe, of
very general intereft) deliberate on them, and confirm them,
not by their power in executing them, but by their fuffrage in
approving of them f.— There is alfo a leffer diet mentioned by

HINCMAR,

" principibus fuis, id funt, 33 eplfcopis, 34 ducibus, et 79 comitibus, vel csetero populo
' conftituta eft." And HINCMAR, archbifhop of Rheims, under Loois LK DEBONNAIRE,
a well informed author, and anxious to preferve information of the conftitution of his
country, Teems to hold it as a thing perfe&ly notorious, that, in all times, the national
confent had been given to the promulgation of laws. " Habent enim reges," fays he,
" et reipublicse miniflri, leges quibus, in quacunque provincia degentes regere debent
'' habent capitula Chriftianorum regum, ac progenitorum fuorum, qu* general! confen-
" fu fidelium fuorum tenere legaliter promulgaverunt." Vol. \\. p. 204. The capitula-
ries are exprefs on this fubjeft. One of them runs as follows : " Per capitula avi et pa-
" tris noftri, quae Franci pro lege tenenda judicaverunt et fideles noftri, in generali pla-
" cito noftro confervanda decreverunt." Cafit. Carol. Cat, tit. 39. cap. 8.

* IT is related under the year 767, " Ibi fynodicum fecit (ftiz. PJPINUS) cum omnibus
Francis in campo Bertini. Annales Francor.

•\ IT is thus I underftand the following paflage. It begins with mentioning, that
there were two diets in the year, one of the general kind I am treating of, in which the

whole

Me EUROPEAN LEGISLATURES. 145

HINCMAR, which, he fays, confifted only of the feniores and
pratcipui conciliarii^ i. e. " the magiftracy and principal officers
of the crown," and was deftined for the purpofe of making pre-
fents to the king, and confulting on fuch affairs refpecting the
bufinefs of the enfuing year, as required early deliberation.

OF this period, as well as the former, it is alfo to be re-
marked, that we find the term placitum applied indifcriminate-
ly to the affembly fummoned for immediate war, and to that
where deliberation rather than action was its object *.

THE ancient German diet, under the houfes of Saxony and
Franconia feems to have retained precifely the form which
HINCMAR afcribes to it under CHARLEMAGNE. At the election
of CONRAD II. A. D. 1024, we find the nation aflembling in
the plains between Worms and Mentz ; the Franks on the weft,
the Saxons, Carinthians, and Bavarians, on the eaft. The dig-
nified clergy, and the dukes, counts, and marquifles, retired to
an ifland on the Rhine, and agreed, that two perfons, named
CONRAD, mould be the candidates. The archbifhop of Mentz
propofed the eldeft firft. The dignified clergy gave him their
fufFrages, then the dignified laymen, and, in fine, the multitude
of the nobility, diftributed into national battalions, gave their
confent by cries and acclamations f. PFEFFEL, vol. i. p. 180.

I NEED fcarce obferve, that this form of the diet under the houfe
of MARTEL affords the ftrongeft indication of its form under that

of CLOVIS ; for it is clear from the Capitularies, that the feus had

t not

whole bufinefs of the year was arranged, fo as not to be altered : " Nifi fumma necef-
" fitas quse toto regno incumbebat ;" and thus proceeds, " In quo placito generalitas
" univeribrum majorum, tarn clericorum quam laicorum, conveniebat; feniores, propter
" concilium ordinandum ; minores, propter idem concilium fufcipiendum et interdum pa-
" riter tradtandutn, et non ex potentate, fed ex proprio mentis intelleftu vel fententia
" confirmandum." Vol. 2. p. 211.

* SEE paflage in the preceding note, as an example of the latter ; and for the former,
fee Capit. paflim. Thus, cap. 2. Car. Mag. cap. 9. where the bifhops, counts and ab-
bots are required to have people, " Qui, tec. ad diem denunctati placiti veniant, et ibi
" oflendant quomodo fint parati. Habeant loricasvel galeas et temporalem hoftem."

\ THE eleftion of LOTHARIOS II. A. D. 1125, was decided againft the inclination of

the fenate, by the will of the multitude, of which, as the accurate PFEFFEL obferves,

" Les

146 On the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of

not as yet affected the general ftrudlure ' of the legiflature ; and
we know of no other frmrce from which any great change in it
could have proceeded. Betides, the form of the Polifli diet coin-
cides fo exactly with that above defcribed, while Poland, at the
fame time, was never feudalized, as greatly flrengthens the con-
clufion, that it preferved much of the original ftruclure of the Eu-
ropean diets 5 efpecially as the fingular tenacioufnefs of the Poles
to ancient cuftoms, and their feclufion from many of the fources
of political innovations, render it otherwife highly probable, that
theymuft retain more of the arrangements of ancient Europe than
are to be fcmnd in other nations. In the diet of Poland, the fenate,
confifting of the bifhops, and of the provincial magiftrates, pala-
tines, and caftellans, /. e. governors of counties or fortrefTes, aflem-
ble within an inclofure, called ihzfaopa. The king prefides, and,
in his abfence, or during an interregnum, the archbifhop of
Ghefna. The nobleffe are arranged without, under the banners
of their palatinates, and approve, or reject, by exclamations,
fuch proportions as the fenate think proper to make to them *.
And it is to be remarked, that defcent alone, without any eftate in
land, is fufficient to conflitute a perfon a member, either of
the provincial or national diets f.

WHAT

" Les hiftoriens font monter le norr.bre a plus cle foixante mille homines, tous ranges
" fous leurs drapeaux et divifes en fix brigades." Vol. i. p. 242.

* INSTEAD of the noblefTe of the palatinates in the ordinary diets, only deputies at-
tend ; but this is known to be merely a modern invention, and that flill it is competent
to afTemble the whole body of the nobility, which is aflually done when a comitia palu-
data, or an afiembly more deftined for afiion than deliberation is convoked.

•f- THE account SHERNHOOK gives of the ancient Swedifh diet mows, that it was alfb
a national aflembly of confederate tribes arranged by the diftrifts to which they belong-
ed : " H* provinciae," fays he, " parvum quoddam reipublicae corpus fibi fecifle vi-
" dentur, non alias in communi cum reliquis confulentes, quam cum aut de holte pel-
" lendo, aut rege eligendo vel fuftentando ageretur : Non enim ut hodie feparati ordi-
" nes erant fed provinciae ; ubi mixti nobiles, clerici, cives, milites, ruftici provinciatim,
" et pro communi habitationis loco refponderent : Quod et antea diftum eft, et inter
'* fe ord'rnes magis quam provincias conjunxit." P. 47. As to the term rujlici, it may
be obferved, that only the peafants of the domains fend the reprefentatives which form
the houfe of peafants in the modern diet. The crown continuing eleftive, they had
become freemen and proprietors in early times.

The EUROPEAN LEGISLATURES. 147

WHAT we know of the Spanifh diets before the invafion of
the Saracens, is alfo agreeable to the fame notions of the ancient
legiflatures. We have evidence, that both the grandees and the
populace gave their fuffrages at the elections of the Gothic kings*.
It is certain, that their cortes, or councils, were attended by the
dignified clergy, and by the palatines, or great provincial magi-
ftrates, comprehending duces, comitcs et gardingi, who had the
right of fummoning and leading forth the national militia f.
We have likewife evidence, that this militia, when in actual
fervice, formed occafionally what might be called a placitum ex-
ercltale :f> It feems highly probable, therefore, that this militia
likewife attended the cortes, which we find always accompanied
with a multitude, to whom the refolutions of the deliberative
body of it were communicated for approbation || ; a circum-

t 2 fiance

* IN the hiftory of the election and expedition of WAMBA into Gaul, published by
an archbifhop of Toledo, it is not only faid of him, " Quern totius gentis et patrias
" communio elegit," and that at his election " Populi acclamatio extitit," but alfo that
he had the " anhelantia plebium vota ;" and that a duke, by menaces, compelled him
to accept of the crown, Apud du Chefne, vol. i.

f Vide L L. Vifigoth. et Concil. Tolet. Can. paflim.

J WE have a very curious record of the trial and judgment of PAULUS, and his aflb-
ciates, for revolting in Narbonne againft WAMBA, in A. D. 673. It bears, that, after they
were vanquifhed and taken captive, " Convocatis adunatifque omnibus nobis, itidem
" fenioribus cunftis palatii, Gardingis omnibus, omnique palatino officio, feu etiam ad-
" flante exercitu univerfo in confpedtu gloriofiffimi noftri domini, PAULUS cum praedic-
" tis fociis fuis judicandus afliftebat." It does not certainly appear who the nobis
omnibus were, for there are no fubfcriptions preferved j but, I imagine, the enumeration
which fucceeds that expreffion is the true interpretation of it. Accordingly, fentence
feems to have been pronounced by the whole aflembly, " Ob hoc fecundum latae legis
" edidla, \\QComnescomtnunidefinivimusJentcntia." The punifliment was " mors tur-
" piffima," with a refervation, that the king might {pare their lives, " Sed non ali-
" ter quam evulfis luminibus." The proceedings at the trial are highly curious. The
king firft afked the rebels if he had done them any injury. They confefled he had not.
Then the record of their having joined in the king's election, and fworn fealty to him,
authenticated by their {ubfcription1!, was produced. Then followed the record of
PAULUS having accepted of their fealty; and, in fine, two laws of the councils of
Toledo againft rebellion were read. The firft of thefe fteps was probably neceflary, be-
caufe the Gothic kings at their election " fidem populis reddiderant." Apud du Chefne,
•vol. i. p. 831.

|| E. G. THE fpeech of St LEANDER, when the cortes renounced Arianifm, in the
reign of RECAREDO, in the end of the fixth century.

148 On the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of

jftance which well explains why, on a vacancy of the throne,
after a fucceflbr was named by the palatines, it was always
efleemed neceflary to aflemble a folemn diet, in order to have
their appointment confirmed, and the right of the new king re-
cognized by die nation.

IF we turn our refearches more homeward, we {hall find,
that every thing, in the like manner, indicates, that the legifla-
ture was a national aflembly.

THE very places of meeting, in die open air, and in great
plains afford reafon to fuppofe, diat the diets of the Anglo-
faxons were very popular alTemblies j and all the expreffions of
hiflorians, in mentioning them, likewife eftablifh that fuch was
the fact *. Even after die conqueft, the Englifh diets were ftill
at times very numerous. In an affembly under WILLIAM RUFUS,
A. D. 1 094, almofl all the nobility of England are faid to have
been prefent f ; and it appears, that, befides them and the dig-
nified clergy, a great crowd of both clergy and laity attended ;
and diat a miles, unus de multitudine, made a fpeech, encou-
raging Archbifhop ANSELM in the conduct he was purfuing:}:.
Accordingly, even the laws of the Conqueror bear to have been
enacted, " Per commune concilium totius regni |[." And the

ancient

* THE council, or diet, in which EDGAR was to be abfolved from penance, in
A. D. 973, is defcribed thus : " Adunatis epifcopis, abbatibus, et cseteris principibus,
" cum tola regni ingenuitate, coram eis adftante irmumera populi multitudine." The
council of A.D. 697, afiembled at Berghamlted, enafted fundry laws, or canons, which bear
that they were decreed by the clergy ; " Viris utique militaribus et communi omnium
" confenfu." Earl GODWIN purged himfelf of the murder of the king's brother AL-
FRED, " coram rege et univerfa gente." Saxon Citron. 1052. MATTHEW of Wefttnin-
iter fays, " Maxima pars regni, tarn clericorum quam laicorum, in unum congregati
" pari confeufu KNUTONEM in regem elegerunt." The Saxon Chronicle relates, that,
on HAROLD'S death, " Populus univerfus elegit EDWARDUM in regem."

•J- EADMEB.US calls it fimply, " totius regni adunatio." P. 39.
$ Ibid. p. 3.6.

§ THE election of the dignified clergy was anciently in parliament } and I fee a re-
cord in Madox, where STEPHEN, in veiling the bilhop of Bath with the temporalities of

his

The EUROPEAN LEGISLATURES. 149

ancient entry in the journals of the Houfe of Lords fuggefts
the idea of the nation having been aflembled along with them :
" Pracfente etiam tato populo, et plebe de domo communi." The
laft words, ct plebe de domo ccmmum, muft evidently have been
added after the admiflion of the reprefentatives of trading incor-
porations among the milites, or proper citizens of the nation.

WE alfo find the fame indifcriminate application of the diet
to civil and military purpofes as in the continent. So low
down as 23d HENRY II. A. D. 1177, mention is made of an
extraordinary parliament being aflembled at Windfor, attended
by all the earls, barons, and almoft the whole military tenants .
of the king, with their horfes and arms, prepared to go where-
ever he mould command them *.

IN Scotland, alfo, we have full evidence of the ancient diets
being a national aflembly. BENEDICTUS Abbas, under the
year 1188, mentions, That the bifhop of Durham, and others,
were fent by HENRY II. to WILLIAM, king of Scotland, to col-
lect tithes : That WILLIAM, being defirous to get back certain
caftles that had been taken from him, agreed, provided the
confent of his fubjecls could be obtained : That the ambafTa-
dors came accordingly, " In LEONEIS ad locum quae dicitur
" Brigeam ; — et ipfe rex Scotorum, cum omnibus fere epifcopis
" et comitibus et baronibus terras fuse, et cum infinita homi-
" num fuorum multitudine, ad locum praefixum venerunt ; et
' audita adventus nunciorum regis caufa, et eorum petitione,

" habito

his fee, addrefles the grant, " Archiepifcopis, epifcopis, abbatibus, comitibus, baroni-
" bus, et omnibus Jidelibus, per toram Angliam, conAitutis ;" and adds, that the grant
proceeded, " Canon ica prius eledtione praecedente, et communi veftro concilio, voto et
" favore profequente." This charter is tefted in a general council at Weftmiufter }
" Audientibus et collaudantibus omnibus fidelibus," <iyc.

* BENEDICT. Abb. apud LITTKLTON, HEN. II. vol. 3. p. 290. Even under HENRY III,
an. 1223, " Natali domini," fays the Chronicle of Dunftaple, " venit rex Northamp-
" ton. et cum eo D. Cant, archiepilcopus, et tot epifcopi, et comiies et barones, et
" milites armati, quod nee in diebus pat ris fui, nee poftea, dignofcitur tale feftum in
w Anglia celebratum." Af. Hody, p, 300. See alfo note below, on p. 150.

150 On the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of

' habito cum fuis concilio, refpondit, fe non pofle animos eo-
' rum inclinare ad decimam dandam. Et ipfi pro fe refponde-
' runt, fe nunquam decimam daturos ; nee etiam fi rex An-
' gliae, et dominus eorum, rex Scotiaz, juraffent fe illam habi-
' turos, unquam illam darent*." In the laws of WILLIAM,
we find fome introduced as follows : " Aflifa regis WILLIELMI
' facia apud Perth, quam epifcopi, abbates, comites, barones,
' thani, et tota communitas regni tenere firmiter juraverunt,"
EsV. f . " Statuit rex WILLIELMUS apud Sconam, de commu-
' ni concilio et deliberatione praelatorum, comitum, et baro-
' num, ac libere tenentium,'' <&c. ^. Nothing, however, is
extant which communicates more fatisfaclory evidence of the
ancient diet being an affembly of the nation, than the indenture
entered into between ROBERT BRUCE and his people, in the year
1326. It proceeds on the narrative, that the king, holding his
full parliament, where were affembled the earls, barons, bur-
gefles, and all the other freeholders of his kingdom, made a
propofal to them, which they approved of, and the perfons ap-
proving are enumerated in the following explicit manner : " Qui
1 omnes et finguli comites, barones, burgenfes, et libere te-
" nentes, tarn infra libertates quam extra, de domino rege, vel
" quibufcunque aliis dominis infra regnum, mediate vel imme-
" diate tenentes, cujufcunque fuerint conditionis ||, confide-
" rantes et fatentes prsemifla effe vera, &c. habito fuper prx-
" miffis communi ac diligenti traclatu, 13c. unanimiter concef-
" ferunt," &c . §. This very curious record, the original of

which

* Vol. 2. p. 515. -J- Cap. 7. See alfo general title. J Cap. 32.

|| THE ecclefiaftics Teem to have been omitted in this enumeration, becaufe the grant
in agitation regarded only laymen. In the parliament, or aflembly of the ftates at Ayr,
j4. D. 1315, where the fettlement of the crown was made on ROBERT I. the enumera-
tion is as follows : " Epifcopi, abbates, priores decani, archidiaconi, et caeteri eccle-
" fiarum praelati, comites, barones, et cseteri de communitate regni Scotia;, tarn
" cleric! quam laici." Ap. ANDERSON'S Independence, Appendix, No. 24.

5 THE diet which HENRY I. of England fummoned in 1115 or 1116, to recognize the
fucceflSon of bis fon WILLIAM, feems to have contained vaffals of fubjedts. MALMSBUR.Y

fays,

The EUROPEAN LEGISLATURES. 151

which is flill extant in the Advocates Library, proves, that, not-
withftanding the feudal fubordination which was then taking
deep root in Scotland, the loweft military tenants in the king-
dom aflembled in the national diet, and ftill retained fo much
of their original independence, as to exercife a right of fuffrage
there, in common with their feudal fuperiors *. I exprefs my-
felf in this manner, becaufe, I imagine, every perfon acquaint-
ed with the hiftory of the progrefs of fociety, or with the ge-
nius of the feudal fyftem, muft perceive, that the admimon of
vaffals to the exercife of any of the functions of fovereignty,
in common with their lords, under the predominancy of that
fyftem, could never have been the refult of it, but muft have
been the remaining effect of a fituation of things anterior to
that inequality which the feudal arrangements of landed pro-
perty had introduced or confirmed.

THIS principle, likewife, leads me to obferve, that the hiftory
of the reprefentation in parliament of the counties, whether in.
Scotland or England, does, in fac~l, contain evidence, that the
freeholders in both were originally members of that legiflature,
from attendance on which they were excufed, only on condition,
of conveying their powers to delegates officiating in their {lead-
In

(ays, " Ei (w'«. WILLIAM) vix dum 12 annorum eflet, otnnes liberi homines Anglise
" et Normanniae, cujufcunque ordinis et dignitatis, cujufcunque. domini Jideles, manibus
" et facramento fe dederc coadYi funt." See HODY, />. 198.

* THE iter jufticiarii proves, that fubvaflals were anciently feftatores of the king's
court : " Primo vocentur (edtatores, et eorum domini ; quia tametfi fedlatores compa-
" rent, tamen eorum domini obligantur ad comparendum, coram jufticiario in fuo iti-
" nere." Again j " Seftatores curise iterum vocari debent finguli bis, cum ipforum
:' dominis." It appears, too, from cap. 15. Quon. Alt. That a vaflal of a baron was
probably, at the period of the regulation there mentioned, flill a fe&ator curiae viceco-
mitis. Poffibly, cap. 67. ejufd. may have been the origin of their being excluded the
county courts of freeholders. It is there provided, that a baron cannot be judged by a.
vavafor, nor a vavafor by a burgefs ; but that a lower perfon might be judged by a .
higher. In the decline of the feus again, -viz. in 1593, all landed men were found by
the court of feflion to be pares curiae, and competent to fit as jurymen, even in the trial,
of peers before the jufticiar, MACK. Crim. part. 2, tit. 8,

On the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of

In Scotland, we know, that it was not till the latter part of the
fixteenth century, that freeholders were excluded from fitting
along with, their reprefentatives ; and though, during the pe-
riod of domeflic troubles that occurred between the reigns of
ROBERT I. and JAMES I. the feeblenefs of the crown appears
to have permitted fuch an ufurpation of fovereignty in the fub-
jec"l fuperiors, as to deprive their military vaflals of the title
and rights of freeholders, the indenture I have quoted proves
that they originally poiTefTed them. And the analogy of Eng-
land, where they never loft them *, but retain, at this day,
the name and privileges of freeholders, in common with the
tenants in capite, confirms powerfully the evidence which that
indenture affords.

IT may further be remarked, as a circumftance extremely
favourable to the hypothefis 1 have offered, not only that all
freeholders owed military fervice, but that, in Saxon times, the
expeditio militaris formed an article of the trinoda neceffitas in-
cumbent

* I KNOW Englifli antiquaries fiippofe there was a time when the vaflals of fubjedts
•were admitted to the privileges of freeholders. But there is no veftigfc of evidence that
fuch an event ever took place, or that there was room for it, by their ever having been
deftitute of thofe privileges. The facl, I apprehend, was, that the vigorous admini-
flration of the Anglo-Norman princes prevented, in a great meafure, that ufurpation of
fovereignty in the fubjeft-fuperiors, which occurred in other countries. Hence, though
property was arranged in England according to feudal ideas, the vaflal preferved much
of his public privileges and natural equality as a citizen. Thus the valtiafor, or power-
ful vaflal of a feudal lord, was regarded as a fuperior perfon to a fimple miles, or petty
tenant in capite. Thus, the merifF alone could levy a diftrefs from vaflals, to compel
them to fulfil their obligations to their fuperiors. Thus the firft peer of the realm is
not only, in all civil cafes, fubjedt to the jurifdiftion of a jury of commoners, who may
be vaflals of fubjedls, but, in criminal cafes, is fubjecl to the grand jury, and, on an
appeal of felony or murder, may be convifted capitally by a petty jury of them.
And thus, too, the king always might have required the council of any free-
holder, by writ, commanding his attendance in parliament, where he consequently
might have fat and voted as an equal with his feudal lord. The ftatute HEN. III.
an. 9. cap. 14. feems to have arifen from the diftin&ion of ranks which the feudal law
had then rivetted. In the mandamus of that prince to the itinerant juftices, he directs
them to amerce all liable to be amerced, except earls and barons, " Qui coram concilio
" noftro amerciandi funt." By § 27. Mag, Chart, they could be amerced only " per
" pares fuos."

The EUROPEAN LEGISLATURES. 153

cumbent on every free citizen, and that the pofTeflion of a fword
and a lance was fuch a charadleriftic of freedom, that the cere-
mony of emancipating a villein confifted in beftowing them on
him.

I DO not mean to contend, that every degree of emancipa-
tion, though creating an obligation to ferve in war, conferred
a right of entry into the courts of the hundred and {hire. I
rather incline to believe, that, in general, the emancipated re-
mained fubjecl: to various burdens in favour of their patrons,
and reforted to that domeftic jurifdiction which their patrons
exercifed in their own domains ; and that, in turbulent times,
many of the original freemen were either compelled by their
more powerful neighbours, or found it convenient, for the fake
of protection, to fubmit to- fimilar burdens, and to a fimilar
degradation. But, on the other hand, we find the Saxon Ceorls
entering into fodalitia with the moft confiderable perfons in the
flate : We find fokemen, in the oldeft times, members of the
county-courts ; and Doomfday proves, that even thofe foke-
men, who probably had no entry there, and were transferable
by their lords, retained fo much of the characters of the an-
cient independence of freemen, that they exercifed the func-
tions of fiutors of courts, and were capable of enjoying the
emoluments of jurifdiclion *.

« FROM

* IN enumerating the lands of ROGERUS comes, it is faid in Doomfday-book j
" Hanc terrain tenuerunt 6 foccomanni, et dare et vendere terrain fuam potuerunt.
" Unuseorum homo regisEnwARDi fuit, et Invuardam invenit vicecomiti. Tres iftorura
" Soccomannorum accommodavitPicorus (thevicecomes), ROGEIUO comiti, f rafter pla-
" citafua tenenda. Sed pofteaoccupaverunt cos, homines comitis et retinuerunt cum terris
" fuis fineliberatione, et rex inde fervitium non habuit, nee habet. Sic ipfe vicecomes dtcit."
P. 193. 2. Again, when defcribing Herftingeftan hundred } " Ibi eft terra Soccoman-
:< norum 5 hid. ad geld. Terra 8 carruc. et 6 bov. Ifti foccomanni dicunt, fe habuifle le-
*' grevitam, blodevitam, latrocinium fuum, ufque ad 4 denar. et poft 4 denar. habe-
" bat abbas forisfafturam latrocinii." In the remarks at the end of the furvey of the
(hire, it is faid, that a jury informed that, as to thefe 5 hides, " Terra foccomannorum fuit
:' tempore regis EDVVARDI } fed idem rex dedit terram et focam de eis fando Bene-
" didlo de RAMSEY, propter unum fervitiom quod abbas ALVINUS fecit ei in Saxonia,
" et poflea femper habuit." Huntingtonjbire,

154 Oh the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of

FROM all dais combined evidence, derived from the hiftory
of fo many countries, I think myfelf entitled to conclude, that
the European diets were, in their origin, national afTemblies of
the warriors of each country, in the fame manner as the pro-
vincial diets confided of the pofTe comitatus, or military force
of each diftrict. I am aware it may be objected, that many
of the facts I have founded on are extraordinary events, which, it
may be faid, ought not to be confidered as indicating the true
conftitution of a country. I think, however, there is a folid
anfwer to this objection. It will be obferved, that I am rea-
ibning from occurrences among nations practifing agriculture,
with a view to difcover what conftitution they pofTefTed on
their firft eftablifhment, when war and a paftoral migratory
life had formed their opinions and habits. I am, therefore, en-
titled to fuppofe, that their ancient and moft facred functions
would become unfuitable to their new fituation, and be ne-
glected, as inconvenient and burdenfome, except when great
occafions excited a general intereft, which overcame the natural
unwieldinefs of an agricultural nation, where the powers of
government are little felt or acknowledged. In this view, there-
fore, the examples above quoted, of immenfe numbers aflem-
bling in a military form in the German and Britifh diets, ought
not to be confidered as infulated events, but as inftances mark-
ing the genuine ftructure of the nation : For it will be remark-
ed, that they were not die confequences of revolutions, but
only of important occurrences, that muft naturally have in-
clined people to overlook private inconveniences, and, from a
regard to the public intereft, exert dieir ancient and known po-
litical rights.

I SHALL make only one obfervation more in favour of my
opinion ; and it is this, That it fully explains a great variety of
circumftances in the hiftory of the middle ages, and, during the
reign of the feus, altogether adverfe to what was the fpirit of
thofe inftitutions, and the temper of diofe times. Such are

the

The EUROPEAN LEGISLATURES. 155

the formidable and frequent demands made to the Norman
princes for the reftoration of the Saxon laws ; the regard paid
by magna charta to the rights of the commons, as much as of
the peerage ; the facility with which deputies from the lefTer
freeholders were admitted into parliament, fo that no cotempo-
rary hiftorians take any notice of the event ; the numerous
veftiges of an ancient equality of ranks among thofe who may
juftly be termed the warrior caft of the nation * ; the privi-
leges of the noblefle on the continent, and the fpirit of the
common law in England, fo favourable to the rights of the
commons and adverfe to feudal ufurpation : Thefe are a few of
the particulars which, I think, have never received any fatisfac-
tory explanation on the fyftem of thofe authors who hold, that
all our inftitutions are to be confidered as originating in feudal
times.

PART II.

S E c T I O N II. Of the deliberative Body in the Anglo-Saxon and
Scoff i/h Diets ; and whether or not they contained Reprefentatives
of Towns.

""* H E R E are two points in the hypothecs maintained in the
•*• preceding feclion that feem to demand feparate confidera-
tion. Thefe are the members afcribed to the deliberative body
in the European diets in general, and in the wittenagemot in
particular ; and the denial of any reprefentation having belong-
ed to the commons in the Gothic ages.

u 2 As

* THUS, in Scotland, where the greater and lefTer barons fat together in one houfe
of parliament, we find commoners holding the higheft offices in the ftate, and fitting
along with peers in juries and in trials in parliament.

156 On the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of

As to the former of thefe circumftances, it will not have efcapecf
attention, that many of the facts already quoted ftrongly confirm
the general idea, that there was a prefiding body in the national
diets, confiding chiefly of the ecclefiaftical and lay magiftracy.
HINC MAR'S defcription of the placita under CHARLEMAGNE ;
what we know of the diets in Germany under his fucceffors, and
of thofe of the Vifigoths before the Saracen conqueft, and the
ftruclure of thofe of Poland and Sweden, are all agreeable to
this opinion. The queflion, however, who the wites were,
from which the Anglo-Saxon diet, or micelmot, derived fome-
times the name of ivittenagemot, has been a matter of fo much
difcuflion, the opinion I offer is fo adverfe to what the greateft
of our hiflorians have entertained on the fubject, and is itfelf
fo material in explaining the origin and functions of the peer-
age and titled nobility of modern Europe, that I flatter myfelf
fome obfervadons, particularly directed to this fubject, will not
be unacceptable.

IN the firft place, it is to be noticed, that many of the ex-
preflions of our ancient hiflorians and records indicate, that the
Saxon diet confifled of two bodies. This feems to be implied
even in the common enumeration, which begins with the dig-
nified clergy, and ends with fome term denoting a great multi-
tude of people, fuch as tola ingenuitas, or populus ; but there are
not wanting more explicit expreffions. Thus, WILLIAM of
Malmfbury, who flourifhed only fixty-nine years after the con-
queft, makes HAROLD, when reproached for afluming the
crown contrary to his oath, give the following anfwer to WIL-
LIAM the Norman : " De regno prefumptuofum fuifle, quod
" abfque general! fenatus et populi conventu et edicto, alienam:
" illi haereditatem juraverit," &c . *'.

Mr

* ANALOGOUS expreflions are ufed with refpedi to the diets of the continental nations.
As to the northern nations, Poland, Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, the fa<3, with
regard to two bodies, a fenate and people, compofmg their ancient diets, admits of no

difpute

T£e EUROPEAN LEGISLATURES. 157

Mr HUME, obferving that vaft numbers of members were al-
ways afcribed to the Saxon diet, has thcmght it neceffary to
fuppofe, that the principal proprietors of land were entitled to
feats in it ; and he, at the fame time, rejects the notion of the
commons fitting, or being reprefented in it, becaufe he finds
no mention of reprefentatives in Saxon times ; and becaufe,
from the nature of the thing, a deliberative council could
not contain a whole nation. But, if the diet was a mili-
tary review, the leaders might naturally form a council far
from being- too numerous for deliberation ; and the body which
approved or rejected their refolutions might be fuppofed to cort-
fift of almofl any given numbers without confufion. The fe-
paration of the diet into two bodies is, no doubt, irreconcileable
with Mr HUME'S fyftem j but it feems to obviate the difficulties
that induced him to adopt ir.

IN the next place, I apprehend the following paffages clearly
point out, that the eldeft wites, or faplentes natu major -es, were
the lay and ecclefiaftical magiftrates, and, by no means, merely
confiderable landholders. INA reigned in WefTex in the end of
the feventh and beginning of the eighth century* His laws

are

difpulei As to thofe of Spain, there feems to be no room for fuppofing them different :
" Tandem unus ex primatibus," fays an ancient chronicle, " nomine CHINDASINTHUS,
" colle&is plurimis (enatoribus Gothorum, caeteroque populo in regno Spanise fublima-
" tur. TOLOGANEM degra.datum ad honos CLERICATI tonfbrare fecit." FREDEG. § 82.
The fame conftitution among the Lombards feems to be implied in the expreflion of the
chronicle : " Langobardi una cum concilio procerum fuorum DESIDERIUM in fedem reg-
" ni inftituunt." Du CHESNE, tit. i. />. 775. As to France, again, under the firft
Race, we frequently meet with fu.ch language as this : " CHILPERICUS rex, convocatis
" melioribus Francis, reliquifque fidelibus, nuptias celebravit filise fuse." GREG. Tur.
lib. 6. § 45. " Ille vero congregatis fenioribus fecum, praeparatis epulis," 4>T.
Lib.$. \ 27. And FREDEGARIUS writes, " Confilio fapientum ufus pagos et civitates,-
" quod fratri fuo CHARIBERTO ad tranfigendum ad inftar privato habitu viventium,
" potuiflet fufficere nofcitur conceflifle." Cap. 57. In the fame way, the legiflature of
the Saxons, when conquered by CHARLEMAGNE, confifted of a ienate and people :
" Cum in Saxoniam CAROLHS perveniflet totum perfidas gentis fenatum ac papulum;
" quern ad fe venire juflerat, morigeram ac fallaciter fibi devotam invenit." EOINHAR-
TDS in aflis ann, 777.

158 On the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of

are extant ; and the preamble of them bears, that they were
enacted with the advice of his father, &c. and the eldeft wites
of his people. One of thefe laws provides, that, if any perfon
fights in an alderman's houfe, or in other (<>)>per) illuftrious
wite's houfe, he muft pay, fcfr. Dr HENRY* has tranflated the
paflage thus : " If any man fights in an alderman's houfe, or

' in the houfe of one of the famous wife men." It is evident,
that here the Doctor makes the pafTage exprefs a diftindlion be-
tween an alderman and a wite, while the Saxon relative o>pep
manifeftly implies, that aldermen were wites, though there were
wites that were not aldermen.

ASSERUS, in his life of ALFRED, mentions the attention of
that prince to the diftribution of juftice, and his rebuking his
judges for affuming the rank and functions of wites, " Gradus

' et minifterium fapientum," while they neglected " fapientis

1 fludium et operam j" and commanding them, therefore, to
lay afide " terrenarum poteftatum minifteria." This paflage
proves, that the wites, or fapientes, were poffefled of the powers
of magiftrates. The fequel of it is, however, (till more expli-
cit, and, as I apprehend, obviates every doubt ; for, in men-
tioning the effect of the rebuke, ASSERUS names particularly
the perfons reformed by it : " Perterriti veluti pro maxima vin-
" dicta correcti comites et prsepofiti ad equitatis difcendi flu-

' dium totis viribus fe vertere nitebantnr j ita ut minim in
" modum illiterati ab infantia comites, pene omnes praspofiti

' ac miniftri, literatoriae arte fluderent," &c. f.

THESE paffages fcarce require a commentary. In the law of
INA, aldermen are mentioned as a confiderable clafs of wites.
The rebuke of ALFRED relates only to laymen ; and the fapi-
entes laici are there fpecified under the Latin names univerfally
ufed to denote chiefs of counties and towns. The lay wites
were certainly, therefore, the chiefs of diftricts, by whatever
name thofe chiefs were called, heretoges, aldermen, or gerefas :

And

* Hift. of Gr. Brit. vol. 2. p. 246. f P. 21.

Tie EUROPEAN LEGISLATURES. 159

And the ecclefiaftical wites, were, without doubt, the dignified
clergy whom we find enumerated at the head of thofe of whom
the diets were compofed. In the laws of ALFRED, it is faid ;
" Sancli epifcopi et fapientes laici flatuerunt." KINEWOLF, king
of WefTex, in writing about religious affairs, fays ; " Una cum

' epifcopis meis, nee non cum caterva fatraparum ;" or, more fhn-
ply, ** Cum confenfu epifcoporum, atque fatraparum meorum."
The term fatrap here, and in other places, ufed by the Anglo-
Saxon writers was certainly, of all others, the moft proper to
denote thofe powerful provincial magiftrates who were, in fact,
petty kings, and united, like them, the civil and military
powers. And it will, like wife, be noticed, that this term is ufed
by KINEWOLF, as correfponding to that of fapientes laici in the
laws of ALFRED *.

IT may be tedious to add further authorities ; but I will ven-
ture to fay, that, if any perfon takes the trouble to look into
the Saxon writers, he will, I believe, find, that the common
expreflions ufed by them are more juft, if interpreted according
to the fyftem I have offered, than in any other way. Thus, for
inflance, the current phrafe, " Confidentibus totius Angliae fe-

f natoribus," or, " Totius Angliae majoribus natu," could,
with no propriety, be ufed to exprefs, as is manifeflly intended
by it, that the fenate was full and general, unlefs all the parts
of England had fenators peculiar to them ; that is, that the fe-
nators were the provincial magiftrates. If they had been either
the judges of a royal court of juftice, or had been considerable
proprietors without functions, then the' phrafe would naturally
have run, C( Omnibus Anglic fenatoribus" or, ll Omnibus Anglic

' majoribus

•

*!N the fynod of A. 13.694, aflemblecl chiefly on religious affairs, the enumeration of the
members is more full j firft, the archbilhop of Britain and the bifhop of Rochefter are
mentioned, and then it proceeds as follows : " Cseterifque abbatibus, abbatiffis, prefby-
" teris, diaconibus, ducibus, fatrapis, in unum glomeratis." See allb enumeration o£
the diet which abfolved EDGAR, quoted above ia note p. 148.

r6o On the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of

" majoribus natu conjidentibus " And many examples of a like
nature might be quoted *.

IT will naturally occur, that the opinion of a qualification
in landed property having been necefTary to confer a feat in
.the wittenagemot, is adverfe to the conclufion which is meant
to be iuggefled by the above obfervations. But it is to be re-
marked, that what Dr HENRY has laid down on this fubjedt as a
matter of certainty, was offered by Mr HUME merely as a con-
jecture. The only foundation, as far as I know, for this doctrine
is a paflage in the Hiftoria Elienfis f, where mention is made of
land being alienated from a convent, in order to make up aa
eftate of4o hides for a friend of the abbot, that he might be reckon-
ed among the nobles, " proceres." We know, that more anciently
a king's thane muft have had five hides of land, a chapel and a
hall. Hence, as Mr HUME fuppofed, the great proprietors of
land, or king's thanes, were the wites, he conjectured reafonably
enough from the above paflage, that, in later times, the quali-
fication of a wite had been advanced to 40 hides J. It is ma-
nifeft, however, that, till it is proved that the thanes were fena-
tores Anglias, a doctrine which, by the by, would render the
fenate too numerous for deliberation, there is no evidence what-
ever, that a qualification in land had any connection in law
with the wittenagemot, farther than that we may conjecture,
that proprietors who held lands free from fervile conditions
.alone would be efteemed companions in arms for each other,

and

* " GLORIOSUS .rex OFFA cum fenatoribus terrge, iffc, Hac decreta fenatoribus et'
" ducibus et populo terras propofuimus." SPELMAN'S Councils. A charter of EDWARD
the Confeflbr runs thus : " EDWARDDS R. Salutem dicit HERMANNO epifcopo, HAROLDO
" comiti, et omnibus fuis agri Dorfetenjts mini/iris." HODT, p. 64.

\ Lib. 2. cap. 40.

\ IT is remarked in Doomfday, that a thane who had more than fix manors in Not-
tingamftiire, paid 8 pounds relief to the king ; but, if he had fix or fewer manors, .he
paid 3 merks to the fieri/, whether he lived in burgo or extra.

Me E UR OPE AN LE GISLAfURES. 1 6 1

and, of courfe, alone would attend the provincial and national
diets *.

As to Scotland again, there feems to be every reafon to believe,
that its ancient diet was conftituted in a manner very fimilar to
that of the Anglo-Saxons. We find the country divided, like Eng-
land, into ihires and wapontacks. We know, that the Saxons and
Danes gave their language and cufloms to the fouth-eaftern
parts of Scotland j and what is tranfmitted to vis of the Iriih
and Welfh cuftoms feems to differ from the arrangements of the
Anglo-Saxons, only as having belonged to a more rude and un-
cultivated people. On thefe accounts, I think it reafonable to
fuppofe, that the great men, mentioned in the enumeration of
the members of the ancient Scottifh diets, were the magiftracy
of the nation. I know a learned author f , in a late work, feen: ^
inclined to difpute that ever earls were official in Scotland.
But, fo late as the laws of DAVID II. J, earls are mentioned as
provincial judges ; and the ancient Scottifh flatutes cannot be
looked into without finding the term judices applied to earls,
and others, with the fame general impropriety as in the reft of
Europe, where it was conftantly employed to denote magiftrates
rather than judges. When, therefore, in an afTembly at Perth,
fines for non-performance of military fervice are faid to have
been afcertained, " Coram rege per omnes judices Scotise || ," we
ought to be at no lofs to difcover, that it was the fenators, or the
magiftracy of the nation, that formed the body here meant §.

x It

* I SHALL afterwards, in confidering the innovations in the ftrufture of the ancient
legiflatures, have occafion to treat of this qualification in land.

•f- Mr WALLACE.
J Cap. 8. and 9.
J Stat. ALEX. cap. 15. Stat. WILLIEL. cap. 3.

§ IT is curious to find GREGORY of Tours ufing a fimilar mode of expreffion, " Poft
'•' hsec ediftum ajudicibus datum, ut qui in hac expeditione tardi fuerant damnarentur."
Lib. 7. c. 42.

1 62 On the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of

It is worthy of remark, that the record mentions the fines
awarded to have been fuch as had not been adjudged at the
army, where the attendance mould have been given. This muft
be acknowledged to look as if a placitum exercitale was not
unknown in Scotland.

I HAVE been able to difcover no veflige in Scotland of any
particular quantity of land-eftate being anciently required to
qualify a perfon to be a member of the national diet. Dr
STUART, indeed, has laid it down in his work on the public
law of Scotland, that the pofTeffion of a knight's fee was necei-
fary for this purpofe * ; and he has thought proper to treat Dr
ROBERTSON with much afperity for holding, that the lefler te-
nants, in capite, were members of it. It does not, however, ap-
pear, that even the national force was ever called forth, accord-
ing to any diftribution of the country into knights fees. The
ftatute of WILLIAM the Lion, c. 23. proves the contrary, as far
back as his reign. There is, therefore, as little probability as evi-
dence, that this fpecies of eft ate was employed .to form the qua-
lification of a feat in the national diet.

EVEN in England, where knights fees were of fuch impor-
tant ufe, the pofleflion of an entire knight's fee does not appear
to have ever been considered as, in the leaft, connected with a vote
in the legiflature. By Magna Charta, all tenants in capite j~
were, without diftinclion, to be fummoned to parliament J ; and,
if we look to foreign countries, we fhall find, that it was al-
ways noble blood alone, or a fee held by a noble tenure, con-
joined

. * Page 290*

•f- WHETHER holding by one fpecies of tenure, or another ; and whether holding large
tftates, or only fra£lions of knights fees. See allb L L. GOL. I. and L L. HEN. I. ap.
Lombard.

\ " ET praeterea faciemus fummoneri in generali, per vicecomites et ballivos noflros,
" omnes illos qui de nobis tenent in capite." Mag. Chart. § 14. I muft here remark,
that this expreffion is not adverfe to my opinion,, that freeholders, not holding in chief,

•were

Me E UR OPE AN LEGISLATURES. - 1 63

joined with noble blood, and by no means the quantity of the
fee, that afforded a qualification for the diet.

BESIDES, Dr STUART has inferted, in an Appendix to his
work, the indenture of ROBERT I. where all the free tenants,
" of whatever condition," and whether holding of king or fub-
jecl, belonging to liberties, or not belonging to them, are men-
tioned as afTembled and deliberating in parliament.

ONE obfervation more is neceflary on the preliding body of
the Britim diets, viz. that both in England and Scotland, it ap-
pears to have affembled in the fame manner as the autumnal
placita of the Franks, though no general diet of the nation had
been convoked. The Saxon hiftorians often mention afTemblies
where only fenators in general, or, more particularly, bifhops,
abbots, or feniores, are fpecified as attending ; and we find the
Saxon monarchs trying great law fuits in fuch conventions.
Thus, fays the Hiftory of Ely, " Edicitur generale placitum
" apud Lundoniam," where the duces, principes, fatrapae, rhe-
tores, and caufidici, aflembled ; and there a queflion of property
was decided by them, in which the bifhop of Winchefter was
concerned *. In the fame way, in Scotland, the remains of our

x 2 ancient

were originally entitled to attend at the diets. The tenants in capite owed their at-
tendance as the condition of their eftates, and were compelled to give it accordingly,
while other freemen were more apt to negleiSl a burdenfbme and inconvenient duty,
which was not, in their cafe, often enforced by immediate forfeitures. Accordingly,
the bold inventor of the treatife Mod. Tenen. Parl. makes the tenants in chief attend
parliament by neceffity of their tenure, while others only might be afked to attend.
The real foundation, however, of this provifion in Magna Charta was, I apprehend,
no more than this, that the tenants in chief were, agreeably to the feudal arrangements,
the leaders and magiftrates of their vaflals. Hence it was incumbent on the king to
fummon only his immediate vaflals, each of whom was, in virtue of fuch fummons,
obliged to attend, " cum hominibus fuis." Accordingly we find, that, in Scotland,
certain of the vaflals owed only prefence, and not fuit, at the king's courts ; and that
it was neceflary to enforce the obligation of fuit by various regulations. Stat. I,
ROB. I. cap. 2. &c. 4. et 5.

* Lib. i. cap. lo. See for more fuch aflemblies, cap. 14. 45. 46; 60. This piece of
hiftory is the more remarkable, that it affords a flrong indication of the original inde-
pendence

1 64 On the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of

ancient laws take notice of ordinances and judgments decreed
in fimilar conventions. One GYLASPIC MACSCOLANE we
find ordered to give fureties, or furrender himfelf, by an afleni-
bly of all the judices Scotise and Galividise. A judgment re-
fpecling the widows third of lands, rendered by the king in
his court, is marked by having been pronounced when many mag-
nates were prefent, and, therefore, no doubt of the greater au-
thority; and ALEXANDER II. iflues ordinances, fometimes
' comrnuni confilio comitum fuorum," and fometimes along
with the " comites barones et judices Scotiae;" or, more general-
ly, as in a cafe formerly quoted, " Recordatio facia coram do-
" mino rege per omnes judices Scotiaz f."

# * * #

THE opinion, that the towns had reprefentatives, in the an-
cient European diets, deferves particular examination, not fo
much on account of any argument or evidence produced in its
favour, as becaufe men of ingenuity have maintained it, and
that the difcuffion of the merits of it tends to throw light
on the fources from which this privilege was, in after ages, de-
rived.

AND considering, that the fupporters of this opinion gene-
rally hold, that the vaflals of fubjeds, and even thofe tenants
in capite, whofe property was lefs than a knight's fee, had no

place

•

pendence of the counties. For, after relating the judgment of the generale placitum,
it thus proceeds : " Poft base, infra odtavum diem convenerunt iterum ad Northampton,
" et congregata ibi tola provincia five vicecomitatu, coram cunftis iterum caufam fu-
" pradiftam patefecerunt. Qua patefada ac declarata, ut praejudicatum erat apud
" Lundoniam, judicaverunt et ifti apud Northampton."

f IT is natural to confider, as the remains of this ancient inftitution, the known
royal prerogative in England, of holding conventions of peers, though no parliament
is in exiftence ; and the praftice which appears from the Scots (latutes to have obtained
in Scotland, of the peers iffuing ordinances without the concurrence of the other eflates
of parliament.

The EUROPEAN- LEGISLATURES. 165

place in the diet * ; and that the reprefentation by knights of
the {hire in Britain, and deputies of noblefle on the continent,
was a modern inftitution, the sera of which is nearly afcer-
tained j it furely may be fairly urged, that a hypothefis is, at
leaft, improbable which thus fuppofes, that, in rude and war-
like times, the owners of fmall eftates, who formed fo large a
portion of the feudal militia, had no accefs to the national
council, while plebeian burgefles had, in all times, been ad-
mitted into it, and even, according to fome, formed the wites,
from which, among the Anglo-Saxons, it derived its name.

BUT though it were permitted us to fuppofe, that repre-
fentatives from counties, as well as from towns, had been de-
legated to the national diets, neither the diforderly and calami-
tous ftate of fociety in the Gothic ages, nor the feudal ufurpa-
tions to which they gave birth, nor the feeble and disjointed
condition in which they left the European nations, can fuffer
us to attribute to fuch times an inftitution which our own ex-
perience of it has proved to be the powerful guardian of civil
liberty, the fureft fource of equal and general laws, and the
efficacious bond which unites a widely extended country into
one great community, cemented by the fame public interefls,

and

* THE Abbe" MABLT, however, thinks, that the Commons, or Tiers Etat, formed a
third chamber in the diet of the Carlovingians, becaufe the Capit. of A, D. 819,
art. 2. requires each comes to bring with him to the diet, " 12 fcabinos, fi tanti
" fuerint, fin autem de melioribus hominibus comitatus fuppleat numerum j" and that
the advocati of the dignified clergy fhould alfo attend. But the fcabini were always
chofen " de nobilioribus ;" and, at any rate, it is evident, the 12 beft people of a coun-
ty can, by no means, be reckoned as of the Tiers Etat. Befides, HINCMAR'S defcription
of the aflembly gives no countenance to the notion of a chamber of delegates. The
regulation in queftion, I apprehend, was deftined to remedy, in part, that negleft of
attendance on the diet, which, at laft became fo fatal to its authority ; or, perhaps,
for fome particular purpofe, like what we read in Hoveden, of WILLIAM the Con-
queror j " WILLIELMUS rex, anno quarto regni fui, confilio baronum fuorum, fecit
" fummonari per univerfos confulatos Anglise Anglos nobiles et fapientes, et fua lege
" eruditos, ut eorum jura et confuetudines ab ipfis audiret. EleQis igitur de fmgulis
" totius patriae comitatibus viri duodecim," 6'r. And they are faid to have reported
the laws upon oath,.

1 66 On the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of

and actuated by the fame national fpirit. It is ftrange, that
thofe who profefs to be the mofl zealous friends of the Houfe
of Commons fliould adopt a fyflem, according to which a le-
giflature by reprefentatives, even when eftabliftied among a
people uncorrupted by luxury, and trained to arms, proved in-
fufficient to anfwer the mod efTential purpofes of government.
The multiplied oppreflion, the turbulency of powerful indivi-
duals, the national debility, the diverfity of local cuftoms,
which, it is not to be difputed, were the refult, as well as the at-
tendants of the Gothic governments, are furely the ftrongeft
evidence of a conftitution intrinfically bad, or grofsly inade-
quate to the circumflances of the people to whom it belonged.

BESIDES, if it be confidered, that each diftri<5l had conflitu-
tionally the election of its own chief magiftrate *, who, it can-
not be queftioned, was a member of the diet, it will be dif-
ficult to conceive, how the meafure of fending any other re-
prefentative to fuch afTemblies mould have been adopted. A
perfon with fuch a character would have appeared to be ano-
ther

* " AUDIENS autem CHILPERICOS omnia mala, quae faciebatLeudaftes ecclefiis Turo-
41 nicis et omni populo, ANSUALDUM illuc dirigit. Qui veniens, ad feftivitatem San&i
•" MARTINI, data nobis et populo optione, EUNOMIUS in comitatum erigitur. Denique Leu-
" daftes cernens fe remotum," &c. GREG. Tur. lib. 5. § 48. " Praecipientes jubemus,
" ut in ipfo pago Cenomanico accipere non debeant, ducem aut comitem, nifi per elec-
" tionem ipflus pagi, pontificis et pagenfium." BOUQUET, torn. 4. ad ann. 698. The
emperor HENRY II. recognized, that it had been the right of the Bavarians, at all
times, to chufe their dukes. Again, "Ut judices, vicedomini, prsepofiti, advocati, centenarii
" boni et veraces, cum comite et populo, eligantur." Capit. ad ann. 809. See alfb
LL. EDWARDI, cap. 35. and L L. BOIOR. tit. 2. cap. i. The kings, as prefiding ma-
giftrates, had naturally the nomination of dukes and counts ; and the people had the
appointment or rejection. The kings feem to have interfered in prejudice of the peo-
ple, by transferring the eleftion into the general afTembly of the magiftracy, and
then by affuming it altogether. Thus we have frequent mention of the " ele&iones
" de palatio" as to biftiops, and they are marked in the edift of CLOTAIRE II.
ann. 615, as an alternative to elections " clero et populo." I have quoted a char-
ter in MADOX, that proves a bifhop of Bath was elected in parliament in STEPHEN'S
time ; and we find dukes and counts fometimes fent " e palatio," and fometimes chofen,
as lathe above cafe of Tours. See alfo, lib. 8. § 42.

The EUROPEAN LEGISLATURES. 167

ther chief magiftrate, and muft have been confidered as a rival
and a foe to the natural head of the community.

VERY ftrong arguments have been derived from the progrefs
of the Houfe of Commons to its political confequence ; and,
from its rank and functions, when fir ft found acting in the le-
giflature, to ihow, that it was, by no means, a body coeval with
the conftitution. Thefe, however, are well known, and need
not be infifted on.

BUT, independently of the foregoing obfervations, which,
however they may produce conviction on people accuflomed to
eftimate the force of political reafonings, will pombly be little
relifhed by others ; I apprehend we have evidence of a more
direct nature againft the antiquity of the reprefentation of
towns. Jf, previous to the <zra of charters of incorporation, towns
•were governed precifely in the fame manner as the country \. it is ma-
nifeft, that nothing can be more improbable, than that they re-
forted to the diet in any other way than the reft of the nation j
and an examination of the ft ate of the Anglo-Saxon towns,
compared with that of thofe on the continent, both proves,
that they contained the fame orders of perfons, and the fame political
arrangements as the country ; and even points out the circum-
ftances, in their fituation, which led them to exchange their
ancient ftructure for their prefent conftitutions.

IN the firft place, it is evident from Doomfday, (which, it
will be remembered, mentions the ftate of things under ED-
WARD the ConfefTor, as well as their fubfequent ftate under
the Conqueror, when the furvey was taken), that the towns
\vere univerfally comprehended under the divifions of the
country, by counties, hundreds, and tithings, and were fub-
jected to certain public burdens, in proportion to the divifion
at which they were rated *. And we accordingly find, that,

when

* " BURGUM de Grentbrige pro uno hundret. fe defend." Grentebrefcire, " Bede-
" ford; tempore regis EDWARDI, pro dimidio hundret. fe defendeb. et modo facit in

" expeditione.

1 68 On the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of

•when the towns, in the fucceeding centuries, purchafed char-
ters, erecUng them into little communities, it was necefTary to
feparate them from the ancient fyftem of fubordination to which
they belonged. Thus, thofe .charters contained, among other
privileges, exemptions from owing fuit to the county, and
even hundred^ courts * ; exemptions from the ancient authority
of the meriff, as collector of the revenues of the {hire ; and pro-
vifions, that burgefles mould not be tried by a jury of the coun-
ty, unlefs one half of the jurymen were taken from their corpo-
ration. It is fcarce neceflary to add, that feveral of the towns
which obtained charters were, at the conqueft, nothing more
than manors belonging to the king, or other great proprietors.
ATKYNS, in his Lex Parlamentaria, has long ago mentioned fe-
veral ancient vills of the domain that afterwards became royal
boroughs.

idly^ DOOMSDAY exhibits the government of towns as the
fame with that of the country. Thus, it mentions the comes,
vicecomes, and their fubftitutes, -viz. prsepofiti, majores, &c. as
the perfons who had authority in towns f : And thofe that
ranked as hundreds are defcribed not only as fubdivided into

wards

" expeditione et innavibus." Of Exon, (Exeter) it is faid,"Serviebat haeccivitas quantum
" 5 hidae terrae." P. 100. " Huntedun. Burg, defendeb. fe ad geld, regis, pro quar-
" ta parte Herftingeftan hundred." Of Clifford, it is remarked, " Iftud caftellum eft
" de regno Angliae. Non fubjacet alicui hundret. neque in confuetudine. GISLIBET
" vicecomes tenet illud ad firmam et burgum et carucat." (village and plowgate),

* IN the charter of Portfmouth, RICHARD I. grants; " Quod prasdifta villa, et

" omnes burgenfes in ea, et tenentes de ea, fint quieti de fciris et hundredis, et

" de feclis fcirarum et hundredorum, et de fummis et auxiliis vicecomitum, et fervien-
" tibus et de'placitis et querelis omnibus." BRADY on Bar. dpp- p. 14. In the
charter of Dunwich, King JOHN grants ; " Quod nullam fcftam faciant comitatum vel
" hundredorum, nifi coram jufticiariis noftris : et cum fummoniti fuerunt efle • coram
" jufticiariis, mittant pro fe, duodecim legales homines de burgo, qui fint pro omni-
" bus :" And, if they were to be amerced, " Amercientur per 6 probos homines
" burgi,et 6 extra burgum." See others in MADOX Hift. Excheq.

* OF Huntedun, it is faid ; " De toto hoc burgo exib. temp. Reg. EDW. de Landga-
" ble 10 lib. ; inde comes terciam 'partem habeb. rex duas, &c. j prater hsec habeb.

" rex

The E UR OPE AN LEGISLATURES. 1 69

wards or tithings, but as containing lagmen *, who, we know,
were a certain number of the mod diftinguifhed perfons of a
diftrict, named in the aflembly of it, in order to enquire into
crimes and mifdemeanors, and who decided caufes on oath, if
that mode of trial was preferred to the judgment of the aflembly
itfelf. Thofe towns that belonged to manors were no doubt
governed indifcriminately with the reft of the territory of the
manors. A manor formed a tithing within itfelf ; and the of-
ficers of the proprietor, as praepofitus, fenefcallus, major domo,
foreftarius, viarius (radman), bedellus, fcfr.f, by whatever name

y they

" rex 20 lib. et comes 10 lib. de firtna burgi." The cenfus of a mill of the burgh-
lands, of 3 pifcatores, and 3 monetarii, was divided by the fame proportions. " Burgenfes
" de Hanton redd, vicecomiti p. ann. 30 lib. et 10 fbl. Burgenics de Grentebrege,
" T. R. E. accommodabant vicecomiti carucas fuas, ter in anno j modo novem vicibus
" exiguntur ; nee averas nee car. T. R. E. invenieb. quse modo faciunt per confuetud.
*' impofitam. Reclamant autem, fuper Picotum vicecomitem, communem pafturam fibi
•" per eum ablatam." Of Hereford T. R. E. " Si quis burgenfium voluiflet recedere
" de civitate, poterat conceflu praepofiti domum fuam vendere, ire. et habebat prse-
" pofitus tertiam denarium hujus venditionis ;" and, if _a poor man abandoned his houie,
41 Prsepofitus providebat, ne domus vacua remaneret, et ne rex careret fervitio." In
the fame city, " unaquaque mafura" yielded 1 1 denar. et obol. ; and, during 3 days in
Auguft, " Secabat ad maurdine, et una die erat ad fenum congregandum ubi vicecomes
" volebat, 6*c. De hac civitate reddit praepofitus 12 lib. regi, et 6 lib. comiti."

* " IN hoc burgo (Grentebrige)fuerunt decem cuftodiae, &c. De hareta Lageman-
" norum habuit ipfe picot. (vicecomes of Grentebrige) 8 lib. et un. palfred, et unius
" militis arma. ALWRIC GODRICSON, quando fuit vicecomes, habuit harietam unius
" iftorum 20 folidos." Grentebrege was ranked as an hundred. Vide fupra. Lag-
men are mentioned in Warwick having fac. et (be. See alfo LINCOLN, <iyc.

-f- " IN hoc manerio (Bifelie) una hida. Et in dominio funt 2 caruc. ; et 4 villani,
" et 8 bordarii, et prsepofitus et bidellus. Inter omues habent 4 carucatae. Ibi 8, in-
41 ter fervos et ancillas, .et vaccar. et daiar. Ibi foreftarius tenet, dimid. virg. terrse."
P. 180. 2. " WILLIBLMUS comes mifit, extra luos manerios, 2 foreftiero1;, propter
" filvas cuftodiendas, uuum de Hanlie, unum de Bifelie," (2 royal manors). There
is often mention made- of the vaflals belonging to manors. Vide Arkenfelde in Here-
fordfcire. The government of manors is to be found in all inftitutions of the law of
England. The comes had fuperintended, in ancient times, thofe of the king. In the
furvey of Herefordfcire, " Comes pofuit foris de hoc manerio unam virgatam, et dedit
" cuidam burgenfi de Hereford. Anfchetel tenet 40 acras, inter planam terrain et
" pratam quas preepojitus regis EDWAR.OI praeftavit fuo parent!."

1 7o On the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of

they were diftinguifhed, performed the functions of magistrates
over it, while the tenants or vaffals of the manor compofed the
judges of the manor court, or hallmote, whofe fentences thefe
magiflrates carried into execution.

3^/y, THE ranks and privileges of the inhabitants appear to
have been the fame in town and country. Befides, lagmen, as
already noticed, we find mention made of thanes in general, as
reficling in towns, and performing the fame duties with thofe of
the country *. Next to the thanes, burgeffes are enumerated,
and thefe appear to have been in very different fituations. Some
of them are defcribed as pofleffing lands and houfes in full pro-
perty with jurifdi(5lion, and fubjecl: to no rent or cenfus to any
penon ; others of them as proprietors of manfes fimply, and
ilill enjoying jurifdidiion, even within this fmall property j* ;•
and others, without this advantage, being fubjected to the jurif-
diclion of particular perfons, and yielding to them, or to others,
a cenfus or a confuetudo. In fine, others are mentioned, whofe
manfes belonged in property to individuals, to whom they yield-
ed rent and fervices $ : And, in fome cafes, thefe different fitua-
tions appear to be more or lefs blended together ||. Befides

thefe

* SEE note, p. 160. ; and the evidence abounds in Doomfday, and' elfewhere.
WILLIAM of Malmfbury fpeaks of country barons admitted, long before his time, into
the community of London. HiJI. Novor. lib. n. § 10. f. 106.

•\ IN Warwick, it is faid, there were 19 burgenfes, " qui habent 19 mafuras, cum fa-
" ca et focha, et omnibus confuetudinibus, et ita habebant temp. Reg. ED." The bur-
genfes of Exon, it is faid, " Habent extra civitatem, 12 carucat. terras, quas nullam
" confuetud. reddunt, nifi ad ipfam civitatem." A manfe in France denoted not only
a houfe, but 12 bonne's of land belonging to it. In Doomfday, however, mafura and
domus feem to be fynonymous. In Norwich, fome burgeffes enjoyed jurifdiftion and
patronage over other burgefles.

J IN Warwick, the king had, in 'dominio, 113 manfes, and the barones regis 112,
which likewife paid geld to the king, and were appendages of their eftates that lay ex-
tra burgum.

'] IN Hereforde, " HERALDOS comes habeb. 27 burgenfes, eafd, confuet. hab. quas
" alii burgenfes." The prsepofirus, however, " Habeb. in fuo cenfu fupra diclas om-
" nes confuetudines. Rex vero habebat in fuo dominio tres forisfaiSnras. Hoc erat

" pacem

The EUROPEAN LEGISLATURES. 171

thefe burgefles, notice is taken of bordarii foccomanni, &c. as
aflifting the burgefles to pay the cuftoms or rents due by them*.
The burgefles indifcriminately are every where mentioned as
yielding military fervice, and fubjecl to the burdens attending
it, according to a certain modus, eftablifhed, as it mould feem,
by cuftom chiefly f . And citizens likewife partook of the fports
and amufements of the noblefle of the country J.

IN the country, the fame ftate of perfons appears. We do
not, indeed, find the term burgeffes applied to them. But there
are numbers of people mentioned among the inhabitants of the
country, that feem to differ in no refpecl from burgefles, except
in wanting that name, which, it is evident, the nature of their
place of refidence could not admit of giving them. Thus, we

y 2 find

" pacem fuam infra&am, heinfaram et foreftellum. Quicunque horum unum Feciflet,
" emendab. 100 fol. regi, cujufcunque homo fuiflet." Every mafura, likewife, was
obliged to fend a man to attend when the king hunted. In defcribing the royal manor
of Suchlie, it is faid, " In Wireceftre unus burgenfis, fed nil reddit."

* IN Huntedone, it is faid, " T. R. E. fuerunt et funt modo 116 burgenfes, confue-
" tud. omnes et geld, regis reddentes ; et fub eis funt 100 bordarii, qui adjuvant eos ad
" perfolutionem geldi. De his tmrgenfibus haburt fan&us Benediftus de RAMSEY, 10
" cum fac. et ibc. et omni confuet." Borde or borderie is an old French word, fignify-
ing a " domain aux champs, deftine" pour le menage, labourage, et culture." Hence
bordelage in the French law. AK.GOU. lib. 2. cap. 4.

•f- OF the burgefles of Hereforde, it is faid, " Qui equum habebat ter in anno, per-
" gebat cum vicecomite ad placita, et ad hundrez. ad Urmelavia." Again, " Burgen-
" fis cum caballo ferviens cum moriebatur, habeb. rex equum et artna ejus. De eo qui
" non habeb. equum, fi moreretur, habeb. rex aut 10 folid. aut terrain ejus cum do-

" mibus. Si vicecomes iret in Wales cum exercitu, ibant hi homines cum eo.

" Quod fi ire juflus, non iret, emendab. regi 40 lolid." Exon tantum geldab. quando
London, York, et Winton, geldab. " et hoc erat dimid. mark, argenti AD OPCS MIH-
" TARE. Quando expeditio ibat per terrain, ierviebat haec CIVITAS QUANTUM 5 HIDA.
" TERR^:." Warwick fent a contingent of 10 burgefles to aflift ia a war at land, and
4 boatfwains, or 4 lib. of pence in a war at fea. " Qui monitus, non ibat," paid 100
folidi. Wilton fent a man for every five hides, Ledcceilre fent 12 as a contingent, &c.
<ts'c.

t " ET cives London!*- habeant fugationes fiias ad fugandum, ficut melius et plenius
'•' habuerunt anteceflbres eorum fcilicet in Chiltre, et Middlefexe, et Surreie." Char-
ter by Infpeximus of HEN. I. and HEN. II. and RICH. I.

172 On the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of

find there people poflefling fingle manfes, or fingle roods or half
roods of land, and fometimes larger quantities, as ploughgates,
and yielding military fervice, and various cuftoms, to the king
or individuals. The rights of the owners of thefe lands like-
\vife appear to have differed in the fame way as thofe of bur-
gefles, and to have been fubjecled to a fimilar diverfity of bur-
dens*. I need not add, that we find the whole country a-
bounding with foccomanni, bordarii, porcarii, bovarii, who ap-
pear to have been in fbme degree of fervile condition, and di-
ftinguifhed from each other chiefly by names derived from the
particular fpecies of rent or fervice yielded by them, or other
fuch little circumftances.

THE above particulars, and the authorities on which they are
ftated, appear to me, when maturely confidered, to leave no rea-
fonable doubt, that the towns enjoyed no peculiar fyftem of ad-
mini ftration, but were diftinguifhed merely as places of fome
flrength, where authority was better enforced, and where the
fmaller proprietors, and perfons of fervile condition, who had
preferved or obtained a degree of liberty, reforted in numbers,
for the fake of mutual protection. If the town belonged to an
individual, it was governed in the fame manner as the reft of
his eftate. If the town belonged to different people, it formed,
along with what was afterwards called its liberty (i. e. the ban-
lieue or territory adjoining and belonging to it), a divifion of
the country, or a political community, and was ranked and go-
verned accordingly.

AUTHORS feem, in general, to have fleered very wide of this
fimple and natural conclufion. Some, ftruck with the oppreflive

reftraints

* IN the furvey of a manor, it is faid, " ANSGOT, homo comitis, tenet dimid. virg.
" terrae. Et UI.VIET unam hidam Hberx terr*." P. 180. In the manor ofArken-
felde, the king had 96 men, who, with their men, held 76 caruc. " et dant de con-
" fuetud. 4 fextar. mellis, 20 fol. pro ovibus, q«as foleb. dare, et 10 fol. profumagio;
" nee dant geld, aut aliam confuet. nifi quod pugnant in exercitu regis, (i ju/Tum eis
" fuerit." If a villein died in this manor, the king had an ox j if a freeman, his horle
and arms. But a page of Doomfday cannot be perilled without perceiving abundant
evidence of the afTertion in the text.

The EUROPEAN LEGISLATURES. 173

reftraints and burdens to which the more ancient charters of in-
corporation, as well as Doomfday, prove that the inhabitants of
towns were fubjecled, have inferred, that they were no better
than flaves, and never could have had fufficient confequence to
refort to the diet. Other authors, again, have maintained, that
the miferable fituation of towns arofe only in the corruption of
the feudal fyftem, and that charters conferred on them no more
than a reftoration of their ancient liberties. Both appear to
have been partly miftaken in thefe opinions, and partly in the
right.

THE noblefle citadins certainly once abounded in the greater
towns, both in Britain and on the continent. And it was na-
tural it mould be fo, as long as towns were places of defence,
and not manufacturing communities. In Germany, we have
frequent mention of city nobles, under the name of patricians,
or of hauflegenoflen and muntzer (confreres and monnoyers),
from being united into a fociety, to which the care of the coin-
age or mint was committed. In that country, it is well known
that this order flourifhed long before the twelfth century, when
HENRY V. emancipated the fervile artifans, and LOTHAIRE II.
granted charters of incorporation j that it long afterwards pre-
ferved fcrupuloufly a feparation of blood from the fimple free
burgefTes, endeavouring, as formerly, to monopolize the offices
of lagmen, echevins or jurats ; and that, from a remote anti-
quity till about the times of CONRAD IV. it maintained its rank,
and yielded military fervice on the fame footing with the nobles
of the country, from whom there is evidence that many belong-
ing to it were defcended *. In Italy, again, it cannot be difputed,
that, long before the reign of HENRY V. the cities were bodies
politic, of much confequence : And the ariflocracy which an-
ciently prevailed in all of them, as well as in Germany, of which

Switzerland

* IN 928, the emperor HENRY I. caufed a ninth part of the country noblefle to refide
in the towns on the eaftern frontier of Germany, in order to guard it againil the
Sclavonic nations.

1 74 On the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of

Switzerland was a part, proves, that they contained, in remote
times, perfons of family, and men better acquainted with arms
than induftry. In Spain, alfo, as far back as thefueros of the
towns, the principal inhabitants of them were cavalieros and
efcuderos, and yielded military fervice like the nobility of the
country *. In the fame way, in France, we find, during the.
£rft and fecond Race, the towns of a warlike character having
counts, fcabini, &c . at their head f : And the Franks, who con-
quered Paleftine in the early times of 'the third Race, aflumed
arrangements which prove, that a city noblefle was fufficiently
agreeable to their domeftic cuftoms £. It is certainly in the
fame way alone, that we can explain how, in Britain, the citi-
zens

* MANY of the principal Spanifh towns long preferved independence of the Goths;
>and it appears from a law of CHINDASINTHUS, who reigned about A.D.6$o, that,
notwithstanding the fubmiflion of the towns, on the renunciation of Arianifm, the di-
ftinftion between the curiales and plebeians of the Roman municipia remained in force.
L L. Vlflg. lib. 5. tit. 4. cap. 19. The fame law likewife proves, that the jurifdidlion
of the comes obtained in the Spanifh towns, as well as in the country diftrifts ; and Dr
ROBERTSON, in his Hiftory of CHARLES V. v. I. />. 345, &c. fhows, That the towns
made a diftingujfhed figure, as far back as there are any accounts of the kingdoms
which arofe on the ruins of the Arabian powers. It is certain, that the principal inha-
bitants of towns enjoyed the hotiours of the country noblefle 5 and this will hardly ap-
pear extraordinary, when it is confidered, that, during the long warfare with the Moors,
towns were the natural bulwarks to which the inhabitants of the country mufl have re-
forted in times of danger.

f GREGORY of Tours, lib. 4. \ 30. ; lib. 6. § ir. verb, feniores civium; and lib. 8.
5 18. 21. 45. ; lib. 10. § 5. And many other authors might alfo be quoted to the fame
effeft.

J THE principal inhabitants of Jerufalem, Napoli, Acre, and Sur, furnifhed 666
knights, and the fimple burgefles furnifhed, together with the churches, 5075 fergens
to the army ; and thefe knights feem to have been, in no refpecl:, inferior to thofe fur-
nifhed by the country barons. AJJlfts de Jerufalem, cap. 326. &c. In the time of St
LEWIS, Paris contributed to the war of Flanders 400 cavalry and 200 infantry.
The fine for abfence was 60 folidi. Fines of this nature were levied on burgefles in
very ancient times. Every perfon, without diftinclion, having 4 manfes in property,
or benefice, was obliged to attend in war. BALUZ. torn. j. />. 489. And we have
burgefles particularly mentioned as fubjeft to this duty. EdiSt of CHARLES LE GROS,
ad ana. 880.

The EUROPEAN LEGISLATURES. 175

zens of certain of the principal towns, as London and the Cinque
Ports, were named barons or thanes, and mentioned as reforting
in an aggregate body to the national diet, and there pofleffing
much influence *.

Again, though we fometimes find inhabitants of towns defti-
tute of the right of alienating their property ; that the crown
was their heir inflead of their children ; and that fervices of all
forts, or compofitions in lieu of fervices, were exacted from them
in the moft oppremve manner ; it neither follows, that all the
inhabitants of towns were in this fituation, nor that the inhabi-
tants of the country were in happier circumftances. Various
eaufes tended to create a multiplicity of reftraints and fervices.
The German kings fubfifted chiefly by gifts from the freemen
of the nation, and, like the heads of all paftoral tribes, received
from them lodging, forage, and attendance when they journey-
ed. After the conqueft of the Roman provinces, thefe vomnta--
ry aids degenerated into a variety of cuftomary taxes, uncertain
fervices, and oppremve compofitions. Fines alfo were prefcribed
for all manner of delinquencies, and feem to have been employed
as an inducement to the execution of the law, by rendering every
proprietor a profiler from it. Perfonal protection, likewife, was
not only to be paid for by a yearly rent to the king, or potent in-
dividual who afforded it, but became the condition of various re-
ftraints as to marriage, alienation, fucceflion, &c. over thofe who
received it. Befides, the imperfections of agriculture, and the dif-
orders arifing from the weaknefs of government, often reduced
even freemen to the greatefl hardfhips ; and it was lawful for them
to fell themfelves into flavery ; and it was alfo lawful to purchafe
emancipation or relief, by fubmitting to various burdens affect-
ing their poflerity, as well as themfelves. In fine, the jeakmfy

and

* ON the death of CAJJUT, the Saxon Chronicle relates, that HAROLD was chofen
king by Earl LEOFRTC, and the mariners of London, and almoft all the thanes north
of the Thames. " Major Londonise, et alii barones Londoniae attornaverunt," <iffe,
6. HEN. III. Rot. 5. BROMPT'ON, and the Norman writers ufe baro to denote thane.j
and the records for feveral reigns after the conqueft employ both terms promifcuoufly.
MADOX. Hifl..Excb. BOULAINVILIERS Etat de la France, v. 3. f, 56.

176 On the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of

and exclusive fpirit natural to rude communities, and the powers
of proprietors to make particular regulations, and eftablifh
tolls, and other cufloms, within their eftates, produced re-
ftraints, from which again the crown fold exemptions. Now,
all thefe fources of perfonal reftraints re-ched equally to
the country and to the towns, and appear accordingly from
Doomfday, not to mention other evidence, to have overwhelm-
ed both*. The towns, indeed, were early in condition to ob-
tain freedom from them by actual purchafe and by fpecial
grants ; and, accordingly, their former ftate under them has
drawn more attention j while the country, obliged to wait for
the gradual influence of political advancement, has derived its
freedom flowly and infenfibly, fo that its ancient opprefllons
have attracted lefs obfervation.

NOR is there any reafon for fuppofing, that towns were, in
remote times, pofTeffed of thofe liberties, and of that conftitu-
tion, which was conferred on them by the charters of incor-
poration. Even among the Romans, manufactures were not
carried on in great towns. The manners of their conquerors
were certainly little fitted to make any innovation in this re-

• fpect ;

* I HAVE abundance of evidence to offer of the particulars in the text. It, however,
is voluminous ; and they, in general, are well known. I fliall, therefore, quote only
two very curious paflages from Doomfday. " Northamptonfcire redd, firmam trium
" noftium, 30 lib. ad pondus. ad canes 42 lib. alb. de 2O in ora. De dono reginae et
" de feno, 10 lib. 5 oras. De Accipitre, 5 lib. De Summario, 20 fol. De Elemos,
" 20 fol. De eq. venator, 20 fol." See alfo Ledeceftre and Warwick, <&c. In defcribing
the cufloms of Arkenfelde in Herefordefcire, it is faid ; " Si quis Wallenfium occid. ho-
" tninem regis, et facit heinfaratn, dat regi 20 fol. de folut. hominis, et de forisfac.
" 100 fol. Si alicujus Taini horn, occiderit, dat 10 fol. domino hominis mortui. Quod
" fi Wallenfis Wallenfem occiderit, congregantur parentes occifi, et prxdantur eum
" qui occidit, ejufque propinquos, et comburunt domos eorum, donee in craftinum circa
" meridiem corpus mortui fepeliatur. De hac praeda, habet rex terciam partem. Illi
" vero totum aliud habent quietum. Si vicecomes eos evocat ad Sciremot. meliores ex
" eis 6 aut 7, vadunt cum eo. Qui vocatus non vadit, dat 2 fol. aut unum bovem re-
" gi- QiJ' de hundret. remanet, tantumdem perfolvit. Similiter emendat qui, jufliii
" a vicecomite fecum ire in Wales, non pergit. Nam fi vicecomes non vadit, nemo
" eorum ibit. Cum exercitus in hoftem pergit, ipfi faciunt avantwarde in reverfione
" rerewarde. Hse confuetud. erant Wallenfium." 1. R. E. in Arkenfelde.

The EUROPEAN LEGISLATURES. 177

fpect ', and it accordingly appears from the domeftic regulations
of CHARLEMAGNE, that the manufactures, confumed by the royal
houfehold, were ftill prepared in the ancient manner, in his
fifes or domains. It is, therefore, extremely improbable, that
any merchants, or artifans, that may have belonged to great
towns, in the middle ages, were perfons of confequence ; and
it is equally improbable, that, if they had been fo, and been
pofleffed of property and arms, and been formed into corporate
bodies, they mould have become the flaves or dependants of a
few owners of land in their neighbourhood. But, if the an-
cient towns were nothing elfe than fortified fiagi, to which the
great proprietors around them reforted * ; and, if the reft of
the inhabitants confifted either of clients, or dependants of thefe
proprietors, fubfifting by cultivating little portions of land, and
fighting under their banners, or of perfons of fervile condition,
who had obtained, or who fought for fome degree of liberty,
and earned their living by exercifing crafts, or affifting the bur-
gefles in their duties ; the whole hiftory of towns becomes per-
fectly natural, and the origin of that fituation which led to in-
corporations is explained.

BEFORE incorporations were creeled, there mufl have been
focieties, refulting from voluntary confederations, which found
it defirable to obtain the fanclion of law to their union. But
it is in times of trouble and oppreffion that people have recourfe
to private affociations, and to the patfonage of individuals, for
that fupport and protection which government is unable to af-
ford them j and government, fenfible of its debility, willingly

gives its countenance to any meafures that have the appearance

a of

* LONG before charters of 'incorporation, WILLIAM the Conqueror considered them

in this light : " Nullum mercatum vel forum fit, nee fieri permittatur, nifi in civitati-

' bus, et in burgis et muro vallatis, et in caftellis, et in locis tutiflimis, ubi confue-

' tudines regni noftri deperiri non poffunt, nee defraudari nee violari. — Et ideo

' caftella, et burgi, et civitates fitas funt, et fundatas, et asdificatae, feiz. ad tuitionem
' gentium et populorum regni, et ad defenfionem regni, et idcirco obfervari debent,
' cum omni libertate et integritate et ratione." L L. GDL. I. c. 61. Saxon hiftory
juftifies the aflertion ; and the laws of ATHELSTAN, c. 12. and 13. furnifh the regulation.
The burghbotam, or expence of repairing the fortifications of towns, affefted according-
ly every land-eftate in the kingdom.

178 On the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of

of promoting a degree of public order, or affording flicker
againft private wrongs. We find accordingly, in the Saxon
times, voluntary affociations entered into by men of different
ranks, with a view to afford fecurity to each other, and govern-
ment approving of the regulations to which they had fubjecled
themfelves *. National induftry, however, was not then fo far ad-
vanced as to permit us to fuppofe, that mere artifans were of fuffi-
cient confequence to eftabliih fuch focieties. The only embryo
that can be difcovered of a fraternity for a commercial purpofe, is
the gilda, which belonged to certain towns, and appears to have
been an inftitution fomewhat refembling the German muntzer f ,
and poffibly, like thofe fraternities, to have had fome charge of the
coinage, and of receiving the king's revenue in good money £.

IN all probability, however, this inftitution fuggefted to the reft
of the inhabitants the idea of forming fimilar affociations. We
know, that, in Germany, the umple burgeffes affociated in this
way, and, becoming wealthy and confiderable, obtained afhare of
the privileges of the muntzer ; and the bordarii and cottagers,
who originally inhabited only the fuburbs of towns, (extra mu-

• *

* IN Canterbury, " Burgenfes habeb. de rege 33 acras prati in gildam fuam."'

•f- THE mint of a diftri£t was, no doubt, originally under the care of the magiftrate.
The following grant of the year 955 (hows that this was the cafe, and that towns in
Germany were very fimilar to what they were in England at the time of the furvey :
" Concedentes, &c. omnem burgum, et univerfa quse ibidem ad dominationem et pote-
" ftatem comitis pridem pertinuifle vifa funt, forum fcilizet, teloneum, monetam, et
" omnem diftriftum, cum terra et manfionibus ipfius burgi." BOUQJTET, /;'/. 9. p. 618.

J THE burgh of Huntedun, which was ranked as the fourth part of a hundred,
" pro 50 hidis defendeb. fe ad geld. reg. Sed modo non geldab. in illo hand, poftquam
" Rex Ws. gildum monete pofuit in burgo." The monetarii appear to have paid
double the heriot, or relief, and fometimes quadruple the cuftom of the fimple burgefles.
It was probably the lucrative nature of the bufinefs that made it an object for the city
noblefle in Germany to take charge of it. The monetarii in England had " faccam et
" focham fuam." L L. ATHELSTANI, c. 14. provide, That every burgh was to have
at leaft one ; and when exemptions from the county jurifdidtions were beftowed on incor-
porations, there is very commonly a refervation as to the 'monftarii : " Exceptis mo-
" netariis et miniflris noftris." Charter of JOHN to London. In Scotland, at this day,
the guild brethren, as they are called), are diflinguiflied as fuperior to the handy-
traftfmen, or trades.

The EUR OPE AN LEGISLATURES. 1 79

rum\ and came there to be called elves opifices^ or artifans, foon
followed the example of the francs burgeois, and, forming
opulent fraternities, compelled them, in their turn, to allow of
a participation of the municipal government. It was from this
revolution that the German towns became diflinguifhed by in-
duftry and wealth ; for the muntzer found it neceffary to have
.recourfe to commerce, and to join the free burgeffes in trading
adventures, if they did not chufe to be eclipfed, in point of
fortune, by their inferiors,

THERE is every reafon to conclude, that fimilar events in
Spain, France, Britain, and other countries, were produced
from fimilar caufes. The turbulence of the middle ages every
where enabled the more wealthy, or the more fortunate, to re-
duce their neighbours under different degrees of fubjection.
Towns afforded an opportunity to the better fort to form, for
mutual fecurity, leagues or focieties, which counteracted the
progrefs of this calamity. Princes countenanced thefe affocia-
tions, and fuch as were formed by the inferior inhabitants in
imitation of them ; and thefe bodies again, either by purchafe,
by force, or by growing cuftoms, eftablifhed municipal govern-
ments, that maintained exemptions from the ancient fyllem of
fubordination, which was naturally detefled by the induflrious" as
burdenfome, tumultuary, and unfuitable to their habits. The
towns accordingly ceafed to refort to the diets. Their war-
like gentry, the companions of the fovereign, either left them,
or mingled in thofe focieties of commerce or manufacture which
governed them. Becoming, therefore, affemblages of manu-
facturers, rather than national bulwarks, they necefTarily appear-
ed degraded in the eyes of an age which was the fource of chi-
valry and the offspring of the feus.

BUT that fecurity which municipal governments afforded, fbon
rendered the towns wealthy and formidable. Kings, then, ap-
plied to them for aid, and offered them privileges and beneficial
laws in return. Hence the towns came to negotiate by means

z 2 of

i8o On the ORIGIN and STRUCTURE of, &c.

of delegates with their fovereigns, and with each other ; and,
from little detached dependent plebeian republics, came to form
a body which reforted to the diets, as a third and an ignoble
eftate, formerly unknown in the European conftitutions.

THESE obfervations, it is hoped, are fufficient to juftify the
pofition, That the fame fimple arrangements of government per-
vaded the whole of a German nation, at its eftablimment in a
Roman province ; and that it was only in confequence of a re-
volution, the fleps of which may, in general, be diftinguimed^
that we are entitled to fuppofe that the idea of aflembling a na-
tion by its reprefentatives was fuggefted or realized *.

* IT is fcarce neceflary to remark, that the claims of one or two Englilh boroughs
for the privilege of electing members of parliament, on the ground that they had re-
ibrted to the Saxon diets, is rather explained by, than repugnant to the above hypothe-
fis. The evidence that was offered of the grounds of claim has not been preferved ;
and the age in which it was offered is diftinguifhed by having been impofed upon by the
grofTeft forgeries. The tradition, however, of anciently reporting to the diets in the
manner I have ftated, may naturally, both have fuggefted the claim, and rendered it fuC-
cefsfd,

VIII.

VIII. An ESSAY upon the PRINCIPLES of HISTORTCAL
COMPOSITION; •with an Application of tbnfe Principles
to the Writing* of TACITUS. By jfoHN HiLL, M. A.
F. R. S. EDIN. and Prof ejfor of Humanity in the Univerjity
of EDINBURGH.

/

PART II*.

\Rcad by the Author •, Feb. 21. 1785.]

"'HE proofs of found judgment in the writings of TACITUS
-•- are extremely numerous. From the choice of his fub>-
je&s, he appears to have been perfectly acquainted with the na-
ture and the extent of his own powers. Though he was confi-
derably advanced in life before he began to write hiftory, yet
the clofenefs of his application enabled him to unfold that wif-
dom which his experience had furnimed. In fpite of an ardent
love of fame, he avoided the rock upon which moft authors fplit,
and wifely forbore to folieit the attention of the public, till he
could for certain command its refpeft.

WHILE he was governor of Belgium, he did not wafte his
time in idlenefs, nor in devifing plans for the increafe of his
fortune. The generofity of his fpirit made him abhor that
cruelty with which other Prefects opprefled their fubjecls.
When the concerns of his government did not engage his at-
tention, he viewed the rude manners of the Germans with an
attentive eye ; and the acutenefs of the obferver was happily
fuited to the nicety of the fubjecl. The difcuflions of the phi-
lofopher were, with him, a relaxation from the cares of the

ftatefman*

* See PART I. p. 76. of PAPERS of the LITEB.AK.Y CLASS*

i82 ESS^T upon the PRINCIPLES

flatefman. During his abode in Belgium, he collected mate-
rials relating to the iirft ftage of human fociety, which form
the moil valuable treatife that is even yet to be found upon the
fubject.

HE next wrote the life of his father-in-law AGRICOLA. In
this treatife, we have reafon to admire the qualities of an af-
fectionate heart as much as the accomplifhments of an able
writer. As a piece of biographical writing, it may be deemed
a ftandard. Nothing needful to be known is fupprefled, and
nothing fuperfluous is admitted. AGRICOLA is made fo com-
pletely refpectable as a foldier, and amiable as a man, that the
character drawn may feem perhaps too near to perfection. It
does not appear, however, that the contemporaries of TACITUS
ever accufed him of partiality.

AFTER the life of AGRICOLA, he compofed his hiftory,
which begins at the death of NERO, and ends with the reign of
TITUS. It is unfortunately -fo much mutilated, that it compre-
hends little more than a twentieth part of its fubject. That our
author knew precifely the nature -of the period he had chofen,
is evident from his own words : " Opus aggredior (fays he)
" opimum cafibus, atrox praeliis, difcors feditionibus, ipfa etiam
" pace faevum *." Throughout the work, a mofl exact unity
is preferved, in the midft of a multiplicity of facts. The views
of VESPASIAN in the eaft are fuggefted before the difpute be-
tween OTHO and VITELLIUS had come to a conclusion, and
the reader is thus prepared for contemplating a new druggie.
The difturbances in Germany and in Britain folicit his atten-
tion when they occur ; but fo as not to break in upon the main
ftory.' Foreign .and domeftic occurrences find a place fuited to
their refpective importance ; and the account of the war in
Germany, and that of the expedition of TITUS in Judea are
kept completely diftinct, and made clearly intelligible.

IN

* Hift. lib. i. cap. 2.

Of HISTORICAL COMPOSITION. 183

IN the annals of TACITUS, which were the lafl of his works,
though their fubjedl be prior to that of his hiflory, a more di-
ftinct arrangement is to be found than could well be expected
from their title. From the author's ability, the narration in
them is better conducted than that in eafier fubjecls is by
the generality of thofe who have wifely adopted them. He
was, at the fame time, thoroughly aware of the difficulties he
encountered. He infinuates, that the period chofen prefents
a multiplicity of facls too inconfiderable to be the foundation
of a legitimate hiftory ; and that thofe great events no longer
exifted, which as often hide the hiftorian's defects, as they re-
ceive embellifhment from the force of his talents. " Nobis in

' arclo, et inglorius labor. Immota quippe aut modice laceffita
'* pax, mceftae urbis res, et princeps proferendi imperil incurio-
" fus erat. Non tamen fine ufu fuerit, introfpicere ilia primo

' afpeclu levia, ex quis magnarum faepe rerum niotus oriun-
" tur*."

As an impartial hiflorian, TACITUS is, without doubt, en-
titled to high praife. He arraigns the conduct of the unde-
ferving, without regard to their rank ; and appears to have been,
in every cafe, devoid of prejudice. At the beginning of his
hiftory, he lays down a rule for other writers, to which he
gives reafon to think that he himfelf will rigidly adhere,
Mihi GALBA, OTHO, VITELLIUS, nee beneficio nee injuria

' cogniti. Dignitatem noftram a VESPASIANO inchoatara, a
TITO auclam, a DOMITIANO longius proveclam non abnu-

' erim ; fed incorruptam fidem profeffis, neque amore quif-
" quam, et fine odia dicendus eft f."' A beautiful ftruggle is
here exhibited between the emotions of his gratitude and his
fenfe of what was right ; but he holds it dishonourable even to
be grateful at the expence of truth.

THAT the views of TACITUS upon human affairs are pro*-
found and juft, muft be obvious to every perfon who has judg-
ment

* Ann. lib. 4. cap. 32. \ Hift. lib. i. cap. i.

j 84 ESS AT upon the PR INC IP LES

ment to follow him. The perafal of his works requires more
than an ordinary exercife of attention. They are fitted to in-
flruct rather than to anrufe. Their choicefl beauties lie hid from
vulgar obfervation ; and the longer they are contemplated, even
by the difcerning, the higher is the pleafure they afford. If
ever any hiftorian underftood the fprings of human action
thoroughly, it was TACITUS. His penetrating eye never refted
upon the furface of objects, but fearched their inmoft recefs.
His mind feems to have been formed for catching thofe pecu-
liarities in character, which, though not eafily difcerned, have
no fmall effect upon the conduct of men. Of this we have an
inftance in the cafe of CJESONIUS PJETUS, who had been im-
properly appointed by NERO for the defence of ARMENIA, and
who rejected the advice of his experienced counfellors. Ve-
" rum ubi a viris militaribus adverfus urgentes cafus firmatus
*' erat, rurfus ne aliense fententiae indigens videretur, in diver-
" fa ac deteriora tranfibat *." An ordinary writer would have
either told the fad; {imply, or have miftaken its caufe ; but it
became the fubtilty of TACITUS to expofe the falfe pride which
made P^TUS reject the counfel which he needed, and add ob-
ftinacy to ignorance.

TriE obfervations of TACITUS fometimes illuftrate not only
the characters of the perfons to whom they are applied, but
the nature of the times in which they lived. He is, indeed,
as fparing of his expreffion as he is profufe of his matter.
This appears upon many occafions ; and particularly in the ac-
count given whyPopp^us SABINUS had been raifed from a
very ordinary ftation to offices of truft and diftinction. ' Fine
" anni POPPJEUS SABINUS conceffit vita, modicus originis,
" principum amicitia confulatum ac triumphale decus adeptus :
" Maximifque provinciis per quatuor et viginti annos impofi-
" tus ; nullam ob eximiam artem, fed quod par negotiis, neque
" fupra eratf." The elevation of this SABINUS (it fhould

feem)

* Ann. lib. 15. cap. 10. f Ibid, lib. 6. cap. 39.

Of HISTORICAL COMPOSITION. 185

feem) was owing, not to the precife extent of his abilities
alone, but to the fentiments which his jealous fuperiors enter-
tained of them.. From the meafure of talents which he pof-
feffed, they perceived, that the bufinefs of the public would
not be neglected ; and, from the mediocrity of thofe talents,
that its tranquillity would not be difturbed.

OUR author's obfervation upon the fall of SALLUSTIUS
CRISPUS is alfo worthy of himfelf. When this perfon was ad-
vanced in life, he loft the favour of TIBERIUS, which he had
long enjoyed ; and TACITUS hazards a conjecture as to the fate
of courtiers in general. The mutability of their fituation is
often afcribed to the caprice of their patrons alone; but our
author, with much ingenuity, and perhaps equal juftice, afcribes
this to a capricious levity both in the patrons and in the ob-
jects of their beneficence. " ^Etate provecta fpeciem magis
' in amicitia principis quam vim retinuit. Idque MJECENATI
" acciderat, fato potentise raro fempiternse : An fatias capit, aut
' illos cum omnia tribuerunt; aut hos, cum jam nihil reliquum,
' eft quod cupiant *~"

BUT almoft the whole account of the reign of TIBERIUS con-
tains the expofition of a character not more odious than it was
fingular. An ordinary writer might have marked fome of its
general features, but fuch a writer as TACITUS alone could un-
fold its intricacies. In almoft every action, and every fpeech,
the tyrant had fomething to conceal. Under the veil of mo-
deration, he was ever anxious to undermine the liberties of his
people. Flattery, however artfully adminiftered, was, from
the fufpicipufnefs of his nature, apt to give him offence ; and,
though he was provoked with the fervility of his fubjects, yet
he would not permit them to be free. This ftruggle between
contending humours, together with its effects upon thofe around
him, is beautifully infinuated in the following words. " Acer-

beque increpuit eos, qui divinas occupationes, ipfumque do-

a a " minum

* Ann. lib. 3. cap. 30.

i86 ESSAT upon the PRINCIPLES

" minum dixerant. Unde angufta et lubrica oratio fub prin-
" cipe, qui libertatem metuebat, adulationem oderat *."

IN unfolding the character of SEJANUS, who was long the
favourite, and even the director of TIBERIUS, no lefs art is
difplayed than in unfolding that of the emperor himfelf. Along
with many bad qualities, this SEJANUS had poflefTed the moft
wonderful addrefs. While the other fubjects of TIBERIUS
dreaded the violence and the caprice of his hximours, he had
art enough to render both the inftruments of his elevation.
He could make even the tyrant conceal his lufts, through a fear,
or an attachment, of which he was the object. " Obtectis libidi-
" nibus, dum SEJANUM dilexit, timuitve f." By an unfortu-
nate chafm in the writings of TACITUS, the hiftory of the fall,
and the full expofition of the character of SEJANUS are now
loft. His daring ambition, and almoft unfathomable fubtilty,
prefent a fubject that fuits the hand of an able artift ; and fome
of the great outlines ftill remaining fhew clearly the value of
the picture when complete.

• BUT, although TACITUS draws his characters in ftrong co-
lours, yet there is nothing in them bordering tipon extravagance.
The fingularity of their conduct juftifies that of the view held
forth. Though many foul paffions deformed the character of
TIBERIUS; yet our author is candid enough to point out in it
the fmalleft fymptom of virtue. He repeatedly frees him from
the imputation of avarice. He even feems happy in extolling
the merit of his reply to ADGANDESTRIUS, who offered to de-
ftroy ARMINIUS, if the fenate would fend him poifon for the
purpofe. " Refponfum efle, non fraude neque occultis, fed pa-
" lam et armatum populum Romanum hoftes fuos ulcifci.
" QHa gloria sequabat fe TIBERIUS prifcis imperatoribus, qui
" venenum in PYRRHUM regem vetuerant, prodiderantque J."

As the character of TIBERIUS is not held forth as complete-
ly abandoned, fo neither is that of GERMANICUS held forth as

completely

* Ann. lib. 2. cap. 87. -)• Ibid. lib. 6. cap. 51. J Ibid. lib. 2. cap. 38.

Of HISTORICAL COMPOSITION. 187

completely virtuous. TACITUS fhows that partiality to virtue
which becomes its friend ; but his judgment was too ftrong to
be mifled, even by a venial bias. In fpite of the amiablenefs
of .GERMANICUS, in almoft every ntuation, he difcovers, upon
one occafion, the frailties of a man. At the interview between
him and Pi so, they met " Firmato vultu, Pi so adverfus me-
" turn, GERMANICUS ne minari crederetur. Poftremo paucis
" familiarium adhibitis fermo cceptus a CaesARE, qualem ira
" et diffimulatio gignit*."

THOUGH the obfervations of TACITUS be profound, yet he
rarely mows any anxiety, or employs any artifice to fet them
off to advantage. The current of -his narration runs often fo
fmooth, that the treafures with which it is impregnated are apt
to efcape unnoticed. He wrote for thofe only who had acute-
nefs to catch his hints, and ability to apply them as they de-
ferve. A profound obfervation often prefents itfelf unexpected-
ly ; and the reader's admiration is beftowed the more willingly,
becaufe the hiftorian's fenfe of dignity made him averfe from
courting it. The caufe of RUFUS'S feverity is beautifully paint-
ed at the end of the following fentence, by the ufe of four
words. ' Quippe RUFUS diu manipularis, dein centurio, mox
' caftris prxfectus, antiquam duramque militiam revocabat,
: vetus operis ac laboris, et eo immitior quia toleraverat f."

THE defperate fituation of the old emperor GALBA, who

was employed in offering a facrifice, even after the fchemes of

OTHO his fucceflbr had begun to take effect, is alfo delicately

expreffed in a few fimple words. " Ignarus interim GALBA et

5 facris intentus, fatigabat alieni jam imperii deos J."

WITH much judgment, alfo, and, at the fame time, with
great fimplicity of expreffion, he affigns the reafon why ANI-
CETUS, who had been employed by NERO, firft to attempt
drowning his mother, and afterwards to flay her, incurred the
emperor's difpleafure. " Levi poft admifTum fcelus gratia, dein

a a 2 " graviore

* Ann. lib. 2. cap. 57. -\ Ibid. lib. I. cap. 2o. % Hilt. lib. I. cap. 29.

1 88 ESS AT upon the PRINCIPLES

' graviore odio, quia malorum facinorum miniftri quafi ex-

1 probrantes afpiciuntur *."

SUCH flriking and deep remarks feem to fpring fpontaneoufly
from the mind of TACITUS. They are, for mofl part, made
without any feeming effort, and without oftentation. Though'
replete with inflruction to the moft intelligent reader, yet they
often teach without mortifying him, and excite no difguft at
the hiflorian's arrogance.

THE judgment of TACITUS is remarkable, not only in thofe
fingle flrokes, by which he unexpectedly, and at once, unfolds
fomething not underflood, but alfo when he warns his reader
that he is to do fo, and folicits his attention. In his defcriptions
of character, there is none of that fpurious fubtilty which ba-
lances circumftances not duly oppofed. Every antithefis ftatcd
has its foundation in nature, and befpeaks that folid acutenefs
which is above affectation. Of this, the character drawn of
GALBA, in the 49th chapter of the ifl book of the Hiftory,
furnifhes one out of many inftances. " Hunc exitum habuit
" SERGIUS GALBA tribus et feptuaginta annis, quinque prin-
" cipes profpera fortuna emenfus, et alieno imperio felicior,

' quam fuo. Vetus in familia nobilitas, magna? opes : ipfi-
" medium ingenium, magis extra vitia quam cum virtutibus.
" Famae nee incuriofus, nee venditator. Pecuniae alienaz non
" appetens, fuae parcus, publican avarus. Amicorum liberto-
" rumque, ubi in bonos incidiffet, fine reprehenfione patiens :
" fi mali forent, ufque ad culpam ignarus. Sed claritas nata-
" Hum, et metus temporum fuit obtentui, ut quod fegnitia
" erat, fapientia vocaretur. Dum vigebat astas, militari laude-
*' apud Germanias floruit. Proconful Africam moderate : jam
" fenior, citeriorem Hifpaniam pari juflitia continuit: major
" private vifus, dum privatus fuit, et omnium confenfu capax
" imperii, nifi imperaffet."

FROM

* Ann. lib> 14. cap. 62-

Of HISTORICAL COMPOSITION.

FROM all the obfervations made, and all the paflages quoted,
we may infer, that TACITUS was eminently endowed with that
judgment, which, befides giving the feeling and the fancy of the
hiftorian their due value, is itfelf the foundation of many capital
qualities. This enabled him, we find, to chufe and to arrange
his fubject, fo as to do moft juftice to his own abilities, and
to give moil inftruction to his reader. It fecured the fairnefs
of his decifions, in fpite of thofe perfonal connections wuh
which mod men are blinded. It made him fagacious in his
opinions as to paft things that are doubtful, and as to future
things that are contingent. While it enabled him to fee ob-
jects as they were, and infured his reader againft the imper-
tinence of obfervations that are either trifling or mifplaced, it
alfo reprefled the weak vanity, which lefTens the merit that it
means to exaggerate.

As the power of judgment comes late to maturity, both in
the individual and in the (late, fo hiftory, in its moft improved
form, is never one of the earlieft efforts of national genius.
The perfection of the poet's art depends chiefly upon the acute-
nefs of his feeling and the vivacity of his fancy. In the im-
provement of thefe powers, little or nothing is left to the pof-
fefTor's induflry, while judgment is fortified by the recollection
of paft errors, and ftrengthens flowly by repeated trials. As
the improvement of national wifdom, too, is the fruit of na-
tional experience ; fo hiftory cannot flourifh but where intereft-
ing facts prefent themfelves, and where their value is diftinctly
{een. Though thofe powers which ferve to embellim truth
muft not be extinguifhed in the hiftorian, yet judgment muft
prefcribe the laws by which they are to be controlled. Be-
tween the emotions of mind, and the refpective impulfe that is-
the caufe of each, a fteady proportion is thus preferved. As
too much brilliancy in any object prevents it from being di-
ftinctly feen; fo the brightnefs of the reader's fancy muft illu-
minate

ESSAY upon the PRINCIPLES

minate the fubject of narration, without dazzling the reader's
eye.

THE pofition now advanced, as to the period in fociety at which
hiftorical narration appears in its moil improved form, will be
found to be juftified by facts. In every literary sera, the poet
has been the firft to offer the fruits of his genius, and to court
the difpofers of that approbation which is the reward of his
excellence. Before even the remotefl period to which any hu-
man record reaches, HOMER had difplayed the wonderful
powers of the Greek language ; and, by his own practice, had
fixed thofe principles upon which future artifts were to per-
form, and future critics to judge. At Rome, the poems, not
only of Liyius ANDRONICUS, Accius, and PACUVIUS, but
of PLAUTUS and TERENCE, had attracted the notice of their
countrymen, before any tolerable profe compofition appeared.
Upon the revival of letters, when thofe arts were cherifhed at
Florence, which the Turks had banifhed from Greece, the hifto-
ry of literature prefents the fame appearances. The Genius of
Italy, after numbering for ages, was firft awakened by DANTE
and PETRARCH. In France, a tafte for the beauties of profe
was ufhered in by the poems of MALHERBE. In Britain, too,
that elegance which has diftingiiimed the compofitions of fome
of our countrymen, was firft difcernible in the works of our
poets. The affertion, then, as to the period of hiftorical ge-
nius, feems juftified by facts. In every region in which literature
has as yet flourifhed, capital productions in hiftory have an-
nounced the maturity, though they could not fecure the conti-
nuance of claffical tafte. Like a bird of paflage, impatient of
the rigours of every climate, this is ever ready to change its
abode.

THOSE paflages, produced now and formerly from TACITUS,
though fraught with beauties of the firft order, enable us to
form but an imperfect judgment of his merits. We are, in-
deed, fairly entitled to infer, that the genius which gave ex-

iftence

Of HISTORICAL COMPOSITION. 191

iftence to thofe beauties is no ordinary one ; but, before we de-
cide as to its precife extent, we muft mark the inftances in
which that genius has failed, as well as thofe in which it has
been fuccefsful. The profpecl: upon which we have hitherto
dwelt, though rich, is, in fome degree, delufive. An eulogy
that acknowledges no fault can alfo confer no praife ; and that
approbation only is to be valued which refts on the balance of
beauties that have been oppofed to defects.

THE ftyle of TACITUS has been juftly condemned as being,
in fome places, harm, and not fitted to allure the attention of
the reader, by gratifying his tafte. This fault is die lefs par-
donable, as it fprings from intention, and not from carelefTnefs.
From wilhing to fhun that fervile vanity, by which moft wri-
ters court the admiration of their readers with exceflive eager-
nefs, TACITUS has fallen into a contrary extreme.

In vitium ducit culpa fugafi caret arte*.

He fomethnes throws out his deepeft reflections with an indiffer-
ence that is fufpicious, fo that the abfence of parade is not always
an indication of his modefty. The abruptnefs of his manner bor-
ders upon a ftudied fententioufnefs ; and, from being too confci-
ous of his own depth, he is apt to difguft as being dogmatic
and oracular. He writes like a perfon confident that his opinions
are found, regardlefs of thofe of his reader, and unwilling to wait
till the capacity of ordinary men pei'mits them to follow him.

FROM the abruptnefs of the ftyle of TACITUS, fome critics
of refpeclable authority have afTerted, that he had made SALLUST
his pattern. With all deference for their opinion in other cafes,
we muft in this differ from them. If the originality of the
genius of TACITUS has permitted him to copy any writer, it is
THUCYDJDES. In the ufe of certain words and forms of con-
ftruction, he may have copied SALLUST 5 but few hiftorians
are more nearly oppofite in their manner. In the ftyle of SAL-
LUST, there is a ftudied elegance, at which his fuppofed imi-
tator
* Hon. de Arte Poet. v. 31-

192 ESSAY upon the PRINCIPLES

tator never aimed; and, in the fentiment of TACITUS, there
is a depth which SALLUST could never rival.

TACITUS is accufed of being vain of his erudition, and of
feizing even the flighteft opportunities of difplaying it. He is
faid to be at too much pains to give the origin of cuftoms, both
foreign and domeftic, and to make too frequent references to
the more remote events in the hiftory of his country. This ac-
cufation I hold to be groundlefs. A philofophic mind, like that
of TACITUS, muft have feen a value in certain facts that efcapes
common obfervers. His benevolence, too, may have urged him
to flimulate the remaining virtue of his contemporaries, by
recalling to their remembrance the merits of their anceftors.
As the empire declined, he perceived, that the materials of hi-
flory were the more likely to perim ; and, happily for fociety,
he pofTefled both that precifion, by which the antiquary efta-
blifhes fingle facts, ..and that power of arrangement, by which
the hiftorian ftates a number in that order which is to form his
detail.

THE energy of the ftyle of TACITUS has been condemned
as romantic. This may appear to be the cafe to thofe who
never felt that enthufiafm which warmed his breaft. The glow-
ing language of an elevated mind tallies ill with the cold pro-
priety of vulgar criticifm. The learned Bifhop of Worcefler,
in his notes upon HORACE'S art of poetry, tells us, that fi-
gurative expreffion became the dignity of the hiftoric character
and genius of TACITUS ; but that, had his contemporary SUE-
TONIUS ufed the fame language, he would have fet his readers
a-laughing *.

OUR hiftorian's defcriptions have been charged with incon-
fiftency ; but this is owing to the inconfiftency of thofe cha-
racters that are their fubjects. A more fuperficial obferver
would have prefented a picture lefs juft, though more uniform
in its parts ; yet the merit of an hiftorian is to be tried by the
confonancy of his relation with what exifted, not with what

may

* Vol. i. p. 75.

Of HISTORICAL COMPOSITION. 193

may be fuppofed. The fingular duplicity of many -of the cha-
racters in TACITUS furniflies a full vindication of him in the
refpect mentioned. His fagacity had efcaped his critics, who,
by charging him with the want of penetration, have unluckily
difcovered their own.

BUT the moft partial admirers of TACITUS cannot deny,
that his writings are fometimes deformed with pieces of conceit
and affectation. A certain quaintnefs and minute elegance in
fome parts of his works ftands oppofed .to the manly beauties
of others. Though this affectation in our axithor be real and
highly culpable, yet it is fometimes complained of when it does
not exift. He is accufed of exceffive refinement in his views,
and of affigning motives for conduct, of which even the agents
were unconfcious. But it may be eaiier for a weak mind to de-
ceive itfelf than an obferver of fuch deep penetration. In nice
cafes, he generally fuggefts a variety of motives, and leaves it
to his reader to felect the moft probable. Where judgment
alone is concerned, no writer, perhaps, was ever lefs apt to err.
As foon as the difcernment of his critics fails, their candour
fails along with it ; and they chufe rather to attribute the ob-
fcurity of the author to his weaknefs, than to their own want
of penetration. The mind of the emperor CLAUDIUS, for ex-
ample, feeble as it was, made a fubject of obfervation that was
fortunate both for the hiflorian and his reader. A great ana-
tomift only can mark minute deviations in nature from her or-
dinary procefs j and, by ftating flight deficiencies or exceffes
in certain parts, can explain irregularities that are glaring in the
fyftem.

WHEN the jvidgment of TACITLS operates in the way of con-
trolling his feeling and imagination, certain failures may be de-
tected, which are not vifible when that power operates by itfelf.
That vigour in each, which is the general caufe of his excel-
lence, renders the balance more delicate, and becomes, at times,

b b the

i94 ESSAY upon the PRINCIPLES

the neceffary caufe of his defers. His errors proceed from
the exuberance, not from the want of genius.

THE imagination of TACITUS had certainly got beyond due
bounds, when he told us, that the rednefs of DOMITIAN'S face
was ufeful to him in fupprefling the figns of fhame. ' Sasvus
" ille vultus et rubor, a quo fe contra pudorem muniebat *."
The character of DOMITIAN was fo completely abandoned,
that we mufl fuppofe him deftitute of every fentiment like mo-
defty y and, at any rate, it is abfurd to talk of a perfon thus
ftifling the figns of emotions of which he was actually con-
fcious.

OUR author alfo fpeaks of the Germans as feparated from
the Dacians, " Mutuo metu out montibus f." When two fub-
jeds fo completely different as fear and mountains, are flated
as operating in the production of one common effecl, we are
apt to imagine, that the hiftorian had forgot his dignity, and
aimed at a fpecies of wit.

THE fame unmeaning quaintnefs appears when TACITUS
tells vis of the confirmed jealoufy that fubfifled between the
Lugdunenfes and Viennenfes. " Unde aemulatio, et invidia,
" et uno amne difcretis connexum odium ^." That the vici-
nity mould infure the difagreement of thefe two nations is
highly probable ; but, in order to announce this fentiment,
there was no need to go in queft of the pointed antithefis in-
volved in the two terms difcretis and connexum.

THE facfl is, that the writings of PLINY, QUINCTILIAN, and
the other contemporaries of TACITUS, do all carry the fymptoms
of declining tafte. That period had arrived, at which, as the
ingenious critic |[ before quoted obferves, the writer mud find
means to ftrike and to furprife. Antithefis, remote allufions,
and the double fenfe of words, are the tools by which he does
fo. In thefe artifices, fuited to pleafe the falfe tafte of his

countrymen^

* Vit. AGRIC. cap. 45. \ De Mor. Germ. cap. i.

t Hift. lib. i. cap. 65. || Biihop of Worcefter.

Of HISTORICAL COMPOSITION. 195

countrymen, TACITUS was often eminently fuccefsful. Thus,
in telling us, that AGRIPPINA was able to give the empire to
her fon CLAUDIUS, but was unable to fubmit to his fovereignty,
he makes one word denote both the power and the abfence of
it. " Truci contra ac minaci AGRIPPINA, quse filio dare im-
' perium, tolerare imperitantem nequibat *." The verb nequi-
bat is equally connected with the two infinitives dare and tole-
rare ; but it muft be decompounded, before it is applied to the
firfl of them, fo as to bring forth the hiflorian's meaning.

FROM the charge of affectation and conceit, in certain in-
ftances, then, our author cannot be freed. It is the prerogative
of criticifm to cenfure without fear, to defpife the authority of
names, and to decide upon principle. TACITUS, perhaps, ex-
pected, that the luftre of his uncommon accomplishments would
deflroy the ridicule that is aimed at common defects ; that even
the luxuriant play of his genius would extort that refpeCt which
is due to its mofh correct productions.

MANY of the impurities that occur in the flyle of TACITUS
are to be imputed to the times in which he lived, and not to
any careleflnefs, or to any ignorance of his. The contempora-
ries of CICERO himfelf fometimes attacked that orator's flyle.
From jealoufy of his ^reputation, perhaps, they were difpofed
to reject even terms, " grseco fonte cadentia et parce detorta."
In judging of the legitimacy of expreffion in a dead language,
the moft ignorant are often the moil prefumptuous. The in-
fluence of analogy is held to be more extenfive than it is ; and
a high degree of uniformity is fuppofed to exift in a fubject of
all others the moft eccentric. TACITUS, then, may have had
authorities for thofe expreffions which we hold to be the moft
irregular. From the boldnefs and originality of his views, at
the fame time, we may fuppofe, that he would be apt to bend
the language of his country to his own conceptions, and to fpurn
at the fetters of ftrict grammatical authority.

b b 2 TACITUS,

* Ann. lib. 12. cap. 64.

196 ESSJT upon the PR INC I PL E S

*

TACITUS, doubtlefs, feems attached to expreffions more com-
monly to be met with in writers of poetry than of profe. Ex-
preffions more fimple, at the fame time, might have produced
an equal, if not a fuperior effect. By means of thofe Grecifms,
in which he abounds, he feldom prefents an idea with more
energy than CESAR and LIVY could have done without them.
Though high poetical authority often fcreens his ftyle from
the imputation of being impure, yet its general character be-
comes artificial and too much his own. When the barrennefs
of language, befides, does not call for innovations, the writer
is blamable who makes them.

UPON examining the ftyle of TACITUS, we mail find, that
he employs fome terms that are either peculiar to himfelf, or
fupported by authority not ftrictly claffical. The term dtffugi-
um *, though exprefli ve of the idea it prefents, is fupported by no
other authority. By being compounded, it heightens the original
notion of a rapid departure from an object fuppofed dangerous.
The term fuftentaculum f is alfo fingular. It clearly fiiggefts
the idea of a neceffary fupport. As a derivative from fujlento,
the frequentative from fujlineo, it denotes the conftant preflure
of one body upon another immediately under it. AuRito, alfo^
is a verb that is to be found in no other claffic, though, at the
fame time, it is highly expremve of the conception which the
hiftorian means to prefent by it. " Qui pecunias fcenore
" auEiltabant J." As a double frequentative from augeot it ex-
preffes: ftrongly the eager nefs of ufurers to enrich themfelves.
The verb reftaurare^ though not peculiar to TACITUS, refts upon
authority that is not to be trufted. JUSTIN and ULPIAN ufe
it j but the purer writers employ inftaurare in its (lead.

WE may, befides, difcover in TACITUS fingular ufes of terms
that are to be feen in the works of the beft claflics. He takes the
adjective avarusy and the abftract noun avaritia, in a fenfe very

different

* Hift. lib. i. cap. 39. -fr Ibid; lib. 2. cap. 28. J Ann. lib. 6. cap. 16.

Of HISTORICAL COMPOSITION. 197

different from what is common. The latter term is made by
him to denote an article of praife in AGRICOLA as a judge.
" Ubi officio fatisfactum, nulla ultra poteftatis perfona. Tri-
" ftitiam et arrogantiam et avaritiam exuerat*." CICERO'S de-
finition of the vice fixes the precife force of the term. " Ava-

1 ritia (fays he) eft injuriofa appetitio alienorum." But no
affection that is injurious can be meritorious in any perfon, far
lefs in a judge ; and the moft rigid affertor of public rights
cannot, in juftice, invade thofe of individuals. Both the cha-
racter and the object, then, of this appetitio, employed by CI-
CERO in the definition of avaritia, are reverfed by TACITUS.
That defire which he applauds muft have been more than in-
nocent ; and its objects muft have been the property of that
community in behalf of which AGRICOLA acted as a judge.

THE ufe made by our author of the adjective avarus corre-
fponds entirely with the xife now ftated of the abftract noun
avaritia. He tells us of GALBA, that he was, " Pecunias ali-

( enae non appetens, fuse parcus, publicae avarus f." The term
avarus, in this acceptation, exprefles all that infatiable thirft for
pofleflion, in behalf of the public, which the avaritious have
for themfelves. It denotes an inflexible keennefs in GALBA to
fupport every claim of the ftate he governed, in fpite of thofe
temptations to which the virtue of other emperors had yielded.
THE word gnarus^ which is properly applicable to the perfon
who knows, TACITUS applies to the thing known. " Gnarum
" id TIBERIO fuit £." Again, in the 4jth chapter of the 12th
book of the Annals, he fays, " Nihil tarn ignarum barbaris
" quam machinamenta et aftus oppugnationum j at nobis ea
" pars militiae maxime gnara eft." SALLUST had applied the

term ignarus to the thing unknown, as well as to the perfon

ignorant ; as, when he fays, " Mare magnum et ignara lingua

" commercia

* De vita AGRIC. cap. 9. f Hift. lib. i. cap. 49..

J Ann. lib. 3. cap. 6..

198 E S SAT. upon the PR INC I PL E S

' commercia prohibebant * ;" and, " Regio hoftibus ignara f."
TACITUS, who frequently imitates particular expreffions of
SALLUST, not only takes this feeming liberty with the com-
pounded, but aflumes a correfponding one with the radical
word.

IT is, by no means, common to find the word objidium taken
to denote, " in the way of a hoftage." " MEHERDATES objidio
" nobis datus^:." Obfidium properly denotes, the ac~l of invert-
ing a fortified place ; but, inftead of this act, there is here fub-
flituted the manner in which a perfon is delivered up as a fecu-
rity, that a ftipulation made to thofe who raife the fiege will
be performed.

BUT the irregularities in the flyle of TACITUS may, perhaps,
appear more flriking in his ufe of certain particles than of the
terms mentioned. Let us attend, then, to his ufe of thefe four,
Alias, An, Et, Penes, and obferve, firft, the radical power, and
then the ordinary applications of each.

ALIAS, in its primary meaning, refers to an event as taking
place occafionally, or at times both prior and pofterior to that
at which the term is ufed. The occafional occurrence of the
event is fignified when the verb appears in the aorift of the
indicative j fo that the time at which the propofition is an-
nounced, is comprehended by that in which the fact affirmed
takes place. Thus, " Mutantur faepe hominum mores, alias
" adverfis rebus, alias state ingravefcente ||." The future ex-
iftence of the event fuppofes the time of affirmation prior to
that at which the fact is to take place, and the paft fuppofes
this pofterior to that at which it actually did j and they ap-
pear in fuch inftances as the two following : " Sed haec ad te
" fcribam alias fubtilius §." " Quibus de rebus et alias faepe

" nobis multa qugefita et difputata funt * *."

ALIAS,

x

* Bell. Jug. cap. 18. t Ibid. cap. 52.

t Ann. lib. u. cap. 10. H Cic. de Oral.

§ Cic. Ep. ad ATT. lib. I. cap. u. ** Cic. Acad. Quaeft. lib. 4. cap. 4.

Of HISTORICAL COMPOSITION. 199

ALIAS, then, is originally an adverb of time, and is applied
indifferently to the paft, the prefent, and the future.

UPON authority lefs to be trufled than that of CICERO, we
find Alias transferred from time to place. Thus, " Idaeus rubtis
" appellatus eft, quoniam in Ida non alias nafcitur *." " Nuf-
" quam alias tarn torrens fretum f."

But TACITUS does more than transfer Alias from time ta
place, which two furnifh mutual analogies in language, by ap-
plying it to the idea of caufe. Thus, when he talks of the
pain which TACFARINAS'S meffage gave TIBERIUS, ' Non
' alias magis fua populique Romani contumelia indoluifTe Gffl-
" SAREM ferunt, quam quod defertor et prasdo hoftium more
' ageret^." The circumftance of time, which, xipon CICERO'S
authority, is the radical and the proper one, is here deferted,
and the character and conduft of TAG FARINAS are held forth
as a caufe of which the emperor's diftrefs was the effec~l. We
are called to attend, not to the degrees of diftrefs which the
mind of TIBERIUS had undergone, at different times, that
were paft, but to the comparative efficacy of the catifes of its
excitement. The amount of that part of the expreffion, then,
in which Alias is concerned, is as if it had been ftated thus :
f Non ob aliam magis quam hanc caufam," nempe, " quod de-
' fertor, et prsedo hoftium more ageret."

THE primary power of the particle An is that of interroga-
tion upon the part of fome perfon who wifhes to be informed.
Thus, in TERENCE, PYTHIAS afks, " An abiit jam a milite ?"
To which CHREMES anfwers, " Jamdudum, aetatem ||."

AN is fometimes employed, not for the purpofe of gaining
information, but for that of expreffmg contempt towards the
perfon interrogated. A pretended fubmiflion is made upon the
part of the enquirer, in order to bring the perfon interrogated
to the neceffity, either of condemning himfelf, or of being

filent.

* PL:NY, lib. 24. cap. 14. f JUSTIN, lib. 4. cap. i. 8.

J; Ann. lib, 3. cap. 73 .. [j EUN. lib. 4. cap. 5. 7.

200 ESSAY upon the PRINCIPLES

filent. Thus, " An nefcis longas regibus efTe manus * ?" Ci-
CERO, too, employs An in the fame way, when he perfonifies
his country, and makes it reafon with him as to the propriety
of perfecuting CATILINE ; " Quid tandem impedit te ? An in-
" vidiam times ?"

AN fometimes does not operate as an interrogative particle at
all, but only expreifes doubt, or ignorance, upon the part of
the fpeaker. Thus SALLUST fays of SYLLA, " Multique du-
" bitavere fortior an felicior eflet f." So alfo, " Haud fcio an
" nemini magis quam tibi faciendum £"

UPON the beft authority, then, (it mould feem)^» deviates
from its original power, which is purely interrogative. It, in
the firft place, ftates a queftion to which no anfwer is expected ;
and, in the next, it prefents the mind of the fpeaker as unable
to fatisfy itfelf, but, at the fame time, as requiring no informa-
tion from others.

TACITUS ufes An, in the fenfe laft mentioned, in a way that
is peculiar to himfelf. In uling it, he profefles his ignorance
as to the manner in which certain facts took place, but he fup-
preffes the term that announces the uncertainty. Thus, " AR-
" CHELAUS finem vitas fponte an fato implevit ||." He records
the fact, that this king did die ; and the particle An, befides
fuggefling two ways, in one of which he might have died, is,
without the aid of an incertum eft, a dublto, or baud fcio, made
to intimate alfo his ignorance, whether he perimed by a volun-
tary or by a natural death. There is clearly hefitation upon
the part of the hiflorian, otherwife he would have been abfurdly
reducing all the modes of death to two, and ufmg An as equiva-
lent to Vel. In the fame way, he talks of the feeming modera-
tion of GERMANICUS after the defeat of the Germans, " De fe
;t nihil addidit, metu invidiae, an ratus confcientiam facti fatis
" effe§."

SOME

* OVID, Ep. 17. 166. f Bell. Jug. cap. 95.

t Cic. de Off. lib. 3. cap. 2. jj Ann. lib. 2. cap. 42.

5 Ann. lib. 2. cap. 22.

Of HISTORICAL COMPOSITION. 201

SOME paflages in CICERO may, at firft fight, feem to fupport
that ufe of An now condemned in TACITUS. The former fays,
for inftance, " Nos hie te ad menfem Januarium expectamus,
" ex quodam rumore, an ex literis tuis ad alios miffis *. In
fuch a cafe as this, however, the fpeaker's heiitation as to the
opinion to be adopted, is but an inconfiderable circumftance.
He juft fuggefls, without wifhing to remove his doubt. The
expectation of feeing ATTIC us is the leading idea in the fen-
tence ', and the origin of this expectation is regarded as un-
worthy of the attention that is neceffary to trace it. So alfo ;
" Summa fenectute CATO orationem in origines fuas retulit,
" paucis antequam mortuus eft, an diebus, an menfibus f."
The orator knew not whether CATO tranfcribed his oration a
few days or a few months before his death ; but, feeling that
either alternative did not affect the leading circumftance, which
was his great age, he only ftates the queftion which he had no
defire to refolve.

IN fome other paflages, TACITUS ufes An and She together,

as if they were fynonymous particles. He tells us, that no fo-

licitations of PLAUTUS'S friends could prevail upon him to fly

from the deftruction threatened by NERO. " Sed PLAUTUM

" ea non movere. She nullam opem providebat inermis atque

' exul ; feu tsedio ambiguae fpei ; an amore conjugis et libero-

' rum, quibus placabiliorem fore principem rebatur, nulla foli-

" citudine turbatum $."

AN and She are analogous only when the former expreffes
doubt, and not when in its interrogative and ironical accepta-
tions. With all the feeming likenefs, however, that occafional-
ly takes place between them, She requires no term to intimate
doubt upon ,the part of the fpeaker, becaufe no doubt exifts.
Thus, LIVY tells us, " Turn dictator cenfuram minuere parat :
" feu nimiam poteftatem ratus, feu non tarn magnitudine ho-
" noris quam diuturnitate offenfus jj."

c c AN

* Cic. Ep. ad ATT. lib. i. cap. 2. f Cic. in BRUTO, 89.

J Ann. lib. 14. cap. 59. \ Liv. lib. 4. cap. 24. .

202 ESSAY upon the PRINCIPLES

AN and Sive agree in fuggefting ignorance in the fpeaker in
refpedl to the fuitablenefs of an affirmation, applicable to one of
two or more alternatives, to the exclufion of the reft. But An
fuppofes, that fomething, though not enough, is known with
regard to each of the whole. Thus, they who doubted whe-
ther SYLLA owed moft to his valour or his good fortune, pof-
feffed facls that tended to eftablifh both opinions, though nei-
ther preponderated. The mind is thus exhibited as balancing
circumftances, and terminating in doubt from the fcantinefs of
that information which An, as an interrogative, ferves original-
ly to furnifh. Sive, again, fuppofes complete ignorance as to
all the alternatives dated, fo as to preclude that doubt, of which
the ac"l of balancing probabilities is the fign. In the cafe of
An, (we have found), fomething is known with refpecl to all of
them ; in the cafe of Sive, nothing is known in refpec"l to any
one ; and the whole fubjecl: is held forth as either, in its na-
ture, infcrutable, or as induftrioufly and effectually concealed.
Thus TIBULLUS fays;

Vivite f dices , memores et vivite noflri
Sive erimus, feu nos fata fu't/Je velint *.

TERENCE alfo fays ;

Sive ijla uxor, feu arnica ejl,gravida ^PAMPHILO ejl j\

In the firft of thefe inflances (it is clear) that heaven only could
know which of the alternatives was to take place ; and, of
courfe, the matter was infcrutable. In the fecond, DAVUS vir-
tually acknowledges, that he was not fo much in the young
man's confidence as to know whether he was married or not ;
and, of courfe, that matter, though perhaps known to others,
was effectually concealed from him.

IF the account given of An and Sive be juft, TACITUS is fin-
gular, either in taking them as fynonymous particles, or in em-

ploying

* Lib. 3. el. 5. 31. f AND. aft. I. fc. 3. n.

Of HISTORICAL COMPOSITION. 203

ploying the former in fuch a way as to lead his reader, in the
inftance quoted, to fuppofe, that the truth of the laft alterna-
tive might have been explored, while that of the two former
was incapable of being fo. All the three appear to be equally
the fubjects of conjecture. By changing the particle, the hi-
ftorian meant, perhaps, to infinuate, that he reckoned the laft
caufe the inoft probable ; and it was, at leaft, worthy of his
candour, to afcribe moft probability to that which was moft for
the honour of PLAUTUS.

That TACITUS had fome fuch purpofe in view, by changing
the particle, may be inferred from a fimilar pafTage, in which,
after employing the She twice, he lays hold of the conjunction
Vel. " AgitaJtTe LACO, ignaro GALBA, de occidendo TITO Vi-
1 NIO dicitur, five ut pcena ejus animos militum mulceret, fe u
" confcium OTHONIS credebat, ad poflremum vel odio *."
LA co's purpofe is reprefented as arifing from one of three mo-
tives ; but the two firft are not to each other as both are to the
third. The hiftorian knew not whether it fprang from withing
to do what was agreeable to the foldiers, or from jealoufy of an
undue attachment to OTHO; but he affirms, that, if from
neither of thefe, it certainly fprang from hatred.

TACITUS employs the conjunction Et as fynonymous with
Cum, and as expreflive of time. He fays, " Nondum quartus a
1 vicloria mentis, el libertus VITELLII vetera odiorum nomina
" sequabat f." Though this ufe of Et may be fubfervient to
the purpofes of defcription ; yet, from its novelty, it muft be
regarded as a grammatical licence. The will of the fpeaker is,
indeed, abfolute, in uniting by this, and other conjunctions,
what objects it pleafes ; yet a certain degree of fimilarity is ex-
pected in thofe that form the afTemblage. Et is here made to
unite a period of time and a ftate of political corruption j and
the writer's intention is to mark the rapidity of the growth of
the latter, by conjoining, and, of coxirfe, contrafting it with

c c 2 the

* Hift. lib., i. cap. 39. f Ibid. lib. 2. cap. 95.

204 ESSAT upon the PRINCIPLES

the fliortnefs of the former. Such ufes of And in Englifh,
and K*I in Greek, are frequent; but an inftance precifelyfimilar
to that mentioned will hardly be found in Latin.

THE ufe which TACITUS makes of the prepofition Penes is
not to be juftified by any good authority. He tells us, that
TIBERIUS was offended becaufe the practice of marrying by
the Confarreatio had fallen- into difufe. " Plurefque ejus rei
" caufas adferebat ; potiffimam penes incuriam virorum femi-
" narumque *."

THE prepofition Penes denotes the relation which an object:
bears to a perfon, as being in his power and under his direc-
tion f . Thus,

Me penes eji unum vqfli cujlodia mundl J.

A CERTAIN vicinity is fuppofed to exift between the mafter
and that which is fubject to his dominion. Within a limited
fphere, accordingly, he is underftood to have the merit of what
is laudable, and the demerit of what is the contrary. So, " Pe-
" nes aliquem laudem efle || ;" and, " Illorum efle hanc culpam
" credidi quae te eft penes §." The term illorum, in the laft in-
ftance, denotes the relation between the blame, and a number
upon whom it was not chargeable ; but the term Penes denotes
the relation between the blame, and one at whofe door it actually
lay, as being in a fphere within which that perfon had an ex-
clufive right to exercife authority.

IN the expreffion, " potiflimam penes incuriam virorum fe-
*c minarumque," the prepofition is evidently employed, as in
the paffage quoted from TERENCE, to ftate the relation between

a

* Ann. lib. 4. cap. 16.

t I MIGHT here ftate the precife meaning of Penes at greater length, by /hewing
the difference between it and Apud, with which it is fometimes confounded; but I
referve an analyfis of the Latin prepofitions as the fubjeft of future confideration.

$ OVID, Faft. i. 119. || Cic. de Cl.Or. 142.

§ TER. HEC. aft. 4. fc. I. 20.

Of HISTORICAL COMPOSITION. 205

a certain degree of blame, and the perfons fuppofed culpable.
The idea of blame in TACITUS, however, is got by implication j
that is, from knowing that TIBERIUS difapproved of the modes
of marrying by the Coemptio and the Ufus> which were different
from that before mentioned. The word incurta, befides, which
exprefTes the careleflhefs, that is, the culpable circumflance, is
under the government of die prepofition, inftead of being a
correlative term to thofe expreffing the perfons upon whom the
blame is laid. This word, alfo, as denoting only the abfence
of thought, is too fpecific to act as a correlative to thofe de-
noting the perfons. In proportion as the power of the nouu
is, in this fituation, more than ordinarily particular, that of
the prepofition becomes more than ordinarily general. The
latter is not limited to the conception of blame in agents, as
ufual, but denotes the relation between one object and another,
acting as its immediate caufe, and may be tranflated " owing
" to." Had the general term culpa been ufed, the expreflion
" penes viros feminafque" would have been legitimate j but
the " caufa penes incuriam virorum feminarumque" is certainly
fingular.

IF we had leifure to examine the modes of conftruction in
TACITUS, as minutely as we have the terms, the former, per-
haps, would, on fome occafions, appear as fingular as the latter.
He fometimes puts a genitive after a verb that ufually governs
an accufative. " Nihil abnuentem dum dominationls apifce-

1 retur *." We find, alfo, an accufative coming after a verb,
which other writers make govern a dative. " Sua faclnora ad-

1 verfari deos lamentantur f. The verb prat/ideo^ befides, is
fometimes made to govern a dative, as ufual, and, at other

times, an accufative, which will hardly be feen in any other

author. " Prsefidere ludis $." " Praefidere Pannoniam ||."

TACITUS

* Ann. lib. 6. cap. 45. f Ibid. lib. I. cap. 28.

\ Ibid. lib. 3. cap. 64. || Ibid. lib. 12. cap. 29.

206 ESS AT upon the PRINCIPLES

TACITUS, alfo, often imitates SALLUST, in adopting ufes of
terms, and modes of conftruction, that are properly Greek.
Thus, " Memoriae Druli eadem quse in Germanicum decer-
nuntur, plerifque additis ut ferme amat poflerior adulatio *."
As the Greek verb ?«A£« often denotes ordinary and natural oc-
currence in certain cafes, fo does the Latin verb amo here.

St re xtfTopix /Baffin f.

Amatque convlcia loqu't.

So alfo, " O7«f cv TOK ToisToif Q^it." The attachment to a fpe-
cified adion, fuggefted by the two verbs in the different lan-
guages, is made to denote its frequency even among inanimate
objects. TACITUS alfo fupprefTes the governing prepofition, after
the manner of the Greeks. Thus, as they faid, " Pupws von^t*,"
for " p&>juaio; x»r» rw irur^Sx ;" fo he frequently adopts fuch po-
etical expreffions as, " Clari genus J," " Animum vultumque
" converfi |j."

FROM the view now taken of the ftyle of TACITUS, it mould
feem, that it will not bear a comparifon with that of the wri-
ters during the reign of AUGUSTUS. The age of high claffical
purity was, in his days, pad ; and, of courfe, the grammati-
cal ftandard eftablimed by practice had altered. As the firft
wifh of our author mull have been to pleafe his contempora-
ries, fo he would naturally adopt thofe modes of expreflion that
were mod agreeable to them ; and we cannot fuppofe him able,
though he had been difpofed, to refift that progrefs towards
corruption which had already commenced. The impurities of
his ftyle, at the fame time, can never cancel the dignity of his
fentiment. In the one, we fee the Roman language, in fome
degree, corrupted ; but, in the other, we fee human reafon pro-
portionably improved.

THE

* Ann. lib. 4. cap. 9. •)- HESIOD. Ep. 5. 588.

t Anp. lib. 6. cap. 9. [j Hift. lib. i. cap. 85.

Of HISTORICAL COMPOSITION. 207

THE character of TACITUS as an hiflorian, though, upon,
the whole, defervedly high j yet cannot, in every refpect, efcapc
our cenfure. He pofTefTed powers perfectly adequate to the talk
of fpeculating upon the affairs of men, as- becomes a philofo-
pher. His fenfibility catched thofe delicate {hades in the hu-
man character, of which ordinary obfervers lofe fight amidfl
its great outlines. His fancy fuggefled the precife emotions
mofl likely to arife in a trying fituation ; led him to adopt that
language by which fuch emotions feek vent ; and to feize the
circumflances, in every object defcribed, which ftrike the ob-
ferver firft, and bring the reft along with them. His judgment
difcriminated the genuine from the fpurious, however artfully
embellifhed ; and, in the action even of complicated caufes,
could affign the exact influence of each in the production of
their common effects. But the ardour of his feeling, and the
quicknefs of his fancy, fometimes betrayed him into errors.
Strong as his judgment was, it did not always watch and con-
trol their excefles. The elegance of his ftyle and fentiments,
accordingly, degenerates, at times, into affectation, and their
animation into extravagance. From the general vigour of his
powers, he has thrown beauties into many pafTages which few
writers, in any age, have rivaled, and which none have fur-
pafled ; but, from an undue balance, occafionally exifting
among thefe powers, certain pafTages are overwrought, and
deformed by thofe attentions that were meant to improve
them.

SHAKESPEARE and TACITUS are, perhaps, the two writers
who leave upon the minds of their readers the ftrongefl impref-
fion of the force of their genius. Splendid beauties in each are
but eclipfed by faults which would have cancelled the merit
of ordinary performers. We mould, indeed, have no flandard
for meafuring their excellence, did not the poet fometimes
fhock us with his extravagancies, and the hiflorian with his
conceits.

THE

208 ESS AT upon the PR INC I PL E S

THE opinions of the beft modern critics confirm the fa-
vourable judgment given upon the writings of TACITUS.
They were rated beneath their value by thofe who pretended to
judge of them in the laft century. Mere philologifts might,
indeed, detect impurities in our author's ftyle, and falfely
afcribe that obfcurity to a fault in his diction, which, in fact,
had its feat in the depth of his thought. Being void, how-
ever, of that fcience which alone makes literature refpectable,
no words could unfold to them thofe beauties upon which he
meant that his reputation mould reft. Monfieur D'ALEMBERT *,
and other French critics, whofe merit entitled them to direct
literary opinions, faw the value of his works, and removed, in
fome degree, the prejudices that had fubfifted againft them. The
elegant Mr GIBBON tells us, " That, if we can prefer per-
" fonal merit to accidental greatnefs, we mall efteem the birth
" of the emperor TACITUS more truly noble than that of kings :
" That he claimed his defcent from the philofophic hiftorian,
" whofe writings will inftruct the laft generations of mankind f ."
That the emperor did not feel himfelf difhonoured by the connec-
tion, appears from his giving orders, that ten copies of TACITUS
mould be annually tranfcribed, and placed in the public libra-
ries. From the works of his immortal anceftor, he expected,
that his fubjects would learn the hiftory, not of the Roman con-
ftitution alone, but of human nature itfelf. By refcuing even
a part of thefe from deftruction, he acquired a right to the gra-
titude of pofterity ; becaufe he thereby preferred a mine, in
which, the longer and the deeper we dig, we fhall find the
richer ore.

HOWEVER feeble this attempt to trace the principles of
hiftorical compofition may have been, it may perhaps (hew,
that TACITUS, and all fuccefsful hiftorians, have pleafed,
not by accident, but by rigidly adhering to a ftandard which

they

» Melanges de Litterature, torn. 3. MorceaUK de TACITB.
f Hift. vol. i. p. 325,

Of HISTORICAL COMPOSITION. 209

they muft have previoufly difcerned. In fpite of thofe diverfi-
ties in point of manner, and gradations in point of merit, which
neceflarily take place among a number of writers, the leading
characters of this ftandard muft be the fame to them all.
A new proof may be thus had, that there is as certainly, in the
nature of things, an immutable difference between beauty and
deformity, as between truth and falfehood ; that the principle
of tafte is more confident in its decifions than is generally fup-
pofed ; and that, in all the fine arts, this principle is gratified
when we obferve, and offended when we neglect, certain laws
which are the bafis of juft execution, and of found criticifm in-
each.

END OF THE FIRST VOLUME.

PRINTED BT NE.1LL fr CO.

/ -z*

-

ERRATA.

Pbyf. CL page 98. line 1 2. for and x read and z.

213. line 5. for vis incita read WH /«/?/<».

— 314. line 4. from the bottom, for greater readlefs.

324. The Author finds, on refuming the computations, that the error in latitude

is but half a minute. Since this article was printed off, he has feen,
in the Memoirs of the Academy of Berlin, Elements of this Orbit, by
P. FIXLMILNER, and a comp art/on of them -with a great number of
Obfervations. There is fame mijlake in this article of the Memoirs ;
for the mean diflance and diurnal motion fet down in thofe Elements,
are inconjiflent with each other, and both of them are incompatible with
the Obfervations. The Author will jujl obferve, that the form of the
Ellipfe is precifely the fame with that deduced by him from thefecond
fuppojition refpecJing thefecond differences of the arches, and mentioned
at the bottom of p. 322.

327. Tab. I. col. 3. line 2. for 10. 23. 06. 26 read n. 23. 06. 26.

332. Tab. V. col. I. lines 14, 15. for 01. O2 read iq, 2O.

Lit. Cl. page 65. line 25. for Mr JOHN BARROW read Mr THOMAS BARROW.

116. line 16. for And to read And as to

— — — — — 119. The four fir/I lines of the note fhould be a feparate note on page 123.

taken off at the end of the 2d paragraph, at the "word prefiippofes.
— — — — — — 127. line 25, for prepofition read proportion.

————— 206. Note •{-, for Ep. read Ejy. x«t iipf^.

DIRECTIONS FOR THE BINDER.

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