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TRANSACTIONS

Of 7) Fk

ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY.

VOL. VI

Bo Be ae a:
GEORGE BONHAM,

PRINTER TO THE ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY,

—_—_—__—_—_—_—_

De it

Ww. F rs ; ~~ £

(XMAGADA

VMTCAD A MAH Rat APRS: RST Ae

THE ACADEMY dere it to be underflood, that, as a
‘body, they are not anfwerable for any opinion, reprefentation of
Saas, or train of reafoning, which may appear in the following
papers. The authors of the feveral effays are alone réefponlible for

their contents,

E

Science.
Page 52, Line
Page 53, Line
Page 58, Line
Page 63, Line
Page 147, Line
Page 179, Line
Page 133, Line
Page 201, Line
Page 203, Line
Page 206, Line
Page 225, Line
Page 226, Line
Page 273, Line
Page 297, Line
Page 306, Line
Page 307, Line
Page 321, Line

RE: RH ease nanan 2

15, for teem, read feems.
11, for thefe, read thofe.
18, for complaints, read complains.

5, for there, read their.

6, for lighter, read greater.

13, for did not only, read did not not only.
14, for and the direét or, read either direé@tly, or in the.
3, for L’, read L.

12, for for, read from.

17, for 1%, read 12H.

22, for plus, read minus.
16, for VA aa—ay, read WV at§——ay.
11, for degrees, read feconds,
13, for colloéts, read collects.

8, for be, read been.

12, for Lava, read Lavas.

2, for 1785, read 1795.

Page 344, Note, Line 6, de/e to,

Page 365, Line

7, for moft and fooneft, read more ant fooner.

Poxite Literature.

Page 14, Line 15, for in Fables, read in the Fables.

Page 16, Line the 3d from the bottom, for Eumieus, read Eumzus.
Page 29, Line 12, for predifpofes, read predifpofe.

Page 33, Line 16, for it, read they.

Page 63, Line
, Line
Page 48, Line

ANTIQUITIES.

3, for then, read thus.
7, for 1788, read 1688.
5, for corponding, read correfponding.

Page 3c, Line 19, for Duke of Bedford, read the Duke of Bedford.

ant erry Wat “ont
eee) Sarat ne Pa
_asletyenen Hy ;

‘yl 100 108 ae

itn wiv otf amie peer Ny
M sity fae : Oa ins

his ts ae %

? ik
th ins he mate eA) Seat Ae 3
ge se ye yar f a mee? srs mer a

ee ‘ Ae
rh eae © le a i ai elk
eres ne Seale Sa (4 aeeit

Sse DE Be OMS, T+ Be

1. REMARKS on the Caufes and Cure of fome Difeafes of '

Infancy. By Fofeph Clarke, M. D. Licentiate in Phyfic of
the Royal College of Phyficians in Dublin, and M. R.I. A. -

Il. A Memoir on the Con/truétion of Ships. By Sir George Shee,
Bart. M.R.E A. - = = S

III. Memoir on the Climate of Ireland.. By the Reverend William
Hamilton, of Fanet, in the County of Donegal ; late Fellow of
Trinity College, Dublin, M.R.1I. A. Correfponding Member
of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, &&c. - -

IV. Hiftory of a Cafe in which very uncommon Worms were dif-
charged from the Stomach ; with Obfervations thereon. By
Samuel Crumpe, M.D. M. R.I. A, - -

V. Effay on the beft Method of afcertaining the Areas of Countries
of confiderable Extent. By the’ Rev. ames Whitelaw, Vicar
of St. Catherine, Dublin, and M. R.I. A. - -

VI. Three Schemes for conveying Intelligence to great Diftances by
Signals. By Yohn Cooke, Efq; M.R. I. A. -

65

7 70

*A2 VII. Obfervations

Gy Oo Ree EB Ne ae.

VII. Objfervations on the Power of Painting to expres mixed
Paffions. By the Rev. Michael Kearney, D. D. M.R.I. A. Page 87

VIII. An Effay on the Art of conveying fecret and Swift Intelligence.
By Richard Lovell Edgeworth, Efq; F. R. 8. and M.R.I. A. 95

IX. Of the Compofition and Proportion of Carbon in Bitumens and
Mineral Coal. By Richard Kirwan, Efq; L. L. D. F.R.S.
and M.R.I. A. - - - - 141

X. Synoptical View of the State of the Weather in Dublin. By
Richard Kirwan, Efq; L. L.D. F. R.S. and M. R.1. A, : 169

XI. Thoughts on Magnetifm. By Richard Kirwan, E/q; L. L. D.
F.R.S.and M.R.1. A. . - - - 177

XII. On the Method of determining the Longitude, by Ob/ervations
of the Meridian Paffages of the Moon and a Star made at two
Places. By the Rev. ames Archibald Hamilton, D. D.

Profefor of Aftronomy at Armagh - : 193
XII. On the Method of taking Radicals out of Equations. By

Mr. D. Mooney, A. B. Trinity College, Dublin. Communicated
by Whitley Stokes, M. D. F.T.C. D. and M. R.I. A. = 221

XIV. On the primitive State of the Globe and its futfequent
Cataftrophe. By Richard Kirwan, Efg; L. L. D. F. R. S.
and M.R.1 A. - - - < 3 233
XV. Synoptical View of the State of the Weather in the Year
1796. By Richard Kirwan, Efq; L. L. D. F. R. S. and
M. R. I. A. - a 5 309

XVI. Supplement to Mr. Edgeworth’s Effay upon the Telegraph - 313
XVII. A Def-

Sree et ry OMB ON ood“ S,
XVIL. A Defcription of an Air-pump of a new Conftrudtion,

with an Account of its Performance, and of fome Experiments
and Obfervations tending to afcertain the Circumftances on which
the Perfection of that Machine depends, and to render its
Theory more compleat. By the Rev. ‘fames Little, of Lacken,
in the County of Mayo - = . -

XVIII. On the Application of a Converging Series to the Con-
Srruttion of Logarithms.* By Mr. William Allman, A. B.
Trinity College, Dublin - - . é,

XIX. Synoptical View of the State of the Weather at Dublin in
the Year 1797. By Richard Kirwan, Efq; L.L D. F.R.S.
and M.R.I. A. - - 2 y

Page 319

391

435

ae o oe
Or eae oa? aS

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PERE sey

. x“ = 7
Bia aeesy

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POLITE LITERATURE.

Toh Or © ety We DER Diets » ines Gia

I. Ss OME Hints concerning the State of Science at the Revival
of Letters, grounded on a Paffage of Dante in his Inferno,
Canto IV. v. 130. By the Right Honourable the Earl of
Charlemont, Prefident of the Royal Irifo Academy, and F. R. S.

Il. Reflections on the Choice of Subjects for Tragedy among the
Greek Writers. By William Prefton, E/q; M. R. I. A. -

Ill. An Effay on the Variations of Englifh Profe, from the Revolu-
tion to the prefent Time. By Thomas Wallace, A. B. and
M.R.1. A.; to which was adjudged the Gold Prize Medal
propofed by the Royal Irifh Academy for the bet Effay on
that Subject - - - - -

IV. On the Poetical Charaéter of Doctor Goldfmith, By the
Rev. Archdeacon Burrowes, late Fellow of Trinity College,
Dublin, and M. R. 1. A. - = -

*( A2)

Page 3

7t

pe
te ii

Bets ook, bare

Pon PG cy Peo Pe Po BS.

USO PA Nb HIN CR ie

1. ALETTER from William Caulfield Lennon, Efq; to the
Right Honourable the Earl of Charlemont, Prefident of the
Royal Irifh Academy, Fc. Fc. Se. - Page 3

Il. An Account of fome Manufcript Papers which belonged to Sir
Philip Hoby, Knight, who filied feveral important Offices in the
Reign of King Edward the Sixth, and which are at prefent the
Property of William Hare, Efq; one of the Reprefentatives in
Parliament for the City of Cork ; by the Reverend Mr. Hinckes
of Cork, communicated by the Prefident - - 7

Il. Account of four Circular Plates of Gold found in Ireland.
By Ralph Oufley, M.R. 1. A. - 2 P 31
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REMARKS on the. CAUSES and CURE of /ome DISEASES
of INFANCY. 4y JOSEPH CLARKE, M.D. Licentiate
in Phyfic of the Royal College of Phyjficians in Dublin, and

M. R. 1. A.

eee

Ir is now near feven years fince an eflay of mine was read
before this Academy, on the properties of human milk, the
changes it undergoes in digeftion, and the difeafes fuppofed
to originate from this fource in infancy. A variety of facts
and obfervations was then brought forward to render it
probable that the caufes, commonly alleged by writers to
produce moft of the difeafes of infants, are ill founded, nay,
do not exift; and confequently that the remedies propofed for
their eure moft often prove ineffe@tual. Since the above
period my attention has been very much directed to this
fubje@, and it is well known that my opportunities of expe-
rience have not been inconfiderable ; and yet I every day feel
more forcibly the evidence in favour of my former doubts.
Once more, therefore, I am tempted to folicit attention to

A 2 this

Read July 6,
1793:

L al

this fubje&, by fubmitting the following remarks, however
curfory and imperfect, to public confideration: They relate
principally to four difeafes, viz.

I, Diarrhcea, accompanied with much griping and green
ftools.

II. Obftinate coftivenefs.
III. Nine day fits, or convulfions in early infancy.

IV. Cutaneous eruptions.

As it can be of no ufe to repeat what preceding writers
have faid on thefe fubjects, I fhall confine myfelf to fuch
remarks as are not commonly to be met with in print.

In the eflay above mentioned * I endeavoured to prove that
green ftools in infancy are not to be confidered as fure figns
of the exiftence of a fuperabundant acid in the ftomach and
inteftines ; at that time I was totally ignorant of their nature.
An accident firft fuggefted to me new ideas on this fubject,
A lady of very acute talents took it into her head that the
milk of a nurfe in her fervice did not agree with her infant.
One night this infant, after fuffering a great deal of griping,

paffled a remarkably green ftool, which the mother confidered
as

* See Tranfactions of the Royal Irifh Academy for the year 1788.

rs i

as a decifive proof that nurfe’s milk turned four in her child’s
ftomach, and of courfe muft difagree with it. The cloth on
which this ftool was received happened to be thrown into a
corner of the room, where it lay ‘till next morning, when
nurfe, to her great furprize, found it had changed the green
for a natural yellow colour. The miftrefs fufpected mifrepre-
fentation on the part of the nurfe, and I was fent for to
decide between them. Not knowing well how to give a fatis-
factory determination, I begged of the lady to fufpend her
judgment, and to remark particularly whether in future fuch
changes, as nurfe defcribed, would happen. She made the
experiment repeatedly with great care, and uniformly found
that the green colour changed to a yellow by time, and
perhaps by being diffafed on the cloth, A very particular
attention to this cafe led me ftrongly to fufpect that green
tools in infancy (which medical writers have long imputed
to predominant acidity) are often really of a bilious nature.
The inefficacy of abforbent medicines to correct them, joined
to fome other confiderations to be hereafter noticed, ferved
ftill farther to confirm my fufpicions, Impreffed ftrongly
with thefe ideas, I determined to deviate from common prac-
tice, by having recourfe to the ufe of calomel, one of the
few remedies which experience has found powerfully to influ-
ence the biliary fecretion in adults. It anfwered my expec-
tations fo well then, and in many fimilar inftances fince, that
I am perfuaded it may be of fome utility briefly to, ftate the
refult of my obfervations refpecting it.

As

[[. 4

As very green {tools are generally preceded by and accom-
panied with a great deal of griping and diftrefs to the infant,
they feem to me to indicate unufual acrimony in the bile,
and probably fome degree of depraved fecretion in the liver.
Sometimes this morbid tendency is of fhort duration, fome-
times it continues troublefome for weeks. In the former cafes,
caftor oil in moderate quantity will be found a good remedy;
it evacuates fpeedily the contents of the bowels, and at the
fame time fheaths the infide of the inteftinal canal againft
their acrimony. In the more obftinate cafes, where oil only
affords temporary relief, calomel is the only remedy I have
found to produce permanent good effects. I am inclined to
think it operates not merely by evacuating, but by correcting
that tendency to depraved fecretion which in bad cafes pro-
bably exifts, To infants under fix months old I generally
begin with half-grain dofes, given at bed time, rubbed into a
powder, with a little white fugar. If this quantity do not
procure two or three motions in the courfe of the following
day, the dofe may be increafed to three-quarters of a grain,
or even a grain. It may be repeated in this manner every
night, or every fecond night, according to the degree of diftrefs
and ftrength of the patient, until the ftools aflume a natural
appearance. This they feldom fail to do in a week or two,
and then all griping and uneafinefs ceafe. It will rarely be
neceflary to give more than from four to cight grains of
calomel on fuch occafions, and I can with the utmoft confidence
affert that I have never known it to do any mifchief, and very
feldom to fail of producing the defired effects. Nor is it any
objection

Eh a

objection to the ufe of this medicine, that the patient labours
under fome degree of diarrhoea; the acrimony of the ftools
not unfrequently excites frequent and ineffeétual efforts, which
are to be removed only by a removal of the exciting caufe.
If abforbents poffefs any power in fuch cafes, they owe it to
their combination either with laxatives, effential oils, or dif-
tilled waters; and even with thefe aids I have commonly
found them to afford but temporary eafe.

Tuat infants fhould be particularly liable to diforder in
the biliary fecretion can hardly appear furprifing, when it is
confidered that in them the liver bears a much larger propor-
tion to the weight of the body than in adults: This increafed
fize of the liver, like that of the heart, probably diminifhes
gradually as the body advances towards maturity. The effects
of this peculiarity, of ftructure of infants, are ftrongly mani-
felted in moft cafes even after birth: although it be a com-
mon practice to keep their bowels difcharging freely, and
though their ftools be evidently loaded with bile, yet during
the firft week few infants efcape fome degree of jaundice
(commonly called Yellow Gum). Thefe facts prove a very
copious fecretion and excretion of bile at an early period,
when the uncommon fize of the liver is indifputable; it ap-
peats to me probable that the fame tendency to copious
fecretion muft continue, in fome degree, through infancy and
childhood until this vifcus be reduced to its ordinary fize.
Medical practitioners have long remarked that well-prepared
calomel agrees fingularly well with the conftitution of children

in

ek

in all thofe difeafes wherein they have thought it prudent to
employ it. Do not the peculiarities of ftruéture above noticed
afford fome explanation of this fact? The power of calomel in
correcting green ftools, and the uneafinefs accompanying them,
is a fact which I hope will be admitted by all acs tan
who give it a fair trial.

StncE the above remarks were written I have met with two
or three cafes of violent bilious vomitings and cholics in in-
fants, which were effectually relieved by much greater quan-
tities of calomel than what I have ftated above. To what
extent it may be pufhed in very bad cafes my experience does
not yet enable me to determine.

Of obftinate Coftivene/s.

EvERY one, acquainted with the conftitution of infants,
knows that it is natural to them to have three or four ftools
every twenty-four hours; and that without fuch difcharges
they feldom enjoy perfect health. A few inftances occur in
practice where the inteftines of infants never difcharge their
contents unlefs irritated by fome kind of phyfic. I have met
with a good many fuch cafes, and after trying all the ordinary
laxative medicines I could not fay that any of them was enti-
tled to a preference. The effects of all were temporary only.
An ingenious friend and correfpondent in London firft fug-
gefted to me a trial of calomel in fuch obftinate cafes. On
his authority I have repeatedly had recourfe to it, and feldom

without

a ae

without the beft effeéts. Whether it operates by promoting a
flow of bile and other fecreted fluids into the inteftinal canal,
on which the ftools of infants, from the nature of their food,
muft very much depend; or by exciting, in a peculiar manner,
the irritability of the nerves beftowed on the inteftines, I fhall
not pretend to decide.

Of Convulfions in early Infancy.

In the Tranfactions of this Academy for the year 1789 I
have given an account of the nine day fits, as they had been
obferved in the Lying-ip Hofpital of this city, and of certain
modes of prevention which then appeared to have produced
good effeéts, and which I am happy to add ftill continue to do
fox. Of methods of cure I was on that occafion filent, becaufe
no remedy had then been difcovered even to retard the pro-
grefs of that very fatal difeafe. About two years ago I was
called in confultation to a cafe of nine day fits, which appeared
hopelefs both to the attending phyfician and myfelf. As an
experiment I propofed a grain of calomel to be given night
and morning, knowing it to be well calculated to remove dif-

Vor. VI. B eafe

* This affertion will be beft underftood by ftating the following facts: Previous
to the year 1782 the mortality of infants was one in fix, or feventeen in the hun-
dred. From 1782 ’till 1788, a period of four years, it was one in nineteen, or from
five to fix in the hundred. During the laft four years it has been nearly as one to
twenty-fix and a half, not altogether four in the hundred. [See an abftraét of the
regiftry kept in the Lying-in Hofpital, and annually publifhed by Mr. B. Higgins.]

Bae

eafe in the bowels, if fuch exifted, and a blifter to the fonta-
nelle to relieve any fulnefs which might opprefs the brain.
By the ufe of thefe remedies, and of tepid bathing, the infant
recovered., As blifters and tepid bathing fo often fail in curing
this difeafe, I was inclined to attribute much of our fuccefs to
the calomel, and therefore I introduced the ufe of it in a fimilar
manner into the Lying-in Hofpital; and although I cannot fay
it adtually cured one, yet it certainly afforded more obvious
relief than any remedy hitherto tried. Several infants, whom
the moft experienced nurfe-tenders apprehended to be ferioufly
threatened, efcaped the difeafe; and it evidently mitigated the
feverity of fymptoms in fome defperate cafes. Whether, in a
pure atmofphere, and fituations otherwife more favourable for
the exhibition of powerful remedies, it may be found to pro-
duce better effects, I propofe as a quere, to be determined by
future obfervation? In the courfe of laft month I was fo fortu-
nate in private practice as to remove convulfions in an infant
of three weeks old, by calomel and bliftering, as above defcribed,
without the ufe of any other remedy*.

Cutaneous Eruptions.

Ir is a fingular fad that infants on the breaft are very fubject
to cutaneous eruptions of the herpetic kind, which in adults
are

* Since this paper was firft read to the Academy, which is near two years ago,
I think Ihave been {till more fuccefsful in the treatment of the foregoing omplaints,
by adding to each dofe of calomel a grain or two of feammony or jalap, fo as to
render it more certainly and brifkly purgative. une 1795.

fas

are commonly fuppofed to originate from acrimony in the
fluids. It is not eafy to conceive how acrimony is fo. fre-
quently generated in the blood of infants, nourifhed by the
mildeft of all fluids. It is a vulgar fuppofition that thefe dif-
eafes are often occafioned by improprieties in the diet and
conduct of hireling nurfes; but they often happen to infants
fuckled by the mother, where no fufpicion of impropriety can
be entertained: nay, the fame tendency is obferved in infants
fed on fpoon meat. I have been frequently tempted to think
that mature intended fuch eruptions to carry off fuperfluous or
redundant fluids from the conftitution of infants ; hence, per-
haps, it is that they are moft frequently to be met with among
large infants, of a full habit. Viewing the fubje&t in this
light, one would be naturally inclined to encourage the dif-
charge from fuch eruptions; with me foap and water is a
favourite application; by wafhing off filth, which obftructs
the pares, it allows a free exit both to perfpiration and to
the difcharge from the ulcerated parts; it alleviates the itch-
ing, which is not only very troublefome, but abfolutely
injurious to the infant’s health, by interrupting its fleep, All
ointments and greafy applications, having a contrary tendency
to foap and water, feem to me objectionable. By difcharging
freely, the cutaneous complaints under confideration often
run their courfe with fafety in a few weeks, and the patient
is reftored to health without the ufe of any internal medi-
cine. When, however, the general health feems to be impaired,
and the violence of fymptoms renders medicine neceflary, I
have not found any remedy to be put in competition with

B 2 calomel,,

[
calomel, given in the fame manner as for correcting griping

and green ftools.

ALTHOUGH not immediately connected with my prefent fub-
jet, it may not be altogether ufelefs to remark, that along
with an herpetic eruption on infants there is fometimes a
mixture of itch which creates a very troublefome difeafe, and
one very liable to be mifunderftood. It is principally by ap-
pearances on the nurfe that the exiftence of itch on the infant
can be difcovered.. Herpes on the infant we know generally
brings out fome eruption on the nurfe, but on accurate ex-
amination this will be found very different in its progrefs and
effets from itch. The mode of curing itch in adults, when
difcovered, is now well afcertained; but there is great reafon
to doubt whether the fame treatment be fafely applicable to
infants, and efpecially when itch is combined with herpes.
Coughs of a very dangerous tendency have been obferved to
arife after the application of fulphur ointment to infants,
Fortunately there is no abfolute neceflity for its ufe. Com-
mon ftick brimftone, bruifed and boiled for fome time in
water, gives a fulphureous impregnation, which ufed as a tepid
bath every night at bed time feldom fails to cure the itch in
infants in a few weeks, without any rifk of obftru@ting the
pores of the fkin, or of repreffing too much the herpetic erup-
tion. In all fuch cafes it is prudent to make the nurfe rub
the eruption on her with fulphur ointment, while.at the fame
time fhe takes flour of fulphur and magnefia internally, fo
as to keep the bowels moderately open. The infant fhould

alfo

tas]

alfo fleep in the fame bed with the nurfe during this

operation.

I wave thus fketched, in a hafty manner, the outline of what
accident and fome reflection have fuggefted to me on a few
fubjects, in my opinion not perfectly underftood. To thofe
who know me, hurry of bufinefs (in an irregular and fatiguing
profeffion) will apologize for many defets. The points in
doubt regard a numerous clafs of the innocent and helplefs in
the community, who, when fick, are too frequently entrufted
to the care of prejudiced old women, or of men not much
better qualified to practice phyfic. I, therefore, entreat gentle-
men to enter difpaflionately into the inveftigation of the doubts
here fubmitted to their confideration. The alleviation of pain,
and the prolongation of human life, at a period of its greateft
frailty, are objects furely not beneath the notice of any man;
and as I pretend not to infallibility, the reader may be aflured
I feel as much interefted on this occafion to have error de-
tefled as to have truth conjirmed.

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A MEMOIR -on the CONSTRUCTION of SHIPS.
By Sir GEORGE SHEE, Bart. M.R.L A.

ALLow me to fubmit to you a few thoughts on fhip-
building ; a fubject which, from its national importance, would
feem to claim the attention of the moft enlightened, but which
has heretofore been confidered by few, except mere mechanics.
My motive for addrefling you is to promote the public good ;
and as the remarks I fhall make are more the refult of ob-
{ervation and experiment than of fcientific refearch, I am per-
fuaded you will judge them with indulgence. I fhould not
indeed hazard them but upon the idea that great improvements
in the arts have been fuggefted by perfons who were not
artifts, and that objeéts may fometimes prefent themfelves in
a more clear point of view to unprejudiced minds, than to
minds much more informed when biafled by predilection for
eftablifhed fyftems.

I was firft led to fufpect that the conftruction of fhips
built in Europe admitted of improvement, by obferving that
vellels

Read Nov. 1,
1794-

Le

veflels employed on the river Ganges, and on different coafts
of India, carried great burdens in proportion to their dimen-
fions; and on examining them I found that, however widely
they differed from each other in appearance, great expanfion
was common to them all. In order to afcertain their propor-
tions I had exact models made of feveral of them, which I
fhall be happy to fubmit to the infpection of your Society.
The veflels of the Ganges, it is true, being conftructed to
move at times in fhallow water, were not I found well cal-
culated to fail near the wind; but this defe€&t I knew could
be remedied ; and it was fufficient for my purpofe to afcer-
tain the fa&, that, when even heavily laden, they could be
moved with greater velocity than veflels on the European con-
ftruction, of the fame burden, could be by an equal impulfe
with ballaft only on board.

Tue opinion I had thus formed was ftrengthened in the
courfe of a voyage from Bengal to England. Obferving that
the Rodney, a Company’s fhip, which I was on board of,
appeared longer and failed fafter than other Indiamen, I made
inquiry as to her conftruction, and was informed that, on laying
her keel, fhe had been intended for a fhip of much more confi-
derable burden, but that, owing to a temporary fcarcity of timber,
all her dimenfions had been abridged, except that her length
was fuffered to remain, and confequently to exceed by fome
feet the ufual proportion. On our arrival in the channel,
with the wind about a point before the beam, we overtook
a fleet of Weft Indiamen, and we outfailed them with fuch

facility

Prag. A

facility that they might almoft have been fuppofed water-
logged. ie

Tuese obfervations, with many others, led me to beftow
more attention than I had before paid to an examination of
the mechanical principles applied to the building of {hips ;
and the more I extended my inquiries, the more I was con-
vinced that their conftruction was defective: Had, however,
my conclufions not been ftrengthened by previous obfervation,
I fhould not have obtruded them on your attention; for I
am myfelf fo much an infidel in theoretic fyftems in general,
that I offer confiderable violence to my mind whenever I
fubf{cribe to their truth, unlefs confirmed by fomething like
experimental proof; and [I fhould not therefore expect from

others much attention to remarks merely theoretic.

A cuLarineG defect in fhips employed in tranfporting mer-
chandize is, that they draw too much water, or are conftructed
too deep. It is well known that every floating body propelled,
muft, in its progrefs, difplace a body of water equal in weight to
itfelf, and in bulk to the part of it fituated below the furface ;
and that this operation muft be repeated fo often as the body
moved advances a diftance equal to its own length. Now as
the line of leaft refiftance from the water difplaced is upwards,
it follows that the force neceffary for its removal muft be
great in proportion to the diftance of any part of it from
the furface, and hence arifes the facility with which veflels
drawing little water are moved, even when the burden they

carry is confiderable.
Vou. VI. Cc ANOTHER

Geers

ANoTueR defeét in merchant veffels is, that they are too
fhort. The progrefs of a fhip that wants length is impeded
by perpetual afcent and defcent, even in water but moderately
agitated ; while one that has it proceeds with little more than
dire@ motion. But this is not the only objection to want of
length :—The tendency of the upper fails of a fhip is, not only to
propel horizontally, but, in a very. confiderable degree, to prefs
down the head and elevate the ftern, as will appear evident when
it is confidered that the maft is aéted upon as a lever, the upper
deck is the fulcrum, and the parts above and below it the two
arms. Now the action of the wind that fills the upper fails
is nearly upon the point of the long arm, and the degree of
refiftance to the deprefling force fo caufed is determined by
the length of the line from one extreme horizontal point of
the fhip to the other; when therefore this line is fhort, in
proportion to the height of the maft, the effect is not only
evident in a high or ripling fea, with the wind fair and
ftrong, but even in fmooth water, the veflel, particularly if
fmall, proceeds with evident deviation from the horizontal
pofition which her hull is intended to preferve, as well when
in motion as at anchor; and by this means the points of
direct refiftance are multiplied, as the height of the frothy
wave at the bows of fuch veffels in their progrefs, or the
difproportion of that wave to their velocity, fhape and fize,
evidently fhews.

A tTurrp defect too, not lefs ftriking than thefe, is that
the veffels I mention are too narrow. A few feet of length
add

Me eae

add little to the fize of fhips as to burden, but a fingle foot
in breadth increafes prodigioufly their capacity to fuftain weight.
The fhape of merchant veffels in general may be faid, from
its tendency, to refemble an extended wedge perpendicularly
placed; every ton additional weight preffes them down confi-
derably, and from the practice of overloading them, in order
to proportion their burden to their failing charges and _ ori-
ginal coft, they commonly proceed on a voyage almoft buried
in the water. To this circumftance alone the lofs of numbers
of them may be afcribed; for a captain muft be politive that
the danger is exceflive before he can’ hold himfelf juftified in
attempting to lighten the fhip; and in fituations the moft
perilous this is often found impracticable, -

Tue remedy for thefe defeéts is eafily ftated, but the prac-
ticability of applying it requires explanation, as inveterate
prejudices in the minds of fhip builders are to be oppofed, and
ftrong prepofleflions, in the minds even of men of fcience who |
have thought mechanics deferving their attention, to be com-
bated.

To give fhips great horizontal expanfion, in proportion to
their depth, which I conceive effential to the perfection of their
form, the conftruction of their hulls, in other refpeéts, muft
undergo a change. The bow and the fide are, or rather ought
to be, conftructed upon principles direétly oppofite. The one
is to break through the water, the other to refift all force that
gives the body of the veffel a difpofition to lee-way. The per-

C2 fection

fs 28-74

fettion of the former is to have as few points of direé&
refiftance as poflible, thar of the latter, it would feem, to pre-
fent as many; muft it not then, to an unprejudiced obferver,
appear extraordinary that both parts fhould be compofed of
fegments of circles, fcarcely a fuperficial {quare foot of the
largeft fhip’s fide, below the water mark, lying perpendicular
to horizontal preffure. ‘The keel, in fact, with fome fmall ex-
tent of plain immediately above it fpringing from the bottom,
are trufted to for refiftance, and thefe are in moft cafes infuf-
ficient, few veffels, except frigates and others of extraordinary
length, being found to fail well upon a wind.

AN argument univerfally ufed by feamen and fhip-builders,
in fupport of the prefent conftruction as to depth, is, that what
they technically call “ a gripe of the water below the power
“ of the furge,
driven to leeward.—As this argument, if found, ftrikes directly

”

is effential in preventing veflels from being

at the root of any improved fyftem founded on expanfion, it is
neceflary that it fhould nos remain unanfwered.

A cripe below the influence of the furge, if it mean any
thing, implies refiftance to the force of waves beating againft a
fhip’s fide. Now fuppofing this refiftance poflible, the firft high
fea that fhould ftrike her on the beam, in a gale of wind,
would inevitably either overfet her or deftroy her by forcing
in her fide; the fecurity therefore of fhips, in numberlefs cafes
that conftantly occur, depends on their yielding to the force of
waves. Admitting however, for argument-fake, that, in ftorms,

the

[ at ]

the dexterity of feamen may prevent a fhip from being ex-
pofed to the violence of the fea upon her broad fide, let us fee
how, in moderate weather, the deep gripe can operate.

Waves, I believe, are not thought to run very high when
they rife from fix to ten feet above the water level; that is
from twelve to twenty above the trough of the fea :—there are
few fhips whofe draught of water exceeds twenty ; is it not
evident then, that through all gradations of fize, veflels, even on
their prefent conftruction, are in general completely expofed to
the power of the furge.

Bur, as experiment fuperfedes argument, any perfon in whofe
mind doubts exift upon this fubjet, may fatisfy himfelf by
viewing a {mall cutter, when failing upon a wind, in company
with large fhips; or by obferving a wherry, which draws {till
lefs water, working to windward: Nay, even a fhip’s long-boat,
the moft flat of all fea veffels, may ferve to convince him that
he may difmifs thofe doubts without running much rifk of
falling into error, and fatisfy him that, provided a veflel have
hold of the water proportionate to her fize, it is of little mo-
ment whether the gripe be near to or remote from the fur-
face.

Tue improvements then which [ beg leave to recommend in
the conftruction of merchant veflels are, an increafe of their
horizontal, and a reduction of their perpendicular dimenfions,
which will correct the three defects I have pointed out; alfo

the

[22 ]
the alreration in the fhape of their fides and bows, which I

have already faid is neceflary, in order to render thefe improve- ,

ments practicable.

Were the length of the keel even fo far extended as that it
fhould reach two perpendicular lines dropped from the ex-
treme points of a fhip’s upper deck, the increafe of gripe
would be prodigious, and the additional expenfe trifling. A
fheer or projection abaft is unqueftionably beautiful ; but it is
of no ufe, and the eye would foon become reconciled to an
upright ftern. The fheer, however, might be given with any
length of keel, where expenfe fhould be difregarded, unlefs it
fhould be thought, which Iam rather inclined to believe, that
a very long veflel would be weakened by it, for the ftrain
upon a fhip’s centre is in fact refitted more by the binding of
her upper planks and timbers than by the ftrength of her keel.
The expenfe of this increafe of length, together with that
attending the increafed breadth of the veffel, would nearly be
paid by the faving caufed by the reduction of her depth.

Tue alteration in the form of the fides and bows needs a
few words more of explanation.

Tue effect to be expected from a flat fide is exemplified in
an ingenious contrivance ufed to fupply want of depth in
Dutch veflels of various defcriptions ; and I cannot give a more
correct idea of the improvement in this refpect I with to
recommend, than by faying that the fide of a fhip, below the

water

pas]

water level, or a part of it-at leatt, ought to refemble a Jee
board of confiderable extent. By means of this board many
Dutch merchant veflels, notwithftanding they are conftruéted
with a floor almoft flat to fit them for great burden and
fhallow water, are found to fail tolerably well upon a wind,
and yet they are in general fhort, with bluff upright bows,
and many other defects.

Durcu fifhing veflels too, particularly thofe employed in
great numbers on the coaft of England, are rendered by the
ufe of a lee board good failers. Not being intended for burden
they do not in general much exceed boat fize; and although
they are the moft flat of all decked veflels I have feen, their
fecurity in blowing weather is proverbial.

Now in refpeé to the bows of merchant fhips, I will only obferve,
that although they flope off tolerably- well when veffels are light,
they prefent, when laden, fuch refiftance to head way as can
fcarcely be overcome by any preflure of fail. The evident
remedy is to render them lefs upright; expanfion in them,
although abfolutely neceffary above the water level, being quite
ufelefs below it.

By adopting thefe improvements I am perfuaded that the
fame quantity of timber and other materials now employed in
building a merchant veffel of one hundred tons burden, would
ferve to form one capable of carrying at leaft one hundred
and thirty, and that the velocity gained would rather. exceed

this

f 24+]

this proportion. The advantage of performing three voyages
in the ufual time of two, or even fuppofe five in the time of
four, need not be ftated; nor need that which would refult, in
the feafon of tempeft, from reducing the length of time in
which fhips are expofed to danger, or in time of war from
rendering them capable of evading purfuit.

Tue conftruGtion of veffels employed in carrying mails be-
tween Dublin and Holyhead I conceive to be nearly as defective
as that of merchant fhips, which their hulls in a great mea-
fure refemble, although they are built exprefsly for fpeed and
accommodation, and not burden. But indeed burden they do
carry; for, from their deep form, they require an abfolute
loading of ballaft to prevent them from overfetting; and their
draught of water is fuch, although fmall veflels, that they can
float on the Dublin Bar only at a particular time of tide, by
which fair winds are frequently mifled, and the paflage from
England unneceflarily prolonged. From their want of length
and exceflive depth they are fuch flow failers, that the Favourite,
a light long veflel, fitted out by private individuals, has made
her paflage to Holyhead in nine hours, when two packets,
which weighed anchor when fhe did, took twelve to perform
theirs.

’ In determining the moft proper conftruction for thefe, or
indeed any other fea veffels, it fhould be confidered that the
greater the length the lefs depth will be neceflary to prevent
lee way; and that the greater the breadth, the more fail may

be

rage |

be carried, and the lefs ballaft required. Weight it is true
does not operate exactly upon fhips as burden does upon ani-
mals; its fituation, as I have already faid, determining in a
great meafure the refiftance to velocity it caufes; but that its
operation is confiderable cannot I believe be doubted. In fhort,
Tam, perfuaded that packet veflels. might be conftructed on a
principle fo light, that they might pafs the Dublin Bar at any
time of tide, fo fpeedy, that they would commonly perform
their voyage in three-fourths or perhaps two-thirds of the time
thofe in ufe now employ; and at the fame time that they:
would, if poffible, be more fafe, and certainly much more
commodious, their building and failing charges. would not be:
more confiderable..

To determine the exact extent to which the improvements;
I recommend can, im general, be practically applied, is not
my prefent. object. I only mean to fuggeft hints which, if
thought deferving of the trouble, may eafily be thrown into.
regular fyftem; and I will clofe an addrefs, imperceptibly ex-
teaded beyond. its intended limits, with a word. on fhips of
war.

SHoutv thefe improvements prove founded’ on true prin-
ciples of naval architecture, their application may certainly be
extended to the conftruction of frigates and all other King’s
fhips carrying one tier of guns only; but that thofe of two
and three tier can, in an equal degree, be improved, is an
affertion I will not hazard. The effect of the weight the latter
carry. above water muft be counteracted by a proportionate

Vou. VI. . D weight

[ 26 ]

weight below it, and it is poffible that an increafe of their
horizontal expanfion would be unfafe, confidering that timber
beyond the prefent dimenfions cannot well be procured. Deter-
minate flatnefs of fide, however, for fome diftance below the
furface of the water, would aid very confiderably in refifting
the effet of a fide wind on fo prodigious a furface as their
hulls prefent above water, and even a very trifling addition to
their breadth of beam would probably enable them to carry
their guns better than they now do in a high fea, and render
fome redudtion of their draught of water practicable.

Tuat light frigates might be made capable of receiving as
great velocity from a moderate breeze as is now given them
by a ftrong wind, is a truth lam perfuaded of; and that the
utmoft velocity any veffels are capable of is not yet attained in
the European feas, is a fact that will not be doubted by any
perfon who credits the well authenticated accounts given of
flying prows. The form of thefe veffels it is true unfits them
for any other fea but that in the latitude of the Ladrone
Iflands, but ufeful hints may notwithftanding be taken from
their conftruction,

MEMOIR on the CLIMATE of IRELAND. By the Rev.
WILLIAM HAMILTON, of Fanet, in the County of Donegal;

late Fellow. of Trinity Couiece, Dublin, M. RL. A.»

Correfponding Member of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, &c.

Ir is generally fuppofed that the feafons, in our ifland, have
fuffered a confiderable change, almoft within the memory of the
prefent generation. The Winters of our climate are faid to
have laid afide their ancient horrors, and frequently to have
affumed the mildnefs and vegetative powers of Spring; while
Summer is reprefented as lefs favourable than heretofore ; lefs genial
in promoting vegetation, and lefs vigorous in forwarding the fruits
of the earth to maturity.

Ir is indeed true that, in this inftance, popular opinion does
_not ftand fupported by the concurrent teftimony of meteorological
obfervations: There is no clear evidence derivable from them, that
the prefent feafons are materially different from- former ones;

D 2 and!

Read Dec..6,
1794:

{ 28 J]

and therefore philofophers and meteorologifts naturally afcribe
to the querulous difpofition of the farmer the chill fenfations
of old age, or the predile€@tion which every one feels for the chear--
ful days of childhood, the adoption of an opinion that feems fo

eafily to flow from thefe fources.

Bur let it be remembered that the inftruments of atmofpherical
obfervations do not extend to a// the circumftancés, which influence
the cfops of the farmer, or the fenfations of the man. The ther-
mometer may mark the general temperature of our climate as
unchangeable; and the pluviometer may afcertain its ufual moif-
ture; whilft a clouded atmofphete, or“a “‘tempeftuous wind, fhall
mar the progreflive maturity of harveft, and fhatter the languid

frame of declining age.

Hear and cold, and rains, are indeed principals in the céconomy
of feafons; but winds, clouds, vapours, and other cireumftances
rarely regiftered, often unperceived, are to be deemed at leaft
ancillary in the extenfive fyftem; and may give plaufibility to
popular fenfations and opinions, even without the aid of meteoro-

logical teftimony.

Ir is the purpofe of this paper to offer to the Academy fome
obfervations relating to this interefting fubje@t; and to mark a few
prominent events in the phenomena of our climate, which may

add credibility to general report.

Of

[ 29 J
Of the Winds and their Effetts.

Tus winds, which moft ufually prevail in our latitudes, blow
from the Weftward, for reafons unneceffary to be detailed here.
Thefe winds are commonly mild in their temperature, and moift
in their nature. They are, from thefe properties, extremely
friendly to animal and vegetable life; and to them the great
population of Ireland, and the uncommon fertility of its foil,

may, among natural caufes, be afcribed.

But, from whatever circumftances ‘it has arifen, thefe winds
have, of late years, fwept with uncommon violence over the
farface of our ifland; fruftrating the ufual effets of their genial
properties by the overbearing fury of their courfe; and, like
Saturn, fometimes devouring the offspring to which themfelves
had given birth.

Wuy thefe wefterly winds have ceafed to bear the character
of zephyrs may admit of much curious and interefting inveftiga-
tion: at prefent ¥ fhall be fatisfied with endeavouring to eftablifh
the fact itfelf, by fuggefting to the Academy fome citcumftances
that feem to determine the matter with a very great degree of
probability.

_ Tue effects of thefe winds are matked, in vifible characters,
over the whole furface of the kingdom; but they are peculiarly
diftin-

fr ap.

diftinguifhable in the northern province of Ulfter; and chiefly in
the extreme counties of that province, where a northerly latitude,
joined to an expofed fituation on the coafts of the ocean, forms
an apt ftation for obfervations, and exhibits, as it were on a mag-
nified feale, the degrees of the pheenomena themfelves.

THREE natural regifters of thefe effe€ts have come within my
obfervation; the trees of the country, the fands of the fea coaft,
and the tides of the ocean: Of each of thefe I fhall make mention

in its order.
Of the Trees.

Ir is a fa&t extremely well eftablifhed, that the pine tree, and
peculiarly that fpecies vulgarly denominated the Scotch fir,
formerly grew on many of the mountains of this kingdom, and
on parts of the northern and weftern coafts, exceedingly bare
and open to ftorms. Vaft roots, and noble trunks of this f{pecies
of pine have been feen and examined by me with attention,
in fituations where human induftry cannot now rear a twig of
the hardieft tree. On the higheft lands of the general furface of
the kingdom, in the county of Weftmeath, amid the mountains
of the county of Antrim, and on the naked coafts of Enifhowen,
and Roffes, in the county of Donegal, pine trees have formerly
arrived at an age of an hundred and twenty years, have grown
to the fize of a yard in diameter, and furpaffed~ fifty feet in
height.

THERE

ft aoe. J

TuereE is great reafon to think, that two centuries have hardly
elapfed fince many of thefe trees grew in thofe fituations; and
probable reafons might be adduced, to limit the great period of
their deftru€tion to the age of James the firft of England; in
whofe reign rewards were held out for fettling the kingdom, and
clearing its furface of forefts, which, under favour of inceffant
wars, and neglected tillage, during a period of eight centuries,
had over{pread the face of the country *.

Tue harfh and furrowed bark of this pine has occurred to me,
in fuch a perfect ftate of prefervation, as almoft alone to determine

its {pecies T.

Tue cones have been found by me at a depth of many feet
from the furface of the earth, in fuch condition as almoft to give
hope of raifing plants from their feed ¢. Marks of the woodman’s

hatchet

* « In this reign pipe-ftaves was one of the ordinary exports of Ireland; fo that
a mighty trade was driven with them, and thoufands of trees were felled, every
sc year, for this purpofe. A multitude of iron-mills were erefted; and it is in-
credible how much charcoal a fingle iron-mill will confume in one year. So that
« all the great woods, which the maps fhew us on the mountains, between Dundalk
‘© and Newry, are quite vanifhed, except one tree, clofe to the highway, at
« the very top of the mountain, which, as it may be feen a great way off, therefore
s¢ ferveth travellers for a mark.”

n
s

a
re

«« Yet there are ftill great woods remaining in Dunnagall, in Tyrone, in Antrim,
© &c.” See Nat. Hift. of Ireland by Boates, Molleneux, and others, written about
the middle of the laft century.

+ In Bracknaheevlin. bog, county of Weftmeath.

$ In Lackbeg bog near Rutland, county of Donegal.

{lt pe

hatchet on their trunks; veftiges of fire applied for their deftruc-
tion ; the pieces of charcoal into which many of them have been
burnt *; paleings, and {mall enclofures, found at the level where
they have formerly grown ; all feem to prove the interference of
human induftry in the extirpation of thefe noble trees, and even
to affign no very remote period for that event.

LEATHERN fhoes, wooden veffels filled with butter, and other
light fubftances, found at confiderable depths in turf-bogs f,
and not likely to have defcended through the matted texture of
that fubftance, give additional teftimony to the opinion, that
the exiftence of thefe bogs, and, of courfe, that of the trees which
they contain, is not of an extremely ancient date.

Ir is needlefs to recal the attention of the Academy to the
difficulty of raifing trees, at prefent, in many of thofe fituations
where the ancient pine and oak of Ireland have, within the period
of human exiftence, flourifhed with luxuriance.

THE

* Found in a bogein the liberties of the city of Londonderry.

+ In a bog near Surock, county of Weftmeath: near Kilrufh, county of Clare; at
Carnifk, near Ramelton, county of Donegal.

+ Omitting other inftances: Two wooden veffels, containing butter, were very
lately found deep in a turf-bog, in the Fews mountains, near Ballymoire, the feat
of Sir Walter Synnott. ‘The veffels were extremely inartificial, being little better
than the hollow trunks of fome large fpecies of willow: the butter was infipid,
inodorous, colourlefs, fomewhat refembling unctuous white fteatites in its touch
and appearance ; but its inflammability remained fo perfect, as to admit of its being
made into candles, to which ufe much of it was applied.

Tige a

Tue labours of the farmer, the refources of wealth and inform-
ation, the rewards of patriotic focietics, and even the liberal
encouragement of the legiflature itfelf, have in vain ftruggled
againft the weftern ftorms, during the latter part of the prefent
century; and the planters of our age, wearied with combating the
tempeft, have generally found it neceffary to fly from all elevated
and expofed fituations, and to abandon the pleafing idea of cover-.
ing the nakednefs of mountains, the fterility of rocks, and the
bleak uniformity of bogs, with the luxuriant foliage of the oak
and the pine.

Or all the foreft trees, which, in later times, have been cul-
‘tivated for general ufe, there is none higher in the eftimation
of our farmers than the afh. It is a tree which buds late, but
finally iffues forth ftrong and fucculent fhoots: fecure, by its
deciduous nature, from wintry blafts, it is, neverthelefs, extremely
fenfible to the efforts of fummer ftorms; and becomes a faithful
regifter of the winds of our climate, marking their moft prevalent
direction by the inclination of its boughs, and their violence,
‘by the degree wherein its tender fhoots, or more mature branches,

are withered or blafted.

Har a century has fearce elapfed fince this ufeful fpecies
of tree was generally planted, and grew luxuriantly in every part
of Ireland: yet are there hardly any expofed places in the king-
‘dom where its top branches do not now, in one part or another,
exhibit the withered veftiges of commencing decay. Through

Vou. VI. E many

i ef

many parts of Ulfter it is a blafted tree; and in all untheltered
fituations, in the three northern counties of Antrim, Derry, and
Donegal, the fpecies feems faft verging toward annihilation *.

AtrTentive to each prognoftic of the feafons, alive to every
circumftance whereon the future fubfiftence of his numerous
family, in a populous country, may depend, the farmer of the
north fees thefe veftiges of the tempeft with folicitude ; and often
taught, of late, to dread the effects of fummer ftorms on his
luxuriant crops of potatoes, he has become querulous from ex-
perience, and thinks he has fome reafon to complain that the
feafons are lefs favourable to his hopes than formerly ; that the
pine tree has not forfaken the mountains, nor the afh been.
blafted in his fields, without the influence of encreafing tempetts.

Of the Sands.

Tue wafte and dreary folitude of extended barren fands,
which almoft every fea-coaft exhibits, is generally paffed over
with rapidity, as ufelefs to the philofopher, from the incalculable
fluctuation of its furface; and wearifome to the traveller, by its
difgufting uniformity.

Yer, in the midft of fuch a fterile fcene, where nothing occurs
to divert the path, or diftra& the penfive mind of the traveller,
if traces of human exiftence fhould fuddenly become vifible, if

enclofures

* In Lancafhire in England, between Garftang and Prefton, the trees are alfo cut
off by the wefterly winds. See Newte’s Tour, year 1791.

Lense. |

enclofures fhould appear to mark the chearful fire-fide of fome
former villager, or the circuit of his little garden; if embattled
walls, or marble piers fhould ftart up amid the fands, fuggefting
ideas of ancient elegance and feftivity, he muft have a ftoic’s
mind, indeed, who will not venture to calculate caufes, and feel
interefted in events that come home fo clofely to the human

heart.

On many parts of the coaft of Ireland f{cenes, fuch as thefe, may
be difcovered.

Ar the entrance of the river Bannow, in the celebrated barony
of Forth, in the county of Wexford, veftiges of ruins, traced with
difficulty amid heaps of barren fand, ferve to afcertain the fite of
a town, whofe ancient refpectability was marked by the royal
charter, which endowed it with the privilege of fending reprefen-
tatives to the parliament of the nation, and whofe opulence may
be inferred from the ftreets which are regiftered in the revenue
records of the laft century *.

E 2, Amip

* « So late as the year 1626, Bannow is regiftered in the cuftom-houfe books of
Wexford, as having four ftreets which paid quit-rent to the crown; viz.. Lady-ftreet,
High-ftreet, Weavers-ftreet, Little-fttreet, and fome buildings furrounding the
church. The only remains of Bannow, which ftand vifible at this day (1786), are the
walls of its church. There is not on or near the town but one poor folitary hut. The
election for the reprefentatives of the town is held on the walls of an old chimney,
adjoining to the church, which tumbled down piece-meal, and forms the council
table of that ancient and loyal corporation.”

Private letter of a friend in the county of Wexford.

P36. J
Amp the fands between Porttuth and Dunluce, in the county
of Antrim, in the year 1783, the ruins of a village might be feen,

deferted by its inhabitants, who had been obliged to move further

into the country.

Ix the year 1787 the peninfula of Hornhead, in the county of
Donegal, contained veftiges of enclofures, fo fmall, and fo nu-
merous, as to mark the refidence of a confiderable number of
human families, in a fpot which then exhibited nothing, but
— ““ a defert, falt and bare,

“ The haunt of feals and orcs, and fea-mews clang.”

MILTon.

SoMEWHAT about a century ago the peninfula of Rofsgull,
lying between the harbours of Sheep-haven and Mulroy, in the
county of Donegal, was felected as the refidence of one of the noble
families of Hamilton, titled Boyne. It is to be prefumed there was
then but little apprehenfion that the elegant edifice of that age
fhould, after the fhort interval of an hundred years, ftand, like
Tadmor of the Eaft, the folitary wonder of a furrounding
defert.

For the age wherein it was built, and the ftyle of architeGture
of that day, the manfion of Rofeapenna may be called elegant.
The approach was from a level green on the fhore, through a
fucceffion of embattled courts, and hanging terraces, rifing in order
one above the other, and adorned with marble piers of no mean

defign and workmanfhip.
THE

HA
Hi] Hi
lh

Ih Mite
A i es

{ 3 J

‘ +. Tue tear was piakeeina with gatdens, laid out and planted
in’ the fathion of the laft century; and the parks and —_ of the
we deme feem to have been well divided and enclofed.

is Ar prefent every objet in this place prefents to view peculiar
charaéters of defolation. The gardens are totally denuded of trees
and fhrubs, by the fury of the weftern winds: their walls, un-
_ able to fuftain the mafs of overbearing fands, haye bent before
is the: accumulated. preffure, and, overthrown in numberlefs places,
have given free paffage to this reftlefs enemy of all fertility.
ae ABRs, the flights of Hep | Hs State are all involved

MiidiGén itfelf, yielding to the unconquerable fury of the
is TERPS faft i deftruétion : ae aa! en ts

Hence

‘

* Te syould be teazing to dwell on a repetition of fimilar ‘examples. I fhall juft
mention two others. Ina fummer excurfion from College, in the year 1787, pafling
‘from

b cae 2]

Hence it appears, that interefting natural events, the con-
fequence of ftorms, have occurred on our coafts in the latter part
of the prefent century, which were not forefeen, nor even fufpect-
ed, at its commencement.

Of the Tides.

Ir cannot be wondered at if thefe tempefts fhould have had
confiderable effet on the tides of the ocean. The waters of that
element, as long as they are unimpeded by extraneous caufes, obey
the influence of the heavenly luminaries, and ebb and flow with’
degrees of quantity, and regularity of periods, which come within
the reach of human calculation. But when they are agitated by

ftorms,

from Dunfanaghy to Rutland, along the weftern coaft of Donegal, I had great
difficulty to difcover a houfe, fituated between the river Guidore and the Roffes
iflands, whither I had been dire&ted to enquire for a guide; and, after much fearch,
at length perceived its roof, juft emerging from the fands. The owner told me that
his houie was not long built, and had, at firft, a confiderable traét of pafture ground
between it and the fea thore, but that, of late, he was every year obliged, with
great labour, to dig it out of the encroaching fands, and purpofed, fhortly, to remove
it to the oppofite fhore of a lake called Mullochdearg, which lay behind the houfe, in
defpair of being able to maintain his prefent fituation.

A difputed boundary in Fanet, on the northern coaft of the fame country, between
the tenants of one of my own glebes and the neighbouring peafants, is afcertained
by a heap of iron fcorie in the midft of loofe and fhifting fands. Thirty or forty years
ago there ftood here the forge of the village; but no remains of it, or its fmith, are
now difcoverable, except the cinders of the forge, and the rank weeds that fpring from
a rich ftratum of earth, once the foil of his garden, and ftill vifible in a hillock of
fand.

[ 39 J

ftorms, or other violent convulfions, their quantities, and periods,
become altogether uncertain and incalculable.

Generatty fpeaking, agitation of the ocean, from whatever
caufes it may arife, produces encreafe in the influx and reflux of
its tides, as well as deviation from their calculated times; and
where the movement of this extraneous influence coincides with
the natural direétion of the waters, the effets are vifibly diftin-
guifhable by the traces of inundation which attend their unufual
progrefs.

As the tides of our coaft, raifed in the Atlantic ocean, flow in
upon us from the weftward, a ftorm from that quarter invariably
gives them an uncommon elevation in our harbours: and this accu-
‘mulation of waters fometimes anticipates even the tempett itfelf,
becoming the forerunner and prognoftic of its diftant commence-
ment, and approaching impetuofity.

Or late years, thefe extraordinary influxes of the ocean have
‘been much greater, and more frequent, than formerly. Every
perfon on our coafts, whofe fituation has made the conftruGion or
prefervation of embankments againft the fea neceflary, ‘knows, by
painful experience, how much his labours have, of late years,
encreafed, and how impotent works, formerly effeGiual, are now
found to be, in repelling the encreafing tides of the prefent day.
Public roads encroached on; walls beaten down; ftrands lefs
paffable than heretofore, meadow and tillage land oftener, dul

more

[ 4° ]
more deeply inundated; all concur to prove encreafing tides, and
frequency of ftorms on our coafts.

Turse phenomena faithfully regiftered, extenfively and diftin@-
ly delineated in natural charaGters, independent of every bias from
human fyftem or prejudice, free from the uncertainty of cafual
records, or the locality of peculiar ftations for obfervation, feem
diretly to demonftrate an unufual and encreafing violence in
the winds of our climate during the prefent century. That
thefe tempefts have chiefly borne upon us from the weftward,
is plain from the fame general appearances: for, where local cir-
cumftances have not diretly interfered in oppofition, the trees,
fhrinking before the preffure from the ocean, have uniyerfally
yielded to the weftern blaft. The fands have drifted, and the
tides. runfhed upon us from the fame quarter, evidently demon-
ftrating the more frequent recurrence, and fuperior potency, of
the Atlantic ftorms.

Of the Effects of thefe Weftern Tempefts on the general Temperature
of the Climate.

In a paper, honoured with a place in the fecond volume of the
tranfaGtions of the Academy, I recorded the refult of fome ex-
periments made in the year 1788, for the purpofe of afcertaining

the temperature of the earth in our latitudes.

From thefe experiments it appears, that the medium tem-
perature of the kingdom of Ireland, from its fouthern to its north-
ern

[ 46 ]

ern extremity, nearly coincides with the ftandard affigned to
correfpondent degrees of latitude in Mr. Kirwan’s ingenious

tables *.

Ir is further difcoverable, that the general warmth of our ifland
is in no refpect inferior to that of other countries in its parallel :
from whence we are naturally led to, conclude that the annual
quantity of heat received here, is not lefs, in our day, than it was

in former ages.

Ir thefe things are, fo, it may be. denied that there is any fub-
ftantial foundation for, the frequent complaint of change in our,
feafons.. The ocean may be agitated by ftorms, fands be drifted.
along our coaft, and trees blafted in mountainous and expofed.
fituations ;—but why fhould the farmer lament the diminifhed.
ardour, and fhortened period. of his fummers ; as if winter pof-
feffed more than its natural portion of the revolving year?
Whence fhould arife the gardener’s complaints, that his peaches,
however fheltered from ftorms, rarely now'arrive at maturity, and
that his May-duke cherries, even)in the moft favoured: afpedts,.
no longer merit that diftinguithed title?

May I be permitted to affume, as true, the fact which it has.
hitherto been the purpofe of this paper to demonftrate, and im
fupport of which the trees, the fands, and the tides of our ifland,,
feem to bear confiftent and unequivocal teftimony ; namely that;

¢ Vo. VI. F ; of

* See Kirwan’s Eftimate of Temperatures.

[ 4]

of late years, the weftern winds have blown with encreafed vio-
lence? From that fingle principle an anfwer may be deduced’ to
all thefe interefting queftions.

Ir isa matter well known, and eafily to be explained, that the
furface of the ocean varies lefs from the mean annual temperature
of its latitude than Jand in the fame parallel *: that is, the furface
of the fea is colder in fummer, and warmer in winter, than the
furface of the ground in that latitude.

If then the prevalent winds of any country blow over an ocean
fituated in its parallel, that country will relatively be denominated
temperate ; it will be free from all extremes; the heats of fummer,
and the colds of winter, will be checked by fea breezes of a con-
trary property; and the land, influenced by the neighbouring
element, muft, more or lefs, partake in its equability of tem-
perature.

Sucw is thecafe in almoft all the iflands of the world ; and fuch,
from immemorial ages, has been the peculiar character of Ireland.
Hither come the weftern winds, modified by the temperature of
the broad Atlantic ocean which they traverfe in their career:
Hither fly the clouds, teeming with moifture collected in a courfe
of three thoufand miles along its furface: and here uniformity
of temperature, and redundant humidity, have always been
marked as the diftinguifhed charaéter of our foil.

SINCE

* See Kirwan’s Eftimate of Temperatures.

[x43 J

Since then the trees, the fands, and the tides demonftrate that
thefe winds-have, of late years, blown with unufual violence ;
fince they bear teftimony that .a large quantity of air, thus directed,
thus tempered and furcharged, has paffed -over ‘our lands;
it plainly follows that the climate muft have felt the change;
that it muft have experienced colder fummers and milder winters
than heretofore, ,approaching towards that equability of heat, and
redundance of -moifture, which the farmer and the gardener at
prefent fo heavily lament.

Bur it is not from encreafe of quantity alone that thefe winds:
have produced their effects. They have altered the temperature
of the ocean itfelf ; and thus have, as it were, multiplied their
changeful influence on the land; acting there, at once, with new
properties, as well as with encreafed quantity.

Tue furface of ‘water, in’a ftate of tranquillity, admits of greater
variations ‘of ‘temperature than in a ftate of agitation. Jt may
‘become ‘mich ‘hotter‘in fummer, ‘and colder inwinter, when calm,
than when difturbed: for ‘the ‘particles at the furface, when
héated or cooled, ‘do not immediately give place to others nearer
the bottom; ‘the procefs of commixture, in a tranquil ftate, is
gradual, and the tranfmiffion of ‘change fomewhat refembles the
flow anid ’retarded! progrefs that 'takes place on the land: “Agitation
always countera@s this gradual procefs; arapid commixture of the
particles produces a quick affimilation of temperature throughout
the whole mafs, and thus, taking away all partial excefs, reduces

the whole toward a medium ftate of uniformity.
F's Tavs

[ER4ai J

Tuvs fummer tempefts always tend’ to diminith the fuperficial
heat of an Ocean dver which they ruth ; while wihter“blafts, agi-
tating the'waters at confiderable depths, refift the natural cold of
the feafon by a fupply of relatively warm particles, which arife
from the bottom toward the furface.

Tuat the Atlantic ocean, the vaft and potent arbiter of our
feafons, has fuffered unufual agitation of late years, feems evident
from the natural phenomena recorded in the beginning of this
Memoir. The trees, and fands of our ifland, bear teftimony to
the ftorms which {weep along its furface ; and the tides come to us
as frequent, and unerring meffengers of the tumultuous and
agitated ftate of its billows, attendant on their furious career.

From this perturbed abyfs of waters has arifen an unceafing
influence, equally potent to check the ardour of the fummer
folar beams, or to relax the fhackles of a northern winter. By
this prevailing influénce fummer has been rendered impotent to
raife and ripen many of our crops, and the farmer, taught by ne-
ceflity, learns now to hand them over ready grown, and. prepared
for the maturity of fummer, under the mild temperature of an
Atlantic winter. Hence too the gardener has, of late years, been
compelled to call in the aid of artificial heat to forward the peach,
the nedtarine, the grape, and every other fpecies of delicate fruit,
to perfection.

HENcE

[a5]

HeNcE premiums now vainly tempt the growth of hemp,
which formerly peafants, in the moft northern counties in Ire-
land, cultivated without reward around their cabbins for domef-
tic ufe: And hence the ancient apiaries of our ifland, once fo
celebrated, and guarded with fuch fpecial and minute attention
by the Brehon laws*, are now extin@; and honey, from being
a common article of popular confumption, has become a rare
luxury, or an expenfive medicine.

Winter -has likewife felt the general influence of this Atlantic
temperature; our graffes fcarcely droop beneath the frofts; wheat
and oats vegetate in the open fields during the very folftice itfelf ;
myrtles and laurels, in fheltered fituations, brave the feverity of
winter: ‘The Foyle, and other large rivers of the northern pro-
vince, frequently fubje@ to the icy chains of former ages, now run
in uninterrupted freedom f.

Facts, fuch asthefe, are to be confidered as the bafis of general
opinion concerning the alteration of our climate; while old age,
‘connecting thefe appearances with the fragility of declining life,
anda decayed conftitution, has become querulous in proportion to
its feelings, and, judging of external phenomena by the exaggerated
teft of its own acute fenfations, emphatically pronounces, that

the feafons are now lefs favourable than formerly.
On

* See ColleGtanea de Reb. Hib. Tranfl. Brehon Laws.

+ Fifty years have elapfed fince the River Foyle has been effectually frozen over at
~ Derry: It is alfo obferved, that the River Thames, in Britain, is lefs frequently frozen ©
of late years than formerly. See Archzologia Britannica, vol. iii. p. 55.

ae

On the Confequences of this Equability of Temperature to animal
and vegetable Life,

From the tranfient perufal of this Memoir, a rapid and im-
patient mind would probably draw numberlefs falfe conclufions.
The faéts here recorded feem to wear a gloomy afpe@; to mark
a gradual deterioration of our feafons ; to indicate:a climate, harth,
ungenial, and of confequence fterile in its nature; clouded,
humid, tempeftuous; cheerlefs, and unfriendly to animal and
vegetable life.

Aux thefe conclufions contradi&t-experience, and may be over-
turned by a-calm confideration of the phenomena themfelves.

ExreriENce teaches us that dry feafons, and eafterly gales,
are, in our ifland, invariable fources of feeble ‘vegetation, and
numerous difeafes*; and the hiftory of the world informs us that
winds, whether hot or cold, are in their nature deleterious to ani-
mal and vegetable life, in proportion as they become deprived of
humidity. The warm air of the African defert breathes defolation
over the parched land of Egypt and Syria, before it is yet felt asa
tempeft. Even our own wefterly winds, the Atlantic meffengers
of health and fertility to our ifland, after traverfing the cold and
dry tract of the vaft ‘Siberian continent, bear nothing but fte-

rility,

* Of this the Influenza, attendant on the eafterly winds of fpring, in the prefent
year (1795) affords a ftrong inftance.

t See Volney’s Account of Egypt and. Syria.

Ear J

rility, and almoft perpetual winter, ‘to the unhappy climate of
Kamfchatka *.

Heat or cold in extremes; dry air in rapid motion, and moift
air in a ftagnant ftate, feem to be the principal external fources of
human difeafes; and climates are generally found favourable to
health and longevity, in proportion as they are exempt from thefe
natural caufes of diforder and decay.

Ir ought therefore to be inferred, a priori, that Ireland, cele-
brated for the fingular equability of its temperature, and the
ceafelefs motion of an atmofphere always influenced by the moif-
ture of the Atlantic, fhould be likewife charaCteriftically free
from natural difeafe; and experience proves that this conclufion

is true.

Tue exhaufting agues of North America, or the fens of Eng-
land +; the fatal fluxes which prevail in the low countries of the
continent of Europe; the dreadful bilious diftempers of both the
‘Indies; the peftilence which defolates the African and Afiatic
climates; are all either entirely unknown, or but feebly felt in
Ireland. ‘There is here no charaéteriftic difeafe to mark a natural

fource

* The latitude of Kamichatka correfponds to that of Ireland ; the wefterly winds
are prevalent in each; yet the former experiences a rigorous winter of nine months,
and the latter rarely of as many days. See Cook’s Voyage in 1779, vol. ili. ch. 6. -

+ The ague is fo rare, in feveral parts of Ireland, that many perfons are totally
unacquainted with it. In the northern province the Author has never met with the
difeafe, and its exiftence there is generally denied.

ae og

- fource of unhealthfulnefs. There are few diforders which cannot
be dire@ly traced up to fome artificial caufe; to fome intemperance,
to fome negleét, to fome excefs, cither of luxury or penury, in the
fuffering fubje@. Manufactures, in their kind, unwholefome ;
induftry exerted beyond its proper limits ; irregularity in food or
fermented liquors; illicit amours; colds, the confequence of folly
or inattention; excefs or deficiency of proper exercife ; anxicty
and fretfulnefs of mind; together with the copious lift of cafual-
ties, afford to the phyfician of this country, the caufes, and expla-
nation, of almoft all its diforders.

From its peculiar falubrity the natives of this ifland are cele-
brated through Europe for juft fymmetry of proportion, and an
athletic frame ; becaufe, from earlieft infancy to manhood, a check
is rarely given to the progreflive encreafe of animal ftrength, or
the natural and appropriate forms of an undifeafed body. From
the fame Hygeian fource flow thofe ardent paffions, thofe exu-
berant ftreams of animal fpirits, which render our natives always
chearful, oftentimes turbulent and boifterous, the ufual confequences
of uninterrupted health and a vigorous conftitution. Hence wild
adventure, perfonal courage, impetuofity of purfuit, inattention to
confequences, and improvidence of difpofition, become the cha-
ra@teriftic features of minds, feldom under the influence of that
anxiety, which, flying from the prefent moment and its enjoy-
ments, watches for futurity, and pants after remote felicity.

THE

[ 49 |]

Tue general temperature of our climate, in the vicinity of the
capital, is fomewhat lower than the soth degree of Farenheit’s
thermometer * ; and a mean of the hotteft or coldeft months of
our year rarely varies more than 10 degrees from this ftandard
heat +. Winter therefore, with us, is ufually accompanied by
a temperature of 40 degrees; {pring and autumn of so degrees ;
and fummer of 60 degrees of the thermometer: and the general
heat of any fingle month of thefe feveral feafons feldom varies
much from the correfponding temperature of that particular feafon

to which it belongs.

Or thefe limits, the loweft is not fufficiently cold to check the>
growth of any of the natural herbage of our ifland, nor the higheft
powerful enough to parch the furface of a moift foil, or to feorch
its luxuriant graffes. Hence it comes to pafs that our fields main-
tain a perpetual verdure, unimpaired by either folftice. Hence
too the farmer is enabled to lay his lands under grafs almoft at
any feafon, even at the commencement of winter |: and hence
the grazier never lofes the benefit of his rich paftures at any period
of. the year, unlefs during the tranfient paffage of a temporary
drift of fnow; fo that horfes, cattle; and fheep, arrive here, with

Vou. VI. G little

* See Hamilton’s Paper on the Temperature of Ireland, in the fecond volume of
-thefe Tranfactions.

+ See State of the weather in Dublin, from June 1791 to June 1793, by Mr...
Kirwan, Vol. V. of the Tranfactions.

+ See Young’s Tour in Ireland, Vol. I. p.130.

ae . as

[ 50° ]

little care, at a degree of perfection unattainable in other countrics
without infinite expence and trouble.

For the growth of flax, the ftaple commodity of the kingdom ;
of potatoes, the general food of its inhabitants; and of barley,
from whence the ardent {pirits, and other fermented liquors of the
country are derived; the climate feems to poffefs a peculiar felicity
of temperature and moifture, in all its feafons; and for their
neceffary degree of ripenefs, the heat of fummer is amply fuf-
ficient.

Ir is for the more delicate fpecies of garden fruits; for ill con-
ducted crops of oats in bleak and mountainous fituations ; and for
the complete and perfect maturity of wheat; that uneafy appre-~
henfions can ever be entertained by the gardener or the farmer.

Tue former are, in themfelves, of little importance ; and where
fuch luxuries are required, glafs coverings, and artificial heat,
afford an ample fupply, and remove all pretence for difcontent.
Human art and induftry, attentive to circum ftances, and accom-
modated to times, has ftolen from the mild temperature of our
winters as much warmth, as ferves to compenfate for the deficiency
of fummer heats in forwarding and perfe€ting the crops of wheat;
and a little time will teach the farmer, in our mountainous
provinces, to ufe the fame artifice with refpe& to his oats, when-
ever neceflity fhall demand his encreafed attention.

To

EE. oe

To fum up matters, then, with truth and brevity—A denfity
of population, furpaffing that of the vaunted millions of un-
depopulated France*; a copious export trade in provifions of
various kinds, unequalled by any kingdom whofe inhabitants are

proportionably numercus +; and a ftaple manufacture unrivalled
G 2 in

* The inhabitants of Ireland amount to more than four millions. (See Mr.
Bufhe’s Memoir, Irifh Tranf. Vol. IIL.)

Hence, the denfity of its population is at the rate of 182 perfons to a fquare
geographical mile, fuppofing the ifland to contain, in round numbers, 22000 fuper-
ficial miles.

Mr. Zimmerman, in his Political Survey of Europe, erroneoufly fuppofing the
inhabitants of this country lefs than two millions and a half, deduces a denfity
of population equal only to 117 perfons on each mile. The following table marks
the number of individuals on a geographical fquare mile in the northern countries
ef Europe, as taken from Zimmerman’s tables (Ireland being corrected) from whence
it will appear that this kingdom rates extremely high in the denfity of its population.

Perfons.
Denmark = Bs a Wh Ss
Sweden = = ~ 4
Ruffia - = a 20
Scotland = ris fs ia
Poland - - é 53
Pruffia - 67
En gland - = - I2 9
Germany = ial = 135
France - - ~ 152
Treland = ~ iS 182
Holland - = = 236

+ Two hundred and twenty thoufand barrels of beef and pork, independent of the
various matters connected therewith, and of every other f{pecies of provifions, were
exported inithe:year.ending 25th March 1793..

[ 52 ]

‘mm general ufe, in certainty of produce, and intrinfic value *; are
circumftances which have not fallen to the lot of other nations,
and bring with them clear and irrefragable evidence to demonftrate
a falubrious country, a genial climate, and a fertile foil in
Ireland.

Conclufion.

Ix this Memoir I have endeavoured to prove from natural,
and almoft incontrovertible regifters of the phenomena of later
years, that the winds, and particularly the weftern ftorms, have
fwept with encreafed violence over Ireland.

From this fa@ I have deduced a necefiary change in its climate;
a more general equability of temperature through the year; fum-
mers lefs warm, and winters more mild and open: and, laftly,
I have endeavoured to fupport this conclufion by general obferva-
tion, and the enumeration of particular inftances where the defe&

of fummer heat and winter ice feem to be moft ftrongly marked.

One queftion ftill remains, curious in its principle, and intereit-
ing in its folution—Why have thefe weftern ftorms blown with

unufual and encreafed violence?

THE

* After a progreflive encteafe of ninety years, the exports of linen cloth alone, in
the year 1792, amounted to forty-three millions of yards, from one million only at the
commencement of the prefent century.

cf

Tue limits of a Memoir, fuch as this, do not permit me to
enlarge on this fubje@, and even appear to include a reproof for
the length of the prefent interruption. I fhall, therefore, trefpafs
no longer on the moments of the Academy than to fuggeft a few
queries, which may ftand over for future confideration ; leaving it
to time, and the ingenuity or better dire@ted obfervations of others,
to verify, to difprove, or to contemn the hints which may be

contained in them.

tft, Have not our winds become more violent, and the tem-
perature of our feafons more equable, fince the forefts of Ireland
were cleared, and the country cultivated? and have not thefe
winds, and that equability of temperature, been nearly propor-
tioned to thefe, as to their caufes?

ed, Have not fimilar changes occurred under analogous cir-
cumftances in North America; even in Canada, that country of
extremes in heat and cold? And did not the ifland of Bermudas,
though fituated fo much to the fouthward of us, become barren
of fruit, in confequence of the deftrudtion of its timber trees?

3d, Has it not appeared from obfervations on the afcent of
balloons, and the motion of clouds, that the lower mafs of air often
purfues a different courfe from the upper ftratum? May not then
the limits of our ftormy currents of air be often confined within
a few hundred yards of the furface of the earth? and if fo, is it
not poffible, and even probable, that the frequent interruption
of

[t .54 J

of forefts and groves, and hedge-row trees, might have formerly
very much retarded, and finally checked, the progrefs of a
tempeft?

4th, Have not all the countries of Europe, Afia and America,
within the parallel of Ireland, been very much denuded of their
forefts within the prefent century? and have not the encreafed
velocity of the wefterly winds been proportioned to this deftruétion
of the forefts and trees, as to their natural caufes?

sth, Is it not probable, fince the prevalent winds of our
parallel have a wefterly tendency, that circumftances which have
removed impediments to their career round the entire globe,
would give encreafed velocity to their courfe ?

6th, SHoutp not Ireland, launched as it is into the Atlantic,
beyond the other coafts of Europe ; and denuded, as it has been,
of forefts and hedge-row trees, be the moft fenfibly affe@ted by
encreafing tempefts from the weft, and the firft to experience their
influence on its climate ?

Wueruer thefe queries have any foundation in nature, or are
merely to be efteemed the refult of an unreftrained imagination;
whether fo diminutive an animal as man, fo temporary in
duration, fo impotent in ftrength, acting through the lengthened
period and perfevering efforts of a large portion of his fpecies, can
reafonably be deemed equal to the involuntary production of

fuch

Dias sd

fuch yaft effeéts; to a change even of the elements and climates
of the earth, may admit of doubt, of oppofition, and even of
denial. For thefe reafons I have taken the liberty fimply to pro-
pofe them as matters of enquiry, and only beg the indulgence
of the Academy for troubling them with matters that may not
be attended with fufficient evidence to bring conviction, or even
to efcape cenfure.

10d 9 Bits Mee! Nis oe Oa aie aan sana

Oftober 20th, 1795.

Tue prefent year (1795) has been, comparatively, cold in its
commencement, and warm in its fummer; it has been calm,
dry, and in many refpedts a contraft to the long feries of preceding
years whofe effeds are regiftered in this Memoir.

Yer the extremes of its temperature have not been equal to
thofe of former years, as far as can be inferred from the recorded
effects of heat and cold on natural obje@s. The large rivers of
the northern province have not been bound firmly in the icy
chains of winter; nor have grapes ripened in favourable afpeCts
in any part of the kingdom during fummer, as formerly occurred,
in feafons whofe temperature was denominated extreme.

gotamnila bie etrist 119 aly ae) Te S oheg “Bf:

Bo sae ns re cae ee eet iy Re kta itt io

Oe a “egnses Van ita nile aa sent TRGB! er
soemalirhni’ at dy syad * ‘yido hh set ‘ cis No" aes tec LB sit Me
06 coe tea psaiyean avis Guapae aldo sa a, Bl *:

bE? (tra joi) AE iva lagt ut ert
’ Ee ory" at )

- rey

’

ub (nga? ini oo, person ert er jug’ ae

woes veh ae tk: oe ve his
rye iver ho Le 1 gee’ ee cal figghaca. gears, calle tik: i bnateale

gars ese) : om igen waht ia ty hy gee eer
ihe et eae er et eth rate eo
Gs abo aah wie a tieliapon dgioaace IRD! gdm
ey es ee sabirebedeeY i ad imp? *nahilc, uray. vt in ;

stag ie ngs at aot jaquida. ties inlepapbn: > ee bad pasate ta,
yd t: there ut "Paste sh dot OW tad POR nwitieasa
wine fierieso gt. at. te sonie ies are. 100 eAS TSF ba tt
iepergt a ei its, ‘aiden diay nabagi adi Yo “Stag ie
ttaslhi 9? =e I Gate ee aay Tes yak ered nae

1 ae

‘

rm
ah

Fs. J

HISTORY of 2 CASE in which very UNCOMMON
WORMS were difcharged from th STOMACH, with
OBSERVATIONS thereon. By SAMUEL CRUMPE,
M.D. MRI. A.

‘Tue lady whofe cafe I am about to relate had been for many
years fubje&t to inflammatory affections of the lungs, which gene-
rally terminated in a copious and long continued expedtoration.

Read Decem:
ber 6th 1794.

I was called to her affiftance for the firft time on the 2d of

November 1788; fhe was then about twenty-fix years of age and
had been about two years married. She appeared to me to labour
under the fymptoms which characterize the advanced ftages of
phthifis pulmonalis, and which need not here be enumerated ;
and to thefe, according to her own account, fhe had been more
or lefs liable every winter and fpring for fome years back. As
her fweats were very profufe, and fhe complained much of trou-
blefome cough, and want of reft, the principal remedies prefcri-
bed were thofe calculated to reftrain the prefling fymptoms ;
and confifted chiefly of the weak vitriolic acid, and thebaic
tin@ure. By thefe fhe found herfelf relieved until the 22d of

Vou. VI. H December,

to 4

December, when fhe was feized with an evident peripneumony,
attended by confiderable pain under the fternum, which required,
and yielded to, copious blood-letting and blifters. It terminated
as ufual in an abundant expeCoration, and fhe recovered from
it but flowly. About the latter end of February however fhe
began to gain ftrength and foon after was to all appearance
perfectly, recovered.

On the 14th of July 1789 I was again called to her, and
found her again labouring under the fymptoms of pneumonic
inflammation ; from which fhe was by the ufual mode of treat-
ment freed in four or five days.

Avucust 4th I was again called on. She has been troubled
for five or fix days paft with a vomiting of blood, which generally
recurs twice or thrice in the twenty-four hours; and is preceded
by a fenfe of weight and oppreffion about the precordia, which
are relieved by the vomiting. The quantity thrown up. is vari-
ous at different times; fometimes a tea-cup full, fometimes not
two table-fpoon fulls, and generally in clots. Complaints alfo of
want of fleep, profufe night fweats, tendency to cough, which is
prevented by great forenefs in her cheft, want of appetite, and
fometimes difficulty of breathing; pulfe natural in point of fre-
quency, but very full, belly regular. She was bled to about
eight ounces, blood remarkably fizy.

Avucust 6. Symptoms as before, excepting the pulfe, which
is very natural. She was ordered an infufion of the bark, with
the vitriolic acid, and a mucilaginous opiate.

Aucust

[ 59. ]

Avcust 8 Has continued to take the infufion regularly ;
vomiting of blood ftill continues; fleeps rather better, cough eafy ;
fweats continue. Let the infufion be continued.

Aveust 12. Took the infufion regularly. Vomiting of blood
continues ; fweats as before, cough eafy, and expectoration free.

Avcust 13. Has taken the infufion regularly. Vomiting of
blood has ceafed; but fhe is troubled with retchings and vomit-
ing every morning, preceded by fweats, and a gnawing fenfa-
tion in the ftomach. In vomiting this morning fays fhe threw
up three {mall worms, which have not been preferved. Cough
has difappeared; fweats decreafing, except before the morning
vomiting; fleeps pretty well. Continue.

Avecust 24. The vomiting has recurred at intervals without
any worms having been thrown up, till this morning, when
a confiderable number of {mall ones, and of an uncommon fhape,
were difcharged. Sweats have almoft entirely ceafed, and fhe is
in other refpeéts well. Continue the infufion.

_ Sepremser 3. Was feized this morning with a return of
vomiting, when fhe threw up a confiderable number of worms
fimilar to the Jaft, and one of a much larger fize and different
fhape, mixed with bloody and corrupted matter; the fmall ones
were fo numerous they could not be reckoned, the entire mat-
ter thrown up being full of them. No cough, dyf{pnoea, or other
diftrefling fymptom.

BR. Stanni pulverati drachmam, Salis Martis granum, fiant

pulveres tales oo, & fumat unum quater de die.—Repetatur In-
fufum Corticis.
H 2 ; SEPTEMBER

{ s60 ]

Seeremaer 5th. Has taken the whole of the powders ; flight
returns of vomiting ; no appearance of worms; fhe was ordered
and took a vomit of Ipecacuanha-wine, which operated weil, but

“neither worms or bloody matter were difcharged. The infufion

was ordered to be continued.

SEPTEMBER 26th. Sweats have difappeared ; cough is but flight ;
the vomiting pretty frequently recurs, but is not preceded by any
unufual fenfation, nor is it more frequent than in her former
pregnancy. No appearance of blood or worms ; ftrength in gene-
ral much improved. :

She was ordered to omit all medicines, was fafely delivered
of her child at the ufual time, and is now in perfe& health ;
though in general delicate, and fubje@ to violent colds.

Orb Ss. ERY sf. ONS.

Tue worms thrown up are delineated of the matural ize
and appearance in fig. 1. and 2. Fig. 1. reprefents the large
one, confifting of a head and twelve joints; the three firft joints
are furnifhed each with a pair of legs, which all the others
want. Fig. 2. reprefents the {mall worm, of which fuch num-
bers were difcharged ; and fig. 3. the belly of the fame, viewed
through a good common magnifying-glafs. It confifts of a head
and ten joints, and has three double rows of legs; one double
row on each fide, and one double row of fhorter ones down
the middle of the belly. It has befides three legs projecting in
the form of a tail from the laft joint.

At thefe worms fhewed figns of animation when difcharged,
efpecially on being expofed to the heat of the fun, but foon
died.

“ney :
Re: ae

et

ev ee Meee
heed Mad

Renoan f:

_died. . Théy appear ‘to»me to be the larvae of fome infea, but

of what particular fpecies I am not naturalift minute enough to
determine. The large one appears very fimilar to the larva of
the common beetle. We have many inftances. related by va-
rious authors, of different fpecies of worms: difcharged_ from the

-inteftinal canal ; but of the different defcriptions I have read, or

fpecimens I have feen preferyed in anatomical colleGions,. none
have flruck me as in any degree fimilar to thofe difcharged. by
the patient whofe cafe has been juft related. It is probable, as
has before been mentioned, that the worms difcharged ‘were
the larve of fome infect which does not ufually depofit its eggs
in any part of the human frame; but which haying been acci-
dentally depofited in, or conveyed into the body, were hatched,
and acquired the fize and form we have delineated. ;

Tuar flies of various kinds depofit their eggs in living ani-
mal bodies, and that thefe eggs are by the heat of the animal

hatched and transformed into maggots, is evident from the in-
ftance of many fo produced in the re€tum of horfes, and backs

of black cattle. The human body being in general better covered,
and better defended from the attempts of fuch infects, does not
exhibit fo many inftances of this nature. Still however it is

- liable to their attacks. Many cafes have been publithed of va~
rious infe€ts being hatched, and producing excruciating pain in
_the antrum maxillare, and other cavities leading to the nofe.

Other worms, evidently the larvae of external infe@s, have been
difcovered in the inteftines: And in the Medical Commenta-
ries for the ‘year 1787 there is a curious cafe of fome pxiltige
under’ the dkin.

A youxe

[ 62 a

A youne lad of about twelve years of age was afflicted with
excruciating pains in his limbs. to fuch a degree as to render
life miferable. The pains were deemed rheumatic, and the ufual
remedies for that diforder applied without fuccefs. At length
fome worms worked their way out of different parts of his body,
particularly the knees, breaft and forehead; and he was imme-
diately after confiderably relieved. The worms are defcribed as
near an inch long, all in joints on the back, and with hard
fcales on them. The attending phyfician afcribes their origin
to fome flies having pierced the fkin and lodged their ova in the
punctures. Several other boys in the fame part of the country
were that feafon affected in a fimilar manner.

Many inftances have been given by medical authors, of in-
flammatory and other affeCtions of the lungs occafioned by worms,
fome of which proved fatal; fome being relieved, or totally re-
moved by the difcharge of thefe animals. Morgagni in the ad
book of his incomparable work De Caufis & Sedibus Morborum,
gives us the cafe of a patient, who laboured under every fymp-
tom of pleurify, which terminated by his {pitting up a quantity
of blood with a round worm; after which he immediately got
well. He in the fame place quotes a work publifhed by Ignatius
Pedratti on the pleurify from worms.

We have other inftances of worms difcharged from the lungs
by coughing, in Schenkius OZ/erv. De Pulmonibus, lib. 2, in Lieutuad
Hift. Anatom. med, in Percival’s Effays, and in the works of {fe-
veral other medical writers.

Ir may perhaps be imagined that the pulmonic affections
under which our patient laboured might have been owing to
the

a: eae

the worms fhe difcharged, which perhaps worked their way down-
wards from the lungs into the ftomach ; this however does not appear
probable ; her having been fubje@ to them for a feries of years, their
being frequently excited fuddenly by the application of cold, and
there terminating without the difcharge of any fuch animals, are
circumftances which militate ftrongly againft the idea.

Tuere can however I believe be little doubt that the com-
plaints of the ftomach with which fhe was feized, and the vo-
miting of blood, were occafioned by their prefence; and that
they formed for themfelves a nidus in the coats of the ftomach
appears pretty evident from the purulent and bloody matter
- which accompanied the difcharge of the laft portion of them.

None of the fymptoms attending the vomiting of blood were
fuch as indicated the prefence of worms in the ftomach and in-
teftines; nor when their prefence was afcertained did the ver-
mifuge medicines given appear to accelerate the cure; ftill how-
ever the cafe may be inftructive; as proving that the hemate-
mefis or vomiting of blood fometimes arifes from this fource,
and therefore that the phyfician fhould keep fuch a caufe of the
diforder in view whenever it proves obftinate or dangerous; and
the hiftory is curious, as affording one certain fact refpecting the
nidification of infects in the internal parts of the human frame.

Limerick, December 1, 1794.

P. S. I fend the worms themfelves preferved in fpirits of
wine to be depofited in the colleétion of the Academy.

oS oye NY aid Jasipmarasioos pie. sen i
eT won ebeon arin 'y coped tse lagertht ai
Mint ating ig obit gare it
Bra eck : ey ip peeara Hee Ss Sea
ue cashed tant AK rier egal ais iene aes pitsiles
tei Lota aie

ieee a aE eae gs Nt

ie: atts “a ‘ es {

hs

cok
a

ye sib. ou Sie

; aan as “ea iiobs: put
sero! ia grit) * weet saan co NaN
4a di) Ect tte

thik ‘
~~ pei Ss

nis! we? “Si pei im nso ait wa

can: Hera “damcrten? any inks enna OF ;
Se nee el Linens pis
ver yy ae “aie ae vai |
Sr eet syd aliieed
ee hole ciar¥h
Eth nisi ram

+
Sie

‘ ouabstigeya | ‘

dt ter neice

bes

ESSAY on the BEST METHOD of ASCERTAINING the
AREAS of COUNTRIES of CONSIDERABLE EXTENT.
By the Rev. JAMES WHITELAW, Vicar of St. Catherine,
Dublin, and M.R.J. A.

Mooern geographers, and particularly thofe of Germany,
have, of late years, cultivated a fcience to which they have given
the name of Svati/tics, the object of which is, to afcertain the
extent, population, denfity of population, military and naval
force, revenues, national debt, &c. of the various ftates of Eu-
rope. This {cience, interefting to every enlightened mind, and
peculiarly fo to the ftatefman, is, as yet, in its infancy ; and that
particular branch of it, which enables us to determine the areas
or fuperficial contents of countries, has been hitherto fo negle@-
ed, or conducted on fuch erroneous principles, that the calcu-
lations of different authors are perfely inconfiftent with each
other, and with truth. Some areas in our tables are, it mutt
be acknowledged, fufficiently accurate; but as truth and error
_are advanced with equal confidence, and equal authority, fuch
are ufelefs to the reader, who, incompetent to make a felection,
cannot proportion his aflent to their merit.

VOLE. Vi. I THE

Read April
25, 1795+

L ey

Tue ftrange inconfiftencies that occur in ftatiftical tables will
appear more furprifing, when we confider that the prefent cul-
tivated ftate of geography, though far from perfection, leaves
little room for thofe enormous errors. which were formerly in-
evitable: When fuch, therefore, occur in modern publications,
we may jultly, I think, impute them either to want of {kill or
want of care in the author; and conclude that his method was
incorrect, or that he performed the operation on very erroneous
maps. The following are a few of the numerous inconfiften-
cies to which I allude, but fufficient to fhew the very imperfect:
ftate of this part of the fcience of ftatiftics.

Europe in fguare Miles, of 60 to a Degree, by various Authors:

Kitchin’s map of Europe, according to }
Zimmermann, - - 2,180,466— FE
Bufching = - : - = By432;000—251,534] =
Statiftifche Ueberficht or German Pes a
litical Tables 1786 - 2,712,112—531,646 fF ES
Templeman’s Survey of the Globe - 2,749,314—568,848 E 5
Crome, on the Size and Population of é
Europe 1785 = : - 2,785,440—604,974 | 2.
Bergman’s Natural Geography - 2,906,112—725,646 J

Here the laft difference is above four times the area of the
kingdom of France.

AMIDST.

ro 4

Amipst errors of fuch magnitude how can we difcover truth ?
is an obvious queftion. It has often employed my thoughts, and
I take the liberty of fubmitting the refult to the Academy.

A fmall portion of the earth’s fpherical furface may be accu-
rately reprefented by a map drawn on a plain furface, and the
menfuration of fuch map, by the ordinary methods ufed by
furveyors, will give the area of the country it reprefents, with
fufficient correétnefs: but in maps of extenfive regions the rule
no longer holds, and the impoflibility of juftly delineating any
confiderable portion of a fphere on a plain has induced geo-
graphers to have recourfe to the various methods of projection,
fuch as the ftereographic, orthographic, é&c. Maps conftructed
on fuch principles may give the relative fituation of places,
with refpeé&t to bearing, meridians and parallels, but cannot
convey any accurate idea of form or fuperficial contents:
they are, at beft, but diftorted refemblances, and the greater
the extent they embrace the greater the diftortion, and the
more incorreét the area: to fuch maps a {cale cannot be appli-

ed, and they are confequently totally unfit for the purpofe of
menfuration.

TuatT the area of even a fingle kingdom of moderate di-
menfions muft differ very confiderably from that of its map, will

be evident from confidering the different methods of conftru@-
ing the latter.

iro THE

[ 68 J

Tue ufual kinds of projeétion for particular maps are the
ftereographic on the plane of the horizon, the conical, and the
circular.

In the firft, which is founded on the rules of perfpedtive,
equal tracts of country are reprefented as very unequal, gradually
encreafing as they recede from the centre of the plane of
projection; hence no common fcale can be applied to the map,
which is therefore totally unfit for menfuration.

THE conical projection is fo called, as it is produced by the
application of a cone to a fphere, according to certain rules. In
this the meridians are right lines on the cone, converging at its
vertex, and perpendicular to the parallels of the lat. which are
circles, defcribed from the vertex as their common centre: The
diftance between the meridians is correct, only on the two pa-
rallels formed by the interfections of the fphere and cone, be-
tween which they will approach too near, and every where elfe
recede too far from each other; and hence the area of that part
of the map delineated on the portion of the cone which falls
within the fphere will be lefs than the truth, while without
thofe limits it will proportionably exceed it. This is an in-
genious and elegant projection, and as the conical area between
its extreme meridians and parallels is perfe€tly equal to that por-
tion of the {phere it reprefents, if the limits of the country de-
lincated on it perfectly coincided with thofe lines, it would ne-

ceflarily give the true area: But this never happens, and to
{peak

pnee ti

{peak with mathematical accuracy it is liable to the fame ob-
jection as the laft, viz. that a fcale cannot be applied to it; for
countries, however, of moderate extent in latitude, it is the beft

that can be devifed.

In the circular projection the parallels of lat. are circles, de-
f{cribed from the pole as the common centre, with radii equal to
the complements of their refpedtive latitudes: the meridians pre-
ferve their due diftances on the parallels, becoming gradually
curvilineal, and cutting the parallels more and more obliquely,
as they recede from the central meridian; but as this alone can
be a right line, and cut the parallels perpendicularly, it is ob-
vious, that this projection mutt produce diftortion in the map,
and confequently an error in its area, which, if it is greatly ex-
tended in longitude, will at length become enormous: for coun-
tries, however, of moderate dimenfions, it is one of the leaft
objectionable projections, and a fcale may be adapted to it with
fufficient accuracy, though not with geometrical precifion.

Tere is another method of projection, ufed by the San-
fons, in which the parallels are right lines, and the meridians,
which obferve their due diftances on the parallels, are parabolic
curves. This is admiflible only in delineating countries of in-
confiderable extent in longitude, and Mr. D’Anville has preferred
it for his map of South America: In all other cafes it produces
much greater diftortion than any of the above methods,

I~

rk Cac 1

In the cylindrical projection the countries on each fide of
the equator are conceived to be delineated on the furface of a
cylinder, cutting the fphere in two parallels, nearly midway
between the equator and the top and bottom of the map: The
meridians and parallels are right-lines, cutting each other at
right-angles, and the former obferve their due diftance only on
the interfections of the cylinder and fphere: This projection is
evidently the beft for the tropical regions; but, as it is not of
general application, and partakes of the perfections and imper-
feGions of the conical, it is fufficient to have mentioned it.

ALTHOUGH it is thus evident that the area, refulting from
the fimple menfuration of every fpecies of map, however pro-
jected, mutt, (except the country reprefented be of {mall extent)
differ confiderably from the true area, yet there is reafon, I think,
to fufpect that the generality of ftatiftical writers have only
performed the operation in the ufual way, and perhaps on
maps injudicioufly felecéted, without taking any precaution to
correct the errors which muft inevitably arife from fuch a pro-
cefs; at leaft the ftrange inconfiftency obfervable in their tables,
with their want of candour, in not communicating to the public
their method and materials, fubject them to this fufpicion. A
few, indeed, have given us fome numbers fufliciently correct,
but by what means they difcovered truth, as they are filent on
the fubject, we are ignorant. I fhall, therefore, make no apology
for offering the following method of nearly determining the true
areas of maps: It is, I believe, new, and will be found, 1 hope,

fufficiently

Ae 2

fufficiently accurate for the purpofes for which ftatiftical tables
are intended ; for minute precifion is impoflible, and if pofhi-
ble would be unneceflary.

Method of nearly determining the true Areas of Maps on the Conical

and Circular Projections.

Parallels of latitude, diftant from each other one degree, will:
divide the fpherical furface of the earth into 180 narrow zones ;
the area of each of thefe, in fquare miles of 60 to a degree, is
found by multiplying its fine in miles and decimals of a mile by
21600, the circumference of a great circle in fuch miles; and
the area of each zone, thus found, divided by 360, will give
the area of each of the quadrilateral fpaces, formed by the pa-
rallels, which include the zone and two meridians diftant one
degree of longitude from each other: On this principle the fol-
lowing table was conftructed.,

Lat.

72

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To

ae

To render the application of the above table and fubfequent
procefs more intelligible, I have annexed a fketch of the pro-
jection and outline of the map of Germany.

Havnic drawn the contour of the country with all poflible
accuracy, and exprefled it by a very fine. line, obferve what qua-
drilateral {paces lie entirely within it; enclofe thefe by a ftrong
black line, and the area of all within it we may call the zte-
gral area, as it confifts of entire quadrilaterals ; and that with-
out it, the /raMional area, as it is compofed of parts of quadri-

laterals.

THE integrak area may be found with the greateft accuracy

thus: I find, in the table, that a quadrilateral between the 53d
and s4th parallel contains 2138.2 fquare miles, and that there
are fix fuch in the integral area; therefore 2138.2 x 6 = 12829.2
will give the true contents of that portion of it which lies. be-
tween thefe parallels, and a fimilar operation for the zones

“between the other parallels will give 144023.6 as the entire

integral area of Germany.

_ Tuus far (fappofing the map correct) there is no. poflibility of
error. The contents of the fractional area can be found only
by approximation: The method I propofe is this:

Ler it be required to find the area of the fpace A in the qua-
drilateral ab c d: having conftrudted a fcale, from the extent of
a degree of latitude, reduce the irregular waving contour adc

K into

Fig. Ws.

ee fee!

into a rectilineal outline, by fhort balance, or (as they are vul-

garly called) give and take lines, drawn by the affiftance of a

tranfparent ruler, with a thin fiducial edge: The polygonal fpace
A muft then be reduced to a triangle by an operation familiar
to furveyors, and its area found, by the ufual mode of multi-
plying half its altitude into its bafe: By a fimilar procefs, find
the area of the polygonal fpace B, which added to that of A,
will give the area of the quadrilateral; and if this nearly co-
incides with the fum, which refults from multiplying its mean
extent in longitude by 60, there has been no material error in
the operation: The fum of the areas thus found will be fre-
quently very different from the true area of the quadrilateral,
fhewn by the table, and the error muft be corrected by dividing
the difference between the true and meafured areas proportionally
between the fpaces A and B, thus,

Let the quadrilateral a b cd be fituate between the soth and
gift parallels of latitude, and its true area of courfe 2287 fquare
miles: But, in confequence of the inevitable deviation from
truth, in the projection of the map, this area produces by men-
furation only 2247 fquare miles; the {pace A 1032, and the {pace
B 1215: To find the true areas of A and B,

as 2247 the meafured area of the quadrilateral.

7
: 1050 the true area of A.
as

sa ‘ ide

Lh Fete]

as 2247 the meafured area of the quadrilateral.
: 1215 the meafured area of B.
::} 2287 the true area of the quadrilateral.
; 1237 the true area’of B.

Wuew the true extent of the portions into which the contour
line divides the quadrilaterals is thus adjufted, the addition of
the feveral numbers in the fraéional area to the integral will
give the contents of the map: and to prevent any confufion in
the numbers to be added, it will be advifeable to ftain the fractional
area one uniform colour, and to add the numbers-in the difterent
zones in feparate columns.

By the above rules I meafured the annexed map of Germany,
including the Auftrian Netherlands, taken from Mr. D’Anville :
The following table fhews the refult and its relative proportion
to the areas of different authors.

Mr. D’Anville’s map taken from his yy

~ firft part of Europe, 1754 - 192552 | 2

Templeman’s Survey of the Globe - 156950—~35602 —1 os

Bufching, 1780 - - 177984—14568 — 2g

(Statiftiche Ueberficht) in German, [58
1786 -— - - 1Q2000— 552 — 8

Crome on the Size and Population of | 3
Europe, 1785 - - - 204736—12184+ |

Vou. VI. K 2 IF

qe ice.

Ir the above method of finding the fractional area is not
thought fufficiently correct, I would propofe the following, more

laborious, indeed, but, if properly executed, more accurate.

A QuaDRILATERAM not exceeding ome degree in extent, when
accurately drawn on @ plane Carface, will produce an area by care-
ful menfuration differing about T- 3 {quare miles in 1000 from
its true extent on the fphere; this error therefore being imma-
terial, delineate each quadrilateral in the fractional area on auie-
parate paper, and having drawn the contour line through it with
great care and accuracy> meafure each part as directed above, and
-¢ the fum of the areas refulting from this operation nearly equal
that in the table, the operation may be confidered as free from ma-
terial errors 5 the {mall difference that arifes muft be proportionally
divided between the parts of the quadrilateral, that the whole
and parts may be perfeally confiftent, and the numbers thus
corrected written in their proper fpaces in the map.

Area

of

|

|
|

\ v
| ee TE as
be hiss 7

)
| zoel \

ie Nos RA \

|? 2¢ Dd?

Aye
Area of Germany and Switzerland, according to the Map of
Mr. D’ Anville, meafured by the foregoing Method.

GERMANY.

—

FraGional Areas. Fradional Areas.
wt 530.0 400.0
ov 112)./0 is 1443. 8
SS 0.0 7 1872.8
| 8 a 390.0 I 23210,
Si 1242.0 ny | -—
Be ee eB) tee
Pa 2734.0 400.0
—— —_— —— 570.0
TAN) CO) 1007. O
2279. 6 = 1129. 8
1672 . 6 | 1426.38
a 1094. 0 Lak 961.0
} 2236.6 65° <0
— 1792. 6 —_——_— —_ —_ —.
Aye 5559 - 6
9232-4 9 825.0
lS rh 1082.0
581.0 l ——————= —_ — ——-
658.0 a) 1907 . 0
s 1738 . 6 — |—_—
| 380.0 270.0
= 6.0 1338.2
PTR PATTER, ¥ 1928 . 2
3363. 6 Bry 2014.2
Sey SS Sy I 640.0
960.0 n 20.0
a 2195.1 eee ee eee
7 580.0 6210 . 6
© 10.0 ae a ee
+ j—_——-——_ | 275.0
3748 . 1 848 . 0
ies aaa Aaa | 896.0
5:0 | | 63.0
ents) 41-0
2395-40) | 130.0
1050. O 824.0
an 1105 . 0 Tabet 520.0
| 20.0 es) 30.0
nN |
aes 2044.7 Gh 270.0
1480. 7 | 867.0
25-0 | o7 . 6
FO a Fermeren i. 50.0
599° - 4 Iz .0
Say RugenI. 310.0
6043. 6

eee ee

K 3 - GERMANY.

yc mel

GERMANY.

Between 45 and 46 - - 2734-0
AS AT - 9232-4
47—42 - - 3363.6
48—49 - - 3748.1
497 FONT mare Meh Gs
Boshi - 3739-6
5 eet = /5559r=) 6
5253, = Sp QO Teh
53—54 - - 6210.6
54 SM is - 6043 . 6

Total fraGional area - 48528 . 9

Total integral area - 144023. 6

Total area of Germany - 192552. 5

——$—_

Germany, in the above area, comprehends
the Auftrian Netherlands, Dutch Lim-
burg, Pruflian Guelders, that part of Iftria
fubjec&t to the Houfe of Auftria, and the
territory of Aquileia.

SWITZERLAND.

85
Between 45 and 46 - j 245
105
Ppa 78
| 1594 . 6
2384.6
46 — 47 - 4.2289 . 6
| 1947 . 6
15.0
L 70.0
460
59 s 1497.6
47 4 1770. 6
690.0
Total area of Switzerland - 13227 . 6

Switzerland, in the above are, comprehends
the Swifs-cantons, their allies, their fub-
jects, and the fubje@s of their allies.

THREE SCHEMES for CONVEYING INTELLIGENCE
to GREAT DISTANCES Jy SIGNALS. By JOHN
COOKE, By; MRL 4.

Tue great expedition with which the French Telegraph
tranfmits difpatches has excited a confiderable degree of public
attention; its ufe in war is manifeft, and ‘tis probable that it
may be applied to commercial purpofes with equal fuccefs.
While the knowledge of this invention remains confined to any

mation it muit be attended with advantages inconfiftent with

the interefts of other countries, and therefore an attempt to dif-
cover the principles of it, or to fupply new methods of effecting
the fame end, is capable of confequences beyond the mere gra-
tification of curiofity.

Tue. firft ftep neceflary in the following plans is to exprefs

words by the fmalleft poflible number of charadters; for this

purpofe let the correfpondents be furnifhed with fimilar alpha-
betical

Read Dec.
6, 1794.

SP icra:

betical vocabularies of our language, omitting fynonymous terms,
and fuch as are not abfolutely neceflary ; they fiould contain
the proper names of men that generally ‘occur, the names of
contiguous and important places, and an appendix of fuch
phrafes and fentences as the correfpondents may expect to have
occafion for; to the words of thefe vocabularies are to be an-
nexed in marginal columns the fingle letters, and the different
combinations which arife by joining any two, or any three
letters of the alphabet together, fo that every word and fentence
in the vocabulary may have a fign to reprefent it, confifting of
one, two or three letters at the moft ; the variety of combinations
thus produced by twenty-four letters (each combination con-
fitting of two or three letters only) far exceeds the number of
ufeful words, and affords figns fufficient for a very copious ad-
dition of fentences.

Wuew intelligence is to be conveyed, the lift of fentences
annexed to the vocabulary fhould be examined for one adapted
to the occafion, and if any of them apply, the fymbolical letters
annexed thereto will denote it; but if there be no fuch fentence
in the colle@tion, the matter is to be put into the feweft words
which perfpicuity will allow, and the fymbols which reprefent
thefe words are to be fubftituted for them; thus the fentence
may be exprefled by a fet of letters which feldom amount to
half the number neceffary to fpell the words of it. When

proper

ares a

proper names occur which are not found in the vocabulary, or
which cannot be formed out of any words in it, they muft be
exprefled by their conftituent letters, and admit of no abridge-
ment. If fecrecy be required, any preconcerted alteration of the
arrangement of the words in the vocabulary will render the figns
unintelligible to all except thefe who may be in poffeflion of
the key.

Arrer a fentence fhall be reduced into fymbols or figns, the
next confideration is to convey them expeditioufly to a great
diftance by a fimple and certain method. Light feems to be the
moft proper inftrument for this purpofe, and may be applied in
the following manner :

Ler the fpace through which the intelligence is to be tranf-
mitted be divided into ftations, and at each of them let three
lights be placed at confiderable diftances from each other, fo as
to be diftinguifhable from the two next pofts or ftations : let there
be a method provided of obfcuring any of them at pleafure.

Ar each ftation there is to be a perfon appointed to look out
for fignals at a certain hour ; the fignal requiring attention may
be the exhibition of the three lights, and the fame may be alfo
the fignal of readinefs to receive the communication: thefe three
lights are intended to reprefent the three places of the fymbolical

letters

[ Be4]

letters of the vocabulary, and their obfeurations denote the
letters which occupy thefe places; thus one obfcuration fignifies
A, two. B,. three C,, &c.

Suppose it were required to communicate the word “ victory,”
the three lights are to be exhibited from the firft ftation; and.
when the fame appearance is feen from the next ftation, the vo-
cabulary is to be fearched for the fign of that word, which we
will fuppofe to be K B 4; then the firft light is to be obfcured
ten times, the fecond light twice, the third once, and then all
may be concealed together to fhow that the word is complete.
Thefe fignals fhould be obferved by two perfons at leaft from
the next ftation, and if the refult of their obfervations fhould
vary and occafion doubt, the fecond ftation may exhibit’ two
lights only, which fignal requires a repetition of the laft word ;
but if there be no difagreement among the obfervers, the fecond
ftation proceeds to tranfmit the fame fignals which it received
to the third ftation; and in the fame manner they are commu-
nicated through all the intermediate pofts, until they arrive at
the end of the line, where the obferver examines the figns or
fymbols in his vocabulary for the letters K B 4, (which may be
eafily found if arranged in alphabetical order) and there finds
the word “ victory” annexed to it. When the communications
are to be forwarded by day, flags or any other objec vifible by
day may be ufed, and their elevations and depreflions may be

fubftituted

ae a he Bees

?
ae
wre

eae ER SES Ae GS TRS een Ms ees on Ts

}

Wily

TAA
NUD

i

HILAIRE ACA A

LUNN

{visnmany

ny

LD,
GR ATONE A MAAN

poe]

fubftituted for the exhibitions and occultations of the lights;
even a fingle light or flag may be made to anfwer the purpofe,
if any contrivance be annexed to fignify to the obferver when
the occultations which denote a. letter are ended, and alfo when
a word is finifhed..

ANoTHER method of transferring thefe fignals is by altering
the fituations of thefe lights or flags, the plan of which will be.
better underftood by a diagram than by any general defcription.

Tue point £. fig. 1. reprefents the place from which the in-
telligence is to be fent, and the point G that to which it is to:
be conveyed. In the horizontal line 4 B, 24 points are aflumed.
at equal intervals to reprefent the letters of the alphabet, and
marked as in the figure: When. it is intended to fignify a fen-
tence or a word, lights by night, or flags by day, are to be fet
up in the points of the line which reprefent the fymbolical
letters that denote it, and: the‘ true pofition of thefe lights or
flags may be thus afcertained: at the point G.. Let. there be a
pole ereéted at a convenient diftance from G in the line G F, as at
C, and a line DZ parallel to 4B be graduated as 4B, and.
marked as.in. the figure with. the 24 letters, the obferver at.G
moves his eye along the line D £ until the edge of the pole C
is feen in the fame line with the light exhibited in the line 4B
and the pofition of his eye in the line DE marks the letter

Vout. VI. L. fignified.

fj]. e ]

fignified by the fignal in the line 4B: and thus by three lights
by night, or three flags by day, may the fymbolical characters
of a word or fentence be communicated. However it muft be
obferved, that though the letters be thus reprefented, their places
as they are written in the fymbol do not appear, therefore it
will be necefflary that after the fignals fhall have been fufliciently
obferved, they fhould be removed in the order in which they
are to be written, fo that the fignal which reprefents the letter
at the left hand in the fymbol fhould be firft removed, that of
the middle Ictter is next to be removed, and the fignal of the
right hand letter is to be removed lati: or their order may be
denoted by the fhape or colour of the flags or lights. Since the
triangles 4B C, CDE are fimilar, ‘the fires 40: AB:: EC:
ED. whence it follows, ‘that if the diftance 4C be ten miles,
the line 4B 240 yards, and the diftance EC a quarter of a
mile, that the line D £ will be fix yards, and the graduations on
it nine inches afunder, a {pace fufficient to prevent confufion or:
miftake in afcertaining the place of the fignals fixed in the line
AB, or if at the point where the obferver is placed, a telefcope
be fixed, with a micrometer annexed, it will be poffible to afcer-
tain the places of the fignals with a great degree of nicety, and
two lights in that cafe will be fufficient to defignate a word or

fentence.

In order to effet this an alteration muft be made in the vo-
cabulary, by changing the fymbols of the words, from letters
to

a ee

Le 83. J

to muinbers; beginning, with unity and proceeding in regular
order to the'extent required, which “tis fuppofed will not exceed
ten thoufand... Then if the line in which the fignals are to be
placed be 25§ yards: 7 inches leng, it may by divided into one
hundred parts:of 7 feet S:inches each, the extremities of which.
parts fhould be numbered, and if there be two lights or two
flags diftinguifhable by their fhape, or by their colour, or by both,
one may reprefent units, and the other hundreds, by which any.
number under tem thoufand, and of ,courfe,any word or fentence
in the vocabularys¢an be exprefled; for inftance, if the number
of the word to be communicated be 5796, the flag or light

- which reprefents hundreds is tobe placed in the graduation of

the line of fignals marked. 57, which fignifies fifty-feven hundred,
and the fignal which reprefents units is to be placed in the gra-
duation:marked..96, which denotes the number ninety-fix, the
fum. of »whick is the fymbolical number propofed.

In order to obferve thefe fignals and their places, Mr. Cavallo’s
inftrument (deferibed in, the Philofophical Tranfactions of the
year 1791) feems;-to: be) well adapted, it is, a, micrometer of a
very: funple kind, ‘applied toa three feet achromatictelefcope,
which} magnifies about cighty.four times, and with which he
could ;meafure an angle of 7: deconds accurately ; the fcale of
it may, be fo! marked that the numbers reprefented by, the fignals
may be,feen at the time of obfervation without calculation or
moving any of its parts. )

L 2 Mr.

[i 3

Mr. CAvaLio fhows in ‘the fame paper that an’anple of’ one*
niinute’ includes a’ chord of fix féet* at 20626 feet: diftance ;4
whence it’ fellows from the nature of fimilar ‘triangles; that at:
the diftance of 52800 ‘feet or: tem miles; the’ chord of the fame
afigle will’be 151 feet nearly, and‘ 7: feet: 8 inches; the length
of the divifions of'thefignal line,» will be feen under ‘an angle-
of half a minute nearly, at‘ ten miles diftance, which may be
taken with great certainty, fince- the ‘inftrument: is: capable of:
meéafuring ‘a fourth part‘of this ‘angle ; another caufe which muft:
contribute® materially t6 the exatitude of the obfervation is;:
that both the telefcope and micrometer are to remain perma-
nently fixed, as well in their direction asin the relative pofition’
of all their parts, and if the fcale of the micrometer’be gradua-
ted by’ the fignals of the next ftation, nothing but fome difturb-
ance of the machinery cam occafion error, fince the: fame im-:
moveable mark on the {fcale is always referred to the fame im=’
moveable object.

Er ig evident, from the preceding’ méthod, that any fort of”
fignals capable of communicating all the numbers under ten”
thoufand will enable the correfpondents to denote words and”
fentences thereby, and it feems poffible to-accomplith this by an’
inftrument fomething like what we conceive the’telegraph to be,
4s reprefented in the drawing, fig. 2. It is an upright pole with
two immoveable tranfverfe arms, CD and £ F, at the extre*

moities

[ft 835 7

niities of which’ are placed. hands capable of being moved round |
om their’ extremities by. pullies:and ropes ; each of thefe. hands |
is capable of ten different: pofitions; which: are fufficiently. dif+
tinguifhable from each other,.as may be feen in fig. 3, and
which may reprefent the ten cyphers, and if we fappofe the hand
at & to reprefent units, that-at C to-reprefent tens, that at D to
reprefent:hundreds, and that at F thoufands, it is. plain that the
number of any word under:ten-thoufand may be; denoted, by a
fingle arrangement of the parts of the inftrument, and that
thefe may: be: obferved at a> great’ diftance by-avtelefcopa.: for in-
ftance, if: it: were required to reprefent the:number 2701, the:
hand:at¥ isto:be-put into the fecond pofition, that at D into the
feventh, C-into the.tenth,,and £ into the- fist pofition, If it
were neceflary to reprefent a-word the number of which was 26;
the hands at / and at D are to be put into the tenth pofition, to
fignify no thoufands no hundreds, that at Cinta the fecond, and
that at. £ into the fixth pofition. In order to work this inftrus
ment, there may be-a-pulley affixed to the end of each hand,.and
arope, the ends of which are to be joined together, is to pafs,
over it, and alfo to pafs over'another pulley of equal-diameter at
the bottom, fo that the hand may be moved by moving the:
pulley below; let the lower pulley be furnifhed with an index,
and let the numbers, which it may be required to reprefent by the
liand above, be written on a fixed circle round the lower pulley:
fothat the index. may be turned to any of them, and faftened:

there 3S

[ 86 ]

there; then the hand may be brought into the pofition re-
quired, by placing the index below on the number to be re-
prefented; and thus any perfon, though not acquainted with
the fignals, can work the machine without danger of error, and
fignify the numbers with almoft as much difpatch as they
could be written. The form of one of thefe pullies with the
ropes for working the hand is feen in the drawing at 4, and
the three remaining hands are underftood to be furnifhed with

fimilar machinery.

Ir may be ufeful to obferve that it is not neceflary that the
correfpondents fhould underftand any common language, for if
they be furnifhed with vocabularies in their own refpedctive
tongues, and if the fame fymbols be referred in each to a word
of equal import, every correfpondent will underftand it through
the medium of his own tongue, and the fymbols will anfwer
the purpofe of an univerfal language for thefe, and alfo for other
communications.

[ff 8% ]

ediidctenaitatal

OBSERVATIONS on the POWER of PAINTING to expref
MIXED PASSIONS. By. the Rev. MICHAEL KEARNEY,
DoD ik Mechta i) A

¥ H E difcourfes of the late Prefident of the Royal Academy of Read Nov,
Painting, &c, not only difplay a profound knowledge of profef- 14, 1795.
fional theory, but alfo contain many general tranfcendental prin-
ciples of all the finer arts. The ftudent of poetry or eloquence
may derive from them almoft equal inftruGion with the painter.
It is therefore with the greateft hefitation I venture to examine
the juftnefs of a decifion made by fo philofophical an ‘obferver

of human nature.

In the difcourfe delivered December 10, 1772, he cautions the
young artift againft aiming at the union of contradi@ory excel-
lences, which muft necefflarily be mutually exclufive of each
other. He then cenfures fome perfons who have been fond of
deferibing ihe exprefion of mixt paffions, which they fancied to
exift in fome favourite work. Such expreffion he pronounces to.

be

[ 88 ]

be out of the reach of art, and only afcribed to fuch works by

perfons who, not being of the profeffion, know not what can or
cannot be done.

Waar Sir Jofhua Reynolds declares to be beyond the reach
of art it is indeed hardinefs not to admit as impracticable ;
yet as the queftion does not turn on the technical fkill of a
painter fo much as on the powers of the human countenance, it
mnay not be improper to difcufs it.

Pr this opinion were admitted in its ftri€teft fenfe, the painter
muft be pronounced incapable of exhibiting any but the merely
elemental. emotions, as moft of the paflions that affe@t the
mind in the complicated tranfactions of human life are in a cer-
tain degree of a mixed nature. This however is ungeftionably
not the meaning of our author. It appears from the tenour of
his argument that many affections in which a philofophical ana-
lyfis difcovers a compofition were confidered by him as fimple,
and that he confines his obfervation to fuch paffions as are in a
popular fenfe called mixed.

I usr firft take notice, that the examples of falfe judgment
drawn by. the Prefident from Pliny, relate to fixed, habitual,
chara€teriftical qualities, not to paffions occafionally exerted.

Yer without-recurring to the powers fuppofed to be inherent
inthe human face by @ modern fanciful phyfiognomift, may not
the

Sa ee eo ae

"89. -]

the habitual temper, and even the blended ingredients that form
it, be difcerned often in the afpect? Pliny defcribes the ftatue
of Paris by Euphranor, which feprefents him as judex dearum,
amator Helenz, & interfef@tor Achillis. _ This inftance from
fculpture is cenfured by the Prefident ; and yet why may nota
dignified form and an expreffed charaCter of martial gallantry be

united with the marks of an amorous temperament ?

5

Tue charateriftical portrait of the Demos Athenienfis, men-
tioned by Pliny, and faid to be allegorically painted by Parrha-
fius, is indeed a moral moniter, formed of qualities utterly
incompatible. Volebat namque varium, iracundum, injuftum, in-
conftantem; eundem exorabilem, clementem, mifericordem, excel-
fum, gloriofum, humilem, ferocem, fugacemque & omnia pari-
ter oftendere. Such a picture is beyond the reach of art; and
it is as impracticable for painting to delineate fuch an affemblage
of contradictions as for the imagination to embody- the mutually
exclufive qualities brought together in Lock’s defcription of the
abftraat idea of a triangle; or for the foul of Cardan to have
cemented into one mafs the warring vitious paflions with which,
in the vifions of his diftempered faricy, he feemed polluted.

But to come near to the queftion: Can it be doubted that
every indication of inward emotion which the countenance is
capable of affuming the pencil of the painter may imitate on
the canvas? If the original difplays a fenfible confli€ of paffions
why muft the power of the imitative art be limited to an indy
tint and imperfect marking ?

Vot. VI. M Ir

[Oo

Ir then the above maxim be incontrovertible, as I think it is,
we have only to enquire whether in fact the countenance ever
expreffes a mixture of emotions? While the foul is affected by
any paffion, if it be affailed by another of a different or dif-
cordant nature, the former will either give way or contend for
predominance. In the firft cafe there will be a moment of
fluQuation, during which the expreffion will be uncertain ;
that of the former not being totally effaced, nor the other yet
exclufively afcendant. Thus the lover in Lucretius viewing his
miftrefs. in vuliw videt veftigia rifis. This tranfient. interval re-
fembles thofe points of time fo happily feized by Ovid in the
Metamorphofes before the entire recefs of the firft form or con-
fummation of the new one. Though the painter’s art, con-
fined to a fingle infiant, could not delineate the rapid train of
paffions, which dimm’d the face of Satan on the view of Eden,
and ‘thrice chang’d with pale ire, envy and defpair, yet were he
even to felect the moment, when bis griev'd look he fixed fad,
ftill it muft be Satanic fadnefs, tinged with deep malice and. re-
venge. I could almoft conceive, that as the fculptor in the
ftation of a ftatue can imply its being in aGual motion, fo the
magick of the painter can fuggeft to us how tranfient the emo-
tion expreffed is intended to be—If the firft impreffed paffion
be firm enough to contend for fuperiority with that fuperinduced,
does not experience prove that the features wear a form very
different from that which cither paflion fingle would produce?
Does not the expreffion participate of the charater of each? Is
there no difference, but in degree, between the afpect of a man

opprefied

he

eygr

oppreffed by fear, and of one difturbed by complexional timi-
dity, yet fupported againft its influence by rational felf-difcipline?
The countenance of Coriolanus during the fupplication of his
mother and wife muft have pafled through a feries of expreflions
from that of an affumed cold ftatelinefs, with which he covered
his feelings, till when overpowered by natural affeCtion bis eyes
did fweat compafiion. Through the whole of this confli@ at no
time did his countenance indicate an unmixed emotion, and even
at the concluding triumph of filial duty, the great interpreter of
nature hath reprefented him diftraSted almoft to agony :

Oh, my mother, mother! ob!
You have won a happy viétory to Rome:

But for your fon Believe it, oh, believe it—
Moft dangeroufly with him you have prevail’d,
If not moft mortal to him. But let it come.

ANDROMACHE daxpucey yedacaca (6 Iliad, 484) readily occurs as

a beautiful illuftration of the power of the countenance to ex-
prefs blended feelings; it does not however appear to me to
come fo near the effence of the queftion as to be competent to
fupport the decifion of it. A variety of foft images rufhed at
once on the mind of Andromache; her heart was melted with
a recolleftion of the many tender circumftances that form the
aggregate of domeftic happinefs; and Heétor’s perilous ftation
excited a fear of lofing him who fupported this happinefs; the
little incident of infant terror quickened this mafs of tendernefs ,
yet thefe emotions, being of a kindred nature, eafily coalefce into
M 2 one

fF ag

one united charity. We have here a combination of concurring,
not the perplexity of contending paffions. Mingled tears and
fmiles are often marks of the affectionate feeling, though on
moft occafions they denote contrary paffions. A more applicable
inflance may be found in the Odyfly, (19 Odyf. 471.) where the
great poet defcribes, with exquifite force and truth of colouring,
the effet which the fudden recognition of her old mafter pro-
duced in his nurfe Eurycleia.

==) vet / Autry 7 v \ v
Lay O cpuce NEP nour adyos EAE Gpevae. Tw de ob oooe

Aaxpuopw may Sev. barep'y de ob ETYETO Puy.

Tue celebrated piture by Timomachus, in which Medea is
reprefented meditating the murder of her children, has often
with. propriety been quoted as exhibiting a fituation in which a
confli@ of paflions muft have arifen :

Ira fubeft lachrymis; miferatio nec caret ira.

And it may be here obferved, that this expreffion of rage, con-
trouled by fofter feelings, muft be more impreffive and affecting
than that of the frenzy which would diftort the afpe€t of Medea
in the aét of infanticide; and which, becaufe incapable of being
heightened, would leave no room to the productive power of
imagination, which it is the office of painting rather to excite
than to faturate. Perhaps above all others the following is the
moft appofite inftance: Junius Brutus is graphically defcribed by
Livy as prefiding at the capital punifhment of his fons, whom

he

Oa em

he had condemned to die; && qui /pectator erat amovendus, cum
ipfum fortuna exactorem fupplicii dedit - - - - - quum inter omne
tempus pater, vultus & os gus [pettaculo effet.

Bur what appearance in the countenance of Brutus {fo ftrongly
interefted the attention of the beholders? They furely faw fome-
_ thing more than the expreffion of a father’s heart wounded by
the fufferings of his fons. They traced a fevere internal conflict ;
they obferved vifibly charactered in his face and gefture the vigo-
rous but ineffeGual efforts of nature to burft the reftraints with
which ftern republican juftice had fettered her yearnings: Emi-

nente patrio animo inter publice pene minifterium.

aap abide. aes OR
: oie Inebee

et ey Ss 2 =
pee i is

bynes. 5]

eS SE Ee eS OE SS SE EES © a Rew
a a SSS SSS

An ESSAY on the ART of CONVEYING SECRET and

SWIFT INTELLIGENCE. By RICHARD LOVELL.

EDGEWORTH, Zy. F.R.S. and M.R.L. A.

THE art of conveying intelligence by founds and fignals is
of the higheft antiquity—lIt was practifed by Thefeus in the
Argonautic expedition, by Agamemnon at the fiege of Troy,
and by Mardonius in the time of Xerxes. It is mentioned fre-
quently in Thucydides; it was ufed by Tamerlane*, who had
probably never heard of the black fails of Thefeus,; by the Moors
in Spain, and by the Welch in Britain; by the Irifh, and by the
Chinefe on that famous wall, by which they feparated them-
felves from Tartary.

Tuesevus furnifhed his fhip Argo with black fails as prophetic
mourning for his expected fate ; but he promifed, that if he were
fuccefsful he would upon his return put up a white fail to
inform his father and his countrymen of his fafety. Flufhed with
victory the young telegrapher forgot his fignal. The Athenians

on:

*- Vertot’s Knights. of Malta,

Read June
27th 1795.

[ 66 }

on the fhore watched with eager eyes for his return; old A’geus
faw the black fignal, and certain that his fon was dead, he threw

himfelf from a rock into the Aizean fea f.

Tue fignals of Agamemnon are beautifully defcribed in A
chylus, and every ftation is pointed out with geographical accu-

racy,

Tamervane’s telegraphy was not very refined, but it was
fufficiently intelligible. Whenever he laid fiege to any town he
ufed to employ three fignals—the firft day he fet up a white
flag, to fignify that he was difpofed to ufe clemency to thofe who
immediately furrendered ; the fecond day his fignal was red, to
fignify that he would have blood, and that the lives of the
governor and of the principal officers of the garrifon muft pay
for their temerity ; but the third day his black ftandard declared
that whether the place furrendered or was taken by ftorm every
body fhould be put to the fword and the town utterly de-

ftroyed.

Tue Moors built many towers in Spain; they were placed
on the principal eminences in the kingdom, from whence, by
means of lights and fignals, they could correfpond with each

other. Thefe towers in many places ftill remaint. The cele-
brated

+ Perhaps Cervantes recolle&ted the black and white fails of Thefeus when he
wrote his Galatea. ;

{ The Afiatics and Arabs pra@tifed the art of fpeaking by fignals, as we are told
by Haffelquift and Marigni.

:
.
:
f
i

L997" 1]
brated Mr, Pennant has difcovered and traced with great accu-
racy a long feries of ftations in Wales from Penbedu to Cop yr

Goleuni, or Hill of Fire; thefe he enumerates in Cambrian or-
thography, with which I fhall not fwell this paper.

Bortuius fays that in his time there ftill were left in many
places in Britain remains of huge poles on which barrels of pitch
were elevated to give fignals by night and day; and it is faid
that the cuftom of lighting fires in Ireland upon St. John’s eve

is a commemoration of antient fignals by fire.

‘Tue defcription -of the wall of China is familiar to us, but it
implies ideas of extent and magnitude beyond our habits of com-
parifon, and fcarcely within the reach of imagination. We can
form no adequate idea of a wall. fifteen hundred miles in extent,
peopled with centinels who can fpread an alarm with the celerity
of an ele@ric fhock through the nerves of a vaft empire.

DirFeERENT methods were ufed by the antients for the rapid
communication of intelligence—by fight and by found. Smoke
by day and fires * by night were the ufual fignals of particular

Vou. VI. N events ;

* As the papers of this Academy fall into the hands of the fair fex I muft not
omit paying due honour to the memory of Hero and Leander. The poem of Mu-
feus is almoft forgotten; this will never be the fate of the following beautiful lines
‘of a modern poet:

itd So

[98 =]

events; thefe fignals by degrees were applied to an alphabetical
arrangement, which is minutely defcribed by Polybius. The
ancients had a much more ingenious contrivance, that contains
the principles of all the improvements which have fince been
made on this fubje&. The Clepfydra was ufed like an hour-glafs,
to count time; it confifted of a tall veffel with a hole at the
bottom, through which water paffed flowly. ‘The defcent of the
furface of the water marked the lapfe of time: Two- fimilar
Clepfydras, with the addition of a floating gauge in each, on
which different fentences were infcribed, were fet in motion at
once by a fignal, and were ftopped by another fignal when the
fentence on the floating gauge defcended to a certain index.
But a ftill more compendious method of communication was
fuppofed to exift in the 16th century. It was reported that
two magnetic dials, with the four-and-twenty letters infcribed
on their circumference, would by means of felf-moving hands
point to the letters which the correfpondents meant to indicate.
The great Bacon believed in thofe fympathetic dials, and the

learned.

«© So on her fea-girt tower fair Hero ftood

«¢ At parting day, and marked the dafhing flood ;

«¢ While high in air the glimmering rocks above,

“ Shone the bright lamp, the pilot ftar of love—

‘¢ With robe outf{pread the wavering flame behind

«¢ She kneels, and guards it from the fhifting wind ;-
« Breathes to her goddefs all her vows, and guides
s* Her bold Leander o’er the dufky tides.”

Dr. Darwin’s Botanic Garden.

son 4

learned Sir Thomas Browne, in his enquiry concerning vulgar
errors*, gravely informs us that he procured two dial plates, ac-
cording to dire€tions, magnetifed the needles, and repeated the
experiment in form, but to his infinite difappointment, “ the
“ needles, though but a {pan removed from each other, ftood like
“ the pillars of Hercules:” He then proceeds to confute the
theory “ of this excellent (and if the effect would but follow)
“ divine conceit,” by fhewing that magnetic needles fhould in-
fluence the motions of cach other, not in the fame, but in con-
trary dire@tions; had this been the only difficulty, it had been
eafily obviated by reverfing the order of the letters in one of the
alphabets.

Docror Johnfon, in his life of Browne, laughs at him for
having taken the pains to try “ fuch a hopelefs experiment,”
_ remarking “ that he might have fatistied himfelf by a method
“ lefs operofe, by thrufting two needles through a cork and
“ fetting them afloat in two bafons of water ;” but Browne, he

obferves, ‘‘ appears indeed to have been ready to pay labour for
“ truth.”

Tue ftory of thefe dials had, I believe, fome foundation, but,

as it ufuaily happens in popular ftories, much fiction has been
mingled with fome truth.

N2 Ir

* Book 2d, page 57.

Cs Teer]

Ir two clocks were furnifhed with hands, and with dial-plates
containing the alphabet, the motion of each of them, might be
unlocked at a momentary flafh or found, and they might be .
{topped together at any letter by a fecond explofion. I am
informed that a very ingenious member of this Academy has
{poken of fuch a contrivance*—With proper precautions, and by
fubftituting numbers correfponding with a vocabulary inftead of
an alphabet, this invention may be perfected. I cannot help re-
marking, that by the experiment of Sir T. Browne with two
diftin@ dials, &c. a hint might have been obtained of a practi-
. eable contrivance; but by Doctor Johnfon’s cork, with two
needles thruft through it, nothing could be obtained but difap-
pointment. Vulgar tradition and poetic allegory are neither to
be implicitly trufted nor haftily defpifed}. The incredulity of
mankind in fome inftances appears as furprifing as their credu-
lity in others. The difpofition to ridicule every fcientific pro-
jet as abfurd until it has been abfolutely brought to perfe&tion
has been the common topic of complaint amongft men of inyen-
tive genius; and. it is curious.to obferye that poets, who fuffer
fo much themfelves by the taunts of men of the world, and by
the apathy of the vulgar, fhould in their turn revenge them-

felves.

* A fimilar contrivance is mentioned in Hooper’s Rational Recreations.
+ In a beautiful Arabian tale, written perhaps a hundred years before the time of

Gallileo, in which we expect nothing but fiction and extravagance, we find that the
air balloon and the telefcope are introduced in the contrivance of the fable.

is

i ten J

felves upon men of feience, and treat their fpeculations with

difdain. Ben Johnfon has attempted this in one of his mafques
with a degree of humour which is not always the portion of
thofe who throw ridicule on fcience. Merefool, the clown of
the piece, confults an adept, who promifes to inftru@ him in all
occult fecrets, and to fhew him apparitions of all the learned
men of the ancients; but every man who is called for happens
to be bufy, from Pythagoras “ who has rafhly run himfelf upon
“an employment of keeping affes from a field of beans,” to
Archimedes, who is meditating the invention of

« A rare moufe trap with owls wings,

< And a cat’s foot to catch the mice alone.”

Not only the fame tafte for ridicule, but the fame ideas
we find repeated, with a flight alteration, at different cras;
Ariftophanes and Lucian amongft the ancients*, and Butler},

Swift

* A balloon may be carried forward with certainty and celerity in any direction
where there is no perceptible wind, if it is alternately lowered and elevated by al-
tering from time to time its fpecific gravity, which may be done by various means
without lofing much hydrogine gas; and if it be furnifhed with fins or {mall fails
and be fet to a proper angle with its line of afcent and defcent, their vertical pref-
fure againft the air will impel the balloon forward.

Swift maneuvres his Laputa in this manner.
I tried this invention on a {mall balloon in the houfe of the late ingenious Dr.

Uther, the friend of {cience, and of thofe who withed to improve it.

+ See Butler’s ridicule of the ingenious idea of making ufe of pendulums for a
univerfal meafure. Canto 3d, page 87.

|. Mean]

Swift and Voltaire, the three great modern mafters of ridicule,
have in various fhapes the fame ideas, and are alike difpofed to
confound the ingenious and the extravagant. The beft way of
parrying the ftroke of ridicule is to receive it with good humour ;
laugh with thofe who laugh, and perfevere with thofe who la-
bour, fhould be the motto of men who poffefs the powers of

invention.

Tue late Door Johnfon, who in his Raffelas ridiculed the idea
of the art of flying, lived long enough to fee the afcent of the
firft air balloon.

SEVERAL attempts have been made to convey ideas by founds
louder than the human voice. Even the voice of Stentor was
infufficient to reach a whole army, and the fpeaking trumpet *
was invented to convey the orders of the general in the field of
battle. It is mentioned in Afchylus; and Alexander is faid to
have poffeffed a trumpet of fuch aftonifhing powers as to convey
his commands to the diftance of one hundred ftadia, nearly
twelve miles.

Tuose who wifh to turn their attention to the improvement
of fpeaking trumpets, of tubes, or of buildings for magnifying
found,

* Sir T. Morland and Kircher difputed long and loudly their refpeétive claims to
the invention of the {peaking trumpet. It is fingular that the latter fhould forget the
ftentorophonic tube of Alexander, the figure of which is preferved in the Vatican.

f 203]

found, will be pleafed with an ingenious memoire of Beau-
mur’s in the Academy of Sciences t+. “ Sur le fon que rend le
« plomb en quelques circonftances,” with the obfervations of
Monf. Sauveurt. The memoire of Maupertius § upon mufical
inftruments—An excellent fet of experiments by M. L’Abbé
Nollét|], “ Sur la tranfmiffion des fons dans l’eau ;” and a fhort
letter amongft the mifcellaneous papers. of the judicious Franklin,
will probably be found ufeful—Nor will any man of genius.
neglect the enthufiaftic prediGtions of our great philofopher Doctor
Hooke*. In his method of improving Natural Philofophy he
fpeaks of the inftruments which may be contrived to enlarge the
powers of our fenfes. He fubjoins to what he fays on the fenfe
of hearing the following apology :

“© Meruinxs I can hardly forbear to blufh when I confider-
“ how moft people will look upon this, but yet again I have
“ this encouragement, though thefe things be never fo much

Cal

_“ derided by the generality of men, and never fo feemingly mad,

o

* foolith, or phantaftical, that as the thinking them impoflible can- ;
“ not much improve my knowledge, fo the believing them pof-
* fible may perhaps be an occafion of my taking notice of fuch,
* things as another would pafs by as ufelefs.”

Tuts is not enthufiafm, but found fenfe ;—men of enlarged
minds admit univerfal toleration for conjeCture and theories, be-
caufe

+-M. 1726, page 243. 464. } Hiftoire 1701, page 25.
§ Memoires 1724, page 215. ||. Memoires 1741, page 199.
* Doctor Hooke’s Pofthumous Works,

[ “404 ]

caufe they confider them as the means of roufing aivity, and of
exciting to experiment and patient obfervation. A man who has
a theory to fupport muft concentrate his attention, and will quit
the idlenefs of mere ingenuity for that induftry which leads to
truth—affertions and déeclamation he knows will avail him little,
fats, which ultimately decide all arguments, muft be ranged
under his banners, if he afpire to the honours of a triumph ; nor is
it by any means neceflary that the fpeCctators fhould be parti-
zans; the moft complete indifference may be preferved as to the

theorift, and even as to the theory.
‘
i rHouGuT it neceflary to mention the attempts which have

been made to communicate intelligence fwiftly by found, and to
remark that it is probable that this art may be brought in time
to high perfeQtion. Though I prefer different methods I would not
difcourage others, nor keep my own mind fo intent upon one
object as to prevent my obferving what may be worth my confi-
deration in another.

TueE telegraphic art was chiefly confined to war amongft the
ancients; but we have reafon to conjecture that it was alfo fe-
cretly employed in the management of oracles. Fontenelle be-
lieved that the oracles at Delphi and at other places were deli-
vered through pipes, which communicated with the apartments
of the priefts*. Befides contrivances of this fort, 1s it abfurd to

fuppofe

* Pére Balthus oppofes this opinion of Fontenelle’s in his anfwer to the Hiftory of
Oracles.

[105 |

fuppofe that they poffeffed fome fecret mode of receiving intel-
ligence from the feveral nations who confulted them ?

Cxorsus, after having been duped by various oracles began to

fufpe@ their infallibility, and to obferve that they made bad

verfes; he refolved to try their powers of divination before he
put himfelf to any farther expenfe in coftly offerings. At a cer-
tain hour, on a particular day and at an appointed moment, the
meffengers whom he had difpatched to the different oracles de-
manded from them “ What was at that inftant the employment

“© of Croefus >*

Aut the oracles were mute, except the Delphic, which imme-
diately anfwered the meffengers of Croefus in thefe infpired
lines +.

“* T know the fpace of fea—the number of the fand,
“ T hear the filent—mute I underftand.
** A tender lamb, joined with tortoife fleth,
~« Thy mafter, king of Lydia, now does drefs;
“ ‘The fcent thereof doth in my noftrils hover,
“ From brazen pot clofed with brazen cover.”

Vor. VI. O Tuts

_ ™ Herodotus, r1ft vol.

+ I have preferred this tranflation to all others, as beft fuited to the oracle.

fF ~a06. 1]

' Tuts was precifely the ftrange employment which the king
had privately devifed for himfelf. The anfwer of the oracle
aftounded and convinced Creefus, and feems to have had as
powerful an effe@ upon Sir’ Thomas Browne, who in his “ En-
“‘ guiry concerning Vulgar Errors,” calls this the plaineft of all
oracles, and deems it the cleareft proof of their fupernatural
agency. Neither probability nor coincidence could have produced
this marvellous reply; it has therefore excited alike the ationifh-
ment of the learned and of the ignorant. But the wonder ceafes,
and an eafy folution of the difficulty prefents itfelf, if we fup-
pofe that the priefts of the oracle were Telegraphers.

Ir is probable that fignals were firft employed for defence to
give notice of an approaching enemy. The ftupendous wall of
China does not appear to have been intended for a barrier againft
the Tartars as a nation; it was probably meant as a defence
againft their occafional inroads as banditti. To embodied ene-
mies it would have prefented no infurmountable obftacle, but
againft detached marauders it was an effectual fence. Gibbon
feems not to have perceived the real intention of this laborious
work; he fpeaks of it confequently with too little refpec&t when
he affirms that “it has never contributed to the fafety of an
“* unwarlike people.” It is true that their favage enemies have
upon fome occafions, “‘ by their rapid impetuofity, furprifed, af-
‘“* tonifhed and difconcerted the grave and elaborate tattics of a
“ Chinefe army.” But war was never the tafte or bufinefs of

this

[ x07 ]

this automatic nation; furrounded by hordes of banditti, their
with was uniformly to preferve the methodical regularity of peace.
It will be allowed that it was no eafy tafk to make their cir-
cumflances and their tafte agree; yet they have quietly gained
their point, and they have lived the fame life for thoufands of
years. Their’ dynafties have changed, but the*nation has re-
mained the fame.

Tue exiftence of their empire is the beft proof of its policy,
and the beft argument to demonftrate that art and fcience, if we
take time into the account, are able to conquer force and num-
bers—if we take time into the account; for many of the miftakes
in our reafonings, and in the conclufions that we draw from ex-
periments, in moral as well as in natural philofophy, have arifen
from our omitting me in our calculations.

Ir was the policy of the Romans, which fecured to them the
dominion of all the countries which they conquered, to eftablith
wherever they went methods of communication and fwift in-
telligence. Their laborious roads, their forts, their military obfer-
vatories, are all proofs of their confummate fkill in the arts of
government and of war. It is not neceflary to expatiate upon
fa&s with which every perfon of literature is acquainted. The
remains of thefe public works may eafily be traced. Amongft
many others the lofty towers which are to be feen at Uzes, Bel-
legarde, Arles, and an antient building called “ The Tourmagne” at

Oz Nifmes,

[ 08 |

Nifmes *, were Roman watch towers, from which the Roman
guards communicated intelligence to each other by fignals, of
whatever paffed in the furrounding country. The advantages of
this univerfal facility of intercourfe through a vaft extent of
empire, divided by nature, and united more by art than arms, were
peculiarly felt. , The capitals of Syria, Egypt, Antioch, and Alex-
‘andria, with a croud of dependent cities, eleven hundred and
ninety-feven in Italy, twelve hundred in Gaul, three hundred and
fixty in Spain, three hundred African, and five hundred popu-
lous Afiatic cities ‘‘ fwell the aftonifhing lift of thefe dominions.”
All thefe cities were connected with each other, and the great
chain of communication from the north-weft to the fouth-eaft
point of the empire was drawn out to the length of about 3740
Englifh miles. ‘“ 4It was the advantage of receiving the earlieft
“« intelligence and of conveying their orders with celerity, which
** induced the emperors to eftablifh throughout their extenfive
“« dominions the regular inftitution of pofts.”

Ir is not from any pedantic reverence for antiquity that I
appeal to precedents. Precedent, either antient or modern, is
liftened to by men of fenfe only as being the voice of experience,
not from its affuming the tone of authority. The legiflation and
manners of the modern world differ fo much from thofe of the
antient, that it would in many cafes be abfurd to apply their
maxims to our fituations; and notwithftanding the great under-

takings

* Antiquities de Nifmes. + Gibbon, vol. 1ft, p. 6o.

E .z0g J

takings of the antients, the modern improvements of fcience
give us evident fuperiority in feveral of the arts of life and of
defence.

Science is no longer reclufe, no longer inveloped in, myftery,
or ambitious only of idle admiration ; fhe has difcovered that
to be efteemed by men fhe muft be ufeful.

In the prefent times as in the paft the power of executive
government in every ftate muft ina great meafure depend upon
the celerity and accuracy of its intelligence: “ Firft to watch
“« and then to fpeed,” is one of Lord Bacon’s political maxims;
he advifes to “ commit the beginning of affairs to Argus with
“‘ his hundred eyes, and the end to Briareus with his hundred
“ hands.” The hands that can execute are in every ftate more
eafily found than the eyes that can obferve.

WHILsT government is uncertain from what quarter an attack
may come, or in what part of the country commotions may fud-
denly arife, the means of affiftance muft be immediately at hand
in various parts; nor whilft information is tardy or imperfeé& can
the force be proportioned to the danger; there is perpetual: ha-
zard of profufion or negle&. But, on the contrary, if from day
to day and from hour to hour intelligence could be received from
all parts of a country, there would be time for combination and
arrangement ; the force of a kingdom could be colle&ted by a
wifh and direéted by a word. The certainty which the people

would

i "ee, |

would have of the immediate fuperintendence of their governors
would create confidence in the good, and apprehenfion in thofe
who are difpofed to mifchief. It is not the feverity and the du-
ration of punifhment, but its certainty and its immediate con-
ne@ion with the crime, which act moft forcibly upon the human
mind. No means can be more likely to prevent difobedience to
the laws, either civil or military, than thofe which increafe the
probability of fpeedy dete€tion. What man would attempt to
fly from the civil power who knew that his flight would be ad-
vertized through the kingdom in a few minutes, and that the
defeription of his perfon with the publication of his offence
would infallibly meet him wherever he went? With fuch ad-
vantages government would not be obliged to keep an extrava-

gant force in difplay to create refpect.

Whoever attends to fecret hiftories and private memoirs,
from ‘The diary of Bob Dodington” to the fhamelefs “ Secret
“ Hiftory of the Court of Berlin,’ will be convinced of the
anxiety of courts and courtiers for early intelligence. Mirabeau
paints in ftrong colours his anxiety to give his employers at the
French court the earlie/? intelligence of the death of the king of
Pruffia. His own perplexity, and the buftle amongft rival cour-
tiers and ambafiadors, are well defcribed:—the confequence of
carrier-pigeons and couriers, and the expenfe which Mirabeau was
commiffioned to defray, fhew the value which the court of Ver-

failles annexed to his fuccefs*.
As

* Mirabeau’s Secret Hiftory of the Court of Berlin, Page 50.

[sae 4)

As this is not a memorial for minifters, but a paper addreffed
to a philofophical fociety, I may without impropriety remark,
that he “ who fmote the houfe of Bourbon with one hand,
“© and in the other wielded the democracy of England,” was
fuppofed to have had the beft intelligence of any minifter that
ever prefided over the Britifh councils. It was this circum-
ftance which gave a fecret power to his eloquence over the
minds of thofe who knew that his prophetic ftrain was the
language of political experience, not of ignorant enthufiafm.
His words, in a fpeech on the commencement of hoftilities with

Spain, were remarkable.

“ I do now pledge myfelf to this honourable houfe for the
“ truth of what I am going to aflert—that at this very hour
“ that we are fitting here together, there has been a blow of
“ hoftility ftruck againft us by our old inveterate enemies in
“ fome part of the world.” :

_ Tus prediction, if it was a prediction, was almoft immedi-
ately verified; the next poft brought news, that the blow of
hoftility had been ftruck at Falkland’s Iflands.

Tue advantages which by means of Telegraphy would re-
fult to commerce muft, both in time of war and peace, be
extenfive. In time of war the fafety, I might almoft fay the
exiftence, of the commercial world, depends upon the rapidity
and the accuracy of its intelligence. The relative fuccefs of

merchants,

[ 12 ]

merchants in their feveral ventures and fpeculations muft be
regulated by the extent of their information, and by their capa-
city to apply that information to their conduct. To equalize
their capacity is impoffible; there will always remain a confi-
derable difference between the underftandings of men, fup-
pofing them to be in poffeflion of the fame facts ; but, to thofe
who can reafon, the great difficulty is to arrive at facts that may
form juft data for their reafoning. Here I flatter myfelf Tele-
graphy can materially ferve them, nor will they be inclined to
treat with difdain any attempt of fcience to abridge the routine
of bufinefs.

Ir is curious and fometimes amufing to obferve how any
new invention implicates different interefts, and how different
claffes of fociety are immediately or remotely affected by cir-
cumftances in which they did not imagine themfelves to be in
any way concerned. A ftock-jobber, in glancing his eye down
a column of a newfpaper, would fkip over a paragraph about a
Telegraph, as news from the regions of fcience, in which he
could have no manner of intereft. Science and ftock-jobbing
do not indeed appear to bear any near affinity to each other,
nor fhould we expect that a mechanic invention would have any
powerful effect upon the rate of infurance; yet the eftablifh-
ment of Telegraphs in proper places would produce a great
reyolution at Lloyd's and on the Exchange.

THE

tig 7]

Tue profits of infurers, which do not depend on gambling
but on calculation, would be raifed, not in the immediate in-
creafed rate of infurance but in the certainty of the revenue.
In proportion as their intelligence was expeditious and authentic
they could afford to infure on lower terms, becaufe their bufi-
nefs would become more extenfive, and becaufe the hazards
arifing from ignorance of foreign and domeftic events would,
to them, be confiderably diminifhed.

I am fenfible that the gambling ftock-jobber, and all. thofe
concerned in the infurance of lotteries, ought, if they under-
ftood their own intereft, to confider this invention as the ruin of
their trade. Whatever brings the conduct of affairs within the
limits of calculation, and enlarges the power of prudence, di-
minifhes the empire of fortune, and muft be deprecated by
gamefters of every defcription. A ftock-jobber traffics in the
ignorance and credulity of his neighbour, againft which he
ftakes his own information and cunning, and fometimes his
rafhnefs and prefumption. His bufinefs is to collect intelligence,
and to conceal or divulge it as may fuit his intereft. He lives
by the news of the day and by the report of the moment;
but fince news, even with all the activity he can employ, cannot
be circulated from kingdom to kingdom, through the’ ftrects of
London, the coffee-houfes and the exchange, with the fame ve-
locity by the human tongue as by the Telegraph, he will hate
and fear it as his rival and deteCtor; nor will any man of bu-

: -

Mot! 'VI. . P finefs,

7 oo ' »

ae}

finefs, any philofopher, nor yet any honeft man, feei the flighteft
compunétion at the idea of deftroying the profits of a clafs of
{peculators unprodudtive to the wealth and noxious to the mo-
rality of the community.

Ir has been obferved by Smith, that mankind are wonder-
fully difpofed to truft to their individual good fortune, con-
trary to the general experience of human affairs. This propen-
fity has lately been apparent in the commercial world, and-it
would be in no fmall degree ferviceable to its interefts to bring
back the attention of the merchant from. chance to induftry.

To give an inftance of the effects that might be produced by
immediate and univerfal communication in the affairs of com-
merce I need only mention the corn trade. The advantage of °
the weekly corn returns from different parts of England have
been fenfibly felt; and if fuch returns would be daily made
combinations would be prevented in every market in the king-
dom.

e

Tue celebrated author of “ The Wealth of Nations” has fo
clearly developed the connexion between freedom of intercourfe
in focietyyand the interefts of commerce, between the facility of
communication in kingdoms, and the demand for the neceffaries,
or the tafte for the luxuries of life, that it would be impertinent
to repeat obfervations which he has,imprefled upon the public

< conviction,

[i rag: ]

conviction, or to explain what he has demonftrated. But the
faéts which he has with fo much accuracy and elegance arranged
in fyftematic order have been remarked in detail by others in
the common bufinefs of life, for on thefe common obfervations
compared and arranged all fyftems that are juft muft be
founded.

Every perfon muft have obferved the effe@ which quick and
eafy communication between the parts of a country has upon
its profperity. With the faculty of gratifying our tafte for the
conveniencies of life the tafte itfelf encreafes, and whatever fa-
cilitates the means of giving orders encreafes the produ@tions of

induftry.

By this freedom of intercourfe, as both expenfe and time are
faved, the conveniencies, comforts and innocent luxuries of life
are brought within the limits and reach of our prudence. ‘Tele-
graphy we may flatter ourfelves will extend thefe limits, and
‘© will bring our wifhes nearer to our view*.”

THERE is no reafon to deubt that fuch a communication will
exift between the different parts of the European continent and
*Pa2 Great

* Puck promifes Oberon to put a girdle round the earth in forty minutes. It
is not phyfically impoffible (I do not fpeak of probability) to fend a meflage from the
extremity of Siberia to Cape Horn and to receive an anfwer in twenty minutes.
a time and {pace nearly equal to the fiction of Shakefpeare

Pt 22624]

Great Britain when peace fhall be eftablifhed*.. The general ad-
vantage of an immediate and fpeedy communication between
this country and Great Britain are fufficiently obvious, both with
refpe@ to their unity of intereft and their commercial intercourfe.
Our legiflation and manners are the fame with thofe of the’Englith,
and all means which contribute to unite the minds and interefts

of the people muft be advantageous to both nations.

Ar prefent an exprefs cannot reach London from Dublin in
lefs than forty hours. By the Telegraph a meflage may be con-
veyed in as many minutes. At the fame rate a correfpondence
may be maintained with Cork with the fea ports of Great Bri-
tain, and with any place where fuch communication may be re-

quired.

I sHouLp not omit to point out to this learned and patriotic
Academy the ufes to which the Telegraph may be applied in the
purfuits of fcience. One of our members, as highly diftinguifhed
by his tafte and love for literature, as by his munificence, pro-
pofed to the late Dr. Ufher the meafurement of a bafe in Ire-
land for the conftru@tion of a feries of triangles, to be connééed
with the operations of General Roy in Great’ Britain and’ France.
The Do&or did me the honour to affociate me in this under-

taking ;

“Tr fcarcely dare to foretel that a communication by Telegraphs between Europe and
the Eaft Indies will one day be eftablifhed, and that its effects will be more bene-
ficial to Europe than monopoly or conquett.

ne eee

ye

i a 4

taking ; and the laft lines, which I believe he ever wrote, were
upon this fubjeGt. In a philofophical enterprife of this extent, as
General Roy has feelingly remarked, there are more difficulties to
be overcome, and more expedients required, than could be eafily
forefeen. ‘Three fummers were confumed in operations that it
was fuppofed would have been accomplifhed in two or three
months; and a great part of this delay arofe from the neceflity
of keeping up conftant communications with diftant obfervers.
If the Telegraph were employed in fuch a furvey the bufinefs
might be conducted with eafe and fatisfa€tion; the irkfome in-
terruptions arifing from the diftance of ftations would be avoided,
and every flep would be progreffive.

Tue fcience of meteorology, which has lately been cultivated with
fo much good fenfe by Mr. Kirwan, might receive great affiftance
from the Telegraph, when eftablifhed in the principal parts of
this kingdom and of Great Britain: A communication fwifter
than the wind would prepare the attention to obferve thofe phe-
nomena in different places,. which are fuppofed to precede ftorms
and fair: weather. The manometer in particular might be cor-
re€ted from the comparifon between diftant obfervations made at:
the fame moment.-

Wuenever the aeroftatic balloon is employed for the pur-
pofes of fcience, the power of communication between the clouds
and the earth, between different balloons at various heights and

iD

[ ERB 29 |

in various places by Telegraphy, will tend to improve our know-

“

ledge in many parts of fcience. Public curiofity and private
gain have beea amply fatisfied by various aeroftatic exhibitions.
Balloons will, I hope, foon become an object of different fpe-
culation ; and at fome place diftant from the capital and from
any large city, they will I hope be employed at leifure to en-
large our knowlege of the atmofphere, of dioptrics, acouftics,
pneumatick chemiftry, and of the animal ceconomy, fo far as it
is effected by the different preffure and different qualities of
the higher regions of the atmofphere. &

Tiere is another important fcientific ufe to which Telegraphy
may be applied—it may ferve as an introduction to an univer-

fal language.

Tue idea of a univerfal character and philofophical lan-
guage, which all nations fhould be able to write and under-

and, has been treated by many as chimerical, becaufe it has
not yet been brought to perfection. The Jefuits, by the ac-
counts their miffionaries fent home of the peculiarities of the
Chinefe language, fixed the attention of men of learning and
ingenuity upon this fubjeét The defects and fingularities of
that language afforded them ample matter for reflection. The
Chinefe have no alphabet of fimple founds like ours; no ele-
mentary characters like our letters, from the combination of

which European languages are formed. They have two fepa-

6
‘
fy

go be 1

rate languages, one oral, to ferve for the common purpofes and
bufinefs of life, confifting*ef about three hundred words ;_ the
other, which is referved for the ufe of the literati, for hiftory,
poetry and {cience, comprifes fixty thoufand or eighty thoufand *
different characters. As they have no alphabet, each dif-
tin@t idea and each variation,of a thought, inftead of being ex-

preffed by the different arrangement of the fame letters, mutt

be denoted by a feparate charater or an appropriate inflexion.
The labour of learning thefe is the labour of a life. Scarcely
any of their manderines pretend to underftand the whole of the
language, and a manderine who at fifty can boaft that he
knows half his characters is accounted in China a very learned
man. ‘Their popular language has likewife a defe@ which we

‘ fhould think muft be every day felt by all claffes of people.

Each of its three hundred words, when pronounced in different
tones, exprefies totally different things ; and the flighteft inflexion
of the voice entirely alters a man’s meaning; fo that thofe who
have the misfortune to have a bad ear mutt confequently, in
China, have a bad underftanding. The fyllable Ko has ten

different modes of pronunciation; and Ba, according to its va-

rious accents, has fix feveral fenfes, which bear no atanicy to
each other. The moft expert orators in the nation often find
it impoflible to make themfelves underftood without feveral at-
tempts and repetitions to explain themfelves ; and fometimes

they

©

* Du Halde.

[ aae..4 mm

they are forced to conclude by + making the figure of the cha-
racter:they would exprefs with their‘fingers in the air or upon a
wall or table. \

Wir fuch orators action is every thing! To make the af-
fairs {till more complicate, the different provinces of China
{peak different dialects, incomprehenfible to each other; but
they have one common written character which all the pro-
vinces and alfo the Japanefe underftand and can read off in
their feveral tones into their refpective languages—this fhews
the poflibility of a*univerfal character being brought into ac-

tual ufe.

Bisuopr Wilkins, in his “* Effay towards a Univerfal Chara@er,”
as he modeftly calls it, has difplayed wonderful ingenuity and a
moft comprehenfive mind. His charaters are formed on prin-
ciples of philofophic arrangement, fo that the fight of any char-
acter defigned to denote a complex idea fhall by different lines
or points reprefent or bring to our recolleétion all the feveral. parts
of which that idea is compofed. Thofe chara@ers which denote
fubftances or animals exprefs by flight differences at once the
fpecies and genera to which they belong. This idea of claffifica-
tion he traced in a few inftances in the Chinefe language. The

Chinefe charaGter, that fignifies metals, with flight additions, dif-
tinguifhes

7 Wilkins.

|

i, eee es

Eo aon |

tinguifhes iron, copper, fteel, &c.*; and the charater ufed for
a precious fone, with certain variations, means different kinds of
gems or pearls. Independently of his general fyftem his remarks
upon conjun¢tions and particles are excellent for his time, though
alate ingenious publication + has fhewn the miftaken principles
upon which he and all former grammarians had reafoned upon
the fubje@&. Dodtor Wilkins’s charaéters for irony, and to give
warning that a word is ufed in a figurative or rhetorical fenfe,

“might be ufed with as great advantage as the common notes of

“interrogation and~admiration.. The warning note might not be

approved of by poets, wits and orators, becaufe it would leffen
the effet of repartee, declamation, and perhaps of the fublime,
which requires fome degree of obfcurity to captivate the ima-
gination, or of furprize to aftonifh the underftanding: But where

accurate knowledge, rather than amufement, is required, fuch an

-affiftance would be agreeable. Thofe who have turned their thoughts

towards education will immediately perceive its utility in another
point of view. By the help of this note children would underftand
part of the poetry which they are obliged to learn by heart.

Ir is not poffible to explain Wilkins’s fyfem in a few words:
Allowing for the phrafeology of his time his copious folio is

{carcely too large to do juftice to his ideas.
_ Vor. VI. =O): WHEN

* See an ingenious Effay on Symbols and on Charaéters ufed by Chemilfts; by
Dr. M. Wall.—Mem. of Phil. Soc. Manchefter, rit vol.

} EMEA TITEPOENTA,

[ wee" 7

Wuen I was arranging a vocabulary for the telegraph, I
looked over his work, and recalled to my mind ideas upon the
fame fubje&, which have for years, at intervals, employed my
attention.

Ir has employed the talents and attention of feveral men of
jearning and ability, and it appears to be a fubje& worthy of their
time and labour, and highly inviting to future induftry and in-

vention.

FoNTENELLE, in his Eloge on Leibnitz, mentions his inten-
tion of making out an alphabet of human thoughts, for a philo-
fophical language; but his death put a ftop to the defign. ‘This
intention I have found obfcurely mentioned at the end of his
ingenious Memoire on Binary Arithmetic, where he {peaks of
“a new character,” which he projeGs—A tranflation, perhaps,
might not do juftice to the meaning, I therefore will quote his

words :

“ C’eft que tout raifonnement qu’on peut tirer des notions
“ pourroit etre tiré de leur caraCteres, par une maniere de calcul |
“‘ qui feroit un des plus importants moyens d’aider lefprit

“ humain*.”

M. Lersnirz told Boyle, “ that though Wilkins and Dal-
““ garme were great men, he did not think they had hit their
“© point.

* Memoires de l’Academie de Science, 1703. m. page 111.

L 123 ]

** point. They might,” he faid “ by means of their languages,
*« enable nations who were ftrangers to each other to converfe
-* together, but they had not caught the true real charaGers, which,”
he faid, “ fhould refemble algebraic characters, which would in-
“ finitely affift the memory and invention.” If Leibnitz could
have found thefe real characters, the greateft difficulty, as Fonte-
nelle obferves, would have ftill remained, to have perfuaded ‘
mankind to agree in the ufe of them.

Lavorsier, who invented, on truly ingenious and philofophi- ©
cal principles, a new language for chemiftry, found it for fome
time difficult to introduce’ it amongft chemifts; and the cha-
raters which, with the approbation of the Academy of Sciences,
Monf. Berthollet has annexed to Lavoifier’s ‘vocabulary, have
never been adopted in the {cientific world.

Tue averfion which the learned, as’ well as the vulgar, have
fhewn to adopt any univerfal language that has ever yet been
propofed to them, arifes from various caufes. The peculiar af-
fociations and habits of different perfons are incompatible, fo
that an arrangement of founds or ideas, which may be conve-
nrent to the memory of one perfon appears prepofterous to the
judgment of another; and the analogies which ftrike the un-
derftanding of one clafs of people are fo foreign to the minds
of another that they tend rather to bewilderand difguft than

Oi2 to

~

[ 124 ]

to pleafe and affift the imagination. Befides this there is a diffi-
culty which arifes from the vanity of each individual, who
fancies that in a new coinage of language his own authority
would be fufficient to give credit and currency to any new
words he wifhed to bring into circulation.

Tue prefs is an engine which every perfon can make ufe of
to convey his ideas to the public, and as long as any objection
can be made to the introduction of new characters it is not
probable that they fhould be admitted, becaufe every perfon is
confirmed by habit, vanity or immediate convenience, in the
ufe of the eftablithed mode of exprefiion. But when a man
wifhes to convey his ideas to foreigners who do not underftand
his language, or whofe language he does not underftand, he
trufts with confidence to his interpreter, and is content to catch,
at fecond hand, fome knowledge of the terms which are em-
ployed in his fervice—he fubmits from neceffity to what he
would not ftoop by choice. When all competition ceafes men
are willing to ‘learn voluntarily what they would never have
condefcended to be taught by compulfion.

In this point of view it appears to me that the Telegraph
would be an eafy and certain means of introducing a univerfal
language, and of improving it by degrees without any extra-
ordinary effort. ‘The object would be accomplifhed before it
was fufpected, and it would be fubjeé to lefs oppofition when

prefented

[ a25 -]

prefented as an incidental than when introduced as a primary
confideration. At prefent I fhall not attempt to enter upon fuch
an extenfive enquiry as into the means of forming an univerfal
language, but at fome future period I hope to offer my thoughts
upon this fubject to the Royal Irifh Academy.

Havine flightly mentioned the contrivances made ufe of by
the antients for conveying intelligence fwiftly, and having
pointed out fome of the various important ufes to which. this
art may be applied, I fhall endeavour to give a clear view of
my attempts on this fubjedt.

Mopets of the French Telegraph have been fo often exhi-
bited, and the machine itfelf is fo well known, that it is not
neceflary to defcribe it minutely in this place.—It is fufficient to
fay that it confifts ef a tall pole, with three moveable arms,
which may be {een at a confiderable diftance through telefcopes ;
thefe arms may be fet in as many different pofitions as are re-
quifite to exprefs all the letters of the alphabet :—By a fucceflive
combination of letters fhewn in this manner words and fen-
tences are formed and intelligence communicated. No doubt
can be made of the utilicy of this machine, as it has been ap-
plied to the moft important purpofes. It is obvioufly liable to
miftakes, from the number of changes requifite for each word,
and from the velocity with’ which it muft be moved to convey

intelligence with any tolerable expedition.
THE

| aa |

TuHE name, however, which is well chofen, has become fo
familiar, that I fhall, with a flight alteration, adopt it for the
apparatus which I am going to defcribe. Telegraph is a proper
name for a machine which defcribes at a diftance. Te/e/ograph,
or contractedly Te//ograph, is a proper name for a machine that
defcribes words at a diftance.

Doctor Hooke, to whom every mechanic philofopher mutt
recur, has written an eflay upon the fubject of conveying fwift
intelligence, in which he propofes to ufe large wooden letters in
fucceffion. The fiege of Vienna turned his attention to the bu-
finefs. This method is more cumbrous than the French Tele-
graph, but far lefs liable to error.

{ rriep it before I had feen Hooke’s work in the year 1767
in London, and I could diftinétly read letters illuminated with
lamps in Hamftead church yard, from the houfe of Mr. Elers
in Great Ruffel-{treet, Bloomfbury, to whom I refer for the date
and circumftance—To him and to Mr. E. Delaval, F. R. S. to
Mr. Perrot of Harehatch, and to Mr. Woulfe the chemift, I
refer for the precedency, which claim in this invention. In that
year I invented the idea of my prefent Tellograph, propofing to
make ufe of wind-mill fails inftead of the hands or pointers,
which I now employ. Mr. Perrot was fo good as to accompany
me more than once to a hill near his houfe to obferve with a
tele{cope the windmill at Nettlebed, which places are, I think,

fixteen:

Plate .1

ELEVATION.

Wp —_—
“ail | |e
7)

Ee Cy lags |

fixteen miles afunder. My intention at that time was to con-
trive not only a fwift but an unfufpected mode of intelligence:
By means of common windmills this might have been effected,
before an account of the French Telegraph was made public *.

My machinery confifts of four triangular pointers or hands,
each of which points like the hands of a clock to different
fituations in the circles which they defcribe.

Ir is eafy to diftinguifh whether a hand moving vertically
points perpendicularly downwards or upwards, horizontally to
the right or left, or to any of the four intermediate fituations.

THE

* Since this paper was written, I received a letter from Mr. Perrot, which has
been feen by the Prefident, containing the following paflage :

«I perfectly recolleét having feveral converfations with you in 1767, on the
fubje@ of a fpeedy and fecret conveyance of intelligence; I recolleét our going up
«« the hills to fee how far, and how diftinétly, the arms (and the pofition of them)
“¢ of Nettlebed windmill were to be difcovered with eafe. As to the experiments
“ from High-gate to London by means of lamps, I was not prefent at the time,
« but Iremember your mentioning the circumftance to me, I believe in the fame
*¢ year. All thefe particulars were brought very ftrongly to my memory when the
“ French a few years ago conveyed intelligence by fignals; and I then thought and
*« declared, that the merit of the invention undoubtedly belonged to you.—I am very
“¢ glad that I have it in my power to fend you this confirmation, becaufe I imagine
“ there is no other perfon now living who can witnefs your obfervations in Berk-
s¢ fhire.

r EZ. |

Tue eye can eafily perceive the eight different pofitions in
which one of the pointers is reprefented, plate II. fig. 1. by
“turning the eye to the circle A.

A simiLar circle may be imagined round each of the point-
ers, by which the numbers which they are intended to exprefs
may be difcovered with much facility.

Or thefe eight pofitions feven only are employed to’ denote
figures, the upright pofition of the hand or pointer being re-
ferved to reprefent O or Zero. The figures thus denoted refer
to a vocabulary, in which all the words are numbered. Of the
four pointers, plate I. that which appears to the left hand of
the obferver reprefents thoufands, the others hundreds, tens
and units, in fucceffion, as in common numeration.

* In the annexed plate the four large pointers ftand at 2774,

which in the common arrangement of my vocabulary denotes
the

* I infert, plate IJ, fig. 2, a line defcribed by telegraphs as an example.—lIt is
the firft line of the following verfes written on the profpect of correfponding be~
tween England and Ireland by the Telegraph:

Hark from Bafaltic rocks and giant walls,
To Britain’s fhores the glad Hibernia calls;
Her voice no longer waits retarding tides,
The meeting coafts no more the fea divides. a
Quick, at the voice of fortune or of fame,
Kindles from fhore to fhore the patriot flame,
Hov’ring in air, each kindred genius {miles,
And binds with clofer bands the fifter Ifles.
The numbers are, 2645, 2331, 5732 TI13) 244) 2411, 6336-

Kiel. :
View- of the 8 different pofitions of the Tellograpl
°
1
x if
——

Example of a

&

<< sab set ed
Ne i

Rial ; Fe % Lage 128. Saence. Plate, 2 .

View of the 8 different pofitions of the Tellograph

Example of a line of Six words ddcribed by the Tellogra ph

Internediale hilermediate Intermediate nlermediate Lilernediale Ailirnei cere
leer] (tfea) [esoz] Gael [deze] eee) levee

Fig.

Hooles te Fastin the Flanker
lo the Window Frame
Porta bl (e Fl an ker

AFeet

bi 2
RB Mn)
t
; 1
) ‘
ee:
~} sae
f
eee
; {
Mies
i }
‘|
aM
’ f i
{ 4
. ‘4
b
ot ng IE ‘
a tps ‘
: Ma
yi X ;
fe teed
f Abat Aa
; j pats
‘Ok RK gue a:
tA
yi
hy , i
} MeN.

Front Elevation
T

fas

Stand

Fig. ae

Index of a different Form

Fig. 6.
Holder

Fig. Z

Flanch

Index ofa different Form

[page |

the Royal Irifh Academy. For permanent ftations, which may
be feen clearly with tolerable glaifes at twenty miles diftance,
ftone or wooden pillars fixteen or twenty feet high muft be
folidly ereéted ; on the top of thefe a moveable circle or plat-
form turns horizontally upon a centre:—on this platform an
axis tuoves vertically and carries the arm or pointer along with
it. Eight handles turn the pointers, which are fixed in their
differe..t pofitions by a catch or alidad. By means of the plat-
form the pointer may be turned to any part of the compafs,
and as one fide of it is painted black and the other white, either
fide may be employed, as the colour of the clouds or the fitua-
tion of the place may require.

Bestpes thefe permanent machines, of which dimenfions and
a defcription are fubjoined, Plate I. I make ufe of portable
machines, (which may be detached like Tentacula from the main
body in hazy weather) confifting of pointers ten or twelve feet
high, and of a light triangular ftand, which can be eafily
faftened with tent pegs to the ground: Thefe may be lodged in

any houfe near the place where they are ufed, or in times of

4

a

danger may be carried back to the permanent ftations every

night.

Pe” In managing a correfpondence by thefe machines, it is ne-

i Bi csticy to have certain fignals eftablifhed ; nor are thefe fignals

merely arbitrary ; it is abfolutely neceflary that they fhould be
Vou, VI, R made

[. - Bo 4

made by the two external or by the two internal pointers, elfe
they could not be repeated by the intermediate ftations without
confufion, becaufe in the middle ftations that pointer which re-
prefents thoufands, when conveying a meflage eaftward, for
inftance, muft, when an anfwer is returned in an oppofite di-
rection, reprefent units; the fame change will take place between
the pointers that denote hundreds and tens.

Certain hours of the day muft be appointed for ordinary
communication. Suppofe ten o'clock in the morning and five
in the afternoon in Summer. Every communication begins
from the capital. If no intelligence is required to be conveyed
from thence the word Becin is fent to the country {ftation,
which may then proceed or difmifs the meeting.

WHEN any communication is to be commenced, the pointers
that denote thoufands and units are whirled round till the fame
is done at the correfponding ftation. When this fignal has been
anfwered, the perfon who gave it proceeds to fend his intelli-
gence. As foon as he begins, the pointer of hundreds at the
oppofite {tation is turned to Two, and kept in that pofition
till the word is made out from the vocabulary ; it is then turned
up to Oor Zero. The perfon who is fpeaking, when he per-
ceives by this fignal that he is underftood, turns all the ma-
chines to Noveur, which is always to be done at the conclufion
of every word.

WHEN

“

3 SBE
7

aes ee

Wuen all his machines are in this pofition his correfpondent
again turns his pointer belonging to the place of hundreds to
Two, where it is to remain till he receives another word, and fo
on till all that is meant to be faid is finifhed. To denote that
his communication is finifhed { THousanps and Units are to
be vibrated. backwards and forwards, with the point downwards
like a pendulum, till the fame is done at the oppofite ftation.

Ir any interruption takes place on either fide from a cloud,
a fhower or any accident, it is pointed out by vibrating THov-
sanps and Units, with their points upwards, which fignal muft
be repeated from the oppofite ftation. Whoever has made the
fignal of interruption muft make a fignal of recommencement,
when he is ready to proceed, by vibrating Hunpreps and Tens
with their points upwards; when this is anfwered (but not be-
fore) the bufinefs may proceed. It fhould be obferved in general
that every fignal fhould be anfwered.

Ir requires fome fteadinefs to abide by thefe fignals, but if
they are patiently adhered to the fuccefs that they enfure will
foon convince the operator of their utility. Without them
every thing would be in confufion; by their interpofition per-
fpicuity and order are perfeCtly infured.

Beis iis)! In

{ I ufe the words Thoufands and Units here and in the reft of this defcription fgr
the pointers or machines that ftand in the numerical place of thoufands and units.

SSH]

in my firft experiments the impatience of friends, who were
prefent, was fometimes fo great as to make it very difficult to
adhere to previous arrangements; but a very little practice
(I mean the practice of five or fix days) reduced the routine of
communication to as much facility as could be defired, fo that
a word (or a fentence if contained in the vocabulary) could be

fent in twenty feconds.

Any perfon who has the flightefy tafte for fcience or litera-
ture muft be ftruck when he fees inftantaneous interpretation of
fignals, which are made at the diftance of fifteen or twenty
miles, and when he perceives the power which is obtained of
tranfmitting thought with fuch aftonifhing rapidity.

I sHALL not enter into a detail of the fignals which are ne-
ceflary for intermediate ftations ; it would take up fome time
to explain them, and they will readily occur from what has

been faid already.

Wuart I have hitherto defcribed relates to a large and per-
manent eftablifhment}+, for the management of which one man
is required at each pointer, one at the telefcope and another

at the vocabulary ; but for ordinary purpofes a fingle pointer
with

+ The Houfe belonging to this eftablifhment might be made tenable againft a mob
or mufketry at a {mall expenfe by port-flankers of elm or afh, adapted occafionally
to the windows. See Plate I. Fig. 4.

Figg

with one man to work it, and another at the telefcope with a
fmaller vocabulary, are fufficient. With this reduced apparatus
we can with eafe fpeak at the rate of one word per minute to a
great diftance, as the time loft by intermediate ftations is but
f{mall.

Tue vocabulary correfponding with the numbers denoted by
this machinery is compofed of a large book with mahogany
covers, framed, to prevent them from warping. Its fize is 47
inches by 21. It confifts of 49 double pages, that is to fay,
each fheet is folded in the middle, where it opens from one

page.

Tue book is divided into feven parts, confifting each of feven:
pages, by thin flips of mahogany, which ferve to open it eafily
at each of thefe divifions. Every one of thefe feven divifions.

contains feven pages, and each page contains forty-nine words.

No more than forty-nine words are contained in a page, be-
‘eaufe the numbers 8 and g and zero are omitted. This omif-
fion arifes from the ftru€ture of the machinery, which points
only to feven numbers, referving O for a point of reft, at
which point the hands indicate nothing. In every hundred.
therefore only forty-nine numbers are ufed ; and in every thou-
fand only feven hundred is counted. Each divifion of the book
feparated by the mahogany rulers contains all the efficient
numbers in feven hundred. Each of thefe rulers projets

(Plate

[ 134°]
(Plate II. Fig. 3.) beyond the fides of the pages, and each is

numbered in fucceflion from one to feven, and they are fo placed
below one another as to permit the numbers on all of them to

be feen at once, as in Plate I.

Wuen any number of thoufands is pointed out it can by
means of thefe rulers be immediately feleCted; the feries of
feven pages, which one of thefe rulers opens, is cut like the
alphabet of a ledger at the edge, in feven divifions. By thefe
means the page containing the hundred which is wanted is in-
ftantly found. In the page thus found the tens from ten to
feventy inclufive are divided from each other, fo as to be in-
ftantly diftinguifhable, and the units under each divifion are
in like manner eafily felected. 3

Prats III. is a fpecimen of the firft page of the vocabulary,
and though it is but one-fifth of the real fize it is fufficiently
difting. It is divided into eight claffes; all the clafles are
numbered downwards feriatim from 1 to 77, omitting cyphers
or zero and eights and nines. When once the clafs required
is afcertained any number on the page can be found immedi-
atcly:—As for inftance, the reader will eafily fele@ Clafs IV.
Number 36, or Clafs VII. Number 77, and fo of the reft.

Notutne remains to be explained but the manner in which
the clafs in each page is pointed out by the machinery. For
this

Psa iant

‘this purpofe, before the pointers are turned to any fet of figures,
the pointer that reprefents thoufands is turned to the clafs that
is wanted; as foon as the correfpondent anfwers this fignal
THovsanps is returned to O, and inftantly all the pointers are
moved to the places which denote the figures required for any

word or fentence.

Wuen the clafs is thus afcertained, an index, which flides on
the mahogany cover of the book, is fet to the column belong-
ing to this clafs; the number of thoufands is then opened by
‘the ruler as foon as it is read off by the telefcope. The num-
ber of hundreds is opened by the pages where they are cut
away, and the number of tens and units is feen on the page.
As the pointers are moved in fucceffion from thoufands to
units the different divifions of the book can be opened as faft
as the pointers are moved. The order of this book might be
reverfed with apparent advantage, by dividing the book into
clafles by the mahogany rulers, &c. but I prefer, for reafons
which it would be tedious to infift upon, the arrangement which
I have followed.

As fecrecy is an object of the greateft confequence, I fhall
endeavour to point out, in a few words, the fuperiority of this
mode of communication over any alphabetical arrangement,
not only in point of expedition but of concealment.

: ALTHOUGH

| “2g044

Avtuoucn the common alphabet may be varied at pleafure,
and any arbitrary figns may be employed to convey the powers
of each letter, yet by certain rules any of thefe arrangements
may be decyphered. Whoever fees the movements of the
French Telegraph (I mean of that which is commonly known
as fuch) may unfold the intelligence which it conveys by merely
marking down the changes which he fees, and putting them
into the hands of a decypherer. The rules for decyphering
depend upon the ufual arrangements of letters. In our language
a fingle letter muft be 4 or Z The proportions which exift
between words of one, two, three, and any greater number of
letters, are claffed in catalogues, and from thefe the monofyl-
lables of any cypher are eafily obtained; and from the letters of
thefe monofyllables the letters of longer words are difcovered.
By fimilar rules, fome of which are very ingenious, and which
depend upon the general philofophy of language, any alphabe-
tical cypher may be eafily unfolded. But thefe rules, except a
very few of them, are ufelefs when we employ cyphers, which
denote entire words. Here the moft obvious means of difco-
very may be avoided, by omitting thofe common words which
occur fo frequently in every language, the, and, that, to, Gc.
But fuppofing that from its frequent recurrence any particular
word fhould be difcovered, no progrefs can be made from thefe
data. The cypher of each word is an ifolated fact, which leads
to nothing farther. Suppofe the knowledge of any particular
vocabulary fhould fall into hands for which it was not intended,

a flight change in the numeration, without any actual change
of

as Oe

eye al

of the figures, would entirely prevent difcovery :—For inftance,
if the Lord Lieutenant wifhed to fend orders to the Commander
in Chief, if he made ufe of the numbers written in the vocabu-
lary on one day, he might, after previous: communication, em-

_ ploy a different numeration, by ordering that 1 (for inftance)

fhould be added to every figure. If clafs I]. Number 3664, ftood
in the vocabulary for gunpowder, by the addition which I have
propofed the number would ftand, Clafs II]. Number 4745,
which might mean a Crocodile or Tippo-Saib, or any thing fo-
reign to the real word. By fimilar provifions any number of
feparate correfpondents might carry on a mutual intercourfe with-
out interfering with one another.

In the courfe of twelve months I tried a great number of ex-
periments, and carried on a great number of converfations with
the Tellograph; of all thefe a regular journal has been kept,
containing what was unfuccefsful as well as what fucceeded. If
fuch journals were kept in the profecution of philofophical pur-
fuits, they would pay for the trouble of keeping them by the
accuracy of the experience which they enfure.

I sHau not at prefent enter into any detail of my nournal
Tellograph. Its yelocity far exceeds what can be done by day, as

in clear weather ftations at fifty miles diftance may be plainly

diftinguifhed.

Vout. VI, S WHEN

[ (eee 3

Wuen this Paper was firft prefented to the Academy I had
determined to try an experiment acrofs the channel from Donagh-
adee to Port Patrick. I was ambitious of being the firft perfon
who fhould conne@ the iflands more clofely by facilitating their
mutual intercourfe. Public bufinefs prevented me from going to
the fea fide at the time I had intended, and prevented me from
carrying ona feries of converfations by day and night between
the two kingdoms; but Mr. Lovell Edgeworth, my fon, had the
fatisfattion of fending four meffages acrofs the channel at four
o'clock P. M. on the 24th of Auguft 1795, and of receiving im-
mediate anfwers, before a vaft concourfe of people. The ma-
chines by which this communication was made were thirty feet
high, and fifteen feet at the bafe. A child of four years could
turn them. Mifty weather prevented them from being feen for
two or three days; but when the weather cleared up a pointer
of twelve feet high could have been plainly diftinguifhed acrofs
the channel.

TuoucH I have beftowed much attention and labour upon
this fubje@, I do not pretend to fay that the means of Tello-
graphic communication which I have invented are the beft that
can be devifed. Imitations without end may be attempted;
pointers of various fhapes and materials may be employed; real
improvements will alfo probably be made, and perhaps new prin-
ciples may be adopted. The varieties of art are infinite, and
none but perfons of narrow underftanding, who feel a want of
refources in their own invention, are jealous of competition and

difpofed

[ 339 1

difpofed to monopolife difcoveries. The thing itfelf muft fooner
or later prevail, for utility convinces and governs mankind ; and
however inattention or timidity may for a time impede its pro-
grefs, I will venture to predi@ that it will at fome future period
be generally praétifed, not only in thefe iflands, but that it will
in time become a means of communication between the moft
diftant parts of the world, wherever arts and fciences have ci-
vilized mankind.

xhibany ls

&” genoped *:

co" aan aoapiSl OUR AI ibliow edt Qo esang
ee aN ak hoidagns
4 .
at ue :
eo ~)
3 i -

Common Words.

Clafs o.

4.

44 Abandon
45 Abufe
46 Abhor
47 Abject

51 Ability”
52 Able

53 Above _
54 Abound
55 About

56 Abundance
57 Abroad

6.
61 Abrupt
62 Abfent
63 Abfence
64 Abfolute
65 Abftain
-66 Abfurd
67 Abftain

91 Abufe ij
42 Accede

73 Accept

74 Acceptable
75 Accident
-76 Accompany
77 Accomplith

Pp: 139

po la he Bi)
Phrafes and Sentences.

| Clafs 7
Qeeet Te Hundred
I. O.
rr Attend to-day at A.M.
ot: .M.

COD sc (33 to-morrow at A. M.

14

15

ate iM.
- to-night at ——

16 i-—— to-morrow night at ———

— on Monday at A. M.

CC fey eae

ae
21 -— at P.M.
AS on Tuefday at A. M.
23 — — at P. M.
24 /——— on Wednefday at A. M.
Oe eee at P.M,

33 ¢
34 4

26 i——— on Thurfday at A. M.
Ay ae errata :

—— at P.

| 3:

j|——— on Friday at A. M.
j/——_—_——_ at P.M.

on Saturday at A. M.
——— at P. M.

; Alarming intelligence is received

36 L from ——

Acquaint the Commiflioner’s Officer at —
£ Acq

37

+
41 £——— the principal Magiftrates at ——
di the H. Sheriff
i the Secretary of War
A aes - of State
45 4 Agreeably to the orders of his
46 4 Majefty ;
a of the Ld. Lieutenant
51 f Nee masa LESS of Government

{ ——-— of the Commanding Officer at —
, ———-— of the Magiftrate of ——

54 4 Agreeably to your orders

All is well
4 Alter your Tellographs to black
—— —— to white

6.

4
Admit no Strangers
Admiralty has iffued Orders
4
4

62

63 Admiralty has received Intelligence
64 4 Arms have been found hidden at ——
65

66 # An armed Mob

67 # Articles of Capitulation agreed to
71 A Afliftance is required at —-—

72 Appearances are againft ———
73 £3 Anfwer my laft to-morrow

74 £4 Arrived fince my Jaft at ———
75 As Arrived news from E. Indies

Arrived Mails from ———

An Army approaches, in number —— |
Agreeable intelligence is received |

Common Words.

Clafs o.

——————
——

4
44 Abandon
45 Abufe
46 Abhor
47 Abject

5
51 Ability”
52 Able

53 Above

54 Abound
55 About

56 Abundance
57 Abroad

6.
61 Abrupt
62 Abfent
63 Abfence
64 Abfolute
65 Abftain
66 Abfurd
67 Abftain

71 Abufe i
72 Accede
73 Accept
74 Acceptable
75 Accident
76 Accompan

77 Accomplith

|

Specimen of the Vocabulary belonging to Mr. Edgworth’s Tellograph.

Words lefs common.

Technical Terms, c.n.m.

Clafs 1 Clafs 2.
I. Ie
11 Abafe jrr Aback
12 Abate tz Abacus
13 Abbey 13 Abaft
14 Abbefs 14 Abatis
15 Abbot 15 Abdomen
16 Abdicate 16 Abduétor
17 Abed 17 Abeal
Abet
2. 2.
21 Abide 21 Aberration
22 Abjure 22 Abeyance
23 Ablative 23 Ablution
24 Ablebodied 24 Abortion
25 Abolifhed 25 Abrealt
26 Abomination 26 Abrogation
27 Abortive 27 Abcefs
3.
31 Above-all 31 Abeis
32 Above-board 32 Abcenthium
33 Above-mentioned 33 Abforbent
34 Abridge 34 Abfortion
35 Abridgement 35 Abftergent
36 Abruptly 36 Acacia
37 Abfentee 37 Academic
4 4:
41 Abfolye 41 Acantha
42 Abfolution 42 Accretion
43 Abforb 43 Acefcent
44 Abftraé 44 Acetous
45 Abftrofe 45 Achromatic
|46 Abfurdly 46 Acids
47 Abyfs 47 Acidity
/ 5. ip
51 Academy 51 Acme
52 Accelerate 52 Aconite
|53 Accent 53 Acouttics
154 Accefs 54 Acroftic
55 Acceflory 55 Adamant
|56 Accefhible 56 Adder
157 Acclamation 57 Adder’s-tongue
6. 6.
61 Accommodate 61 Adduétor
62 Accomplice 62 Adelphi
63 Accoft 63 Ades
64 Accountant 64 Adit
65 Account book 65 Adjutant
|66 Accretion 66 Adnata
\67 Accrue 67 Adonis
1 7°
71 Accumulate 71 Adofcalation
72 Accufative 71 Adracanth
73 Ace 73 Adrift
74 Achieve 74 Advance foffe
75 Acquifition 75 Advance-guard
76 Acquittance 76 Advancement
77 Acre 47 Adyertifement

Perfons.
Clafs 3.

—

I.
Abbot
Ackland
Aéton
Achefon
Adams
Adamfon
Adair

2
Adolphus
Addington
Ahmuty
Aikin
Alcock
Aldrige
Allot

Alley
Allett
Allen
Alder
Alexander
Amyatt
Ambrofe

4,
Anderfon
Andoe
Addrews
Angel
Anger
Annefly
Annefdale

Antrim
Anfon
Anftruther
Antonie
Anthony
Alfred
Alphonfus

6.
Amadeus
Anne
Anfolm
Appleby
Apfley
Archer
Auttin

4.
Archdale
Arran, Ld.
Archdall
Athe
Atkinfon
Aylward
Ayre

13 Academy

14 Account Office
15 Admiralty

16 Agent to the —
17 Admiral

oy,

21 Adjutant

22 Alderman of Briftol
23 Alderman of Cork
24 Alderman of ——
25 Archdeacon of ——
26 — Ardagh

27 — Ardfert

3.
31 — Armagh
32 —_— Acenry
33 — Aghadoe
34 — Clogher
35 — Clonfert
36 — Cloyne
37 — Connor

4.
41 — Dublin
42 Archbifhop of
43 — Dublin
44 — Armagh
45 — Cahhel
46 — Cork
47 — Canterbury

51 — Tuam
|52 — York

)53 Admiral of
— the Fleet
— the White
56 — ditto, 1
57 — ditto, 2

6.
61 — ditto, 3
62 — ditto, 4
63 — ditto, 5
— ditto, 6
65 — ditto, 7
66 — ditto, 8
67 — ditto, 9

4",
71 — ditto, 10
72 — ditto, 11
73 Admiral of
74 — the Blue
"5 -— ditto, £
76 — ditto, z
‘77 — ditto, 3

I. I.
11 Academy of Inferiptions|r1 Abbeville
12 Academy of B.L. Paris |12 Aberdeen

13 Abergavenny
14 Abington

15 Abidos

16 Abyflinia

17 Acadia

2.
z1 Acamboo
22 Acapulca
23 Acam
24 Adda
25 Adrianople
26 Atna
27 Africa
3°
31 Agincourt
32 Aix Ja Chapelle
33 Albany
34 Alcantara
35 Aleppo
36 Alexandria
37 Algiers

4.
41 Alicant
42 Alps
43 Alface
Antrim
45 Aylfbury
46 Ayrhire
47 Allfaints

5t Alewick:
Aloft
Alersford
Aldborough
Alencon
Andes
Anglefey

| 6.
61 Angola
Anjou
Anhalt
64 Antioch
|65 Antwerp
66 Archangel
67 Argenton

UB
Atherftone
\72 Ardee

73 Arklow
74 Armagh
75 Athenry
Athlone

[77 Athy

Navy and Merchant Ships.
Clafs 6.

— —

me
tr Atlas

12 Ajax

13 Albion

14 Africa

15 Audacious
16 Agamemnon
17 America

re
21 Anfon

22 Alcide

23 Alexander
24 Alfred

25 Arrogant
26 Afia

27 Ardent

31 Achilles ;
32 Adamant
33 Affiftance
34 Acteon
35 Argo
36 Artois
37 Affurance

4.
40 Arethufa
42 /Eolus
43 Adtive
44 Alarm
45 Amazon
46 Ambufcade
47 Amphion

51 Apollo

52 Aftrea

53 Alcmene
54 Andromache
55 Albemarle
56 Aurora

57 Amphitrite

6.
61 Ariadne
62 Alfred
63 Atalanta
64 Ariel
65 Allegiance
66 Albany
67 Alderney

Ch
71 Alert

72 Alligator
73 Avenger
74 /Ema

75 Alecto

76 Aquilone
77 Argus

Phrafes and Sentences,
Clafs 7.
“ Hundred
i 0.

11 Attend to-day at A. M. :
12 — -at P.M.
13. ——— to-morrow at A.M.
14 ——-a P.M.
15 to-night at ——

16 ——— to-morrow night at ——
17 ——— on Monday at A. M,

zh
21 ———--— at P. M.

22 on Tuefday at A.M.
23. ———_—— — at P.M.
24 ——— on Wednefday at A. M.
25 ————_——-——— at P.M,
26 on Thurfday at A. M.
27 —— —— at P. M.

3.
Br on Friday at A. M.
32 ——_ — at P.M.
33 - on Saturday at A. M.
34 ~—— at P.M.
35 Alarming intelligence is received

rom ———
37 Acquaint the Commiflioner’s Officer at —

4.

41 ——— the principal Magiftrates at ——

42 ——— the H. Sheriff

43 ——— the Secretary of War

44 -—— of State

45 Agreeably to the orders of his
Majetty

47 ————_———- of the Ld, Lieutenant

51 ————-——— of Government
52 ——-— of the Commanding Officer at —
153 —-— of the Magiftrate of ——
54 Agreeably to your orders
155 Allis well
|56 Alter your Tellographs to black |
567 —----- to white
6

|61 Admit no Strangers
{62 Admiralty has iffued Orders

63 Admiralty has received Intelligence
64 Arms have been found hidden at ——
65 An Army approaches, in number ——
66 An armed Mob
67 Articles of Capitulation agreed to

7:
71 Afliftance is required at —-—
72 Appearances are againft ———
73 Anfwer my laft to-morrow
74 Arrived fince my laft at ———
75 Arrived news from E. Indies
76 Arrived Mails from ———
77 Agveeable intelligence is received |

Pp: 139

[ r4r ]

Of the COMPOSITION and PROPORTION of CARBON
in BITUMENS and MINERAL COAL. By RICHARD
KIRWAN, £4; L.L.D. F.R.S. and M.R.1LA.

An exact knowledge of the component parts of the different
fpecies of mineral coal, and alfo of bitumens (fubftances which
moft of them contain;) forms an object of fome importance not
only to the naturalift, whofe views are merely fpeculative, but to
the practical ceconomift, who wifhes to extraét from each fpecies
all the advantages it is capable of yielding, and to be enabled to
compare the various kinds afforded by different countries, in
order to obtain and employ that which fhall on the comparifon

__ appear to him beft fuited to his intentions.

"i In effet coals are not only applicable to the more ufual pur-
_ pofes of combuftion, an ufe, fimple as it may appear, attended

_ according to their various fpecies with a confiderable difference

of calefa&tive power both in intenfity and duration, but alfo to
the production of varnifhes, much more advantageoufly applicable

in many inftances than thofe extracted from the vegetable king-
dom,

Read Decem-
ber 19th,
1795:

[ 142 J

dom, as Lord Dundonald has difcovered and abundantly proved +,
and alfo of that chared refiduum called Coak, the only one that
can be reforted to in many cafes, and in moft fuperior to vege-
table charcoal.

Coats and bitumens are however fubftances that refift. the
ufual modes of analyfis; they elude the ation of aqueous, acid,
alkaline or f{pirituous menftruums ; and diftillation, the only mode
hitherto ufed, confounds and varies their natural contents.

Reriectine on thefe obftacles to an exact difcrimination of
bitumens and coals, and of the various kinds of thefe laft, it
occurred to me that partly by combuftion, and partly by their
efficacy in decompofing nitre, the fecret of their internal compofition
might poffibly be unveiled.

1°; Combuftion, J have obferved that all the fpecies of folid
bitumen, properly fo called, when laid on a red hot iron, burn
with a large bright flame, {moke and foot, leaving none or fcarce
any coaly refiduum, and only a little afhes.

Tuat the fofter bitumens, as maltha, burn in the fame man-
ner, leaving no coal, but only a little afhes, and requiring no

increafe of heat for their intire confumption.
THAT

+ Upon the moft minute enquiry why coal varnifh is not more commonly employed
in paying the bottoms of fhips, I have been informed the principal reafon is, that it
fucceeds #00 well——The fhips not requiring fuch frequent repair.

[ ea

Tuar a/phalt burns with flame and foot, but melts and {wells,
and requires for its intire confumption an increafe of heat, leaving

fearce any coal, and but little afhes.

Ir is moreover well known that liquid bitumens contain in-
flammable air and carbon. That they abforb atmofpheric air
when long expofed to it and light. That in confequence of this
abforbtion they are thickened, blackened and condenfed, firft into
mineral tar, then into mineral pitch or maltha, and laftly into
afphalt. That almoft all fpecies of mineral coal yield more or
lefs of both fpecies of bitumen on diftillation, leaving a fhining
coaly refiduum, but that the proportion is variable in every {pe-
cies, according to the degree of heat applied; that the refiduum

‘always obftinately retains a proportion of bitumen, and that con-

fequently diftillation, in addition to its other imperfetions, is an
infufficient medium whereby to difcern the proportion of carbon
and bitumen, and confequently to difcriminate the various forts
of mineral coal from each other.

2°. Decompofition of nitre. It has long ago been remarked by °
the juftly celebrated Macquer+ that nitre detonnates with no
oily inflammable matter until fuch matter is reduced toa coal,
and then only in proportion to the carbonaceous matter it, con-
tains ; an obfervation the truth of which will fully appear in the
fubfequent experiments. Hence it’ occured to me that fince in

the

+ 1 Diction. Chym. 2d Edition, p. 481.

[ tap.

the act of detonnation nitre is always totally or partially decom-
pofed ; and fince where carbonaceous compounds are employed this
decompofition arifes folely from the mere carbonaceous part, and
every thing elfe being equal, is proportioned to the quantity of
mere carbon they contain; and fince moft fpecies of coals are
compounds of mere carbon and bitumen, as appears by the pro-
duds of their diftillation, it fhould follow, that by the decom-
pofition of nitre the quantity of mere carbon in a given quantity
of every {pecies of coal may be difcovered, and this being known,
that of bitumen may be inferred, and the other uneffential ingre-
dients being detected by incineration, the whole contents of coaly
fubftances might be afcertained.

THe compofition of bitumens alfo, as far as relates to their
proportion of carbon and oil, may be evidenced in the fame man-
ner: And here it is to be obferved that the bitumens I here con=
fider are thofe that are found in a dry or folid ftate, and that
thefe contain a larger proportion of carbon than the liquid bitu-
mens ; for though thefe laft alfo contain carbon, it being an effen-
tial component part of all oils, yet this portion does not extricate
or educe any air from nitre, nor confequently contribute to its
decompofition, as the fubfequent experiments fufficiently evince,
but is confumed partly by the pure air fpontaneoufly emitted by
nitre during its ignition, and partly by the ambient atmofphaeric
air. Nay, when mineral coal is employed in the decompofition
of nitre, the fhare which the mere carbonaceous part of the bitu-
men contained in it contributes to the decompofition will be found
fo fmall that it merits no confideration in the general account.

Tue

per Seas

Tue firft ftep towards carrying this analytic plan into execu-
tion muft therefore be to determine the quantity of pure carbon
neceflary to decompofe a given quantity of pure nitre. But
here many practical difficulties occur which fhall prefently be
mentioned ; the moft perfect method of obviating them was that
employed by the ever memorable Lavoifier: He mixed the pureft
nitre with charcoal alfo purged of the inflammable as well as
other airs and water which it ufually abforbs, in the proportion
which, after feveral trials, he found requifite for the entire de-
compofition of that falt, rammed them into a copper tube, fired
them, and continued the inflammation under water, by which
means the charcoal was aéted on folely by the air educed from
the nitre, to the intire exclufion of the external air, and this air
was educed, folely by the ignited charcoal, to the entire exclufion
of external heat, advantages that cannot be procured by the
ufual mode of effecting this decompofition; thus he found the ©
proportion of charcoal neceffary for the entire decompofition of
nitre to be as 1 to 7,57, or in other words, that 13,21 parts char-
‘coal decompofe 100 of nitre*, and yet even in this experiment I
_ find a {mall inaccuracy, as he did not take the water employed
in mixing the nitre and charcoal into the account, and hence, and
_ for fome other reafons, the detail of which would lead me too
far, I think the proportion fhould be as 1 to 7,868 nearly, or
that 12,709 charcoal decompofe 100 of nitre; but the difference

is of little importance.

“Vox. VI. ri Tuis

* 11 Mem. Scav. Etrang. p. 626.

[ 146 ]

Tuts mode of experimenting however is inapplicable on the
prefent occafion, the different fpecies of mineral coal being not
fo readily inflammable as to carry on the combuftion in this
manner. Hence I contented myfelf with the common manner,
only ufing fuch precautions as to render its refults tolerably uni-
form, and repeating each experiment feveral times.

I rxAMINED the purity of the nitre I employed by nitrated
filver, and found by the quantity of falited filver produced that
480 grains of the nitre contained 3,5 grains of common {falt,
135 grains of muriated filver indicating 100 of common falt;
hence the conftant quantity of nitre I ufed was 483.5 grains, ex-
cept in the experiments on bitumens, as I had not enough of them
to expend on fo large a quantity of nitre.

Tue nitre was heated barely to rednefs before any coal was
projected on it in a wind furnace and a very large crucible; upon
this uniform degree of heat much of the uniformity of different
experiments on the fame fpecies of coal depends.

In my firft experiments the coals were reduced toa very fine
powder, and then projected on the ignited nitre, but I obferved

that by this method much more of each fpecies of coal was re--

quifite to alkalize the ftandard quantity of nitre than when it
was reduced to a coarfe powder, about the fize of a pin’s head or
fomewhat larger, and the reafon is, that by the force of the ex-
plofion much of the finer powder is carried off without having

been

r

[ xa ]

been in contaét with the nitre. Hence in the experiments of Mr.
Hielm, on the quantities of charcoal of different woods requifite
to alkalize 100 parts of nitre, we find thefe quantities to bear
for the moft part fome analogy to their fpecific gravities, being ge-
nerally fmaller when the fpecific gravity of the charcoal is

lighter.
Thus,
Grains requifite to alkalize 100 Grains of Nitre.
Specific Firft Second
Gravity. Experiment. Experiment.
Oak coal - 0,332 . 35 - 30
Birch coal - 0,542 - - 22 - 22
Pine coal - 0,280 - 29 = 20
Fir coal - 0,441 - ue 33 = 25
Coak - 0,744 - 19

ANoTHER circumftance of great importance towards procuring
juft and uniform refults is, that the projections of coal fhould
fucceed each other without delay as foon as the flame ceafes, for
as ignited nitre gives out pure air fpontaneoufly, and fo much
the more as it is more heated, the acid will be decompofed and
the nitre alkalized by a quantity of coal fo much the fmaller as

_ the intervals of projection are longer. From inattention perhaps

to this and the laft mentioned particular, as well as from various

conditions of common charcoal, which feldom contains lefs than

+z and often 4 of its weight of moifture and abforbed air, pro-
T’2 ceeded

$ Schwed, Abhandl. 1781. p. 188.

[ 148 ]

ceeded the various refults of different chymifts with refpe& to
the proportion of it neceffary to alkalize nitre.

Ir is almoft fuperfluous to add that the charcoal fhould be
projected in very fmall portions. I feldom proje@ed more than
one or two grains at a time; each operation lafted from twenty
to twenty-five minutes nearly. There is always fome portion of
nitre undecompofed being protected by the furrounding alkali,
this error is unavoidable but very {mall. Even the pofition of
the crucible in the furnace is not indifferent, for if it be near the
flue more coal muft be employed, which I attribute to the tor-
rent of air which in that cafe affects it and carries away more
than when the crucible is nearer to the anterior part of the
furnace.

Ir may perhaps be fufpeCted that this and fome other incidental
errors may be avoided by previoufly mixing the nitre and coal,
and proje@ting the mixture in fmall portions into a red hot cru-
cible; but not to mention that this method fuppofes the due
proportion of thefe two fubftances to be known, which cannot
be known till after the experiment, and alfo that every atom of
thefe fubftances is in. perfe€t conta& with the other fubftance, elfe
they cannot a@ on each other; independently, I fay, of thefe
unfounded fuppofitions, this mode of experimenting is ftill more
fallacious than the former, as, during thefe projections, a confide-
table proportion of the nitre is feattered and difperfed, and

may

[ 49 |
may be feen adhering to the fides of the crucible. This lofs being

repeated at every projection becomes at laft intolerable.

I now proceed to relate the experiments themfelves, condu&ted
in the manner I have mentioned. The different fpecies of coal
and bitumen whofe compofition I have thus examined were Kil-
kenny coal, Maltha, Afphalt, Lancafhire, Cannel, Slaty Scotch
Cannel, Whitehaven, Wigan, Swanfey and Leitrim, feleCting of
each fort the pureft fpecimens, free from pyrites and vifible ftony

matter.
Kilkenny Coal.
Irs colour is b/ack, and when freth broken frequently violet.
Irs. luftre 4. metallic. Tranfparency o.

Its, fracture foliated, the courfe of the lamellz varioufly and
confufedly directed.

Its fragments rather fharp, and often difcovering between the
diftin@ concretions whitifh illinitions.

Its hardnefs 7. Specific gravity 1,526.

Does not burn until wholly ignited, and then flowly confumes

_ without caking or emitting flame or fmoke. 266 grains of it
expofed to a heat of 27° of Wedgwood in a crucible for five

hours

L r5ey 4

hours did not lofe their luftre until almoft 3% of them had dif-
appeared, and at laft left reddifh afhes amounting to 7,13 grains,
nearly 2,7 per cent. Projecting this coal in fine powder on 480
grains of pure ignited nitre, I found the falt required 65 grains of
the coal to alkalize it, but only 50 grains when in coarfe pow-
der; and in a third experiment, when the crucible was farther
from the flue of the furnace, only 49 grains: fo that I look upon
50 grains as being in round numbers neareft to the truth. That
is the proportion of one part of Kilkenny coal to 9.6 of nitre, or
100 parts of nitre require for their decompofition 10,416 of Kil-
kenny coal.

Tuts proportion of coal is much fmaller than that of charcoal
in Mr. Lavoifier’s experiment, which we have feen to be as 1 to
7,§7) OF aS 13,21 to 100, which I attribute to the advantageous
mode in which his experiment was inftituted, as already ex-
plained; whereas in mine and the ufual way, the decompofition
of nitre is promoted by the external heat applied, as well as by
the coal, and confequently lefs of coal is employed.

From the experiments of Scheele one might be led to infer
that the proportions of charcoal and nitre neceffary to the alkali-
zation of this latter approach ftill nearer to each other than in
Lavoifier’s ftatement, and confequently much nearer than in mine;
for in his effay on plombago he tells us that five parts nitre are
Sufficient to confume one of charcoal, and confequently it fhould
feem that one part charcoal fhould decompofe no more than five

of

[i gee]

of nitre; the confequence however is not juft,. for undoubtedly
five parts nitre would confume one of charcoal, but it does not
thence follow that they would not confume ftill more. On the
other hand he found that ten parts nitre were neceffary for the
confumption of one part of plombago, whence it follows that one
part of plombago decompofes ten of nitre, otherwife nine parts
nitre would fuffice to confume it, and the tenth would have been
unneceflary, as it aéts only as it is decompofed. Now this propor-
tion approaches very nearly to my refult, namely, 1 of charcoal to
9,6 of nitre.

Hence, and fince Kilkenny coal in the preceding experiments
fhewed no fign of its containing any thing bituminous, I take it
for granted that it confifts almoft entirely of pure carbon; and
fince 50 grains of it alkalize 480 grains of pure ignited nitre, that
in all the fubfequent experiments on other fpecies of coals or bi-
tumens free from fulphur and iron, the decompofition of this
ftandard quantity of nitre will indicate in the quantity of coal
neceflary for that decompofition, the prefence of 50 parts of mere
carbon, Log

Berore I proceed to the recital of other experiments I muft
mention another circumftance that occurs in making them, which
is, that after the inflammation ceafes a hiffing noife is perceived
for a long time, and is increafed on adding freth quantities of
coal, even when the nitre is feemingly decompofed ; this feemed

to

[. 55a e]

to me to arife from the decompofition of the nitrous air or me-
phitized nitrous acid, of which a portion is always retained by the
alkali, and confequently I paid no attention to it, but always
ceafed adding coal when the inflammation totally ceafed.

Maltha.
Irs colour is dark brown or black.
Irs luftre o. Tranfparency o.
Irs fra€ture, uneven, tough. Specific gravity 2,070.

Ir feels fomewhat greafy, yields to compreflion, has a heavy
fmell, acquires a polifh when fcraped, does not adhere to the.
tongue or ftain the fingers; its flame high and bright, leaving no
coal, but only a little afhes.

Havine but a {mall quantity of this fubftance, I on this occa-
fion ufed only 240 grains of nitre. When it was heated to red-
nefs I threw on it one grain of vegetable pitch; it immediately
inflamed, but floated quietly on the furface of the nitre, and de-
crepitated like common falt, from the moifture it contained. The
flame was partly white, from the action of the air fpontaneoufly
emitted by the nitre, and partly yellowi/b, from the action of the
ambient atmofpheric air, but fteady and unattended with thofe
turbulent gufhes that attend the decompofition of nitre by carbo-

naceous fubftances.
] THEN

P2533 J

_ I rHen gradually projected on it 55 grains of malfha, which
was all I had; this burned juft as the pitch, but was attended
with a blacker fmoak, yet the nitre was fo far from being
alkalized that to produce this effect I was obliged to throw on if
29 grains of Cannel coal. Now 33,5 grains of Cannel coal, if it
alone had been ufed, would fuffice to alkalize 240 grains of nitre,
as will prefently be feen, therefore the 55 grains of maltha and
_the one grain of pitch contained no more carbon than 33,5—
29=4,5 grains; therefore 100 grains of maltha contain no more
than 8 grains of carbon. And as thefe 8 grains of carbon pro-
voked no turbulent eruption of air from the nitre, it is plain they
did not contribute to its decompofition, but were taken up by
the air it {pontaneoufly emitted, and partly by the ambient at-
mofpheric air.

Of Afphalt.
Irs colour is greyifh black.
Irs luftre 2.3. greafy. Tranfparency o.
Its fra€ture perfe@ly conchoidal.

Irs hardnefs from 7 to 8, very brittle. Specific gravity from

a 1,07 to 1,165 by my trials. It feels fmooth, but not greafy ;

has no {mell, except while pounding ; does not ftain the fingers ,

_ when heated it melts, {wells and at laft inflames, but it requires

Worl: U for

fh. 642]

for inflammation a higher heat than maltha does, and leaves no
coal and fcarce any afhes.

Or this bitumen I found 161 grains requifite to alkalize the
flandard quantity of nitre. It vifibly educed air from the nitre,
for there were eruptions from time to time, I fuppofe when the
more oily part was confumed and the carbonaceous laid bare ;
much of the flame was alfo yellowifh. Hence 161 grains of af-
phalt contain only 50 of mere carbon—that is nearly 31 per
cent.

Mr. Thory, burning it in a low heat, found it to leave about

4 of its weight of coal, after melting, {welling and inflaming as

ufual*, however his afphalt was not perfe@ly pure, as he ob-
tained fulphur from it.

Cannel Coal.
Irs colour is black.

Irs luftre common 2. when frefh broken often barely 1. Tranf-
parency o.

Its crofs fracture conchoidal. Fragments rather fharp.

Irs hardnefs from 7 to 8. Specific gravity by my trials 1,232.
Per Doétor Watfon’s 1,273. Does not ftain the fingers; eafily
kindles

* 6 Crell’s Chy. Journ. p. 62.

soi

eye]

kindles without melting, and burns with a large bright flame,
but of fhort duration, leaving a large coaly refiduum ; does not
cake. 240 grains of it heated until all the coaly part was con-
fumed left 7,5 grains of reddifh brown afhes, moftly argilla-
ceous, that is 3,12 percent. 66.5 grains of it were fufficient to
alkalize the ftandard quantity of nitre. It burned with a large
bright flame, except the laft portion, which was yellowifh, the pure
air of the nitre being then exhaufted. Hence 66,5 grains con-
tained 50 of pure carbon and 2,08 of afhes; then deduéting 52,08
from 66,5 we find the quantity of bitumen equal 14,42; then
100 parts of it contain 75,2 of carbon, 21,68 bitumen of the
fort called maltha, and 3,1 of afhes.

I rake this bitumen to be ma/tha from its quick inflammabi-
lity and the fhort duration and brightnefs of its flame, both which
properties indicate the moft inflammable of the bitumens, and
whofe flame is leaft durable, from its refufal to cake (caking
being a property arifing from the fufion of afphalt) and the diffi-
cult combuftibility of the carbonaceous fubftance that remains
after the ceffation of its flame, qualities that counter-indicate

afphalt.

Slaty Cannel Coal.

Tuat which I employed was from Ayrfhire in Scotland, the
only one of this fort imported to Dublin.

Its colour is black.
Ue Its

xsbe
Irs luftre 2. common. ‘Tranfparency o.

Irs fra€ture partly flaty, partly imperfectly conchoidal. Frag-

ments fharp.
Irs hardnefs from 5 to 8. Specific gravity 1,426 by my trials,

Ir burns like the compact Cannel, but ceafes fooner to flame.
Does not cake; leaves a ftony refiduum. 240 grains of it treated
as before mentioned leave 50 of reddifh grey afhes, equal 20,83
percent. From the fmell that iffues from it during ignition I
am led to think it contains fome portion of fulphur.

To alkalize 480 grains of nitre 105 grains of this coal were
employed. It burned like the former with a large white conti-
nued flame, except the laft portions. Hence this quantity con-
tained 50 grains of mere carbon; and fince it alfo contained
20,83 of afhes, the remainder, viz. 34,15, muft have been bitu-
men. Then Ioo parts of it contain 47,62 of carbon, 32,52 of
bitumen, and about 20 of afhes. Some deduction however from
thefe quantities of carbon and bitumen may be made by reafon
of the {mall proportion of fulphur contained in it. This bitumen
I take to be maltha and not afphalt, for the reafons I mentioned
in treating of compact Cannel.

Ir is from a coal of this fort that Lord Dundonald extraéts his
tar, as maltha eafily diftills; but it is probably of a better kind,

as this ftony kind exifts moftly in Ayrfhire.
By

—— Ts. Ss eS

[: Sage oF]

By his Lordfhip’s mode of diftillation however much feems
to be loft during the internal combuftion. I fhould think the
Prince of Naffau Saarbruck’s method in this refpeét more advan-
tageous. Mr. Sage tells us that by diftillation he obtained from
Cannel coal + of its weight of tar}; but Mr. Faujas, who ufes

Lord Dundonald’s method, obtains from the coal of Decife,
which feems to be of this kind, only 4 per cent. of tar*.

_ Faujas alfo obferved that this tar is gradually converted into

afphalt by long expofure to the air, which confirms the dif-
ference I have eftablifhed between the two bitumens.

Whitehaven Coal.
Its colour is black.
Irs luftre 3. greafy. Tranfparency o.

Irs fraéture plane foliated. Its fragments 2. often difcover-
ing quadrangular or cubic diftin€t concretions, fometimes inter=

feted with brownith red flakes.

Its hardnefs 6. very brittle. Specific gravity 1,257 by my
trials. Stains the fingers, particularly when moift.

Ir burns at firft with a clear flame, and for a long time, but
at laft cakes. 240 grains of it after five hours ftrong heat left

only 4 grains of a reddith afhes, or about 1,7 per cent.
THE

t 35 Roz. jour. p. 387» 27 Roz. Jour. p. 188.

[ TEs

Tue ftandard quantity of nitre was alkalized by 88 grains
of this coal. Hence 100 grains of it contain nearly 57 of mere
carbon, 41,3 of a mixture of maltha and afphalt, and 1,7 of
afhes. ‘That it contains both maltha and afphalt is evident from
its flame and caking. The proportion I cannot exadtly afcer-
tain, but moft probably the afphalt predominates.

Wigan Coal.

Irs colour is black.
Irs luftre 3. greafy. Tranfparency o.

Irs fracture plane foliated. The lamellz, fome uniformly
fome promifcuoufly directed. In the grofs often flaty. Forms
feparate concretions, often with bright yellowifh illinitions,

Irs hardnefs 6. Specific gravity 1,268 by my trials.

Ir burns with a bright flame, and quicker than the foregoing,
and is lefs apt to cake. 328 grains of it expofed as the former
to a ftrong heat left 5,13 grains of afhes, that is 1,57 per cent.
81 grains of it decompofed 480 grains of nitre. Hence 100
grains of it contain 61,73 of carbon, 36,7 of a mixture of
maltha and afphalt, and 1,57 of afhes.

Ir feems to contain a larger proportion of maltha with refpect
to its quantity of afphalt than Whitehaven coal does.
Swanfey

[ 159 ]
Seban/ey Coal.

Irs colour is black.
Irs luftre 2. Tranfparency o.

Its fracture foliated, but fome lamella being at right an-
gles with the other give it a fibrous or ftriated appearance. Frag-
ments 2.

Irs hardnefs 5. very brittle. Specific gravity 1,357 by my
trials.

Ir burns more flowly than the former and cakes.

240 grains of it treated as the former kinds left 8 grains of
yellowifh red afhes ; that is equal 3,33 per cent.

Or this coal 68 grains were requifite to decompofe 480 grains
of nitre. Then 100 grains of it contain 73,53 of carbon, 23,14
of a mixture of maltha and afphalt, and 3,33 of afhes, ‘The
afphalt feems to predominate.

Leitrim Coal.

Its colour is black.
Irs luftre when frefh broken 3. Tranfparency o.

Its fracture foliated. Its fragments 2.
ITs-

[. aopey

Irs hardnefs 6. very brittle. Specific gravity 1,351 by my
trials. It flightly cakes.

240 grains of it left after three hours expofure to heat 1245
grains of reddifh grey afhes, that is equal 5,2 per cent.

Tue decompofition of the ftandard quantity of nitre required
70 grains of this coal. Hence 100 grains of it contain 71,43 of
carbon, 23,37 of a mixture of maltha and afphalt, and 5,2 of

afhes.
Newcafile Coal.

I wap none of this kind of coal, but according to Dod¢tor
Watfon’s experiment it left on diftillation a coaly refiduum
amounting to 58 per cent. and hence contained about-40 of a
mixture of afphalt and maltha, in which the former appears to
predominate. Hence it much refembles the Whitehaven coal,
but it evidently contains fulphur alfo, which that of Whitehaven
feldom does.

A Synoptical

give lle a

Bee aie |

; A Synoptical View of the Contents of Bitumens and different Sorts of

Mineral Coal.

Specific
fee Potts Carbon. Bitumen, Afhes. Gravity.
| Maltha - - Bs — | _ 2,070
Afphalt - 31 68 — 1,117
Kilkenny - - 9733 = 264) 1,526
Compact Cannel - | 75,2 21,68 Maltha 351 1,232
Slaty Cannel - 47,62 | 32,52 Maltha 20 1,426
Whitehaven - 57 41,3 mixt 1,7 1,257
Wigan - - 61,73 | 36,7 maixt 1,57 1,268
Swanfey - - | 73,53 | 23,14 mixt 333 | 15357
Leitrim = =| 74543 | 23537 mixt | 5,20 1,351
Newcaftle - 3 58 40 mist a 1,271

To thefe refults I fhall add a few more, taken from a treatife
on pit coal lately publifhed by Signior Fabroni. The Italian.
coals were examined by himfelf; the French and German by
other chymifts, All by diftillation.

Vou. VI. x 100

| Specific
eas Carbon. | Bitumen. Afhes. | Granite
Coal of Halles - 86 12 —_ —
of Tudertino -| 25 75 — | —
of Cortolla - 45 43 12 1,403
of Macinaia - | 60 37 3 1,411
Stony of do. -| 12,5 3755 50 1,666
of Mocaio - 32 35 33 1,403

TuEseE coals contain very little afphalt, but chiefly maltha.

Mosr coals afford a volatile alkali by diftillation; this feems
to me to be rather a product of the operation arifing from the
union of hydrogen and mephitic air, and thus the alkaline
bafis of the ammioniacs found on volcanos feem to have been
formed. Coals alfo afford an acid, commonly the marine, or if

pyritous, alfo the vitriolic, more rarely the fuccinous.

Accorninc to Mr. Jars, 100 parts of the beft Englith coal
give when chared 63 of coaks*, but Hielm found the refiduum
of

* 1 Jars, p. 329.

ee ee ee ee

eS

———S oe

ye

on =

Te 2 ie

of the beft Englifh coals diftilled to amount to 73 per cent;
and Doétor Watfon found the refiduum of Newcaftle coal to
amount only to 58 per cent. Thefe refults neceflarily differ
according to the degree of heat applied, the duration of the
combuftion and the variable admiffion of air. It is plain the
bitumen is never totally expelled, at leait not until moft of the
carbon is confumed; but much more of it is expelled by com-
buftion than by diftillation. 3 Watfon, p. 27 and 28.

By Lavoifier’s experiments it appears that equal quantities of
water under equal furfaces are evaporated, and confequently
equal heats produced by*.

By 4o03lbs. of coaks By 17 of coaks
6oolbs. of pit coal 10 of pit coal
por in meafure
. Goolbs. of charcoal 40 of charcoal
108glbs. of oak J L 33 of oak.

‘Tue fame fuperiority of coaks over charcoal has alfo been
obferved in Germany in other cafes, though with variations in
the refults, plainly arifing from the different degrees of carbonifi-
cation. ‘Thus in Silefia it was found that in {melting of iron ore
g2lbs. or one meafure of coaks was equal to 18olbs. or 3 mea-

X 2 fures

* Mem. Stock. 1781. p. 187.

[| 164 |

fures of charcoal*. Elfewhere it was remarked that one mea-
fure of coaks were equivalent to 5 of charcoal and 3 of pit
coalj. Doubtlefs according to the quality of this laft.

Tue caufes of thefe differences deferve attention, as the con-
trary might be prefumed. For in the firft place I have ftated
that the carbonic part of pit coal is exactly the fame as common
charcoal, and therefore when equal weights of both are em-
ployed it fhould be expected that the calorific effects of both
fhould coincide. In the next place it is known that pit coal
and woods containing a large proportion of oil muft contain
a large proportion of inflammable air, and this in combuftion
gives out more heat than an equal weight of mere carbon
in the proportion of 3to 1+. Therefore it fhould feem that a
{mall quantity of wood fhould produce the fame calorific effect
as a larger of charcoal.

To remove thefe difficulties I fhall lay down two pofitions :
1ft, That the quantity of heat given out by carbon jis to that
given out by an equal weight of inflammable air (or hydrogen
as it is now called) as 1 to 3.

adly, That to communicate equal quantities of heat, in the
cafe now before us, atmofpheric air muft have taken up either
equal quantities of mere carbon or a quantity of inflammable

air equal to one-third of the deficiency.
Now

*

t Bergm. Jour. 1790. p. 320. + 1 Bergm. Jour. 1792. p. 60.
+ 1 Chy. Layois. p. 104.

[is tage

Now on examination it will be found that there is fufficient
reafon to think that this equality or compenfation took place in

every inftance.

Tuus, comparing coaks and charcoal, we mutt obferve that,
according to Doctor Watfon’s experiments, charcoal gains 9 per
cent. by expofure to the air for a few days after it is made, by
abforbing partly air and partly moifture—3 Watfon, p. 43.
And, according to Doctor Prieftley, 15 per cent. in a month; and
this feems its maximum.—3 Prieft. p. 417. new edit. But coaks
gain only 3 per cent.—3 Wats, p. 46. and fill lefs when well
burned. Thefe deduions being made, it will be found that
the abovementioned 6oolbs. of charcoal will be reduced to 510,
and the 403lbs. of coak to 391*; the difference then is only

11glbs.

To account for the equality of refults, notwithftanding this
difference, we muft confider that coal containing afphalt, a much
denfer fubftance than any vegetable oil, is never fo thoroughly
chared as woods are, as Doctor Watfon has alfo hinted; fo we
have feen that Newcaftle coal is reduced only 72 per cent.

though

* Here-I muft mention an error of impreflion in Mr. Lavoifier’s Memoires, which
may deceive : In the text, p. 386, the quantity of coaks is faid to be 552, butin
the third table, p. 391, it is faid to be 4035 fo alfo in the text the quantity of char-
coal is faid to be.g60, and in the table only 600, though the meafures of both are
the fame in both pages. However I found the text wrong and the table right.

f -réeoe.}

though it contains but 58 per cent. of carbon, Coaks therefore
always retain fome remains of bitumen, and confequently of

hydrogen; and in this cafe +4* or 39 parts of hydrogen would
compenfate for the defalcation of 119 of carbon.

On the other hand, if we compare the quantities of pit coal
and charcoal we fhall find that too parts of fuch pit coal as is
commonly chared, containing at a medium 60 per cent. or
more of mere carbon, 6oolbs. of it fhould contain 360 of car-
bon, or perhaps more; and as it alfo contains much hydrogen,
it might be expected to give out a much greater proportion of
heat than 391 of coak or 510 of charcoal, but here we muft
take into the account the vaft quantities of fmoke and foot it
throws out, which abforb a large proportion of its heat, and
moreover the bottom of the veflels heated by it are moftly co-
vered with foot, which confiderably obftructs the communication
of heat.

Tue fame obfervations are in great meafure applicable to
woods. According to Do¢tor Watfon oak yields but 22 per
cent. of charcoal by diftillation, and ftill lefs when chared; and
beech, according to Wiegleb, only 20 per cent. confequently
1089 parts of oak yield but 239 of carbon, the remainder of
the heat then proceeds from the hydrogen contained in the oils
of the wood.

Mr.

pevEG gad

Mr. Lavorster has alfo given the cubic meafures of thefe
combuftibles, and the times in which each of them produced the
fame effe@. For the fatisfaGion of the curious I fhall exprefs
the whole in the following table :

Combuftibles. Weight. Meafure. Duration.
Ibs. Cub. Feet. Hours.
Pit coal - 600 - To - 20
Goaks - - 403 - 17 - 125
Charcoal - 600 - 40 - 5
Oak - - 1089 - 33 - 4.4

Hence we fee that if coal produces a certain quantity of
heat in a given time, coaks in much fmaller quantity will pro-
duce the fame effect in little more than half that time, an equal
weight of charcoal in one-fourth of that time, and oak in nearly
double the weight of the coal in about one-fifth of that time.

Tue beft coal for common ufes feems to be that which con-
tains no pyritous, earthy or ftony matter, and in which the
carbonaceous is to the bituminous part in the proportion of 5
to 4, or 6 to 4,5. An equal mixture of maltha and afphalt is pre-
ferable to either fingly.

; ms te; eral: Te Ot ; yy haere Bae a 4g
4 ‘beratrionng apa 3 Re red sata al rae aia Ne
ie re hed: peshi, # Co wah Bes. eta 3%,

i ‘ , of , fate $a ine:
Suit eo Heggioadre lee

$ :
pane: ws tem

na OR Be sada pence ie bat a
oa eae et “Ong Liss * atts um “yettard), Bey Bar at f07. iy ‘
ae pa Vite A fpinpo wa’ ‘is a lad a tone Pe nD #
4 Bae ear ey xbeasa APA. Bini, Seti ite. re 2:14 fii: issu
a t oan :- the sates WiATAIS Han EAS sib a tind St 4 Ae Myioie

4
ie a he — ris ; A “aye pd Syiide Feattite * ay +e, ts capes iy, i " v4 at ex sis ba
Ca em es “S199 xvid sid “99 emtast este hasinga, bad at oe, *

ee aes red a) 92a! nk tas arene ‘Wned Yo" eae %
avd b4% ame 7 +
ena eS “Ty Se-qmipecway aly ste tony watt Aes 13

Bk alata a ibd baat Yd a
ET aes nee pat oy Acari
wh: least rg ad 5, Wie giee ong.
anit Peake wee?

" aa rel ts

Higheft.

30,67

—_

Vou. Vi.

BAROMETER.

Day
it hap- |Lowett.}
pened.

Day it

——

8

of the

happened. meek

21ft W.| 29,20} 25. NW. | 30,152

3034 48. & 26.| 29,35 | 23. Var. | 29,846
: NW. W. to S.

- 30,63 | 21.E. | 29,45] 18.5. & | 30,02

4 ; SW.
- 30,54 | 17.W. | 29,12 | 7- Var. | 29,932

by S. W. to NE.

— =| 30,71 | 16. E. | 29,43 | 9. SW.&S.| 30,179
- - | 30,53 1. E. | 29,88 | +20. E. 30,219
- 39,59 |9.N.&E.} 29,66 23. E. 30,171
ae 30,4851 13. N. | 29,71 | 6.NW. | 30,090
- 30,52 | 30. W. | 29,31 20. S. 30,041
> 3058 | 21.E. | 29,44 | 5thS. | 29,96
- | 30,42 |13.NE.| 29,14 | 28th W. | 29,793

: Var.
- | 30,61 | 16. W.| 29,48 | 2d SW.. | 30,030

; : by N. :

bof the Year | 30,552 29.437 30,036

THERMOMETER.
Highelt lover
of the | at Mean.
Day. | Night.
55950 | 272— | 39:63
58,— | 35,— | 47,68
62,— | 32350 | 50,42
63s— | 36:50 | 50,74
69,50 | 38,50 | 52,26 {
15s— | 46,—| 61,13
792504) 50:50 | 63,57
75:—— | 46,—| 60,58
65s— | 37:50) 55:33
63,— || 37;— | 50,12 |
55259 | 32,— | 45,20
55a | 325 | 41532
SEQ915

RAIN.
Days. Inches.
7. & 3-| 2591145
of Snow}
| 20. 25325174.

18. I,2611i2
22. 25522224
18. 75379340
| 14. | 5748784
} 18. °| 2.325174
| 19. 23180665
| 16. 18911668
25+ 25377715
22. 7;676719
19.&1.] 35546877
of Snow
218. &| 28,8260958
4 light | Total of the
Snow Year

the 2d of July Sixe’s thermometer rofe to 81°,50 at.one o'clock, P, M.. At two o’clock it was 79°,50.

THE:

Read Janus
ary 9, 17963. -

[peal

Tue greateft height of the barometer was on the 16th of
May, viz. 30,71 inches, and on the aift of January, viz. 30,67
inches. Its loweft ftate was on the 7th of April, viz. 29,12
inches, and on the 28th of November, viz. 29,14.

Tue hotteft day was the 2d of July, the thermometer ftand-
ing for about an hour at $1°,5. and moft of the day at 79°,c.
The greateft cold took place in January, the thermometer being
feveral times at 27°.

THe wetteft month was November, during which there fell
the enormous quantity of 7,676719 inches on a fquare foot,
about twelve gallons. The drieft was January, there having
fallen no more than 0,59114 inches, not quite a gallon.

Novemeer was alfo the moft ftormy month.

View of the Seafons.

SPRING. SUMMER. AUTUMN.
Rain, Rar. Rain.
Inches. Days.
Inches. Days. | June - 0,74878 14 Inches. Days,
April - 2,52222 22 | July - - 2,32517 18 | September - 1,89116 16

May - - 1537934 18 | Auguft - 2,18066 19 | O&ober - 2,37771 25

3190156 40 5.25461 51 4,26887 41

ee — eee es

HENCE

[are

Hence we fee by the firft table of the laft volume, page 228,
that the Sfring was wet, whether we confider the quantity of
rain or the number of wet days.

Tue Summer muft be denominated variable, inclining ftrongly
to wet, whether we confider the quantity or duration of the
rain. The Autumn was alfo very wet.

Comparifon of the Seafons with the Rules of Prognoftication:

Tue Spring being wet the probability of a wet Summer was
the greateft by the third table, being £; but that of variable
wet was nearly as great, being ¢ by the fixth table.

Tue Spring being wet and the Summer variable wet, the pro-
bability of a dry Autumn ftands greateft in my tenth table.
If this rule be true, this year is an exception to that rule. The
fifth table left it doubtful whether the Autumn would be dry

_ or variable. ‘The fourth table indicated a variable.

L eed

Of the Winter preceding the Spring of 1794.

Rain. | Mean. Storms.
rae Inches. Days. Barometer. Heat.
Oétober - 257192 17 ||29,90 44535 8. SE. SW.
December - - 1,8128 17 ||29,81 43951 2. SW.
~ 455320 | 34 |[29.85 Mean| 43,93
1794:
January - = - | 59114 to oer 3963 O.
February - =n 2532517 20 ||29,84 47,68 4. ESE. NE,
March - = 1,26111 18 | |30,02 50,42 z.NE. W. SW.
Pers LS ree
Tol - | 870942 | 82 ||29,92 Mean) 45,91

Synoptical

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[ra

Tus year was remarkably colder than the laft.

Tue greateft height of the barometer happened in November,
viz. 30,88. The loweft in October, viz. 28,94.

Tue hotteft days was on the 12th and 20th of Auguft, the
thermometer being at 78° on thefe days.

Tue greateft cold happened on the night of the 22d of
January, the thermometer being at 19°,5, but in the country it

was, as ufual, one or two degrees lower.

Tue wetteft month was Oétober, the fall of rain being 6,6208
cubic inches, and its continuance 24 days. The drieft was
September, there having fallen only 0,354687 of an inch, and
only during eleven days, ;

View of the Seafons.

SPRING. SUMMER. AUTUMN.
Rain. "Ram. Ram.
Inches. Days. [
Inches. Days.}] June - 2,67986 14 : Inches. Days.
April - 2,36458 16 July - - 1,09032 12 September- 0,35468 11
May - 0,64275 12 Augult - 0,63055 14 | O@ober - 6,6208 24
3,00733 28 AshO1TZ | 40. | 697545 35

————— i ———— eee

By

ae

as 3

- By the firft table the Spring muft be deemed nearly dry or
variable dry.

-By the fecond table the Summer was alfo variable dry, but

| nearer to variable than to dry. By the third table the Autumn

_ fhould be deemed wet, but in faé& it was Bifartite, one month,

viz. September, being exceeding dry, and the other, October,
exceeding wet.

Compartfon of the Seafons with the Rules of Probability.

Tue Spring being dry the probability of a dry Summer was

_ greateft, being 22 in the fecond table.

Tue Summer being varrable dry the probability of a variable

_ Autumn was greateft by the ninth table.

Tue Spring being dry and the Summer vardab/e dr), the pro-

_ bability of a wet and variable Autumn were equal by the tenth
table. This year then the prognoftics anfwered remarkably

of

[ *78) J

Of the Winter preceding the Spring of 1795. -

Mean,

1794. Rain. Days. Bar.
November - - 97,6767 22 29,79
December - - 3254687 20 30,03
1122358 42 Mean - 29,91

1795-

January - - 2540399 15 30,19
February - = 2528576 19 29,76
March - - = 2,20694 17 29,91
6,89669 51 Mean - 29,95
Total . 18,12027 93 Mean of both- 29,93

a ee —_—— ee

Tue quantity of rain that fell this Winter was nearly double
that which fell in the Winters of 1793 or 1794. The Summers.
and Autumn of thofe years were wet, but in this dry, or nearly
fo. If this holds frequently it will form a valuable prognoftic..

[ 197 ]

THOUGHTS o MAGNETISM. By RICHARD

KIRWAN, £4; LL.D. F.R.S. and M.R.LA.

I. "THere are two ways of explaining a natural phenomenon,
the firft, is by difcovering the conditions and circumftances of its
produétion and the laws by which its aétion is governed; the
fecond, is by fhewing its analogy, fimilarity or coincidence with
fome general fat with whofe laws and exiftence we are already
acquainted; this laft mode is by far the moft perfec and {atis-
_ factory. In the firft fenfe of the word eleGtricity and magnetifm
have been in fome meafure explained, but in the laft fenfe neither ;
the primary caufe of magnetifm in particular has hitherto been
fuppofed to relate to iron alone, or its ores, and to ftand uncon-
neéted with all other natural phenomena.

2. Ir therefore any other general fa&t or power can be dif-
~ covered to which it bears fome analogy or fimilarity, it may fo
far be faid to be explained. Now fuch fa or power I think may
be affigned, namely, the power of cryftalization.

Vou. VI. Z 3. By

Read March
19, 1796.

Lee

3. By cryftalization I underftand that power by which the in-
tegrant particles of any folid poffeffing fufficient liberty of motion
unite to each other, not indifcriminately and confufedly, but ac-
cording to a peculiar uniform arrangement, fo as to exhibit in its
laft and moft perfe@ ftage regular and determinate forms.

4. Tuts power is now known to be poffeffed by all folid mineral
fubftances.

5- Tue forms which cryftals, even of homogeneous fubftances,
exhibit, are often very numerous; however in moft cafes they may
be reduced to a few primordial forms, which, as Abbé Hauy has
lately experimentally proved, are derived from certain original
forms appertaining to the minuteft particles of their concretion.

6. Tue affemblage of thefe ultimate particles into vifible aggre-
gates, fimilarly arranged, neceffarily requires that one of their
furfaces fhould be attractive of that particular furface of the other,
which prefents a correfponding angle, and repulfive of that which
prefents a different angle, otherwife the various regular rhom-
boidal and other polygon prifms and pyramids, which cryftals pre-
fent us, could never exift; confequently the minuteft prifm, being
once formed, could never be prolonged if one end of fuch
prifms were not attractive, and the other repulfive of the fame
given furface.

7. HeNcE it has been obferved that cryftalization never takes
place in the middle of any folution, but always begins at the fur-
face

[tage

face or on the bottom or fides of the veffels that contain it, for
the particles in the middle of the folution being confufedly mixed
with each other, and exerting their repulfive as freely as their at~
tractive powers, the one conftantly counteracting the other, no
fenfible accretion of a regular kind could take place, whereas the
repulfive power of the uppermoft particles, or of thofe that reft
on the fides or bottom of the veffel, is reftrained and impeded.

8. Tue repulfive power of cryftalizing fubftances alfo appears
in many other inftances (of the attrative no doubt has ever been
formed.) Thus if faturate folutions of nitre, common falt, and
tartar vitriolate be mixed and fet to cryftalize, each will cryftalize
a part, which could not happen if the particles of each of thefe
falts did not only attra@ their fimilar homogeneous, but alfo repel
thofe of a different f{pecies, otherwife the mere cafual circumftance
of greater proximity to one than to the other would impel them to
unite indifcriminately. Again, if a faturate folution of allum be
mixed with a turbid mixture of clay, and abandoned to infenfible
evaporation, after fome time the clay will fubfide and form a dry
mafs, but in the interior of this mafs large regular cryftals of
allum will be found, whofe component particles muft, to reunite,
have difplaced and repelled the particles of clay with which they
were furrounded.

g. Ir to a faturate folution of a falt that difficultly cryftalizes,
a cryftal of a falt of the fame fpecies be inferted, the whole {fo-
lution will foon be brought to cryftalize, as the cryftal inferted
Z 2. attracts:

L ov

attracts the particles diffolved, by its different furfaces; but if a
falt of a different nature be inferted this will not happen, cryftali-

zation will not be promoted.

10. Ir to a folution of 2 parts nitre, and 3 parts Glauber’s
falt in 5 parts water, a cryftal of nitre be inferted, the nitre alone
will cryftalize ; or if inftead of nitre a cryftal of Glauber be in-
ferted into it, the Glauber alone will cryftalize. Do not thefe
experiments fully evince both the attraGlive and repulfive powers,
not only’ of different falts but of different furfaces of the fame
falt?

11. THESE powers within their proper fphere of ation have been
found indefinitely great; thus’ water confined in cannon feveral
inches thick, and expofed to a degree, of cold much beneath the
freezing point, has been obferved to cryftalize into ice that burft
the metallic impediment oppofed to the form it then affumes.

12. THE vaft difference however attending the developement of
thefe two powers (of magnetifm and cryftalization) will undoubt-
edly ftrike many as an infuperable obje@tion to their identity,
yet their direétion in all its varieties being exactly the fame,
difference in other circumftances feems to me to indicate rather a
variety of degrees, in the fame power, than any effential difference -
in the powers themfelves.

I Now

tee

I now come to the application of the above principles to the
magnetic phenomena. ‘Thefe may in general be reduced to the
following, viz. Attraction, Repulfion, Polarity.

Communication.

Dechnation.

_ Inclination. +
Exclufive appropriation to Iron.
Deftruction of the Magnetic power.

iff, Attraction, Repulfion, Polarity.

_ Tue quantity of iron found on and within fuch parts of the
furface of the globe as we are acquainted with, far furpaffes that
of any other mineral fubftance fingly taken, or even of many of
them taken together ; fearce any ftone or metallic ore or earth is
found free from it ; it enters into their compofition in the propor-
tion of from 2 to 18 or 20 per cent. and perhaps at a medium: we
may ftate it in all of them at 6 per cent.; moreover its own ores
are of all others the moft common and the moft copious ; in many
places, particularly in the. moft northern climates, whole moun-
tains of it are found, and many of them magnetic. When to
this confideration we add that of the fpecific gravity of the globe,

' which has been found to be 4,5 times heavier than water, not-
3 withftanding the immenfe quantity of water that covers the
greater part of its furface to confiderable unknown depths, and
notwithftanding

b ieg Wy

notwithftanding that the fpecific gravity of by far the greater part
of the ftones and earths it contains does not exceed and {carcely
amounts even to three times the weight of an equal bulk of
water, and that the quantity of mineral fubftances whofe fpecific
weight exceeds four times that of water is almoft infinitely {mall
in comparifon to the other known component parts of the globe,
and finally that the weight of moft iron ores is about four or
five times that of water; all this I fay confidered, it is difficult
to avoid concluding that the interior part of the globe confifts
chiefly of iron ore difpofed in one or more aggregate maffes ; a con-
clufion that is farther confirmed, on refleGting that volcanic lavas
ejected from the deepeft recefles with which we are acquainted
contain from 15 to 20 or 25 per cent. of iron in the ftate moft
favourable to magnetic attraction.

Taxine then this affertion to be as fully proved as its fubje&
matter is capable of being afcertained, we may deduce from it the
following corollaries :

ift. Tuar as the ferruginous matter in the globe being by far
the moft copious, its univerfal attraG@tive power is principally feated
in the ferruginous part.

ed. Tuar as all terraqueous matter was originally in a foft
fiate, its parts were at liberty to arrange themfelves according
to the laws of their mutual attration, and in fa@ did coalefce and
cryftalize

_ es ot
pork Stes:

Ee a

cryftalize in the direétion in which they were leaft impeded by the
rotatory motion of the giobe, namely in that which extends
from North to South, and principally and moft perfectly in the
parts leaft agitated by that motion, namely thofe next the centre.

3d. Tuart this cryftalization like that of falts might have taken
place in one or more feparate /hoots, or as we may here call them,
immenfe feparate maffes, each having its poles diftin@ from thofe
of the other, thofe in the fame direGion repulfive of and diftant
from each other. i

In confequence then of the univerfal law of attraction of the
particles of matter to each other, thefe internal magnets exert
a double power of attraction; the firft and moft general, on the
particles of a// bodies indifcriminately in proportion to their
denfity, and the direct or inverfe ratio of the fquares of their
diftances according as thofe bodies are found within or without
the earth’s furface; and the fecond, on bodies of their own
f{pecies in proportion to their homogenity, and to the corref-
pondence of the arrangement of their integrant particles with
that of the integrant particles of thefe internal magnets.

A MaGNET therefore is a mafs of iron, or of iron ore, whofe
oxygenation does not exceed 20 per cent. or thereabouts, whofe
particles are arranged in a direétion fimilar to that of the great
internal central magnets of the globe. This I call the magnetic
arrangement.

Tue

[ 184 ]

_ Tue particles of iron attract each other more forcibly than
thofe of any other known fubftance. This appears by its cohe-
fion, hardnefs, elafticity and infufibility, in each of which pro-
perties, or at leaft in the combination of moft of them, it

exceeds all other known bodies.

Hence a magnet eftradéis iron when within the {phere of its
action, by forcing, in virtue of its attractive power, a certain
proportion of its integrant particles into a difpofition and ar-
rangement fimilar to that of its own. For in this cafe it exerts
a double attractive power, that of the particles of iron to each
other, which we have feen to be the greateft of all others, and
that of cryftalizing bodies, which we have alfo feen to be inde-

finitely great.

Tue cryftalizing power being at once attractive and repu//ve,
according to the direction of the furfaces, (No. 6.) hence we fee

that one part or end of the magnet muft repel that which the’

other has attracted, as leng as the fame difpofition of parts

remains.

Tue difpofition of parts in a particular magnet, being fimilar
to that which obtains in the great internal general magnet, ex-
tends in the direGtion of from North to South. Hence magnets,
when at liberty to move with a certain degree of freedom, and

iron, when a fufficient number of its particles are arranged in
that

t a8s ]

that direction, and has fufficient liberty to conform to it, points
to thofe poles. Hence this property is called Po/arity.

6

THE magnetic power is greater or lefler according to the
number and homogenity of the particles /mlar4y and magne-
tically arranged. Hence {mall magnets may be more powerful’
than a larger, and hence a magnet will attratt a magnetized
needle at a greater diftance than one not magnetized.

THE magnetic power decreafes in a certain ratio of the dif-
tance of the particles that exercife it. Hence it is ftrongeft in
the point of contact, and at the poles, as it is there moft wa/a-
turated, and weakeft in the central part, which feparates the two
oppofite poles.

WHEN a magnet is broken into fmall pieces its power is
nearly deftroyed, becaufe though the poles fhould be all of the
fame kind, yet the diftance of each from the oppofite pole is fo
fmall that their powers counteraét and confequently deftroy each:
other.

Ir when a needle is attracted by the fouth pole of a magnet
a bar of iron be placed on the north pole, the needle is ftill
more ftrongly attracted, becaufe the iron acquires alfo a fouth:
. pole, whofe force is joined to that of the magnet.

Vox. VI. ; Aa Ip

[ 286" J

Ir twomeedles be fufpended from any given pole of a magnet
they will diverge, becaufe they both acquire the fame polar
arrangement. If a bar of iron be laid on that pole of the mag-
net the® divergence will diminifh, becaufe the next end of the
iron will acquire the difpofition of the oppofite pole, and con-

fequently counteract the repulfive power of the magnet.

A MaGNET will not tranfmit its power through -a bar of iron
if this be too long. Mufchenbruck limits their length to fix
feet, but this depends on the ftrength of the magnet.

THE power of a magnet (every thing elfe being equal) de-
pends on the number of its Jurfaces magnetically arranged, and the

accuracy of that arrangement.

THE arrangement is accurate when the fynonimous furfaces
are exactly parallel to each other, and originally conformed to
and parallel with thofe of the great general magnet. ;

' Tue magnetic attraction is ftrongeft in the direction perpen-
dicular to the magnetic furfaces, and weakens in proportion’ to
the magnitude of the angle of direction with the perpendicular,
and confequently is 7/7 when at a right angle with it. Hence
the magnetic power feems concentrated at the fo/es, and the
lateral powers ‘dre ‘the weakeft, as they originate. only in the
oblique direction of furfaces, or from furfaces inaccurately ar-

ranged.
Ir

oF ad

CP ALLIS GFO IEA MEE

PES EAE

[ 387 ]

Ir the fouth pole of a magnet be charged with filings of iron,
and then approached to a bar of iron ftanding erect, part of the
filings will drop off, becaufe the poles of the fame name, by ex-
citing a contrary arrangement, weaken each other; but if the
filings were fufpended from the north pole of the magnet it
would take up {till more of the filings, as the oppofite poles
ftrengthen each other, the uppermoft pole of the iron in this
cafe becoming magnetic by pofition.

Ir the fynonimous poles of two magnets of unequal powers
be, approached to each other, if the powers be very unequal the
ftronger immediately deftroys the weaker, and inducing a con-
trary difpofition attracts inftead of repelling it; if the powers be
lefs unequal it requires a longer time; {fo alfo if one be /ofter
than the other. Even if their powers be equal, yet after fome
time the fofter will yield to the harder. If both be equally hard
they only weaken each other.

Ir a magnet be cut in two, in a direction parallel to the axis,
the parts before conjoined will now repel each fone becaufe
they fll retain two fynonimous poles.

Bur if the magnet be cut in two in a direction perpendicular

to the axis, the two ends before conjoined will ‘ow attract each
other.

Aa 2 Ip

| roe J

Ir a magnetic wire be twifted, its powers are fo difordered
that one fide of the wire, in fome places of it, will be attracted
and the other fide repelled by the fame pole of the magnet.

THE power of magnets (ceteris parib.) is in proportion to
their furfaces or as the fquares of their diameters.—See Hutton’s
Magnetifm, p. 72.

Communication.

WHEN iron is applied to or brought within the fphere of
activity of a particular magnet, it acquires the arrangement re-
quifite to form the heteronymous pole, and thus becomes itfelf
in fome degree magnetic in its whole length, if this length be
not totally difproportioned to the power of the particular
magnet.

Hence the other end of fuch bar of iron acquires the ar-
rangement of the oppofite pole, according to the laws of cry-
ftalization already laid down.

Iron becomes magnetic either by contact or proximity to a
magnet, or by pofition, or by internal commotion.

Ir a bar of iron be placed in a vertical pofition its infenfible
fibrille gradually acquire the magnetic arrangement, fo that
after fome years it becomes a complete magnet, its /owe/? part
becoming a north pole, that is, pointing when free to the north,

and

[ 189 ]

and the wpper a fouth pole. In the S. hemifphere the under
end becomes a fouth pole.

A ear of iron not previoufly magnetic does not acquire this
difpofition in the flighteft degree while lying in a horizontal or
nearly a horizontal difpofition, but if one end of it be raifed it
immediately acquires it in fome degree, as appears by approach-
ing a magnetic needle to either end, becaufe in that direction it
is then expofed to the eh of the polar ends of the great
general magnet.

Bur if a bar of iron be heated, though only at one end, and
while hot fet in a vertical or nearly a vertical pofition, it will
acquire the magnetic power much more readily.

So alfo if one end of a bar of iron not magnetic be ftruck
againft the ground it will become in fome degree magnetic, the
lower end becoming a north pole, &c. and if afterwards the
other end be ftruck in the fame manner the poles will be re-
verfed.

Hence it is evident that any motron communicated to the inte-
grant particles of iron placed in a proper fituation helps them
to affume the magnetic difpofition already impreffed upon them
by the great general magnet.

Ir the oppofite poles of two magnets of egua! power be ap-
proached to each other the power of both is increafed; and
if

[ 190 |

if one of them be more powerfu/ than the other it will increafe
the magnetic difpofition, and confequently the power of the

weaker.

Sof? iron, as its parts are moft eafily moved, receives the mag-
netic difpofition moft eafily, hard iron or tempered fteel more
difficultly, and ca/? iron, as being both hard and abounding in
the heterogeneous particles, moft difficultly and imperfectly.

WHATEVER way iron is applied to a magnet the magnetic
power is diffufed in the direction of its length. Hence it
fhould feem that when a bar of iron is laid on a magnet the
contiguous ends of the iron become poles of the fame name with
thofe of the magnet to which they are contiguous, and hence
may be derived the power of armed magnets, for the furfaces of
the armour immediately beneath thofe of the magnet imprefs a
direétion oppofite to their own on thofe of the magnet, and
confequently rectify fuch furfaces of the magnet as may have
been inaccurately directed, and thus ftrengthen it.

To communicate the magnetic power to iron by friction
againft a magnet, it is neceflary that its pole fhould flide along
the magnet feveral times in the fame direction, for if the direc-
tions be alternately oppofed the powers received will fucceflively
deftroy each other.

A syNontMovs pole is formed at the end at which the friction
begins, to that of the magnet applied, and an oppofite at that

at which it terminates.
Appropriation

Biron ce

Appropriation to Iron.

Ir has of old been obferved that the magnetic phenomena
- were peculiar to iron, and the reafons why they are fo have been
already affigned, but of late fome femi-metals have been obferved
to partake of thefe properties, as Nickel, Kobalt and Manganefe ;
this has been thought to arife from a mixture of ferruginous par-
ticles from which they can be fcarcely freed, and with refpea to
Manganefe, and in many cafes of the others alfo, this feems to
hold true; but with refpe@ to Nickel, and in fome inftances of
the others alfo, the magnetic properties they difcover feem to me
to proceed from their great attraCtion to iron, particularly when
their particles are duly arranged, for then they are expofed to the
power of the great general magnet, which aéts on them in pro-
portion to this arrangement and their affinity to iron.

Of Inchnation and Dechnation.

TuEse phenomena, which are fo different in different parts of
the globe, and even in different feafons and hours of the day,
not being as yet noted with fufficient certainty and precifion, I

_fhall for the prefent decline entering into their explanation.

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[sag d

On the METHOD of DETERMINING “¢#he LON-
GITUDE, 4Yy OBSERVATIONS of the MERI-
DIAN PASSAGES of the MOON and a STAR
made at two Places. By the Rev. JAMES ARCHIBALD
HAMILTON, .D.D. Profefor of Aftronomy at Armagh.

“General Rule for determining the efimate difference of the Longi-

tude of a given place, from fome well known meridian, by
obfervations of the different intervals of A. R. of the moon's
enlightened limb from a ftar at each place on the fame day.

L ET the paffage of the moon’s enlightened limb be carefully
obferved to the neareft tenth of a fecond, over the feveral wires
of the tranfit inftrument, and let its paffage over the centre be

deduced by ‘taking a mean of its paffages over the equidiftant

wires, properly reduced. Let one or more fixed ftars that lie near
her parallel of declination, and alfo as near to her in A.R. as can
conveniently ‘be had, be obferved in like manner. Let the rate
of the fydereal clock, which is the moft convenient for this

‘purpofe, be carefully afcertained, and from this and the obfer-

vations colle& the exact difference of the moon’s A. R. from
Vou. VI. Bb one

Read Noy, 1,
1794.

; 19m 3

one or more of thefe ftars under your own meridian. Having
obtained correfponding obfervations from fome fettled obferva-
tory, find the difference of the differences of A. R. of the
moon’s limb from the fame ftar, under each meridian; take
from the ephemeris her increafe of A. R. for the 12H. including
the obfervations, and fay: As this quantityof A. R: 12H:: the
apparent difference of the obferved differences of A. R. to the
eftimate difference of longitude. This eftimate difference will
always be exact enough to enable you from tables or by cal-
culation to find the corrections to which the obfervations and
the lunar rate muft neceflarily be fubjefted, to deduce from
them the true difference of longitude between the refpec-
tive places of obfervation. To elucidate the nature and grounds
of thefe feveral correCtions, I fhall premife fome general confi-
derations on the obfervation of the difference of A. R. of the
moon’s enlightened limb from a ftar, and of the equation of
the moon’s increafe of A. R. in 12H. as given in the ephe-
meris.

As this is acknowledged to be one of the moft certain and
convenient obfervations for determining the longitudes of places,
the redu@tion that is required to give it its due accuracy
feems deferving of a more diffufive explanation than as far
as I can find has been hitherto beftowed on it by any of
the writers on practical aftronomy. Mr. Vince, in his late
treatife, mentions this method, as having been recommended
by Dr. Mafkelyne in the year 1769; and reports the fuccefs-

ful

f mag J

ful application of it by Mr. E. Pigott, then of York, in de-
ducing the difference of longitude of his obfervatory from that
of Greenwich. Both he and Mr. E. Pigott, to whom indeed
we principally owe the advantages that may, and moft pro-
bably will accrue to geography from this method, _ befides
ftating the general proportion, mention, that when the moon’s
rate is irregular attention fhould be paid to that circumftance,
and Mr. Vince further adds, that the accuracy of the refult
will be greater, if we allow for the difference of the increafe
of the moon’s A. R. in the intervals of the paffages of the
two meridians over the moon and ftar, for that the obferved
difference is not accurately the true difference, when the two
meridians pafs the ftar.

As the fixed ftar is the permanent and immutable term of
the comparifon for both meridians, Mr. Vince very juftly
refers the difference of A. R. that is to be determined to the
aGual moment under each meridian, that thefe meridians apply
to the ftar and not to the moon’s enlightened limb. The
gueftion then, in its moft fimple and accurate form is, when
the meridians fucceflively apply to the fame ftar, what is
then the precife difference of the A. R. of the moon’s enlight-
ened limb from that of the ftar for each meridian?

To elucidate this point—Let us fuppofe the paffages to be
obferved by a clock, moving fydereal time, and the meridian
applies firft to the moon’s enlightened limb; its A. R. is then

Bb 2 denoted

[ 196 ]
denoted by the clock. The fame meridian prefently arrives
at the ftar, whofe A. R. is in like manner expreffed by the
clock. The time elapfed between the obfervations would be
the true interval of their A. R’s. fuppofing the moon to have
ftood ftill in her orbit—But the moon was increafing her A. R.
during the whole of the elapfed time; and of courfe every
moment approaching nearer to the ftar, therefore when. the
ftar paffed their difference of A. R. was decreafed by the quan-
tity of A. R. gained by the moon during the interval: of fy«
dereal time elapfed fince her own paflage. If then a given)
meridian fhould pafs the moon at 12H. and a ftar at 14Hs.
their apparent difference of A. R. would be 2H. and: their true
difference of A. R. at the moment of the paflage of the far
would be the apparent difference—the moon’s increafe of A. R.
- in 2H. If under another meridian the moon fhould: pafs at
12H. 1’, and the ftar at 14H. then their apparent difference of
A. R. under that meridian would be 1H. 59',— and their true
difference A. R. at the time of the ftar’s paffage 1H: 59—the
moon’s increafe of A. R. in 1H. 59’. Therefore the actual
difference of thefe obferved differences of A. R. is not the true
quantity required, but muft be leffened by a quantity of A. R.
proportioned to the moon’s rate in her orbit; and the differ-
ence of the two fydereal intervals of 2H. and 1H. 59.; for let
us fuppofe the moon to increafe her A.R. at the regular rate
of 30° of a degree for an hour, and a meridian to pafs her

firt limb at 12H. and that the fame meridian applies to a ftar
at

ie

[ soz ]

at 14H. at the time therefore of the ftar’s paffage, the moon
had fince her own paffage approached the ftar by 60’ of mo-
tion= 4° in time +2 H.—4’ or 1H. 56’ was the true interval of
A. R. between thefe heavenly bodies when the ftar paffed. Let
us again fuppofe the moon to move at the fame rate in her

orbit, and another meridian to pafs. over her firft limb when

it had 12H. 1’0" of A. R. The ftar fhe was before compared
with being a fixed point, will be found by this fecond meri-
dian at its permament ftation of 14H. and to get the true differ-
ence of the moon’s A. R. from the faid ftar at the inftant of its
paffage 1H. 59’ the obferved difference muft be leffened by the
moon’s increafe of A. R. in 1H. 59=to 59’. 30” of motion,

or 3° and 58" of time,

EXAMPLE.
Firft Meridian. ees
: > 1 limb paffes at - - Pegg
Star paflesat - - - 14 0 ©

Apparent difference of their A. R’s. - 2 © 0
Dedué& the moon’sincreafe of A.R.in 2Hs.o 4 0

True difference of their A, R’s, when the ftarpaffed 1, 56. 0

————

Second

[ 198 J

Second Meridian. Bk cum
) 1 limb paffed at - - 1900 he
Star paffed at - - IAs Oi
Apparent difference of A. R’s. - ae aes)
Dedué for moon’s increafe of A. R.in
1H; 59.0" - - 3 58

em cs eee

True difference of their A. R’s. when the ftar paffed 1°55 2

Apparent or obferved difference of A.R.at rt meridian 2 0 ©
Apparent or obferved differenceof A. R.atadditto 1 59 o

Apparent difference of )’s A. R. for the interval of the

meridians e a = = 0 1 0

True difference of A. R’s when the ftar paffed 1ft meridian 1 56 o
True difference of A. R’s when the ftar paffed 2d meridian 1 55 2

True difference of }’s A. R. for the interval of the meri-
dians - - - - - oo 58

Let us now take an example, at the fame lunar rates and
intervals of meridians as before, only fuppofing the ftar to pre-
cede the moon.

Firf

tne -
ast ge > Sa s

[ 199 ]
Firf? Meridian. Bie *
Star paffes at - = 12 00
>’s 1 limb paffes at - I4 0 0

Apparent or obferved difference of their A. R’s 2 0 o
Dedué for moon’s increafe of A. R. fince the ftar paffed 0 4 0

——

True difference of their A. R’s when the ftar pafled - 1 56: 0

Second Meridian.
Star paffes’ at - = 12 0° 0
> 1 limb paffes at - - 14 1/0

Apparent or obferved difference of their A.R’s. 2 I 0
Dedué for )’s increafe A. R. in 2H. 1’ fince the ftar paffed 0 4 2°

True difference of their A. R’s when the ftar paffed: -- 1.56 58

eee

Apparent or obferved difference of A. R’sat rft meridian 2 0 ©
Apparent or obferved difference of A. R’s at 2d meridian 2 I

Apparent change of y’s A. R. for the interval of meridians 0 1 o.-

True difference of A. R. when the ftar paffed 1ft me-
ridian - - - - - 13-56) 0
True difference of A. R. when the ftar paffed 2d do. 1 56 58

True change of )’s A.R. for the interval of meridians 0 o 58

Hence

[ 200 |

HeENceE it is evident, that in each cafe the obferved difference
of the differences of A. R. is to be leffened by a quantity pro-
portioned to the moon’s fuppofed uniform rate, and, the inter-
val of the meridians; the moon’s rate therefore being given,
the abfolute quantity of the correction will depend on the dift-
ance of the meridians afunder.

Nore—The whole of the fydereal interval between the paf-
fages of the moon’s enlightened limb and the ftar, being com-
mon to both places of obfervation, 1’ only excepted, it is for
this minute only which is the difference of the fydereal inter-
val between the moon and ftar at the feparate places of ob-
fervation, arifing from the moon’s motion in her orbit during
the interval of the paffages of the two meridians, that the effec-
tive corretion, amounting to 3” in this inftance, takes place.

as |

[ sor ]

M1. Ma

son —t-4e

©

Tue fimpleft form that can be devifed for explaining the
nature of this correction, is to fuppofe, as in the annexed
figure, that the moon’s enlightened limb L’, and a ftar S on
her parallel, apply at the fame inftant to 1ft meridian M. 1.
then the true and obferved difference of A. R. will, there be
the fame, viz. o. then let the ftar S’ apply to a fecond meri-
dian M. 2. 3 H. diftant from the former; and let the moon
changing her A.R. at the uniform rate of 24’ time in 12

-hours be arrived at the point L’, having receded from the ftar

Vou, VI. Cec by

f 263 J

by 6’ of A. R. in time, when the ftar S’ is on the 2d meridian,
and the interval L’ S “the difference of vw. R. which compared
with the moon’s increafe of A. R. in 12H. will give the differ-
ence of meridian or of longitude. But while the point L is
coming to the 2d meridian the moon will have receded to
the point =, and when her enlightened limb arrives at the
ad meridian the obferved difference of A. R. between the ftar
and it will be » S’ and the corretion of this obferved differ-
ence will be " L’, it is obvious this quantity will increafe
with the quantity L’S’, and the quantity L’ S’ will be in the
dire& proportion of the increafing interval of 1f and ad me-
ridian, and of the moon’s aétual rate in her orbit.

Ir the moon is not compared with any particular ftar at
either meridian, but her apparent A. R. on the meridian ob-
ferved at each place by well regulated fydereal clocks — The
fame correction of the obferved difference of A. R. is required,
as though her enlightened limb was compared with a given
fixed ftar; for in this cafe fhe is, in fact, compared with an
imaginary ftar in the firft of aries, her obferved diftances from
which are fubje@t to the fame regulations as though there was
a real flar at that point in the heavens.

Ir may be farther neceflary to add on this fubjeé, that if
at the different places of obfervation the moon fhould be on
the oppofite fides of the ftar with which fhe is compared, then

the

i i

i ee

Pree

[ 203 ]

the fum of the intervals of her A. R. from that of the flar is
to be ufed in this calculation inftead of the difference of thefe

intervals.

Wuewn the meridians are even a moderate diftance from each
other, the neglect of the equation for the difference of the
obferved and true interval will have a very confiderable in-
fluence on the refult of the obfervations; when the moon moves
at her quickeft rate, and the meridians are only 10° afunder,
-the correftion amounts to 5” of time on the obferved interval,
it will of courfe in all cafes require to be very ftritly attend-
ed to. To facilitate therefore this part of the operation, I have
calculated a fhort table, intitled “ A table of corrections, &c.” for
which the correction of the interval for any lunar rate, and for
any longitude not exceeding 10° may be taken out with fuf-
ficient accuracy almoft at fight. The correction in this table
is given in time to feconds, tenths, &c. that it may be directly
applied to the difference of the A. R’s. as found immediately
by the tranfit inftrument. The difference thus correfted is to
be changed into parts of a degree, to prepare it for the ana-
logy from whence the longitude is to be finally deduced.

We have hitherto confidered the moon’s rate in her orbit to
be equable, but as this is feldom in reality the cafe, this me-
thod requires that when her fate is unequal, the fum of her
A.R. gained in 12H. fhould be equated as nearly as poffible,

Cc 2. according

[ 204° ]

according to the rate fhe moved at, at the time of the mid-inter-
val of the obfervations.

To explain this, let us fuppofe the moon, by an equable
motion, to have changed her A. R. in 12H. by 6%, and on
that day under a different meridian her difference of A. R.
from the fame ftar with which fhe had been compared at a
former meridian was found to be encreafed by 1°, then 6°:
12H. :: 1°: 2H. the longitude required. Now on another day
let us fuppofe the moon to have gained as before 6° A.R. in
12H. but at the following rates for each hour of the 12H.

H. H. H. H.

1ft | 30’. 6"| 4| 30°. 3"| 7 | 30°. 0” | 10] 29’. 56*
2 305 |5 30 .2 |8|29 .58 | 11] 29. 55
3. 130-4 16!30.019129.57 112129 - 54

Should the moon’s A. R. be compared with the fame ftar at the
fame places on this day at the beginning of the 12 hours fhe
will be found to have adiually gained in the interval of the
paffages of the 2 meridians 1°. o. 11". and the proportion un-
equated would be 6°: 12H.:: 1°. o. 11”: 2H. 0. 22”. and fhould
the obfervations happen near the end of the 12H. the moon
would be found to have gained in the fame interval only
sg 49’. of A.R. and the unequated proportion would run thus,
69: 12H.:: 59. 49’: 1H. 59. 38; ‘whence it is evident that the
longitude deduced from thefe obfervations would be in one cafe
22" too great, and in the other 22" lefs than the truth: This

fource

Ee ees

[ 205° ].

fource of error therefore fhould be corrected before the propor-
tion is ftated, by altering the firft term in conformity to the
moon’s actual rate during the interval between the obferva-
tions. Thus in the firft- analogy the deviation in 2 hours from
the mean rate of 30’ per hour is + 11"; this multiplied by 6
gives 1' 6", which added according to its fign to the firft term
of the proportion would’ make it 6°. 1. 6’, and the proportion’
would: ftand thus, 6°. 1. 6: 12H::1. 0, 11": 2H. the ground
and. neceffity of this corre€tion are evident, and when it is not
applied ,the irregularity of the moon’s rate being given, the quan
tity of error will be greater or lefs.in-proportion:as the obferva-
tions were made at a part of the 12H. more or lefs diftant:
from the hour of the mean rate. Had thefe fuppofed obferva-
tions been made between the sth or 7th hours the longitude

' would have come out true without any correction of the rate:

whatfoever:

Havine premifed thus much on the nature’and grounds of
this correction, I fhall proceed to a fhort explanation of the:
readieft method: of making it under’ every poffible change of’
of the moon’s rate with-due accuracy and precifion:

M. de la Lande, in his Aftronomy,liv.7. article 1521, obferves
that when the longitudes or A. R’s of the moon are ftrictly:
calculated from 12H. to 12H. as they are given in the Nautical
Almanacs and other Ephemerides, you may thence. deduce the.
horary motion for any part of this period to a great degree of

precifion ;

J, 2065 ]

precifion ; for if you take the 12th part of the moon’s move-
ment in longitude or A.R. for 12H. from noon to midnight,
or from midnight to the fucceeding noon, you will have the
horary motion either in longitude or A. R. that took place at
6H. or 18H. For by the method of interpolation, vide article 3928,
he afcertained that in fpite of all the irregularities of the lunar
motions the 2d differences proceed at a rate that is to all
fenfe uniform even for the fpace of 24 hours; it is evident
therefore, that having obtained the horary motion, for 6 or
18Hs. by taking the ~, of the movement for 12H. you may
then have it for any other hour of that interval by an even

proportion.

As the A. R’s. are the only lunar motions we have occa-
fion to make ufe of, in this method for the longitude of places,
I fhall only confider the manner of finding the moon’s horary
motion in A. R. for any required minute of any interval of
12, and thence of afcertaining the exa& quantity of the A. R.
for 12H. that is to be ufed both for the correCtion of the in-
terval of obferved A. R. between the 2 meridians, and alfo for
the correction of the eftimate longitude.

Take out of the Nautical Almanac, or any other good
Ephemeris, the two calculated A. R’s. immediately preceding,
and the two that immediately follow, the hour and minute for
which you want to determine the moon’s horary motion ; place

thefe

4 Os

thefe in four fucceffive lines below each other, and by their
fides their three fucceflive differences for each 12 hours; mul-
tiply each of thefe laft numbers by 5, taking the degrees for
minutes and the minutes for feconds, and you will have three
other numbers that will accurately denote the horary motions
at the mid-intervals of the pairs they refpectively belong to.
The reafon of multiplying by 5, &c. is merely for brevity and
convenience in. finding the + of the motion in A.R. for 12H.
for a X 60! + 12=a% 5’, which laft is much the moft conveni-
ently and readily done.

~ Havre thus got the horary motions for the mid-intervals of
6H, and 18H. to get them for any other hour and minute
_you have only to take the difference of the horary motions at
the beginning and end of the period of 12Hs. that includes the
hour and minute for which the rate is required, and fay, as
12H. is to the whole difference, fois any other number of hours
and minutes to a proportionate part; which added or fubtraét-
ed as occafion requires, to or from the rate of the neareft
mid-interval, gives the rate at the time demanded. Let if be
required, for example, to find the moon’s horary motion in A. R.

for 6H. 30. on the sth Jan. 1789.

H.

Jantayaty 12 (engoe on! Paki 5 | 30! 20! horary motion 4th day at 18

G) Py5220 | 90 Kan isst tug fe 31 20 horary motion sth day at 6

seat ol bz heeeratn 6 38 32 20 horary motion 5th day at 18
6,at | 0 | 34 39

i - Here

[ 208 J

Here 30! being the excefs of the time for which the rate is re-
quired above the laft mid-interyal, and 1’ the variation of the
horary motion for 12H. fay, 12: 1:: 30°: 2” 30", which added to
31.20 the rate of the horary motion at 6H. gives the horaty
motion at 6H, 30 = to 31. 22. 30°. If we now fuppofe the
mid-interval of the moon’s paflage over two fucceffive meridians,
at each of which the diftance of her enlightened limb from the
fame ftar was obferved to have happened at this very time,
then to determine the difference of their longitudes from thefe
obfervations ‘her whole increafe of A. R. for 12 hours, at the
precife rate at which fhe then moved, is required; and this
quantity is had by multiplying the horary motion at 6H. 30
by 12—thus, 31. 22. 30. X12=6°. 16. 30.

Aut that feems now requifite is to add a few words on the
meafure of time to be employed in the calculation of the lon-
gitude, by this method of comparing the )’s limb, when on two
different meridians, with the fame fixed ftar.

As the calculations in the Nautical Almanac, of all the lunar
motions, are exprefsly declared to be made for the apparent
moments of noon and midnight, as deduced immediately from
the fun, and as this apparent time, about the 20th of December,
varies 30’ inaday from M. © time, it is evident that the change
of the y’s A. R. for 12H. at that time, as given in the Nau-
tical Almanac, is in fa@, the change for 12H. 0 15 of M.OT.
In this cafe therefore the A. R. gained in 15", fhould be de-

ducted

[ 209 |]

duéted from the fum of the increafe of the )’s A. R. in 12H.
apparent time; that the remainder may correfpond to the ad
term of the analogy (viz. 12H.) in M. © T.and thus the 4th term
of the proportion, namely the difference of longitudes, will alfo
come out in this equable aftronomic meafure of time. This
correGtion will take place wherever the diurnal difference be-
tween mean and apparent time is great enough to make any
fenfible difference in the firft term of the proportion.

Tue refult thus obtained, will however require a {mall cor-
reGtion in the amount of the longitude, as found by this lunar
- problem.

For as 24H. M.© T. amount to 360. 59. 8=*, and as the
whole equator comprizes but 360°. 1H. of M. © T. fhould
indicate 15°. 2.8. of the zquator, and as terreftrial longitudes
are counted at the rate of only 15° to an hour, the longitudes
given in M.© T. fhould be corre€ted according to this differ-
ence, and the quantity of this corre@tion will be readily thewn
by the tables for converting M. folar into fydereal time.

Or perhaps it may be as ready a way to reduce the 12H.
of M. folar time into fydereal before the proportion is made,
and thus the three firft terms in the proportion being in this mea-
fure of time, the fourth will confequently come out in the
fame, and no further correftion be required.

Mox. VI. Dd TAKE

f i-'2 Ome

Take an Example each way:

itt. §° TH. MEO TL! 46007 TEM: © TT: YP - bot eee
M. © T.=1H. 0. 9", 83 fydereal time.

od. 12H. M.© T. = 12H. 1. 58, 283 fydereal time.

Therefore 8°? 12H. 1’. 58, 283:: 40°: 1H.0 9g’, 83.

It is further to be obferved that though the two corretions I
have juft ftated are the principal ones that ufually occur in this
calculation, and indeed the only ones that for meridians of fhort
intervals afunder are fenfibly requifite, yet in order to difcufs
this queftion fully it may be neceflary to mention fome other
fources of irregularity, that at particular times and at places
confiderably diftant from each other in longitude, well deferve
the notice of the attentive and fcrupulous aftronomer. The ap-
parent difk of the moon: (as feen from the centre of the earth)
being a quantity perpetually varying in its dimerifions, if its
change fhould be fenfible in the interval between the obfer-
vations at the firft and fecond meridian, it is evident that in
proportion as the diameter of the moon is either contracted
or expanded during this interval, the enlightened limb which
fhould be a fixed boundary of menfuration for each place will
cither retire farther from or be protruded towards the ftar more
under the fecond meridian than it was under the former; and
thus, independent of all other caufes of error, vitiate the accu-
racy of the meafurement. This alteration of the difk happens
from the moon’s changing her abfolute diftance from the earth

during

ERS IES Me ay Re Fo

i an 4

during the interval of the obfervations. . As the greateft varia-
tion of the moon’s femidiameter is about 16” in a day, in
this extreme cafe, under meridians that are 6H. afunder, the cor-
rection of the difk from this caufe only would amount to 4’.
And fhould fhe in the interval have changed her declination, fo
as to vary her femidiameter by another fecond in the fame di-
rection with the former variation, then the aggregate of thefe
alterations of the lunar difk would colle&ively amount to five
feconds, a quantity that would make a confiderable error in

the determination of the longitude.

Tue neceffary correftions being found from the eftimate lon-
gitude and the tables, and carefully applied, all that remains
to be done is to ftate over again the analogy mentioned in the
general rule, fubftituting therein the corrected numbers. To ren-
der this final analogy as bricf and as eafy as poffible, I have
added a fecond table of aff/fant logarithms for every minute
of the moon’s increafe of A.R. for 12H. in which. the arith-
metical complement of the proportional logarithm of the quan-
tity of the moon’s increafe of A. R. in 12H. for every change
of 1’ in her rate is added to the proportional logarithm of 12H.
fo that all that is neceffary is to change the corrected differ-
ence in time into parts of a degree, and to add its proportional
logarithm to the logarithm taken out of the table, and the fum
will be the proportional logarithm of the difference of the two
meridians in time.

Dd 2 EXAMPLE.

Be?
EXAMPLE.

January sth, 1789. The meridians of Greenwich, and of
the obfervatory of Trinity College, Dublin, (eftimated longi-
tude 25’. 18’. weft of .Greenwich) were obferved to apply
fucceflively to « Aquile and the y's firft limb at the following
intervals of A. R. in fydereal time.

GREENWICH. OxgsErvaTory, I.C. D.

a Aquile 19H. 40. 32".15 Aquile 19H. 40. 52”, 8
ysiftlimb 1. 40. 8 50 Y’siftlimb 1. 41. 26, 3.

Apparent difference of A. R. at Greenwich 5H. 59’ 36”, 35. Clock
moving nearly fydereal time.
Apparent difference of A. R. at Obfervatory, T.C. D. 6H. 0%. 33% 5
Dedué€ for clock’s rate 2, 6

6. 0. 30, 9
Apparent difference of A. R. at Greenwich 5. 59. 36, 35

Appar. change of A.R. inthe interval of meridians 0. © 54,55
Correction from Table I. T, 90

True change of A. R. in the interval 52, 65

——

Change

[ete

Change of y's A. R. for 12 hours at the rate of 6H. 33,
being the mid-interval of the obfervation 6°. 16. 30

Its affiftant logarithm from Table II. : g. 7186
prop. logarithm of 52’, 65=13. 9’, 7 I. 1360
0. 8545

prop. logarithm of 25' 9’, 6, which reduced to fydereal time
is 25. 13", 7 longitude weft.

Nore.— Thefe appulfes of the moon and ftar to the meri-
dians of Greenwich and of the Obfervatory of T. C. D. were
obferved with the excellent tranfit inftrnments that thofe ob-
fervatories are furnifhed with—and reduced by a mean of the
five wires in the refpective tranfit books of Drs. Mafkelyne and
Ufsher.

On the Conftruétion of Table \.

As the corre€tion of the difference of the difiances of the
moon’s enlightened limb, from the fame ftar under different
meridians, evidently depends on the interval of the meridians,
combined with the moon’s rate at the mid-interval of the ob-
fervations, the table intended to facilitate this corre@tion was
conftruéted in the following manner :

Let S be the fum of the moon’s increafe in A. R. for 12H.
Hi2H. L the eftimate longitude, D the difference of
A. R.

[ aed

AR: correfponding to the moon’s rate and the eftimate lon-
gitude, and C the correion required.

Then 3 S;: LD Di & B= Sep) 2C.
Onll=—S 9451 2D:
S§xL x Bin! ct Ree

2) E SxL ae — _
Confequently p= esc: D= i xX Ts=

& PXs

H =.

TABLE ol.

Corrections of the apparent differences of the difiances of the moon’s

limb from a ftar, as obferved on the fame day under different mert-
dians, in parts of fydereal time.

‘Space.

Dit tws:| Increafe of the Moon’s A. R. in 12H. |

lime.

|
LT '5°.34.6e. 4° 6°. 34 ee 13 34" 8°. 4
4 |o, 24! 0. 2 28 0, 33 0, 0; 38 0, 4310, 49
8 (0, 47/0, 57.0, 66 0, 760, 86) 0, 97
iz Io, 71 O; », 85 9.99 1, 14 1, 30'1, 47
16 a.00) I) 14 (4h, 354 1 20) 1, 721s ae!
20 |I,20;1, 42 1, 65 1, OI 2, 17' 2, 46
24 lt, 45| 1570 72 1. 98 2, 29 2, 60 2, 94
28 1, 68) 171 98:) 2593 bias sOF 9:1:04 | 35:43

I, 92 2. 27 2, 64 3, 06 3, 47 3, 93
2 15} 2, 551 25 97 . 35 44,3, 9° | 4, 42 |
2, 38 2, 8413, 31 3, 82 4, 34/4, 94!

This

[. ang
This table is to be entered at top with the moon’s fuppofed
equable rate for 12 hours affumed from her true rate, at the
mid-interval of her paffage from the meridian of the firft place
of obfervation to that of the fecond; and at the fide with the
eftimate difference of the longitudes of the places in time or

motion.

N. B. In conftruéting the above table, the two firft terms

S. Eyrargs j
of the feries = 1+S+, &c. were only ufed as giving a refult

fufficiently accurate.

4A Table

A Table of afiftant logarithms to facilitate the proportion that is to be
made for deducing the longitude from the correéted differences of
the A. R’s. of the moon’s enlightened limb from that of a far,

216 |

obferved on the fame day under different meridians, being

|

O

© O39 69 Od © 8
Mme Oo

PA Bek oe ke
, BP 62 ‘ 62 , 6°
(50/9. 6868] 9/9. 7097 29|9-7326)49| 9. 7544
'51{ 688o}To] “7rog)30) 7337/50] 7555
52) 68g2) 11) 9 7r21| at 7349] 51. 7565
53| 6905/12] 7132132] 7360/52] 7576
54| 6917/13] 7144133] 7371/53] 7586
55| 6929114] 7156/34] 7382154] 7596
56] 6941/15) 7167/35] 7393155] 7607
57} 6953|16| 7179/36] 7404156] 7618
58} 6966/17] 7190137] 7415]57] 7628
159] 6978|18| 7202]}38|° 7426 58 7639
6° 19]. 7213139] 7436|59] 7649
0/9. 6990] 20] 7225]40 7448 HQ
I] 7002/21} 7236/41] 7458) o}9. 7659
2} 7014|22| 7248/42] 7469] 1 7670
2). O26 |\2' 7259|43| 7480] 2| 7680
4} 7038/24} 7270/44] 7491] 3]. 7690
5 7050|25| 7282/45 7501]. 4] 7701
6 7062/26] 7293/46] 7512 5 OTe
71 70741271 7304147) 7523) 6| 7721
8] 7085|28! 7315|48| 75331 7| 773%

r. gun al
TABLE JI. continued.

7 ‘ 1 ha ? bi : go
8 9.7741 | 28) 9. 7940/48 9. 8129
9 7751)29| 7949)49| 8139
10; 7762/30} 7959/50] 8148] 9]. 8320
II} 7772/31) 7969/51} 8157/To} 8329
12) 7782/32} 7978|/52| 8166/11} 8338
18 | 7792\33| 7988)53| 8176|12| 8346
'4| 7802/34) 7998/54) 8185/13; 8355
15} 7812/35) 8007\55) 8194/14} 8364
16} 7822/36} 8016)56) 8203/15} 8373
77| 7832137] 8026)57| 8212|16| 8382
18} 7842}38} 8036/58) 82a1j17| 839r°
19) 7852/39} 8045|59] 8230/18} 8399
20|- 7862140] 8055}. |8°
21} 7871/41| 8064] o|g. 8239|20] 8417
22| - 7881142) 8073] 1
23} 7891/43} 8083] 4
24|-- 7901/44! 8092] 3
25| 7911/45] 8101] 41. 8275\24

5
6

26} 7920|46] 8111
27| 79301471 8120!

Vou. VI. Ee The

fF FrSe ye,

The refults of the following obfervatrons, made by Dr. Mafkelyne and
Dr. Osfoer, at the obfervatories of Greenwich and Trinity Col-
fege, Dublin, will tend to foew the advantages to be derived
from this method.

At the Obfervatory o

| At Greenwich. | Trinity College. | Difference
| A.R. bythe |Clock |A. R. by the Clock’s of Longit.
clock. d.Rate clock. _|d. Rate,|educed.

| 1788 |Procyon | 7H 31' 44", 7414 ol! 5 7 28 43, 02|_
May 131) t Aiwa ¥O 1 Bll Ala 85)/ = Tf ROc26 1570 "7
Antares |16 16 16, 30 161449, 9
pIL 16 20 10, 66; {1619 41, 4

June 16)

sory she ia 3s ta ito sun a oy sa & spss
08. 7 bane a rh oh 33 ie 36 fe ie lan 25 10,4
ne sre 19 “ ay Pat: 0, 6 si - rae + 11, 0/25 13, he
Jan, 8. (AEHO) 4/68 tesa oe | EEL i 10, elange, a

Aldebaran| 4 23 44, 22|_
eb 5 yi L Ae: 48, 82 o, 8

424 38, 9
5 649, 6

— ———— ———— ed

Fi Jil 7 12 39,,80 731515, 7
Feb. 7 |Pollux | 7 32 16, 687? 7 733.44. 9|t

6,
Procyon | 7 28 7, 60)_ o, 4| 7 3° g\t 14> 5/24 57> 5

yt LI g 18 44, 98 g 21 48,
pik 19 38 47, 0O}_ TO039) 7504
cpa 7, ® Aquile |19 44 50, 42 sad 19 43 16, 3

Soe 19 40 4, 92

= 20, Ol2 Fiorina

19 39 0, 29]_
Nov. 26 ii 23 46 40, 48 +o, 3in4 16 20, 4 20, 0/25 3 5
it. S ho aawas. yal. - lvoe WO: 9|_
Dec. 24! aldebaran| 4 2g) 15; (98) =. 2 6] 42215, 8 ee Schinkel
ay ©) et ae ee © 59 385 7|_
Dee" *5}aldebaran| 4 23 15, 06(_ °| 4 ar 57. of 17? 85 % E
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* This obfervation of the fecond limb gives the difference of longitude greater
than the obfervations of the preceding limb; which is to be attributed to the
difference of the telefcopes.—The Greenwich tranfit inftrument gives a lefs
diameter of the fun than the tranfit inftrument of the obfervatory of T.C. D.
and the effe& of this difference of inftruments is to leffen the longitudes de-
duced by the above method from obfervations of the firft limb, and to increafe
thofe deduced from the fecond limb. Confequently to ufe this method to moft
advantage a mean of refults deduced from obfervations of both limbs ought to

be taken.

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[t cage 7

On th METHOD of taking RADICALS out of
EQUATIONS. By Mr. D. MOONEY, 4. B.
Trinity College, Dublin. Communicated by WUITLEY
STOKES, M.D. FiT.C.D. and MRE A.

AMONG the rules delivered by the incomparable Sir Iaac
Newton for the Reduction of Equations, the following is a prin-
cipal one:

“ Si cui farde quantitati irreducibili litera involvatur ad cujus
« dimenfiones, aquatio ordinanda eft, ceteri omnes termini ad
“ contrarias partes, cum fignis mutatis transferendi funt, & utra-
“« que pars -eequationis in fe femel multiplicanda, fi radix quadra--
“ tica fit, vel bis fi fit cubica.”

Ir the letter be involved in a fingle furd, the operation is eafily
performed by fimple involution; but if in two or more furds, of
the fame or different dimenfions, or if there be a number of ra--
dical quantities involved in the terms of the equation, the opera--
tion for clearing fuch an equation from radicals, is fomewhat more

difficult.

In:

Read June
18th, 1796.”

[) 2iek J

‘In the 97th SeGion of his Analyfis, Doctor Hales fhews the
method of taking quadratic furds out of an equation, provided the
number of terms be not greater than four, but if there be a fifth
term, Whether rational or furd, he is of opinion that the equation
cannot, by that method, be cleared from furds. Were this the cafe,
sve would have no other alternative, than to recur to the method of
Monficur Fermat, by feigning the furds equal to an affumed letter,
and thence by means of as many fimple equations, as there are

furds, to take thefe letters out of the equation; but this is a work -

of fo much labour, that it is fufficient to deter a perfon flightly ac-
quainted with algebra. However, by confidering the nature of the
furds that arife after involution, it will readily appear that there is
no fuch limit, nor any need of recurring to an operation fo labo-

rious.

Let the equation propofed confift of five quadratic furds, if
thefe can be rendered rational, four quadratics and a rational may
be reduced at leaft with the fame eafe,

VatVb=Vvetvd + Vf,

it is plain, that any equation, confifting of five furds, may be
reduced to this form, thence after involution will arife the feweft
number of /urd reCtangles (Doctor Saunderfon fhews in his algebra
that if two quantities be irrational, their produc will be fo too) for
if the equation was divided into parts of one and four furds, the
refult would have fix furd retangles, and from the former po-

fition there will arife but four.
Br

rset

deaeig. 2:

[ 223 J]

By fquaring the fides of the equation propofed, we will have,
at b+aVab=ctdtftevcdt2 Vft+eVdf-

Ir all the combinations that can be made out of the trinomial
/c+/d+W/f be obferved, which are only three, we will fee, that
the fuffixed quantities of every two of thefe admit one common
divifor ; place then any two of thefe combinations at the fame fide,
and the reft of the terms at the other, and affuming the rational
quantities collected =g we have,

pt 2Vab—2 Ved=2V of + 2 /df, and by fquaring
pit4abt4cd+4pVab—4p Ved—8v abcd=4oft+4 ft 8fvdc.
Or thefe furd reGtangles, it’will appear, that two coalefce, i. e.

have the fame fuffixed quantity, and the fuffixed quantities of the
others admit a common divifor. By placing the rationals collected

p? + 4ab + 4dce-4.cf—4 df= q, and the coefficient 8f-4p=7, we
have 4p Vab—8 Jabed =r /de—q, and fquaring,

| 16p? ab+ 64 abcd—64 pab Vcd= race + 9?—29r /cd: now putting

the rationals = fj and the coefficient, 64 pab—2 gr =#, the equation
will ftand, /=t Vcd, and fquaring, /? =7?cd, which latter equation
is free from furds. It is plain that affuming letters for the rationals, .
is only for brevity, and no way affects the furds. Thus it will ap-
pear, how an equation, involving five quadratic furds, is rendered :
rational, by the fimple rules of involution and tranfpofition.

Havine -

{. @24..]

Havixe thus fhewn, that this method has more latitude than
has been generally imagined, I fhall endeavour to evince the truth
of it in the cafe of a fexinomial ; thereby demonftrating its uni-
verfality, and fhewing how the furds, one by one, vanifh, not-
withftanding the enormous appearance of furd rectangles at firft ;
for the number of furd re€tangles, arifing from the involution of
a multinomial furd quantity to the fquare, is always equal to the
fum of the natural numbers between o and the number of the
parts connected by the figns + or —,and therefore rapidly en-
creafes.— Vide Saunderfon’s Alg. Tom. 2, Section 422, (fub finem ;)
& Simpfon’s Alg. Chapter on Combinations.

Lert there be propofed the equation, confifting of a rational and
five quadratic furds, x + Vat /b-Vc—yV d-v f= 0.

Arter tranfpofition, the equation muft either have two parts
at one fide, and four at the other, in which cafe, after involution,
there will be feven furd re€tangles; or one part at one fide, and
five at the other, from whence would arife, after involution, ten
furd re€tangles; or finally, three parts at each fide of the equa-
tion, from whence, after involution, refult fix furd reQangles, i.e.
threé at each fide. Let us take the equation from whence the
leaft number of furd rectangles refult ;

xtVatVba=VeotvVdtV/f
{quated x*+atbt+taxVatox Vbt2vab=cetdtfrrVvcd
+ 2Vvof+2Vdf

Ler

;
f
‘

a yess foagt

es

Ler the rationals collected =, and transferring to the other
fide as well the rationals as the fimple quadratic 2 * /b, the equa-

tion will be 2 * /a+ 2V/ab= 2 V/cd+2Vcf+ 2V/df—2 « Vb-2.

For brevity fake I fhall hereafter affume letters for the rationals
of the equations, and transfer each furd as it comes out toa fimi-
lar one wherever it is found, annexing the fign according to the
fide it is placed at ; fquaring the above equation we have

ht+8xavb =i\ 8e/dft+8dVf—-8 nV bced—4¢ Vcd—8 x /bof—8-« /bdf
—4gnvb —4gvdf—agvo +8 fi/cd

Here then we have an equation free from the furd a and fince
the coefficients of the furds-can ‘by no means affect the poffibility
of -clearing it, and we are fo ‘far only concerned, I fhall omit them,
and. fubftituting & for the rationals —/, the equation will be
Vb + Vbed + V bef + Vbaf = Vdf t+ /cof + /cd—k and fquaring.

T+ ab Ved + 2b Vef + 2bVdf. =m + of Vcd +2dVfc—2k Vdf

+ 2bf Vcd + abd of + 2beVdf __—ak Vcd—2k Vf + 20 Vdf,
whence neglecting coefficients after uniting the furds ;
we ‘have Vcd + /cof = V/df—n. Here we have exterminated the
furd /, and by each fucceeding operation we take away one more,
always adhering to the rules to'transfer tothe fame fide all thofe
furds whofe fuffixed ‘quantities involve the fame letter; from

whence alfo it follows that the number of involutions will be plus

one than the number of furds. In the-fecond ftep there were

eleven-furds with rationals, and in the next tho’ twelve appear; .
Vox. VI. Bes they

ir - 328]

they can be reduced to three and a rational, whence the fim-
plification is manifeft: The fame I have tried in a feptinomial,
and the refult was agreeable to the former ; though the third
involution, produced twenty-nine furd reCtangles befides ra-
tionals.

The example propofed by Newton, where he mentions M. Fer-
mat’s method, will readily prove that the method juft laid down
fhews the connection of the parts of the equation much better
and is much more brief, the whole being carried on in’ one
fingle equation; that example is an equation confifting of a
cubic furd, two quadratics and a rational, and which Sir Ifaac
has given us without the operation. Doctor Hales in his Analyfis,
g8th Section, has given the operation where even the fubfti-
tuted letters rife to the cubic dimenfion. I fhall now fybjoin
the operation according to the method now propofed :

/ay— Va? —ay—2a = Vay? which cubed and collecting fimilar
terms becomes —14a3 + 15a?—2ay Vay—13a?—2ay Va?—ay + 1247
/ay—y? = ay? affuming 15a?—ay =p and 13a? + 2ay=4

by tranfpofition we have,

p Vay + 1247 Vay—y* = ay? + 1443 +9 Va? —ay and fquaring,

423 2 SiS 24 6 a2 2
prayt+ i4gay — 144ay + 24hay Va? — ay=ay + 196a+ qa—gay

a3 28ay + 2gay + 28ag Ja? — ay.

whence

a
ery 5

re

[ 227 ]

whence tranfpofing and fimplifying we have,

a4 ae E290
pet? +9? tay + 144ay — 14209 = 196a ay — ga=

+ + 2829 Va? —ay
aes
which latter equation has but one furd, whence for f.9¢.p?
and g? fubftituting their values and connecting the terms we have
after dividing all by a?
4 aa : ache Sige Sa iis Soe Tae ies

—y + Say — 184ay + 486ay — 365a= 74ay — 304ay + 3640 + 49

: 7a? ay which equation fquared and transformed into an original

equation gives an equation free from furds the fame as Doétor
Hales’s final equation.

8 26 5 4 62 bf s
J » + 1008ay — 1464ay _- 2762ay + 3680ay + 2916ay — 972ay + 7294
=o0.

By the fame management we may take away the afymmetry
of an equation having furds of a more intricate nature.

Ler there be propofed the equation confifting of a cubic furd

and two biquadratics Vv oe PY sa Ve:

Involve both fides to the cube and the equation se then
ftand,

Jai +3 Vab? +3Va2b +52 = c.

of thefe furds we may obferve that the produ of two pairs
Fia2 will

[. ¢a8 J

will give a fimple quadratic, placing at the fame fide thofe
pairs the equation will ftand,

Va + 3 Vale ae — 3 Va?b —Vb and fquaring this equation
ava+bavb+o9bV/a= c+ 9avb +bVb— 6c gibi 260 GF +64 Va

Let the terms be colleéted uniting fuch furds as admit it,

and fubftituting letters for the coefficients 3a+b=y
== 36 —a=3

the equation will now be 6c Vab+ 20 Vb) — ct +yVb—zVa
wheace by fquaring abre Vb + 24cb Va+ 4cb Vb=c + 9b + a BRS
Vb— 20% Va—2yz Vad.
Let 36ca + 4cb — acy 1
c + yb $2e = *
a4ch o RS
The equation will then by tranfpofition ftand thus,
vVvb+tV¥a = x — 22 ba and fquaring

vb +ta+ 2ut Vab = x — 4yzx Vba+ ayxba let the rationals =r
and the coefficient 2v¢ + 4yzx = s and the equation will be s “ad
=r and fquaring stab = r* where ail the terms are rational.

NEARLY

‘

Lc 4 .

Neary fimilar is the management of three biquadratic furds,
by all which it will appear that this method is much fhorter
than M. Fermat’s; the principal care to be taken is to keep
at the fame fide two furds whofe. produa will give a fimple
quadratic, and then uniting the terms that will admit of it pro-
ceed as before by involution and tranfpofition.

Wuen fractions having furds in their denominators occur,
it is expedient to remove the furds out of the denominator
by multiplication, this is ufually done by the multiplication
of the denominator taken as a binomial or refidual ; if there
be four quadratic furds this is, generally fuppofed the limit,
and that if a fifth term be added whether rational or not,
the denominator cannot be rendered rational, but fince the bi-
nomial or refidual here affords the fame convenience as the
tranfpofition in equations, a repeated multiplication will clear
the denominator of radicality. True it is that after multiplica-
tion by a binomial, if the denominator be refolved into parts
of one and four furds, there will come out fix furds and in
no cafe lefs than four and a rational, however by continuing
the operation a little farther the fimplification will appear,

m, &c. RL paras

Pivat+ Vvb+ Vo4Vvd+ve xX Vat+vb—Vc—Vd—WVe the deno-

minator which is the multiplier being refolved into. parts of two
and

[ 230 ]

and three furds, in which cafe fewer furds will come out in
the produ after uniting fuch as admit of it, than if the deno-
minator were refolved into parts of four and one, by retain-
ing at the fame fide of the binomial thofe furds whofe quan-
tities under the radical fign have a common divifor, in the next
multiplication their produ@ coalefce and may be united, fo that
after four multiplications the denominator is freed from radi-
cality as will beft appear by example,

Vat+vb+vVe4+Vd+vVe xX Vat Vvb—Vve—Vd—Ve

fa +Vab+ Vac + Vad+ Vae+ Vbe + Vbd + Vbe —Vcd— Vec—Ved
+ 6 +Vab—Vac—Vad—Vae—Vbe —Vbd —Vbe —V cd —Vec —Ved
—c¢
Loe

—€é
a+b—c—d—e+2Vab x yp y g ew — 2% Cd—2V ce 2vcd

Let all the rationals equal r and the produ@ will be
r+2Vab—2V%ce—2V¥cd—2V de

r+2Vab—2Vce—2Vcd—2avedxr+2Vab—vVce+avcdt+2Vde

r -+arVab— or Vce— ar Vcd — ar Vde—4Vabce — 4 Vabcd — 4 Vabde
4ab 4.2r Vab—orvce+4eVcd+4ceVde—4Vabce +4 V abcd +4V abcde

Ace —4dVce+ arVcd—4cev de
4cd —4dvce—4eVcd+ arv de
4de

r? + 4ab + 4ce — 40d — 4de + 4r Vab — 47 — 8d V ce — 8 Vabce
Ler

“Ko

[ 23x ]
Let all the rationals = g and the coefficient — 4r — 8d = 9

and the produa will now be p+4r Vab—qVce — 8 Vabce by ob-
fetving the fame rules and multiplying by p+ 4r Vab+q Vce
+8 vVabce the produ& will have but one furd.

pt4r Vvab —gVce— 8 Vabce X p+ 4r Vab+qVce+8Vabce

will give p* + 167*ab — q*ce — 64abce + 8rp — 169ce Vab now tis

plain that by one multiplication more the denominator is free
from all radicals.

We

aera bid oil, of hk poate
So arp Sey WP ot 4 ’ 5
. -
. . “Tr h ‘A
dbipt- abo “hud Svan vieweubergeni yen’ dia
natn ee Ne en, OT a couitey
ke ere SM Mh CK Ra Gey ten, See Narn So wee
eee a wit fe : \
: fj ¢ 2
- » Salad Oe aes \ty Piwel Be ade Vint nmiw
itt FOL QT 4 PSR AS-D Se ANS Reg & SVQ BW
: ’
. ; 4 ! ‘
at A+ iy sito orodm sO isola beriee wo) Jett ctelcy.
ann i¢) Wit id A 5
j i 2s eth =
.
: i
: ae
- ‘
? S ‘y

we

fh ged

On the PRIMITIVE STATE of the GLOBE and its SUBSE-
QUENT CATASTROPHE. By RICHARD KIRWAN,
Ej; LL.D. F.R.S. and M.R.L. A.

IN the inveftigation of paft fats dependent on natural caufes, Reag Noy,
certain laws of reafoning fhould inviolably be adhered to. The ats
firft is, that no effea fhall be attributed to a caufe whofe known

powers are inadequate to its production. The fecond is, that no

caufe fhould be adduced whofe exiftence is not proved either by

a@ual experience or approved teftimony, Many natural pheno-

mena have arifen or do arife in times or places fo diftant, that

well conditioned teftimony concerning them cannot without ma-

nifeft abfurdity be rejeted. Thus the inhabitants of the Nor-

thern parts of Europe, who have never felt earthquakes nor

feen volcanos, muft neverthelefs admit, from mere teftimony, that

the firlt have been, and that the fecond do adfually exit.

Tue third is, that no power fhould be afcribed to an alleged’
caufe but thofe that it is known by actual obfervation to
poffefs in appropriated circumftances.

Vou. VI. G ¢g To:

[ S3an' J

To thefe laws I mean ftri@ly to conform in the fubfequent
inquiry, and on this conformity to reft its merits. To them I
ihall appeal in examining the various fyftems I may have occafi-

on to mention.

To thofe who may regard this inquiry as fuperfluous, and con-
fider the aQtual ftate of the globe as alone intitled to philofophi-
cal attention, I fhall beg leave to obferve that its original ftate
is fo ftriGly conneéted with that which it at prefent exhibits,
that the latter cannot be properly underftood without a retrofpec
to the former, as will amply be fhewn in the fequel. Moreover
recent experience has fhewn that the obfcurity in which the phi-
lofophical knowledge of this ftate has hitherto been involved,
‘thas proved too favourable to the ftru€ture of various fyftems of
atheifm or infidelity, as thefe have been in their turn to turbu-
lence and immorality, not to endeavour to difpel it by all the
lights which modern geological refearches have ftruck out. Thus
it will be found that geology naturally ripens, or (to ufe a mine-
ralogical expreflion) graduates into religion, as this does into

morality.

So numerous indeed and fo luminous have been the more
modern geological refearches; and fo obvioufly connected with
the objet we have now in view, that fince the obfcuration or
obliteration of the primitive traditions, ftrange as it may ap-
pear, no period has occurred fo favourable to the illuftration of

the

a a i

ee Eee ee OS

[i 2362. J

the original ftate of the globe as the prefent, though fo far re-
moved from it. At no period has its furface been traverfed in
fo many different direCtions, or its fhape and extent under its
different modifications of earth and water been fo nearly afcer-
tained, and the relative denfity of the whole fo accurately deter-
mined, its folid conftituent parts fo exaly diftinguifhed, their
mutual relation, both as to pofition and compofition, fo clearly
traced, or purfued to fuch confiderable depths as within thefe laft
twenty-five years. Neither have the teftimonies that relate to
it been ever fo critically examined and carefully weighed, nor
confequently fo well underftood, as within the latter half of this.

century.

Tue introdution of teftimony into refearches merely philofo- -

. phical has been, Iam well aware, objected to by many, but in

the prefent cafe the objeGtion evidently originates in inattention
to its obje€t. All philofophical refearches are grounded either on
experiment or obfervation fingly or jointly, and the confequences
clearly deducible from them. Where recourfe cannot be had to
experiment, as in the prefent cafe, there obfervation fingly muft
be reforted to, but as objects even of obfervation are not of daily
occurrence, and many of them muft have exifted at diftant inter-
vals of time and place, recourfe muft be had to its records and
confequently to teftimony. Aftronomy furnifhes us with a cafe
in point. This isa fcience purely philofophical, yet aftronomers
have never hefitated to admit the obfervations of an Hipparchus

Gga or

[, 236° °]

ora Ptolemy. In effect paft geological fa&s being of an hiftorical
nature, all attempts to deduce a complete knowledge of them
merely from their ftill fubfifting confequences, to the exclufion of
unexceptionable teftimony, muft be deemed as abfurd as that of
deducing the hiftory of ancient Rome folely from the medals or
other monuments of antiquity it ftill exhibits, or the fcattered
ruins of its empire, to the exclufion of a Livy, a Salluft or a
Tacitus. ‘That great changes have taken place on the furface of
the globe fince the commencement of its exiftence, changes that
for fome thoufand years have not been repeated, is allowed on all
hands. What then fhould render thefe facts and the cireum-
ftances attending them unfufceptible of teftimony? not furely
their improbability or difcrepance with a€tual obfervation, fince
their reality is confeffed by all; with refpect to fome of them
I can think of no reafon but one, and that indeed at the firft blufh
fufficiently plaufible, namely that their exiftence preceded that of
the human fpecies; this certainly proves that the knowledge of
the hiftorian that relates them (fuppofing him to have any) was
not as to fuch faéts obtained by human means, But if in a fe-
ries of facts difcovered by an inveftigation to which the witnefs
was an utter ftranger, an exact agreement with the relation of
the hiftorian be difcerned, not barely as to the fubftance of the
fa@s but even as to the order and fucceffion of their ex-
iftence, in fuch cafe it muft be acknowledged that the rela-
tion is true, let the knowledge of the hiftorian have been ob-

tained

Pe a

[ser 4

tained how it may. If its primary fource cannot be human it
muft have been fupernatural, and moft affuredly worthy of credit
eyen in fuch inftances as have not as yet been corroborated by
obfervation, or perhaps aré incapable of fuch additional proof.
Now fuch an account of the primeval ftate of the globe and of
the principal cataftrophes it anciently underwent, I am bold to
~ fay Mofes prefents to us, and I make no doubt of demonftrating
in the following Effays.

LOG A NERS ieee ae ~ ee Wem

ON THE

PRIM#VAL STATE OF THE GLOBE.

Tue firft remarkable fact that prefents itfelf to our notice on
confidering the primitive ftate of the globe is, that its fuperficial
parts, at leaft to a certain depth, muft have originally been in a
foft or liquid ftate. This fa@ is inferred from the fhape it at pre-
fent exhibits, which, as aftronomers tell us, is that of a {phceroid
compreffed at the poles, the polar diameter being found feveral
miles fhorter than the equatorial; nor is it at the poles only that
this compreffion is obfervable, but in all the higher degrees of
latitude, nearly in proportion to their proximity to the poles.
This fhape it evidently could not affume unlefs to a certain
depth its fuperficial parts were in a foft or liquid ftate. Some
geological obfervations alfo indicate that its component parts, even

thofe

[ 238 ]

thofe that are at prefent the moft folid, were originally in a foft
ftate. Thus in the mountains of Quedlice and Portficellet in Nor-
way, which confift of an argillaceous pudding ftone, the filiceous
pebbles it contains are obferved to be compreffed to the thick-
nefs of about 4 of an inch in the lower parts of the mountains,
but to increafe in fize and roundnefs in proportion as their fitu-
ation is higher.—1. Bergm. Erde Befch. 182. and in the Yrvarors
the loweft ftrata of primitive limeftone have been found of the
thicknefs of only +5 of an inch, but in proportion to their
heighth in the mountain their thicknefs increafes, until at its
fummit it arrives to thirty or forty feet. 1. Soulavie, 178. Mr.
Ferner made the fame obfervation in England*, but it is needlefs
to infift further on this point, as it is now generally allowed.

Wir refpeat to the interior and more central parts, they
having been hitherto inacceflible, nothing can be determined
from immediate obfervation, but we may colle@ with fufficient
certainty, and it is now generally acknowledged, that at the
time of the creation and for many centuries after they contained
immenfe empty caverns, and confequently confifted of materials
fufficiently folid to refift the preffure of the enormous mafs of
liquid fubftance placed over them.

Tue liquidity thus proved to exift in the more fuperficial parts
of the globe, comprehending even thofe that are now moft folid,
muft

® 1 Roz. Syo. p. 64. and Gruber in Carniola. Phy. Arbeit. 2d Stuck. 3.

[ 2g9" 4]

muft have proceeded either from igneous fufion or folution in
water. The hypothefis of igneous fufion wars with every notion
which experiment has taught us to form either of fire or its fuel,
or the properties and appearances of the various fubftances fup-
pofed to be fubjected to it, as I have fhewn at large in a foriner
differtation contained in the TranfaCtions of this Academy; the
latter perfectly accords, and much more perfeQly than I was then
aware of, with all the properties and chara@ters that all the
folids now known exhibit, thofe confeffedly of volcanic origin

folely excepted.

Tue difficult folubility in water of moft of the folids which
the globe at prefent exhibits, and the immenfe quantity of that
fluid requifite to effe@ their folution, forms the only difficulty
that has hitherto embarraffed geologifts, though it has prevented
fcarce any of them from admitting that folution. Moft of them
have fuppofed that at that early period fome menftruum exifted
capable of effefing it. This difficulty however proceeds folely
from inattention to the firft demonftrated fat, namely, that the
globe at its origin, at leaft to.a certain depth, was a liquid mafs ;
therefore the folids that at prefent compofe it were not originally
in a folid ftate, whofe converfion into a ftate of liquidity would
certainly require more water than is known to exift, but were at
the very commencement of their exiftence in that ftate of mi-
mute divifion which aqueous folution requires, but which no
known exifting quantity of that fluid would be able to effect.

Now

[ 240 ]

Now it is a well known chymical fa@ that lefs of any menftroum
is requifite to keep a folid fubftance in folution, at leaft for 4
fhort time, than originally to diffolve it.

Yer if the quantity of aqueous fluid requifite even to keep
the mafs of folids in folution were too {mall, as poffibly it may
have been, this would only haften the /econd general fa@ to which
I now proceed, namely, the cryftallization, precipitation and de-
pofition of thefe folids. But before I enter on this event it will
be neceflary to confider more particularly the flate of this orit
ginal chaotic fluid.

THe water which conftituted this menftruum being in a liquid
ftate muft have been heated at leaft to thirty-three degrees, and
poffibly much higher. Secondly, it contained the eight generic
earths, all the metallic and femi-metallic fubftances now known,
the various fimple faline fubftances, and the whole tribe of inflam.
mables, folid and liquid, which are of a fimple nature, varioufly
diftributed, forming upon the whole a more complex menftruum
than any that has fince exifted, and confequently endued with
Properties very different from any with which we have been fince
acquainted.

Hence elementary fire or the principle of heat muft have been
coeval with the creation of matter, and the general properties of
gravitation and eleGtive attraGion may be fuppofed of equal
date.

Tue

[age]

Tue proportion of the different materials contained in the
chaotic fluid to each other may be fuppofed upon the whole
nearly the fame as that which they at prefent bear to each other,
the filiceous earth being by far the moft copious, next to that
the ferruginous, then the argillaceous and calcareous, laftly the
magnefian, barytic, Scottifh and Iargonic, in the order in which
they are named, the metallic fubftances (except iron) moft fpar-
ingly ; in particular parts however of this polygenous fluid a very
different proportion muft have obtained (as in fome parts of the
globe) fome fpecies of earth or metal, &c. have evermore been
found more copious than in others. Some geologifts, as Buffon,
and of late Dofor Hutton, have excluded calcareous earth from
the number of the primeval, afferting the maffes of it we at |pre-
fent behold to proceed from fhell fifhy But in addition to the
unfounded fuppofition, that fhell fifh ‘or any animals poffefs the
power of producing any fimple earth, thefe philofophers fhould
have confidered that before the exiftence of any fith the ftony
maffes that inclofe the bafon of the fea muft have exifted, and
among thefe there is none in which calcareous earth is not found.

3 _ Of this circumftance indeed Buffon was ignorant, the analyfes

that prove it being unknown to him. Doctor Hutton endeavours
to evade this argument by fuppofing the world we now inhabit
to have arifen from the ruins and fragments of an anterior, and
that of another ftill prior, without pointing at any original. If

‘we are thus to proceed 7 infinitum I fhall not pretend to follow

him, but if he ftops anywhere, unlefs he alfo fuppofes his primi-
Vou. VI. Hh tive

[r 242, J

tive globe abfolutely different from that which we inhabit, (and
with fuch I do not meddle) he will find the fame argument

equally to occur.

In a fluid conftituted as that juft mentioned, it is evident, from
the laws of eledtive attra@tion, that the various folids diffufed
through it muft foon have coalefced in various proportions accord-
ing to the laws of this attraction and the prefence or proximity
of the ingredients, and thus have cryftallized into different groups,
which defcended to and were depofited on the inferior folid kernel
of the globe. In thofe traéts in which the filiceous, and next
to it the argillaceous earth moft abounded, (and fuch tracts
appear to have been by far the moft extenfive) granite and
gneifs, appear to have been firft formed, and their formation
may thus be explained : Both thefe rocks confift of quartz,
felfpar and mica, in a variable proportion, but the quartz and
felfpar are generally the moft copious. Thefe ftones are them-
felves compofed of filiceous and argillaceous particles, and par-
ticularly the firft, principally of filiceous, the two latter admit-
ting alfo the argillaceous and a fmall proportion of the calca-
reous; the magnefian and in fome inftances of the barytic. Now
of thefe earths, ¢hat fhould coalefce firft, which with an equally
fmall affinity to water was at the fame time moft plentifully con-
tained in it, its particles being more within the reach of each
other’s attraction. Hence we may conclude that the quartz firft

cryftallized, {carce ever indeed perfealy, from the difturbance that
muft

[ 249 J

muft have occurred in fuch an immenfe body of an heterogeneous
fluid, nor perfely pure by reafon of its affinity to argil and
calx. ‘Next to this felfpar, containing a fmaller proportion of filex
and a larger of the other earths, proportions which, from their
eafy fufibility, alfo appear to exhibit the maximum of attraCtion of
thefe earths to each other when filex and argill prevail, muft have
cryftallized next, and laftly the mica, a flone in which the pro-
portion of filex to argil is ftill fmaller. The portion of water
difengaged from thefe earths gradually afcended and made room
for new fhoots, which attaining the foregoing before they were

_ perfeétly hardened adhered to them clofely, and thus at laft vaft

uniform blocks were formed ; where the fhoots had not attained a
certain degree of hardnefs, or the fofter ingredient, viz. the mica
abounded, the gneifs was formed; and where the proportions re--
quifite to form felfpar were deficient, the other granitic ingredi-
ents being prefent, fhiftofe mica was formed. Hence we may.
underftand how it has. happened that gneifs fhould fometimes be
found in granite*; and fometimes maffes of granite in the midft
of gneifs, and why in, mountains, granite, gneifs and fhiftofe mica,
frequently alternate. with,each other,. Charpent. 390.

As the fluid from which thefe cryftallized granitic maffes. fub-
fided was of the, moft, heterogeneous kind it is not to be won-
dered at that various metallic fubftances, and particularly iron,
and even fome traces of carbon and plumbago, fhould fometimes
eccur in them. 2 Saufs, 451. 2 Bergm. Jour. 1790. 532.

Hh 2 Iv.

* Wemer kurze Claflif. 9, 10.-

[ 244 ]

In other tracts where the fame earths occurred, but not in the
proportions fitted to produce granitic ingredients, other maffes of
the filiceous genus, as filiceous fhiftus, filiceous porphyries, jafpers,
&c. were formed by a lefs perfect and confufed cryftallization.

In various places argillites, hornblende flates, ferpentines and
other primeval ftones of various denominations muft have arifen
according to the predominant proportion of their ingredients by
a more or lefs perfect or partial cryftallization.

Merauttc fubftances (all of which I fuppofe to have originally
exifted in their complete metallic ftate) and particularly iron, of
all others the moft copious, muft in fundry inftances have met and
combined with fulphur, the fubftance to which all and particu-
larly iron has the greateft affinity, and thus pyritous fubftances
and fulphurated ores originated. Petrol, fpecifically lighter in-
deed than water, but involved in the chaotic fluid, meeting fulphur
to which it has an affinity, with it formed a liquid fpecifically
heavier, which gradually involved and was abforbed by carbonic
particles which were thus colleéted and precipitated.

Ir is a fact at prefent well eftablifhed, that in the a@ of cryf-
tallization a very confiderable degree of heat is generated. Judg-
ing then by analogy, how great then muft have been the heat
produced by the cryftallization of fuch immenfe quantities of

ftony maffes as took place at this period, the immediate effec
of

[L 2458]

of which muft have been an enormous and univerfal evaporation,
{weeping over the furface of the heated fluid according to the
inequality of its diffufion and the caufes that produced it in va-

rious tracts.

Tue heat thus produced muft have been ftill farther increafed
in confequence of an event which naturally refulted from the
degree at firft excited. For in confequence of the evaporation the
quantity of the chaotic fluid (the univerfal menftruum), as alfo
its fpecific gravity, were diminifhed, and thus the fubftances con-
‘tained in it (of which it was not the moft natural folvent) were
ftill more difpofed to precipitation, as ufually happens in fuch
cafes ; thus then the ferruginous particles naturally not foluble
while in this metallic ftate in any fluid, and of which immenfe
quantities exifted, were rapidly and copioufly precipitated ; the
aqueous particles intercepted between them muft in that cafe
have been decompofed, and an immenfe quantity of inflamma-
ble air fet loofe, the heat thus produced increafing with the
mafies operated upon, muft have rifen at laft to incandefcence ;
in that circumflance the oxygen abforbed muft have been in great
meafure expelled, and in its nafcent ftate meeting and uniting
with the inflammable air muft have burft into flame. The pro-
grefs of fuch high degrees of heat muft have difengaged all the
oxygen contained in the contiguous chaotic fluid, which uniting
partly with more metallic iron, partly with the fulphurated and
partly with the carbonic and bituminous fubftances muft have

occafioned

[ 246 ]

occafioned a ftupendous conflagration, the effe&s of which may
well be fuppofed to have extended even to the folid bafis on.
which the chaotic fluid repofed, and to have rent and fplit it to
an unknown extent.

Tear flame fhould thus burft from the bofom of the deep is
not a forced fuppofition, but has frequently been verified in latter
times. I thall only mention one inftance which happened in the
beginning of this century, when flames burft out of the fea near
Tercera, and an ifland was elevated*.

Turse volcanic eruptions, many of which feem to have taken
place at this period, chiefly in the fouthern hemifphere, were
attended with important confequences ; the firft muft have been
the diffufion of a confiderable heat through the whole mafs, of
the chaotic fluid, by which means the oxygen and mephitic airs,
difperfed through it muft have been extricated, and thus gradually
formed the atmofphere. —

Tue fecond was the production of fixed air from the union of
oxygen with the ignited carbon; this at firft rofe into and’ dif-
fufed itfelf through the atmofphere, but in proportion as the cha-
otic fluid cooled it was gradually abforbed by it. This abforb-
tion occafioned the precipitation, and more or lefs regular cryf

tallization

* 6 Phil. Tranf. Abridg. 2d Part, 203.

[ tae. f]

tallization of the calcareous earth, the greater part of which being
much moré foluble than the other earths, ftill remained in fo-
lution after the others had for the moft part been depofited.
This explains why many of thefe primitive calcareous maffes are
of all others the freeft from foreign admixture. In fome few
inftances however it muft have happened that the calcareous parti-
cles intermixed with other earths were faturated before the reunion
and depofition of the other earths, and hence in fome countries
ftrata of primitive calcareous maffes occur in the midft of gneifs,
or alternating with it; but thefe inftances are very rare.

Tuat the formation of fixed air was an event fubfequent to the

formation of moft of the primeval ftones, appears from the obfer-

vation, that the calcareous earth found in the compofition of pri-
meeval ftones is in a cauftic ftate. 44 Roz. 206.

Tue immenfe maffes concreted and depofited on the interior
nucleus of the earth formed the primitive mountains. It may
perliaps be thought that this depofition fhould be equally diffufed
and fhould conftitute only an even cruft over this interior nucleus,
but fuch a difpofition is contrary to the nature of cryftallization,
between whofe fhoots an interval always intercedes, if not too
fudden. The water firft difcharged of its diffolved contents, and
thereby heated, moved upwards, being prefled by the circumam-
bient denfer fluid, which was too heterogenous to mix with, and
be diluted by it. The depofit already formed affording to the

_fucceeding portions of the charged fluid a bafis whofe points of

contact

[ 248 ]

contact were fo much the more numerous as its height was greater,
thereby determined thefe portions to a fimilar depofition, until
the diminifhed denfity or exhauftion of the menftruum dimi-
nifhed or put an end to the number and extent of the points of
contact of the depofited maffes with the folids contained in the
menftruum. In fome cafes alfo, particularly after the chaotic
fluid was heated by the caufes already mentioned, and a confider-
able evaporation had enfued, the cryftallization might have begun
at the furface, as we fee happen to fome falts and to lime-water.
Thus extenfive ftrata might have been fucceffively depofited,
moftly in an horizontal, but often from accidental ruptures during
their fall, in an oblique or nearly vertical pofition. Thus far we
are led by general analogies, without the affiftance of romantic or
gratuitous hypothefes, and the view of the fubje@ thus obtained
is fufficient for the explanation of moft of the obfervations hi-

therto made on the ftruCture of primitive mountains.

Tue formation of p/azns is eafily underftood, in the wide inter-
vals of diftant mountains, after the firft cryftallized maffes had
been depofited, the folid particles ftill contained in the chaotic
fluid, but too diftant from each others fphere of attra€tion to con-
crete into cryftals, and particularly thofe that are known to be
leaft difpofed to cryftallize, and alfo to have leaft affinity to water,
were gradually and uniformly depofited. Of this nature argilla-
ceous particles are known to be, intermixed as may well be ex-

pected with a large proportion of filiceous and ferruginous parti-
cles

so

Pe eee re er Ne ee ee

[ 249 ]

cles of all others the moft abundant, and fome particles of the
other earths; by thefe compound and flightly concreted earths
the furface of plains were originally covered. In procefs of time
thefe earths undoubtedly received an abundant increafe from the
decompofition of primitive mountains, but this being an event of
a pofterior date need here be only curforily mentioned.

Tue next important event neceffary to fit the globe for the
reception of land animals was the diminution and recefs of the
chaotic fluid in whofe bofom the mountains were formed, and ,
the confequent difclofure of the dry land. This event was the
natural confequence of the operation of the preceding volca-
nos, by thefe the bed of the ocean was fcooped, moft proba-
bly as we fhall hereafter fee, in the Southern hemifphere. But no
change or tranfpofition of the folid materials depofited from the
chaotic fluid could lower its level, unlefs the inferior nucleus of
the globe could receive it within its hollow and empty caverns;
this admittance it gained through the numerous rifts occafioned
by the antecedent fires; at firft rapidly, but afterwards more
flowly, in proportion as the perpendicular height of the fluid was
diminifhed, and thus the emerged continent confifting of moun--
tains and plains was gradually laid bare and dried, and by drying,.
confolidated.

_ Tue difclofure of the a€tual continents, as I have juft hinted).
appears to have been gradual. The traéts at firft uncovered were
Vou. VI. Ti thofe

[ 25° 3]

thofe whofe height over the prefent feas amounts to 8500 or go00
feet, or more. This height comprehends moft of the Eaftern
heights of Siberia, between latitude 49° and 55°, and of the ex-
tenfive regions of Great Tartary, Thibet, the defert of Coby
or Chamo, and China, reaching in fome places to latitude 352,
and extending in the Northern parts from the fources. of the
Irtifh, long. 95°, and in the more Southern from the heads of the
Ganges and Bourampooter, long. 80°, Hohanho and Porentfho
to long. tg0° at the leaft, and perhaps ftill farther into the un-
known parts of Eaftern America.

In Europe only the fummits of the Alps, Pyrenees, and of a
few other mountains were uncovered, but in America the nar-
row but long chain of the Cordeliers muft have raifed its fummits
far above the ocean; this fact is a neceflary inference from that
which I am next to mention.

Tue level of the antient ocean being lowered to the height
of 8500 or gooo feet, then and not before, it began to be peopled
with j/k. I fhall therefore from its fimilitude to our prefent
Jeas henceforward denote it by this denomination, to diftinguith
it from the chaotic fluid, whofe compofition was fo different and
contained no fifth.

Tuat the creation of fifh was an event fubfequent to the
emerfion of the tras juft mentioned and to the reduction of
the

bo 2522]

the waters to the height I have ftated, is proved by the ob-
fervations of all thofe who have vifited thofe countries. Pallas
informs us that the immenfe defert of Cobea or Chamo forms
a flat platform whofe elevation can be compared only to that
of Quito in Peru (which Bouguer has fhewn to amount to
upwards of gooo feet) and that the plas of the Monguls all
_ along to the Chinefe wall are nearly of the fame height *.

Mayor RENNEL, in his account of the map of India, tells us
that the country of Thibet is one of the higheft in Afia, being
part of that elevated traét which gives rife not only to the
rivers of India and China, but to thofe of Siberia and Tartary.
The Southern ridge of the mountains of Boutan (Thibet) rifes,
he fays, about a mile and a half above the plains of Bengal,
and may be feen in a horizontal diftance of one hundred and
fifty miles, p. 93 and 94, which indicates a height of fifteen
thoufand feet, or allowing for refra€tion according to Dr. Mafke-
lyne’s rule, eleven thoufand nine hundred and eighty-one feet.

Accorpinc to Abbé Man’s calculations, of all others the moft
accurate and the moft moderate, the height of the Ganges and
Hohanho, even at one thoufand miles diftance from the fea,
muft be three thoufand fix hundred and thirty feet. But Ma-
jor Rennel has fhewn in the Philofophical Tranfaétions, 1781,

lia Pp. 9o,

* » A@. Petrop. 1777, p: 38.

[ 252 ]

p- 90, that the head of the Ganges is two thoufand miles diftant
from the fea, therefore the country it flows from is elevated
at leaft eight thoufand eight hundred or nine thoufand feet.

Now in thefe elevated traéts no marine fhells or petrifactions
are found in the body of any mountain, nor in any ftone not
even in limeftone though it abound particularly about the fources
of the Amour, Herm. 1 Chy. An. 1791, p. 155. But all the
calcareous maffes that occur are either what are called /a/ine
like Carrara marble, or fo fine grained foliated as to appear
nearly compact, but of the primitive kind. This abfence of
marine fhells and petrifactions from fuch extenfive regions has
attraGted the particular notice of all travellers into thefe parts as
they are fo abundantly found in all lower tracts of the globe,
Gmelin, 45. Phil. Tranf. 254. Pallas, 1 Act. Petrop. 44. Pa-
trin, 38 Roz. 227. And though falt fprings and lakes are found
in the higheft plains, Pallas, ibid. 38, and even coal mines in
the mountains, yet no organic remains accompany thefe mines
as they do in the lower traéts of the globe, Patrin, 38 Roz.
226. Pallas indeed remarks fome few petrifactions have been
found in the rifts even of granitic mounts, but thefe he rightly
judges were depofited there at the time of the deluge; ibid.
44.

"Hence I think it follows evidently that thefe traéts were indeed
formed in the bofom of the primitive ocean, like all others,
but

— eee a ee si a a ins oat a eee

E : eagca4

but that they were uncovered before the creation of fith, and
fince they contain limeftone, that this ftone does not neceffarily
and univerfally originate from comminuted fhells, as Buffon and

others have advanced.

Tuar fifth did not exift until the level of the ocean was de-

_preffed to eight thoufand five hundred feet may alfo be in-

ferred with equal evidence from this obfervation, that tho’ fe-
veral lofty mountains at prefent exift which far exceed that height,
yet no petrifactions or fhells are incorporated in the rocks or
ftrata that form them. This De la Peyroufe attefts with refpea
to the Pyrenees, which yet are moftly calcareous. Trazte des Mines
de fer, 336. Nor are any found in Santo Velino, the higheft of
the Appennines, its height being eight thoufand three hundred
feet, whereas they abound in thofe that are lower. In the Sa-
voyan Alps Salenche, Saleve Mole, the Dole, all of which are cal-
careous, but below the height of feven thoufand feet, contain

petrifations, but the Buet, which is alfo calcareous for the

greater part, but whofe height exceeds ten thoufand feet, con-
tains none. Sauffure paffim.

Anp reciprocally of the mountains that covtazm petrifactions
imbodied in their mafs none reaches to the height of eight thou-
fand fix hundred feet. With refpect to the Hartz, Lafius
remarks that no petrifactions are found in the mountains
whofe height exceeds two thoufand three hundred and ten

feet,

Lage

feet, Lafius, 148; and Renovants, p. 76, afferts that none of
thofe of Siberia on each fide of the Altai exceed two thoufand
Paris feet. Nay Pallas does not allow to calcareous mountains
that contain petrifactions (which on this account he judges to
be formed in the fea) above thirteen or fourteen hundred feet,
1 AQ. Petrop. 59, but a view of the mountains of Switzer-
land fhews that many of them are much higher.

Tae neareft approach I have met with, to the limits I have
affigned to the height of the antient ocean when it began to
be peopled with fifth, is an obfervation of Mr. De Luc’s, that
he found cornua ammonis petrified on mount Grenier, whofe
height is feven thoufand eight hundred feet, 2d Lettres a la
Reine, 227; and another of Baron Zoits on the mountain of
Terglore in Carniola, that petrifa€tions were found in limeftone
at the height of between thirteen and fourteen hundred German
lachters, taking fuch to be equal to thofe of the Hartz, the height
was eight thoufand five hundred Englifh feet nearly, and
hence I have extended the limits to eight thoufand five hundred
feet, yet it does not appear by Mr. De Luc’s relation that thefe
petrifa€tions were imbodied in the ftone or rock which con-
ftitutes the mountain, and therefore may well be only relics
of the deluge. He alfo fays that the chain of Jura abounds in
marine remains, but Jura confifts of two chains, the higheft
of which confifts of primeval limeftone in which no petri-
factions are found, and this is the higheft, 30 Roz. 275, but the

lower

[ 255 ]

lower. chain certainly abounds in them. Fichtel alfo remarks
that ftill higher on the mountains of Terglore no petrifaCtions
are found imbodied, Mineral Aufsatz, p. 4.

Arter this elevated tra& of the globe had been uncovered,
there is no reafon to fuppofe that it long remained divefted of
vegetables or unpeopled by animals, being in every refped fitted
to receive them. The fevere degree of cold which at prefent
diftreffes thefe countries during the winter months is folely
owing to their diftance from and elevation over the a@tual feas
(as 1 have elfewhere fhewn), circumftances that did not exift
at this period.

Tuar the retreat of the fea from the lower parts of our pre-
fent continents was gradual and not fully effeGted until after
the lapfe of feveral centuries many reafons induce us to be-
lieve. 1°. Both fides of the Altaifchan platform exhibit fe-
condary mountains (fo I call all thofe which contain marine fhells
or other remains of animal or vegetable fubftances between their
ftrata, or incorporated in the rocks or ftones of which they con-
fift) both of the calcareous and argillitic kind, in which marine
fhells abound, Renoy. 75, thefe therefore muft have been formed
before the fea had receded far from thefe parts, and muft have
been the work of many years.

240, Not only in every region of Europe but alfo of both the
old and new continents, whofe fituation is inferior to that above-
mentioned,

[ <a 4

mentioned, immenfe quantities of marine fhells either difperfed
or collected have been difcovered. In the province of Touraine
in France, at one hundred miles diftance from the fea, there
exifts at a depth of eight or nine feet a heap of fhells of nine
leagues in furface and upwards of twenty feet in depth, many
of which are thofe of the neighbouring feas, a collection which
certainly required many years to accumulate——Mem. Paris, 1720.
p- 524, 540. Moft of thefe fhells are placed on their flat and not
on their convex furface.—Ibid. which fhews they muft have been
gently depofited, and not huddled together by a fudden and vio-
lent inundation. In fome places fhells of different fpecies are
thus accumulated, but in others they are regularly arranged in
families.—1 Bergm. Erdekug. 251, 262. 6 Roz. 120. Widem.
Verwandl. 118. which fhews alfo that they were neither fuddenly
nor promifcuoufly colle@ed. Many fmaller but fimilar accumu-
lations occur in England, as may be feen in the Philof. Tranf.
and Ray’s Difcoveries, and in Peru 2 Don. Ulloa’s Voy. 197. and
alfo in Italy, Spain, Germany, Poland, Sweden, &c. which being
generally known and acknowledged it is needlefs to detail, but
it deferves particular attention, though many of them are found
at a depth of from eight to one or two hundred feet under the fur-
face of the earth, and at ftill greater depths from the furface of
mountains, yet fcarce any are found lower than the actual fur-
face of the bed of the fea——1 Bergm. Erde, 176. Some indeed are
found that do not now occur in the neighbouring coaft, becaufe

they are of the kind called Pe/agica, which exift only at great
depths,

[ 257. ]

depths, as Don Ulloa has fhewn, 2 Voy. 197. or becaufe the tem-
perature of the actual feas is unfit for them, as the ancient feas,
from the fmaller extent of the ancient continents, muft have
been much watmer, nay the number of thefe unknown fhells is
daily diminifhing.

We may alfo remark that the loweft countries, as Brabant
and Holland, contain moft of them. In particular tracts of Ruffia
they are alfo very copious, becaufe thefe traéts were longer co-

vered by the fea than moft other countries, as will be fhewn in a

future Effay.

4°. Trees of different kinds and various vegetables have been
found in great depths in our modern continents, and even under
lofty mountains, as at Meiffen in Heffia, and often mixed with
marine remains. Some parts of the earth on which thefe trees
grew muft therefore have been dry land, while thofe parts in
which the trees are found were covered by the fea, therefore the
retreat of the fea muft have been gradual. Many I am fenfible
afcribe thefe depofitions to the ravages of the univerfal deluge,
and in fome cafes I believe juftly, but as they are often under
hills or mountains, whofe ftrata are regularly difpofed, a regula-
rity that can fcarce be fuppofed to take place during the turbu-
lence of a deluge, in thefe cafes it appears their depofition muft
be afcribed to more tranquil caufes.

Vou. VI. K k 5”. TREES

[ 258 J

5°. Trees have often been found depofited near the fummits
of many mountains at heights in which from the degree of cold
which at prefent prevails on them they could not grow, there-
fore they muft have grown when the temperature of thefe fum-
mits was warmer, and confequently when they were lefs elevated
over the furface of the fea, and lefs diftant from it.

LastLy,—Stratified mountains of various heights beneath eight
thoufand feet exift in different parts of Europe, and of both con-
tinents, in and betwixt whofe ftrata various fubftances of marine,
and fome vegetables of terreftrial origin repofe, either in their
natural ftate or petrified; the regularity and uniformity of thefe
ftrata ftrongly indicate a caufe whofe action was regular and uni-
form and long continued ; now tides are the only caufe of this
nature with which we are acquainted; fudden and violent inun-
dations and of fhort continuance are incompatible with ftrati-
fications fo regular and numerous. In fome few inftances, it is
true, much irregularity and confufion prevails amongft the ftrata,
from the diffolution, elapfion, or different compreflion of fome
of thefe ftrata, or from their interruption during their formation,
by the introdu€tion of extraneous rocks projected amongft them
by adventitious caufes, as earthquakes or volcanos; or the tides
themfelyes may have fometimes been rendered irregular by ftorms,
currents or the irregular profile of the fhores, as we daily obferve.
But even in thefe cafes the length of time neceffary for the for-
mation of the ftrata exclude all fufpicion of fhort and tumultuary

inundations.
WE

[ 259 ]

- We alfo obferve, that though the ftrata themfelves are not ar-
rangéd in the order of the fpecific gravities of the materials that
compofe them, the lighter being frequently placed beneath the
heavier, yet within each ftratum. the materials that compofe it are

almoft always arranged according to the laws of their gravitation.

t Bergm. Erde, 179.

‘Turse phenomena fully prove that the retreat of the fea from
the vicinity of the lofty mountains and elevated platforms that firft
emerged was not fudden, but continued for feveral ages, and. that
the various ftratified fecondary mountains at prefent exifting were »
formed within it during its retreat, and after the creation of fith.

The mode of their formation now claims our attention.

‘To form as juft an idea of the formation of fecondary mountains
dg the ndture:of an objet infcrutable to human eyes can allow us,
we. muft obferve, 1°. That the greater part of the particles’ of
folid matter contained in the chaotic fluid being depofited before
the creation of fifh, the various materials that enter into the com-
pofition of fecondary mountains muft have been furnifhed either
by the deftruétion of fuch of the primary as exifted in the fea,
but either from want of folidity or the fmallnefs of their mafs
were too feeble to refitt its impetuofity when animated by ftorms,
and being by continued friction reduced to atoms or rolled into ©
tumblers were either diffufed through. or hurried along by the

Kk 2 agitation

[ 260 ]

agitation of the waters, or were crumbled to pieces by earth-
quakes, and varioufly difperfed through the ocean, or thefe ma-
terials were ejeCted in immenfe heated maffes, by fubmarine vol-
canos into the bofom of the waves, to be by them farther com-

minuted, difintegrated or decompofed.

Tue various folids thus diffufed at different periods of time
through the vaft body of the ocean muft have been gradually pre-
eipitated and depofited om fuch folid maffes as refifted the pro-
greflive motion impreffed upon the precipitating maffes by that
tumultuous element; hence they applied to and refted on the
low lateral furfaces of many of the moft confiderable primary
mountains, or were accumulated on the fcabrous but firmly
rooted fragments of fuch of thofe mountains as were before de-
ftroyed, intombing the fhell-fifh that adhered to or refted upon
thefe fragments, and arrefting by their initial foftnefs the various
funk woods and other vegetable or animal fubftances as chanced
to be mixed with thefe precipitating maffes, or were fubfequently
borne uponthem. ‘Trees naturally affumed the fituation that
afforded leaft. refiftance to the currents that conveyed them, and
hence the uniformity ‘that has been obferved very frequently in
their pofition. Thefe depofitions, when during their defcent they-
attained a certain degree of denfity, muft have proved fatal to
the various fpecies of fith which were involved in them, and hence
the origin of the more folid pifcine remains at prefent found in

them; the fofter parts being deftroyed by putrifaction, in this
manner,

|
4

fe 2622]

manner, but after long-intervals of time, the fucceeding ftrata appear
to have been formed, but they did not attain their prefent folidity
until after the retreat of the fea, and through the operation of
caufes which I fhall prefently mention.

Fxom the circumftances here ftated we may eafily account for
feveral of the moft general geological obfervations, as,

1°. Way ftratified hills have always been found repofing con
primary rocks or invefting primary mountains, as on granite,
gneifs, argillite, &c. as Ferber, Born, Pallas, Gerhard, Charpentier,
Werner, Sauffure, &c. atteft, not as matters of opinion, but as facts
they have conftantly been witneffes to. Door Hutton indeed
thinks this obfervation does not hold true with refpe@ to Scot-
land, or. even with refpect to the greater part of Britain, becaufe
in traverfing the greater part of that ifland he feldom met with
granite ; but it is plain from what has been faid, that it is not on
the furface it fhould be expected, but under the fuperior ftrata,
therefore the Doétor’s obfervations, but not his affertions, are
perfecily confiftent with thofe of all other geologifts. However
Mr. Everfman of Berlin, who refided fome years in Scotland, tells
us that the fundamental rock (Grund gebirge) of Scotland is a mafs
of the granitic kind, 1 Bergm. Jour. 1789, 495, and Doctor Ath
relates that not only near Aberdeen, but in the more fouthern
parts, extenfive granitic mountains often occur, 1 Chy. Ann. 1792,
115. The truth is that the whole of Britain feems to have been
formed

[. 262 ]

formed of ftrata, refting upon and intercepted between maffes
of granite or other primitive rocks, at depths in moft places not

eafily acceffible.

_ 240. Why the ftrata of fecondary mountains are generally ele-
vated in the dire€tion that faces the next primitive mountains,
though frequently diftant from them, being as we have feen ori-
ginally formed againft, and along the floping fides of thofe moun-
tains, and the feparation occafioned by thecourfe of waters that
formed the vallies that intercede between them. The feeming
exceptions to this rule arife either from the finking of the primi-
tive mountain to which the fecondary faced, as happened to that
which ftood where the lake of Geneva is now placed, whofe bot-
tom is chiefly granite, or fome other primitive rock, ‘as Mr. Sauf-
fure attefts, 1 Sauff. 15, and therefore the elevation of the ftrata
of the Mole, Saleve, &c. face the lake, Id. p. 222, 223, &c. or
becaufe thefe ftratified hills were originally independent, being
formed on the fragments of primitive mountains, as already

faid,

Hence alfo we may explain an important obfervation made
by Mr. Schreiber on the mountain of Gardette, which confifts of
limeftone fuperimpofed on gneifs; he obferved that where they
joined, the gneifs had penetrated into the body of the limeftone,

but the limeftone did not penetrate into that of the gneifs, whence
he

<7

fen kh eon Oe se

[26a]

he juftty inferred that the limeftone was in a foft flate, but the
eneifs already confolidated, when the contact took place; 36
Roz. 359. Similar to this is the obfervation of Mr. Sauffure,
1 Sauffur. 528, that a puddingftone with a calcareous cement
or argillaceous grit is generally interpofed betwixt the uppermoft
ftrata of the primary and the loweft of the fecondary ftrata as the

foft fecondary matter inveloped the febb/es or gravel on the fur-

face of the primary; this he obferved in the Alps, the Vofges,
the Cevennes, &c. This is alfo conftantly obferved in coal mines
where femi-primigenous {trata (Todliegendes) a fandftone or
brecia with a calcareous or argillaceous cement, forms the laft

ftratum immediately over the primitive rock.

Many, indeed inoft of the obfervations hitherto made, are ex-
plicable on thefe principles, which, not to extend this part of the
Effay beyond its due limits, I here omit. ;

Tue retreat of the fea appears to have continued through the
rifts already mentioned, or poflibly through others fubfequently
made, probably until a few centuries before the deluge. Its cef-
fation long before the deluge I infer from the hardnefs which the
mountains muft have acquired to withftand the fhocks they muft
have underwent during that cataftrophe. To acquire this hard-

nefs a long period of time was neceflary, both for their deficcation

and the infiltration of thofe particles to which the ftrata of fe-

condary mountains owe their folidity.
I Do

[ 264 ]

I po not by this pretend that the fecondary ftrata had mot ac-
quired a certain degree of folidity in a few minutes, even aftet
their depofition, and confequently long before their emerfion ; on
the contrary this muft foon have been acquired in the fame manner
as we find calcareous depofits to harden at the bottom of falt-
pans and tea-kettles, while full of liquor, and tartar in hogfheads
of wine, and pouzzolana mortar, &c. but this hardnefs is mo-
derate in comparifon of that which they acquired by deficcation
and continued infiltration, as we daily experience in moift lime-
ftone quarries, where though the ftone is originally hard, yet it
becomes much harder when dried. The induration effected by
infiltration is ftill more confiderable, as by it the minuter par-
ticles of bodies are conveyed into the minuteft interftices. Hence
we fee that traps and bafaltic pillars are always harder at the
bottom than at the top, Cronft. § 267, and the upper ftrata of
limeftone, particularly of that fpecies called freeftone, are always
fofter near the furface of the quarry than at a greater depth; that
fuch infiltration is not an imaginary procefs, let it be explained
how it may, and confequently that the hardnefs of the lower ftrata
does not proceed merely from the preffure of the upper, appears
by an elegant obfervation of Mr. Werner's, that where various
ftrata of a different nature occur, the petrifaGions that are found
in the inferior, are frequently filled with the matter of the fupe-
rior inftead of that of the ftratum which contains them, Wedem.
Verwandl. 118. The petrified fhells found in clay or argillites
are commonly compreffed and flatted, as Mr. Bergman remarks, as

argil

[ 265 ]

argil hardens by contraction, but thofe found in limeftone retain
their primitive fhape, as thefe harder chiefly by infiltration.

I now proceed to the Mofaic account of thefe events, “ Ia
“ the beginning God created the heaven and the earth,” that
is to fay, the firft event in the hiftory of this globe was its

a creation, and that of all the planets then known.

‘al

‘¢ Anp the earth was without form and void,” that is to fay,
that the earth at the time of its creation was without form, &c.
‘therefore another terraqueous globe did not previoufly exift in a com-
plete flate out of the ruins of which the prefent earth was formed,
as fome have lately imagined ; wrthout form and vord the Hebrew
has Zohu and Bobu. Ainfworth remarks that Tobu fignifies a ftate
of confufion, and Bobu a ftate of vacuity; fee Pool’s Synopfis.

a ‘That is to fay, that the earth was partly in a chaotic ftate, and partly
q full of empty cavities, which is exa@ly the ftate, which from the

confideration of the fubfequent phenomena, I have fhewn to have

_ been neceffarily its primordial ftate.

“ Anp darknefs was on the face of the deep,” confequently light |

did not at firft exift. The deep, or aby{s, properly denotes an im-
__menfe depth of water, but here it fignifies, as Mede and Eftius

obferve, the mixed or chaotic mafs of earth and water.—David,

_ whofe knowledge was derived from Mofes, and who probably pof-

Nou. VI. Tat feffed

[ 6]

feffed a lefs abridged copy of Genefis than we do, exprefsly tells us

”?

that the earth was covered with water ;” the abyfs, like a garment,

“* was its covering.” Pfalm civ. v. 6.

Hence we fee that the water was from the beginning in a liquid
ftate (and not in that of ice) as ] have mentioned :; and confequently
elementary fire, or the principle of heat, exifted from the begin-
ning.

“ Anp the fpirit of God (or rather a fpirit of God) moved on the
‘« face of the waters ;” here /pirit denotes an invifible elaftic fluid,
viz. the great evaporation that took place foon after the creation,
as foon as the folids began to cryftallize, as I have fhewn. Of God,
is a well known Hebrew idiom denoting great ; moved, or rather
hovered, over the waters. David here mentions a fact which he
undoubtedly took from Mofes, though omitted in our prefent copies
of Genefis, and this fa@ is effential to our theory, namely, that
“ the waters f{tood above the mountains.” Pfalm civ. v. 6. Therefore
the mountains were formed in the bofom of the waters, as I have
ftated. Nay he ufes an expreffion that moft probably hath hitherto
been ill underftood, that ‘* God fixed the earth on its bafis, from
** which it fhall not be removed for ever.” This appears to me to
denote the depofition of the folids contained in the chaotic waters,
on the folid kernel of the globe, from whence they fhould never
be removed nor indeed have they ever fince.

« And

yi
ey

Po ee eR erat

[ - 262, ]

« And God faid let there be light, and there was light ;” here
we may obferve that faés only, were revealed to Mofes or the per-
fon (moft probably Adam) from whom their tradition defcended.
The words chofen by Mofes, or this perfon, were fuch as coincided
with his own notions, or were moft intelligible to an ignorant peo-
ple. The phrafes, God faid, God faw it was good, God called, ufed
in this chapter, are mere anthropological phrafes, fuited to the con-
ception of thofe to whom thefe facts were related, for religious and
moral and not merely for fcientific purpofes. To men of fcience
their fignification could not be ambiguous. “ God /aid,” fignifying
no more than that events naturally poffible took place by virtue of
the laws of their produdtion, which laws God had eftablifhed.
* God Jaw it was good,” fignifies merely that it was good, and the
expreffion ‘ God called,’ denotes no more than that it received fuch
a name.

Tue production of light ftands next in the order of events re-
corded by Mofes, as it does in our theory, and moft probably denotes
the flames of volcanic eruptions, the Hebrew certainly bears this
fignification. The period of its exiftence Mofes called day, evi-
dently from its refemblance to ¢ruedays, which could have exifted

only at a fubfequent period, namely after the fun had gained its

luminous powers.

«“ Anp God faid, let there be a firmament in the midft of the
*€ waters, and let it divide the waters from the waters.” Here Mofes
Ll 2 indicates

F 268 |

indicates the produdtion of the atmofphere, the word which in our
tranflation is rendered firmament * moft properly fignifies expan/ey
or an expanded or dilated fubftance ; than which a more proper
name could not furely be chofen for the atmofphere. ‘* To divide
“‘ the waters from the waters,” that is, to feparate and contain 'va-
pours, which is-one principal ufe of the atmofphere.

““ Anp God faid, let the waters under the heavens be gathered
“‘ together in one place, and let the dry land appear, and» it’ was)
“ {o,” This is. the fifth event which Mofes places. in the fame
order of fucceffion that mere philofophical confiderations» affign

[WO pe er

The word appear is remarkable, as it feems to denote thatthe
difclofure of the earth was /uccefive, and had not from the begin-
ning fully and compleatly taken place.

Tue events -immediately fubfequent I. omit, as not relating to

- geology, and fhall only mention-the creation of fifh, a fact ofgreat -

importance in the theory of the earth; this. Mofes, as well as
philofophy, tells us happened after the feparation of the waters
from the dry land and primitive mountains. He alfo relates that
the creation of land-animals was fubfequent to that of. fifh; a fa@&

which

* Some interpreters think firmament implies fomething folid, becaufe the general
opinion of the Heathen oriental fages’ was, that the heavens were folid, as if the
teue fenfe of the Hebrew was to be derived from fal/e opinions devifed many ages after
Mofes.

[ 2€9 J

which geological obfervations alfo indicate, for their remains are
always found near the furface of the earth, whereas thofe of fifth
are found at the greateft depths. This order of fucceffion is not
only allowed by Mr. Buffon, but made one of the principal pillars
of his fyftem. 1 Epoque’s de la Nature, p. 231 in 8vo.

Here then we have feven or eight geological facts, related
by Mofes on the one part, and on the other, deduced folely from
- the’ moft) exaét« and» beft. verified’ geological obfervations, and yet
agreeing: perfeCtly, with each other, notonly,in Jubjiance but inthe
order: of their fucceffioni! On whichever of thefe. we beftow our:
confidence; its: agreement. with. the other demonfirates the truth
of. that. other. But if we beftow. our confidence on neither, then
their agreement muft be accounted for. If we attempt this, we thall
find the improbability that both accounts are falfe, infinite ; con-
fequently one muft be true, and, then, fo muft alfo the other.

_ Tuat two accounts derived from’ fources totally-diftina from
and independent on each other fhould agree not only in the fub-
ftance but'in the order of fucceffion of two events only, is already
highly improbable, if thefe fa&ts-be not true, both fubftantially and
as to the order of their fucceffion. Let this improbability, asito
the fubftance of the facts, be reprefented only by 7%. then the

. “Te . Ss . D7 .
improbability of their agreement as to feven events is a that is,
10°

as.one'to ten million, and:would ber much higher if the order alfo
_ had entered into the computation.

SECOND:

[ager]

Babs MO ING wie SL AY.
ON THE

1 0 RE Dera ORE 6 AN Cae 2

Havine, I flatter myfelf, eftablifhed, in the preceding Effay,
the credit due to Mofes on mere philofophic grounds, and abftra@t-
ing from all theological confiderations, I fhall not fcruple taking
him as a guide as far as his teftimony reaches, in tracing the circum-
ftances of the moft horrible cataftrophe to which the human and
all animal fpecies, and even the terraqueous globe itfelf, had at
any period fince its origin been expofed. His teftimony is indeed
in fubftance confirmed by the traditions of many antient nations,
which may be feen in Grotius de Veritate Huet Queft. Alnet. lib.
il. chap. xil. Eufeb. Prep. Evang. Lib. ix. &c. and therefore
needlefs to adduce ; it is more to our purpofe to prove it by geolo-
gical fats, of which there are fome that feem to me perfectly
conclufive.

ft, According to Don Ulloa, fhells were found on a moun-
tain in Peru at the height of 14220 feet, 2 Buff. Epoque, 268.
Now I have already fhewn, in the former Effay, that no
mountains higher than 8500 feet were formed fince the creation

of

[: Saee o

of fith, or, in other words, that fifh did not exift until the original
ocean had fubfided to the height of eight thoufand five hundred
feet above its prefent level. Therefore the fhells found at more
elevated ftations were left there by a fubfequent inundation.
Now an inundation that reached fuch heights could not be partial,
but muft have extended over the whole globe.

edly, The bones of elephants and of rhinoceri, and even the
intire carcafe of a rhinocerus, have been found in the lower
parts of Siberia. As thefe animais could not live in fo cold a coun-
try they muft have been brought thither by an inundation from
warmer and very diftant climates, betwixt which and Siberia
mountains above nine thoufand feet high intervene. _ It may be
replied that Siberia, as we have already fhewn, was not originally
as cold as it is at prefent ; which is true, for probably its original
heat was the fame as that of many iflands in the fame latitude
at this day, but ftill it was too cold for elephants and rhinoceri,
and between the climates which they might have then inhabited
and {the places they are now found in too many mountains inter-
cede to fuppofe them brought thither by any other means but
a general inundation. Befides, Siberia muit have attained its
prefent temperature af the time thefe animals were tranfported, elfe
they muft have all long ago putrified.

adly, Shells known to belong to fhores under climates very
diftant from each other are in fundry places found mixed promif-

cuoufly

[ we]

cuoufly with each other; one fort of them, therefore, -muft have
been tranfported by an inundation ; the promifcuous mixture can

be accounted for on no other fuppofition.

Turse appear to me the moft unequivocal geologic proofs of a
general deluge. To other facts generally adduced to prove. it,
another origin may be afcribed ; thus the bones of elephants found
in Italy, France, Germany, and England, might be the remains
of fome’ brought to Italy by Pyrrhus or the Carthaginians, or of
thofe employed by the Romans themfelves ; fome are faid ‘to have
been brought to England by Claudius. 4 Phil: Tranf. ‘Abr. 2d part,
242. When thefe bones, however, are accompanied with marine
remains, their origin is no longer ambiguous. Thus alfo the
bones.and teeth of whales, found near Maeftricht, are not decifively
of diluvian origin, as whales have often been brought down as low
as Lat. 48°. 34 Roz. gor. ‘Nay fometimes they ftrike on the coaft
of Italy. 1 Targioni Tozzctti 3&6.

Yer, to explain the leaft ambiguous of thefe phcenomena,
without having recourfe to an univerfal deluge, various hypothefes

have been framed.

Some have imagined that the axis of the earth was originally
parallel to that of the ecliptic, which would produce a perpetual
fpring in every latitude, and confequently that. elephants might
exift.in all of them. But the vableft aftronomers having demon-

ftrated

Pn eyg.t]

flrated the impoffibility of this parallelifm, it is unneceflary to ex~
amine its confequences ; it only deferves notice that the obliquity
of the equator is rather diminifhing than increafing. See La Lande
in 44 Roz. 212. Befides, why are thefe bones accompanied by
marine remains? Others, from this nutation of the earth’s axis,
have fuppofed that its poles are continually fhifting, and con-
fequently that they might have originally been where the equator
now is, and the equator where the poles now are; thus Siberia
might have, in its turn, been under the equator. But as the
nutation of the earth’s axis is retrogreflive every nine years, and
never exceeds ten degrees, this hypothefis is equally rejected by
aftronomers. 44 Roz. 210. 2 Bergm. Erde Kugel 305. The
pyramids of Egypt demonftrate that the poles have remained un-
altered thefe three thoufand years. |

Tue 3d hypothefis is that of Mr. Buffon, to which the unfor-
tunate Bailly has done the honour of acceding ; according to him
the earth, having been originally in a ftate of fufion, and for many
years red hot, at laft cooled down to the degree that rendered it
habitable. This hypothefis he was led to imagine from the necef-
fity of admitting that the globe was, at leaft to a certain diftance
beneath its furface, originally in a foft ftate; the folution of its
folid parts in water he thought impoffible, falfely imagining that
the whole globe muft have been in a ftate of folution, whereas the
figure of the earth requires the liquidity of it only a few miles
_ beneath its furface. Epoques, 10. and 35. If he had trod the
:- Vou. VI. M m path

[ saga 4]

path of experiments he would have found both the hardnefs and
tranfparency, of what he calls his primitive glafs, and thinks the
primitive fubftance of the globe, namely quartz, to be altered in
a {trong heat with a lofs of 3 percent. of its weight, and that fo far
from having been a _glafs, that it is abfolutely infufible. The lofs
of weight, he muft have feen, could be afcribed to nothing elfe but
the lofs of its watery particles, and that therefore it muft have been
originally formed in.water; he would have found that fome fe//pars
lofe 40 per cent. and others at leaft 2 per cent. by heat; he would
have perceived that mca, which he thinks only an exfoliation of
quartz, to be in its compofition effentially different. He certainly
found their cryftallization inexplicable, for he does not even attempt
to explain it.

Bur waving this, and a multitude of other infuperable dif-
ficulties in his hypothefis, and adverting only to the folution he
thinks his theory affords, of the phoenomenon of the exiftence of
the bones of elephants, and the carcafe of a rhinoceros in Siberia,
I fay it is defeGtive even in that refpe&t.. For allowing his fup-
pofition that Siberia was at any time of a temperature fo fuited
to the conftitution of thefe animals that they might live in it,
yet the remains lately found in that country cannot be fuppofed
to belong to animals that ever lived in it :

tft, Becaufe though they are found at the diftance of feveral
hundred miles from the fea, yet they are furrounded by genuine
marine vegetables, which fhews that they were brought thither

together with thofe vegetables.
edly,

7 a

LL. age: J

adly, Becaufe they are generally found in accumulated heaps,
and it is not tobe imagined that while alive they fought a common
burial place no more than they at prefent do in India.

3dly, Becaufe the rhinoceros was found intire and unputrified,
whereas if the country was warm when he perifhed this could
not have happened.

4thly, Becaufe in no very diftant latitude *, namely that of
Greenland, the bones of whales, and not of elephants, are found
on the mountains, confequently that latitude muft have been in
that ancient period fufficiently cold to maintain whales, as it is
at this day; and that cold we know to be very confiderable, and
incompatible with the proximity of a climate fuited to elephants.
17 N. Comment. Petropol. 576. 1 Act. Petrop. 55. Renov. 73.
Therefore the animals whofe remains are now found in Siberia
could not have lived in it.

Tue 4th hypothefis is that of Mr. Edward. King, but much
amplified and enlarged by Mr. De Luc. This juftly celebrated
philofopher is of opinion that the actual continents were, before
the deluge, the bottom or bed of the ancient ocean, and that the
deluge confifted in the fubmerfion of the ancient continents, which
confequently form the bottom or bed of our aétual oceans, con-

Mm2.. fequently

* The bones were found in latitude 55°.

E 29766: J

fequently our actual mountains were all formed in the antediluvian
ocean, and thus fhells might be left on their higheft fummits.

In this hypothefis the ancient continents muft have exifted in
thofe traéts now covered by the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans ; if fo,
I do not fee how the elephants could have been brought into
Siberia, or a whole rhinoceros found in it: For Siberia being
then the bottom of fome ocean, the fea muft have moved from it
to cover the finking continents, inftead of moving towards it, to
ftrew over it their fpoils—If it be faid that thefe animals were
carried into the fea before the flood, then, affuredly, the rhino-
ceros fhould have been devoured, and only his bones left.

To fay nothing of the incompatibility of this fyftem with the
principal geologic phcenomena mentioned in my former Effay,
and of the deftruction of at leaft all the graminivorous fifh that
muft have followed from their transfer to a foil not fuited to them,
it is evidently inconfiftent with the Mofaic account of this cataf-
trophe, which account thefe philofophers however admit.

Mosss afcribes the deluge to two principal caufes, a continual
rain for forty days, and the eruption of the waters of the great
abyfs. Now to what purpofe a rain of forty days to overwhelm
a continent that was to be immerfed under a whole ocean? He
tells us the waters increafed on the continents a certain number
of days, reffed thereon another period of days, and then returned.

Do

|

——————— ee

1: REN Sn ey ee ihn aaa

Loe J

Do not thefe expreflions imply a permanent groumd on which
they increafed and refted, and from which they afterwards retreat-
ed? As the retreat followed the advance, is it not clear that
they retreated from the /ame fpaces on which they. had before
advanced and refted ?

Mr. De Luc replies, that in the 13th verfe of the 6th chapter of.
Genefis, it is faid the earth fhould be deffroyed, and that Mr.
Michaelis fo tranflates it. However it is plain, from what has
been juft mentioned, that Mofes did not underftand fuch a deftruc-
tion as fhould caufe it to difappear totally and for ever; he tells us
that the waters ftood 15 cubits over the higheft mountains ; now
as he has no where mentioned the antediluvian mountains, but
has the poftdiluvian, it is plain that it is to thefe his narration
relates, and thefe he tells us were at the time of the deluge cover-
ed with water, and uncovered when the waters diminifhed; he
never diftinguifhed the poftdiluvian from the antediluvian, and
therefore muft have confidered them as the fame.

Nor did Noah himfelf believe the ancient continents deftroyed,
for he took the appearance of an olive branch to be a fign of the di-
minution of theflood. This he certainly believed to have grown on the
ancient continent, and could not expect it to have fhot up from the
bottom of the fea-—Mr. De Luc tells us that this olive grew on an
antediluvian ifland, and that thefe iflands, being part of the antedi-
Iuvian ocean, were not flooded—it is plain, however, Noah did

not

[ 298" J

not think fo, elfe he would not judge the appearance of the olive
to be a fign of the diminution of the waters.—Where is it men-
tioned or what renders it neceffary to infer that iflands exifted
before the flood? If iflands did exift, and were to efcape the
flood, fo might their inhabitants alfo, contrary to the exprefs words
of the text.

Ir would furely be much) more convenient for Noah, his family
and animals, to have taken refuge in one of them, than to remain

pent up in the ark.

Tue dove, Mofes tells us, returned the firft time fhe was let
out of the ark, fizding no place whereon to reft her foot; the con-
fequently could not difcover the ifland, whereas the raven never
returned, plainly becaufe he found carcaffes whereon to feed, there-
fore thefe carcaffes were not fwallowed up, as Mr. De Luc would
have it. Mofes tells us that at the ceffation of the flood the
fountains of the deep were ftopped or fhut up; therefore, in his
apprehenfion, inftead of the ancient continents finking into the
deep, the waters of the abyfs flowed from their fources upon that
continent, and again returned ; from all which it follows that this

hypothefis isas indefenfible as the foregoing.

Paffing over the fyftems of Burnet, Woodward and Whitton,
which have been repeatedly refuted, I recur to the account of this
great revolution given by Mofes himfelf, taken in its plain literal

fenfe,

id
j

[o@79 ° |

fenfe, as the only one that appears perfetly confiftent, with all
the phcenomena now known, of which I fhall find occafion to

_mention many; he plainly afcribes it to a fupernatural caufe,

namely the exprefs intention of God to punifh mankind for their
crimes. We mutt therefore confider the deluge as a miraculous
effufion of water, both from the clouds and from the great abyfs ;
if the waters, fituated partly within and partly without the caverns
of the globe, were once fufficient to cover even the higheft moun-
tains, as I have fhewn inthe former Effay, they muft have been
fufficient to do fo a fecond time when miraculoufly educed out

of thofe caverns.

Earty geologifts, not attending to thefe fas, thought all the
waters of the ocean infufficient; it was fuppofed that its mean
depth did not exceed a quarter of a mile, and that only half of the
furface of the globe was covered by it; on thefe data Keil com-
puted that twenty-eight oceans would be requifite to cover the
whole earth to the height of four miles, which he judged to be that
of the higheft mountains, a quantity at that time confidered as
extravagant and incredible, but a further progrefs in mathematical
and phyfical knowledge has fince fhewn the different feas and
oceans to contain at leaft forty-eight times more water than they

were fuppofed to do.

Mr. De La Place, calculating their average depth, not from a

_ few vague and partial foundings, for fuch they have ever been,

(the

|

(the polar regions having been never founded, particularly the
Antartic) but from a ftria application of the theory of tides to the
height to which they are known to rife in the main ocean, demon-
{trates that a depth, reaching only to half a league, or even two
or three leagues, is incompatible with the Newtonian theory, as
no depth under four leagues could reconcile it with the phoeno-
mena *—The vindication of the Mofaic hiftory does not require
near fo much. The extent of the fea is known to be far greater
than Keil fuppofed, that of the earth fcarcely paffing + of the
furface of the globe.

Tue poffibility and reality of the deluge being thus eftablifhed,
I fhall next endeavour to trace its origin, progrefs, and ftill per-
manent confequences. That it originated in and proceeded from
the great fouthern ocean below the equator, and thence rufhed
on the northern hemifphere, I take to be a natural inference
from the following facts :

1ft, The fouthern ocean is the greateft collection of waters
on the face of the globe.

ad, In the northern latitudes beyond 45° and 55° we find
the animal fpoils of the fouthern countries, and the marine exuvize

of the fouthern feas, but in the fouthern latitudes we find no
remains

* Mem. Paris, 1776.

Ss Re aS

[ 282 ]

remains of animals, vegetables or fhells belonging to the northern
feas, but thofe only that belong to the neighbouring feas. Thus
in Siberia, to return to the already frequently mentioned phoeno-
menon, we find the remains of elephants and rhinoceri accom-
panied by marine vegetables, and alfo with fhells that do not belong
to the northern ocean. 1 Epoques 418. They muft therefore have

been conveyed thither by the more diftant Indian fea overflowing

thefe parts; as the elephants very naturally crowded together on
the approach of the inundation, they were conveyed in flocks, and
hence their bones are found in accumulated heaps, as fhould be
expected *. But in Greenland, which is ftill more diftant, only
the remains of whales are found on the mountains. Crantz Hiftoire
Generale des Voy. vol. xix. 105. So in the fouthern latitudes,
as at Talcaguana in Chili, latitude 36° S. the fhells found on the
tops of the hills are thofe of the neighbouring fea. 2 Ulloa Voy.
p- 197. So thofe found on the hills between Suez and Cairo are
the fame as thofe now found in the Red Sea. Shaw’s Voyages,
vol. ii.

gdly, The traces of a violent fhock or-impreffion from the
fouth are as yet perceptible in many countries. This Mr. Patrin
attefts as to the mountains of Dauria on the fouth eaft limits of
Siberia; he tells us that the more eaftern extremities of the moun-
tains appear to be broken off by the impetuofity of an ancient ocean

Vor. VI. Na rufhing

* The elephantine remains found in Ruflia were conveyed thither from Perfia.

[283 J

tufhing from caft to weft, that the fragments carried to the weft
in fome meafure prote&ted the more weftern. 38 Roz. 230. 238.
And that in general the mountains of this country were fo diforders
ed (by the fhock) that the miners are obliged to work at hazard.
Ibid 226. Steller makes the fame remarks on the mountains of
Kamfchatka, 51 Phil. Tranf. Part ii. p. 479. Storr, Hoepfner &
Sauffure, inform us that the inundation that invaded Swifferland
proceeded from the fouth, but its impreffion was modified by
another event which I fhall prefently mention. 1 Helvet. Magaz.
173.175. 4 Helvet Magaz. 307. Lafius tells us that the moun-
tains of the Hartz fuggeft the fame inference. Hartz. gs.

4thly, The very fhape of the continents which are all fharpened
towards the fouth, where wafhed by the fouthern ocean, indicate
that fo forcible an impreffion was made on them as nothing but the
mountains could refift, as the Cape of Good Hope, Cape Cormorin, .
the fouthern extremity of New Holland, and that of Patagonia;
Fofter’s Obfervations, p. 11. 12.

To thefe geological proofs perhaps I may: be permitted to add
the tradition of the orthodox Hindus, that the globe was divided
into two hemifpheres, and that the fouthern was the habitation
of demons that warred upon the Gods. 3 Afiatic Refearches, 51& 52.
This war is commonly thought to be an allegorical defcription of
the flood, and hence the olive branch, denoting a diminution of the

flood, became a fymbol of peace.
Dip

[jf 38% J

Did not Noah fefide on the borders of the fouthern ocean, other-
wife he could not fee that the great aby{s was opened? and did
not an inundation from the fouth-eaft drive the ark north-weft
to the mountains of Armenia? Thefe conjetures are at leaft
confiftent with the moft probable notions of the primitive habitation
of man, which I take to be near the fources of the Ganges (as
Jofephus exprefly mentions) the Bourampooter and the Indus, from
which, as the temperature grew colder, mankind defcended to the
plains of India.

Turis unparalleled revolution Mofes informs us was introduced
by a continual rain for forty days. By this the furface of the earth
muft have been loofened to a confiderable depth ; its effects may
even have been in many in many inftances deftruGtive; thus in
“Auguft 1740 feveral eminences were fwept away, nay the whole
mountain of Lidfheare, in the province of Wermeland in Sweden,
was rent afunder hy a heavy fall of rain for only one night. 24
Schwed. Abhand, 93. This loofening and opening of the earth
was in many places where the marine inundation ftagnated an
ufeful operation to the foil fubfequently to be formed, as by thefe
means fhells and other marine exuvie were introduced into it
which rendered it more fertile. By this rain alfo the falt water was
diluted, and its pernicious effeéts both to foil and frefh water fifh
in great meafure prevented. The deftru€tion of animals ferved
the fame purpofes, and might, in many inftances, be neceflary to

N.n,.2 fertilize

[ 284 ]

fertilize a foil produced by the decompofition of primary moun-
tains; from the animals thus deftroyed the phofphoric acid found

in many ores may have originated.

But the completion of this cataftrophe was undoubtedly effec-
ed, as Mofes alfo ftates, by the invafion of the waters of the great
abyfs, moft probably, as I have faid, that immenfe tra& of ocean
ftretching from the Philipine iflands or rather from the Indian
continent on the one fide to terra-firma on the other, and thence
to the fouthern pole, and again from Buenyos Ayres to New
Holland, and thence to the pole-—Tracing its courfe on the eaft-
ern part of the globe, we fhall fee it impelled northwards with _,
refiftlefs impetuofity againft the continent which at that time pro-
bably united Afia and America. This appears to have been torn
up and fwept away (except the iflands that ftill remain) as far
north as latitude 40°; its further progrefs appears to have been
fomewhat checked by the lofty mountains of China and Tartary,
and thofe on the oppofite American coaft; here then it began to_
dilate itfelf over the collateral countries ; the part checked by the
Tartarian mountains forming, by {weeping away the foil the
defart of Coby, while the interior or middle torrent preffed forward
to the pole, but the interior furge being ftill more reftri€ted by the
contiguous, numerous and elevated mountains of eaftern Siberia
and America, muft at. laft have arifen toa height and preffure
which over-bore all refiftance, dafhing to pieces the heads of thofe

mountains, as Patrin and Steller remark, and bearing over them,
the

[ 285. ]

the vegetable and animal fpoils of the more fouthern, ravaged or
torn up continents, to the far extended and inclined plains of
weftern Siberia, where its free expanfion allowed it to depofit
them. Hence the origin of the bones and tufks of elephants and
thinoceri found in the plains, or inconfiderable fandy or marly
eminences in the north weftern parts of Siberia, as Mr. Pallas rightly

judges.

Ir now, returning to the fouth, we contemplate the effects
of this overwhelming invafion on the more fouthern regions of
India and Arabia, we fhall, where the coafts were undefended by
mountains, difcover it excavating the gulfs of Nanquin, Tonquin
and Siam, the vaft Bay of Bengal and the Aarabic and Red Seas,
That the fouthern capes, promontories and headlands, were ex-
tenuated to their prefent fhape by the deluge, and not by tides or
‘the currents ftill ,obferved in thofe feas, may be inferred from the
inefficacy \of thofe feebler powers to. produce any change in them

for many paft centuries.

‘Tue chief force of the inundation feems to have been direéted
northwards in the meridians of from 110 to 200 eaft of London.

In the more weftern tracts it appears to have been weaker; the

“plains of India I fufpeéet to have been lefs ravaged, or perhaps their
‘fubfequent fertility may have’ been occafioned by the many rivers
by which that happy country is watered. Not fo thofe of Arabia ;
“their ‘folid bafis, refifting the inundation, was obliged to yield its
oct} loofe

1 286, ]

Yoofer furface, and remains cven now a fandy defart, while the
interior more mountainous tras, intercepting, and thus colleGing,
the wafhed off foil, are, to this day, celebrated for their fertility,
2 Niebuhr, 45 and 320, Irith edition. To a fimilar tranfport-
ation of the antient vegetable foil, the vaft fandy defarts of Africa,
and the barrennefs of moft of the plains of Perfia, may be attri-
buted.

Tue progrefs of the Siberian inundation once more claims our
attention; that it muft have been here for fome time ftationary
may be inferred from its confinement between the Altaifchan
elevation on the fouth, and the Ouralian mountains on the weft,
and the circumpolar mountains on the fide of Greenland. Hence
the excavations obferved on the northern parts of the former, and
the abrupt declivities on the eaftern flanks of the latter, while the
weftern difcover none. New reinforcements from, the fouth-eaft
muft at length have furmounted all obftacles; but the fubfequent
furges could not have conveyed fuch a quantity of fhells or marine
produdtions as the firft, and hence, though many are found on the
more northern plains, fcarce any are found on the great Altaifchan
elevation.

Tue mafs of waters now colleéted and fpread over the Artic
regions, muft have defcended partly fouthwards over the defarts
of Tartary, into countries with which we are too little acquainted
to trace its ravages, but from the oppofition it muft have met in

thefe

ol Le ee

[ 2p

thefe mountainous tracts, and the repercuffion of their craggy fides,
eddies muft have been formed to which the Cafpian, Euxine and
other lakes may have owed their origin. Part alfo muft have
extended itfelf over the vaft tra&ts weft of the Ourals, and there
expanded more freely over the plains of Ruffia and Poland down
to latitude 52° where it muft have met with and be oppofed
by the inundation originating in the weftern parts of the Pacific
ocean, this fide the Cape of Good Hope, and thence impelled
northwards and weftwards in the fame manner as the eaftern
inundation already defcribed, but with much lefs force, and fweep-
ing the continents of South America (if then emerged) and of
Africa conveying to Spain, Italy and France, and perhaps ftill
farther North, elephants and other animals and vegetables hitherta.
fuppofed partly of Indian and partly of American origin.

Tuat the courfe here affigned is not imaginary appears from
the fhells, vegetables, and animal remains of thofe remote
climates, ftill found in Europe, and from the difcovery both of
the European and the American promifcuoufly mixed with each
other at Fez. 1 Bergman Erde Kugel, 252. 249.

So alfo in Germany, Flanders and England, the {poils of the
northern climates, and thofe of the fouthern alfo, are equally:
found ; thus the teeth of artic bears and bones of whales, as well
as thofe of animals of more fouthern origin, have been difcovered:

in thofe parts.
THe:

f 288 |

Tue effe@ of the encounter of fuch enormous maffes of water,
rufhing in oppofite direCtions, muft have been ftupendous, it was
fuch as appears to have fhaken and fhattered fome of the folid
vaults that fupported the fubjacent ftrata of the globe. To this
concuffion I afcribe the formation of the bed of the Atlantic from
latitude 20° fouth up to the north pole. “The bare infpetion
of a map is fufficient to fhew that this vaft fpace was hollowed
by the impreffion of water; the protuberance from Cape Frio to
the river of the Amazons, or La Plata in South America, corref-
ponding with the incavation on the African fide from the river
of Congo to Cape Palmas; and the African protuberance from
the Straits of Gibraltar to cape Palmas, anfwering to the immenfe
cavity between New York and Cape St. Roque. The depreffion
of fuch a vaft tra&t of land cannot appear improbable when we
confider the fhock it muft have received, and the enormous load
with which it was charged. Nor is fuch depreffion and abforption
unexampled fince we have had frequent inftances of mountains
fwallowed up, and fome very lately in Calabria *

THE

*The Bay of Galway appears to have been originally a granitic mountain, fhattered
and fwallowed during this cataftrophe, for fragments of granite are found on its
northern fhore, though none in the neighbouring mountains, which are chiefly
argillitic. Alfo a vaft mafs of granite called the Gregory, lately ftood on one of the
ifles of Arran, 100 feet at leaft above the level of the fea, 10 or 12 feet high, as many
broad, and about twenty in length. Though the whole mafs of the ifland confifts of
compact limeftone and no granitic hill within 8 or 10 miles of it. This was fhattered

by lightning in 1774.

aE? So

a ae iP it

ef ee a ee ee. re

[ 289 ]

Tue wreck of fo confiderable an integrant part of the globe
muft of neceflity have convulfed the adjacent ftill fubfifting con-
tinents previoufly connected with it, rent their ftony ftrata, burft
the fill more folid maffes of their mountains, and thus in fome
cafes formed, and in others prepared, the infular ftate to which
thefe fraGtured tra€&ts were reduced; to this event therefore I think
may be afcribed the bold fteep and abrupt weftern coafts of Ireland,
Scotland and Norway, and the numerous ifles that border them,
as well as many of thofe of the Weft Indies. The Britannic iflands
feem to have acquired their infular ftate at a later period,
though it was probably prepared by this event; but the bafaltic
maffes on the Scotch and Irifh coafts and thofe of Feroc appear
to me to have been rent into pillars by this concuffion:

Durrne this elemental confli@, and the crafh and ruin of the

fubmerged continent, many of its component parts muft/have been
‘¥éduced to atoms, and difperfed through the fwelling’ waves that
~ufurped its place. © The more liquid’ bitumens muft by the agitation
*have'intimately mixed with them.» They muft alfo have abforbed
the fixed air contained in the bowels of the funk continent; “and

farther, by this vaft continental depreflion, whofe derelinquifhed
fpace was occupied by ‘water, the level of the whole diluvial ocean
muft have been funk, andthe fummits of the higheft- mountains
muft then have emerged. In this ftate of things it is natural to
fuppofe that if iron abounded in the fubmerged continent, as it does

Vou. VI. Oo ‘ at

[ 290 ]

at this day in the northern countries of Sweden, Norway and
Lapland adjacent to it, its particles may have been kept in folution
by the fixed air, and the argillaceous, filiceous and carbonaceous
particles may have been long fufpended, Thefe muddy waters
mixing with thofe impregnated with bitumen, the following
combinations muft have taken place: 1°. Ifcarbonic matter was
alfo contained in the water, this uniting to the bitamen muft have
sun into maffes no longer fufpenfible in water, and formed ftrata
of coal. 2%: The calces of iron by the contact of bitumen were in
great meafure gradually reduced, and together with the argillaceous
and filiceous precipitated on the fummits of feveral of the moun-
tains not yet emerged, and thus formed bafaltic maffes, that during
deficcation fplit into columns, in other places they covered the
carbonaceous maffes already depofited, and by abforbing much
of their bitumen rendered them lefs inflammable, and hence the
connexion which the fagacious Werner obferved between bafalts
and coal. The fixed or oxygen air, erupting from many of them,
formed thofe cavities, which being filled by the fubfequent infil-
tration of fuch of their ingredients as were fuperfluous to their
bafaltic ftate, formed calcedonies, zeolytes, olivins, bafaltines,
fpars, &c. Hence moft of the mountains of Sweden that afford
iron, afford alfo bitumen *. Hence alfo the afphalt found with
Trap} and under bafalts t, and in balls of calcedony found in

Trap §.
Ps TuHIs

* Berg. Jour. 1789. p. 2005. + Berolding on Mercury, p. 38 and 240.
+ Von Salis 171. 3. Nofe. 146. § 10 Naturforfch, 43.

ee LF

[ 298. ]

Tus I take to be the 4f fcene of this dreadful cataftrophe,
and hence no fhells are found in thefe bafalts, they having
been previoufly depofited, though fome other lighter marine vege-
table remains have fometimes been found in them; fome argil-
laceous or fandftone ftrata may alfo have been depofited at this

period.

On this account however of the formation of the bafalts which
crown the fummits of feveral lofty peaks, I lay no more ftrefs
than it can juftly bear; I deliver it barely as an hypothefis more
plaufible than many others,

Ir has been objeéted to the Mofaic account that the countries
near Ararat are too cold to bear olive trees. ‘Tournfort, who firft
made this objection, fhould recollect, that at this early period
the Cafpian and Euxine feas were joined, as he himfelf has well
proved. This circumftance furely fitted a country lying in the
38th degree of latitude to produce olives (which now grow in
much higher latitudes) at prefent chilled only by its diftance from
the fea.

A more plaufible objection arifes from the difficulty of colleét-

ing and feeding all the various fpecies of animals now known,

fome of which can exift only in the hotteft, and others only in
the coldeft climates; it does not however appear to me neceffary

to fuppofe that any others were collected in the ark but thofe moft
Oo2 neceffary.

/

{ 192 ] :

neceffary for the ufe of man, and thofe only of the graminivorous
or granivorous claffes, the others were moft probably of fubfequent
creation. The univerfality of the expreffions, Gen. chap. vi. ver. 19.
« Of every living thing, of all fleth, two of every fort {halt thou
“ ‘bring into the ark,” feem to me toimply no more than the fame
general expreflions do in Gen. chap. i. ver. 30. “* And to every
“ ‘beaft of the earth, and to every fowl of the air, have! given

”

“ every green herb for meat;” where it is certain that only gra-
minivorous animals are meant. At this early period ravenous
animals were not only not neceffary but would have been even
deftru€tive to thofe who had juft obtained exiftence, and probably
not in great numbers. ‘They only became neceffary when the
graminivorous had multiplied to fo great a degree that their car-
caffes would have fpread infection. Hence they appear to me to
have been of pofterior creation; and to this alfo I attribute the
exiftence of thofe that are peculiar to America and the torrid

and frigid zones.

Tue atmofphere itfelf muft have been exceedingly altered by
the confequences of the flood. Soon after the creation of vege-
tables, and in proportion as they grew and multiplied, vaft quan-
tities of oxygen muft have been thrown off by them into the then
exifting atmofphere without any proportional counteracting dimi-
nution from the refpiration or putrifaction of animals, as thefe were
created only in pairs, and multiplied more flowly; hence it muft

have been much purer than at prefent; and to this circumftance
perhaps

a eS eee

ee

Re ae

perhaps the longevity of the antediluvians may in great meafure
be attributed. After the flood the ftate of things was perfe@lly
reverfed, the furface of the earth was covered with dead and
putrifying land animals and fifh, which copioufly abforbed the
oxygenous part of the atmofphere and fupplied only mephitic
and fixed air; thus the atmofphere was probably brought to
its actual ftate, containing little more than one-fourth of pure
air and nearly three-fourths of mephitic. Hence the confti-
tution of inen muft have been weakened and the lives of their
enfeebled pofterity gradually reduced to their prefent ftandard.
To avoid thefe exhalations it is probable that the human race
continued for a long time to inhabit the more elevated moun-
tainous tracts. Domeftic difturbances in Noah’s family, briefly
mentioned in holy writ, probably induced him to move with
fuch of his defcendants as were moft attached to him to the
regions he inhabited before the flood, in the vicinity of China,
and hence the early origin of the Chinefe monarchy.

TALRD. ESSA Y.

OF SUBSEQUENT CATASTROPHES.

A Sxock fo violent and univerfal as that which pervaded
the globe during the diluvian revolution muft have produced
not only innumerable alterations in the whole extent of its

furface

[ aov ]

furface endlefs to detail (and belonging rather to the na-
tural hiftory of its particular geographic divifions than to a
general furvey of the whole) but alfo have prepared, by
logfening its bafis, many other changes that took effect fome
centuries after, as I have already hinted; of thefe however
fome are fo important by their connexion either with the paft
tranfactions of the inhabitants of the globe, or with the actual
external appearance or fubterraneous ftate of the countries with
which we are beft acquainted, that they cannot be totally pafled
over in filence ; fuch are the total feparation of Afia from Ame-
rica, the coarétation of the Baltic, the feparation of the Cafpian
from the Black Sea, and the junction of this with the Mediter-
ranean and of the Mediterranean with the Ocean, and laftly,
the feparation of Ireland from Britain and of Britain from the
Continent.

Turse events are either totally omitted by hiftorians, or only
lightly mentioned by that hiftory from its mixed nature ftiled
fabulous ; in fuch cafes imagination has commonly taken up
the pen of the hiftorian, but poflefling neither the inclination
nor the talents neceflary for converting natural hiftory into
romance, the account I {hall give of them muft be very fhort,
and fuch as is fuggefted by the moft probable traditions or
actual appearances.

12, Or the feparation of Afia from America we have no
tradititional account ; it is certain however that they were once
joined,

A

[ 295 |

joined, as the inhabitants of the former pafled into the latter ;
they {till approach each other very nearly in the northern parts,
and the intermediate fpace is filled with iflands. The jun¢tien
immediately after the flood I ftated in my former Effay to have
reached fo low as latitude 40°, becaufe I find America peopled
by nations of different characters, degrees of civilization’ and
languages ; fuch varieties could f{carcely occur among a people
inhabiting the fame climate and formed to the fame habits. As
Cain was originally banifhed from his brethren, fo I imagine
malefactors anciently were into the colder deferted climates by
their civilized brethren in Afia, and thus the Efquimaux origi-
nated that are equally found in both continents and other
favages ; and hence the prxdatory difpofition of the Scythian
tribes. That the poftdiluvian junction did not reach lower
than latitude 40° I infer from the abfence of elephants from
the warmer regions of America,

THe utter feparation of both continents was moft probably
the effect of excavations by volcanos ; at leaft this caufe is ade-
quate to fuch an effect, and it ftill exifts in the moft northern
parts. The fuperior fertility of the weftern coaft of America
‘may arife from the lavas ejected on that coaft,

ad. Tuar the Baltic in all its branches was anciently much
more extended than at prefent many reafons induce us to be-

lieve ;

[ 296 ]

lieve ; but principally the ftate in which we at prefent find the
immenfe plains of Southern Ruflia from Peterfburgh to Pul-
towa.

These plains for fome hundred miles to the fouth of Peterf-
burgh are ftill a morafs, and farther fouthwards they are covered
with fand, pebbles and petrified fhells*. This water is not in-
deed falt, but neither was the Baltic fo originally, and is but
flightly fo at prefent, for it feems to have been formed by the
confluence of the various rivers that flow into it, which at laft
burft a paffage into the German fea, by communication with
this it became falt. At prefent there are three paflages by which
they communicate, at firft probably but one; to the opening
of the two laft the reduction of this fea to its prefent limits
is owing.

3d. Tue ancient communication between the Cafpian, the Lake
of Aral and the Black Sea, before the opening of the Thracian Bof-
phorus, which enabled thefe feas to difcharge them{elves into the

Mediterranean, is rendered highly probable if not demonftrated

by Pallas, 3 Pallas Reife 368. He obferved that between the rivers
Sarpa and Volga, from Zarzycin down to the Calpian fea, the
land flopes with confiderable indentures and abrupt promontorics

as

*Schwed, Abhand. 1773, 181, &c. 2 Bergm, Erde kugel. 215.

[ 297 |]

as if it had been an ancient coaft, and.continues on the fame
level on the eaft of the Wolga in the fandy defert of Narym
and in the more fouthern fteppes or deferts betwen the Wolga
and the Jaick or Ural. The fhells which abound in this exten-
five flat exactly refemble thofe of the Cafpian and are different
from tho’e of the adjacent rivers; thefe deferts are moreover
covered with fand, contain abundance of falt and falt lakes, and
produce only fuch vegetables as grow on falt marfhes; whereas
the upland that borders this flat contains a genuine black fer-
tile foil, and no fhells refembling thofe of the Cafpian, but
only thofe of ancient date, fuch as thofe found in other coun--
~ tries, and of the forts called Pé/agice that belong to the deep-
eft feas. Hence he colfocts that the level of the Cafpian be-
fore it was reduced to its prefent limits was ninety feet*higher’
than at prefent ; thus it was enabled to communicate with the
Euxine by the fea of Afoph. In this ftate it muft have re-
mained from the period of the deluge until about 1800 years
before our ra, the moft probable date of the feparation of'
thefe feas, as Mr. Fofter has fhewn in a learned memoir in’
the Gottingen Magaz. 1780, p. 140.

__ Burron pretends the rupture of the ifthmus that feparated'
_ this fea from the Mediterranean preceded the deluge mentioned '
by. Mofés, merely it fhould feem to contradi&t that moft au-
thentic hiftorian, for he affigns no reafon independent of his”

You. VI. Pp own:

T 298 J
own hiypothefis and is deftitute of the fupport even of the moft
fabulous tradition, 1. Epoques, 8yo. p. 291.

Tue rupture of the ifthmus was probably fudden and total,
and confequently effeGed by an earthquake. To difcover its ef-
fe&ts, we muft firft confider the antecedent ftate of the Medi-
terranean :

Tue Mediterranean, before its union with the Black Sea and
the Ocean, was moft probably a bafon much narrower and fhal-
lower than at prefent; for though it received feveral confiderable
rivers, the Nile, the Rhone and the Po, yet fince even now
evaporation from its furface is fufficient to prevent it from over-
flowing, notwithftanding that the Ocean on the one fide and
the Euxine on the other flow into it, we may well fuppofe that
when it communicated with neither, evaporation kept its level
much lower; when therefore by the rupture of the Thracian Ifth-
mus on the one fide, and of the African which joined Ceuta with
Gibraltar on the other, the waters of both were poured in upon
it, an immenfe preffure took place on its bed, under which it
funk and fell into the inferior cavity of the globe; during this
tremendous tumult the iflands of Sicily, Sardinia, Corfica and ©
thofe of the Archipelago were torn off, and Italy was lengthened
“to its prefent fhape. The neighbouring fhores of France and

Spain, and more efpecially thofe of Africa as being much lower,
and

[ 299 ]

and thofe of Greece and Afia, muft have been inundated to a
great extent, and hence the faline fubftances ftill exifting in the
adjacent parts of Africa, &c.

As the fouthern parts of Italy ftill abound in fulphur and
other inflammable fubftances, fo probably did the contiguous
parts of the bed of the Mediterranean, and by the immenfe
frition which they muft have fuffered during this fall and the
hollows that interceded the abrupted maffes the firft fubterrane-
ous fires might have been kindled and the beds of the adtual
volcanos prepared, which however did not probably acquire fuf-
ficient ftrength to burft through the incumbent earthy ftrata until
fome ages after, as I conje@ture from the filence of Homer with
refpect to Etna, whofe wonders had they exifted in his time he
probably would not have overlooked.

Tue feparation of Sicily from Italy is vouched by ancient tra-
ditions, as may be feen in Pliny, Ovid and Claudian.

Zancle quoque juncta fuiffe
Dicitur Italize, donec confinia pontus
Abftulit, & media tellurem reppulit unda. Ovid Metam-
Lib. 15. v. 290.
Trinacria quondam
Italize pars una fuit, fed pontus & oeftus
5 Ppa Mutavere

[ goo Vj
Mutavere fitum, rupit confinia Nereus

Viator, & abfciffo interluit zequore montes. Claudian. De
Raft. Proferp. Lib. 1.

Tue fteep abrupt coafts from Genoa to Leghorn, defcribed by
Ferber in his twenty-fecond letter, muft be afcribed to the rupture
of the ftrata, as tides, fcarcely fenfible in this fea, cannot be even
fufpeéted of having acted fo powerfully upon them. The rapi-
dity of the Rhone and of moft of the rivers that fall into this

fea on the European fide alfo indicate the great inclination of

the ftrata of the interior countries towards it, a natural confe-
quence of the depreffion of their primitive fupport. The moun-
tains of Swifferland difcover alfo veftages of a fhock on the fouth
eaft, as I have already noticed, the detail of which I leave to the
many excellent geologifts of that country.

Tue communication of the Euxine with the Ocean by means
of the Mediterranean being thus formed, its level gradually fub-
fided, the canal which joined it with the Cafpian dried up; as
few great rivers fall into this (only the Wolga and the Ural) it
was foon reduced by evaporation to its prefent level, which is faid
to be lower than that of any other fea, and thus the falt, deferts
that border it, were formed, and its feparation from the Aral ef-
feted.

5° ' Tos

?
|

ee

LD aot]

5° Tue entire feparation of Great Britain from the Continent
muft have happened long after the deluge, and that of Ireland
from Great Britain at a flill later period; for wolves and bears
were anciently found in both, and thefe muft have paffed from
the Continent into Britain and from this into Ireland, as their im-
portation cannot be fufpected. Thefe events as I already faid muft
have been prepared and have commenced by the fhock communi-
cated during the rupture and depreffion of the bed of the Atlantic.
The divulfive force that feparated Britain from Germany feems
to have been direfed from north to fouth, but gradually weaken-
ed in its progrefs, Hence that ifland is fharpened to the north-
wards, but the impreffion muft have been confiderably weakened
by the oppofition of the granitic mountains that form the Shet-
land and Orkney Ifles. The loofer ftru€ture of the calcareous or
argillaceous and arenaceous materials of the more fouthern parts
offered lefs refiftance, was more eafily preyed upon, and gave
way to what is now called the German ocean, while thefe materi-
als themfelves were fpread over Weftphalia, &c. or formed the
fubfoil of Flanders, Holland and the fand-banks on its coaft. The
rupture of the ifthmus that joined Calais and Dover was probably
effected by an earthquake at a later period, and gradually widen-
ed by tides and currents. Ireland was protected by Scotland
from the violence of the northern fhock, hence its feparation
from Scotland appears to have been late and gradual. That from
England was probably diluvial and effected by a fouthern fhock.

ALL

[ yours

~ Axx thefe changes happened at leaft three thoufand fix hundred
years ago, and I fee no reafon to think that the general level of
the ocean has fince been altered, but that of thc continents feems
to have varied confiderably, being in fome places higher and in
others lower than anciently.

Tue depreffion of continents originates from two caufes, the
firft is the diminution of the waters that anciently pervaded them ;
the fecond is the fliding away of the inferior argillaceous ftrata ;
to fay nothing of caufes merely contingent, as earthquakes and

inundations.

Arrer the deluge, the earth on which it refted 150 days, and
from which it very flowly retired, muft have been drenched with
water; vegetation quickly enfued, and twenty centuries ago moft
countries are known to have been covered with trees, and many
until a much later period ; in thefe circumftances an infinity of
{mall rivulets muft have been formed, which poured their itreams
into the great rivers arifing from their confluence ; while the furface
of the earth was protected by forefts from the immediate influence
of the fun, the moifture replenifhing its interior muft have remain-
ed, Again, as we fee the craggy fummits of many of the higheft
mountains, now decompofing, being corroded by air and moifture,
’ we muft fuppofe that the fame caufes have operated in the moft

ancient times, and that previous to their ation thefe fummits were
much

[ 303 J

much higher, and confequently better fitted for colleing vapours
than at prefent, but in modern times, from the extenfion of agricul-
ture to countries where it never before was introduced, and the
increafing multiplication of mankind, the forefts have in great
meafure difappeared ; the earth laid bare yields its waters to éva-
poration; the mountains lowered, no longer collect or condenfe the
fame quantity of vapour, the rivulets ceafe, or are reduced to
rills, and the earth freed from its pervading moifture has naturally
funk to a lower level. Hence moft rivers were anciently much
more confiderable than at prefent, as we may fee by the wide ex-
tended vaies through which they run, the monuments of their
ancient magnitude. Not only bogs have in fome inftances been
known to flide over lower adjacent plains, but even portions of
land feemingly more folid. Thus in France near Meudon in 1787
a whole fide of a hill covered with trees defcended 50 feet upon
and covered to the height of 70 feet a neighbouring plain; its
defcent lafted fix years. 43 Roz. 19. It was occafioned by laying
bare a bed of clay which by imbibing rain was tumefied and loofen-
ed. In Bohemia alfo, fo late as the year 1770, a great part of the
mountain of Ziegenberg flid down 38 fathom to the Elbe with its
trees ftill ftanding partly ere& and partly inclined. This was
afcribed to the folution of its inferior firatum, an argillaceous
fandftone, whofe argillaceous part was carried off by rain to which
it had incautioufly been expofed. Reufs Bohemia, 55.

In

[ 304 ]

In fome places the furface of the earth has been elevated by the
particles carried down by rain from greater elevations, or the
gradual {difintegration of the ftony fubftances that covered them,
or by various local and contingent events. Hence many remains
- of antiquity depofited on the ancient furface are now found at con-
fiderable depths, particularly in countries long devafted.

Tue effects of volcanos in altering the face of the globe feem
to me much more circumfcribed than many late writers have affert-
ed: few mountains, and thofe eafily diftinguifhable, owe their
origin to them ; neither Vefuvius nor tna were formed by them,
as is evident by the mafs of Neptunian ftones that compofe them ;
their effufions feldom reach to a great diftance, none above
100 miles. Of ancient volcanos now extinct, few can be traced
by undoubted chara@ers or hiftoric accounts. Sidonius Apollinaris,
Lib. 7. Epift. 1. mentions one near Vienne in Dauphiné which
burned about the year 469 ; but by his account it is not clear
whether it was a volcano or a pfeudo volcano; I fufpeé the
latter.

Tacitus alfo, at theend of the 13th Book of his Annals, men-
tions a volcano, or rather pfeudo volcano, that ravaged the country
of the Jutiones; this is faid by many to be that of the Ubians;
if fo it muft have been in the neighbourhood of Cologn, where
fome pfeudo volcanic remains are traced.

On

L 305 J]

On no fubje& have philofophers been lefs cautious of the
delufions of imagination than on this of volcanos: the aitonifh-
ment excited by their awful phoenomena feems to have affeGed.
even the underftanding of fome of their {petators. The author of
many celebrated treatifes on volcanos, lately travelling into Scot-
land, exclaimed, at the fight of every black ftone he met with,
that it was /ava, as I was informed by one of his companions *;
even the very excellent Sir William Hamilton has frequently been
feduced from the fimple path of obfervation to which notwithftand-
ing he profefied to adhere, into the mazes and errors of a bafelefs
fyftem+. In aletter toSir John Pringle, May 1776, he tells us that
“© Wherever bafaltic pillars like thofe of the Giant's Caufeway in |
“ Ireland are found there without doubt a volcano muft have ex-
“ ifted, for they are mere lava.” At prefent however I believe none
will pretend that the volcanic origin of thefe pillars is out of the
reach of doubt. He tells us that Vefuvius and Attna were formed
by aferies of volcanic eruptions}, though there is no certain proof
that the former was fo formed, and it is demonftrable that the latter
exifted asa mountain before it became a volcano. Padre Torre, who
has given a good defcription of Vefuvius, infifts that its primitive
‘ftamina, if I may fo call them, are not volcanic, but that it fhould
rather be confidered as an extenfion of the Appenines; the number

Qq of

_ * Mr, Macie, a gentleman of the moft exact and extenfive mineralogical knowledge.

+ Ouvres de Hamilton, p. 10.
t Ouvres de Hamilton, p. 11.

Lage 70

of Neptunian ftones it throws up, as may be feen in Gioeni’s Litho-
graphy of Vefuvius, confirms this opinion; that the calcareous ftrata
aré covered to a great depth with lava cannot be doubted, but that
the whole mafs of Vefuvius tonfifts of volcanic ejeCtions has not
been proved; it is faid that in finking a well near the fea fhore
beds of lava, have been found at great depths, but how eafily may
have the mother ftones of lava, hornblende and fhiftofe hornblende
be miftaken for lava itfelf? )

Wit refpect to Etna there can be no doubt. Dolomieu found
immenfe heaps of fea fhells in its north-eaft flanks at the height
of near 2000 feet over the furface of the fea. Hence he juftly
concludes that this volcano exifted as a mountain before it was
uncovered by the fea; he adds that at the height of about 2400
feet there are regular ftrata of grey clay filled with marine fhells ;
thefe ftrata muft then have been depofited while the mountain was
a forming under the fea; it contained alfo he fays prifmatic lava,
but the word /ava, particularly with the addition pri/matic, can
now impofe on no one *.

He farther affirms that in particular parts of this mountain,
calcareous ftrata exift under the lava.—So alfo Count Borch, in his
Letters on Sicily and Malta, informs us that the original ftone
of which AXtna confifts is granite mixed with jafper, neither of

which

* Ponces, 465. 466. &c.

reo

(gon

which furefy are lava, he fays that it abounds in mines of lead and
copper, neither of which are ever found in lava, though their
fragments may. This laft mentioned geologift pretends that AXtna
is at leaft 8000 years old, which he infers from the beds of vege-
table earth whch he difcovered betwixt different beds of lava,
Yet Dolomieu exprefly tells us that fuch earth does not exift be-
tween beds o° lava, Ponces 472. and thus deftroys the foun-
dation of thofe calculations that afcribe to the globe an antiquity
incompatible with the Mofaic hiftory. Even if vegetable earth
were found betwixt beds of lava, yet no conclufion relative to
their age could fairly be deduced from that circumftance, as fome
lwa become fertile much fooner than others. Thus Chevalier
Gioanni in 1787 found lavas projected in 1766 ina ftate of vege-
tition, while other lavas much more ancient ftill remained barren.
Dolom. Ponces 493. And in particular, it is well known that beds
of volcanic afhes and pumice vegetate fooner than any other *.

I wave been led into this detail by obferving how fatal the
fufpicion of the high antiquity of the globe has been to the credit
of the Mofaic hiftory, and confequently to religion and morality ;
a fufpicion grounded on no other foundation than that whofe
weaknefs I have here expofed. M. Dolomieu tells us that Canon
Recupero denied having ever expreffed any doubt on that head,

Qq 2 and.

* Ferber Italy, 169.

ba s Sia, [i 308 q a

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MALINOUE,

_NALANOWY THL

LSet

Tue mean temperature of this year was ftill lower than that
of the laft, but the excefs was chiefly in the fix firft months.

Tue greateft height of the barometer, namely 30.7, happened
three times, v: 2: in March, October and December.

Tue hotteft days were in June, July and Auguft, the heat did
not exceed 73°.5.

Tue coldeft night was December 24th v:%: 20°.

Tue wetteft. month, as to the quantity of rain, was May; as
to the number of rainy days, was July; but on the whole there
fell much lefs rain than ufual during this year, not quite 22 inches :
the two drieft months were March and October.

SPRING.

Rain.

Inches.

April - 1.1034
May - 4.3350

os

5-4384

View of the Seafons.

I] SUMMER. ff AUTUMN.
Days. | Rain. Days. | Rain. Days,
Inches. Inches.
1zbJune - - 1.4975 204 September - 1.8914 16
20 | July - - 2.8375. 25 | Odtober - .8670 16
a2 | Augut - ee x an ae
3] 4.6108 56L

HENCE

ee

SR IOS
t

E sger il

Hence we fee the Spring was wef, the Summer variable wet,

the autumn dry.

Comparifon with the Rules of Probability.

Tue Spring being wet the probability of a wet Summer was
the greateft, and that of a variable wet Summer the next greatett ;
the firft £ the other 4 by the 6th table.

Tue Spring being wet and the Summer variable, the probabi-
lity of a dry Autumn was the greateft by the 1oth table.

THE obfervation that the more it rains in May the lefs it rains
in September was alfo remarkably verified this year, it rained ftill
lefs in O€tober.

But the obfervation that the abfence of ftorms in March
prognofticates a dry Summer was falfified this year.

For fome years paft I have remarked that a change of weather

_ moft commonly happens on the 7th, 14th and arft of every month,

a day before or a day after, but fometimes though rarely the

_ weather continues for three or four of thefe periods.

of

[ *gez 2]

Of the Winter preceding the Seafous of 1796.

Mean.
1795- Rain, . Days. Barom. Heat.
November - - 2.8506 U7. 30.02 41
December - > 243908 21 30.01 44
30.015 : 42:5
1796. — =
fiascaty - - 2.7783 18 29.58 48
February - - 1.1034 17 29.96 d 41.7
March - - 0.8276 IL 30.21 4-7
9-8507 84 29.91 6; 43:8

Tuere the rain was not even half of that which fell in the
Winter of 1795, and yet the Summer was alfo variable wet.

ea tal

SUPPLEMENT ¢t# Mr. EDGEWORTH’s ESSAY
upon the TELEGRAPH.

Since the Royal Irifh Academy did me the honour to: — 35>
accept of my eflay on the telegraph, I have made material im- Gin
provements in its conftruction, which I think it my duty to:

communicate.

In September 1796, the Lord Lieutenant ordered me to pre-
pare telegraphs for an ‘experiment before his Excellency. In
confequence I conftruéted four new telegraphs—I had found
that the large machines thirty feet high, with which my fons
talked in September 1794 acrofs the channel, between Ireland
and Scotland, were liable to accidents in ftormy weather: my
firft confideration therefore was to contrive fome means of fur-
ling their canvas when they were not in ufe; and from the
rigging of fhips it was obvious that cordage was for this pur-
pofe preferable to inflexible braces of wood. I therefore adopted
the following conftruction :
evar. VL Rr . A. (fig. 4.)

[ 34 ]

A. (fig. 4.) A hollow axle-tree, made in feparate pieces, hooped
together in the form of a double truncated cone, on the midide
of which is faftened a wheel of wood (b. fig. 4.) with eight not-
ches cut out (a. fig. 4.) to receive eight ribs (rrr. rr. t. tt
fig. 1.and 2.) Thefe ribs turning on a ftrong iron ring, fhut up
like the ribs of an umbrella, and are ratfed and adjufted by cords
paffing through eight holes in the flanches or fhoulders (F. fig. 1. 4.)
Thefe flanches, and thofe at (f. fig. 2. and 4.) ferve to keep the
machine in its place upon the ftands which fupport it (fig. 2.)
the cords are ftrained and faftened like the cords of a tent
{c, ¢. Ge.) fig. 2)

Were permanent buildings are not required, fupports -for
thefe machines may be coniftructed in the following manner:
Two ftands, each of them made of two pieces of wood fimply
bolted together as (fig. 3.) muft be erected, and held fteady by
means of cords (c. c.) faftened to common tent pegs as in
(fig. 2. P. P,P.) When the machines are large, {mall piles fhould
be ufed inftead of pegs, and running tackle (t.) fhould be ufed
both for the cords of the pointers and the ftands. A number of
minute circumftances fhould be attended to in the conftruction
and ufe of thefe machines; but I do not think it proper to de-
tail them to this Academy; they fhould appear in a different

lace: (a).
Z @) BESIDES

(a) Formerly in France every engineer, who conduéted any public work, was
obliged to lodge in a public office exact drawings with minute defcriptions of every

part of and’ procefs of his operations. Numberlefs fmall improvements in work-
manthip

i ali

en ee ee

E. 335°]

Brstpes rendering the telegraph fafe againft ftorms, and more
eafily manageable, I found by experience that one machine could
be made to perform the fame effect as four, with but little lofs
of time ; what took up four minutes with four pointers can be
conveyed in five minutes by one. I have alfo found, that by

anfwering each fignal or number fhewn at every ftation, all poffi-
bility of miftake is avoided.

I Bevteve that in other eftablifhments of this fort it has

| been found that thick and foggy weather has occafioned more

interruptions than were expected. With my telegraphs I have
good reafon to affert that there do not commonly occur above

eight or ten days in the year when intelligence might not be

conveyed by land.

Ir eight men were pofted at each permanent ftation, at the
diftance of eighteen or twenty Englifh miles afunder, with ma-
chines of twenty-five feet high, in hazy weather, they might
detach two men with portable telegraphs to the diftance of about
fix miles from each ftation, who with eight foot telegraphs could

keep up a regular communication.

Rrz2 THE

manfhip and tools were preferved by thefe means, and by jdegrees were collected!
into publications of general circulation.

I was required to deliver drawings of all the machinery I employed in the work
earried on at Lyons in 1772 for turning the courfe of the Rhone.

But in the tranfaCtions of a literary fociety fuch details would be tedious andi
improper.

[316 ]

Tue portable telegraph refembles that which I have defcribed
‘It differs only in two cireumftances ; for convenience, as it is {mall
and does not oppofe much furface to the wind, it may be dif-
tended with ribs of wood inftead of cords.

Tue portable telegraph which my fon had the honour of fhew-
ing to His Royal Highnefs the Duke of York in. Kenfington
Gardens in O@tober laft, was furnifhed with filken cords, on
purpofe to fhew how my larger telegraphs were conftructed ; but
it was intended merely for reconnoitring near an army, and was
only fix feet high.

In the efflay which the Academy has already received I faid
that imitations without end might be made of my telegraph.
Every index or pointer that moves circularly, dividing an imagi-
nary circle into parts and denoting figures or figns that corref-
pond with a vocabulary, is founded on the fame principle as mine.
The French have laid afide their former clumfy apparatus, and
have conftructed a telegraph on thefe principles; and the admi-
ralty in England have as I am informed very lately done the

fame.

Tue firft pointers I employed in 1767 were wind-mill fails.

I then tried indexes of the fhape (fig. 5.) Fig. 8. A pointer
like a fword-cutler’s fign was recommended to me by a member
of the Academy, as a fecond or additional hand to move on the
fame

[ guy ii

fame center as the principal hand. But a triangle, whofe bafe is

equal to half its fide, is of all the figures I have tried the moft
difting.

THE night-telegraph remains ftill to be defcribed; its ufes
are perhaps more extenfive than thofe of the telegraphs I have
already publifhed ; and I propofe to make it the fubje@ of ano-
ther paper upon a future occafion.

Tue art of conveying fwift and fecret intelligence is not one
of thofe inventions which attracts attention only by its novelty;
on the contrary I am convinced that it will be thought more va-

luable the longer it has been fubmitted to the teft of time
and experience.

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fer are

A DESCRIPTION of an AIR-PUMP of a NEW
CONSTRUCTION, with an ACCOUNT Of us
PERFORMANCE, and of fme EXPERIMENTS and
OBSERVATIONS ¢ending to afcertain the CIRCUM-

STANCES on which the PERFECTION Of that
MACHINE @efends, and to render its THEORY more
compleat. By the Rev. JAMES LITTLE of Lacken
in the County of Mayo.

Tue many difcoveries which have done honour to the exer- Read Dec.

tions of the ele@ricians and chemifts, even fince the middle of 17" 179%
this century, encourage us to hope that their labours will not
_ terminate "till they become the means of affording to pofterity
a more extenfive knowledge of the latent principles and powers
of nature, and confequently a more devout conviétion of the
wifdom of its great Creator, than there was any profpedt of in
the preceding age. Such knowledge of the works of God, fought
out of all them that have pleafure therein, and affording unex-
pected advantages to human life, is the refult of experimental
enquiry; and experiments cannot be made without proper inftru-
ments

[+ geen. 4

ments and machines. Of thefe, none has opened a wider field
of enquiry in natural philofophy than the air-pump; and I
am inclined to think, that this inftrument has not yet afforded
all the fervices of which it is capable, when I confider that air
is fo large a component part of moft bodies, that fince many
kinds of air are compounded of other aeriform fluids, and affume
different qualities according to the varieties of their combination,
thefe component fluids would in many experiments be with moft
advantage united in vacuo; and alfo that fome electrical expe-
riments not only require a vacuum, but alfo one of the moft
perfect kind.

WirtuH a view to this latter circumftance folely, fo long ago
as the year 1776, I fet about contriving an air-pump which
fhould be fimple in its conftruction and yet exhauft more per-
feétly than thofe of the common form ; and in 1778 I made one
(the barrel of which was of pewter-metal) on the principle,
which, I was fatisfied from the following theory, was the moft
effential, of leaving as little air as poffible under the pifton
when put down to the bottom of the barrel; and the perform-
ante of this machine was fo excellent as to induce me to fabri-
cate a larger and more perfect one of the fame conftruction, and
made in brafs-metal, which I had executed (in the country) in
the year 1785; but not finding it to perform as well as I had

expeGed, I devifed an alteration and improvement in it, which

I had almoft finifhed the workmanthip of in 1788, being that |

which

Reg To Le nn ee ee ee Oe

ft 3m

which is here defcribed ; and from that time ’till the laft fum-
mer (1785) it lay by me neglected, bad health, &c, diverting
“my attention from it; for the whole of it, except the forging
the iron-work, was made by myfelf without affiftance. At
length, being loth to lofe my labour, [| put the laft hand to it.
Before it was finifhed, I was acquainted with the conftruction of
Mr. Smeaton’s air-pump, with its improvements, but had not
heard of Mr. Cuthbertfon’s ; which, as well as Mr. Smeaton’s,
I find is conceived on the fame principle with mine, yet the ap-
_ plication of that principle in the machine here defcribed, being
exhibited in a much more fimple conftruction, it will I am
perfuaded be found to perform better and with more certainty
than the former, on which perfuafion only I am induced to
publifh it. The reader will eafily underftand what is hereafter
faid of its theory, after he has confidered its conftruction.

Tue principal parts of it are one barrel and pifton, one

ftop-cock, one valve,-and two pipes of communication.

N. B. Tue pump here defcribed is a portable one, and fo

contrived as to be confined in a very fmall fpace; but it may

be made of a different form, and with two barrels, though not
conveniently.

Fic. 1. is a perfpective view of the whole machine as it lies
before the operator. Fig. 2. 1s a back-view of the fame.

Vou. VI. Ss THE

[ 322 |

Tue barrel A A, (fig. 1.) is almoft fifteen inches long, and

internally in diameter juft two inches; it is moft perfectly
cylindrical, and polifhed like a looking-glafs within.. The pifton
(fig. 3.) is folid, without any perforation; it confifts of circular
plates of leather preffed together between the round plate a,
(in the focket of which 4, the pifton rod was inferted and
faftened by a crofs fcrew, before the leathers were put on)
and the two upper plates c and d; of which the outer one
d, being {crewed upon a fcrew formed on the outfide of the
focket, preffes down the under plate, and this the leathers,
which latter are not reprefented in the figure. The upper plate,
when fcrewed on, lies even with the upper part of the focket,
that, when the pifton is raifed to the top, it may touch the
plate covering the upper part of the barrel, leaving no air
above the pifton. Thefe two plates of the pifton, efpecially
the lower one, are made fo large as juft to move in the barrel
without touching it, and care was taken that when the pifton
is put down, it fhould be every where in contact with the

plate at the bottom of the barrel, this plate being turned in

the lathe upon the pifton rod which fitted its focket exactly, —

fo that not the leaft fpace might be left for lodgment of air

under the pifton. The leathers are of the beft buck-{kin,

dreffed in the ufual manner, firm in its texture, but not harfh;

and being well dried, were foaked in a. mixture of. three parts — $

fuet melted with one part oil, before they were put ‘together :

they — |

er Eee!

Luge 322. Sveence

3 Wi

_ 6
a Ta

bran Ql se tence
, et Saket re eS
ee Geiss

g23.]-

they were then, when cold, turned in a lathe on the pifton,
with a very fharp tool *. |
Tue iron rod of the pifton is 4% ths of an inch in diameter,
exactly cylindrical, and very fmoothly polifhed; it moves
through a collar of leathers (the fame kind as thofe of the
pifton) enclofed in the brafs box C, the lower plate of which
is fixed on the top of the barrel by the four fcrews 4, 4,
pafled through the broad prominent rim of it; and the plate
was fo well adapted to the top of the barrel, by grinding it
on it with a circular motion, as to require only the interpo-
fition of a little {tiff ointment to make the joining air-faft.
A cover is, in the fame manner, adapted by three fcrews to
the projecting rim of the box containing the collar of leathers,
in the middle of which cover is fixed the focket or collar E,
above an inch long, through which the pifton rod moves.
As it is altogether neceflary that this rod fhould move moft
, Ss 2 exactly

* Tf to. cd leather were ufed for the pifton, &c. it might be foaked in oil
alone ; | a ides that it is apt to grow too hard by compreffion, and alfo to cor-
rode the ~safs of the barrel more from the acid imparted by the bark with which
it is tanned, it alfo emits a greater quantity of elaftic fluid in vacuo than leather
which is not tanned. On thefe accounts I. have ufed buck-fkin leather for the
pifton, but the texture of this being very loofe, oil only would not fill its pores

fo as to make the pifton air-tight, even when the leathers were clofely preffed ;

and it was neceffary to fill its grain with the above ftiffer compofition. Yet this
leather will alfo generate air, and is harder to be made air-faft; it alfo moves fo
ftiffly in the barrel that perhaps good fhoe-leather is preferable to it.

[ gear]

exactly in the middle or axis of the barrel, care was taken
that the pofition of the box, and of the focket annexed to it,
fhould be fecured, by having a prominent part of the plate
of the box of leathers inferted into the pump barrel, and a
like projeéting part of the lid of the box inferted into the box
itfelf; alfo that the pifton rod fhould moft exactly fill the
focket in the lid. Over the collar of leathers, within the box,
lies a tinned brafs plate, which is preffed down upon them
by the ends of three fcrews 3, 3, fcrewed through the lid of
the box. 4

Tue pifton is moved up and down by the toothed flat bar
or rack F, whofe end is furnifhed with an arm G, (to be
taken off occafionally) which arm is fecured againft a fhoulder
formed on the end of the pifton rod, by a nut H fcrewed on
the rod; the rack is moved by a {mall fteel wheel L, one
inch and 2 in diameter, having twelve teeth, and which is
turned by the handle X fixed on its axis L. This wheel is
fuftained by the cheeks K, K, fig. 1. & 2. furnifhed with’
projecting fockets, through which its axis pafles. Thefe checks
are {crewed to the iron bar M, which is a part of the frame
fupporting the whole machine; by this bar it is faftened
by clamps to whatever table it is placed on. _ From the
middle of the bar, and at right angles with it, extends ho-
rizontally an arm N, (rivetted and brazed upon the bar) the

under

ies an

under furface of the arm being on a level with the upper
one of the bar; this arm fupports the gage glafs Y, and ter-
minates in a crofs piece (making together the form of the
letter T) to which piece and to the ari, the receiver-plate is

{crewed by {crews underneath, inferted into its thick margin.

Tue bar M fupports the upright pieces or pillars o, 0,
terminating in the femicircular arms p, p, on which the bar-
rel is faftened by four fcrews at p, p, fcrewed a little way
into its projecting rings. Thefe pillars are made of iron, and
very ftrong, being half an inch in thicknefs; they are alfo
moft firmly fixed, and fhould be brazed in the bar which fup-
ports them; this being neceffary, as all the force of the handle
of the wheel, by which the rack is worked, bears againft thefe
pillars; and, if they were to be fhaken, the cement by which
the receiver pipe is conneéted with the pump would be broken,
which cannot otherwife happen. The pillars fupport alfo the
iron cafe or fheath P P, extended underneath the pump barrel,
Within which cafe flides the toothed bar or rack F, moved by
the wheel, and this rack (with its cafe) is fixed exa@ly pa-
rallel to the axis of the cylinder, that it may draw out the
pifton rod precifely in that direction in which itfelf moves:
the bar is 3 of an inch in thicknefs, but is an inch in
breadth from the bottom of its teeth to the back of it. It
is made thus ftrong that the end of it may not be ftrained

upward

[ 326 ]

‘upward from the proper direction, when it is urged forward
by the wheel, and yet checked by the pifton rod after the pif-
ton is raifed to the top of the barrel. To confine the rack
in the true line of its motion, it is made perfe@tly ftraight
and of the fame dimenfions in its whole length, and its cafe
the fame, fo as to fit each other moft exaétly, that it may be
kept in its due pofition when the greateft part of it is drawn
out of the cafe; for which purpofe alfo it is made, (as like-
wife the cafe) fo much longer at either end than the part
neceflary to be toothed, as to permit a great part of it to re-
main in the cafe when the pifton rod is drawn out to its
utmoft extent: accordingly, in this pump, it acts in this refpect
as well as could be wifhed*. A notch is cut out of the cafe
at I, to allow the teeth of the wheel to take into thofe of
the rack; and to keep the cafe firmly in its place, little notches
are cut in the upper edge of it, into which the contiguous
parts of the pillars are let, and it is fecured fo by wedges
2, 2, underneath. It will be known that the cafe of the
rack has its due pofition when, the arm G being taken off,
both the rack and the pifton rod, pulled out to their limit,

are

* By this contrivance of fixing the barrel of the pump horizontal and its rack
underneath the barrel, it is made fo portable that I have packed it (the gage glafs
and receiver being taken off) in a box two feet long, eighteen inches wide and feven
in depth; and it fhould be remembered, that the moft operofe parts of it here
defcribed are the frame and machinery neceffary to render a pump with /o long a
cylinder portable; a great part of which machinery, if it were not portable, would
not be fpared, but merely exchanged for the huge frame of thofe fo conftructed.

ee

he

pg
}

©

c eez” J

are found to be, parallel. The -pillars are made as fhort as
poffible ; to favour, which, the frame M has a furrow cut in
the middle of it under the wheel I, to let the teeth of the
wheel defcend almoft to the table on which the machine refts ;
and. the pump barrel is placed as near as may be to the

rack.

On the upper part of the box containing the collar of leathers,
is a projecting part of the metal, in the fhape of a cube, forming a
little pedeftal Q: on this is placed the vaive f; from beneath
which defcends a ftraight dua into the barrel without penetrating
the box: the form of the parts of this valve (all made of brafs
and of the fize of the originals belonging to the pump) is re-
prefented in fig. 4. in a vertical feGtion. AA is a fquare plate
(to be taken off, if it fhould require to be ground and polifhed
anew in contact with the valve ;) which is faftened on the pedef-
tal with cement; it has a hole in the middle, being the open-
ing of the dua, in which is inferted the little elevated pipe c,
to be occafionally taken out ; whofe ufe is, to prevent the oil
applied to the valve from being blown down into the dua, by
the air rufhing into the barrel: the clevated part of the plate
a a is circular, and has its upper furface made plane and po-
lifhed, on which refts the valve D; which is fo far hollowed
within, that only its lower edge, being about .th of an inch
thick, (which is alfo well polifhed) may be in conta with the
plate under it, and alfo that its cavity may rife above the little

pipe :

Epa Jy

pipe: the valve is almoft cylindrical, tapering but a little from
the bafe upward, and being laid on the plate with a fmall drop
of oil interpofed, the hollow cylindrical cap E, very little wider
internally than the valve, is put over it, being faflened down
on the projecting circular part of the plate a a. To let the
air pafs through this cap, three little holes ¢, e are made in its
fides, the centers of which are juft as high as the lower edge
of the valve D, when it is raifed to touch the top of the cap;
the holes being higher than the plate under the valve, that the
oil may not run out by them. When this valve is found to
admit air into the barrel, it is occafioned either by the oil’s be-
ing blown away, or fome particle of duft, &c. getting between
it and the plate, (which would produce the fame effet in any
valve) and is remedied by taking it off, wiping it clean and
applying another drop of oil: the greater the quantity of air is,
which pafies by the valve, the more is the oil diffipated, and
confequently this chiefly happens in the beginning of the ex-
“hauftion, when much air is drawn. from the receiver, and thrown
out of the barrel at each ftroke; fo that whenever great rare-
faction is requifite, I often found it convenient towards the end
of the operation to apply a frefh drop of oil to the valve, keeping
the pifton in the mean time elevated to the top of the barrel
whilft the valve is taken off, until it be replaced; which is
done in an inftant: thus it will perform perfe@ly well, if quite
clean and free from duft; but as the fmalleft particle of dirt

or mucus (which is apt to be produced from the oil’s corroding
the

[ e |
the brafs. and becoming clammy) will render the valve not air--
tight, I am therefore perfuaded that no valve will fo perfectly
or certainly exclude air as a flop-cock; and this I take to be
the chief reafon why Mr. Smeaton’s pump, as improved by Meffrs.
Kaas’s and Hurter’s contrivance for raifing the valve at the
bottom of the barrel, does not in praétice anfwer as well as
any other: for if fome air did not return into the receiver by
that valve,.in pumps on his conftru€tion, it would be hard to

tell why it fhould not perform as well as a2 pump of any other-
conftruction,

To the bottom of the barrel is faftened,.by four fcrews paffed
through its prominent rim,.the circular plate R, forming, in part,,
the fhell of the cock S, and which has the high ridge T on the
back of it; all thefe being only one piece of metal, which is
reprefented feparately in fig. 5, and’ was caft in that form: the
round plate is about ¢th of an inch thick, but the cavity of
the cock intrudes fo far on this that,.when the key of the cock
is put in, the thicknefs of the plate in the part dire@ly over~
the key, where the duéts open into the barrel, is not more
than 4th of an inch: the length of the fhell of the cock is.
three inches; that of the key ith of an inch lefs: the dia--
meter of the key at the thicker extremity is 1 4ths of an
inch, and at the fmaller end 14th of an inch. It is turned’
by the handle #, faftened on its axis as near to the end of the
fhell ax may be, viz. at the diftance of 4th of an inch. Care

Vor. VI. et was -

acl |

Boe)

-was taken that the metal of the cock fhould be free from pores,
by which if air were admitted in the working, it would be
very hard to difcover it, as this might take place only in
certain pojfitions of the key; and the ointment might fometimes
prevent and fometimes fuffer it, fo that it might elude trials ;
the cock was alfo fo truly and fmoothly ground as to produce
an intimate contact of the key and fhell throughout, (for air
will penetrate where liquids would not) it was alfo made of a
true conical fhape, its fides being perfectly ftrait from end to
end. The cock muft be lubricated and made air-tight by oint-
‘ment *, and as all oil or greafy ointment has an acid in it,
(of which perhaps it can never be divefted without deftroying
its lubricity) which corrodes the brafs, and ftiffens the oil or
ointment itfelf, by impregnating it with green ruft or verde-
gris, I found it neceflary, after the cock was finifhed, to have
the key and the infide of the fhell coated with tin f.

THE

* This I have made of one part common rofin, one part oil, and one part and
a half frefh fuet: the oil and rofin is firft melted, and when a little cooled, the
fuet is added, that the heat requifite to melt the rofin may not burn the fibrous
part of the fuet and deftoy its firmnefs: more oil is to be added in cold than in
warm weather. The quality of the ointment for the cock is of the utmoft con-—
fequence ; for if ever the parts of the metal of the cock come into immediate
contact, it will not be air-faft ; oil will not render it fo, (nor confequently would
a valve) but the ointment muft be {tiff and adhefive; yet not too ftiff, as then
it would be hard to turn the key, and it could not be diftinguifhed whether its
{tiffnefs was owing to the ointment, or to the fri€tion of the pa of the metal
getting into immediate contact, which would be pernicious.

+ This was done by making the metal very clean and bright by rubbing with
whiting and water; and having heated it as hot as boiling watef, and preferved it
fo,

be gape:

Tue key of the cock terminates in a little knob x, fig. =
againft which the end of the thin fpring lever y, prefles to
keep the key conftantly firm in its fhell: this {pring is made
to urge onward the key with any degree of force requifite, by
the {crew at y, {crewed through the outer part of the little
arch or frame, which frame is itfelf faftened by {crews on
the prominent ring of the barrel, as appears at z, fig. 2. The
lever has a little ridge or elevated part, which refts in a notch
in the frame; by which the lever is fixed in its proper place,
the notch. being the fulcrum: by withdrawing the fcrew, the
ridge may. be raifed out of the notch, and the lever pulled
back from the knob, to let the key be taken out when it re-
quires more ointment ; which will be known when it. has
worked into the fhell nearly to its limit; and.this fhould be

¢ carefully:

fo, I rubbed the parts to be tinned very well for half-an.hour, or more, with a.
linen rag wetted with diftilled vinegar, in which had been boiled fome falam-
moniac, together with an amalgam of: quickfilver- and tin; ’till the metal was
every where well coated with the amalgam; then wiping off the. loofe particles,
I heated the metal in the fire, “till in the dark, it was juft beginning to appear
red hot; with this heat the mercury evaporated, leaving a very hard ccat of tin
on the metal, without in the leaft injuring its fhape or polifh; this alfo pre-
vented the key and fhell of the cock from tearing one another by fri€tion, which
would certainly fpoil the cock, as frequently happens with foft brafs.

The infide of the barrsl (for reafons hereafter given) fhould be tinned in the fame
manner ; but it fhould, before-it is at- firft polifhed, be heated equally red in the
fire, and fuffered to cook equally and gradually, that it may not alter its fhape
when heated again in tinning. Any other. method of tinning it, but this, wouid
be bath difhcult and. hazardous. -

[ 332 4

carefully Icarned, by marking how far it can be inferted into
the fhell without any ointment interpofed. The form of the
‘key and its lever is exhibited in fig. 6. in an horizontal fection
through the middle of them.

Turoucu the fhell of this cock are two round perforations
for two duéts through the cock, each, one inch diftant from
the other, and the fame from the end of ithe cock on either
fide: they are in a plane or fection pafling through the axis
of the key, and alfo through the axis of the barrel; and both
pafs through the ridge of metal T, at the back of the ‘hell.
The duét next the fmaller end of the key (being a part of the
dué& communicating with the receiver) is in diameter 4th and
the other dué@ is only ith of an inch: through the key <alfo
are duéts anfwering to the perforations in the fhell; but the
duéts in the key are not both in the fame fection of it, but
one of them is at right angles to the other; fo that when one
of the duéts through the cock is open, the other willbe always
fhut, and vice verfa.

THERE is a continuation of each of thofe ducts formed in
the piece of metal V, which is joined (by cement interpofed)
to the ridge of the fhell of the cock by four ‘fcrews g, g,
fig. 1, by two openings (into the two ducts in the piece of
metal) oppofite to thofe in the ridge; and thefe ducts in the

piece

Lege3 7]

piece V, have two other orifices at a and c, where the two
pipes: a 4, fig. 1, and ¢ d, fig. 2. communicate with the two
canals in the piece of metal, being connected with them only
by the help of cement, that the barrel with its cock may be
occafionally disjoined from them: thus a feparate communica-

tion is formed between each of the pipes and the barrel.

Tse pipe a4, is only t;th of an inch in diameter, except at
its orifices which are widened; one of them is conneed at 4,

with a du& formed in the piece of metal 4, attached to the
box of leathers C, at the top of the barrel, which du@ turn-

ing in an angle, without penetrating the box, opens into the

barrel: this pipe and duct are joined by a fimple application
of their orifices, which are made in the contiguous fides of
both, and the joint made air-tight by cement melted around

with a blow pipe; and the fame might be effe@ted by the

preflure of a {crew clofing the furfaces, with oiled leather ‘in- -
terpofed. By this pipe, when the valve is fhut, and the key
of the cock fo placed that the communication of this pipe with

the bottom of the barrel is open, if the pifton be depreffed

from the top, all the air which is wzder it will be forced to
pafs, by this pipe, into thebarrel above the pifton; and vice verfa,
if the pifton be elevated from the bottom; fo that according

to the motion of the pifton, the air under or over it within

the barrel is made to change its place, and to circulate from

the

[ tag4 J

the fpace under or above the pifton, to the contrary; from
which effect of this pipe, I call it the circulating pipe.

Tue other pipe or duét is reprefented at ¢ d, fig. 2, which
exhibits a back view of the pump: its extremity c, enters
the b'ock of metal V, to communicate with the duét there-
in, and fo with that through the cock into the barrel: its
end c has a wing foldered to it, by which it is firmly
fcrewed to the piece V, this being neceflary, left the cement,
by which alone the joint there is made air-faft, fhould be
cracked by any fhock moving the barrel; or it might perhaps
be fecured by the fcrew with only leather interpofed ; this duct
is a very wide one, that the air may the fooner pafs through
it; it has a turn at right angles at ¢, and another at e, from
whence it extends under the pillar B, and pump-plate C D,
through the middle of which it rifes at A; it has a branch
turning at right angles from A, under the pump-plate, the
end of which terminates in a round orifice with an infide
fcrew, that by means of a pipe, furnifl.ed with a ftop-cock, or
otherwife, another pump-plate and receiver, or feveral of them,
may be connected with it, being laid on the fame table which
fupports the pump: when fuch are not ufed, the orifice is
clofed with a ftop-fcrew as at D. From this pipe rifes a
branch E, inferted into. the top of the brafs cap F of the glafs
veflel Y, and opening into the veflel by a duét made in the
thick plate of the cap. G, is a reduced barometer tube to be

filled

[h 335* J

filled in the moft perfect manner with mercury, and immerfed.
into a pool of merc’ in the bottom of the glafs veffel. The
interval between the tube and the neck of the veffel is clofed
by cement, which, as the neck muft be a good deal wider
than the tube, is effe€ted by a deep ring (I) fitted to the tube,
having a round plate at the bottom of it; which being let
down on the tube, after it has been immerfed in the ciftern,
is joined with cement to the top of the cap. The tube was
eafily immerged in the mercury within the veflel, by covering
its open end, and fufaining the merc’ in it by a little plate or
fcale of iron (P) fig. 7. having two threads tied to it through
two holes made near its edges; which threads were grafped
together with the top of the tube between the fingers, and the
tube was inverted and let down into the merc’ in the veffel :
the little plate was then pulled up by one of the threads, it
being. made fo fmall as to pafs through the neck of the glafs
while the tube was within it and remained immerfed in the
merc’ *: the veflel was then clofed at the top with melted ce-
ment; and as it communicates by the pipe E with the con-
duit pipe, it is exhaufted with the receiver, and the mercy
in the tube will fink as the rarefaction advances: if a per-

fect

_ # I thought this the beft way of fixing the reduced barometer, for if there were
a feparate veffel, as a ciftern, for the merc’, and a receiver placed over it and
the tube, the eye, when on a level with the furface of the ftagnant merc’, could
not fee the altitude of that in the tube, with precifion, through two glaffes.

[> gee. J

feé&t vacuum could be made in the rec’ and gage-veffel, it
would fink more or lefs Jeneath the level of the furrounding
merc’, as the tube is natrower or wider, even fo as to dif-
appear, if the tube were very narrow; fo that it muft not be
lefs than 3,ths of an inch in diameter; but it would be better
if it were ths. If it were obferved how much the merc’,
in a tube open at both ends, would fink beneath the level of
that in a ciftern, in the open air, it might be pretty nearly efti-
mated how great is the rarefaction in this gage veflel and con-
fequently in the rec’.

Tuts reduced barometer is the ordinary gage I ufed, by
which a perfon accuftomed to obferve it may know what is
nearly the rarefaction when it does not excced two or three
thoufand times; for which purpofe there fhould be marks
made with a file on the outfide of the tube, dividing it into
inches and decimal parts: if the common whole barom’ gage,
and this reduced one, were applied to the pump together, the
altitude of the merc’ in the latter would be equal to the dif-
ference between that of the former and a ftandard barom’.
When the merc’, having funk to the bottom of this fhort tube,
rifes to the top again on admiffion of air, all the invifible air
bubbles which were in it, will afcend and form one air bubble
at the top, which will be the lefs, and the gage the more exact,
as the tube had been more perfectly filled, and this will alfo
thew how far the ordinary Torricellian vacuum is from being

: fo

iM
[94974 J

fo perfect as it is commonly fuppofed, for there will perhaps
always be fuch an air-bubble formed, be the tube ever fo care-
fully filled: in that mentioned in the fubfequent trials however,
the bubble was not ‘bigger than a pin’s point, and fcarce vi-

fible.

Ir after exhauftion the air were let fuddenly into the rec"
and gage-veffel, the merc’ would be forced up into the tube
with fuch violence as certainly to knock the top off it, or to
{plit it ; to prevent which, the cock is placed at H, to ftop the
communication of the rec’ du€@t with the branch of it which
goes to the gage-glafs, whenever it is requifite to let air fud-
denly into the rect: when this cock is not fhut, the communi-
cation between the rec’ and gage-veffel muft never be opened,
(if the latter has been exhaufted and the merc’ has fubfided
in the tube) ’till the pifton is previoufly put down to the
bottom, and the rec’ is exhaufted. It would be a great improve-
ment of this machine, if another fuch cock were placed between
this one and the rec’, to ftop occafionally the main duét between
the barrel and rec’; by which the rec" would be doubly forti-
tified againft the intrufion of air, and the cock attached to the
barrel might then have its key taken out, when it requires frefh
ointment to be applied ; which will often be neceffary, when it
muft be turned many times during the exhauftion of a large

‘rec’, or when one is to be kept exhaufted many days, and it

may be requifite frequently in that time to pump out air which
‘Vou. VI. Uu might

L 9gee i

might have forced an entrance into the rect. ‘This can’t be
done in my pump here defcribed for want of this fecond cock,
which might at firft have been eafily added. —

Tue gage-glafs or veffel is fupported by the pillar B, which
is fo high, as that the eye of the operator, looking over the
barrel, may be on a level with the furface of the merc” in the
gage-veflel ; it terminates in a deep cup W, to receive the narrow
bottom of this veffel, which is fixed in it with cement: the
pillar is fixed upon the duét of the rec’ by two fcrews which
pafs through the iron frame underneath, and alfo through the
fides of the du@, which are fo thick as to admit holes for
the fcrewseto be made through them, without the channel of
the du@; by which both the pillar and the du are made

firm.

Ir a fyphon-gage fhould be preferred to the reduced bar’, this
pillar would fupport it, and the pipe E might be connected
with its open end. I have preferred the former, becaufe in it
the foul, confined, or factitious air, which may be in the rec’,
can never get into the tube, and make its fides and alfo the
merc” in it foul, preventing its motion in the tube and equi-
librium; as it ever will do in time in the fyphon or com-
mon bar gage; fo that this little barom' always acts as well
as at firft. To apply a whole bar’ as a gage to this pump,

; when

27%
lie

[ 339 ]

when placed on acommon table which is too low; let a metal
pipe connected with the rec’ at C, or D, fig, 2. have an arm
rifing upwards to the height neceflary to connect it with the
open top of the bar tube, whofe ciflern may be fupported by
a board faftened below to the frame of the table. Thus every
neceflity will be prevented for conftruGting the pump with an

unportable frame.

In order to make each of the ducts, which have now been
defcribed, communicate alternately with the barrel, it is necef-
fary that the key of the cock fhould receive a motion of one
quarter of a turn, the duéts in it being at right angles to
each other; and confequently it muft have detents to confine
it to that motion: this is effected by a pin 2, fixed perpendi- .
cularly in the back of the handle w, fig. 1. which pin, when
the handle is put on the fquare end of the key (and fecured
there by a winged nut) defcribes a quadrantal arch under the
fhell of the cock, where there is juft room to allow fuch a
motion of the pin, a part of the ridge of metal at the back
‘of the cock, being hollowed out for that purpofe; and care was
taken that the ducts in the key, when at the limits of its due
motion, exactly correfponded with the holes in ,the fhell; the
_ key not being pierced ’till the handle was fittted on, and thefe
limits afcertained. The joinings of the cock to the barrel, and
Uua2 of

[ 340 ]

of the piece of metal to the cock, as alfo of the duéts to that

piece of metal, are made air-tight by melted cement interpofed
between them *.

THE

* The parts to be joined were firft made very clean and bright, and then heated fo
much as to melt the cement quite fluid ; fome of it being thus fmeared on the whole
of the furfaces which were to be applied together, before they were joined; as
otherwife it would not penetrate into an extenfive joint, efpecially if the metal were
too cold, for the cement would grow folid in its paffage; nor would it intimately
cohere with either glafs or metal lefs hot. The cement I ufed for this purpofe was
made of about two parts of common refin and one part bees-wax, melted together,
which anfwered well enough: this I alfo melted, with an iron moderately hot, round
the edges of the rec’ on the plate, both being previoufly warmed; when I wanted the
rec’ to be permanently air-faft, or when from its fides being too weak or of an im-
proper fhape, there was danger that being exhaufted, its fides might change their
form by the great preffure of the external air, in which cafe fofter cement would, by
yielding, admit air. A

Whenever it is necefflary to open the barrel to clean it, the pifton is to be firft
raifed to the top, the nut to be then unfcrewed from the end of the pifton rod, the
arm of the rack to be taken off, and the ferews faftening the box of leathers to the
end of the pump, to be taken out; then with a hot iron, or rather a candle and blow
pipe, melt the cement joining the circulating-pipe to the piece of metal attached to
the box, (or unfcrew them if joined by a fcrew.) The box of leathers may then be
taken off, and the pifton extraéted, which, with the barrel, &c. being cleaned,
the parts may be replaced without disjoining any other part of the pump. N, B.
‘The leathers of the pifton having been at firft treated as before directed, freth hog’s-
lard would be beft to lubricate its edges with, afterwards ; for if oil were ufed for this.
purpofe (at leaft copioufly) fome of it would get into the holes- of the cock, and
making the ointment of it too foft, it would admit air. Alfo after ointment has
been put on the cock, and the key has been often turned to fpread it evenly, the
key, before the pump is worked, muft be taken out ; and the mouths of the duéts in
it, cleared of the ointment bya pin, and alfo of thofe in the fhell, bya crooked wire.
‘This is neceffary to any pump conftruéted with a cock in place of a valve.

eg

SRR Seay ss

a me

E:. 3anr, 4

Tue action of this pump in exhaufting is as follows: The
pifton being at the bottom, and the key of the cock turned to
its limit on that fide by which the communication is open be-
tween the barrel and rec’, and confequently that with the. cir-
culating pipe clofed, the pifton being then raifed to the top of
the barrel, difcharges the air in it through the valve, and that
in the rec’ rufhes into the barrel; the key being now turned
to its limit on the other fide, the communication .with the rec’
is clofed, and that with the circulating pipe opened; while it
is kept fo, the pifton is depreffed, and drives the air (which had
paffed from the rec’ into the barrel, and was left there on
turning the key, and fo clofing the communication between it
and the rec‘) into the circulating pipe, and through it into the
top of the barrel: the pifton being down to the bottom, and
the key again turned to open the paffage to the rect and to
clofe that with the circulating pipe; if the pifton be again
raifed, the air above it will, as before, be thrown out by the
valve, which air is no other than what in the former ftroke,
had come out of the rec’: for the valve at the top clofing, as
foon, as the pifton began to defcend, excluded all entrance of the
external air into the barrel. As the pifton rifes, more air will
pafs from the rect into the barrel under it, which on turning
the key, and deprefling the pifton, is by the circulating pipe
conveyed to the top of the barrel, to be pumped out through
the valve on raifing the pifton as before. Thus the ftrokes be-—

ing:

[ 34m ]

ing repeated, fome air will come everytime from the rect into
the barrel, ‘till that in the rec’ is as rare as the air in the barrel
would be, when the pifton is raifed to the top; fuppofing no
communication to exift between the barrel and the rec’, nor any
more air to be under the pifton when elevated to the top, than

there was when it was at the bottom.

Tuts pump acts likewife as a condenfing engine, without
any other additional apparatus than that common to all; of a
frame for keeping down the rec’, which in this fhould confift
of an iron bar to be laid under the frame fupporting the rec:
plate; in which bar are faftened two upright rods, with nuts
and {crews at their ends, to {rew down a crofs-piece prefling
down the rec’ in the ufual manner. When the bar is thus |
laid under the rec’ plate, this latter will ftill be level; for the
part of the iron frame of the machine which is under the
rec’ plate, is higher than that part under the barrel by which
it is faftened with clamps to the table, as before defcribed ;
and when the frame of the condenfer is not ufed, a piece, of
board fhould be laid under the rec" plate to raife it to an ho-

rizontal pofition.

Tue action of this pump in condenfing is as follows: The
cock of the gage-veflel is ftopt that it may not be burft; the
valve is taken off; the communication of the bottom of the

barrel

Pea 2]

barrel with the circulating pipe opened by the key of the cock,
and the pifton raifed to the top; the external air then preflts
through this pipe into the bottom of the barrel, which it ‘fills :
on opening the rec’ pipe by turning the key (which {huts the
other pipe) and deprefling the pifton, the air under it is forced
into the rec’. The cock being again turned while the pifton
is kept at the bottom, and this again elevated, the external
air fills the barrel by the circulating pipe as before, and this
on turning the key and deprefling the pifton, as in the for-
mer ftroke, is forced into the rec’; and the condenfation is in
this manner encreafed by a repetition of the ftrokes; the de-
gree to which it is carried being eafily known, even without
a gage, by knowing the proportion between the capacity of the
barrel and rec’, which the operator fhould, whether he is ex-
haufting or condenfing, be always certainly informed of, as
otherwife he cannot tell how many {ftrokes are requifite to
produce a given degree of rarefaction or condenfation ; in which
latter operation the full of the barrel of air of the natural
denfity, is thrown into the rec" at every ftroke; a dangerous
operation with a glafs rec’, efpecially when large, unlefs it is
clofely grafped in a cage of metal rods.
. To let air fuddenly into the exhaufted rec’, there is a pin
faftened in the end of the rect due (at N, fig. 1.) with cement,
: by pulling out or loofening which, the air is admitted.

.?

1 HAVE

YY sae]

T uave been thus particular in defcribing not only the
ftru@ture of this pump but alo the reafons of the form of
each of its parts, and the circumftances on which depends
their right performance: becaufe the ftructure of the machine
is novel; and alfo that any artift who might make fuch a
one, may be guarded againft any alteration not duly confidered ;
and as no perfon will ever make exquifite experiments with
an air-pump unlefs he is himfelf, qualified to underftand and
to rectify little accidents and derangements, to which every
machine mutt be liable, which is to refift fo fubtil an intruder
as air; fo I am fure neither artift nor experimenter (for whom
alone this is written) will think me tedious in guarding him
againft miftakes, which it would be more tedious to difcover,
and far more fo to correct: in truth to make this defcription
as ufeful as I wifh, the operator fhould underftand the parti-
culars which are mentioned underneath *,

I PROCEED

* Suppofing every part of the pump to have been made of metal without pores ;
and that every part and pipe has been feparately tried, by being filled with condenfed
air, and fo plunged under water, to fee if the air efcapes through any fecret pore;
the barrel alfo joined with its cock, and with the piece of metal attached to it, being .
thus tried in itfelf, after clofing the mouths of the duéts in the latter, and that every
part in itfelf is found air-tight ; if then the machine when put together, is found to
to be leaky, it mult be fo either in the joints, which are clofed only with cement, or
in the cocks, the valve, or pifton; and to difcover where the air intrudes, (and dif_i-
cult indeed will it be found to exclude it altogether) each part may be tried thus :
The yalve being taken off, put the pifton down to the bottom, and clofe the bottom

b
» y

2

fat)

I procEep now to explain the principles on which the pump
here defcribed was conftructed, and they are thefe:

1ft, Tuat the rarefaction produced in the rec will be by
the final action of any pump, if there be no obftacle to the
air’s

by turning the key fo as to reft at the middle between its limits on either fide by
which both its duéts will be ftopt, then elevate the pifton, and have it fixed fo, by
putting a bit of wood acrofs between two of the teeth in the rack, which will hinder
its defcent : after a long time, if the pifton when let down, can ‘touch the bottom of
the barrel, no air is admitted’ by the pifton. This being afcertained, each of the duéts
are next to be tried; in order to which, ftop the hole of the rect pipe in the pump-
plate ; exhauft the gage-veffel, and ftop its cock, and the barrel cock: if then the
merc’ rifes in the tube, the glafs-veffel itfelf admits- air by its cap or du@; which
being re€tified, open the communication of the gage with the ‘rec pipe by turning
the gage-cock ; if the mercY fhould then rife after a good while; the air has entered
at the joint of the rec’ pipe. ‘Thefe parts being fecured ; then, to try the circulating

pipe; firft exhauft the gage-glafs; ftop the end‘of this pipe at the top of the barrel, -

by disjoining it from the box of leathers, and interpofing a thin plate of metal be-
tween its opening and the part £, of the box; melt cement about the edges of this
little plate, to feal up the orifice of the pipe there, having previou/ly put down the
pifton to the bottom ; then after opening the communication of the barrel with the
rec',. mark the height.of the merc’ ; elevate the pifton a little, and keeping it fo for
a good while that whatever air may have entered by the circulating pipe may diffufe
itfelf into the barrel, (to allow which this pipe muft now communicate with the
barrel) turn the key very flowly and cautioufly, to let this air pafs into the gage-glafs
without endangering its tube, and deprefs the pifton to the bottom, when if any air
had intruded by the pipe, the merc? will rife above its altitude before marked, fhew-
ing that the joint of the pipe with the piece attached to the barrel cock, was leaky ;
which being remedied, reftore and fecure the communication of the -pipe with the
top of the barrel ; exhauft the gage-glafs, at the Jaft ftroke of which procefs, when

the pifton is at the top, keep, it there, ’till you have fealed with a plate and cement

Vou. VL Xx the

2

air’s paflage, the fame as that which would be in the cylinder,
when the pifton is elevated fromr the bottom to the top, fup-
pofing there was no communication between the rec’ and cyl"
during fuch elevation; fo shat if there were a perfect vacuum
made in the cyl’ per /e, by raifing the pifton, the rarefaction’

in

the hole under the valve ; open the communication between the circulating pipe and
the barrel, then turn the key back again, and deprefs the pifton to the bottom; ob-
ferve where the merc’ ftands; turn the key, to jom the circulating pipe with the
barrel ; raife the pifton half way and keep it fo a confiderable time ; then flowly open
the rect du, and put down the pifton; if the merc’ rifes higher than the mark, air
has got in cither by the pifton rod, its collar of leathers not having been clofe enough
preffed to the bottom of the box; or by the top of the pump not clofed; or by the
joint of the circulating pipe with the du&t in the box; each of which muft be exa-
mined. If the valve admits air, it will be known by being raifed during the eleva-
tion of the pifton before it gets to the top, when the air has been greatly rarefied in
the recr, or when both the ducts are clofed by the key.

If it be chofen to let the air gradually into the rect without loofening the pin, it
may be done with fafety to the tube of the gage-veffel, by taking off the valve; and
raifing the pifton half way, ‘till the barrel under it is filled with air of the natural
denfity ; then let the cock be half turned, and the pifton raifed to the top, to rarefy
the air under it; the cock may then be cautioufly turned ’till the air gets into the
rec’, the pifton being afterwards put down to force into it what air remains under it:
this may be repeated. :

If the pifton rod moves ftiffly through its collar of leathers it will be eafed by
{mearing the rod all around with fome oil. The joints, &c. may be made air-faft, by
melting the cement on them with a blow-pipe, or by a knob of metal, fixed on the
end of a wire, heated by a blow-pipe.

The cock of the gage-veffel (and all others ufed) fhould have the key one inch and
a long, and its mean diameter ¢ of an inch at the jeaft. It cannot be too carefully
formed and polifhed.

le.g477 J

in the rec’ would indefinitely approximate to a vacuum; and
of confequence,

adly, Tuar the degree of rarefaction in the rec can never
exceed fuch rarefaction in the cyl’: from both which it fol-

lows,

3dly, Taat the moft perfect pump, c: pf, is that in which
the moft perfect vacuum is made under the elevated pifton,

in the cyl" unconnected with any thing elfe.

Tue firft pofition is in fact felf-evident, if it be admitted
that the elafticity of the air is as its denfity (and I have reafon
to believe. it has elaftic force to expand itfelf 30,000 times)
for thus, whilever there remains any air, it will have power
to diffufe itfelf out of the rec’ into the cyl’ (if there be no

_ valve to raife, nor any thing to oppofe its paflage) fo long as
_ there is lefS air in the latter than-in the former.

bi
f
B

Tue fecond pofition (or confequence rather) is no lefs evi-
dent ; to fuppofe the contrary, is to fuppofe that a lefs elaftic
force could overcome a greater, or that the rarer air in the rect
could rufh into the denfer in the cyl’, which is fo manifeftly

_ _abfurd, that it is furprizing the firft idea of an air-pump
4 which would ftrike any one, fhould not be that which firft
i; occurred to me, when I thought of making one; that no air
z XX, 2 fhould:

[ 348 J

‘thould be left under the pifton when put down; yet this was
certainly not adverted to by Mr. Boyle, nor (which indeed 1
admire) by Doctor Hooke, who affitted in contriving for him
the firft air-pump; for Mr. Boyle complains that he could not,
ufing recs of any fize, make the merc’ fink in his barom‘-
gage to the level of that in the ciftern, and he attributes this to
air cafually intruded, when he might have feen that he left
it behind in his pump at every ftroke; for it is manifeft from
the defcription and figure given of it, that a confiderable {pace
was left between the bottom of the cyl’ and the cock; in
which air of the natural denfity would reft, and for ever limit the
degree of exhauftion ; now had this been corrected, his air-pump
would exhauft as-perfeétly as any fince made, as will appear
hereafter. All who have not attended to this circumftance *,
I fuppofe, have imagined, that the air left under the pifton
could after pafling into the rect be extracted from it again;
whereas on the contrary, if we fuppofe a perfect vacuum in
the rec’, and an imperfect one in the cyl’, from air left be-
hind at every ftroke and diffufed in it, this air would at each
ftroke get into the rec’, juft for the fame reafon that in op-
pofite circumftances, it paffes out of the rec’ into the cyl’,
viz. that it is-rarer in the latter: to expect the contrary, is
-to expect it would miftake the way it fhould go.

As

M_r. Smeaton was too fagacious not to attend ta.it.

bo Saad

As it is ufelefs to attempt to make this plainer *, I proceed
to explain the meafures taken to diminifh the quantity of air
left under the pifton, in this pump, at each ftroke.

Suppose the cyl’ to be open at the top, or the valve to be
taken off, which is the fame thing; then, as the pilton fits the
bottom of the barrel, there is no fpace left for lodgment of air
under it when it is put down and the communication with the
ducts is fhut, except the two little cavities in the plate at the
bottom, being the holes of the fhell of the cock lying over
the key; and thefe will be always full of air of the common
denfity, at the inftant when the pump communicates with the
rec’, for the external air preffes into the top of the barrel, which
is fuppofed open, and therefore into the end of the circula-~
ting pipe which opens there; confequently as the pifton cannot
‘be put down, unlefs the air under it, which it protrudes in its
defcent, be difcharged through this open pipe, fo the outward
air having accefs to it, and to the bottom of the barrel (with
which it muft communicate during the whole defcent of the
pifton) will fill it and any void under the pifton ; but when the
_ -pifton is at the bottom, and the key is turned, the air in the
"pipe is cut off from that in the bottom of the barrel, none al-
moft remaining there, but what is in the little cavities over the
key ; which air will pafs into the rect on opening its duct into
the barrel;—but if, by a 4a/f turn of the key ftopping Joth
ducts,

TI have proved this by calculation, and it will be farther explained hereafter.

[ goad

duéts, this air be imprifoned in the barrel and the pifton be
then raifed to the top, the air in the cavities will be expanded
in the cyl', and whatever is its rarefaction then, no greater
can ever be produced in the recr; but its denfity then will
be to what it was when confined in the cavities, reciprocally
as the fpaces occupied, or as the contents of thofe cavities to
the whole content of the cyl, that is, the rarefaction will be
expreffed by the quotient of the latter divided by the former ;
and this I call the rarefaction produced in the cylt fer fe:
now one of thefe cavities is qth, and the other ‘th of an
inch in diameter; the depth of both being jth of an inch;
fo the fum of their contents is about 2 ths of a cubic inch:
alfo the content of the cyl", which is about 13+ inehes long
‘under the pifton, and two inches in diameter, is nearly 42,4
cubic inches; the quotient of which, divided by the former,
is 4711: and this No. exprefles the rarefaction in the cyl", and
what ought to be produced in the rect by this pump, if it were
even open at the top (in which ftate it would in fact be the
fame as Mr. Boyle’s original one) but as the pifton can hardly
be made fo exaétly to fit and fill the bottom, as not to leave
a farther vacuity under it, perhaps equal to + of that of the

3
cavities under the plate, fo this rarefaction fhould be reduced
+, viz. to 35303; and if the performance of the inftrument de-
pended only on its mechanifm, it would not fail of rarefying

the air to this degree, every part being made perfectly air-tight.

Accordingly

H
hy

ess

i
=
;
?
:
ig
tn

tae

Accordingly this pump in this ftate (i. e. the valve being taken

off) will fo exhauft a rect as to make the mercy in an open
tube connected .with it, rife as high as and fometimes higher
than that in a baromr of equal bore, placed parallel to.it in the
fame ciftern, and filled: with mercy as carefully as it could be
without boiling it in the tube; while the mercy finks in. the
mean time in the gage to the level of the external mercY and
even beneath it; and the pear-gage, in the drieft ftate of the
air and rect (in which condition only of the atmofphere fo
great rarefaction could be effected) will then indicate a rare-
faction of between 2000 and 3000. Such limited performance
was nearly what this theory promifed; and I alfo found the
refidual air under the pifton, to elevate the mercy in the gage
fo much at every ftroke, when, on turning the key, it was
let into a fmall gage-veffel (no rect being ufed) that it was
plainly neceffary to leffen the refiduum of air under the pifton,
by applying the circulating-pipe, to tranflate the air from the
fpace under to that above the pifton; by which the ufe of a
valve, either in this or in the bottom of the barrel, was avoided ;
and at the fame time, the top of the pump could be covered
with a plate and valve, in order to take off the great weight of
the air incumbent on the pifton, which makes the exhauftion by
a fingle barrel (and fo wide a one) too laborious.

Tue effect produced by this addition is, that whatever before
was the refidual air under the pifton, is now diminifhed to fuch

a part

[ 35ay-]

a part of the natural air contained in the circulating-pipe, as
the cavities under the pifton are of the content of the whole
cylt; i.e. as above fhewn, to about the 3530th part. Now the
crofs fection of the channel of the circulating pipe, which is
{quare, is only ;{,th of an inch, and its length 21 inches; its
contents are therefore 21°,th parts of a cubic inch; of the
air in which, only the 3530th part is contained in the cavi-
ties under the pifton; i. e. nearly the 1680g9th part of one
cubic inch, or the 712700th part of 42,4 inches (the content
of the cyl') which Ne. will therefore exprefs the meafure of
air left under the pifton, and confequently the rarefaction in
the cyl"

Tuts will be eafily conceived, if it be confidered, that when
the pifton has been raifed to the top, the valve muft at that
inftant be open, difcharging the laft of the air pumped out
of the rect; the circulating pipe as far as the key, will there-
fore be filled with common air; but when by turning the key
of the cock, this pipe is opened into the rarefied air or vacuum
under the pifton, the parts of the cyl‘, both over and under
the pifton, are one vacuum conne¢ted by this pipe; and then
the valve, not preffed underneath, mutt fhut, and no air enters
above the defcending pifton, but that which expands itfelf
out of the circulating pipe; fo that there is no air in the
whole cyl", over or under the pifton, but what had been con-

tained

a

tained in the pipe, and is now uniformly diffufed through the
cyl*: and as both the orifices of the pipe open into the cyl
during the defcent of the pifton, fo when this is at the bottom,
the whole of this air is over the pifton, except fuch a part of
it as is expreffed by the ratio of the content of the cavities
under the pifton to that of the cyl'.

Ir has been fhewn, that when the pump was open at the
top, and the circulating-pipe confequently ufelefs, fo that the
air above and beneath the piflon was of the zatural denfity ;
yet in this flate, the rarefaQion was as the capacity of the
cylt to that of the cavities under the pifton; but as the air
is rarer or denfer in the cyl", it muft be fo alfo in the cavi-
ties: and it will by the addition of the circulating-pipe and
valve, be rarer in both thefe, in the proportion of the capacity
of the cylt to that of the circulating-pipe (for the air in the
latter being diffufed in the cyl will be rarer or denfer there,
as the cyl is larger or fmaller ;) fo that the rarefaction now
will be in a ratio compounded of the ratio of the content of
the cyl", to that of the cavities under the pifton, and of the
-ratio of the content of the cyl’ to that of the circulating-pipe :
for the refidual air under the pifton is inverfely in this com-_
pound ratio, and the rarefaction is inverfely as fuch refiduum.

_ However fince either the valve, or cover of the pump, or
the collar of the pifton, will always admit fome air, as the
Vot. VI. Xiy pifton .

abe |

pifton defcends, frequently (in my trials) fo much as the soth —
part of the whole capacity of the cyl, the contents of the
circulating-pipe of air muft be fuppofed as encreafed to that
quantity ; and the fecond ratio above mentioned, of the cyl
to the pipe, muft be taken as that of the cyl’ to the soth
part of its own capacity; and according to this, the utmoft rare-
faction which could even by this theory be produced, would
be about 176500 times; and this the pump would produce,
fuppofing the pifton to throw up all the air above it, and no
external air to intrude unlefs fome other principle operated to
prevent it. Alas! it falls far fhort of this perfection; and as I
have never found any reafon to fufpect, that the pifton left
air behind it adhering to the cyl‘, nor that any intruded by
cocks or joints, in fuch quantity as to occafion fo fad a defe&t
in its performance (but the contrary as will appear hereafter)
this defeé&t cannot, as I conceive, arife from the mechanifm of
the pump, but from other caufes.

It is well known how much any moifture, or any fubftance
capable of generating a fupply of aeriform fluids, either per-
manently elaftic under the ordinary preffure of the atmofphere,
or fuch only in vacuo, will prevent exhauftion, and occafion
a contradiction in the gages, by which its degree is indicated.
I have confidered and tried their various effects, having three
gazes applied to the pump together, viz. a common ftrait ba-
romf-tube, in which the mercy afcended, the reduced baromr-

tube,

ip siege]

tube, in which it defcended, and Mr. Smeaton’s pear-gage ac-
curately graduated; aud when I knew there was none of the
- above-mentioned caufes to create the great and furprifing va-
riations, which at different times occurred in the pump’s ex-
haufting power, even when the gages agreed fo far that when
any one of them indicated a greater or lefler rarefaction, the
two others did fo likewife; I was led to look for the caufes
of thefe variations, either in the materials of which the pump,
&c. confifted, or in the different qualities in the external air,
which was in the recr; and to fufpect, that new and perma-
nently elaftic air is fometimes generated within the pump, in the
working, and fometimes abforbed or fixed again, and that the
quantity of air fo generated, is in certain ftates of the atmof-
phere and of the pump, fo great, even in a fingle ftroke, as
would fill with this faCtitious air, reduced to the denfity of
atmofpheric air, a fpace even greater than that of the vacuities
under the pifton, and of confequence to limit the exhauftion
of the rect even within what the pump may be fuppofed to
effect, without the addition of the valve and circulating-pipe.
Now if fuch production of air can be proved to exift, the
theory here laid down, may be fo far juft, as the flructure
of the pump is concerned, and defective only with refpect to
other principles.

In fourteen feveral trials of exhauftion which I made in the
months of July, Auguft and September laft (1795) the air being
Yy2 generally

- a)
56 }

i
(>

generally very dry, the rarefaction produced, as fhewn by the
pear-gage, was, five times, between 3000 and 4000, the merc?
in the barom!-gage flanding at the fame times always above .
;isth part of an inch higher than it ftood in a ftandard ba-
rom! of a wider bore, which was filled with merc’ made very
hot, as was alfo the tube*, as well as I could fill it without
boiling the merc’ in the tube; and the merc’ in the reduced
baromr-gage, funk below the level of the furrounding mercy.
In the other nine trials, the rarefaction as fhewn by the pear-
gage was from gooo to 26000; when the merc’ in the barom™
gage flood at ~24,ths of am inch higher than that in the flan-
dard baromr, and funk in the reduced baromr full lower than
before beneath the flagnant merc’. In feveral trials made from
the 15th of September following to the 5th of December,
when the air was always moi, I could not raife the merc¥
in the baromr-gage to the height of that im the flandard ba-
romt (which ftood clofe befide and parallel to it in the fame
cifern) except once, and never fo high even in the pear-gage
as it flood in moft of the former trials: whence it is evi-
dent, from the correfpondence between the three gages, that.

a moift atmofphere prevents the exhauflion, not only of aque-

ous

* The tube was placed in a heated gun-barrel, and filled with the mercy heated on
fand, when filled, it was taken out of the gun-barrel, and being fo cold, as juft not
to burn my gloves, an air-bubble was moved through it ; and the mercy, as I found
by trials, flood higher than it ever would do if poured cold into the fame tube.

a ee ee eee

ik See
ous vapours, but even of permanently elaftic air from the recr,
contrary to what has been generally imagined, viz. that fuch
aqueous vapours would encreafe the rarefaction as fhewn by
the pear-gage, in the fame degree as they would diminith it, ac-

cording to the teftimony of the barom'-gage.

Tue reafon why mere moifture in the rect cannot be pumped
out, though it be in the form of elaftic vapour, when the air
is moift (for in dry weather it actually can, by long working,
as I have often found) I take to be this, that when it is got
above the pifton, as foon as the valve opens, the preffure of the
external air inftantly reduces the vapour to water, which fubfides
in a dew on the top of the pifton, and the upper parts of the
pump (the little air which gets in through the valve, and by
fuppofition moift, being infufficient to dry it up) and refolves
into vapour again, when it can pafs by the circulating-pipe,
opened -below, into the vacuum under the pifton: Thus I fup-
pofe it is kept circulating within the barrel and cannot be dif-
charged. But why any permanently elaftic fluid in the recr
could not, in damp weather, be exhaufted, as it was when the
air was dry, is a queftion of great difficulty. I had long before
fufpeéted that air was produced within the pump, notwith-
ftanding its excellent performance juft mentioned; of the reality

of which, from the agreement of the gages, and chiefly from

the ele&trical phenomena (to be hereafter recited) I could not
fee

[3568 4

fee the leaft ground for doubt; and am perfuaded, that fuch
faGitious air is generated more copioufly, by the moifture, or
fome quality in the atmofpheric air in the rect, in damp wea-
ther, than when the air is dry.

An opinion or rule given without a reafon, refts only on the
authority of the diftator: that this may not reft on mine, I
muft beg leave to relate on what it is founded ; for the fad,
if it be one, is of the laft confequence to the perfection of the
machine, as indicating a new principle, with refpeét to which
it ought to be conftruéted. I muft premife, that in making the
following obfervations. I ufed no other rect than a fmall glafs
veffel, covering a reduced baromr-gage, whofe capacity, together
with that of the dudts of the rect (which conftitute a part of
the contents of every veffel to be exhaufted) was only about
eight cubic inches ; for the fmaller the recipient is, the greater
and more diftinguifhable by the eye, will be the afcent or
defcent of the mercy in the gage, on the addition or fubtraction
of a given quantity of air. The mercy in the gage being by
exhauftion brought down within one inch of the level of that
in the ciftern, which was always done, the following effeéts
were produced in working the pump; which I noted a great
many times to have happened invariably.

1ft, WHEN

ie see

ift, Wuen the pifton was feveral times raifed to the top,
and depreffed again without turning the cock; the rect-pipe
being conftantly kept open; at every fuch elevation or ftroke,
the mercy rofe a little in the gage; and generally in fix ftrokes
about +th of an inch. In thefe circumftances, fome air remain-
ing in the rect, was at each ftroke, drawn into the barrel, as
the pifton rofe, and returned again when it was depreffed.

2dly, Wuew the rect-duct and circulating-du@t were clofed by
a half turn of the key, the pifton being previoufly put down,
and the fame number of ftrokes were repeated, then on open-
- ing the communication with the gage, after deprefling the pifton,
the mercy did not rife nor fall in the gage; but when, after
the communication with the gage was open, the pifton was
once more raifed and depreffed, the mercy rofe much more than
it did at any other fingle ftroke, made when the recr-pipe was
open. In thefe circumftances there was no air in the barrel,
during the motion of the pifton, except in the laft ftroke, by
which alone the mercy was raifed.

3dly, Wuen the mercy was at the ffated height in the gage,
before the pifton was raifed from the bottom, if it was ele-
vated a part of its ftroke, before the recr and circulating-pipes
were ftopt, by which means a part of the rarefied air in the
gage-recr was drawn into the barrel, and imprifoned there on
ftopping the duéts, then, after the pifton had been raifed and
. depreffed

[ 360 ]

depreffed the fame number of times as before, and the com-
munication of the barrel and gage was opened, the mercy was
always found to ftand lower than it did at firft before the pifton
had been worked; fhewing, as it fhould feem, that there had
béen an actual fixation or abforption of air; but when another
elevation of the pifton had been made, the rect-pipe being open,
then the mercy ftood much higher than at firft; as if the air
abforbed, had been regenerated with increafe; or as if by the
working when the barrel had been clofed, the ingredients for
new air had been preparing in it, when a little air from the
rect fhould be admitted into it, as a generative ferment.

In all thefe circumftances there was no communication be-
tween the external air and that under the pifton or in the
rect; and the appearances took place uniformly and repeatedly ;
and the experiments were all repeated together on different
days, with long intervals, and fometimes in a reverfed order:
fo that whatever may have been the caufe of the phenomena,
it could not have been the irruption of any air; this could
never produce thefe regular effects; it could only intrude by
the pifton ; in which cafe it would not always be the fame
jn quantity, but it would always make the mercy afcend in the
gage ; whereas in the fecond cafe juft mentioned, it did not;
and in the third cafe, it always funk in it : moreover as the

top of the barrel was in all thefe cafes open (the valve having
been

om

[ 6:4

been taken off) and the air preffed with its whole weight on
the top of the pifton, it would be moft likely to force an entrance
by this, when there was the moft perfe€t vacuum under it, as
in the fecond cafe; whereas then the merc’ never rofe in the
gage, which proved that no air had got under the pifton: and
in the other cafes, fince the gage-rec' was fo {mall in propor-
tion to the barrel, and the air in it was thirty times rarefied
before the pifton was raifed, and above one hundred and fifty
times after it was raifed to the top, it muft have been always
fo rare under the pifton as to have favoured the irruption of
the air incumbent on it: and if air had been admitted any
where but by the pifton or cock, its quantity admitted would
be always the fame in a given time, which would contradi@
the appearances that took place; however the changes in the
gage were computed from the altitude at which it ftood juft
before the variation.

Awnp if it fhould occur, that the afcent of the merc’ in the
gage, was caufed by external air adhering to the fides of the
barrel, and entangled in the oil or ointment there, which was
expofed to the air when the pifton was put down; a part of
which air, not brought up by the afcending pifton as being en-
veloped in the oil, yet would expand itfelf into the vacuum
under the pifton, and remain there until a paffage was opened
for it into the rec’; we {hall find this will not agree with the

Vou. VI. Z 2 appearances ;

; | ae]

appearances; for if this circumftance took place at all, it would
do fo equally in every ftroke and in all the cafes mentioned ;
whereas it happened only in the firft cafe; in the fecond it did
not; and in the third the contrary effe@t occurred. Moreover, the
fame phenomena were exhibited, when the pump was covered
by the valve, and none but greatly rarefied air was over the
pifton. It muft be remembered, that all the air which once got
under the pifton, muft always have remained there until it
paffed into the rect; and would, if it had been produced as by
this fuppofition, accumulate in every ftroke. Neither was this
furreptitious air owing to the foulnefs of the barrel, it being
both foul and equally fo in the circumftances in which this air
raifed the mercy in the gage; in thofe in which it did not,
and in thofe in which the mercy funk in it; and after the barrel
was cleaned, the efle&ts were the fame as before.

It feems therefore, on the view of thefe fa&ts, to be a necef-
fary conclufion, that the caufe of the phenomena, is to be
looked for in the barrel itfelf, and in this, from the effect pro-
duced by the motion of the pifton; which effect was declared by
the gage to be fometimes a production of air de novo, and
fometimes an extinction or abforption of it again.

To underftand thefe effefs, let it be confidered, that though
the pump barrel be perfectly clean, and the pifton leathers be

even

[ 3963" 3]

even new, and lubricated with the cleaneft oil, yet by a fingle
ftroke, the oil will be tinged of a greenifh colour from its
having corroded or diffolved a portion of the brafs. Brafs is a
compofition of copper and zinc, either of which, being diffolved
by the vitriolic acid, emits inflammable air; and diffolved by the
aerial or vegetable acid, will (I fuppofe) produce fome kind of
permanently elaftic air; here fuch folution of the brafs is ma-
nifeft, and why, at every ftroke of the pifton, air fhould be ge-
nerated ; and alfo why I have often found more of this 4ir to
be produced in the pump (and the degree of rarefaGtion it could
effect to be lefs) when it was clean than when ‘dirty ; as the
oil being, when foul, more faturated, could diffolve lefs of the
brafs; and alfo that oil proved a worfe fubftance to lubricate
the pifton than hog’s-lard, becaufe (as I apprehend) the fluidity
of the oil allowed every particle of it fucceffively, to come in
contaét with the barrel, and to diffolve more of the metal ;
which could in a lefs degree happen with the lard, from its
ftiffnefs ; neither is it hard to conceive that the folution of the
metal, and confequently the quantity of factitious air produced
by it, fhould be more copious in a moift atmofphere than in a
dry one ; when it is confidered that /ales non agunt nifi foluti ;
and that all metals are in damp weather moft apt to tarnifh
and contract ruft, which is a fuperficial folution of them. I
believe alfo that air made moift not by what is called veficular,
but by diffolved vapour (in which latter ftate I found it to be

ZZ 2 moft

[ 364 ]

moft detrimental to the pump’s performance) is more impreg-
nated with an acid principle; unlefs we may fuppofe that mere
water diffolves other metals as well as iron: And this with

what has preceded, will perhaps account for the different powers
of the machine in different ftates of the air, and for its general

failure in the perfection to be expected from the foregoing
theory *.

THe

* Phe lower plate of the pifton was made of iron; and water or moift vapour
will diffolve or decompofe iron; by which folution inflammable air is always emitted:
whether this might have taken place in the prefent inftance I know not, nor whe-
ther mere moifture in the air, free from any acid, could aé on the brafs as on iron,
when affifted by fri€tion, or could difpofe the oil or ointment to aé on it, and to
produce by a kind of calcination any decompofition of either the oil, or metal or
water: what is certain is, that air is generated in greater quantity by fome fuch de-
compofition in damp weather, than it is when the air is dry, and this both in fummer
and winter. We are told that iron, without heat, and zinc, charcoal and oils, with
heat, will decompofe water, and feparate inflammable air. Could the friction of the
pifton produce the requifite heat? we are alfo told that if water were decompofed
into its conftituent parts, viz. inflammable air and dephlogifticated air, this latter is
or contains an acid principle, which, when uncombined with any other fubftance,
would aét on moft metals; and fo the damp air loaded with moifture only, and not
with any adventitious acid in the atmofphere, may be conceived to produce. effects
different from thofe of dry air. ‘The paflage of the ele&tric matter however, in the
atmofphere, will convert a part of the air into nitrous acid, which diffolves moft
metals ; may not this abound more in the air in moift weather; moifture in the air
being generally, if not always, the effe€t or confequence of eleétricity? and may not
this be the caufe of the rufting of metals by damp air, and of the above-mentioned
effe€ts in the pump-barrel? This I believe to be the cafe, becaufe I found that in
certain ftates of the air, much aqueous vapour was introduced by it into the rect
without generating any confiderable quantity of fluid which was permanently elaftic,
and becaufe the difpofition of iron, &c. to ruft is not always the fame when the
moifture and temperature of the air is the fame.

pees seed eg he ET SEE EE?

a

ving

[ ges. I

Tue difficulty is, to account for the non-produétion of air in
the fecond cafe above-mentioned, and for its apparent extinc-
tion in the third. As to the former, there was indeed then
almoft no air nor humidity in the barrel, and it was feparated
from whatever might be in the little rect; and though there
was oil, yet I found by the ointment put upon the cocks, which
was ever moft and fooneft turned green in colour near the
du&ts and outer edges where the air had accefs to it, than in
the other parts, where it had not, that air was neceffary to
make the oil a&t on the metal; (may, perhaps it is not the acid
in the oil, but in the air, which is the folvent;) whence in
this cafe, as there was no air in the barrel, fo there was no
fuch aétion on the brafs of it. As to the phenomena in the
third cafe, in which I evidently perceived a diminution of air,
though I cannot explain it, being ignorant of the chymical ana-
lyfis of elaftic fluids, and of thofe combinations of airs, which
occafion fuch diminution, and what might be the effect of the
friGtion of the pifton in this cafe, from which refulted all the
phenomena ; yet what I have ftated will, as I think, authorize
me to fay, that the perfeétion of the air-pump does not depend
only on its mechanifm, but alfo on the materials of which it
is made, and that thofe materials are the beft, on which the
oleaginous and aerial acid has leaft action. Accordingly the
pewter-metal pump, which I firft made, though inferior in the
fize of the barrel, which was a great difadvantage, yet performed

better

[ 366 |

better than the brafs one here defcribed, until I added to the
latter the circulating-pipe, which gave it the fuperiority: but
pewter, though beft to refift the aon of the oil, being too
foft ; the barrel, if made of brafs, fhould be tinned in the in-
fide, in the manner before defcribed, which will fomewhat im-
prove it (and perhaps fubftantial gilding would be ftill better :)
but if one were made of glafs, and enclofed in a metal cafe
with cement; I think it could be eafily ground and _polifhed,
and a pifton previoufly formed to fit it, in a metal hollow cy-
linder or ring of equal bore: fuch a pifton, having its top and
bottom plates tinned in the common manner, would I believe
conftitute a better pump than any ever yet made, and procure

more credit to the theory here laid down.

In that theory I have affumed, that the degree of rarefac-
tion, which can be effeéted, will depend on that which the
pump is capable of making under the pifton, without regard to
the fize of the rec’; and as this is not at all the cafe with
refpe&t to air admitted in the working, from the pump’s being
leaky, which it ever is in a greater or leffer degree; and an
objection may therefore arife from the confideration that on
opening the communication between the cyl’ and rec’ at every
ftroke, any unextraCted air under the pifton, and any otherwife
intruded, will be together diffufed in the rect and cyl’; from
whence it may feem, no difference of effe& could arife from

thefe

~~

i seine (4

thefe, which differ only in the manner of admiffion: to illuf-
trate this, and to enable the experimenter as well as the artift,
to determine whether his pump is imperfect from its ftruCture
or from accident; and how far it ought to be fo from either
caufe ; it is neceflary, though I have (reluctantly) been fo
diffufe in this account already, to ftate the following parti-
culars:

Ir air be conftantly and uniformly admitted into the rec’
from this or the machine’s not being air-tight, the degree of
rarefaction produced by its final aétion, will depend on the
proportion between the capacities of the rec’ and cyl’; for

there will always be a refiduum as air is always intruding, and

in addition to former refiduums, will be the air admitted in
each fucceflive ftroke: in this cafe, the lefs the rec’ is, the
more perfect will be the vacuum formed *. Suppofe the rec’

and cyl’ to be equal, and the vacuum made in the latter per 2

perfe@; then half the admitted air will be at length pumped
out at every ftroke let the quantity admitted be what it will:

for

“Hence it is not the faireft trial of a pump, to ufe a very fmall rect, or to
exhauft the gage-tube inftead of a rec’; and it would be the more fallacious, if the
refiduum of air under the pifton, might be variable in different ftrokes, from the de-
fective and uncertain performance of valves or of any thing of valve-like ftru€ture;
for as one ftroke with a large cyl" will nearly exhauft a tube ; fo a lucky ftroke or two.
among many, in which the valves perform their office, will fhew a rarefaction, which
might not be produced, where many were requifite to exhauft a larger rec’.

[ 368°]

for inftance, if in the time of each ftroke, a cubic inch of
air intrudes, and the contents of the rec’ and cyl’ be fifty
cubic inches each; then the refiduum in the rec’ after the
firft ftroke, would be 4 an inch; to which would be added
one cubic inch next admitted; and by the fubfequent ftroke,
half the fum of thefe would be extracted; 1. e. the half of
15 inches (or $ of an inch) which the next addition would
encreafe to 13: fo that fuppofing the rec™ at firft empty, yet
fome would accumulate in every ftroke, until the refiduum
would be equal to that intruding during one ftroke, viz. until
both would be equal to two inches; after which one inch
would intrude, and one be extracted at every ftroke: fo that
the air in the rec’ could never be rarefied beyond fifty times,
nor finally lefs than to that degree.

Anp if the cyl’ were twice as large as the rec’ with its
ducts ; the rec’ remaining as before; and the fame quantity
(one cubic inch) admitted at each ftroke; then almoft 7 of
this would be drawn into the cyl’ by the laft ftroke, and +
remain in the rect, when the pifton was raifed to the top; fo
that now the greateft rarefaction would be doubled, and equal
to one hundred, which, when the rec’ and cyl’ were equal

was fifty.

Anp univerfally, as the capacity of the cyl' is to that of
the rec’, fo is the whole intruded air during one ftroke, to the
laft

[ eeo: 2

laft refidual air; fo that the //s the rect is, the lefs will be
the refiduum, and confequently the greater the rarefaction: but
this is after the pump has exhaufted as much as it can; for
in every ftroke from the commencement to the end, the air
in the rec’, whether left in it, or intruded, (or its denfity
which is the fame thing) is to that which remains in it after
any ftroke (or its then denfity) as the fpace into which it is
diffufed on the elevation of the pifton, i. e. the aggregate or
fum of the capacities of the rec’ and cyl‘, is to the primitive
{pace in which it was confined, i. e. to the capacity of the
rec’ alone: In which analogy, each of the confequents, divided
by its refpective antecedent, muft give the fame quotient, or
ratio, and vice verfa; and fuch quotients mult be iz every
Stroke conftant quantities, becaufe the two laft terms of the ana-
logy are fuch: but the refidual air after any ftroke is the pri-
mitive air with refpect to the fubfequent ftroke, hence if the
firft refidual be 4 of the primitive air, the fecond will be
the 3 of % (i. e. ¢) and the third, 3 of 3 of 3 (i. e. +) of the
primitive air; and any refidual will be the laft term of a
geometrical progreffion, the N°. of whofe terms is the No. of:
ftrokes ; each term being fo often involved or multiplied into
itfelf: if the firft term be as here, the quotient of the rec‘
divided by the fum of the capacities of the rect and cyl, it
will exprefs what fractional fart of the primitive air the next
refidual is ; and the progreflion or feries will be fractions and
decreafing; and if the firft term of the feries be the quotient

Vou. VI. ge ix of

l ged.

of the aggregate of the rect and cylr divided by the recr, —
this quotient will be a whole or mixed No. exprefling the-
No. of times the primitive air contains the refidual, 1. e. ex-
prefling the rarefaction; and it will be the common term of
a feries reciprocal of the former one and encreafing ; the value
of correfponding terms in each, being equally above and below
unity. This is the common theorem for determining the rare-
faction after any No. of ftrokes*; but it fuppofes a perfect

vacuum

* By this theorem two things will eafily be found, which the experimenter muft
know, viz. what is the rarefaction which ought to be produced by any Nt of ftrokes,
and, and what N' of ftrokes are requifite to produce a certain degree of rarefaction;
(for I have found that if the pump does not effect this in a very few more ftrokes
than the theory requires, it will generally be loft labour to continue to work it, unlefs
in dry weather or a dry room, one has hopes of pumping moifture out of the rec’).
Both particulars may be beft found by the afcending feries ; viz. by multiplying the
quotient, of the fam of the contents of the rect and cyl" (in cubical inches) divided
by that of the rect (which will be a whole or mixed Nr, the fractional part of which
latter, is to be reduced to a decimal) continually into itfelf, as many times as there
are ftrokes, and throwing away from every product all the decimal figures to the
right hand, except two or three, which will occafion no material error, and much
abridge the work; which is alfo farther abridged by multiplying any power, fo
produced, by itfelf, or by any other power thus before found; for the product thus
arifing, will be that power whofe exponent is the /um of thofe fo multiplied ; as the
cube or third power drawn into itfelf produces the fixth power; or drawn into the
fifth power, produces the eighth power; and fo in any other. ‘Thus the rarefaction
produced by any Nr of ftrokes will be found, being exprefled by that product or
power, whofe exponent is the Nr of ftrokes; and it will alfo be feen in the procefs,
what Nr of ftrokes fhould produce any given degree of rarefaétion; which may
alfo be found by the converfe of this procefs, viz. by dividing any greater power
found, by any leffer, for the quotient will be that power whofe exponent is the

difference

icclece, Snes

vacuum to be made under the elevated: pifion, and that no
external air intrudes; fo that when either of thefe takes place,
the

difference of their exponents. But-when the rect is large, and many ftrokes will be
requifite to exhauft it; the operator who muft calulate what fhould be the power of
his machine, may avail himfelf of the help provided for him by the noble inventor
of the table of logarithms: for as in thefe the fum or difference of any two logar*
is the log™ of the product or quotient of the correfponding natural N's; and that
the product or quotient of a log™ (multiplied or divided by any Nr) is the log™ of that
power or root of the correfponding natural Nr, whofe exponent is the multiplicator
or divifor of the log™: fo whatever is effe€ted by multiplication, divifion, involution
or evolution of natural N's, may be performed by addition, fubtraQion, multiplica-
tion and divifion of their logs. And thus the quotient above-mentioned may be found
by /ubtraéting the log™ of the recr from that of the aggregate of the rect and cyl,
and then multiplying the remainder by the N° of ftrokes of the pifton; for the pro-
du& will be the log™ of that Nr which expreffes the rarefaCtion ; alfo to find what Nr
of ftrokes will produce any required rarefaction ; take the log™ of the Nr exprefling
this rarefaction ; it is plain from what has been faid, that this log™ muft belong to
that natural N', which is fuch a power of the aforefaid quotient as would be pro-
duced by the fame N® of involutions, as there fhould be ftrokes of the pifton em-
ployed to produce the rarefaction ; and that if this log™ were evolved as many times
as we muft fuppofe its root to have been involved ; that root would be found which
belongs to the original quotient by whofe involution it was produced ; and that if the
log™ of the power be divided by the ]og™ of the root, the quotient will be (from the
nature of log™s) the Nr exprefling how often it had been involved: there is nothing
then to be done fince we know the log™ of the above-mentioned quotient, which
is the root, but to divide by it the log™ of the defigned rarefaction, and the quo-
tient will be the Nr of ftrokes of the pifton required.

I infert this and many other things for the eafe of thofe who may be more con-
verfant in experimental chemiftry than calculation, and to enable fuch (without
recurring to other books) to fubjeét the air-pump to a rigorous trial; thefe will alfo
be the perfons moft likely to make the beft ufe of this machine, on which account

3 A2 and

L sed

the unextracted and intruded air, muft be in every ftroke added
to the refidual air in the rec’, as a conftant quantity; which

will

and to prevent the fault of the artift from being attributed to the flru@ture of the
inftrument, I fhall alfo beg leave to add what follows :

‘The quantity of air in meafure, that may in any length of time have forced an
entrance into the rect, may be found, and the juft allowance made for it in the de-
fe&t of the pump’s performance, by ftating, as the height of the merc’ in the ftand-_
ard barom’, is to its afcent or defcent in the reduced or ftandard baromr gages, in
a given time, fuppofe fix hours, fo is the whole content of the rect and its duéts,
to the part thereof which would be filled in fix hours with the intruded air, if re-
duced to the denfity of atmofpheric air. Alfo, to know what allowance is to be
made for fuch intrufion in the defe€tive altitude of the merc’ in the gages, ftate,
as fix hours, is to the time in which one ftroke is made (fuppofe half a minute) fo
is the afcent or defcent of the merc’ in the reduced and ftandard baromr-gages,
in fix hours; to the afcent and defcent which ought to be occafioned by the air
intruded, in the time of one ftroke; then the afcent and defcent thus found, being
diminifhed or increafed according to the ratio of the recr to the cyl", and deducted
from and added to the altitude of the merc’ in thefe different gages, any remain-
ing difference between that altitude, and what exifts at the time in the moft per-
fe@tly filled ftandard or reduced barom’, is to be attributed to the imperfeCtion of
the machine.

If the altitude of the barom™gage, be referred to that of a ftandard-barom’ filled
with merc” not boiled in the tube, though it were otherwife poured hot into it,
the tube itfelf being hot, and carfully purged of air by moving an air-bubble through
it, the merc’ and tube being perfe€tly clean, yet the altitude of the merc’ in
fuch a ftandard-barm® mult be fuppofed to be lefs than it would be if the tube
were perfectly filled, by at leaft .2%,th parts of an inch; becaufe as this air-
pump never failed in a favourable ftate of the air, to raife the merc’ in the gage
thus much higher than it ftood in a ftandard-baroms filled (feveral times) in the
above manner; it is plain this latter will be always imperfectly filled and the
height of the merc’ in it deficient, by the above quantity, and I found that it

would

args gel

will varioufly alter every term in thefe ferics, and produce
other feries, the terms of which will continually approximate
to

would be ftill more deficient if the merc’ were poured cold into the tube. Now
fuppofing the altitude of the merc’ in the ftandard to be thirty inches, ;2£,ths of
an inch is the 1200th part of the whole; and if the merc” in the gage be as high
as that in the ftandard, the rarefaction is only 1200; and that in the ordinary Torri-
cellian tube, is, I believe, never greater, but moft commonly lefs than this; though -
from there being no air bubble apparent at the top of fuch a tube, when on inclining
it the mercY afcends, one might imagine that no claftic fluid refted above the mer’:
for if the tube be filled cold, there will be moifture within it, which will be con-
denfed into fmall invifible particles by the preffure of the atmofphere when the tube
is inclined, but will expand again in claftic vapour, deprefling the merc’, when by
placing the tube vertical, that preffure is removed: and when the tube is filled hot,
and fo has no moifture in it, an air-bubble will in the fame circumftances be vifible,
This I found however to be partly difcharged, and the merc’ to ftand higher in it,
by inclining the tube while in the ciftern (after it had ftood perpendicular and the
merc’ had funk to the natural altitude) until it had afcended to the top, and taking
it-full out of the ciftern, by clofing its end while immerfed in it, with my finger,
then having fhaken out a drop of merc’ to allow an air-bubble to be once moved
through it, this brought up with it moft part of the air which had’ been colle@ted in
one bubble at the top ; after which reftoring the drop which had been taken out, and
immerging it again in the ciftern, the merc” ftood in it higher than before, and I
belicve from this management it would always do fo. This was done in the prefence
- of Doétor Young, who from his well-known zeal for the advancement of feience,
was pleafed to be prefent at a trial of the pump’s performance; at which time it fo
far exhaufted a rec’ as to raife the mercY in the baromr-gage, near sth of an inch
higher than it ftood at the higheft, in the barom:-tube here mentioned, of equal bore
with that of the gage, and ftanding parallel and perpendicular together in the fame-

-ciftern.

If there be in the recr no moifture nor vapour expanfible only in vacuo, the pear-.
gage (as I have always found) will correfpond with both the baromr-gages; and
when the rarefaction is near 4000, the eye cannot diftinguifh the difference be-.

tween.

[ 374 ]

to fuch numerical part or multiple of the fum of the furrep-
titious and unextracted air during one firoke, as is exprefled

-

in

tween the height of the merc’ in the latter and that in the moft perfe& ftandard-
barom; becaufe the difference in their altitudes is not the hundredth part of an
inch; fo that greater degrees of rarefation can be known only by the pear-gage ;
which fhould therefore be ufeds and it fhould be of a proper form and accurately
graduated. It is a glafs-veffel in fhape fomewhat like a pear or rather an hydro-
meter, with a bulb, of a fize to contain between four and fix ounces of merc’,
terminating on either fide in a tube: that below the bulb (about an inch in length)
is open; the upper part or ftem (about five or fix inches long) is fealed hermetically
at top; the internal diameter of one half of the length of the ftem next the bulb,
fhould be about 4th of an inch, and the cavity exatly cylindrical, as likewife muft
be that of the upper half ; but this latter fhould be as narrow in the bore as a middle-
fized mercurial thermometer, viz. about 54th of an inch in diameter: if the ftem
were of the fame dimenfions throughout, it could not, unlefs made inconyeniently
long, meafure both fmall and great degrees of rarefaction: it is eafily made of the
above form, by blowing a bulb on a piece of glafs-tube, about {th of an inch in
diameter ; then drawing out the upper part of it (by the glafs-blower’s lamp) into
a flender tube, and fealing its end: or rather by adding to the tube a piece of a
thermometer tube. The ftem is faftened in a brafs pipe or cafe, haying a wide
flit along its whole length, through which the merc” in the ftem is feen, and the
degrees are marked on the cafe. During the exhauftion, the gage is fufpended
by a flip-wire with its open end over a ciftern of merc’ within the recr, fo that
the air in it is as much rarefied as that in the recr; and when the pump has
been wrought zs much as is thought proper, the end of the gage is immerged in
the merc’, which on the gradual readmiffion of the air, will be forced up into thé
gage, and fill the bulb; all the air which had been left in the gage, rifing to the
top, and being reduced nearly to the denfity of the external air; which it would be |
exactly ; if the gage were placed not vertical, but horizontal. Then, as the whole
cavity of the gage, is to the part at the top filled only with air; fo is the primi- |
tive air which was in the gage, and alfo in the recr, to the laft refiduum in each
refpeétively, or fo is the rarefa€tion produced ; hence, the ratio of the whole con-

tent

Le 9754]

in the defcending feries by the ratio of the rect to the cylr,
or the quotient of the former divided by the latter; and in
the

tent of the gage to that of any part of the ftem, muft be known, and it is thus
found. |

Let the whole of the narrow part only of the flem be filled with mercy, and
this carefully fhaken out again, and weighed by the niceft balance; let the fame be
again filled together with the wider part of the ftem, as far as it is cylindrical,
and the contents weighed as before ; then let the whole veflel be quite filled, and the
weight of the mercy it holds be found: fince the capacity of the whole gage is to
that of the ftem, or any part of it, as the quantities or the weights of mercy each
contains; and the content of each half of the ftem is thus known, and the ratio of
the fame to the whole, and fince each half of the ftem is in itfelf cylindrical, equal
parts of the /ength of each feparate fegment, will be equal portions of the content
of that fegment ; i. e. the contents are as the lengths ; but the contents, and there-
fore the lengths, will be inverfely as the rarefaCtion, when the refidual air in the
gage is contained within them; fo that if the whole length be graduated from
the upper end to the lower in any Nr of equal divifions, and the rarefaétion be known,
when the mercy ftands at the loweft divifion or greateft Nt (which rarefaétion
is exprefled by the quotient of the weight of the mercy filling the whoie gage, di-
vided by that contained in the whole fegment) then, as the whole N* of divifions,
is to that correfponding rarefaction, fo is inver/ély any other lefler Nr of divifions,

' to the rarefaction, when the mercy will ftand at fuch divifion. This method muft

“be taken to graduate each half of the ftem feparately, as they are of different dia-
meters ; but in eftimating the length of the wider half, as the content of the nar-
rower half muft be added to it, fo the wider part muft be computed to be fo much
longer than it is, as the addition of the content of the narrower part would make
it, if-this were reduced to the fame diameter as that of the wider part.

_ But if the ftem were to ee thus graduated by an arbitrary Nr of divifions marked

on it, the rarefaction anfwering to each of them would be exprefled by odd or
broken N's unfit for meafuring it; and it would ‘be difficult, when the mercy ftands
not at any divifion, but between two, to find what may be nearly the rarefaction

in

L ame

the afcending feries by the reciprocal of the fame, or by the
ratio of the cylt to the rect. For the air intruded, &c. at each

ftroke,

that experiment; it is therefore neceflary to graduate the {tem by a decimal divifion,

exprelling the rarefaction or refidual air by rooths or roooths; which may be thus
done :

Let, as above, the weight of the whole content of the gage be divided by that of
the whole content of that fegment of the ftem, which is to be graduated; the quo-
tient will exprefs the rarefaction when the mercy ftands at the loweft divifion or end
of the fegment; then fay, as that quotient or rarefaction, is to the whole length of
the fegment, meafured by and exprefled in equal parts, fuppofe hundredth parts of
an inch; fo is inverfely the decimal, centefimal, or millefimal Nt neareft to and above
the faid quotient, to the Nr of hundredth parts of an inch (to be meafured from the
top of the fegment) at which the (loweft) divifion fhould be marked on it, anfwer-
ing to fuch decimal, centefimal, &c. Nt exprefling the rarefaction, when the mercy
will ftand at that divifion: and as the faid quotient (of the weight of the content ,
of the whole gage, by that of the whole fegment) to the faid length of the fegment ;
fo is the fecond decimal, centefimal or millefimal N* inverfely, the fecond divifion
to be marked; and fo on until the whole is graduated.

Example. Let the weight of the mercy contained in the narrower or upper feg-
ment, be two grains, and that in the whole gage be 1970 grains (which were the
meafures of my gage): the quotient of the latter divided by the former is 985; fo
that when the mercy ftood at the loweft divifion, the rarefaction was 985 ; the neareft
millefimal N‘ to which is 1000: alfo the length from the top of the ftem which two
grains weight of mercy filled, was 141 hundredth parts of an inch: as therefore 985
is to 141, fo is inverfely 1000 to 138, 88 hundredth parts of an inch; which is
the length from the top of the ftem, at which the divifion fhould be made, where |
the mercy, when ftationary, would fhew a rarefaction of 1000. In like manner as
985 : 141 :: inverfely 2000 : 69, 44 hundredth parts of an inch, the length from
the top, at which the divifion anfwering to a rarefaétion of 2090 fhould be made ;
which will be half the former Jength: and thus may the reft of the fegment be

graduated

ae ie

ftroke, being the fame, its quantity muft at length be diredily
as the recr; and the quantity remaining after each {ftroke, as
the capacity of the rec‘ to that. of the cyl’; confequently the
rarefaCtion the reciprocal of this.

Hence appears the mifchief of leaving any air under the
depreffed pifton; for the whole of it mu/? pafs into the rect
at every ftroke; and if the rec, be fmall, the greater will be
its denfity there; but if the rec’ be large, there muft be more
ftrokes to exhauft it, and fo more additions to the refidual
air in it; alfo lefs of it can be pumped out again: however,
though no air were left under the piflon, yet if air intruded
from the machine’s being leaky, its power in extracting fuch
furreptitious air, would not at all correfpond with the fame
in extracting the primitive air in the rec’; for with refpect
to this latter, the greateft rarefaction in the cyl itfelf is given,

NoLe Vi. 3B and.

graduated; firft, either by a continual bife€tion of the divifions towards the top

A (which will be always one extremity of the interval bifeCted) for fuch bifeétion, as

it Aalves each length of the fegment, muft double the rarefaction correfponding to
the lower extremity of the portion bifected, thefe portions being inverfely as their
correfponding rarefactions; and fo the leaft rarefaétion (of 1000) would be conti-
nually doubled ; or, fecondly, according to the above-mentioned analogy, by dividing
the product of the leaft rarefa€tion, multiplied by the length of the fegment (viz.
in the above cafe of 985 by 1413 or of 1000, by 138,88, which is the fame) by
any greater N's expreffing fuch rarefaction as one would chufe to mark on the-
fcale; for inftance, by 1500, 2500, &c.: then the quotients will be the lengths.
from the top, at which thefe rarefactions fhould be marked. The lower or wider-
fegment of the ftem is to be feparately graduated in the very fame manner,

“f 378 |

and fo likewife muft be ultimately that in the rec,, let its capacity
be what it may. In this machine, the air under the pifton
being conveyed away by the circulating-pipe, before the com-
munication of the cyl’ with the rec’ is opened, it cannot get
into the rec', and the rarefaction in the cyl’ being as it were
indefinitely great, equal as above-mentioned to 176000, that
in the rec’ may be indefinitely encreafed within this limit ;’
whereas the intruded and wnextraéted air under the pifton
(were there any) would get into the rec’, and the part of
it which could be pumped out, would depend on the pro-
portion between the cyl" and rec’, juft as in_the cafe of air

admitted through leaks in the machine.

Ir is not therefore here pretended, that the rarefaction could
be carried to an unlimited degree, even on the principles of
the pump’s mechanifmj; and yet perhaps it may be prefumed
that, even on thefe, its conftruction is fuperior even to that of
Mr. Cuthbertfon, the only one which pretends to a power of
indefinite exhauftion: and as it is only from a belief of
this, that the machine here defcribed is publifhed, fo I may
be permitted to obferve, (having had no opportunity of afcer-
taining by trial the excellence of his, though I believe it is
excellent; nor of feeing any defcription of it, but that in the
Encyclopedia Britannica, juft publifhed here) that I conceive
its perfection muft depend on the fuppofed circumftance of

no

cide

he ea

be 37 |

no air being ever admitted into the barrel through the valve
or through the perforation in the pifton: for if when the
valve is open, difcharging the air pumped out, and the ex-
ternal air is then prefling on the pifton with its whole weight,
any of it fhould force its way through the pifton; the rec*
is then open towards the barrel, and it muft pafs in an in-
calculable quantity into the rec. Now the pifton in his pump
has the duct through it opened at every ftroke, and it is
clofed again by a conical ftopple, fupplying the place of a
cock, and made air-tight only by oil; which ftopple being
faftened clofe in the pifton only by the force with which
the pifton is raifed, arifing from friGiion, this force or pref-
fure (unlefs the pifton moves more ftiffly than one lubricated
with abundance of oil, may be fuppofed to do) may fome-
times be infufficient to make the ftopple firm in its focket,
until it is gradually prefled by air condenfed above it, and
until the valve opens, and the external air refis on the pifton;
fo that if the pifton be not perfectly air-faft, fome of it muft
get through into the rec’; and though the friction of the
pifton fhould be a/ways fo great as to prevent this happening,
yet if any fmall particle of dirt fhould have got between the
ftopple and its cavity, it would remain impacted there, and be
likely to render the duct permeable to air: it feems therefore
too delicate a circumftance, to reft the performance of the
machine on, that this duct enclofed within the barrel, and
opened at every ftroke, fhould, at once, be fo clofely fhut

abl Oe: again,

[ ae

again, as never to admit air: alfo the bafe of the flopple muft
be broad, that it may be eafily difengaged from its cavity
which enlarges the furface or joint that is to be made im-
pervious to air: this {topple is in reality a kind of valve, refting
on the extent of its whole conical furface as a bafe, and it
was before obferved. how dificult it is to make a valve air-
tight, when the fmalleft folid particle of duft, &c. will prevent
the contact of the furfaces though ever fo extenfive, and that |
the danger of this encreafes with the enlargement of the fur-
face ; and that were it not from this natural imperfection of
valves, Mr. Smeaton’s air-pump ought to be inferior to none;
its mode of action being precifely the fame as that of Mr.
Cuthbertfon, except that in the latter, metallic valves or ftop-
ples are fubftituted for the flexible valves in the former:
whereas the excellence of a ftop-cock is, that the furfaces of
the key and fhell are never /efarated: no dirt can get between
them, nor oil be blown away ; but ftiff ointment may be ap-
plied inftead of oil, to make them air-faft: to the ftop-cock
therefore, and the unperforatated pifton, I attribute the excel-
lence of the pump here defcribed above others conftituted on
the like principle; for in it, though air fhould get in through
the upper valve, é&c. it cannot get into the rec’; whereas in
the others, if air infinuates through the pifton, it muft do fo;
and if to prevent this, in Mr. Cuthbertfon’s machine, it were

provided to have a pool of oil above the pifton, I imagine

it

[: ga? J

it would not be a perfect remedy, even though I were mif-
taken in the apprehenfion that fuch abundance of oil, would
generate a greater quantity of fadctitious air: for when the
valve or du‘t in the pion is open, the oil muft defcend
through it with all the impurities that may be in it; and if
the oil above the upper valve can defcend into the barrel, the
impurities in it will be added, which if they adhered to the
ftopple or valve in the pifton, would be likely to occafion its
admitting air; alfo the oil being thus churned in the barrel,
would perhaps entangle air, efpecially when vifcid, as it will
become by corroding the brafs. In this pump, it is not ne-
ceflary to ufe oil, efpecially if the barrel be made of pewter;
for then the hog’s-lard or ointment ufed will not lofe its lu-
bricity; in fact fluid oil is inadmiffible, for it would certainly
render the cock, though formed and ground with care (how
much more then a valve?) not air-tight; the air forcing a
paffage even through the oil within the joint, if this be not
very clofe, which in a.cock whofe key is in continual mo-
tion cannot always be ; nor is this hard to conceive; for where
ever a column of merc’ as high as that in the barom’,, refting
over a joint or chafm, could force a paffage, the air will do

the fame, and perhaps more powerfully.

Ir will appear then that there is no kind of limitation in
the pump here defcribed, which is not in any other; for in
the

ks goa

the others, whatever air is left above the pifton andifcHardedl
or enters by the valves in the pifton or top of the pump, is
diffufed in the cyl’ under the pifton (fuppofe it could not get
“into the rec’); and the pifton being put down, whatever cavi-
ties are under it, have the fame quantity of it refting there,
when the rec’ is opened, as in this pump; and if air infinu-
ates by the perforated pifton, it is an inconvenience from which
this is fecure; alfo it condenfes with a fingle barrel, and with-
out any additional parts, which none other can do. It might
be conitruéted with two barrels, and the two cocks might be
turned together by one handle, in a manner well known and
in ufe; but in this form, it would neither be convenient nor
portable; however in the form here defcribed, the fingle barrel
may be made fo large, as to exhauft as faft as two of ufual
fize; and it is eafy to conceive from the theory, that the large-
nefs of the barrel is every way an advantage, for the cavities
under the pifton need not be proportionably enlarged.

As it is fcarely poffible to prevent the intrufion of fome
air while the pump is working, and as the quantity fo in-
truded, will be proportional to the time of exhaufting, which
time would be injudicioufly lengthened, if the panfe at each
ftroke were made longer than 1s neceflary for the air to pafs
from the rect to the cyl‘ until its denfity is the fame in both
in any degree of the rarefaction ; it would be a defirable

thing

OE See OP te

ieee

thing to know whether the air pafles into the cylt with a
velocity variable according to its denfity, and in what ratio.
The time of the air’s paflage cannot be difcovered by the mo-
tion of the merc’ in the gage; for when the air is much ra-
refied, this motion during one ftroke, is fo little as to be im-
perceptible, and when it is greater, the merc” vibrates fo much
in the tube, and undulates fo long, after the air is pafled into
the barrel, that the term of its paflage cannot be difcovered:
it muft be found by reafoning on phyfical principles ; and the
enquiry is to be profecuted on thefe data or affumptions, that

. the meafures of the rect, duct and cyl are invariable quanti-

ties; and that in the cyl* there is a perfe€t vacuum, into which
the air in the rec’ is to expand itfelf, after the pifton is raifed

to the top.

Tue conftruction of this machine was primarily undertaken
with a view to difcover whether the Aurora Borealis is an
eleétrical phenomenon; whether we could in /arge exhaufted
veflels exhibit its genuine appearance; what muft be the ra-
rity of the air in which it is vifible, and the heights in the
atmofphere, wherein it exifts, and within which it is (if at all)
confined, &c. Thefe enquiries however I did not profecute;
yet the reader will not I hope be difpleafed at my extend-
ing this long paper ftill farther by an account of the follow-
ing experiments relative to them, though they are inconclufive ;

efpecially,

[ 384°]

efpecially, as from the difficulty of making a perfect vacuum
in the ftandard-barom’, and of comparing the altitude of the
merc’ which ought to be in it, with that in the gage, I found
the exhibition of the genuine Aurora Borealis, the moft cer-
tain mark of great rarefaction, as not requiring a comparifon
of the barom' and: pear gages.

I connectep with the rec’ (which was ufed in the fore-
going trials of the pump’s exhaufting power, and whofe capa-
city was 122 cubic inches) by means of a brafs box fixed on
the top of it, one end of a glafs-tube twenty-one inches long
and 2 of an inch in diameter, furnifhed at one end with a
brafs cap terminating in an open pipe, which was inferted la-
terally into the box of the recr: the other end of the tube
was clofed fometimes with a plate of brafs cemented on it,
and at other times with a glafs plate; both which afforded
the fame appearances. The tube was extended horizontally,
being fupported at the end remote from the rect by a glafs-
pillar; and it was exhaufted with the rect; during the procefs
of which, I applied to the tube in the dark, an electrified
glafs-tube, which produced the following appearances in re-
peated trials,

Tue tube fhewed no electricity from prefenting to it the
excited tube, until the rarefaction was about 100; then there
appeared within it denfe and bright corufcations, but they

were

5 ee Aang!

[ © 385°]

were interrupted, not extending the whole length of the tube,
neither would they appear when the excited tube was pre-
fented to the end, but when to the middle only of the ex-
haufted one; and*it was remarkable, that corufcations exactly
refembling the above, in their form, &c. except that they ap-
peared when the excited tube touched any part of the other
one, and that they were fo faint as to be fcarce vifible in a
room made quite dark, firft begax to appear, when the rare-
faction, as fhewn by the pear-gage, was 4000: the ftandard-
barom™ above-mentioned being, at the fame time, at 30,1,
and the baromr-gage at 30,12. When the rarefaction was
carried beyond this, fo as to raife the merc’ in the baromr-
gage, a little higher in feveral trials, and to advance that
fhewn by the pear-gage fometimes up to 26000, the appear-
ances were the fame, but the gleams of light ftill fainter;
they were a colourlefs pale white; the corufcations, which
were {carce vifible, /eemed conical pointed, waving or ftreaked,
and did not extend the whole length of the tube, exhibiting
the moft perfect refemblance of the thin pale coloured Aurora
Borealis.

In the intermediate degrees of rarefaction, between 100, and
4000 (indicated as above by the gages) the phenomena were
as follows:

Art 300, the prefentation of the excited tube wear to the
exhaufted one, firft occafioned’ continued flafhes in it, filling
Vox, VI. 3G its

f sgpe7)

its whole length; but this only when prefented to the middle,
not the ends, this latter firft occurred when the rarefaction
was greater; and then at every approach and receffion of the
excited tube, without frefh excitation, even for fifty times to-
gether, and with fcarce any diminution of brightnefs to the
laft, or fign of decay until I ceafed to prefent it, fuch flafhes
were produced; they filled the whole tube, but that they were
brighter and of fmaller diameter at the middle of its length ;
they were alfo not only denfer but of a more yellow colour, than
the faint corufcations before defcribed: but the moft diftindtive
difference between both thefe kinds, and indicating the great
degree of rarefaction neceflary for the exhibition of the former
was, that when /bey appeared, the excited tube produced no
light at all in the other, except at the jf? prefentation and
aétual conta with it: from which I concluded (too ftupidly
and haftily) that the electricity of the former was completely
difcharged, and that the more perfect vacuum, was a more
perfe&t conductor of electricity, even more fo than metals:
but though I am yet of opinion that the fact was fo, yet it
may, for ought I know, be poffible, that the tube produced no
light after the firft prefentation, not becaufe it was quite dif-
charged, but becaufe its electricity, leffened by the firft dif-
charge, would not pafs nor be conducted by the more perfect
vacuum in the other tube; or, if it burns, deftroys, or changes
into nitrous acid the air which conducts it, what remained

an.

[3987 4]

in the tube, &c. may by the firft explofion have been fo con-

fumed.

Bur whether this or the contrary be the fact, the experi-

- ments have fatisfied me, that the Aurora Eorealis is an elect-

rical phenomenon ; that, (at leaft when it is faint and of a
pale colour) it cannot appear in air lefs rarefied than near
4000 times *; and confequently that its neareft diftance from
the earth is about forty-five miles (according to Dodtor Halley’s
table of the air’s rarefaction at different altitudes’; that in air
rarefied more than 26000 times, it would not be vifible, and
therefore its greatett diftance is about fifty miles, (by the fame
table): I am notwithftanding fenfible it may be lefs or greater:
it may be /és, for though my pear-gage fhewed that degree
of rarefaction, I pretend not to fay what the rarefaction really
was; it might be fix times lefs; but it could not, I think,

"be known by any gage, what it was, as I am perfuaded, that

the difference of altitude between my baromt-gage, and that
of the moft perfeét baromr, would at that time be impercep-
tible to the eye: it may be greater, for a quantity or ftratum
of electric matter 3 of am inch in thicknefs, as in my tube,

may be invifible, when one of the fame denfity, but many
7 Oe mailes

* Perhaps becaufe denfer air, affording too much -refiftance to its paflage, i. e.

“Sbeing a worfe conductor, it takes a circuit by the rarer air in the higher regions,
_ from the place where it is pofitive, to that where negative.

[ 388 ]

miles in thicknefs, as in the atmofphere, may be quite lumi-
nous, though the light from it be diminifhed by the diftance
from the eye. The light was fainter in every degree of the
rarefaction, when there was moifture in the tube, from my
having put a little bit of wet leather in the rect (which how-
ever was dried in the exhauftion;) and this inclines me to
think, that it is a/v burnt and exploded in its paflage which
makes the electric matter vifible; and that were there no air,
if it could pafs at all, it would not be luminous: for though
we were to fuppofe, that the electric matter would be ren-
dered luminous by mere watery vapour without any air; yet
I imagine the extreme cold, in very elevated regions of the
atmofphere, would freeze this vapour, as it does near the earth,
and condenfe it into icicles, deftroying its elafticity; fo that
it could not afcend, by its expanfive force, beyond that height,
in which there would {till be air, though of great tenuity :
if thefe things be fo, the Aurora Borealis is confined within.
our atmofphere.

N. B. Tue pear-gage with its metal cafe and wire, being
| within the rec’ prevented me from knowing what would be the:
appearance of the electric matter in pafling through it.

I HAD not an electrical machine mounted; fo could not im
thefe experiments try the effect of continual electrification, and

1t:

[3897]

it has not been in my power to repeat them: if it had I
would not take the liberty to offer them to the public fo im-
perfeét: they are prefented as hints to direct the enquiries of
others, who are fo circumftanced as to be able to profecute:
them, and alfo as fuggefting perhaps the beft teft of the:
pmeumatic engine’s exhaufting power.

ee eae a ee

oe ad

(eat ge See

On the APPLICATION of 2 CONVERGING SERIES ¢o the

CONSTRUCTION of LOGARITHMS, By Mr. WILLIAM.
ALLMAN, A.B. Trinity College, Dublin.

From a due confideration of Newton’s binomial theorem, it
may be fhewn, that the logarithm of the ratio of one number
to another, according to Napier’s fyftem, is equal to the fum
ops acu galt Feb od ad

Setcdl wats hope? m prefenting the
difference, and » the fum of the numbers: which logarithm of

qs and
of the feries, pei

the ratio, added to, or fubtra@ed from, the logarithm of the

antecedent, according as the antecedent is lefs, or greater, than
the confequent, gives the logarithm of the confequent.

In any fyftem whatever, the logarithm of the ratio of
one number to another is equal to the fum of this feries,.
opd 2pd? 2pd> — 2pd’
fe ae SS ss “= + &c. where @expreffes the difference,

and

Read May:
21, 1796,

[gon 4

and s the fum of the numbers, as before; and # the quote found
upon dividing, the logarithm of fome number according to that
fyftem, by Napier’s logarithm of the fame number.

Ir is evident, that the lefs @ is in refpe@ of s, the fafter the
feries will converge ; fo that the conftruGion of the logarithms
of prime numbers, will be rendered more eafy and expeditious,
by finding two great products, which fhall have a {mall difference ;
one of which products, fhall be compofed entirely of factors
whofe logarithms are already known, and the other, fhall have
in its compofition, the number whofe logarithm is fought, or fome
power of that number; and, if it have any other factors, the lo-
garithms of thefe factors muft be previoufly knewn.

Havine found fuch produéts, we may, by ‘the application of
the above-mentioned feries, find the logarithm of their ratio to
each other; which is the fame with the logarithm of the ratio of
the firft produa (or that which is compofed entirely of faGtors
whofe logarithms are known) divided by the factor or compound
of faGors whofe logarithms are known ‘(if there be any fuch)
in the latter product, to the prime number whofe logarithm is
fought, or fome power of that number. Then, from the loga-
rithm of the antecedent, and ‘the logarithm of the ratio, we have,

hy addition or fubtraGtion, the logarithm of the confequent.

I PROPOSE

ee 3088]

I provoss now to fhew, how produdts of this nature may
be found—and firft, when they rife to two dimenfions only,

or confift each of two factors.

Let the two factors of one produ@t be x +a, and x +4;
+a

that product will then be x’ ey

x + ab; if we affume for

two other factors, the quantities x and x # 3 we get the pro--

duct x? Mie which differs from the firft produ@ by ad, the

loweft term of that produét.—Here it is obvious,

1. Tuat the nearer ab approaches to o, ceteris paribus, the-
fafter will the feries converge.

2. Tuat if a+ be made equal to o there will be but three
different factors, for x BP will then be equal to x.

3. Ir may be obferved with refpe@ to produéts of any di-
menfions whatever, that the fame factor muft not enter both
products, for this would ferve only to raife the terms of the

fraction = 5 not to diminifh its value.

4. Hiner it follows, that in fearching for thefe products, .

‘we muft,fuppofe one of them to confift entirely of compound

fators.

Vou, VI. 3-D: 5eTt

L 304]

5. Ir is convenient that they differ in their loweft terms only ;
otherwife the quote found upon dividing their fum by their.
difference (by the increafe or decreafe of which the convergency
of the feries is accelerated or retarded) would be of a lower
dimenfion than either produ@; fo that we would be at the
trouble of finding produéts of a higher dimenfion, when perhaps
produdts might be found of the fame dimention with the quote

=A differing only in their loweft terms.

Besipes, if this compound difference (or fome compound quan-
tity which is of the fame dimenfion with this difference and
an aliquot part of it) do not meafure either product, there is
this additional inconvenience, namely, that the numerator of the
fration is uncertain, being afic&ted by the variable quantity « ;
whereas if the difference of the produ€ts be the fame with the
difference of their abfolute terms, it is in no manner affected

LK, 2 ae a
by the variation of x, and the numerator of the fraction > may

fometimes be reduced to unity, which is convenient in the ap-
plication of the feries to practice.

Ir the compound difference (or fome aliquot part of it, and of
the fame dimenfions with it) meafure either produ, it is a
fure fign that there are produdts of an inferior dimenfion every
whit as advantageous for the conftruction of logarithms. From

all

i 3657]

all which we may fee the utility of fo adapting the pro-
duéts to each other, that they may differ in their loweft terms
only.

6. Ir is ufeful, when one of the products only confifts en-
tirely of compound factors, that the fecond terms of thefe fadtors
be as fmall numbers as poffible ; for the continual produ@t of
all thefe fecond terms conftitutes in this cafe the difference of
the produits. This precaution is alfo ufeful, when both produ€ts
confift entirely of compound factors, and their loweft terms are,
at the fame time, affeCted with contrary figns. For the differ-
ence of the products in this cafe is equal to the fum of two
numbers which are produced by the continual multiplication of
the fecond terms of the factors of each produ@ refpetively, no
regard being paid to their figns.

Susstiture in the above produdts of two dimenfions, 1 for a,
and — 1 for ’(by which means we fhall have ab =— 1, and a+ 6
=o) the products will then be *?—1, and «?, whofe difference
is unity and which confift of but three different factors »x—1,

x+1 and *.

Tue logarithms of any two of thefe factors being given that
of the third may be found by the application of the above

mentioned feries ; om being in this cafe equal to ae

gD 24 Bor

TL: 396 J

4

Bur Dr. Halley has already *ufficiently explained this method

of applying the feries.

To come then in the next place to produ@s of three dimen-
fions, or which confift each of three faGtors—

Ler x3 +qx?+7x-+5 reprefent one of fuch produds, and
let its faGors be denoted by x +a, «+6 and «+c. Then if
the fign of the fecond term in each faGtor be changed, the
fign of the firft term in each being unvaried, the produc will
be x3—gx?+rx—s;, make g, or a+6+e=0,; we then fhall
have two produats differing from each other by 25 = 2abe ; fo
that if c be taken equal to a+ 6 with their figns changed,
the produts will differ from each other in their loweft terms
only; but this difference, and at the fame time the number of
different fa€tors, will be the leaft poffible (fraGtional numbers
being fet afide) if we make a=4 and each of them equal to
unity; the products then with their refpective faGors will be,
x3 x —38—2= «+ 1? xXx—2 and x3 y— 3x+ 2=x—1|?xx+25
whofe difference never exceeds four in whatever manner x be
varied ; and the number of different fators is alfo reduced to

four.

Tuat the number of different faGtors of fuch produéts as
are required of three dimenfions, cannot be lefs than four, may
be thus demonftrated ; if there were but three different faCtors

one

[ 307 ]

one product fhould have all its factors equal to each other;
the other, two of the three factors equal to each other. Let
#3 -+ 3ax? + 3a*x + a3 (= x + a)?) reprefent one of the produds,
and #3 if - x # oe x + b¢ (= « +8)? x* +c) the other.
Then fince thefe products ought to differ in their loweft terms
only, we have 3a = 2b +c, and b? + 2bc = 3a’, by comparing thefe
equations with each other we find 44* + 4bc + c* = 3b* + 6bc
~ b* = 2bc—s* and b=c; fo that thefe produas will be both
cubes, or can have but two different faCtors; but fince 3a= 2b +c,
i. e. (from what has been already proved) 3a = 36, we have
a=6; by which it appears that not only the fame faGor en-
ters both products (which has been already {hewn to be ufelefs)
but both products confift entirely of the fame fa€tor equally re-
peated and are in effect ome and the fame produét.

In the application of the produdts #3—3x—2 and «!—3w +4 2,
to the conftruction. of logarithms the fraction © of the feries
Ss

mae be made equal to - —== Of ee Paton
, axe TIP xXwx-2+ 4 2x W— ilixx 2-4
I I

or in its loweft terms « + 17 x x—2 ft or x—ll? xx + 2
ee ee Ta
E A

THE

[: gope.t

Tue feries will then exhibit the logarithm of the ratio of

= ay
Ce a io ee a he
ox — 7 |2 i } .
wr 1) eae 1/7, or of = [ x *-2. +2; of w+ i)t)
—-—, “+2 a oy ee ak
“—I; x 7 oF of x— 2° | x x—2; where, the antecedents

w+)

being lefs than the confequents, if the logarithm of «+ 1,* or

of x—2 be required, the fum of the above feries is to be fub-

a eee ae
or of

—2 K+ 1

: —— x
tracted from the logarithm of x— 1, x =

refpectively.

Tue fmaller the fa@tor, by which any given number whofe
logarithm is fought, is denoted, the fafter will the feries con-

verge.

For the abfolute value of each fa€tor, and therefore the va-
Iue of each produ@, is by this means encreafed.—Then fince
the fum of the produdts is increafed, their difference being un-
varied, the feries will converge fafter.

Tsovcn we have this advantage by making a fmaller faQor
reprefent the number whofe logarithm is required, yet it may
be objected, that this implies the neceflity of being previoufly
acquainted with the logarithms of greater numbers. But the
difficulty of this, will in the prefent cafe, be removed, if the
prime number whofe logarithm is required (that number being

underftood.

[ 399 ]

“underftood to exceed 3) be denoted by the factor x —1, when
the number next lefs is meafured by 3; or by the factor ~—z,

when the number next greater is meafured by 3.

Or the four different factors, two are always even and two
odd, the number whofe logarithm is fought being odd, there
can be but one odd number greater than the given one, whofe
logarithm it is neceffary to be previoufly acquainted with, in
order to find the logarithm required. This number exceeds the
given one by 2, when the given one is denoted by x—1;
by 4 when it is denoted by x—2; fo that this odd factor, greater
than that which reprefents the number whofe logarithm is fought,
will be meafured by 3, if the given number be reprefented by
*«—1, and at the fame time, the number next lefs be meafured
by 3; or if the given number be reprefented by »—2, and
the number next greater be meafured by 3; we then fhall have all
the fa@ors, except the number whofe logarithm is fought, com-
pofite. That their component parts will be-lefs than that num-

ber, is evident from the nature of the factors.

Ir any one withes rather conftantly to ufe the fame notation,
which may perhaps be defirable, in conilruating a table of
logarithms, for the fake of avoiding confufion ; when a prime
fafor occurs greater than that whofe logarithm is fought, fo

that the logarithm cannot be found immediately, let the logarithm

of

[ 400 ]

of that prime number be fought by the fame method as that
which was to be ufed for the difcovery of the firtt logarithm ;
and no prime factor will occur to prevent the logarithm of
this number from being found immediately—For, fince, when
the faQor «—1 is taken to denote the prime number whofe.
logarithm is fought, the other odd fa€tor exceeds it by 2; and
when the fa€tor «—2 is taken to denote it, the remaining
odd factor exceeds it by 4; if the number exceeding the given
one, when denoted by the falor «—1, by two, or when de-
noted by the factor x—2, by 4, be compofite, the logarithm
may be found immediately : But if, in the firft cafe, the num-
ber exceeding the given one by 2, be prime, the number which
exceeds that number by 2 (or the given one by 4) will be
compofite—and if in the other cafe, the number exceeding the
given one by 4 be prime, the number which exceeds that
number by 4 (or the given one by 8) will be compofite—fo
that the method of notation remaining unvaried, no prime faGor
will occur to prevent the logarithm of that prime number (by
the intervention of which, the logarithm firft fought is to be
deduced) from being found immediately.

Ir is cafy to fhew, that, if the number which exceeds any
prime number greater than 3, by 2, be prime, the number
which exceeds it by 4, will be compofite ; or, if the number

which exceeds it by 4 be prime, that mumber which exceeds _
it.

[ gor ]

it by 8 will be compofite; for, fince neither the given num-
ber, nor the number which exceeds it by 2, is meafured by 3,
according to the firft fuppofition, the number which exceeds
the given one by unity, will be meafured by 3 (for 3 mutt
neceffarily meafure one of three fucceflive numbers) and there-
fore the number exceeding the given one by 4 will be mea-
fured by 3. Since, in the fecond place, either the number
which exceeds the given one by 2, or that which exceeds it
by 4 is meafured by 3; if the number which exceeds it by 4
be prime, that which exceeds it by 2, and therefore, that alfo
which exceeds it by 8, will be meafured by 3.

5 Ir were eafy to thew, that, in the application of the above
products of three dimenfions, differing by 4, to the conftruc-

tion of logarithms, the numerator of the faction. Seduced to
£

: i ad ema
its loweft terms is always unity. In this cafe —= ————_—___-
f can See Sesh neato) ie oe
Now, fince either y+ 1,*,or ~— 2, is even, 2 will meafure their

product increafed by 2.

Rane ck pe fie
= +1=y;the general feries will then be

Make

‘reduced to this form, aes 28 4 te a a5 in aaa &c. Half the
POO ait pager eT

‘s Vou. VI. 3E fum

[ 402 ]

fum of this feries will exprefs the logarithm of the ratio of

ere ale rinse Hate seh 42
Sy sc Sh See Tor of eee eT nS
#41 X pao NaN

Ir two products of any dimenfions whatever, differ in their
loweft terms only, and the fecond terms of all the factors in each
product be equally multiplied; the produas. of the fadtors fo
changed will ftill differ in their loweft terms only, but the differ-
ence in this cafe will be the difference of the original produdts mul-
tiplied into the common multiplier of the fecond terms of the
faGtors raifed to the fame dimenfion with the higheft term of
either produ. For the terms of the original produdts, beginning
with the higheft term in each, are refpectively multiplied by
the terms of a geometrical progreffion, whofe firft term is unity,
and fecond the common multiplier; fo that the terms of the
latter products, which are correfpondent to terms that were equal
in the firft produats, will be equal to each other; and the terms
of the latter, correfpondent to thofe which differed in the firft
produéts, will have a difference equal to the difference of the
terms in the firft products, multiplied by the correfpondent term
of the geometrical progreffion above-mentioned.

Ler m denote the common multiplier, and » the index of the
higheft term in the produ@s; the geometrical progreffion will
ftand thus, 1, m, m*, m?, &c.,m”. Let the latter products be

both

acid

be ia -

4]
i
4

[ .4og. ]

both divided by m”; the quotes will have the fame ratio as the
latter produas, and the fame difference as the fifft produdts

have. Now the terms of the firft produés multiplied by the

rhage : F thi fs I I I I
corretpondent terms, of this progresfion, Os NET Peary Tae &c.

I : . ae
Wi’ me’ mi’ | (i. e. the terms of the preceding progteffion divided

by m") gives the correfpondent terms of the quotes; fo that if m
be greater than 1, the terms of the quotes will be lefs than the
terms of the firft products refpeGively—The contrary to this
happens, if m be a proper fraCion—In this laft cafe then, the
fum of the quotes being greater than that of the firft produas,
while the difference is the fame; and the difference of the quotes
having the fame ratio to their fum, as the difference of the
latter produdts to their fum, it appears that the difference of the
latter produdts bears a lefs ratio to their fum, than the difference of
the firft produ@ts bears to their fum; fo that if the fecond terms
of the faGors of products differing in their loweft terms only,
be all multiplied by the fame proper fraction, the feries expreffing
the logarithm of the ratio of the produéts to each other will con-

¥ verge fafter.

Iv the fecond terms of the factors of products differing
in their loweft terms only, be equally increafed by addition or
gE 2 diminithed

[ 404 ]
diminifhed by fubtraGion, the produ@s will ftill have the fame
difference.

Let the coefficients of the 2d, 3d, 4th, 5th, &c. terms of
the given products be dénbica by 9, 7, 5, ¢, v, &c. refpectively ;
the index of the higheft term by w, and the quantity, whether
affirmative or negative, which is to be added to each of the fecond

_ terms of the factors, by m, the coefficients of the correfpondent terms

, n nm n-t a n-1l ne-2
of the new produdts will be, —-7#, —: ——.m*) —. esr
I Te ho rota 3
nm Nal n-2% nN-3 n-t m-I N-2
er A it q —. —— — qm
I 2 3 4 &c, I I: 2
- - - 2 jl -
Bok EES aan! i rm
I 2 I
= a= Ss
ites ~ Sm?
I 2
fle
3m

Wuence it appears that in whatfoever term the given products
begin to differ from each other in the correfpondent one, will
the new produéts alfo begin to differ from each other, and by
the fame quantity. If the fecond terms of the factors be egually
increafed, the fum of the products will be increafed, fo that

. (if

: ‘
[ 405 ]

(if the abfolute value of the leading term be unvaried) the feries
will converge fafter. If then the given number whofe logarithm
is fought, be denoted by a fimple quantity x, the lower the
place which the fimple quantity occupies among the faCors, or
the fewer refidual faGtors there are, the fafter will the feries con-
“verge.—Now whatever compound quantity be fubftituted for this
fimple one, the efie& will be the fame, viz. that the convergency
of the feries is quicker or flower, the lower or higher the place
which the given number occupies in the rank of faCors.

Bur fince it is ufeful that the difference of the greateft and leaft
factor fhould be as fmall as poffible (as follows from what has
been obferved before) the advantage of a {wifter convergency,
will, generally fpeaking, be in a lefs degree in this cafe, than
the fimilar advantage which arifes from multiplying the fecond
term of each faGor by an aliquot fraGtion, or (which amounts to
the fame thing) the leading term of each faétor by the reciprocal
integer.

From what has been {faid it follows, that if, of the firft and
fecond, fourth and fifth terms of an arithmetical progreflion, the
logarithms of any three be given, the logarithm of the remaining
term may be found. If the common difference of the progref-

fion be unity, = will be equal to an aliquot fraction, whofe

denominator

[ “406 J
denominater exceeds, by 1, half the produ&t, whofe factors are

the firft or leaft term of the progreffion, and the fquare of the

fourth term; if the common difference be any other number,
age. 2 a
fuppofe m; —— will be equal to that aliquot fraQion above de-

fcribed, multiplied by m?. The general feries will then exprefs
the logarithm of the ratio which the produa of the firft term
into the fquare of the fourth, bears to the product of the fifth
term into the fquare of the fecond, This, fince the arithmetical
progreffion is an increafing one, will be a ratio of leffer in-
equality. ;

- Ir alfo appears, that there is no reftri€lion fet on finding the
moft convenient products, by the fuppofition that one of them
is defeétive in its loweft term. And that, in the inveftigation
of produ@s, if we find fecond terms which (all of them being
equally diminifhed fo that one may vanifh) will then admit a
common meafure, the produéts may then be reduced to a fmaller
difference.

Ler xt + qx? tre? sx +e reprefent a product of four dimen-
fions, and let s be = 0, two factors are to be found, whofe produ&
fhall be x* + gx+yr; this being multiplied by «’ will give the pro-
du@t x* + 9x3 +rx*, differing from the firft product by ¢ the loweft

term

[ ar |

term of that produ. Suppofe one of the factors to be x +m; the

+7 =
other will be x —m. Then gm—m*=r-sm= a+ py ee ‘; -r,and
2

q-m= it we Let the factors of the produ wx* + gx? +
4

rx? +sxtibex+ta,w+6, xtc, and x«+d.- And the faors

of the produ& «*+q9x+r7r will be, w+

atb4cec4a +
2

pe hays — ab — ac — ad — be — bd —cd,, or (which is
s+

atb+ctd an até—c—q):
2 vw: rere =ab'— ca:

the fame ae ¢ - ——
Thefe ads will be always rational (whatever may be the
values of a, 6, c, and d, provided they be rational) if we make

ab ad = o. Then fince s, or abc + abd + acd+bcd=0, we have

Aye mine And dividing. by cd> and multi-

plying by the denominators, be +d+cd—b*. Therefore
be —bd b> — be c+d aay ayn

9 ar a= rp and b = —,— ay ee abe ty) OG

that if & be rational, c, d, and a (or — e ) will alfo be rational.

~ Buté will be rational, if ¢* + 6cd 4+ d* be a perfe@ fquare. Make

c*+6cd+d*=c*. Then 6cd+d*=oand d=- 6c. Univerfally, putting
c + 6cd+ d*=c* +2en+n°, we have 6d -- 22, c= n+ ~ dq?
and.

[ 408 |

and eee Only we muft not aflume x»=d or =--d;
-- 20

or= 3¢, for on the two firft affumptions we fhould get 6d-- 2.
c=0, i.e. either 4dc, or 8de =o; on the third affumption,
n* -- d*=0, i.e. 8d* =0,; fo that either c or d would be equal

to 0; contrary to what has been above laid down.

Make c=--1 andd= 6; then d—2 or 3, leth=2; and we

fhall havea=3. And m, as alfo g -- m, = 5.

Tuen we have the fators~—1, »+ 2, + 3, x + 6, whofe
product fhall be deficient in its penultimate term, and_ {hall
differ by 36 its loweft term, from the produc of the factors x* and

«+ §*; as will appear by their multiplication.

x +6
Ban nia et 5
=H Side oR)
x +ox+18
x+2 x” 4.10% 4 25

— x?

eRe 6 v4.36 ee
x—I - xt TO 48-25 a

xt -+ 10 #3 + 25 x* 4 — 36

In

[ 469 ]
Iw the fecond product, we may obferve that there are but two
different factors. ‘That the faor x +m muft be equal to the
factor at f or that is equal to ‘, will appear if it be fhewn

a ficlgtas —ab—ed =o; which may be done

that 2 — pr or
4

in the following manner:—Since ab + cd = 0, we alfo have by

multiplication, a7 4 acd=0, ab? 4bed=0, abe 4c*d=o, and

abd 4. cd* =0.

By comparing thefe four equations feverally with the equation,

abe + abd + acd + bcd=o0, we find,

a@=ac+ad+cd
6? = be + bd + cd
ec =ab+act be
d*=ab+ad+bd

. a Hb pet +d? =20b+ 2act+ 2ad+ 2b +2abd+2cd. And
eee: fae aah dedi seinen —ab—cd=o.
Q; E. D.

. Tuat the number of different factors in both produ@s can-
_ not be lefs than fix, without introducing furds, may be fhewn

as follows: :
Vou. VI. 3. 8 First,

[ fo ]

First, neither produét can have three faétors alike—Since, by
a change in all the fecond terms, any factor may be reduced to
. afimple expreffion ; let the fa€tor which occurs three times be
denoted by x, the product will then be deficient in the three
loweft terms—the other product that it may differ from this by its
loweft term only, muft want the penultimate and antepenulti-
mate terms; at the fame time, retaining the laft; fo that two of
its fators will be impofiible.

Tue above is evidently applicable to produdts of all dimen-
fions; and from this immediately follows what has been proved
above, relative to the leaft number of different faCtors in produéts

of three dimenfions.

Hence it appears that the leaft poflible number of different
faGors will not be lefs than the index of the higheft term in
either produa, if that index be even—if it be odd, the leaft
poffible number of different products will be greater than the

index.

WueEnce it follows that the number of different faGtors in the
prefent cafe cannot poflibly be lefs than four.

Bur in the next place, the number of different factors cannot
without introducing furds, be lefs than fix.
For

Ors

salbbicinbinatisn ture cae eee

f goa “4

For if we fuppofe but five different faGtors in both produdts,

-_ two of them muft be in one produ@, and three in the other,

fince neither produ& can confift entirely of equal fa&tors, as
appears from the above, and neither of thofe two factors muft be
taken three times. Let the. factors of one produ&t then be

be x* and »+m/\*, and the faétors of the other x+a, x + 4,

x+c*. The refpective produ@s will be «+ + 2 mx3 + m* x*, and
SUN abs

+a age + 2abce
xe +b x3 x? .+- ac? #4 abc?.. That thefe products
+ 2bc :
+ 2¢ athe + be

may differ only in the loweft term thefe three limitations are
neceflary. We muft make firft, 2+5+2c= 2m, fecondly,
ab + 2ae + 2be+ c?=m*; and thirdly, 2abc + ac? + bc? =o.
From the pal firft one we have, a? 4+ 2ab + b> + 4ac +
abe + 4c* (= 4m’) = 4ab + Bae + 8be +.4c* va —2ab+ b> =

4a+4bxc. From the third equation, we have 2ab+ ac + bc=o,

_ 2ab
a+b
equation a* — 2ab + 5? = 4a + 46x¢, there arifes a*—2ab + 6*-=

3F 2 Hie — 82é,

This value of ¢ being fubftituted in the

-_¢e=za—

[ 4m]

— 8ah, +: a* = — 6ba — b* and a = — 36+ 2b ¥ 2; fo that either

8, or a, will be embarraffed with a furd.

Ler the prime number whofe logarithm is fought by the ap-
plication of the above produ€ts of four dimenfions, be denoted
by x + 2, if the number next greater is meafured by 3; by
x +3, if the number next lefs be meafured by 3—and then
all the other faCtors will be compofite. For in the firft cafe,
x — 1 will be meafured by 2; *, by 3; » +3, by both 2 and
3; x+5, by 2; and x + 6, by 3: In the other cafe, x—1, will
be meafured by 3; *, by2; ~+2, by both 2 and 3; x+5, by
3; and x + 6, by 2.

Ir the prime number, whofe logarithm is fought, were de-
noted by any other faCtor than x + 2, or x + 3, other divifors,
befides 2 and 3, fhould come into confideration; for in any cafe
there would be at leaft another faGtor, which, neither 2, nor 3,

would meafure.

Usrnc then the notation direéted above, the ratio of x* x « + 5}?

eae Sea Se ae pena x, + 2
fo, ¥ = 1 KEK 2S Ke 3K REE; & iiss 4 ee

f ee]

“7, w+ 5)?
:¢+2, or off ——_———_
¥—I. w+2. ~+6

of greater inequality.

a+ 3, will always be a ratio

In the application of thefe fadtors to the conftruction of loga-
rithms A pln alae Sas 30° which fraction (the above
notation being ufed) when reduced to its loweft terms will have
unity for its Hinerater. For, of x and x+ 5, 2 always meafures
one, and 3 the other, as appears from what has been faid above ;
therefore 4 meafures the fquare of one; and 9g, the fquare of
the other (the quote of two fquare numbers being equal to the
. fquare of the quote of their roots; which laft is in this cafe an
integer) confequently 36 meafures the produét of their fquares
(the continual produ& of any factors being the fame, in what-
ever order the fa&tors be taken) and therefore it alfo meatfures
double that produ& diminifhed by 36; i.e. 2.x7.%+5)* — 36,

wt 5]?

Put the quote sh ee tay; 4 will then be equal
nine

to —, by fubftitution of which the expreffion of the general fe-
a

ries will be rendered more fimple as before.

Tue

[ awe]

Tur inveftigation of produ@s of five dimenfions may be at
prefent omitted—For the difference of the produds of | five
dimenfions, which feem moft commodious for the conftru@ion
of logarithms, is fo great as to deftroy a confiderable part of the
advantage arifing from the greatnefs of their fum——Bcfides
the very invention of thefe products, efpecially when the faCors
are large, is troublefome.—Not to mention the number of ad-
ditions and fubtradtions neceflary to find the logarithm required,

after the logarithm of the ratio, as directed by the feries, has been

found.

‘Turs laft objeGtion indeed, would be of much lefs weight
were products found whofe difference fhould bear fo {mall a ratio

to their fum, as to preclude the neceffity of ufing a fingle term

of the feries.

De Xing, ae, xt + denote the refpective factors of two pro-
——
duats; thefe produ€s will be «3 4 — ab. » 4 ab.a+ b.
— gq?
Tuerr arithmetical mean x? y — ab. x, will be refolvable into
vay
three fimple and rational factors; if 2? + ab +67, be a pesfe

fquare.

[o4r5 ]
fquare. Make a? + ab + 6? = a? — 4ab+ 467. Then will sab =
36? and 5sa=36. Lethb=5°a=3. The produds then with
their refpedtive factors wil be x? y — 49x — 120 =x +3 x w+
xx—8; and x?,—4on+ 120=x4—3.xX w—5 Xx x48.
And the fa@ors of the arithmetical mean x3 — 49x, will be x — 7,
x, xX 7. ;

Tue fquare of the arithmetical mean, x° — 98 ~* + 2401 «7,
differing from the product of the extremes, x° —98 x‘ + 2401
** — 14400 by the abfolute term 14400. Here then we have
_ two products of fix dimenfions, which though they have a dif--
ference confiderably greater, than the produéts already given of
lower dimentfions, may yet be of fome ufe in the conftruction of

logarithms.

Havine fhewn different methods of diminifhing the value
of the fraétion 2 in the application of the above general
feries to the sotitiaddion of logarithms, by which means the feries
will be made to converge fafter ; I. proceed now to an abbrevia-.
tion of the feries itfelf, which will ferve to compute the logarithms.
_ even. of {mall numbers to a much greater degree of accuracy,.

with fcarce any increafe of trouble.
Tr,

[ey 416i]

we
If we put y= a the feries may be expreffed thus; 2px

L T
do =e he eeuth See
2 edad Toy BA Es de
: I fe)

the following equivalent one, 2p x aa eae fi
Be foe sa ni — &c. whofe two firft terms are even more
157597 A005
accurate than the three firft of the preceding —and its three firft

——+ &c. which may be changed into

terms more accurate than five of that feries.

Tue fecond and third terms of the above feries being reduced

é
to a common denominator, their value is S13 Upon divid-
ing the denominator of this fraction by its numerator and taking the

two firfi terms only of the quote for a new denominator, and unity —
I fe)

ee

cE ee ee ES

which, reduced to an Scat one whofe denominator is
9 27 81 243 ge

15 5, becomes Biers eae acy! 1259 * Gag ye

sy .
the terms of the numerator decreafing in the ratio of 5 y*:3, i. €.

for a numerator, we get the fraction

in the ratio of the terms of the numerator of. the fraction, which

arifes from the union of the fecond and third terms of the feries.

Then

mien fice! at oO eel, Shr ote’ B af ui Mead a 9
3073 — 18 y 15 2597 125 y?
mee oe Cae + &c. we areas. 2! TO
625 y™ 3125 y'3 if 303 — 18 y
eR: Oe eS OTS Lal ag which being
ay’ 125 9? 625 9" 3125 y"3
fubfiituted for the fecond and third terms of the feries, we get
the feries in this form, 2 x EE aaa pus tes
‘ J SB Me See Mneber i
PR it ph MNS O's POR. &c.——Avain; the t
1125”? T $87 6875 y" | 40625 73 eee gy ae ra
£1) and A Aes: , (which are of the fame dimenfions with the

Wysy? 1259"
fourth-and fifth terms of the firft feries) being reduced to a com-
\

180 y* + 308
7875 y°

procefs fimilar to that already ufed, may be fhewn to be equiva-

3, SAY rp PUDONG Navas (Sa

15759’ — 2095 9% 50625 y"*¥ 2278125 "3

the terms after the firft, decreafing in the ratio of 180 y* : 308,

mon denominator, their value is 3; which, by a

lent to

or of 45 y* : 77.

Tuen, by fubftitution, the feries comes out in this form:

2 p x Le. + AS Ss + ea Ad Re, 2 eaten
J Bog 18 yo TS 759 — 2095 9. 2275 yr
7529: Bee WEBB OF)
1154625 y%3 :

Vou. VI. 3G Tue

“
[ 418 ]

Tue two firft terms of this feries may be ufed to very confiders

able advantage; with much the fame trouble as the two firft

terms of the original feries,; and with rather greater accuracy

than the three firft terms of that feries.

Ir a third divifion be required, this may be fomewhat altered

for the convenience of continual divifions. Thus:

BP ON pee ee
y 3077 — 18 Oy7 — 1. pele 175
letters 4, B, &c. denoting the terms as they arife.

Tue three firft terms of this feries are more accurate than three
of the preceding; which likewife are more accurate than the

five firft terms of the original feries.

A rew examples may ferve to illuftrate what has been faid.

Nore, that Briggs’s logarithm of 10 (which is 1,) divided by
Napeir’s logarithm of 10, (or, 2, 30258. 50929. 94045. 68401.
79914. 54684. 36420. 76011. 01488 &c.) the quote is, 43429.
44819. 03251. 82765. 11289. 18916. 60508. 22943. 97005 &c.
=p. Then, 86858. 89638. 06503. 65530. 22578. 37833. 21016.

45887.

[hake]
45897. 94001 &c.= 2p. “And, ,18861. 16970. 11613. 92922.
42603. = p*.

Ler it be required to find Briggs’s logarithm of 101.

Frrst, by Dr. Halley’s method, or by the application of produés
; of two dimenfions.

e—1I «* «+1 — Log. ratio of x—1. tii: aL abe
af
100 ror “102 &c. which is to be added to the loga-

x—1.*+1 =10200 ‘ithm of the antecedent, to find that

iy t. x+1+1=20401=y of the confequent the ratio of x — 1.
x + 1: «*, being one of lefler inequa--

lity.
20401) ,43429. 44819. 0325 1. 82765. 11289 (,00002. 12879. 01666. .
(74436. 68276 &c. a

x—1=100 Log. 2,

«x-+1= 102 2, 00860 01717 61917 56104 89366 92
Sara 4, 00860 01717 61917 56104 89366 92
N— Ix ri 23 00430 00858 80958 78052 44683 46

2 12879 01666 74436 68276 62 true to the 14th”
ree ereseees CECIMAl laces

x == 101% Log. 2, 00432 13737 82625 52489 12960 08 true to the 4th

place,

3. \Gi2 SECONDLY

[

420 |

Seconv Ly, by the application of produdisconfifting of three fa€tors.

ie u—Tl

Io 1o2 * 104

Se ess + 1= 546209=y

2

105

wr w+2 Log. ratio of epi)? Xx wees

xxe2 aie + &c. ‘Theréfore, log.

: x—I
ratio of x——2:

Cee hi

» ae ee ee a —

Ze + &e.
B

Which, as the ratio is one of leffer inequa-
lity, being fubtra&ted from the logarithm
of the confequent, gives the logarithm of

the antecedent.

546209) ,86858 89638 06503 65530 22578 (,o0000 15902 13569

(90914 40369 &c.

x—1=102 Log.
x - 1= 104

eel

jah

2, 00860 01717 61917 56104 89366 92
2, 01703 33392 98780 35484 77218 42

————

pa
—)
Mu

BD ey ONS

—, 00843 31675 36862 79379 87851 se

ee

—, 01686 63350 73725 58759 75703 00

1)
psa xx+t2

e+

Subtract log. ratio

x—2=101 Log.

2, 02118 92990 69938 07279 35052 67

2 00432 29639 96212 48519 59349 67

15902 13569 90914 40369 94 true to the 18th
decimal place.

2, 00432 13737 82642 57605 18979 73 true alfo to the

18th place.
THIRDLY,

[Spa Tl]

TurrbDuy, by the application of produéts of four dimenfions.

w—-I « x+2 x+3 %X+5 ¥+6 Log, ratio of xt.» +5)"

8 Io! 102 104 10
San Neti s ; 1n— 1.4 +2 443.446,

x F
oy —: = 52 Lv ee car atlteayge
ag G2 x—I xX+ 3. x +6
——— 2p
: 2= — &c.
99 ar ae % eit:
99 260 Which is to be fubtraa-
| aie SET ee
w’=I089 as = 2704 ed from the logarithm of
8 ,
2 the antecedent to find
24.336 the logarithm of the con-
21632
2704 fequent, the ratio being
aX w+5ls 2944656 (as has been faid above)

36

isda aa) i —I= 5889311 =
36 lity.

one of greater inequa-

5889311)

[ 422 |
5889311) ,86858. 89638. 06503. 65530. 22578 (,c0000, 01474.
85667. 47561. 87362 &c. =7f

x =99 Log. 1, 99563 51945 97549 91534 02557 77

+ 5= 104 2, 01703 33392 98780 35484 77218 42
k FES 4 01266 85338 96330 27018 79776 19
Kew 57 8, 02533 70677 92660 54037 59552 39.
K—1=08 I, 99122 60756 wire 81714 12)

«+ 3=102 2, 00860 01717 61917 56104 89366 92 |
*+6= 105 2, 02118 92990 69938 07279 35052 67 P

a ix +2 1474 85667 47561 87362 675
—-1.*¥+3.*%+6 .

Ratio of =

6, 02101 56940 10017 96609 93496 38

w+2=101 Log. 2, 00432 13737 82642 57427 66056 OF tne to
the 21ft placer

The firft term of the feries, exhibiting the logarithm of the ratio

true to the 21ft place.

Ir the fecond term of the feries, as it exifts in its contracted

10. 3 4.o3 ap =
3077 — 18 307? — 189

fhould obtain the logarithm of me ratio true, by the firft method,

form, (viz. ) were ufed, we

to the 32d decimal place; by the fecond to the 42d, and by the

third method, to the 49th.
Tue

B adicic 99

ae ea

Tue principal ufe of the faftors of the products of fix dimen-
fions in the conftru€iion of logarithms, will appear, when (by
reafon of the greatnefs of the products which would arife) it be-
comes unneceffary to ufe a fingle term of the feries.

Tuus; if it be fufficient to have the logarithms of numbers

true to 7 places of decimals, the logarithms of numbers exceeding
100 may be found by this method. Let the logarithm fought, be
that of 1to1, as before.

*—8=86 Log. 1, 93449 84512 The ee of the ratio of,
x—5 =89 1, 94939 00066
pao OF T, 95904 13923
e+ 3=97 P OBG77.1 7348
15 99563 §1946

e885. 83.83.81 5.
APE wt ED ab See
Therefore the logarithm of the

48 = 102 2, 00860 01718 aa o¢
II, 83393 09508 Wg pe geome eane | a eee
5, 91696 84754 atlas
ar, a | oie to a &c. y being taken
—7 = 87 1, 93951 at : ®
ai caat 1, 97312 78536 stir ee
gene 14400 iy

3, 91264 71062

w+7= 101 Log, 2, 00432 13692
true to the 8th decimal place.

i. e. in the prefent inftance

i 94755 506,845. So that the

logarithm

me
logarithm found will differ from the truth by lefs than half an

unit in the 8th place of decimals,

5

Here the number whofe logarithm is fought, being denoted by
the fator x-++ 7, the logarithm comes out lefs than thé truth; if
the number were denoted by the fa€tor x48, we fhould get the
logarithm greater than the truth, The reafon of this is manifeft,

from the relation between the produds.

Tue logarithms of numbers exceeding 300 may be found by this
method to 10 places of decimals. And the logarithms of numbers

exceeding 1300, to 14 places.

A sim1LaR application may be made of the factors of the
produéts of four dimenfions, which will ferve to conftruct the
logarithms of numbers exceeding 20,000 to fourteen places of
decimals; fo that,-if neceflary, we may have an eafy way of
compleating the chiliads omitted by Briggs. E.G. Let it be
propofed to find the logarithm of 19997, being even fomewhat

lefs than, 20000.

_ #= 19995:

b fae

- «= 19995 Log 4, 30092 14084 6954 The logarithm of the ra-

% + 5 = 20000

eXK+S

xX K+ 5)"

x— I= 19994
«+3 = 19998
x +6 = 20001

4, 30102 99956 6398

—

8, 60195 14041 3352

17, 20390 28082 6704.

4, 30098 65640 4417
4, 30105 17008 4522

4, 30089 96877 wr

12,90293 79616 6164

*+2= 19997 Log. ae 30096 48466 o540

tio of «?. «+ s]*: 4-1.

re wy wre te

LB &c. 5, But. y=

uy.

cal cag ce Vat ey
36

in.this inftance 88844
44499 99999 9.—So
that the logarithm of
the ratio will be lefs
than unit of the fix-

teenth place of decimals.

Tue computation of the logarithms of {mall numbers may be

rendered more expeditious if, inftead of attempting immediately

to find the logarithm required, by the application of any of the

preceding methods as they are above exemplified, we feek the

logarithm of fuch a multiple of the given number, as fhall not

have any of its prime factors greater than that number—with the

fame limitation alfo, on the numbers which are concerned in com-

puting the logarithm of this multiple.

Vou. VI.

3H

E. G. Ir

[ 426 ]

E. G. Ir it were propofed to find the logarithm of 31, the
multiple by means of which it would be moft conveniently found
by the application of produéts of two dimenfions, is according to
Briggs, 341. Then, 17x 20=340=H"—1, 11X31 =341=4%
and 18x 19 =342=x"+ 1, Whence the logarithms of 340 and
342 being known from the logarithms of their prime faGtors, that
of 341 may be found by Dr. Halley’s method—from which the
‘logarithm of 11 being fubtrafied we get the logarithm of 31.
Here y = 2 X 340 X 342+ I = 232561. So that ufing only the
firft term of the feries we get the logarithm true to the 17th place.
If we ufe the produdts of three dimenfions, the advantage will be

confiderably greater.

Tue logarithm of 31 may be found from that of 899, which
laft may be found by this method without knowing the logarithm
of any prime number greater than 31. For 2/7? x 7 =896 =
#—2;3%X13X 23 = 897 =x —1; 29 X 31 = 899 =~ + 1 and
‘2x 3x5|*=g00=x+2. Here we have, y= —— +1=
262074049. The firft term of the feries gives the logarithm of
the ratio true to the 27th place—without ufing even a fingle term

of the feries, we find the logarithm true to the ninth decimal

place.
IF

aap

Ir the logarithm of the number 7 be required it may be found
from that of 28. Here 2° x3=24=x~—2, 5\) = 25 =x—-1y
3° = 27=e+1,and 2)*x7=28=x+42. ‘Andy CONES
1 = 8749. If we ufe the two firft terms of the feries as it was
firft laid down, we may find the logarithm to 1g places of decimals.
But if we ufe the two firft terms of the contraéted feries, which
may be done with only the additional trouble arifing from dimi-
nifhing the fecond divifion by 1, 8, we may get the logarithm

true to 28 places.

Ir is manifeft that the logarithm of fome number muft be
found by the immediate application of the feries. If then Na-
pier’s logarithm of 14 be found by this method, we thence obtain

the logarithm of eer he logarithm of _ being found in

64

the fame manner, and added to that of 12

5 » gives Napier’s lo-

garithm of 2. If the logarithms be required of Briggs’s form,

having found Napier’s logarithm of 8, from his logarithm of 2,
by adding the logarithm of 14 as already found, we get Napier’s
- logarithm of 10; the reciprocal of which will be the modulus of

3He2 Briggs’s

[ 428 ]

Briggs’s fyftem, reprefented by f in the feries; by which if Na- .

128

pier’s logarithms of as and oe

be multiplied we fhall get

Briggs’s logarithms of the fame numbers. If then we fubtract

Briggs’s logarithm of ie from his logarithm of 10, and divide the
4

remainder by 3; or if we add Briggs’s logarithm of 128 to his
125

logarithm of 1000, and divide the fam by 10; we fhall have
Briggs’s logarithm of 2.—The logarithm of 2 being found, the
logarithms of all other numbers may have their computation faci-
litated by fome one or other of the preceding methods of increafing

the convergency of the feries.

As a due application of the binomial theorem furnifhes us with
a feries for finding the logarithm of any natural number, (which
is the fame with the logarithm of the ratio of that number to
unity) fo likewife it may be fhewn from the fame principles that
the fum of the feries 1 +f + “= - = + = r
will be the natural number correfponding to Napier’s logarithm

+ &c.

/; and

oo

psc ero

[ 429 ]

/; and that the fum of the feries 1 md Li aby Vo sane
I 1,2 Tagg
aie aaa will be the natural number correfponding to

Napier’s logarithm — /,

_ Ir / denote Napier’s logarithm of the improper fraétion =
a

then will —/ be Napier’s logarithm of its reciprocal ar

Therefore,

2 4 7 8
ee Bg Ee ae ot f oP age
a 2 6 24 120 420 5040 40320
2 eae ee ee ee tags See B SESE AS al
6 e 6 24 120: 720 _ 5040 ° 40320

b>—a?* /: ds ii
—— gf ae —— &c.
ab : 3 Tio 2520 aan
6> +a" Is Is Zs
—— }7 —_—_ win °
b ok 1% * 360 a 20160 Hee
be +a _ b*—2ba+a’ eer ee gs ha
Pe a Sek cs AEs sas ane th aeaton
This feries being divided by the feries 2 / + LE ea BS edhe &ce
3°. 60. 2520
_the quote will be the feries, iA _ vis + Re sas] Ero + &e.
: 2 24 240 49320

[ 430 ]
Call the fum of this feries, s. Then, dee (= b* — 2 ba + a* cE
b+a ab
are PEPE) ANS EE b—sh=a+t sa, _ ae a,
ab ——

I-—_—s
and a= ——_.. b.
I

Here then we have a feries confifting of but half the
number of terms of either of the feries firft propofed; but a
divifion is afterwards requifite to find the natural number ua

a
or 4
7
Ler us endeavour to render this feries more convenient for
practice and apply it to find the natural numbers of logarithms

of any fyftem whatever, without the trouble of reducing the given

logarithm to Napier’s fyftem——If we affume the firft term

Z
] gf DP
for the whole feries, i. e. —=s; then will — =—-— and
; in I—_=
l 2
a anes: b
pe Se making L to denote the logarithm of 7a any fyftem
Tacks
2

whatfoever,

3
ON

[ 43x ]
whatfoever, fince us = Die J; then by fabftitution, 2 ieee tage
, P a 2p-L

a 2p — ae
Bok 2p+L

Tuts abbreviation Dr. Halley has deduced from contra¢ting into
one two terms of the firft feries. ;

l Zs ds

Ir we unite the two firft terms of the feries —§ — —_ 4 2 _
2 24 240
se = + &c. we may obtain a method ftill more accurate, which
O2

however requires a fecond operation; but yet pater may be
preferable to the application of the feries in its original form.—

1 pe ae f
The terms — and-——— being reduced to a common denominator,
2 P

12/— 23

their sat is — —,; which, by a procefs fimilar to that
2
which has been ufed above, will appear to be equal to 3 —
12 4h

sed “i Pegtae hee Then by fubftitution the feries becomes
288 3456

61 Is i
12+/? 1449 7560
a7) will more accurately reprefent the entire feries than the

[3
two terms —— -——.
2 24.

+ &c. It appears then, that the term

AssuME

[ eg 4

——

6/ on iia s.;
Arsumz ——_ =s. Then — (= 2 pe
sSUME as Ss en o (= er are I ae
12+6/+ 177. bd Uae
(ae ee, bh. Se weit hase ee
foever AES sil hla ease and 4 = 12 pe epee. Make
a 12p?—6pL+L? 6 ha ae
2p =43 then BF RG Op tek oe =b ps
L a g—O6p+L 6 = 6p+L

sable thrown into a feries will be 1 +/+

Sg aE STE ak + &c. fo that the natural number cor-

refponding to Napier’s baa Z will be accurately expreffed

12+6/+/
12—6/4/2 © 720
12 +6/+72
—6/+ Ff
number of Napier’s logarithm 4, than the five firft terms (1 +/+

= + = + “ of the original feries. Now in the application

of thefe terms to find the natural number of a logarithm, befides

thus ——+ &c. Whence it appears that the

fraQtion will more accurately exprefs the natural

reducing the given logarithm to Napier’s fyftem if it be of any
other, three multiplications are neceffary, not to mention the

divifions

a tl a te eee eee

[> 433]

divifions performed by {mall divifors. Whereas, to find the na-

g+6p4+L

tural number a by the application of the fraétion S=GAEL

or the natural number 4, by the application of the fra@tion

b
Bob ae two divifions are fufficient, of whatever fyftem the
qt+op+L
logarithm may be. For 12 f* being given (fince £ is the modulus

of the fyftem) g is found by one divifion. Another divifion will
n eaeat all

6pLT its terms being

give the value of the fractio

known and of one acca

ge Ope Z,

Veep ar we have 6=

S ASD Bat ay Mae ie ad
INCE an 3

Me EY Lg
g—O6pt+L q+6p+L

Wuence if a logarithm of any fyftem be given, to find its
correfponding natural number; find the difference of the given
logarithm and the neareft logarithm to it (in the fame fyftem)

whofe natural number is known. Call this difference Z; the

modulus of the fyftem f; and 22 “f =g. Then, if the given
Vou. VI. 3 fe logarithm

+

[ 434 ]

logarithm be the greater, its natural number will be the natural
number of the affumed logarithm increafed by the produ& of
12P ___, if lefs, its na-
q—6ptL

tural number will be the natural number of the affumed loga-

the fame number into the fraction

rithm, diminifhed by the produ&t of the fame number into the

fraQion —22 _. This is not perfe€tly accurate; but will be
q+ 6ptL

a nearer approximation to the truth, the lefs the difference is of

the given and the affumed logarithm.

= i a TE aah noe

—

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(A)

Ree ao

Some HINTS concerning the STATE of SCIENCE at the
REVIVAL of LETTERS, grounded on a PASSAGE
f DANTE wm his INFERNO, Canro IV. v. 130.
By the Right Honourable the EARL of CHARLEMONT,
Prefident of the Royal Irifh Academy and F.R.S.

‘Turs earlieft of modern Bards, who compofed his excellent, Read April
though fingular poem about the year 1300*, in deferibing the ? pate
Elyfium, prepared for the reception of thofe Pagan worthies whofe

(A 2) merits

* Dante was born, according to Boccaccio, in the year 1265, and probably wrote
his Comedia at about the age of thirty-five years, a period of his life which many
eafons concur to make us fuppofe was honoured by this wonderful compofition,

a: which well accords with what he himfelf fays in the firft line of his poem.

Nel mezzo del Cammin di noftra Vita.

I have ftyled Dante the earlieft of modern Bards, and fo he undoubtedly was of
fuch as have merited that illuftrious appellation, though the Poefia Provenzale
began to be cultivated fo early as in the year 1100, and though Italian poetry may be
traced back to the year 1184—about fixty years however it continued in its infant
ftate; and was firft brought to a degree of maturity by Fra. Guittone D’Arezzo, who
flourifhed about the year 1250.

[a4

merits might have juftly entitled them to a feat in Paradife, if they
had partaken of the baptifmal rite, mentions Ariftotle as holding
the firft and principal place among the ancient philofophers.

. Poiche’nnalfai un poco piu la ciglia
Vidi 71 Maeftro di color che fanno
Seder tra Filofofica Famiglia.
Tutti l’amiran, tutti onor gli fanno.
Quivi vid’ io e Socrate, ¢ Platone
Che ’nnanfi agli altri pui preffo gli ftanno.

My eyes a little raifing, I defcried
The fov’reign matter of all thofe who know,
Sitting among the philofophic race,

Admir’d by all, by all rever’d and honour’d :
There I beheld both Socrates and Plato,
Who prior to the reft ftand clofe befide him.

Tue charadter of Ariftotle, which will bear the teft of the moft
enlightened times, was peculiarly revered in the darker ages at the
firft Revival of Letters, and the praifes lavifhed on this philofopher
approach almoft to idolatry. His great Commentator, the Arabian
Averroes, fays of him that before Ariftotle was born nature was
yet incompleat, and that fhe received from him the perfeGtion of
her being. ‘The Theologians of Cologne held, that Ariftotle was

the precurfor of the Meffiah in the myfteries of nature, as Johny.

the Baptift was in thofe of Grace. Dante affigns him, in the
paffage here cited, the firft place among Philofophers, and

cannot better fhew his predilection than by preferring him to_

Socrates, and even to his mafter Plato, who are honoured by

being placed next to him. Yet he does not venture fo far as
. Sepulveda,

-

i

ee 2

Sepulveda, a learned Spaniard of the fixteenth century, who,
though an excellent, and, in all other points, an orthodox Ca-
tholick, publicly fuftained, and printed his opinion, that the
foul of Ariftotle was beatified in heaven.

We fhall not be furprifed at the prevalence of the Platonic
and Ariftotelian philofophies in the more weftern regions at the
firft dawn of literature, when we confider that thefe were the
fafhionable fciences among the modern Greeks, who had refined
upon their refinements, and rendered their obfcurity ftill lefs
intelligible, and that Conftantinople was, in effe&, the fource
from which learning flowed into Italy, the great refervoir of

- knowledge, where it -would naturally retain its original form and

qualities ; and this caufe will appear ftill more probable when we
reflea& that, though originally derived from the Greeks, it was
brought into the weftern parts of the world by the Arabians, who,
in their conqueft of the Afiatic provinces had made themfelves
acquainted with all the learning of Greece, and whofe fpeculative,
fubtle, and romantic genius, perfe€tly adapted to metaphyfical
difquifition and to artificial diale@tic, had eagerly feized, and
adopted with a preference thofe fciences to which it was beft
fuited. This fpecies of erudition which they had found prevalent

“among the conquered Greeks, by their frequent incurfions into

the weftern regions, and principally by their fettlements in Spain
and Africa, they had diffufed and eftablifhed among the unlettered
inhabitants. Manufcipts of all kinds they had in their viGtorious
progtefs collefted, and tranflated with avidity ; and that Arif-
totle in particular was, and long continued, their favourite author,

may

[

may be concluded from the Gran Comento, as Dante ftyles it,
written on his works by the Arabian Averroes * about half a cen-
tury previous to the time of the poet.

Tue perpetual, violent, and trifling controverfies alfo, which
long difgraced the Chriftian church, had introduced an ardent
paffion for difpute, and a fpirit of nice argumentation, and had
prepared the minds of men to adopt and to admire the fubtle and
unintelligible jargon of the fchools. Eager for victory in this war
of words, Ariftotle’s logic was greedily ftudied as an armour of
defence, and a means of fuccefsful controverfy ; and the fame
fpirit of nice difcrimination exciting in the mind a love for what
was difficult to be underftood, and an ambition to be thought to
comprehend what was fcarcely intelligible, his philofophy was
revered in proportion to its obfcurity, and has confequently ob-
tained fuch a fandtion and bigotted preference, that it ftill remains,
as it were by prefcription, the exclufive do@rine of almoft all
European feminaries T.

Bor,

* Averroes, or Averroys, died in the year 1206. I have ftyled him an Arabian,
and fuch indeed he was by defcent, though born at Cordova in Spain; from whence
he migrated into the dominions of the king of Morocco, by whom he was invited, to
fettle in his country, and was raifed to offices of the higheft dignity and importance.

+ Chis was undoubtedly the fact not One fince, and ftill, I believe, continues to be
true, particularly in Italy.

Weare told by Voltaire, Effai fur les Mceurs, &c. Tom. x. p. 222. 4to Edition:
that fo late as in the reign of Louis XII. in or about the year 1624, the Parliament
of Paris prohibited under pain of death the teaching any thing contrary to the doétrine
of Ariftotle, and that a perfon of the name De Clave, together with his affociates,

was

bono
But, befides thefe accidental caufes, we may perhaps find a
reafon for the preference given to this fpecies of fcience at the
early approach of light, in the nature of the human mind, which,
when emerging out of ignorance, is apt, at its firft expanfion,
to feize with avidity the more abftrufe and refined parts of know-

ledge. Metaphyfical refearches, and every fpecies of nice, fubtle,
and

was banifhed from Paris for having fuftained certain pofitions contrary to the prin-
ciples of this favourite philofopher on the number of the elements, and on matter
and form. The fame author, however, in a note on the third canto of his Pucelle,
limits the penalty to that of the Gallies, which feems the more probable from the
punifhment of De Clave, who would fearcely have received fo flight a fentence as

that of banifhment from Paris, for acrime which the law had made liable to death.
if

For this marked preference given to the Ariftotelian do€trine in all Catholic
feminaries Bayle flyly afligns the following reafon: * Apres tout, il ne faut pas
« (’etonner que le Peripatetifme, tel qu’on V’enfeigne depuis plufieurs fiecles, trouve
© tant de Proteéteurs, et qu’on en croit les Interéts infeparables de ceux de la
© Theologie; car il accoutume l’Efprit a acquiefer fans evidence. Cette Reunion
¢ d’interets doit etre aux Peripateticiens une gage de I’Immortalite de leur fedte,
€ et aux nouveaux Philofophes un fujet de diminuer leurs Efperances.’

i

The glory of Ariftotle fuffered a fhort eclipfe at the very beginning of the thirteenth
century, when his metaphyficks and phyficks were prohibited from being read as
favouring the errors of herefy, but, having been commented upon, under the pro-
teCtion, as is fuppofed, of the Pope, by Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas,
it again fhone forth with redoubled fplendour.

To evince the efteem in which this great philofopher was held in the more enlight-
ened times I fhall here cite the weighty authorities of Grotius and of Erafmus. ‘The
former in the Preface to his Book, De Jure Belli et Pacis, has thefe words, * Inter
© Philofophos meritO principem obtinet locum Ariftoteles, five tra€tandi ordinem,

_* five diftinguendi acumen, five Rationum pondera confideres.’ And Erafmus, Epift.

Lib. xxviii. Ep. 13. thus fpeaks of him, <‘ Ariftoteles Philofophorum, ne Platone
© quidem juxta M. Tullium excepto, citra controverfiam, omnium dotiflimus—Unus
‘hic Philofophiam, a diverfis per Fragmenta fparfim mutilatimque traditam, in or-
§ dinem redegit, ac veluti in Corpus compegit.’

[ e4

and ufelefs difquifition, feem to be preferred in the infancy of
letters to the more folid and profitable fciences, as the attention
of children is captivated and fixed rather by fupernatural and
romantic tales than by fober and ufeful hiftory ; and the fubtleties
of metaphyficks will prevail among the half-enlightened in the
fame manner, and for the fame reafons, as the abftrufe follies
of magic and of aftrology. When the mind firft feels its powers,
‘and finds itfelf affifted and borne up by the wings of literature,
it feems to think that it never can foar too high. Exulting in its
newly difcovered energy, it fondly fuppofes that nothing can
arreft its progrefs, ignorant as yet of thofe impaflable bounds
which nature has fet to its flight. The blind man, fuddenly
reftored to fight, would naturally firft fix his eyes on the fun as
the moft glorious object of contemplation, till experience fhall have
taught him that he is dazzled by its beams! ,

Bur if, in the infant dawn of learning, the mind is apt to
baffle and lofe itfelf in thefe ufelefs and preternatural excurfions,
fo do we alfo find it in the decline and decrepitude of letters.
The ftate of infancy and that of dotage are equally imbecile, and
produce nearly the fame effects.

AnoTHer caufe of the early preference given to metaphyfical
enquiry may perhaps concur with thofe already mentioned. As
the Being of a God is believed and acknowledged even by the
moft unlettered favages, it is no wonder that the nature of that

Being, with whom all hopes and fears are intimately connected,
fhould

[eg J

fhould be the firft obje& of intereft to the expanding foul; and its
own nature will certainly be the next objeét of its eager refearches.
—When we have once learned to think, it is moft natural that we
- fhould wifh to know how and why we think. To fatisfy its curio-
fity will be the firft amufement of the infant mind; and Science
will therefore take place.of Tafte, which, as it is only to be acquired
by a nice and critical inveftigation of beauties and of defects, mutt
naturally await the flow progrefs of Study.

Sucu were moft probably fome, at leaft, of the caufes which,
during the courfe of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries,
plunged and abforbed the learned of Italy, the great teachers of
the Weft, in the unfathomable depths of fcholaftic fpeculation and
metaphyfical refinement, and, by prompting the mind to attempt
the folution of invincible difficulty, baffled the efforts of the
moft penetrating genius, and checked the progrefs of ufeful
knowledge. Hence proceeded that rage for abftrufe difquifition,
which, not content with rendering Profe unintelligible, infected
and obfcured even the pleafant Region of Poetry, fo.as that fcarce
a Love-fonnet could be given to the world unattended by the long,
laborious, and perplexing comments of fafhionable Philofophers—
Hence was the ftream of knowledge fo far perverted and choaked
in its courfe as to threaten with inundation thofe fields it was
meant to fertilize—Hence the dark allegories and myftic theology
of the learnedly-poetical Dante, and his beft of imitators, Frezzi*—

Vou. VI. (B) Hence
* Monfignor Freazi Vefeovo de, Foligno. compofed, between the -years 1380 -and 1400,
the Quadriregio, an excellent Poem written in fuccefsful imitation of Dante.—The

merit of this very ancient and fingular compofition would entitle it to be better
known by foreigners.

eared

Hence were the early and preternatural abilities of Pico della
Mirandola loft to the benefit of mankind; and hence was Petrarch,
the man of all others beft adapted to the propagation of true Sci-
ence, and who, even thus led aftray, powerfully contributed to its
advancement, bewildered in the flowery, but pathlefs, mazes of
metaphyfical or platonic Love—yet all was perhaps for the beft;
and the mind, by exercifing its powers in the inveftigation, and
eager purfuit of impoffibilities, may probably have encreafed its
natural vigour, and have thus become more fit for beneficial en-
quiry ; as the body, by having been early inured to exert its flrength
in unprofitable efforts, is rendered more able for the real emolu-
ment of ufeful labour.

I nave faid, in the former part of this Effay, that Conflantinople
was the fource from which Learning flowed into Italy; an affertion,
which, though made in conformity with the opinion generally re-
ceived, will require fome explanation, as it is hazarded in apparent
contradition to the refpe€table authority of Voltaire, who, in his
Effai fur les Mceurs. Tom. ix. of his works, page 164. 4to edition,
has thefe words, ‘ On fut redevable de toutes ces belles Nouveautes
‘aux Tofcans—lls firent tout renaitre par leur feul Genie, avant
‘ que le peu de feience qui etait refté a Conftantinople refluat en
* Italie avec la Langue Grecque par les Conquetes des Ottomans—
‘ Florence etait alors une nouvelle Athenes, et parmiles Orateurs qui
‘ vinrent de la part des Villes d’Italie haranguer Boniface viii. fur fon
‘ Exaltation, on compta dix huit Florentins—On voit par la que
‘ce neft point aux Fugitifs de Conftantinople qu’on a di la Re-

* naiffance

red

< naiffance des Arts—Ces Grecs ne purent enfeigner aux Italiens
‘ que le Grec.’

Tue ingenious author is certainly well founded in his affertion
that Science and the Arts flourifhed in Italy long before the lofs
of their Imperial City had forced the Greeks to feek in the more
Weftern Countries an Afylum, which their talents amply repaid to
their generous Protedtors ; yet ftill my pofition may be true; fince
the channel, through which I have fuppofed the Greek Learning to
be conveyed, is totally different from that mentioned by Voltaire,
and the time of fuch influx greatly antecedent. Long before the

taking of Conftantinople had compelled thefe Sons of Science to
feek elfewhere a refuge for that ftudious and contemplative eafe to

which they were wholly addicted, their learning had, according

to my idea, been propagated in Italy by means of the Arabzans,

whofe conquefts, and not thofe of the Zurks, were in reality the

original fource of Italian Literature, and Florence had already
become wne nouvelle Athenes, not merely par le feul Genie des

Fiorentins, however brilliant that genius moft certainly was, and

how greatly foever it contributed to their literary acquirements,

but from the fortunate importation of {cientific materials, which

| brought it into action, and upon which it was enabled to operate.
Tt muft alfo be allowed that, whatever decay Science had experi-

enced in its favourite clime, the general fund of Learning was in
fome degree increafed by the acceffion it received from the fugitive

Greeks, and though the Greek Language was undoubtedly known

and ftudied in Italy long before it was taught there par ces Fugitifs,

we may naturally fuppofe that, after their arrival, it was more

(B 2) generally

[-1 }

generally diffufed, more methodically taught, and its utility aug-
mented by a confiderable addition to thofe manufcript treafures
of which Italy was already poffeffed. Neither is the advantage to
be derived from a thorough knowledge of the Greek to be confi-
dered merely as the acceffion of a new Language, but as the
opening of a frefh and copious fource of Science and of Tafte.—
Indeed the language of the Greeks, and the importation of their
books, may be confidered as an advantage far greater than any
which could refult from the introdu€tion of their beft Teachers,
fince, however the latter might have degenerated, the former
ftill have remained, and ever will remain, the true ftandard of
Elegance.

REFLECTIONS on the CHOICE of SUBJECTS
for TRAGEDY among the GREEK WRITERS. By
WILLIAM PRESTON, Z%. M.R.LA.

Every one who turns his thoughts on the Tragic Drama of
the Greeks, the Romans, and early Jtalian Poets, (the two latter of
which were no more than fervile, and, in general, feeble imitators
of the Grecian Drama) muft be ftruck with one particular—the
extraordinary predominance of horror in the Fables of their Tragedy,
which uniformly prefents us with the moft dreadful and fanguinary
feenes, with miferies of the deepeft fhade, and crimes, at which
human nature ftartles. Furtis in fcenis agitatus Orefles—the horrid
feaft of Atreus—Ocdipus, ftained with inceft, mangled by his own
hands, and bleeding on the ftage. The torments of Hercules in the
invenomed tobe—Medea* plunging the murderous poignard in
the little bofoms of her innocent offspring—The guilty paffion of

Phedra

* In Euripides, Medea does not abfolutely kill her children on the ftage; but what
is much more horrid, you hear the lamentable fhrieks of the children.

Read May
14th, 1796.

es ie

Phedra for her ftep-fon,—Of Canacé for her brother—The luftful
cruelty of Zereus. Such were the favourite themes of the Grecian
tragic mufe: I {peak not this in contempt; I feel all the vene-
ration that the divine remains of ancient Greece muft excite in a
bofom {mit with the love of poetry. If we except our immortal
Shakefpeare, what have all the efforts of fo many fucceeding cen-
turies produced to emulate the fublime produdtions of the Athénian
tragic flage? In them we behold the mature and perfect form of
tragedy ; and thofe, who, in modern days, have attempted to woo
the Mufe of Tears, have proved either cold and languid imitators
of the Grecian models, or, in venturing to depart from them, have
disfigured and degraded the genuine form of tragedy. Yet, furely,
we muft allow that there is a ftrange ‘and uniform prevalence of
the dreadful both in thofe plays of the great tragedians which have
been preferved, and in fables of a vaft number more, the names
and fubjeéts of which are recorded, though the pieces themfelves
have perifhed.

An exhibition of the deepeft horrors, with very few exceptions,
in fuch a prodigious number * of dramas, could not have proceeded
from mere chance alone; it muft have been produced by the
deliberate choice of the writer. It may prove no uninterefting
enquiry to endeavour to trace out the caufes which led the Greek

tragic writers to brood over the moft fombre images, and to range
through

* Seven plays of /Efchylus are preferved, the like number of Sophocles, nineteen
of Euripides: the fubjeéts of moft of them are horrid.

1 ES EE Te Sn Pn rr RT ae

[ o95
through all the walks of hiftory in queft of fubjeéts of horror and
difmay. On what principle, then, fhall we explain this fa@?
Were the Greeks of a ferocious and cruel difpofition? Did they
delight in fcenes of blood? Did they fuppofe the frequency of
fuch enormous guilt as ftruck the appalled {peCtator, from their
ftage, to be incident to human nature, and the reprefentation of it,

to be a faithful piCture of real life? Or again, did it require an

exhibition of exaggerated mifery to melt their ftern hearts, and
draw from them the tears of fympathy? I believe we may col-
le& from hiftory that there was, in truth, fomething cruel and
ferocious in the Greciam chara€ter; nor will it be difficult to point
out certain circumftances, the operation of which muft neceflarily
have produced in a people fuch difpofitions. ©

To begin with the mythology and religion of the Greeks, whether
we confider it as an efficient caufe influencing the national cha-
racter, or as an index to point out what that character was, we
muft fuppofe it adapted to their prevailing and popular notions,
and accommodated to their reigning difpofitions and fentiments.
What were the Grecian divinities? Gods partial, changeful,

paffionate, unjuft, whofe attributes were rage, revenge and luft.

Wuat was the ferocious revenge of two of their moft refpeCtable
and benevolent deities, on Niobe and her unoffending children?
What was the {till more ferocious vengeance of Apollo, on the Satyr
Marfyas? The Grecian mythology is crouded with fimilar in-
ftances of cruelty. The religion which could circulate fuch

traditions

[ 16 ]

traditions of rage, revenge, and barbarity, concerning the Beings
whofe worfhip it inculcated, could not be the religion of a very
mild or benign people; nor would its influence tend much to
tranquillize the paffions and foften the heart; or to infufe a
foftnefs and mildnefs into the national charaGer.

THERE is no doubt that Homer copied faithfully the manners
and fentiments that were prevalent in his time, and exhibited
his chiefs, ating and fpeaking as leaders and warriors ufually
did in his day. Judging, then, from the writings of Homer,
of the characters and difpofitions of men when Homer wrote,
it will appear that they were ferocious in no common degree.
His heroes infult, and triumph over their enemies in their
dying moments, and kill the unarmed fuppliant proftrate at their
feet; piracy was not only univerfally praGtiifed, but, even among
the moft dignified and refpeftable chara@ers, the appellation
of Pirate was confidered as by no means reproachful; and men
and women were daily carried off for the purpofe of felling them
as flaves. The condu@ of Achilles towards the dead body of
feéor does not excite the idea of general ferocity of manners,
becaufe we are prepared for fuch a conduét, and know that the
poet meant to pourtray him. Jmpiger, sracundus, inexorabilis
acer. But, when the pious and amiable Ze/emachus, and the
good Eumieus, characters, which Homer wifhed to exhibit in the

moft engaging colours, when they hang the female domettics,

cand mangle and mutilate the wretched Me/anthius with their.

own

its execution,

a oe ol

own hands, ina manner uncommonly favage. Whatever may have
been the provocations of the prince and his family, and great they
certainly were, the narrative, while it gives a ftriking pi@ure of
ferocity, fhews that the poet viewed it with approbation. ‘The
paffage is too long and too horrid to be quoted here ; the reader
will find it in the twenty fecond book of the Odyffey.

Nor to refort to the doubtful hiftory of the fabulous and heroic
times, confider the moft dignified period of Grectan ftory, when
refinement and arts were in their zenith, and you will find the
records of this people crowded with examples of fanguinary cruelty.
In the Peloponnefian war, the garrifon of Platea, a town which
had deferved fo well of Greece, were, after a noble defence, delibe-
rately brought forth by the Spartans and their allies, and put to
death, one by one, in cold blood*. Quarter has been too often
refufed, in the heat of battle, by all people, antient and modern,
but the Greeks generally murdered their prifoners of war, when
all refiftance was paft, and they wanted the excufe of paffion to
palliate their cruelty. Thus, when MMJrtylene had furrendered on
terms, the Athenians, in a full affembly of the people, and on
debate, condemned all the males in the city (notwithftanding the
capitulation) to death, and all the females to flavery. This decree
was revoked, it is true, on a fecond debate, but it was the uncom-
mon diligence alone of thofe who conveyed the revocation, and
performed their journey with aftonifhing celerity, that prevented
However, all thofe prifoners who had been fent to
Vor. VI. (C) Tenedos,

* Thucydides,

Uveed

Tenedos,a thoufand in number, were tranfported to Athens, where
they were all put to death, together with Sa/ethus, the Spartan
General;. When the Athenzans reduced the rebellious city of
Scione, on the Ifthmus of Fa//ene, all the males above the age of
puberty were put to the fword, and the women and children
dragged into flavery t. The Athenians, too, having taken the
capital of the ifland of Melos, after an obftinate refiftance, all the
males above fourteen years of age fhared the fame fate with the
Scioneans. ‘The women and children were condemned to perpetual
fervitude §. The Corcyrean feditions became proverbial, even
among Greeks. ‘They began in the murder of a popular leader,
in the fenate houfe, together with fixty of his friends. Many
of the democratic party were intimidated, and withdrew them-
felves to Athens. Thearrival of a Corinthian veffel and a Locedemo-
nian embafly encouraged the ariftocracy to attempt the deftruc-
tion of thofe who remained. The attack was made in an hour of
full affembly, and the ftreets of Corcyra ftreamed with blood,
The flaves rofe, and reinforced the democratic party. ‘Their
numbers and fury, and the generous ardour of the women, ren-
dered the caufe of liberty victorious. ‘The ariftocratic party,
vanquifhed in turn, fet fire to the furrounding houfes, to prevent
a purfuit, and the moft beautiful part of the city was deftroyed
in one night. While the conteft raged, the altars, and the images of
the gods, were furrounded by crowds of wretches, whom not even
the terrors of a fuperftitious age could protect. The walls and pave-
ments of the temples were bathed in blood. Many withdrew

them-

+ Thucydides. + Thucydides, § Thucydides.

Sy ete Eee

[ otg. 3]

themfelves, by voluntary death, from the rage of their enemies,
The Spartans and Athentans, mutually affifting the parties with
' which they were conneéted, prolonged the fatal ftruggle. At laft
the popular party decidedly prevailed, and, having got the whole
body of their opponents into their power, threw them into a dun-
geon. ‘From thence thefe unhappy people were dragged, in parties
of twenty at a time, and compelled to pafs in pairs, their hands
tied behind their backs, through two ranks of their enemies, armed
with whips, prongs, and every inftrument of difgraceful torture.
Thofe who remained in prifon were a long time ignorant of the
fate of their companions ; but when they learned what was tranf-
acted without, they refufed to quit their confinement, guarded the
entrance, and, with one voice, called on the Athenians to kill
them. Even this kind cruelty the Athenians refufed to their
prayers. ‘The populace mounted the prifon walls, uncovered the
roof, and overwhelmed thofe below with ftones, darts and arrows.

Yer even this eventful {cene of horrors we fhall fee furpaffed,
by the magnitude of the tragedy, the cruelty of the victors, and
the acute and varied mifery of the vanquifhed, when we turn to
Thucydides*, and perufe his account of the difaftrous clofe of the
Athenian enterprife againft Syracufe,; an account which no perfon
of fenfibility can read without a tear. I might multiply inftances,
without end; but the foregoing, furely, may juftify my affertion,¥
that a fanguinary feverity prevailed in the national charafer of

the Greeks.
(C 2) I am

* Lib. 7.

[Miao

I am aware that Grecian hiftory has not commonly been con-
fidered in this point of view; fo the foregoing remark, though
an obvious one, may, to many, appear fomewhat hazardous and
novel. The Greeks were a glorious people! The ftupendous
monuments of their genius, in Poetry, Sculpture, and Archi-
teGure, which have triumphed over the ravages of time, infpire
us with implicit veneration, and fo dazzle our eyes with their
luftre, that we are unable, or unwilling, to turn them on any
harfh and barbarous circumftance, any cruel and reproachful tranf-
aétion, any thing calculated to diminifh our admiration, I might
almoft fay adoration—of beings who could thus write—fpeak—
and work; it is with pain that we endeavour to view the fpots
of the fun—yet fuch is the fat; and to this fource muft we
trace the fignal prevalence of the térrible and horrid, in Tragedy,
as it firft came from the hands of its Grecian inventors.

Ir is obfervable too, that Homer, the venerable father of the
Greek drama, as well as of the Epos, though he occafionally fhews
himfelf a mafter of the foft, the tender, and amiable, chiefly
delights, and moft copioufly abounds, in the grand, the awful,
and the dreadful. Ancient tragedy, which did but draw his inci-
dents into ftage ation, and reduce his fpeeches into dialogue,
muft have taken much of its colouring, character, and_ fpirit,
from this prevailing tendency in its great archetype. “ Tu pater tu

“ rerum inventor.”

Ir will here be faid that we have remains of the Grecian
fculpture, which fhew the moft cultivated mind, the moft
refined

{

[ at ]

refined and delicate tafte. Every thing is chafte and tem-—
perate, correct and beautiful; there appears nothing, to
fhew, that either the artift himfelf, or the models from which
he wrought, could have been poffeffed by that ferocity of fpirit,
or animated by that cruel or fanguinary difpofition, which I
attribute to the Grecran moral charaéter*. The Apollo of Belvidere,
the Medicean Venus, the groupe of Niobe and her children, befpeak.
minds governed by fober judgment, awake to the fineft feelings,
and fertile in the faireft ideas. The Greeks excelled no lefs in
Painting than in Sculpture ; and though, ages on ages have rolled
away, fince thofe pictures, which were the admiration of antiquity,
have been loft to the world, a learned Roman, who poffeffed an
exquifite tafte for the fine arts, has left us a copious and moft
interefting account of the principal Greczan painters and_ their
works. From the details of the elder Puy, it appears, that the
fubjets of the Greczam: painting were, in general,.as tender, foft,
and engaging, as the fubjeés of their tragic drama were terrible
and afflitive.. Suppofe all traces of the Greczan hiftory and poetry
annihilated, and that we knew and judged of them, only, by fome:
of their ftatues, and thofe chapters in the thirty-fifth book of
Piny that relate to their painters; fhould we hefitate to pro-
nounce, from the fweetnefs of the countenances, and the attitudes.
and characters of the figures, in what remains, and from the
defcriptions of what is loft, that the Greeks were a people, not eely

of fenfibility, but even of a mild and tender difpofition.
How

* To thew the correct judgment of Grecian artifts, 1 have heard it obferved that the»
figure of Niobe, in the famous groupe, has fearcely any breafts, left an admixture of the -
luxurious;

[ 2]

How can we reconcile the foregoing phenomena ?—Painting
and Sculpture, dire@tly, as their chief obje@, exhibit the body ;
hiftory and poetry, the actions, characters, and fentiments of man.
As, the flern and ferocious predominated, among the Greeks, in the
latter, fo the beautiful and the graceful, in an equal meafure,
prevailed in the former; and Greece was the peculiar region of
fine forms. In fat, as we approximate to the eaft, we feem to
approach the favourite feats of Venus and the Graces; where
human nature produces and rears her children, with a partial
care, and diftinguifhed fondnefs.

Tue perfonal advantages, which the Grecian youth derived
from nature, were heightened by art. The fymmetry and
ftrength of the young men muft have been improved, and the
vigour and agility of their limbs encreafed, by a conftant ufe
of the various exercifes of the paleftra, in which they were early
initiated ; and the young perfons of both fexes were paffionately
addicted to the exercife of dancing, and generally excelled in it.
All the claffic writers, that have occafion to allude to the Grecian
manners and cuftoms, take notice of the univerfal prevalence of
this exercifein Greece. The dance is fuppofed to have been a
component part of their theatrical reprefentations; it had a place, in
many of their religious rites ; and their very divinities, Diana and

her Nymphs, were reprefented as dancing
“« Qnalis aut Eurote ripis aut per juga Cynthi,” &c.

THESE

luxurious and defirable in a part fhould counteract the effect in the whole; and dif-
cordant feelings be excited.

> Se

et Ne EL Sa

OPER ee PIA

Ree oo

Turse dances were of a moft varied and aétive kind, and muft
have contributed exceedingly to the graceful eafe of the motions,
and elegance of the attitudes of thofe who practifed them, and

thus rendered them more happy fubjects for the painter and the
ftatuary.

Is it too fanciful, to mention, as a fource of external beauty, the
extenfive ufe and powerful effeéts of mufic among the Greeks,
who were attached to this divine art with an enthufiaftic love
and devotion bordering on fuperftitious idolatry? their legiflators.
and rulers, fenfible of the quick and ardent temper, and ferocious
difpofitions of the people, encouraged the univerfal fondnefs for
mufic, regulated the national harmony by law, and endeavoured
to diffufe its practice and influence, as fedatives of fiery humours,
and correCtives of turbulent and ungentle paffions. AZ/ton, who
himfelf felt all the power of mufic, thus defcribes its effets on
the antient Greeks:

& The Dorian mood,

“ OF flutes and {oft recorders, fuchas rais’d
“To heighth of nobleft temper heroes old

« Arming for battle, and inftead of rage

“© Delib’rate valour breath’d firm and unmov’d,
«© With dread of death to flight or foul revolt.
Nor wanting power to mitigate and ’fuage

** With folemn touches troubled thought.”

Sucn

[ 24 ]

Sucu being the power of mufic, to foothe and tranquillize the
mind, it muft have tended to diffufe over the countenance an
exprefiion of mild elevation and dignified compofure, and to give
noble and uncommon airs to the heads, fuch as, in fadt, are found
in fome of the countenances and bufts, that ftill remain to us from
the hand of Grecran fculpture.

_ Tuus, wherefoever the poet and hiftorian turned their eyes,
they faw the fierce, the turbulent and cruel, in the moral part of
human nature, and fketched their portraits accordingly, and
adapted their productions to the tafte of their readers or auditors::
Far different was the cafe of the fculptor and the painter; with
them all was delight and rapture; from the corporeal part of
human nature, the faireft ideas of beauty and grace beamed incef-
fantly on their enchanted eyes.

As a further demonftration of the ferocious charaéter of the
Greeks, I fhall mention here, though not precifely in its right
place, an obfervation, which I ought to have made before, that
the practice of expofing and deftroying new-born infants was
very general among them; and, however cruel in itfelf, was not
marked with infamy, or confidered as including in it any degree
of moral turpitude. To convince us of this fact, we need not
refort farther than to the comedies of Terence, who, we know,
was a clofe imitator of Menander, or rather, indeed, it is to be
fuppofed, that the comedies of the former were literal tran-
flations from thofe of the latter. Terence, then, muft be con-

fidered

fad

fidered as giving us a faithful picture of Grecian manners; and
‘ we find him fpeaking of the expofure of a new-born infant, as
, a meafure of prudence—a laudable arrangement of domettic
ceconomy :

“ Audire eft operz pretium eorum audaciam,
« Nam inceptio eft amentium—haud amantium,
“« Quidquid peperiffet decreverunt tollere.
ANDRIA.

“¢ So, Meminiftin’ me effe gravidam, & mthi te maxumopere
(Caicerc.
“ Si puellam parerem, nolle tolli? Chr. Scio quid feceris;

« Suftulifti.”
HEAUTONTIMORUMENOS.

Havine, thus, eftablifhed the faa, of an exifting ferocity in
the character of the Greeks, let me, in the next place, endeavour
» to point out, briefly, whence this difpofition arofe. We fhall
readily trace its origin; if we confider the manner, in which Greece
‘ was originally peopled, by the fucceffive irruptions of migrating
hordes. In very early times many different people, of whom
the Greek writers, in the moft enlightened ages, could give no.
fatisfatory account, over-ran Greece; fometimes mixing with the
antient inhabitants, fometimes expelling them. Of the expelled,
fome wandered in queft of unoccupied vales, or, in their turn,
drove out the inhabitants of the firft country, that lay expofed
to them, if they proved weaker than themfelves. Others retired
to the neighbouring mountains, and thence, harrafling the in-
Vou. VL (D) truders,

ei

truders, not unfrequently recovered, in time, their old pof-
feffions *. Thus was Greece, in its early periods, in a ftate of
perpetual outrage and piratical warfare. The moft powerful
incentives, indeed, were offered to piracy, in a fea whofe innu-
merable iflands and ports afforded fingular opportunity and con-
venience for the pra@tice ; and,: in fact, the eftimation of piracy,
as an honourable praétice, long prevailed among the Greeks.
Thucydides obferves, that before the reign of Mrnos (who fitted
out a fleet, and exerted himfelf, to clear the feas of plunderers
and depredators) all the fhores, both of the Continent and the
iflands of Greece, were nearly deferted ; the ground was cultivated
only at a fecure diftance from the fea; and there, only, towns and

villages were to be found.

WHEN fomething of civilization, and more fettled forms of
government, took place in Greece, it was divided into a vaft
number of fmall ftates or kingdoms, all infpired with a degree
of jealoufy and rivalfhip; all poffeffed with mutual hatred and
animofity ; and all engaged in perpetual hofftilities againft each
other. Thefe inveterate contentions, which were diffufed over the
whole face of the country, and produced a variety of cruel and
fanguinary fcenes, muft have excited ferocious difpofitions in the
bofoms of the Greeks, and formed them to a certain feverity of
character. Thefe accidental circumftances, in their fituation,

which predifpofed them to pay a particular attention to military
inftitutions

* See the beginning of the firft book of Thucydides.

[. @9 ]

inftitutions, and martial exercifes, and: muft have made the love
of arms general, and the charaGtersofia foldier\a ‘favourite one,
introduced! a’‘mode of education, whichjnof cans Bi ests and
perpetuated the wi of charagtery nc: yo
@oUTUy f : 1) @rsdo yam : i

» THis; was not da the, fitwation) of ; ie in, ap are. called
sbén herdic» times, .im)other ywordsipin, ber age ofybaxbarifm,.,.but
was literally the cafe, sist, the, soft polithed and j.refpe@able-ara
of her ftory. The {mall monarchies were gradually overthrown,
but the countryrfill remained dn lits:ftate, of divifion, and was
iportioned out; into a variety of \fmall republics, moft of them
‘Democracies; eftablifhed on. the ‘ruitis: ofthe! Monarchies. Athens,
an’ particulary!) which) took a diftinguithed lead, in. literature,
‘eloquence; and the fine arts, and gave the ¢on to the tafte of
Greece was) purely democratic.» The prevalence of democracy,
‘therefore,maybe poiited out as) another powerful fource of
feverity of \charaGer;. for this. form: of government. inceffantly
feeds the pride of the individual. As a component, part of the
fupreme majefty of the people, the fimple citizen is perpetually
flattered, by the homage of the orator and the poet™*. “He'is the
fupreme maker and expounder of the laws, the arbiter of /pedte
and war, the difpenfer of power and honours., He fees generals
and ftatefmen proftrate at his feet. “The luft of ‘domination
inflames his head; the poffeffion of ’ power’ igaaes his heart; ‘all
ety pa, Maiinst 40 Moitsaig

5 4 SOTIOn TO Bale F

* We find many of their fubjeéts were feleGed by the Dramati¢ Poets on purpofe
to pay a compliment to the Athenian people.—Oedipus Coloneus, for example.

[ 28 ]

the boifterous and ftormy paffions are called into exercife, and
this, in fo much the higher degree, as the ftate of which he is
a member is narrow and fmall, and the {phere of his adtivity
confined. A democracy may exclude luxury, and favour a fim-
plicity of manners; it may cherifh the ftern republican virtues,
and maintain a rigid inflexible character; but it is certainly un- —
favourable to the foft unbendings of domettic life, to the tender
fympathies and mild affeCtions of humanity.

Tuus have I endeavoured to point out fome of the caufes,
which produced in the Greek tragic writers a predileCtion for
fubje@&s in which the borrible fo violently predominates. And
here I might difmifs my fubje@, with a remark, that the hiftory
of nations, their forms of government and cuftoms, are not as
much confidered, as they deferve to be, by thofe who undertake
to criticife their writers: but two queftions arife fo naturally
out of this difquifition, that I cannot forbear the beftowing on
them a few lines.

TuHeReE were, as we fee, caufes peculiar to themfelves that
led the Greeks to a predilection for fubjeéts of horror, and a
marked fele€tion of them, as the foundation of their dramas:
but why do we, in thefe days of morbid foftnefs, when the
affeGtation of humanity is carried to an excefs, under the deno-
mination of fentiment; why do we receive pleafure, from the
perufal of tales of horror, and the reprefentation on the ftage
of fables, like Macbeth, in which the terrible is predominant -—

And

Lag Y

And is the pleafure thus excited conformable to the precepts of
ftri@ morality, and reconcileable with the interefts of humanity?
The fame queftions are applicable to the pleafure we feel in the
contemplation of fuch objets as the Laocoon and dying gladiator
in fculpture, and (if I may mention them without lightnefs in
the fame fentence) of the facred and dreadful fubje&ts of modern
painting. The martyrdom of faints, and terrors of a crucifixion,

Is it, that pleafure and pain, not only fo blend and meet, that
frequently, we know not precifely, where the one begins, and the
other ends, but, that the pre-exiftence of a certain degree of
pain feems requifite, to give a poignancy to pleafure, and pre-
difpofes the fenfes, by contraft, to feel the whole force of grateful
objects? fome of the moft exquifite {trains of mufic are produced,
by notes that run into an artificial difcord; reft is doubly pleafing
after labour; preceding hunger is neceflary to make us enjoy food
with a full relifh. An effet fomewhat analogous may take place,
when the tale of woe, or the tragic reprefentations on the ftage,
harrows up the foul. The reprefentation, however dittrefsful,
is ftill a reprefentation. We inftantly recolle& that the fcene is
fictitious: and this recolleftion not only abates our uneafinefs,
but diffufes a fecret joy on the mind; a joy the more fenfibly
felt on account of the painful emotion, sist inftantaneoufly Pace
it, with bounds of feparation {carce difcernible.

But are there, in reality, any bounds of feparation? Have
not the uneafy paffions, even in the very time that we are diftreffed

by

[ ge |

by them; and although the occafions are inftant and real, a feoret
complacency mixed with them? Man contemplates his owm jex-
iftence with a confcious pride and felf-complacency,, every, ac
that affures him.of his being, and of his powers, is a fource.of
fecret exultation. ; The exercife of the limbs not only contributes
to preferye, the health of the body, but is attended by a degree
of pleafure and exhiliration of the fpirits, Conformably to,a like
order of nature, every exercife of the faculties of the mind,
every exertion of the fentient principle, is accompanied by agreeable
fenfations. The. acquifition of knowledge, the ‘exercife of fym-
‘pathy, of fortitude, of fagacity, a@s of benevolence, of gene-
rofity and felf-denial (independent of the teftimony of approving
confcience,) bring with them an internal fatisfaGion. What is
more ftrange, yen the ungentle and criminal paffions have a
certain unhappy pleafure, a difeafed and fickly Bs indeed,
-appropriated to their activity. Fe
Man being defigned, - his Maker, co active fandiions, this
pleafure neceffarily and infeparably connected with the exerci €
of his powers, “and the accomplifhment of the ends of his creation,
fhews the wifdom’ of Him, who moulded his corporeal “frame,
and infufed into it the animating {pirit. As exercifes of ftrength
and agility are productive of pleafure to the robuft.and healthy,
and contribute to preferve the ftrength and vigour of the body,
exertions of memory, refletion, and ratiocination ‘are, at once, —
a fource of mental enjoyment, anda _prefervative of mental
fanity: and thus did He, who has beautified and ennobled all
creation with the means and forms of pleafure, kindly ordain
and

RITE PERSE

She SS re ee ie aa

Fie gpe a

and provide that an inert ftate fhould be irkfome and unfriendly

_ both to the body and mind; aétivity, merely and fimply as fuch,
_ a fource of enjoyment and vigour to both.

Tue habitual exercife of his powers being thus congenial to
to man, and effential to the well-being both of the individual
and of fociety, it is to be obferved that tragical incidents moft
powerfuily tend to excite the activity of the mind, by calling forth
the various emotions of fear, pity, furprife, indignation and
forrow. The magic power of fi€tion places us in fituations more
affeGing and interefting, more fraught with energies of the foul,
than’ thofe which commonly prefent themfelves in the calm and
lével current of private life and domeftic occurrences, where the
vieiffitudes of fortune are lefs rapid, and thé exceffes of guilt
afid virtue are equally rare ‘with the extremities of mifery or

happinefs.

From whence does deep’ play’ derive its fafcinating power?
Are we to attribute the fpirit of gaming to avarice? far from it;
many of the perfons who are moft ftrongly poffeffed and infatuated
by this propenfity, fhew, on other oceafions,; a total difregard
of money. The fudden viciflitudes of fortune, the hopes and
fears attendant on deep play, occupy the mind, fill it with agi-
tation in which it delights, and banifh that dead calm of fixed
repofe which is fo burthenfome and oppreflive to our nature.

Wuy do fuch numbers croud to an execution? Is it from @

fpirit of inherent cruelty that prompts the fpe€tators to view
with

[| 3eed

with pleafure the death or torture of their fellow-creatures?
by no means. Women, and young perfons, whofe natures are

commonly foft and compaffionate, run with as much avidity as.

the reft on thofe occafions; and, however great may be the
guilt of the fufferer, pity is the paflion moft generally prevalent
in the bofoms of the multitude. Curiofity, and ftill more the
ardent defire of having their feelings excited, are the incentives
that drive the croud to thofe fcenes of death and forrow.

Tur Romans were by no means a cruel people. Freemen
were exempted from capital punifhment by their law; many
inftances of clemency, and national mildnefs of character, occur
in the courfe of their hiftory; yet they delighted to an extra-
vagant degree in the combats of gladiators, and the fanguinary
fpectacles of the Arena. Whence did this proceed? The Romans
had lively paffions, and great fenfibility; and fuch was the plea-
fure they experienced from their feelings being roufed and called
into ation, that the horror and cruelty of the fpedtacle were
withdrawn from view, and loft in the eager curiofity and intent
activity of the moment. We may trace to the fame fource the
fondnefs of the Portugue/e and Spaniards for their Bull-Fights.

INDEPENDENT of the concomitant pleafure and felf-congra-
tulation conneéted with the aétivity of man, merely as activity,
a peculiar charm and fweetnefs are attached to the exercife of all
our focial affeGtions. While the philanthropift laments the mifery
of his friends, his country, the human race, and unable to relieve,
beftows on mifery—all he has, a tear;—He yet rejoices in the

generous

re

[3p]

generous difpofition, and feels a fatisfaGion, fuperior to al! that
refults from the moft indulged voluptuoufnefs. So engaging
are the fympathetic feelings, and fuch the power of confcious
refletion, to brighten up the face of forrow; that, as Dr. Hurd *
juftly obferves, it feems, that Providence, in compaffion to human
feelings, had, together with our forrows, infufed a kind of balm
into the mind, to temper and qualify, as it were, thefe bitter

ingredients.

I pRocEzD, now, to the other queftion. I have heard it afferted
that epic or dramatic productions on fubjeéts in which the horrible
or atrocious is eminently predominant, fhould be reprobated,
as a perverfion of the powers of poetry, unfavourable to the true
interefts of morality, and to the improvement of the human mind.
The advocates for this opinion contend that fuch narratives will,
moft probably, difguft, or, at leaft, fail to pleafe the refined and
judicious readers; and if it fhould happen to produce pleafure,
that pleafure muft, in fome degree, proceed from, or be accom-
panied by criminal, or at leaft unamiable emotions; and, fre-
quently indulged, muft tend to make the nature ferocious. The
mind, familiarized with horrors, will gradually lofe its natural
deteftation of cruelty, and become hardened in ferocity, by
a recurrence of fentiments, and a repetition of fpedtacles, that
outrage every tender feeling. Subjects of this kind fhould be
covered with a veil, and configned to eternal oblivion; inftead of

Vou. VI. (E) their

* Notes on Horace.

[ | 344

their being ufhered to public notice, adorned with all the colour-
ing of genius, and cloathed in the fafcinating garb of poetry.
There are crimes and enormities of which it fhould not be fo much
as fuppofed that our nature is capable.

TuereE is fomething plaufible in the objeGion which I have
ftated; but it may be urged, in reply, that no reprefentation of
criminality or vice, is, in itfelf, and abftraétedly confidered,
immoral ; it becomes fo by its relations to fociety, and from a
confideration of its pernicious tendency, and probable effeéts ;
from its being calculated to deprave and taint the mind, and
produce an imitation of what it exhibits. To do this the features
of vice muft be foftened, the portrait muft be flattering. What
flattering portrait can there be of genuine and total deformity?
It muft, indeed, require more than ordinary addrefs to make men
in love with horrors. The more atrocious and monftrous the
crime, the more difficult it will be to paint it in alluring colours.
Of all the fubjeéts of poetry, and the other imitative arts, the
horrible and ferocious ftand moft perfectly clear of any tendency
to pervert the mind. The brutal and favage pafflions which pro-
duce the moft dreadful tragic fcenes, fo torture the guilty bofom,
that harbours them, that the criminality, which they prompt,
is infeparable from its own obvious and immediate punifhment.

Tue reprefentation of paffions leading to immediate torment

of their fubjeét, and exciting horror and deteftation in the wit-
neffes

|
|

[ 035: J

neffes of their operation, can poffefs but {mall powers of feduc-
tion: they are thofe vices that tend to momentary gratification ;

they are thofe illicit paffions which are remotely allied, or faintly

fimilar, to virtuous emotions, (as luft to love, pride to magna-

nimity, ferocity to courage, profufion to generofity), that are
capable of being reprefented in alluring colours, and. poffefs
an unhappy power of fafcination; and it is only the exhibition
of fuch emotions, and their operation, that can be injurious to the
interefts of morality, and, of courfe, criminal in the writer or
the artift. The refemblance, at firft fight, to virtues, deceives
the unwary mind, and tends to confufe the notions of right and
wrong ; to erafe the bounds and divifions between vice and
virtue. The dazzling portraits of feducing objects, and luxurious
pleafures, -blind the judgment, and fill the heated imagination
with impure images, The popular applaufes, and the pleafures
that fometimes accompany vice and guilt, are immediately prefent ,
their mifchievous confequences, the future pain, remorfe and
calamity, to which they lead, are remote, and concealed from

view.

Ir is faid that a frequent repetition of fuch terrible fubjeés
as were not only reprefented frequently on the Grecran ftage,
but were its peculiar favourites, may familiarize the mind with

4{cenes of horror, and leffen its natural tendernefs and fimilarity.

No: there is no danger that outrageous and cruel paflions fhould
become contagious. In their reprefentation the poifon will carry

with it its own antidote. The acute feelings, the dreadful ca-
(E 2) taftrophes,

‘gee oe)

taftrophes, the univerfal fear and abhorrence that purfue the
guilty monfters of the tragic ftage, prevent their fentiments from
fpreading infe@tion, and their examples from exciting imitation.
Though the Grecian Mufe delighted in the exhibition of out-
rageous paffions and enormous guilt, fhe gave them no falfe
colouring. She delighted to reprefent them, as they truly were,
objects of horror, and caufes of mifery; not as themes of appro-
bation, much lefs as fubje&ts of imitation. The powers of eloquence
and poetry were employed, in heightening their natural aptitude
to excite abhorrence, and in fhowing their fatal confequences,
not in a wild attempt, to decorate or make them plaufible ; for
the extravagant and bombaftic fury of the German ftage was
referved the mad and mifchievous defign, of palliating, or em-
bellithing, what ought to excite difguft and horror, and of
cloathing rapine, impiety, and affaffination, in a fplendid and
impofing garb: Vain and criminal attempt! Yet fuch is the
tendency of the Robbers of Schiller, a performance which de-
ferves equal reprobation, from found tafte, and from found

morality.

A smauu degree of refleGtion may convince us, that no habits
of cruelty can be imbibed, no mechanical hardnefs of heart be
contracted, by the perufal of works that relate thefe dreadful
ftories in queftion; or from the being prefent at reprefentations
of gigantic villainy, or ftupendous mifery, on the ftage. It is
wifely ordained by the Author of our nature, in order to deter
man from the commiffion of aéts of cruelty, that fuch ads not
only ftrike the moral fenfe with a perception of their turpitude,

but

Li 39k

but are alfo accompanied with circumftances that violently offend
and grate on the exterior fenfes with fomething hideous and
difgufting. The fight of a wounded and mangled bedy, the
fereams and groans of a wretch enduring torture, from any
caufe, whether accidental or defigned, are painful to the eyes
and ears; intolerably fo to thofe of moft men. They produce
a loathing and naufea, and even fometimes caufe perfons, not
habituated to fuch fights and founds, to fwoon away *. Such
fpectacles, however, by a frequent repetition, lofe much of
their horror. Phyfical caufes, by repeated action, lofe their
efficacy; it is quite the reverfe with refpe€t to moral caufes.
The fenfes become habituated to objects that, at firft, offend
them; and the difagreeable phyfical effets of fuch objects
become lefs and lefs violent. Perfons in the army, whofe duty
frequently leads them to be prefent at military executions, will
be very fenfible of the truth of this obfervation.

Wuen cruel acts and fubjects of acute and agonizing mifery
are reprefented, through the medium of the imitative arts,
the cafe is far different; on thofe occafions, there is always
a perception, or perfuafion, that the exhibition is not real.
That perception fteps in to our relief, in the moment of dif-
trefs, and forms part of the pleafure, we experience at the
reprefentation of a tragedy. At the real fpeétacle of cruelty

the

* Such was the effet of feeing two Negros burned in Jamaica on a perfon who
defcribed his feelings to me.

ie. Soe Th

the mind muft meet the dreadful.certainty ; and muft harden it-
felf, by an effort, toencounter it. This effort, often repeated, and
accompanied with encreafed firmnefs of nerves, may, at length,
degenerate into habits of cruelty. Eefides, the reprefentation
is always lefs vivid than the reality. Strong enough it may be,
to produce a momentary délufion, and excite terror and pity ;
but not {trong enough, either, to overwhelm the fpirit, or to
harden the nature. Though we are ftruck with horror, and
melted into tears, at the reprefentation of a murder, on the
ftage, we do not feel the fame phyfical effects ; we do not trem-
ble, and perceive a ficknefs, a cold fweat, perhaps a faintnefs ;
whereas, a perfon unufed to fcenes of cruelty would moft pro-
bably experience thefe -inconveniencies ; were he'to fee a perfon
{tabbed befide him, and falling at his feet; were he to hear his
dying groan, or be f{prinkled with his blood.

Wuerern confifts the true difference? In the real cataftrophe,
the different fenfes, ‘fight, hearing, touch, all concur in bearing
teftimony to each other, and afcertain the dreadful certainty
beyond a poflibility of doubt. Where the imitative arts repre-
fent any fingle action, or feries of actions, there is not the
-mutual fuffrage, or-reciprocal.corroboration. Poetry and hiftory
d4mitate ations and objects, by a very indirect agency of the
fenfe of feeing, prefeuting to us words, which recall the ideas of
what we have een and known; to which medium of words, as
figns of ideas, the force of articulate founds is added, when com-
pofitions are read aloud or recited. Painting imitates, through

the

fe. geal

the medium of fight direétly, and of fight alone: fo does fculp-
ture alfo, unlefs we admit the touch, to which fculpture, as an
imitative art, may be faid to appeal, in fome faint degree; as
for inftance, a blind man, by handling an exquifite ftatue, may
form ideas of fymmetry, grace and beauty. Mufic, which, ina
{mall degree, is an imitative art, is confined to the fenfe of hear-
ing. As to the reprefentations of the theatre, which carry the
delufions of the imitative arts as far as they will go, they are
confined, to the fight and hearing, and want the fuffrage of the
touch. Thus, we find, in every one of the imitative arts, there
is a deficiency of teftimony, a certain link of the chain of evi-
dence, that invariably accompanies the reality of exiftence, is ever
wanting.

I rinp I have, unawares, been betrayed into a degree of pro-
lixity, of which I little dreamed; and, at the fame time, I fear,
that I have but imperfectly exprefled my meaning, and failed
of attaining that fullnefs and precifion, which the fubject deferves.
I know not well- how to excufe my rafhnefs, in prefuming to
obtrude this hafty fketch on the Academy; and, I truft, that
the candour of. my readers will afcribe this temerity to the true
caufe—a wifh to amufe them, at a vacant hour, and not to any
difregard of their judgment,

a

ie ae

4n ESSAY on the VARIATIONS of ENGLISH PROSE,
Jrom th REVOLUTION ¢o the PRESENT TIME. Sy
THOMAS WALLACE, 4. B. and M.R. LF. A.; to which
was adjudged the Gold Prize Medal propofed by the Royal Irifh
Academy for the beft Effay on that Subjed.

Ut filvee foliis pronos mutantur in annos ;

Prima cadunt: ita verborum vetus interit cetas,

Et, juvenum ritu, florent modo nata, vigentque.
Horace.

EEE

ab: HE progrefs of language marks the progrefs of the human
mind. They proceed together with equal ftep from the rudenefs
of barbarifm toward that ftate beyond which improvement cannot
go, in which language exhibits the higheft polith of elegance and
accuracy, and the mind exerts all its faculties in their full force.
So true is this, that there can fcarcely be found any period in
the hiftory of any people when the ftate of their language did not
accurately correfpond with the ftate of their polity and manners,
and when a fagacious obferver might not have afcertained, with
tolerable exadétnefs, the excellence and refinement of thefe from
the qualities of their literary produ@tions. Hence the inveftigations
of the philologift become ufeful as they furnifh important aids

Vou. VI. * (F) to

Read June 18,
1796

Eo 42 |
to the refearches of the hiftorian, and the {peculations of th

moralift.

To this general rule there is, however, one exception. Long
before the manners of the Greeks had reached that refinement,
or their polity had been matured to that perfetion which con-
ftitute a nation highly civilized, their language had become co-
pious, energetic and corre@. In the compofitions of Homer we
find, perhaps, as much ftrength, harmony and expreffion, as in
thofe of any fubfequent Greek writer; and yet unqueftionably, in
Homer’s day, Greece had made no very confiderable approaches
towards excellence in the arts, fkill in government, or refinement

in manners.

But if in Greece we find an exception to the rule which marks
on the feale of language the improvement of the national mind,
in modern Europe we meet abundant illuftration of its truth.
Here, it will be found, that until fettled government, founded
on permanent fyftem, fucceeded the fluQuations of defpotifm
or ‘anarchy, and, inftead of the ferocious and whimfical manners
of the middle ages, introduced the milder and more rational habits
of modern times, until, in a word} the light of philofophy thone
in our horizon, and feattered the thick “darknefs which hung
around the human intelle&, the language of"every people in
Europe correfponded in coarfenefs and confufion with their modes
of life and of thinking. Of this England: herfelf is perhaps the
moft ftriking inftance. With aconftifution which vibrated long

between oppofite extremes before it finally fettled in the middle
point

i; erg

point where liberty as well as truth is found, the moral charaCer
of her people was vague and changeful. Agitated long by civil
contefts, and depreffed by the barbarous and deteriorating prin-
ciples of the feudal policy, the human mind could not, and in fa&
did not, until a very late period, emerge from that deep groffnefs
into which by thofe caufes it had been funk. The language of
England during thofe times correfponded with her circumftances.
Rude and anomalous, at once fuperfluous and deficient, it was
equally a ftranger to precifion and to grace: fixed by no ftandard,
though it abounded in words, it was yet, becaufe thofe words
were vaguely ufed, incapable of exprefling with accuracy any
nice complication of thought. While men were unaccuflomed
to think with precifion on moral topics, the whole clafs of moral
terms muft have been of changeful and indeterminate: meaning ;
and while thefe topics were not the frequent fubjedts of living
fpeech or written‘difcourfes, thofe few but important words which :
are ufed, not to defignate things, but to exhibit the various pofitions
of the mind in thinking, to fhew the relation which it means to
eftablifh between two propofitions, or the different parts of the
fame propofition, muft have been awkwardly and often improperly
ufed. Such a ftate of language could have exifted only where
tafte was yet unknown, and the powers of the human mind yet

uncultivated.

Two caufes contributed to raife the Englifh language from this -
degraded ftate. Firft the Reformation, which by obtruding on
the attention moral fubjects of the moft momentous concern,
made it in fome meafure neceffary for men to think with more

(2) precifion

[ 44 ]
precifion and clofenefs: Secondly, the fubfequent difputes between
the crown and people on the limits of prerogative and popular
right, which continued from the time of Elizabeth to the revolu-
tion, and which corroborated into habit that mode of clofer and
more abftraét thinking which the Reformation had introduced.
According to the theory we have adopted this change fhould have
induced an improvement in ftyle: it did fo; the Englith language
rofe rapidly from the low ftate in which it ftood in the beginning
of the reign of Henry the Eighth, until, at the acceflion of William
the Third, it had acquired a diftinguifhed degree of excellence.
This excellence, however, was but comparative, and appears rather
when we confider its former defects, than its fubfequent im-
provements; for, from the time of the Revolution to the prefent
day, a numerous fucceffion of fine writers have laboured with
fuccefs to add to its elegance, copioufnefs and ftrength. What
they have done, and how far they have raifed the Englith language
above its former humble level, will be beft known by confidering
the variations of ftyle which, within that period, it has under-

gone.

In order to give a hiftory of thefe variations it is not neceffary
to engage ina differtation on the ftyle of every author of chara@er
who has written within the period which we confider; nor indeed
would fuch a work be practicable within the limits of a fhort efflay:
it will anfwer the end at which we aim to point out the general
charaéteriftics which have fucceflively diflinguifhed the ftyle of
Englifh profe within that time without engaging in a minute
defcription of the peculiarities of individual writers, except

thofe

[ °45 J]

thofe by whom remarkable variations have been introduced, and
whofe diftinguifhed excellence has procured for thofe variations a
general adoption. Even this tafk, however, though lefs laborious
and lefs prolix than the other, is not without its difficulty.
Between the coarfe homelinefs of Burnet and the elaborate polifh
of Gibbon ; between the loofe and uneven compofition of Til- -
lotfon, in which the ray of genius is fo often obfcured by the
medium through which it paffes, and the clofe precifion of Johnfon,
through which the bright idea fhines with fteady luftre (if, indeed,
it does not from the expreflion itfelf derive much of that luftre)
the difference is great indeed, and to perceive it requires but
little exertion of critical difcernment. But other writers have
varied effentially the ftyle of Englifh profe between whofe re-
fpeGtive merits the difference is neither fo great nor fo obvious:
here lies the difficulty. The difference of oppofite colours is
eafily feen, and not difficult to be defcribed ; but of the variety
of mixing tints which lie between the two extremes to mark
with accuracy the points of tranfition; to catch the almoft
evanefcent diftinGtions between collateral fhades, and exhibit
them with truth and fteadinefs to the eye, is a work for which
talents lefs common are neceflary.

TuoucH previous to the Revolution the ftyle of Englith profe
had been greatly improved, it was notwithftanding very far from
being faultlefs. Scarcely any fingle epithet, indeed, can be found
to defcribe its errors. It was loofe, negligent, capricious, and
inaccurate: the periods were long and complicated ; their parts
clumfily connected ;. circumftances which were neceffary to be

introduced

[ 79o

introduced into a fentence were generally placed injudicioufly ;
and in many inftances claufes were appended which fhould have
been formed into diftin€ fentences. Even of thofe writers who
ranked higheft for compofition, the greater number abounded in
fynonymes, a fure mark, not merely of negligent compofition, but
-of loofe and inaccurate habits of thought. In the feleGtion of
words they were either negligent or unfkilful, for, in a multitude
of inflances, of two words which feemed to court choice, they
chofe that which, by verging on burlefque, tended to degrade the
fubject, rather than that which would have fuited its dignity. In
metaphor they were copious; but their metaphors partook of the
general character of their compofition : they were often ill fele&ted
and frequently ill managed. Even when chance or choice pro-
duced a good figure, it was fpun out through fo many minute
circumftances, that judgment was difgufted and atttention fatigued.
Hence in thofe writers may be found pages filled with materials,
which, under the management of correct tafte, might have been
raifed to fublimity or polifhed to elegance, but which, in their
hands, degenerate into quaintnefs and puerility. The rules for
regulating the ufe of metaphor they frequently inverted, and
inftead of recurring to the metaphoric expreffion when the literal
one was mean or vulgar, they, in many inftances, are found ufing
trite and vulgar words metaphorically to convey, what in the
literal expreffion would not have been deftitute of dignity. —

Or wnity in their fentences they feem not to have been at all
fiudious. It would be difficult to find any production of that
day

E. 4¢ 21

day in every page of which one may not find numerous inftances
of two, and fometimes three or four, diftinct and independent
thoughts crowded into one fentence: on the other hand, the in-
ftances are, perhaps, not more rare, of claufes naturally and
clofely conneéed, as parts of the fame whole, being divided into
feparate periods.

From this negligence of divifion, and inattention to minute
circumftances, this ftyle has acquired an apparent freedom which
in more polifhed and elaborate compofition is in vain [ooked for.
The mind, regardlefs of accuracy in expreflion, feems to have
been attentive only to ideas—The torrent of thought is poured
forth without hefitation or reftraint, and rolls with at leaft a free,
if not aclear current. But, on clofer examination, what appeared
to be freedom of ftyle is often found to be only loofenefs of
expreffion. What was gained in the eafy flowing of the fentence
was loft by its want of perfpicuity, and when the period which
filled the ear with harmonized founds comes to be confidered .
by the underftanding it is perceived to be inflated with fuperfluous
verbiage, or darkened by unneceffary prolixity.

Tuat he who ufes two words to exprefs one idea either does
not underftand, or does not attend to the meaning of the words
he ufes, has often been obferved. Whatever truth there may
be in .the remark, it is certain the writers of this period are fre-
quently chargeable with this pratice. Nor were they deficient
in precifion only, which is always deftroyed by the introduGion

of

i ee

of fuperfluous words; they, perhaps, not lefs frequently violated
propriety: they not only ufed words in pairs to exprefs fingle
_ ideas, but of thofe words, of which the meaning was not thus
propped by fubfidiary phrafes, the ufe was, in many inftances,
manifeftly improper, and in ftill more vague. In the ufe of cor-
ponding particles, too, the ftyle of 88 was faulty in a great
degree +. Nor was it erroneous merely in the manner of con-
neGing the component claufes of fentences together ; it was equally
fo in the conne@ion of the fentences themfelves. Among the
writers of this period it is that we find the pradlice moft prevalent
of making which, at the- beginning of one fentence, a relative to
the whole of that which precedes; and furely nothing in ‘ftyle
can be more inartificial, nothing more repugnant to precifion or ©

to tafte.

Besipes thofe more important defets, there were others which
equally violated grace though they did not equally induce ob-
feurity. Such are the frequent ufe of compound adverbs, where-
upon, whereas, wherein, &c. the ufe of the obfolete pronominal
adjectives mine, thine, before fubftantives; the formation of the
fuperlative degree by e/ in pollyfyllable adjectives; and the fre-
quent introdu@tion of colloquial idioms. Of thefe charges it

will not be neceffary to give any other proof than a reference to
the

+ Not unfrequently, for inftance, neither and or, either and nor are made to cor-
refpond, and as is often ufed as a relative to a fubftantive with /ame before it, * in
‘© the fame manner as is related, &c.”

[ 49 ]

the writings of that day; if examples be wanted, they may be

found thickly ftrewed in every page of them *.
NotwitH-

* A few of thefe examples are here fubjoined, taken from Atterbury, Burnet,
Tillotfon, Petty, Temple, &c. in which, it is believed, all the faults which have been
above attributed to the ftyle of this period are exemplified. Thefe inftances have
not been feleéted with a view to exhibit the moft faulty paffages in the works of the
refpe€tive writers, but are fuch as occurred on a cafual opening, and in fome one
compofition of no great length, in each author. This mode of feleétion candour
diGtated ; for where’is the author who has written much, in whofe writings invidious
induftry might not collect a multitude of paffages cenfurable for their inaccuracy,
or ridiculous for their weaknefs ?

Tillotfon, in his fermon.on the incarnation, fays, ** God fhewed not fuch grace
« and favour to the angels: the Son of God became mortal and miferable, and
« fubmitted to all things that are accounted moft miferable and calamitous in our na-
ture.” ‘¢ He was the meekeft endurer of fufferings that ever was.” Synonimes—
a flat expreffion, and a drag on the fentence.

“‘ Which, how it can be fo eafily conceived upon any other fuppofition, I muft
¢ confefs I am not able to comprehend.” Inartificial connection and bad grammar,
which being referred to the whole of the preceding fentence, and. {tanding without
a verb.

s¢ The tongues of men and angels, ‘as they are faid to be a worthlefs gift in com-
“ parifon of charity, /o are they not able to fet out Aal/f the worth and excellence of
“ it.”

s¢ As it makes a kind of atonement to God for all the faults we commit, /2 doth it
s© make an amends to us for all the trouble we are at.”

Thefe two paflages exemplifya poize between the two parts of a fentence by as
and /2, which though perhaps not very faulty in itfelf becomes cenfurable from the
frequency of its occurrence in the writings of this «ra. They are befides chargeable
with fynonimes, with baldnefs of expreffion, with bad grammar and colloquial fami- -
larity.

In Petty’s Tra& on the Conftitution and Laws of England, we meet with the fol- -
lowing : f

«© The next article may require a more efpecial care and confideration of the juftices ;

“« and here I judge we are no way deficient in Jaw, but altogether in the execution
Vou. VI. , G 66 Of

[ so ]

NovrwitusraNbiInG the very general prevalence of thofe errors
in the ftyle of Englith profe at the period of the revolution, it muft

not

“ of it. We fhould not fay our /aws want reformation when ’tis only curfélves
«¢ that want if. If our lawgivers never more amend cur laws, we may mend cur ways
‘< with thofe we have already. Care fhould be taken to keep our highways in repair,
«‘ when the nation has been at the charge to pué them in good repair.” Synonimes

and puerile antithefes,

« Hence I fhall divide and diftinguifh juftices of the peate into honorary and aéting.”
‘¢ But there is no neceflity for that neither, &c.” Synonimes and a double negative.

Burnet, in his fermon atthe Rolls Chapel, * That we ought of to truft neither to
t¢ our reafon wor our fenfes.” Double negative. ‘* To demand an equity.” An
improper ufe of the word egwity, as well as a harfh and coarfe expreffion.

«© On the contrary, in dark ages, nothing was more common than pretended appa-
“ ritions and voices to confirm the impofture; which have vanifhed in an age that is
“¢ more apt to fufpe& and examine {uch things, as the illufions of our dreams fly from.
“© us whenever we are awake.” This fentence is perfeétly charaéteriftic of the ftyle
of 88: the before impofture is improperly ufed, as it is impofture generally which
he fpeaks of, and to which therefore the definite article cannot be applied: the
relative which is made to agree, not with the noun immediately preceding, but
with apparitions and voices: to both of thefe nouns the verb vanifh is applied, with
the common inaccuracy of the writers of this period, though it can in propriety agree
only to the firft, for no man would talk of a vice vanifbing. What follows in this
fentence fhould have been matter for a new period, for to have defcribed the pre-
valence of fuperftition through feveral ages was enough for one fentence, and to
defcribe the fuperiority of the prefent age another would not have been too much.
Su/ped and examine, though certainly not fynonimous, for many who fufpe& will
often not take the trouble to examine, yet, in the ufe that is here made of them,
appear to be joined only for the fake of company. In the laft claufe when would
probably be much better both for found and fenfe than whenever. “ If reafon be
« once given up, no wonder if wealth and other fecular advantages were *hrown
«© into the bargain.” A figure more fitted for the fhop or the fhambles than the wri-
tings of a bifhop.

[ser oy

not be underftood that excellence in compofition was at that time
no where to be met with. Dryden ftands a great and illuftrious

inftance

In his Tra@ on the Gunpowder Treafon, he talks of ‘ the head contrivers of it,
and of § heading the party that was thereabouts.”

«¢ They that knew their own work and were aligned to fome particular office, .
“ might know no more what they did, than every /ittle officer in a regiment is.
“ acquainted with the debates and refolves of a council of war.” Two inftances

of impropriety, every for any, and Jittle for petty. Of debates and refolves one is fu--
perfluous.

“* Infomuch that full and clear evidence as we might have had, &c.” “ It was ne--
“ ceflary for them to /land upon their own vindication, and to vindicate themfelves after
« the moft folemn way imaginable.” Inaccurate connection and tautology.

“¢ Till this order was univerfally difo/ved and extirpated.” Synonimous. “ If fo be
« it might be done.” WVulgarifm. «I fhall fhew they might /fand upon their own
“‘ innocency and juftification to ¢he death.” In his Letter on the Difcovery of the
Plot, he fays, * the Church das not been aéfed with the fame fpirit, nor followed the
“ fame doétrines, &c.” Acfed ufed improperly for aéfuated, and mor ufed for or.
«© Thefe doGtrines will foon be taken off the file.” A trite and degrading metaphor.

Atterbury on the Miraculous Propagation of the Gofpel, fays, (and certainly it is
not one of his moft faulty fentences) « Its original fuccefs was a perpetual flanding mi-
“racle of fufficient force to evince its divine extraCtion, from the beginning of
- «© Chriffianity to the end of it.” It was unneceflary to fay, that what was a perpetual
miracle was alfo a ffanding one; and that is unqueftionably carelefs and inaccurate
compofition, in which one finds fuch a claufe as this, where he talks of ‘ the
“ extraction of Chriftianity, from the beginning to the end of it. Chriftianity, too, is here
© ufed for the Chriftian era.

«© The Mofaic law was intended fora fingle people, who were to be fhut in, as i
“ were, by a fence of legal rites and typical ceremonies, and to be kept by hat means
S¢ fepavate and unmixed till the Meffiah fhould appear, and break down the fence, and \
“© Jay open the enclofure.” This paffage exemplifies more faults than one; it will fuflice

however to remark, that it contains a metaphor expanded till it becomes vapid and.
puerile.

(G.2,) On,

[ 52 ]

inftance of correctnefs and elegance in profe, as well as of harmony
and fire in poetry. His Prefaces and his Critical Effays are written
in

On the power of charity he obferves that this virtue, ‘ if it have the reins given to it,
will run away with the rider.” This is burlefque, and he is not much fhort of it when
he tells us, that «* God has ¢wifted our duty and our intereft together,” and that the
other virtues ‘ /tand on their own bottom.”

“‘ Charity is the queen of virtues; the reft are in her train and retinue, as it were,
conftantly attending her, appearing and difappearing.” Another inftance of fuperfluous
words, over-wrought metaphor, and of a heavy adjeCtion clogging the fentence.

In his fermon on the Unity, Tillotfon talks of the Sun, as “ the moft wor/bipful of
all fenfible beings,” as if he wifhed to raife a ludicrous idea in the mind rather than
to exhibit that luminary ‘ as the eye and foul of this great world.” Of the heroes
he fays, that “ for their great and worthy deeds, when they lived upon earth, they were
«¢ diftinguifhed by pofthumous honours.” But it would be fuperfluous to dwell on
fuch paflages as thefe while one can find fuch a fentence as the following, which
concenters in itfelf almoft all the errors with which we have charged the ftyle of 88.

«* One cannot deny the frame of this world which he fees with his eyes, though from
¢ thence it will follow that either that or fomething elfe mutft be of itfelf; which yet, as
“I faid before, is a ¢hing which no man can comprehend ow it can be.” In this fen-
tence it is difficult to collet to what antecedent shence is referred; it can properly
refer only to the preceding propofition ‘ one cannot deny the frame, &c.” and refer-
ring to that the conclufion will not follow; it muft therefore refer to “ frame,” and
the conneétion in that cafe will be obfcure and illogical. ‘* Which yet, as I faid before,
is a thing, &c.” Here we find, after two or three readings, that the relative which is
connected with the /a/ clau/fe of the preceding member of the fentence as an antecedent,
and the propofition, contained in that claufe, is called a thing; the latter which is’
a relative to this ¢hing, that is to the foregoing which—that is to the propofition in the
Jaft claufe of the firft member of the fentence; and this latter which {tands without any
verb, for the claufe how it can be” ftands as the objective cafe to ‘* no man can com-
‘6 prebend.” Sucha fentence feems the ne ultra of loofe, confufed and negligent ftyle.

From Tillotfon. we fhall give but two other examples—the firft to illuftrate the
inartificial manner in which he divided his fentences; the other, from his difcourfe on
the difficulty of reforming vicious habits, to prove how extremely attached he, as well
his contemporaries, was to the praétice of giving to every word a fellow.

co The

Ga ak

in a manner which, as has been obferved even by the faftidious

Johnfon, would not, even at the prefent day, after the lapfe of
more

“¢ The temporal calamities and /ufferings with which the Jews had been haraffed,
“ had weaned them from the confideration of temporal promifes, and awakened their
«* minds to more ferious thoughts of another world. It being natural to men when they
« are deftitute of prefent comfort, to fupport themfelves, &c.” Evidently thefe two
fentences fhould have been molded into one—the fenfe, as well as the expreflion, re-
quired it. ‘ From his great mercy and pity declared to us in all thofe gracious means and
“¢ methods which he ufeth for our recovery, and from his readine/s and forwardne/s after
“ all our rebellions, &c.” « The cu/fom and frequent practice of any thing begets in us 2
46 facility and eafinefs in doing it; itturns the ffream and current of our ations fuch
“a way.”

Sir William Temple has been confidered as one of the fineft writers of this period ; —
the following paflages, from this Tract on the Low Countries, with which we fhall
conclude thefé extraéts, evince that he is not exempt from the common errors of his
cotemporaries :

“ Charity feems to be very national. Among the many and various hofpitals that
“ are in every man’s curiofity and talk that travel this country, I was affected with none
« more than that of Euchuyfen for aged feamen, which is contrived, jfinifhed and
“ ordered as if it was done with the kind, intention of fome well-natured man, that
thofe who had paffed their qhole lives in the hard/bips and incommodities of the fea
« fhould find a retreat ftored with all the ea/es and conveniences that old age is capable
“ of feeling or of enjoying: for, one of thofe old feamen entertaining me a good
“ while with the plain ftories of fifty years voyages and adventures q4ile I was
“¢ viewing the hofpital and the church adjoining, I gave him a piéce of their coin
«¢ about the value of a crown piece: He took it fmiling,’ and offered it to me again,
«¢ but when I refufed it, he afked me what he fhould do with money—for a// that
ever they wanted was provided for them at their houfe: I left him to overcome his
« modefty as well as he could, but a fervant coming after me faw him give it toa
€ little girl that opened the church door as fhe paft by him; which made me refle&t, &c.”

©

.

«¢ Wine to hot brains being like oil to fire, and making the fpirits, by too much
“ lightnefs, evaporate into /imoak and perfett airy imaginations, or by too much head,
“ rage into frenzy, or at leaft into humours and thoughts that have a great mixture

s© of it.”

[ g4 J

more than a century, be thought obfolete, and might, even now,
be preferibed as a model of many of the graces of compofition.

*

Its eafy and natural flow, its gracefulnefs and rich variety, cannot,
after all the improvements which in fo long a period have been
made in our language, be eafily execeded by modern tafte and
fkill in writing. Yet even Dryden himfelf, with all his merits,.
affords fome inftances, though certainly they are but thinly featter-
ed, of moft of the faults of which his contemporaries are guilty.
In his Effay on Heroic poetry, for inftance, we find fuch a paflage
as the following: ‘ For their (the poets) fpeculations on this fub-
‘Feet are wholly poetical; they have only fancy for their guide,
“ and that being /barfer in an. excellent poet than in a heavy,
* phlegmatic gownfman, will fee farther in its own empire, and pro-
* duce more fatisfaétory motions on thofe dark and doubtful problems.”
He is fometimes ungrammatical, and fometimes violates propriety,
as when he fays “ to which I have added fome original, which,
“ whether they are equal or inferior to my other poems az author
“ is the moft improper judge, and therefore I leave them wholly
“ to the mercy of the reader.” But it would be invidious to
enumerate examples of this kind in fuch an author as Dryden,
whofe beauties, both in profe and poetry, fo far out-number his
defeéts, and whofe fuperiority over his cotemporaries is too evident
to the moft ordinary reader to be denied or doubted.

Ir the charaéter of this period for ftyle could be faved by the
merits of one or two individuals, Spratt might be adduced with
Dryden to vindicate the tafte of his age. In his works may be

found paffages nicely corre@t and of extreme elegance. In general
_ he

L 4

he avoids fynonimes, makes a happy fele€tion of words, and
forms them into fentences of much harmony. Though ‘it cannot
perhaps be truly faid that in the management of his metaphors
he is always happy, yet it would be difficult to find in him fo
many inftances of over-wrought, or ill-chofen figures, as in any
of his contemporaries equally voluminous. In the conneétion
of his fentences he probably is not fo blamelefs. His hiftory of
the Royai Society has been praifed for its compofition, and that
it is ftill read is a proof that it deferves the praifes which have
been given to it; but I am not fure that in his lefs celebrated
* Account of the Plot,” there do not occur paffages which better
merit the charafter of fine writing than any which are to be met
in his hiftory of the Society, or any other of his tracts.

Hap not Hooker written too early; to rank among thofe writers
of whom we have been fpeaking, he would have afforded ample
-fabje& of commendation for purity of language and precifion in
ftyle ; in other inftances, perhaps, fome for cenfure. At prefent
it is enough to obferve that by comparing the writings of Hooker
with thofe of the beft authors of 88, it will appear that in the
intervening century much lefs improvement had: been effected
in the ftyle of Englifh profe than has taken place in the interval
between the Revolution and the prefent day.

Wiru all thefe faults in ftyle, the writers of this period are to

be reckoned among thofe who have raifed moft high the literary
character

* Hooker died in the year 1600.

[ 56 ]

chara@ter of their country. They have, indeed, a claim to higher
praife than that of polifhed compofition ; they abounded in good
fenfe, and in fine genius, and had an extenfive knowledge of the
lettered and of the living world. Let not, therefore, the flimfy
and fuperficial, though, perhaps, more accurate writer of modern
times, pretend that becaufe his trifles fparkle with more brilliancy
and exhibit a fmoother furface, they are, therefore, fuperior to
the rich and folid, though lefs polifhed, produétions of this period :
our anceftors wrote for fame as they ftrove for liberty, with the
ftrong minds of men more attentive to things than words; we,
perhaps, in the fickly tafte of modern refinement, prefer form
to fubftance, and fubftitute elegance of expreffion for found
fenfe.

Witn Addifon and his contemporaries originated the firft vari-
ation that occurred, fubfequent to the Revolution, in the com-
pofition of Englifh profe. Though the diffufe ftyle ftill continued
to prevail, it was no longer the loofe, inaccurate and clumfy ftyle
by which the compofitions of his predeceffors were difgraced.
So great, indeed, was the improvement, and fo ftriking the
variation introduced by Addifon, that he who compares the pro-
dudtions of this elegant writer with thofe of the beft writers of 88,
will find it difficult to avoid furprife, how, with fuch precedents
before him, he could have rifen at once to a degree of excellence
in ftyle which conftitutes him a model for imitation. The forced
metaphor, the dragging claufe, the harfh cadence, and the abrupt
clofe, are all of them ftrangers to the works of Addifon. In the

ftructure of his fentences, though we may fometimes meet marks
of

or ae

of © sate yet we can feldom find the unity of a fentence
violated by ideas crowded together, or the fenfe obfcured by
an improper connection of claufes. Though, like his predeceffors,
he frequently ufes two words to, exprefs one idea, yet, in this
inftance, he is lefs faulty than they ; and, among the variations
introduced by-him, we muft reckon a more ftrict attention to

the choice of words, and more precifion in the ufe of them.

Or figurative language Addifon, has always, been acknow-
ledged the moft happy,model. _He was, indeed, the .firftof the
Englifh profe writers who. were equally excellent in the choice
and in the management of their, figures... Of thofe -who~ pre-
ceded him, it has been obferved that they were frequently
unhappy in both inftances ; that their metaphors either were, fuch
as tended rather to apts their fabje than to give it dignity
and elevation ; or that when they were well chofen, they. were
{poiled by the manner in which they were conducted, being
detained under the pen until their fpirit evaporated, or traced
until the likenefs vanifhed. Addifon avoided both faults: his
metaphors .are felected with care and tafte, or rather feem to
{pring fpontaneoufly from his fubject ; they are exhibited to the
mind but for a moment that the leading traits of fimilitude may
be obferved while minute likenefles are difregarded—like.thofe.
flafhes of cleric fire which often illumine a Summer’s night,
they fhed a vivid, thongh-a tranfient luftre, over the {cene, and
pleafe rather by the brightnefs -with which they gild the profpee
than the accuracy with which they, fhew its beauties,

Vor. Vik Fit EF ) SHOULD

aR ae

SHouLp it be doubted, whether the improvement of ftyle which
took place in the time of Addifon—that variation which fubftituted
uniform and corre& neatnefs in compofition, for what was loofe,
inaccurate and capricious, be juftly attributed to him—the doubt
will vanifh when it is remembered that in no work prior to his
time is an equal degree of accuracy or neatnefs to be found, and
even among thofe periodical papers to which the moft eminent
of his cotemporary writers contributed, the Ciro of Addifon
ftands eminently confpicuous. It was, indeed, from the produc-
tions of that claffic and copious mind that the public feems
to have caught the tafte for fine writing which has operated from
that time to the prefent, and which has given to our language
perhaps the greateft degree of elegance and accuracy of which it
is fufceptible—for if any thing is yet to be added to the improve-
ment of the Englifh ftyle, it muft be more nerve and mufcle,
not a nicer modification of form or feature.

— fectantem levia, nervi
Deficiunt animique :

Wut e Addifon was communicating to Englifh profe a degree of
corre¢ctnefs with which it had been, till his time, unacquainted, Swift
was exemplifying its precifion and giving a ftandard for its purity.
Swift was the firft writer who attempted to exprefs his meaning
without fubfidiary words and corroborating phrafes. He nearly laid
afide the ufe of fynonimes in which even Addifon had a little in-
dulged, and without being very folicitous about the ftructure or har-

mony

[ 89 4]
mony of his periods, feemed to devote all his attention to illuftrate
the force of individual words. Swift hewed the ftones, and fitted

the materials for thofe who built after him;, Addifon left the
neateft and moft finifhed models of ornamental architeGure.

Or the charaéter which is here given of thefe two writers it
is unneceffary to give proof by quoting paffages from their works,
for two reafons; the one is; that their works are in the hands of
every body; the other, that the qualities which we attribute to
their ftyle are-fo obvious that it were fuperfluous to illuftrate

them.

Besives thofe firft reformers of the ftyle of 1688, there were
others, contemporary with them, who contributed to promote the
work which they did not begin. Bolingbroke and Shaftfbury, like
Addifon, were elegant and correct, and feem from him to have de-
rived their correcthefs and elegance. Of this, fo far as it concerns

Shaftfbury, there is a moft remarkable proof*. His Tract, entitled
«© An Enquiry concerning Virtue,” was in the hands of the public
in 1699, in a ftate very different indeed from that in which his.
lordfhip publifhed, in the year 1726, It partook of all the faults.
which were prevalent in the ftyle of that day, but particularly in
the length of its periods, and the inartificial connetion of them.
In the edition of 1726 thofe errors were in a great meafure
corrected ; the fentences are broken down, and molded with much
(H 2) elegance

See Blair’s LeCtures..

[ 60 ]

elegance into others lefs prolix; and fharing in fome degree all the
beauties of Addifon’s ftyle, except thofe which perhaps his lordfhip
could not copy, its eafe and fimplicity. Indeed Shaftfbury, in the
form in which we now have him, appears to be more attentive
than Addifon to the harmony of his cadence, and the regular con-
ftruction of his fentences; and certainly if he has lefs fimplicity
has more ftrength. Bolingbroke, too, participating in correctnefs
with Addifon, has fome topics of peculiar praife; he has more
force than Addifon—and—what may appear ftrange, when we con-
fider how much more vehement and copious he is, has more pre-
cifion. The nature of the fubjeéts on which Bolingbroke and
Shaftfbury wrote naturally tended to make them more attentive
to precifion than Addifon. ‘Thefe fubje€ts were principally ab-
ftra& morality and metaphyfics—fubje&ts of which no knowledge
can be attained but by clofe and fteady thinking, or communi-
cated but by words of definite and conftant meaning. ‘The lan-
guage of Addifon, however elegant in itfelf, or however admirably
adapted by its eafy flow to thofe familiar topics which are gene-
rally the fubjeéts of diurnal effays, was too weak for the weight
of abftra& moral difquifition, and too vague for the niceties of
metaphyfical diftin@ion. It was fitted for him whofe obje& was

to catch what floated on the furface of life; but it could not ferve.

him who was to enter into the depths of the human mind, to
watch the progrefs of intellectual operation, and embody to the
vulgar eye thofe ever fleeting forms under which the paffions

vary.

ir

[ Gr fi

Ir might afford much matter of curious {peculation to the phi-
lologift, to enquire whether it was this aptitude in the language
of Addifon to thofe light topics of writing in which he excelled
that directed his choice of fubje&ts, or whether his peculiar caft
of ftyle was formed by his choice of fuch topics. Probably both
operated, or rather both were effects of the fame caufe. A man’s
caft of thought gives a charadier to his ftyle, and where choice is
free, the fubje& for compofition is determined by the complexion
of the mind. But whatever might have been the caufe of
Addifon’s excellence in point of ftyle, or that of his compeers
Bolingbroke and Shaft{fbury, it is certain that for fome time pre-
vious to the revolution there had been caufes in operation which
neceffarily tended to produce a general improvement in the ftyle
of Englifh profe. Some of thofe have been already hinted above ;
there are others that deferve mention. Not only had the religious
and political difputes which had called forth and in fome mea-
fure fharpened the intelle& of the nation, introduced a pofitive
improvement in compofition—they did more; they fowed the
feeds of ftill farther and more important improvements, by dif-
fufing a tafte, and in fome meafure creating a neceflity for ftudy.
Claffical learning had been revived by the reformation. Inftead of
‘the barbarifms of monkifh Latin, the public had gotten a tafte,
not only of the fine writings of antient Rome, but of the compo-
fitions of the poets and hiftorians of Greece, who had been fo long
buried beneath the rubbifh of popith ignorance. Literary contefts,
created by political differences, diffufed ftill more widely a know-
ledge of thofe beft models of compofition—for on a queftion of
government

[ 62 J

government or of liberty, to whom could’ reference be fo: fafely
or naturally made as to thofe who were fuppofed to have known
beft the theory of the one and the practice of the other? In faa@,
claffical learning was perhaps never more cultivated in England
than for fome time previous to the revolution, and in fuch cir-
cumftances it was impoffible that ftyle fhould not have improved
in its moft effential qualities.

Ir has been already obferved that the ftyle of Dryden was in
almoft every point of view much fuperior to that of the writers of
his day. So far then as he exhibited to the public better models
of profe compofition, fo far muft he have contributed to improve
the ftyle of that and the fucceeding period. But exclufive of this
excellence in his writings, the nature of the fubje@s of which he
treated in many of his profe works contributed ftill more to im-
prove the tafte of his countrymen in compofition. Many of his
prefaces are profeffedly critical differtations on various kinds of
writing, and in thefe he communicated to the public, even to
thofe of them who were not the learned, fuch true principles of
tafte, and found rules of judgment, as muft neceffarily have acce-
lerated their approach to that accuracy and elegance which Englifh
profe fo fhortly afterward began to difplay.

THERE was a ftill more immediate caufe of improvement in the
ftyle both of his Profe and Poetry. The polifh and refinement of the
court of Charles II. of which the diffolutenefs was the grave of the
morality of the nation, was perhaps the parent of much of that ele-
gance which charaéterized Addifon, and thofe authors who cultivated

our

or Fe

[ 6% ]

our language in the fucceeding reigns. The public tafte was im-
proved by ingrafting the light beauties of French literature on
the folid ftock of Englifh learning ; and then by a happy concur-
rence of circumftances our language came to unite copioufnefs and
ftrength with grace and elegance.

So wide was the variation of the ftyle of Addifon and his
cotemporaries from that of the period of 1788, that no fub-
fequent variation was fo great or foobvious. His found judgment
and fine tafte raifed the language in which he wrote, at one effort,
as much above its former level as the continued improvements
of fucceeding writers raifed it above that at which he left it. Im-
provement, however, it did receive, and among thofe who con-
tributed to that improvement the amiable Goldfmith ‘holds,
perhaps, the higheft place. Poffeffing all the qualities which
conftitute a fine writer; intelle@, erudition, and above all, tafe
in compofition; diftinguithed equally by the mild fertility of his
imagination, ‘and the corre& copioufnefs of his language, he feems
to ‘have carried the improvements of Addifon’s ftyle almoft as far
.as they could be ‘carried. But even in this its higheft flate of
excellence ‘it ‘was ftill the ftyle of Addifon, diftinguithed by
nothing but a greater degree of thofe qualities for which the writ-
ings of -Addifon were remarkable. As. it would, therefore, be
improper, perhaps, to'call thofe' improvements variations in ftyle,
it will be permitted in an effay of this nature to pafs them over
without more particular notice, and come at once to thofe
changes which have been introduced by Dr. Johnfon—the
coloffus’ of Englith: literature—the multiplicity and.excellence of
whofe

[ ae J

whofe writings have raifed up fuch an hoft of imitators, of friends
and of enemies.

Jounson varied the ftyle of Englifh profe in three inftances—
in the form of its phrafes, in the conftruction of fentences, and
in diétion. To defcribe accurately thefe variations were to give
an Effay on his ftyle and writings; and this has been already
fo ably done by a member of this Society * that it would be
unfafe and unneceffary again to attempt it. The nature of this
Effay, however, requires that on this fubject fomething fhould
be faid, not to point out his beauties or defeéts, but merely to
mark the variations which he has introduced.

Or the changes in phrafeology introduced by Johnfon the
principal is the fubftitution of the fubftantive expreffing the quality
in the abftra& for the adjeCtive exprefling it in concrete, or, the
verbal fubftantive for the verb itfelf. Thus when he fays that
“ none of the axioms which recommend the antient fages to
“‘ veneration feems to have required lefs extent of knowledge
“ or lefs perfpicacity of penetration than” the remark of Bias,
“ 0, garcoves xaxo,” he fubftitutes extent for extenfive, and
perfpicacity for acute: and when he makes Dicaulus fay that “ every
“ tongue was diligent in prevention or revenge,’ he makes him
fay what in the language of other men would have been “ diligent
“ to prevent or to revenge.”

By

* Vide Dr. Burrowes’ Effay on this fubje& in the Memoirs of the Royal Irith
Academy.

AT RR ee ET OE HOY LIS IS TET

ge

By the frequent ufe of this phrafeology Johnfon has given
a degree of ftrength and folidity to his fentences which he could
have given them, perhaps, by no other means, ‘The advantages
of it have been pointed out in the eflay above alluded to; the
cafes in which it may properly be ufed, and the inftances in
which Johnfon has ufed it improperly, are there mentioned, and
to mention them again would be but to repeat what has already

been eloquently faid.

In the conftruCion of his fentences he has many peculiarities.
One of thefe is, the habit of placing the oblique cafe at the
beginning, and introducing between it and the word by which
it is governed fome qualifying circumftance. Inftances abound:
“ Of two objets tempting at a diftance on contrary fides, it is im-
“ poffible to approach ome but by receding from the other.” —
‘© Many conclufions did | form, and many experiments did J ¢ry, &c.”
“ From the hope of enjoying affluence by methods more com-
“ pendious than thofe of labour, and more generally practicable
“‘ than thofe of genius, groceeds the common inclination to experi-
‘* ment and hazard,” &c. &c.

Or this pratice the principal effect feems to be that of ftrongly
imprefling the mind by exhibiting firft to its view the principal
objet of the fentence. In grave compofitions it gives a tone
of dignity and ftrength which admirably correfponds with the
nature of the fubject, and with refpe& to found its advantages
are equally important, as by affording a liberty of tranfpofition

Vout. VI. en As ea it

\

[ 66 ]

it enables the writer to arrange his claufes in the moft harmo-°
nious manner. The difadvantages of this practice are, that -
it gives a formality to compofition which is not adapted to
the eafy familiarity of the lighter kinds of writing, and, by

leading too frequently to tranfpofition, may fometimes induce
obfcurity.

Ivy may be reckoned among his peculiarities of this kind, that
he crowds together, generally at the end of his fentences, a
number of phrafes fimilarly conftru@ed. Perhaps there is no
mode of expreffion of which he gives fo many examples. “ He
“ who is unfurnifhed with any arts that might amufe his leifure
“ is condemned to wear out a taftelefS life in calamities which
“ few will hear, and which none will pity.’ “ A carelefs glance on
“ a favourite author is generally fufficient to fupply the firft hint or
‘“« feminal idea, which enlarged by the gradual accretion of matter
ftored in the mind, is, by the warmth of fancy, eafily expanded
into flowers, and fometimes ripened into fruit.” “ to whom
we funk into humble companions without choice or influence,
expected only fo echo their opinions, facilitate their defires and ac-
company their rambles.’ ‘* When the trader pretends anxiety
about the payment of his bills, and the beauty remarks how
frightfully fhe looks, then is the lucky moment to talk of

riches, or of charms, of the death of lovers, or the honour of a
‘ merchant.”

ee

ce

Tuere is, probably, no mode of conftructing a fentence better
calculated than this for introducing, without confufion or obfcurity, a

great

[.. 6a]

great number adjunct ideas. To a mind ftored like that of Johnfon
with much of the beft learning of antient and modern times, and
with that knowledge which only an attentive obfervation of life
can beftow; to a fagacity like his, which faw almoft intuitively
through a chain of confequences, and to a comprehenfive mind,
fuch as he poffeffed, which took in at a glance a great number of
collateral circumftances, this ftructure of a fentence was a neceflary
inftrument of communication; it gave fimplicity to what was
complex, and unity to what was manifold. But let the writer
who has not Johnfon’s ftock of ideas, his fagacity or his com-
prehenfion, beware of imitating. When trivial circumftances are
enumerated in this pompous phrafe, or words not of difting
meaning exhibited in long-founding triods, good fenfe and good
_tafte are difgufted: the dwarf in giants armour is more contemp-
tible than in his native littlenefs. we

Bur however the ftyle of Johnfon may be characterized, or
however Englifh profe compofition may have been improved by
thefe peculiarities of conftruction, it is by his nice felection and
corre€: ufe of words that Ze is principally diftinguifhed, and the
Englifh language principally benefitted. The ftudent who, in
tranflating Virgil into other Latin, complained of the difficulty of
his tafk, “* guia optimum quodque verbum Virgilius ufurpavit,’ be-
caufe Virgil had preoccupied the words betft fitted to exprefs his
meaning, paid to the Latin poet a compliment which might with
equal truth be paid to the Englifh moralift. It would be difficult
to convey in fo many other wordsthe precife import of any fen-

(I2) tence

[Coa

tence which he has written. There are few if any words fyno-
nymous in any language: Johnfon, who could diftinguifh the moft
minute fhades of difference in the meaning of terms, always chofe
that which belonged exclufively to the idea he would exprefs; and
where the language afforded no word that would exprefs his
thought with precifion he reforted to a Latin word, and giving
it an Englifh drefs and the f'amp of his own authority, adopted
it into the language.

For the frequency of thefe adoptions Johnfon has been blamed ;
and when an Englifh word could be found commenfurate in its
meaning to the idea he would convey, and not debafed by vulgar
ufe, he was, no doubt, blameable in reforting to another lan-
guage. That he has fometimes juftly incurred this cenfure it
were vain to deny: but it will be found, perhaps, on examination,
that he did not offen refort to exotic words, when he could have
found Englifh words of equal force and equal dignity. He did
not generally, with the jealous policy of a conqueror, raife foreigners
to favour to the exclufion of native worth; but in the true
fpirit of a patriot, fought abroad for a fupply of. thofe wants
which he found to prevail at home.

Tue Englifh is, perhaps, the only language fprung from the
Gothic ftock into which Greek and Latin words can eafily be
adopted, and it is to this facility of adoption that it owes its
fuperior ftrength and ricbnefs. Johnfon, therefore, when he
adopts from thofe languages words more appropriate to his
mening than the Englith language could furnifh, does only that

which

4

[Oa]

which had been done by others before him, only carries farther
an improvement which he did not begin, and adds to thofe ftores
which the induftry of others had begun to accumulate. This con-
fideration however will not always bear him out blamelefs; fome
words he has adopted, for the adoption of which he cannot plead
either neceffity or ufe, for he could have found at home words
of precifely the fame import and of not lefs dignity. But it is
contended that he has not offen thus erred; that on the whole
he has enriched the Englifh language, and that, therefore, he

deferves not merely impunity but praife.

Bestpes thefe diftinguifhing features in the ftyle of Johnfon,
by which he’has varied the ftyle of Englith profe, there is another
equally ‘prominent which it fhall fuffice barely to mention—the
frequent perfonification of virtues and vices, of habits and of

actions *.

SuBSEQUENT to Johnfon there does not feem to have occurred any
variation in the flyle of Englith profe, notwithftanding the immenfe
numbers of modern writers under whofe labours the prefs has
groaned. Of thefe the greater number have no peculiar character
in compofition ; others have imitated, fome with more and fome
with lefs fuccefs, the ftyle of Johnfon; and fome, as a Burke and

a + Reynolds, have rifen in fome inftances, perhaps, above him.
Were

* Thofe peculiarities of Johnfon’s ftyle are found to prevail moft in his Rambler.
His Idler is lefs ftrongly marked by them, and they are {till lefs {trong in his Lives;
a work by which, perhaps, his excellence as an Englifh profe writer is moft fully
confirmed, i

+ Sir Jofhua Reynolds in his Difcourfes to the Royal Academy.

it. et

Were we now confidering the abftraG@t merits of the authors we
mention, it would be unpardonable indeed not to beftow on the
vivid energy of Burke, and the mild and chafte elegance of
Sir Jofhua, a large fhare of attention and panegyric. But fuch
is not the object of this effay: we muft therefore pafs over thefe,
as we have paffed over Goldfmith and others, in filence, be-
caufe though the excellence of thefe writings is fingularly great,
that excellence does not confift in any variations which thofe
have introduced into ftyle, but in the height to which they
have carried thofe principles of compofition which had been cul-
tivated, though lefs fuccefsfully, by others before them.

In treating of the various ftyles which have fucceffively ap-
peared from the revolution to the prefent time I have purpofely
omitted fome which may be thought from their fingularity to have
deferved notice. Such, for inftance, is that of Mr. Sterne. This
I have paffed over without remark, becaufe, in the firft inftance, it
was merely the ftyle of an individual, and has never been generally
adopted by Englifh profe writers ; and, in the fecond place, becaufe
it feems to have been the emanation of an eccentric mind,’ con-
veying its thoughts in language as capricious, and, perhaps, affected,
as the fentiments which fuggefted them, and as loofe as the moral
principles by which they were regulated.

On the POETICAL CHARACTER of DOCTOR
GOLDSMITH. By the Rev. ARCHDEACON
BURROWES, late Fellow of 7 rinity College, Dublin,
and MLR. LA

Docror Johnfon’s lives of the Englifh Poets, however
his decifions may in fome inftances be controverted, contain
a body of the moft found and valuable criticifm. Regular
treatifes of elementary principles on the fubje@ at large are
more difficult and lefs entertaining than a colleGion of judi-
cious obfervations on particular works or particular authors.
The latter lie within a narrower compafs, and require little
antecedent preparation in the reader, while the former appear in
an abftract form, and being ufually conclufions by induétion
pre-fuppofe a knowledge of the particulars from which they are
inferred, or being deductions from metaphyfical principles in
human nature are abftrufe and technical. General truths are
perhaps beft taught by their fpecific application, where grow-
ing naturally from the inftance they partake of its familiarity
and are developed by its explication.

Vor. VI. €..K. ) Tur

Read April
22d 1797,

Le

Tur plan laid down by the publifhers of the collection of
Englifh Poetry to which Johnfon’s lives are prefixed has left
fome authors of acknowledged merit unnoticed by the critic.
But the life of Savage, which exhibits inceffant efforts in the
biographer to palliate grofs violations of morals and decorum,
and the remarks on Gray, in which their author feems to be
wholly infenfible to poetical merit of the higheft clafs, leave us
little reafon to regret that Johnfon was not employed to write
the lives or criticife the works of all his poetical contemporaries.
Among the authors thus left to the animadverfion of humbler
critics our countryman GOLDSMITH ftands confpicuous.
His poetical works altogether do not amount to eighteen hun-
dred lines, and yet fuch is the tranfcendent merit of his two
principal poems, that as a poet Goldfmith is more generally
known and celebrated than many of thofe who have compofed
whole volumes. Criticifm cannot be more agreeably or more
ufefully employed than in tracing out the fources of his excel-
lence and analyzing its modes, in exhibiting the negligences
for which they often compenfate and the culpable excefs to
which they fometimes run, and in contemplating by detail
the literary character of an author of whom it is pronounced
from high authority * that “ he poffifed the art of being minute
“ qwithout tedioufnefs, and general without confufion, and that bis

“ language

* Johnfon in his Life of Parnell.

E. gael

“ language was copious without exuberance, exact without conftraint,

“and cafy without weaknefs.”

Goxpsmitu feems to have poflefled every quality which might.
give popularity to a poet. His language is fimple, his verfifi-
cation flowing and familiar, his fentiments natural and pathe-
tic. His illuftrations are not pompous exhibitions of learning,
allufions to arts which are little underftood, and _hiftories:
which have been little read ; his pictures of nature are not ela-
borate and minute delineations of individual fcenery ; his views
of life are not metaphyfical inveftigations crippled into rhyme,
not conjectural fancies of the manners of remote times or
imaginary conditions, not difgufting expofures of human infir-
mity orf outrageous caricatures of extravagant fingularities.
Always eafy and unaffected, Goldfmith paints nature as it
truck him and manners as he actually obferved them. His
faults too (for fome faults his greateft admirers muft admit
in him—faults allied to his excellencies) are certainly not of
an unpopular clafs. If his language is frequently colloquial,
and occafionally even ungrammatical, it is never obfcure: if
he laments a depopulation in a country where it did not exift,
he knew that a people who loved to hear of grievances were
to be his readers.

JouNson pronounced of the Traveller that it was a pro-
duction to which fince the death of Pope it would not bé eafly

( K2) | to

lL 7a

to find any thing equal. The laft poetical work of Pope was
publifhed in 1744, and the Traveller appeared in 1765. Within
‘that period Akenfide, Lyttleton, Dyer, Collins, Shenftone, Mafon
and Churchill flourifhed, and within that period the Odes of
Gray and the Seafons of Thomfon were publifhed. | Whether
Johnfon’s encomium be not hyperbolical this catalogue may
perhaps fhew, but certainly it fufficiently expofes the unreafon-
able queruloufnefs which Goldfmith fhews when {peaking of
the literature of his age, of the doubts which he expreffes in
the preface to the Traveller as to the reception his poem
might meet with, and of the picture which at the conclufion
of the Deferted Village he has drawn of the neglect and con-
fequent departure of poetry from his country. This is the
tranfmitted peevifhnefs of poets; a conceited language which
Goldfmith took up from Pope, and which found fupport in
the frigid indifference with which his friend difmiffed his dic-
tionary. Johnfon’s good fenfe faw the weaknefs in another,
and in his life of Pope reprobates and expofes it, and Gold-
fmith lived long enough probably to regret it. At leaft in
his later editions of the Traveller he has expunged that paf-
fage in the preface which affected to fay that “ the ftrongeft
“ and happieft efforts of poetry could in his age expect to
* pleafe but in a narrow circle.” Goldfmith’s might not have
been the age of the higheft clafs of writers, but it certainly
exceeded all which went before it in the number of judicious

and well inftructed readers.
Or

CE ye

Or the poets who were his contempories Goldfmith does not
fpeak in favourable terms. The fhort and common place cri-
ticifms which were purchafed from him at the extravagant
price of two hundred pounds for two volumes of his Beauties
of Englifh Poetry reprefent Thomfon as verbofe and affected,
and Shenftone’s ballads as poffefling neither harmony nor fim-
plicity. His Hermit is introduced in the Vicar of Wakefield
as a contraft to the Englifh poetry of the prefent day, which,
he fays, “ is nothing but a combination of luxuriant images
“ without plot or connection—a ftring of epithets that im-
“ prove the found without carrying on the fenfe:”’ and the
preface to the Traveller complains of “ criticifms of late in
“favour of blank verfe and Pindaric odes, chorufles, anapefts
“ and iambics, alliterative care and happy negligence,” and talks
of the poet of the day as “ a half-witted thing who wants
“ to be thought a bold man having loft the character of a
“ wife one—of his tawdry lampoons being called fatires, his
“ turbulence faid to be force and his frenzy fire.” Thefe
attacks on Shenftone, Mafon and Churchill were not all called
for by the occafion: Goldfmith’s fubjeéts and his manner pre-
cluded any comparifon with the two latter, and if any part
of his writings might bear refemblance to any of thofe
of Shenftone or Mafon he fhould have confidered that there
was room on the higher grounds of Parnaffus for more
than one poet of the fame clafs. But the man who could be
difpleafed at hearing the praifes of his friend muft have

deemed

ee ee

deemed all who poflefled excellence in whatever department
as his rivals.

-To the fchemes of his two moft diftinguifhed poems ob-
jections have been often made. The fcheme of the Traveller
was, as he tells us, an endeavour to fhew “ that there may be
“ equal happinefs in ftates that are differently governed from
“ our own; that every ftate has a particular principle of hap-
“ pinefs, and that that this principle in each” (in his firft edi-
tion he adds, and particularly in our own) “ may be carried to.
“ a mifchievous excefs.” This pofition of a particular principle
of happinefs to each ftate, which he affumes as a known truth,
muft appear at leaft a difputable pofition: that all fpecies of —
happinefs are equal cannot be granted, and it is certainly a
grofs degradation of human nature to fay, that after nobler
aims are reprefled

Low delights fucceeding faft behind
In Aappier meannefs occupy the mind.

Tue conclufion which was written by Doctor Johnfon gives
us all which Goldfmith’s poem rationally. eftablifhes, that human
blifs centers only in the mind—that ftate offences and their
punifhments

To men remote from power but little known

Leave reafon, faith and confcience all their own ;

and

[ ee]

and that therefore under every government happinefs may be
attained, inafmuch as

Still to ourfelves in every place confign’d,

Our own felicity we make or find.

All this is truth and good fenfe from the author of the Rambler,
but furely it is very different from Goldfmith’s original po-
fition.

Tue fcheme of the Deferted Village was “ to regret the de-

“ population of England, and to inveigh againft the increafe of
“ thofe luxuries by which it was occafioned.” Goldfmith had
found the leading principles of his Traveller controverted,
and in his dedication to the Deferted Village feems aware
that the fcheme of this poem alfo was queftionable. He is
aware that it will be objected that “ the depopulation it de-
“* plores is no where to be feen, the diforders it laments only
“ to be found in the poets own imagination.” To this he
fays he can fcarce make any other anfwer than “ that he fin-
* cerely believes what he had written, and had taken all pof-
“ fible pains in his country excurfions for four or five years
“© paft to be certain of what he alleged.” There is fome va-
nity in fetting up the fupport collected in a few country:
excurfions for a favourite theory publifhed by him fome years
before, againft the authority of thofe whom he acknowledges
to be the wifeft and beft of his friends. No doubt the
luxury

L 78 4

luxury muft be injurious by which a country is depopulated,
but a foreigner who took his ideas of England in the year
1769 from Goldfmith’s Deferted Village would be ftrangely
mifled. Yet on this imaginary and infecure foundation has
been conftru@ted a poem which may be expected to laft as
long as the Englifh language fhall endure, and nature and fim-

plicity delight.

Bur though Goldfmith’s Theories are not eftablifhed truths,
the author certainly wrote himfelf into a full perfuafion of
them, and it is our fatisfaction that they afford topics admi-
rably adapted for difplaying his peculiar felicities and com-
municating his feleCted information. About two hundred lines
of the Traveller were fent by him from Switzerland to his
brother. It is natural to fuppofe that thefe contained the
author’s defcriptions of the countries through which he had
travelled, and obfervations on the manners of their inhabi-
tants. The fuperior excellency of the portrait of the Swifs
feems to warrant this fuppofition. Pleafed with his own ram-
bling life he faw the people apparently happy wherever he
went. At his return he faw the happinefs of his own coun-
try and compofed his poem on the theory of equal happinefs
every where, and in the contrafted characters of the feveral
ftates which he had vifited he thought he faw the particular
principle on which it was founded. As a writer more than

as a politician he perceived the powerful influence of party in
- England,

ee canal

England, for party he tells us is there the moft dangerous
enemy to poetry. He attempts to moderate the rage of all
parties by an endeavour to fhew that patriotic boafting is the
" fhame of reafon, fince nature and art afford equal happinefs
every where. The poet, mifled by the different fenfes of the
fame word, never confidered that poetical party might fubfift
though national fhould be defiroyed, or that party might in
any fingle country produce the worit effects though that coun-
try and its neighbours were admitted to be equally happy.
But the reader may be fully fatisfied with any means of in-
troduction to thofe admirable national charaéters which actual
infpection had made known to Goldfmith, and which his
poetic fancy could fo beautifully delineate.

In his review of the Englifh character, under the influence
of vanity not yet fufficiently gratified with public notoriety,
and of liberality not limited by prudential experience, he deems
every man unhappy who is poor, and every man a flave who
is not born a legiflator. What he had flated in his Traveller
-in his next poem he would not contradict. He condemns the
luxury which was beyond his reach, and with the eye of a
poet he fees its effects in’ an imaginary depopulation. His
enthufiafm became confirmed in its belief—he had talents to
defcribe it pathetically, and by a procefs fimilar to thofe alge-
braic calculations which from falfe fuppofitions elicit the truth,
he has made it the occafion of introducing in his Deferted

Vou. VI. Caron} Village

[. Bor

Village images which we feel to be impreffive, and fentiments
which we acknowledge to be jutt.

Tue condu& of thefe poems, if not ftrictly regular, is na-
tural and unembarraffed: the digreflions are always feafonable,
and the returns eafy. The Deferted Village begins with a general
view of Auburn in its former ftate of happinefs and popula-
tion, which is immediately contrafted with its prefent decay
—then the author recurs to more diftin@ particulars of its
recollected profperity—to the clergyman, the fchoolmafter and
the village ale-houfe—he contemplates the decay—he invefti-
gates its caufes—he contrafts the benefit with the evils of luxury
—he paints the horrors and marks by a pathetic detail the
progrefs of emigration. If any part appears not firmly rivetted
to his fubjeét, it is the conclufion, that beautiful eulogium on
poetry which no reader would fhew himfelf fo coldly attached
to method as to give up. The Traveller feems to have no part
fuperfluous and none ill- placed. To the concluding topic, of
which Doctor Johnfon fays the Deferted Village is too much the
echo, we are naturally led. The omiflion of the undiftinguifhed
character of the Netherlands was peculiarly judicious. The only
improvement -which might be fuggefted would be the inter-
pofing a character of Spain between Holland and England.
The connection between thefe as it ftands in the poem is faf-
tened on a flimfy feeble minutenefs thrown unneceffarily and

unreafonably

[ s82;J]

unreafonably into the character of the Dutch. As their difregard
of freedom was certainly not greater than that of France or Italy
England is not with better effect contrafted with Holland than
it might have been with either of the others. From Holland
hiftory might have led by a natural connection to Spain, and
the Spanifh character would afford an admirable contraft to
the Dutch and the Englifh, the two between which it would
be placed. ’Tis true the poet looks from the Alps, and Spain
might lie hid behind the Pyrenees—but I apprehend the mi-
raculous improvement of vifion which from the Alpine heights
could difcern objects fo minute as the temples of Italy ought
mot to be reftrained within common limits, and the fame
poetical perfpective which could have brought the moraffes of
Holland into view could alfo have raifed the remote parts of
Spain above the obftru@tion of mountains on its nearer con-
fines. The conduct of Goldfmith’s Hermit * is exquifitely beau-
(inde 2°.) tiful.

* One paflage in his Hermit I cannot pafs over without a particular obfervation.

_ Tt is where the Hermit enumerates the various poflible caufes of the ftranger’s

apparent uneafinefs, and, among the reft, conjeCtures at friend/bip unreturned or
love unregarded.

And what is friendthip but a name, And love is ftill an emptier found,
A charm that lulls to fleep ; The modern fair one’s jeft ;

A fhade that follows wealth or.fame, On earth unfeen, or only found
But leaves the wretch to weep * To warm the-turtle’s neft.

The making the Hermit fuggeit that particular mode of treatment in love which’
he had himfelf experienced, and which the ftory immediately after recognizes, is
peculiarly natural, judicious and affeéting,

| 183: ai

tiful. The interefting abruptnefs of its opening—the humane
and delicate fentiments in the Hermit’s fpeech, giving fo af-
feting and engaging impreflion of his charaéter—the fimplicity
of the following narrative—his importunate folicitation forcing
out at laft the ftory of the ftranger fo judicioufly delayed, and
the furprize and pathos of the conclufion, make this little
poem one of the moft finifhed pieces of affecting fimplicity in

our language.

Natura and affecting fimplicity forms indeed Gold{mith’s
peculiar excellence. Yet where his fubject calls for it Gold-
fmith- is not deficient in fublimity. His defcription of the
rampires artificial pride may ferve to prove this,

Onward methinks and diligently flow
The firm connected bulwark feems to grow:
Spreads its long arms amidft the wat’ry roar

Scoops out an empire and ufurps the fhore.

As may his defcription of the terrors of that horrid fhore to
which his peafants emigrate :

Thefe blazing funs that dart a downward ray
And fiercely fhed intolerable day ;
‘Thofe matted woods where birds forget to fing,
But filent bats in drowfy clufters cling ;
Thofe

eal

Thofe pois’nous fields with rank luxuriance crown’d,
Where the dark fcorpion gathers death around,
Where at each flep the ftranger fears to wake

The rattling terrors of the vengeful fnake ;

Where crouching tygers wait their haplefs prey,
And favage men more murd’rous ftill than they.;
While oft in whirls the mad Tornado flies

Mingling the rayag’d landfcape with the fkies.

This pafflage is more peculiarly in Goldfmith’s manner, the
fublimity here being only an accidental inftrument to heighten:
the pathos.

For denfe and folid fentiments— couplets pregnant with
found reflection in forcible language, fitted to imprefs them-
felves on the memory, and to incorporate in the mafs of po-
pular morals, we in vain look in this author’s writings. His.
moral paflages are too diffufe for quotation: they are long
addrefles to luxury or to freedom, connected details of the
evils of faction, whole fcenes defcriptive of city profufion and
‘rural devaftation, without any effort to concenter their force
in one ftrong apothegm; or to fum up the particulars in more
compact form, and without calling in the fupport of any ac-
knowledged and inftructive truth, delivered in abftract preci-
fion and cloathed in impreffive language. I know but one at-
tempt of Goldfmith’s at condenfing the fubftance of an ante-
cedent detail, and but one of his. couplets. containing a moral

fentiment

[| 5

fentiment of folid compactnefs. The firft is the conclufion of
a paflage where the fplendors of luxury are contrafted with
its evils: the peafant, he fays, is fcourged from the fmiling —
land, :

And while he finks, without an arm to fave,
The country blooms—a garden and a grave.

The fecond is not fo happy—it is a defcription of man in a
ftate of early fimplicity and imagined equality,

His beft companions, innocence and health,
And his beft riches ignorance of wealth.

It is however evident from the neceflity of antecedent expli-
cation that thefe pafflages are not without fome violence de-
tached from the context, and therefore even thefe are not well

adapted for popular quotation.

Bur Goldfmith is not a didactic—he is a defcriptive poet.
And many of his defcriptions cannot be praifed too highly.
The circumftances in his natural fcenes are felected with pe-
culiar propriety, and painted in the moft glowing colours.
His views of Italy and Switzerland in his Traveller cannot be
excelled. His defcription of Auburn in its deferted flate would

have redeemed an ordinary poem.

No more thy glafly brook reflects the day,
But choak’d with fedges works its weedy way :
Along thy fhades, a folitary gueft,

The hollow founding bittern guards its neft :
Amidft

fe Sage]

Amidit thy defert walks the lapwing flies

And tires their echo’s with unvaried cries :
Sunk are thy bowr’s in fhapelefs ruin all

And the long grafs oe’rtops the mould’ring wall.

Here we have a highly poetical delineation of every adjunct of
a defolated country, with appropriate epithets to add to the
force of the effect, and the dowers and glafy brook from its
former {tate remembered to heighten the defcription by their.
contraft.

Sucu is the general tenor of Goldfmith’s defcription of na-
tural fcenes. His defcriptions are by continued enumeration of
admirably felected circumftances—each in itfelf expreflive but
the aggregate of infuperable force. Sometimes however, where
he does not allow himfelf to dwell on particular circumftances,.
or to embellifh them by any thing more than a fingle epithet,
the enumeration is but a tame catalogue of beings or of pro-
perties, and the defcription, accurate indeed, but flat and feeble.
Take an example from his picture of Holland :

While the pent ocean rifing o’er the pile

Sees an amphibious world beneath him {mile ;-
The flow canal, the yellow-bloffam’d vale,

The willow-tufted bank, the gliding fail,

The crouded mart, the cultivated plain,

A new creation refcued from his reign..

Left

ct See4

Left it might be thought the poet’s judicious art to give a
ftudied tamenefs to the defcription of the country of Holland,
I muft fubjoin another inftance where it certainly was not his

object to deprefs his poetical merits to an humble level with his
fubject :

How often have I paus’d on ev’ry charm

The fbelter'd cot, the cultivated farm,

The neverfailing brook, the bu/y mill,

The decent church that top’d the neighb’ring hill.

Or this,

Far different thefe from ev’ry former fcene,
The cooling brook, the graffy veffed green, &c.

In all thefe the author feems fenfible of the tamenefs of the
defcription, and endeavours, with bad effect, to relieve it by the
pompous folemnity of his compound adjectives.

Bur the truth is what Goldfmith has himfelf told us in
his dedication of the Deferted Village to Sir Jofhua Reynolds,
“ that he was ignorant of that art in which his friend excelled.”
He has therefore no idea of picturefque effect. He marks no
diftances in his fcenes—he ftudies no arrangement of his ob-
jects—he enumerates what a fertile fancy and an exact judg-
ment would fuggeft, but the painter who fhould follow him
would have their entire difpofition to make out. The writings
of Mr. Mafon compared with Doétor Goldfmith’s fhew of what
importance the knowledge of the fifter art is to a poet.

THE

eer

THE defcriptions of life and manners, of national chara€ters
in his Traveller, of profeffional in his Deferted Village, and of
individual in his Retaliation, are drawn with mafterly fkill. Gold-
fmith wrote from adtual obfervation with the moft judicious.
feleGion. His accounts are faithful and charaéeriftic fketches
of the hiftory of man. ‘The fports of Auburn are defcribed with:
the accuracy of an actual fpe€tator and with the feelings of one
who had partaken of fuch*. The character of the French pea-
fantry is given con amore. Gold{mith in the moft endearing and
affecting tafte of true paftoral poetry gives us fimple manners
which yet agree with exifting nature and humble life remote
from vulgarity. Whatever might degrade or difguft is carefully
concealed, whatever could amplify is without apparent refearch
produced. In the defcription of the village ale-houfe, the im-
portance which it adds to the poor man’s heart is dwelt upon,
and the oblivion of his care, but the idlenefs, the intoxication

Vou. VI. COMES and

* Mr. Anderfon in his criticifm on Goldfmith prefixed to his edition of his
works among the Britifh poets, makes the following obfervation: «* The village
ss diverfions are perhaps infifted on with too much prolixity and amplification.
«« But we are recompenfed for this generality and redundance by the clailical and
“¢ beautiful particularity and concifenefs of the context—the danci ig pair, the
‘© fwain miftruftlefs—the bafhful virgin,” &c. This obfervation is very nearly
faying that we are recompenfed for Gold{mith’s generality by his particularity, and
for his redundance by his concifene/s.

L. #324
the quarrels are kept judicioufly from our view. His deferip-
tion of the occupations of the Swifs peafant is a mafter-piece :

Chearful at morn he wakes from fhort repofe,
Breafts the keen air and carols as he goes ;

With patient angle trolls the finny deep,

Or drives the vent’rous ploughthare to the fteep ;
Or feeks the den where fnow-tracks mark the way,
And drags the ftruggling favage into day.

No one fpecific circumftance of hardihood has efcaped him, and
fcarcely a fingle word occurs in the paffage which does not add
‘appropriate energy. The founds in the village evening and
the furniture of the ale-houfe deferve the fame praife.

Wuen Goldfmith has not leifure to give a compleat defcrip-
tion, where by-.a few particulars a general propofition is to be
impreffed, thofe which he felecs are always the beft fitted for
their purpofe. Thus where the vanity of the French is to be
exhibited Goldfmith fays, :

Here vanity aflumes its pert grimace

And trims her robes of frize with copper lace,
Here beggar pride defrauds her daily cheer

To boaft one fplendid banquet once a year.

Where the pleafures of the luxurious are to be defcribed as
fickening into pain the particulars which our author’s admirable
feleGiion fpecifies are the Jong pomp and the midnight ma/querade..

But

ee:

But one of the greateft beauties of Goldfmith’s defcriptions is
the embellifhment of his landf{capes by his figures. Every fcene
with him is alive, and even defolation is made more affec-
ing by the fad hiforian of the penfive plain whom he intro-
duces. This is the great art of interefting the reader: we may
contemplate with pleafure or with furprize inanimate nature,
but our feelings are for man. The landfcape in return may by
its affociations refle&t congenial impreffions, and of fuch Gold-
fmith takes advantage in the beginning of his Deferted Village,
where the enumeration of affeGting objets of ruin and decay
naturally gives a melancholy caft to the mind. It is idle then
to complain, as has been done, that our pity is there excited
for what cannot fuffer—for a brook—or a glade—or a walk—
or a wall. We do not feel for the inanimate obje@: our
minds are only pre-difpofed by the review of thefe melancholy
fcenes to feel pity for the perfons who are afterwards defcribed,
and our feelings are for the peafants who have been compelled
to emigrate from Auburn. The folemn darknefs of a Gothic
cathedral is not religion, but its efficacy to produce an awe
on the mind which fits it for the reception of religious im-
preflions is indifputable—and he muft have none of the verfa-
tility of human fancy or the fympathies of the human heart
who could fo rivet his attention to the externals of the {cene
of defolation as not to recur to the condition of thofe who
had formerly been its inhabitants.

( M2 ) Tue

ies 5

THE variety of Gold{mith’s powers in defcription of character
is perhaps fhewn moft ftrongly in thofe two which immediately
follow: each other in his Deferted Village—-the clergyman and
the fchool-mafter. The paflage in his epitaph “ Sive rifus effent
movendi five lachryme, affeCiuum potens at lenis dominator,” here
comes out an eftablifhed truth. If the line 7

Carelefs their merits or their faults to fean,

does not add much praife to the clergyman’s character; it was
however the undiftinguifhing liberality for which Goldfmith was
himfelf remarkable, and on which he prided himfelf in fpite of
prudence and of propriety. The profefiional exertions of the
clergyman in the difcharge of his duty, and particularly at the
bed of ficknefs, are recorded in a ftile of pathetic folemnity not
to be exceeded. The fchool-mafter is a contraft of fuch oppo-
fite merit that we might almoft wonder at its being produced
by the fame hand. Humour cannot produce a picture more
rich in the writings of thofe who could never be ferious. The
affetted gravity with which his multifarious learning is pro-
duced, the legendary ftile in which the whole is judicioufly de-
livered, and above all the ludicrous circumftance of ruftic wonder

at the conclufion,

That one fmall head could carry all he knew

thew Goldfmith’s powers in this ftile of poetical compofition
not

SP EE ES PS

Legume |

not inferior to thofe which he exhibits in the more ferious and
pathetic. The character of the fchool-mafter, and defcription of
the village ale-houfe to which he condudts the poet, are genuine
productions of that pen which had given to the public the
Citizen of the World and the Vicar of Wakefield.

In pathetic images and defcriptions his Deferted Village
abounds, and it is peculiarly the merit of Goldfmith that he
affeGts us only where we ought to be affected. He does not
by any overfwoln amplification of minuteneffes, by any trick of
inftant vehemence, or by any delineation of the grievances of
hypochondriac fenfibility fuddenly excite an emotion, of which
when we come to confider its caufe we are afhamed. He
improves our morals by making us fympathize with genuine
unequivocal afflition: he fettles habits of ufeful and permanent
impreffion, for he makes us feel for domeftic diftrefs—for the
fair who is forfaken, and the family which is forced to brave
the horrors of emigration.

When the poor exiles every pleafure paft

. Hung round the bow’rs and fondly looked their laft,
And took a long farewell and withed in vain
For feats like thefe beyond the weftern main,

And fhudd’ring ftill to face the diftant deep
Return’d, and wept, and ftill return’d to weep.

The fubfequent defcription of the individuals abounds with the
higheft ftrokes of Goldfmith’s powers in the pathetic.

THe

ti [ 92 |

Tue great praife of all our author’s compofitions ferious or
comic, in profe or verfe, is that every thing appears eafy, fimple
and natural—without any affeGation, and with little appearance
of effort or labour. This feems extraordinary as to his poems,
when we are told his particular mode of compofition. “ He ufed,”
{ays one of his biographers, “ firft to fketch out a part of his
“ defign in profe, after which he fat down carefully to verfify
“ what he had written, to correct it and to add ideas better fuited
“ perhaps to the fubje@.” From his view of his materials ante-
cedent to their final and eftablifhed arrangement we might ex-
‘pe@ a judicious general method, and fuch we actually find;
but we might alfo expect that his mode fhould leave behind
it traces of labour and artifice—the advantages of accuracy and
the ftiffnefs of ftudy. His works on the contrary exhibit no
marks of art—his verfe feems to contain his firft thoughts im
his firft expreffions. The reafon of this we may perhaps find
in the author’s character. His vanity had fo ftrong an attach-
ment to that he had once written that his poems in all pro-
bability differ but little either in fubftance or in order from
their profaic elements. It is true Gold{mith’s later editions alter
many paflages in his earlier ones, but the relu€tance with which
he had parted with his former has ufually made his corrections
in the latter incomplete, and has left the correfted paffages at
laft but a fort of tiffue between what they were and what they

ought to be.
Or

Peaae. > |

Or his fondnefs for his own writings we have an unequivocal
proof in the frequency with which he borrows from himéfelf.
Sentiments occur in his plays exprefled in the very fame words
as in his Vicar of Wakefield. The lengthening chain which he
drags in his Traveller, as he removes from his brother, conneéted
the Chinefe philofopher with his friend in the Citizen of the
world. The excellent furniture with which he has decorated his
village ale-honfe belonged formerly to Scroggen the hackney au-
thor whom Goldfmith had before defcribed. The couplet in his
Deferted Village

Along the lawn where {cattered hamlets rofe
Unwieldy wealth and cumbrous pomp repofe,

is almoft a tranfcript of the following in his Traveller

And over fields where featter’d hamlets rofe
In barren folitary pomp repofe.

And of that fublime paffage already quoted which defcribes the
horrors of the weftern clime we have the original in the Tra-
veller, where

the pilgrim ftrays
Through tangled forefts and through devious ways,
Where beafts with man divided empire claim,
And the brown Indian marks with murd’rous aim.
There while above the giddy tempeft flies
And all around diftrefsful yells arife, &c.

Passaces

eae Se

Passaces of fuch fimilarity in fentiment and expreffion cer-
tainly fhew the peculiar fondnefs with which Goldfmith looked
on any work which he had once given from his hands, and
which fo chained’ down his imagination to one mode of confi-
dering a fubje@t that whenever that fubje@ recurred the author
could not view it but in the very fame light. Goldfmith how-
ever appears fometimes to have caught the fame fondnefs for
fentiments which had been expreffed by other authors, and, as
if unconfcious of their original, delivers them in their identical
words and forms of fpeech. Pope has the following couplet :

To favage beafts and favage laws a prey,
And kings more furious and fevere than they,

the laft line of which is of the very fame ftru@ture with one
of our author's quoted in page 83. And no perfon can be
prevailed on for a moment to imagine that there is not fome-
thing more than a cafual coincidence between Goldfmith’s

Man wants but little here below
Nor wants that little long,

And Young’s,

Man wants but little, nor that little long..

Surely the author who could borrow with fo flender artifice

could not fufpe@t himfelf of plagiarifm and muft have miftaken

the treafures of his reading for the conceptions of his fancy.
Tuis

f i el

Tuts identity of phrafe on the recurrence of the fame fub-
je@ts certainly indicates a fcantinefs in Goldfmith’s vocabulary.
He has alfo favourite words and forms which thew themf{elves
in every page. We have the unfeeling train, and the lowly ¢rain,
and the vagrant ¢rain, and the harmlefs ¢raim, and the bufy train,
and the lovelieft tram, and the gorgeous tram, all in the Deferted
Village—We have within its firft feventeen lines the author '
loitering over the grecn of Auburn—and defolation faddening
all its green, and the healthful {ports which formerly brightened
all its green. We have the friend crowned, and the glafs crowned,
and the board crowned—all very loofe and indefinite fignifica-
tions of the word. We have colloquial phrafes, fit me down,
—once a year—many a time—times are altered. We have weak
words, adverbs and prepofitions often filling up his verfes.—
All thefe are carelefs faults which a little attention might have
rectified, and founded perhaps in too great a love of fimplicity
and defire to be familiar.

- Goxpsmitn’s diction both in verfe and profe is extremely
eafy—in fome places perhaps to negligence. His Traveller begins
with feveral adje@ives ftrung together,

Remote, unfriended, melancholy, flow,

while the fubftantive to which they belong does not appear
until the feventh line. He is not ftudious of writing with
the exa€tnefs of a grammarian, and therefore fometimes ufes

Vou. VI. ( (NOD prefent

L.90 a

prefent for paft times, fometimes pailive for active participles ;
fometimes he even gives us paflages wholly independent of re-
eular connection in the conftruction of the fentence, as in his
defcription of the Dutch in his Traveller,

At gold’s fuperior charms all freedom lies,
The needy fell it and the rich man buys;
A land of tyrants and a den of flaves,

Here wretches feek difhonourable graves.

In this paffage however, and in all of this fort, it is but fair
with refpe€t to our author to ftate that his meaning is not at
all obfcure. Goldfmith’s conftructions rarely lead to obfcurity
or ambiguity *. Like Addifon he is fimple and familiar, and
like Addifon he is elegant and intelligible.

As the epithets of other poets have met his cenfure his own
are fairly fubje@t to animadverfion. His penfive plain has been
condemned as too bold—I think with little reafon—with lefs
certainly than his d/eak Swifs which feems more extravagant,

his

* There is one form of phrafe ufed frequently by Goldfmith, which, if followed,
might in other authors lead to ambiguity—it is the deferring of circumftances which

limit a particular fubftantive until other fubftantives hall have been interpofed. In
the couplet,

Whatever blooms in torrid traéts appear
Whofe bright fucceffion decks the varied year,

The bright fucceffion feems rather to belong, by the conftruCtion, to ¢raés than to
blooms.

bo anal

his /enfual blifs which may be miftaken, or his d/ethoric ill which
is technical. He is too fond of compounding new words by
the mere inartificial addition of two known ones, as qwave-/ub-
jetted, fhelter-feeking, rocky-crefed, and crouding them together
until the reader is difgufted with their monotony. But many
of his fimple epithets have a force of argumentative fignifica-
tion and beauty of delicate expreflion which the pomp of learned.
founds cannot often reach—as in the following lines:

«¢ The toiling pleafure fickens into pain.”

‘¢ No bufy fteps the grafs grown footway tread.”
‘¢ Here the pale artift plies the fickly trade.” -

“¢ The robe that wraps his limbs in filken floth.”

You have in a fingle epithet the ftate of Swifs morals fully
accounted for,

And love’s and friendfhip’s finely-pointed dart
Fall blunted from each indurated heart.

And in another epithet you have a complete picture of the
Italian fcenery,

Its uplands floping deck the mountains fide,

Woods over woods in gay zheatric pride,

Tuus. we fee that though cafe and fimpliciy are the cha-
racteriftics of our author's writings, yet there is no want of
ornament 1n his imagery or of metaphorical graces in his dic-

C Noe) tion.

[| 98° 4

tion. His fimiles therefore might be expected to be, as indeed
they are, beautiful piGtures and well-adapted illuftrations. With
their acknowledged merits of this fort they certainly unite one
of fingular fubtilty. Many of them are local images, the ap-
propriate growth of the fcene or country which he defcribes.
The mean delights of the modern Italians fucceeding the no-
bler aims of their progenitors are illuftrated by the fimile of
the peafant feeking fhelter in thofe domes where Czfars once
bore fway*. The virtues of the Swifs are like falcons cowring
on the neft: the Dutch, conformed to fervitude, are

Dull as their lakes which fleep beneath the ftorm.

Such a felicity in his fimiles embodies them into the main
fubje&, and even gives an apparent ftrength to the theory in
his Traveller, by an indireét intimation that the national cha-
racter is founded in fome affociate circumftance of the natural
hiftory of each country.

Tue fimile in which our author compares the, mifer’s rap-
ture at the view of his hoards and his fighs for thofe which
are wanting with the alternate paffions in his own breaft, of

pleafure

* The fame effect is produced by an artifice of Goldfmith’s diétion. The pecu-
liarity of the word /ong-fall’n as applied to the mind in Italy naturally recals to our
view the J/ong-fall’n columns in the fame country which had been mentioned but
eleven lines before, and thus induces a mental comparifon between the ftate of their
arts and their minds.

Be cen

pleafure at the goods. which Heaven has given to man, and
forrow to fee the board of human blifs fo fmall, pleafes me
more than the more celebrated ones of the child clinging

Clofe and clofer to the mother’s breaft,

and the circle bounding earth and fkies which

Allures from far and as he follows flies *.

The caufe of the child’s clinging has no connection with the
mother to whofe breaft fhe clings, whereas the loud torrent
and the mountains roar is a natural adjunct to thofe moun-
tains to which the Swifs peafant is more firmly bound: and
how the horizon allures from far by no means appears. But
the two fimiles which decorate the village clergyman, of the
bird tempting its new-fledged offspring to the fkies, and the
tall cliff around whofe head fettles eternal funfhine, are for
endearing intereft and appofite beauty unequalled by any of
our author, and excelled by very few in the language.

Go.psmitn’s verfification has been formed with great exact-
nefs on the model of Mr. Pope. Whoever reads Wind{for Foreft
with attention will find the elements of many paffages in Gold-
{mith’s writings, will difcover the original in which he ftudied

poetry

* Strange that one of Goldfmith’s commentators fhould fpeak of this as a fimile
of the rainbow !

if 169.-4

poetry and from. which he caught by congenial feeling the
graces of elegant expreflion and harmonious verfification. Every
poem of Pope's contains fomething, which to a reader who
knows our author will recall fome paflage in his works by a
word or by a conftruction, by fome turn of the verfe or of
the fentiment. Goldfmith’s verfification is more feeble and
more carelefs than Mr. Pope’s, but perhaps it is more varied
and more fimple. I cannot avoid quoting one of the fhorteft
of Goldfmith’s poems as a {pecimen, among many other beau-
ties, of the eafe of his conftru@ions and the harmony of his

numbers.

ON MEMORY.

Oh! memory, thou fond deceiver
Still importunate and vain,

To former joys recurring ever,
And turning all the paft to pain.

Thou, like the world, th’ oppreft opprefling,
Thy fmiles encreafe the wretch’s woe ;
And he who wants each other blefling
In thee is fure to find a foe.

:

In the lines of Goldfmith we have no elaborate equipoife.
between the parts where the latter half is made an epigram
upon the former. His only artificial ornament is alliteration

which occurs too frequently for us to fufpect its being cafual.
He

“~

geome |

He continues the fame thought often beyond the line, and
fometimes beyond the couplet *. Hence it happens that his
verfes are natural and their harmony varied, though it mutt
be obferved alfo, that the paufes in found do not always co-
incide with thofe:in fenfe. His lines are often eked out by
feeble and expletive parts adjoined, fuch as more, between,
here, fo, and feveral weak terminations and profaic verfes might
be pointed out in his writings, as where he tells us that the
morals of the Swifs are dui Jow—that the train of Auburn at
proud men’s doors leg a little bread—or that nations though
wery poor may fill be very blef. Wis rhyming words are gene-
rally monofyllables of the moft familiar clafs. The word jire
rhymes in two couplets out of three in his Traveller—the
word round rhymes three times in eleven couplets in his
Deferted Village. Goldfmith in this refpe& did not fufficiently
confult variety, but he polfeffes thofe happy arts of engaging
the reader’s attention to fome beauty, or interefting his _affec-
tions by fome pathetic image, and the fault which is not per-

ceived is as if it did not exitt.

Gotnsmitn’s faults are all faults of apparent inadvertence ;
but would his poems be more excellent had he ftudied to
correct

* This is fometimes attended with a powerful and fublime effec.

Befide the bed where parting life was laid,
And forrow, grief and guilt by turns difmay’d,
The veverend champion flood. At his controul, &c,

[+ Foo =a

correct them to greater minutenefs? He might have arranged
his thoughts in regular climax—he might have given us con-
trafted fentiments and parallel phrafes—he might have def-
tined forcible words to important places —he might have
condenfed matter for concluding couplets. But his works
would have been elaborate—his diction pompous—his verfifica-
tion meafured. He would have forfeited his eafy fimplicity.
Some readers would not fo well underftand him and perhaps
none fo much delight in him. At prefent he is a general
favourite, and thofe who think his excellence is of that com-
mon nature which any perfon might reach have only to make ©
the attempt and thus convince themfelves of his merit. Pa-
radoxical as it may feem, there is no ftile of writing more
difficult of attainment than that which is natural.

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A LETTER jrom WILLIAM CAULFIELD LENNON,
Efg; to the Right Honourable the EARL of CHARLEMONT,
Prefident of the Royal Trifh Academy, Fc. Fe. Se.

My Lorp,

Permit me to have the honour of prefenting you Read Nov.
an image taken from a Pagoda in Bangalore, at the ftorming of *” '7°*
that fort in 1791, which, if it proves worthy of a place in the
Cabinet of your Academy, I fhall confider myfelf amply recom-
penfed for the trouble of bringing from thence. ‘

Tus image reprefents Letchemyf, the goddefs of riches,
fertility, beauty, mirth, courage, joy, eloquence and matrimony,
Vou. VI. [A] who

+ (Lechemy)-The name of this goddefs is thus written by Craufurd, in his Sketches of
the Hindoos, and by moft of the earlier writers: « Lechemy,” fays Craufurd, «is the
«« confort of Vifhnou, and is the goddefs of abundance and profperity.” By Sir
William? Jones (Afiatick Refearches, Vol. I. on the Gods of Greece, Italy and India)

fhe

[ie

who from the variety of her power and patronage is ftyled
Mahay Letchemy, or the Great Letchemy. She is the firft wife
of Veefhnoo, one of the Treemoortee or Hindoo Trinity, to
whom fhe was married under the name of Seddee, when that
god manifefted himfelf to the world under that of Rama, at
the court of her terreftrial father Tifferadah Rajah. She is
equally worfhipped in all the pagodas or temples both of Shiv-
ven and Veefhnoo, the former of whom is the chief and moft
powerful of the Treemoortee. Bruma, the third in confequence
and power, has no temples of worfhip erected to him. She is
reprefented in the habit of a Cunfhinnee or dancing girl, as the
goddefs of mirth and beauty: the flower fhe holds in her
right hand is the Taumaray or Indian Lotus, which grows in
all the tanks or refervoirs of water, and is the emblem of fer-

tility, as it only grows in water, on which all fertility in that
country depends.

Tue

the is called Lac/bmi, and is by him fuppofed to be the Ceres of Hinduftan, her moft
remarkable name being Sv7, or in the firft cafe Sris.—“Tt may be contended,” con-
tinues he, ‘ that although Lacfhmi may figuratively be called the Ceres of Hinduf-
tan, yet any two or more idolatrous nations, who fubfifted by agriculture, might
«« naturally conceive a deity to prefide over their labours, without having the leaft in-
tercourfe with each other; but no reafon appears why two nations fhould concur
«in fuppofing that deity to be a female: One at leaft of them would be more
« likely to imagine that the earth was a goddefs, and that the god of abundance
« rendered her fertile. Befides, in very ancient temples near Gaya, we fee images
« of Lacthmi with full breafts, and a cord twifted under her arm like a horn of
«« plenty, which look very much like the old Grecian and Roman figures of Ceres.”
This goddefs is alfo named Vedma and Camala.

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Tue metal of which this and the generality of images in
India are formed is compofed of the free offerings of the vota-
ries who attend the pagodas at certain times, Of the dif-
ferent coins, pagodas which are gold, rupees filver, and
dubs or doodies copper, when the bramins of the pagoda
have got the quantity neceflary, the whole is melted together
and caft into the defired form; the natives of India being par-

ticularly ingenious in compounding metals of different qua»
lities.

Tue leaf which accompanies the image is the Cadjan or Pal-
myra* leaf, on which the Hindoos write with an iron ftyle.
The writing on it is a fable in the Tamoul or Malabar language,
a tranflation of which I obtained from my friend Mr. Kinderfley,
author of Specimens of Hindoo Literature, which I alfo take the
liberty to fend, and hope it may prove acceptable.

I have the honour to be,
My Lord,
Your Lordfhip’s moft obedient,
And very humble fervant, |

W. CAULFIELD LENNON.
Dublin, Auguft 1, 1794.

* (Palmyra) A fpecies of the palm tree, of which there are three kinds in India;
ef thefe the moft efteemed is the Cocoa, the next in eftimation is the Palmyra, and
the leaft valuable is the Date Tree.

A 2

[etd
Fable of the Fackall and Drum.

IF the waters of your fears {well immoderately the banks of
your fortune will be broken. When fortitude fails no fuccefs is
to be expected. What appears moft terrible may prove an empty
found.

Two hoftile Rajahs having engaged in battle one of them
was routed, and among other articles his troops left on the field
of battle a drum. A neighbouring jackall, attracted by the
{cent of the blood, came to the fpot, and had already, in ima-
gination, devoured the flaughtered elephants and horfes around
him, when his attention was arrefted and his alarms excited by
the found of a drum. At firft fancying the Rajahs were return-
ing to battle, he prepared, however reluctantly, to decamp, but
the noife ceafing he ventured to approach the fpot whence it
proceeded ; when difcovering that it arofe from the wind occa-
fionally ftriking a branch, which hung loofe from a tree, againft
the drum, he paffionately tore the caufe of his terrors, and
turning to the banquet before him quietly enjoyed his good

fortune.

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An ACCOUNT of fme MANUSCRIPT PAPERS which
belonged fo Str PHILIP HOBY, Kwicur, who filled feveral
important Offices in the REIGN of KING EDWARD ‘fhe
SIXTH, and which are at prefent the Property of WILLIAM
HARE, Esa, one of the Reprelentatives in Parliament for the
City of Cork; by the Reverend Mr. HINCKES of Cork, com=-
municated by the PRESIDENT.

"Tue defire which. mankind have ever felt to be acquainted aa
with the proceedings of their anceftors, and the important ad- 1796
-vantages which may be derived from _hiftorical knowledge, have
caufed great attention to be paid to all the various fources of hif-
torical. information. Amongft thefe fources, public a&s of the
government, and the private as well as public correfpondence of
individuals, whofe great knowledge or peculiar fituation gave
them an opportunity of being acquainted not only with events,
but alfo with the caufes of them, have ever held a principal place ;
_and all. good compilers of hiftory have carefully confulted. fuch
as could be found in public libraries, or in thofe offices of ftate

“ g-s-ewe © -appointed..

*

b #4

appointed for their reception. The correfpondence of an ambaf-
fadour refiding at a foreign court with the government at home
muft be particularly ufeful in this view, becaufe the letters ad-
dreffed to the ambaffadour would contain an account of important
tranfaCtions at home with the caufes of them, to enable him to
fet them in a favourable light abroad; and the letters of the am-
baffadour would contain not only an account of all his tranfac-
tions with the prince at whofe court he wasa refident, but alfo
all the intelligence he could procure relating either to that court
cr others, his ewn opinion concerning them, and what he under-
ftood to be the general opinion. This was more neceflary, and
therefore was probably more common, in times when there were
no newfpapers, or frequent communication by letters, than at
prefent, when means of information lie open to every individual.
In the correfpondence of an ambaffadour from England to a mari-
time power, fome information refpeting the ftate of commerce
may alfo be expected, becaufe complaints would frequently be
made which would demand his attention. Even letters from
private perfons, whether of eminence or not, are interefting, when
written long before our own time, becaufe, though only compli-
mentary or fupplicatory they muft throw fome light on the
manners and cuftoms of the period in which they were written.

‘Tue ftate of the language and the autographs of eminent perfons
are alfo ufeful, not merely to gratify the curiofity of the antiqua-
rian, but alfo to prevent the forgery of writings in the name
of ancient authors by rendering the detection of it more eafy.

It

[oo]

It was by an accurate knowledge of the mode of writing and:
fpelling when Shakefpear lived, by comparing the pretended
hand-writing of Queen Elizabeth and others with their real auto- ~
graphs, and by pointing out feveral variations from the manners
and cuftoms of that period, that an eminent critic was able com-
pletely to deteé& the late forgery of manufcripts in the name of
Shakefpear, which at firft impofed upon many literary men.
Thus did his refearches into the manufcripts and publications of
the Shakefpearian age enable this gentleman to preferve uncon-
taminated the produétions of a poet who is his country’s pride,
as they had before enabled him to illuftrate them in a more fatis--
fatory manner than any of his predeceffors.

Since fuch adyantages may be derived from an acquaintance
with manufcript papers of paft ages, it becomes a duty incumbent
upon thofe who meet with fuch remains of antiquities as have
continued in private families, either to publifh copies of them if
they prove fufficiently interefting, or at leaft to fignify the con--
tents of them, and where they may be confulted for the infor-
mation of thofe whofe purfuits. may be affifted by a perufal of,
them.

With this view it is intended in: the prefent Effay to give an
account of fome papers which belonged to Sir Philip Hoby, am-
baffladour from King Edward the fixth to the Emperor Charles
the fifth, which are contained in two volumes folio, at prefent
the property of William Hare, Efq, M. P. for Cork, by whom

they

[t 16 J

they have been obligingly lent to the writer with full permiffion
to communicate the contents of them in whatever manner he
pleafes.

Sir Philip Hoby feems to have been firft introduced to the
public by Bifhop Burnet in his hiftory of the reformation, a
work founded upon a very laborious inveftigation of all the papers
he could find in the public libraries or offices to which he had
accefs relating to the period concerning which he wrote.) It is
now well known that Sir Philip filled the poft: above-mentioned
during part of the reign of Edward the fixth, and alfo that he
was employed in other commiffions of importance. One of the
volumes of manufcript papers which are the fubject of this
effay confifts principally of letters to Hoby’ from the Proteétor
and council and from eminent private charaters, all of which
are original; it alfo contains’ ‘fome original ftate papers with
copies of others, and alfo copies of feveral foreign papers, “as will
appear from the lift of the ‘contents which is annexed. The
other volume confifts entirely of copies of letters written by
Sir Philip Hoby to the Prote@or and council whilft a refident
at the imperial court. Thefe letters are not confined to the
reign of Edward the fixth, the earlieft date being in 1539 and

the lateft in 1556; the greateft part were however written in

1548, 1549 and 1550.

By what means thefe volumes firft came into Mr. Hare’s fa-
mily cannot now be exa@lly afcertained, nor can it be of any
importance

[mm ]

importance: as the: proofs of their authenticity are fufficiently
ftrong: It may however deferve notice that the reverend Sir
Philip Hoby, Baronet, who died in the year 1766 Dean. of Ard-
fert, was a lineal defcendant of Sir Edward Hoby, Knight, the
nephew and heir of! the ambaffadour. By his death the title of
Baronet conferred‘ in! 1666. became extinét; but: there is an ac-
count of the family in the firft edition of Collins’s baronetage.
That the’ papers were firft-colle@ed and bound together by Sir Ed-
ward Hoby is probable from the initials E. Hi which are marked

on one fide of: each volume.

In proof of the authenticity of thefe papers it may be obferved
that Bifhop Burnet (a) mentions fuch. a colle@ion which. he had
feen from which he took. extraéts, and the whole of which he
would have publifhed if it had been in his power. Some of
the letters mentioned by Burnet have been found in the manu-
{cript. colleGion, but refpeGting one he feems-to have fallen into
an error, a circumftance very excufeable when it is confidered
- how he was circumftanced. From. thofe which have been found,.
it is however. very probable, if not. certain, that the manufcripts
belonging to Mr. Hare are the very fame which the Bifhop met
with. There are alfo. two letters written by Hoby and Sir
William Paget jointly, found by Burnet in the Cotton library,
copies of which and of fome others on the fame fubje@ are in:

Vou. VI. | B.] thefe

(a) Hitt, of Reform, Vol. iii. p. 1335: 134

[ m ]

thefe volumes, and differ very little (except in the fpelling,
which the Bifhop muft have modernifed) from thofe found in
the appendix to Hift. of Reform. Vol. II. p..135-

Ir may be further remarked that the manner of forming the
letters, the fpelling, and the ftile are fimilar to thofe of authen-
tic remains, of that age; which may alfo be obferved of the
mode of directing and folding the letters, the fize of the feal,
and the water-marks of the paper, which latter vary according
to the country from which the letters were written. The fig-
natures of Archbifhop Cranmer, Bifhop Gardiner, Martin Bucer,
John A Lafco and others agree with facfimiles of their hand-
writing which have been already publifhed (). The titles ufed
by the King in feveral of the ftate papers are alfo agreeable to
the ufage of that period, as ftated by Bithop Nicholfon (c).

To eftablith however the authenticity of thefe papers as much
as poffible, they were fubmitted to the infpection of feveral
literary gentlemen in this kingdom, and amongft others to that
of the prefident and members of the Royal Irifh Academy; and
alfo to that of Thomas Aftle, Efq; of the paper-oftice, Whitehall,
a gentleman well known in the literary world as the author of

a curious

(2) In the appendix to Dr. Jortin’s life of Eyafmus.
(c) Eng. Hitt. Library, Part iii. ch. i. ps 145+ quarto edition.

ae]

a curious and valuable work on the origin and progre/s of writing,
and of Edmond Malone, Efq; the former of whom from his
general knowledge of antiquities and his peculiar means of in-
formation, and the latter from his having paid fuch particular at-
tention to all writings and manufcripts near that period with a
view to elucidate his favourite author, feemed evidently qualified
to give a decifive opinion (¢@). Both thefe gentlemen were fo oblig-
ing as to take the trouble of infpefting them, and declared that
no doubt could be entertained of their being genuine and authen-
tic papers. Mr. Aftle, alfo very politely caufed a fearch to:
be made in the paper-office, which enabled him to inform the
writer that none. of Sir P. Hoby’s letters to the council nor
more than one copy of a letter to him are to be found there,
a circumftance which muft render thefe volumes of more impor~

tance than they would otherwife be.

Havine thus ftated the reafons for believing the authenticity
of thefe papers, a concife account of the contents will be added:
as the beft means of enabling the reader to judge of their im-

portance.

[Ba] Folume

(4d) The writer was indebted to the Right Honourable the Earl of Charlemont,
Prefident of the Royal Irifh Academy, for an introdu€tion to Mr. Malone, and
to the Right Reverend the Bifhop of Limerick for one to Mr. Aftle; favours
much enhanced by the very obliging manner in which they were conferred.

To fome other members of the Academy as well as to other gentlemen he

owes fimilar obligations.

[ a4 jj

Volume containing original letters, frate papers, ®&c.

1539- Instructions from King Henry eighth to Sir T. Wyat
and Mr. Hoby, ordering them to repair to the Emperour
Charles the fifth at that time in Spain, and advife him on
the ftate of his affairs ; of which a view is taken, and a clofe
alliance with England recommended. The principal obje@
of this embaffy was to fettle the terms of a marriage between
Henry and the Duchefs Dowager of Milan, Charles’s niece;
and between the Princefs Mary and a Prince of Portugal,
to whom the Emperour was urged to give the Milanefe.

A LeTTerR from Wyat to King Henry
~Memoranpvm from Wyat to Hoby on his return.

Born thefe relate‘to the fame bufinefs and contain the
Emperour’s anfwer, -&c.

MemoranDvum of remarkable events.—written at Toledo.

Letter from Lord Crumwell to Hoby, ordering him. to
go to France and vifit the daughters of the Dukes of Guife
and Lorrain, take their likenefs, &c.

A FRAGMENT of a letter on the fame fubje&.

1546. Aw order of council to Hoby to appear and anfwer fome
charges againft him figned by: Wriothefly, -and Gardiner, ‘Bifhop
of Winchefter.

1548

bemg i J

1548 to 1553. Twenty-six: letters from the council during the
ProteGtorate of the Duke of Somerfet and four letters after
his depofition, all original, and containing the autographs of
almoft every member of the council—viz. of the Dukes of
Somerfet, Northumberland and Suffolk, the Marquiffes of
Winchefter and Northampton, Earls of Southampton, Bedford,
Arundel and Pembroke, Lords Seymour, Rich and Paget—
Bithop of Ely, Chancellor, Cranmer Archbifhop of Canterbury,
Sir T. Smith, Sir W. Cecill, Petu, Wotton, Hampton, &c.
Some of thefe letters contain important information, whilit
others are merely orders for hiring - foreign troops, fending
ammunition, or on other official matters. Copies of all advices
from Scotland, with which kingdom the Englifh were then
_at war, .are.annexed to thefe letters, and are curious .as giving
the detail of the military tranfaGtiions, and as being the only
court gazette in thofe times.

Five letters from the Duke of Somerfet.
‘Two ditto from the Duke of ‘Northumberland.

One ditto from Duke of Bedford and others fent ambaf-
fadours to France, dated Boulogne, March 1549, giving an
account of the peace they had juft concluded with France.

Two ditto from the famous Cecill, afterwards Lord Bur-
{eigh, one of them an entire autograph written in great agita<
tion in the interval between the death of King Edward and

the proclamation of the Lady Jane Gray.
THREE

feu #]
Tueree letters from Sir William (afterwards Lord) Paget.

Two letters from Sir R. Morryfon, ambaffadour at the
imperial court.

One ditto from Mr. Vane, ambaffadour at Venice.

TurEe ditto from the celebrated Sir John Cheke.

Two letters from John A Lafco.

Turee dittto from Martin Bucer.

One ditto from Maurice, EleGtor of Saxony.

One ditto from the Duke of Ferrara. |

One ditto from Monfieur de l’Odenie, a French ambaffadour.

Four ditto from Pietro Aretino, the laft inclofing two
fonnets on Philip prince and afterwards king of Spain.

Tuere are fome other letters from perfons not fo well
known, and many articles of intelligence, written chiefly in
Italian, from Conftantinople, Rome, Venice, &c. which Hoby
procured to tranfmit to England.

A passport on vellum figned by the King.
An account of the expenfe attending three hundred horfe.

Cory of a warrant to Sir E. Peckham, ordering him to
pay fome money to Hoby.

PasguiLuus

Ew]
Pasguitius GeRMANICUS; intended to ridicule the interim,

REroRMaTIO CLERICORUM; copy of a paper publifhed in
Germany about the time of the interim.

Acta AucusTAr. 14 Junii 1548.

Cory of a long letter from Sir W. Paget, maintaining the
right of the Englith fubje@s to a river which was difputed
by the Duke of Anchot, a fubje@ of the Emperour’s, whofe
territory joined the county of Guifnes, at that time fubje@ to
England.

Cory of propofitions made by the Duke of Lorrain and
Bar to the diet at Augfburg refpeding privileges.

Copy of a proclamation made by a French herald in the
Emperour’s court refpecting jufts at Paris.

1549. Copy of a very long letter written by a Milanefe Gentle-
man to his friend the Marquifs de’Soncino, giving an account of
feveral entertainments at the Emperour’s court in Flanders.

Epict of Pope Julius III. againft the Lutherans.

Copy of a letter from King Edward to the Queen Dowager
of Hungary, regent of the Netherlands, in behalf of Mr. Cham-
berlain his ambaffadour to her court.

A REMONSTRANCE from feveral Englifh merchants to the
Emperour.

Two

[ J

Two petitions refpeCting fhips which had been captured by
the Emperour’s fubjects.

Two memorials refpeCting fimilar captures.

Cory of a letter from the council to Thomas Grefham,
(afterwards diftinguifhed in Queen Elizabeth’s reign) refpe€ting
the borrowing and paying of money for the King in rg51.

Instructions to Sir P. Hoby to pay money for the King.
This paper is original and has the King’s fignature.

AN account of the money as laid up in purfes.
A PAPER containing a reckoning of the money.

An acquittance figned by feveral members. of council, given
to Hoby as a proof of his having paid the money.

An acknowledgment from the mayor of London of his hav-
ing received the city’s bond for the money, the corporation of
London having joined with the King in giving fecurity to the
lender.

Cory of a bill wherein Sir P. Hoby and Mr. Grefham are
bound for fix thoufand pound taken up by them for the King’s
ufe.

A passport figned by the Queen Regent of the Netherlands.

A MEMORIAL of grievances committed by the Emperour’s
fubjeéts, figned by feveral members of the council. (Original.)

INSTRUCTIONS

L 2 4.

InstRUCTIONS given to Hoby as ambaffadour extraordinary
founded on the preceding grievances. (Original with the King’s

fignature.
A suMMaRy of the preceding inftructions.

A u1st of money and jewels which belonged to the Dutchefs
of Somerfet, and copies of confeffions made by the Ladies
Margaret and Jane Seymour, Lady Tyrrell and Chriftopher
Dunn refpeting them.

Copy of the commiffion given to Sir P. Hoby in conjune-
tion with others of the council to hear requefts.

Cory of a commiffion for the fale of charity lands in 1552.

Examination of Lady Suffex refpe€ting fome prophecies
- which had been rumoured in 1552.

Cory of inftruétions given to Sir A. Dudley fent Ambaf-
fadour to the Emperour in December 1552.

InsTRUCTIONS given to the Bifhop of Norwich, Sir P. Hoby,
and Sir R. Moryfon, Ambaffadours to the Emperour, 1553.

Corres of inftructions given at two different times to the
Marquifs of Northampton, Hoby and others, fent to France,
refpeCting the marriage of the King with the Princefs Elizabeth
of France, relating to the dowry, &c.

Vou. VI. : [Cc] Siz

[2d

Str P. Hoby’s charge for expenfes on this embafly to
France, fpecifying the different articles.

Cory of the Marquifs of Northampton’s teftimony of the
fairnefs of the charge—of the King’s order for payment and

of Hoby’s receipt.

InvenToRY of jewels, veftments, &c. in the collegiate
church at Windfor.

Various depofitions, petitions, &c. from the dean and chap-
ter relating to the fale of the jewels and the difpofal of the.

money received for them.

A Diet, or manner of living prefcribed for Sir P. Hoby at
fome baths in Germany in 1554.

Iz proceffo del duello, a long Italian paper dated December
1554

Cory of the Elector of Saxony’s reply to the King of
Bohemia refpecting the prorogation of the diet in 1555.

Account of a treaty between the Emperour and King of
France in 1556, with the names of the ambafladours of the
princes included on each fide, &c.

The

ey a
The other Volume contains

Corres of ninety letters written by Hoby to the Protector
between 11 May 1548 and 19 September 1549, foon after
which he returned to England for a few weeks, and was there
when the Duke of Somerfet was deprived of the protectorate.

Cortes of thirty-nine letters written to the lords of the coun-
cil after his return to the imperial court, beginning 10 November
1549 and ending 28 October 1550.

Tues letters, many of which are very long, contain accounts of
“his. converfations with the Emperour and his minifters; of the
tranfaions of the imperial court; of the intelligence received
there, and of the opinion entertained by the courtiers of Englifh
affairs, which laft topick fometimes introduces his own opinion

and advice.

Sucn are the contents of the two volumes which have been the
fubje& of this effay. It is not probable that they will difcover
any event of importance ; yet they may probably throw light upon
the caufes of fome which have been the fubje& of controverfy,
and particularly the furrender of Boulogne, and they cannot fail to
entertain thofe who love hiftorical detail, and thofe who are
curious to know what was thought of tranfactions by perfons then
living, and the conje€tures which were formed refpecting events

that had not taken place.
[C 2] [The

[ aa F

[The direction of the following letter has been torn off and loft; it is
in the hand-writing of Sir John Cheke, amd is figned by him and Sir
Thomas Wroth, who was alfo engaged in educating the young king.
With refpeé to the Scotch intelligence in’ the poftcript, it may be’
obferved that on comparing it with the extracts from the official
letters which occur in another place it appears to be exaggerated. ]

Wuat an ungracious chanfe have yow, mi lord ambaffadour,
y' whileft Englond was il, and Germanic good ye remained here
to fee thinges ye wold not, and now Germanie groweth to the
worfe, and we to y° better, ye flie from Englond to Germanie,
as though ye could dwel no where but where good thinges
appaire (a). Ifit be yo" nature to make the contree fo, we mai
be glad of your departinge, and defire ye mai go embafladour,
fom other whither, to goddes and the kinges enemies. If y*
goodnefs of y* contree when it is amendinge drive you awaie,
we muft nedes take yow to be fum difeafes fonne, other (6)
yt gontes or the ftones or the fever quartaines, or els fume megre
and drie agues childe, y' can not abide in y* contree. when y*

holfome

(4) appaire. This word is now obfolete and is not to be found in any di€tionary
I have met with. It feems, however, to have the fame meaning with impair,
derived from the French empirer, which was ufed by Spenfer in a fimilar manner.
«< Flefh may impair, quoth he, but reafon can repair.”
See Dr. Johnfon on the word.
In Tike manner appeach and appeachment have the fame fignification with impeach
and impeachment.

(4) other. This muft have been intended for ether.

[ 23 ]

holfome feafon of true religion is come. But howfoever and
wherefoever god go forward, it is mooft fit for yow nov, to lie,
to diffemble, to make a good face if ye had it of all thinges,
and fhew yo" felf to be a man and no angel, and a ferver of tornes
and no trueth. Wel this for yow, ye require now how we doo,
verie wel we thanke yow, and thanke ye for yo" lettres, being
forie for yo" interim (c), and defiring a femper, for y° word of
godde remaineth for ever, and fuer there was never fo good an
interim, for it is an interim in dede, and nothing but an interim,
for while the grafse groweth y* hors ftarveth, ye afk how, even
with y* famin of the worde y‘ y* prophete Jeremie fpeketh (2).
but y*° lord is pacient and abideth y‘ uttermoft plunge, and y=
wil fodainlie arife, and ether overthrow his adverfaries to his glorie,
or punifhe his chirche and chofen for theer finne. Whiche whi-
ther he do, he is glorified every waie, and dothe what he liketh
beft, bicaufe he knoweth what is beft not onelie generallie for
all, but efpeciallie for everie one. Here is no news, but yo’ old
frende (¢) and mine is ftubburn, he will not fpeke of thoos pointes
he is comanded, and of thoos he is charged to hold his peace of,
he can not chufe but fpeke, beinge obedient to himfelf as a mule
y' carieth y° bit in her teth, and fo lerned in his fermone, y‘ his
frendes be afhamed of him. A notable differens betwene autho- °

ritee

(¢c) The allufions to the interim in thefe letters are very numerous.

(4) The paffage of Scripture which Sir John here alludes to, is, I believe, Amos
Vili, 11.—quoting from memory he might eafily make fuch a miltake.

(¢) The old frende here {poken of muft have been Gardiner, Bithop of Winchelter,
who was imprifoned about this time.

[ 24 ]

ritee and feare, in the which when one mai fpeke~ boldlie and
undangerd, everie thinge is wittie, in feare and unquietnes, a
good wit fainteth, and.a harebrained witt femeth ftarke mad,

for y° which fingular, difobediens he hathe bene and is yet in the

towre, a place y‘ hath longed for him, fins y° bifhop of romes
abrogacon, or rather expulfion. In the whiche doinge y‘ fear of
troble is taken awaie, the trueth of religion goeth forwarde, the
waveringe me be confirmed, y* papiftes be aftonied, and everie
thinge is wel mended. Of doutful Haddington, and fkottithe
matters, we wil write more in our next letters, the governemet
of y* realme is deliverd bi parliamet there to y° frenche kinge, (f)
y° fkeptre bi y etle of argile, y° crowne bi y° erle of anguifhe,
y° fwerde bi therle of worth, y° fkottifhe quene to be maried
to y‘ dolphin ef France, and embarked as it is fuppofed to take
iornej into france. God fend grace and y* plentifullie, y' even
as haddington, was builded of great and neceffarie confideracons,
even fo bi his pleafore we maie defende it from there violence
whiche is yet likely inoughe to be kept. Fare ye mooft hartelie
wel, y° XVII of Julie 1548. 2. Ed. 6. from hampton courte. yo’
affured frendes.

Thomas Wrothe.

Joan Cheke.

PosTScRiptT.

(f) This circumftance is probably mifreprefented through prejudice. I can find
no account of it in Buchanan, and though the French intereft was great it is very

unlikely that fuch a furrender fhould be made, With refpect to the ceremony of
delivering

Le 25

Posrcrier. After the ende of this letter cam there good newes
of haddington, y‘ y* fridaie afore ye date hereof or els y*
thurfdaic, y° Scottes for lacke of p°uifion determined to go
there waie whome y* frenfhmen did perfuade to tarie untill
tuefdaie after, p’mifinge in the mean feafon to give thaffault,
the} have yet made no breche, but batterd a bulwarke, and
approched y° ditche with trenches fo y’ y" have fomthinge
underminded y* bulwarke but our men hath countermined
them, fo y‘ there mine is to fmall purpofe. ‘The frenfhmen
entended alfo, to make a platforme on y* chirche bi, fo to
have beten y° wal within, y’ our men fhold not have ben
able to have defended y‘ bulwarke for y* fhot of y* ordinans,
but our men hath fo beten ye ftones about theer eares, y'
the} have difmounted ij of theer peces, and theer platforme
ferveth them to no purpofe. Our men within for the defence
of y* bulwarke have made a counter trenche and a mounte
within y', y' dothe governe y* bulwarke, which the frenfh-
men y“felyes doth fe to be hier then y* wal, fo y‘ this parte
of haddington whiche thej entende to affaulte, is as ftrong
or ftronger y™ y‘* refidue. The forfaid thurfdaie our men
made a falee out, and killed 30 of theer pioners, the fame

daic:

delivering the fcepter, &c. if fuch a one took place, it muft have been on fome
other occafion. With refpeét to the three noblemen mentioned, Douglas Earl of
Angus was one of the moft zealous oppofers of the French intereft, and the Earl of '
Argyle who was chief juftice in 1550 had not then diftinguifhed himfelf. Worth is
a title which bears little or no refemblance to any in Scotland at that time, nor
can I conceive who was meant except it were the Earl of Morton, father-in-law of

the Regent.

f 26 |

‘towarde night was fent out of the towne, an hundred hack-
putters (g), 30 pikes, with Go repers to get grene corne for
, ‘theer horfes, theer was fent out from y* frenth, a nombre of
horfeme, whereof Jamé dog was captain, and a nombre of
‘fotemen of the ringegraves bande (), whereof Monf. Maree
was captaine. O° me notwithftanding this force, brought
in everie man his burden, and al y* men fafe, and with y*
helpe of o' ordinance bent out of y* towne towarde that
place, flew Monf. Maree, hurte 60 mooft parte dedlie, and
left ij in the felde. The-frenfhme accordinge to p’mife made
to y™ bi y* Scottes hath required y*° deliverie of Eden-
boroughe caftel unto the frenfh kinge (7), for y* y° navie of
france laie theer at y° frenfhe kinges great charge, who fhall
not longe be unmett withal if it plefe god, and had no fafe

place

(g) hackbutters. i, e. arquebufiers or harquebutters, as appears from a paflage in the
intelligence from Scotland.

(4) Amongft the troops fent by the French king to Scotland were three thoufand
Germans commanded by the Rhingrave, Buchan, lib. xv. ch. 54. The Rhingrave
was a German prince who was driven from his own country by the Emperour
Charles the sth, whom he had oppofed, and had entered into the French king’s fervice.
He was much efteemed as a foldier.

(i) This demand is not mentioned by Buchanan; but he gives an account of the
French troops under Deffé returning to Edinborough, and on being oppofed by the
Governor, killing him and many of the citizens; a circumftance which proves that
there was little agreement between the Scotch and their French allies. The Englifh
difpatches reprefent almoft every action and fkirmifh as favourable to the Englith
troops, whilft Buchanan reprefents things in a very different manner.

ae oe

place to laie theer municion and trefor in: which y‘ Scottes:
wil in no wife agree unto, til Haddington be won, which thal
be as good hope thinketh not this yere; How y* frenfhmen
wil take y‘ fals p°mifinge Scottes when they have ones bene
deceived inough it is not harde to faie. And for this time
this is al, with our feconde farewel the daie and yere above-
faide,
Joan. Cheke.

Thomas Wrothe:

(Mynute to the Lord Protecto”™ grace.).

Ir may pleafe your grace to underftaunde y‘ th’emperor cam to:
this towne on tewefday laft where he hathe begun to take the
lyke order ffor the gov'naunce of the fame y‘ he ufed w’ aufpurgh
dy{charging: tholde counfell and placing fuche other in theire
fteade as he thinkith meteft wherin he hath fo travailed as he
hath alredy browght the fame in. forwardenes to be at a full poinct
before monday next at thuttermoft for as then he hath appoin@ed
to dept hence towards fphires and ffrom thence after a fhort
abode there ftraught to flaunders as it is here commonly bruted.
It is by lies out of Italy (as I am enformed by creadable men)
written unto thempero’ that now of late certaine foldio™ of the
ifland of corfega to the nomb of X being by the duke Oavian

[D] appoin¢ted:

f 38]

appoingted to fleye don Fernando thempero” lieutenant in Italy
and being by one y* knewe of this confpitacie dyfeovered were i
of them flaine (who with the reft ftode ftoutelye at defence at the
tyme. of there apprehencon) and the reft taken alyve who have
_confeffed the hole circumftaunce of this treafon; theffe@t whereof
is that the houfe of fernefe afwell the duke Octavian as the B of R
had hired them to flay the fayd don Fernando to what ende or
uppon what occafion they knewe not, this thing being conferred
w'" the ffrenche kings pnt repaire towards italye:maketh men
miftruft leaft he be altogether unwitting thereof the rather for
that aboght the tyme y‘ this man fhold hav byn flayne he apointed
to be in the confynes of piamount towards.italye, which being
fo, what was ment ther by his nigh approche to mylaine and lofs
of the gnall capitaune of the fame doth eafely declare, for which
refpe& themper" it is fayd fendyth fiow into “italie owt of this
countrie ij" v° Spaniards fotemen and ij ‘bands»of horfemen, it is
allfo reported by tres owt of italie that the B of R ffynding hym
fellf not thoroughly fatisfied w® the ffrenche kings detracion in
thaccomplyfhement of certayne poinés agreed upon ‘in the league
betwene them hath lately called to hym the firenche am. in Rome
and declarid his grefe complayning y* he is not fo well and frendly
ufed as he fuppofed to have byn at the ffrenche kings hands it is
of fome conie@ured hereby that the league betwene them is not
altogether fo flirme as it was at the begning beleved which never-
theleffe how it can agre w™ the former newes I can by no means

perceyve

Be 207.4

perceyve yet ffor y' I have hard this thing fo reported I have
thought good amongft the reft to fignifie it unto your grace. The
ffrier y’ was thempero™ confeffo" hath nowe willingly lefte y' rome
fume doubt left he be becumeé a ‘proteftaunt, -but the comon
report w’ femethe y° moft certaine is: y’ thoccafion therof hath
byn the ov'much affection wherew™ he feemed to favo’ the B of
R caufe which hath well appered in y' he hath not a fewe tymes
chargid thempero” confciens w' the redeliverie of piazenfa, in
his rome of confeffo'fhip is enterid another ffrier who hath byn ~
w'' me fundrie tymes and pretendyth a greate ffrendfhip towards
me whofe devocon towards the B of R ffor that I have prceyved
by him is fo {mall as he layeth the hole faulte of this p'turbacon
of the worlde (as he terms it) to hym, by this mans means under
the pretenfe of this coloured ffrendfhip I hope to pike* out fume -
what now and then.

ffrom Ulme, the XVIIJ day of auguft a® 1548.
[D2]

N. B. In tranfcribing this letter, care has been taken to copy ali the contraCtions, «

&c, but erafures which are very frequent have not been’ noticed.

* It is hard to determine from the writing whether this word be pike, peke or poke,” °
but the fenfe feems to direct pike for pick.

set

Lb face payed Aniguities Vt, o,

an ta,

ACCOUNT of fur CIRCULAR PLATES ¢&
GOLD foundin IRELAND. ByRALPH OUSLEY,

MM. R.A.

I N the month of Odtober 1795, a peafant near Ennifcorthy in ee iy

the county of Wexford turned up with his plough four plates

of folid gold, perfectly round, and of very neat wormanthip;

he fold them to a Mr. Gurly of Ennifcorthy, filverfmith, who

melted two of them down and fent the other two for fale to the

Earl of Charlemont, Prefident of our Academy. The four were

exadtly alike, quite circular and four inches and three quarters in

diameter, very thin, weighing about one ounce each, ornamented

handfomely at one fide and quite plain at the other, except a kind

of cap or ferew for the purpofe of being affixed to a handle.

The annexed drawing, being exactly of the fize and figure of one

of them, will convey a better idea of thefe ancient articles than

I can pretend to give of them—there being nothing like them in
Harris,

f° 3a

Harris, Smith, Vallancey, Gough or any other of our writers on
antiquities, I thought it worth while to form fome little account
of thefe curious antiques, thoughI can by no means afcertain their

antiquity, or determine their ufe.

From the many articles of gold almoft daily difcovered in this
kingdom it will not appear unreafonable to fuppofe with-‘eur
ancient hiftorians, that Ireland once poffeffed mines of that precious
metal, or elfe muft have had a confiderable traffick with fome
nation abounding in that commodity.

A Frew years ago Mr. Samuel Johns, a working filverfmith
in Limerick, bought a very curious piece of thin gold of this

fhape dash and of an exceeding fine quality, fuppofed to

be a fhield or breaft plate: he got it from a labourer who found it
in the parifh of Feakle and county of Clare—it weighed upwards
of twelve ounces; he gave three pounds eight fhillings and three
pence per ounce for it, and fold it afterwards to Mr. Wm. D.
Moore, Gold{mith in Dublin, for four pounds an ounce.

Anotuer filverfmith or merchant of Limerick (Mr. Wm.
Power) bought a very beautiful crown that weighed above one
pound of pure gold, with a place for a precious ftone in the center,
moft elegantly worked, and found near Shronehill, county Tippe-
rary; it was unfortunately broke up for rings and toys, but has
been feen by feveral of my acquaintances.

ANOTHER

3a

Awnoruer ancient ornament (I fuppofe) I met with a few weeks
ago; it was fifteen inches long, very thin and narrow, about a
quarter of an inch broad, of fine gold and worth about a guinea,
the ends have {mall holes in them to admit a thread thro’ and are
-of this fhape Capa oe
Such another was found a few years fince near Ballinrobe, and
was I believe in the poffeflion of the late Judge Hellen.

I am perfuaded if curious gentlemen in our different provinces
would apply themfelves attentively tothe enquiry, and reward
liberally the finders of gold and filver antiques, a number of very
curious articles would foon be brought to light, to the amufement
of the literati, and the elucidation of our antiquities.

Limerick, Fanuary 25) 1797-

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