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TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

ROYAL
SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

SECRETARY AND TREASURER,
WILLIAM J. MOFFAT,

FELLOW OF THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY, EDINBURGH,

VOL. “= ELE

EDINBURGH.
PRINTED. BOR THE SOC LET ¥,
SOLD BY DOUGLAS & FOULIS, CASTLE STREET.

; 1893.
ILIBRAR y duit VW

YORK BOTANICAL GARTEN
YVLAIN LAL OAAIR DAN

—s!
Te
tea,

RBWUAALES oe
“ETAL LET aoa aii
QienTe wuteAy ALCO § AR
; .& Your 7

© picn.0 wore ee

CONTENTS OF VOL. XIII.

The Society, as a body, is not to be considered responsible for any statements or
opinions advanced in the several papers, which must rest entirely on the authority
of the respective authors.

PAGE

I. Address delivered at the Thirty-seventh Annual Meeting, 5th

August 1890. By Mr D. F. Mackenzie, Morton Hall,
Vice-President, . ‘ : ; , F ; 1

II. How to Combat the Attack of Injurious Forest Insects. By

WILLIAM SOMERVILLE of Cormiston, D.(c., B.Sc., F.R.S.E.,
Lecturer on Forestry, Edinburgh University, . : ; 5
III. On British Oaks. By Jonn Smit, Romsey, Hants, . : 21

IV. The Beech Forests of Hesse Nassau. By GrorGE CADELL,
Esq., 14 Canning Road, Addiscombe, Surrey, . 57

V. The Natural Regeneration of Woods. By WILLIAM SOMERVILLE

of Cormiston, D.(c., B.Sc., F.R.S.E., Lecturer on Forestry,
Edinburgh University, . . : ; ; : 63

VI. Old and Remarkable Trees on the Estates of Earl Spencer in

Northamptonshire. By F. MircHe.t, Forester, Harlestone,
Northamptonshire, : : : : : : 83

VII. The Formation of Plantations. By A. C. Fores, Assistant
Forester, Lintmill, Cullen, ; : : ‘ ; 91

VIII. Trees and Shrubs for Planting in Towns. By A. D. WEpsTER,
Holwood, Kent, : ‘ : : ‘ 5 IE:

IX. The Utilisation of Small-Wood for Turnery and other Purposes.
By A. T. WiLLiAMson, 7 Kew Terrace, Edinburgh, . > 245

X. The Manufacture of Home-grown Timber. By A. T. WILLIAM-
son, Edinburgh, : : : ‘ ; =~ ot

Axpsrract of Accounts of the RoyaL ScorrisH ARBORICULTURAL
Society for Year ending 31st December 1890, : 5 Gy

iv

XI.

XII.

XIII.

XI1Y.

XY.

XVII.

XVIII.

XIX.

XX].

CONTENTS.

Address delivered at the Thirty-eighth Annual Meeting, 4th
August 1891, By Isaac Bay.ey Batrour, Se.D., M.D.,
F.R.S., Queen’s Botanist in Scotland, Professor of Botany in
the University of Edinburgh, and Keeper of the Royal Botanic
Garden, . ; ; :

Introduction to Course of Forestry Lectures, Edinburgh University,
Session 1891-92. By Colonel BarLey, R. E., University Lecturer;
Conservator of Forests, and Director of the Indian Forest
School; formerly Acting Inspector-General of Forests to the
Government of India,

Management of Scots Fir Forests in North Germany. By A. C.
Fores, Farnham Royal, Slough, Bucks,

On the Cedar of Lebanon, Cedrus Libani; syn. C. atlantica, and
C. Deodara. By Roperr Hurcuison of Carlowrie, F.R.S.E.,
University Club, Edinburgh,

Notes on Tree Planting at San Jorge, Uruguay, South America.
By CHares E. HALL, of San Jorge, . ;

. The Forest School at Eberswalde. By A. C. Forbes, Farnham

Royal, Slough, Bucks,

Trees Best Adapted for Various Soils. By A. D. WEBSTER,
Hollydale, Keston, Kent,

The Formation of Plantations. By JoHn FowLer ANNAND,
Assistant Forester, Brucklay Castle, Aberdeenshire,

Arboriculture in the Counties of Dumfries, Kirkeudbright, and
Wigtown. By ALEXANDER PITCAITHLEY, Forester, Sudbourn
Hall, Wickham Market, Suffolk,

ApstRract of Accounts of the Roya ScorrisH ARBORICULTURAL
Socrery for Year ending 31st December 1891,

. Address delivered at the Thirty-ninth Annual Meeting, 9th

August 1892. By Isaac BayLEy Baxrour, Se.D., M.D.,
F.R.S., Queen’s Botanist in Scotland, Professor of Botany
in the University of Edinburgh, and Keeper of the Royal
Botanic Garden, : : : : : A

On the Preparation of Wood Specimens for Exhibition. By
GEORGE CADELL, Langley Hovse, Surbiton, Surrey,

PAGE

163

187

200

220

234

254

268

293

299

301

310

XXIII.

XXIV.

XXV.

XXVI.

XXVII.

CONTENTS.

. The Afforestation of Large Areas in the Highlands and Islands

of Scotland. By W. A. MAcKENzIE, Strabane, Brodick,
Isle of Arran,

Report on the Plantations on the Estate of Raynham, Norfolk.
By AncuIBaLD GorRIL, Brooku ans Park, Hatfield, Herts,

The Island of Arran as a Field for Planting. By W. A.
Mackenzig, Strabane, Brodick, Isle of Arran,

Remarks on the Planting of the Sandhills on the Sea-Coast at
Holkham, Norfolk. By ArcHIBALD Gorrik, Brookmans

Park, Hatfield, Herts, .

Our Timber Supplies from Abroad. By A. T. Wi1LLIAMson, Kew
Terrace, Edinburgh,

Machine for Mending Broken Strands in Wire Fences. By
ANTHONY Simpson, Forester, Dunrobin Castle, Golspie,

fer ENDIX TO" PART Li.

1, Former Presidents.

2. List of Members, corrected to March 1892.

PAGE

318

331

341

359

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TEMPERATURE.
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— or —
TEMPERATURE

SWITZERLAND il . Bale 49 Fah”

MiFarlane & Sralane, [ith™ Bain”

Notabilia.—(1) The Brecn dominates in the Jura at a height of fromn 1300 to 1800 feet, there forming a continuous chain.
(2) The Lanrcu occupies the Central Alps, avoiding the Jura altogether.
(3) The Cuxstnur grows freely in the Southern Alps, and on borders of lakes to North of Alps.
For the OaK we must go to the South, and for the Scors Prye to the North—Darmstadt, &e.

OF THE

ROYAL
SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY

VOL. XIIL—PART L }

5
. 2
a SECRETARY AND TREASURER, '
LY )
“A WPA Oy MOR RAE: ;
q ; FELLOW OF THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY, EDINBURGH.
is
¥ ‘
\

EDINBURGH:

PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY.
SOLD BY DOUGLAS & FOULIS, CASTLE STREET.
MDCCCXCI.

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ADVERTISEMENTS.

THE ** PERFECT’

WEED KILLER.

A Liquid for destroying Weeds, Moss, Lichens, etc., on
Garden Walks, Carriage Drives, Ash Tennis Courts, Railway
Stations, Stonework which has grown green, etc.

It will keep them away for 12 months at least. May be applied with
an ordinary Watering-Can.

One gallon as sold makes 25 gallons for use.
Saves many times its cost in labour, and eradicates the weeds far more thoroughly
than any hand weeding.
PRICE—Gal., 2/; 5 gals., 1/9; 10 gals., 1/6; 40 gals., 1/4 per gallon.
SPECIAL QUOTATIONS FOR QUANTITIES.
Carriage paid 10 gallons and upwards. Trial sample post free.
THe GARDENERS’ MAGAZINE or 21st June 1890, says :—

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that the “Perfect” Weed Killer of the Horticultural and Agricultural
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long beenwanted. Thisis at once simple, cheap, and effective, and requires
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Works—97 MILTON STREET, GLASGOW.
CAUTION.—Please carefully note our name, address, and trade mark, and
do not be deceived by imitations.

Sold by Seedsmen, etc.

FOREST AND ORNAMENTAL TREES AND SHRUBS.

Fruit Trees, Roses, Herbaceous Plants, Ete.
FOREST AND GARDEN IMPLEMENTS OF ALL SORTS.

Priced Catalogues Free on application.

IRELAND & THOMSON.

Durserymen, Scetsmen, and Yew Plant Qerchants,

Craigleith Nursery, Comely Bank, Edinburgh.
New Golden Acre and Windlestrawlee Nurseries,
Granton Road.

Seed Warehouse, 81 Princes Street.

ADVERTISEMENTS.

THOMAS METHVEN & SONS

Beg to request the attention of those about to plant to their Stock of

SEEDLING AND TRANSPLANTED FOREST TREES,

Oraamental Grees and Shrubs, Rhododendtrons, Etr.,

WHICH IS VERY EXTENSIVE, AND IN A HEALTHY,
VIGOROUS CONDITION.

Samples and Prices on Application.

LEITH WALK & WARRISTON NURSERIES,
EDINBURGH.

Established 1801.

SEEDLING AND TRANSPLANTED FOREST TREES.

Ornamental Trees and Shrubs, Roses and Fruit Trees.

JAMES DICKSON & SONS,

32 HANOVER STREET and INVERLEITH Row,
BDIEN BU GEE

CATALOGUES FREE ON APPLICATION.

JAMES DICKSON & SONS received the highest awards for ‘‘ Conifers” and
‘‘Hardy Plants” at the International Chrysanthemum Exhibition Edinburgh,
1889 ; and again at the great Chrysanthemum Exhibition of 1890

CONTENTS.

The Society, as a body, ts not to be considered responsible for any statements or
opinions advanced in the several papers, which must rest entirely on the authority
of the respective authors.

PAGE

I. Address delivered at the Thirty-seventh Annual Meeting, 5th

August 1890. By Mr D. F. Mackenzie, Morton Hall,
Vice-President, . : ; : : ; : 1

II. How to Combat the Attack of Injurious Forest Insects. By

WILLIAM SOMERVILLE of Cormiston, D.(Kc., B.Sc., F.R.S.E.,
Lecturer on Forestry, Edinburgh University, . F ; 5
III. On British Oaks. By JoHn Smiru, Romsey, Hants, : ‘ 21

IV. The Beech Forests of Hesse Nassau. By GroRGE CADELL, Esq.,
14 Canning Road, Addiscombe, Surrey, : ; P 57

VY. The Natural Regeneration of Woods. By W1tLI1AM SOMERVILLE

of Cormiston, D.Cic., B.Se., F.R.S.E., Lecturer on Forestry,
Edinburgh University, . : : ‘ : : 63

VI. Old and Remarkable Trees on the Estates of Earl Spencer in

Northamptonshire. By F. MitcuEtt, Forester, Harlestone,
Northamptonshire, 5 : : : : : 83

VII. The Formation of Plantations. By A. C. Forpss, Assistant
Forester, Lintmill, Cullen, : , : 2 F 91

VIII. Trees and Shrubs for Planting in Towns. By A. D. WEBSTER,
Holwood, Kent, : : : : : . 123

IX. The Utilisation of Small-Wood for Turnery and other Purposes.
By A. T. Wriuramson, 7 Kew Terrace, Edinburgh, . . 145

X. The Manufacture of Home-grown Timber. By A. T. WILLIAMSON,
Edinburgh, - : : ; 3 : 5 lel

ABSTRACT of AccouNTs of the RoyaL ScoTtrisH ARBORICULTURAL
Society for Year ending 31st December 1890, . = 162

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

I. Address delivered at the Thirty-seventh Annual Meeting, 5th
August 1890. By Mr D. F. Macxenziz, Morton Hall,
Vice-President.

GENTLEMEN,—In the absence of the President of our Society,
I am called on to make the customary Address from the Chair,
and I think I cannot make a better use of the opportunity than
to draw your attention for a short time to the large extent of
what is called “Waste Land” in Scotland, and the amount
of the same which could be profitably devoted to the growth
of Forest Trees.

Scotland is very irregular in outline, being so broken up by
promontories stretching far into the sea, and by arms of the sea
deeply indenting the land, that a great portion of the interior lies
within less than forty miles from the sea. This accounts, to a
large extent, for the difficulty in getting timber to grow at such
high altitudes as it often does on the Continent. The superficial area,
according to the Board of Trade, is computed to be 30,463 square
miles, or 19,496,133 statute acres; but the final results of the
Ordnance Survey give the figures at 19,777,490 acres of land
and water. The latter includes lakes, rivers, rivulets, and per-
manent pools down to the horse-pond. It also includes land or
beaches along the seaboard, and estuaries to low-water mark.
Such are the details laid down by the Ordnance Survey Depart-
ment, from whose works, and the Board of Trade Returns, the

figures Iam about to submit to you have been taken; but, for
VOL. XIII. PART I. A

2 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.
the sake of saving time, I adopt those of the Board of Trade for
the cultivated areas, and the Ordnance Survey for the other details.

In order to find the total area suitable and available for the
profitable growing of timber, we have to deduct the area under
crops of all kinds, woodlands, gardens, nurseries, towns, villages,
houses, railways, roads, and water, as also those portions of our
glens and mountain sides that are profitably grazed by sheep and
deer. This done, we will have found the actual area of waste
land ; I mean waste in comparison to what it might be if suitably
employed. From this area we must deduct all high-lying exposed
parts of our hills and mountains, quite unsuitable for the profit-
able growing, or even the growth, of any kind of timber. This
latter is regulated not so much by the height as by the distance
inland, and the position of the mountain ranges, whether lying
across the track of the prevailing winds of the district or along
their path. Very good examples of this fact are to be met with
at Rothiemurchus, Abernethy, Duthil, and Braemar, where the
pine is to be found flourishing at an altitude of over 2000 feet
above sea-level; and also in a large track of country in the county
of Aberdeen, from near Huntly to Alford. Many more instances
could be mentioned to illustrate this point, but enough has been
given for our purpose.

I now come to the figures. As already stated, the total area
of Scotland is computed to be 19,496,133 acres imperial, of which,
according to the Board of Trade Returns, Ordnance Survey, ete.,
4,739,000 acres are under crops of all kinds, including grass ;
under woods, 830,000 acres ; and gardens, orchards, and nurseries,
6920 acres; while towns, houses, roads, railways, paths, and walls
take up 1,093,300 acres; water, lakes, rivers, etc., 1,026,337
acres; and 1,260,021 acres are profitably grazed by sheep and
deer ; thus leaving 10,540,855 acres to be accounted for as semi-
waste land. Of this latter area a large portion falls to be deducted
as of no value for growing any kind of timber, viz., that portion
of our island directly exposed to the storms from the Atlantic
and North Sea, and the tops of mountains too high and exposed
for the growth of timber. This portion alone takes up 1,950,000
acres or thereby, including in its area all the highest slopes of our
northern and eastern seaboard, leaving 8,590,855 acres or thereby
worth less, at the present moment, than 2s. per imperial acre.
But we have here again to make a rather curious but important
deduction, viz., those roads and strips of waste so very common

ADDRESS BY THE VICE-PRESIDENT, AUGUST 5, 1890. 3

in the Highlands and elsewhere, too small of themselves to be
profitably planted, but which are included in the Ordnance Survey
measurements, and not given separately. I calculate the area of
these to be, say, 146,322 acres. I may state that these latter
figures are approximate, but are calculated on the basis of that
found on given areas. Assuming these figures to be nearly
correct, we are left with the still large surface of 8,444,533 acres
highly suitable for the profitable production of first-class pine and
other timber. This, then, proves so far the great loss we, as a
nation, have sustained, are still sustaining, and are likely to
sustain for a time, by not appropriating to our advantage the
waste lands of our own country.

The term waste land is perhaps a misnomer, as Jand can only
be said to be waste by comparison with what its value might be
under other and different circumstances and management—manage-
ment more profitable to both the owners and the nation at large.
There are few countries of the same population to a given area
which have so large a proportion of their surface comparatively
waste or “idle,” and so small a proportion of growing woods to the
unit of population. This, no doubt, arises from the fact of our
having an abundant supply of coal—wood for fuel being at a dis-
count—and that there are no State forests or public interest in
forestry. The public, as a whole, admire trees merely for their
fine effect in the landscape, or the pleasant green of their foliage,
and the shelter and shade they give in street, park, or highway
—forgetting all the while, or not knowing or caring to know, the
immense influence for good trees have on their welfare generally,
and particularly by their sanitary influence, their extraordinary
power of ameliorating a rigid and changeful climate, and regulating
storms, thereby greatly prolonging life itself; whilst, looking at
the case from a commercial point of view, nothing is more certain
than if the area of our woodlands were increased even fourfold,
the fertility of the remaining portion of waste would be so in-
creased as to be able to support a much larger amount of live
stock, and would give better crops and earlier harvests than at
present. This is well understood in the district in which our
meeting is being held—Easter Ross—as well as many other
districts of Scotland, especially in the counties of Inverness,
Aberdeen, Forfar, Perth, Berwick, and Roxburgh. Many parts
of these counties are well wooded, not merely by large areas, but
by the judicious arrangements of clumps, belts, etc. (we will see

-

4 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

very good examples of this on the Fairburn estates), rendering
valuable shelter to stock, thereby increasing the bulk of produce
in a given time by about 30 percent. This is already so well
known, that further example or reference is not required here.

Apart from this view of the case, however, the increased area of
woodland would give necessarily a large increase of work to that
class—the crofters—who most require it, and who, as a rule, reside
in the districts where such operations require to be most exten-
sively carried out. Such increase would be of great advantage to
the public at large, to the proprietors of the land, and to posterity
—to the latter by retaining a large amount of the money sent out
of the country to purchase that which we could produce for our-
selves, and in many cases of a superior quality to that imported
as “seconds” and “thirds,” the latter of which forms the greater
bulk of our timber imports; and if you plant the 8,000,000 acres
you find employment for 40,000 individuals.

In conclusion, it may be observed that the areas are dealt with,
in the Returns of the Board of Trade and by the Ordnance Survey,
in such a manner as to fully account for every acre under its
different heading, with the exception of those parts of the Ross-
shire, Inverness, and Perthshire Highlands where sheep are
allowed to roam at large on the most barren portions of the
mountains. This is not only a loss to the stockmaster, but to the
country, because, under such circumstances, the production of
good mutton is limited by the exertion the animal has to put
forth in order to obtain its living. The owners of such stock
are, of course, not the least anxious to fatten it, because, they say,
it pays them much better to breed than feed. This is the case
under the present condition of the pastures, while, if large areas
were planted, the result would naturally be different and better ;
besides creating employment for a large number of people.

“Men constitute the wealth of nations” if industrious, but the
nation must produce the raw material, or pay smartly for finding
it elsewhere.

Gentlemen, if what I have stated to you will lead to further
inquiry and action on the part of those who should be most
interested, the landlords and the public, I shall not have spoken
in vain.

HOW TO COMBAT THE ATTACK OF INJURIOUS FOREST INSECTS. 5

II. How to Combat the Attack of Injurious Forest Insects. By
Wituram SomervIL_e of Cormiston, D.(ic., B.Sc., F.R.S.E.,
Lecturer on Forestry, Edinburgh University.*

The question which naturally suggests itself to our minds
when we proceed to consider this subject is, “‘ Are our woods really
attacked by insects in such numbers as to warrant our going to
the trouble and expense of adopting special measures to meet their
attack?” or, in other words, “Would the net gain to be derived
from eradicating or materially reducing the numbers of our forest
insects outweigh the loss which their presence in our woods in-
volves?” Now, this question may be answered in one way or
another, according to the peculiar circumstances of each case.
Whether we would be justified in resting content with simply
adopting precautions designed to prevent the undue increase of
insects, depends upon the amount of success which has previously
attended such measures, and upon the danger which former experi-
ence and analogous cases would lead us to apprehend. Whether
or not we would be repaid for going a step further, and waging a
war of extermination against the insects which are already on our
trees, depends upon the amount of damage which they are causing,
and, in the event of their not being reduced in numbers, on the
probabilities of their increasing to such an extent as to destroy a
great deal more. In every case, too, we must take into considera-
tion the nature of the preventive or remedial measures which can
be applied, that is to say, whether they are cheap and easy of
application, and effectual in operation.

As to the question of damage, I am sure that all careful
observers who have spent much time in our woods must have come
to the conclusion that our forest trees sustain an amount of damage
each year through the attack of insects, which not only justifies
but imperatively demands our taking some steps to prevent the
recurrence of such damage in future. In making this statement,
let me assure you I am not indulging in the amusement of con-
juring up a phantom in order to show you how expertly I can
cause it to vanish, neither am I alluding to anything so indefinite
and undemonstrable that I would experience any difficulty in

1 Paper read before the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society at Dingwall,
August 1890.

6 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

convincing even the veriest layman that much damage is being done,
and that more is to be feared. For the proper understanding of this
subject, some considerable knowledge of the habits and life-history
of our forest insects is desirable, but perhaps I may, by taking a
special case, be able to convince even the non-professional man
that insects do play a very important and undesirable part in forest
economy.

Suppose we go into a middle-aged or old Scots pine wood some-
time during winter, and proceed to examine the thick bark at the
base of the trees, more especially of those that are semi-isolated or
situated near the edge of the wood, we shall find that it is perfor-
ated in exactly such a way as would result from the discharge of
a gun loaded with No. 5 shot at a distance of about twenty yards.
On following these perforations into the bark, we would find that
they extended for an inch or so, but did not penetrate so far as
the wood, and that each, or most of them, contained a small dark
brown beetle in a semi-comatose condition, which we would have
no difficulty in recognising as the well-known pine beetle (Hylur-
gus piniperda). I fear that at this stage our non-professional
friend would be apt to remark that if this small and apparently
lifeless creature cannot show more destructive work than that of
boring into the dead tissues of trees, it can hardly be said to have
earned the amount of reprobation to which it has been subjected.
So much I am prepared to admit, merely remarking that if not
distinctly destructive, neither is it positively beneficial to tree
growth in its winter quarters.

Towards the end of March—a little later or earlier according to
the character of the weather—the pine beetles withdraw from their
winter quarters, and for the next two months are to be found
under the bark of a certain class of tree. The conditions which
the insects demand are very stringent, that is to say, so long as
the conditions can be obtained, no trees will be attacked which do
not fulfil these conditions. ‘The trees most in request are pines
which are sufficiently old to be provided with thick bark, and
which have been dead for a month or more. The thick bark is
necessary, because the transition stage from larva to pupa being
passed not between the wood and the bark, but actually in the
bark, there would not be space for the accomplishment’ of this
process were the bark not of a certain thickness, Trees in robust
health are, under ordinary circumstances, free from attack, prob-
ably because the insects are inconvenienced by the presence of

HOW TO COMBAT THE ATTACK OF INJURIOUS FOREST INSECTS. 7.

too large quantities of viscid resinous substances ; neither are trees
infested which have been dead for a year or so, doubtless owing to
the tissues being no longer suitable for the nourishment of the
insects and their young. Why pines, and especially the Scots pine,
are utilised by the insect for breeding purposes in preference to
other trees can only be explained by the assumption that this
particular insect has become gradually adapted for feeding in trees
of this particular genus, just as the turnip fly only attacks crucifers,
or Scolytus Ratzeburgi only birches.

Suppose, now, that we had taken our incredulous friend into a
wood in April or May, and, having found a Scots pine which had
been blown down or felled during the previous winter, were to
show him the characteristic galleries of the pine beetle underneath
the bark, he would most likely remain unconvinced of our having
made out a strong case against the insect. He might say, and so
far it would not be easy to contradict him, that surely the boring
of even a large number of small passages underneath the bark of
trees already dead, could do no great amount of harm, more
especially as even the surface of the wood was hardly touched.
If we were to cease our attempts at conversion at this point, we
would be forced to acknowledge defeat, but the better course to
pursue would be to pause and consider what would happen if the
insects were to be placed in circumstances which would enable
them to increase in numbers at a rapid rate. Now, in the absence
of exceptional disturbing causes, practically the only limit to the
increase of this beetle, and of many other forest insects, is inter-
posed by the want of proper material in which to oviposit ; that is
to say, if a sufficient number of old Scots pines in a suitable state
be provided, conditions are offered which enable the insect to
increase in numbers to almost any extent. The most common
cause of the production of a large quantity of breeding material
is a severe gale, or a succession of severe gales such as we experi-
enced in Scotland some years ago. At that time, as will be remem-
bered, whole woods were levelled with the ground over wide areas
of country, and for some years afterwards the timber could neither
be cut up nor marketed. That, then, was an opportunity for //.
piniperda, as well as for all bark beetles, to increase at a prodigious
rate, and one which the results show they were not slow to avail
themselves of. Let us look for a moment at the rate of increase of
which such an insect as the pine beetle is capable when placed in
the possession of an almost unlimited supply of breeding material.

8 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Two beetles, a male and female, make a gallery in spring, and in
it they deposit from 80 to 120 eggs; let us take the average and
say 100. In ten weeks or so, these, having passed through the
stages of larva and pupa, become beetles, of which 50 will be males
and 50 females. In the same year, towards the end of July, these
50 couples proceed with the work of reproduction, each pair pro-
ducing 100 young, so that by the end of the first year the numbers
have increased from 2 to 5000. These beetles hibernate in the
manner already described, and proceed to breed the following
spring, when the 2500 couples will give birth to 250,000 indivi-
duals, and these, reproducing themselves in the same year, will,
before the autumn is past, have multiplied to no less than 12,500,000
head. In these calculations no allowance has been made for those
which would be destroyed in various ways, but if we even deduct
20 per cent. from each of the broods, we are still left at the end
of the second year with over five millions of pine beetles as the
result of our having neglected to destroy the original pair.

Some idea of the rate of increase may be gained in another way.
Where pine beetles are abundant, the bark of suitable trees is
undermined to such an extent that, on a large pine, scarcely a
square inch will be found that is not occupied by the galleries of
the parent beetles or their larve. From observations and measure-
ments, I have calculated (allowing 40 square inches of bark to each
family) that a large pine can produce quite 100,000 beetles, so that
the leaving of ten large Scots pines, or of twenty average sized
ones, lying on the ground, or standing dead in the wood, till the
middle or end of July, is sufficient to ensure the birth of 1,000,000
pine beetles. Now, although comparatively little damage is done
to timber during the breeding season, so long as the insect is
represented by but small numbers, the case is entirely altered
when a large increase has taken place, such as happened in Scot-
land a few years ago. In the insect world the principle of ‘first
come first served” receives striking illustration. Those beetles
which first awake from their winter’s sleep exercise their usual
discrimination, and oviposit only on thoroughly suitable material.
It happens, however, when the insects are very abundant, that
every particle of suitable Scots pine is occupied, with the result that
late comers have to take what they can get, and are forced to
oviposit on other conifers, such as the spruce, and, as I have found,
on the larch as well.?| Under such circumstances, comparatively

1 Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xvii. p. 255,

HOW TO COMBAT THE ATTACK OF INJURIOUS FOREST INSECTS. 9

thin-barked pines are also attacked, and, worst of all, growing
trees, especially such as are somewhat unhealthy, are no longer
safe. Let me cite two instances of a large amount of damage being
caused by this insect using growing trees for purposes of oviposi-
tion. In the peninsula of Darss, in Pomerania, on the 12th and
13th of November 1872, the tide rose exceptionally high, with the
result that a district stocked with Scots pines was more or less
inundated. The effect of the sea-water upon the trees was to
cripple their growth to some extent, and make them tempting
objects for insect attack. During the next year or two pine
beetles increased at an alarming rate, and totally destroyed all the
pines on 2500 acres,

A similar experience, on even a larger scale, is reported from
France. In the Department Gironde Pinus maritima is largely
cultivated, chiefly for the purpose of binding the drifting sands.
In the hard winter of 1879-80 the trees suffered severely, and the
pine beetles consequently appeared in enormous numbers. The
result of frost and insects together was the destruction of timber
to the value of £1,680,000.

If any difficulty has been experienced in proving that JZ.
piniperda is the perpetrator of an excessive amount of mischief
when in its hibernation or breeding quarters, the task will be all
too easy when we examine its life-lristory at other times. When
the young insects hatched underneath the bark have reached the
imago stage, they desert their birthplace and take to the young
shoots of the pines, into which they bore, and usually cause their
death. The damage is most apparent in plantations from fifteen
to thirty years old, where it is no unusual thing to find that
quite 50 per cent. of the trees have been deprived of their leading
shoots again and again, and have been reduced from fine straight
poles to little better than misshapen bushes. When this happens,
and I am sure many instances of its occurrence must present
themselves to your minds, the future prosperity of the wood can
no longer be looked for, as it can, at the best, only produce poorly
developed and badly formed stems.

In old woods the work of the insect in this way is not less
destructive, if somewhat less apparent. Here, too, the young
shoots, both of stems and branches, are its feeding ground. Into
these it bores its way, and weakens them to such an extent that
they are easily broken off by the first high wind, and litter the
ground in large numbers, I believe that squirrels are often

10 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

blamed for this work, but however destructive these creatures
are in other connections, in this case at least the accusation is
unjust. In old woods, where height-growth is nearly over, the
damage chiefly consists in the loss of the organs of assimilation,
namely the leaves, and the consequent reduction in the formation
of wood. Owing to the loss of foliage, however, the fertility of
the soil is also impaired, and, in a dry district especially, this
consideration may be a very serious one.

It would be difficult to estimate the amount of damage done in
Scotland by the pine beetle alone, but at all events it must be
enormous. I know no part of the country where it is not present
in large numbers, and its presence can be detected as well from
a railway carriage as from actual examination on the ground.
Running through any district which suffered severely from recent
gales, or one where forestry is practised in an irrational or careless
fashion, one cannot fail to be struck with the miserable appear-
ance of many of the old Scots pines, Instead of being provided
with dense rounded crowns of dark-green foliage, they are thin
and of a pale colour, and, protruding from amongst the leaves,
may be seen the extremities of bare dead branches, symptoms
clearly testifying to the presence of vast numbers of pine
beetles.

For the purpose of bringing before you the destructive work
of forest insects, I have so far confined my remarks to the pine
beetle, an insect, I am sure, familiar to you all; and my own
conviction is that, even if this were the only insect which preyed
upon our trees, the damage which it causes is far more than
sufficient to compel us to adopt measures for its destruction and
the safety of our woods. As you know, however, this is not the
only foe which the forester has to fear in the insect world. To
mention all would be a difficult if not an impossible task, and one
which would take us far beyond the limits of time at our disposal.
There are upwards of eighty European species of Scolytide (the
family to which ZH. piniperda belongs), almost all of which prey
upon trees or shrubs; then we have many species of Aphide,
several very destructive weevils, including Hy/lobius abietis, the
pie weevil, which is considered by many to be the most destructive
of all our forest insects, and the caterpillars of many Lepidoptere
and Hymenoptere. Mention must also be made of the cockchafer,
which both in the imago and larval stages works fearful havoc
amongst our forest trees. In France, during years when this

HOW TO COMBAT THE ATTACK OF INJURIOUS FOREST INSECTS. 11

insect is specially numerous, it is said that damage is done to
fields and forests which is estimated at £40,000,000.

Seeing that forest insects are so numerous, and so varied in
their methods of attack, it is manifestly impossible that, in a
short paper like this, I can do more than briefly summarise the
general and indicate a few of the special measures which can be
adopted to eradicate or keep them in check. This subject may
be conveniently treated in two divisions. We shall, first of all,
look at such measures as are designed to keep insects in check,
and prevent their ever increasing to such an extent as to threaten
our woods with a calamity ; and, secondly, at remedial measures,
to be put in force only when the others fail, or have been neglected,
and danger is at hand.

Measures for the prevention of the increase of forest insects are
to be looked for as coming either from the side of the natural
enemies of the insects or from the management of the woods.
The natural enemies of insects are to be found in most divisions
of the animal kingdom. Many insects live entirely, or for the
most part, by preying upon other insects. Such creatures as
lizards and frogs destroy insects in large numbers. Several
mammals destroy large numbers of insects, but unfortunately
many of them cause damage in some way or other which prevents
our unconditionally advocating their encouragement. This is the
case, for instance, with the fox, hedgehog, weasel, mole, and
mouse, all of which devour insects in one form or other, but
nevertheless whose presence in our woods cannot be regarded as
altogether an unmixed good. The two most useful mammals in
this country are probably the bat and shrew. Neither of these
creatures does any appreciable amount of damage, and they subsist,
one may say, all but entirely upon insects, and therefore deserve
every encouragement to live and increase.

The best friends of both farmers and foresters are undoubtedly
to be found amongst the birds, many of which subsist entirely
upon insects or their larve. A foremost place in the list, in point
of individual usefulness, must be assigned to the cuckoo, which
preys largely upon hairy caterpillars, insects which, for the most
part, are avoided by other birds. It has been noticed, when
caterpillars become very numerous in fields or woods, that
cuckoos congregate in such places in large numbers, and, as they
are extremely voracious, they do much to mitigate insect ravages.
Unfortunately cuckoos are, on the whole, not very numerous

12 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

in this country, to which also they are only summer visitants,
but they have the advantage over other birds that, being perfectly
unimpeded in their movements by the cares and duties of
incubation, they are always ready for action. The tree-creeper,
common wren, gold-crested wren, and tits are great destroyers
of injurious insects, which, on account of the small size, scansorial
habits, and wonderful activity of these birds, are safe neither in
the deepest bark-fissures nor on the most delicate of twigs.
Their usefulness, therefore, no less than the charm they lend to
our woodlands, renders these birds worthy of every protection.
Then, we have swallows, pipets, wagtails, the hedge-sparrow,
warblers, the redbreast, red-start, chats, fly-catchers, and the
starling, all of which are useful in the highest degree, and, if we
except the starling’s partiality for cherries, possess no bad
qualities to detract from their merits. Many other birds, such
as the rook, jackdaw, sparrow, finches, and owls, destroy insects
when they come in their way or when no other food presents
itself, but, on account of the damage which they cause to crops
or game, they cannot be regarded as worthy of unconditional
preservation, though, under certain circumstances, the advantages
which their presence ensures may outweigh any drawbacks.

Now, it must be borne in mind that it is not sufficient merely
to preserve our useful birds from destruction, but means must
also be taken to secure their increase. This may be accomplished
in a variety of ways. During severe weather in winter, food
must be supplied. Very suitable for this purpose are the clean-
ings of grain or hay-seed, though for tits animal food, such as
lard, must be provided. In order to set it beyond the reach
of crows, dogs, cats, etc., it should be placed in the shell of a
cocoa-nut or some such receptacle, and suspended by a string from
the bough of a tree.

The numbers of our useful birds may also be largely increased
by providing them with suitable nesting and sleeping places.
Many of the forester’s best friends only breed in holes, so that
unless hollow trees, loosely-built walls, or artificial breeding-places
are to be had, it is quite impossible for them to build their nests
and rear their young. Holes in trees and walls are the places
where, in this country, nearly all our hole-breeding birds are
reared, but, as a general rule, such places do not offer great
safety from the attacks of cats, weasels, and other predaceous
animals, either to the parent birds or their brood. It is, there-

HOW TO COMBAT THE ATTACK OF INJURIOUS FOREST INSECTS. 13

fore, much better to provide artificial nesting-boxes prepared from
light boards coated with*tar, which can be so constructed, and
fixed in such a position, as to ensure for their tenants perfect
safety. A firm in Leipzig is prepared to supply any number
of nesting-boxes at the average rate of 6d. each, a price which,
I think, need not be much, if at all, exceeded in this country.
In fixing the nesting-boxes on trees the following points must
be observed :—For titmice the boxes must not be placed at a
greater height than 12 feet from the ground. They should only
be fixed on conifers, and, if possible, on dense conifers, such as
spruces and silver firs. For red-starts and fly-catchers the boxes
should be fixed on isolated trees, or on such as stand near the
edge of a wood. In the case of boxes for starlings, any number
may be fixed on the same tree, but in the case of all other birds
there must not be more than one box on each tree. In all cases
it is found that the best results follow when the boxes are fixed
on the south or east side of the tree, the west side being the most
unfavourable.

So far as the system does not violate the principles of good
sylviculture, all hollow trees should be allowed to stand, for not
only do our useful birds find nesting-places in them, but they
are also largely used by bats as sleeping-places. I may be
allowed to mention an experiment I made last spring, and from
the success which has already attended it, I hope to extend it
next year. In the part of Scotland where the experiment was
made there is a great scarcity of trees suitable for the nesting of
our hole-breeding birds. We do not lack the hollow trees so much
as the means of entrance into them, that is to say, there are
plenty larches and spruces which are decayed at the centre, but
which are useless to the birds on account of their hollow centres
being surrounded by firm wood. Now, it is evident that such
trees are of very little commercial value, but with a little
ingenuity they may be made most valuable in another way.
One has only, by means of a chisel or large augur, to pierce the
wood and establish communication with the centre, to make all
such trees nurseries from which a large number of titmice and
tree-creepers will be sent forth annually. As such trees are, at
the best, only fit for conversion into inferior paling-stobs, no real
damage is done to the timber if the entrance holes be made at
the height of a stob length, say 5 feet, from the ground, while
the gain which ensues through the destruction of noxious insects

14 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

far outweighs any little trouble we may be put to in providing
for the wants of the birds. Both titmice and tree-creepers breed
twice in a season, and produce six to ten young on each occasion.
Each bird, it is calculated, destroys two or three hundred thousand
insects annually, chiefly in the form of very minute eggs. Five
thousand insects are often sufficient to completely denude an
average-sized tree of its leaves. If such defoliation be repeated a
second year, the probabilities are that the tree will die. The annual
produce of one breeding-place, say twelve titmice, can destroy
two and a half millions of insects each year, which would be
sufficient to entirely denude five hundred trees of their leaves.

The preventive measures which we have considered come from
the side of the enemies of the insects, the other set is more
directly due to the management, and may naturally be subdivided
into the following heads :—

1. The Establishment of the Wood.—Strong well-developed
plants should be selected, as they are best able to withstand insect
attack. In the case of danger from the attack of the pine weevil,
only such young trees should be used as have been reared in
comparatively open nursery lines, because plants which are
much crowded when young have thin and delicate bark, and
suffer very severely from this insect. Where a variety of trees
thrive equally well, it is always advisable to cultivate mixed
woods. This precaution is necessary, because, as a general rule,
each species of insect prefers but one species, genus, or class of
tree, and great calamities are only known in pure woods. It is
scarcely necessary to say that great care must be exercised in
inserting the plants in the ground, so that their growth may be
interfered with as little as possible, for it almost always happens
that the weakest plants are the first victims. One should also
avoid as much as possible forming large compartments of wood
of the same age. It is much safer to divide large woods into
age-classes, because many insects confine their attack either to
young or to old trees, but do not attack trees of all ages
indifferently.

2. The Tending of the Wood.—Thinning should be begun before
there is any chance of the density of the crowding interfering so
much with growth as to weaken the vitality of the trees, but, at
the same time, care must be taken that over-thinning is avoided,
otherwise fertility suffers, and the evil we wish to avoid is
encountered. During the operations of thinning, all trees which

HOW TO COMBAT THE ATTACK OF INJURIOUS FOREST INSECTS. 15

are unhealthy, or which have been damaged by wind or snow,
must be removed, and a watchful eye should constantly be kept
on the woods, so that trees which appear likely to die are at once
removed, as it is in such trees, or in trees which have just died,
that destructive insects find their most congenial breeding-places.
The practice of only removing trees from the wood some months
after they have died does nothing to keep insects in check, for
it is not dry and withered trees, but such as are still supplied
with sap, that forest insects make use of for breeding purposes.

3. Harvesting the Timber.—Nothing conduces so much to the
increase of many destructive insects as bad management in con-
nection with felling and utilising forest produce ; and, conversely,
woods which are well managed in this respect are preserved from
the attack of many insects. The chief point to be observed is to
get the felled timber removed from the wood, and marketed or
converted as quickly as possible. Where any difficulty is expe-
rienced in this respect, it should at least be peeled, and, if possible,
peeled at a time when the bark is full of larve, for, by so doing,
large numbers of destructive insects are got rid of, and the prac-
tice, from being merely preventive, becomes remedial. These
precautions are most necessary in the case of conifers, for it is in
them that forest insects breed most abundantly. Where the
ground is suitable the trees should be cut close to the ground, but
where, as on steep declivities, this cannot be accomplished, the
stools ought to be stripped of their bark. It is sometimes possible
to get the bark removed without incurring any expense by allow-
ing cottagersito strip it off for firing purposes, and the same holds
true with regard to branches and the general refuse left after trees
are felled. Not only do stools and branches supply breeding-
places for Scolytidew, but also for weevils, hence the reason why
Hylobius abietis is so destructive to young trees planted on land
previously occupied by conifers.

The preventive measures which have been noted do not by any
means exhaust the list, though they are certainly the most
important. Let me now say a few words with regard to measures
for the general eradication of insects.

Theoretically, insects may be destroyed during any or all of the
four stages of their existence, that is to say, as eggs, larvee, pupe,
or imagines, and also during any season of the year; but in
practice the best stage or season to select depends upon the life-
history of the insect to be destroyed. It is comparatively seldom

16 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

that the egg stage is selected, though an exception presents itself
in the Black Arches moth (Liparis monacha). The larva stage is
the one most commonly chosen, and is almost general in the case —
of butterflies and moths. It is also frequently resorted to with
beetles, e.g., the whole of the Scolytide, Melolontha vulgaris, etc.
The pupa stage is not often selected, chiefly because it is usually
of such short duration, and, on the whole, neither is the imago
stage, though pine weevils, cockchafers, and certain moths are
destroyed in large numbers as perfect insects. As a general rule,
one is guided in the choice of the stage and season by that which
offers the most opportunities, and for this reason the larval stage
is most usually chosen, because many injurious insects pass the
greatest proportion of their life in the state of larve, and are at
that stage most easily caught.

The destruction of forest insects may take place (a) when the
insect is feeding, breeding, or hibernating in its natural haunts, or
when moving to or from its breeding or feeding ground ; or (6) in
special lures prepared to attract the insects to them for the purpose
of feeding, breeding, or shelter. We shall now look shortly at
some special eradicative measures which can be applied along these
two main lines.

Destruction of Forest Insects when in their Natural Haunts.—In
countries where cockchafers, Melolontha vulgaris, are numerous,
advantage is taken of every opportunity to destroy them, and huge
numbers are captured by hand-picking. Early morning and dull
days are chosen, because at these times the beetles are slow in their
movements. The work is chiefly performed by women or children,
who are paid at a certain rate per pound (1 lb. contains about 550
head). From reliable sources I have collected the following
statistics to show what enormous numbers of cockchafers are from
time to time collected. In 1836 a society for the destruction of
cockchafers at Quedlinburg, in Saxony, paid out £40 for the
capture of 33,000,000 ; in 1860 a private individual in Salzmiinde
paid £45 for some 22,000,000 head. In 1864, in the neighbour-
hood of Leipzig, over 378,000,000 were collected. In 1868 Saxony
was practically overrun by cockchafers, and the secretary of the
Central Chamber of Agriculture, Dr Stadelmann, issued a strong
appeal for their destruction, at the same time issuing instructions as
to how this might best be accomplished. The appeal was generally
acted upon, with the result,that there were collected nearly 1400
tons, or a grand total of something like 1,600,000,000 head. In

HOW TO COMBAT THE ATTACK OF INJURIOUS FOREST INSECTS. 17

Wurtemberg, in 1872, about 231,000,000 cockchafers were
gathered and destroyed.

Dead cockebafers have been put to the most varied uses. They
have been proved to furnish first-class food for pigs and poultry,
they form an excellent manure, and have also been employed in
the manufacture of waggon grease and printing ink ; and a silver-
amalgam work near Freiberg was for several years lighted with
gas obtained from the dry distillation of cockchafers,

The pine weevil is often captured in large numbers by hand-
picking. This can be performed by children, who in early summer
search the woods formed during the previous winter. The cap-
tured insects are best placed in small bags, the mouth of each
being furnished with a bottle-neck to prevent them finding their
way out easily.

Another method of catching pine weevils has many advocates,
It is, however, only applicable to cases where the surface is fairly
level, and the soil firm but not very stony. The modus operandi
is as follows :—When a coniferous wood has been felled during
winter, the area is, immediately after the removal of the trees,
surrounded with a trench 10 to 12 inches broad and as many deep.
The sides must be perpendicular, and as smooth as possible. At
intervals of ten paces or so there are constructed, in the bottom of
the trench, special pitfalls, 4 to 8 inches deep, These trenches
must be visited every few days, and the captured beetles destroyed.
As the trenches are apt to become damaged or silted up during
heavy rains, they must be frequently examined, and, if necessary,
repaired. The object of this method is the capture of all pine
weevils which are making towards the fresh stools on which to
deposit their eggs, as well as those which have been hatched there,
and are proceeding to the adjoining young woods to prey on the
trees. The system is largely employed in many parts of Europe,
and where the conditions are favourable, it is both cheap and
efficacious. In the trenches are captured not only pine weevils,
but also other destructive weevils and insects generally, which are
incapable of or averse to flight.

The preventive measure employed in the case of the winter moth,
Cheimatobia brumata, at present devastating the orchards in the
west of England, falls under this heading. As is well known, the
imago stage of this insect is attained under the earth, after which
the wingless females proceed to crawl up the stems of fruit and

other broad-leaved trees for the purpose of depositing their eggs in
VOL. XIII, PART I. B

18 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

the buds. The most effectual way of destroying them consists in
taking advantage of their natural habits, and interposing obstacles
to their ascent of the trees by surrounding the base of the stems
with rings of some viscid material, in which they stick and perish.

Instances might be cited of other eradicative measures of the
same nature as those already given, but enough has been said to
indicate the general principles of such measures, and time compels
us to hasten on to look at the other group.

Destruction of Insects by means of Lures.—Measuvres of this kind
are the most easily arranged and supervised, and are, generally
speaking, the most effectual. They have this point in common,
namely, that the insects are not actually sought for, but are
induced to congregate in certain specially arranged places, where
either they or their eggs, larve, or pup may be easily captured
and destroyed.

Pine weevils can be kept down, if not eradicated altogether, by
laying out spruce or Scots pine logs, upon which the beetles deposit
their eggs, and these, or rather the larvee which result from them,
are afterwards destroyed. ‘lhe system succeeds best on ground
previously stocked with conifers, where, however, the old stools
have been trenched out. Fresh stems of spruce or pine 3 to 4
inches in diameter are selected, which are cut into blocks 4 or 5
feet in length, care being taken to preserve the bark as entire as
possible. These logs are buried in the ground in the month of
May, in such a way that the thick end is covered to the depth of a
foot or so, while the thin end projects above the ground 2 or 3
inches. The soil and turf are afterwards replaced, and the whole
firmed somewhat by tramping. About twelve such lures are
enough for each acre, and in order to facilitate finding them, some
sort of order should be observed in laying them down, and their
position should be marked by wooden pins or stakes. In any
case, such lures are largely made use of for oviposition, and when
no old stools are present to act as counter-attractions, nearly every
female pine weevil finds her way thither, and not only weevils, but
many other destructive insects besides. In the month of October
the blocks are carefully dug up, and the bark, with the larvee which
it contains, is stripped off and burned.

A lure of another kind is largely used in the destruction of pine
weevils, which attracts the insects not for purposes of oviposition,
but solely for food. This lure consists of sheets of the bark of the
spruce or Scots pine of a convenient size, say 15 by 10 inches,

HOW TO COMBAT THE ATTACK OF INJURIOUS FOREST INSECTS. 19

which are laid out, bast downwards, throughout the young wood,
at distances of twenty paces or so. Underneath each sheet
are placed a few young twigs of the Scots pine, which greatly
assist in attracting the insects, and on the top of all is laid a sod
or flat stone to keep the bark from drying up too quickly. The
lures should be renewed and replenished two or three times during
the season, as the old material is apt to lose its charm. Each
morning from April till September, these traps are visited either by
the forester, or, which is cheaper and equally suitable, by a boy
or woman, and the beetles which are found are removed and
destroyed. This is the best remedy for pine weevils that has
ever been discovered, and is employed with conspicuous success
wherever these creatures abound.

The pine beetle, and all the other members of the great family
of the Scolytide, can be best, and indeed only, eradicated through
providing material on which they may oviposit, and in which
their young may afterwards be destroyed. The procedure is very
simple, and the results highly satisfactory. From February till
September, at intervals of a month, trees, which in the ordinary
course of things would be removed, are felled and allowed to lie
for six weeks or so, at the end of which time they are peeled and
the bark burned. The number of “ catch-trees” which one should
prepare depends entirely upon the abundance of the insects. If
it be found that all, or almost all, the available space in the trees
is occupied by breeding galleries, then it is evident that too few
trees have been provided. If, on the other hand, the catch-trees
are not much attacked, then fewer may in future be laid dowu ; but
on every well-managed estate a considerable number of such lures
should always be present. One must also arrange the species of
tree to be used as a lure according to the species of insect one
wishes to destroy. The majority of the Scolytide infest pines,
but Bostrichus typographus attacks the spruce almost exclusively,
Scolytus destructor the elm, Hylesinus fraxini the ash, Scolytus
Ratzeburgi the birch, etc., so that it may be necessary to prepare
catch-trees of many species, though in the great majority of cases
the Scots pine suflices.

In connection with these lures, the greatest amount of care
must be bestowed upon the selection of the right time in which
to peel the bark and destroy the broods. If peeling be done too
soon, the bark is not occupied by so many insects as it can afford
space for, and consequently an excessive number of catch-trees

20 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

niust be prepared, entailing increased labour and greater expense.
If, on the other hand, one delays too long before proceeding to
strip the bark, many or most of the broods may have reached the
imago stage, and have deserted their breeding ground, with the
result that not only are the ends of the whole system frustrated,
but the wood is actually left in a worse state than it would have
been had no such lures been prepared. As it is unnecessary to
remove the bark before the larve are half-grown, and unsafe to
delay till the pup are formed, the best time to destroy the
insects is towards the end of the larval stage, but better a week
too soon than a day too late. It seldom happens that all the
broods are found at the same stage of development at the same
time ; but there must be no striking of averages, it is those that
are furthest advanced which must guide the forester in his selec-
tion of the right time to peel and burn.

It is not now my intention to discuss the question of State
interference in the destruction of forest insects. In many
countries of Europe laws have been enacted to regulate forestal
operations, so as to minimise the chances of an outbreak of
forest insects, and also for dealing with an outbreak when
such occurs. In this country, however, the State has, so far as
I am aware, never interfered with regard to forest insects, nor,
on the whole, do I consider that such interference would be
desirable. That our management is none of the best cannot be
denied, but with a system of more intensive forestry, I hope soon
to see signs of decided improvement. In common with most
other civilised countries, we have a Wild Birds Protection Act
which has done good service in the past, and which only requires
to be more stringently enforced to be capable of imparting still
greater benefits in the future.

ON BRITISH OAKS, 21

III. On British Oaks. By Joun Smitu, Romsey, Hants.

Botanists divide the British oaks into three varieties, and hold
that there is only one species indigenous to the British Isles,
namely, Quercus robur ; the varieties being (1) Q. robur peduncu-
lata, (2) Q. robur sessiliflora, and (3) Q. robur pubescens, or
intermedia. The first of these, however, is the prevailing tree,
and may claim to be the true “ monarch,” as most of the giants in
our land are of the variety pedunculata. The distinctive features
of the varieties are—(1) Pedunculata has no foot-stalks to the
leaves, and the acorns are on long stalks. (2) Sessiliflora has
stalks to the leaves, and short flower-stalks, hence its botanical
name ; its common name being dur, or durmast oak. The timber
is said not to be so durable, but the bark contains a percentage
more of tannin, and it enjoys a greater immunity from insects
than pedunculata. It occurs in Dean Forest, the New Forest,
Sherwood, and in other parts of Great Britain. (3) Pubescens,
or intermedia, may be distinguished from the last by the under-
side of the leaves having short hairs, which, when the leaf falls,
has a dull, leaden-like appearance ; and as this seems to be the
only apparent difference, it is evidently only a variety of sesstilv-
flora. In Hooker and Arnott’s “ Botany ” it is said : ‘‘ Dr Greville
has shown that there is no connection whatever between the
relative length of the fruit-stalk and the petiole. The flowers
are sessile upon the peduncle in both varieties ; but in sesst/zflora
it is mostly very short, or almost wanting, in pedunculata much
elongated ; between these there is every gradation. Intermedia,
or pubescens, is said to have the lobes of the leaves separated by
obtuse angles; but both kinds may be observed on the same
branch, and sometimes on the same leaf.”

CoMPARATIVE VALUE.

With regard to the comparative value of the timber of Q. r.
pedunculata and Q. r. sessiliflora, leaving out pubescens, which is
merely a variety of the latter, the merchant will give the same
price for trees of equal size, so that there is really no difference in
their value. But at the time when oak timber was in demand
for the navy, sessiliflora, or the durmast oak, was not considered

22 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

fit for that purpose ; indeed, it was through the purveyors for the
navy that the distinction was often drawn as to its inferior quality,
being, it was said, more liable to dry-rot, and this tradition still
lurks in the minds of the older woodmen, several tales being
told and localities named as to how these worthy gentlemen
were deceived into passing the durmast oak ; but in latter years,
as I have said, it will command the same price. This being the
case with regard to the buyer, it would seem that there is no differ-
ence; but in looking at the matter from the seller or grower’s
point of view, the case is different, as sessi//flora increases in bulk
faster than pedunculata, and, taking the two trees mentioned at
page 25 as representing the comparative rate of growth, we find
that the former increases after the rate of 5 feet in ten years,
whilst the latter increases only 3 feet in the same time; and, if
we put this quantity at 2s. 6d. per foot, the money stands at
12s. 6d. and 7s. 6d. respectively.

It has already been mentioned that the bark of sesstliflora
contains a percentage more of tannin, but I doubt whether this
can be appraised to any advantage, as a tree of pedunculata of
equal size to the other will throw a greater weight of bark, the
bark of sessilijlora being thinner, presumably owing to its more
rapid growth.

The timber of the oak is superior to that of any other native
tree, and it has Leen said of it “that, although some of the other
descriptions of timber may be harder, some more difticult to rend,
some that can bear a horizontal or lateral strain better, none
contains all these qualities united in such a superior degree as the
oak.” Although the ‘wooden walls” are a thing of the past,
still the price has not diminished ; indeed, the tendency is rather
upwards. But the price of bark varies, as in some years it is so
low that it scarcely pays expenses, whilst in other years it pays
well. Much, of course, depends on the season being favourable
or not. It would be hazardous to say whether the many substi-
tutes which now and again crop up will ever entirely displace
it for tanning purposes. A company with large capital has been
recently started with the object of importing the boiled down

bark of the spruce as a substitute—a hint which might be useful

in this country for oak bark as well as spruce, for in certain
seasons, especially wet ones, it would be a great saving to boil
down the bark as soon as the trees are stripped, and cask the
liquor for future use.

ON BRITISH OAKS. 93

SoiL AND SITUATION.

Oak will grow and come to perfection as a tree in almost any
description of soil, provided it 1s not too wet, and has a depth of
from 3 feet to 4 feet. But the best timber is produced on strong
clay, resting on a subsoil of gravel or chalk. It will grow faster
on lighter soils, but the timber is more lable to be shaky, and
consequently not so good. Where the soil is not naturally
suitable for the oak, it is a waste of money to attempt its
cultivation.

The situation of an oak plantation should be sheltered ; and
when not naturally so, nurse trees, such as Scots fir, spruce,
larch, or birch, should be introduced. I prefer the three last, as
not so apt to overcrowd the oaks, but great judgment is required
in this matter. Furze or whin has been recommended, and no
doubt has some advantages, in that it is short-lived, and would
decay when its shelter was no longer required ; but, on the whole,
I prefer larch, or any fast-growing deciduous tree for sheltering
the oak in its infancy. A belt of Scotch fir on the most exposed
side may be advisable, there to remain until ripe. A practice has
prevailed in the New Forest of Hampshire of planting the oaks
with alternate rows of Scots fir, the rows running due north and
south. This practice is evidently a failure, as the oaks are drawn
up so spindly that they cannot support themselves. This is partly
due to the fact of too many Scots firs being planted, and also to
the want of timely thinning. The excuse for this last is the
reluctance to cut down nice thriving plants before they are fit for
some commercial purpose.

Having selected a place on which to raise oak for timber, a
question arises whether the acorns should be sown in the place
where they are intended to remain, or whether they should be
sown in a seed-bed, and afterwards transplanted. This question
seems to be decided by the paper which Sir James Campbell, Bart.,
submitted—as the result of experiments in the Forest of Dean
—to the International Forestry Exhibition at Edinburgh in 1884.
In analysing this paper, I will first take certain periods ; and as
the year 1822 saw four out of the six non-transplanted trees cut
down, leaving but two, I will only deal with them, and taking
the period of 38 years, that is, from 1784 to 1822, the increase
was for—

24 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

L, 201 in., or an average rate per annum of . ; 565 in.
Another 38 years brings us to 1860, or an age of
76 years, when the size was 45 in., or an
average of : : ; : “592 in.
The last 38 years shows the increase to be slightly in excess of
the first 38.

M had increased in 1822 to 262 in., or an average
rate of ; : E : “609 in.

, In another 38 years it me increased to 43 in., or
an average rate of ; . ; 5 ‘563 in.

Then take two of the transplanted for the same periods, as

follows :—
A had increased in 1822 to 262 in., or an average of 641 in.
, In 1860 it had increased to 744 in., or an average of -936 in.
B had increased in 1822 to 254 in., or an average of -664 in,
, In 1860 it had increased to 69} in., or an average of “91 )-m:

The first thing that strikes one with reference to the above is
the great difference in size between the non-transplanted and
those that were. In the 76 years “A,” a transplanted one,
exceeded “LL,” a non-transplanted, -344 in. per annum, and “B”
exceeded “ M” in the same time by ‘348 in. Now it is difficult
to believe that the mere fact of transplanting would result in such
a difference, all other conditions being equal, and this at the end
of 76 years, without any other reason than that the tree was trans-
planted. I have taken the period of 76 years, because I happen
to be well acquainted with a selfsown wood of about the same
age, and in 1888 measured several, with the following results :—
No. 1 had a circumference of 60 in. at 5 feet up, or

an average increase per annum of : ‘ *789 in.
The bole or trunk was 60 feet, and the sheer
height 80 feet.

No. 2 had a circumference of 65} in., or an average

increase per annum of nearly . ; 862 in.
The bole or trunk 40 feet, and the sheer helt
80 feet.

No. 3 had a circumference of 74 in., or an average
increase per annum of : °970 in.
The bole or trunk 30 feet, and ihe sheer height
also 80 feet.

ON BRITISH OAKS. 25

The above examples show that the length of the bole affects
the circumference, that is to say, the longer the bole is the less the
girth, and wice versa, and this leads me to remark that in Sir
James Campbell’s paper the length of the bole is not given, an
important omission.

Another objection to this experiment has been stated, namely,
that the plants left in the “acorn patch” were in exhausted soil,
whereas the transplanted ones were put in comparatively maiden
soil.

An argument put forward in favour of transplanting is, that the
tap root only serves a temporary purpose, and is of no consequence
to the future growth of the tree. This opinion is founded on
observations taken of uprooted trees, which have no appearance
of tap roots. In answer to this it may be stated, first, that the
absence of a tap root may have been the cause of the uprooting,
because whether self-sown or planted, there may have been cir-
cumstances in the subsoil unfavourable to its growth.

Another omission in Sir James Campbell’s paper is that the
variety of the oak is not given. Now I find that pedwneulata
does not increase so fast as sess¢liflora. I found this opinion on
the measurement, for ten years, of two trees which, so far as can
be seen, are growing under precisely similar circumstances.

No. 1. Quercus pedunculata, measured in 1878, had

a circumference of . : “ 5 ED ft.
The bole 9 ft.

» Im 1888 the circumference was : : 12 ft.
This gives an average increase per annum of : 1-2 in,
No. 2. Quercus sessiliflora, measured in 1878, had

a circumference of . : : 9 £6 Sm
The bole also 9 ft.

» In 1888 the circumference was ; - 10 ft. Pili

Or an average increase per annum of : : 2 in.

nearly double that of No. 1, The soil in which they grow is
clayey loam. Another Q. sessli/lora is increasing at the rate of
875 in. per annum ; but this is evidently an older tree than
No, 2, and is growing on stiff clay.

PLANTS AND PLANTING.

Whether the foregoing statements as to the growth of the two
oaks, which are natives of Britain, will bear out the theory that

26 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

sessiliflora grows faster than the other, it is still desirable to have
a mixture of sessz/iflora in a plantation, for the reason that the
bark of the thinnings is of more value, and would be almost the
only return in the earlier years of the plantation. In preparing
the land for planting, no better method can be adopted than to
crop it with potatoes, which pulverises the soil better than the
cultivation of any other crop. The oak plants, four or five years
transplanted, should be put into pits at 4 feet apart each way, to
be successful, and this operation will require to be carefully done.
For the first three years the plantation should be hoed annually,
after which tall weeds, brambles, etc., can be cut down as occasion

requires.
THINNING.

The thinning may commence from the seventh to the tenth year,
and here great judgment is required, as no hard and fast rule
can be laid down. The only plan that can be recommended in
the first thinning is to cut out the weakest plants, and if two or
more robust plants are found side by side to leave them alone for
another time. Before the second thinning, which may be taken
in another seven or ten years, all the undergrowth should be cut
clean out. The trees will now be, say, twenty years of age, and
greater judgment, if possible, will be necessary at this thinning,
as the proportions of the trees and their likelihood to become useful
timber must be calculated with a skilful eye, and the fittest
selected to remain. Some writers have recommended that a
certain number per acre should be left, and that they should stand
at equal distances apart. This is questionable advice, for in all
probability there will be three classes of trees in the plantation,
namely—first, those with a straight leader going ahead ; second,
those with a short stem, and inclined to have a branchy head;
and third, those which it would be difficult to class as a tree or
shrub. These last should all be cut over, unless there are special
reasons to the contrary, as the shoots from the stools will come in
to be cut as underwood at the next thinning. The second class to
have plenty of room to develop their head, as in consequence of
their short stem they will be the first to come in as marketable
timber. The first class may be left closer together ; two or more
may be no farther than 8 feet apart, as many fine timber trees are
found growing as close. In the third thinning proceed as in the
second, and the cuttings of the underwood should now be of some

ON BRITISH OAKS. Ti

value. Care should be taken to leave all seedlings which may
have sprung up, but none of the shoots from the stools should be
left, however promising they may look, as trees grown from such
are generally faulty at the butt, and otherwise unsatisfactory
when they attain maturity. The trees being now about thirty
years of age, some of the short stemmed ones will come in as
useful timber, but no more should be taken out than is absolutely
necessary to make room for the others, as no greater mistake can
be made than in taking too many trees at a time.

DISEASES OF THE OAK.
Insects.

The oak, although lord of the woods, is more subject to the
attacks of insects than any other tree of the forest. One authority
has stated that there are nearly 130 species of galls living on
various kinds of oaks in Europe. In this paper it will be
sufficient to notice only those that are common in Britain.

First, the Marble Gall, so called from its appearance, being
like a common marble as used by boys in play. It is perfectly
round, brown, and gets very hard in autumn, and with clusters of
three or four gives the tree a strange appearance when denuded of
leaves. It occurs mostly on young trees, or those that have been
pollarded, seldom or never on large growing trees. This gall is
produced by an insect known as Cynips Kéllarz. Its history is
somewhat obscure ; but the grub occupies the centre of the gall,
and lies in a curved position, emerging from it In spring a perfect
fly. During the winter many of the galls are pierced by birds
and the grub extracted. This, no doubt, tends to check their
increase.

The Apple Gall, or ‘oak apple,” is occasionally very plentiful,
and generally found at the end of a shoot. The galls begin
to form at the end of April or beginning of May, and are full
grown by “oak apple day,” or the 29th of May, the anniversary
of the restoration of Charles II. Sometimes they are 1} inches
in diameter, of a greenish-white colour streaked with red, at first
soft, but harden somewhat before they fall from the tree ; they
are then found when opened to contain many grubs, each in a
separate cell, The perfect insect, Terax terminalis, emerges in July.

The Root Gall—The females deposit their eggs in the roots

28 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

which they can reach near the surface of the ground. A large
number of eggs are laid close to one another, and no doubt two or
more females deposit their eggs so close together that they form
one gall. The eggs are laid in August, and the galls begin to
grow in September, but from the fall of the leaf until the spring
they do not increase in size. In May they are full grown, but the
gall flies do not emerge until the following April. The galls vary
in size from about } of an inch to 3 inches diameter, and will
be found full of small oval cells, each containing an insect. The
flies which issue from these galls are known as Aphilotrix radicis,
and only females appear in this generation. They are much
larger than their parents, measuring nearly a quarter of an inch
in Jength. They leave the galls in April or May, and deposit
their eggs in buds which form the young shoots, causing swellings
to appear at the base of the shoot, from which the flies emerge in
August. This species, therefore, requires two years to complete
the cycle of its transformation.

The Artichoke Gall, so called from its resemblance in form
to the globe artichoke. This is formed by an insect called
Andricus pilosus. Both sexes appear in June, and the female
lays a single egg ina bud, which causes it to grow into a scaly
bract. On cutting open one of these galls the interior will
be found of a woody texture, and partly embedded in the top
is a small, hard, brown, oval striated gall, which contains the
grub, This gall eventually falls to the ground, when the trans-
formation of the insect is completed. In the woody portion of
the outer gall may often be found cells containing grubs of
some other species, which has laid eggs after its formation was
begun. The perfect insects, Aphilotrix fecundatrix, bred from the
internal galls, are about one-eighth of an inch in length, and always
females. They appear in April, and attack the buds containing
the male flowers, within which their eggs are laid. The galls
which result are oval-pointed, about one-tenth of an inch in
length, covered with stiff hairs, and of a green colour. The perfect
insects, which are of both sexes, escape from the galls in June,
and attack the leaf-buds as already mentioned.

The Spangle Gall insect (Spathegaster baccarum) deposits its
eggs on the underside of the leaf at the beginning of June, and the
galls begin to form in July, and are full grown in September, when
they are about three-tenths of an inch in diameter. They are flat
and circular, with the centre raised in a flat cone. They are of a

ON BRITISH OAKS. 29

greenish-yellow colour, with tufts of red-brown hairs, and some-
times cover the entire underside of the leaf. They were very
numerous in 1886. ‘The insects lie dormant during the winter, of
course falling with the leaf. They appear in the winged form in
April or May.

The Button Gall (Spathegaster vesivatrix) is formed by a small
species of about one-tenth of an inch in length, both sexes of
which are produced, The female deposits her eggs on the under-
side of the leaves in June, and the galls are about one-tenth of an
inch in diameter. They resemble a small button covered with
fine threads, which under the microscope are very beautiful. The
flies do not emerge from the galls until spring, when only females
are produced. These attack the undersides of the leaves, which
causes small galls, somewhat resembling the oak spangles.

The Currant Gall (Neuroterus lenticularis).—Vhis fly is about
one-eighth of an inch long, and of a reddish-brown colour. The
females deposit their eggs in the buds containing the male flowers,
and also on the undersides of the leaves. The galls when mature
are perfectly globular, of a transparent green, speckled with red,
They are of a soft consistency, with a considerable hollow space
in the centre, in which is the grub. When formed on the male
flowers they resemble a bunch of currants. The flies emerge from
the galls in June.

Such is an account of the more common of the galls to be found
on the oak in Britain; but what the effect is on the growth of the
tree it would be difficult to say, as they have occurred in most
years for ages past, with perhaps the exception of the marble gall,
which is stated to be a more recent introduction.

We now come to a more serious class of insect pests, namely,
the caterpillars, chief among which is the Tortrix viridana, or
oak-leaf roller. This caterpillar attacks the leaves, and has
assumed alarming proportions at intervals of years apart, such as
in 1831, 1848, 1864, and 1881. This gives a period of about
seventeen years between each attack. I particularly noticed the
latter years, but in 1888 their ravages were the most disastrous of
any. On the lst of June in that year, a bright sunny day, I
entered an oak wood, and, after proceeding a short distance, became
conscious of being enveloped in cobwebs. On discovering the cause,
so thick were the caterpillars hanging by their threads all around
me, that I determined to return, and although the distance was but
short, I emerged literally covered with them. During that month

30 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

they continued their ravages until whole woods were denuded of
their foliage, and looked as bare as in mid-winter, and so annoying
were they that labourers could not work in the woods. They also
attacked the hazel under the oak, surrounding some of the bushes
with their webs as if in a glass case. It was only in the close
woods where the ravages took place, isolated oaks not being
touched, The trees which enjoyed immunity, although surrounded
by infested oaks, were the elm, beech, sweet chestnut, and the
Turkey oak, and the ash partially. During the height of the
attack I passed through a wood composed of Q. sesst/iflora, which,
although the attack had been begun, they had left off evidently
either poisoned or starved. This fact has also been noticed by a
resident in the Forest of Dean, who, in writing of 1881, says, “ It
was strikingly evident last summer that the Q. robur pedunculata,
or old English oak, was attacked by blight more severely than the
Q. r. sessiliflora. Single trees and groups of several together would
be seen in full foliage, or but slightly injured, and, when examined,
these were found to be of the last-mentioned variety, while all
around them Q. 7. pedunculata would be leafless and bare.” This
is another proof that sesst/iflora is distinet from pedunculata. On
the 2d of July 1888 very heavy rain began to fall, and continued
at intervals for a week. Then the trees that seemed to be dead
began to sprout, and the mid-summer shoots soon clothed them in
verdure again. Many of these shoots measured from 12 to 18
inches in length.

Of the causes, or a cure for such a devastating attack, little can
be said. A mild winter is generally reckoned a predisposing cause,
but the winter of 1887-88 was not what might be called ‘ mild.”
An analysis of the 61 days previous to the attack—that is, from
the Ist of April to 1st June—shows that there were 18 days
of frost, 2 on which snow fell, 20 on which rain fell, and 8 classed
as cold or ungenial, thus leaving only 13 days of moderate
temperature, or warm, June 5th was remarkably cold, and snow
fell in Scotland and parts of England. Now this record is not
consistent with the ‘‘ mild season” theory. A writer, in noticing
the attack of 1848 in the Forest of Dean, says, “‘'There seems to
be no method of checking their ravages. The rooks come in great
numbers, and they and other birds destroy great quantities.” But
the report of the visitation of 1881 in the same forest says, ‘‘ The
very rapid and destructive nature of the blight this season may
have been caused by the absence of large flocks of rooks, jackdaws,

ON BRITISH OAKS. ail

starlings, and other small birds, which have in previous years
attacked the blight on its first appearance ; and, as each bird will
consume a large number of grubs daily, the plague was formerly
much checked at the outset. The severe weather of last winter
undoubtedly killed large numbers of these birds, and the cater-
pillar was consequently almost unmolested.” In this statement it
is curious to observe that in the writer’s opinion the severe winter
of 1880-81, although it killed the birds, could have had no effect
on the insect, and this is another testimony against the theory of
a mild winter. Of the five seasons in which the blight was preva-
lent, namely, 1831, 1848, 1864, 1881, and 1888, two were preceded
by severe winters, namely, 1830 and 1880. As to birds being able
to cope with this plague, I have to observe that in 1888 they
forsook the woods entirely, and it was even said that the rabbits
also did so. No living thing would care to be enveloped in such
an annoying network of web.

Several species of the large family of Geometrina, or “mea-
surers,” so called from their progressing by looping themselves up
and then extending their whole length as if measuring, are to be
found on the oak, and assist the Z'ortrices in their depredations.

The other Z'ortrices besides the Vortrix viridana which infest
the oak are—

Chloephora Prasinana.

Pe Quercana.
Lozotenia Sorbiana.

Sulvana.

es aylosteana (common).
Ptycholoma Lecheana (common).
Hedya dealbana,
Dictyopteryx Leflingiana.
Pecilochroma corticana.
Ephippiphora argyrana (on the bark),
Tortricodes hyemana (very common).

Of the Deltowles family only one is found on the oak, namely,
Herminia barbalis; and of the Crambites there are three, namely,

Acrobasis consociella (not common).
Me tumedella (not common),

Nephopteryx Roborella (not common).

For further information on the subject of Lepidoptera the
student is referred to “ Stainton’s Manual.”

32 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Of the several kinds of larvee which are to be found affecting
different parts of the oak tree, I have never found any in the acorn,
nor do I find any record of such. This is to be noted, as very few
seeds of plants escape the ravages of some variety of insect or
another.

Fungi.

We now come to treat of the fungi that are to be found on the
oak, but it is doubtful whether they can be properly classed as a
disease, or only as the result of some other disease or of natural
decay, for whenever they occur it is a certain sign of the bad
condition of the tree.

Some tree fungi are not particular as to the tree upon which
they grow, whilst others confine themselves to one genus or species.

The following may be taken as an approximate list of those
found on different parts of the oak, some of which are to be found
on other trees and substances :—

Galarileus quietus, in oak woods.

Pleurotus dryinus, on the tree.

ie palmatus, on the tree.

Crepidotus aurant ferrugt, on the roots.

Coprinarius papyraceus, on the tree.

Dedalea quercina, on the tree.

Microporus frondosus, on the roots.

3 sulphureus, on the tree.
x hispidus, on the tree.

Fistulina hepatica, liver-like or beef-steak fungus, grows
on old trees in the New, Sherwood, and Epping
forests, and is edible.

Hydnum minimum, on the rotten timber.
erinaceus, hedgehog fungus, is very rare and
curious. Found in Epping Forest, and recently in the
New Forest, by Dr M. C. Cooke, the eminent myco-
logist.

Merisma rubiginosa, on old trees.

sinuans, on the branches.

>?
Re quercina, on fallen trees.
Helotiwm acicularis, on hollow trees.
Bulgaria inquinans, on dead trees.
Cenangium quercinam, on dead branches,

Kxidia flaccida, on the bark.

ON BRITISH OAKS. 393

Stromatospheria parallela, on dead trees.
= nivea, on dead branches.

3 quercina, on dead branches.
Cryptospheria bifrons, on the dry leaves.
Pf punctiformis, on dead leaves.
Spheria biphemia, on dead branches.
Phacidium coronatum, on dead leaves,
m dentatum, on living leaves.

Hysterium pulicare, on the rugged bark.
a quercinum, on dead branches.

Xyloma pexizoideum, on dead leaves,

Scleroderma citrinum, on the roots.

Erineum griseum, under the leaf.

Merulius rufus lachrymans, the dry-rot fungus, is perhaps
the most to be dreaded, working in the timbers of

buildings silently and unseen with fatal effect.

The fungi in their action on the trunks and fallen branches
assist in the disintegration and decomposition of the wood, and
finally to assimilate it again with the soil.

The Lichens which grow on the trunks and branches of most of
our trees are an interesting study. They give to them a hoary
and venerable appearance when the trees are

’

** Mossed with age.’

The following are to be found on the oak, but of course there
are many more which grow indiscriminately on the trunks and
branches of it and other trees :—

Spiloma microclonum, on old trees.

” punctatum, on old trees.
Lecidea carneola, on old trees.
Calicium microcephalum, on oak rails.

zs hyperellum, on old trees.
Thelotrema melaleucum, on young trees,

“= hymenium, on old trees.

Beomyces cespititius, on the tree.

Ramalina pollinaria, on old trees.

Verrucaria analepta, on the bark.

Sticta pulmonacea, liver-wort, which, when growing on the
oak, is called ‘lungs of oak,” and is supposed then
to be specially efficacious in the cure of consumption

and other diseases.
VOL. XIII. PART I. Cc

34 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

HIsTorRICAL AND REMARKABLE OAKS.
|

Although other trees have their history and associations, the
oak has been the historical tree of Britain, from the dark ages of
the Druids until recent times, when it has become less the fashion
to plant it as a memorial of the great, or in commemoration of
any noteworthy event. How far this latter circumstance is wise,
not to say patriotic, is open to question. Is any tree, whether
native or foreign, except perhaps the yew, so fitting, in every
respect, to tell future ages of what has been done, or to mark the
progress of time, as the oak? I trow not.

Of oak trees remarkable for their historical associations we have
the “Royal,” the “ Parliament,” the “Shire,” the “Gospel,” the
“ Cheney Court,” from the French chené, an oak, and the “‘ Bound
Tree,” marking the boundary of parishes or manors. In the same
manner the name ‘ Gospel” is derived from the ancient custom
of treading the boundaries of parishes in “ Rogation Week,” when
under an oak tree the Gospel for the day was read, and these trees
have generally been preserved, but often under other names.

The Notable Oaks of England and Wales.

The following list has been compiled from various sources, and
from personal observation; but it may here be remarked that
some of the measurements given are imperfect or unreliable, the
height from the ground where the girth is taken not being given
with sufficient accuracy, in many cases, to enable one to compare
it with other trees, and a girth at the ground is in most instances
valueless when the tree is so buttressed with roots that almost
any girth may be arrived at, consequently much room is left for
exaggeration. On this point Mr Trowsdale says in the Z7imes,
“T would venture to express an opinion that local naturalists and
antiquaries would render good service to the cause of literature
were they to obtain, by personal measurement, the exact dimensions
of the famous old trees now existing in their respective neighbour-
hoods.” It is to be understood that in this record of remarkable
trees they are all Quercus robur pedunculata, except where it is
stated they are Q. 7. sessiliflora. With this preliminary I now
proceed with the list.

The Cowthorpe Oak, Q. robur pedunculata, whose age has been
variously estimated at from fifteen to eighteen centuries, stands

ON BRITISH OAKS. 35

in the parish of Cowthorpe, three miles from Wetherby, in the
West Riding of the county of York. The circumference of its
trunk close to the ground was, at the close of last century, accord-
ing to Evelyn’s “Silva,” 78 feet. Shortly after the publication of
this work, earth was placed around the base of the trunk, with a
view to the preservation of the tree, which by covering over some
considerable projections reduced the girth of the stem at the
ground line to 60 feet. In 1829 the Rev. Dr Jessop measured
the tree, and communicated its dimensions to Strutt’s ‘Silva
Britannica,” as follows :—

Circumference at ground, : ; : 60 feet.
- at 3 feet from ground, . 45 ,,
Height of tree, : : 45 ,,
Extent of the principal Tine. : : : 50) %
Greatest circumference of principal limb, ; oa

Dr Jessop adds, “The tree is hollow throughout to the top, and
the ground plot inside may possibly find standing-room for forty
men.” In Loudon’s “ Arboretum” the diameter of the hollow of
the tree close to the ground is given at 9 feet 10 inches. This
would give an area of over 96 square feet, which is certainly
sufficient to afford standing-room for forty men.

In Dr Hunter’s edition of Evelyn’s “ Silva,” the dimensions are
given—circumference at the ground, 26 yards (78 feet) ; height,
80 feet ; and its principal limb 16 yards (48 feet) from the bole.
This tallies so far with the other account, with the exception of
the height of the tree.

The “Royal Oak” at Boscobel House in the ancient forest
of Brewood, Staffordshire, has become celebrated in history for
having given shelter to Charles II. after the battle of Worcester
on September 6, 1651. The story is variously told. The Earl
of Bradford, in a letter dated Weston Park, May 6, 1878, says,
“On one occasion when he (that is, the king) was out with one
or two of the Penderils, sounds were heard of horses’ feet not very
far off. There was not much time for consideration, but his
attendants thought he might not be able to get back to his hiding-
place in the house quietly, or perhaps thought that even if he did
he might be discovered there, and recommended him to go into a
thick part of the wood (being early in September, the trees and
underwood were still in full leaf), where they helped him up into
an oak tree (not a decayed, but a growing oak tree), and implored

36 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

him on no account to come down from the tree until they returned
to him and tell him all was safe. They then went as if to their
work or ordinary occupation. The troopers of the Parliament fell
in with them, made all sorts of inquiries about the house and its
inmates and its neighbourhood, and ultimately rode on without
discovering how near they were to the king. The Penderils
returned in due time, and conducted the king back to the
house.”

The tree stands in a field near the garden of Boscobel house,
and is surrounded by an iron palisading. It has a circumference,
at 4 feet up, of 12 feet 3 inches. That the tree now standing is
the same in which the king was concealed has been questioned,
and that it is only a seedling from the ‘“ Royal,” some authorities
alleging that it is only 160 or 170 years of age, whilst others put
it between 400 and 500. On this point it may be as well to quote
again Lord Bradford’s letter, and to mention that his seat of
Weston Park adjoins Boscobel: he says, ‘‘ The tree was from that
time well known to them (that is, the Penderils), and doubtless to
the owner, Mr Giffard, and other loyal friends in the immediate
neighbourhood ; and after the Restoration, which was only nine
years afterwards, probably numbers of people visited the tree,
although at that time in a thick coppice with only woodmens’
paths or very bad cut roads in the neighbourhood. The coppice
was subsequently cleared, I apprehend, in the time of the Fitz-
herberts, who inherited from the Giffards, but the tree into which
the king climbed was left standing and regarded with pride and
affection. It has been known from father to son by succeeding
generations from that time to this. As to its being a substitute
of any sort, least of all an acorn from the original tree, I discard
the idea as ludicrous and absurd. J have known the tree
myself for half a century.! It looks now very much as it did
then ; and nearly as long ago as that I remember my father
speaking of the absurdity of the stories then current as to the owl
flying ont of the decayed tree, the present tree being an acorn
from the old one, and such like. He used to say that he had
heard his father, and, I think, his grandfather, speak in the same
sense ; and the recollection of the tree by his grandfather (my
great-grandfather) would easily carry him back as far as 1740,
which would be less than ninety years after the king sat in the
tree.”

' Karl Bradford was born in 1819.

ON BRITISH OAKS. Biff

“T may mention, with respect to oak trees and oak wood in
this neighbourhood, that there are trees still alive in this park
estimated to be 1100 or 1200 years old ; there are others reckoned
to be 600, 500, and 400 years old. Sometimes a smaller tree is
known to be considerably older than a larger one, and I should
myself estimate the tree at Boscobel to be 400 or 450 years old ;
but it would have been equally capable of affording a hiding-place
for a man in the middle of a thick wood, whether it was then
some 220 years old, as I estimate it, or whether it was 100 years
younger or older.”

Against this evidence as to its being the original ‘‘ Royal” oak,
another witness says “that he measured it in 1857, and again
twenty-one years later, and found that its girth had increased 11
inches, or half an inch annually.” In summing up the evidence
for and against, it is necessary to bear in mind that the original
tree was in a thick wood, and not a detached tree, or in any way
conspicuous, which would have been sure to attract the attention
of the Parliamentary troopers. Further, this wood seems to have
subsequently been cleared by the Fitzherberts, the successors of
the Giffards, but at what date is not stated. Now this fact would
have gone far to establish the identity of the tree or otherwise,
because, if the date of clearing or grubbing up of the wood was
not long after the event, then it would be probable that the
Fitzherberts knew the real tree, as they surrounded a@ tree by a
brick wall; but if this took place very long after, then a doubt
would still remain notwithstanding Lord Bradford’s testimony, as
the tree is certainly of small girth for say 450 years.

The “ Parliament Oak” in Clipstone Park, Notts, is so called
from an informal parliament having been held under it by
King John, in 1212. Bailey says, ‘‘ John this year perpetrated
the enormous cruelty of putting to death, by hanging, at Notting-
ham Castle, twenty-eight youths belonging to the most illustrious
families of Wales, which youths he had brought with him after
the rebellion as hostages for the future peace and submission of
the principality. At the time this event took place, the king was
indulging himself in the pleasures of the chase at Clipstone Palace,
-when a messenger arrived from his sister Joan, who was married
to Llewellyn, Prince of Wales, informing him of a fresh revolt,
and at the same time another came with a letter from his friend
and ally, David L., king of Scotland, apprising him of the exist-
ence of a widespread conspiracy against him in the northern parts

38 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

of the kingdom. Hastily summoning a council of the barons and
other distinguished individuals who were about his person or in
the immediate vicinity of the palace, they met under the boughs
of an oak tree in the park, which thence obtained the appellation
of the “Parliament Oak.” Another parliament is said to have
been held here in 1290 by Edward I.

This tree stands in a nook by the side of the highway leading
from Edwinstowe to Mansfield, at a point where that road is
intersected by a private way of the Duke of Portland’s. It has
a circumference at 3 feet up of 28 feet 6 inches, but it is only
a living ruin.

The ‘‘ Greendale Oak” is, however, the most remarkable of the
Welbeck oaks. It stands about half a mile south of the abbey,
and is computed to be one of the oldest trees in existence in this
country. The trunk having a century or two back become quite
hollow with age, and so much decayed that large apertures
occurred in its sides, the opening was, in 1724, sufficiently
enlarged by cutting away the decayed wood, to allow an ordinary
carriage to pass through, and it is said that one of its noble
owners was actually driven through this opening with his bride,
on the occasion of his marriage, in a carriage drawn by six horses.
The height of the opening is 10 feet 3 inches, the width 6 feet
3 inches, and the circumference at the ground is 36 feet, above
the arch 35 feet 3 inches, and the sheer height 54 feet.!

The “Shambles Oak” is another remarkable Welbeck tree. It
is traditionally said that in its hollow trunk Robin Hood and his
merry men used to hang up their venison as they would in a
butcher’s shop, until wanted, and that near it much of their
cooking was done and revels kept. Some of the iron hooks are
said still to be seen in the interior. It is said that, in later times,
this notable tree was used by a sheep-stealer as a place wherein
to hang his ill-gotten spoil until he could safely dispose of it.
From these circumstances the tree acquired its name of the
“Shambles Oak.”

The ‘‘Two Porters,” a pair of grand old trees, so called from

1 The dimensions of this famous tree, accurately measured for the Royal
Scottish Arboricultural Society by Mr Jameson, forester on the Welbeck
estates, on the occasion of the Society’s visit to it on the 7th August 1889,
are as follows :—height, 45 feet; girth, 31 feet at the base, and 30 feet at
5 feet up; the opening in the tree, 9 feet 1 inch high, by 7 feet 3 inches
wide on the east, and 5 feet 4 inches on the west side.—Ep.

ON BRITISH OAKS. 39

there having been once a gate between them. They stand nearly
at the north extremity of the park, not far from the south lodge
of Worksop Manor, and the drive passes between them. They
measure as follows :—circumference at the bottom, 38 feet; at
3 feet up, 27 feet ; and at 6 feet up, 23 feet ; sheer height, 98 feet
6 inches. The other has a circumference at the bottom of 34 feet;
at 3 feet up, 23 feet; and at 6 feet up, 20 feet; sheer height,
88 feet. These oaks are Quercus robur sessiliflora.+

The “Seven Sisters” so called from having consisted originally
of seven stems springing from one common root, is one of
the most remarkable trees anywhere in existence. Some of the
“sister” stems have, from time to time, been blown down, but
it is still a noble tree. It is situated about half a mile from the
“Two Porters.” The circumference of the common trunk, close
to the ground, is over 30 feet, and the height 88 feet. The
measurements of the ‘‘Seven Sisters” were given nearly a century
ago, as follows :—in height it is 88 feet 7 inches; the circum-
ference at the bottom is 30 feet; at two yards, taking in the stems,
30 feet 4 inches. The largest stem at two yards is 12 feet 10
inches in circumference ; another at the same distance from its
bottom is 11 feet 7 inches; one, 9 feet 10 inches; and the
smallest, 5 feet 3 inches in circumference.?

The ‘Queen Oak,” now called the “ Major Oak,” so named,
it is said, after Major Hayman Rooke, who often visited it, and
wrote much on the forest; it was also called the ‘ Cock-pen
Tree,” from its hollow interior being occupied as a hen-roost.
The hollow is nearly 7 feet in diameter and 15 feet high. A
considerable portion of its tendons appear above ground, and
measuring these about halfway between their junction with the
trunk and their insertion in the earth, they gave a circumference
of nearly 30 yards; the circumference of the trunk at nearly
6 feet from the ground, the height at which begin the branches,

1 On the occasion of the Society’s visit in 1889, the ‘‘ Two Porters” were
measured, and the dimensions are given in the Report of the Excursion as
follows:—No. 1 girths at base 36 feet 8 inches, and at 5 feet up 25 feet
8 inches; and is about 24 feet high, having been broken off by a storm in
1881. No. 2 girths at base 36 feet, and at 5 feet up 23 feet 2 inches; and
stands about 60 feet high.—Ep.

2 The last of the ‘‘Seven Sisters’ was blown down about a year previous
to the Society’s visit on the 7th August 1889, so that this famous tree is

now a thing of the past.—Ep.

40 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

was 30 feet, at 4 feet the circumference is 29 feet, and the sheer
height 80 feet.?

The “ Ruysdael Oak,” so named by a late Duke of Portland,
because it resembled in shape those peculiarly formed trees which
that great painter delighted to introduce in his pictures. It
stands on a commanding eminence in the park, not far from the
‘Seven Sisters,’ and forms a striking object from whichever side
it is seen, notably from the mansion itself.”

The ‘Simon Forester” oak is another of the famous trees in
Sherwood Forest, with a circumference of 22 feet and a height of
from 50 to 60 feet.

Such are some of the notable old trees of ‘‘Sherwood Forest”
which have received names, but although now no longer a royal
forest, there still exist many other grand old oaks that date back
to times when this great forest was the hunting-ground of kings.

We now come to the oaks in Windsor Park. .

The “Cow Pond Oak” may be first noticed, as it is one of the
few trees of which we can fix the date of planting with any
accuracy. ‘The account is, ‘‘ About the year 1715 the plantation
lying between Cumberland Lodge and Cow Pond was formed,
and we mention it simply because it contains what is generally
considered to be the most perfect timber tree in Windsor Park.
It has a straight clean bole over 40 feet up to the first branch,
with a girth of 10 feet 4 inches at 5 feet from the ground ; now,
taking the age up to 1880, would be 162 years, this would give
an annual increase in circumference of *765 inch.

“ Herne’s Oak.” This tree or trees, for it appears there were
two claiming the honour of being the tree immortalised by
Shakespeare in the ‘ Merry Wives of Windsor ”—

‘« There is an old tale goes, that Herne the Hunter ;
Sometime a keeper here in Windsor Forest,
Doth all the winter-time, at still midnight,
Walk round about an oak, with great rage’d horns ;
And there he blasts the trees, and takes the cattle,
And makes milch kine yield blood, and shakes a chain
In a most hideous and dreadful manner.”

‘In the Report of the Society’s Excursion in 1889, the dimensions of the
“Major Oak” are given as—girth, 29 feet 6 inches at 5 feet up; height, 60
to 70 feet ; spread of branches, 90 feet.

***Gaunt and dead at least fifteen years, but it still defies the blast and
maintains an upright position’ (Report of Society’s Excursion, 1889).—Ep.

ON BRITISH OAKS. 4]

Some years ago a sharp controversy was carried on as to
the identity of “ Herne’s Oak,” it being contended by some
authorities that it was cut down in error, during the reign of
George III., about the year 1796; the other “* Herne’s Oak” was
blown down in 1863, but as the Queen has planted one in its
place, this will perpetuate the name. It stood in the Home
Park, but I cannot find what were its dimensions.

“Queen Elizabeth’s Tree,” so called from having been said to
have been a great favourite of the virgin Queen. It stands close
to the site of ‘‘ Herne’s Oak.”

“‘Shakespeare’s Oak,” another tree supposed to have been the
great poet’s favourite oak, stands close by the last ; both are said
to be fine trees, but in neither case have we got dimensions.

‘William the Conqueror’s Oak.” Beyond the fact that this
tree has been associated with the Norman’s name from time
immemorial, its history is unknown. The main stem has long
been decayed, and is supported with props. It is situate near
Cranbourne Lodge, just within the park palings, and is, con-
sequently, but little seen by the public. It has a circumference
of 37 feet at 5 feet up.

The ‘‘ Forest Gate Oak” is an old pollard, with a circumference
of 28 feet 4 inches.

“Queen Anne’s Oak” has a circumference of 15 feet 3 inches
at 5 feet up, and is 60 feet high.

“Queen Charlotte’s Oak” has a circumference of 17 feet 3
inches at 5 feet up, and is 65 feet high.

“Queen Victoria’s Oak ” is perhaps as handsome a specimen of
a thriving young oak as it would be possible to find. It has a
magnificent straight stem 38 feet up to the first branch, and a
beautifully rounded head. It was chosen by Her Majesty as her
favourite oak soon after her accession. It is 11 feet 11 inches
in circumference at 5 feet up, and is 70 feet high.

The three last-mentioned ‘‘Queen” oaks are in the forest
between Highstanding Hill and New Lodge.

The ‘“ Prince Consort's Memorial Oak,” planted by Her Majesty
on November 25, 1862, marks the spot where her much-loved
husband finished his last day’s shooting on November 23, 1861.

Before taking leave of Windsor, it may be as well to notice the
plantation, containing a large group of oaks, stretching from the
back of the park bailiffs house in the direction of Cranbourne
Walk. It is supposed that allusion is made to this plantation of

42 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

14 acres in a document of the year 1625, which had been fenced
with pales into the Great Park, and sown with acorns in 1580.
These trees, at the present time, are of a singularly uniform
character, and perfectly healthy. This is supposed to be the
earliest authenticated record of any regular plantation known to
have been made in England. They number about twenty-one to
the acre, and their average content is about 88 feet. In addition
to this, it would be desirable to have more details as to the size
of individual trees, as this would be a contribution towards solving
the question of ‘raising forests from seed.”

The ‘* New Forest” in Hampshire, although of large extent, has
few oak trees of interest. They do not grow so high or so large
as in many other parts of England, but they are more picturesque
in their outlines, appearing in the distance as if suspended in the
air rather than growing out of the earth.

The “ Western Oak” at Boldrewood has a circumference of
24 feet 9 inches.

The ‘‘ Eastern Oak,” at the same place, has a circumference of
16 feet.

The “ Northern Oak,” also at Boldrewood, has-a circumference
at the thickest part of 20 feet 4 inches; lower down it is only
14 feet 8 inches.

The “ Knyghtwood Oak” has a circumference of 17 feet 4 inches.

The “ Moyle’s Court Oak” is a handsome tree, standing a few
yards outside the “ Forest” boundary. It has a circumference of
18 feet 84 inches.

The ‘Cadnam Oak” is remarkable in that it puts forth young
leaves on Old Christmas morning, which fact seems to be well
attested. A description of this tree appeared in Woods and Forests,
February 1885, the writer of which, after a graphic account of his
visit to it on Old Christmas morning in that year, says, ‘‘ perhaps
some of your correspondents may know of such in other parts of
England ;” but to this there was no response, so it may be
presumed that this oak is unique. It stands some 10 yards to
the north of the Southampton Road, where that to Ringwood
crosses it, by the fence of Widow Gain’s garden, and has a circum-
ference of 10 feet 6 inches at 4} feet up, a bole of 17 feet, and a
height of 55 feet. It is apparently a young tree, although a good
part of the south side of the whole length of the trunk is gone,
which is, however, being fast covered over by the growth of the
tree, although it is still from 1 foot to 18 inches broad.

ON BRITISH OAKS. 43

“Oakley Oak” is situated in a meadow to the east of Oakley
farm-house, from which it is separated by a branch of the river
Test, leading to the grounds of Mottisfont Abbey in Hampshire.
It has a circumference of 31 feet 6 inches at 44 feet up; at 9 feet
it branches into six large but hollow limbs, where, owing to the
swell of its branches, the circumference is much larger; the sheer
height is 27 feet. The living branches are comparatively young,
and they put forth leaves and bear acorns freely. The trunk is
quite hollow, and has a cavity measuring at the ground 9 feet by
9 feet in diameter, and at 44 feet up 7 feet by 7 feet, which is
the smallest diameter of the hollow trunk. The entrance to the
interior is on the north side, and is 3 feet 7 inches high, and 1 foot
8 inches wide. The hollow limbs admit plenty of light into the
interior.

“Seven Yards Oak.” This is an old tree, showing signs of
decay, and although apparently sound in the trunk, it does not
look so healthy as the “ Oakley Oak.” It stands in Hurstbourne
Park, belonging to Lord Portsmouth, near Whitchurch in Hamp-
shire, and on the boundary between the parishes of Hurstbourne
Priors and Whitchurch. It is not known how long it has borne
the name of “Seven Yards,” but 21 feet is still the circumference
at 44 feet up. ,

“Canon Beadon’s Oak.” I notice this tree because its history
is given as follows :—‘ This oak was planted by the late Canon
Beadon in North Stoneham Rectory grounds, near Southampton,
when home from school, at the age of fourteen years, the same
having been raised from an acorn in a flower-pot by his sister.
The Rey. Canon died June 10, 1879, having lived to sit under
this oak, now a considerable tree, and witnessed a cricket match
when he had attained his one hundredth year, the tree being then
eighty-six years of age. The circumference is 11 feet 5 inches at
4} feet up.

“Dean Forest” is another Royal Forest, and although not so
large as the “New Forest,” is not without some notable trees,
viz. ,—

“Jack of the Yat,” which is probably the oldest within the
present bounds of the “ Forest,” stands by the roadside near the
16th milestone on the Long Hill. In 1830, it measured 17 feet
83 inches at 6 feet up; in 1846, 18 feet 34 inches; but in 1881,
it was only 18 feet + inch. This discrepancy can hardly he
accounted for.

44 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

The “ Crad Oak” is a fine specimen of Quercus r. sessiliflora, in
flourishing condition. It stands back in the woods behind “ Jack.”
That is all the information we have respecting this “fine speci-
men,” but it is certainly desirable that something should be
known of its dimensions, as so few trees of this species of oak are
recorded.

The ‘“‘ Newland Oak” stands outside the present Dean Forest,
but within the ancient forest bounds, and is a large old tree,
measuring 41 feet round the trunk, and being probably one of the
oldest and largest oaks in the kingdom. Another account says,
*Tts trunk is not buttressed at the base, and the girth of 52 feet
at the ground is scarcely lessened up to 12 feet, where five grand
primary branches spread out from the hollow bole, divaricating
into more than fifteen.

The ‘‘Colwall Oaks.” In the parish of Colwall, near the old
hunting-seat of the bishops of Hereford, is a good-sized fish-pool,
and near this pool, in the middle of a pasture, stand these trees,
supposed to be the two oldest oaks anywhere about the Malvern
Hills, showing undoubted evidences of very great antiquity. The
largest has been much shattered and lost some of its finest
branches, so that at a distance it has a lank and attenuated look.
The extreme base of the trunk bulges out considerably, and is
more than 60 feet in circumference; but this diminishes so
quickly that at a yard from the ground it girths only 27 feet.
The companion oak to the great one, and almost as old, girths
45 feet round the swollen base.

The “Old Pollard Oak.” In the southern part of Malvern
Chace, in a field near the Severn, stands this tree, putting out
horizontal arms in a very curious manner. It is a characteristic
specimen of what is called a “burr oak,” of which many may be
seen in the neighbourhood, the result of pollarding from time to
time. The circumference at 3 feet up is 17 feet.

The “Devil’s Oak.” This tree has assumed a demoniacal shape,
the result also of pollarding, and presents a most grotesque
appearance. It is said, however, that the appellation was really
given to it from some sweeps having been seen to emerge in the
mist of an autumnal morning from its cavity, where they had
been sheltering, and as they disappeared in the fog, were very
like imps of the evil one. The name, at all events, is likely to
stick to the deformed tree. It stands in a hedge by the side of
the road leading to Sherrard’s Green, below Great Malvern.

ON BRITISH OAKS. 45

The “Cowleigh Oak” is the most conspicuous tree in Malvern
Chace for size and spread of bough. It is called ‘“ Cowley’s Oke”
in a MS. Survey of Malvern Chace, a.p, 1633, and stands near
Great Malvern, in the middle of a pasture next to Cowleigh farm-
house. It has a circumference of 27 feet at 3 feet up.

The “Great Burr Oak” is another remarkable tree, the result
of pollarding, and which has hardly any trunk. It stands on the
banks of the Teme in the parish of Leigh, about a mile west of
Bransford Bridge, and has a circumference of 20 feet at 3 feet up.

The ‘Gibbet Oak’ is supposed to derive its name from having
been used as the place for hanging spies and traitors in the Wars or
the Roses. It stands on a gentle eminence at short distance from the
Tenbury and Bromyard main road in Kyre Park, Worcestershire.
It measures 24 feet in girth at 5 feet up, and its huge and
widely-extended arms, standing out at right angles some 8 feet or
9 feet from the ground, seem to be well adapted for the use then
made of it.

The “Weeping Oak” at Moccas Court, Herefordshire, was
considered by Loudon to be one of the most remarkable oaks in
England. ‘The branches reach from about the middle of a
trunk of 75 feet to within 7 feet of the ground, hanging down
like cords, and many to a length of 30 feet, having a thickness
which does not in any part of them exceed that of a common
waggon rope. The entire head covers a space of 100 feet in
diameter.

The “ Weeping Oak” at King’s Acre, Hereford, was planted
in 1785 by a Mr Cranston, and grafted at about 3 feet from the
ground. The girth of the trunk at 4 feet up is 8 feet 6 inches;
height to the lowest branch, 18 feet; spread of branches, 58 feet ;
and the sheer height, 72 feet.

The “Coronation Oak,” so called from the proclamation being
announced therefrom on a king or queen being crowned, The
coronation of Queen Victoria was announced from under the
spreading boughs of this grand old tree. It stands in one of the
meadows on the farm of Llanhenosk, near Caerleon, Monmouth.
The circumference of the trunk in its largest part is 38 feet
6 inches ; in the middle, 32 feet 1} inches ; and the smallest, 27
feet 6 inches: the bole is 15 feet in height.

The “Pencraig Oak” is on Pencraig Farm near Newport,
Monmouth. It has a circumference of 38 feet; height to first
branch, 15 feet, with a spread of branches of 36 yards,

46 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

The ‘Cressage Oak,” or “Christ's Oak,” under which it is
said the early Christian missionaries, and possibly St Chad him-
self, preached to the heathen before churches had been built, is
the sole remaining tree of those vast forests which gave Shrews-
bury its Saxon name of Schobbesburgh. It stands in an arable
field on the banks of the Severn, half a mile from Cressage in
Shropshire. It has a circumference of about 30 feet at 5 feet up,
although only about one-half of the shell of the hollow trunk now
remains, but it has still fifteen living branches, each 15 feet or
16 feet in length.

The “ Beggar’s Oak” grows in Lord Bagot’s park, m North
Staffordshire, and is said to be one of the most picturesque trees
in England. The head is round and full of foliage, drooping
almost to the height of a stag, and offerimg a welcome shelter
either in the heat of a summer day or during a storm. The
circumference above the swell of the spurs is 27 feet 3 inches, and
at 5 feet the girth is 23 feet 2 inches ; the branches extend from
the trunk 50 feet in every direction, and the height is 60 feet.

The ‘Squitch Oak” is also in Lord Bagot’s park, has a cireum-
ference of 23 feet 2 inches at 5 feet from the ground.

The ‘‘ King Tree” is another noted tree in Lord Bagot’s park.
It was considered when sound to be the most valuable oak in the
park, which is celebrated for its numerous splendid oak trees, and
was valued in 1812 at £293. It has a circuinference at 5 feet up
of 20 feet, and runs up without a limb to 30 feet, with a sheer
height of 70 feet.

The “ Venison Tree” is supposed to be the oldest tree in Bagot’s
Park, and in existing records is shown to have been a tree of note
upwards of six hundred years ago.

The ‘White Tree,” in the same park, so called from its varie-
gated leaves, which are blotched with white, has a very remark-
able appearance in contrast with the dark green foliage of its
neighbours.

The “ Swilcar Lawn Oak” grows in Needwood Forest, Stafford-
shire, and towers above all others. It has been poetically named
the forest’s “chief mourner.” It has a circumference of 27 feet
at 5 feet up.

The “Oaks of Caulke Abbey,” Derbyshire. No. 1 girths 25
feet 3 inches above the swell of the roots, and is 75 feet high.
No. 2 is a fine tree, girthing 18 feet at 1 foot up, and is 60 feet
high. No.3 girths 20 feet at 1 foot up, and has scarcely any

ON BRITISH OAKS. 47

taper for a height of 30 feet, is in vigorous health, and a fine
timber tree. No. 4 is in a glen near the Monk’s Cave. It girths
at the top of the trunk, which is 12 feet long, 28 feet, and at the
bottom 31 feet.

The ‘ Queen’s Oak” grows at Grafton, Northamptonshire. Sir
John Grey of Groby, who fell at the battle of St Albans, being a
zealous Lancastrian, his estates were forfeited by the victorious
Edward, and under this oak, according to tradition, his widow
first met Edward IV., whom she had sought to implore the resti-
tution of her slain husband’s forfeited estates. Edward was
captivated with her person and manners, and finding her virtue
inflexible, was married to her, though the marriage was not
proclaimed till some months afterwards. This lady’s name was
HKlizabeth Wideville, daughter of Richard, Earl Rivers, and the
first British lady subsequent to the Norman Conquest who shared
the throne of her sovereign, The hollow trunk has a circumfer-
ence of 22 feet at 5 feet up.

The ‘‘ Yardley” or “ Cowper’s Oak,” also called “ Judith,” from
an old legend that it had been planted by the Conqueror’s niece
Judith, Countess of Northumberland, who held eighty-eight manors
in Northamptonshire, including a portion of Yardley. On the tree
is fastened this warning—‘“ Out of respect to the memory of the
poet Cowper. The Marquis of Northampton is particularly
desirous of preserving this oak. Notice is hereby given that any
person defacing or otherwise injuring it will be prosecuted accord-
ing to law.” The tree is a ruin, with a hollow trunk broken
through below, and capable of holding many persons. There are
two or three bare limbs, from which the bark has fallen, showing
like whitened skeletons against the lichened and knotted rind of
the trunk, and there are at least two large boughs which still send
out their clusters of green leaves. The circumference is 30 feet
6 inches at 1 foot up, and 30 feet at 3 feet up.

The ‘ Bull Oak,” in Wedgenock Park, Warwick, was a remark-
able tree, now only a ruin, with a butt 18 feet in diameter at
the ground. Growing from among its roots is a beautiful ash
tree.

In Stoneleigh Park, Warwick, near the Abbey, there are many
fine oaks. One has a circumference of 24 feet, and is a perfect
model of an oak. Another in the Deer Park has a circumference
of 36 feet 9 inches.

“ King Charles’ Oak,” in Blenheim Park, Oxfordshire, is a very

48 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

fine tree, with a circumference of 23 feet, a bole of 23 feet, and
contains 765 feet of timber.

The two “ Ampthill Oaks” grow in Ampthill Park, Bedford-
shire. This park extends over the sides and summit of the rising
ground, and its sweeping glades and hollows, with much wood of
later growth, display a greater number of venerable oak trees than,
perhaps, any other park in England of the same extent. On one
of the two trees the following verses are fastened :—

** Majestic tree, whose wrinkled form has stood,

Age after age, the patriarch of the wood ;

Thou who hast seen a thousand springs unfold
‘Their ravelled buds, and dip their flowers in gold,
Ten thousand times yon moon relight her horn,
And that bright star of evening gild the morn.
Gigantic oak ! thy hoary head sublime,

Erewhile must perish in the wreck of time.
Should round thy head innoxious lightnings shoot,
And no fierce whirlwind shake thy steadfast root ;
Yet shalt thou fall, thy leafy tresses fade,

And those bare scattered antlers strew the glade.
Arm after arm shall leave the mouldering bust,
And thy firm fibres crumble into dust.

The muse alone shall consecrate thy name,

And by her powerful art prolong thy fame,

Green shall thy leaves expand, thy branches play,
And bloom for ever in the immortal lay.”’

This provoked the following retort from Lord Wensleydale :—

** Tl] bet a thousand pounds—and time will show it—
That this stout tree survives the feeble poet.”

The two trees stand at a short distance from the mansion, and are
nearly of the same girth, namely, a little over 35 feet at 3 feet up.

“Queen Elizabeth’s Oak” stands in Hatfield Park, Hertford-
shire. ‘On the morning or afternoon of November 17, 1558,
for Mary died between 4 and 5 a.m., Elizabeth was sitting
under this tree, when a deputation arrived from the council to
apprise her of her sister’s demise and to offer her their homage.
She fell on her knees, and exclaimed in Latin, Domino factum
est illud, et est mirabile inoculis nostris, ‘\t is the Lord’s doing,
and it is marvellous in our eyes.’” It stands half-way down the
avenue leading from the house towards Hertford. It is surrounded
by a fence, and is not in vigorous health, or of a very remarkable
bulk. We have no measurements of this historical tree.

ON BRITISH OAKS. 49

The “Lion Oak” stands also in Hatfield Park, and has a
circumference of 32 feet.

The “Grimston Oak” was planted by James, second Viscount
Grimston, who died in 1773. The tradition is that Lord
Verulam’s great grandfather planted this tree with his own hands
some twenty years before his death, so that it would now be over
one hundred and thirty years. It stands a few yards from Oxhey
Chapel, about 2 miles from Watford, Hertfordshire, and has a
circumference of 17 feet and a bole of 24 feet.

Two “Pollard Oaks,” in Moor Park, Hertfordshire, girthing
23 feet and 25 feet respectively ; said to have been pollarded or
beheaded in 1686 by the Duchess of Monmouth in revenge for
the execution of her husband.

The “ Winfarthing Oaks” stand in the parish of Winfarthing,
Norfolk. No. 1 has been long known as the ‘“‘ Winfarthing Oak.”
Robert Marsham measured this tree in 1744, and gives the circum-
ference as 38 feet 7 inches. Mr Geo. Southwell measured it in
1874, when it had a circumference of 40 feet, giving an increase
of 17 inches in 130 years. No. 2 was measured in the same years
by the same gentlemen, and had a circumference in 1744 of 30 feet,
and in 1874 still only 30 feet, having remained in statu quo.

“ Wilberforce’s Oak,” at Holwood, Kent, so called from the
great philanthropist who brought about the abolition of slavery.
The following words, from his diary of the year 1788, are
engraved on a stone chair which Earl Stanhope set up close
to this historic tree in 1862; they are, “At length I well
remember, after a conversation with Mr Pitt in the open air at
the root of an old tree at Holwood, just above the steep descent
into the vale of Keston, I resolved to give notice on a fit occasion
in the House of Commons of my intention to bring forward the
abolition of the slave trade.” This tree has a circumference of
18 feet 1 inch at 3 feet up, and 18 feet 3 inches at 5 feet up.

“Pitt's Oak,” at the same place, perpetuates the name of the
great statesman. He used to sit and read underneath its spread-
ing branches. It stands near Holwood House, and has a
circumference of 20 feet 1 inch at 3 feet up, at 8 feet up it divides
into four massive limbs and spreads its branches 57 feet, the
sheer height being only 36 feet.

The “Two Oaks” in Cowdray Park, Sussex. No. 1 was
measured in 1819, and had a girth of 20 feet at 1 foot up, which

was increased to 28 feet in 1879; at the same date it had a girth
VOL, XIII, PART I. D

50 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

of 19 feet at 5 feet up; sheer height about 80 feet. No. 2 hada
circumference in 1879 of 19 feet 2 inches at 5 feet up, and a sheer
height of 90 feet.

“Miss Maury’s Oak” has been long spoken of as an object of
interest, especially on account of the loving care and the value
attached to it by its aged owner. It is not a large nor a very old
tree, but is remarkable for its symmetrical proportions and finely-
developed head. It stands in a paddock in front of the old farm-
house in the parish of West Wellow, Wiltshire, and has a circum-
ference of 16 feet 9} inches at 4} feet up; a bole of 9 feet to where
ten large boughs had sprung from the parent stem, now only
five, some of them 2 feet in diameter; the sheer height is 90 feet,
and it spreads its branches from east to west 36 yards, and from
north to south 33 yards.

“No Man’s Oak,” or the ‘ Forest Tree,” is a striking object,
standing on an elevated ridge at the northern boundary of the New
Forest. Its knotted and gnarled trunk and bare arms, but scantily
clothed with ivy, give it a weird-like appearance, as it stands alone
without a companion living or dead. It is, however, quite dead,
but is to all appearance sound timber, and it is difficult to account
for its death. The place is named “No Man’s Land,” and here
the counties of Hants and Wilts are divided by a bank and ditch
which are wholly in Wilts, and on the bank stands the tree, about
4 feet within the county. It has a circumference of 10 feet
6 inches, and a bole of 10 feet.

The “ Longleat Oak,” at the Marquis of Bath’s Wiltshire seat,
has a circumference of 25 feet 6 inches at 5 feet up.

‘Penrhyn Castle Oaks,” Caernarvonshire, of which there are two
to be noticed, are standing near the castle. No. 1 girths 10 feet
1 inch at 3 feet up, with a length of bole of 50 feet. No. 2 girths
10 feet 10 inches at 3 feet up, 9 feet 7 inches at 5 feet up, with a
length of bole of 43 feet.

Although tradition reports some large ere which were in
existence in ages past, both in England and Wales, the accounts
relating to them are no doubt in many cases considerably exag-
gerated ; still the measurement of some of them are sufficiently
authenticated to warrant the conclusion that there are none at
present in existence so large as some of the giants of old, as for
example, the “Golynos Oak,” which grew about four miles from
the town of Newport in Monmouthshire, which was felled in the
year 1810 for the use of His Majesty’s navy, and contained the

ON BRITISH OAKS. ill

large quantity of 2426 cubic feet of sound convertible timber. It
was bought standing for £405, and the whole produce of the tree,
when brought to market, was within a trifle of £600. Now, no
tree 1s in existence which approaches this in size and soundness,
and I have given an account of it because the particulars are well

authenticated.

The Notable Oaks of Scotland.

Scotland cannot boast of such giant oaks as are found in
England and Wales, but there are many remarkable old oak trees
scattered over the northern country; and the following description
of some of the more notable is taken from “ Forestry,” the
Transactions and Reports of Excursions of the Royal Scottish
Arboricultural Society, Hunter’s “Woods and Forests of Perth-
shire,” and various other publications.

The “ Wallace Oaks,” for there are two associated with the name
of Scotland’s great patriot. The one at Torwood, Stirlingshire,
had a girth of 22 feetin 1771. The other one is at Elderslie,
Renfrewshire, the birthplace of Wallace. It has a girth of 21
feet at the ground, 13 feet 2 inches at 5 feet up; height, 67 feet ;
and its branches extend 45 feet east, 36 feet west, 30 feet south,
and 25 feet north. Wallace and three hundred of his men hid
themselves from the English among the branches of this tree,
which was then in full leaf. It is said to cover 19 poles of
ground, but, according to the above measurements, it would not
appear to cover quite 13 poles, taking it as a circle, and even
taking the space covered as a square, would only be over 16 poles.

Of the “Inveraray Oaks,” one is growing in the grounds of
Inveraray Castle, Argyllshire, and has a girth of 12 feet 11 inches
at 5 feet up, a straight clean bole of 20 feet, and a height of
96 feet. No. 2,is at the Dhu Loch avenue, and girths 12 feet at
5 feet up. No. 3, at the same place, girths 11 feet 7 inches at
5 feet up. No. 4 is close by the Aray stream, with a girth of
12 feet 4 inches at 5 feet up. No. 5 is on a sloping bank at
Maam, and girths 12 feet 2 inches at 5 feet up, and attains a
height of 50 feet.

On the north side of Loch Arkaig, in Lochaber, Inverness-shire,
there is an oak with a circumference of 27 feet 6 inches at

4 feet up.
The ‘ Darnaway Forest Oaks,” Morayshire. No. 1 is on a

52. TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

rising ground forming the centre of a little clearing. It girths
11 feet 6 inches at 1 foot up, 9 feet 3 inches at 5 feet, a bole of
15 feet, and a spread of branches of 80 feet. No. 2 is in the
Haugh of Logie, with a girth of 13 feet 9 inches at 1 foot up,
11 feet 5 inches at 5 feet, a clean bole of 23 feet, and a spread of
branches of 75 feet. The following are also situate in the
“Haugh,” and, according to Sir Thos, Dick Lauder, this grove,
previous to the great flood in August 1829, when many of the
trees growing nearest the river were washed away, contained the
finest oaks in Scotland. No. 3 has an irregular gnarled stem,
gurthing 23 feet at 1 foot up. No. 4 girths 27 feet 9 inches at
1 foot up, and 20 feet 5 inches at 5 feet up. No. 5 girths 20 feet
6 inches; No. 6, 20 feet 5 inches; No. 7, 18 feet 8 inches; No. 8,
17 feet 1 inch ; No. 9, 16 feet ; No. 10, 14 feet—all at 5 feet up.

An oak on the banks of the romantic Findhorn, on the Altyre
estate, Morayshire, has a circumference of 16 feet 7 inches at
1 foot up, 13 feet 3 inches at 5 feet up, and spreads its branches
100 feet.

The “ Drummond Castle Oaks,” Perthshire. No. 1 grows by
the side of the burn to the east of the castle—it girths 19 feet
6 inches at 1 foot up, 14 feet 8 inches at 5 feet up; length of
bole, 12 feet; a height of 70 feet; and a spread of branches of
114 feet. No. 2 adjoins the last, and girths 13 feet 4 inches at
1 foot up, 10 feet 1 inch at 5 feet up; length of bole, 14 feet ;
height, 81 feet; and spreads its branches 77 feet. No. 3 also
adjoins, and has a girth of 10 feet 10 inches at 1 foct up, swelling
out to 15 feet 8 inches at 5 feet up; length of bole, 11 feet; and
the height, 45 feet. There are two fine oaks at the south end of
the loch. No. 4 girths 18 feet 7 inches at 1 foot up, 11 feet
10 inches at 5 feet up; length of bole, 21 feet 6 inches; height,
78 feet 6 inches; and a spread of branches of 100 feet. No. 5
girths 14 feet 3 inches at 1 foot up, 11 feet at 5 feet up; length
of bole, 17 feet ; height, 64 feet ; and spreads its branches 73 feet.
No. 6 grows by the side of the walk circling round the south side
of the gardens—it girths 14 feet 4 inches at 1 foot up, 10 feet
9 inches at 5 feet up; length of bole, 26 feet; and a height of
96 feet. No. 7 is a gnarled old tree by the side of the burn east
of the castle—it girths 17 feet 4 inches at 1 foot up, 17 feet
7 inches at 5 feet up; length of bole, 9 feet; and a height of
66 feet.

The “‘ Lawers Oaks,” of which there are two, near the ruins of

ON BRITISH OAKS. 53

the chapel at Lawers, near Comrie, Perthshire. No. 1 girths
20 feet 8 inches at 1 foot up, and 13 feet 5 inches at 5 feet up.
No, 2 girths 20 feet 7 inches at 1 foot up, and 12 feet 6 inches at
5 feet up.

The ‘‘ Ochtertyre Oaks,” at Ochtertyre, near Crieff, Perthshire,

‘« By Ochtertyre there grows the aik.”

In a group by the margin of the loch is an oak girthing IS feet
1 inch at 1 foot, 16 feet 2 inches at 5 feet up, with a length of
bole of 12 feet.

“« Hppie Callum’s Oak” stands at the corner of the road leading
to Messrs Morgan’s saw-mills at Crieff. It is said to have been
raised in a tea-pot by ‘‘ Eppie,” and then planted out. It has a
girth of 16 feet at 3 feet up, and is a grand tree.

The ‘‘Pepperwell Oak” grows near Methven Castle, Perth-
shire, so called from being near a well of that name. It girths
23 feet at 1 foot up, 19 feet 6 inches at 5 feet up, a height of
80 feet, and spreads its branches 90 feet.

**Malloch’s Oak” is on the Strathallan Castle estate, near
Auchterarder, Perthshire, and is supposed to be a remnant of the
ancient forest which once covered this part of the country. It is
supposed to be about six hundred years old, and served as a
gallows for a man who was hanged by the rebels in 1745. It
has a girth of about 16 feet.

“James VIth Oak,” situate at Scone, near Perth, is a fine
specimen, said to have been planted by “ King Jamie.” It girths
15 feet at 1 foot up, 13 feet 3 inches at 5 feet, and a height
of 55 feet.

At Seggieden, a few miles below Perth, in the Carse of Gowrie,
there is an oak which girths 16 feet at 1 foot up, 13 feet at 3 feet,
12 feet 1 inch at 5 feet, 11 feet 6 inches at 20 feet, and 11 feet
8 inches at 22 feet ; with a clean straight bole of 28 feet, a total
height of 70 feet, and spreads its branches 90 feet.

“ Birnam Oak” grows near to Birnam, Perthshire, and close
to the river Tay. ‘This tree is popularly believed to be one of the
remains of ‘ Birnam Wood” of Shakespeare’s “ Macbeth.” It
girths 23 feet at 3 feet up, 19 feet 7 inches at the narrowest part
of the bole, has a total height of 50 feet, and spreads its branches
40 feet.

An oak at Dunkeld, Perthshire, near what is considered to be
the first larches introduced into Scotland, has a girth of 12 feet

54 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

6 inches at 5 feet up, a fine bole of 30 feet, and a total height of
about 100 feet.

The “ King’s Park Oak,” at Dunkeld, on the Athole property,
has a circumference of 15 feet 8} inches at 3 feet up, 15 feet
2 inches at 4 feet, the narrowest part of the bole. It has a fine
bole 12 feet in length, which branches into five huge limbs the
size of ordinary trees. The spread of branches is 99 feet.

The ‘‘Murthly Castle Oaks,” Perthshire. No. 1 has a girth
of 18 feet at 5 feet up. No. 2 has a girth of 10 feet 4 inches at
5 feet up.

The “Taymouth Oaks” grow at Taymouth Castle, Perthshire,
and were planted in 1842 by Her Majesty the Queen and Prince
Albert. They were measured in 1884—one had a girth of 4 feet
9 inches at 3 feet up, and a height of 45 feet.

An oak close to the public road between Weem and Fortingal
in Perthshire has a girth of 15 feet at 1 foot up, and 12 feet
6 inches at 5 feet.

The “Dalgety Oak” grows in Dalgety parish, Fifeshire, on
the north shore of the Firth of Forth. It has a girth of 13 feet
10 inches at 1 foot up, 11 feet at 5 feet up, a length of bole of
48 feet, and a total height of 90 feet. ;

An oak at Hillhouse of Luss, on the shore of Loch Lomond,
Dumbartonshire, girths 12 feet 10 inches at 5 feet up, and has a
bole 20 feet in length.

The “ Inchmurrin Oaks” grow on that island in Loch Lomond.
They were measured by Sir Thos. Dick Lauder in 1784, but since
which time there does not appear to be any record of them.
No. 1 stands in the middle of the island, and measured at the
above date 18 feet 1 inch in circumference. Its head was
remarkable for its great leafy expanse. No. 2 girths 20 feet
8 inches at 3 feet up. No. 3 girths 28 feet 5 inches, also at
3 feet up.

The ‘ Blairquhoish Oak,” Strathblane, Stirlingshire, has a girth
of 15 feet at 4 feet up, and a spread of 30 yards.

An oak at Hopetoun, Linlithgowshire, had a circumference of
10 feet in 1855, which had increased to 11 feet 9 inches in 1880,
or 21 inches in twenty-five years. The total height was 106 feet
in 1855, and 110 feet in 1880, being an increase of 4 feet.

The ‘‘ King of the Forest” grows on the top of a high steep
bank overhanging the North Esk river in the old Caledonian
Forest at Dalkeith, Midlothian. This remnant of the old forests

ON BRITISH OAKS, dD
of Scotland extends to about 160 acres. The “King” has a
circumference of 18 feet 2 inches at 2 feet up, 15 feet 3 inches at
5 feet up, a length of bole of 20 feet, and a total height of 90 feet.

An oak at Penicuik, Sir Geo. D. Clerk’s, Bart., seat in Mid-
lothian, has a circumference of 12 feet 8 inches at 1 foot up, and
10 feet 3 inches at 5 feet up.

The ‘‘ Yester Oaks,” Haddingtonshire. No. 1 is in the grounds
at the garden, and had a circumference in 1854 of 13 feet 10 inches
at 3 feet up; in 1880, 14 feet 10 inches—an increase in twenty-
six years of 12 inches. No. 2, on the left side of walk from
Yester Honse to the garden, had a circumference in 1854 of 13 feet
6 inches at 3 feet up; in 1880, 15 feet 6 inches—increase in
twenty-six years, 24 inches.

The “Capon Tree” stands a few yards off the road in the level
haugh near to the low bank of Jed water, on the Ferniehirst estate
of the Marquis of Lothian, in Roxburghshire. There are differ-
ences of opinion as to how the name “‘ Capon” came to be applied
to the tree, but the theory that seems to find most acceptanee is,
that it was the ‘meeting tree” where the tenants assembled to
pay their rents in kind. Although considerably damaged by the
snowstorm of December 1872, it still presents an appearance of
imposing grandeur. It has three gigantic limbs remaining, and
girths 26 feet 6 inches at 3 feet up, 24 feet 3 inches at 5 feet up,
and covers an area of from 80 feet to 90 feet.

“Old Capon tree, old Capon tree,
Thou standest telling of the past.
Of Jedworth’s forest wild, and free,
Thou art alone, forsaken, last.”

The “ King of the Wood” grows at the top of a ravine about a
bow-shot distant from the last, on the opposite side of the road,
and although not possessing the rugged strength of its rival, it has
yet a noble appearance, and is said to be another remnant of the
great forest of Jedwood, so that the ‘“‘Capon Tree” is not, as the
poet sings, ‘‘alone, forsaken, last.” It girths 16 feet 6 inches at
5 feet up, and is 78 feet in height.

The “ Hartrigge Oaks,” near Jedburgh, Roxburghshire, the
seat of Lord Stratheden and Campbell. Nos. 1 and 2 are by the
side of the mansion-house park, girthing 13 feet 10 inches and
11 feet 9 inches respectively at 5 feet up. No. 3 is near the north-
east corner of the garden, and girths over 15 feet at 5 feet up.

56 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

The “ Dalwick Oaks” grow on the south bank of the Tweed
at Dalwick, Peeblesshire. No. 1, on the west side of the
mansion house, girths 14 feet 9 inches at 1 foot up, 10 feet
8 inches at 5 feet, a bole of 35 feet, and a total height of 80 feet.
No. 2 is on the east side of the mansion, and girths 17 feet
6 inches at 1 foot up, 10 feet 9 inches at 5 feet, length of bole
35 feet, and a total height of 57 feet. No. 3 is near the bowling-
-green, and girths 14 feet 10 inches at 3 feet up, and is 80 feet
in height.

An oak in the low ground of the Home Park of Stobo Castle,
Peebleshire, girths 11 feet 8 inches at 1 foot up, 9 feet 4 inches at
5 feet up, with a bole of 35 feet.

The ‘ Barjarg Oak,” in Nithsdale, is a remarkably fine tree.
It has a girth of 17 feet above the roots, 11 feet 11 inches at
16 feet up, 11 feet 9 inches at 32 feet up, and 6 feet 8 inches
at 46 feet up.

The ‘“ Lochwood Oaks,” in Annandale, Dumfriesshire, have a
circumference of 20 feet and 18 feet 10 inches respectively at
) feet up.

It now only remains to be said, that in compiling the foregoing
record of the oaks in England and Scotland, it is to be noticed
that none in the latter country are returned as hollow, or to have
been pollarded. Now it is fair to suppose that the operation of
pollarding accounts for the larger girth of some at least of the
English trees, and also for their being hollow.

THE BEECH FORESTS OF HESSE NASSAU. 57

IV. The Beech Forests of Hesse Nassau. By GEORGE CaDELL, Esq.,
14 Canning Road, Addiscombe, Surrey.

Waste LAND IN GREAT BRITAIN AVAILABLE FOR PLANTING.

If I venture upon a subject which is not specially set as one of
the essays for the year, it is because I am unwilling to believe that
the words delivered in the address to the Society of last year will,
like so many words upon the subject of forestry, fall fruitlessly on
the ground. It is specially necessary to remember in connection
with these words, that the area of land available for the planting
of trees in Great Britain is not in the strict sense of the word hope-
lessly waste. It is land which, owing to various causes—foreign
competition, facilities and cheapness of transport, or, as some con-
tend, the fluctuations of currency, or to a combination of these
causes—can no longer be profitably occupied by ordinary agricul-
tural crops. No less than 1,437,000 acres of land, which in 1869
were devoted to the cultivation of wheat, have, we are told, ceased
to be so occupied. They are, therefore, available for the cultivation
of other crops, which, however unremunerative they may be as
compared with wheat, may yet produce something, and when they
are occupied by crops which do not exhaust, but, on the contrary,
improve the bearing capacity of the soil, the argument, in case a
different condition of matters arises, is very greatly strengthened.
If no interest at all were obtained in the shape of yearly returns,
the planting of such areas with trees would be amply justified by the
enhanced value of the capital. The income derived from forests or
woodland, in short, cannot be compared directly with the income
derived from wheat or other annual produce. It is, I think, neces-
sary to bear this very prominently in mind, otherwise the planting
of waste lands, either in our own or other countries, is not very
intelligible.

Tue Strate Forests oF Hesse NAssAu.

It was with a full recognition of this unobtrusive but valuable
“improvement ” that I went over the beech forests of Nassau the other
day in company with the Ober Forster in charge of the division.
And while I have really nothing new to tell, no one with a love of
forestry could go over the excellently administered forests of Prussia
without either learning new lessons, or having old ones practically

58 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

and usefully enforced. For here we have, broadly speaking, no land
“ out of occupation.” In the storm-swept plateaux, which produce
nothing but tufty grass, we have what I suppose “ statistics” would
schedule as wasteland. But even these have their fringe of weather-
beaten spruce or other firs, whose flat tops afford a protection and
shelter to their more favoured brethren. Nearly one-half—42 per
cent., I believe, is the exact proportion—of this part of the empire
is occupied with forest. And of this forest perhaps three-fourths
are beech.

The beech, as we know, has the credit of dominating and sub-
duing all other trees which come within its influence. Neither
grass nor underwood is tolerated under its shade. And if, in order
to satisfy the demands of the vine-growers for stakes to support
their trailing and clinging crops, some oaks are grown and main-
tained, their presence in long-drawn lines appears only to emphasise
the position, viz., that we are in a country of beechwoods. Not
the far-spreading beech trees of our parks and meadows, but the tall
plain columns crowned with a continuous canopy of leaves, through
which the sun, with side-long gleam, strikes in those mingled lines
of light and shade on which artists love to dwell, and in which
all lovers of Nature delight.

Foresters will understand what sort of woods these were, which
were estimated to contain between 500 and 600 cubic metres! of
solid timber per hectare,? worth something over 10,000 marks ; *
while on every side were bundles of firewood, also of beech, con-
taining 4 cubic metres, and worth from 30 to 40 marks each, The
gross revenue derived is 40 marks or thereby per hectare, reduced
by expenses of management, etc., to a nett revenue of 20 marks per
hectare.

I am not going to follow the statistician into any application of
these figures to the waste lands of Great Britain. The agricultural
statistics will, I understand, make him a present of something like
28 millions of acres of waste and unoccupied land in our islands,
and allowing for deductions, after the usual gracious way of esti-
mators, he can yet obtain a very handsome revenue as well as capital,
on paper.

I will rather pass to another item of practical experience in
Nassau, which seemed to me to be rather high. The cost of plant-

1A metre is = 3.280 English feet.
2 A hectare is = 2.471 English acres.
3 A mark is = 114d. sterling.

THE BEECH FORESTS OF HESSE NASSAU. 59

ing an acre of wood appeared to average about two (£2) pounds
sterling, as under,—three thousand plants were put in each acre, at
an average contract price of 13s. 6d. per thousand. Of this fact also
I make a present to the statistician, begging him to note my cour-
tesy in giving him without circumlocution the comparative cost in
plain figures. But so much depends upon the size of the area
planted, its accessibility by waggon-roads or otherwise, that while
the above figures have a charming simplicity, their application to
British soil would, or might be, very misleading.

I have been talking hitherto of the Government forests of Hesse
Nassau, grown, let it be further noted, on most favourable condi-
ditions of soil, a loamy clay mixed with sand ; and while these
occupy by far the greater proportion of the land under wood, yet its
administration and government into which I need not here enter, offer
no lessons to the British official—for within the limits of our own
Crown forests there are “rights” which fetter in no small degree
the free action of their nominal rulers. I think it well therefore to
pass on to a different matter, viz., the administration of communal
and private forests in Hesse Nassau, for here we may possibly find
lessons and borrow examples, which may be useful to us in Great
Britain, where our forests, for the most part, are in the hands of
private individuals.

CoMBINED EFrorts oF STATE AND PEOPLE IN Nassau To PLANT
Waste LAnps.

It is very certain that if we are ever able to inaugurate a useful
system of forestry in this country, it will be by reciprocal help—the
help of the landed proprietors in placing their woods at the disposal
of the Government for such time as may be agreed on ; the help of
the State in affording facilities for planting and professional advice.

Exactly such a system obtains in this part of Prussia. Not only
does the State help in the planting of any land that is or may
become waste, but all the forests of the country belonging to muni-
cipalities or to private individuals are administered in accordance
with the advice of the forest officer of the district. Nay more, they
may not be administered otherwise. The State prevents the waste
of their property by private individuals, as well as assists in its main-
tenance, and it does this in the interest of the public good.

Granted that the same pressing reasons for such action do not
exist in Great Britain, it cannot be for the interest of the public

60 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

good generally that so much land is lying useless, or only
cultivated at a loss to its owner. And it cannot be fair to place
the responsibility for such a waste of the soil on any one individual
or set of individuals. We are told, of course, that the planting
of trees does not pay, and the same arguments for non-action are
repeated usque ad nauseam. Such excuses, for they are apologeti-
cally offered, would not commend themselves—even if there were
no colonial requirements to consider—to an estate administered
with an eye to the future as well as to the present, such as we
see in the district of Hesse Nassau. If the Nassau State forests
are regulated as to their felling and replanting, on what is known
as the rotation system, the land generally is utilised in perpetuity
somehow. It is not all capable of producing the world-renowned
Johannisberger wine, nor can its uplands compete with its valleys
in the production of corn, but where fruit and grain cannot be
cultivated, there is room for the useful rye and the needful forest.
Each part has its capacity noted on the field map, each part
contributes its share to the general good.

I have endeavoured, in the accompanying Map of the topography
of the district of the Taunus, one of the principal ranges of Hesse
Nassau, and containing some of her most important forests, to
give effect to this partition of the capacity of the soil; and I trust
that my feeble efforts in this direction may be leniently dealt
with, and measured rather for what they aim at than what they
really are, for in carefully sketched field maps I see the beginning
of practical forestry, as well as of practical agriculture, geology,
or anything else. In forestry, as well as in other science, we
must have a clear idea of where we are driving to, before we enter
on any decisive course of action.

DuTIES OF THE Oper FORSTER TO INDIVIDUALS.

The details of such cultivation in Nassau are settled by what
IT may call the county and municipal councils of the country,
of which the Ober Forster is ea-officio a prominent and important
member, He can, in effect, place his veto upon any action, such
as prodigal cutting and the devotion of an undue proportion of
the area of the country to the cultivation of agricultural produce,
absolutely. He must be jealous, too, of what is known as the
“possibility ”—that is, the fair yield of the forests—being en-
dangered or exceeded. But he is, at the same time, no arbitrary

THE BEECH FORESTS OF HESSE NASSAU. 61

State official, forcing an unintelligible course of action down the
throats of the council. He is there as their friendly adviser,
working for and with the people, considering their interests as
well as those of the State, which are in reality the same.

In no less friendly, if responsible, relationship does he stand
to the private proprietor. He, too, is not at liberty to cut and
fell his woods as he pleases. Mumm non possessor sed custos
solum is the motto which may be written on his private property,
for, so far as his forests are concerned, he is the steward, not the
irresponsible possessor of his landed revenues. Here I may take
occasion to observe that the deer and other game which are
sheltered in the forests are not necessarily the property of the
lord of the soil. They are exposed to auction, and the proprietor
may or may not be the successful bidder. He has, at any rate,
to pay for his shooting, starting on all-fours with any outsider.

APPLICATION OF THESE PRINCIPLES TO GREAT BRITAIN.

I may be told, on the one hand, that such a state of matters as
interference with the sacred rights of a landlord would not be
tolerated in Great Britain ; and I may be told, on the other hand,
that there is no money available in the State treasury to assist
proprietors in the planting of waste land. I do not think there
is much in either objection. Many of our proprietors, in Scotland
at any rate, have been accustomed to hold their lands, as it were,
in trust for their successors. They have willingly embarked on
“improvements” of which they could not hope to reap the benefits.
They have not only expended capital on such improvements, but
they have submitted to a loss of any interest accruing on such
capital, They have, in a word, although they have not always
got the credit for it, acted as stewards for their heirs. The other
objection—“no funds available,” is the familiar cry whenever
anything not palatable to the powers that be is proposed. It is
doubtless perfectly right and proper that the expenditure of the
national funds should be carefully scrutinised, and their disburse-
ment jealously guarded ; still, they are there for the good of the
nation, and should be spent in accordance with their expressed
wishes. I will not here allude more particularly to the Report
of the Parliamentary Committee on Forestry. This, if it erred
anywhere, erred on the side of moderation—and it has suffered
accordingly. I have no data by me which show the actual cost

62 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

of State aid to planting by private proprietors in Nassau, But
this cannot be much, and need not be in reality anything.
Nurseries, or “ Férst Gartens,” are scattered all over the country,
and from these, surplus seedlings can be given to proprietors who
will promise to plant them, with positive advantage to the
nurseries themselves. If money is asked for them, although I
will not allude to the shabbiness of the demand, they can be given
at cost price, which, if conscience enters into the calculation, will
be infinitesimal. It is more the moral support and recognition
by the State that encourages private individuals to plant than the
actual money assistance.

I am getting far away, it may be thought, from my beech
forests, and yet not only their dense masses, but the ‘‘ shimmer ”
of their countless leaves in the mixed woods of the country, are
with me as I write. I see, too, the leaf-covered tunnels of
beeches, which form the favourite alleys of the private gardens.
And I see, in what Selby, I think, tells us was its original
habitat, the red foliage of the copper beech contrasting with and
toning down the mass of green. If I have unwarrantably made
use of them, in the hope of attracting further attention to the
policy of which they are the living tokens—a policy of pulling
together by Government and people, under circumstances of
difficulty, too intricate for their separate and divided efforts—I
shall ask the pardon of my readers. I have not pulled the bow
too strongly. I have carefully refrained from even mentioning
those other measures of “relief” to proprietors of waste lands,
which may commend themselves to the attention of our newly
formed County Councils. I have not set forth an ideal, but an
existing, and, I may add, a successful state of matters; and in
doing so I have purposely avoided all those details of forest
administration which have been once and again explained by far
abler pens than mine ; and, except for the purpose of giving some
idea of the size of these grand beech forests, I have kept clear of
statistics and figures, which may be elsewhere ascertained. Those
who visit our Continental neighbours will do well to examine for
themselves the raison d’étre of the forests of the country, which
will everywhere afford them at once a playground and a study.

THE NATURAL REGENERATION OF WOODS. 63

V. The Natural Regeneration of Woods. By W1LLtAM SOMERVILLE
of Cormiston, D.dic., B.Sc., F.R.S.E., Lecturer on Forestry,
Edinburgh University.

If the rearing of a young wood, by means of self-sown seed,
upon the same ground as that previously occupied by an older
generation of trees, is to be successfully accomplished, an amount
of skill is demanded of the forester which can only be derived
from careful training, long practice, and an intimate knowledge
of the requirements of the trees placed under his charge. The
difficulties are increased by the fact that generally a long series
of years must elapse from the initial stages of the process till the
regeneration is accomplished, so that, as frequently happens, the work
is not directed in all its stages by the same hand, and unless each
successive step be made at the right time and in the right way,
total or at best partial failure must be the result of even the
most auspicious beginning.

In countries where State forests bulk largely in the wooded
area, and where consequently ample provision is made for the
training of foresters in the science and practice of their profession,
no difficulty is experienced in bringing to a successful issue
any sylvicultural system which may be inaugurated. As the
men who have guided the work are one by one removed, their
places are taken by those who have received their training in
the same rigorous school as that in which they themselves were
educated, and who are therefore fully qualified to carry forward
the work, long since begun, on the lines which experience has
shown will ultimately lead to the greatest success,

The impediments which obstruct the path to the successful
formation of woods by means of self-sown seed are so great, and
the advantages and convenience of stocking the ground by
artificial means, are in most cases so apparent, that in all parts of
the world, whenever forests have been brought under scientific
sylvicultural treatment, the cases where natural systems of
renewal are held to offer greater advantages than artificial systems
gradually diminish, till finally they form but a small proportion
of the whole. Still it is highly improbable that artificial planting
and sowing will ever in all places and under all circumstances
completely displace natural sowing, so that it is not too late to

64 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

consider the cases and conditions under which the latter system
may be most advantageously adopted, and to look as shortly
as may be at the best means of attaining the end in view.

Speaking generally, it may be said that the fulfilment of the
following conditions would chiefly influence the adoption of
natural regeneration in preference to artificial restocking.

1. Where the state of the surface of the ground is such as
to offer the conditions requisite for a good seed-bed without the
aid of any artificial preparation. This consideration gains
additional weight when the financial condition of the estate is
such as to make the restriction of all outlay to the very minimum
almost a necessity, as well as in cases where the quality or value
of the timber is so low that, in order to get even a small balance
on the right side, the expenses must be kept down to the lowest
point. In outlying districts, also, where the cost of conveyance
reduces the profits within very narrow limits, it frequently
happens that the only way to secure any return at all from the
woodlands is to avoid all outlay in their formation.

The cases where no artificial aid is required to bring the
surface of the ground into a suitable condition for the reception
and germination of the seed are, comparatively speaking, few, and
are for the most part only to be looked for in close well-managed
woods of shade-bearing trees (beech, silver fir, etc.), and then
only if the trees are not too old, and in the absence of destructive
gales. In many other cases, no doubt, a patchy imcomplete
stocking may be looked for, but that perfect regularity in the
distribution of the young plants, which has so much to do with
the future success of the wood (and a considerable departure from
which must bring, at least, partial failure), is attained without
artificial preparation of the ground in very few cases indeed.
If weeds must be removed, and the surface broken by means of
hand implements before a good seed-bed is secured, the expense
incurred is frequently much greater than the cost of stocking by
means of planting.

2. On steep, bare, rocky declivities, and in high exposed
situations, the system of clear-felling one crop of timber, and
then restocking the denuded area by artificial means, admits of
serious loss, occasioned by the washing action of rains and melted
snow during the time that the surface is destitute of trees, or
before the young generation has developed sufficiently to shade
the ground, Especially undesirable is it to clear-fell a wood

THB NATURAL REGENERATION OF WOODS. 65

where the surface is thickly strewn with large boulders, or where
the bare rock projects in large masses, because so long as a close
wood is preserved the leaves accumulate to form valuable plant-
food, and, in coniferous woods, moss grows in great luxuriance,
so that a good seed-bed is provided even on what would otherwise
be a bare rock-surface, and the young seedlings ultimately push
their roots into cracks or crevices, or ramify over the rocky
surface till they get at better soil, and so large well-grown trees
are not unfrequently to be seen in situations which they could
never have occupied had they not been self-sown. Let such an
area be cleared of its trees even for a few years, and the moss and
humus will, under the combined influence of sun, wind, and
water, entirely disappear from the rocks and boulders, for shade
and a humid atmosphere, such as are to be found in a dense
wood, are absolutely necessary for the formation of forest humus,
and the production of a rank growth of mosses. The fact must
not be overlooked that rocks covered by decaying vegetable
matter or mosses weather much more rapidly than where
unprovided with a covering, for the carbonic acid gas resulting
from decomposition of the humus, and the solutions exuded from
the roots of plants, act far more powerfully than rain or the
atmosphere in corroding rocks and rendering their ingredients
soluble,

When a locality, in the enjoyment of unrestricted sunlight, is
apt to produce a very rank growth of ground vegetation, such as
ferns, heather, blackberries, large grasses, etc., it is often
advantageous to restock by self-sowing before felling all the
old trees, for in this way the weeds are kept in check till the
young trees have had time to surmount them, ‘This is often
the case on moist, rich, loamy soil, especially if calcareous. Here
such a rank growth of herbaceous vegetation would spring up
after clear-felling, that small slowing-growing trees would be apt
to be smothered, or one would be compelled to give them light
and air by mowing the weeds, unless recourse was had to the
expensive operation of restocking with extra large trees.

3. A third case where natural regeneration may be advan-
tageously resorted to occurs where we have to deal with species of
trees which are very liable to be injured in youth by too powerful
atmospheric agencies. This is the case more especially with the
beech and silver fir. When young both these trees are very
sensitive to frost, heat, and drying winds, from which they can

VOL. XIII. PART I. E

66 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

be best protected by regenerating under overhead shade. This
protection can be procured as well when the young generation is
formed by artificial sowing or planting under a shelter wood, as
when from self-sown seed, but if the trees which give the shelter
can also yield the seed, it is a manifest advantage to utilise them
in this way as well. To the two species just named may be
added the spruce, which, on account of its shallow roots, is apt
to perish on dry land during the first few years of its existence,
unless the surface soil be kept sufficiently moist, and nothing
conduces more to this end than the shading of the ground by
overhead foliage, and the exclusion of drying winds. As we
shall see afterwards, the natural regeneration of spruce woods is
attended with great difficulty in windy regions, but where a
locality is sheltered from violent gales the system may frequently
be advantageously adopted.

4. Where young trees are liable to be destroyed by insects, it
has been found advantageous to rear them for some years under the
shade of an older generation, for insects prove much less destructive
under shade than on a cleared area. Here, again, the shading trees
may also be the mother-trees, if no serious obstacles interpose to
their being used as such; and the ravages of the cockchafer grub
and the pine weevil may often in this way be successfully combated.

Where any return can be got from the roots and stools, the
practice of felling conifers by stubbing their roots is strongly to be
recommended, as it is very effective in keeping down the increase of
all sorts of destructive insects, and, at the same time, the ground is
brought into a suitable state for the reception of the seed.

5. Trees which grow well under the shade of others are much
the most suitable for natural regeneration, and now the system is
being more and more applied in their case alone. Such trees are
known as shade-bearers, and include the silver fir, beech, spruce,
lime, and one or two others of minor importance, notably the yew,
which develops almost as rapidly under considerable shade as in an
open situation.

There are two distinct cases in which an area may be supplied
with self-sown seed, and where consequently a system of natural
reproduction may be put in force. The one is where the seed is
furnished by trees (the shelter-wood) occupying the area to be
restocked, and the other where the mother-trees stand at a greater
or less distance from it. Inthe former case, the general conditions
of the situation and the growth of the seedlings are influenced by

THE NATURAL REGENERATION OF WOODS. 67

the overhead shading ; in the latter there is no vertical shade or
shelter, though there is usually lateral protection. The former of
these two cases in its various modifications being the more import-
ant, may be taken first.

The regeneration of a forest on a shelter-wood system may be
accomplished in various ways, the most common being that where
the whole is taken in hand at one time, that is to say, the several
processes or stages in the operation of natural regeneration proceed
simultaneously throughout the whole wood.

When it has been resolved to renew a wood by natural seeding,
all efforts must be directed towards providing conditions which will be
likely to bring about a successful result. It comparatively seldom
happens that the surface of the ground is naturally in a proper
state to receive the seed, and that the number and distribution of
the trees over the area are such as to secure the proper conditions as
regards light for the health and development of the young seed-
lings. It therefore becomes necessary, afew years before the actual
shedding of the seed is to be expected, to undertake various pre-
liminary operations in order to avert as much as possible the chances
of failure. If the closeness of the wood is such that no weeds, but
only dead leaves and twigs, cover the surface of the ground, this
preparatory stage offers but few obstacles. It is then only neces-
sary to make several very moderate fellings in order to hasten the
decomposition of the raw humus, and to bring about a perfectly
regular distribution of the old trees, so that every part of the ground
may receive the necessary supply of seed, and at the same time be
equally shaded. At first attention should chiefly be directed
towards removing the smaller class of trees, namely, those that are
overgrown, diseased, or poorly developed, and therefore not likely
to bear much seed, as well as those species which it is not desir-
able to have represented in the next generation. If we are dealing
with a mixed wood, the fellings should also be directed towards
proportioning the trees as they are intended to be represented in
the young wood, due regard being taken of the fact that some
species produce far more seed than others, and that some seeds,
especially those provided with wings, possess special facilities for
distribution.

The advance fellings may take only one or two years to accom-
plish, or as many as ten or fifteen if the wood is situated ina region
subject to heavy gales, or if the trees are of a shallow-rooted species,
for in these cases the process of thinning must be very slowly

68 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

performed, in order that the trees which are left may develop new
roots, and so gain stability sufficient to enable them to withstand
the action of wind.

In the early part of this preliminary stage, supposing it to embrace
several years, the felling must not be so heavy as to cause inter-
ruption to any considerable extent to the leafy canopy, for were such
brought about, sufficient light would reach the ground to enable
strong weeds to gain a footing which would make the surface very
unsuitable for the reception of the seed, and, besides, owing to direct
insolation and the entrance of drying winds, great loss of fertility
would result.

If the wood is rather thin, a proper advance felling may be
altogether dispensed with. There is, however, one case in particular
where very considerable felling is necessary, namely, in very dense
woods of broad-leaved trees, especially beech. In such a case the
ground is covered by a thick layer of humus, which is only partially
decomposed. Such a covering would not interfere with the ger-
mination of the seed, but would be apt to bring about the death of
a large number of the seedlings during the first few weeks of their
existence. This is due to the fact that a layer of raw humus is
subject to great variations in the degree of moisture, so that, if the
rootlets of the young plants ramify in this material alone, they are
not so able to withstand any considerable spell of dry weather as
they would be were they fixed in the mineral soil lying underneath.
So long as the layer of leaves and twigs is shaded from the sun,
sheltered from the wind, and protected from the rain by a dense
mass of umbrage, decomposition goes on but slowly, especially on
cold stiff soils; but the process may be much accelerated by the
removal of a considerable number of trees, and the consequent
admission of light, air, and rain.

If the desired result is not attained by thinning alone, recourse
must be had to the removal, by means of rakes, of part of the sur-
face covering where densest, or the mineral soil may be stirred up
and mixed with the raw humus by the aid of mattocks or heavy
hoes. The former of these operations involves a cost of about 10s.
per acre, the latter costing about twice as much, and both may
generally in great part be avoided by bringing the wood into such a
state that the natural processes of weathering can be utilised. If
artificial aid must be adopted, it should not be put into force till
there is an immediate prospect of seed being borne, for if some
years elapse between the preparation of the soil and the seeding,

THE NATURAL REGENERATION OF WOODS. 69

the quality of the seed-bed will suffer severely, and the labour
expended upon it may be for the most part lost.

Not only do the advance-fellings, if properly performed, prepare
the seed-bed, and adapt the trees to offer greater resistance to storms,
but they also induce the mother-trees to produce a large crop of
seeds. This is the natural result of admitting light to the lower
branches of the crowns, and is most apparent in cold districts, such
as high regions, and north or east slopes.

In many woods one finds scattered here and there in small
groups, or as single specimens, young trees which have sprung from
naturally sown seed. These usually occupy the somewhat opener
parts of the wood, which are accessible to direct sunlight, but
whether they should be retained and fostered or be cleared away,
depends on such circumstances as species and quality. If they
belong to a kind of tree which it is considered desirable to have
represented in the new wood, it is well to retain them, and to
encourage their development by cutting out the old trees in their
vicinity which are interfering with their growth, provided they have
not grown so long in restricted light as to be incapable of ultimate
normal development. Most in this respect depends upon species.
Silver firs, for instance, have wonderful recuperative power, and
may exist for more than fifty years in dense shade, and still retain
their vital powers practically unimpaired. During this time they
will have made but slow growth—the wood rings, in fact, will often
be found to be of hair-like fineness—but when gradually placed in
the possession of a greater amount of light, the foliage increases in
quantity and becomes darker in colour, the wood-rings become
broader, the leading shoot lengthens, and in a few years what before
seemed a stunted bush acquires all the characters of a vigorously
growing tree.

In a close, or moderately close, wood any advance growth which
may be met with must, from the very nature of things, consist of
some shade-bearing species of tree, for no young light-demanding
tree could exist for any length of time under such conditions.
Where, however, the wood is open, or where blanks have been
occasioned by any cause, advance growth of such light-demanding
trees as the Scots pine, birch, etc., may be met with. It is but
seldom, however, that such advance growth can be utilised, for, if
light-demanding trees have become stunted when young, they never
recover to such an extent as to form desirable objects for future
encourgement. They should, therefore, be cut out in the pre-

70 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

liminary stage, as should also all growth of the nature of brush
or underwood, e.g., sloes, aspen, bird-cherry, willows, ete. These
frequently prove a serious annoyance in natural regeneration,
because, when cut over, they reproduce themselves by means of
stool or root shoots, which, growing with great vigour, are apt to
choke out the slower growing seedlings.

When as much thinning has been done as is considered safe,
attention must be directed towards discovering the first signs of an
approaching seed year. In the case of the Scots pine, and the
genus Pinus generally, where two years elapse between the time of
flowering and the ripening of the seed, one always receives sufficient
intimation that the production of a full crop of seed is near at
hand. In the case of most of the other important trees, however,
no such long intimation is given, for they ripen their seeds in the
same year as that in which they produce the flowers. However, if
one is watchful, a year’s warning at least can usually be obtained,
for, on account of their larger size, and in other ways, the flower-
buds can be distinguished from ordinary leaf-buds in autumn, or,
at any rate, in the course of the winter and spring. In the case
of some trees, large quantities of seed are produced every two to
three years, whereas many trees do not bear oftener than once in
eight to ten years. Where we have to deal with a species of the
latter class, ¢.g., the beech, we must be specially careful not to let
the opportunity slip of availing ourselves of a seed year; but, at
the same time, the work of preparation must not be completed too
long in advance, for unfavourable weather may intervene during
the time of flowering, or in the succeeding summer before the fruit
has ripened, which may cause the yield of seed to be very dis-
appointing. Where the wood is of moderate dimensions it is best
to wait till autumn before completing the advance fellings and
final preparation of the surface, but where large areas have to be
regenerated it is scarcely possible to delay beyond midsummer.
In either case, however, if a large production of seed be regarded
as tolerably certain, the wood must be brought into that state in
which it will be most favourable for the reception and germination
of the seed, and for the development and protection of the young
plants. At this time the heaviest trees must be felled and
removed, partly to provide the future young trees with light as
well as to facilitate the entrance of rain and formation of dew, and
partly because the removal of specially heavy trees after the young
seedlings occupy the ground would be sure to damage them exces-

THE NATURAL REGENERATION OF WOODS. it

sively. At the same time attention should be given to felling all
trees which are provided with low-reaching branches, as these,
owing to the excessive shade which they produce, are apt to act
prejudicially on the young generation. If, however, such trees
must be retained, in order to furnish the necessary seed, or for
purposes of protection, then all their branches ought to be removed
for 20 feet from the ground.

The species of tree, kind of soil, climate, etc., must regulate the
amount of shading which should be retained at this time ; or, what
is the same thing, these considerations should decide the extent of
the seed felling. In the case of shade-bearing trees, it is usually
sufficient to bring the wood into such a state that the edges of the
crowns of the trees are separated 3 to 9 feet from each other, which
implies the removal during the advance and seed fellings of from
a quarter to three quarters of the original number of trees. Light-
demanding trees require at least twice this amount of thinning
unless a subsequent felling can be made very soon after the seed
year, in which case it is better not to fell too heavily at first for
fear the seeding should not be successful or complete, when it may
be necessary to supplement by utilising a second seed year.

As a general rule, one should not make the wood too thin where
the land is of the character which predisposes it to produce a strong
growth of weeds, for the only way of keeping them in check is to
retain a considerable amount of shade. Here, again, species must
be taken into account, for the rate of development in youth varies
greatly, some—for instance, the silver fir—growing very slowly
when young, and consequently being lable to be choked by rank
vegetation, while others, such as the larch, grow so rapidly as soon
to be out of all danger from this cause.

In frosty localities, or in the case of tender trees, more shading
should be retained than under opposite conditions ; and the same
is true where insects are numerous, or where the soil is very dry
and apt to suffer from excessive drought.

Should artificial assistance be necessary, the stage of the seed
felling is the most suitable time to complete the preparation of the
seed-bed. Ifthe advance fellings have been too heavy, or if severe
gales have occurred, a considerable amount of ground vegetation
may have found a footing. This must be got rid of, at least in
part; but if not very plentiful, the disturbance of the surface
occasioned by felling and dragging the trees is usually sufficient
preparation. If the trees have been felled with their stools attached,

72 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

and if the holes thus made in the ground have been carefully
levelled, an excellent seed-bed is produced at such places. A
practice which cannot be too highly recommended, both on account
of its efficacy and cheapness, is that of allowing swine to run in
the wood during the summer, autumn, and winter of a seed year.
These creatures grub up the ground, spread the heaps of dead
leaves, destroy enormous numbers of grubs and mice, and in
various ways prove extremely useful. Even in beech or oak woods,
where one would expect them to destroy considerable quantities of
fruit, they are found to do far more good than harm.

In the case of woods consisting of light-demanding trees, ¢.g.,
Scots pines, larch, etc., where it has not been necessary to under-
take any advance fellings—that is to say, where the seed felling
has been the first felling of all, the surface of the ground is
generally provided with a thick covering of moss or grass, which
must be partly removed before successful germination can be looked
for. If horse implements, such as ploughs, harrows, or grubbers,
can be worked it is sufficient to scarify the ground in narrow lines
about 3 feet apart ; but if, as is oftener the case, the nature of the
ground does not admit of horse labour, there is no help for it but
to remove the mossy or grassy covering in stripes or patches by
hand labour, with the aid of rakes, hoes, spades, or mattocks.
Where one has to deal merely with moss, raking is quite sufficient,
the preparation of an acre requiring four or five days. If heavy
hoes or mattocks must be employed (and these must be resorted to
when an actual sward of grass is present), the expense mounts up
rapidly, as it may take ten to twenty days to prepare an acre, the
time depending on the amount of preparation deemed necessary, as
well as upon the nature of the situation. Where ploughs can be
used, and if single furrows be turned at distances of 3 feet, at least
two acres may be overtaken in a day.

In the case of the lighter seeds, those of the pines, firs, larch,
birch, ete., no covering is necessary, and consequently, if deemed
advisable, the preparation of the ground and the felling and drag-
ging of the timber and branches may be completed before the seed
is shed ; but where one is dealing with large seeds, such as those of
the oak, beech, or chestnut, some covering must be provided. This
may be obtained by raking the surface with heavy rakes imme-
diately after the seed has fallen, which of course adds considerably
to the expenses of regeneration ; but in practice it is found better, if
possible, to delay the preparation of the surface by raking, ploughing,

THE NATURAL REGENERATION OF WOODS. te

-or hoeing, till just after the trees have shed their seed, when
the preparation of the seed-bed and the covering of the seed may
be performed by one and the same operation. Where no artificial
preparation is necessary, but where it is desirable to cover the seeds,
it is well to delay making the seed-felling till late in winter, when
the disturbance to which the surface of the ground is subjected, by
the felling and dragging of the timber and branches, usually suffices
to bury the seeds to the required depth.

If the ground has been sufficiently supplied with seed which has
germinated satisfactorily, the future use of the old generation of
trees is chiefly confined to protecting the young plants against
extremes of temperature. If, however, owing to some cause or
other, the stocking of the ground is defective, the old trees must be
still further utilised for the production of seed. For this purpose a
sufficient number must be retained till a second seed year has come
round, their distribution over the area being regulated by the
appearance of the young wood.

If the blanks or patches which are insufficiently stocked be of
inconsiderable size, they may often be filled up by transplanting
young trees from parts of the wood where the stocking is so dense
that they can be easily spared. These young trees should be lifted
with balls of earth adhering to their roots, and as they need not be
carried far, the operation is not an expensive one, and the results
are excellent. If this practice be adopted—and leaving advance
growth out of the question—the young wood is absolutely even-
aged, for all the trees have been produced from seed shed during
one year; whereas if two or more seed years have been utilised,
differences of as much as ten to fifteen years in the age of the young
trees are unavoidable. In later life such slight differences become
unrecognisable, so that, to all intents and purposes, such a wood
may be regarded as even-aged, though, strictly speaking, it is really
uneven-aged.

In those parts where the regeneration is quite satisfactory, and
where consequently no more seed or plants are required, the length
of time during which the old trees should be retained is regulated
by various considerations. In the case of shade-bearing trees, which
are liable to suffer from frost, the old trees should not be removed
too soon, for though their shade will somewhat retard growth in the
younger trees, it will not cripple them, and will prove very bene-
ficial in the way of protection. Where, however, we are dealing
with light-demanding trees, the subsequent felling, or light-felling,

74 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY,

as it is sometimes called, must on no account be long delayed, other-
wise the effect on the young generation will prove very prejudicial.
In the latter case, the subsequent felling should be made in the first,
or at most in the second, autumn after the seed has germinated,
when the whole of the trees may be removed in either one or two
fellings ; or twenty to thirty per acre may be retained as standards
to grow through the whole of the second rotation, and so form extra
heavy timber. In the case of the beech, spruce, silver fir, etc., the
subsequent felling should be subdivided into several fellings, the
last of which—~.e., the final felling—need not be undertaken till ten
or more years after the seed felling, though during that time a con-
siderable number of trees should be removed every year or so in
order to satisfy the increasing demands for light on the part of the
young trees.

Speaking generally, the subsequent felling should be most quickly
performed on poor dry land, because the shade trees partially prevent
the entrance of rain, and yet are so scarce as not to be able to hinder
evaporation to any appreciable extent. On north or east slopes,
also, or at high elevations, where the growing season is short, the
retention of many old trees for a considerable period would retard
growth in the young trees to an undesirable extent,

On the other hand, the subsequent fellings should not be hurried
where late frosts are almost annual in their recurrence, as well as on
all strong soils, especially those resulting from the weathering of
limestone, basalt, or porphyritic rocks, because there strong weeds
are to be apprehended ; and besides, on such rich soils trees can bear
an amount of shading with impunity which would soon kill them
on poorer soils.

It is needless to say that very great care and skill are required in
felling the old trees after the young trees occupy the ground, so as to
prevent the latter being excessively damaged. Unless snow cover
the ground, all operations should be suspended during hard frost, as
at that time the young stems are very brittle, and specially liable to
be broken. Where the trees are provided with large branches, they
must be pruned before being felled, an operation entailing a great
deal of labour, but one which it is impossible to avoid.

The system which has been sketched, namely, the simultaneous
natural regeneration of whole woods under shade trees, has the
advantage that the operation in all its phases is confined to a limited
period, and is concentrated into a compact area, so that the work
can be easily controlled and directed. If all goes well, then a large

THE NATURAL REGENERATION OF WOODS. 79

measure of success may be looked for, but if the operations have not
been skilfully conducted, or if severe gales have overturned many
of the mother-trees before seeding has been accomplished, and the
young plants have become securely established, or if it should turn
out after seed-felling that the trees are so old as to be incapable of
bearing a sufficient quantity of good seed, then, indeed, the con-
sequences may be most disastrous. In the event of failure from
any cause, the surface of the ground is long deprived of the shade
and shelter afforded by the young crop of trees, and if the situation
is naturally a poor one, that is to say, if it has the store of forest
humus chiefly to thank for its productive power, the fertility which
has been gradually accumulated during the previous rotation is soon
dissipated to such an extent that the restocking of the ground, either
artificially or naturally, becomes a most difficult matter. If the soil
is naturally rich, then the same danger sinks in significance, though
only in situations of the very highest quality can it be said to dis-
appear altogether.

It is always well to guard against great calamities by not taking
very large areas in hand at one time. Large woods should be
divided into compartments of moderate size, which may be regarded
as separate woods, and be regenerated at different times.

The system works best where the area is pretty flat and the soil
of the same character throughout, because in that case the closeness
of the wood and the development of the trees are uniform over the
whole area, so that there exists no necessity to hurry the operations
in one part and delay them in another.

Having looked somewhat carefully at the foregoing system, the
others may be dealt with much more shortly. The advance, seed,
and light fellings are more or less common to all systems, and
therefore what has been already said in connection with them need
not be repeated.

The system which we have already considered undergoes an im-
portant modification when a wood, instead of being simultaneously
regenerated over the whole area, is divided into a number of bands
or stripes, each representing some particular stage of regeneration.
This gives rise to the system known as the shelter-wood band
system, under which one commences the process of regeneration at
one side of the wood, and proceeds systematically towards the
other. It is of great importance to begin at the side of the wood
farthest away from the quarter from which the severest gales blow
—that is to say, in this country one would begin on the east or

76 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

north-east side, and work towards the west or south-west. By so
doing a compact mass of wood is interposed between the gales and
the part of the wood undergoing regeneration, so that the trees
which are semi-isolated in the advance, seed, or subsequent stages
are well protected, and not likely to suffer much from gales, and
the partially exposed surface of the ground is sheltered from drying
winds.

In the simplest form three bands are in hand at the same time.
One of these bands (L) is in the light-felling stage, another (8)
adjoining is in the seed-felling stage, while a third (P) is in the
preparatory stage. All the wood lying to the westward of band
P is still untouched, and consequently, so far, is not embraced by
the process of regeneration.

|

Intact Wood P sage

|

West Side

The simple case which we have just glanced at is often applicable
to woods consisting of light-demanding trees where little advance
felling is necessary ; in fact, it often happens, under such circum-
stances, that band P can be dispensed with altogether, and so we
have only to deal with bands S and L. On the other hand, where
much advance felling and preparation are necessary, as is generally
the case where the wood is very dense, or where we have to deal
with trees provided with very shallow roots, as well as in windy
regions, it is not sufficient to have only one band in the preparatory
stage at any given time, but several must be simultaneously under-
going moderate felling—that is to say, there must be several P
bands.

Another modification occurs where groups of serviceable advance
growth fall to be dealt with. These will be met with irregularly
distributed throughout the untouched wood, and light must be

THE NATURAL REGENERATION OF WOODS, an

given to foster their development by moderate fellings being made
in their vicinity. As the regular regeneration bands move forward,
the advance growth groups are embraced by them, so that it may
happen that final felling is being done in these groups at a time
when the band in which they are then situated is only in the
preparatory or seed stage. Although such a case introduces us to
a compound system (composed of the union of the shelter-wood
band system and the one which we shall look at presently, namely
—the shelter-wood group system), it need present no extraordinary
difficulties, and, if the groups of advance growth are of good
quality, it would be most irrational to neglect them.

As regards the breadth and length of the bands, no hard and
fast rule can be laid down. It is usual to make the breadth
correspond to the height of the trees (60 to 100 feet), while the
length is regulated by the dimensions of the wood measured from
north to south.

If the length of the wood from east to west is very great, and if,
at the same time, the length of the bands (7.e., the breadth of the
wood) is short, it may be advisable to commence regenerating at
two places, one on the extreme east and the other in the middle ;
or the process may be hastened somewhat by making the bands
elbow shaped instead of straight, but this must only be done in
well-sheltered districts. Where elbow-shaped bands are adopted,

Se
tile

or where it is impossible, owing to the configuration of the ground,
to fell directly towards the wind, it is often advantageous to leave
a part of the wood on the west side intact, so as to act as a shelter-
belt and break the force of the gales.

This system offers several advantages as compared with the fore-
going one. Here the danger of total failure over a large area is
avoided, the risk of the seed and shelter trees being overturned is
not so great, and as the parts of the wood which are light thinned
are, for the most part, sheltered from sun and wind by a close
wood lying to the south-west or west, soil fertility is well

Side

Intact Wood

West

78 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

preserved. All trees may be treated under this system, but it
is specially suited to the wants of the Norway spruce.

The objection that the regeneration of a wood in this way is a
process slow of accomplishment has not much force, and is altogether
lost sight of after a wood has once been gone over, for then we
have to deal with a series of age classes systematically arranged,
the oldest of which is taken in hand first, and at a time when those
which are younger are not ready for regeneration.

When regeneration is accomplished in neither of the two ways
already considered, but by taking certain irregularly distributed
groups in hand as occasion demands, a third system presents itself,
which is known as the shelter-wood group system. Under this
system all groups of advance growth are specially attended to,
and their occurrence regulates, to a considerable extent, the points
where felling should be done. Groups of young seedlings which
have found a footing in the open parts of the wood, even though
embracing an area of only a few square feet, must not be over-
looked, so long as they are not stunted in growth, and, owing to
this cause, incapable of future development. Advance or seed
fellings, properly so called, cannot be spoken of in-connection with
these groups, for they have sprung into existence without any
artificial aid being given. They must, however, be fostered by
light fellimgs being made round about them, and these fellings
become advance fellings for other groups which will subsequently
spring up in their immediate neighbourhood. By this means each
group is constantly being enlarged, like a crystal or a snowball,
by the deposition of material on the outside, until ultimately, by
group joining on to group, the regeneration of the whole wood is
accomplished.

Although groups of advance growth form special objects of care
under this system, still there are certain circumstances when points
of the wood must be attacked for other reasons than the fostering
of young trees already established. This happens where patches
of old trees occur which are in an unhealthy state, owing to such
causes as insect or fungoid attack; or where, in a mixed wood,
certain species are ready for felling sooner than others; or where
extra old and heavy trees, the survivors of a former generation,
have reached maturity, as well as where groups of trees have ceased
to grow owing to the effects of situation, etc.

In removing old trees, in order to provide sufficient light for the
young groups, one must look not only to the vertical shade, but

THE NATURAL REGENERATION OF WOODS. 09

also to that which is due to the laterally situated trees. Where a
group is surrounded on all sides by a dense wood of tall trees,
most light will be let in with the least amount of felling by
attacking the old trees on the south and west sides rather than by
felling on the north and east sides.

Regeneration of a wood under this system usually takes from
thirty to fifty years to accomplish, and the result is an uneven-aged
wood, with the various age classes distributed throughout in groups
of all conceivable shapes and sizes.

Provided the management be firstclass, this system has much to
commend it. It recognises and provides for temporal and local
variations, and admits of parts of a wood being taken in hand at a
time when they most require regeneration, and when the operation
would be most likely to succeed. It preserves soil fertility from
loss better than the two systems already considered, for the surface
of the ground occupied by the groups is protected from the sun
by the overhead foliage, and from the entrance of drying winds
by the intact wood which surrounds them, or by the young
groups which have previously been established. It is most in
vogue in mixed woods of shade-bearing trees, especially where,
owing to greater exposure of certain parts, soil fertility is
being reduced, or where, owing to any cause, closeness has been
partially interrupted and advance growth groups have established
themselves.

A modification of the last system is made use of in some coun-
tries, and differs from the one we have just noticed, in so far as it
does not deal with groups of young trees so much as with isolated
examples. These are tended in exactly the same way as the groups
in the former case, but here the regeneration is extended over the
whole length of the rotation, so that all seed years are utilised, and
one finds represented in the wood trees of all ages, from the one-
year-old seedling up to those which are perfectly mature.

This system ensures a constant covering for the ground, and is
therefore most adapted for districts where violent. gales are very
frequent, as well as for steep declivities, where the action of snow
or water would be apt to rush away soil or rocks were the wood clear-
felled even in part. ,

It is the system which most effectually preserves soil-fertility, for
as the ground is constantly shaded, no opportunity for loss is ever
presented. It can only be practised in the case of the most decidedly
shade-bearing trees, such as the silver fir and beech, though in wood-

80 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

lands of small extent, where constant care can be given, it is not
inapplicable to the regeneration of spruce woods.

The four systems which have been described have this point in
common, namely, that the seed is furnished by trees actually oceupy-
ing the ground to be restocked.

We shall now look for a little at the other division of the subject,
namely, natural regeneration of a clear-felled area by means of seed
furnished by trees situated to the side of that area. Here the seed
is borne from the mother-trees to the clear-felled ground by the wind,
or directed by the slanting course imparted to its fall by the wing
with which many seeds are provided. It is therefore evident that
the system is only applicable to cases where one has to deal with
light or winged seeds, except where, as on the side of a declivity, the
cleared area lies at a lower elevation than the mother-trees. In such
a case even large and heavy seeds, such as beech nuts, acorns, and
chestnuts, may, by rolling down hill, be disseminated for a con-
siderable distance from the trees which produced them. As a
matter of fact, however, this system is hardly ever practised, except
in the case of woods consisting of pines, larch, firs, spruce, elms,
birch, willows, and acers ; but in the case of these trees, if properly
conducted, it yields satisfactory results.

The first consideration must here be given to the direction from
which the prevailing winds blow, so that the area to be sown shall
lie on the lee-side of the mother-trees. A band of trees is cleared
only during a seed year, and the felling, dragging, and carting of the
timber over the bare ground is generally all the preparation which
the surface requires. One band must be carefully regenerated before
any more felling is done, otherwise an imperfectly stocked wood will
be sure to result.

When it has become evident that little more is to be hoped for
from the self-sown seed, blanks are filled up by transplanting young
trees with ball-roots from the denser parts.

The breadth of the band varies with the height of the trees and
with the species. In the case of the acers, ash, and silver fir, the
breadth should not exceed about twice the height of the trees, with
the spruce and Scots pine it may be as much as four times the height,
while in the case of the larch, elm, willows, poplars, and birch it may
be increased to eight times.

Under this system the young trees are, from the first, placed in
the possession of ample light, even though a dense wood lies to the
south or west, and consequently it is specially applicable in the

THE NATURAL REGENERATION OF WOODS. 81

regeneration of woods composed of light-demanding trees. It may
also be usefully put into practice on steep slopes, the bands when
run from the base towards the top of the hill forming a convenient
passage for the transport of the timber.

Blanks in woods, if of only moderate extent, may frequently be
restocked by adopting this system, provided the ground is in a
suitable state for the reception of the seed, which is blown from the
surrounding trees to the bare surface.

In countries such as North America, Scandinavia, Russia, etc.,
where one is more concerned with felling the timber of the primeval
forests than with restocking the ground, all the regeneration that is
often practised is by means of seed naturally carried from trees
situated at a great distance from the cleared area. Under such cir-
cumstances anything approaching to a complete restocking of the
ground with valuable trees cannot be looked for, as the seeds of the
best trees, even when assisted by the most favourable winds, can
only be carried for a few hundred yards. On the other hand, such
light seeds as those of the birch, poplars, aspen, willows, etc., may
be borne for many miles, and so it happens that when the conifer-
ous forests of new countries are felled or burned, their place is taken
by comparatively valueless trees.

In the foregoing pages, all the important systems of natural
regeneration by means of seed have been touched upon. Care has
been taken to avoid advancing mere theories, attention being entirely
given to practical methods which have stood the test of long experi-
ence. There appear to be, however, unsurmountable obstacles in
the way of any of them being made practically applicable to any
great extent to British conditions. Natural regeneration is almost
impossible where ground game is as abundant as it generally is in
this country. Here, too, there are very few estates where woods are
managed on a well-organised working plan, that is to say, there does
not exist, nor can there under the system of private ownership, long
sustained continuity in the administration of our woodlands. For-
tunately several circumstances combine to place this country in an
almost independent position as regards natural renewal. Our humid
atmosphere does not make the preservation of soil-moisture by con-
stant shading the paramount consideration which it becomes under
the conditions of a continental climate, though in our drier districts
it is still most important. Nowhere are our fertile valleys threat-
ened by destructive avalanches of snow or earth consequent on

clear-felling a mountain slope. All parts of the country are in good
VOL, XIII. PART I. F

82 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

communication with railway systems, so that young trees, under the
existing conditions of rapid transit and improved packing, can be
safely and cheaply delivered almost anywhere. In cultivating
conifers one should, in the absence of rank herbage, make use of
untransplanted seedlings, and insert them, not with a spade, but
with a single-handed planting-iron. In this way land may often be
perfectly stocked at a cost not exceeding 12s. per acre, a sum
generally exceeded by natural regeneration.

My conviction is that our foresters should very seldom indeed aim
at a hard and fast system of natural regeneration, but while making
use of all serviceable advance growth, should depend on artificial
planting, or, under certain circumstances, on artificial sowing, as the
mainstay of British sylviculture.

“OLD AND REMARKABLE. TREES IN NORTHAMPTONSHIRE. 83

VI. Old and Remarkable Trees on the Estates of Earl Spencer in
Northamptonshire. By F. Mircurxy, Forester, Harlestone,
Northamptonshire.

The estates of Althorp and Harleston lie in the mid division of
Northamptonshire, and are, geologically speaking, on the Oolitic
formation. The soil varies from stiff loam to rich red loamy earth,
resting on sandstone strongly impregnated with iron. Althorp
Park comprises an area of about 550 acres, is well sheltered,
and beautifully wooded, the surface rising and falling in gentle
undulations. The soil generally is favourable for the production
of large hardwood trees, and lies at an elevation varying from
320 to 450 feet above sea-level. The average annual rainfall being
about 25 inches.

In the following report, the particulars are given of twenty
remarkable trees on these estates, all of which stand within a mile
and a half of Althorp House, the seat of Earl Spencer. There
are avery large number of other trees standing in Althorp and
Harleston Parks, which are worthy companions of the “ monarchs ”
of the forest which are described in this report.

To a forester, one of the most interesting features in Althorp
Park is the number of inscribed stones which stand in the woods
and groves, and which commemorate the date when the plantations
were formed. Evelyn refers to these date-bearing stones, and
remarks, “The only instance I know of the like in our country.”
The stones are referred to hereafter in describing the positions of
some of the trees. Here and there, however, in the woods which
these stones mark the birth of, there are standing larger and much
older trees, which must have been planted long before any of the
dates mentioned on the stones. The earliest date is that on the
stone standing in the old heronry, near the Hawking Tower, built by
the first Baron Spencer, and which bears the dates 1567-1568.

Some of the trees stand so inconveniently for being photographed
that nothing like justice has been done to their grand size and
beautiful proportions, but the photographs in the accompanying
album will give some idea of their shape, size, and beauty.!

The first sixteen trees are growing in Althorp Park, and the
remaining four in Harleston Park. The twenty trees give an
average of 722 cubic feet each, which indicates their great age.

1The album is placed for the inspection of members in the Society’s
library.—Eb.

84 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

The measurements of each tree are given in a tabulated form at
the end of this report, so as to be more convenient for reference.

1. Ext, Eneuisu (Ulmus campestris).

This fine tree is growing in the pleasure grounds, 150 yards on
the east side of the mansion. It has a grand bole, girthing
13 feet 6 inches, where it divides into two ponderous stems, and
these divide again, one at 12 feet and the other at 16 feet, and
afterwards ramify into several smaller ones, which tower away to
the great height of 117 feet, forming a top 94 feet in diameter. It
girths 21 feet 2 inches at 3 feet from the ground, and contains a
total of 924 cubic feet of timber.

2. CuestNuT, Horse (#sculus Hippocastanum).

This is a beautiful tree, growing at the extreme north of the
pleasure grounds, near the Wilderness. It is shut in very much by
other trees, nevertheless it has a beautiful sweeping top 85 feet in
diameter, with a bole of 10 feet in length, while-at 3 feet up it
girths 13 feet 8 inches, and at 5 feet from the base 14 feet 10
inches, and contains a total of 533 cubic feet of timber.

3. Beecu (agus sylvatica).

A fine young park tree, growing close to the drive leading to New
Lodge, near Althorp Park Station. It has a bole 36 feet 6 inches
in length, with a nice well-balanced top 98 feet in diameter. It
girths at 3 feet up 14 feet 8 inches, and contains 375 cubic feet
of timber.

4. Oak, ENGLISH (Quercus pedunculata).

This is one of the grandest old ornamental park trees to be found
anywhere, and one of the largest in the park. It is growing on the
east side of the mansion-house, and 150 yards from the boundary
wall of the pleasure grounds, standing in full view from the drive
leading to the east lodge. This picturesque old oak has suffered
very much by severe gales, losing two very large limbs at 33 feet
from the ground. ‘The top is beginning to show signs of old age,

OLD AND REMARKABLE TREES IN NORTHAMPTONSHIRE. 85

and some of the topmost limbs are quite dead. At 3 feet from the
base it girths 26 feet, and contains a total of 947 cubic feet of
timber.
A stone standing near by bears the following :—
This Wood was planted by
Robert Lord Spencer

in the Year of our Lord
1602-16038.

5. Erm, Encuisu (Ulmus campestris).

A very remarkable tree, growing by the side of the carriage drive,
and 200 yards from the front gates to Althorp House. The bole,
at 12 feet from the base, divides into two very massive stems, and
these separate into two each, one at 5 feet and the other at 8 feet;
these again dividing into a number of smaller limbs, and towering
to 105 feet high. It girths 23 feet 6 inches at 3 feet from the base,
and contains 841 cubic feet of timber.

6. Cepar or Lepanon (Cedrus Liban).

Growing on a plateau on the south front of the mansion, called
the Highwood, stands this very old weather-beaten tree. The top
has suffered very much by past gales and snowstorms, having lost
at one time or another no less than twenty large limbs. This grand
old monarch, before losing so many of its limbs, must have con-
tained upwards of 1000 cubic feet of timber. Its girth at 3 feet
from the base is 20 feet 10 inches, and at 5 feet, 22 feet 2 inches ;
the top (what is left) has a diameter of 70 feet. Height of bole,
8 feet 6 inches, and the tree now contains 603 cubic feet of timber.

7. Wycu, or Scotcu Exim (Ulmus montana).

This is a very fine wych elm. It is growing at the top end of
Blue Bank Plantation, close to the gas-house, between the mansion
and the kitchen garden. This tree deserves a more prominent place
than where it is. It is very much shut in by other trees, and
cannot be seen until one is quite close to it. It has a clear bole of
20 feet, with a well-balanced top, 94 feet in diameter. At 3 feet
from the ground it girths 19 feet 8 inches, and contains a total
of 487 feet of timber.

86 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

On a stone standing near an inscription reads—

Planted by George John Earl Spencer K.G.
in the Year MDCCC.
to replace a grove of Ash fallen to decay.

‘*Uno. Arubro, non deficit Alter.”

8. Oak, EneiisH (Quercus pedunculata).

A remarkably handsome park tree, growing on the side of a bank
sloping to the north, towards the coach road leading to the west
lodge. This grand specimen of an oak has one of the finest boles
of any tree in the park, and growing as it does in a very prominent
position, it shows itself off to great advantage. It is a very healthy-
looking tree, and is adding to its girth yearly. The bole is 46 feet
high, as straight as a gun-barrel, and it carries a nice well-balanced
top of 87 feet 6 inches in diameter. At 3 feet up, it girths
21 feet 94 inches. The bole alone contains 836 cubic feet, and
the whole tree 933 feet of timber. £100 was offered for this tree
during the Crimean War.

9. OaK, ENGLISH (Quercus pedunculata).

This is another good tree, growing 50 yards from No. 8. It is
of quite a different type, having some very large limbs, growing out
from near the base. At 33 feet up it divides into two, and
then goes straight away to the height of 94 feet. It girths
19 feet 10 inches at 3 feet up, and contains 655 cubic feet of
timber.

10. Oax, Eneisu (Quercus pedunculata).

This tree, which stands in a line with No. 9, and 60 yards from
it, is a beautiful specimen of a park tree. It has a healthy and
vigorous-growing appearance, and will yet add a lot of girth to its
already massive trunk. It has a grand, far-reaching, well-balanced
top of 104 feet in diameter ; a bole of 33 feet in height. At 3 feet
from the base it girths 22 feet, and contains 582 cubit feet of
timber.

11. Oak, Eneisn (Quercus pedunculata),

Another fine tree, standing 100 yards up the slope from the west
lodge, and 60 yards from No. 10. It hasa bole 30 feet 6 inches

OLD AND REMARKABLE TREES IN NORTHAMPTONSHIRE. 87

high, girths 19 feet } inch at 3 feet up, and contains 594 cubic feet
of timber.

12. Cepar or Lepanon (Cedrus Libani).

This is a beautiful vigorous-growing tree, standing in a hollow in
the orchard, below the kitchen garden. It is nicely sheltered on all
sides, and has a fine bole 32 feet high, as straight as an arrow, and
up to 28 feet it has not a branch on it. This promises to make a
tree of large dimensions. It girths at 3 feet from the ground
16 feet 11 inches, and contains 345 cubic feet of timber.

13. OaK, ENGLISH (Quercus pedunculata).

In the deer park, on a bank sloping to the south, on the west
side of the mansion and near to the church path, grows this
remarkable ornamental park tree, just the type of what an old oak
should be. It has a very massive bole, 23 feet 6 inches in girth,
where it divides into two ponderous stems. ‘Fhese again separate,
one at 8 feet and the other at 9 feet, and then ramify into a number
of smaller ones, giving a top 91 feet in diameter. Its trunk girths
21 feet 3 inches at 3 feet from the base; and the tree altogether
contains the very large total of 1016 cubic feet of timber.

Near this tree stands a stone with the following inscription :—

This Wood was planted
By Sir William Spencer, Knight of the Bath,
in the Year of our Lord
1624,
**Up & be doing and God will prosper.”

14. Oak, ENGLISH (Quercus pedunculata).

This beautiful young oak is growing in the heronry at the top end
of Sir John’s Wood, in the extreme north of the Deer Park. It
has a fine, straight, clear bole, 64 feet in length, and a vigorous-
growing top, the whole rising to a height of 98 feet. This will
doubtless make a very large tree, as it is adding to its girth at a
rapid rate. At 3 feet from the base its girth is 12 feet 10 inches,
and it contains 469 cubic feet of timber.

A stone in the centre of the wood, and 100 yards from this tree,
reads—

88 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

This Wood was planted
By Sir John Spencer, Knight,
Father of Robert Lord Spencer
in the Year of our Lord
1589.

Standing in the old heronry adjoining this wood, and near the
Hawking Tower in Althorp Park, a stone bears the following
inscription :—

This Wood was planted
By Sir John Spencer
Grandfather of Robert Lord Spencer
in the Year of our Lord
1567-1568.

15, Lime (Tilia Europea).

A remarkably fine specimen of a park tree, growing on a bank
sloping to the north, and 270 yards south of the east entrance to
Althorp Park. This is the upper tree of three limes growing
in a line at 16 yards apart on rather shallow soil, a quarry,
25 yards from the trunk of the tree, showing the stone to be close
to the surface of the ground. A finer specimen of a park tree than
this is it would be hard to find. Ata height of 10 feet 6 inches it
divides into six large limbs, spreading out and giving it a diameter
of top of 90 feet 6 inches, the lower branches sweeping all round
close to the ground. It girths 17 feet 7 inches at 3 feet from the
ground, and has a total of 575 cubic feet of timber.

In the Ice-House Plantation near to this tree there is a stone
bearing the following inscription :—

Planted by George John, Earl Spencer, K.G.,
in the Year M.D.CCXCVIII.

**Seris Factura Nepotibus Umbram.”

16. Asu (Fraxinus excelsior).

This remarkably grand tree is growing on the south side of the
mansion, and close to the boundary wall dividing Althorp and
Harleston Parks. This gigantic specimen of an ash has a bole
36 feet high, with some immense limbs spreading out on all sides,
and gives a diameter of top of 92 feet. The trunk girths 17 feet
6 inches at 3 feet up; and the tree altogether contains 809 cubic
feet of timber,

OLD AND REMARKABLE TREES IN NORTHAMPTONSHIRE. 89

17. Exo, Enexutsu (Ulmus campestris).

On the west of Harleston House, and just outside the flower
garden in the park, grows this very fine elm. At 20 feet high it
lost a very large limb in the gale of October 14, 1881. It has
a good bole to 50 feet 6 inches, and towers to the height of
110 feet. At 3 feet from the ground it girths 20 feet, and
contains 715 feet of timber.

18. SpanisH CuHeEstNuT (Castanea vesca).

On the north side of Harleston House, and 60 yards from the
kitchen garden, grows this grand type of an old ornamental park
tree. It has a fine straight bole 20 feet high, dividing here into
two enormous stems, these branching out again at intervals, and
towering to the height of 90 feet. It has a beautiful well-balanced
top of 85 feet diameter. It girths 26 feet 3 inches at 3 feet from
the base, and contains the magnificent total of 1220 cubic feet
of timber.

19. Spanisn CHESTNUT (Castanea vesca).

At 25 yards away, and to the east of No. 18, stands this grand
tree, and although somewhat dwarfed by its near neighbour, yet
it contains 893 cubic feet of timber. It has a bole of 27 feet in
length. At 3 feet from the base it girths 23 feet 4 inches, and
has a spread of top 86 feet 6 inches in diameter.

20. Spanish CHestnut (Castanea vesca).

This is another remarkable old ornamental Spanish chestnut, grow-
ing 140 yards north of No. 19, on a rising bank facing the east, in
an exposed situation. At 3 feet from the base it girths 24 feet
34 inches. This tree has lost some immense arms; the largest
broke off 5 feet from the trunk at 15 feet up in the gale of
October 14, 1881. This arm girths at 3 feet from the bole
9 feet 10 inches.

At 12 feet from the ground an enormous limb grows out,
curving its way upwards to 65 feet, and having quite an imposing
appearance. At 3 feet from the bole this limb girths 10 feet
11 inches, the whole tree containing 924 cubic feet of timber.

90 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

TABLE giving the Names, Dimensions, and Cubic Contents of the
foregoing Twenty Remarkable Trees growing in Althorp and
Harleston Parks.

2s Ps : ry = a
ais is Ss 3S op os
Name of Tree, 39 9 = 3 Ce 8
ca te} a 5S =

fa | 2a | 2) eee

Se | S23.) 20) eee

| No. Common. Botanical. Ft. in.| Ft. in.) Ft. in.} Ft. im.| Ft. | Ft.
| 1] English Elm, . | Ulmus campestris, . . {21 2|20 01/13 6} 94 0/117] 924
| 2| Horse Chestnut, . | @sculus Hiypocastanum, 13 8/1410 /10 0] 85 0} 83] 533
| 3|Beech,. . «| Fagus sylvatica, . 14 8/12 6|36 6 | 98 0} 76] 375
4|Oak, . . | Quercus pedunculata, .|26 0 |22 4/33 0] 85 0] 81) 947
5 | English Elm, . | Ulmus campestris, . ./23 6/19 8 |12 0| 95 0) 105) 841
6 Cedar, ; . | Cedrus Libani, . - | 20 10.)22 2) 8) 6) 70 OR 7Gl Gos
7| Wych Eln, . : Ulmus montana, . -/19 8 |16 1/20 0| 94 0/100) 487
SOakean. ° Quercus pedunculata, .|21 93/19 4 |46 0] 87 6] 82] 983
9 Oak, - ° ° a 5 . {1910 ]18 0/30 0] 94 0} 81] 655
10| Oak, . . . Ap AD .|22 0/18 3/383 01104 0) 74] 582
11'| Oak, . 5 5 - {19 04/16 3 | 3056) | ONO} oie 5o4
12 | Cedar, A : Cedrus Libani, » {1611 |15 1/132 0] 74 6) 80) 345
13 | Oak, . . Quercus pedunculata, .|21 3/19 7 | 238 6 |) Ol Ol SesiMOxG
14 | Oak, ° 3 1210 }12 4 |64 0} 69 6] 98] 469
15 | Lime, A Tilia Europea, 5 2117 7 (17 2 | DO 6) | RS ORG Siieone
16 | Ash, ; . | Fraxinus excelsior, -{|17 6/16 1/386 0] 92 0} 80; 809
We English Eln, . | Ulnus campestris, . -/20 0/18 6|50 6] 86 6/110] 715
18 Spanish Chestnut, | Castanea vesca, . -|26 3/22 8 |20 0} 85 0) SoOae20
19 | Spanish Chestnut, 3 a 7’ . 1/23 4 | 20° 8 127 Ol S6nGiSaiiaos
20 | Spanish Chestnut, 5 3 ; . | 24 34/22 93/28 0] 70 6| 68) 924

THE FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS. 91

VII. The Formation of Plantations. By A. C. Forses, Assistant

Forester, Lintmill, Cullen.

Introduction.

The great length of time which must ensue before any adequate
return can be expected from newly-formed plantations in this
country probably accounts for a great deal of the apathy and
indifference with which the majority of landed proprietors look
upon their waste ground and worn-out woodlands. Even the
majority of those who do plant are probably actuated more by a
desire to beautify their estates, provide shelter for game or against
wind, and generally add to the value of their property, than with
any definite idea that the money expended in planting and main-
tenance will ever be repaid with interest. Although planting
with the former objects in view is free from any objection from
an esthetic standpoint, or when considered by themselves, yet it
will be admitted by every one versed in rural economy that
planting without due consideration of the profit and loss principle
does not produce such satisfactory results as should be desired.
Just as we find the careful and intelligent farmer, who carries on
his business on strictly economical lines, more permanently
benefiting himself and the country generally than the gentleman
farmer who sinks hundreds of pounds in high-class and extrava-
gant farming, so we can easily see that the proprietor who never
throws money away in planting ground with unsuitable plants, or
which is unsuitable for planting at all, will be more likely to
permanently increase the value of his property, benefit the local
population, and give a better appearance to his estate generally,
than another who merely aims at producing game cover, or a mass
of foliage which can only be called pleasing when viewed from a
distance.

In support of these ideas, we have only to visit such estates as
those belonging to the Dukes of Athole, Portland, Bedford, Lords
Mansfield, Seafield, Lovat, and many others in the United King-
dom, and we find that their most attractive features, prosperous
appearance, and influence on the local trade and population, are
largely due to the careful and practical manner in which their
woods have been managed for many years.

92 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

The explanation of these facts must be obvious to all, when we
consider that a healthy plantation simply means a mass of healthy
trees. A man needs little or no knowledge of forestry to enable
him to discriminate between a thriving and healthy tree and a
diseased and stunted one; and every true artist will admire the
former before the latter, because the healthy tree is the typical
production of the great artist herself—Nature, the source of all
art. Now every practical forester knows that a healthy and
vigorous growth can only be insured by the careful selection of
those plants which are thoroughly well adapted to soil, climate,
and situation. Although it would perhaps be going too far to
say that indigenous plants can alone supply what is required in
this respect, yet when we consider the various diseases and
climatic affections to which introduced trees are subject in this
country, coupled with the fact that they rarely retain their timber
qualities when removed from their native habitat, we may safely
infer that if we want to see a healthy and vigorous growth main-
tained throughout the lifetime of our plantations, we must content
ourselves with those species which nature has provided with a
constitution strong enough to withstand our changeable tempera-
ture and uncertain climate, and leave recent introductions outside
the bulk of our woods until careful experiments in various soils
and situations have determined their particular requirements in
these respects.

And with regard to the third point, viz., their relation to local
industries, the importance of healthy woods is made still clearer,
We usually find that any industry which owes its existence to the
manufacture of articles of commerce from or out of the raw
material, is located in the neighbourhood from which the raw
material is obtained. The reason for this is obvious, and needs
no explanation, Now, although the industries connected with
woods in this country are comparatively unimportant when
considered individually, yet when taken collectively we find that
they occupy a more important place in regard to the prosperity of
the country than would at first sight appear. It is true that
woods neither bring in money nor employ much labour for the
greater part of their growth, but this is exactly the period in
which they exercise the most beneficial effects on the adjoining
agricultural lands. Their relation to climate, rain-fall, water-
supply, ete., is also considerable, but which can only be merely
referred to here. But during their formation and earlier stages,

THE FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS. 93

and the final cutting and disposal of the timber, they give
employment to many hands, and at a time of the year when
employment is often much needed. The formation of a plantation
necessitates the performance of various operations in the way of
draining, fencing, planting, etc., all of which give work to a large
number of men, and also benefit more or less directly various
tradesmen, railway companies, and others, according to the extent
of the work. At the final cutting, again, in addition to the labour
required for that operation, the manufacture and removal of the
produce gives considerable employment to a large number. Woods
also give rise to many minor industries in their immediate vicinity,
such as hurdle-making, broom, clog, bobbin, and chair making,
charcoal-burning, etc., while the more recent use of wood in the
manufacture of paper may cause early thinnings to become of
greater value than they have hitherto been.

We thus see that woods of any kind play an important part in
the prosperity of a rural district; but it is only when the true
principles of forestry have been observed in their management
that the greatest benefits derivable from plantations are obtained.
It is a recognised fact that only timber of good quality and
clean growth will command a fair price in the market; and if
home-grown timber lacks these conditions, the merchant supplies
himself with a better class of timber imported from abroad,
thereby sending out of the country the money which might
have been circulated within it. The question as to how long this
importation of foreign timber may continue at its present rate is
exercising the minds of many of our political economists of the
present day, but it appears to be generally admitted by those best
qualified to give an opinion, that if we should ever require to turn
our own woods to account in the event of a timber famine, a more
scientific and economical system of management will have to be
adopted than has hitherto existed in this country.

Laying off the Boundaries.

When it has been definitely decided to form a plantation, the
marking off of the boundaries should be the first operation to be
performed. In planting old agricultural land, the existing size
and shape of the fields are usually retained, except, perhaps, where
the outlines are too formal or irregular, and require rounding off
or otherwise modifying to suit the taste or requirements of the

94 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY,

proprietor. When formed solely for the purpose of giving shelter
to adjacent lands, however, it is sometimes necessary to lay off
fresh boundaries altogether, in order to break as much of the wind
as possible, and give shelter to a larger area, As winds usually
acquire their objectionable character from the surface over which
they have previously passed, whether snow-covered mountains,
hot deserts, or wide oceans, it is evident that the wind most
dreaded in one locality may be perfectly harmless in another,
although coming from the same quarter of the compass ; therefore
no general rule can be laid down as to the particular direction in
which a shelter-belt should extend, all depending upon the
direction from which the wind comes that it is desired to break.
The shape of the belt must depend a great deal upon the extent
of ground it is intended to shelter, and the conformation of the
ground. When it is intended to give thorough shelter to a
limited area, that of an acute angle is probably the best, with the
apex presented to the wind. When given such a shape it has a
greater tendency to divert the current of air in two directions,
one along each side of the belt respectively ; and it also gives more
efficient shelter to the ground immediately to the leeward of the
belt, by protecting the two sides nearly parallel to the direction
of the wind, forming a cove or recess, an invaluable situation for
pasturing cattle. When it is desired to shelter a larger area
without increasing the size of the belt, the angle may be increased
until it results in nearly a straight line, the convex side of which
should always be presented to the wind, otherwise it would have
a tendency to concentrate the force of the wind into the corner
formed by the junction of the two sides, thereby increasing its
force at that particular spot. The length of such a belt is inde-
finite, according to the requirements and extent of the ground to
be sheltered, but the breadth at the point of impact should never
be less than from one to two hundred yards if it is intended
to produce timber, and either retaining that breadth throughout,
or gradually decreasing towards the leeward extremities.

In laying off plantation boundaries which are intended for the
production of timber, we have to be guided by different principles.
Here we have to consider how best to prevent strong or prevailing
winds from injuriously affecting the health and growth of the
trees and uprooting them after a severe frost or heavy rain, both
of which loosen the ground and render the trees more liable to be
overturned, So long as a plantation remains intact, and is not

THE FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS. 95

weakened by injudicious thinning, we rarely find that winds do
much damage in the way of uprooting, but that they have a great
influence on the health and growth of the trees is a well-known
fact. Indeed, in wind-swept situations we have only to notice the
shape of individual trees that stand alone to ascertain from which
direction the prevailing winds come. The windward side of such
trees is rounded off as if trimmed with a knife, while the branches
on the opposite side are longer and more vigorous. This is more
especially noticeable near the sea, where the wind is laden with salt
from the ocean, and which few trees can withstand with impunity.
Seeing that the wind has so much effect on the growth of trees in
exposed situations, it is evident that the smaller the surface
presented to the wind the less will its influence be felt. To secure
this desideratum, it is clear that we must follow to a certain extent
the plan adopted in the case of shelter-belts, and by presenting a
barrier to the prevailing wind endeavour to shelter the bulk of the
plantation in somewhat the same way as the fields were sheltered
in the former case. We notice that the trees on the extreme edge
of a plantation exposed to strong winds are always the smallest
and most stunted, in consequence of having to stand the full brunt
of the blast. The second row back is less affected than the first,
owing to the shelter afforded them by the latter, and we find them
a foot or two higher, and with their tops leaning away from the
wind, The next row presents a similar appearance, but taller
than the second ; and so we find the trees gradually getting taller
as we penetrate deeper into the wood. It is evident, from the
inclined plane presented by the tops of the trees collectively, that
the wind, when coming in contact with the edge of the plantation,
is forced upwards until it reaches the average level of the tree-tops
(where it meets with no opposition to its horizontal course), and
only falls to its former level again when it has passed the limits of
the plantation. To satisfy ourselves on this point we have only
to stand on the leeward side of a wood in windy weather, and go
long as we are under the shelter of the trees we feel little or
nothing of the force of the wind, but the farther we retreat from
the wood the more we experience its effects, until we get to such
a distance from it as to render its sheltering influence altogether
imperceptible. Such being the case then, it is evident that when
once forced to the top of a mass of wood, the wind cannot again
fall until an opening occurs in the wood itself, or it reaches the
Open country.

96 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

In the case of a plantation on a hill-side, however, which faces
the wind, this forcing upwards is continuous until it reaches the
summit, and each tree being higher than the one immediately
standing below it, owing to the rise of the ground, the wind has
almost the same effect on the whole of the plantation as it had on
the edges of the one standing on level ground.

In forming a plantation on a hill-side, then, we cannot protect
the trees from the wind by giving the outlines any particular
shape, but merely prevent it from acting on individual trees as
much as possible by keeping them as close, and the whole of the
plantation as perfect and free from gaps as possible. But on flat
ground we can do something to lessen the effect of the wind by
presenting as small a surface to the point from which it comes as
possible. The most effectual method we could adopt would
perhaps be that of giving the plantation an oblong or conical
outline, with the shorter sides or the apex facing the wind; but
such outlines would be too lengthy, and increase the expense of
fencing, while they would probably be considered too formal for
making a pleasing feature in the landscape. Perhaps the one
most likely to suit all conditions is that of a triangle, with the apex
facing the wind, as in the case of the shelter-belts, and for the
same reasons. Of course gales do not always blow from the same
point of the compass, and therefore we should guard against them
as much as possible on all sides; but as this is a matter more
closely connected with planting and thinning, we think the
prevailing winds should receive most consideration when laying
off a plantation intended for the production of timber, as they
affect the growth and health of the trees to a greater extent than the
others. To endeavour to make the boundaries as short as possible,
and the avoidance of unnecessary curves and corners, are import-
ant points where economy is aimed at, as the fencing of the ground
is always an expensive item, especially when compound interest
has to be charged for a number of years on the original outlay.
Generally speaking, the size and shape of plantations should
conform or agree as much as possible with the surrounding

country.
Fencing.

The expense incurred in fencing and draining ground before
planting can be proceeded with probably deters many proprietors
from planting more of their waste ground than they do at present.

THE FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS. 97

Were it not for the necessity of fencing, there is little doubt that
many odd corners and waste patches of ground to be found on
every estate would be utilised in growing timber, but owing to
the fact that such pieces of ground are usually of a very irregular
shape (generally consisting of narrow strips by the roadside, or
small ravines), the length of fencing that would be required would
be out of all proportion to the area enclosed, and therefore we
rarely find such ground planted unless for shelter. In forming
extensive plantations, however, the larger the area enclosed the
smaller the cost per acre, providing judgment is exercised in laying
off the boundaries ; but even then it always forms one of the most
expensive items, and should be done at as little cost as is consistent
with durability.

In planting extensive tracts of moorland or hill-sides which are
not depastured with sheep or cattle, fencing may sometimes be
dispensed with altogether, or only carried out on the sides liable
to encroachment ; but generally speaking, it is rarely safe to omit
taking full precautions against any possible damage to the young
plants, as any such omission may result in serious injury to the
plantation.

Plantations to be formed in the midst of agricultural or grazing
ground must be thoroughly and efficiently fenced on all sides, and
the most economical fence for general plantation purposes is
probably the turf dyke, surmounted by a low post and wire fence.
The dyke should be 3 feet high (at the base of which a ditch
should run 2 feet deep by 3 feet wide at top), and should be
substantially formed of sods or turfs containing as little organic
matter as possible, the outside face being made almost perpendi-
cular, the inner sloping away gradualiy. It must be allowed to
settle down properly before the wire fence is erected, or the posts
will not take a firm hold of the ground, and when the fence is
erected it should not stand nearer the edge of the dyke than
12 or 18 inches. The posts should be larch, 45 feet long, and
not less than 2 inches in diameter at the small end, and should
stand 24 feet above the top of the dyke. As the posts decay
rapidly in dry dykes, the wooden straining posts should be
replaced by iron pillars erected every two or three hundred yards
in the straight parts of the fence, and at any corner or bend
where required. This will increase the cost of the fence at the
outset, but will prove the most economical in the long run, as the
iron pillars will last for many years if kept varnished or painted,

VOL. XIII. PART I. G

95 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Three No. 7 wires will be sufficient, fixed to the posts by staples,
and strained by means of brackets fixed on the iron pillars, double
brackets being attached to every other pillar for that purpose.
The larch posts should be soaked in creosote or tar after they are
thoroughly dry before being used, as when so treated they will
last considerably longer than unprepared ones, A fence of this
kind, dyke included, will cost from 8d. to 1s. per yard, and if well
put up the expense of maintaining it will be comparatively trifling,
as after a few years decayed posts may be renewed from the
thinnings of the plantation, thus avoiding the necessity of carting
from a distance.

Should the soil be suitable, and the situation favourable to its
growth, a thorn hedge may be planted on the inside of the fence,
and, if properly attended to, will be sufficiently strong to take the
place of the latter by the time the posts have decayed; but all
overhanging branches must be kept cut back, or it will become
weak and patchy. In such a case the iron pillars may be dispensed
with, and wooden strainers used instead.

Various other kinds of fences are in use throughout the country,
such as stone dykes, slate, posts, and hoop-iron, and hedges of all
descriptions ; but the style most commendable for a plantation
depends upon the locality in which it is erected, proximity and
cost of materials, skill possessed by the workmen employed, and
whether intended to be permanent or only temporary; and there-
fore all these particulars must be taken into consideration before
any description of a fence can be recommended in preference to
another.

Draining.

In no operation connected with the formation of plantations is
more judgment necessary than in draining, for if imperfectly or
carelessly done, it often fails to produce any of the good results
expected from it, while one drain in the right place may be more
effectual than a dozen inthe wrong. The first thing to be ascer-
tained is the extent of ground which really requires draining, for
it is seldom that the entire surface of an extensive piece of ground
is too wet for the healthy growth of trees, and therefore all
unnecessary draining should be avoided as much as possible. The
natural vegetation affords a pretty good indication of the nature of
the surface soil in this respect, and should be carefully noted. It
will generally be found that where the natural vegetation is healthy

THE FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS. 99

and flourishing, the soil itself is in a fairly good condition, both
chemically and mechanically, or at least so far as uncultivated
ground can be expected to be. But the natural vegetation usually
consists of plants best fitted to exist under those conditions of soil
and climate in which they are found, and therefore the fact that
the indigenous plants are thriving is no criterion by which we
can prove that the trees we wish to plant there will thrive too,
unless we know that the latter thrive under the same conditions as
the former. If we know this, we can assume that the ground is
in a comparatively fit condition for the plants we wish to intro-
duce, and draining is therefore unnecessary, but where the
vegetation indicates a condition of soil known to be unsuitable
to the plants we wish to stock the ground with, then we must
endeavour to remedy this unfavourable condition if possible.

On the other hand, when the soil is in a sour, unhealthy condi-
tion, the vegetation invariably indicates it. If we notice the
heather growing on a wet piece of moorland, with an underlying
stratum of moor-pan, we usually find it stunted, sickly, and covered
with lichens, so that we come to the conclusion that something is
necessary to put it in a more satisfactory state, and the removal of
the superfluous moisture will be the first consideration.

The first point to be considered in commencing to drain, is the
outlet which will have to carry off the whole of the discharge from
the drains connected with it, and if possible this should always
lead into a natural water-course or burn, as all further trouble is
thereby avoided in getting rid of the water, providing the natural
channel is sufficiently wide and deep to carry off the additional
water. It is not necessary for all the drains to have the same
outlet, as in hilly and unduiating ground this would be practically
impossible ; but on flat ground, or where the fall or slope is very
slight, the lowest part of the ground must be the point for the
outlet, which should be carefully ascertained by means of the
theodolite and levelling rods, as guess-work is often very risky in
regard to this point. The outlet having been decided on, a main
drain (or several, if required) should be cut from it to the farthest
extremity of the ground that requires draining, giving it a few
inches more depth than the sub-mains running into it. The main
drain, and all others in fact, should be perfectly straight if the
surface of the ground permits, but if not, it should take such a
course as will ensure a gradual and uniform fall from its com-
mencement to the outlet, which must depend upon the slope of

100 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

the ground, but from 1 in 150 to 1 in 200 is quite sufficient to
ensure a steady flow, which is less liable to injure the sides of the
drain than a more rapid fall. The depth should be from 3 to 4 feet
according to the nature of the soil, the depth it is intended to
make the sub-mains and laterals, and the quantity of water it will
be likely to receive. The sides of the drain should have a slope of
45° if the soil is at all loose or friable, but less than that will be
sufficient in clay or adhesive soil, and it should have a width of
1 foot at the bottom, the sides being neatly dressed, and made firm
with the back of the spade. The sub-mains should be cut on the
same principle as the main, but will not require to be so deep or
wide, their dimensions being in proportion to the number of
laterals running into them, and the state of the ground. The fall
for these should be slightly greater than that of the mains, as their
efficiency depends on their carrying off the water rapidly and
thoroughly, and they are more liable to get choked with leaves and
débris than the larger drains. Two drains from opposite sides of
the main should never run into it at the same point, as when the
flow is at all rapid, leaves and rubbish are brought down and
deposited at this point, and tend to prevent the free flow of the
water ; but a slight curve should be given them just before they
enter the main, where there is any probability of a rapid flow,
in order to prevent the water from washing into the opposite
bank.

The method of draining the main portion of the ground by
means of the lateral drains, must depend upon the cause of wetness
and the nature of the soil. When the superfluous moisture is
caused by springs, thrown out by an impervious substratum, and
spreading over the surface of the ground, a deep drain should be
cut along the line of the outbreak (which can easily be seen by the
state of the ground), so as to catch and carry away the water
before it has spread over the surface. This will sometimes succeed
in drying the ground below the drain, but much will depend upon
the depth and arrangement of the strata through which the drain
is cut. Sometimes the moisture is due to the impervious nature
of the surface soil, such as clay or moor-pan, and should this rest
on a porous bottom a few deep drains reaching to the porous bed
will carry off much of the water, and render a main unnecessary,
This is an important consideration on flat ground, where there is
a difficulty in getting a proper fall, and should always be taken
advantage of when possible. When the wetness is due to the

THE FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS. 101

retentive nature of the ground, as in clay soils or peat bog, a
thorough system of lateral drains must be carried out. These are
usually placed at the distance of from 20 to 30 feet apart, and
should be cut with their sides perpendicular, as they are thus less
likely to be beaten down by heavy rains, which fill up the inter-
stices of the soil, and prevent the water from percolating through
them freely. Their depth is usually about 18 inches to 2 feet,
according to the requirements of the intended crop, coniferous trees
requiring less depth of soil than hardwoods, as their roots do not
penetrate so far into the soil as those of the latter. Where the
ground slopes, the laterals should be cut at a more or less acute
angle with the mains, in order to secure a proper fall, but the
nearer they approach to a right angle with the main, the greater
will be the area drained in proportion to their length. As before
stated, all unnecessary drains should be avoided, while in extra
wet places they may be cut closer than the usual distance, just as
they may be required.

In draining undulating ground, it is sometimes impossible to
carry off the water by means of a main without going to great
expense in cutting a drain far deeper than the average. Such a
case occurs where the ground slopes from all sides, and forms a
hollow, when, to carry off the water, a drain would have to be cut
through the surrounding ground until a lower level was reached.
lt is obvious that the expense incurred in doing this would be out
of all proportion to the return expected, and therefore it would be
more economical to run all the drains into the hollow, and allow it
to form a pool. Should, however, a porous stratum exist within
a reasonable distance of the surface of the hollow, a hole cut down
to it will carry off the water before it has time to accumulate, On
very flat ground, where a fall cannot be obtained, or where it is so
slight as to be practically imperceptible, the best thing to do is to
cut deep ditches at regular intervals, in which much of the water
will collect, and leave a sufficient depth of drained soil to enable
certain species of trees to succeed fairly well.

Such are the principal and most frequent cases which occur in
draining plantation ground, but exceptional ones may arise which
will require special methods of treatment, but which it is not
necessary to describe here.

102 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. °

Preparation of the Ground.

It seldom happens that waste ground can be planted without
some preparatory operations being found necessary to secure a
favourable start for the young plants. The soil may need break-
ing up where too hard, or the natural vegetation require removing,
or both of these operations may be necessary before planting can
be proceeded with.

On heathy ground, moor-pan is the most frequent obstacle to
the healthy growth of trees, and it must be broken up before they
are planted. Moor-pan occurs in gravelly soils containing a large
quantity of oxide of iron, which, when in combination with water,
forms a hard solid stratum, through which tree roots are unable
to penetrate, and being impervious to rain, it often causes
swamps. Moor-pan is usually broken up by means of an imple-
ment called a foot-pick, which is familiar to every forester in the
north. It must be driven in under the pan if possible, as little
good will be effected unless it is thoroughly broken up. This
should be done a considerable time before planting is performed, so
that the atmosphere may act upon and sweeten the soil, and
decompose any inert matter contained in it. Hard: gravelly soils
are also benefited by the above operation, and the extra expense
incurred is generally compensated for by the growth and vigour of
the plants compared with those planted in unprepared ground.

When pitting is intended, which is usually adapted for hard-
woods, the pits may be opened six months or more before they
receive the plants, as the soil is thus pulverised by frost, and
chemically acted upon by the atmosphere. In wet soils, however,
they are apt to fill with water, and in such cases are better left
until the time for planting arrives.

Of natural vegetation, whin or furze is probably the most trouble-
some to keep down until the plants are out of all danger of being
smothered. They should be burnt, and the big stumps grubbed
out as low as possible, as it is the growth from these old stumps
that proves the most troublesome to deal with, and after the plants
are in, burning is out of the question. Some recommend cutting
out lines through the whins, and trenching the soil. This would
give the plants a better chance of succeeding and growing out of
danger ; but in badly-infested places they would still require to be
kept down by cutting. Burning should be done about the middle
ot June, after the seeds have germinated, and before the pods

THE FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS, 103

are ripe on the old plants ; and when done about this time it leaves
the roots ina weaker condition than when done in winter.

Long, rank heather will also require burning off, and this should
be done three or four years before planting, if possible, as short
heather is beneficial to the young plants by protecting them from
the sun and frost.

Long grass must also be removed at or before the time of
planting, where it has formed a close matted turf. Such turf
intercepts and appropriates both dew and gentle rain, and none
but the heaviest rains penetrate it, therefore plants inserted in it
by notching invariably die in the event of a dry summer suc-
ceeding the planting season, especially in light dry soils. This
is best removed some time before planting, so that the soil may
be well soaked and softened by rain. The turf should be entirely
removed with a spade, leaving a bare space about 9 inches square
on the site intended for the plant, and if the soil is broken up at
the same time, so much the better.

On dry, heathy ground, a dry inflammable sort of peat often
gathers on the surface, which is very unfavourable for nourishing
most plants, and in which trees never thrive until their roots have
reached the soil beneath. Where such exists, it must be removed
in the same way as the turf, unless it is too deep to be removed
in that way, when the subsoil should be brought to the surface,
and spread over the ground to a depth of six inches or so,
which will be sufficient to grow Scots fir and birch. Although
it may be too expensive a process for carrying out on a large scale,
yet it is not more so than planting such ground without any pre-
paration, with the result that the plants never grow into anything
larger than a stunted bush. Peat of the same description, but
wet instead of dry, is equally unfavourable to healthy growth,
and must be treated in the same way, providing, of course, that
the subsoil is capable of growing timber, as if not, the ground
had better remain unplanted. Brambles, thorns, brackens, and
all other rubbish must be cut, and cleared off the ground before
planting commence, so that nothing may interfere with the pro-
gress of the work.

Choice of Plants.

This is one of the most important and difficult questions which
the forester has to decide when forming a plantation, for although
comparatively easy to choose species that will grow and make cover,

104 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

yet when the problem of producing the most valuable crop of
timber in the least possible time has to be solved, it is one that
requires considerable foresight and judgment.

To ascertain beforehand the exact capabilities of the soil and
situation is nearly impossible, although in many cases it may be
done with some degree of accuracy, and the only way it can be
accomplished, apart from chance, is by carefully noting the soil
and situation of existing plantations, and their condition as to
health and growth.

Altitude, climate, and exposure have probably more to do with
the growth of trees than even soil itself (although the latter has
a great influence on the quality of the timber), therefore the
situation of the ground in regard to the first-named conditions must
receive due consideration. As before pointed out, indigenous
trees are more likely to turn out successfully from an all-round
point of view, and give better results than those introduced from
higher or lower latitudes, or from countries possessing different
climatic conditions to those of our British Isles. It is true that
exceptions to this rule may be found in many healthy and thriving
plantations, composed of larch, spruce, and other introduced trees,
but these are only found where the situation, soil, etc., are excep-
tionally favourable to their growth, and in such cases no objection
can be found to their having been planted. But the miserable
appearance presented by so many plantations of larch in different
parts of the country proves the folly of planting these trees indis-
criminately, and without duly considering the conditions requisite
to bring them to maturity. Mere volume of wood, too, is often
taken as the standard by which the timber qualities of different
trees are compared with one another, but quality should be
synonymous with strength and durability, and unless the timber
possesses those qualifications, its market value will be compara-
tively small, and most of our introduced Conifer obtain their rapid
growth at the expense of quality of timber, and therefore nullify
any advantage they might otherwise gain over indigenous trees.

Considerable caution should be exercised, therefore, before
foreign introductions are extensively planted, in order to see that
the conditions under which they will have to exist are such as
are known to be favourable to their healthy growth and the
production of good timber.

Deciduous trees (with the exception of birch, alder, and aspen)
should never be planted in any situation in which they are known

THE FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS, 105

to grow slowly and unprofitably, as their timber value is usually
in direct proportion to the rapidity of their growth, ceteris
paribus. Coniferous trees, on the other hand, generally produce
better timber when their growth has been slow, and are therefore
better adapted for planting at high altitudes, although they take
longer time to come to maturity. In this country (Scotland)
timber of any kind can hardly be profitably grown over 1500 feet
above sea-level, and, in the vicinity of the sea, that altitude is
probably too great. Much depends, however, upon the latitude ;
the nearer the equator the greater the altitude at which plants will
grow. Climate is perhaps the most important factor in vegetable
growth, for the elements of cold, heat, light, and moisture
come under its head. More especially must it be considered
in relation to all introductions from other countries, for it is the
only important distinction which exists between different countries,
and therefore powerfully affects plant life when moved from its
native habitat. Owing to the insular position of Great Britain,
it enjoys a warmer and more temperate climate than many
countries which lie between the same degrees of latitude; but
although it possesses the advantage of being usually free from
extremes of cold and heat, it has the disadvantage of being very
variable, especially during the spring months, when vegetation is
very susceptible of atmospheric influence. In consequence of
this, introductions from countries possessing more regular and
equable climates than ours are often excited into growth by a
spell of mild weather during March and April, and in the event
of this being succeeded by a few days of cutting wind, or frosty
nights, the effect on such plants is very injurious, and often
engenders disease and unhealthy growth. This is frequently
noticeable in the larch and silver fir, as shown by the unhealthy
condition of their foliage, and the consequent attacks of aphides
and other insects which generally accompany a weak and sickly
growth. To prevent the result of this excitability as much ag
possible, such trees should be planted in situations where the
variations of temperature are felt as little as possible, such as
on slopes facing the north, cool soils, or in any other situations
where the plants would be less likely to start early into growth,
Duration and intensity of sunlight also exercise a great influence
on tree growth, especially in regard to the proper ripening of the
wood. Trees like the larch, which continue growing late into
autumn, cannot fail to be injuriously affected by a cold wet

106 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

period during the months of September and October, as the
young growths do not ripen properly, and are often destroyed
by frost in the event of a hard winter succeeding such an autumn.
Although rot in the wood of the larch is usually attributed to the
condition of the soil, yet it is probable that improperly ripened
wood may have equally as much to do with the disease ; while it
appears to be almost a certainty that the blister so common in
this tree is the effect of the same cause.

The requirements of different species in respect to light should
be well understood by the planter and thinner, as the mixing and
mode of planting and thinning a plantation in a judicious manner
depends a good deal on an accurate knowledge of this subject.
Trees which require a considerable quantity of light for the
development of their branches do best when planted by them-
selves in masses, as if mixed with shade-bearing trees, the latter
would be apt to crowd them out if both classes were of the same
age. In growing oak on dry soils, however, its own shade is
sometimes insufficient to keep down weeds and rubbish, which
impoverish the soil by appropriating much of its plant food, and
in order to prevent this, beech is sometimes recommended for
planting under the oaks, when the latter have reached a height
of 50 or 60 feet, and have received their final thinning, which has
the effect of increasing the leaf canopy and enriching the soil.
The same system might be adopted in regard to ash, as although
the soil suitable for growing ash is of a damp nature, yet a
greater crop of wood might be obtained from the ground than
would be the case if the space beneath the trees remained
unoccupied. Spruce or silver fir, however, should be substituted
in place of beech, as the latter is of little value when small, and
ash coming to maturity far quicker than oak, would not allow
time for it to grow to any size. Oak, ash, larch, and Scots fir are
the principal light-demanding trees; while beech, hornbeam,
silver fir, and spruce grow well under shade.

The annual rainfall of the district, considered in connection with
the character of the soil, should influence our choice of plants to a
certain extent. A porous, sandy soil is usually better suited for
growing trees in a district with a heavy rainfall, than one of a
cold retentive nature. In a moist atmosphere evaporation from
the leaves is reduced to a minimum, and therefore the quantity of
moisture required from the soil is comparatively small, while dry
soils are more favourable to the development of fibrous roots

THE FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS. 107

than heavy ones, providing sufficient moisture is present to hold
in solution the mineral matter required by the plant.

The amount of frost which may be expected in any situation
must be anticipated before planting tender species, especially those
which do not ripen their wood thoroughly. The young growths
of larch and oak are often cut back by frost, although the latter tree
is less likely to be permanently disfigured by the loss of a leader
than the former, owing to its stem ultimately becoming straight
by the way in which its annual layers of wood are deposited.

For exposed situations those plants should be selected which
are known to withstand strong winds with impunity, and, at
the same time, those avoided which become crooked and stunted
in such situations. In situations near the sea, the saline-breeze
has to be reckoned with, which greatly reduces the list of suitable
trees. The most suitable trees for inland exposure are the
Austrian pine, mountain pine, Scots fir, aspen, willow, sycamore,
mountain ash, birch, etc. All species will grow when in masses,
but the above-named should occupy the most exposed places,
according to the soil and situation for which they are respectively
adapted. Spruce and silver fir stand the wind well as far as
growth is concerned, but the former is easily overturned by gales,
and should never be planted on the margins of plantations. A
belt of copse-wood or bushy growing trees, such as the mountain
pine, mountain ash, hazel, thorn, birch, ete., planted round the
margins, would be beneficial in exposed situations by preventing
the wind from sweeping in under the taller trees, drying the
surface, and carrying away fallen leaves, which latter are of great
importance in poor dry soils.

As growing timber near the sea is almost an impossibility,
plantations formed near it are usually only intended for shelter,
and therefore such species should be selected as will grow best,
independent of their timber qualities. The sea buckthorn is an
invaluable plant for the exposed margin of such plantations, and
if hedges or lines of it were planted two or three years before the
other plants were put in, it would doubtless be found a great aid
in giving them a fair start, which is the most difficult part in the
formation of these plantations, The most suitable plants are the
deciduous trees enumerated above, and the following conifers :—
the Austrian, mountain, and Corsican pines, and, if slightly
sheltered, the Scots fir.

Although it is almost impossible to accurately predict the trees

108 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

which will succeed best in any particular soil, yet a careful
examination of the latter is indispensable when making a judicious
choice of plants. The natural vegetation is usually a pretty good in-
dication of the character of the surface soil, but is not always a safe
criterion by which to judge the subsoil. Thomson’s ‘ Gardener’s
Assistant” (p. 38) gives the following list of plants that have
been observed to grow naturally on different descriptions of
soils :—** Argillaceous—Tussilago Farfara, Potentilla anserina,
P. argentea, Orobus tuberosus, Lotus major. Caleareous— Veronica
spicata, Campanula glomerata, Onobrychis sativa, Lithospermum
officinale, Nepeta major, [Clematis vitalba]. Silicious—Silene
anglica, Arenaria rubra, Veronica verna. Peaty—Vaccinium
Myrtillus, V. uliginosum, Oxycoceus palustris, Calluna vulgaris,
Erica cinerea, E. Tetralix, Spergula subulata, Tormentilla erecta,
Empetrum nigrum, Eriophorum vaginatum, E. polystachyon, and E.
angustifolium, Sphagnum obtusifolium and S. acutifolium; Rumex
acetosella indicates a peaty irony soil. Very dry soil—Galium
verum and G. saxatile, Aira praecox, A. caryophyllea, A. cristata,
Hieracium pilosella, Arenaria rubra, Thymus serpyllum, Trifolium
arvense. Wet infertile soil—Juncus squarrosus, J, acutiflorus,
Cnicus palustris, | Pinguicula vulgaris, Triglochin palustre], various
species of Carex, Hippuris vulgaris, Epilobium tetragonum, Lyth-
rum salicaria, Ranunculus lingua, R. flammula, R. acris, R.
bulbosus, Rumex acetosa, R. crispus. Wet, but not necessarily
infertile—Poa aquatica, Alopecurus geniculatus, Veronica Becca-
bunga, Juncus conglomeratus, | Aira caespitosa, Cardamine pra-
tensis|. Fertility—Cnicus lanceolatus, Urtica dioica, Stellarva
media, Dactylis glomerata, Poa trivialis. Cold subsoil—Of this,
Equisetum arvense is peculiarly indicative.”

When it is intended to plant shallow-rooting coniferous trees
only, such as Scots fir, larch, and spruce, the character of the
subsoil is of less consequence, as their roots rarely penetrate to a
greater depth than 18 inches or 2 feet ; but hardwoods, especially
oak and ash, send their roots deep into the ground, and the
subsoil has a greater influence on their growth than on the growth
of the former. In many cases the surface soil is formed by the
disintegration of the rock upon which it lies, and therefore the
character of the subsoil can be easily seen; but in alluvial and
diluvial deposits it is often of a totally different character, gravel
and clay frequently lying in juxtaposition. All such formations,
therefore, should be examined by digging holes here and there

THE FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS, 109

over the ground, and the subsoil noted down. The soil is rarely
found to be of the same nature over any large area, and therefore
the species should be distributed so as to suit the different. soils,
according to the elevation, exposure, etc.

All soils may be roughly divided into three classes, viz.—
argillaceous, arenaceous, and calcareous, all presenting fertile and
infertile examples, according to their mechanical condition, com-
position, and depth, and an attempt will be made.to briefly show
the most suitable trees for each class.

Argillaceous.—These consist principally of silicate of alumina,
and vary from pure clay to strong loam. These soils are especially
adapted for growing hardwoods, such as oak, ash, hornbeam,
poplar, etc., and all trees that delight in a strong damp soil, On
the stiffer and wetter kinds the ash does not succeed so well as
the other three. When resting on a bed of sand or gravel, they
suit ash and sycamore better than most soils, and the addition of
calcareous matter makes a soil highly favourable to ash and spruce.
A mixture of clay and gravel suits spruce, silver fir, and larch,
providing the drainage is good; but, generally speaking, these
soils are not suitable for growing coniferous timber, as although
the trees grow rapidly when young, they are usually short-lived,
and rarely produce good quality of timber, being too coarse and
soft through rapid growth.

Arenaceous.—Silica forms the chief constituent of these soils,
and they are usually dry and porous. Nearly all species belonging
to the pine genus do well on these soils. In this country the Scots
fir is the prevailing tree on them, and generally produces better
timber than when grown on clay or chalk soils. Wherever the
heather abounds we may generally assume that the Scots fir
is the most profitable tree to plant, as such ground is usually poor
and sterile, and in which few trees will thrive, but which produces
a cleaner growth and more durable timber in the Scots fir than
soils that are conducive to a rapid and luxuriant growth. The
more fertile soils of this class suit the beech, elm, maple, and
Durmast oak, but they must be of a fair depth and open nature,
so as to allow the roots to penetrate freely in all directions. When
moderately damp, or when resting on a clay subsoil, larch thrives
well on all soils of this description, but when too dry and arid it is
subject to dry rot ; and the same may be said of spruce and silver
fir. Pure sand is affected by drought less than any soils, but is
usually too deficient in plant food to bring timber to maturity.

110 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Calcareous.—All these soils contain a large quantity of carbon-
ate of lime, and on the chalk formations the soil frequently
consists of little else. Owing to this fact, many plants refuse to
grow on soils of the latter description at all, and therefore the
choice of plants is more limited for this class than for the other
two. Amongst the hardwoods, beech takes the precedence in
England, ash being better adapted for the north, although chalk
formations are not found in the latter part of the United King-
dom, and these remarks scarcely apply to it. Many coniferous
trees, the pines especially, fail to thrive on chalk, but spruce,
Austrian pine, and cedar do very well. The larch also succeeds
fairly well up to a certain age, but the dry rot is liable to affect it.
On wet limestone soils larch should never be planted, as their
close pasty nature render them totally unsuitable to that tree,
and blister inevitably results.

Peat moors or bogs, properly speaking, are not soils, but as they
are sometimes utilised for growing trees, they may be considered
as such here. They consist entirely of vegetable matter, being the
partially-decayed remains of semi-aquatic plants. Until draining
has drawn off the superfluous moisture, and allowed the air to
act upon and decompose the inert vegetable matter, plants, or
rather trees, will not grow on them, but when this has been
effected certain trees thrive fairly well. Birch, alder, willow,
aspen, spruce, and Scots fir are the most suitable. When
thoroughly decomposed and mixed with inorganic matter, they
often form very fertile soils, suitable for the majority of trees
that like a light soil.

To briefly recapitulate what has been already written on the
choice of plants ; the conditions of soil, climate, and altitude should
be considered conjointly, and each should be considered as equally
influencing the growth and ultimate success of a plantation.
Although mixed plantations may be justifiable in some cases, yet
a careful examination of the soil and situation, together with a
knowledge of the climate, should enable a competent forester to
select one, or at the most two, species as the most likely to give
the best results, and thereby allow the species selected to receive
the proper sylvicultural treatment it requires in order to give the
best yield of timber. Certain trees which are more valuable in an
early stage than those constituting the ultimate crop may, how-
ever, be planted as nurses, to be taken out in thinning, and
one here and there might be left for the sake of variety. Larch

THE FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS. ite

and spruce are the most suitable for this purpose, the former being
the most valuable in sheltered situations, the latter in exposed
ones, owing to its rigid and erect growth.

Laying off the Ground.

The usual method adopted in planting a space of land is that of
performing the whole of the work in one, two, or three seasons,
according to the extent of the ground, state of the weather, and
the number of hands employed, and with small plantations this
is probably the best plan. But when several hundred acres are
to be planted, a proper working plan should be drawn up and
adhered to as far as possible. Instead of planting the whole of
the ground in the shortest time possible, it should be divided into
divisions or blocks of such sizes as to be conveniently planted,
thinned, and cut in one season respectively. This system has
many advantages, as, for instance, allowing the forester ample
time for performing the above-named operations, giving more
steady employment to workmen, and preventing a large quantity
of mature timber standing in the plantation at a time when the
demand for such may be limited, thereby obliging the proprietor
either to sell under value or allow the trees to stand after reaching
their maximum annual increment, which would result in a reduc-
tion of the returns that might otherwise be realised in a given
period.

Take, for example, a plantation of a thousand acres, containing
various examples of soil, and at different altitudes. To plant
such an area in four or five years would necessitate the employ-
ment of a large staff of men, probably larger than the ordinary
staff constantly kept by the forester. Unless a number of extra
hands were specially engaged for the work, this would cause much
of the ordinary winter work to be thrown back or neglected
altogether, which would seriously interfere with the plans and
arrangements regarding the other woods on the estate. But if
the ground were laid off into squares or blocks of say 10 acres
each, so many of these blocks might be planted annually without
interfering seriously with other work on the estate. Assuming
one hundred years to be the period required for bringing the crop
to maturity, one block planted annually would provide for a
similar area annually becoming ready for the axe after the first
century had expired, and during the course of the second and

112 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

each succeeding century, so longas the ground was replanted after
being cleared. But unless the trees were all growing under the
same conditions in respect to soil and situation, those on the most
favourable parts of the ground would arrive at maturity much
earlier than their less favoured neighbours ; and in order, there-
fore, to prevent the necessity of cutting before ripe, or causing a
break in the returns, the ground should be classified into one, two,
or three classes, according to its estimated capability of producing
timber, or the length of time each class would require to bring
timber to maturity, and a block in each class planted in the same
year. Let the ground be supposed to consist of 500 acres of
Class I., capable of bringing timber to maturity in 80 years ; 250
acres of Class IT., requiring 120 years ; and 250 acres of Class III.,
requiring 150 years to mature its timber. By dividing Class I.
into blocks of 12°5 acres each, and Classes II. and III. into blocks
of 8-3 acres each, and planting a block in each class annually, we
should have a continuous crop of mature timber from the 80th to
the 180th year from the time planting commenced, the latter
operation extending over a period of 33 years, about 30 acres
being planted annually until the work was completed. Should
the ground be at all exposed, planting should commence on the
leeward side of it, and gradually worked up to the windward side,
as by this method the removal of those blocks which require
cutting first is effected without exposing the ones immediately
adjoining them to the prevailing wind, and the tops of the trees
present a uniform slope to the wind, and it is therefore less likely
to do damage.

The above system has the disadvantage of giving a plantation
on a hill-side a patchy appearance, owing to the great difference
in the sizes of the trees, but this would only be the case when the
ground presented a great many variations of soil and exposure, as
when planting proceeded steadily in one direction this would
prevent such an appearance from being given to it.

The formation of roads at the time of planting is quite
unnecessary, besides adding greatly to the compound interest
on the initial expenses. They should, however, be marked off,
and the ground left unplanted, or if planted, such trees should be
used as are likely to be of some value when the time comes for
their removal. Narrow rides about 13 feet in width should
separate all blocks from their neighbours, and should be kept free
of grass and rubbish, as in case of fire they may prove of great

THE FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS, 113

service in preventing it from spreading from one block to the
other. This precaution should always be taken in the vicinity
of a railway, as sparks from passing engines frequently ignite the
dry grass in adjoining plantations.

Formation of Local Nurseries.

The custom of getting plants direct from a public nursery, and
planting them in all sorts of soils and situations, has a great deal
to do with the frequent failures and great loss of plants incurred
in planting hilly and poor ground. In addition to the rough
treatment they receive in uplifting and transit, and the consequent
exposure of the roots, the change from a rich soil to thin, hard,
and poor ground usually found on hill-sides and moorland cannot
be favourable to the plants starting into a healthy growth until
several years have elapsed after transplanting has been effected.
The structure of roots differs a great deal according to the
soil in which they exist, and it is evident that roots which have
been developed in a soil of one description are ill adapted for
carrying on their ordinary functions when suddenly removed to
a soil of the very opposite character, and new roots must there-
fore be formed before the plant can extract a proper amount of
nourishment from the soil. Nor does this change merely affect
the roots, but the protoplasm throughout the plant has first to
accommodate and adapt itself to its new and altered conditions
before it regains its former activity; and until these changes have
been effected the plant does little more than exist for the first
year or two after removal. The ravages committed by rabbits
on plants when first put out are probably due in a great measure
to their unhealthy and weakened condition from the above
causes. It has been frequently remarked that self-sown plants
are not nearly so liable to be touched as planted ones are, and
there is every reason to suppose that this is chiefly owing to the
more healthy and vigorous condition of the former during the
early stages, as, when once the latter have recovered from the
effects of the move, they are less frequently attacked, or if
they are, it is usually the weakest plants that suffer. The
true explanation of this fact I have never seen nor heard, but
those laws of natural economy which ensure the survival of the
fittest have probably something to do with it.

The formation of local nurseries on the site of intended
VOL. XIII. PART I. H

114 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

plantations would do away with many of the evils enumerated
above, and, there is little doubt, would prove the most economical
when forming extensive plantations on poor soils, as there is
little difficulty in raising Scots fir, larch, and spruce on such
ground. They should be formed on well-drained slopes falling
gently away to the west or south-west if possible, and the soil
should be of the same character as that prevailing over the
ground. They should be in as sheltered situations as possible,
but not likely to favour frost. They must be securely fenced
against game, and the seed-beds should be protected from birds
by means of wire-netting stretched over the top. The soil should
be trenched as deep as possible, and, if very poor, should be
enriched by the addition of leaf-mould, road-scrapings or parings,
or anything of that nature. Spruce branches should be stuck
round the outside of the beds when the seed is germinating,
to shelter it from the wind and sun. The sowing of the seed and
subsequent treatment of the plants should be the same as carried
out in ordinary home or public nurseries, but being of slower
growth, they might stand an additional year in the nursery lines
before being planted out, and the seed should be sown rather
tater than usual, as larch is extremely liable to be injured by
late frosts. The selection of the seed from trees standing in
similar localities to that of the future plantation should be care-
fully attended to, and only cones off trees possessing good timber
qualities and of clean growth should be gathered, as the import-
ance of this matter to the ultimate success of the plantation is
often ignored, or neglected, with unsatisfactory results.

It may be argued that a strong vigorous plant from a public
nursery is more likely to survive the ordeal of transplanting than
a weaker and less vigorous one, owing to the greater amount of
reserve matter stored up in the stem of the former than in the latter,
and this is, no doubt, perfectly true when both plants have been
growing under the same conditions, and are subjected to the same
treatment before being finally planted out; but when the stronger
plant has several great disadvantages to contend with which are
not shared by the weaker, the positions of the two plants may be
considered as reversed. It must also be remembered that the
embryo growths in the buds of the stronger plant require a
proportionally larger amount of nourishment to develop them,
and therefore the apparent advantage in regard to reserve
material is less than might appear. It must be admitted, then,

THE FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS. was

that plants raised on the ground have the advantage so far as
transplanting is concerned, and the additional trouble and expense
of forming a nursery is fully compensated for before the planting
of a large area is completed.

Size of Plants.

The size of the plants at the time of planting must depend
a good deal upon the nature and situation of the ground. For
exposed and elevated situations, one-year seedling, one year trans
planted, are probably the best, as they have a better chance of
getting established in the ground. In more sheltered positions,
and where the herbage is coarse and rank, two-year seedling,
two years transplanted, may be used, and in ordinary situations no
advantage is gained by planting them larger than the latter size.
The former size refers only to conifers, the latter to both conifers
and hardwoods. The great desideratum is to obtain plants with
their roots and tops equally proportioned, or if one of the two
preponderate, let it be the former.

Distance between the Plants.

The distance apart at which the trees are to stand after the
final thinning should determine the distance apart at which to
plant. To fully utilise the ground, and give the plantation a
regular and uniform appearance, the special requirements of each
species used (or more properly of the species to form the ultimate
crop) in regard to space should be carefully considered. The
probable rate of growth and capabilities of the ground will have
to be considered, but the principal thing requisite is a knowledge
of the maximum number of trees which a given acre of ground
is capable of growing and bringing to maturity. By dividing the
area by this number, the space occupied by each tree is obtained ;
and the square root of this area, divided by a power of two,
corresponding to the number of regular thinnings intended, gives
the distance which should separate the young plants. This may
be considered unnecessary and too theoretical, in view of the
many accidents and casualties which may occur during the life-
time of a plantation, while no allowance is made for the greater
demands of strong and vigorous trees for space compared with
their weaker neighbours. The first objection has no more weight
than the case of a man who objected to being educated when

116 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY,

young, for fear of dying before he could make use of it; and the
second would only apply to mixed plantations, which are not
alluded to here.

The average distances apart at which the following trees
are usually planted, are—Scots fir, 2} to 3 feet; larch 3 to
4 feet; spruce 2 to 4 feet. Hardwoods are usually planted
at good distances apart, about four times the number required
for the ultimate crop say, and the intervals filled up with
coniferous nurses, to 3 or 4 feet apart. The following distances
oak, 8 feet; ash, 9 feet; elm, 12 feet; beech and
hornbeam, 6 feet apart, respectively, the distance for oak being
one-eighth of that of the ultimate crop. Mixed plantations are
usually planted about 3 feet to 4 feet apart.

are suitable for

Planting.

Planting may be performed at any time during the natural
suspension of growth, which, in this country, means from
November to April inclusive. The spring months are preferred
by many foresters for planting, especially where the ground is at
all wet, as the roots commence to grow before they have time to
lose the vitality of the fibrils, which frequently takes place in wet
soils when the roots have been bruised or broken in lifting. On
dry, sandy soils, autumn planting usually gives the best results,
as they are firmly established in the soil before the drought of
summer commences, and the notches are not so likely to open and
loosen the plant as when planting is done in the spring. Planting
should only proceed in fresh, open weather, and never during
frost or snow.

For small plants notching is the cheapest and most expedi-
tious method of planting, and for this the planter should be
provided with a sharp half-worn garden spade. Inserting his
spade perpendicularly into the soil, he makes two cuts or notches
at right angles to each other, shaped like the letter L. He then
lifts up the corner of the notch so as to allow the roots of the
plant to be inserted beneath the spade, which is then withdrawn,
and the soil falls back into its place, covering the roots, and is
made firm with the heel. The planters should work in extended
lines, each man taking his distance from his right or left hand
neighbour, according to the side the leading man is on. Every
two men should be accompanied by a boy or woman to carry the

THE FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS. 1dey

plants and insert them in the notch, the planter seeing that the
roots are not twisted or doubled up before he withdraws his spade.
The boys and women should be provided with aprons with large
pockets for carrying the plants, the latter being supplied to them
by others specially told off to carry the plants from the “sheugh”
to the planters, so as to prevent the roots from long exposure to
the sun and wind.

In pit-planting much the same method is adopted as the fore-
going, except that instead of making a notch, a small hole
is taken out about a foot square; the boy holds the plant in
the centre, while the planter fills in the finer soil immediately
round the roots, leaving the worst for the top. In damp soils
pitted plants are apt to be thrown out by the frost if planted in
autumn, and are therefore best left until the spring. When
planting hardwoods with coniferous nurses, they are often planted
at their proper distances before or after the nurses, which simpli-
fies matters for the planters and prevents mistakes. In all
planting operations careful work should be encouraged before
speed, and in very rough and stony ground it is better to take
out a hole and remove the stones, than to squeeze and crush the
roots into places where there is nothing to support them.

Sowing in situ.

The practice of sowing in situ, or sowing the seed on the spot in
which it is intended to grow, is rarely resorted to in this country,
and it has many disadvantages, compared with planting, on rough
or waste ground. It might, however, be adopted in afforesting old
arable land with hardwoods, such as oak or chestnut. The hard-
wood seed should be sown in lines about 8 feet apart, or double
that distance, if the ground is suitable for growing larch to a fair
size, and the latter tree substituted between the hardwoods, as it is
more valuable when young. ‘Two or three seeds should be sown or
dibbled into each spot intended for the site of a tree, which should
stand about 8 feet apart in the lines, thus allowing for contingencies
in the shape of bad germination, damages by vermin, deformed
plants, &c. If the ground be fairly clean, the intervening spaces
might be sown thinly with larch seed, but if dirty, it would stand
in great danger of being smothered before it attained any size, and
planting would be preferable, the plants being put in about 3 feet
apart. Spruce and Scots fir might also be used if the ground were
unsuitable for larch, but the latter tree being double the value of

118 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

the former two, should always be used if possible. Other hard-
woods than the two mentioned might be raised in this way, but
owing to their strength and vigour as seedlings, oak and Spanish
chestnut are better adapted for it than any others.

When the ground is in good condition, and the heather short,
good results might be obtained by sowing Scots fir broadcast on
heathy moors and hill-sides, as the regularity with which this tree
comes up on such ground where self-sown, produces almost as good
and perfect a crop as could be secured by planting. It is only on
heath-covered ground, however, that this would be likely to succeed,
as grass or any other herbage is too thick and close to allow the
seed to obtain a good hold of the soil. Of course, a large per-
centage of the seed would be lost, and therefore this system could
only be recommended when seed is cheap and easily obtained, but
many barren acres of hill-side and moorland might be afforested by
this method at a considerably less cost than planting.

Protection from Ground Game.

Where ground game abounds, it is necessary to protect the young
plants by means of wire-netting. This should be supported by
short posts, about 4 feet long, driven firmly into the ground every
6 or 8 feet, or the netting may be attached to a wire fence when
if surrounds the ground requiring protection. A small trench about
3 inches deep and wide should be taken out, and the bottom of the
netting placed in it, about 3 inches at the bottom being laid flat, and
the scil replaced. This prevents rabbits from scratching holes
underneath it, which they quickly do when it merely touches the sur-
face of the ground. All holes should be ferreted and stopped after
the netting is up, otherwise some may be left inside. To protect
any large area from rabbits by means of netting is practically
impossible, the only effective remedy being that of keeping them
down by shooting and trapping, and allowing their natural enemies,
such as stoats, weasels, foxes, &c., to restore the balance of nature.
The settling of this question, however, is usually outside the
forester’s jurisdiction, and he must do what he can, and leave the
rest to take its chance.

Management for First Twelve Years.

The principal work to be done during the first two or three years
after planting will be beating up blanks and keeping down rubbish.

{HE FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS. 119

If a fair proportion of the trees survive, the former operation is
often neglected on the grounds of economy, and rendering a profitless
thinning unnecessary. When the production of large trees is alone
aimed at, such an omission may be commendable, but when a crop of
clean-grown timber of good quality isdesired, it has several objections.
In the first place, it favours the growth of coarse side branches
wherever gaps exist, which often attain considerable size before they
are overpowered and killed by the closing up of the leaf canopy,
causing black knots in the timber. Secondly, the stems are exposed
to the sun, and unequal zones of soft and sappy wood are formed
early in the season. Thirdly, the complete subjection of the
herbage is considerably retarded, and the roots of the trees are
deprived of a good deal of the available food. Fourthly, the
mechanical condition of the soil produced by close shade, and a
covering of decaying leaves, which is so eminently favourable to the
production of roots, is not attained until the trees are in close order,
and is therefore longer in taking place when gaps are numerous.
The above objections more than counterbalance any advantage to
be gained by the omission of beating up, and therefore it should be
attended to wherever practicable.

The subjection of rubbish depends a good deal upon its nature.
Whins and broom must be carefully watched and kept from closing
over and smothering the plants, and if they are cut over with a
hand or hedge bill every two years until the plants are well above
them, there is little danger of this taking place. Grass rarely does
much harm, except to very young plants, which should never be
planted amongst it. Brackens, brambles, &c., will require annual
attention for a year or two, but the work should never be entrusted
to careless or irresponsible hands, or more harm is likely to be done
than good.

After the plants are fairly established in the soil, they will
require little attention until the eighth or tenth year, according to
the rate of growth, but hardwoods should be gone over, and all
double leaders removed. Oaks often refuse to start freely into
srowth after being transplanted, and when this is the case they
should be cut over close to the ground, and allowed to break away
from the bottom, all but the strongest shoot being removed after a
year or two.

About the tenth year after planting, the first regular thinning is
usually performed. This is generally done by cutting out every
other plant, and leaving them about double the former distance

120 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

apart, the nurses only being removed in the case of hardwoods.
No doubt this method provides for the welfare of individual trees
better than any other; but sylviculture recognises the claims of a
mass or number of trees collectively, rather than the special
requirements of the units which compose the mass, and aims at
growing timber and not merely ¢rees, and therefore we might
consider whether the usual method of thinning is the best to
attain the object in view. In all natural forests it is evident
that the operation of thinning by means of the axe and saw
has never been carried out, and yet it is from such forests that
our best timber supplies have been drawn, and an endeavour
will be made to show the reason of this fact. Let us take the
case of a piece of heath-covered ground that is being self-sown by
Scots fir. Here we find the plants that show themselves first
scattered here and there over the ground, some of them separated
from each other by 20 or 30 feet. Every successive year a few
additional plants appear, gradually filling up the blank spaces, until
the whole surface of the ground is eventually covered with plants.
By this time, however, the first plants that appeared will be con-
siderably in advance of their youngest neighbours, and will have
acquired a certain amount of superiority over the others, according to
their age and vigour. It is evident that if nothing occurs to stop
the growth of these larger plants, they will be in no danger of being
overtopped or smothered by thei neighbours, but will continue
growing until they have reached their full height. But although
they may have free space for upward growth, they may be checked
or stopped altogether from developing their lateral branches by
smaller but equally vigorous plants that are growing up around
them. Suppose a large plant to be 6 or 8 feet in height at the
time a smaller plant, standing 6 feet away, is only 3. Assuming
the lowest branch on the former tree to extend 3 feet in the
direction of the latter, it would allow a space of nearly 3 feet
between the nearest branches of the two trees, assuming the branch
in question to be the longest on the side of the tree. This space
would gradually decrease until the branches of the two trees
touched, when their growths would be checked and ultimately
stopped, causing their death. Other branches, higher up on the
stems of the two plants, would, however, be meeting in the same
way and sharing the same fate, always leaving, however, a clear
space between the leading shoot of the smaller plant and the nearest
branch opposite on the larger. Supposing the two plants to keep

THE FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS, Al

their relative positions, and make uniformly equal growths until
both had reached their full height, a system of natural pruning
would have been carried out on the sides of both stems that faced
each other, the branches on the smaller plant being checked and
killed earlier in life than those on the larger one however. If small
plants had stood on every side of the large one, the pruning process
would have been complete, and we should have a typical illustration
of what takes place, more or less, in a natural forest, and which
produces pine timber of such excellent quality and almost free from
large knots.

It is not contended, however, that such a method is the best and
most economical for the practical forester to adopt in the case of
plantations, and there are several reasons for coming to this con-
clusion. In the first place, the trees in a plantation are nearly
equal in size, and would, therefore, be in danger of sacrificing one
another before one could rise above the other. In the case of the
natural forest, too, only one out of every ten may be placed in the
way we illustrated, and therefore the proportion of well-grown
timber trees will be comparatively small, and not sufficient to give
a fair yield. But in spite of these objections, it is evident that the
saine principles will hold good in the case of artificial plantations,
as in the natural forests, although the treatment must be modified
to suit the altered conditions.

Even in artificial plantations, however, by the time the trees
require thinning, they will not be found all one size. Some will
be found 2 or 3 feet taller than others ; or, in other words, natural
selection will be operating on the crop. The duty of the forester,
then, will be to assist this operation as much as possible, and
endeavour to secure a regular distribution of strong, clean-growing
trees, by checking the tops of all trees that are competing too closely
with those that are intended to grow until the second thinning.
By the ordinary method, the unnecessary (?) trees would be taken
out altogether, but the objections to this method are these :—In
the first place, it exposes the soil to the sun and wind, and it
becomes hard and dry and unfavourable to any roots that may
have found their way along the surface ; Second, grass and rubbish
again begin to grow, and appropriate the moisture and humus ;
Third, the stems of the plants are exposed to the sun, and the
development of side branches encouraged, causing the formation
of inferior wood. Other objections might be raised, but these are
the principal ones, and are thought to be sufficient to justify the

122 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

adoption of the above method, recommended generally, although
cases may occur where it might not be practicable.

Conclusion.

To go fully into every subject bearing on the formation of
plantations, would require more space and time than could be
expended on an ordinary essay, and therefore many subjects and
operations are only briefly described and treated upon; but as
their general application has been kept more closely in view, than
their particular adoption or execution in any one locality, no
advantage would have been gained by going too closely into
details.

Some of the theories propounded in this essay are based upon
observation rather than experience, and therefore difficulties may
be in the way which might render their practical adoption
impossible ; but as custom without reason has been defined as an
ancient error, the risk of committing a modern error has been
incurred, rather than the recommendation of any customary
operation for which no logical reason could be given.

TREES AND SHRUBS FOR PLANTING IN TOWNS. 123

VIL. Zrees and Shrubs for Planting in Towns. By A. D.
Wesster, Holwood, Kent.

To those whose lot is cast in or near our more important centres
of industry, this subject is of vast importance, and one which, at
the present time, occupies a large share of public attention.

The surprise experienced by most persons in this country on first
visiting any of the larger Continental cities—Paris, Brussels, or
Berlin, and where street planting would seem to be considered as a
matter of paramount importance—is great indeed, and invariably
leads to the somewhat pertinent question, ‘‘ Why cannot we make
our cities beautiful by planting suitable trees and shrubs?” No
doubt there are a few drawbacks to be encountered in so doing,
but that very much more might be accomplished than has hitherto
been done is clearly evident to those who have devoted even a
small share of attention to the matter.

The atmosphere of our larger towns and cities—London, Glas-
gow, Liverpool, Manchester, and Sheffield—is, it must be candidly
admitted, impregnated to a far greater extent with noxious fumes
and vapours than is that of any of the Continental towns above
mentioned, and, therefore, the difficulty of establishing many trees
and shrubs is correspondingly increased.

Observations and experiments carried on during the last ten
years in three of the largest towns in Britain—London, Glasgow,
and Liverpool (a trial garden was for this express purpose instituted
in one of the most smoky districts of East London)
proved, however, that there are not a few trees and shrubs well

have clearly

suited for withstanding even the deleterious effects of the impurest
of town atmospheres.

Not for one moment do I wish it to be inferred that there are
not certain districts—to wit, the environs of the Lambeth potteries,
and some of our huge chemical works—where, do what we will,
vegetation, be it of whatever kind, will not succeed; but as we
recede from these centres of sickness and death, particular trees and
shrubs flourish amazingly, and no better example can be pointed
out than the healthy and rapid-growing specimens that adorn the
Thames Embankment, and which are removed but a very short
distance indeed from one of the barrenest and most miserable of
the city suburbs—the pottery district.

That certain trees and shrubs succeed best in particular towns

124 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

is another strange fact, for, curious as it may seem, the smoke-proof
London plane is by no means the best tree for either Liverpool or
Warrington, particularly the former town, where the sycamore has
been found to be far better adapted. In the very centre of Sheffield
the Canadian poplar has been found to be by far the most useful
tree, while in some of the worst localities in the colliery districts the
chestnut and variegated-leaved sycamore are the greatest favourites.
Even the rhododendron does well in the most smoky parts of
the town of Bury, Lancashire. No better example could be
adduced of how certain trees favour certain towns, than two or
three kinds of poplars which grow with unabated vigour at Gatley,
a small town near Manchester ; while at Bury, about equally dis-
tant on the other side of that city, they positively refuse to
grow, and that too after many unsuccessful attempts to get them
established. Neither the rhododendron nor the laurel are at all
suitable for the smoky districts of London; but casual observers
may form a different opinion, from the appearance of such of these
shrubs as are replanted annually, the semi-sickly subjects being
replaced at stated times by those that are fresh and vigorous. In
the smoky and impure (chemically) atmosphere of Glasgow the
thorn and beam tree (Pyrus), as also several kinds of Retinospora,
thrive amazingly, much better than they do in any of the large
English towns,

Why certain trees and shrubs succeed best in particular dis-
tricts or towns is, perhaps, readily enough explained by the
conditions of soil and situation, as well as the particular industry
of the inhabitants. Coal smoke from the multitudinous chimneys
of our larger centres of industry is no doubt bad enough; but
when we have to contend with an atmosphere largely impregnated
with the outcome from chemical, gas, or iron works, the difficulties
to be encountered are great indeed.

Preparation of the Ground and Planting.—In order that success
may crown the effort, it may truly be said that no work of the
horticulturist requires more skill and good management than the
proper planting of trees alongside streets and avenues.

The materials with which roads are usually made up are ill-fitted
for sustaining a healthy condition in trees, at least for any great
length of time, and this is well known to those who have taken
any interest in the matter—broken stones, clinkers, and gravel
affording but small support to vegetation, be it of whatever kind,
but particularly large-growing trees and shrubs. Many failures in

TREES AND SHRUBS FOR PLANTING IN TOWNS. 125

street tree planting from this very cause might be pointed out, and
in not a few cases the future result will certainly be discreditable
to all concerned, simply because the work has not been properly
done.

In crowded streets and squares, where the air is vitiated with
impurities, and the soil hard and often surcharged with gaseous
matter, tree planting is quite a different matter to what it is along
the side of a field. In the latter case it may be sufficient to open
a smal] pit, insert the tree, and stake it ; but in our large towns
the case is totally different, for the soil, hard as iron, and composed
mainly of clinkers and shingle, affords but little nourishment to a
rapid-growing tree, and one that, moreover, has to do battle above
ground with the deleterious effects of an impure atmosphere.
Another fruitful cause of failure in street planting is placing the
pavement above the roots, and in too close proximity to the stems.
The roots should always be allowed plenty of breathing room, and
to effect this a good-sized space should be railed off around each
tree, and no pavement laid within it. In so doing a double benefit
is conferred, by allowing free access of rain to the roots, and
avoiding the accumulation of noxious gases in the ground (as has
been proved to be the case when close pavement has been used),
which are inimical to the welfare of the trees.

In proof of what is said, we may refer to the trees at the Chelsea
end of the Thames Embankment, which have been planted as above
directed ; and that success has amply crowned the effort cannot be
denied, for certainly that noble avenue has no equal in any British
town.

Where street trees are to be planted, a good-sized patch of ground
—say, at least 6 feet in diameter and 4 feet in depth—should be
thoroughly broken up, and if the soil is of inferior quality, which
will assuredly be so in 90 per cent. of the pits, good fresh loam
should be substituted. By undermining the sides of the pits a
much larger receptacle for the fresh soil will be formed, and this
will not occasion so much of the footway and pavement being torn
up as if the pits were of equal diameter top and bottom, The
plants used should be such as have been specially prepared for the
purpose, by being frequently transplanted for some years previous
to being placed in their final position. They should be stout,
stocky, well-rooted, clean, and from 6 to 8 feet in height.

In planting, spread the roots well out around the stem, and do
not bury too deeply, the mark visible on the stem as to how deep

126 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCTETY.

the trees stood in the nursery border being the best criterion to
go by. As regards the best time to plant town trees opinions
differ, but there can be little doubt that spring is preferable, for
the good reason that, as they start into growth at once, they
are not so likely to suffer from smoke and other deleterious
affections as if they remained during the winter in an inactive
condition.

Staking the trees so as to prevent rocking by the wind, and
consequent damage to the roots, should be set about immediately
planting is finished. Circumstances will be the best guide as to
how this should be done, but it is generally found necessary, even
when the trees are surrounded with iron railings, to drive a stout
stake firmly into the ground on the windward side, and as close to
the stem of the tree as possible. To this the tree should be made
fast with teased-out tarred rope, and to avoid friction the rope may
be crossed between the stem and stake.

These simple matters connected with the preparation of the
eround, planting, and staking are so important in town planting
that they should never be lost sight of, for while they add but
little to the cost, the advantage gained is very great. |

Advantages of Town Trees.—Not only for the cheerful aspect
produced by trees when planted alongside streets and thoroughfares,
but also from a sanitary point of view, they are of special value
and the greatest importance. That a quantity of healthy-growing
foliage has a wonderful effect in purifying the atmosphere is a
recognised fact, and certainly far more than compensates for any
damage to health that might be occasioned by its decay in autumn.
Bearing on the question of trees in towns, Dr Phené, at the Social
Science Congress at Edinburgh, remarked as follows :—

“To the occupants of houses in streets having a northern aspect,
the glare of reflected light is injurious; but the effect would be
much modified by the coolness to the eye produced by the green
of trees. In ancient surgery, persons having weak or declining
sight were advised to look at the emerald. In the old style of
building, the streets being narrow, were both cooler, from the sun
not being able to penetrate them with direct rays, and less subject
to noxious exhalations from the scouring and purifying effects of
the searching air to which narrow streets were subject, so that
while there was no space for trees, there was also less necessity,
Wide streets, on the contrary, are hotter, and require the shade
of trees to cool them, and, as in the case of London, which has so

TREES AND SHRUBS FOR PLANTING IN TOWNS. 127

far done without trees in its streets, not only are modern streets
compulsory wide, but the enormous increase in metropolitan build-
ings renders every sanitary question one of importance ; and the
chemical properties of trees, as shown by experiment, gives them
an important standing on that ground, irrespective of ornament or
the pleasure they produce. But that which is important in such
localities is more imperatively demanded in poorer districts on the
score of health, as during the last year alone 21,000 new houses
were erected in London, producing 400 streets, with 71 miles and
468 yards of promenade.”

TREES.

The Oriental or Common London Plane (Platanus orientalis
acertfolia).—This variety of the Oriental plane stands first in the
category of select town trees. Not only does it grow vigorously in
towns, but it is peculiarly well adapted for withstanding the smoke
and other impurities of their atmosphere. Repeated experiments
have clearly proved that in London this tree flourishes better than
any other, and a visit to the Thames Embankment, and several other
of the urban districts, will substantiate the statement ; while the
fine old tree which still exists at Cheapside, and the equally
beautiful specimen, which has hardly room for perfect development,
in the Court of Stationers’ Hall, Ludgate Hill, afford other examples
of how well suited this handsome tree is for doing battle with the
smoke and impurities of the great metropolis. As a diversity of
opinion has existed about which variety of plane it is that grows
with such vigour in and around London, it may be stated that, on
a careful examination of a large number of specimens, the variety
P. 0. acerifolia was found not only more commonly distributed,
but likewise better suited for town planting than the typical P.
orientalis. This valuable variety is readily distinguished from the
normal plant by the less deeply divided leaves; and from the
American plane (P. occidentalis), with which it is not infrequently
confounded, by the many fruit “ balls” which are attached to each
peduncle, the fertile catkins of P. occidentalis being for the greater
part produced singly.

But not only for its value as a town tree is the Oriental plane
much sought after ; for the giant proportions to which it attains,
coupled with the handsome, finely cut leaves and easy habit of
growth, renders it one of our most desirable ornamental trees.
Then it is of the easiest culture, succeeding extremely well in soils

128 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

of the very opposite qualities. Taking everything into consideration,
we question much whether any other of our forest trees is of greater
or even equal value with the plane for town planting.

The Maidenhair Tree (Ginkgo biloba).—A prolonged visit to
the very worst smoke-infested slums of London, has now quite
convinced me that the maidenhair or ginkgo tree is one of the most
valuable that can be planted in the impure atmosphere of a town
garden. Few trees, | am fully aware, can compare with the one
in question for withstanding the deleterious effects produced on
vegetation generally by coming in too close contact with the
impurities of our great centres of industry. The ample delicate
green foliage betrays—even late in the season, and when about to
be cast off—little evidence of the fierce struggle that must almost
constantly go on between vegetation and the smoke and filth of our
towns and cities. That the thick leathery leaves and strong con-
stitution of the tree play an important part in keeping it free from
disease is clearly evident, while the fact of the leaves being renewed
annually must go a long way towards casting off the sooty nodules
which work such havoc on the tender foliage of most trees.

At no less than five places in and around the great metropolis—
and such places, too, where one is almost stifled with the fumes from
chimneys—the maidenhair tree may be seen almost in as fresh and
flourishing a condition as those enviable specimens on the Isle of
Man ; indeed, about as large trunks as can be seen anywhere are
growing in the smoke of Chelsea. Not only asa standard tree is the
maidenhair valuable, but it is also one of the prettiest wall plants
with which I am acquainted, and how many bare ugly erections of
brick and stone in our city streets want a bit of greenery I would
not like to say.

The Ailanthus, or Tree of Heaven (Adlanthus glandulosa), may be
seen in a flourishing condition in many of the London streets and
byeways. By its rich green spreading foliage, the Ailanthus is,
during the summer months, a great favourite with lovers of sylvan
scenery, the leaves in many cases reaching to a length of fully
2 feet. It is a tree of very rapid growth when suitably placed as
regards svil and situation, shoots nearly 2 feet being often produced
in a season.

Tt has been largely planted in many Continental cities, and has
proved itself one of the few trees that are capable of withstanding
the impurities of a town atmosphere. The greenish-white, incon-
spicuous flowers, are freely produced, and are succeeded by

TREES AND SHRUBS FOR PLANTING IN TOWNS. 129
innumerable fruits resembling the keys cf the ash, but of a reddish-
brown colour, which imparts to the tree a wealth of autumn glory
that we unfortunately are seldom permitted to witness in this
country.

The Black Italian Poplar (Populus monilifera).—Next to the
plane amongst forest trees, I consider the black Italian poplar to be
the most valuable for planting in smoky towns. Asa proof of this,
there are to be seen numerous fine specimens of this tree in a
flourishing condition, and clothed with the most healthy foliage, in
some of our largest cities—to wit, London, Glasgow, and Liverpool.
The black Italian poplar may be somewhat stiff in outline, but there
is, nevertheless, an air of grace about it that is wanting in any other
tree I can bring tomind. It is a tree of the readiest culture, while,
as to its rate of growth, a specimen of 100 feet in height has
attained to that size in less than sixty years. The wood, unless for
a few special purposes, such as cart-bottoms, brakes, &c., is not of
great value; but the tree is, nevertheless, a profitable timber-
producer when grown in suitable soils.

The Canadian Poplar (P. canadensis) and its variety, P. c. nova,
are excellent trees for planting in smoky localities. The former
succeeds admirably in the very centre of Sheffield, in the old parish
churchyard, where for hundreds of yards away not a particle of
living vegetation is to be seen. The variety nova is a very superior
tree for street planting, it being far more ornamental and of more
rapid growth than the black Italian poplar, and equally reliable for
retaining a healthy and flourishing cendition under the adverse
circumstances connected with a town atmosphere. How well it
succeeds may be seen in the beautiful avenue that was formed of it
and the Oriental plane some years ago at Wimbledon Park.

The Abele Poplar (Populus alba) grows with great freedom where
subjected to smoke and foul air. In the very heart of our largest
towns, it may be seen flourishing in a manner that is almost
incredible. It is a pretty tree, the distinctly cut, ample leaves,
with their cottony under surface, being at all times, but especially
when agitated by the wind, most interesting, and causing the tree
to rank amongst the most ornamental of its kind. It is readily
propagated, transplants freely, grows rapidly, and is neither subject
to disease nor particular as to the soil in which it is planted.

The Lombardy Poplar (P. fastigiata) is another tree that has
been planted with some success in and around many of our largest
cities, but it cannot equal any of the foregoing for withstanding the

VOL. XIII. PART I. I

130 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

baneful effects of a tainted atmosphere. In the outskirts of towns,
where the air is purer than amid chimneys pouring forth their
volumes of smoke, the Lombardy poplar succeeds fairly well, and
imparts an air of grandeur that could hardly otherwise be obtained.

The Cucumber Tree (Magnolia acuwminata).—Few planters are
aware of how valuable the cucumber tree is for withstanding
the grime and soot of large towns. Experiments have, however,
resulted in this highly-ornamental and fast-growing tree being added
to the list. Its ample foliage, yellowish-white fragrant flowers, and
general contour, eminently fit it for a first place as a town tree.
Soil of ordinary quality suits its general wants, although it prefers
a strong, yellowish moist loam.

The Tulip Tree (Liriodendron tulipifera).—Excellent examples
are not wanting of how valuable a tree Liriodendron tulipifera is
for towns and streets. It seems to have a wonderful recuperative
nature, for scorched, blackened, and encrusted as may appear the
falling-off foliage, yet in the following spring it again puts forth a
garb of the freshest and richest greenery. The remarkable four-lobed,
truncate leaves render this tree almost without an equal for orna-
mental planting, while its undoubted smoke-resisting qualities
place it high in the rank of town trees. It is not particular as to
soil.

The Indian Bean (Catalpa bignonioides).—For various reasons
this fast-growing tree is to be recommended for planting in smoky
localities. It grows with vigour in many smoky centres of
industry, is a tree of handsome proportions, and when fully
established, flowers freely. The violet-white of the petals of the
flowers is well set off by the purple and yellow of the throat. A
valuable trait in the character of the Indian bean is that, should
accident befall it, and the stem get injured, numerous strong suckers
are produced, which, as they grow with great rapidity, soon take the
place of the original. Few soils come amiss to it.

The common Mulberry (Morus nigra) and the white-fruited
form (J. alba) may be seen growing satisfactorily in several of the
old gardens and nurseries of the metropolis, and where they are
now buried alive, as might be said, in stones and mortar. That
they are excellent town trees will be admitted by everyone who
sees the fine specimens in Liverpool and Manchester.

The Honey Locust (Gleditschia triacanthos) is a tall, spreading
tree, one of great beauty, and a very suitable subject for planting
in smoky localities. In many of the worst smoke-infested parts of

TREES AND SHRUBS FOR PLANTING IN TOWNS. ou

London and Manchester are seen goodly specimens of this hand-
some tree—not poor, miserable trees, but from their great size,
wealth of foliage, and general appearance, betoken perfect health
amid their rather adverse surroundings. It grows very freely even
when rather carelessly planted, and in soil of inferior quality. In
autumn the long fruit-pods give to the honey locust a distinct and
curious appearance.

The False Acacia (Robinia Pseud-acacia).—Almost by the
hundred can the false acacia be seen in London and many other
English towns, thus proving that it is one of the most valuable trees
that we possess for withstanding the injurious effects of an impure
atmosphere. It is, likewise, one of the most ornamental of trees,
the great wealth of pure white flowers, and beautiful pea-green
foliage, being of the richest description.

What renders this acacia of greatest value as a town tree is that
it retains its rich verdure till well on in autumn. It grows freely
in almost any soil, reproducing itself freely in suitable positions,
and soon forms a handsome tree of almost giant proportions. The
most suitable for town planting are the upright-growing and free-
flowering kinds. The varieties known as Decaisneana, microphylla,
macrophylla, sophorefolia, and the upright-habited are most to be
desired.

The White Beam Tree (Pyrus aria).—In many of the confined
spaces in Glasgow, the white beam tree grows luxuriantly, and
produces annually great quantities of its brightly-coloured berries.
The creamy white of the under side of the leaves is particularly
attractive when agitated by the wind, and the wealth of small white
flowers is a treat to behold. Few trees are more readily suited with
soil, for it may be found in a state of nature growing on dry lime-
stone rocks, where there is scarcely a particle of soil.

The Lime (Z%lia Huropwa).—Where the situation is not too
confined, and where soot and smoke do not abound, the lime may
and does succeed ; but when used in the worst parts of the metropolis,
it soon shows signs of distress, the tips of the branches dying off,
and the whole tree sooner or later showing the fierce struggle it has
to endure with smoke and fumes. As an avenue tree, in the more
airy and pure parts of a town, the lime has certainly few equals, its
general contour and the pleasing shade it affords being points of
special recommendation.

The Sycamore (Acer Psewdo-platanus).—This tree may be classed
as amongst the most useful for planting in smoky towns. In

132 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Warrington, where the noxious emanations from alkali and other
chemical works are most disastrous in their effect on trees and
shrubs, the sycamore is one of the few that grow satisfactorily.
Being a rapid and strong grower, it is thus seen to be, for a certain
time at least, unaffected by its inimical surroundings. The
variegated variety would seem from recent experiments to be
preferable and better adapted for smoky localities than the normal
form.

The Weeping Ash (fraxinus eacelsior pendula) would seem to
be superior to the common ash for planting in towns. It thrives
satisfactorily in many of our largest centres of industry—to wit,
London, Liverpool, Glasgow, and Manchester. Being of slow
growth and dwarf in size, it is well suited for planting where space
is confined. It is of the easiest culture.

The Horse Chestnut (@sculus Hippocastanum) and the English
Elm (Ulmus campestre) may be seen in a fairly satisfactory way in
many town parks, but only where they are not exposed to smoke
and soot to any great extent. In confined spaces both these trees
soon show signs of distress, the points of the branches gradually
becoming unhealthy, and the trees ultimately dying off prema-
turely. Taking everything into consideration, neither of these trees
can be recommended for planting in smoky districts.

The Birch, Walnut, Hornbeam, and one or two kinds of Willow
will succeed in the less smoky parts of a town; but they are not to
be recommended for planting where the air is constantly impreg-
nated with soot and dust.

The Mountain Ash, or Rowan Tree (Pyrus aucuparia), has proved
itself to be a valuable small-growing tree for planting in urban
districts. It is also a tree of great beauty, whether in flower or
fruit, one that grows almost anywhere, and with a minimum of
attention. In many town streets where the air is vitiated with
fumes, the mountain ash grows with great freedom.

The Alder (Alnus cordifolia).—In this we have a good addition
to the few trees that are really suitable for town planting, for it
grows with great vigour, and retains much of its fresh, spring-tide
greenness in very smoky and impure localities. Of hardy con-
stitution, and unusually strong growth, it seems to defy the sooty
emanations from hundreds of chimneys in two at least of our largest
centres of industry.

The Bird Cherry (Cerasus Padus) may be classed among the |
most valuable of our town trees. It is a robust-growing and bright-

TREES AND SHRUBS FOR PLANTING IN TOWNS. 133

flowering small tree. Few soils come amiss to it, and even where
it is hemmed in by taller-growing trees, and constantly subjected to
their drip, it grows and blooms with the greatest of freedom. In
many of the back streets and slums of London may be seen well-
grown specimens, which clearly demonstrate how well suited it is
for withstanding smoke and dust.

The Sugar Maple (Acer saccharinum) is a handsome, hardy, and
fast-growing tree of moderate dimensions, and one that can justly
claim a place in any list of town trees. It will not succeed where
constantly subjected to smoke and fumes, but planted in the
suburban districts it soon forms a really handsome and distinct
tree.

Sophora japonica is worthy of recommendation as a tree that is
admirably suited for planting in towns. It is of large and rapid
growth, with elegant dark green pinnate leaves. Being a native of
China and Japan, it may not be perfectly hardy in the colder
portions of the British Isles, but it succeeds well in southern
England and Ireland, and it thrives admirably in the most smoke-
infested parts of London.

Thorns of various kinds succeed in town parks and gardens, but
they are not to be recommended for the most smoky and confined
localities. In Glasgow, however, I have noticed how well suited
for planting in the squares and public gardens many forms of the
thorn are; indeed, even in London, and where smoke and dust are
by no means wanting, they gladden the eye with their wealth of
flowers and bright green leaves. The single and double scarlet
would seem to be best adapted for withstanding soot and smoke ;
and these may not unfrequently be seen of large size and in perfect
health.

The Tansy-leaved Thorn (Crategus tanacetifolia) is another
excellent member of the family for town planting. A noble
example may be seen near the entrance to the Glasgow Botanic
Garden.

The English Yew (Zaxus baccata) can hardly be recommended as
a suitable tree for smoky localities, although in suburban districts
it grows freely, and there forms a dense, healthy dark green mass.
From this it must not, however, be inferred that the yew cannot sur-
vive in smoky towns, for it grows freely wherever it is not’subjected
to an inordinate amount of atmospheric impurities. Soil of fairly
good quality should be used when planting the yew, particularly
where the surroundings are unfavourable.

154 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Hollies of various kinds are very suitable for planting in cities,
but they are not to be recommended for using in densely populated
districts. For a time they may and do succeed, but they ultimately
begin to show signs of distress by the tips of the branches dying
off bit by bit. The dwarf variety of the common holly is one of
the best for smoky districts, where it grows freely, and looks bright
and healthy, often in most objectionable quarters. It succeeds
much better than any of the others in the London squares
and parks, while it is valuable in the more confined parts of
Liverpool and Manchester. In Glasgow and Edinburgh it also
grows freely.

Two other species at least do well where they are not subjected
to an inordinate amount of smoke. ‘These are 7. Balearica and I.
Hodginsti, two very distinct and desirable hollies.

SHRUBS.

Of these there is rather a long list of kinds that are suitable for
planting in smoky localities. Evidently deciduous species possess
an advantage over evergreen kinds in the total annual renewal of
their leaves ; and hence it follows that, as with trees, deciduous
shrubs should have the preference.

The following list includes only such kinds as have been proved
suitable for town planting :—

Osmanthus ilicifolius is one of the handsomest of evergreen
shrubs, and also one of the few that succeed in a satisfactory way
when subjected to the impurities of a town atmosphere. In the
smokiest districts of both London and Liverpool, it is unquestion-
ably the best all-round shrub. The holly-like leaves are thick and
of firm substance, and the inconspicuous yellowish-green flowers are
also much like those of the holly.

Ligustrum coriaceum is a fitting companion to the last, so far
at least as its powers of withstanding the effects of an impure
atmosphere are concerned. Being an evergreen, it is peculiarly
weil suited for planting in the town garden, where it grows with
great freedom. It is easily managed, not particular as regards
soil, is readily increased, and bears trimming in with perfect
impunity.

Aucuba japonica.—This well-known evergreen shrub is of great
value for planting in urban districts, it being able to do battle
with a more than ordinary amount of atmospheric impurities. For

TREES AND SHRUBS FOR PLANTING IN TOWNS. 135

this reason it has been largely planted in town squares and gardens
in the most crowded and densely populated parts. As an orna-
mental shrub, too, the Awcuba is well worthy of extensive culture,
its fine, large, glossy, and beautifully mottled leaves being at all
times objects of admiration. It is easily raised from cuttings, and
grows with great freedom in any soil.

Griselinia littoralis.—Although a little-known evergreen, this is
well suited for town planting, experiments having proved it a most
valuable addition to the limited number of shrubs suitable for such
a purpose. The appearance of the plant, with its deep, green,
glossy, and somewhat succulent leaves, is most pleasing ; and as it
grows freely in ordinary soil, and is readily propagated, it is to be
hoped that it will receive the notice it is fairly entitled to as a
valuable hardy shrub.

Hibiscus syriacus.—This is one of our most valuable late
autumn-flowering shrubs, and is also one of the few that can
successfully battle with an impure atmosphere. In many parts of
London, where the air is vitiated by emanations from factory
chimneys, this pretty shrub is seen in perfect health, with plenty of
foliage of the richest description, and quite a wealth of showy
flowers. It grows freely in ordinary soil. It may be trimmed in
at pleasure, and withstands frost perfectly. It is a shrub which
town residents should plant freely, if they have a bit of ground
that they want to look pretty.

The Wayfaring Tree (Viburnwm Lantana).—This valuable shrub
does not receive that amount of attention which its merits entitle
it to. It succeeds well in some of the most filthy and smoky
districts of our largest cities. It blooms with great freedom, and
the flowers are succeeded by the brightest and showiest of berries,
It is readily propagated, and no soil comes amiss to it.

The Venetian Sumach (hus cotinus).—This is a much neglected
shrub, but for general usefulness can hardly be surpassed. It is
highly ornamental, whether in flower or fruit, the feathery inflor-
escens rendering it of quaint and curious appearance, particularly
when a well-grown plant is under notice. It is peculiarly well
suited for planting in cities. A sound loam, neither too damp nor
yet too dry, suits it to perfection.

The Stags Horn Sumach (Rhus typhina).—This must on
no account be omitted, as it is a plant of pretty and curious
appearance, grows with freedom, and is as hardy as could be
desired.

136 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Leycesteria formosa is a beautiful hardy shrub, with hollow stems,
large ovate leaves, and white or purplish flowers in pendulous
racemes. More conspicuous than the flowers are the deep purple
foliaceous bracts, which impart to the shrub a distinct and very
ornamental appearance. It is a capital town plant, shooting out
fresh and green after being subjected to a winter’s incessant fumes
from the chimneys of the great metropolis. It is perfectly hardy,
of free growth, readily propagated, and altogether a valuable
shrub.

The Flowering Currant (Ribes sanguineum).—Too much praise
can hardly be bestowed on this handsome free-flowering shrub for
the planting of town gardens and shrubberies. There it succeeds
to perfection, and flowers with the greatest freedom. In early
spring it breaks out fresh and strong, regardless of the noxious
fumes and impure atmosphere. Well planted at first, it rarely fails,
striking out its roots far and wide, and soon becoming a dense
shrub of medium proportions. Nothing can well surpass it for the
quantity, colour, and quality of its showy flowers, while it is the
easiest of shrubs to propagate and cultivate.

Skimmia japonica is a low-growing shrub that I have seen doing
well in the heart of London, where smoke and other impurities of
the air do not seem to affect it in the least. For beauty of flowers
it is not remarkable, but as a handsome berry-bearing shrub it can
well hold its own with any other. A north aspect, and half-peaty
soil would seem to suit it.

The Snowy Mespilus (Amelanchier Botryapium), with its racemes
of white flowers and desirable outline, is a valuable shrub for
' planting in towns. The flowers are produced in early spring, when
lawns and gardens look dull and cheerless. Of free growth, it
succeeds in any fairly good soil, and soon forms a handsome
specimen.

Lilacs have few equals as town shrubs ; indeed, it would be good
practice to plant these first, whatever else might follow. They
succeed admirably in the worst and most smoky parts of London
aud Glasgow, and there put on an appearance during early summer
that it would be difficult to exceed in country gardens. Recent
experiments have proved that many of the finer forms are equal
to the common kind for this purpose, particularly the Siberian and
Persian. All are of free growth, non-fastidious as to soil or site,
and easily propagated.

The Kentucky Coffee Tree (Gymnocladus canadensis) can ill be

TREES AND SHRUBS FOR PLANTING IN TOWNS. 137

spared from any list of suitable subjects for the town garden, it
having been proved to be an excellent plant for the purpose. The
racemes of white flowers which it bears are particularly showy and
interesting.

The Bladder Senna (Colutea arborescens) is entitled to rank
high amongst town shrubs, for it may be seen flowering and fruiting
in the most smoky parts of many of our largest cities. It does well
in the very centre of London, and is largely planted in Liverpool,
Manchester, and Glasgow. The pretty yellow flowers, and the
curious bladder-like seed-pods, are both showy and interesting, and
render the plant one of the brightest shrubbery ornaments during
nearly half of the year. Few soils come amiss, but it succeeds best
in a warm and sunny position, and is well adapted for use as a
wall plant.

Phillyrea Vilmoriniana.—This has been planted largely for
experimental purposes in the very heart of London, and succeeds
there in such a way as to entitle it to rank first amongst shrubs for
town planting. It is a shrub of neat habit, is an easy subject to
deal with, and requires the least of attention.

Forsythia viridissima is another deciduous shrub that can with-
stand the fumes and smoke of towns. It grows with the greatest
freedom in very vitiated atmospheres, each spring breaking out as
fresh and green as if it were growing in a sheltered country garden.
Of vigorous constitution, it grows freely, and flowers most profusely
in the largest cities. Stiffish soil suits it well, but it is far from
particular in that way, and stands hard trimming in of its
shoots with impunity.

The Strawberry Tree (Arbutus Unedo) finds a congenial home
in the great metropolis, and there may be seen flourishing, where
daily it is subjected to poisonous emanations from chimneys.
The thick, leathery leaves seem well able to resist the worst of
town air impurities, for they look as fresh and green after every
shower of rain as could well be desired. As an ornamental
shrub the Arbutus ranks high, the creamy flowers and straw-
berry-like fruit being peculiarly rich and attractive. Any
soil of good quality, but not surcharged with moisture, grows
it well.

The Double Furze (Ulex Europeus flore pleno) is one of our
handsomest flowering shrubs, and is of great value for planting
in town gardens and squares. For clothing warm and dry banks,
where few other plants would succeed, furze, does remarkably

138 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

well, the foliage being thick and healthy, while the flowers are
abundantly produced. It is of neat habit, and by judicious
pruning may be kept to any desirable size.

The Spurge Laurel (Daphne Lawreola) grows freely in many a
town garden ; indeed, it is no uncommon thing to see large and
well-balanced specimens where smoke and filth are the order of
the day. It is a pretty evergreen shrub, of free and vigorous
growth, and one that is well able to take care of itself under
almost any conditions. It does well in the shade, and under the
drip of other trees, though it is all the better of a sunny site, but
not too exposed a situation. It is readily propagated, and young
plants are usually found in quantity where old, established speci-
mens abound.

Cotoneasters of various kinds succeed well as town plants. All
or nearly all are valuable for covering bare and unsightly objects,
and as they grow well in the roughest and poorest of soils, they
may be used in positions where other less accommodating subjects
will hardly succeed. As ornamental plants, many of the Coton-
easters are highly valuable, from their neat, glossy leaves and
abundance of brightly-coloured fruit. Particular mention may
be made of C. frigida, with its large clusters of scarlet berries ;
C. Simonsti, with silky foliage and vermilion fruit; and our
native C. vulgaris, a neat and hardy as well as free-fruiting
species.

Euonymus japonicus is another excellent shrub, one that
succeeds admirably wherever it is planted. It bears trimming
well, and so can easily be kept to any required dimensions. For
free growth and a hardy nature it has few equals. It is not
particular as to soil, and is an excellent dry-weather plant, easily
propagated, and almost smoke-defying.

The double-flowered variety of Prunus sinensis is hard to
match, either for beauty of bloom or as regards its fitness for
planting in our smokiest thoroughfares. In many of the worst
smoke-infested districts of London and Glasgow, it and P. triloba
appear in quite as good form and health as if they were growing
in the open country. They are excellent hot-weather plants, for
after hot and dry summers they do not seem so hard pressed
as are many of what would be considered more robust subjects.
Fairly good soil, and not too draughty a position, is all they need,
while their after-management is of the simplest.

The Almond (Amygdalus communis) and A. c. nana haye

TREES AND SHRUBS FOR PLANTING IN TOWNS. 139

proved themselves to be useful plants for doing battle with the
smoke and impure air of towns. They are both highly ornamental
when in flower, not fastidious as to soil, and of neat habit. In
and around London almonds are largely planted, as they are so
ornamental, so free in flowering, and so easily managed. Of the
typical A. communis there are numerous distinct varieties, in-
cluding some with much larger and brighter flowers, one of the
best of which is A. communis major.

Kelreuteria paniculata is a very handsome shrub or small-
growing tree, particularly when in flower, and it is one of the
best of town plants. In many of our most smoke-infested
towns—Warrington, and the outskirt districts of Liverpool and
Manchester—it grows with great freedom, and produces in great
abundance, during June and July, its panicles of showy yellow
flowers. Although the Kelreuteria hails from China, it may be
relied upon as perfectly hardy in perhaps every part of the
British Isles.

The Laurustinus (Viburnum Tinus) finds a congenial home in
many a London garden, where it has proved itself to be a
decided acquisition. It is a plant of bright appearance, and as
free-flowering a subject as there is in the whole range of hardy
shrubs. Cuttings inserted in sandy soil during August root freely,
and soon form sturdy plants that in a couple of years are fit for
transferring to their permanent quarters.

Weigelia rosea and W. amabilis are both highly ornamental
shrubs, of the freest growth, and well suited for planting in
smoky localities. In many of the London gardens these shrubs
may be seen in a satisfactory state, showing but few of the
bad effects that generally attend town shrubs. Both are of
simple culture, easily propagated, and not fastidious as to the
soil.

Deutzia scabra is another neat-growing and highly desirable
plant for the town garden. It flowers, in such situations, with
unusual freedom, ripening its young wood well, and showing
but little traces of its struggle with the impure atmosphere.
It may be trimmed in at will, is readily propagated from
cuttings, and succeeds well in a great variety of soils and
situations.

The common Box (Suaus sempervirens) and the Tree Box
(B. sempervirens arborescens) are largely used in town parks,
squares, and gardens. The thick leathery foliage is well suited

140 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

for withstanding impurities in the air. The tree box thrives
better than the normal plant in the heart of our largest centres
of industry.

The Gum Cistus (C. Jadaniferus) and the laurel-leaved form
(C. lawrifolius) are two highly ornamental and perfectly hardy
shrubs. The former has large white flowers, with a distinct
purple blotch at the base of the petals, while the robust-growing
C. laurifolius has pure white flowers. Both are excellent town
plants, succeeding well even in very populous localities.

Mahonia aquifolia, M. Bealii, and M. japonica all do fairly
well in the town garden, but are the better of being assigned to
select positions in the open. Good vegetable mould seems to suit
the various species of Mahonia, and when once fairly established
they grow and flower freely. All are shrubs of great beauty,
the bright and showy flowers, produced in rich profusion,
are followed by abundance of clusters of rich bluish-purple
berries.

The Japan Quince (Cydonia japonica) is one of the most
beautiful shrubs with which our gardens have ever been enriched ;
and from the number of fine healthy specimens that are to he
found in many of our largest towns, it would thus appear to be
particularly suitable for planting where soot and smoke are
prevalent. The brilliant scarlet flowers, which are produced at
a season when such are most in want, impart to well-grown
specimens a beauty which is almost impossible to deseribe. It
is perfectly hardy, not fastidious as to soil, and of free and easy
growth,

Hypericum Nepalense is the best of the St John’s worts for
withstanding smoke, dust, and heat. It is a plant of great beauty,
the bright foliage and abundance of large golden flowers placing
it in the first rank as an ornamental plant. H. calycunum is also
valuable for similar purposes ; while for edging to the shrubbery,
or for covering bare spots, it has few equals.

Euonymus japonicus and its silver and golden forms are most
useful town shrubs, for they succeed well in very smoky and
filthy localities. They are plants of great beauty, particularly
the variegated varieties, of easy culture, and not at all particular
as to soil in which they grow. Z£. radicans is a straggling,
decumbent shrub, and, as it stands soot and smoke well, it is
suitable for planting as a dwarf plant in the town garden and

square,

TREES AND SHRUBS FOR PLANTING IN TOWNS. 141

CLIMBERS.

Of shrubs suitable for covering walls, trellises, and arbours, and
at the same time able to resist the dire influences of smoke and
soot, there are a few valuable and well-tried kinds.

The Virginian Creeper (Ampelopsis hederacea) has few equals
as a town plant, succeeding perfectly in the midst of our busiest
centres of industry. Many instances could be pointed out where
this handsome climber grows with the greatest freedom in the
most impure and smoke-laden atmosphere, constantly exposed to
the foul air, heat, and dust. It grows freely in any soil
of ordinary quality, and soon covers a great extent of wall.
The deeply-cut ornamental leaves change to a _ bright red
colour in autumn, and are then particularly handsome and
pleasing.

The common Ivy (Hedera Helix) is, perhaps, the most valuable
of all climbing plants for planting in smoke-infested localities.
In some of the courts near Ludgate Hill, a district of London
that is by no means free from smoke and foul air, the ivy climbs
the houses to a height of 60 feet, and surprises one by its fresh
appearance in such a locality. It needs no training, and will
succeed admirably in soil composed largely of old mortar, stones,
and the smallest quantity of loam.

The Evergreen or Trumpet Honeysuckle (Lonicera sempervirens)
is another shrub of great merit for town planting, as it thrives
well in very confined spaces, and where the atmosphere is very
impure. It is one of the handsomest of the honeysuckles,
bearing a rich profusion of sweet-scented flowers in early
summer, and requiring no special treatment or cultivation. It
and the Virginian creeper require their young shoots to be
fastened to the wall.

Crategus Pyracantha is a most useful wall shrub for the town
garden. It is of free growth, stands smoke well, and is one of
the handsomest berry-bearing plants in cultivation. The variety
known as Lelandii is, however, preferable to the normal plant,
both for beauty of flowers and fruit.

The Jasminum nudiflorum needs little description, as it is one
of our commonest wall plants. For smoky districts it is invaluable,
blooming freely when flowers are scarce, and seeming to heed but
little the impurities of a town atmosphere. Of free growth, it is
well worthy of extended culture,

142 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

The Vine (Vitis vinifera) must not be omitted from any list of
town climbers, for it bears exposure to soot, smoke, dust, and heat
in a surprising manner. In many towns it may be seen doing
well, and covering large areas of wall with its large finely-
divided leaves. There are several cut-leaved forms, one or
two of which are, perhaps, more ornamental than the typical
plant.

Several other climbing wall-plants do well in large towns where
excessive quantities of smoke are absent, but the above may be
relied upon as those that are best suited ‘for planting where the
atmosphere is constantly vitiated with impurities.

ConIFEROUS TREES.

Few of these, if any, succeed in a satisfactory way when
constantly subjected to the impurities of a town atmosphere.
Where the conditions are favourable, the Austrian pine (Pius
Austriaca), Thujopsis dolabrata, deciduous cypress (Laxodium
distichum), and Lawson’s cypress (Cupressus Lawsonit) do fairly
well, but they are not to be recommended for general town
planting. Letinospora plumosa aurea stood for five years in one
of the most smoke-infested districts of Glasgow, and looked
almost as well as it did when brought from the country.

Oruer PLANTS.

Yuccas of various species are to be highly recommended for
planting, even in very smoky and confined districts. They grow
with great freedom in many of the London gardens, as also in
Glasgow, Liverpool, and Manchester. Irises, notably J. Ger-
manica, do well even in very smoky and confined districts, as they
have a marvellous recuperative power after being subjected to the
heat, dust, and general impurities of a town atmosphere. Auriculas
and border carnations also do fairly well, but they will not stand
constant smoke and soot; and the same may be said of various
species of hellebore, Virginian stock, Hranthis hyemalis, and
chrysanthemums,

Much may be done to keep plants fresh and healthy by free
use of the watering-pot, syringe, and hose, aud also by carefully
looking after insect pests, and stamping them out as they appear.
The combination of adverse circumstances to be encountered in

. TREES AND SHRUBS FOR PLANTING IN TOWNS. 143

growing plants in smoky towns is great indeed, and should only be
engaged in when special care and attention can be bestowed on
their culture and general management.

The foregoing list of trees, shrubs, and other plants includes
only such kinds as can be confidently recommended as suitable
subjects for planting in town parks and gardens, <A great
many others might have been added to the list, but we consider
it better only to include well-tried kinds.

For convenience we have arranged the following list in an
alphabetical manner, so that any one can see at a glance the
kinds which are best suited for withstanding the deleterious
effects of an impure atmosphere.

TOWN TREES.

Acer macrophylla.

Acer pseudo-platanus.
Acer pseudo-platanus variegata.
Asculus Hippocastanum.
Ailanthus glandulosa,
Alnus cordifolia.

Betula alba.

Carpinus Betulus.
Catalpa bignonioides,
Cerasus (Prunus)
Crategus Oxyacantha.

Crateegus Oxyacantha flore pleno.

Crateegus tanacetifolia.
Fraxinus excelsior pendula.
Gleditschia triacanthos,
Hex aquifolium.

Tlex Balearica.

Ilex Hodginsii.

Juglans nigra.

Juglans regia.
Liriodendron tulipiferum,
Magnolia acuminata,
Magnolia glauca,

Morus alba.

Morus nigra.

Olea Europea.
Pinus Austriaca.
Platanus acerifolia.
Platanus orientalis.
Populus alba.
Populus canadensis.
Populus fastigiata.
Pyrus aria.
Pyrus aucuparia.
Quercus cerris.
Quercus Ilex.
Retinespora plumosa aurea.
Robinia pseud-acacia.
Robinia pseud-acacia
Decaisneana.
Robinia pseud-acacia
macrophylla.
Robinia viscosa,
Salix fragilis.
Salix purpurea.
Sophora japonica.
Taxodium distichum.
Taxus baccata.
Tilia Europa,

144 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Amelanchier Botryapium,
Ampelopsis Virginica.
Amygdalus nana.
Arbutus Unedo.
Aucuba japonica.
Berberis aquifolia.
Berberis vulgaris.
Buxus Balearica.
Buxus sempervirens.
Cistus ladaniferus.
Cistus laurifolius.
Colutea arborescens.
Cotoneaster frigida.
Cotoneaster Simonsil.
Cotoneaster thymifolia.
Cotoneaster vulgaris.
Cydonia japonica.
Daphne laureola.
Daphne Mezereum.
Daphne pontica.
Deutzia crenata.
Deutzia gracilis.
Euonymus japonica.
Forsythia suspensa.
Forsythia viridissima.
Griselinia littoralis.
Gymnocladus canadensis.

SHRUBS.

Hedera Helix.

Hibiscus syriacus.
Hypericum calycinum.
Hypericum Nepalense.
Keelreuteria panniculata.
Leycesteria formosa.
Ligustrum coriaceum.
Ligustrum ovalifolium.
Osmanthus ilicifolius,
Philadelphus Gordonianus.
Philadelphus grandiflorus.
Phillyrea angustifolia.
Phillyrea latifolia,
Rhamnus frangula.

Rhus cotinus.

Ribes aureum.

tibes sanguinem.

Ribes speciosum.
Skimmia oblata.

Syringa Josikeea.

Syringa Persica.

Syringa vulgaris.

Ulex Europzea flore pleno.
Viburnum opulus.
Weigelia rosea.

Yucca gloriosa.

Yucea recurva,

THE UTILISATION OF SMALL-WOOD FOR TURNERY, ETC, 145

IX. The Utilisation of Small-Wood for Turnery and other
Purposes. By A. T. Witiamson, 7 Kew Terrace, Edin-

burgh.

The profitable disposal of the large quantities of small-wood
necessarily produced from the clearing of large timber is a question
that would seem to have passed beyond the reach of ingenuity to
solve. The changed position in which this country has been
placed has been entirely brought about by the introduction of
manufactured small-wood goods from America; and these having
been received by thread and textile manufacturers with a consider-
able degree of favour, the trade has gradually developed to large
dimensions, and now it forms a very important item in the list of
the country’s timber imports. It is doubtful if this favour was
bestowed on the American produce because of its superior quality
for bobbin-making, seeing that considerable divergence of opinion
still exists on that point. The outstanding fact that these goods
were supplied at a price little beyond one half of that usually paid
for the home manufactured article, was the main fact that weighed
with the consumer in deciding to supply himself with the imported
article.

At first the American consignments were very limited in
amount, only small parcels being sent as an experiment by the
regular steamers to the principal british ports. The greatly
reduced price at which they were sold was a point that attracted
the attention of the consumer, and was an influence impossible to
resist. Finding the goods suited the purposes for which they were
intended equally well with those he had hitherto been accustomed
to use, a successful development ensued as a natural consequence.
The new departure had the effect of stimulating the genius of the
turner and mechanical inventor on this side, which led to the
construction of machinery with a greater capacity for production,
and the invention of appliances that would reduce the cost of
labour. In this a large advance was made in the direction of
rapid and cheap production. Notwithstanding continued and
renewed efforts, the home producer felt himself so largely handi-
capped that the industry of turning to a great extent declined, and
as a consequence reduced the value of the class of small wood that
had hitherto found an outlet in this direction. Much machinery
that had been constructed specially for bobbin work fell into

VOL. XIII. PART I. K

146 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

disuse, and great loss was occasioned to the bobbin manufacturer
thereby.

Constant supplies, in large quantities, of American bobbins are
forthcoming, particularly to the Clyde and Mersey markets, and
now appear in the weekly import list as a matter of course. To
a limited extent, however, the bobbin-turning trade is still carried
on, and in centres where supplies of suitable wood can be obtained,
without being subject to excessive outlays for railway carriage,
some large turning establishments exist. This altered condition
of the trade has reduced the value of all kinds of small-wood to
the lowest margin. In this paper it is proposed to describe the
manner in which the small-wood of the various kinds of timber
is disposed of and utilised, and sundry purposes for which it is and
may be used in different districts of the country.

Beginning with the oak, the amount of small-wood produced is
very considerable, and, like the bobbin-wood trade, the outlet of
former years for vast quantities has been shut up by the revolu-
tion in shipbuilding. The age of our wooden walls has given place
to iron, and the enormous consumption of tree-nails which were
necessary in the building of the wooden ship is now no longer
required in the iron. These tree-nails, being small in size, were
chiefly manufactured from what may be termed the waste oak.
A limited quantity is still consumed by turners, in the manu-
facture of oak bungs or stoppers for barrels. These are taken
from wood from one to two inches square, and of same length.
Specially constructed machinery is used for the production of
these articles, by means of which a long length is crosscut to the
desired size of pieces simultaneously with the process of turning.
A very important outlet for small oak wood is perhaps less gene-
rally known in Scotland than it ought to be. This outlet exists
in the brass and copper manufacturing districts, where large
quantities are consumed, and that in the most effectual way. The
purpose to which this class of wood is applied is to burn it in the
furnace where the metal is being smelted. The wood must be
light, down to an inch in diameter, but it is essential that the
pieces be supplied in considerable lengths and moderately straight,
having to pass through the narrow furnace door. The object
served in the burning of the wood in this manner is the refining
of the metal, and the process is by stirring the molten material
with the oak wood. It can at once be understood that it can
withstand this process for only a very limited time; the demand

THE UTILISATION OF SMALL-WOOD FOR TURNERY, ETC. 147

is therefore great and continuous, and very remunerative prices
are obtainable for suitable wood. The only purpose to which
short small pieces of oak can now be put is that of pit-props and
pit-chocks—the former in any size down to 2 inches diameter and
2 feet in length, and the latter sawn square to 2 inches and
upwards, by 18 to 30 inches in length.

The ash small-wood is produced still more extensively than
the oak, but finds a greater variety of purposes in which it
may be utilised. The turner looks on it with much favour as a
turning wood. The serious collapse brought about in the bobbin
manufacturing trade, through the causes already referred to, has
curtailed the demand to such an extent as to reduce the price
obtainable for turning wood by one half. When it can be delivered
in those districts where bobbin-turning establishments still exist
at the rate of 22s. to 24s. per ton, any quantity may be utilised.
A greater restriction is, however, now placed on it in respect of
size. In former years wood down to an inch in diameter was
passable, but now 3 inches in diameter is as small a size as is
deemed useful for bobbin work. A very important outlet
for the consumption of small and waste ash is to be found in
the agricultural implement trade. The quantity of small turned
goods required in this industry is extensive, and these are very
varied in their sizes and description, ranging from 1 inch
diameter by 4 inches long to any size upwards. The items con-
sist of handles for all kinds of implements, ornamental turned
pieces, small shafts, etc., too numerous to detail, and all convert-
ible from what may be termed small and waste wood, and ash is
the wood invariably stipulated. In some of the Ayrshire estab-
lishments, where the supply of this class of turned wood is made
a leading feature, thousands of tons of ash are annually consumed
in the agricultural implement department. The hay-rake is a tool
that bears greater importance to this subject than its insignificance
would lead one to suppose. The enormous number that are in
constant use everywhere, and the continuous demand for them,
constitute their manufacture an item of considerable account in
the ash trade, and in it is worked up the smallest pieces of wood.
Fortunately this branch, unlike the bobbin trade, has been able to
maintain a successful competition against the American products.
This may be explained in some degree by the inferiority of the
quality of American-grown ash compared with our tough grown
wood. The fancy and ornamental box and toy trade only to a

148 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

small extent utilises the small ash, and the outlet in this direction
is of little moment, although at the same time it must be said that
in this direction there exists a field for consumption of small ash.
The peculiarly pleasing figure that is producible from the manu-
facture and polish of ash makes any ornament or fancy article
most attractive. It is impossible, when referring to the fancy box
and ornament trade, to omit making mention of the fact that
cannot be overlooked, that in any district of the country where
one may desire to purchase an ornamental article as a reminiscence
of a visit, the words now too commonly engraved are to be found
“* Made in Germany,” or some other Continental country, and even
in the famed land of Burns the writer has been confronted in the
very centre of the fancy box manufacturing trade with a fancy
wood ornament displaying on it some event in the history of
Scotia’s Bard, and in addition in some corner the ominous words
above referred to neatly engraved. The remedy to counteract this
condition of the fancy wood trade is to be found in two directions
—first, such improvement in the mechanical appliances as will
cheapen manufacture and production ; and second, by the stimu-
lating of the popular mind to practise the sentiment of patriotism.
Were the supply of such articles reasonably confined to home
manufacture, the amount of small ash that would consequently be
consumed would very materially affect its value, and to some
extent remove a reproach, and mitigate the drug that it at present
experiences in the market. Much ash wood that is at present
forced into the pit-wood trade would thereby find a more remunera-
tive outlet in the direction for which it is so admirably suited.
The sycamore is the only description of wood that has fully
maintained its position in the turning trade. The small wood —
produced from heavy trees is a large item, and the same demand
exists for this peculiarly fine wood for manufactured and turned
work. The closeness of the grain makes it susceptible to a fine
polish, and the pure white colour gives it great favour where a
superior description of bobbin is necessary. The smallest size of
wood is therefore utilised by the turner for the manufacture of
small bobbins. The demand has, therefore, remained undiminished,
the American production of bobbin coming specially in competi-
tion with the more common quality of bobbin manufactured from
such woods as beech, birch, or ash, has not so appreciably affected
the sycamore. The same outlet, therefore, exists for our available
supply, and consignments of very small wood are regularly sent to

THE UTILISATION OF SMALL-WOOD FOR TURNERY, ETC. 149

the various markets, both English and Scotch, where the industry
of bobbin turning is still carried on. The outlet in the famous
Ayrshire fancy ornament factories has greatly fallen off, but the
loss of this has not been so grievously felt in the case of sycamore
as in that of ash, &., seeing the open market remains for the
sycamore for bobbin requirements. The manufacture from this
wood of domestic utensils has for some time considerably declined,
for the same reason that is assigned to the diminution of the fancy
ornament trade.

The wood that has suffered in the curtailment of demand for
its waste and small sizes is beech, on which wood was relied the
supply for the manufacture of common quality of bobbins, No
other variety of timber produces such an extent of top and small
sizes as the beech, and the proprietor of any quantity is often
perplexed as to the course he must adopt to dispose of it. Its
excessive weight absolutely prevents its being conveyed any
lengthened distance, and seldom is beech secured in sufficient
quantities in one district as to warrant the erection of sawmill
plant for the exclusive purpose of cutting up the tops and limbs.
In the event of a sawmill being erected for the purpose of con-
verting other wood in which beech may be contained, it is quite
practicable to utilise with profit every particle of small beech, by
sawing it up into the squares from which the bobbins are turned,
and after seasoning for a few weeks, the weight has been so
reduced as to effect a saving of from 50 to 60 per cent. on the
carriage. But thisis the only means where small beech in a country
district may be disposed of, otherwise, under the present condi-
tions, it is almost necessary to leave the wood on the ground, as is
frequently done, or allow it to be taken for firewood at a small
price. There are certainly other outlets for small beech, such as
tool handles, ornamental turned pieces of furniture work, ete., but
the supply necessary to meet this demand is more than met by the
waste wood created in the conversion of the tree timber, which is
always done at a town or central sawmill. Recourse may be had
to the manufacture of pit-chocks, which are from 2 inches square
and upwards by 2 feet long; but to make this profitable, it is
necessary that a sawmill should be adjacent, pit timber of all kinds
having a place amongst the lowest-priced timber goods. The
present difficult position as regards small beech remains therefore
unsolved.

The remarks stated as regards beech are equally applicable to

150 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

the birch, and the wood, of a size too small for the manufacture of
clogs, to which purpose this tree is chiefly put, is rendered unfit
to be profitably utilised, unless grown in a district near to a saw-
mill, where squares may be cut for the bobbin turner.

The pit-prop trade is brought into requisition for the disposal
of the small-wood of elm, poplar, larch, fir, etc. The horse chest-
nut is a favourite turning wood, but meantime suffers under the
same disabilities as the beech and birch, and is obliged to fall in
with the others in the pit-wood market. The growing adoption
of the cross-cutting of all small-wood immediately on the ground
where it is grown, and stacking it up for a short period,
effects such a saving in the cost of conveyance as to cause greater
attention being directed to this hitherto unremunerative branch
of the timber trade.

THE MANUFACTURE OF HOME-GROWN TIMBER. 1a)

X. The Manufacture of Home-grown Timber. By A. T.
Witiiamson, Edinburgh.

The ever-changing conditions under which the industries of our
country are conducted, and the revolutions that are continually
taking place in the production of commodities, naturally affect the
demand for the raw materials that are necessary for the production
of the manufactured article. In this respect the preparation of
no other raw material has been more liable to change from time
to time than that of home-grown timber ; in fact, the substitution
of foreign for native produce, the adoption of varieties for the
same purpose, and the new industries brought into existence by
the inventor’s genius, have within the past few years almost com-
pletely revolutionised the methods of conversion of timber. The
modes of cutting-up, and the purposes to which a tree was applied,
say, twenty years ago, would be considered by the timber mer-
chant of to-day as utterly wasteful. In this paper I propose to
give a brief outline of the most economical methods of cutting out
the various kinds of timber, and the uses to which each variety is
applied, with a few hints on the utilisation of the enormous amount
of waste that is necessarily produced by the conversion of round
timber into square scantlings, a matter which, in the present keen
competition, is one that is perpetually exercising the minds of
the convertor, and on which to many the question of a profit or
loss in the conduct of his business altogether depends. The con-
troversial subject of the cutting-up of timber on the site of the
forest by means of a portable sawmill, although coming within
the scope of such a paper as this, has so many sides to it that it
may well form an interesting and lengthy paper by itself. How-
ever, the remark may be made in passing that there is an increas-
ing disposition to encourage the mechanical inventor in his efforts
to furnish appliances better adapted for the more effective and
economical conversion of round timber in the precincts of a forest.

I will begin by taking up each kind of tree separately, and
begin with that favourite tree of which it is said not an atom need
be wasted from the root to the acorn, viz., the oak. The past fifty
years has completely revolutionised the uses to which the oak is
put. In the industrial world it still takes a high place, and
innumerable are the purposes for which it is used, but the largest

152 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

portion of home supplies find their way to the railway waggon
shops. The conversion of a fall of oak necessitates, from the
uneven nature of the sizes, shapes, and qualities of the trees, a
very careful assortment. The clean and straight trees of small
dimensions may be more profitably utilised for cleft purposes,
more particularly spokes for wheelmaking. In some districts of
the country, field gates are largely manufactured from cleft oak.
These, being 9 or 10 feet long, must be taken from trees perfectly
straight in the grain and without knots. The same class of tree
is generally used for the purposes of cleft spokes for wheels. In
the selection of trees for cleaving purposes, it frequently happens
that although externally they bear every indication of straightness
of grain, and all the appearance of being perfectly adapted to such
work, they turn out when opened up to have such flawsas entirely
prevent their profitable manufacture, and a large allowance for
loss must therefore be calculated upon. In the case of cleaving for
wheel spokes, the lengths are so very much shorter, namely, from
1} to 24 feet, that the loss is proportionately less. These
lengths may also often be cut out of a tree between the knots
and curled defects, but as a rule only the root cut off a tree is
at all suitable for any cleft purpose. The favour bestowed on
cleft spokes by wheelmakers maintains this branch of oak manu-
facture in undiminished volume, and notwithstanding the intense
competition which nowadays they experience from sawn spokes,
and prepared spokes of American finish, they still command a
price far in excess of either. The size of the spokes in general
use vary much, particularly in breadth and thickness, according
to the kind of vehicle for which they are intended. The smallest
size of carriage spoke is about 2 inches in breadth by about | inch
in thickness. Other vehicles require heavier wood, so that every
size is manufactured, gaining half an inch on each kind, up to
those required for heavy lorries and gun carriages, which are often
5 inches by 3 inches. In clearing a lot of suitable oak, it is
therefore not only judicious but necessary that all the sizes be
manufactured at the same time, in order that a tree may be
altogether and profitably utilised. Afterwards the sorting of the
spokes can be easily carried out. In the south a very popular
description of oak cleft fencing uses up considerable quantities of
this class of timber. These pales, as they are called, are usually
about 3 feet high, 3 inches broad, and about half an inch thick.
Jn cleaving any of the before-mentioned commodities, it not

THE MANUFACTURE OF HOME-GROWN TIMBER. 153

infrequently happens that numbers of good pieces of wood come
off either too small, or otherwise deficient, to make a spoke, in
which case such pieces are utilised for ladder steps or rounds, the
common size of which is 14 inch square. Nothing can be com-
pared with these for strength, and were they always employed by
ladder makers, many serious accidents would be prevented. In
converting small and suitable trees into these commodities, little
or no waste is made, further than the necessary amount of chips
and shavings, so that the whole is profitably utilised.

The larger timber was principally used in former times for ship-
building, but since “ wooden walls” have given place to iron ships,
a very limited amount of oak is now applied to that purpose. The
introduction of railways, however, has opened up a new field for
the consumption of heavy oak timber in the shape of waggon-
building, and so great is the demand from this source that our
home supply has fallen far short of it, with the result that the
importation of American oak has enormously developed, first by
shipments of the logs, and conversion of them on this side of the
water, and within recent years by having the exact sizes for
waggon construction cut in America, and imported direct to
consumers. In this way not only is the country deprived of the
revenue derivable from the raw produce, but much Joss is also
sustained from our labourers being deprived of a large amount of
work in the sawmills. The available oak timber of a suitable size
produced in our own country is almost exclusively utilised for this
purpose, and from its superior quality it is held in greater favour,
and commands a higher price, than the American oak. In the
cutting out of waggon wood, a very comprehensive specification of
lengths and sizes is fortunately available, otherwise the amount of
waste would be ruinously great. The first and important item in
the specification of a set of waggon timbers is, the sole beams or
trams, which vary from 14 feet to 17 feet in length, but excep-
tional lengths may be a little shorter or longer, the breadth being
from 11 to 12 inches, and the thickness from 4 to 5 inches.
These must be cut from absolutely straight trees, and are the first
to be selected. The large scantling necessarily entails the throw-
ing off of heavy slabs, or outside pieces, amounting often to nearly
one half of the cubical contents of the tree; but, as already men-
tioned, the specification embraces about twenty sizes of smaller
dimensions, which are economically manufactured from these thick
outside slabs. The smaller sizes run down to 4 inches by 1}

154 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

inches, so that in preparing the set the whole timber is utilised.
A waggon specification always contains a size of from 7 to 8 feet
long, of the same scantling as the trams, which is profitably cut
out of short butts, a class of tree which is too common in all lots
of oak timber. The slabs, from the preparation of the principal
trams, cut from the heavy bole of the tree, are not generally
sufticient to complete the specification, and this affords the oppor-
tunity of utilising the top of the tree upwards from the cross-
cutting of the butt for the tram, and makes up the necessary
amount of raw timber to complete the smaller sizes of the specifi-
cation. When the specified timber is completed, there will be
found odd pieces left over, mostly of smaller sizes. These are
usually converted into railway sleeper keys, of varying lengths,
down to 6 inches, and thus work up all these pieces. With a
little study and care the manufacture of waggon timber can be
thus carried on without entailing any appreciable amount of loss
or waste, The cubical contents of the manufactured scantlings
may with care amount to the cubical contents found by the taking
the quarter girth of the round tree, and sometimes to even
more.

Turning to crooked oak timber, the demand for which has been
very much restricted by the substitution of iron for wood in ship-
building, there is sometimes experienced difficulty in getting
immediate use for it. On the whole, however, there is still
sufficient demand to absorb the supply, certain classes of special
vessels necessitating the consumption of what produce is generally
forthcoming outside of ordinary shipbuilding. Vessels for the
African trade, and those similarly built, using up the most of the
timber of this description. Although the field of outlet is limited
for this class of wood, it is never likely to be subjected to the
competition of foreign supplies, as the expense of importing a cargo
of crooked timber is too serious to be entertained; the carrying
capacity of a ship could not be profitably utilised by loading a
cargo of crooks.

Very heavy oak of large dimensions, say 2 feet and upwards,
retains its high value, and is utilised for cabinet work and other
special purposes. For these the tree must be sawn across the
quarter, in order to produce the “figure” for which the oak is
famous. To obtain the full volume, it is absolutely necessary that
the tree be eut over the quarter, and, if properly done, no other
oak can compare with our home produce for beauty and excellence,

THE MANUFACTURE OF HOME-GROWN TIMBER. 55

Several systems are adopted for the procuring of the richest and
fullest figure, but it is generally admitted that the best and most
profitable is shown by the following diagram :—

By this means every board is obtained as nearly across the grain
as Ingenuity can devise. It will be seen, that in order to get
boards of a certain size, a tree of double the size required is
necessary, Thus a tree 2 feet across will produce a few boards
about 12 inches broad, gradually diminishing from the centre
outwards, and it is seldom therefore that a tree under 2 feet
through is used for cabinet work, the favourite size being from
30 inches upwards. Timber suitable for this purpose commands
the highest price, varying from 6s. to 10s. per cubic foot.

In a lot of oak it is invariably found that there are a certain
number of trees which must be classed as secondary in point of
size, shape, and quantity, and the disposal of these is often a source
of some difficulty. The slightness of the crook may incapacitate
their use for waggon timber, and at same time it is not fit for
ship crooks. With this class of timber the wheelwright is a
necessity ; cart timbers, being short and of a small size, are manu-
factured from it, such as slots, trams, etc., while the smaller
scantlings are converted into sawn wheel spokes, These spokes
are, however, much inferior to the cleft spokes previously described,
and command only a fraction of the price. This class of oak
timber is consequently of the smallest value for manufacturing
purposes.

The only part of the oak tree now remaining unutilised is the top,
limbs and branches, and these unfortunately have now been placed
in the lowest category, the former uses to which they were applied
by turners having become almost extinct. A wholesale conversion
into pit-props is therefore commonly resorted to, the smaller sizes
down to 2 inches being used whole, while the larger sizes are
quartered or reduced to meet the demands of the numerous
requirements in coal and iron mines.

In some parts of the country a favourite item in agricultural
districts is oak gate-posts. These are manufactured from the
heavy wood of the class last referred to, and being from 5 to 8

156 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

feet long, and from 5 inches square upwards, the trees are econo-
mically utilised in this way. The part to enter the ground is left
in its rough state, and that above ground is sawn square to the
desired size.

The preceding gives a description of the principal uses to which
the oak is put, but there are many others, a description of which,
however, would only be a repetition of those given. The oak
forms the staple article in the woodyard, and certainly in its
conversion requires more study and ability, acquired by practice,
than that of any other tree, to enable the full amount of the tree
to be profitably utilised.

The ash ranks high in importance and usefulness amongst our
native trees. Its elastic properties, and the toughness of its fibre,
makes the tree of great value for numerous industrial purposes,
and this fact has maintained for it the high value at which it is
rated. Equivalent substitutes in respect of these qualities have
not been found in importations from abroad. The insufficient
home supply has for many years necessitated the substitution of
foreign wood to meet the growing requirements, but its inferiority
is grievously felt.

In the manufacture of ash, long lengths are not the great
consideration, and crooked growth is no objection for many
purposes to which it is applied, especially for shaft wood. Cart
and waggon shafts consume a considerable portion of this timber.
These vary in length from 8 to 12 feet, and from 2} inches to
4 inches thick. They are cut from the best butts, which as a rule
contain a bend suitable for the article required. Straight clean
butts are also largely used for broad hoops, which are more
frequently cloven in long lengths from 6 to 10 feet. In their
manufacture a process of steaming has to be undergone, making
the piece perfectly pliable, so as to make a regular circle. Timber
suitable for this purpose commands the highest price, and in its
manufacture by cleaving little or no waste occurs.

A large quantity of ash timber is used for handles for spades
and shovels. The timber for this purpose is planked to 13 inch,
and sawn out by a band-saw to the shape required in the handle.
These being generally of a bent shape, there is necessarily a con-
siderable amount of waste wood, but this is converted into bobbins
and other small turned goods, for which the demand is practically
unlimited in the manufacturing districts. The coach-building
trade makes large demands on ash timber, but these lie in the

THE MANUFACTURE OF HOME-GROWN TIMBER. Poy.

direction mostly of boards and planks, which in their production
require no great amount of study or skill, the tree being’ merely
planked to the desired thickness without having regard to the
nature of the bend.

Cabinetmakers consume considerable quantities of choice ash
wood, and for this purpose the cutting of the tree on the quarter
is a desiderata. The figure of the ash thus shown, although not
to be compared with the oak, has a peculiarly rich and satiny
appearance. The same industry consumes its full share of second
class wood, in the shape of turned pieces of furniture ; and being
used in short lengths, it largely assists in utilising waste made
from the manufacture of more important articles.

The trade which consumes perhaps more ash than any other is
that of the wheelmaker, for felloes. These being segments’ of a
circle, must be cut from trees having the necessary crook. The
breadth of felloes vary by half inches from 2 to 6 inches, and the
tree is planked with the bend to these thicknesses, after which the
pattern is drawn, and the planks reconverted by means of the
band-saw. A tree with the proper crook entails little or no waste,
but this cannot at all times be obtained, and considerable quantities
of odd pieces are consequently created, and to utilise them recourse
is had to the turner, who manufactures bobbins, etc., from them.
In cutting out felloes it is necessary that only the very crooked
timber be used. Cartwrights consume considerable quantities,
but the increasing price of this wood, consequent on its scarcity,
has of recent years sent them to the elm for the principal part of
their wants. The common or smaller class of ash timber is used
in some districts for staves for dryware casks, which vary in
length from one foot upwards. In other districts it is exclusively
used for turning purposes, while small branches and very rough
pieces are utilised for pit-props. The coppice wood of the ash is
also a valuable commodity, its yielding nature making it peculiarly
suitable for crate-making, and for this purpose larger quantities
are consumed, and commands for it a remunerative price. It also
commands the highest rates for poles in hop-growing districts, and
is largely grown in the south for this purpose.

In the manufacture of ash less skill is necessary for the utilisa-
tion of the whole tree, and, with the exception of the cutting out
of felloes and handles, the exercise of great ingenuity is not
required, as is the case in the conversion of the oak.

Turning to the elm, we have two kinds to deal with, viz., the

158 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

English and Wych, which resemble each other in some degree.
They have several of the characteristics of the ash, being tough
and durable, and are more easily bent. The chief purposes to
which elm wood is put are naves and felloes for wheels, the
manufacture of which, being already described in reference to ash,
does not require repetition. The elm is largely converted into
boards for packing cases, large quantities being merely sawn from
all sizes of trees into the required thickness, without regard to
width. The larger trees of clean and good quality are frequently
cut on the quarter for coftin-making—elm-wood displaying a
peculiar figure, which when polished presents a beautiful appear-
ance, and when washed over with a chemical mixture, as is some-
times done, very much resembles mahogany, and is in this way
often passed off for that wood. In the cutting up of straight well-
grown trees into boards for packing cases, the yield considerably
exceeds the quarter girth measurement of the rough tree, so that
the cost of sawing may almost be reckoned as compensated for in
this way.

In the preparation of naves, the general custom is to crosscut
the tree to the desired lengths, which vary from 15 to 18 inches,
and from 8 to 15 inches in diameter. <A large hole is then bored
to extract the heart, which prevents the probability of the nave
cracking while undergoing the process of seasoning, which is
necessary before going into the turner’s hands. The warping
nature of elm prevents its use to any great extent either in the
cabinet or coach-building industries. Shipbuilders continue to
consume large quantities in a variety of sizes—for ships rails,
9 inches by 3 inches and upwards; covering boards, 12 inches by
4 inches and upwards; and catheads, which are short, run up to 12
inches square. Crooked elm is not common, as in oak and ash,
but what is produced is converted into waterways for ships, which
must have the natural and well-grown bend, and their scarcity
makes this class of wood much sought after. The tops and very
rough pieces go for pit-props. The elm is not a favourite wood
with the turner, its warping and twisting nature being highly
objectionable, and for cleaving it is absolutely useless.

The sycamore, or plane tree, promises to become extinct, from
the large demand and the enormously increasing price obtainable
for it. The supply is far short of meeting the industrial require-
ments, and the annual imports of inferior American timber of this
kind is of necessity increasing. The large clean butts are almost

THE MANUFACTURE OF HOME-GROWN TIMBER. 159

exclusively made into rollers for calico manufacturers, and are
generally from 18 inches diameter upwards. The pleasant appear-
ance of the wood, with its clear white colour, makes it peculiarly
suitable for mangle rollers and other purposes for contact with
cloth, and the bulk of the ordinary-sized trees of about 12 inches
are converted into these commodities. With reasonable care and
management there requires to be not a particle of waste in its
manufacture. The larger sizes of rollers taken out, leaves the odd
pieces no less valuable than in the tree—brush backs, ornaments,
domestic utensils, and numerous small ware being regularly made
from this wood. The cabinetmaker consumes a considerable
quantity of medium-sized wood for panels and furnishings of
furniture, and, being susceptible of a fine polish, it is highly
esteemed in this department of industry. Shipbuilders make
extensive use of the sycamore for blockmaking, from 3 inches
square up to a foot. In manufacturing sycamore, the greatest
care 1s necessary in the seasoning of it, the wood being specially
liable to draw damp, which immediately begins to stain and
deteriorate its value to a serious extent. Exposed to wet, it
decays and rots ina short time. The tops and branches of the
sycamore have a greater value than any other wood for turning
purposes, the smallest size, down to 2 inches, being equally useful
for bobbins, etc., to the larger waste. As will be seen, there is
little difficulty in converting this wood, and little or no ingenuity
required.

The manufacture of the larch presents very little difficulty, being
generally straight and regularly grown. The importance of this
tree in the industrial world goes on increasing every year, and
notwithstanding the large supplies available in the country, the
demand keeps more than pace with them.

The railway requirements form the chief outlet for this wood.
Sleepers consume immense quantities, the common size of which
are 9 feet by 10 inches by 5 inches, and 9 feet by 9 inches
by 44 inches. The sawing of these being conducted on a large
scale, special appliances are used for the saving of labour, and
sawmill machinery is specially constructed for this class of
work. In cutting out these sizes from the full tree, consider-
able sized slabs are produced, which are converted chiefly into
pit-sleepers, which run from 6 inches by 4 inches down to 2
inches by 24 inches. For lining railway waggons larch planks
are the favourite wood, as no other can compete with it for tough-

160 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

ness. It is necessary to select large timber for planks, as they
are generally required in long lengths, 12 feet and upwards, the
thickness being from 1 inch up to 23 inches, and from 6 inches
broad upwards. In cutting out long planks, the tapering nature
of the tree necessarily produces heavy slabs, which are converted
into fencing. Where odd or short lengths are not of much con-
sideration, they are always available for pit-sleepers, the demand
for which is continuous. Light railway waggon framing is some-
times cut from larch instead of the oak, but it is necessarily of a
light and small kind, as larch is unable to withstand the rough
usage to which heavy waggons are subjected. Wheelwrights
frequently use larch for cart shafts, and for cart lining it is highly
popular.

The most valuable wood is used for boat-building, and the
slight bend generally found at the base of the larch adds to its
value for this purpose, being found suitable for the general shape
of fishing boats and the curves round their stems and sterns. The
full tree is planked with the bend in various thicknesses, from
three-eighths of an inch up to 2 inches, and is usually done by
vertical saws. The tapering in the width of the tree is no loss
or objection, so that more than the quarter girth measurement of
the tree is produced by conversion. The larch is also in great
request for purposes where the round wood is used whole, such as
telegraph poles and pit-wood.

In referring to Scotch fir and spruce, it is needless to say that
their chief use is for boarding, and railway and pit sleepers, and
the small wood for pit-props, so that little experience is necessary
in the manufacture of any item connected with them,

In referring to beech wood, the remarks made on sycamore
apply very much to it. The large and clean butts are made into
rollers for calico manufacturers. It is also much used in the tool-
making trade, and engineers use a small quantity. The bulk of the
rougher and smaller wood is utilised for bobbins, and brushmaking
forms a large outlet for the same description. It is one of the
most difficult woods to cut up, its clinging nature necessitating
more than ordinary power on the saw to drive it through.
Cabinet work takes a share of good timber for chairmaking. The
grain of the beech when sawn on the quarter is very brilliant, and
displays a pleasant picture in ornamental furniture.

The alder and birch still maintain their old position in the clog
trade, in which their wood is almost exclusively used.

THE MANUFACTURE OF HOME-GROWN TIMBER, 161

The foregoing are the staple woods of home production used for
general industrial purposes. The uses of other woods, such as
chestnut, lime, walnut, poplar, and willow, have been of recent
years quite revolutionised, and render their conversion for manu-
facturing purposes of little importance.

Notwithstanding the changed condition of our industrial wants,
it will be seen that such timber as the oak, ash, sycamore, larch,
and fir maintain an increasing usefulness, demonstrating the
necessity of a greater development in the cultivation of our vast
areas of waste lands to meet the growing demands of industry,
and conserving to the nation as much as possible the wealth of
which it is capable of producing.

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THE TAUNUS MOUNTAINS OF NASSAU

ao VE RTs k MENTS

ADVERTISEMENTS.

Grown from Seed collected in the
North of Scotland, on high-lying

az ey a
grounds, and under the exposure of
a rigorous climate.

Hardy Ornamental Conifers,
Evergreen Trees and Shrubs,
Plants for Game Coverts, Hedges, &c.

All are Fibrous-Rooted, Robust, and Grown Unsheltered.
SENT TO ALL PARTS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM.
SPECIAL OFFERS FOR LARGE QUANTITIES, and Carriage Rates Reduced.

CATALOGUES POST FREE.

BENJAMIN REID & CO,
FOREST-TREE NURSERIES, ABERDEEN.

AGRICULTURAL SEEDS.

THOS. EDMONDSTON & SON,
GRASSMARKET, EDINBURGH.

GRASSES AND CLOVERS of all sorts, thoroughly cleaned

and carefully selected, and may be relied upon as fresh and genuine.
TURNIP SEEDS of all the most approved kinds, and of
reliable stocks.

FARM IMPLEMENTS AND TOOLS.
Farm and Garden Implements of all Sorts.

THOS. EDMONDSTON & SON,

Seed and Iron Merchants,
GRASSMARKET, EDINBURGH,

ADVERTISEMENTS.

‘CERTIFICATE OF MERIT,” Highest Award at INTERNATIONAL
EXHIBITION, CARLISLE, 1880.

“SILVER MEDAL,” Highest Award for Hot-Houses, at the INTERNATIONAL
Forestry EXHIBITION, EDINBURGH, 1884.

‘“*‘GOLD MEDAL,” Highest Award at INTERNATIONAL INDUSTRIAL
EXHIBITION, EDINBURGH, 1886.

MACKENZIE & MONCUR,

HORTICULTURAL BUILDERS

AND

HEATING AND VENTILATING ENGINEERS,
UPPER GROVE PLACE, EDINBURGH,

AND

ST ANDREW’S CROSS, GLASGOW.

Conservatories, Greenhouses, Vineries, Forcing
Houses, and all kinds of Horticultural Buildings
erected in wood or iron in the most approved
manner in any part of Great Britain or Ireland,
at strictly Moderate Rates.

Illustrated Sheets on Application. Splendid Illustrated
Catalogues, Price 3/6.

PLANS, AND SPECIAL DESIGNS.

Heating with Hot-Water, Low and High Pressure,

Steam heating on the return gravity and expansion
system, for Hot-Houses, Swimming Baths, Private
and Public Buildings.

Ventilating Apparatus, Atmospheric and Mechanical.
Satisfactory Results in all Cases Guaranteed.

ADVERTISEMENTS,

DOUGLAS & FO UIs
ENGLISH AND FOREIGN LIBRARY

9g Castle Street, Epinzurcu

Subscriptions, from 21s. per annum, may commence at any date

~—eye

eS Newest and best Books sent to any part of the Country
and Changed at convenience of Subscribers
COUNTRY SUBSCRIPTIONS From TWO GUINEAS per AnNuM. Boxes FREE
Further particulars and Catalogues of the Newest Books on Application

SPECIAL TERMS FOR BOOK CLUBS

Il. CLEARANCE CATALOGUE OF BOOKS
at Greatly Reduced Prices
BEING SURPLUS COPIES WITHDRAWN FROM LIBRARY
Including many other Works of Interest, offered at affixed Cash Prices

II. CaraLoGuE or ANCIENT AND MopErN Books
Containing many important Works on History, ARCHAHOLOGY
TopoGRAPHY, Poetry & BALLADs, BiloGRAPHY, &c.

és III, A Reference Catalogue of Publications on Forestry
Gardening, and Farming

36 pages 8vo, containing about 1000 Titles

Post free to any address

MCFARLANE & ERSKINE,

Lithographers, Engravers, & Letterpress Printers,

19 ST JAMES SQUARE, EDINBURGH,

Having an efficient Staff of first-class Artists and Printers, execute every description of

ARTISTIC & COMMERCIAL WORK, AND BOOK, LAW & GENERAL PRINTING,

WITH TASTE, ACCURACY, AND DESPATCH.

Printers to the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, Royal Physical Society, etc.

a

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

ROYAL
SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

VOL. XIII.—PART II.

SECRETARY AND TREASURER,

WILLIAM J. MOFFAT,

FELLOW OF THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY, EDINBURGH.

EDINBURGH:
PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY.
i> SOLD BY DOUGLAS & FOULIS, CASTLE STREET.
MDCCCXCII.

BY SPECIAL APPOINTMENT.

THOMAS METHVEN & SONS,

Hurserymen and Seedsmen
TO THE QUEEN,

| eeeres the attention of intending Planters to their large
Stock of Seedling and Transplanted Forest and other Trees

and Shrubs. They are this season in a healthy and vigorous

condition, and well suited for successful transplanting.

EVERGREEN AND DECIDUOUS SHRUBS.
SHRUBS FOR GAME COVERT, AND UNDERWOOD.
TREES AND SHRUBS FOR SEA-SIDE PLANTING.
THORN AND OTHER HEDGE PLANTS.

Specimen Ornamental Trees for producing immediate
effect on LAWNS and AVENUES.

RHODODENDRONS~— all the Best Varieties.
FRUIT TREES of the Best Kinds.
ROSES—all sorts worthy of cultivation.

SAMPLES ON APPLICA eSe

Special Prices for large Quantities.

Seed Warehouse: 15 PRINCES STREET.
Nurseries: LEITH WALK, WARRISTON, AND FETTES.

EDINBURGH.

ADVERTISEMENTS.

DOUGLAS & FOULIS
ENGLISH AND FOREIGN LIBRARY

9 Castle Street, Eprvpurcr

Subscriptions, from 21s. per annum, may commence at any date

es Newest and best Books sent to any part of the Country
and Changed at convenience of Subscribers
COUNTRY SUBSCRIPTIONS From TWO GUINEAS per ANNUM. Boxes FREE
Further particulars and Catalogues of the Newest Books on Application
SPECIAL TERMS FOR BOOK CLUBS

SO Rt IIPS AALAND AP ADA

1. CLEARANCE CATALOGUE OF BOOKS
at Greatly Reduced Prices
BEING SURPLUS COPIES WITHDRAWN FROM LIBRARY
Including many other Works of Interest, offered at affixed Cash Prices
(Issued Feb. 1, Mar. 15, May 1, June 15, Sept. 1, Oct. 15, and Dec. I)

I]. Caratocue or Ancient AND Mopern Books
Containing many important Works on History, ARCHOLOGY
TopoGRAPHY, PoETRY & BALLaDs, BIOGRAPHY, &c.

tr III. A Reference Catalogue of Publications on Forestry
Gardening, and Farming

36 pages 8vo, containing about 100° Titles

Post free to any address

MCFARLANE & ERSKINE,

Lithographers, Engravers, & Letterpress Printers,
19 ST JAMES SQUARE, EDINBURGH,

Having an efficient Staff of first-class Artists and Printers, execute every description of

ARTISTIC & COMMERCIAL WORK, AND BOOK, LAW & GENERAL PRINTING,

WITH TASTE, ACCURACY, AND DESPATCH.

Printers to the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, Royal Physical Society, etc.
q

ADVERTISEMENTS,

Established 1801,

SEEDLING AND TRANSPLANTED FOREST TREES.

Ornamental Trees and Shrubs, Roses and Fruit Trees.

JAMES DICKSON & SONS,

32 HANOVER STREET and INVERLEITH ROW,
Daren BU R GABE

CATALOGUES FREE ON APPLICATION.

JAMES DICKSON & SONS received the highest awards for ‘‘ Conifers”’ and
**Hardy Plants” at the International Chrysanthemum Exhibition, Edinburgh,
1889 ; and again at the great Chrysanthemum Exhibition of 1890.

FOREST AND ORNAMENTAL TREES AND SHRUBS.

Fruit Trees, Roses, Herbaceous Plants, Ete.

FOREST AND GARDEN IMPLEMENTS OF ALL SORTS.

Priced Catalogues Free on application.

IRELAND & THOMSON,

Hurserymen, Seedsmen, and Dew Plant Merchants,

Craigleith Nursery, Comely Bank, Edinburgh.
New Golden Acre and Windlestrawlee Nurseries,
Granton Road.

Seed Warehouse, 81 Princes Street.

ADVERTISEMENTS.

“CERTIFICATE OF MERIT,” Highest Award at INTERNATIONAL
EXHIBITION, CARLISLE, 1880.

“SILVER MEDAL,” Highest Award for Hot-Houses, at the INTERNATIONAL
Forestry Exuisirion, Epinpureu, 1884.

‘GOLD MEDAL,” Highest Award at INTERNATIONAL INDUSTRIAL
EXHIBITION, EpInBuRGH, 1886.

MACKENZIE & MONCUR,

HORTICULTURAL BUILDERS

AND

HEATING AND VENTILATING ENGINEERS,
UPPER GROVE PLACE, EDINBURGH,

AND

ST ANDREW’S CROSS, GLASGOW.

Conservatories, Greenhouses, Vineries, Forcing
Houses, and all kinds of Horticultural Buildings
erected in wood or iron in the most approved
manner in any part of Great Britain or Ireland,
at strictly Moderate Rates.

Illustrated Sheets on Application. Splendid Illustrated
Catalogues, Price 3/6.

——1I2r oe

PEANS AND SPECIAL DESIGNS:

Heating with Hot-Water, Low and High Pressure,

Steam heating on the return gravity and expansion
system, for Hot-Houses, Swimming Baths, Private
and Public Buildings.

Ventilating Apparatus, Atmospheric and Mechanical.
Satisfactory Results in all Cases Guaranteed.

CONTENTS.

The Society, as a body, is not to be considered responsible for any statements or
opinions advanced in the several papers, which must rest entirely on the authority
of the respective authors.

PAGE
XI. Address delivered at the Thirty-eighth Annual Meeting, 4th August

1891. By Isaac BayLry Batrour, Se.D., M.D., F.RB.S.,
Queen’s Botanist in Scotland, Professor of Botany in the
University of Edinburgh, and Keeper of the Royal Botanic
Garden, . 3 6 : . . ; . 163

XII. Introduction to Course of Forestry Lectures, Edinburgh University,
Session 1891-92. By Colonel Battery, R. E., University Lecturer;
Conservator of Forests, and Director of the Indian Forest
School; formerly Acting Inspector-General of Forests to the
Government of India, . ; : : ; <2 UTA:

XIII. Management of Scots Fir Forests in North Germany. By A. C,
Forses, Farnham Royal, Slough, Bucks, : A ltsi7f

XIV. On the Cedar of Lebanon, Cedrus Libani; syn. C. atlantica, and
C. Deodara. By Roperr Hurcuison of Carlowrie, F.R.S.E.,
University Club, Edinburgh, . c ; é . 200

XY. Notes on Tree Planting at San Jorge, Uruguay, South America.
By Cuarves E. HAtt, of San Jorge, . . . - 220

XVI. The Forest School at Eberswalde. By A. C. Forbes, Farnham
Royal, Slough, Bucks, . : : n : . 284

XVII. Trees Best Adapted for Various Soils. By A. D. WEBSTER,
Hollydale, Keston, Kent, ‘ c : : . 254

XVIII. The Formation of Plantations. By Joun FowLErR ANNAND,
Assistant Forester, Brucklay Castle, Aberdeenshire, . >, 1268

XIX. Arboriculture in the Counties of Dumfries, Kirkcudbright, and
Wigtown. By ALEXANDER PITCAITHLEY, Forester, Sudbourn
Hall, Wickham Market, Suffolk, A é c e293

Apstract of Accounts of the RoyAL ScorrisH ARBORICULTURAL
Socrgry for Year ending 31st December 1891, : eo

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

XI. Address delivered at the Thirty-eighth Annual Meeting, 4th
August 1891. By Isaac Bayutey Batrour, 8c.D., M.D.,
F.R.S., Queen’s Botanist in Scotland, Professor of Botany
in the University of Edinburgh, and Keeper of the Royal
Botanic Garden.

Our annual meeting, of which we to-day inaugurate the thirty-
eighth, affords us the only opportunity which as a Society we have
of reviewing our position with reference to the aims for the
attainment of which we were incorporated, of considering how far
we have progressed towards an immediate goal, and of discussing
the lines along which we may hope to make further advance in
the near future ; and it has appeared to me, therefore, that it would
be fitting were I from this chair on this occasion to say something
regarding matters which have very particularly engrossed the
attention of the Representative Council of the Society during the
past year, and which it is certain will demand even more attention
during the forthcoming one.

Into any retrospect of the work of a Society such as ours, there
must always enter an element of sadness, As one anniversary
after another comes round, and we measure our progress, we are
conscious of gaps in the ranks of our comrades in work. Some
veterans, or it may be youthful members, are no longer here to
answer to the roll-call. And amongst those whom we miss at
this annual meeting is one, the doyen of Scottish foresters, by
whose death the Society has lost one of its oldest and most valued
members. It is difficult to estimate the services which Mr William
M‘Corquodale rendered to forestry and to this Society. His

VOL, XIII, PART II. M

164 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY,

reputation was not Scottish only, it was world-wide, and the
woods under his charge at Scone had become the Mecea of those
who desired to witness good forestry in this country. An original
member of our Society, it may be truly said that to his indomit-
able perseverance and determination we owe it that the Society
lived through those early vears after birth which are fatal to
many like institutions. The presentation made to him in 1878,
which will be in the recollection of most of those present here
to-day, and his election as an honorary member of our Society,
illustrate the high estimation in which he was held by his fellow-
workers ; the pages of our publications will witness to posterity
his energy in behalf of, and his interest in, the progress of our
Society and of forestry, and generations yet unborn will appre-
ciate his skill and foresight as a practical forester. He has gone
from us in the fulness of years, leaving a record of a life well
and usefully spent, and the stamp thereof on the forestry of his
time. If I content myself with this brief tribute, and do not
refer to particulars of his life and work, it is not because I do not
think I might have usefully dwelt on these, but because I think
that some pen better qualified than mine may well recount the
story of his life, for incorporation in the publications of our
Society, as one eminently calculated to be a stimulating example
to younger men.

IT must not omit to notice also that in Mr John M‘Laren this
Society has lost another veteran member, who did it yeoman
service in its early days as an office-bearer, and died in office as
a councillor.

In such men as these the Society loses those whom it can ill
spare, and their removal should remind the younger men of the
Society that upon them is now coming the burden of the work
so well carried on by the preceding generation. May they acquit
themselves as well.

I congratulate myself, in addressing the Society to-day, that I am
able to speak in the hope that, within a very short period from now,
the Society will have secured another and most important position,
for which it has so long striven in its fight for the cause of forestry.
I think all of you will agree with me that at no preceding time
within recollection has the subject of forestry been so prominently
before the public of the United Kingdom as it is at the present
moment, and that not as a mere matter for discussion and talk—
the time for that is past. Forestry is now within the range of

ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, AUGUST 4, 1891. 165

practical politics, and something must shortly be done which shall
give the means for ensuring the permanent and _ progressive
improvement of wood-cultivation in this country. That this is
so must be a source of peculiar satisfaction to the members of this
Society, which for now thirty-eight years has been crying out,
unfortunately for long in unsympathetic ears, the need there is
for more attention to scientific principle in the method too
frequently in operation in dealing with our woods, And more
than this, our Society may fairly claim that not only has it been
pointing out during all these years that there is room for im-
provement in forestry practice, and doing what it could to give
effect to its teaching, but it has also from the first perceived
that the real way to secure the betterment that is desirable is by
giving to those who are to have the care and management of
woodlands a knowledge of the scientific principles that underlie
their work ; and has advocated the establishment of a school for
forestry teaching. It is, I think, not uninteresting to trace the
successive steps by which the persistent efforts of our Society ~
has enabled it to approach the goal to which it has been pushing,
and which, shall I say, is all but attained to.

When the Society was founded but little general interest was
taken in forestry, and in the first years of its existence it had
much to do to furnish evidence of the need for its creation.
These were, however, the days of inflated land-values and pros-
perous trade, and no indication of the depression shortly to set
in warned proprietors of woodlands that ere many years the
neglected trees would have to be looked to as carefully as the
annual crops as a source of revenue. Gradually, however, the
Society gained the confidence and interest of working foresters,
and it is one of the features of the Society that it has been
essentially a Society of practical men. The practical foresters
of the country have been its backbone, and when the object
is achieved which we all look for in the immediate future, and
a Forestry School is established, it will be remembered that
its institution eventuated from the efforts of practical men to
obtain that education which would enable them to better their
practice.

With its strong following of foresters, the Society prospered,
stimulating by its prizes intellectual effort on the part of its
members, and all the while crying out for means of education
in forestry. It was not, however, until it had reached the

166 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY,

appropriate period of its life—its majority—that the Society saw
a definite step taken towards the furnishing of the much-needed
forestry teaching—the acquisition of Inverleith Grounds by the
Town Council of Edinburgh and by the Crown to form an arboretum
of the Royal Botanic Garden, and to be used for scientific instruc-
tion. In the negotiations which led to this purchase, the influence
of the Society made itself felt.

It is now some years since the Arboretum was acquired, and
some, I know, have been inclined to question whether it has
fulfilled the object for which it was secured. Well, to them and
to you I would say that, if as yet everything that the more sanguine
expected has not come about, the institution of the Arboretum has
already given considerable impetus to the cause of forestry. It
has acted as a centre upon which ideas of progress could focus,
and, as I shall presently point out more fully, it is destined, I
hope, to satisfy in the near future the claims, in respect of teaching,
which the most enthusiastic of us could urge.

Following upon the establishment of the Arboretum, which had
set people talking of forestry in a way they had not previously
thought of doing, the Society made another important move in
promoting the Forestry Exhibition
the eyes of many people to the interests involved in forestry.

an exhibition which opened

Unfortunately, the financial result did not provide a surplus
sufficient for the object the Society had in view when it entered
on so large an undertaking—viz., the endowment of a system of
forestry teaching in Edinburgh. But although the hopes that
had been formed in this respect were not realised, the exhibition
contributed largely to the advancement of interest in forestry
questions, and strengthened the Society for its further efforts to
obtain what it had so long sought after.

Soon thereafter there came to the Society an honour, a not
unmerited one—its Royal Charter. I need hardly say we are all
proud of the distinction, and we are glad of it alike because it set
a seal of approval upon the work done by the Society in the past,
and because it gives greater weight to the endeavours of the Society
in the future.

I have singled out these three events in the past of the Society
as worthy of special notice, and you will, I believe, share with me
the opinion that they, each of them, fix important positions in
our march onwards in the cause of forestry. And during all this
time, what of interest in forestry elsewhere? In our own town

ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, AUGUST 4, 1891. 167

the Highland and Agricultural Society had been endeavouring to
rouse interest in forestry by granting diplomas after examination,
and proposals had been made for teaching in this country of the
young foresters for the Indian Government ; but otherwise I am
not aware that any society or body of individuals was interesting
itself in forestry. But the effect of the work of our Society was
making itself felt elsewhere, and the appointment of the Select
Committee on Forestry of 1885 may, I believe, be traced to our
efforts. You all know what are the proposals of that Committee.
After hearing of a great deal of conflicting evidence, the Committee
devised a scheme which, if carried out in all its details, would have
gone far to supply what we, as a Society, have been seeking for.
But, alas! five years are elapsed since the recommendations of
the report appeared, and there is no sign of any action being taken
on the lines laid down, and it appears as if the only result of the
Forestry Committee, so far as we are concerned, will have been
the temporary cessation of effort to establish independent teaching
of forestry in Edinburgh in expectation of the advantages which
it was hoped the deliberations of the Committee would confer.

We were in this state of expectancy in 1889, when a new
impetus was given to our energies by the arrival of Dr Somerville,
fresh from the training he had enjoyed under the master of German
scientific forestry, Professor Hartig of Munich. From the moment
of his advent we have, I may say, felt that our hopes of the
establishment of forestry teaching were near realisation. In Dr
Somerville we had just the man required—one devoted to his
subject, with full knowledge of it, ready and competent to
impart his knowledge. And here you will allow me, whilst con-
gratulating him on his election to the important and prominent
position he now occupies, to express our sense of the great loss
we have sustained in his migration to Newcastle. We all know
how generously, for small pecuniary return, he worked for forestry
in Edinburgh, and we recognise that it is a misfortune there was
not, and is not yet, a post with sufficient remuneration attached
to it to keep so good a man in Edinburgh. Let us hope that
ere long conditions will be altered, and that we may yet see so
admirably qualified a man as he occupying a chair of forestry in
our university.

The cause of forestry has benefited to a very great extent by
the two short years in which Dr Somerville has worked amongst
us. For so good a man there was no difficulty in instituting in

168 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

the university a lectureship in forestry, and under this appoint-
ment Dr Somerville delivered complete course of lectures on
forestry during the winters of 1889-90 and 1890-91. These were
open to any student in the university, and I believe I am right
in saying that they were the first courses of the kind delivered in
the United Kingdom, and that Edinburgh has thus given the
lead in forestry teaching. Dr Somerville’s work was in the main
a labour of love: the fees provided a mere pittance, which of itself
could not support a lecturer, and our Society therefore applied to
the then recently established Board of Agriculture for a subven-
tion under section 2 of the Board of Agriculture Act, 1889, in aid
of the lecturer. Its application was successful, to the extent that
in each of the years the lecturer received £100 out of Government
funds.

Dr Somerville’s labours did not, however, end with the opening
up to students of the university of an avenue to a knowledge of
forestry. They went further. The members of the Society will
recollect that a circular sent to them last year informed them that
a short course of lectures on botany and forestry for practical
foresters would be given by Dr Somerville, and by the Keeper of
the Royal Botanic Garden, during the winter months in the
Botanic Garden. The course was opened, and twenty-two
working-men were enrolled in the class—suflicient evidence, were
it required, that lectures of the kind, if regularly and systematically
supplied, would be greatly appreciated by a large body of men.

In these ways, then, after so many years of struggling, the
Society has seen, thanks in large measure to its efforts, the
initiation of a system of forestry teaching, and the beginning,
shall I say, of a forestry school. This is matter for hearty con-
gratulation. The movements, so far as they have gone, can only
be regarded as initial. I hope and believe that they mark the
beginning of what is to be a permanent and flourishing forestry
school. But, if this is to be so, effort is still wanting. I have
endeavoured in outline to point out to you how our progress has
been a gradual one, slow at times, but persistent, until, as it
appears to me, we are near the goal towards which we have been
striving for so long, the foundation of a forestry school. How
then are we to proceed? How are we to pass beyond initiation
to settled permanency 4

It is fortunate we no longer require to adopt the militant
attitude in respect of the claims of our subject. The importance

ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, AUGUST 4, 1891. 169

of forestry is now recognised in the country, and it is unneces-
sary nowadays to reiterate arguments in support of what is
an accepted belief. What we have now to do is to induce those
whose interest it is to encourage and foster good forestry to give
practical support to the schemes by which alone it is possible to
secure it. Circumstances have in a measure settled the lines
upon which we must work, and the drift of events has cleared
away many of the difficulties which up to a comparatively recent
period beset the question of procedure. I think I shall carry you
with me when I say that we must utilise, so far as may be possible,
existing institutions for forestry teaching, and that our endeavour
should be to graft any scheme of teaching we may consider
adequate upon establishments already engaged in or adapted to
cognate work, And this being so, I will go further and say that,
so far as Scotland is concerned, there is now no doubt but that
Edinburgh must be the seat for the first foundation on enduring
lines of forestry teaching. Schemes for the creation of a forest
school in a district more surrounded by forest land than is Edin-
burgh are very inviting on paper, but the carrying out of any
one such as has been proposed would involve a maximum of cost ;
and it is open, I think, to question whether the special advantages
claimed for a.school in such a site would compensate for the great
additional outlay that would be incurred compared with that
required by an adequate scheme in a university town such as
Edinburgh. What we have to aim at in our scheme of forestry
education is the inculcation of the scientific principles underlying
forestry practice, illustrated by reference to practical operations.
In a country such as ours, without large State forests, it is not
possible to contemplate, in the meantime at least, a system of
official practical training such as is compulsory on the State
forester on the continent of Europe. For practical experience our
men, of whatever class, must, as now, undergo apprenticeship to,
or work with, men capable of instructing them in their art. But
what we want to do is to raise the practice of forestry every where
from the position of empirical routine, to have it practised as a
science as well as an art.

In connection with our aim, it is necessary even now to
emphasise the point, that in any complete scheme of forestry
education there are two groups of men to be provided for, for
their confusion has led to frequent misconception on the part of
those professing interest in forestry.

170 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

There are in the first place proprietors, land agents, factors,
and others of similar position, to whom a knowledge of forestry
will be of immense assistance in the performance of their duties,
but who will not look to forestry as in any sense a profession, and
with them may be classed those who propose to enter the forest
service of the State in its higher grades in India and the colonies,
and who will therefore make forestry a profession. To all these
men an university education is essential. And then there is the
practical forester—the man who, unless in exceptional circum-
stances, cannot look to the advantages of an university education,
yet whose training is a matter of national importance, as upon
his skill depends the proper management of our woods and plan-
tations. The subjects of study involved in the education of both
sets of men are the same, but under existing conditions combination
of their teaching is an impossibility.

The practical point that comes up then for settlement is, how
can we in Edinburgh provide for the teaching of all these men ?

In the university here, a student can already obtain instruc-
tion in some degree in all the sciences underlying forestry
practice, and the institution of lectures on forestry has furnished
opportunity for his learning their application to the practical
management of woods. But a fortuitous attendance on science
classes, without prospect of the application of a university test and
the award of a mark of university training, does not meet the
requirements of our time. What we desire is that forestry shall be
recognised in the university as an applied science, on equal footing
with engineering and agriculture, and that so important a subject
shall not be left to the care of an unpaid lecturer—we could not
always hope to have so unselfish a devotee as Dr Somerville to
occupy the position—but that, like the other subjects I have men-
tioned, it shall be entrusted to a professor occupying a distinct
Chair of Forestry. As you are aware, this matter has been brought
before the Universities Commissioners. How far they will be
disposed to recognise the claims of forestry, and assent to its intro-
duction in a curriculum of study, we are not able yet to say; but
of this we may be assured, that the Universities Commissioners
will not be prepared to provide all the money for the foundation
of a chair of forestry. To this end, therefore, our energies must
be directed. Already steps have been taken, not only by this
Society but also by the Highland and Agricultural Society, with
the purpose of raising a sum for the endowment of a chair, I see

ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, AUGUST 4, 1891. 171
that the secretary will, at a later period of this meeting, give you
some account of what has been done, and what has to be done, in
this matter, and I shall not, therefore, say more regarding it now.
I would only point out the considerable sum already promised
gives us hope of ultimate success. It is well that it should be
known that the grant of £100 by the Board of Agriculture to the
university lecturer during the past two years, has been only a
temporary one, pending the result of our own efforts and the
action of the Universities Commissioners, Whatever the latter
may be, it seems to me that what we have already done affords
evidence of the interest that is taken in forestry here, and should
convince the Board of Agriculture that our local effort is deservy-
ing of further and greater support from it. With the foundation
of a chair of forestry in the university, and the institution of
lectureships on plant-pathology and on plant-physiology, desired
by the university as auxiliary to the chair of botany, we should
have in Edinburgh a fairly efficient equipment for teaching the
principles of forestry to those desirous of an university education.

But this university teaching does not give us all we want.
There is still the question of instruction for practical foresters, and
in considering how this is to be secured, we are confronted with
a difficulty which has always appeared an obstacle in the way of
their education—that, namely, of the maintenance of the forester
during the period of instruction, apart altogether from the cost of
the education itself. No doubt, were such education for foresters
available, there would be found employers who would consider the
sum needed to educate and support their foresters an investment
good enough to justify them in making it, and large-minded bene-
factors might establish bursaries, through which foresters might be
enabled to gain the advantage of the instruction offered to them.
But these possibilities are not sufficient basis for the building up
of a regular system of forestry teaching, and I am justified, I think,
in saying that no scheme of education for practical foresters can
hope for success unless it ensures at the same time that the
forester shall be able to have sufficient for his support during the
time of pupilage. Can this be accomplished in Edinburgh? I
believe it to be possible by utilising the Royal Botanic Garden,
and I shall now describe a scheme I have submitted to my Depart-
ment, by which the difficulties referred to may be overcome. I
start with the assumption that the subjects of elementary
scentific education, with which it is desirable every practical

172 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

forester should have some acquaintance, are these :—chemistry,
physics, meteorology, geology, surveying and mensuration, ento-
mology, botany, forestry, and horticulture; and I propose that
courses of lectures on these subjects should be given in the garden
in the evenings, under a curriculum extending over from two to
three years, the subjects being arranged so that no more than two
lectures would be given in any one week. The subjects taught
would, of course, be illustrated practically so far as possible.
Foresters desiring to attend the course of study prescribed would
be enrolled as workmen in the garden, and would receive the usual
weekly wage, and they would pass regularly through the curri-
culum of study, receiving the education free of charge. Of course
they would have to take their part in all the work of the garden
as do our employees at present. At the end of the curriculum the
forester would leave the service of the garden, receiving when
deserved a certificate of proficiency. It would be possible, of
course, to receive only a limited number of men as garden-pupils
of this kind, but others might be admitted to the advantages of
the course under suitable arrangements.

I have referred in the briefest manner to the proposals I have
made, but you will see that the gist of the whole scheme is that,
whilst the forester gives his labour, which will be paid for at the
normal rate, he will receive education in the scientific principles of
his work, free of charge to himself. The scheme is one that could
be carried into effect at a very small annual expenditure. The
existing equipment for teaching at the garden furnishes most of
what is required in this respect. The payment of the lecturers
would be the chief item of expense, and for the amount required,
not more than £150 per annum, I look to Government, and have
reason to be hopeful for the success of the application that has
been made.

In placing these proposals before this assembly of practical men,
I venture to think that they are of a nature which will commend
themselves to them, and that if carried into effect they will solve
in a satisfactory manner the question of the education of the
practical forester in the scientific principles of his work. They will
not replace his practical training as a forester—I beg of you to
remember that—for actual experience in the management of
woods he will have as heretofore to learn under an expert
forester.

Were such a scheme inaugurated, we should have the Botanic

ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, AUGUST 4, 1891. 173

Garden and Arboretum at last established as a centre of forestry
teaching, and realising the expectations formulated now many
years ago of their possible future. In conjunction with the work
carried on in the University, the development of teaching such as
I have sketched at the Botanic Garden, would complete the
Edinburgh Forestry School, the creation of which would be a
lasting monument to the determination and indomitable persever-
ance of the members of this Society—the practical foresters of
Scotland.

Gentlemen, I have endeavoured to lead up by reference to the
past of this Society to the position it occupies at present with
reference to the question of the development of forestry in this
country. I trust I have made clear to you that whilst we may
congratulate ourselves on what has been done in the past, and
may look hopefully to the future, yet our hopefulness must rest on
our determination to succeed in what we have set our hands to do.
Because we are so near the attainment of what we have worked
for so long, we must not allow our efforts to relax, but rather with
redoubled energy continue our struggle, with the intent that before
another anniversary meeting comes round we may possibly crown
our work of thirty-nine years with the success it deserves.

174 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

XII. Introduction to Course of Forestry Lectures, Edinburgh
University, Session 1891-92. By Colonel Batney, R.E.,
University Lecturer; Conservator of Forests, and Director
of the Indian Forest School; formerly Acting Inspector-
General of Forests to the Government of India.

In early times the greater part of the dry land was no doubt
covered with trees and shrubs of various kinds, each kind
flourishing and maintaining itself in the locality best suited to its
special requirements. As the older trees fell to the ground, their
places were taken by others of the same or of associated species,
which grew up in the openings thus afforded to them, and an
unbroken succession of trees and shrubs was in this manner
maintained ; for at that remote period but few of those destructive
agencies were at work which have raised Forestry to a science,
and have led to its inclusion among the subjects to be taught at
this University.

What is the foremost among these destructive agencies?
Unquestionably Man; and had we foresters lived in the days
when his energies in this direction were most actively employed,
and had we endeavoured to arrest the havoc he was committing
among his natural forests, we should have found him a very
difficult being to deal with.

It is no doubt true that natural phenomena, such as storms
of wind, have always occurred from time to time; but the
forest growth would, in most cases, surely if slowly re-establish
itself after each visitation, and the damage done by four-footed
animals, insects, and noxious plants, such as fungi, would not
be likely to make much impression on the vast extent of forest
which then covered the earth’s surface. The human population
of the world was small, and the requirements of man were by no
means so varied and extensive as they are at present. But as
population increased and civilisation advanced, the older order of
things gradually and of necessity passed away; man had to
extend the small patches of cultivation which were the scene of
his first efforts in the art of agriculture, and he wanted timber
and firewood for domestic use. He also needed grazing grounds
for his flocks and herds, and much ground was permanently
cleared of forest in order to satisfy his ever-growing requirements

t

INTRODUCTION TO COURSE OF FORESTRY LECTURES, 17

of this nature. Then in course of time he began to build better
houses with larger timber; he made boats and ships; and, later
on, he constructed railways, and developed numerous industries
which consumed vast quantities of wood of all species, qualities,
and sizes; at the same time he largely extended his cultivation
and increased his flocks and herds ; and before every one of these
advances, portions of the natural forest went down, and dis-
appeared for ever from the face of the land. But the process was
a very gradual one, extending over many centuries. It proceeded
slowly at first, and not until comparatively recent times did the
country begin to assume its present appearance. It is not so very
long ago that the road from London to Edinburgh was an unsafe
one to travel over, in consequence of the gangs of robbers who
found shelter in the thick forests through which it passed. I
nave no figures before me from which I can trace the progress
of denudation ; but I have no doubt that a marked change com-
-nenced from the time that these islands began to enter upon that
narvellous development of their trades and industries, which has
laced the British race in the foremost place among the nations
vf the world. Do not misunderstand me to pretend that these
vere changes for the worse ; you do not require me to tell you
that up to a certain, and, indeed, a very advanced point, they were
very much for the better.

Long before this stage of development had been reached, how-
ever, a time had come when it was found impossible for every
one to continue to help himself with a free hand ; claims to
ownership of forest and waste lands had been set up, and
established by the law of Might, and some sort of restrictions had
begun to be enforced. But these were quite inadequate to arrest
the progress of the destruction of the natural forest, which at
length reached a point at which the supply of forest produce
became insufficient to meet the requirements of the population ;
and measures then began to be taken not only to secure some
tracts of forest from further encroachment, but also to increase
the wood-bearing area by sowing and planting. But it is not to
measures of this nature that many of our largest forests owe their
existence at the present day. Their continued maintenance is
due rather to the protection they received under strict laws for
the preservation of game, than to any endeavour to guard them
for the sake of the timber they could yield. The New Forest in
Hampshire is a good example of this, and the same may probably

176 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

be said of the Windsor Forest, and of the Forest of Dean in
Gloucestershire, as well as of others in Scotland.

It will easily be understood that the countries in which
civilisation advanced with the most rapid strides were those from
which the natural forests disappeared the soonest; and at the
present time these islands have a smaller percentage of wood-
producing area than is found in any other European country, with
the solitary exception of Denmark. The actual proportion is as

follows :—
tussia, . . 40 per cent. Greece, . - 14 per cent.
Sweden, . . 934 - Spain, . a re ap
Norway, . SPUQIEL s,, Belgium,. een =>
Germany, <wa26 33 Holland,. if a
Turkey, . 22 - Portugal, 5 sf
Switzerland, . 18 a British Isles, 4 Re
France, 17 Me Denmark, oye Gn

The average is 29} per cent., and includes orchards and isolated
trees in parks, hedgerows, and elsewhere.

Countries which, like ours, have a very small wooded area of
their own, have to supplement their home-grown supplies of
wood from other countries which are still able to produce more
of this commodity than their population can consume ; and, on
reference to Dr Schlich’s Manual of Forestry [which I shall very
often have occasion to refer to, and on the general lines of which
I propose to direct this course of lectures], I find that the United
Kingdom annually imports—

Timber to the value of about . f . £15,000,000
Minor forest produce to the value of about £8,000,000

Total, about £23,000,000 .

These facts have not, up to the present time, led to any very
great amount of inconvenience. /%rstly, because our insular
position affords us great facilities for the importation of timber;
secondly, because we have a plentiful supply of coal ; thirdly,
because our climate does not demand modifications of the nature
which extensive forests are able to effect, nor do we, as a rule,
suffer from any deficiency of the water-supply in our wells,
springs, and streams; and fowrthly, the geological formation and
the configuration of these islands, and the climatic conditions

= {

INTRODUCTION TO COURSE OF FORESTRY LECTURES, iG

under which we live, do not render it as necessary as it 1s in many
other countries, that large areas should receive the protection
against the effects of violent and continuous falls of rain, which
is so well afforded by a crop of trees and shrubs.

It is true that a part of Scotland has recently suffered severely
from floods ; a large number of bridges have been broken down,
railway embankments and roads have been damaged, large stretches
of agricultural land have been denuded of soil, and potatoe
and turnip crops have been washed away; felled timber has also
been swept off, and along the courses of all the rivers from Perth-
shire to Ross-shire more or less damage has been done. The
country between Edinburgh and Hawick, and especially about
Galashiels, suffered severely last autumn, as we all know. ‘These
floods constitute a serious calamity; but I am not at present
prepared to offer an opinion on the difficult problem whether it
would pay to regulate them by means of planting up the hill-
sides, or by constructing engineering works, I believe that
calamities of this nature are, fortunately, of comparatively rare
occurrence. Such matters are always difficult to deal with
otherwise than by State intervention, because it often happens
that the seat of the evil lies within the property of one set of
proprietors, while its effects are felt most severely on the
property of others.

The effects of the Scottish floods, however, bear no comparison
with those produced by denudation in some other parts of the
world, where the rain is heavier, the sun hotter, and the rock and
soil are less consistent than with us.

Whilst employed by the Secretary of State for India at the
French Forest School at Nancy, I visited the southern French
Alps, which have been subjected to excessive grazing, and from
many parts of which not only the trees and shrubs, but even
the very grass has disappeared. The surface is therefore no
longer bound together by roots ; and when the heavy semi-tropical
rain falls directly upon it, the soil, and subsequently the loose
rock, slip down into the valley below. The water charged with
these substances runs off with great rapidity, and suddenly fills
the torrent beds. These latter soon become deepened by the
“scour,” when their sides, deprived of support, fall in; and the
effect of this action, going on throughout the whole system of
watercourses which traverse the mountain sides, is that, over
enormous areas, the upper strata of the soil, with its fields, houses,

178 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

and even villages, are borne down into the valleys, and the whole
region, which presents to the eye little but a series of unstable
slopes of black marl, has an extremely desolate appearance.
But the damage does not stop here; for the débris is carried
down to the comparatively level valleys and open country below,
where it is deposited over fields, roads, railways, and villages, thus
doing an enormous amount of harm.

In order to mitigate these terrible evils, the French government
has undertaken the vast enterprise of regulating the torrent beds
by means of engineering works, and of afforesting the mountain
slopes over an area of more than a thousand square miles,
including nearly two thousand linear miles of torrent beds. The
cost of such an undertaking is of course very great, but the
circumstances warrant the expenditure. I had an opportunity of
studying these works for a fortnight in company with M.
Demontsey, Inspector-general in charge of them.

A very similar condition of things prevails in the Hoshiarpur
district of the Punjab, on which I had a short time ago to submit
a report to the government of that Indian province. J have
conversed with men who remember this range of hills covered
with trees and tall grass, which were the home of the tiger and
other wild animals; but now there is hardly a blade of grass to
be seen, and the hills are gradually being washed away and
deposited on the plains below. T am told that the bed of the
Mississippi is being blocked by sand and soil brought down from
the mountains of the “Far West” in consequence of the extensive
clearings that have been made there during recent years.

I have not now time to speak longer on these very interesting
questions, but hope to be able to treat of them in more detail in
subsequent lectures, as well as to give some account of the works
undertaken by the French government in Gascony, to arrest the
progress of the dunes or moving sandhills of the west coast,
which I had an opportunity of studying a few years ago.

But although the absence of sufficient home-grown produce has
not hitherto caused much inconvenience, there is no doubt that, as
time goes on, we shall have to go farther and farther afield
for our supplies of timber ; and that, partly owing to increased
local demand in the foreign countries whence we have been
accustomed to draw them, and partly to the productive power
of the forests having become impaired by over-cutting and other
injurious treatment, our importations from several of the most

INTRODUCTION TO COURSE OF FORESTRY LECTURES. 179

important of those countries are falling off; and it may be safely
predicted that these supplies will, in course of time, considerably
décrease, and that the price of imported timber will rise in a
corresponding degree. We may, of course, eventually be able to
bring to market the produce of even the most inaccessible forests
of the Dark Continent to supply our ever-increasing needs ; but it
must be said that our future supplies are by no means secured,
and that the time has arrived at which it has become our duty to
take stock of the situation, and to consider what can advan-
tageously be done to increase the timber production of our islands,
so that we may be in a better position than we now are to meet,
as far as possible, any interruption in the steady current of our
importations which might occur owing to a partial failure of our
foreign sources of supply, to the outbreak of war, or otherwise.

Dr Schlich estimates that we might be able to grow at home
£13,000,000 worth out of the £23,000,000 worth of forest
produce we import annually; and the forests created with this
main object would give employment to a very large number
of labourers, and would at the same time serve to protect
agricultural crops from the effects of injurious winds, and to
afford shelter to cattle and useful species of birds.

The desired increase in the amount of home-grown timber might
be obtained by taking measures—Virstly, to obtain from our
existing woodlands the maximum quantity of the best kind of
produce that the soil is capable of yielding; and secondly, to
increase the wooded area by planting and sowing up such
portions of our waste lands as cannot be more profitably utilised.
It must be confessed that to accomplish either of these things is
not an easy matter in many parts of the kingdom, because, while
some existing woods are maintained principally on account of
their picturesque beauty, a much larger number are kept up as
game preserves, and their proprietors have no wish that they
should be treated with a view to obtain from them their maximum
yield of wood. Again, vast areas of ground in Scotland are
kept under heather as grouse moors and so-called deer ‘ forests”
(which have hardly a tree upon them), and these are greatly
valued for the sport which, in their present condition, they afford,
so that their owners do not desire to convert them into forests of
trees. But in spite of these disadvantages, the area of woodland
now available for systematic treatment is very considerable ; and
it might certainly be largely increased with great advantage to

VOL. XIII. PART II. N

180 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

the proprietors of the land, as well as to the country at large, not
only on account of the increased production of forest produce, but
also by reason of the larger employment of labour, that would
follow a movement to extend the forests. The following sentences
are taken from a recent article in the 7imes newspaper on “ Men
and Deer in Scotland ” :—‘‘ Deer forests by no means bring their
owners the large rentals popularly supposed. The famous Black-
mount Forest does not yield, it would appear from the Crown
agent’s figures, 6d. an acre. The group of forests in Inverness-
shire, belanging to Mrs Chisholm, is let at about 3d. an acre.
Even ld. an acre is not an unknown rate. In Sutherlandshire
sporting rents seem to be, on the whole, higher than elsewhere.
But 1s. an acre would appear to be quite unusual; and we have
no reason to think, notwithstanding the popularity of deer-
stalking and the growth of wealth, that rents will improve.
Many Highland proprietors let their shootings as regularly as they
let their farms, and these are not times in which they are likely
to turn a deaf ear to people who say, with any show of good sense,
‘I can tell you how to make more out of your estate than by
afforesting it.’”

It is not necessary for me to say that “afforestation,” in the sense
in which it is here used, is the exact opposite of the kind of
afforestation that we are assembled here to study; and how such
a misleading term as ‘‘ forest” came to be applied to a tract of
land which is devoid, or almost devoid, of trees, and on which it
is not intended to promote the growth of trees, I cannot explain.}
If the figures given in the Z7zmes are anything like correct, the
rate per acre derivable from a deer forest cannot be called high.
The average profit on the whole of the French forests, taken
together, was, for the three years immediately preceding 1886,
about 7s. an acre. But of course the really important point is the
rate of interest on their capital value, which shootings and forests
respectively yield. Dr Schlich, basing his calculation on Weise’s
Yield Tables for the Scots Pine, concludes that land which
cannot be let for the raising of field crops, for shooting or other
purposes, at a minimum rental of 24 per cent. on the value of the
land, may with advantage be planted up with Scotch pine or other
similarly remunerative tree ; and I fancy that, even after excluding
bare upper ranges, which it would not pay to deal with, a good

1] have since been told that the ground is supposed to carry a ‘‘ forest”
of antlers !

INTRODUCTION TO COURSE OF FORESTRY LECTURES. 181

deal of land in Scotland would be found to fall within this
definition.

It is said that an additional area of six million acres of forest
migh# produce the whole of the timber (excluding mahogany, teak,
and fancy woods) that we now import; and we have nearly
27 million acres of waste lands in the British Isles, of which
about 13? millions, or one-half, are in Scotland. The question is
one with which I am not yet ina position to deal at all fully; but
it is evident that even if the establishment of additional forests on
a large scale in the near future be unlikely, it is not too soon to
exercise forethought in the matter of our timber supply, and to
‘endeavour to arrive at some safe conclusion as to what measures
might most advantageously be taken to secure it. I may, how-
ever, say that it appears, from the agricultural returns of 1891,
that while the area of corn-growing land in Great Britain has
considerably decreased, the area of woods and plantations has
increased by nearly 100,000 acres in the last three years, and the
increase would probably have been larger had not the rating of
woodlands to some extent discouraged it. In Scotland the greatest
increase has been in the counties of Aberdeen, Inverness, Ross
and Cromarty. Forests are not so exhausting to the soil as
agricultural crops ; for in the case of the latter the entire plant,
except the roots, which are sometimes also taken, is removed ;
whereas in the case of a crop of trees, the leaves, flowers, and fruit,
which are far richer in nutritive elements than the wood, are
annually returned to the soil, and thus serve to maintain its
productive power, as well as, by their protective action, to keep
it in a good physical condition. Hence forests can flourish on
comparatively poor soil; some kinds of trees, notably most of
the conifers, including the Scots pine, being able to grow on
ground that would be quite incapable of producing a series of
remunerative agricultural crops. It is therefore, generally speak-
ing, not necessary to select rich fertile soils for the raising of
forests, which ought rather to be established and maintained on
ground which cannot be profitably cultivated. Scotland has a
large extent of land of this kind, which could be planted up
without detriment to the sporting interests; and there seems no
reason why this country should not be able to produce as fine and
valuable timber as is obtained from the shores of the Baltic and
from other parts of Northern Europe. There is, then, plenty of
work before Scottish foresters, both in the way of making the most

182 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

of existing woodlands and of planting up new areas; and the
object of the present course of lectures is to impart to the younger
aspirants after fame in this direction some of the leading principles
that should guide their endeavours.

It seems, at first sight, marvellous that the United Kingdom
should, until very recently, have been without the means of
imparting any regular instruction in this important science ; but
the fact appears less remarkable when we consider how far culti-
vated land and pasture have with us taken the place of forest,
the large extent to which we have drawn our supplies of timber
from abroad, and the comparatively small amount of wood we
consume as fuel. There is, however, no doubt another reason why
progress in this direction has been so long delayed, and that is the
very small area of forest land in these islands which is owned by
the State. In countries where extensive forests are State property,
forest schools were long ago established, I will instance the case
of France, with the forests of which country I am better acquainted
than I am with those of any other. The forests of France are

thus owned :—
Sq, miles.
By the State, . C : : : 3,734 = 10°7 per cent.
», communes or parishes, and public
institutions under State control, 83073) = 2257

», private proprietors, . : 3), 20,657. = 6656

Total, . F . 385,464

Although the State and the communes or parishes together
possess only about one-third of the total forest area, the extent of
their property is very large, amounting in all to 11,807 square
miles. To carry on the management of these large domains, the
State maintains a body of highly skilled foresters, who, before
their appointment, have received two years’ training at the
National Forest School at Nancy, at which institution, until
a few years ago, candidates for the Indian Forest Service also
received their professional education, But it is a remarkable fact,
that although private proprietors own no less than 23,657 square
miles of forest, or double the amount owned by the State and
the parishes together, there is not a single private forest school
or class throughout the country ; and further than this, although
the lectures at the State Forest School are open to the public,
advantage is very rarely taken of this privilege by private
proprietors, This fact is doubtless due in a large measure to

INTRODUCTION TO COURSE OF FORESTRY LECTURES. « 183

the succession laws of France, which tend to form very small
properties ; but there are still many large properties with valu-
able forests upon them ; and the explanation of the abstention of
private proprietors from any attempt to avail themselves of the
means of instruction in Forestry which are afforded to them and
to their wood-managers is said to be that, as the State forests
and the officials in charge of them are scattered about the country,
the art of forest management is more or less popularly known ;
that private owners have before them the State forests, which
serve as models for the management of their own timber estates ;
and that they can get a certain amount of advice and assistance
from State officials, who are occasionally permitted to render aid
in this way. But in many localities the private woods are too
distant from State or parish forests to permit of their owners
obtaining any assistance from the government officials ; and they
are then thrown entirely on their own resources, with the result
that although, speaking generally, the principal private forests
are well managed, mistakes, and grave ones, are frequently
made,

I may perhaps here mention that in France private proprietors
cannot clear any wooded area without notifying their intention to
do so at least four months beforehand; and the government
officials can, with certain exceptions, successfully oppose the clear-
ance, if the continued maintenance of the wood is considered
advisable on any of the following grounds, viz. :—

1. To protect mountain slopes.
2. To protect the soil from erosion, and to hinder encroach-
ments by rivers, streams, or torrents.

G2

To preserve springs and watercourses.

4. To protect coasts against erosion by the sea, and against
the encroachments of moving sand.

5. For the defence of the national frontier,

6. For sanitary reasons,

But although private proprietors in our country are not subjected
to any such interference with the disposal of their property, they
have none of the advantages which the existence of extensive State
forests, and the presence among them of State forest officials, gives
to private proprietors in France ; and in these islands the science
of Forestry is almost unknown outside a small circle of professional
men, who, to their credit be it spoken, have acquired the valuable

184 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

practical knowledge they possess without any of the advantages
afforded by a previous study of the principles evolved by experience
in countries where systematic forest management has been long
practised.

But, in spite of these disadvantages, Scotland can show numerous
well-managed forest estates—such, for example, as those of the
Duke of Athole, of the Earls of Mansfield and Seafield, of Lord
Lovat, and of other proprietors who might be mentioned ; and it
is universally admitted that the art of raising nursery plants, of
establishing plantations, and of rearing park trees is here carried out
with a success unsurpassed by the foresters of any other country.
Our Forest Class has thus the great advantage that excellent practical
instruction in work of this kind can conveniently be given to it.

It is impossible to mention the Duke of Athole’s forests without
alluding to the loss we have recently sustained by the death of Mr
John Macgregor, a representative Scottish forester, who has done
much to forward the progress of Forestry in this country, and whose
well-known figure will be missed from among us for many a year
to come.

But I believe I am justified in saying that certain branches of
the science have unavoidably received less attention than is desir-
able. I allude principally to regeneration by natural means (2.e.,
felling in such a manner that the old trees may be caused to
produce. their successors in the form of self-sown seedlings), and to
the preparation of working plans or schemes of management, by
means of which continuity in the system of treatment is secured,
the forest is made to yield the maximum quantity of the most
paying kind of produce, and provision is made for the removal of
a regular annual or other periodical yield ; at the same time the
owner is enabled to realise the full yield with confidence, and his
forest is secured against damage by over-felling.

But if insufficient attention has hitherto been paid to these
questions, the reason is to be found in the entire absence of means
of acquiring a sound knowledge of the principles on which they
should be treated, and of the way in which these principles should
be put into practice. And here I am afraid I must admit that
we are placed at a disadvantage, in that we shall find it difficult, if
not impossible, to give our students practical instruction in forests
where the principles of scientific Forestry have guided the manage-
ment for a sufficiently long time to enable us to point to the results
they lead to. The life of a tree extends over a long period of years,

INTRODUCTION TO COURSE OF FORESTRY LECTURES. 185

and the effects of a system of management cannot be fully studied
in any forest until that system has been in force throughout at least
one life-period of the principal species of which the forest is com-
posed. As a rule, it is only in forests owned by the State that
studies of this kind can be carried on to the best advantage, for
such forests alone are free from liability to deviation from the plan
of management, due either to the varying fortunes of a succession
of owners, or to changes of policy which each owner in his turn has
full power to introduce.

The only important State forests in the British Isles are situated
in the south of England. I understand that 800 acres of Windsor
Forest have recently been made over for management to the
authorities of the Indian College at Cooper’s Hill, and this tract
will, in course of time, become a most valuable field of instruction ;
but I believe that nothing has yet been done towards framing
working plans for the New Forest or the Forest of Dean.

Unfortunately all of these forests lie at such a distance from
Edinburgh that I fear we cannot avail ourselves of them very
often, The students of the Indian College spend one college term
in visiting and studying, under Sir Dietrich Brandis, selected State
forests in Germany ; but I am afraid such distant excursions are
beyond our reach, and we must rely for practical instruction on
such woodlands, comparatively near at hand, as the courtesy of their
owners and foresters may enable us to visit. It may eventually
be possible to effect some arrangement similar to that recently made
at Cooper’s Hill, and to place some conveniently situated woods at
the disposal of the University Professor for the instruction of the
students in Sylviculture and other branches of Forestry ; but this
cannot be done at present.

I will now bring these introductory remarks to a close; but
before proceeding to enter upon the detailed study of my subject,
I will indicate what the Course would have been had I been able
to commence it in October. I should then have taken up the
several branches in the following order, viz. :—

1. Utility of Forests.

2. Sylviculture, or the Culture of Trees when growing together
and forming Woods or Forests.

3. Mensuration.

. Valuation of Woods.

5. Working Plans or Schemes of Management.

ne

186 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

The time before me this year is very short, and I am afraid to
make promises as to what I shall get through ; but I hope very
much to be able to complete a condensed course down to the end
of Sylviculture.

I hope also to arrange excursions on Saturday mornings to
woods in the neighbourhood, varied by visits to the Arboretum,
the Royal Botanic Garden, and the Museum of Science and Art,
which contains a valuable collection of wood specimens and other
objects of interest to foresters.

I feel greatly encouraged by the comparatively large attendance
of students to-day. I hope the numbers may be not only maintained
but increased, and that in the course of time we may be able to
attract surveyors, land agents, and landowners from this as well as
from other parts of the United Kingdom.

It may perhaps not be out of place if I say, in conclusion, that
I am sure the departure of Dr Somerville, my predecessor, and
the first lecturer on Forestry at this University, is much regretted.
I can only hope that I may prove as successful an instructor as
he was.

MANAGEMENT OF SCOTS FIR FORESTS IN NORTH GERMANY. 187

XIII. Management of Scots Fir Forests wn North Germany.
By A. C. Forses, Farnham Royal, Slough, Bucks.

The following outline of the management of Scots fir forests is
based upon personal observations made in the districts between
Berlin and the towns of Stettin and Stralsund, on the northern
coast-line ; and although the area embraced is comparatively small
when compared with that of which it forms a part, yet it contains
one of the most richly wooded districts of the whole of North
Germany ; and, so far as soil, climate, and geographical features
are concerned, may be said to be perfectly representative of the
region occupied by Scots fir in the north of Prussia.

The general aspect of this part of the German empire cannot be
called particularly picturesque, as no lofty mountain ranges stand
out in bold relief against the sky, or form a pleasing background to
the landscape, but still it cannot be termed monotonous in any sense.
The surface is generally undulating, with large tracts of perfectly
level, marshy land occurring frequently, and usually in conjunction
with extensive lakes, some of which almost attain to the dimensions
of inland seas. The geological formation belongs to the Post-
Tertiary, forming a surface soil of white, fine, diluvial sand, almost
entirely free from stones, beneath which lie extensive beds of marl
and clay, and which account for the prevalence of the lakes. The
rivers are not particularly numerous, but are all navigable for small
craft for a considerable distance inland, and are connected by
numerous canals.

One of the greatest industries in a small way appears to be brick-
making, for which the clay-beds provide abundant material, while
extensive saw-mills exist in the vicinity of the water-ways. The
land is entirely devoted to agriculture or forestry, the nature of the
soil causing one or the other to predominate, according as it is good
or bad; and the character of the ground can be pretty accurately
surmised by the way in which it is utilised, totally waste ground
being rarely met with. This probably accounts for the somewhat
irregular distribution of the forest land over the whole area, many
large tracts of country being almost treeless (with the exception of
road-side trees), while others again are almost entirely covered with
timber, shelter belts or small plantations being rarely seen, The
practice of planting the road-sides with fruit or other broad-leaved
trees is very common, and renders travelling in hot weather less
fatiguing than it would otherwise be.

188 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Although the Scots fir predominates largely over all other timber
species, yet many extensive tracts are covered with beech, oak, and
other hardwoods, wherever the soil is suitable for their growth.
Spruce is the only other conifer in any quantity, silver fir or larch
being rarely met with. The marshy land is principally occupied
by birch, alder, or osiers, the latter being extensively cultivated
along the banks of the Elbe, near Hamburg. ‘The area occupied
by the hardwoods is gradually increasing, owing to the practice of
undersowing the fir with beech or hornbeam, which, in certain
cases, afterwards takes the place of the fir, although it is doubtful
if the change is of great advantage from a financial point of view,
except under the most favourable circumstances.

On the poorer soils the Scots fir is grown entirely pure, and on
these it forms unbroken masses many thousands of acres in extent,
small patches of birch, alder, or willow in the boggy places being
the only variation met with. Travelling through these extensive
forests proves very monotonous, and a pleasant relief is experienced
when one passes into a part stocked with hardwoods, or a mixture of
fir and beech. The surface is principally covered with a thick
grassy vegetation, heather existing in comparatively small patches
only, although it probably formed the principal vegetation at one
time. The bilberry (V. myrtil/ws) is also very abundant, and
many other plants associated with dry sandy soils. Patches of a
large coarse grass (Calamagrostis epigeios) are common, and it
appears to be a suitable grass for fixing loose sand. Owing to this
surface vegetation, natural regeneration is impossible on a large
scale, although small patches may be seen here and there in thin
places, and where the ground has been broken up by the extraction
of roots, or other causes. In many cases, however, after clear fell-
ings, and where the surface has been well stirred and broken, there
appears to be no reason why it should not prove successful ; but, as
re-sowing is more certain, and can be done at a small cost, the latter
method is always adopted for restocking purposes. The game
existing in these forests is principally represented by roe-deer, which
are very numerous ; red deer, wild swine, and hares being also
present in smaller numbers, while rabbits are comparatively scarce.

In addition to the State forests, which constitute the main mass,
every town and village possesses its forest of several hundreds or
thousands of acres, as the case may be. Common rights to the pastur-
age, dead wood, and litter exist in regard to these forests, and the
miserable appearance presented by the portions so exposed, provides

MANAGEMENT OF SCOTS FIR FORESTS IN NORTH GERMANY. 189

ample proof of the importance of forest litter in the early stages of
a plantation’s growth.

The rotations adopted in the State forests for the Scots fir vary
with soil and situation, from sixty years on the worst, to one hundred
and forty years on the best localities, one hundred years being
perhaps the most common. Fellings on the even ground, where the
soil is pretty uniform, are made in long narrow strips, which run
along the whole length or breadth of the compartment, and are
about 50 yards in width, the length of the compartment varying
from 600 to 800 yards, or rather metres, and usually having a
quadrangular form. The cutting is usually commenced at the side
of the strip, and the trees thrown with their crowns pointing away
from the centre of it, so that the brushwood, etc., does not inter-
fere with the throwers. The trees are cut about 6 inches above the
surface of the ground, no chipping round being done or required,
as “toes” are seldom-seen. The saw is put through as far as
possible, a wedge driven into the cut, and the rest of the work
done with the axe in a rough and ready style. Although the
workmen appear to be less neat and expert with the axe than is
the case with the British woodmen, they are very expert in taking
out trees without injuring surrounding young wood in any way,
although the thin crowns possessed by most of the trees render this
less difficult than in the case of rough timber. The trees are cross-
cut at various diameters, according to the class into which the
timber is placed, while the tops and all branches up to 2 inches in
diameter are sawn up into metre lengths, and stacked up into cords
between posts, the larger pieces being split; the brushwood being
stacked up also in the same way. All the trees and lots are
numbered with an apparatus for the purpose, the former having
the length and cubic contents also stamped on the butt end. The
wood is sold by auction by the forest officials at some convenient
inn ; the number, size, and class of the tree or lot being called out
by an assistant in place of a catalogue. The timber is sorted into
five different classes, according to the cubic contents, all trees being
included in the first class which contain over 70 feet (true contents) ;
and those that contain less, or not more than 18 feet, going into
the fifth class.

According to Schwappach,' the following prices are about an
average for the several classes :—

1 «*Wachstum und Ertrag normaler Kiefernbestande, in der nord-deutschen
Tiefebene.” (Berlin, Julius Springe.) 1889.

190 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Class I., 19 m. 6 pf.; IT, 17 m. 6 pf; IIL, 14m: 69piaiee
12 m. 6 pf.; V., 10 m. 6 pf. per cubic metre (35 feet) ; or, when
reduced to British equivalents—7d., 6}d., 5d., 43d., and 33d. per
foot respectively. These figures are obtained after deducting felling
expenses, so that the prices approximate closely to those obtained
for Scots fir timber in Scotland, where the greatest number of the
trees would probably come under Class III. (1 cubic metre, or Scot,
28 feet). The timber is usually removed from the ground where
cut by the buyer, generally by means of small timber carriages.
These are very light, and not much larger than a good-sized hand-
cart, and are easily moved about by one man when unloaded.
They consist of two wheels, with a short bar fixed to the axle, two
of these carriages being required for each load. The method of
loading them is rather ingenious, and is done with little expenditure
of labour. It is accomplished by means of a large square wooden
post, about 6 feet 6 inches in height, which is solid for about a foot
from the top, and about the same distance from the ground. The
remaining portion is divided in the centre by a slit about 3 inches
wide, the two sides being perforated by a double row of holes for
the reception of iron pins. This post is set up perpendicularly
beside the tree to be loaded, and propped up by a long wooden
pole, which fits into a notch at the top. A chain is passed round
the tree at the point where the post is set up, and the end fixed
into a hook attached to the end of a short handle about 4 feet long.
On each side of the point at which the hook is attached are two
grooves for fitting into the pins which go through the post. The
end of the handle or lever being placed in the slit, the pins are
placed beneath it as far up the post as the chain will permit. By
now alternately raising and depressing the other end of the handle,
and moving a pin up after each stroke, the end of the tree is
gradually raised from the ground to the required height, and the
carriage run beneath it. The tree is then lowered to the axle of
the carriage, and made fast with a chain, and the other end raised
in the same way. By these means a man can raise one end of a
tree, 60 or 70 feet long, and containing 50 feet of timber, 5 or 6 feet
from the ground, in about a minute after putting the post into
position ; and the whole tree can be loaded by two men in about
ten minutes. Two stems usually form a load, one above and one
slung below the axles, a couple of horses being yoked to the fore
carriage, to which a pole is attached.

For removing the timber to the margius of the forests, tramways

MANAGEMENT OF SCOTS FIR FORESTS IN NORTH GERMANY. TO

are sometimes used where the ground is sufficiently level for their
proper working. One of these tramways used in the Eberswalde
forest is of the following description. The rails are attached to small
wooden sleepers, and are placed about 2 feet apart. These rails and
sleepers are in sections 20 feet long, so that all that is necessary for
their laying down, is to place the end of one section against that of
another, the fore part of one rail fitting into the hinder part of its
neighbour. Special sections are provided for sidings, so that the
trucks can pass one another on the road. These trucks are made
entirely of iron, and are about 4 feet in length, standing about 18
inches above the rails. Across the centre of the framework is an
iron perforated bar, on the underside of which is a pin, which is
let into the centre of the framework, so that it can revolve in any
direction when going round curves, etc. ‘This bar carries the
timber, a pin on each side keeping it in position. In loading, the
trees are simply rolled up long tressles on to the trucks, two of the
latter, connected by a long pole, being required for a tree length.
They are usually drawn by horse-power, although small locomotive
engines can also be used on the tram-lines if required.

After the felling is completed, the roots are grubbed up, and as
many as can be taken out without too much labour. ‘This is done
by clearing away the earth from the stump with the spade, and
cutting the large roots, special appliances for lifting them out being
in use. They are split, and stacked up in the same way as the
other firewood, although they are principally turned into charcoal
by the purchasers, which is made on the spot, every fragment of a
root being collected and used up. ‘The nature of the soil renders
the extraction of the root much easier than is usually the case, so
that the work is done without any loss, although the profit may not
be great. .

After all the work in connection with the felling and removal of
the timber is completed, a trench is cut round the cleared area for
the purpose of excluding the pine weevil and other injurious
beetles which attack the young plants. This trench is about 6
inches wide, and about the same depth, with perfectly perpendicular
sides. About every 12 yards deeper holes are taken out, into
which the insects fall when travelling along the bottom of the
trench, all attempts to scale the sides being quite unsuccessful if
the trench has been properly cut. This precaution proves very
effective, as may be seen from an inspection of one of these
pit-falls, in which dozens of weevils and beetles of all kinds may be

192 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

found, forming splendid depots for the entomologist. From these
pits the beetles are either collected and destroyed, or remain there
until they die from starvation.

The ground having been cleared of timber and roots during the
course of the summer following the felling, it is re-sown or planted
the following spring; usually in April. Sowing is by far the more
common method of the two, planting being only resorted to for
beating up and such-like purposes. For preparing the ground a
forest plough is used, which has a broad flat sole and two large
mould-boards, and makes a furrow about 2 inches deep and about
9 inches wide. The furrows are made about 4 feet apart, and as
straight as any existing roots, stones, ete., will permit; the small
surface roots of the former crop, however, being the only obstacles
encountered on properly cleared ground. The head of the plough
is attached to the axle of two wooden wheels, whereby the depth of
the furrow is regulated. The seed having been dressed with red-
lead to protect it from birds, is either sown by hand, or by means
of the numerous seed barrows and machines for the purpose; the
method adopted varying with the nature of the ground and other
circumstances. On flat, fully cleared land, a seed-barrow is usually
made use of, which deposits the seed in one or two drills; a small
rake dragged in the rear covering it in. These machines are of
various sizes, the larger requiring two men, and the smaller one man
to work them. On average ground they can get over about an acre
or more per hour, according to the width between the rows. For
sowing rough ground a seed-box is sometimes used, which is a long
narrow box about 4 feet in length, and about 3 inches broad and
deep. This box is slung over the shoulder by a strap, and the seed
ejected by working a spring at the bottom of the box. The most
common method employed in rough ground, however, is hand-
sowing, for which women are employed. The workers are divided
into two squads, one sowing, and the other covering in the seed
with rakes, the former carrying the seed in small earthenware jars.
They are usually preceded by two men with a heavy narrow roller,
on the face of which are ridges for the purpose of making small
furrows for the reception of the seed; but where many small
surface roots exist, the latter interfere greatly with its effectiveness.

The quantity of seed used is about 6 kilogrammes per hectare,
or about 6 pounds per acre, which rarely proves too much by
the time the young plants have gone through the critical periods
of their early life. The greatest enemy that they have to contend

MANAGEMENT OF SCOTS FIR FORESTS IN NORTH GERMANY, 193

with is probably the rough grass, which rapidly grows over the
opened furrows, and often smothers up the seedlings before they
can get their heads above it. To provide plants for beating up
such places, small nurseries are usually established at the time of
sowing by enclosing a small piece of ground with rough wooden
hurdles, or a fence about 5 feet in height, so that deer, etc., are
excluded. These fences are made from Scots fir thinnings, about
2 inches in diameter, with stronger poles for posts, and cost about
3d. per yard. If the nursery is likely to be required for several
years, and serve for several successive fellings, a more durable
fence of split fir poles of a larger diameter is erected, and costing
about 5d. per yard. Branches of pine or spruce are interwoven
through the lower bars to exclude hares and rabbits where they
exist. The ground in these enclosures is trenched, and all roots
and stones thrown out, and then sown with Scots fir or other species
as required. The seed is generally sown here in shallow drills
made by a kind of rake with broad thin iron teeth, which is drawn
lightly over the surface. The seedlings are usually transplanted
the first year, either into rows in the nursery or into the gaps in
the re-sown area. For the former work an ingenious machine is
sometimes used, which is well adapted for the light sandy soil.
In appearance it resembles a small handcart without the body, the
wheels and handle only being present. On the axle is a seat for
the workman, who sits facing the handle, the latter being supported
by a leg with a broad wooden foot. From the centre of the handle
falls a short iron bar, on which is suspended a long horizontal iron
rod, the extremities of which are bent down at right angles. On
these two extremities are hung the handles of a broad species of
scoop with a toothed cutting edge. The handles being suspended
at a point about their centre, the ends are within a convenient
distance of the workman, who, by lowering or raising them, can lift
or dig the scoop into the ground with ease, while the soil can be
drawn towards him or pushed in the opposite direction, by similarly
working the handles. By this means he can take out a trench
about 3 feet in length and about 6 inches deep, with a_per-
fectly perpendicular side, in three or four strokes of the scoop.
T'wo women are employed putting in the plants, which are placed
on wooden bars of the same length as the trench. These bars have
a toothed zinc edge, between the teeth of which the plants are
hung, so that their tops are above and their roots below the edge.
The bar is then placed on the edge of the trench, so that the roots

194 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY,

hang down its perpendicular side, and the trench filled up by the
machine. By drawing the bar carefully back the tops of the plants
are released, and the work completed, the filling up of the trench
having left the surface perfectly level. This machine gets over the
ground more rapidly than the spade, but is only suitable for the
very finest soils, free from stones and other obstacles. The cost of
planting with this machine is reckoned to be about 3d. less per
1000 than by hand and spade.

Planting in the forest is done with a planting iron in the form
of a wedge, a smaller wooden implement of the same shape being
used for the seedlings. Three or four plants are usually put in on
every square prepared patch, from which the grass has been removed
by a kind of broad hoe, the corners of which are turned down.
This hoe is a very handy implement for removing the turf, and is
also used for clearing lines for sowing where the plough cannot be
used. The larger plants (two years) are put in by women, a man
preceding them and making the holes with the large iron, which
the women fill in with the hand in the sandy ground, The seedlings
are put in in the same way, except that the large implement is dis-
pensed with, and the worker makes the holes and plants at the
same time. Slit-planting seems to be never adopted, although pit-
planting is practised in underplanting and similar cases, The cost
of sowing a hectare in the manner described is about 40 marks,
of which the ploughing costs 15 marks and the seed 18 marks,
so that the labour does not come to much. Planting costs about
60 marks per hectare.

After the ground is once stocked with young plants, nothing
more is done until the first thinning takes place, which is usually
between the twenty-fifth and thirtieth year after sowing. If the latter
has been a successful one, the young plants will not stand more
than 3 or 4 inches apart in the rows at the age of four or five
years, so that by the time of the first thinning the struggle for
existence will have been a very severe one, and none but the
stronger plants will have survived it. This thinning, however, is
chiefly confined to the cutting out of dead wood and suppressed
trees, and any dominant trees that stand immediately beside each
other, so that it can hardly be termed thinning in the ordinary
sense of the word. ‘The larger trees at this age will not average
more than 6 inches or 7 inches in diameter at the surface of the
ground on soils of the best class, while the majority are below this
size. Their height growth, however, is very marked, and is greater

MANAGEMENT OF SCOTS FIR FORESTS IN NORTH GERMANY. 1995

than is usually found in more freely thinned woods. During the
next forty years the smaller suppressed trees are taken out from
time to time, after which little is done until the end of the rotation.
The first thinnings yield little but brushwood, and this is dragged
out to the forest roads and lotted up in cords, the trees remaining
as they were cut. The thinnings after this will be large enough
for pit-props, or the smaller trees for poles which are sold entire,
all wood not suitable for these purposes being cut up into firewood.
After the sixtieth year or so small quantities of low-class timber
will be produced, and the roots will be large enough for removal.
About this time, too, the undersowing with beech or hornbeam
occurs, which may either be done with the intention of changing
the crop after the firs are. removed, or for purposes in connection
with soil preservation and fertility, wind breaks, filling up thin
stockings, etc. This sowing is also done by women, who break
the surface with a small hoe in patches about a yard or so apart,
and sow about a dozen seeds in each patch. These trees thrive
remarkably well under the shade of the firs after they once get a
fair start, and exert a powerful influence on the soil fertility. If
it be intended to change the crop from pine into beech forest, the
pines are gradually thinned out as the hardwoods grow up, but if
the conditions are not suitable for this, the latter get little con-
sideration, and grow as they can until the end of the rotation,
when they yield considerable quantities of firewood.

Constant watchfulness against insect ravages is necessary in these
forests, especially in regard to the attacks of Liparis monacha,
Gastropacha pint, etc., the caterpillars of which moths sometimes
commit frightful devastations in the fir forests. Acres of forest
may be frequently seen in which every tree has been ringed with
a band of pitch for the purpose of preventing the caterpillars of
the latter from ascending the trees, and the decaying remains of
the creatures may be still seen sticking on the ring by the hundred,
in company with many other beetles, etc., which had evidently been
bent upon a similar errand. For the purpose of destroying the
larvee of cockchafers and other pests, swine are allowed to be
herded in the forests in suitable places.

Although great quantities of the produce of the forests are con-
sumed in the districts where grown, a large proportion is transferred
to Stettin and other seaports for shipment, or to Berlin for home
use. For this purpose, use is made of the numerous canals and
rivers which intersect the country. All the unhewn timber is

VOL. XIII. PART II. fc)

196 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

floated to its destination, while the sawn is placed on barges.
The logs are made up into rafts, each raft consisting of about
fifty stems, in eight sections, a section having six or seven logs
abreast, which are kept together by a piece of wood nailed across
the ends. ‘The sections are attached to each other by willow or
birch withes, which are fastened to a stout peg driven into the
end of the stems. Three men will navigate a raft 250 or 300 feet
in length, a horse usually assisting in towing on the canals. The
men wear spikes strapped on to the bottoms of their boots to pre-
vent them from slipping on the wet wood, and work the raft with
long poles, with sharp hooks at the end for sticking into a stem
when necessary. In going through the locks the sections must be
disconnected, although the whole raft can be accommodated when
they are abreast. The cost of this method of transport is reckoned
at something like one farthing per ton per kilometre, or a little over
1}d. per four miles.

All the principal saw-mills stand on the banks of these canals
and rivers, and have large timber docks leading off the main stream
for the reception of the timber. From these docks the wood is
dragged out as required, by simply passing a chain round two or
three stems, and connecting it with one from the machinery, which
drags them up a sloping gangway to a cross-cutting machine. After
being cross-cut they are rolled right and left on to timber stagings,
thence they are taken up into the mill by a small trolley drawn by
the machinery. The sawn wood is taken out at the opposite side
of the mill, and stacked up into piles in the yard to remain until
wanted. ‘Tram-lines lead from these yards to the water’s edge,
where the deals, battens, etc., are loaded on the barges for further
transit. Immense quantities of timber can be seen in the vicinity
of these mills, wherever a wide part of the stream or natural lake
offers facilities for being utilised as a depot; the grass and weeds
growing on the rafts bearing testimony of a long sojourn in the
water.

On drawing a comparison between the condition of the North
German pine forests and that of Scots fir woods in Scotland, two
main features strike one at once, and these are the crowded con-
dition of the former during the earlier stages of growth, and the
open and thin stocking in the later periods, being almost exactly
the reverse of what is usually found in the case of the latter. In
Scotland the custom prevails of thinning freely during the first
thirty or forty years, and little or not at all afterwards, whereby

MANAGEMENT OF SCOTS FIR FORESTS IN NORTH GERMANY. 197

every tree remaining at the end of that time has had every oppor-
tunity for full development. The German system, on the other
hand, results in the survival of the fittest only, and gives no
artificial aid to individual trees, but allows them to fight it out
between them. Thus it is that the dominant and vigorous trees
are the only survivors at the end of the rotation, and these, on an
average, will not exceed 100 to 150 trees per acre at the end of 100
years, and the better the soil the smaller the number. A fully
stocked acre of Scots fir in Scotland will often contain about double
this number, or between 200 and 300 trees on soil of average
quality, with an average volume of 25 cubic feet, or 5000 to 7000
cubic feet per acre. Schwappach, in the work already quoted,
gives the following figures as the normal yield and dimensions of
Scots fir in North Germany per acre :!—

Som I. Quatiry.

MAIN CROP. | PERropic THINNINGS.
Average
fe . ‘ Average | Diameter, | True Cubic | neape | Prue Cubic
Age. No. of Trees. Height. Breast Contents |No. of Trees. earner
Height. |
~ Feet, “Inches. | Cubic Feet. |Cubie Feet.
20 1716 27 BEY GoM iE Melee, #
40 704 51 6°50 38572 =| 1012 713
60 332 70 10°15 5457 | 372 1063
80 220 84 12°81 6831 | 111 1014
100 181 91 14°42 7760 39 729
120 155 102 15°83 8446 25 728
140 137 106 17:09 9046 1g") 493 |

These figures tend to show that the final felling is not so heavy
as might be obtained by earlier thinning ; but the total yield is prob-
ably as great, if not greater, than that obtained by the British
system. By reckoning up the total yield of timber from an acre at
the end of 100 years, we get 11,279 cubic feet from the best quality
of forest land in North Germany, which is equivalent to 8984 cubic
feet according to our system of measuring, assuming the latter to
give 20 per cent. less than the true contents. The number of trees
standing at the end of this period is 181, which have a total volume
of 7760 cubic feet true measurement, or an average of 42 feet per

1 The actual figures are in metres, cubic metres, ete., per hectare, but I
have reduced them to British equivalents as near as possible.

198 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

tree. These 42 reduced by 20 per cent. are brought down to 34
cubic feet, so that the average size is rather greater than that
assumed for Scottish timber of the same age, although the latter
may be too lowly estimated. The fact must also be taken into
account that the greater part of the earlier thinnings from the
German woods are little but firewood, although the accumulating
interest on the sums realised for the latter gives them considerable
importance by the end of the rotation. Taking everything into
consideration, it is probable that, after all, there is not so much
difference between the total yields in both cases; but when quality
is considered, the German timber would probably have the prefer-
ence. The constant struggle which goes on during almost the whole
period of growth causes a natural pruning of side branches to go
on continually, so that it is rare to find a branch or large knot on
the stems of the larger trees at a less height than 60 or 70 feet
from the ground. The growth of the wood, too, is remarkably
uniform, and eccentric wood-rings are rarely seen, even in the centre
of the butt end. These two conditions are about all that are
necessary for producing the best class of fir timber, and were the
timber grown under the two methods in the same market, the
German growth would undoubtedly fetch a higher price, as a rule,
where quality and size were most in demand.

I have compared soils ranked as belonging to the first class, or
best quality, in Germany with average plantation soils in Scotland,
because I consider the latter to be superior to the former as a rule.
In Germany only the worst description of soil is devoted to forestry,
while in the lowlands of Scotland many plantations exist on soil
that might be, and in many cases has been, devoted to agriculture,
so that an average would probably be struck at about the same
quality of soil in both cases. In regard to climate and elevation,
the German woods probably have the best of it, in so far as their
ultimate height growth is affected, but the difference is too slight
to justify a proper comparison being made, as the length of the
growing season makes less difference to the Scots fir than is the
case with many trees.

Although this system of natural selection appears to give the
best results on good soils, and where the trees are sufficiently
vigorous to carry on a lengthened struggle, it is questionable if
it is the best method of treatment on the inferior soils, where
the trees can derive little nourishment from the ground. In such
cases the retention of a certain proportion of branches is of much

MANAGEMENT OF SCOTS FIR FORESTS IN NORTH GERMANY. 199

greater importance than where the trees are deriving a plentiful
supply of mineral matter from the soil, because in the former case
a larger proportion of water must be taken up in order to get an
equivalent quantity of inorganic constituents, and consequently the
former element must be again evaporated from the leaves. This
necessitates a larger leaf surface and a freer circulation of air, which
the crowded condition is not calculated to provide, and in conse-
quence the vigour of the trees gradually declines, and their chances
of development are small. This is more easily seen when the
stocking of such ground is considered, and the large number of
undersized trees which are present examined. It is then seen that
the struggle for supremacy has not resulted in the survival of the
fittest, but in the gradual weakening of the whole; and instead
of the stronger trees making room for themselves by smothering
their smaller neighbours, they have only been injured in the
attempt. Schwappach gives 1600 trees per hectare as the average
for soils of the fifth quality at the age of eighty years, which is
equivalent to 647 per acre. The average diameter of these 647 is
only 5} inches, and the height 35 feet, so that timber dimensions
are not reached, and quality need not be considered, as in the case
of the better qualities. Without actual proofs one cannot say
whether such trees would have reached a much greater size had
they been duly thinned or not, but there is every reason to suppose
that want of space has had as much to do with their small size as
inferiority of soil. Thinning is a subject upon which no two men
can be found to agree in every detail, and in spite of all experiments,
no hard and fast rules can be laid down for its guidance, so that it
is possible for errors to be committed under the most careful and
scientific management, although the general results may be good.

200 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

XIV. On the Cedar of Lebanon, Cedrus Libani; syn. C.
atlantica, and C. Deodara. By Rosert Hutcuison of
Carlowrie, F.R.S.E., University Club, Edinburgh.

Name of the Species.—(1) Pinus Cedrus, Linneus ; (2) Cedrus
Inbani, Barrelier. Linnzus having included pines, firs, larch,
and cedars in one class, under the denomination Pinus, gave the
designation of Pinus Cedrus to the Cedar of Lebanon ; but I am
surprised that some of those botanists who believed it better to
divide these trees into several classes, should have included the
Cedar of Lebanon among larch and fir: thus Tournefort,
Duhamel, Miller, etc., class the cedar under the larch; Poiret,
Loiseleur-Deslongchamps, Lindley, etc., under the fir. I think
with Barrelier, A. Richard, and others, that it is preferable to
make it a class by itself.

Sap and Leaves.—The Cedar of Lebanon has two flows of sap
in a year, like the larch. The first begins early in May, and ends
in July; the second begins about fifteen days after the first has
stopped, and ends in September.

The leaves of the cedar are stiff, and of a deep green; they
are, like those of the larch, disposed upon the tree in two different
ways, one by one and in bunches. The first surround the shoots
of the year, and the second spring from buds on wood of one
year’s growth, or from shoots on older wood which has borne
leaves on preceding years.

Flowers and Cones.—The Cedar of Lebanon usually bears male
and female flowers, but it will be seen from observations related
further on, that some trees bear only male flowers and others
female,

The male flowers are disposed in simple erect catkins, about
} inch in diameter at the base, when the flowers have attained
their maturity. These catkins are produced on the upper surface
of the branches, and have no resemblance to those of any other
tree. The flowers which compose them are ripe in October, and
are then of a pale yellow, and give off an abundance of yellow
pollen dust.

The female flowers, disposed in simple catkins like those of the
pines, are also stiff, and are egg-shaped and reddish ; they ripen
at the same time as the male flowers, and are transformed into
cones shortly after being fecundated.

The cones of the cedar are egg-shaped, and are from 2 to 3

ON THE CEDAR OF LEBANON, ETC. 201

inches in length. The seed is furnished with a wing, and is of
the same colour and size as that of the silver fir.

Fructification.—According to M. Louis Vilmorin, who has
observed with much care the fructification of the Cedar of
Lebanon, in the climate of Paris, the male and female flowers
usually begin to appear in May, but it is necessary to examine
them closely in order to distinguish them. The male flowers require
for their growth till the end of September, or even the beginning
of October, by which period they are perfectly distinct, and throw
off a yellow powder. The female flowers require the same period
for their growth, but are less visible because they are smaller, and
they are transformed into cones after their fecundation. These
cones begin to grow the following year when the sap rises. They
are at first light green, then they assume a violet tint; they attain
full size by the end of the autumn, and during the winter they
acquire a brown-grey colour. The following year they remain
upon the tree ; and it is only during the months of February and
March of the third year that the scales with the two seeds attached
to each burst from the cones and fall to the ground. Thus, sup-
posing that the cones are formed in December of the year of
flowering, they will remain about twenty-seven months on the
tree before the scales and seeds fall.

M. Duhamel de Fougeroux has, in the park of his chateau of
Vrigny, near Pithiviers (Loiret), five cedars which were planted
by his grand-uncle Duhamel-Dumonceau, one in 1757, the other
four in 1770; and he has sent me the following observations
which he made of the flowering and fructification of these cedars,
The male flowers are observable towards the end of September,
and they attain maturity and give off a yellow powder in October,
by which time the female flowers are also distinguishable. The
following year the cones attain to nearly their full size, and during
the winter assume the brown colour which they retain. In the
following July the seed has acquired its maturity, but it is very
difficult to extract it from the cone. In the month of June or
July following, that is, about the middle of their third year, the
scales fall with the seeds, and in August there is nothing left but
the bare stems of the cones on the branches, as in the silver firs.
Thus the cones remain about thirty months on the tree from the
time they are put forth till the scales and the seeds fall. If the
cones are gathered a short time before the period when they
should burst and the seeds fall, the scales can be detached from

202 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

the stems with the utmost ease. The seeds, which are soft before
they attain maturity, are almost as hard then as those of the
silver fir, and they have begun to germinate. Thus on opening
them the embryo is found nearly changed into a plantlet, and if
it is put immediately into the ground it will spring up very
quickly. This must be done, for after the process of germination
has commenced, it would be impossible to preserve them till the
following year. There springs up around the cedars at Vrigny
many self-sown plants which perish, choked in the oak forest
which surrounds the cedars, trampled under foot, cr destroyed by
other causes; nevertheless, after two or three years some are
found big enough to be put into the nursery.

On August 12, 1844, I visited the Cedars of Lebanon in the
beautiful garden of M. Guy, at St Germain-en-Laye (Seine and
Oise), and I saw a great number of male flowers upon several of
the cedars which stand isolated; these flowers, which wanted
some weeks of attaining maturity, were upon the lowest branches,
They were hard, conical, of a pale green, and the longest were
about an inch in length. M. Guy told me that they would
give off the pollen in the course of October, that it was very
abundant, and of the colour of sulphur. I did not see the female
flowers, which are much less numerous, and are usually produced
on the branches towards the top of the tree, but they reach
maturity at the same time as the male flowers with the pollen
of which they are fecundated, and in a short time after they are
transformed into cones. M. Guy told me that it is necessary to
gather the cones in the spring of the second year, as the seed was
then very good, and that the buyers would not have it from cones
gathered later. If the cones remain upon the tree, the scales and
seeds fall during the autumn of this year, or about twenty-four
months from their first appearance.

The cedars in M. Guy’s garden are twenty-two in number, and
their age is about seventy years, all situated near the house, some
in clumps, where they have grown close together, others standing
alone upon the lawn, the latter producing the greater number of
flowers and cones. I noticed upon some of the isolated cedars a
great number of cones of the preceding year, which had attained
to almost their full size, and which were of a dull white colour,
Many of these cones were on the top of the principal tiers of
branches, and so close that they almost touched one another.
One of the cedars standing alone had been transplanted when

ON THE CEDAR OF LEBANON, ETC. 203

about three feet in girth, from a grove which was being thinned.
The transplanting did not appear to have hurt it, for it was as
fine as those in its neighbourhood. M. Guy’s cedars produce an
abundant crop of self-sown seedlings on the walks, lawns, and
borders, but they all seem to perish, crushed by feet, cut down by
the scythe, or otherwise destroyed, so that none are found two
years of age. I observed in the borders some seedlings that had
sprung up some months before, and which were as fine as plants
T had obtained from seed of the same year from the cones on the
cedar in the Jardin des Plantes.

M. Pessin, head of the botanical school in the Jardin des
Plantes at Paris, having observed in 1844 the dissemination of
the seed of the Cedar of Lebanon in that garden, made a com-
munication on the subject to the ‘Societé Royale et Centrale
d’ Agriculture.” It appeared in the Bulletin des Seances of that
Society, 20th March 1844, as follows :—“M. Pessin, correspond-
ing member for the department of the Seine, sends some seeds
of the Cedar of Lebanon gathered from the tree planted in
1735 in the Jardin de Roi by Bernard de Jussieu, which have
germinated in the cones still adhering to the tree during this
winter, and fell to the ground during the latter part of January.
This germination, which is doubtless due to the mild and damp
temperature of the winter, has been observed for the first time
this year. Among the seeds already developed there are some
whose stemlets are not less than half an inch in length. Several
hundreds gathered in this state from the ground, and sown in
February, have succeeded perfectly well.” The natural seed-bed
resulting from this dissemination of seed had given birth to a
great number of plants, which I visited on the 29th of April
1844, They were growing under the shadow of the mother-tree,
or quite near it, where the raking and the trampling of the work-
people had probably killed them, for I could find none on the
25th of June in the same year. I have never observed nor
heard of any other resinous tree producing a similar germination.

M. Renou, inspector of the Algerian forests, has published a
““ Notice sur les forets de Cedres de Algerie” in the Annales
Jorestieres for the year 1844, page 1, from which I quote the
following observations upon the flowers and cones of the two
kinds of cedars noticed by him :—‘ The flowers of the two sexes
appeared in September and October; in the following June the
female ovaries presented already the appearance of a greenish

204 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

cone of half an inch in length, and of an average diameter of one-
third of an inch. These young cones are, so to speak, still in the
herbaceous state, and they bend with the slightest pressure. By
the month of July in the following year the cones have acquired
a woody consistency, and enclose seeds of perfect maturity; but
they do not begin to shed their seed till the autumn rains, and
some cones retain their scales even till the end of winter.”

My conclusion from these statements is—that the flowers of the
Cedar of Lebanon usually ripen in the climate of Paris in the
course of the month of October; that the cones remain twenty-
four months upon the tree before they shed their scales and seeds;
that the time at which the scales and seeds fall varies from the
twenty-fourth to the thirtieth month, if the information which I
have procured is correct ; and lastly, that when the seed does not
fall till after the winter, or till towards the end of a mild winter,
it begins to sprout in the cones,

Loudon says (Arboretum, vol, iv., p. 2423) that the cones of the
cedar do not attain maturity till the third autumn, and that they
may be gathered and preserved for five or six years, without
the seed being impaired. This last statement seems to me an
error, if it refers to cones gathered shortly before the fall of
the scales, and especially if they did not fall till after the
winter, for then the seeds have already begun to undergo the
process of germination; but if they have been gathered some
months before this period, they will remain healthy in the cones
for a longer or shorter time, which, however, I cannot indicate,
even approximately. According to the same author (vol. iv.,
p. 2404), the cedar does not bear cones until it is twenty-five to
thirty years old, and that the most of the seed then produced is
barren; and that only from cones of older trees is fertile seed
obtained. He says that some cedars bear only male flowers,
others only female, but that some produce both, and these obser-
vations have been made on cedars more than one hundred years
old. Thus some of these trees would have diccious flowers. M.

Zenou has observed the same thing in the Algerian cedar forests,

and has mentioned it in the paper already quoted. There are,
says Loudon, in his Arboretum, vol. iv., p. 2404, “some cedars at
Whitton and Pepperharrow, and in other places, which although
more than one hundred years old, and in a vigorous condition,
have scarcely yet borne male and female flowers.”

Miller says that four cedars, which were planted in 1683, when —

ON THE CEDAR OF LEBANON, ETC. 205

they were 3 feet high, in the Botanic Gardens at Chelsea, and
which are believed to have been among the first planted in
England, ‘‘have produced during several years a great number
of male flowers, but that three only have yielded cones, which
only attained maturity after thirty-five years ; that now (in 1766)
the seeds which fall from the cones produce plants in abundance
and without any care.”

M. Vilmorin has, on his property of Verrieres, about fifteen
miles from Paris, a cedar which began to produce male flowers at
twenty-three years old, and cones at twenty-eight years. He says,
“T have noticed in the park of Fromont that cedars about twenty-
eight years old bore cones. I have a cedar which was planted in
1804 by my father, and which, as yet, has yielded no flowers.
M. Gayau has some cedars thirty miles from here, which were
planted in 1815, and which have not yet fruited. It is possible
that these trees bear flowers and cones less regularly in France
and England than in those countries to which they are indigenous.”

Seeds and Natural Seed-bed.—I have already said that plants
have been raised from the natural seed-beds round the cedar in
the Jardin des Plantes, round the cedars at Vrigny, and round
those in the garden of M. Guy. A friend tells me that he has
remarked cedars at Marcigny (Saone and Loire), the property of
M. Polissard, which yield an abundance of plants from the natural
seed-bed, and that among these plants there are some already over
six feet in height. M. Vilmorin, in a note on the TZraité
Pratique de la Culture des Pins, by Delamarre, page 319, says
that he has seen a quantity of young plants spring up under the
fine cedars in the park of Bellevue, near Meudon, and that a cedar
planted by his father in a garden he had in Paris in the Faubourg
Saint Antoine has also often produced young plants which were
self-sown in the grove where it grew. It is probable then, that
the cedar may be able to perpetuate itself in France by self-sown
seeds as in its native country.

From what has been stated, there is not sufficient data to
indicate the exact age at which the cedar begins to yield fertile
seed to supply a natural seed-bed, but it can scarcely be before it
is sixty years old. As to the proper age of cedars when the cones
may be gathered for the seed, I think it would be prudent never
to gather any from a tree less than sixty years old. We have
seen that the seed in the cones is fertile in the spring of the
second year; and it is from these, and even from younger cones,

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that the seed is oftenest gathered. Have these seeds then reached
their full maturity? Some trustworthy experiments should be
made to clear up this point. These experiments might simply
consist of sowing in the same border seeds taken from cones
gathered in the spring of the second year, and seeds from cones
gathered from the same tree shortly before the seeds would have
been shed naturally; and then to closely observe the growth of
the trees produced from each sowing, in order to see if they were
equally good and equally able to withstand the vicissitudes of the
seasons. Until these experiments have been made, it is mani-
festly better not to gather the cones for the seed till just before
the time when the scales with the seed would naturally fall to
the ground. It is almost impossible to get from seed-shops any
cones but those which have been gathered too soon, often much
too soon, the scales of which adhere so firmly to the stem, that in
order to extract the seed one has to use a centre-bit to pierce the
cone close at the stem. M. L.-Deslongchamps advises to begin
by sawing off six or eight lines from the bottom and as much
from the top of the cones, these portions containing only abortive
seeds; by this operation the extraction of the seed is rendered
much more expeditious.

Mode of Vegetation and Dimensions.—The Cedar of Lebanon
has a tap-root, and is very firmly rooted, otherwise it could not
resist the wind, since its head is very wide-spreading when it
stands alone. The trunk is straight, but when the tree stands
alone it almost always divides at a greater or less distance from
the ground into several branches, which usually assume the per-
pendicular soon after they leave the trunk. When the trunk
rises to a greater height, it diminishes rapidly in diameter, because
the tree is furnished with branches from the ground like the firs,
and amongst the number there are always some very thick ones.
The leader is at first very brittle, and generally leans to the
north or east, but the following year it straightens itself.

The principal branches spread widely, and are covered on the
upper side with thick foliage ; they are palm-shaped, which gives
the Cedar of Lebanon a remarkably majestic appearance, easily
distinguishable at a distance. The bark is of a deep brown-grey
colour, and furrowed rather than rugged.

The cedar grows well in a confined situation, where its trunk is
straight and bare of branches; and it changes its appearance so
much that it can scarcely be recognised, because, independently of

ON THE CEDAR OF LEBANON, ETC. 207

the difference which exists in all trees grown in confinement and
those grown in an open space, its leaves are not so closely huddled
together upon the branches, and are of a much lighter green.
The trunk of the cedar grown in a confined space appears to
acquire a much greater bulk than the larch does, judging by
what I have seen in the park of Fromont and in M. Guy’s garden,
the only places in France where I have found cedars grown in a
confined space, and I compared them with larches similarly
situated in my own park. ‘‘ When cedars are grown in clumps,”
Loudon says, Arboretum, vol. iv., p. 2425, “either by themselves
or mixed with other trees, they increase in size almost as rapidly
as the larch or the silver fir when exposed to the same treatment;
and perhaps it suffers no more than any other pine or fir from the
loss of its side branches.”

M. Renou says that in the forest of cedars situated near Blidah,
there is a mixture of these trees, from those of a venerable age to
plants of one year’s growth, but in some portions the clumps are
all of one age.

In the Bulletin des Seances de la Societé Royale et Centrale
d@ Agriculture, of the month of May 1844, there is a note about
the cedars of Mount Ciga near Teniat-el-Haad, Algeria, addressed
by the Minister of War to the President of the Society, in which
it is stated “the cedars which grow upon the Djebel-Ciga are
very abundant, and generally very large, but they are found of
all ages. The cedar propagates itself by seed; this propagation
is extremely easy, judging by the immense quantity of very young
cedars with which the ground is covered; but these young trees
are destroyed during the time of the great heat by the fire which
the Arabs light in the forests. In those parts of the mountain
which the fire has spared, the cedars, of from 15 to 20 feet in
height, are so close together that there is difficulty in getting
through. The cedars grow upon the northern slope of the moun-
tain. The ground that they occupy forms a horizontal zone of
from 600 to 700 yards in breadth by 4 leagues in length; this
zone of ground is about 1200 feet above the level of the sea.”

The Cedar of Lebanon can live for a long time upon high
mountains without decaying, as it is nearly four hundred years
since mention was first made by modern travellers of the cedars
on Mount Lebanon ; and these cedars, so remarkable on account
of their great size, are still in vigorous health. It appears that
the Cedar of Lebanon cannot survive so long in the plains of

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Europe. The two cedars in the Chelsea Botanic Garden, which
remain out of the four planted in 1683, are, says Loudon
(Arboretum, vol. iv., p. 2406), in a state of decay, which shows
that they had passed their maturity; but they are growing in a
poor sandy soil, mixed with gravel, resting at 2 feet deep on a
hard subsoil. The same author says (Arboretum, vol. i., p. 48)
that there is at Enfield a cedar which was in a state of decay in
1821, and this cedar is only at the utmost as old as those at
Chelsea. Amongst a great number of cedars planted in France
in 1735, the same year in which was planted the one in the
Jardin des Plantes, those growing in deep loam show no sign of
decay.

The cedar acquires during its early years a larger girth of stem,
but I do not believe that it attains to the same height as several
firs and pines in Europe; and in support of this belief, I give the
following measurements :—

Varennes de Fenille reports that the cedar in the Jardin des
Plantes in 1786, that is to say, fifty-two years after it was planted,
was 6 feet 7 inches in girth at 4 feet 6 inches from the ground.
M. L.-Deslongchamps says that he measured this cedar in 1812
at the same height, and that it then girthed 8 feet 8 inches;
in 1837 he measured it again, and found it 10 feet. I measured
this tree on the 27th of May 1844, when it girthed 10 feet, having
made no increase in the interval since 1837. I could not take its
girth at the ground, because it was surrounded with a bank of
stones, and its height was only 56 feet. I ought to mention that
they had earthed up the base of the tree, an injurious practice
which should be avoided, and in measuring the girth, allowance
had to be made for the height above the primitive soil. The
height of the tree would have been greater if its head had not
been broken about fifty years before by a musket shot. The soil
in which it grows is poor, and contains a great deal of plaster
brought from the demolitions in Paris. Allowing it to be one
hundred and fifteen years old in 1844, its leading shoot had made
an annual growth of nearly 6 inches to that date.

The cedar at Vrigny, planted in 1757 by Duhamel-Dumonceau,
was about eighty-four years old in 1844; and in the autumn of that
year its diameter at 3 feet from the ground was 5 feet, its height
was 80 feet, and the spread of its branches was 76 feet. At 13 feet
from the ground it divides into several forks, but as one of these
continues the trunk, the tree has a straight stem, The annual

ON THE CEDAR OF LEBANON, ETC. 209

increase in bulk of this cedar, calculated by its diameter at 3 feet
from the ground, has been one-sixth of an inch. Of the four
cedars planted also at Vrigny by Duhamel-Dumonceau in 1770,
the largest has a diameter of 3 feet 6 inches at 3 feet from the
ground, it is 78 feet in height, and its trunk is straight to the
very top. These trees are growing in a free and nourishing
sandy soil, mixed with heath-mould.

There is in the kitchen garden at Vrigny a cedar which was
raised in 1808 from the seed of the fine cedar just mentioned,
and was thirty-seven years old in 1844; it had borne for several
years male catkins, but it had not produced cones; it was 48 feet
in height, and its diameter was 20 inches, and its annual increase
till 1844 had been one-eighth of an inch,

Jaume Saint Hilaire has given, in the Annales de l Agriculture
Francaise for 1841, p. 204, the girths of a Cedar of Lebanon
planted in 1743 by Duhamel-Dumonceau on his estate of
Denainvilliers, near Pithiviers (Loiret). These measurements
were taken at 1 foot from the ground, at the following dates :—in
1753 it girthed 0°76 metre; in 1779, 1°86 m.; in 1786, 2:03 m. ;
in 1799, 2:35 m. ; in 1809, 2°65 m. ; in 1822, 3:14 m.; in 183],
3°44 m.; in 1835, 3:50 m. It is easy to calculate the annual
increase of this cedar at these different dates, supposing it was
six or eight years old when it was planted.

There is, in the district of Courteilles, in the garden of M. A.
Richard, a cedar which in 1843 was about fifty-one years old. I
found its diameter then to be 2 feet 8 inches, and its height 53
feet ; its trunk was divided at 7 feet 6 inches from the ground
into five large branches, almost vertical at their junction. The
annual increase of this tree had been up to 1843 one-seventh of
an inch.

Delamarre says, in the second edition of his Zvazté Pratique des
Pins, that the three largest cedars in France are the cedar in
the Jardin des Plantes, the cedar at Vrigny, and the cedar at
Montigny-Laucoup, Provins (Seine and Marne), planted by
Duhamel in the garden of M. de Trudaine. I have given the
dimensions of the two first of these trees. Delamarre says that
the last was then (1827) 13 feet 2 inches in girth at 4 feet 6 inches
from the ground. M. L.-Deslongchamps speaks of the same tree
in his Histoire du Cedre du Liban, and says that it required four
people to clasp it with their arms ; consequently the girth cannot
be less than 20 feet. This cedar grows in very good soil.

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The park of Fromont, at Ris (Seine and Oise), which belongs to
the Chevalier Soulange-Bodin, occupies a hill-side exposed to the
north, and which extends to the banks of the Seine. The soil on
the hill-side is of good free texture, on a calcareous rocky subsoil ;
in the valley the soil is deep, but it is sandy, flinty, and very poor.
There are, near the castle on the hill-side, two cedars planted in
1813, which, when measured on the 31st of July 1844, were—No.
1, 7 feet 3 inches in girth, and No. 2, 6 feet 2 inches; the
thickest was well branched, but did not appear to me to be more
than 55 feet in height, and the smallest 65 feet. Other cedars
had been planted ten years later, some singly, others in clumps.
Those which were in the middle of the park, that is to say, in the
most fertile soil, and which stood alone, girthed from 5 feet to
5 feet 6 inches ; and those grown in a confined state in the same
soil, girthed from 3 feet 6 inches to 4 feet, and about 50 feet in
height. Those on the highest part of the hill-side, where the
calcareous rock is nearest the surface, are grown close together,
and girthed from 3 feet to 4 feet, with a height of about 55 feet.
Lastly, those in the valley on the bad soil, and which stood alone,
girthed from 4 feet to 4 feet 6 inches, and from 3 feet to 4 feet
where they stood close together. The firs and pines, planted at
the same time as the cedars, were far from having attained similar
girths, and their height in clumps was also less,

M. Guy’s garden is situated upon a hill-side exposed to the
south-east, the soil has little depth, and the subsoil is a calcareous
stone, impenetrable by roots ; but in some places they have laid
down rubbish from the buildings pulled down in St Germains,
where they use plaster for building, the same as in Paris. Thus
this forced earth, upon which twenty-two cedars have been planted,
is of pretty much the same nature as the soil of the labyrinth in
which the cedar in the Jardin des Plantes is growing. It is
noticed that the cedar succeeds well here in such soil, and the
Pinus Laricio does middling, while the silver fir, Scots fir, and
larch are stunted, and the Weymouth pine does not do at all.
M. Guy, the father of the present proprietor, made the garden in
1775, and the cedars date from about that time. Several cedars
standing alone were, when I measured them on the 12th of
August 1844, more than 6 feet 6 inches in girth, the largest
being 7 feet 6 inches; and their height was from 40 feet to 50
feet. The cedars which were grown close together were less
thick, but they were taller. They appeared to be from 65 feet

ON THE CEDAR OF LEBANON, ETC. 211

to 70 feet in height, the girth of the thickest being 6 feet 7
inches.

Loudon (Arboretum, vol. iv., p. 2426) gives the dimensions
of several Cedars of Lebanon growing in Great Britain, I will
mention those of which he gives the age, and that have attained
a large size relatively to their age, and from these the annual
increase can easily be calculated.

At Luscombe, a cedar thirty years planted was 47 feet in
height, the trunk 2 feet 6 inches in diameter. At Farnham,
fifty years planted, 70 feet in height, diameter 4 feet. At
Ockham Park, thirty-four years planted, 45 feet in height,
diameter 2 feet 6 inches. At Bowood, fifty years planted, 60
feet in height, diameter 3 feet 6 inches. At Donnington Park,
eighty years planted, height 62 feet, diameter 8 feet 6 inches.
At Ditton Park, ninety years planted, 80 feet in height, diameter
5 feet. At Castle Ashby, age eighty years, height 72 feet,
diameter 5 feet. At Croome, eighty years planted, height 100
feet, diameter 5 feet. The same author says that at Whitton,
the Pinus maritimus, Scots fir, silver fir, and larch, growing in the
same soil and situation as the cedar, have not made nearly as large
a bole. It appears probable that many of the cedars in France
and England have been grown from seed prematurely taken from
the cones, and in consequence they cannot have attained the
dimensions they would have done had the seed been perfectly ripe.

In order to know the largest size to which these trees can attain,
we must examine them in their native habitats,—and first of all on
Mount Lebanon, where the oldest known cedars are found. M.
L.-Deslongchamps says that Corneille Le Bruyer, a Dutch traveller
who visited these cedars in 1682, measured one which was 57
palms, or about 40 feet, in girth; that Maundrell, an English
traveller, who visited them in 1697, measured one which he found
36 feet 6 inches in girth; and quotes a letter in which Dr Pariset,
a French traveller, who visited them on the 2nd of August 1829,
says that he did not measure any of them, but that they appeared
to him to be as large as the pillars in the Palace of Carnac at
Thebes, which are 42 feet in circumference. In the forest of
cedars that M. Bové found in travelling from Tiberias to
Damascus, these trees were, he said, from 3 feet to 18 feet in
girth, and their height over 50 feet. In Africa, in a forest of
cedars near Blidah, there are some from 12 feet to 16 feet in girth
at 3 feet from the ground. In the forests of Ouarenseris, cedars

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212 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

have been cut down whose diameter was so great that it was
necessary to join two blades of a saw, each 6 feet 6 inches long, in
order to fell them. The largest cedar upon Ciga was said to be
95 feet in height from the ground to the first branches, and the
stem varied from 5 feet 6 inches in diameter at the ground to
3 feet at the top. Cedars being more remarkable for their girth
than for their height, this height of 95 feet without branches,
appears to me extraordinary. It is probable that when all the
forests of Algeria are fully explored, cedars of a still larger
diameter will be found.

Loudon (Aboretum, vol. iv., p. 2426) says that the largest
of two cedars which then remained in the Botanic Garden at
Chelsea, was about 60 feet in height, and 5 feet in diameter at
4 feet 6 inches from the ground, and the other was nearly as large.
At Wilton House there were several fine cedars one hundred and
seventy years of age, and one of them 8 feet 8 inches in diameter
at 1 foot from the ground. The cedar at Donnington, which
is only eighty years old, and which I have mentioned already,
on account of the rapidity of its growth, is only 2 inches less in
diameter. At Chiswick there was a cedar 70 feet in height, with
a diameter of 4 feet 6 inches. The tallest cedar in England
appears to be at Strathfieldsaye ; it was 108 feet in height, with a
diameter of 3 feet. The tallest in the neighbourhood of London
was at Claremont; it was 100 feet in height, with a diameter of
5 feet 6 inches. The finest cedar in England is probably, aecord-
ing to Loudon, at Syon; it is 92 feet in height, with a diameter
at 3 feet from the ground of 8 feet, and the diameter of the spread
of its branches is 117 feet.

Climate, Exposure, and Soil.—It was believed for a long time
that the Cedar of Lebanon was only indigenous to Mount Lebanon
proper, about 18 miles east from Tripoli in Asia Minor. Miller
says (Gardener's Dictionary, vol. iv., p. 348, 1768), “The cedar
of Lebanon, celebrated from the earliest days, and which, a very
remarkable fact, is not found in any other part of the world except
on these mountains.” Nevertheless Pierre Belo, who travelled in
the Levant towards the middle of the 16th century, and who
first visited these cedars, saw some afterwards on Mount Amanus
and on Mount Taurus. M. Bové, formerly director of the farm of
Ibrahim Pacha at Cairo, during a botanical journey in Syria, in going
from Tiberias to Damascus, found on the 11th of October 1832,
between Sakhléhé and Der-el-Khamar, a forest of Cedars of Lebanon

ON THE CEDAR OF LEBANON, ETC. 213

covered with flowers; it occupied the top of a mountain on the
right hand of the road. Lastly, since the occupation of Algeria by
the French, this tree has been found in each of the three provinces,
Alger, Oran, and Constantine. There are forests of it, several
square leagues in extent, on the mountains of Ouarenseris, situated
in the province of Oran. There is also a magnificent forest of
cedars not far from Algiers, near Blidah, which covers about
12,644 acres.

Authors, such as Baudrillart, who say that Pallas found the Cedar
of Lebanon on the Altaian mountains in Siberia, are mistaken.
Pallas does not mention it in his Flora Rossica, and they must
have been misled by the common name of the Pinus cembra,
called ‘‘ Kedr” in Russian, a tree which is common on the Altaian
mountains; besides, the cedar could not stand the Siberian frost.

The Cedar of Lebanon has hitherto been only found a native
of warm climates, and there only on the highest slopes of the
mountains. Those on Mount Lebanon are at an elevation where
the snow lies for a long time, and where there are no habitations.
The large cedar forest in Atlas, near Blidah, is more than 1200
feet above sea-level. In Europe this tree has been successfully
cultivated, even in Scotland, where Loudon mentions (Arboretum,
vol. iv., p. 2427) some from 3 to 5 feet in diameter. They
have succeeded in growing it in Saxony, since, according to
Loudon, there was one at Worlitz planted sixteen years before, and
which was 25 feet in height.

The cedar appears to be sensitive to severe cold, and to the
alternations from frost to thaw so common in temperate climates,
as for example in France. Varennes de Fenille, in the article
‘“‘Tarix orientalis,” in his Memoire sur ladministration forestiere
(vol. ii, p. 447), says—“the winter of 1789, which was so
severe, killed most of the young cedars, whether they were covered
with snow or not; and though many of the large cedars survived,
they lost their leaves but put out new ones. All my cedars, the
oldest of which were planted in 1804, lost their leaves in the spring
of 1840, in consequence of a very mild February, which set the
sap flowing, being followed by very cold weather in March; they
became brown and fell off; but by far the largest number of cedars,
both in my neighbourhood and in the other central parts of France,
kept their leaves, as, for example, at two leagues distant, the cedar
at Courteilles did not suffer at all from the change from a high
temperature to a low one.”

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According to Loudon (Arboretum, vol. iv., p. 2412), the date of
the introduction of the cedar into England is uncertain. Aiton, in
his Hortus Kewensis, says that it had been introduced in 1683; but
as this was the year in which the Chelsea cedars were planted, which
were already 3 feet in height, they must have been introduced
some years before 1683. The cedar is much more largely cultivated
in England than in France, but only as an ornamental tree.

I cannot indicate the best exposure for the Cedar of Lebanon ;
it appears to thrive in all exposures in the centre of France, but it
may be otherwise on high mountains, such as the Alps. The finest
cedars in France are in the valleys; it is the same in England.
The Cedar of Lebanon is not particular as to soil, and it seems
possible to grow it in almost any soil. In the old gardens of the
Tivoli Palace, in Paris, there were a dozen which were thriving well
in 1844, though the calcareous subsoil was in some places at only a
foot from the surface. The cedars in the Bois de Boulogne, near
Paris, were also thriving tolerably well in a very poor soil, but it seems
that this tree cannot be grown in siliceous soil as poor as that in
which the P. sylvestris, P. Lavicio, and above all the P. marituma
can be successfully cultivated. M. de Larminat planted two hundred
and fifty cedars in 1825, in the forest of Fontainbleau, at the place
called Gorge-du-Houx, in very poor soil composed of white sand
under a layer of peat; P. sylvestris and P. maritima being also
planted there at the same time. In 1844 there only remained
thirteen out of the two hundred and fifty cedars, and five of these
had not grown at all, but were quite stunted. The tallest of the
other eight was 13 feet in height and 1 foot in girth; the P.
sylvestris of the same age, in the same place, were 35 feet in height
and 3 feet in girth; the P. maritima, 32 feet and 2 feet 6 inches.
The bad success of this plantation of cedars must be attributed to
the aridity of the site, because some which were transplanted by
M. Bois-D’hiver into good soil, throve afterwards. The soil which
seems to suit the Cedar of Lebanon best, is a deep sandy loam. It
is in soil of this nature that the fine cedar at Vrigny is grown ;
and near London, it is also, Loudon says, in a deep sandy loam
that they succeed best, as at Syon and Whitton.

Culture.—It is generally thought in France that it is impossible
to raise the Cedar of Lebanon successfully, except in pots or in
boxes which can be protected in winter. Delamarre says, in his
Truté Pratique, p. 139, “that the repeated attempts he has made
to raise cedars from seed sown in the open border have failed, and

ON THE CEDAR OF LEBANON, ETC. 215

that he has only obtained specimens from seeds sown in pots and
protected.” I think he is mistaken, because so many self-sown
plants spring up, which brave the severity of the winter, and succeed
as well as if they were protected, provided they are not destroyed
by accident. I have raised Cedars of Lebanon in the open border ;
but I have lost many of them, which may have been caused by the
seed which I had extracted with difficulty from the cones not being
thoroughly ripe.

I do not know whether it has ever been attempted to sow the
Cedar of Lebanon on a large scale in the open border. I presume,
however, that it could be done successfully if the seed employed was
perfectly ripe. The principal obstacle would be the difficulty of
procuring the seed in suflicient quantity. In fact, the seed which
is extracted with so much difficulty from the cones is generally soft,
and probably only retains its germinating powers for a short time.
If it is desired to gather the cones a short time before they would
shed their scales and seeds, in order to be certain that the seed was
perfectly ripe, it would be difficult to procure much, as the time of
ripening is so variable ; and, besides, if the process of germination
has commenced, the seed must be sown immediately.

Pruning appears to be more hurtful to the cedar than to any of
the other resinous trees; at least Loudon, who quotes Miller and
Boutcher, brings facts in support of this opinion. I have found that
the nibbling by hares of the lateral branches of newly planted
young cedars has generally killed them, whilst it has only retarded
the growth of pines, firs, and larches. Cedars must therefore be
pruned with the utmost reserve, beginning upon isolated trees, at
twelve years old, on the branches nearest the ground, at the rate of
one or two branches only in the year. When these trees are grown
close together, they prune themselves, but branches which are sickly
may at once be cut off, as they would soon perish.

Qualities and Uses of the Wood.—It was long believed, on the
authority of ancient testimony, that the wood of the cedar was
incorruptible, and that it was one of the best trees both for building
and fitting up ships. ‘The wood of this famous tree,” says Miller,
“is regarded as incorruptible.” We know assuredly that its wood
is light, because Varennes de Fenille found that a cubic foot of it,
when perfectly dry, only weighed 32 lbs. Baudrillart states that
Mussenbrack gives the weight of the cubic foot of this wood at
42 lbs. 14 0z., and Hassenfratz at 57 Ibs., differences which
were probably caused by the unequal dryness of the wood,

216 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

M. L.-Deslongchamps says that it has a strong resemblance to the
wood of the pine, and still more to that of the fir; that the section of
the trunk of a cedar is more like that of a silver fir than any other
resinous tree. ‘‘ The wood of the cedar,’ says this author, “ burns
quickly, crackling a great deal, and does not give as much heat as
the oak, hornbeam, wych elm, or beech; its charcoal is very light,
and yields very little heat, and is quickly reduced to ashes, like that
of the poplar and the willow.” Loudon, who was in a position to
gather a great deal of information on the subject, since the cedar
was cultivated sooner and in much larger quantities in England
than in France, says (Arboretum, vol. iv., p. 2417)—“ the wood of
the cedar is of a reddish-white ; light and spongy, easily worked,
but very apt to shrink and warp, and by no means durable. A
plank of cedar compared with planks of Scots fir grown in England,
was found to be inferior to them in strength.”

Diseases and Accidents.—In reference to these I cannot do better
than quote the words of Loudon (Arboretum, vol. iv., p. 2425) :—
“The strong and spreading branches of the cedar are liable to be
broken by the weight of the abundant snow which sometimes over-
whelms them; but this tree is less liable to be blown down by the
wind than the pine, fir, or larch, which have not, as this has, large
and strong branches near to the ground. It is not subject to
disease, and from what we have observed is less liable to be attacked
by insects than any other species of the pine tribe.”

Cedrus atlantica.—I believe that only two authors have yet
written on the Silver, or Mount Atlas Cedar—M. Renou, in his
‘“‘ Notice sur les foréts de Cédres de l’Algérie,” from which I have
quoted some passages; and M. Durien de Maison-Neuve, Mem-
ber of the Scientific Commission of Algiers, The observations of
M. Durien were transmitted to the Academy of Science by
M. Bory, of St Vincent, in a memoir entitled “Sur les Cédres
de l’Atlas et l'emploi de leur bois dans les constructions mauresques
d’Alger ;” and this memoir has been inserted in the Compte rendu
des séunces de ?Académie Sciences, vol. xviii., No. 24 (June 10,
1844).

Loudon, in the article on ‘ Cedrus Libani” (Arboretum, vol. iv.,
p. 2402), mentions a variety Foliis argenteis, but he says that the
leaves are of a silvery colour on both sides, while those of the Silver
Cedar of Algeria have this colour only on the under side. He adds
that there are some beautiful trees of it at Whitton and at Pains
Hill, and he is astonished that the nurserymen have never taken

ON THE CEDAR OF LEBANON, ETC. 217
the trouble to increase this beautiful variety. M. Renou thinks
that the Cedar of Lebanon and the Silver Cedar (Cedrus atlantica)
form two well-defined varieties, while M. Durien says that the
silver colour of the leaves is only an accident,

M. Renou, who was the first to mention the Silver Cedar, says, in
the notice before referred to, that these trees occupy the forest near
Blidah, which covers an area of about 12,000 acres, and there attain
greater dimensions than the Cedar of Lebanon. It is not rare, he
says, to find them 8 to 10 feet in girth, standing a few feet apart ;
and far from presenting any signs of decay, appear on the contrary
making their greatest growth. M. Renou gives some drawings of
the flowers and cones of the two varieties of cedars, and it is seen
that the flowers and cones are perfectly alike ; also, he has given
but one description of these organs. He points out the difference
between the two varieties, as follows :—‘‘The cedars in this forest
present two well-defined varieties. The first appears to resemble
exactly the species acclimatised in France for a century under the
name of ‘Cedar of Lebanon.’ The second differs considerably
from the first; the leaflets are broader, yet not longer, they straighten
themselves in taking their proper contour, as if they intended to
converge to a common summit, which gives to the small clusters a
roundish form, The decided character of this tree is that upon the
top of these leaflets is a dull white colour, which produces upon the
green shade of the leaves a silvery whitish appearance. The cones,
before their maturity, have at the point of their scales a patch of
this silvery tint, which is always less apparent than that on the
leaflets. The branch which supports the cluster of leaves also
presents a rather decided contraction of its lower part; but it is
thicker than in the first variety, and the small crowns which remain
after the fall of the leaflets are more decided. The branches extend
themselves equally in horizontal layers ; but they bend much more
towards the ground than those of the first variety. This peculiarity
appears, besides, to have been attributed to the difference in the
weight of the leaflets, which in the Silver Cedar (Cedrus atlantica)
are thicker and more covered with leaves, the lower layers bend
much less than those of the Green Cedar (Cedrus Libant), and there
is less disproportion between the length of the branches as they near
the top. Its bark is of an ashy grey, thick, rugose, and formed of
scales, which break off in particles when the tree has attained a
certain age.”

The wood of the Silver Cedar is of a whitish shade of yellow; its

218 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

texture is rather close, and presents a certain homogeneousness, but
is less heavy than that of the Green Cedar.

The differences which exist in the height and the colour of the
leaves of these two trees are, besides, so apparent, that, to an eye
a little practised, the difference between them may be easily dis-
tinguished at a distance.

M. Durien went over the same forest of cedars that had been
gone over by M. Renou, and found there were not two species, as
had been presumed on entirely incorrect information, and it was
difficult to consider them even as simple varieties. The colour of
the foliage depended upon various circumstances, but principally
upon the age of the tree. In fact, says our learned traveller, I
have observed a large number of cedars which present the two tints
of foliage strongly marked, with intermediate shades, on the same
tree ; yet some of the largest, and consequently the oldest, trees
presented only the silvery colour, which gave to them an appearance
quite peculiar.

If the observations made by M. Renou are exact, it appears
evident that there are two varieties of cedars in the forest of Blidah,
the Green Cedar, and the Silver Cedar, and admitting the accuracy
of the observations of M. Durien, they do not prove that M. Renou
is mistaken. It may, in fact, be possible that the leaves of the
Silver Cedar do not take the silvery tint until a certain age. It is
not known that the leaves of the Cedar of Lebanon take the white
colour when they grow old. Nothing of this is recorded as having
been observed upon Mount Lebanon, where there are very aged trees ;
nor in England, where some are already in a state of decrepitude ;
nor yet in France, where many are approaching maturity, if they
have not yet reached it.

Cedrus Deodara (the Deodar, or Indian Cedar).—Roxburgh,
the first naturalist who observed the Indian Cedar, gave it the
name of Cedrus Deodara. The common name, ‘ Indian Cedar,”
recalls its native country. The Indians call it “ Devadaru” or
“ Devdar,” says Roxburgh, and they consider it a sacred tree. This
tree is chiefly known from what has been said about it by Lambert
and Loudon, and from botanists and travellers, who have observed
it in its native habitats in India. From these sources we learn that
the Indian Cedar is a native of the north of India, in Nepaul, and
the Indo-Tartar mountains, where it is sometimes found growing at
the height of 4500 feet above the level of the sea. Its botanical
characters are the same as those of the Cedar of Lebanon ; but its

ON THE CEDAR OF LEBANON, ETC. 219

cones, flowers, and leaves differ a little from that tree in colour, and
its cones are also thicker and its leaves larger. It is distinguished
from the Cedar of Lebanon at first sight by its young shoots, which
hang down like those of the weeping willow, but which become
straight in the autumn and following spring. This disposition of
its shoots, and the pyramidal form of the tree, give to it a most
graceful appearance. It acquires magnificent proportions in India,
where it attains the height of 150 feet, with a circumference of
30 feet.

Its wood differs much from that of the Cedar of Lebanon ; it is
very compact, very resinous, diffuses an agreeable perfume, and
appears possessed of qualities which the ancients attributed to the
wood of the Cedar of Lebanon. It takes such a beautiful polish
that a section 4 feet in diameter, sent by Wallich to Lambert,
appeared to be a piece of agate. The wood of this tree is employed
in the manufacture of all kinds of things. It is so lasting that it is
used as a shelter exposed to the air or in water. It has been found
perfectly sound in the timber-work of Indian temples, which were
not less than two hundred years old. Dr Lindley says that Moor-
croft sent him a piece of this wood, which was part of the bridge of
Zein-ool-Kuddul at Ladak, where it had been exposed to the water
for almost four hundred years. Loudon, who tells this fact
(Arboretum, vol. iv., p. 2431), does not say in what condition this
wood was. ‘The same author repeats after Moorcroft, that Rajah-
Schah had employed in the construction of a house some of this
wood, still quite sound, although procured from the ruins of an
edifice built two hundred and twenty-five years before by the
Emperor Akbar.

The Deodar, or Cedar of India, was introduced into Britain,
in 1831, by Mr Leslie Melville. It has grown and thriven per-
fectly in the open air, even in the north of Scotland, and it has been
found more robust than the Cedar of Lebanon, and does not
appear to suffer much from the severe winters nor late frosts.

Loudon says (Arboretum, vol. iv., p. 2432) that the price of
cedar plants in the London nurseries in 1838 was two guineas
each.

220 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

XV. Notes on Tree Planting at San Jorge, Uruguay, South
America. By Cuartes E. HALL, of San Jorge.

Sitwation.—The estate of San Jorge lies in lat. 32° 43’ §.,
long. 56° 8’ W., about 160 miles N. of Monte Video, and about
the same distance from the sea, the river Uruguay, and the
Brazilian frontier. The altitude of the highest ground above
sea-level is probably 400 feet, falling to 280 feet on the lowest
ground.

Preliminary.—San Jorge was originally the name of an estate
of about 330 square miles, belonging to the late Mr Thomas Fair
of Edinburgh, sold off in portions and at various dates since the
year 1867. The head station became my property in 1876, and
now, with about 10} square miles of land, retains the old name.
In 1876, in the garden-ground round the house, there were about
180 robinias (2. Pseud-Acacia), 120 Lombardy poplars, 50
paraisos (Melia Azedarach); a few ornamental trees, perhaps 20 ;
and about 320 fruit-trees, chiefly pears, apples, oranges, figs,
peaches, and quinces, also a few apricots, plums, cherries, pome-
granates, and vines, I shortly after planted a few more fruit-
trees; andin July 1880 made my first small plantation of trees
for business purposes.

Character of Country.—Uruguay is almost universally bare of
natural woods, save along the margins of streams and rivers.
The country is undulating, generally pretty well watered, with
low hill-ranges, some rather stony, some with no surface stone, of
no great elevation over the dividing water-courses, in few cases
rising more than 100 feet over the nearest running water, and
generally descending to the water-course levels by easy slopes,
These water-courses do not invariably and always contain water.
Such is the character of the San Jorge district, and of much of
the western and southern parts of Uruguay. To the north and
east the land is more rocky, the hills bolder and higher, wood
more frequent, and not entirely confined to the banks of streams,
being sometimes found in clumps in rocky dells. But even in
Southern and Western Uruguay, tala (Celtis Tala) and espinillo
(Acacia Farnesiana) are in a few parts found on dry stony hill-
tops or plateaux. The imperishable “jfiandubay,” which no
drought affects, is also an exception to the rule that woods grow
exclusively on the banks of streams,

Indigenous trees, besides the three above mentioned, are not

NOTES ON TREE PLANTING AT SAN JORGE, URUGUAY. 221

very numerous ; the most valuable being coronillo (Scutia buai-
folia), molle (Duvaua dependens), ‘‘vivaré,” guayavo (Letjoa
Sellowiana), and willow (Salia Humboldtiana). There are
other kinds that seem to be useless except for firing; and the
“mataojo” (kill-eye) (Lucuma Sellowti) is not even useful for
that, so pungent is its smoke. When the water in a stream
begins to be fairly permanent, the Sarandi shrub (Cephalanthus
Sarandi) is to be found, interspersed a little farther down with
mataojos, willows, molles, possibly some ceibos (E£rythrina
Crista-galli) or laurels (Oreodaphne acutifolia); and as the
stream gains in width, so does the belt of trees on the banks,
until it reaches the main water-course, which for the San Jorge
district is the Rio Negro. But the last thirty years have seen
many streams, formerly well wooded, denuded of their trees; and
even in the woods of the Rio Negro, that vary from two or three
hundred yards to, in some parts, more than a thousand yards in
width, the felling of wood, in season and out of season, has been
carried on so recklessly that the best qualities of wood are now
becoming very scarce, and all wood sensibly diminished in
quantity. There are parts of the Rio Negro where the banks are
not wooded, but these are few and far between; and they occur
where the banks are high, and are never overflowed, even when
the river is swollen with excessive rain, A small stream some-
times collects the rainfall from a large district, and is promptly
converted by heavy rain into an impassable furious flood, over-
flowing its banks to a very great width in some places, and
sometimes covering the tops of all but the highest willows ; these
streams run into each other, and eventually the Rio Negro
receives them all, and its stream is enormously multiplied ; what
might in ordinary weather be a stream of 80 to 200 yards width,
after heavy rain becomes in some parts a river 4 miles broad or
even more. ‘This periodical, or rather occasional, inundation
leaves much debris of vegetable matter among the woods on the
banks ; and the trees, though many of them are entirely sub-
merged for a period of from two or three days to perhaps as
many weeks, do not seem to suffer at all. Nor do they appear
to suffer when, as has happened, more than two years have
elapsed without any flood. Grassy glades exist here and there
among these natural woods of the Rio Negro, and cattle come in
to browse, but do not appear to do serious harm even to the
young plants, that follow the path of the woodcutter’s axe,

222 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

‘These occasional inundations effectually prevent the formation of
the nests of the black or leaf-cutting ants, probably the greatest
foe to wood-planting in Uruguay.

The soil of San Jorge district is of very varied character, in
some parts a deep, stiff, black clay, difticult to work, but very rich;
in others light black loam, intermixed with sand; there are also
some patches of gravelly soil, apparently old moraines, excellent
for trees ; and in some parts a cold grey clay occurs, pretty deep,
that holds water long, never grows good grass, and is our worst
land. The stone is chiefly amygdaloidal; there is also a good
deal of conglomerate sandstone ; some true felspathic sandstone,
approaching tuffa in composition ; a little quartzite, grey and liver
coloured ; and there is also a dyke running across, of close-grained
voleanic rock,

Meteorological.—The mean annual temperature, as ascertained
by me from nine years’ observations, taken at San Jorge by the
generally received scientific methods, is 60°°9 F.; spring and
autumn averages running from 72° maxima to 49° minima,
summer from 84°°7 to 58°-4, and winter from 60°5 to 41°:3.
December, January, and February are taken as summer months,
June, July, and August as winter months. The highest shade
temperature recorded in nine years is 101°, and the lowest 23°.
The daily range of temperature for spring and autumn is 22°3,
for summer 26°°3, and for winter 19°°2, The average annual
rainfall is 46 inches, falling on 94 days, and with a duration of
329 hours per annum, April is the rainiest month, and then
September ; February being the driest. There is an amount of
cloud of 1670 out of a possible 3650; thus it may be said that
on 4 days out of 9 clouds hide a sky, which for the other 5 days
is cloudless. There is an annual average of 2836 hours of sun-
shine out of a possible 4368} hours. The average dew-point
ranges between 48°°3 for winter to 60°-9 for summer, and relative
humidity from 53°°6 for summer to 78°:2 for winter; spring and
autumn averages being at almost equal points between summer
and winter. It is not at all infrequent to find an inch of rain
falling in one hour; 3 or 4 inches have also been measured for
durations of five and six hours, The two years July 1886 to June
1888 gave 65 inches of rain, or 32} inches per annum, whereas
the twelve months July 1888 to June 1889 gave 79 inches.
These meteorological notes, extracted from a record of nine years,
show that the climate is variable, and its extremes accentuated.

NOTES ON TREE PLANTING AT SAN JORGE, URUGUAY. 223

Long droughts prevail sometimes, and sometimes long-continued
rains; and neither can be forecasted. In 63 days, between
lst February and 4th April 1881, only 0°86 inch of rain fell ;
in such hot weather this amount would have no perceptible
influence on growth; it might suffice to wash dust off leaves and
grass, and on the parched ground would run into the land-cracks.
As there is a decided growth of grass in autumn, when rains
assist, that year there was but poor winter feed for cattle. In
65 days from 28th June to 2nd September 1886, only 1:01
inch of rain fell. This drought caused little or no harm, as
little or no growth can be expected in these months. A more
serious drought succeeded from 21st September 1886 to 13th
January 1887, 114 days, when only 6°40 inches of rain fell ; this
term following a dry winter, and embracing all spring and half
summer ; and this was not all, as the remaining half of the same
summer, with the following autumn and the beginning of winter,
167 days from 14th January to 30th June 1887, only obtained
12°76 inches of rain.

There was plenty of rain in spring 1880 and early summer
following ; but had the season, July 1880 to June 1881, when I
first began tree-planting, proved as dry as the seasons 1886-87
and 1887-88, I should probably not have repeated the experi-
ment; the season, however, on the whole, was fairly moist, and
the rains were distributed with some degree of equality. Thus,
though we had had no experience as to the best mode of planting
trees, our success encouraged us to try again; and when in after
years newly-planted trees, on two or three occasions, suffered
from long-continued frosts, or from prolonged summer droughts,
I have looked on these failures as on incidents that may occur in
all businesses. As examples of frosts, I extract from my records
that for five nights running in July 1886 the average minimum
thermometer was 32°, the highest minimum record being 34° in
a sheltering instrument box, 4 feet above grass. In this same
July, for another period of seven nights running, the average
minimum was 29°:3, the highest minimum record being 33°, In
the following August, one period of five nights averaged 31°, with
a highest minimum of 34°; and another period of six nights
averaged 30°°3, with a highest point of 32°. The lowest tem-
peratures to which the trees were exposed on different nights of
these periods were 29° four times, 28° twice, 27°, and 24°.

Amount of planting done, chiefly since July 1880, for though

224 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

a few trees were previously added to the 700 existing in January
1876, I do not think they were more than 100 or 200. My
“Plantation Estimate” for April 1889 shows that I have, on
about 150 acres, at least 74,200 trees, as thus :—

33,250 robinias (2. Psewd-Acacia),
18,260 blackwoods (Acacia melanoxylon),
19,560 Lombardy poplars,

3,130 sundry trees,

and I have since then planted about 5000 more, on about 10
additional acres. But I have not ventured to estimate the multi-
plication of trees, resulting from replacing the felled robinias,
poplars, or blackwoods ; there are doubtless many thousands of
these young plants.

The earliest, and the subsequent methods of planting, differed
slightly. The first trees were planted thus: holes about 2 feet
wide and 15 inches deep were dug in lines, 10 feet apart, and the
earth heaped up alongside; after a month or so we began planting
out young robinias, being plants that had sprung from the cut
roots of other robinias ; also blackwoods, plants grown from seed
by ourselves, and about ten months old; we filled in the earth
with care. Robinias did well, but many blackwoods died.

The next season, having found that leaving the holes open
sometimes gave extra work in baling out water after heavy rain,
we dug the holes just as they were required to receive the trees,
and filled in with surface mould; also, we were much more
careful to keep the soil in which the young blackwoods were
growing still well adherent to their roots, carrying the plants
carefully in boxes, ete. This season we were more successful, and
arrived at the conclusion that robinias bore transplantation so
well that no special care was wanted for them. We then tried a
poplar plantation on a dry slope of ploughed ground, putting in
cuttings 4 feet apart, with about three eyes above and three eyes
below ground, ‘These did fairly well; better about the middle of
the slope than where it died off to a level. But we unwisely
utilised the ploughed land by sowing pumpkins, melons, etc.,
among the cuttings, and the strong winds blowing their vines
about the young tree-cuttings did harm. We also had extra
work with weeds, not having kept them well hoed down.

The succeeding season we ploughed up about 9 acres in January,
cross-ploughed and harrowed in May or June, and then put in

or

NOTES ON TREE PLANTING AT SAN JORGE, URUGUAY. 22

blackwoods and robinias in 10-foot lines, digging but small holes,
the earth being nicely pulverised for filling in. We had heavy
rains whilst this work was going on, and the ground being
sloping, our young plants were frequently washed out and carried
down to the bottom of the slope,—doubtless many plants were
thus replanted two or three times,—but as a whole the plantation
was fairly successful, and I have since invariably ploughed up
land in midsummer for plantation at the end of winter with
rooted tree-plants.

Forms of Plantations.—The first plantation on land purposely
ploughed up for it was an irregular quadrilateral ; and in subse-
quent years I planted some parallelograms, some 120 yards, some
100, and one 80 yards broad, ploughing prairie-land in January,
cross-ploughing and harrowing in May and June, when the land
was fenced in with a five-wire elastic fence, and the trees planted
in rows 10 feet apart. These tree-plants were obtained from
nurseries made the previous August or September, almost
entirely of robinia and blackwood. For the very first planta-
tions I availed myself of young plants of robinia that had sprung
up from roots of older trees cut down; and every season I have
some of this class of young plant to put out.

For the last three or four years I have preferred to plant long
belts, 40 yards wide; these belts I do not cross-plough ; but a
second ploughing in May leaves the ground in fair condition. I
do not think the trees do so well in the narrow belts as in the
wider plantations; but consider that other gains balance this loss.
The belts are planted along the side of a field, utilising the field
fence for one side, and the belt thus soon gives shelter to two
fields ; and for the same outlay for young trees and plough-work,
the length of doubled fence, filled in with woods growing between
two fields, is doubled in proportion to whether the belt be 40 or
80 yards wide. Thus a narrow belt will sooner completely
separate the stock of two adjoining fields; and a scabby sheep in
one field (they always will rub against wires and fence-posts) will
not then communicate the disease to sheep in an adjoining field.
The advantage of this especially applies to boundaries with
neighbours, from whom before long my land will be separated by
belts of trees.

Classes of Trees Planted; and Where, and Why.—When the
ground of a plantation dips, where it crosses a stream or hollow,
I plant cuttings of poplars and willows about 4 feet apart, even

226 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

where the plough has not been able to turn over the uneven
ground,

Experience has shown that in hollows the blackwoods suffer
and even die from the severer frosts, so we now keep them chiefly
to the slopes and higher grounds, where the frosts do them little
or no harm.

Robinias do not perceptibly suffer from frosts, but do not like
marshy or low ground, where, even if they grow at first, many
plants subsequently die out.

I have planted poplars on high ground with good success, but
none do so well as those planted in low ground with good surface
natural drainage.

I have also planted a few paraisos ; they do fairly well; also a
few sorts of coniferee, some blue gums, and others eucalypti,
catalpas, mulberries (from cuttings), and many other trees, some
few indigenous, but only a few of each sort. Lately I have
planted out one hundred or more young English oaks from acorns
produced by some few older oaks on the place, and purpose con-
tinuing the plantation of these, of mulberry cuttings, and of
cuttings of Carolina poplar (cotton wood?), which grows very
fast, and which I think a convenient plant to put in where young
transplanted trees have failed; a man can easily and quickly fill
in gaps with cuttings, but to fill in gaps with young rooted trees
is a long and costly job.

Acacia mollissima or dealbata (silver wattle) grows wonder-
fully fast, but is troublesome to rear as a young plant; the same
is true of the Eucalyptus family. Acacia lophantha grows par-
ticularly fast, but I fear will not suit: I planted out 1000
rather well-grown plants in August 1889, and am informed that
all subsequently died, probably, or certainly, from a severe
succession of frosts.

Economic Reasons for and against certain Trees.—I want trees
to give shelter to stock, to yield serviceable posts for wire-fencing,
and timber for hut or rancho building, and roofs thereof, and
eventually perhaps planking for various purposes, also for fire-
wood. Robinias give excellent durable posts at ten or twelve
years old; if the tree is cut in proper season it grows up quickly
from the roots. It yields trifling shelter in winter-time, but its
topwood is excellent for firing. It is not very greatly persecuted
by the black leaf-cutting ant, or by other insects.

Blackwood gives excellent shelter, being evergreen, and is very

NOTES ON TREE PLANTING AT SAN JORGE, URUGUAY. 227

good firewood ; as a post, it does not last in the ground, but it
splits up most readily into the light bars, through holes in which
the wires of our so-called swinging or elastic fences are passed,
and for which there is a considerable demand. It would saw up
into useful planks at ten years old. Poplars sell easily for hut or
rancho roofs, and if allowed to grow long enough, would doubtless
give good planks for flooring, for sheep-hurdles, etc. A four or
five year old poplar plantation, at 4 feet between the trees,
breaks the wind admirably, even when the trees are bare.
Poplars suffer from ants, but generally manage to survive their
attacks ; they are most easily planted, and reproduce themselves
manyfold after cutting. The same is true of the blackwood, and
this, according to our experience, does not suffer from black ants,
though I am told that some people have found that the ants do
cut the leaves of this tree.

Firewood is always saleable. Quick-growing trees that reproduce
themselves are of course best for this purpose. Acacia mollissima
(silver wattle) is, I think, the quickest grower we have, unless
it be Acacia lophantha, and it reproduces itself when cut in good
season ; but it is especially persecuted by ants, which makes it
a very expensive tree. The same holds good of the Eucalyptus
family, so far as I have tried them; moreover, these do not seem
to reproduce themselves when cut; they are susceptible to frost
in low grounds, and when well grown, trees are troublesome to
split for firewood. Pinus pinea grows handsomely, but is greatly
troubled by ants, as are also P. insignis, P. maritima, P.
canariensis, and others I have tried. The only conifer I have
that the ants don’t attack is a small but healthy specimen of
Norway spruce brought from Chester nine years ago, and now
about 5 feet high. If Acacia lophantha will not suit, I believe
the best trees to grow for firing purposes will be found to be
blackwoods and Carolina poplars.

The indigenous trees grow very slowly when transplanted from
their natural habitats, the occasionally submerged margins of
streams. Ants damage some of them, but not very much. The
moist air along the river banks, and the cooler ground under the
trees of the native woods, must offer to a young tree a pleasing con-
trast to a hill-side, or even valley, in the open ground, where no
trees keep the soil cool or retain moisture, and where the heavy
rains tend to carry fertilising vegetable matter to the river-courses,
where much of this is deposited among the growing trees and

VOL, XIII. PART II. Q

228 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

brushwood, and much, unfortunately, swept away to be deposited
miles out at sea. I hope to be able to secure ripe seeds of some
of the indigenous trees, and when some of the hollows now
planted are partly covered with wood, to try young indigenous
plants in gaps therein. I could not count upon getting young
plants from the natural woods in any number, nor at the time
when required, and they would undoubtedly prove costly.

The tala (Celtis Tala), indigenous on the Campos, grows well
from cuttings, though I have not been very successful myself ;_
but we plant cuttings of this and mulberry in nursery beds, and
then plant out after a year. The tala grows fairly fast, and is a
useful wood.

Acer pseudo-platanus grows tolerably well, and is not much
troubled by ants ; the same may be said of the paraiso. But all
these are slow-growing in comparison with blackwood, and do not
give the same shelter as that evergreen. Though I have not tried
Acer pseudo-platanus as a post, I am sure neither it nor any of
the others can compare with robinia for duration below ground.

Nine years ago I had a consignment of British trees from
Messrs Dickson of Chester, for curiosity and ornament. Several
sorts of sycamore have done fairly, beeches also, and a lime sur-
vives ; some elms and ashes are growing, andalsoa holly. Horse-
chestnuts live, and that is all they do. Birches died; lilacs and
others were quite killed by ants. Ashes also suffer much from ants.
But all these trees are very small. They all look lively towards
end of autumn, get along well through winter, and burst out
bravely in spring; but when the hot north winds blow and
drought is felt, their leaves get dry, fall off, and the tree gives in
until the cooler autumn returns. The beech and holly I think
do the best, and then the elm.

These British trees are planted on a rising-ground, and have
never had any “nurses”; if they had had, possibly they might
have grown very much better.

When I made my first nine-acre plantation on ploughed land, I
utilised the ground by sowing three rows of maize between the
rows of trees. In summer the maize overtopped the trees and
kept the ground cool; in winter the dry stalks (for I pulled the
maize-cobs instead of cutting down the stalks) sheltered the
young trees to some extent from winds. And this I did a second
year also, but feared to do it a third year, the trees being well
grown-up and liable to injury by our clumsy oxen working the

NOTES ON TREE PLANTING AT SAN JORGE, URUGUAY. 229

plough among them. And in every plantation of trees grown 10
feet apart, I have continued this practice of sowing three rows of
maize for two years, partly for nursing purposes, and partly to
recoup my expense in ploughing and fencing the land. I have
also latterly sometimes sown two rows of maize only in the third
year.

Damages to plantations, except from droughts and frosts, are
not numerous. The black leaf-cutting ant is certainly the worst ;
and it is only by choosing for planting the trees not greatly affected
by them, that this trouble may be almost avoided. However,
even with trees that greatly suffer from the black ant, success
may be obtained, but at an enhanced cost. Ants of course do
their damage in the early years of a tree’s life, and protection
may be afforded a tree by isolating its trunk from the surrounding
ground with a 4 inch wide zinc cylinder, 6 inches high, with a
2 inch “brim” soldered to the top of the cylinder at an angle of
45°; the ants cannot turn the angle where the brim is united to
the cylinder.

Other mechanical devices are used to keep the ants from getting
at a young tree stem, all troublesome, all more or less expensive,
and all requiring attention, to see that no casual bridge is formed
anywhere.1 The radical cure is extirpation of the ants ; and
though that can be done where there are many neighbours, all
helping, in valuable land near towns, it is impossible in the open
country—and even the destruction of nests is expensive, though
we do it in the neighbourhood of seed-beds of the gardens and
orchards, etc. This ant cuts off and carries to its nest leaves and
twigs at its own discretion, carefully discriminating between
classes of plants; it is my belief that all this harvest is stored
in the subterranean nests, and subsequently devoured, and
that probably after having undergone some fermentation. For
this idea of the necessity of fermentation I am indebted to a
friend, a doctor, and most observant man, who lived for some
years on San Jorge land. It is certain that ants like working in
early morning whilst the dew lies, desist during the hot hours of
the day in summer, and are most noticeably active just after a
shower. In winter they do not work until the frost has quite
disappeared. When a nest has-been destroyed, in the efficient
way in which we do it, some ants certainly escape, perhaps chiefly

1 Cyanide of potassium and other poisons are useful to keep down their

numbers.

230 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

in the long tunnels connecting their nests with the open air, and
these scatter abroad, and probably form three or four new colonies,
small to begin with, but very revengeful of the wrong done
to the parent nest.

In the San Jorge district the great devouring locust has as yet
appeared only in very small numbers, and very rarely, I am
grateful to record. The smaller locust, perhaps more properly a
cricket, though a terrible scourge to pasture, does no harm, so
far as I have observed, to trees, but I think it might do so.
This insect plague is not, however, always with us, like the
ants, and years may elapse before a destructive season or two is
repeated.

A white borer-worm, or grub, perforated in all directions the
trees in an avenue of paraisos I made perhaps ten years ago, and
the young branches decayed and fell off, but after a year or two
the plague or borer-worm apparently left the trees, and they have
grown since excellently well. I think the trees were perhaps
three years old when this attack was made on them. In planta-
tions made where long coarse grass is abundant, either inside or
outside the plantation, the young trees are liable to be barked to
death by the wild guinea-pig (Cavia aperca). I have also had
willows and osier-willows, planted in boggy islands in the middle
of swamps made by streams, barked and killed by, I certainly
believe, the nutria (Myopotamus coypus); now, I am sorry to
say, rather a rare animal with us. If cattle get into the fenced
plantations they rub off branches, and do damage; and at one
time I purposely admitted sheep into plantations, partly to keep
down grass and partly for the shelter; but they nibbled off
young shoots coming up from cut-down trees, and rubbed
themselves against the bark of well-grown trees, and have
since been banished as much as possible from the inside of our
plantations.

General Remarks.—The grass naturally grows very rank and
long in these ploughed plantations, and I always fear what the
accidental or intentional dropping of a lighted match or cigarette
might do: so far no loss has occurred thus. But I hope that I
may now obviate this great danger to some extent by cutting the
grass for hay, baling it up, and possibly obtaining a sale sufficient
at any rate to pay the expenses of this partial insurance, I have
tried hedge-making or planting inside the wire fence, but have
not yet succeeded in getting a good hedge, partly perhaps from

NCTES ON TREE PLANTING AT SAN JORGE, URUGUAY. 231

having been too chary of expense in the first planting of the
hedges, and partly perhaps because I have not yet found out any
plant sufliciently good for the purpose.

I invariably prune robinias and poplars, the former up to
perhaps 5 feet high, thinning out upper branches also, when too
numerous, and the latter up to 7 feet high. The blackwoods, I
consider, are better when left unpruned, having tried pruning
them up to 5 feet or so. The various other trees I have planted
in small numbers have also been attended to in this fashion.
And for this sort of pruning I like to choose the height of
summer, as the trees do not then send out from the cut branch a
multiplicity of young branches.

When preparing wood for sale, I have made a practice of
barking the trees within twenty-four hours of cutting them down.
The bark comes off most easily, and I daresay its economic value
as fuel, when dry, nearly pays the expense of barking; and I
believe the wood for posts, or for roof, rafters, etc., lasts better
when peeled. I believe the very end of summer and all autumn
is the best time for felling blackwoods, robinias, and poplars,
taking into consideration that I wish for well-ripened wood, and
for reproduction from the tree-stumps.

All the lop-wood is serviceable for firewood. In future days, if
the amount of lop-wood becomes unmanageable, I fancy a large
proportion might be convertible into charcoal, and think that this
would be easily saleable.

Almost all European fruit-trees do well, pears perhaps the best
of any. Oranges are not so sweet as those of Paraguay and
Brazil, tropical climates, but are particularly clean and free from
the sort of mildew that marks with small dark specks or lines the
generality of tropical-grown oranges. Apples are not particularly
good ; peaches, nectarines, and apricots, if carefully cultivated, are
good, but by no means equal to British fruit. Walnuts and
olives do well. Quinces suffer much from worms inside them
in many seasons; the plant itself grows so freely from cuttings
that I have made hedges of quince; and where protected
from sheep and cattle it makes a fine thick hedge, but of
course of no great utility. Figs grow most luxuriantly,
so do vines, where the science of viticulture is understood.
Wine-making will probably before long become an important
industry in Uruguay.

For some few years I have been taking monthly measurements,

232 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

at a marked line, of sundry trees, and find that the average
annual increment in girth at 3 feet from the ground of—

Blackwoods is about 3 inches.
Poplars a 24,
Robinias - 1b ee.
Silver Wattles pe bt Cs,
Oaks and Paraisos ___,, oe ee
Kucalyptus . 34s,

The evergreens seem to have no distinctly marked period of rest ;
the deciduous rest from middle of April to middle of September
as a rule, some beginning and some ending their rest a little
earlier or a little later. Between middle of April and middle of
May there is a slight shrinkage of measurement in paraisos,
robinias, and especially poplars.

For the benefit of my neighbours in Uruguay, I may state that
the expense of planting trees as I have described is but small, and
greatly reduced when two or even three crops of maize can be
taken off the first ploughing and fencing expenses. Though I only
began planting for business purposes in 1880, I have made a
considerable number of small sales of wood during the past two
years, and see no reason to doubt that in two or three more
years, the balance now to debtor of plantation account will have
been cleared off, leaving me with probably 150,000 trees of
various ages and values, of which I might fell one-tenth annually,
and still leave a good proportion to grow up to large wood, for
planks, beams, ete.

Apart from the pecuniary returns from these woods, the shelter
afforded to stock in our occasional bitter cold winds and wet
storms from §8.W., §., and S.E., must tend toward maintaining
the condition of the stock, and consequently towards the returns
from the estate.

It is perhaps too much to suppose that such a trifling area of
plantation, in an almost woodless country, can affect the rainfall,
but I am bold to dream that a passing rain-cloud is more likely
to discharge some of its contents over San Jorge than over neigh-
bouring lands entirely bare of trees, excepting in some cases a
few round a house, rarely so much as an acre. The estates
within 50 miles of San Jorge that have as much as 20 acres
of planted trees could probably be counted on the fingers
of one hand; I am not sure that any have as much as 20

NOTES ON TREE PLANTING AT SAN JORGE, URUGUAY. 233
acres, but possibly one or two may have as much, or even a little
more,

The government of Uruguay recognises the utility of tree
plantation, and exempts from the yearly land-tax land planted
with trees of a minimum area of (I believe) 100 acres. I claimed
exemption two years ago, which was granted. I do not think
any other exemption was made in our department, but there may
have been in other departments.

With one or two exceptions all the labourers who have been
working for me at plantation and other work are natives of the
country—I might almost say, of San Jorge.

234 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

XVI. The Forest School at Eberswalde. By A. C. ForBEs,
Farnham Royal, Slough, Bucks.

The Royal Forest Academy at Eberswalde, in the province of
Brandenburg, is (in conjunction with the Forest School at Munden,
in Hanover) specially intended for the training of candidates for
the Prussian forest service, and is controlled by the Minister of
Agriculture, Domains, and Forests. Neustadt, Eberswalde, in
the centre of which the academy stands, is a thriving and rapidly
increasing town, about thirty miles north of Berlin, and is con-
nected with the capital by the railroad between Berlin and Stettin.
It possesses a population of about 16,000 inhabitants, and contains
several extensive manufacturing works, which together employ a
great number of hands. It doubtless owes much of its prosperity
to the fact that it lies along the route of the Finow Canal, which
skirts the north side of the town, and which affords cheap transit
of goods either to Berlin or Stettin. This canal joins the river
Oder at Oderberg, a town about twelve miles from Eberswalde,
where many large saw-mills exist ; and large quantities of timber
are floated down to Stettin, there to be manufactured and shipped.
Several large saw-mills also exist at Eberswalde, for which the
surrounding district provides abundance of raw material. The
general appearance of the country, for miles around, closely resembles
the counties of Moray and Nairn, although it is more heavily
timbered, and none of those characteristic heathery moors are to
be seen, the State being under the impression that timber-growing
pays better than heather. The soil is extremely dry and arid,
being little but white sand, although beds of clay and marl are met
with here and there. Agriculture, in the immediate vicinity at
least, cannot be said to be very highly developed, being chiefly con-
fined to the cultivation of rye, potatoes, etc., the damper portions
laid down to pasture, the nature of the soil being rather infertile
generally.

The town of Neustadt, Eberswalde, consists of two portions, the
older lying to the east, with the streets rather narrow and badly
paved, but they are kept very clean, and appear to have been laid
out with some regularity. The older houses are almost entirely of
wood, and substantially built. In the newer portion the streets
are broader, and planted with trees, the principal street leading to
the railway station being fully a quarter of a mile in length, while
a still longer one has been anticipated by planting a double row of

THE FOREST SCHOOL AT EBERSWALDE. 235

trees, extending in a westerly direction from the town. On the
south side the ground rises rapidly to the margin of the forest,
which extends both right and left for several miles. The ground
on the left side of an oblong sheet of water, formed by the widening
of a small stream, and which lies close to the old town, is laid out
with beds of shrubs; a broad walk planted with trees, running
through its entire length, being the most frequented promenade in
the town. In the centre a small cairn of boulders has been erected
to the memory of those natives of the town who fell in the wars of
1864-66 and 1870-71. A continuation of this promenade leads to
the forest garden of the academy, which is open to the public.
Numerous restaurants and hotels are erected along the road leading
to the garden, the special facilities for enjoyable walks and drives
which the district provides causing a great number of families in
Berlin, etc., to make it a summer resort. The town also possesses
several thousand acres of forest land, part of which is laid out with
walks, and provided with seats, etc., and contains several small
sheets of water in which aquatic plants, etc., have been placed,
while a shooting range and gymnasium provide recreation for the
male sex. This town forest is managed very much in the same
way as the surrounding State forests, except that clear fellings are
not performed in the part devoted to the public, and no removal of -
trees allowed that would interfere with the amenity of the forest ;
and, at the same time, no extravagant “landscape” improvements
have interfered with its natural aspect. A few acres near the rail-
way station, which command an extensive view of the surrounding
country, are being laid out as a public garden, with beds and
miniature lakes.

The original commencement of forestal instruction at Eberswalde
was in 1830, the school itself having been in existence at Berlin for
the previous ten years, being connected there with the university.
The cause of its removal from that city was solely on account of
there being no available forests for practical demonstrations, it
being found that the references to forestry work and administration
were in many cases imperfectly understood by the students, while
the instruction given was of too theoretical a nature. This led to a
large private residence being purchased in Eberswalde, and converted
into a school in 1830, the number of students transferred to it from
Berlin being twenty-five, while the teaching staff consisted of three
professors only—one for natural history, mathematics, and forest
science respectively. The following outline of the ultimate develop-

236 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

ment of the school, extracted from a work published by Dr
Danckelmann in 1880,! may prove interesting :—‘‘ The number of
new students admitted during the first session of 1830 was thirteen,
making a total of thirty-eight altogether. In 1831-32 the forest
garden was laid out, partly as a botanical garden, and partly as an
experimental garden in connection with forest trees. In 1836 a
lecturer on civil law, in relation to forests, was appointed. In the
following year a seed-kiln was erected in the forest garden (a model
of which is in the museum of the academy). In 1850, twenty
years after its removal from Berlin, arrangements were made for
imparting the whole of the scientific instruction at the academy,
the students hitherto being required to attend the university at
Berlin for certain subjects, before they were admitted to the higher
branches of the State service. The following year a second professor
of forest science was appointed, and another forest garden was
formed at Chroin,in one of the Oberforstereien in which instruction
is given. In 1866 a chemical laboratory was erected, and a pro-
fessor and assistant of inorganic chemistry appointed. In this year,
also, a regulation was made to the effect that students who intended
to go through a full course of instruction should only be admitted
at the beginning of the summer session of each year, they having
- previously been taken in at any period of the year. In 1867 an
assistant to the professor of natural science was appointed, and
two years later the appointment of a professor of zoology caused
the botanical and zoological departments to become distinct
branches, they having up to this time been combined under one
professor. In 1871 a special lecturer on forest formation was
appointed ; and from July 20th of the previous year, until the
lst May of this year, the school was closed in consequence of the
Franco-German War, many of the students being required to take
up arms. An important further development of the work of the
academy took place in 1872, by the organisation of five depart-
ments for carrying on researches in forest technology—chemistry
and physics, meteorology, plant physiology, and zoology—all con-
ducted by the professors connected with the academy. In 1873 the
increasing number of students, as well as accommodation for the
various researches and collections, rendered the erection of new
buildings necessary, and a commencement was made with the present
buildings, which were finished in 1876. In this year also important
alterations were made in respect to the admittance of students,
1 ‘Pie Forstakademie Eberswalde vom 1830 bis 1880 ” (B. Danckelmann).

THE FOREST SCHOOL AT EBERSWALDE. 237

which are still in force. In 1874 a lecturer on forest road con-
struction, plan drawing, etc., was appointed, which brings the staff
of teachers nearly up to its present strength. The establishment of
a station for fish-breeding trials was brought about in 1877, when
the completion of the various provisions for instruction may be
said to have been accomplished. ‘The increase in the number of
students has been very gradual, the smallest number that attended
during any session being three years after its removal from Berlin,
when only twenty-one were attending the winter session of 1833.
For the first ten years the average number for each session was
only thirty-three, or five less than the attendance during the first
one. During the next ten years the average for the whole time
amounted to fifty-seven. At the end of 1860 it was seventy-six.
The end of the next decade showed a diminution to fifty-five, these
years being the period in which the Forest School at Munden was
opened, resulting in the removal of many students from Eberswalde
to that place. At the end of 1880 there were eighty-three attend-
ing, and at the present time one hundred and twenty (of whom
thirteen are foreigners), or an increase of about eighty students
since its commencement in 1830.” The above figures may not be
of great interest in themselves, but they serve to show what has
been gradually built up from a small beginning, and may throw a
little light on the long-disputed question regarding the feasibility of
a Scottish school of forestry.

The present academy, finished in 1876, is a handsome red _ brick
structure three storeys in height, having a frontage of 110 feet
and a width of 85 feet. It stands immediately outside the old
town, and in front of it, on the opposite side of the road, is a small
piece of ground, laid out with flower-beds and shrubs, which is
under the charge of the director. The old buildings (now the
residence of the director, and also containing the library and
bureau) stand a few yards to the left of it, while a church occupies
the ground to the right, so that no incongruous erections are
possible. ‘The entrance is in the form of a portico, supported by
two brick columns, to the right and left of which are the rooms
occupied by the ground-oflicer and laboratory attendant, the remain-
ing portion of the basement being occupied by wood and coal stores,
lumber rooms, ete. A broad flight of stone steps leads up to the
entrance hall, in which notices of excursions, lectures, etc., are
posted up in a frame provided for the purpose. On this floor are
the reading-room for the students, lecture-room for chemistry and

238 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

mineralogy, experimental workroom, chemical laboratory for in-
struction, room for weighing, and chemical hand collection, geological
hand collection, geological and chemical laboratory for researches,
mineralogical workroom for the professor, and geological museum.
From the entrance hall a broad flight of stairs leads up to the
second floor, which, so far as arrangement goes, is a counterpart of
the one below and above it. This floor contains the forestry and
chase museum, geodesy and physical collections, meteorological
workroom, conference and reading-room for the professors, and
lecture-rooms for forest science and physics and mathematics. The
top floor holds the botanical and zoological museums, lecture-rooms
and workrooms for the same department, drawing-room for plan
drawing. The lecture-rooms are fairly large, well-lighted rooms,
with desk accommodation for about one hundred students; the
lecturer’s desk being placed at the end, at the back of which
hangs a black board. In each lecture-room is a plan of the
seats, which are ali numbered, and each student must write
his name on the space representing the seat he wishes to occupy
during the session, the senior students having the right of pre-
ference in regard to their choice and retention of formerly occupied
seats.

The museums are of great interest and value for purposes of
instruction, and are very complete. The forestry, botanical, and
zoological collections are available for inspection by the students at
all times ; the others require special permission from the respective
professors. The forestry museum occupies the whole width of the
building, two rooms and a portion of the end of the passage which
runs through the floor being fully occupied. It is divided into
nine divisions for the sake of convenience, viz., forest construction
tools ; appliance and contrivances for forest protection ; manipula-
tion of wood and bark in the forest ; wood transport ; raw products
of the forest; wood manufactured articles; utilisation of forest
bye-products ; forest mensuration; and the chase department.
Under the first heading are arranged all the numerous tools and
machines for planting and sowing, as well as for the preparation of
the ground, These consist of many tools and implements that
would be well worth describing if space permitted, as they are
probably rarely seen outside the district in which they are used.
Planting spades, rakes, ground preparers and breakers, models of
ploughs and harrows specially invented for breaking up forest land,
sowing machines, pruning tools, ete., are all represented, while the

-

THE FOREST SCHOOL AT EBERSWALDE. 239

price of the implement is always stated on the label. The forest
protection department contains models of erections for protecting
young plants from frost, insects, animals, etc. The third division
is rather a large one, containing the various tools used for felling
timber and preparing it for sale, such as axes, saws, apparatuses
for numbering felled timber, bark stripping tools, etc. The wood
transport section is perhaps the most interesting of the whole, and
consists principally of models of timber slides, sledges, rafts,
tramways, etc., for the removal of timber from the forest, many of
the specimens being models from actual erections in the Black
Forest, and are very ingenious contrivances. The raw product
division comes next, with specimens of the various barks and
tanning materials in the raw condition, together with the smaller
woods which are less frequently utilised. The wooden products
occupy a considerable space, with specimens and models of almost
every imaginable article that wood can be turned into, with the
tools necessary for their manufacture. The seventh division,
utilisation of raw products, exhibits the various ways in which
seeds, etc., can be utilised ; models of factories, and inventions for
the extraction of tar, resin, etc.; specimens of coniferous timber
tapped for resin, wood paper, peat, charcoal burning, and various
other specimens and models of great interest in forest economy.
The eighth division is devoted to the various instruments used in
calculating the height and cubic contents of trees, and also a
number of specimens and sections showing the growth at different
periods in various timber species, and the results of thinning, ete.
The last division is devoted to the relics of the chase, or rather its
bearing on forest management, containing specimens of traps and
snares used for trapping the injurious animals, and means of
encouraging the useful animals and birds. Casts of the footprints
of various animals are shown in plaster of Paris; and nesting
boxes and other means and appliances for providing accommodation
for the insectivorous birds show the great importance attached to
their encouragement in German forests. In addition to these nine
departments are a few cases containing specimens of the more
common fungi and parasites which injure standing trees and seed-
lings, and also diagrams and tables setting forth the result of
various experiments in transplanting and thinning. A complete
catalogue of the whole collection is to be found in the museum for
reference, while several other explanatory books and pamphlets are
laid about here and there for providing further information. The

240 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

total number of specimens in this collection is about twelve
hundred.

The botanical collection consists of two divisions, one general,
and the other containing specimens relating more particularly to
forestry. The latter contains specimens of all the various fungi
that attack dead or living trees, both in wood, bark, and leaf.
Abnormal growth in trees, and the sections showing the healing of
wounds after natural or artificial pruning, are numerous, and many
extraordinary specimens are to be seen. The fruit and seeds of all
the various trees and shrubs occupy the centre of this room, either
dried or preserved in spirits. On a table beneath the window lie
small sections of all the indigenous and introduced timber trees and
shrubs. These sections are numbered, while the names are to be
found on a card beside them, and also a large tabulated summary of
their most prominent characteristics which are recognisable by the
naked eye. The advantage of this system over that of naming the
sections at once, is that the student is able to use his power of dis-
crimination between the various species more easily than if the name
were straight before his eyes, and thus is more likely to become
acquainted with their characters. The other division of this collec-
tion occupies another room, and consists chiefly of dried specimens
of the indigenous plants of Europe, together with large wax models
of representative species of the chief natural orders. This room
also contains a collection of dried fruits of forest trees in boxes,
numbered and named in the same way as the wood sections. An
adjoining room, which is used partly as a workroom by the pro-
fessor, contains a valuable collection of woods in four large eases,
timbers from all parts of the world being represented. A large
herbarium stands in the passage of this floor, the plants being placed
in boxes opening like a book, and arranged in cases in the same
way as in a bookcase. Large radial sections of typical growth of
the common forest trees stand in the passage of the second floor,
with particulars of their age, height, and locality in which they
were grown.

To the general observer, the zoological collection would probably
prove the most interesting of the whole of the museum in the
academy. It also occupies two rooms, aud, like the botanical,
contains both a general and special division. The great feature
of the former is the splendid collection of European birds, which
occupy the greater part of one room, and contain many rare and
interesting specimens. Of equal interest to the forester is the

THE FOREST SCHOOL AT EBERSWALDE. 241

large collection of specimens of bark and wood injured by various
animals and insects. These consist both of small specimens under
cases and also of larger blocks arranged round the walls, showing
the characteristic way in which the insect works. Specimens
illustrating the work of woodpeckers and other kindred species are
also shown, and also the dust left in the galleries of wood-boring
beetles, etc. The insects themselves, together with many others of
less importance, are arranged in cases fixed on a revolving stand.
The other part of this collection consists chiefly of forest mammals
and skeletons of the same, and also a collection of horns of
different species of deer. It is rather interesting to note in
connection with this collection, the great number of specimens of
seedlings and young trees injured by the various members of the
mouse family, and by the extent of the injuries inflicted one might
easily mistake them for the work of a larger animal. As in
connection with the insect pest, so here also are shown the remains
of seeds and fruits after their edible portions have been devoured
by the animals. Specimens of hoofs and paws of the larger
animals are exhibited in order that their remains may be recognised
if met with in the forest, great importance being attached to
everything in connection with the chase.

In the chemical and physical museum are shown the majority
of the various organic and inorganic elements commonly met with,
and also a small collection of metals. The physical portion consists
of instruments used in various scientific observations in connection
with meteorology, chemistry, electricity, and microscopy, besides
various inventions for the purpose of demonstrating the laws of
physics and mechanics.

The collections in connection with mineralogy and geodesy con-
tain specimens and instruments relating to those sciences, and do
not require detailing.

In the drawing-class room are several very interesting maps of
forest districts, and also models in plaster of the principal mountain
ranges in Germany, showing the arrangement of the forest com-
partments.

The library, which is placed in a portion of the old buildings,
contains between five and six thousand works on all subjects con-
nected with forest science, and also on the allied branches of
agriculture and gardening. According to the catalogue of 1885,
the following number of books on the various branches were
present :—250 on forest and chase history; 134 text-books on forest

242 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

science ; 225 on forest formation and tree culture; 87 on forest
protection; 167 on forest utilisation; 289 on forest valuation; 244
on forest administration; 66 on forest engineering; 291 on
mathematics ; 47 on natural science in general; 128 on physics;
27 on mechanics ; 19 on astronomy; 148 on meteorology ; 182 on
chemistry ; 395 on geology; 376 on political economy; 251 on
agriculture, gardening, etc. ; 380 on botany ; 293 on zoology; 456
on law; 353 on geography; 194 on the chase; 198 copies of
reports, periodicals, etc.; and 156 miscellaneous works. It is
open on two days in the week for the taking out and return of
books, the numbers of those required having to be written on a
piece of paper, and dropped into a box provided for the purpose.
The forest garden, as it is called, is about half a mile from the
academy, and is in reality part of the Eberswalde forest. It
contains about 15 acres, the greater part of which is under fir and
beech forest, the introduced species being planted in clumps here
and there, with rustic fencing round them for protection, At
the back of the ‘seed-kiln is a large nursery for raising the plants
required, and the shooting ranges for the use of the students are
also here. This nursery is partly taken up by clumps of various
conifer, which are never mixed with each other, but always kept
in separate clumps, so that their behaviour under ordinary forest
conditions may be observed. A smaller nursery for raising the
ordinary forest trees also exists a few yards from this one, and
which contains high spruce hedges along both sides of the walks.
The botanical garden, which is placed on the margin of the
forest garden, and forms part of the latter, is about three acres in
extent, and is bounded on the lower side by the small stream which
flows through Eberswalde. In outline it is somewhat oval, while
the surface in the centre is high and undulating, and on the right
and left sides low and flat, so that it presents a great variety of
surface for treatment. About the centre stands a handsome
granite column, surmounted by a white marble cross, erected in
1873 to the memory of those forest officers and former students of
the academy who fell or died of wounds in the wars of 1864-66
and 1870-71, twenty-one names in all being inscribed upon it.
At the lower side of the garden a clump of beech and Scots fir
provide suitable accommodation for a rustic summer-house, while
on the ground beneath the trees are planted numerous shade-loving
and herbaceous plants natives of the forest. The undulating
portion in the centre is laid out in irregularly-shaped beds, which

THE FOREST SCHOOL AT EBERSWALDE, 243

are bordered with neatly trimmed spruce hedges, between which
are dry gravel walks. In these beds are arranged the different
species of the smaller genera of forest trees and shrubs, and also
the majority of the conifers, the lower lying portion of the garden
not being suitable for the healthy growth of the latter. Each bed
contains one or two complete genera, which are planted sufficiently
wide apart to allow their natural habit to be seen, the larger species
occupying the centre, and the smaller the margins of the beds.
The surface between the plants is kept neatly raked or planted
with annuals or herbaceous plants. The names are painted in
legible black letters on white porcelain tablets, which are affixed
to stout wooden pegs. To the right and left of this central portion
the ground is laid out in grass, and is of rather a peaty nature, the
central portion being sandy. The left-hand portion is intersected
with gravel walks, between which the larger deciduous genera
have been planted, while a number of the specimens of the spruce
family are also planted here. The right-hand side is not yet laid
out, except the portion occupied by the collection of willows at the
lower side, and a few beds of herbaceous plants. Altogether this
garden has been laid out in a highly pleasing manner, and contains
a very complete collection of plants, and thoroughly well accom-
plishes the purpose for which it was intended. The plants
throughout are very healthy, and appear likely to produce good
specimens in time, although they have not as yet had time to reach
a great size.

On the high ground above the town is the Meteorological Station,
which stands in a thick part of the Scots fir forest. It is one of
thirteen stations distributed over Prussia, and which are placed in
either spruce, pine, or beech forests. The Eberswalde station
stands about 140 feet above sea-level, and on a dry sandy soil, and
consists of two sets of instruments, one in the forest, and the other
set about 100 yards from the margin of the forest, on an open,
freely exposed piece of ground, the two sets being about 300 yards
distant from each other. They are both enclosed by strong wooden
fences, and contain complete sets of instruments for observations
on the temperature of the air, moisture, rainfall, evaporation,
temperature of the soil at six different depths, direction and
strength of the wind, amount of shade and sunshine, etc., both in
and outside the forest, and other special meteorological events.
The observations are under the direction of the professor of
physics, and are published at regular periods. In the forest station

VOL, XIII. PART II. R

244 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

observations are also made at a height of about 50 feet from the
ground by means of a stand nailed to the trees, access to which is
obtained by means of a set of ladders nailed from tree to tree.
Each enclosure also contains a small office for making the necessary
entries on the spot, the principal work being carried on in a room
provided for the purpose in the academy.

A small fish-hatching station has been erected about an hour’s
walk from the academy, in a portion of the Eberswalde forest, in
which artificial trout-breeding is carried on, while several small
ponds in the vicinity are stocked with trout and carp.

A small vegetating house at the back of the academy is used
for experiments in connection with the botanical and soil analytical
departments, the mentioning of which brings the description of the
academy’s subsidiary belongings to a close.

As may be expected, the forests in the vicinity are very extensive,
and afford a wide field for excursions and instruction. The Ober-
forstereien specially made use of for purposes of instruction are four
in number, viz., Eberswalde, Biesenthal, Chroin, and Trienwalde.
The two former adjoin, and lie to the south and east of the town,
Chroin lies to the north-east, while Trienwalde lies at a consider-
able distance to the south-east. The three former are intersected
by the railway between Stettin and Berlin, while the last-named is
also connected with Eberswalde by a branch line, so that every
facility is afforded for reaching their farthest limits without loss of
time. Other extensive forests lie within a short distance, so that
no lack of material for observation exists in any direction. The
total area of the three Oberforstereien in the immediate vicinity is
about 40,000 acres, the greater part of which is under Scots fir
forest, although large areas are also under beech and oak, while
much of the better class of soil is gradually being converted into
permanent beech or oak forest by underplanting or undersowing
the fir. The surface of the Eberswalde and Biesenthal portion is
flat or only slightly undulating, while the other parts are generally
hilly, and contain a greater variety of localities, The greater part
of the soil in all four is sand, and nothing but sand, although
numerous beds of clay, marl, etc., exist here and there over the
whole, and much of the low-lying land is peaty. The chief
feature of the district is the number of large lakes which occur in
the hollows, several of which are over 100 acres in extent, and
form noteworthy objects in the landscape. The forests are under
the control of the director of the academy, while the principal

THE FOREST SCHOOL AT EBERSWALDE. 245

forest officers are lecturers in the same, so that both the working
and arrangements for excursions are made as complete as possible.

In the Chroin Oberforsterei is a large nursery in which plants
and trees are raised for sale, and for the requirements of the
forest. Large quantities of trees for road-side planting are also
grown here, the practice of rendering the highways more agreeable
to travellers, and at the same time a source of profit, being one
which might be extended to our own country with advantage.
The false acacia (Robinia pseudo-acacia) is largely used for this
purpose, its moderate size and prickly nature rendering it especially
suitable for furnishing a medium shade, while a more ornamental
tree could scarcely be found. Adjoining this nursery are the ruins
of a large Cistercian monastery, built in the purest Gothic style,
and existing in a fair state of preservation.

Numerous experiments are being carried out in these forests
with the various introduced coniferze and deciduous trees. These
are planted in enclosures of about 5 or 6 acres in extent, and are
both planted alone and mixed with other species. The Douglas
fir appears likely to thrive remarkably well here, judging from its
appearance at present, although it must be said that it is no excep-
tion to the other species in this respect, for the poor character of
the soil appears to be balanced by its great depth and free nature,
which allows root development to proceed unchecked. It is
rather surprising that larch has not been more extensively planted
here in the past, as from what can be gathered by the appearance
of the few clumps that are to be seen occasionally, the soil appears
to suit it remarkably well. It is, however, being gradually intro-
duced into the recent sowings and plantings, and the Weymouth
pine and the various American spruces are also being tried.

The district contains a very rich forest flora and fauna, and a
wide field exists for botanical and zoological excursions. Roedeer,
wild swine, and reddeer are the chief features in the sportsman’s
line, and hares are also rather numerous. Rabbits are conspicuous
by their absence. Squirrels are very numerous, but appear to do
little damage to the Scots fir here, probably owing to the abund-
ance of beech and hornbeam, which provide them with plenty of
more attractive food. Birds are very numerous, and many fine
specimens of the larger woodpeckers are to be seen by the observer.
Insects of all kinds, injurious and harmless, abound everywhere,
although the natural condition and proportions in which bird and
insect life are maintained, prevent any great damage being done by

246 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

the latter. Both for their preservation, and also to prevent damage
to the trees, the deer are provided with hay in very severe winters
in the vicinity of the recently planted ground, although it is rare
to see any damage done to the Scots fir, the hardwoods being the
principal sufferers.

The Subjects on which Lectures are given, and Howrs per Week
devoted to each, over a Two Years’ Course of Instruction at
the Forest Academy, Eberswalde, are as follows :—

First YEAR, SECOND YRAR.
Subjects. Summer. Winter. || Subjects. Summer.| Winter.
HT
Physics, 4 | Analytical benign : ee 2
Mechanics, : 2 Soils, : 2 e
Chemistry (Gener al), - | 2 Compar ative value of
fe (Inorganic and 4 important trees in 1
Organic), | forest formation,
Mineralogy, . 2 || Forest Valuation, 1
Botany, 4 | ,, Ground Rent, 2
Zoology, : : 5 oe ;, Protection, 3 ee
Forest Formation, . ‘ = 4 | sarees Utilisation, 3
Civil Law, 2 5 EListorys 2
Meteorology, . : ; ne 1... iil» 450 eStatsshics = a 1
Wood Measuring, . : 5b 2 | Plan Drawing, . 2
Geodesy, 4 Redemption of Forest 2
Geology, 2 : | 7 | Ground Rights, }
Anatomy and Physio- | 4 | Repetitoriums overt
logy of Plants, _ Physics, Mathematics, [ | 4 3
Microscopic Demonstra- \ > || Chemistry, Botany,
tion, - - : oF “|| Zoology, and Forestry,
Plan Drawing, 2 ||
| |
Total per Week, . 23 23 || Total per Week, . 16 12

Excursions take place on three days in the week during the
summer session of first year, and on four days during the summer
session of second year, in connection with forestry, botany, and
zoology. During the winter sessions, on two days in the week, in
connection with forestry only.

The teaching staff at the academy at the present time consists of
thirteen professors and lecturers, in addition to the director. These
comprise professors of physics, mineralogy and geology, chemistry,
botany, and zoology, four forstmeisters as lecturers on forestal
subjects, a lecturer on civil law, and two private lecturers, one on
zoology and the other on field engineering. As already men-
tioned, the forstmeisters have duties to perform in connection with

THE FOREST SCHOOL AT EBERSWALDE, 247

the surrounding Oberforstereien, but, generally speaking, the greater
part of their time is free for instruction purposes, or for the various
researches which are carried on both by the practical and scientific
departments of the academy, and which have resulted in many
valuable and interesting reports.! As indicating the nature of these
researches, the following may be cited as specimens of those carried
out in the practical departments :—

On the raising of seedling plants, quantities of seed required for
given areas, preparation of the seed, and effects of transplanting on
the growth of the plants.

On the depth of the earth-covering of seeds.

Trials of planting tools, seed-sowing machines, ete.

Trials of germinators.

On the thinning of oak, beech, Scots fir, and spruce forests.

On pruning forest trees.

On the behaviour and value of Douglas fir in the German forests.

On the grubbing and removal of tree roots.

On the comparative value of saws.

On the yield of oak and beech seed.

On the height growth of different species.

On the proportion of branches to stem at different ages and
periods of the year, etc., etc.

The other experiments in connection with the scientific side are of
an equally important nature, and all tend to show the great value
of the work carried on at the institution in connection with forest
science in all its various branches.

In addition to his other duties, the director also edits a forestry
periodical, which is issued monthly, and usually contains contribu-
tions from the various professors and others outside the teaching
staff. In his clerical duties he has the assistance of two clerks,
one of whom acts as librarian. A conference is held weekly by
the director and professors for the purpose of making arrangements
and necessary alterations in connection with the instruction, and
other business matters. At the commencement of every session a
plan of study and lectures is drawn up by the director after con-
sultation with his colleagues, and printed copies posted up in the
lecture-rooms, etc. This plan includes two courses, in order to
meet the requirements and convenience of those students who enter

1 In this work they have the assistance of seven forest assessors, who are

employed chiefly in attending to the details of the experiments, and keeping
the necessary records,

248 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

the academy in different years, and also to prevent the lectures
overlapping. A student who wishes to do so may, however, take
up any subject he chooses, independently of this plan, although
those who intend to take a full course must follow it to a certain
extent, otherwise they will be unable to finish their studies within
the prescribed time. The average number of hours per day spent
in the lecture-rooms are not more than five for the five days in the
week on which lectures are given, and these are almost entirely
confined to the morning in the summer session, a commencement
being made at 7 a.m. A lecture which occupies more than one
hour is always divided into two parts, by a break of a quarter of an
hour in the middle, in order to prevent any weariness or inattention
resulting from a long sitting. Great importance is attached to
“‘yepetitoriums,” in which the ground of former lectures is glanced
rapidly over, bringing out the most important points in the various
subjects. These are given frequently during the second part of the
course, so that the student may be kept up to the mark in every-
thing from the beginning.

The afternoons of two days in the week, and the whole of the
Saturday, are devoted to excursions during the summer session,
while for the students of the second course, the Wednesday also is
taken up in this way. In the winter session excursions only take
place on the Wednesday and Saturday. These excursions rarely
occupy more than half a day, the forestry excursions being of course
the longest and farthest afield. They are duly notified in the hall
of the academy some few hours or days beforehand, the time and
place of rendezvous and also the theme being given. The lecturer
there meets the students, and a lecture lasting the best part of an
hour is given if the subject is in connection with any special work
or sylvicultural system, in order to explain its adoption and the
conditions under which it must be modified. In the case of
practical work, such as sowing or planting, the cost of the work
under different methods is stated, and the older students are
usually invited to show their proficiency in the work. Sometimes
the excursions are of a more rambling character, and several miles
have to be traversed in order to demonstrate the subject in different
parts of the forest, anything met with on the way that calls for any
special notice being duly observed and commented upon, At every
excursion a reporter is selected from among the students, who is
obliged to draw up a complete report of the excursion and the
explanation given, so far as they relate to the theme. These

THE FOREST SCHOOL AT EBERSWALDE. 249

reports are passed by the director, and are then pasted into a book
placed in the reading-room of the academy, and prove of great
value for reference, as well as for furnishing information to the
students of the other course, the two courses having each a set of
excursions distinct from each other, the first course excursions being
of a more elementary character than those of the second. Frequent
visits to the botanic garden are also made during the summer
session under the professors of botany, when the various trees and
shrubs are in flower, and their different characteristics pointed out,
or a number of specimens may be laid down with numbers attached,
and the students required to write down the names in their note-
books, the professors afterwards reading out the names.!

The course of study at the academy extends over two years, or
four sessions, beyond which a student is not allowed to remain,
except under exceptional circumstances. The summer session
begins at Easter and finishes at the latter end of August. The
winter session begins in October and finishes a fortnight before
Easter, a week at Whitsuntide and Christmas being the only inter-
sessional holidays allowed. The instruction given in these two
years is very comprehensive, and includes subjects in the funda-
mental, technical, and accessory branches. Under the first-named
are comprised physics, meteorology and mechanics, chemistry,
mineralogy and geology, botany, zoology, and mathematics. The
technical subjects taken up are the history and literature of forests,
position of forestry in political and rural economy, regeneration
of forests, preservation and utilisation of forests and forest pro-
duce, forest mensuration and valuation, forest statistics, forest
politics and administration, and redemption of forest ground
rights. The accessory are civil law, forest roads and timber
transport, the chase and fish-breeding. The fundamental and
accessory subjects are not gone into further than their bearing on
forestry necessitates, while much of the former division has been
imparted to the student in a general way before he reaches the
academy.

The conditions under which candidates for the State service are
admitted to the academy are fairly strict, but are not connected

1Jn addition to these local excursions, a more protracted one, lasting
about a fortnight, is undertaken at the close of the summer session of every
alternate year, the locality chosen being one in which different methods of
culture and varieties of soil exist which are not represented in the vicinity
of the academy.

250 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

with competitive examinations. The candidate must possess
certificates of having passed satisfactorily through a gymnasium or
high school under the control of the State, and special proficiency
must have been shown by him in mathematics. He must have
served an apprenticeship of at least one year under a State forester,
and show the necessary certificates of the same. He must have
led a blameless and strictly moral life, and possess medical testi-
mony in regard to his physical soundness and constitution. He
must not be above twenty-five years of age at the time his studies
at the academy begin. He must furnish proof of his possession of
sufficient means to bear the necessary expenses of his course at the -
academy. And further, he must have already passed a session or
so at some university, have served his term of military service, and,
in addition to his apprenticeship, have passed a certain time in the
forests employed in the various work connected with wood-measur-
ing, surveying, levelling, etc., special importance being attached to
the two latter subjects. He may either go through the whole
course at the academy, or he may spend one year at Eberswalde
and the other at Munden, the plan of instruction at both academies
being so adjusted as to render this course available without great
inconvenience, and is recommended by the authorities, as, although
the theoretical and scientific instruction is practically the same at
both, the different districts in which they are situated furnish a
variety of practical work and methods for the excursions. After
the necessary certificates, etc., have been produced by the candidate,
he receives a matriculation ticket from the director, which he is
required to carry about with him at all times, and to produce if
necessary. This ticket must be given up again before the student
leaves the academy, and if he should happen to lose it, must apply
for a fresh one at once. At the commencement of his studies he
has also to fill in a form with the subjects he intends to take up
during the session, which must then be signed by the respective
professors both at the commencement and end of the session
or course, the date on which the respective signatures were
made being also entered. ‘This form takes the place of a roll-
call, the regular attendance being left to the student’s common
sense.!

1 The matriculation fee for State candidates and all others intending to
take the full course is fifteen marks, while the fees for the whole lectures are
seventy-five marks each session, or less if only a portion of the lectures are
taken. Hospitanten who are admitted to the academy pay a matriculation

THE FOREST SCHOOL AT EBERSWALDE. Oi

The students find their own lodgings in the town, but are
obliged to conform to the rules of the academy drawn up for their
control by the director, although they are rather precautionary than
intended for strict observance. He must notify his address to the
director within twenty-four hours after receiving his matriculation
card, and this address is inserted in a list opposite his name, which
lies in the reading-room. The life of the forest student is in almost
every respect similar to that led at any of our Scottish universities,
and is, generally speaking, a very pleasant one. The majority wear
the forest uniform, consisting of light green tunic and trousers and
dark green peaked cap, but its adoption is quite optional, and must
be provided at the student’s expense.

At the expiration of the two years’ course at the academy the
candidate has another session to pass at some university before
being allowed to stand for the first forestal examination which
takes place at the academy, and embraces the majority of the
subjects in which instruction has been given. It is held bya
special commission appointed by the Minister of Agriculture, and
is both written and oral, and also practical, the latter taking place
in the forest. The passing of this examination ranks the candidate
as a “‘ Forest referendar,” and in the event of his failing to pass, he
is allowed to come up again the following year, but if failing to
pass within two years after the first attempt, he is excluded from
further probation. Before being admitted to this examination, he
has also to produce a special plan of not less than 100 hectares of
forest, a working plan of 500 hectares, and a lineal section 2 kilo-
metres in length, all prepared by himself without assistance. The
next move that he is obliged to make is to get himself placed under
a. State forester for two years further practice. The first six
months of this period are passed in the performance of all the
duties connected with the practical management and superintend-
ence of forest operations, under the direction of the Oberforster of
the division he is in. The next five months are passed in the
same division ; but during this period he has complete control over
the superintendence, and receives no assistance from, and ig not
interfered with by, the Oberforster, unless exceptional causes for
such arise. The succeeding four months are passed in work

fee of ten marks for every session, and the same fees for the lectures as the
other students. These fees are paid into the academy bureau, the professors
having nothing whatever to do with them, either directly or as a portion of
their salaries,

252 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

connected with the higher branches of forest administration, as the
preparation of working plans, valuations, ete. The remaining
period of his training is passed under different Oberforsters in the
same sort of work, and he is then, seven years after commencing
his forestal training, allowed to stand for the State examination,
after passing which he becomes ‘ Forest assessor,” and practically
enters the forest service as a salaried officer. During his last two
years probation he must keep a diary of his daily work and
occupation, noting the division which he was in, and also any
special incident that came under his observation. This diary must
be inspected and signed by the Oberforster before he leaves his
district, and must be produced at the final examination.

In addition to the above ordinary course of entering the forest
service are two others connected with service in the Feld and
Foot-Jager Corps. The former course involves a seven years’
service in the Feld-Jager Corps after the yearly apprenticeship in
the forest, the corps being stationed in the town of Eberswalde, so
that the necessary facilities for receiving the instruction at the
academy are present. The members are provided with free quarters
and firing, their other necessities they must furnish themselves, the
ability to do which they must furnish proof of before their admis-
sion to the corps. In the case of the Foot-Jager the military
service is shorter, and the conditions somewhat different, but in
both cases the service, or part of it, counts as student time in
qualifying for the examinations, the latter being the same in all
three cases.

Such is a brief outline of the training to which the aspirant for
forest service in Prussia is subjected, and it is rather surprising
that so many are found willing to pass through it, in consideration
of the comparatively small remuneration given at the end of it.
The advantages are, however, greater than would appear at first
sight. In the first place, the life of the forest officer is not one of
very severe work, either physically or mentally, and has many
attractions for a lover of sport. Everything in connection with
the administrative duties are all cut and dried, it may almost be
said, years beforehand, while the formule for the necessary revisions
and alterations in the working plans, etc., have been well instilled
into him during his long training. He has the results of centuries
of observation and research at his finger ends, and scarcely a con-
tingency can arise but what he has already been warned of its
liability to occur. When he takes charge of a division he finds

THE FOREST SCHOOL AT EBERSWALDE. 253

everything in the same order in which he is expected to leave it,
and he is not handicapped during the first few years by having to
make up and overtake arrears of work, ete.

The life may appear monotonous, and probably would be to one
with no taste for the profession, but the conditions under which he
enters the service render this almost impossible, as unless he has
considerable interest in his work, the acquirement of the knowledge
necessary in order to pass the examinations is almost too great a
task to be undertaken. The training of the forest officer is of such
a nature as to develop his powers of observation to the utmost, and
his acquaintance with- the habits and life-histories of the various
birds, insects, ete., and their bearing on his profession, tends to
occupy his mind in a manner quite unknown to the ordinary
individual.

That such a thorough training is absolutely necessary is a
matter of opinion, but the results which have followed it tend to
prove that it is not thrown away. At first sight there is nothing
remarkably striking in German forests to lead one to suppose that
they are managed on the scientific principles that they are, but
when the detail with which they are worked is once understood,
and the minute researches which have been carried out in every
branch of the science, it must be admitted that little has been left
undone that the most exacting could desire.

254 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

XVII. Trees Best Adapted for Various Soils. By A. D.
Wesster, Hollydale, Keston, Kent.

There is, perhaps, no soil so bad or barren that may not be
rendered profitable by judicious tree-planting ; but, as might be
expected, there is often a great want of knowledge as to the
proper kind of trees to be chosen to suit a particular soil. Where
the plantations are intended mainly for profit, grouping of the
trees according to soil and situation will be found the surest
method of attaining such an end.

In looking over a large extent of woodland one will generally
be struck with the great disproportion in size of the individual
trees of a species ; but it will generally be noticed that where the
largest and healthiest occur the tree is usually growing upon its
own soil, and is found to be flourishing at the expense of all
around it.

Thus the finest oaks will be found where the soil is deep and
loamy, resting on clay; beech upon a calcareous gravel, resting
on a bed of chalk; ash and elm on a dampish loamy gravel ;
birch in a light black loam, with a gravelly substratum ; Spanish
chestnut in a good loamy soil, not too damp; the mountain ash
at a good elevation, in a rather light soil ; horse-chestnut in deep
loam, dry at the bottom; the Scots and Corsican pines, Pinus
sylvestris and P, Laricio, at fairly high altitudes, and in gravelly
well-drained soils; and the Cluster and Aleppo pines (P. Pinaster
and P. halepensis) in almost pure sand on the sea-coast.

Some trees grow rapidly enough for a few years in almost any
soil, but after a time they gradually show signs of distress, make
little or no progress, and ultimately become stunted and ill-
grown; or, should the soil be very unfavourable, they die outright.
Instances of such are unfortunately far too common wherever
one travels over the country, trees of a kind that are utterly
unfitted for the particular class of soil being planted in a kind of
haphazard way, and without any consideration of their individual
requirements.

For all practical purposes with reference to tree culture, soils,
generally speaking, may be divided into six distinct classes—
peaty, chalky or limey, gravelly, clayey, loamy, and such as con-
tain ironstone, coal, etc.,—and so as to render the subject as
concise as possible we will treat each soil separately, giving a
list of the trees best suited for growing thereon.

TREES BEST ADAPTED FOR VARIOUS SOILS. 255

Peat.—Few trees will succeed well on an unreclaimed peat bog,
but where draining and soiling have been attended to at the out-
set, the numbers that grow and produce a fair amount of valuable
timber are almost without limit among our generally cultivated
trees. On recently examining several large plantations that were
formed eighteen years ago on deep peat, on an estate in Ulster
within a few miles of Lough Neagh, a useful lesson was learnt as
to the best trees for planting on this kind of soil. Previous to being
planted, the peat was generally of the kind which is largely used
for fuel in Ireland, deep, damp, and in some places almost a quag-
mire, yielding to the tread, and unsafe to stand upon. A wide
and deep ditch was opened along the lowest part of the ground,
and smaller drains run at nearly right angles to the main, usually
in the damper places where they were most required. This was
carried out fully a year before planting, and it had a decided
effect in consolidating the ground for pitting in the following
autumn. In summer the heath, in many places fully a yard in
length, was closely burned. Pits, about 18 inches square and
nearly as deep, were then opened at 3 feet apart, and left exposed
to the frost during the winter. The following March and April
soiling and planting were carried on at the same time. ‘The soil
used was rather stiff clayey loam brought from some distance,
spadefuls of which were incorporated with the peat previous to
filling the hole.

The cost of preparing the ground before planting is apart from
the subject of this paper, suffice it then to say that the results
thus obtained warrant the recommending of such a method in
connection with this class of soil.

Among conifers that have proved themselves suitable for bog-
planting are the Larch, Scots Pine, Common and Black Spruces
(Abies excelsa and A. nigra). The Larch grows rapidly, and is
perfectly free from disease ; indeed, I cannot remember having
seen a trace of any of the diseases which have rendered the larch
so precarious a tree in this country. In thinning a larch planta-
tion of fully sixty years’ growth I found the trees felled to be
perfectly healthy, and of exceptional quality, with on an average
72 feet of wood in each. The subsoil was clay, and the bog
previous to being planted had been cut over for fuel. Drainage
and soiling of the pits had been duly attended to. In young
larch plantations on deep peat bog, previously drained and soiled
in the way above described, I have found the cubic contents to be

256 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

fully 2} feet in eighteen years. The Scots pine grows almost as
fast as the larch—the average in over fifty trees measured being
about an eighth less—under similar conditions.

Natural reproduction of the Scots pine goes on so rapidly on
peat bog that it must be considered one of the very best trees for
planting on it. As an example of this I may state that five acres
of partially drained peat bog on the side of a large lake in Ireland
is now quite clothed with a thriving crop of self-sown Scots fir, the
seeds being carried from a clump of old trees growing at a short
distance away. Seeing how well the young trees were thriving,
principally along the edge of the drains, I had all the damper
portions of the ground thoroughly drained, with the result being
that there is now a healthy crop of fast-growing trees all over the
ground. In order, however, to avoid bare patches, I had a few
young trees notched in here and there wherever gaps occurred.
I am quite aware that the wood of Scots fir is of less value than
that of the larch, but my object here is to point out the most
suitable trees for growing on the soil under consideration. The
Spruces are excellent trees for planting on reclaimed peat bog,
where they produce a fair amount of timber, and afford excellent
shelter to other trees.

Of hardwoods, the Beech is one of the best for bog planting, as
it grows rapidly and produces a great amount of clean timber.
Several trees felled in thinning a plantation of sixty years’ growth
on deep peat, resting on clay, had straight, clean stems for 30 feet,
and contained 75 feet of timber. The Alder grows luxuriantly on
peaty soils, and in the plantation with the beeches just referred
to, the greater portion of the trees were 60 feet in height, girthed
5 feet at a yard from the ground, and showed no trace of disease.
Another excellent bog tree is the Cherry, and the same may be
said of the Holly. Ash and Oak are not generally of large size,
nor are they always healthy on peat bog, even when it has received
a great amount of attention in reclaiming. Birch, Lime, and Poplar
of various kinds are all suited for planting on well-drained peat.

Among the newer conifers, a large number of them are well
suited for planting in reclaimed peat bog. By way of experiment,
I have planted specimens of various kinds in newly formed
plantations, and in nearly every case the trees have grown well,
particularly when partially sheltered. Cupressus macrocarpa is
one of the best, and not a whit behind it are C. Lawsoniana and
C. Goveniana. Wellingtonia gigantea and Sequoia sempervirens

TREES BEST ADAPTED FOR VARIOUS SOILS. 257

have done well, while Pinus Laricio and P. austriaca grow freely.
I find that a large number of the recently introduced conifers do
well on prepared peat bog—that is, where a quantity of loam
has been incorporated with the bog, and all superfluous moisture
drained away.

Chalky Soils.—The Beech is peculiarly well suited for planting
in chalk districts, for it will grow and produce a large quantity
of timber where but a few inches of loam overlie the chalk—a
fact exemplified in Holwood Park, Kent, where trees containing
fully 200 cubic feet of wood, with stems girthing over 20 feet,
may be seen. It is a fact that, in order to find where the chalk
beds lie, one has only to be guided by the line traced out by the _
largest and most luxuriant beeches. As to planting the beech
on pure chalk, or where no surface soil exists, I would not think
of doing so, at least if the production of timber was of importance.
The beech will no doubt grow on pure chalk; but where we have
noticed it doing best is where loam, from 1 foot to 3 feet in depth,
overlies the chalk, or is incorporated with it. In several instances
that have come under my notice lately in stubbing out old field
boundaries, this was the only hardwood tree that had attained to
a respectable size of the many natural or planted kinds; but in
some parts the chalk cropped through, while no part had more
than 3 or 4 inches of loam or clay overlying the chalk.

The Norway Maple (Acer platanoides) revels in a chalky soil,
and so does A. colchicum rubrum, which are both handsome, hardy,
large-growing trees, and well suited for extensive forest planting
under certain conditions of soil. White Poplar (Populus alba) is
an excellent tree for planting in chalky districts—indeed it is
surprising to see to what an immense size it attains on almost
pure chalk. Where but little soil covers the chalk, however, it
does not attain to so large dimensions as where there is a depth
of 2 feet or so; but it will grow to a fair size even on the hard,
dry chalk, where a particle of soil is scarcely seen. Other
poplars that do almost equally well on the chalk formation are
P. monilifera and P, canadensis, both excellent free-growing trees.
Elms, particularly the Huntingdon and the American, grow
rapidly, and attain to a large size, where but a small quantity of
loam is present in the chalk. The Wych elm grows freely in
chalky districts, and I was surprised, some days ago, to notice it
growing on the side of a chalk pit in only 7 inches of gravelly
loam. The Lime grows very freely, and attains to large size,

258 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY,

where chalk abounds in the soil. False Acacia (Robinia Pseud-
acacia) is an excellent tree for chalky soils, and there attains a
greater size than on almost the richest of loams. The alder and
birch also thrive with vigour on chalky soils, Indeed, most trees
which in a state of nature grow in damp or marshy soils are well
suited for planting where chalk is the main component of the soil,
and this is explained as follows:—Chalk, although sufficiently
porous to allow water to percolate through it, has, like all other
calcareous matter, a strong attraction for water, and acts like a
sponge in holding it in considerable quantity for a very long time.
The alder is very largely grown in the southern counties, par-
ticularly in Kent, for hop poles, and I have been surprised at its
luxuriant growth on the warm chalk.

Among the conifers that are suitable for chalky soils the Spanish
Fir (Abies Pinsapo) is one of the best. In the chalky districts of
Kent it thrives with unusual luxuriance. At the Rookery, near
the village of Downe, we were shown, the other day, some of the
largest trees of the Spanish fir that we have ever seen. The
largest was fully 60 feet in height, with a beautifully rounded
tapering stem, girthing at 3 feet and 5 feet from the ground
7 feet 10 inches and 7 feet respectively. From base to tip this
symmetrical tree is thickly furnished with branches, whose
diameter of spread where they sweep the greensward is exactly
35 feet. The bole contains 69 feet of timber. When we consider
that the Spanish fir was only introduced in 1839, or little over
fifty years ago, it must be admitted that the specimen whose
dimensions we have just recorded has made no bad use of its
time. The upward rate of growth has been about 15 inches
annually, assuming it was planted in the year it was introduced,
and the annual increment of wood fully 1 foot 3 inches. The
soil on which this fine tree is growing is a sandy loam mingled
with chalk, resting on pure chalk, while the situation is fully
exposed to the worst winds of the district. Nota hundred yards
from this specimen grows another of almost similar dimensions,
the bole of which girths 5 feet 11 inches at 3 feet up, while the
branches cover a diameter of nearly 30 feet. The same bright,
healthy look characterises both trees, while the luxuriant foliage,
particularly of the latter, quite hides the stem from view. In
various other Kentish gardens, where only a few inches of loam
overlie the chalk, I have noticed how rapidly the Spanish fir
grows, and how healthy and bright is the abundantly produced

TREES BEST ADAPTED FOR VARIOUS SOILS. 259

foliage. In districts with not a particle of lime in the soil I
have noticed this fir thriving well; but, in comparison with
those growing on warm chalk or limestone soils, the differences
are markedly in favour of the latter. The Mount Enos Fir (Abzes
cephalonica) is well adapted for growing in chalky districts. In
some places where it is of unusually robust growth, the soil is
little else than pure chalk, with a small admixture of loam or
vegetable matter, but yet its appearance and vigorous growth
are such as betoken perfect health. The number of evergreen
trees that succeed on chalky soil is well known to be limited,
and it is important that two such beautiful conifers as the
Spanish and Mount Enos firs should there find their most con-
genial home.

The Weymouth Pine (Pinus Strobus) has been recommended as
a suitable tree for calcareous soils, which I can corroborate, for
on the chalky downs of Kent and Surrey it grows with great
vigour, if partially sheltered from cold, cutting winds. The Scots
pine ranks high as a tree for planting in chalky soils. Near the
chalk pits at Downe, in Kent, grows a noble clump of the Scots
pine. I have never seen a better example of the “survival
of the fittest” than is here presented, for, nature being allowed
her freedom, the strongest trees are gradually exterminating the
weaker. But this is not all, for by such a course of natural
treatment clean, straight, and almost branchless trees are
produced, which, when compared with such as have been
allowed room to develop their side branches, are vastly
superior in economic value. ‘This clump of Scots pine is
growing on a bed of chalk, with only a small quantity of loam
on the surface.

The Giant Arbor-Vite (Zhuja gigantea) is peculiarly well suited
for planting in chalky soils. This beautiful, quick-growing, and
valuable timber tree is fast coming to the front for forest purposes,
and it is often found difficult to meet the ever-increasing demand
for young plants. The American Arbor-Vitz (7’. occidentalis)
also does well when planted on chalky soils, if not too dry. For
forming a screen this tree is admirably adapted ; but for timber
or ornamental purposes we cannot say much in its favour. The
Cedar of Lebanon (Cedrus Libani) is a first-class tree for the
chalk, for finer trees than those at Goodwood, in Sussex, could
not be seen ; and equally fine are those at Wargrave, in Berk-
shire, where only a thin Jayer of soil overlies the chalk, The

VOL, XII. PART Il. s

260 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Wellingtonia (Sequoia gigantea) is also an excellent tree for
chalky soils, in which it grows with great vigour and a very
healthy appearance.

Gravelly and Sandy Soils.—The Corsican pine is an excellent
tree for planting on gravelly soils, and some of the finest specimens
in this country are found at Penrhyn Castle, in North Wales,
where it grows quickly to a large size in shingly gravel, and the
timber produced in such a soil is of good quality. Some years
ago several trees of this kind were felled, and the timber used
for various purposes on the estate with the most satisfactory
results. I have always noticed its preference for deep gravelly
soil, or that of a loose porous nature. One of the trees referred
toe growing on such soil, had attained a height of 60 feet in
thirty-four years, while the butt end was 32 inches in diameter,
and at 9 feet it girthed 6 feet 2 inches. The butt was free of
branches for 18 feet, and straight as an arrow, and contained
exactly 40 cubic feet. This fine tree was growing on the margin
of a disused gravel pit, with hardly 3 inches of decomposed
vegetable matter on the surface. Other examples of an almost
similar kind might be given, but suflicient has been said to prove
that the Corsican pine is peculiarly suitable for planting on pure
gravel. The Scots pine on poor thin gravelly soils reproduces
itself so freely from seed, and grows with such vigour, that it
may be considered an eXtra well-suited tree for the afforesting of
thin gravelly commons and similar tracts of land. The Pinaster,
or Cluster Pine, is a most valuable tree for planting either in
sand or gravel, as its growth in these in many parts of the
country clearly points out. The great value of this tree in
reclaiming sandy tracts, both at home and abroad, has been so
often described that further reference here is not required. The
Aleppo pine is a good companion to the Pinaster, and grows
with greatest freedom in a sandy or gravelly soil, within the
influence of the sea. Gravelly soil also suits the Weymouth pine
well, for we have it growing to a large size, and looking well upon
it here. Judging from the specimens we have cut up, the timber
appears to be of excellent quality, and largely impregnated with
resin.

Beech and oak both produce a fair quantity of timber on poor
gravelly soil. ‘The former in particular grows here with unusual
freedom on rough gravelly soil, where hardly half a foot of loam
overlies the gravel. To the south of Holwood House, in Kent,

TREES BEST ADAPTED FOR VARIOUS SOILS. 261

are numbers of large beech trees growing on a deep bed of gravel,
overtopped by a few inches of yellow loam.

Clay Soil.—The soil here referred to was genuine clay, entirely
devoid of stones, and without a particle of sand or loam in it. It
occurred on the slopes, and for some considerable distance from
the sides, of one of the park roads on an estate in England; and
as the drive was likely to be largely used by the owner of the
property, the getting up of shelter and an ornamental fringe at
the same time, was a matter of much importance. Pits were dug,
and the soil taken out was thrown loosely up for about a month
previous to planting. No fresh soil was added at time of planting.
Nearly fifty kinds of trees and shrubs were used, but out of all
these only about half-a-dozen are doing well, the others having
gradually died out, or become so rusty and miserable-looking
that their removal was compulsory. First among the trees that
have succeeded is the Giant Arbor-Vite, which seems to revel in
what is generally considered the most unkindly of soils. For
some years after being planted the annual shoots measured
15 inches in length, and the only difference between these
trees and others of the same kind planted on rich alluvial
deposit was the rather paler hue of the foliage. The branches
and foliage were plentifully produced, while the stems were
as straight and clean as could be desired. Even at the present
time, after being planted fourteen years, all the specimens are
in excellent health, and seem quite at home on their exposed
and clayey site. Cryptomeria japonica has likewise done well ;
but there were not half so many planted of it as of the Arbor-Vite.
The trees are hardly so tall as might be expected, from the number
of years they have been planted; but they are bushy and well-
furnished specimens. In colour of foliage these Cryptomerias are
not so intense a green as others growing under more favourable
conditions. Cupressus macrocarpa has done fairly well on the
clay; the growth certainly has not been rapid, but for all that the
general appearance of the tree is the reverse of what one might
expect from the unfavourable nature of the soil. Generally
speaking, the trees of this kind are bushy and picturesque, and
with bright healthy foliage. he Indian Cedar (Cedrus Deodara)
we have found to be peculiarly well suited for planting on a clay
soil. Not only is the bright silvery tint, that is so characteristic
of this cedar when well grown, discernible in these clay-grown
specimens, but the rate of growth is fairly rapid, and the drooping

262 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

branchlets are shown off to perfection. Pinus austriaca has in a
few instances where strong plants were used done remarkably
well, the foliage being of the usual dark yew-green, and the trees
well clothed with branches down to the ground.

Between the groups of trees were planted clumps of ornamental
shrubs, and the best of these is the double-flowered gorse (Ulex
europea flore pleno). On pure clay it has grown and increased
as freely as it will on a dry chalky bank, which is usually con-
sidered as its natural element.

These may be considered as the trees that have done best in
the clayey soil under notice; a few others still exist, but their
present appearance causes me to exclude them from this list.
Few of the Pine tribe did well, and this may also be said of the
spruces, cypresses, yews, junipers, arbutus, dogwood, cotoneasters,
hollies, and others planted. It is far from advisable to plant
trees or shrubs in such unkindly soil without first adding other
of better quality; but it is of great value to know that there area
few plants that will thrive almost in defiance of the stubborn and
unkindly nature of a stiff clay soil.

Ironstone Soils.—The district to which I mainly refer, and
where a few trees seem to be quite at home, is on the coal and
ironstone formation, where the top soil is shallow, and the subsoil
consists of a loose yellowish rag that is largely impregnated with
iron. In most places but a very small quantity of soil exists, and
this is of the poorest description, and varying in depth according
to the lie of the measure. For all this, several of our largest forest
trees seem to do well, but it is principally such kinds as root deeply
that succeed in the most satisfactory way, and are able to eke out
an existence in such a poor and shingly soil. The Spanish Chestnut
is one of the very best trees for this soil, growing with freedom,
and producing a fair amount of good timber, while its appearance
indicates perfect health. Birch and Beech do well, although neither
of them attain to a large size. The latter reproduces itself freely
from seed, and soon spreads wherever a footing can be got.
Sycamore grows freely, particularly where the pan is broken up,
and produces good timber. Another tree that seems perfectly at
home on the coal and ironstone is the Wild Cherry, for there it
grows to a fair size, flowers freely, and produces excellent timber.
Larch cannot be recommended for this soil, but, in places where a
small quantity of loam overlies the coal and ironstone, it grows
with great freedom for a number of years, and the timber, if cut

TREES BEST ADAPTED FOR VARIOUS SOILS. 263

early, is of good quality. The Spruce soon dies out, although it
may, for a number of years after being planted, grow freely enough
and wear a healthy appearance. Oak and Ash do fairly well, but
they rarely attain to a large size or produce first-class timber.
Rhododendrons almost revel in this soil, and some of the largest
and healthiest are growing with their roots in close contact with
the coal and ironstone.

Concluding Remarks.—In conclusion, it may be pointed out
that it is only by a careful selection of soil that we may expect
tree-planting to be successful, and I have no hesitation in saying
that many failures can be clearly traced to errors in judgment in
the selection of trees for planting on particular soils. The subject
is a wide and complicated one, and it must be admitted that very
perplexing diversities occur with the same kinds of trees on what to
all appearance is the same class of soil. There are of course other
considerations beyond the soil itself which must be taken into
account, such as aspect, elevation, and whether the ground is
inland or on the coast.

With reference to some of the newer conifers, it must be
admitted that soil and situation have a wonderful influence on their
successful culture, and this applies in particular to such kinds as
are not perfectly hardy and liable to injury by unseasonable frost.
The too common practice of selecting warm and sheltered spots is
in the main to be condemned. I have on several occasions removed
trees from low-lying sheltered sites to more upland breezy situations,
and with marked beneficial results. Abies Webbvana and A.
Pindrow when planted on warm rich soil, at a low elevation,
rarely ripen their young wood sufficiently in autumn to withstand
severe frost ; and as both of these trees are apt in such places to
start into growth early in spring, it is the general rule that the
young growths are seriously damaged. For these and other trees
of a similar nature a northern aspect and fairly rich soil is to be
recommended, as in such they do not start growing too early in
spring, and are thereby exempt from injury.

In a plantation at 950 feet above sea-level, and planted with
many of the newer conifere, it is interesting to note the differences
in growth between trees of the same genera. Abies Nordmanniana
aud A, pectinata, the former hailing from the Crimea, do badly;
while A. nobilis and A, lasiocarpa are thriving apace, and under
exactly similar conditions with the former, The soil is a loose
gravelly loam resting on rough, shingly gravel; and from this

264 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY,

we may infer that A. nobilis and A. lasiocarpa can subsist on
a drier and poorer soil than can A. Nordmanniana and A.
pectinata.

It may be said that A. cephalonica and A. Pinsapo are not worth
growing, and in many places they are not, but when growing on
limestone or chalk they are highly ornamental. The same holds
good with A. Albertiana, A. Menziesti, and A. excelsa, which are
rarely seen in good form except on soil of a peaty description.
Everyone interested in trees and shrubs knows that there are
certain kinds which in a state of nature are only found growing in
a peaty soil, mixed, it may be, more or less, with sand, and any
attempt to cultivate them in other soils is productive of very
unsatisfactory results. Who would ever think of planting the so-
called American or peat plants, Cape Heaths, and the Epacris in,
say, leaf soil, gravel, or loam; or Rhododendrons where lime is
present in the soil? and these facts show us that there is something
in the composition of certain soils only suitable for the roots of a
certain class of plants. Another curious fact is this, that when
growing on certain soils the timber of one species of tree is found
to be far more durable than in others. Deep loamy soil and soft
peat produce timber that is usually of a second-rate description,
being deficient in firmness.

I have long felt convinced that a great amount of good in point-
ing out the trees that are best suited for various soils and formations,
might be brought about by a careful study of the geological strata.
As an illustration, we are here a distance of some seventy miles
inland, and at varying altitudes from 300 feet to 700 feet above
sea-level. Generally speaking, the soil consists of the different
strata of the middle oolite; and to determine which trees thrive best
upon it would be a most interesting study, as well as of the greatest
value from a forestry point of view. As this stratum runs for a
considerable distance and at greatly varying elevations, it would
be valuable to learn what difference in the species of trees upon the
various districts of it can be noted. The variation in certain trees,
say, between the Kentish rag and chalk formation, or between the
coral rag and the Oxford clay, lying next to it, is very striking, and
well worthy of the attention of planters in these districts. There
would be little difficulty in getting together a mass of informa-
tion in this way, as reports from various districts throughout the
country would be of almost universal interest in affording data to
planters,

TREES BEST ADAPTED FOR VARIOUS SOILS.

The following alphabetical tables show at a glance the trees
which I have found to be well suited for planting in the class of

soil under which they are enumerated.

RECLAIMED PEAT BOG.

Alnus glutinosa.
imperialis.
laciniata.

9 99

9

99
Betula alba.
Cerasus Padus.
5» Vulgaris.
Fagus sylvatica.

” 29 purpurea,

Abies excelsa.

»» nigra.
Cedrus Deodara.
Cryptomeria japonica.
Cupressus Goveniana.

of Lawsoniana.

‘9 macrocarpa.
Juniperus chinensis.

Pr recurya,

Pn Sabina.

Larix europea.
», Kempferi.
Picea nobilis.

Hardwoods.

Conifers.

Populus alba.

fi balsamifera.

AD canadensis.
Quercus robur and vars.
Salix fragilis.

Tilia europea.
Ulmus alata.
>> montana.

Picea Nordmanniana.
Pinus austriaca.

», excelsa.

55 Waricio:

33 Sylvestris.
Retinospora ericoides.
plumosa.

7
i y aurea.
Taxus baccata.
Thuja gigantea.

», occidentalis.
Thujopsis borealis.

Wellingtonia gigantea,

CHALKY or CALCAREOUS.

Acer colchicum rubrum.
dasycarpum.
Negundo.
platanoides.
Pseudo-Platanus.

,, rubrum.

,, striatum.
ZEsculus Hippocastanum,

Hardwoods.

Alnus glutinosa and vars.
Amelanchier Botryapium.
Amygdalus communis.
Betula alba.

Castanea vesca.

Catalpa bignonioides.
Cerasus Padus.

Cratzegus (nearly all).

266 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL

Cytisus Laburnum.
Fagus sylvatica.

29 39

Fraxinus excelsior.

ss ornus.
Gleditschia sinensis.

os triacanthos.
Kolreuteria paniculata.
Populus alba.

., balsamifera.

;, canadensis.
candicans.
monilifera.

,, tremula.
Pyrus Aria,

3?

Abies excelsa.
Cedrus atlantica.
Deodara.
3) inbanis
Cupressus Lawsoniana.
is macrocarpa.
Juniperus chinensis.

29

communis.
Sabina.

2?

9?

99
Larix europea.

Kempferi.

,», leptolepis.
Picea amabilis.

3?

29

magnifica,
nobilis.
Nordmanniana.
Pinsapo.
Webbiana,

2

Ailantus glandulosa.
Alnus cordata.
3etula alba.
Carpinus betulus,
Fagus sylvatica.

purpurea,

SCOTTISH

Conifers.

tamariscifolia.

ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Pyrus aucuparia.

Malus floribunda.
;; spectabilis.

Quercus Ilex.

Mirbeckii.

rubra.

Turneril.

39

29

9

be)

Robinia Pseud-Acacia and vars.

Salix alba.
Tilia argentea.
>, europea.

Ulmus alata.
glabra.
,, montana,

Virgilia lutea.

9

Pinus austriaca.
Cembra.
excelsa,
Laricio.
Pinaster.
Strobus.
sylvestris.

,, tuberculata.
Retinospora ericoides,
filicoides.
plumosa.

3?

2

99

29
3?
33 aurea.
Salisburia adiantifolia.
Taxus bacecata and vars,
Thuja gigantea.
Lobbii.
occidentalis,

», Wareana.
Thujopsis borealis.

99

De)

>?

GRAVELLY AND SANDY.

Hardwoods.

|

|

Fagus sylvatica purpurea.
Fraxinus ornus.
Gleditschia horrida.

Ilex, many vars.

Juglans cinerea.

TREES BEST ADAPTED FOR VARIOUS SOILS,

Juglans nigra.
Magnolia acuminata.
Morus nigra.

Platanus occidentalis
Populus Bolleana.
Quercus robur and vars.

pene Swaer.

Juniperus communis.
‘A Sabina.
Pinus austriaca,
halepensis.
Laricio.

9?

99

Carpinus betulus.
Castanea vesca.
Cryptomeria elegans.

5 japonica,
Gleditschia triacanthos,

Acer Pseudo-Platanus,
Betula alba.

Castanea vesca,
Cerasus Padus,
Cupressus Lawsoniana,
Fraxinus excelsior.
Juniperus communis.

Conifers.

CLAY.

IRONSTONE AND

267

Robinia Pseud-Acacia.
Sambucus nigra,
Tilia cordata.
Ulmus alata.
campestris,

>», Montana,
Virgilia lutea.

>

Pinus Pinaster,
pumilio,
5, sylvestris.
Taxus baccata.
Thuja gigantea,

9?)

Quercus Ilex.
pannonica.
53 tobur:
Thuja gigantea,
Lobbii.

2?

”

COAL.

Larix europea.
pendula,

99 a9

Pinus cembra.

>, montana.
Quercus robur.
Thuja gigantea.
Ulmus montana.

268 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

XVIII. The Formation of Plantations. By Joun Fowter
ANNAND, Assistant Forester, Brucklay Castle, Aberdeenshire.

1. IntrRopucToRY REMARKS.

In earlier times, when there was a plethora of forest supplies,
felling was carried on without any regard to the maintenance of
the forest, regeneration being left entirely to nature. But by and
by nature ceased to fill up the gaps caused by man’s indiscretion,
and artificial means had therefore, of necessity, to be resorted to.

In this country, at the present time, restocking the ground by
planting is almost the only system practised. It is not from any
peculiarity of soil or climate that reproduction by self-sowing is
impracticable. That this is so seems evident from the fact that,
wherever a plantation is formed in a situation favourable to its
healthy development, when the trees are of seed-bearing age, such
a quantity of seedlings spring up, whenever an opening presents
itself, as would prove all-sufficient for a future crop, if only the
necessary protection were afforded for their preservation and future
growth. But with a superabundance of ground game, such
protection, on an extensive scale, at all events, is practically
impossible,

On an estate in West Aberdeenshire, with which the writer is
acquainted, a considerable tract of land was entirely cleared of a
heavy crop of larch, Scots pine, and spruce. The work extended
over a number of years, and during that time, although nothing
was done to encourage them, seedlings of the kinds mentioned,
along with birch, sprang up all over the ground, and would have
required little artificial assistance to have restocked the plantation ;
had not the bulk of them been destroyed by hares, rabbits, and
sheep. -And although much of this land is again covered with
thriving plantations, yet a considerable saving could have been
effected had circumstances been more favourable to the growth of
the self-sown trees.

I may mention another instance which came under my notice
more recently. Part of a small mixed hardwood and spruce
plantation was cut down and immediately replanted. But rabbits
were numerous, and the result was, that almost the whole of the
plants were destroyed by them. After this, the ground was enclosed
with wire-netting and effectually fenced against game, whereupon

THE FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS, 269

a close crop of sycamore, birch, willow, alder, ash, ete.—the off-
spring of surrounding trees—came up in such abundance as
rendered artificial aid unnecessary. I do not think the examples
I have taken are exceptional. All the broad-leaved timber trees
usually cultivated in Scotland, with the exception of oak, which
only ripens its seed (in Aberdeenshire, at least) in very favour-
able seasons, produce abundance of seeds, which germinate
readily when conveyed by natural agencies to a suitable seed-bed ;
and the same can be said of Scots pine and larch.

It is generally admitted that for woods which are to be per-
manently maintained for economic purposes, a well-organised system
of natural regeneration is most desirable, affording as it does a
more compact condition in the earliest stages of growth, and hence,
as a consequence, a straight clean stem, free from large lateral
branches, which conditions are, to some extent, wanting in the
artificially formed wood. But it is evident from what has been
already noted, and for other reasons which need not here be entered
upon, that such a system, however desirable, cannot in its entirety
be practised in this country ; and it is clear that we must largely
depend on artificial planting for the renewal of our woods. Every
advantage should, however, be taken of natural growth, when such
ean be preserved. Planting or sowing must, of course, be resorted
to when dealing with land previously unoccupied with a crop of
trees, and in the introduction of exotics.

The primary object kept in view in the formation of plantations
is that of profit. It has been repeatedly proved, from reliable
statistics, that substantial returns can be obtained from plantations,
after deducting every item of expenditure connected with their
formation and management,

Our foreign trade in timber may soon be attended with
difficulties. Our principal sources of supply at present are Canada,
and the northern part of the Continent of Europe. The United
States can now do little more than supply their own wants.
Owing to forest fires, and the generally wasteful system of forestry
earried on in Canada, our supplies from that quarter are likely to
be very much reduced in the near future. Although the forests of
America are still of vast extent, the parts of them available are
probably confined within comparatively narrow limits. It is only
when the timber is situated in the neighbourhood of navigable
rivers that it will pay to cut it for exportation, and as these
are just the most suitable places for settlers to occupy, so are

270 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

they cleared out to make room for corn-growing as the population
increases. At the same time, as a natural consequence, more and
more timber is required for structural and other purposes within
the country. The supplies of the larger-sized timber from the
north of Europe are also considerably reduced. It is highly
probable, therefore, that in the course of the next fifty years our
supplies of timber from abroad will be very greatly curtailed.

We cannot grow all the timber we require at home, but a very
considerable proportion can well be produced. Large tracts of
land at present worth only a few shillings per acre for grazing
purposes, but which are capable of producing Scots pine and larch
of the finest quality, are available for plantation purposes.

Mr D. F. Mackenzie, in his address delivered at the thirty-
seventh annual meeting of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural
Society, put the area thus available, in Scotland alone, at no less
a figure than eight million acres ; the planting and management of
which he considers would give employment to forty thousand persons.
Of late the home timber trade, in common with other industries,
has been very much depressed, and proprietors have found con-
siderable difficulty in getting a market for certain classes of forest
produce. But, with a general revival of trade, prices are certain
to improve. Even at present prices, land now lying comparatively
waste can be made to yield, if properly planted and managed, an
annual rental of from 15s. to 30s. per acre.

2, LAYING OUT THE PLANTATION.

In laying off the boundary line of a plantation, the prevailing
winds of the district should be carefully studied, and precautionary
measures taken to counteract their destructive effects. In these
latitudes, the most violent and frequent winds blow from a
westerly direction. On the eastern coast of Britain, however, the
most damage is done by northerly and easterly winds. The
greatest breadth of the plantation should, if possible, be laid off
in the face of the prevailing winds, and on the highest parts to
be planted.

As regards the actual form a plantation should take, the
individual tastes of the owner, and other attendant circumstances,
have to be considered. The best form that can be adopted on the
exposed side is the convex, the tendency of which seems to be to
divide and weaken the force of the storm, Straight lines are,

THE FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS, HT |

if possible, to be avoided; for, besides presenting an unnatural
appearance in the landscape, they are less able to resist outward
pressure. As a matter of convenience, however, they have often
to be adopted when the plantation is formed in immediate
proximity to agricultural land. Apart from esthetic considera-
tions, it is immaterial what form the plantation should take on the
side sheltered from the prevailing winds, The chief aim should
be to give its general contour as natural an appearance as possible,
in conjunction with the securing of strength to resist storms, the
curves of the outline being adapted to the configuration of the
ground—the convex form prevailing in rising ground, and gradually
giving place to the concave, as it again recedes. I cannot agree
with those who attach little or no importance to scenic effect when
laying out a plantation. Much can be done to secure beauty of
scenery by a suitable arrangement of even the commonest of our
forest trees. Each kind possesses shades and beauties peculiarly
its own. ‘To use the words of the poet Cowper,

** No tree in all the grove but has its charms,
Though each its peculiar hue; paler some,
And of a warmish grey; the willow such,
And poplar, that with silver lines his leaf,
And ash, far stretching his umbrageous arm:
Of deeper green the elm, and deeper still,
Lord of the woods, the long-surviving oak,
Some glossy-leav’d, and shining in the sun,
The maple, and the beech of oily nuts
Prolific, and the lime at dewy eve
Diffusing odours; not unnoted pass
The sycamore, capricious in attire,

Now green, now tawny, and ere autumn yet
Have changed the woods, in scarlet honours bright.”

A great deal can be accomplished by judicious grouping.
Although it is often necessary in profitable wood culture to have a
mixture of different kinds of trees in young plantations for the
sake of providing suitable nurses, or for the production of timber
likely to prove remunerative when removed as thinnings, there is
no reason why this order should be maintained with the permanent
crop. Viewed as a whole, and as a prominent object in the land-
scape, a plantation will produce the best effect at every season of
the year when the trees are grouped or massed together according
to their several varieties and shades of foliage.

272 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

3. FENCING.

It is absolutely necessary, before commencing to plant any piece
of ground, to have it thoroughly fenced against sheep and cattle.
Many different methods of fencing are in use at the present time,
each one possessing peculiar advantages, according to the cireum-
stances in which it may happen to be required.

Where shelter is of importance, nothing answers so well as
thorn hedges or stone dykes. In good land the thorn hedge makes
a very permanent and ornamental fence. If, however, the svil is
of a light character, or the situation very exposed, it will be
necessary to introduce a mixture of beech, one beech to two thorns
being the best proportion. The beech thrives in a much lighter soil
than the thorn, and also retains its leaves during the winter. In
this way, by the shelter and nursing affurded by the beech, the
thorn can be successfully cultivated where otherwise it would not
grow freely. The bed for the hedgerow should be thoroughly
treuched, at least 18 inches deep, and all weeds and _ large
stones carefully removed. If the subsoil be of a stiff or retentive
nature, it should be thoroughly loosened with the pick, but in
general it is not advisable to bring much of it to the surface, unless
the ground is of a peaty nature, in which case it will supply the
necessary mineral matter so deficient in such soils. The quality
of the soil should be equalised as much as possible, that of an
inferior nature being removed, and richer put in its place. In this
way a more equal growth is at once secured and maintamed. <A
temporary fence must be erected to protect the hedge until it is
able to act as a fence itself. It should be neatly trimmed at least
once a year, and all encroaching branches from the neighbouring
trees kept in check.

Stone dykes ave probably the best fences in use for enclosing
plantations, and if stones are plentiful within a reasonable distance,
are ultimately the cheapest. They possess the great advantage
over hedges of at once affording considerable shelter to the young
trees.

The dry-stone dyke (as the term implies) is built without mortar,
with the exception of the cope or top stones, which should be all
well bedded and pointed with lime. By attending to this matter,
the fence is much less apt to be broken down. Dykes are built
vf various heights, but 4 feet, including cope, is usually sufficient

THE FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS. 273

for enclosing plantations. To make the fence thoroughly efficient
and proof against Highland sheep, two wires fastened to small
iron standards should be placed on the top. The standards should
be set 9 feet apart, and firmly “batted” into the stones with
lead or cement; pillars for straining the wires being placed in the
dyke 150 yards apart.

Turf dykes were formerly much in use for enclosing plantations.
In many high-lying districts of the country, where stones are not
easily procurable, and where, from the nature of the sol and
situation, hedges are not likely to succeed, they are still not
infrequently used. They form at best a very insufficient fence, and
in order to make them proof against sheep and cattle, they must
be surmounted by a wire fence. But when we consider that
wooden posts so situated will not probably last half so long as
when fixed in the natural ground, and that only a very little saving
in wood and wire can be effected at the outset, it is questionable if
very much advantage is to be gained by the erection of turf dykes
at all, except, of course, as shelter for the young plants.

The form of were fencing most generally in use for enclosing
woods in Scotland is that with wooden posts and strainers. The
straining posts should be made of thoroughly seasoned larch of
mature growth. They should be 7 feet long, 6 inches square,
or, if round, 7 inches in diameter. The intermediate posts
should also be made of larch, 5} feet long by 3} inches by
3 inches, or, if round, 34 inches in diameter at the smallest
end. The strainers should be pitted into the ground 150 yards
apart, with an additional one at every sharp curve that occurs
in the line of fence. Brackets for straining the wires should
also be attached to the strainers. The brackets possess the
great advantage of permitting the wires to be slackened or
tightened at pleasure. This is a matter of great importance when
any accident befalls the fence, or when temporary openings are
required. ‘The intermediate posts should be pointed and driven
into the ground 6 feet apart. In order to make a substantial
fence against cattle or sheep, it should be provided with six No, 7
wires, and should measure, when completed, 3 feet 6 inches high.
The distance between the two upper wires should be 10 inches,
and the remaining spaces respectively 8, 7, 6, 5, and 6 inches
between the lower wire and the ground, The tops of the posts
should be rounded off to prevent the lodgment of water. This
fence can be erected at a cost of 5)d. per yard.

274 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

4. DRAINAGE.

An elaborate system of drainage, such as is required for the
growth of agricultural crops, is neither necessary nor practicable
when dealing with land to be occupied with a crop of trees. For,
when once established, the trees perform for themselves, in a great
measure, the necessary drainage. No sooner do they rise to a
height sufficient to be affected by the wind, than by their own
movements the soil is loosened around the roots and the superfluous
moisture readily sinks to a depth at which in most subsoils it
cannot injuriously affect the health of the trees. By the gradual
enlargement of the roots also, the soil is more and more broken up,
and its porosity increased. In planting for ornament alone, the
ground is generally trenched and drained at a cost equal to what
is necessary in agricultural practice, but in this case the soil may
be quite unsuited to the varieties of trees to be planted, without
such preparation. But, of course, objects other than profit are kept
in view in such instances. By a proper distribution of the various
kinds of trees over soils suitable for their respective requirements,
the expense of draining may be reduced to a minimum. Trees
which thrive in soils of a dry nature should not of course be
planted on those of a directly opposite character, and wice versa.

In general, all that is required is to form surface drains to carry
off stagnant water. It is very seldom that all the land in large
enclosures requires draining, but where necessary this should on
no account be neglected, as no preparation of the soil is of so
much importance to the health of the trees in the earliest stages
of their growth. The nature of the soil will determine the
dimensions of the drains, and the distances at which they should
be placed apart. If the soil is of a stiff clayey nature, they will
require to be deeper and closer than in other cases. In general
it will be sufficient to have the drains cut at from 30 to 40 feet
apart. The main drains should always be made on the lowest
part of the ground, and where the easiest natural outfall can be
obtained. They are usually made 24 inches deep, 30 inches wide
at the top, and 10 inches at the bottom, and the subdrains
15 to 18 inches deep. On soils where moorband pan is present
and in the course of formation, the drains should be made at least
one year before the ground is planted, in order that the stagnant
water may get time to drain off, and the soil be made pervious tu

THE FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS. 275

air and rain-water, both of which greatly assist in breaking up
the pan, and checking its further formation. In preparing peat
mosses for the growth of trees, the drains will require to be made
much deeper than in ordinary cases, in order to make allowance
for the subsidence that usually takes place when the water is
removed. Owing to the soft nature of the ground, however, they
can be made at a much cheaper rate than they could be in soils of
a different character. Where practicable, a little of the sub-
stratum on which the peat rested should be brought to the
surface and spread equally over the ground, thus providing for the
necessary supply of mineral matter usually so deficient in such soils.
The cost of making ordinary surface drains will vary from 5s. to &s.
per hundred yards, according to the condition of the ground, and
the price of labour in the locality.

5. Maxine or Roapbs.

It is a matter of paramount importance, before commencing to
plant any piece of ground of large extent, to have the principal
lines of roads at least marked off, if the work of construction is to
be delayed till a later date. If this precaution is neglected, and
the whole of the ground planted, it will often be a matter of
extreme difficulty to fix upon the best route for the road after the
trees have attained a height sufficient to obstruct the view; and
what may appear to be the best line of road at one point is quite
impracticable at another. It is not necessary to have the principal
roads laid off in straight lines. In fact, it is very undesirable to
have them so constructed, affording, as they do, an unrestricted
passage to the wind.

The object aimed at in forming the roads is to provide as easy
an access as possible to every part of the plantation. It is not
necessary that all the roads should be constructed on an expensive
scale, but only those which have to undergo constant tear and wear.
For those of minor importance, it will be sufficient to have ditches
cut to carry off stagnant water from the surface. The principal
roads should be of sufficient breadth to enable two carts or waggons
to pass each other without inconvenience.

The great secret of success in the maintenance of roads is to
have them as nearly free from moisture as possible. On _ hilly
ground, where the soil is of an open and gravelly nature, metalling
can often be dispensed with altogether. If the road is formed

VOL. XII. PART II. in

276 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

along the slope of a hill, sufficient material is usually found on the
highest part to make up the deficiency on the lower, and complete
the construction of the road; and, if it is kept smooth and dry, it
will be found to be as permanent as if it had been metalled at
great expense. When it is found necessary to convey material for
the construction of the road, a box or longitudinal trench should be
cut out for its reception. The metal may either be broken and
carted on, or the stones may be carted on whole and broken into
the road. It is necessary to have a bottom layer of 5 inches, and
an upper one of 3 inches, the size of the stones not exceeding
3 inches in the former, nor 23 inches in the latter. The road
should be thoroughly pressed together with a heavy roller. A
“blinding” of sharp gravel may then be spread on the surface, and
the rolling repeated. ‘“ Trail” roads should also be provided for
conveying the produce to the principal thoroughfares. As they
are much narrower than the cart roads, they may be made in straight
lines. They can be so laid out as to divide the plantation into
convenient working blocks. They are also handy for sportsmen.

6. PREPARATION OF THE GROUND.

In Scotland, waste land is generally covered with heather, whins,
or broom.

The best and cheapest method of clearing land of a heavy crop
of heather is to burn it. This is a very dangerous operation when
conducted in the immediate vicinity of plantations. Much damage
is often done by the fires being allowed to enter the woods. This
evil can easily be guarded against by having men in attendance
with brooms or other suitable appliances to keep the fire within
due limits. If the situation is very much exposed, strips should be
left at intervals to shelter the young trees. This work is best
accomplished in autumn or early in spring. It should be done at
least three years before the ground is planted.

This interval is necessary in order that the surface may again be
covered with vegetation. Young trees seldom do well when planted
while the ground is entirely bare from the effects of burning. The
reason of this is that the soil is in too loose a condition, and admits
drought and frost too readily. If the heather does not exceed
6 inches in length, it is quite unnecessary to burn it, as it offers no
impediment to the planting of the smallest trees in use. Whins
and broom are more difficult to get rid of. They can of course be

THE FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS. 200

burned, but this seems rather to foster than check their growth.
Not only do the old plants spring anew from the roots, but, owing
to the condition of the ground after the burning takes place, seeds
lying dormant are enabled to germinate ; and both crops coming
up together, the ground is in a worse state than ever. No doubt
the most effectual way of getting rid of them is to grub them up
entirely by the roots, but this is a very expensive operation, and
often necessitates an expenditure of as much as £4 per acre. A
cheaper method may be adopted. When the ground is entirely
covered with whins or broom, strips about 2 feet wide, and from
3 to 4 feet apart, are cut through them, and the plants put in along
these. By a little attention for the first few years the whins and
broom will easily be prevented from unduly interfering with the
growth of the plants. Where tall grass occurs it is necessary, if
the plants are to be notched into the ground, to pare off patches of
the surface about 15 inches square, on the spots where the plants
are to be inserted. This will enable the plants to get a good start
before the grass can again grow with its usual luxuriance.

Trenching is an expensive operation, and is seldom resorted to
as a preparation for young trees. When planting is done with a
view to profit, it is better to leave the land in its natural condition,
not only on the ground of economy, but that the timber may not
deteriorate in quality, which, in the case of conifers at all events,
it certainly will do, if growth is unduly accelerated by artificial
means. In forming shelter plantations, however, on the sea-coast
trenching may with advantage be resorted to; and it very often
happens that trees are made to grow by thus preparing the soil,
when attempts to follow the ordinary method of planting result in
failure.

7. SOIL AND CLIMATE.

When it is considered that a period of fifty, sixty, or one hundred
years must elapse before the full value of a crop of trees can be
realised, it is obvious that great forethought and careful dis-
crimination must be exercised by the planter. Errors committed
at the outset cannot, as a rule, be remedied during the whole life
of the trees composing the plantation. One of the most serious
of such errors is committed when planting operations are carried
on without sufficient care being taken to select each variety of tree
for the soil for which it is naturally fitted. Nothing is more
common than to find trees, which nature has adapted for a light

278 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCTETY.

dry soil, planted on the stiffest and most tenacious of clays, while
those that would flourish, and attain to large dimensions, on stiff
ground are planted on the lightest of gravelly or sandy soils.
What wonder then if, in such cases, planting should result in
comparative failure? The nature of the soil, therefore, is the most
important consideration when the formation of a plantation is
contemplated.

Another consideration of scarcely less importance is that of
the climate, which may be influenced by the nature of the soil,
configuration of the district, altitude, proximity to the ocean,
exposure, aspect, etc. The effect of elevation on the growth
of trees is very noticeable. It is well known that as we ascend in
height the temperature gradually and regularly decreases, and trees
thriving at the foot of a mountain will not be found at the top.
Even in a country possessing so little variation in height as our
own, this effect is well seen. Abundant proof of this natural
distribution of trees is to be seen in the forest remains found
embedded in existing peat mosses. The low fertile ground is
seen to have been covered with oaks, while the pine, birch, and
willow had occupied the high elevations. It is only by an
approximation to this natural distribution that we can hope to
attain to great success. The greatest height at which the Scots fir
is said to grow is 2000 feet above sea-level, but it cannot be
expected to grow to timber size at such an elevation. Probably
700 feet is the utmost limit at which timber can be profitably
grown within 12 miles of the sea-coast. ‘Trees are said to thrive
at a higher elevation in Perthshire than anywhere else in Scotland.
This is no doubt owing to the distribution of the mountain ranges,
and the perfect immunity from sea blasts enjoyed by that county.
Taking the county of Aberdeen as an example, it may be noticed
that more difficulty is likely to be experienced in forming planta-
tions at an elevation of 400 feet in the Buchan district of the
county, than would be the case at twice that elevation in the
western part along the hill-sides of the Dee and Don. The reason
is obvious. Buchan is fully exposed, both on the north and east,
to the sea blast, the damaging effect of which is noticeable at least
12 miles inland. Owing to its situation, the western part of the
county is not affected by the sea, the hill ranges being so situated
as to break the force of the storm, and rob the wind of much of
the saline matter so fatal to certain classes of trees. Hence timber
can be grown at a much greater elevation in this part of the county.

THE FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS. 279

Aspect and exposure exercise a modifying influence also on tree
growth. One would, on first thought, naturally conclude that, for
trees of a delicate nature, or for those that are liable to be injured
by spring or autumn frosts, a southern exposure would be most
congenial. This is not, however, in accordance with facts, and it
is allowed that, if soil and elevation be favourable, a northern
exposure answers equally as well as, if not better than, a southern.
Although in the former case the full benefit of the sun’s rays is
not always obtained, yet it has compensating advantages not
possessed by the latter. It is less influenced by the violence of
south and east winds, which frequently prevail, and are so very
destructive to vegetation during the growing season. The north
winds most frequently occur during the period of rest, and seldom
prove so injurious. Hence we find that even the broad-leaved
timber trees, which require a higher degree of heat than conifers to
bring them to maturity, grow as freely, and attain to as great
height, in a northerly as in a southerly exposure.

Our British climate is proverbially variable and uncertain. This
is more noticeable in the spring months than at any other time
during the year. From March to June it is no uncommon
experience to have intense heat, mild showers, frost, hail, snow,
cold and destructive winds, all following each other in rapid suc-
cession, and very often within the space of twenty-four hours.
These may be said to constitute our usual spring weather. Our
native plants are by constitution adapted to these changes, but
the successful cultivation of exotics, accustomed to a more equable
climate, is often a precarious undertaking. In selecting trees of
foreign origin for plantation purposes, preference should be given to
those which most readily adapt themselves to the variableness of
our climate, and they should if possible be placed in exposures,
such as north and west, where they are least likely to be damaged
in the early part of the growing season.

With these remarks on soil and climate, we now proceed to con-
sider more in detail the soils and situations best adapted for some
of the more commonly cultivated of our forest trees.

8. Common Forest TREES.

The Oak (Quercus Robur). The soil most suitable for the oak
is a strong clay loam resting on a clay subsoil. But though a soil
of this description is required to bring it to its greatest dimensions,

280 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

we often find it growing to considerable perfection on land of a
sandy or gravelly nature. Being of slow growth, and of little
value when young, it need not be planted closer than 12 feet
apart, with nurses between of a suitable kind. In order to pro-
duce tall, well-grown trees, it is an indispensable condition that
the plants be provided with shelter, either natural or artificial.

The Ash (Fraxinus excelsior). This tree requires a soil of a
moist nature to bring it to perfection. It grows well on any good
loamy soil, if the subsoil is of a moist nature. Excellant quality
of ash is also to be found growing on soils of a peaty nature, if the
subsoil is clay. It does not succeed at high elevations, and it is
vain to attempt to grow it on poor, thin land, such as is likely to
suffer from drought in summer. But if planted in a favourable
situation it will be found to give quicker, and perhaps larger,
returns than any other deciduous tree.

The Wych Elm (Ulmus montana). Poor shallow land is as
inimical to the growth of the elm as the ash. Its favourite soil
seems to be of a rich clayey nature, with a moist subsoil. If
provided with a sufficient depth of earth, and within the reach of
water, it will succeed well on a great variety of soils. The best
specimens are almost invariably to be found on the banks of a
running stream, where they are provided with sufficient moisture
without having stagnant water about the roots. If grown by itself,
the elm may be planted at 12 feet apart, but it is more commonly
mixed with other timber trees. It requires shelter to bring it to
useful size.

Sycamore (Acer pseudo-platanus). Perhaps no tree is more
accommodating as to soil and situation than the sycamore. The
soil on which it attains to its largest size is a light loam
resting on gravel, but it thrives almost equally well on soils of a
tenacious quality, if these are not surcharged with moisture ; and
it will-also attain to a fair size on peaty soils. It is most valuable
for planting on exposed situations, and for forming shelter to
timber trees of a more delicate character. Not only does it thrive
at high elevations and on severe exposures inland, but it is perhaps
the best tree that can be planted for shelter where the influence
of the sea-breeze is much felt. Its timber is most valuable when
of large dimensions.

Beech (Yagus sylvatica). Soils of a light sandy nature are best
suited to the growth of the beech. It will also grow to fair size on
rather stiff clay, if thorough drainage is effected. It is not suitable

THE FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS, 281

for planting on wet or mossy soils. It grows at a high elevation
inland, but does not stand the sea-breeze so well as the sycamore.

The Horse-Chestnut (dsculus Hippocastanum) and the Lime
(Tila europea) thrive on a great variety of soils of a dry loamy
nature, but will not succeed in very exposed situations. They are
more useful as ornamental trees than for producing timber.

Birch (Betula alba). The birch delights in mountainous
regions, and is to be found growing naturally almost everywhere in
the Highlands of Scotland. It succeeds at a great elevation, and
in a variety of soils. It seems to grow equally well on loamy,
sandy, gravelly, or peaty soils, and will thrive in loftier situations
than the native pine or any other of our cultivated trees.

The Alder (Alnus), the Willow (Salix), and the Poplar
(Populus) are not of first-rate importance as timber trees, but
they thrive in a great variety of poor soils of a damp character,
and form valuable shelter belts in such situations.

Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris). Among conifers, the Scots
pine claims first attention. It is the only pine indigenous to
Britain, and is one of the hardiest timber trees in cultivation. It
is highly probable that in early times the greater part of Scotland
was covered with forests of this tree, and in any scheme of re-afforest-
ing in the Highlands, it will be more largely used than any other.
It thrives in very poor soils, and at high elevations. Dryness is
the most indispensable condition land can possess in order to
produce a full crop of Scots pine. The most suitable soil is
perhaps a sandy or gravelly loam on a rocky subsoil, but it will
grow on any well-drained soil, with the single exception perhaps of
chalk. It is impatient of the sea-breeze, and if planted where this is
much felt, shelter belts of deciduous trees should always be provided.
In mountainous regions inland, it will produce valuable timber
at a higher elevation than any other timber tree, except the birch.

Larch (Larix ewropea). Although good specimens of this tree
are often found in clay soils in flat districts, it is along the hill-
sides, on open rocky soils, where a free supply of moisture is
obtained, in combination with a thorough natural drainage, that it
grows to the greatest perfection. It affects cool, moderately
elevated situations, with a clear, dry atmosphere. Perhaps no
better example of the successful cultivation of this tree is to be
found than on the hillslopes along the valleys of the Dee and
the Don, in Aberdeenshire. Magnificent specimens are to be
seen at Paradise, on the Monymusk property, at an elevation of

282 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

about 350 feet above sea-level. But apart from individual
specimens, extensive thriving plantations of the larch have been
formed on most of the wooded properties in the western part of
the county. But in these situations it is by no means free from
disease, and, where due regard has not been had to the proper
selection of sites, the results have been anything but satisfactory.
I cannot agree with those who declare that it will thrive at higher
altitudes than the native pine. It certainly will “ve, but it cannot
be profitably cultivated.

The larch is much subject to disease, the great predisposing
cause of which can apparently be traced to the variableness of our
spring weather. No degree of cold ever experienced in this
country can injure the tree in winter, but few are so sensitive
when in foliage. The fine weather often experienced in early
spring brings the larch into leaf, only to be checked, perhaps
ruined, by cold east or south-east winds, or late frosts. To prevent
this as much as possible, it should be planted on north or north-
west exposures, and preference should be given to home seed, the
produce of foreign growth being less suited to the changeable
nature of our climate.

The Spruce (Abies excelsa). The spruce requires shelter to
bring it to useful timber size, and is more suitable for valleys
than mountain sides. Although it endures any degree of cold
during winter, it seldom grows to large size in exposed situations,
and it is one of the worst trees for planting within the influence
of the sea. The spruce is very shallow rooted, and is best adapted
for soils of a cool moist character; and it is one of the few trees
that will succeed where the subsoil is of a wet, retentive nature.
It also grows well on peaty soils, if provided with shelter belts of
deciduous trees, such as the birch or sycamore.

Silver Fir (Picea pectinata). The silver fir attains to greatest
perfection on loamy soils of a moist nature, but it will thrive on
most soils that are not liable to be affected by severe drought. It
does not grow at so high an altitude as the native pine, being
found in its native habitat in association with the oak. It is very
liable to be damaged by spring frosts, and it should be protected
from this by being grown in the shade of other trees in the early
stages of its existence. It thrives with an amount of shade that
would entirely destroy other trees. For this reason it is very
valuable for growing under the shade of old trees which are to be
removed at a later date. When it is once established, and has

THE FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS. 283

reached the height of 15 or 20 feet, it assumes a more robust habit
of growth, and the buds on the top shoots being later in coming
into leaf, it is much less liable to be damaged by late frosts.

The Newer Coniferw.—A great variety of these exotics is now
cultivated in this country, but chiefly for ornamenting lawns and
pleasure grounds. A few bid fair to prove valuable as timber.
Among these may be noted Abies Douglasit, Abies Menziesia,
Picea nobilis, Picea Nordmanniana, Pinus Laricio, Wellingtonia
gigantea, Cupressus Lawsoniana, Thuia gigantea.

The various species of Picea, Pinus, Cupressus, Wellingtonia, and
Thuia seem to thrive best on light dry soils, while those of Abies
prefer moist or peaty soils. Perhaps as regards quality of timber
the first place must be given to the Douglas fir, and if accorded
the proper sylvicultural treatment, it may yet prove a formidable
rival to the larch, the timber of both very much resembling each
other. The Douglas fir will not succeed on exposed situations,
nor within the influence of the sea-breeze, but the same remarks
may, with equal propriety, be applied to the common spruce fir.
One thing is evident, the Douglas fir will flourish where the larch
almost refuses to grow at all. In a soil and climate far too moist
for the larch, it will form valuable timber if provided with sufficient
shelter. It should be observed, however, that until we are better
acquainted with the timber-producing qualities of the pines and
firs of recent introduction, they should be used experimentally
rather than generally. It certainly would be an egregious
mistake, and one that would likely lead to great disappointment
and loss, to use them promiscuously until we have acquired some
such knowledge.

9. GENERAL REMARKS.

When planting is done with a view to profit, the more valuable
of the broad-leaved timber trees should not be used in situations
where their growth is known to be slow, for not only is there a
loss in quantity of timber in such cases, but the quality also is
of an inferior description. Some of the hardier of them may very
properly be used in forming shelter belts for the more surface-
rooted coniferous trees; for though they will not form valuable
timber, they afford sufficient shelter to permit of plantations of
conifers being formed, with much better prospects of success,
Trees can be grown at a much greater elevation inland than near
the coast. Deciduous trees withstand the sea-breeze better than

284 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

pines and firs. The sycamore is the hardiest of all in such situa-
tions, the beech, willow, ash, and poplar following in succession.

Coniferous trees form valuable timber in much poorer soils
than hardwoods. In fact, the quality of the wood is generally
inversely as the quantity, and is accordingly impaired when the
trees are planted where their growth is very rapid. As has
been already remarked, a north or north-west exposure is to be
preferred for the growth of exotics, as they are less excitable in
the early part of the growing season in such situations, and hence
are less liable to injury from late frost, cold south-east winds, ete.
As regards the propriety of having woods in a mixed or in a pure
condition, much might perhaps be said in justification of either
method ; but, ceteris paribus, if the soil is suitable for different
varieties of trees, it is always safer to use different varieties than
to depend on one, although this mixed condition need not
necessarily be maintained throughout the whole life of the trees
composing the plantation.

10. SELECTION oF PLANTS.

Much of the future success of a plantation depends on a
careful selection of plants. It is only when the planting of large
enclosures is contemplated that it will pay to form nurseries in
their vicinity for the purpose of raising the necessary plants ;
although it must be admitted that trees so raised are hardier,
and have a better chance of at once establishing themselves when
permanently planted out. Some condemn the system of procuring
plants from public nurseries suitable for immediate planting, and
recommend as an improvement the purchase of seedlings there-
from, and the growing of them in a home nursery till they attain
to size suitable for planting in the woods. Now, as the home
nursery, as a matter of convenience, is often located in the most
sheltered part of the estate, it is very questionable if any
advantage can be secured by such a course of procedure. If,
however, it occupy a well-exposed site, or is situated in the
vicinity of the land to be planted, the practice has much to
recommend it.

From the extensive nature of the operations in a public
nursery, the professional nurseryman can always command at
the cheapest rate the amount of skilled labour and attention so
necessary for the successful rearing of seedlings. These he can

THE FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS. 285

therefore supply at a cheaper rate than they can be produced
in a home nursery, where the same amount of attention cannot
so readily be given them. But when the plants are removed
from the seed-bed, and transplanted into lines, they necessarily
occupy a large space of ground, and a proportionately heavy rent
charge must be laid on them; and when it is considered that
land occupied as public nurseries is generally near some large
city, and is worth perhaps ten times more than the home nursery
ground, it is easily understood why large transplanted trees from
the public nurseries must be dearer than those grown at home.

It is our own opinion, therefore, that when the planting
operations are not so extensive as to warrant the establishing
of nurseries on the site of the projected plantations, the most
economical method is to procure seedlings from the public
nurseries, and rear them in a well-exposed home nursery to a size
suitable for the enclosure to be planted. When purchasing plants,
it must be observed that a due proportion should always exist
between roots, stem, and branches; and preference should not
always be given to those which apparently are the most vigorous
and free-growing, for very often these are sparsely rooted, and will
not readily establish themselves when transplanted. It is an
indispensable condition that the plants be possessed of one un-
blemished leading shoot, and only one. Conifers may be considered
useless when their leaders are damaged. It is quite a simple
matter to introduce any disease or insect pest into a plantation,
but it will usually be found to be an impossibility to eradicate
either when once established. Those plants exhibiting the
slightest symptoms of disease or insect attack should therefore,
in every case, be rejected. It is of paramount importance, then,
to select healthy, well-proportioned plants, entirely free from
defects of even apparently the slightest importance.

11. Size or Pxiants, AND DISTANCES AT WHICH EACH VARIETY
SHOULD BE PLANTED APART.

On high, exposed sites, where rank herbage has not to be
contended with, small plants should always be used. It is a
very common mistake to use too large plants for such places.
Their age should not exceed two years. Two-year seedlings, or
one-year seedlings one year transplanted, are much more likely
to prove successful than if large transplanted trees were used,

286 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISIZ ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

their roots having ample time to establish themselves before
they grow to a size sufficient to be affected by the wind. These
remarks apply to conifers only, it being assumed that the more
valuable of the broad-leaved trees will not be planted in such
places. In sheltered situations, where tall grass and similar
hindrances to plant growth have to be guarded against, plants
of considerable size must be used. ‘Two-year seedlings two years
transplanted will often be found small enough. The longer
conifers remain in the nursery lines after they reach the age of
four years, the less likely are they to succeed when removed to
their final destination. The roots of firs become more and more
woody as they advance in years, and fewer fibres are developed.
As much of the success in transplanting depends on the plenti-
fulness of these fibres on the roots, it will be easily understood
how precarious an operation this becomes when the trees are of
considerable age. Deciduous trees are much better provided with
fibrous roots at every period of their existence, and can thus be
removed at a greater age than firs. But economy at the outset,
and after success in the growth of the plantation, decide us in
using the smallest size of plants compatible with the natural
condition of the ground.

In forming plantations of deciduous trees, these are usually
planted at wide distances apart, and the intermediate spaces filled
up with conifers, If the plantation is a mixed one, the trees are
planted at from 9 to 18 feet apart, according to soil, varieties
selected, local demand for small-sized timber, etc., the ground
being of course filled up with coniferous “nurses.” When each
variety for the ultimate crop is planted separately, oaks are placed
at 9 feet apart, ash at 7 to 8 feet, elm at 12 feet, beech at 6 to
8 feet, sycamore at 9 feet. When plantations are formed purely
of conifers, Scots pine and spruce are placed at from 3 to 4 feet,
larch and silver fir at from 34.to 5 feet, and Douglas fir at 8 feet,
with cheaper trees as nurses.

12. Season oF PLANTING.

Planting operations of an extensive nature may be successfully
carried on in this country at any time from November to April,
both inclusive. On dry, hilly ground, autumn planting proves
most successful, the plants having time to establish themselves
before the drought of the ensuing summer sets in. Planting in

THE FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS. 2heMi}

the dead of winter is by some objected to, but I have failed to
observe any bad effects result from this, and very often the
weather is much more favourable at this period than any other
time during autumn or spring. When dealing with wet land,
where sufficient time has not elapsed after draining to permit of
the stagnant water being properly removed from the surface,
planting should be deferred till spring. The same plan should be
adopted where no natural herbage is present on the ground, as in
the case of exhausted peat bogs.

13. Metruops oF PLANTING.

Three distinct methods of planting may be enumerated,
namely—putting, double notching with the spade, and single
notching with the hand-iron.

The pitting system should always be used in the case of
deciduous trees, and of large-sized conifers. The pits or holes
made for the reception of the trees should always be large enough
to contain the roots of the plants when extended at full length.
The earth removed from the pit is laid aside, and the surface turf
placed in the bottom. This has the double advantage of placing
next the roots of the planta better quality of soil than is generally
to be found at any considerable distance from the surface, and
also of effecting a considerable check on the growth of weeds till
the plant has time to fix itself in the ground, and be in a position
to smother all undergrowth. In putting in the trees, two persons
are employed. One holds the plant in a vertical position in the
centre of the pit, while the other shovels in the earth till all the
roots are sufficiently covered. The earth is then subjected to a
firm treading with the feet to secure the plant in its proper
position, and the operation is completed.

Notching is a much cheaper and more expeditious method of
planting, but.can only be practised in the case of conifers. For
double notching no better implement can be used than the
common garden spade. To produce satisfactory results, the spade
should be provided with a straight handle. Striking the spade
smartly into the ground, the planter forms two cuts as nearly as
possible at right angles to each other, thus L. Care should be
taken to make the first cut as nearly perpendicular as possible,
otherwise it will be impossible to place the plant in proper posi-
tion. After having made the two cuts, the planter depresses the

288 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

spade towards himself, and turns it in such a way as to raise the
angle of turf formed by the cuts. An assistant then draws in
the plant with the roots below the spade. The spade is then
withdrawn, and the turf springs back and covers the roots. A
smart stroke with the heel to fix the plant completes the opera-
tion. In this way a man and a boy will insert from eight hundred
to twelve hundred plants a day. This method of planting is suit-
able for transplanted firs too large for being inserted with the
hand-iron, but for which it is unnecessary to provide pits; and
it is perhaps more generally in use for planting moorland than
any other.

The hand-planting iron is not in general use south of the county
of Aberdeen. The implement resembles a common garden spade,
but is so small as to be used quite easily with one hand. It
measures from 17 to 18 inches in length, and weighs three
pounds, The planter holds the iron in his right hand, and
strikes it into the ground with a force sufficient to make a
cut about 3 inches deep. Then pressing the iron down towards
himself, he gives it a slight turn to the right. The plant is
then put in at this opening, and the iron withdrawn. The
planter then fixes the plant by giving the cut turf a smart
stroke with the heel as he steps forward. In this way an
experienced workman will insert from two to four thousand
plants a day. The plants are carried in a bag slung across the
shoulder, and hanging down at the back within easy reach of the
left hand. Five hundred seedlings can thus be carried without
inconvenience to the planter.

This method of planting is certainly the cheapest in practice,
and can often be used when other means are impracticable. It
must be clearly understood, however, that it is only suitable for
planting seedling conifers, where the heath does not exceed
perhaps 8 inches in length, It can never be practised with hard-
woods nor large transplanted conifers. If this is attempted,
failure only can be the result. But as has been already stated,
in bleak exposures and rocky situations, almost unmanageable in
any other way, planting with the hand-iron is the cheapest and
most efficient system in practice, and the cost will seldom exceed
twenty shillings per acre.

Planting operations should never be carried on when the
ground is affected with frost in the slightest degree, and many
failures in planting, often attributed to other causes, could very

THE FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS. 289

likely be traced to this, Dull, moist weather is the most suitable
of any, and if such weather is selected for the work, planting
operations can successfully be carried on from early autumn to

the end of April.
14, Sowine.

This method of forming plantations is subject to many of the
objections already noted regarding natural reproduction, and can
seldom be taken advantage of in this country. There is one case
in which it is infinitely to be preferred to planting, namely, when
forming plantations of oak.

As every one knows, the oak is a distinctly tap-rooted tree, and
when one or two years old, its roots are very destitute of fibres.
It is therefore almost an impossibility to successfully transplant
it. A great many will die off at once, and many of those which
survive the operation are generally so much injured as to assume
a stunted habit of growth, and seldom attain to full size. Instead
of being transplanted, the oak should then be raised from the
acorn in the spot where it is intended to grow. The ground
may be prepared in the same way as for the reception of other
hardwood plants, pits being made at 9 feet apart. Two or three
acorns should be ‘“ dibbled” into each pit, allowance in this way
being made for bad germination and other accidents. All the
plants but one in each pit should be removed after a year or two.
If the ground is suitable for their growth, the intervening spaces
may be filled up with larch plants, If it is too stiff for the larch,
Scots pine or spruce is to be preferred. In either case, two-year
seedlings two years transplanted should be used in order to pro-
vide sufficient shelter for the oak seedlings by the time they
appear above ground.

There seems little reason to doubt that the finest quality of all
kinds of timber is to be obtained in the plantation formed directly
by seeding, and we have only to look to the natural pine and birch
forests in the north of Scotland, or to those of the oak in England,
for illustrations of this fact. It is much to be regretted that the
practice cannot more generally be adopted.

15. MANAGEMENT FoR THE First TWELVE YEARS.

“ What is worth doing, is worth doing well.” It very frequently
happens, when there is a fair appearance of a crop of trees on the

290 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

ground, that the making up of failures is entirely neglected. Now
this is a great mistake when the rearing of a full crop of clean-
grown timber is aimed at, The more space trees are allowed for
the growth of side branches, the coarser and knottier will be the
timber. It is of the utmost importance, therefore, that every
blank should be filled, and the ground completely stocked. Grass,
whins, briers, and other rubbish should be kept down when they
are likely to overtop or damage the plants in any way. When
once properly established in the ground, and growing freely, the
trees are able to take care of themselves, and ultimately smother
out undergrowth of every sort.

Pruning.—This will commence the first year after planting.
All the plants should be carefully examined, and wherever one is
found to have become sickly, from any cause, it should be cut over
at the surface of the ground. This will cause it to send up a few
shoots from the root. These shoots are all cut away the follow-
ing summer, except the strongest one, which is retained as the
future tree. Moderate annual prunings are better than severe
prunings at long intervals. What is aimed at is to restrict the
plant to one leading shoot, and to prevent the laterals from
developing too much at the expense of the stem. If a proper
stocking of trees is maintained on the ground, this is all the
pruning that is required. It is an expensive operation, and
requires a greater amount of skilled labour than is generally
obtainable. Although it cannot altogether be dispensed with in
the case of hardwoods, the less pruning trees require the better.
No doubt trees are benefited by having limbs and large branches
removed, as much of the nutriment that would go to feed these is
utilised by the stem, and evaporation by the leaves is restricted,
but the blemishes caused in the timber by the operation of pruning
more than counterbalance any such benefit. By maintaining a
proper distribution of the trees on the ground, the necessity for
pruning will be greatly lessened.

Thinning.—We frequently hear the advice given, ‘‘thin when
the branches begin to touch.” ‘This is wrong. Take, as an
example, the Scots pine. By thinning to the extent indicated,
the branches are allowed to spread and enlarge to a considerable
size. These branches will, in the course of time, die and drop off,
but before this takes place, large black knots will be enclosed in
the stem, and the quality of the timber will suffer in consequence.
Light is also too freely admitted to the lower part of the stems in

THE FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS. 291

the early part of the growing season, and consequently an undue
proportion of ‘spring,’ or porous, wood is present in the annual
wood increment. When Scots pine was used almost entirely for
railway sleepers and similar purposes, large sizes rather than fine
quality was a desideratum, and it was perfectly justifiable to sub-
mit the woods to severe thinnings in order to attain this object.
Now all this is likely to be changed, and timber of all kinds, but
especially Scots pine, must be of good quality, and as free from
knots as possible, before it can meet the requirements of the
market, or directly compete with the foreign product. Wecannot
afford to overlook the fact that by far the greatest amount of
timber imported from abroad has been produced in the natural
forest, and the quality of this timber is such that it occupies the
first place in the market, and in many cases to the entire exclusion
of the home article.

We cannot entirely copy nature when dealing with artificially
formed plantations, but many important lessons are nevertheless
to be learned, In the natural forest, trees are present of every
age, from the seedling to the centenarian. Now, while those of
older growth have ample opportunity of developing in an upward
direction, the smaller but equally vigorous plants growing up all
around, entirely prevent the growth of laterals in the lower part
of their stems, and at the same time the necessary shading, so
indispensable to the production of fine quality in timber, is pro-
vided for, and this process goes on ad infinitum.

In the artificial plantation, on the other hand, the trees are all
of the same age, and nearly of the same height, and the destruction
of the whole plantation would result from entirely neglecting to
thin, as in the natural forest. But the artificial plantation must
always possess one great condition in common with the natural
forest, namely, a sufficient closeness in the order of the trees, to
provide for the shading of the lower parts of the stems, and the
production of clean-grown timber.

By preserving the plantation in such a condition, the following
advantages may be secured :—/irst, grass and weeds of every sort
are entirely kept in check; second, the fertility of the soil is main-
tained and increased by a proper retention of fallen leaves and other
litter; ¢hird, the mechanical condition of the soil is improved ;
fourth, the lower part of the stems are shaded from the sun, and
hence a complete system of natural pruning is provided for, and a
generally superior quality of timber is the result. It is impracticable

VOL. XIII. PART II, U

292 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

to plough, or dig, or manure the forest, but by preserving a close
canopy of foliage in the plantation, a natural substitute is pro-
vided for the cultural operations mentioned. Natural pruning is
more efficient and more economical than any scheme of artificial
aid that can be devised. When trees are planted at 3 or 4 feet
apart, all the lower branches, after they attain the length of 2 feet,
begin to press upon one another, and check each other’s growth.
Then when the branches above close, and exclude the light, the
lower ones die and drop off before they grow to a size sufficient to
occasion appreciable defects in the timber. This is the only prac-
ticable system of pruning when dealing with plantations of large
extent—say a thousand acres or more.

In managing plantations for timber purposes, the thinnings
should be so moderate as to ensure the fulfilment of the conditions
above indicated. A definite rule cannot be laid down as to when
thinning should commence. The condition of the plantation only
can decide this. There is, of course, a danger of the trees being
drawn up too much, and their stems becoming too long and bare of
branches for their girth, but by cautious and timely thinning, this
danger can easily be averted. The margins of the plantations
should always be more severely thinned, in the early stages of
growth, than the rest of the wood. This is necessary in order that
the trees may become well branched and firmly rooted, so as to
be able to resist the force of the storms which so frequently sweep
across the country, and occasion so much damage to the woods.
In the after management of the plantations, the margins should be
left entirely undisturbed.

ARBORICULTURE IN DUMFRIES AND GALLOWAY. 293

XIX. Arboriculture in the Counties of Dumfries, Kirkcudbright,
and Wigtown. By AurexanvEer Pircaituuey, Forester,
Sudbourn Hall, Wickham Market, Suffolk.

The south-western district of Scotland, comprising the counties of
Dumfries, Kirkcudbright, and Wigtown, is bounded on the south
by the Solway Firth, Wigtown Bay, and Galloway Bay ; on the
west by the North Channel; on the north by the counties of Ayr
and Lanark; and on the east by the county of Roxburgh. The
extreme length from east to west is about one hundred miles, and
the greatest breadth from north to south about fifty miles. The
total area is about 2569 square miles, or 1,644,195 imperial acres,
apportioned thus—Dumfriesshire, 705,946; Kirkcudbrightshire,
610,343 ; and Wigtownshire, 327,906 acres.

The general aspect is very hilly, with the exception of the level
tracts of rich alluvial land along the valleys and estuaries of the
rivers. Among the principal rivers are the Esk, Annan, and Nith,
in Dumfriesshire ; the Urr, Dee, and Cree, in Kirkeudbrightshire ;
and the Bladenoch, in Wigtownshire. The chief lochs are Loch
Ken, in Kirkcudbrightshire ; and Lochmaben, in Dumfriesshire.

The Lowther range of hills, and their outlying spurs, extend
along the whole of the northern boundaries of these counties. The
most elevated points are Mount Merrick, in Kirkeudbrightshire,
2764 feet high ; and Hartfell, in Dumfriesshire, 2650 feet. Nearly
all those hills are clothed to the summits with green grass, present-
ing a striking contrast to the heath-covered mountains in the
northern parts of Scotland.

The soil is exceedingly variable, as is also the geological formation.
In Dumfriesshire red sandstone predominates, and being of excellent
quality, the quarries form a considerable item in the revenue of
several estates. In Kirkcudbrightshire the granite formation pre-
vails ; and Cairnsmuir raises its rounded summit of smooth granite
to a height of 2000 feet above sea-level.

The soil and climate are well adapted to the growth of timber.
Oak, ash, beech, chestnut, sycamore, and all the other ordinary kinds
of hardwoods are found growing to a great size, and still retaining
their vigour. One of the largest oaks in Scotland grows on the side
of the road on the estate of Carnsalloch in Dumfriesshire, while the
other timber on the same estate is not equalled in the county for
size, the soil here being a good loam resting on sandstone. Perhaps
the finest avenue of limes to be found in Scotland stands at Kenmuir

294 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Castle, in Kirkeudbrightshire, which is also famed for its beeches,
scarcely surpassed anywhere for their size and symmetry. Many
other beeches of large size are met with on several estates in
Dumfriesshire, particularly in Annandale.

Yet, under such favourable conditions, arboriculture has not
received the same amount of attention which has been paid to it
in many other districts in Scotland. The total acreage under wood,
according to the agricultural returns of 1882, in the three counties
is — Dumfriesshire, 31,162; Kirkcudbrightshire, 19,714; and
Wigtownshire, 8009 acres; or a total of 58,885 imperial acres.

The year following that on which these returns were made, the
south of Scotland was visited by a series of terrific gales, on the
11th December 1883, and again on the 23rd and 24th January
1884, which caused great destruction of the woods on many estates
in these counties, and have thus reduced the acreage of them by
at least one-third. Those woods which suffered most were com-
posed of the healthiest well-grown trees, and consequently they were
most valuable. Nothing approaching this has been experienced
since the disastrous gale of 7th January 1839, at which time the
woods in the south of Scotland suffered, it was estimated, to the
extent of more than £20,000.

On several of the larger estates the proprietors have paid con-
siderable attention to their woodlands, particularly the Duke of
Buecleuch, the Earl of Mansfield, and Sir Robert Jardine, Bart., in
Dumfriesshire ; the Earl of Selkirk, and Murray Stewart, Esq., in
Kirkeudbrightshire ; and the Earl of Stair, in Wigtownshire. On
these and a few other estates, the forester’s department is managed in
a thoroughly systematic manner. There are, however, at the same
time many medium sized and smaller estates possessing a consider-
able area of woodlands, where no experienced forester is kept,
and where there is no proper or systematic management of the
woods,

There is a fair proportion of the woodlands under hardwood, the
majority of which, however, is aged; and, on the whole, there isa
rather insufficient succession crop, as they have not been planted so
profusely as is advisable. Where recently planted they have often
been set along with fir, spruce, etc., as nurses, and afterwards left to
themselves for several years, when the conifers have overgrown, and
eventually destroyed the hardwoods.

The kinds of trees most extensively planted are pines (including
several of the newer species), spruce, and larch. Of the pines,

ARBORICULTURE IN DUMFRIES AND GALLOWAY. 295

Pinus austriaca, P. Laricio, and P. Pinaster have done remarkably
well; the P. Pinaster especially on light open soil near the Solway,
where many good specimens of it are to be found.

Spruce has not been so extensively planted, although it thrives
and grows well. <Alies Douglasii has not been much planted as a
forest tree, but where it has been inserted in a favourable soil, with
moderate shelter, it has grown uncommonly well. One of the
oldest, and probably among the largest, specimens in Scotland,
stands on the lawn in the flower-garden at Jardine Hall, Dumfries-
shire, and is a picture of health.

Larch has thriven well in former years, though that of recent
planting has not done so well. The principal causes of failure are
blight and blister, though in many cases it is traceable to being
planted on stiff, retentive, clayey soils, altogether unsuitable to the
successful growth of the larch.

Silver fir grows to a large size, and several are to be found over
one hundred feet high, with large clean boles.

Considerable attention has been paid to the planting of Coniferze
of recent introduction, fine collections being found at nearly all the
large mansions in the three counties. Perhaps the most com-
prehensive collection is to be found in the pinetum at Castle
Kennedy, Wigtownshire, the property of the Earl of Stair, in
which there are many rare and beautiful specimens. One of the
finest collections of coniferous trees in Dumfriesshire lately stood at
Lann Hall, but it was unfortunately destroyed by the storms of
1883-84. Any one visiting the counties will be astonished at the
great amount of damage done by these storms to the woods. Where
there previously stood many waving plantations, there is now to be
seen nothing but upturned roots and broken trunks, with here and
there a lonely survivor. While trees that had stood for ages were
blown down, those which suffered most were from thirty to seventy
years of age. Perhaps the greatest damage was done on the Duke
of Buccleuch’s estates. On the Langholm estate over 20,000 trees
were upturned, and on Drumlanrig estate it was estimated that
120,000 trees were blown down in the December gale, and as
many more on the 26th January. Several thousand pounds’ worth
of timber was also destroyed on Sir Robert Jardine’s Castlemilk
estate in Dumfriesshire ; while Lord Selkirk’s estate in Kirkeud-
brightshire suffered the loss of 20,000 trees, and mostly every other
estate suffered proportionally as great a loss.

So much fallen timber at one time caused a great glut in the

296 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

market. It was mostly sold where it lay by private tender, and
generally realised but indifferent prices, owing chiefly to the in-
extricable confusion in which the trees lay ; good firs in many cases
only realising a few pence per tree. There was not sufficient fore-
thought exercised in this crisis, else proprietors would have had a
large quantity of the fallen wood cut up into the lengths and sizes
generally employed for estate purposes, and stored them away in
open sheds, and thus saved the present heavy drain on many
sadly depleted woodlands.

Severe as these storms were, I believe that four-fifths of the
damage done might have been obviated had the plantations been
judiciously managed from the beginning. In laying out the planta-
tions on many estates there had been no attempt made to establish
screens from the blast, which would have saved much of the
damage; as I have noticed, particularly in Dumfriesshire, that
where natural birch, etc., happened to be growing on the exposed
side of a plantation, the damage done has been comparatively
trifling.

Another source of damage from neglect was the absence of
thorough drainage. Instances were to be found of plantations of
from thirty to sixty years of age, the drains in which apparently
had never received any attention since they were made. The grouud
being swampy, the trees, though well grown, were necessarily
surface rooted, and readily succumbed to the storm. The want of
timely thinning was also the cause of a considerable amount of
damage. In many cases the trees were crowded together, fifty to
sixty feet in height, with long slender stems scarcely a foot in
diameter. When once an opening was made these quickly yielded,
and were either blown down or broken in the middle. The Scots
fir plantations suffered most from this cause.

The prevailing winds are westerly ; that of December 1883 was
from the south-west, while those of January 1884 were from the
west and north-west. The gale of 1839, however, was from the
south-east.

Since these storms a number of proprietors have done a great
deal to repair the condition of their woodlands; perhaps Sir
Robert Jardine, Bart., more than most others. ‘The plan adopted
by Sir Robert was to trench out all the roots, which were after-
wards collected into huge heaps and burned, and the ground
replanted. This is undoubtedly the best system, but the great
expense has deterred some from adopting it, while on many estates

ARBORICULTURE IN DUMFRIES AND GALLOWAY. 297

little or nothing has been done in the way of repairing the
damage.

One great drawback to the more general development of the
woods is the entire absence of home nurseries. As far as the writer
is aware, there is no estate in the three counties in the possession of
one, There are, however, excellent public nurseries at Annan,
Dumfries, Maxwelltown, Stranraer, etc., where good collections of
all kinds of forest trees are kept in stock. A common custom
on many, and the general rule on small estates, is to have the
planting executed by contract by nurserymen ; the contract price to
include plants and labour per acre, and the plantation to be upheld
for three years, that is, the filling up of all blanks from natwral
eauses. The general system adopted for all classes of trees is
pit-planting ; Scots fir, etc., being usually inserted at four years
of age,

Ground game are too numerous on nearly every estate, and
plantations suffer much from their ravages, the only effectual cure
being wire netting, which consequently increases the expense. Yet,
although the woods abound with squirrels, I have never noticed any
damage done by them barking the trees, as is so common in the
north of Scotland.

A ready sale is found for wood of good quality ; ash, elm, and
oak readily fetching from 2s. to 2s. 6d. per cubic foot. Clean larch
of suitable size is in demand for boat-building, and commands a
good price. Birch and alder might be more extensively grown, as
there is always a ready sale for this class of wood locally to the
cloggers. The usual prices of spruce and Scots fir is 6d. to 8d.,
and larch 1s. per foot.

Pruning hardwoods is very little practised, the result being that
short boles with widely ramified limbs are the rule. This is the
case particularly among hedgerow timber, and forms a cause of con-
tinual complaint by the agricultural tenant, and not without reason,
as the spread of branches over the land renders, on some farms,
several acres useless. In some instances the trees have had their
lower branches cut off where they have interfered too much with the
land, and in almost every case they have been amputated close to
the trunk, causing a large wound, which in a few years entirely
ruins the trees. The majority of this damaged class of timber
when cut can be disposed of only to the bobbin-maker, usually
realising from 4s, to 6s. per ton. Many of the trees are rendered
useless even for this purpose, by having nails and staples driven

298 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

into them by the farmers who are in the habit of using hedgerow
trees as posts when repairing their fences. This bad custom is
notoriously common in Dumfriesshire.

The fences are of various kinds. Red sandstone abounding on
many estates, it has been used extensively in forming stone walls.
Tron and wire, and also wood and wire, are commonly used. Wooden
pailings are also numerous, more especially in Dumfriesshire. This
is partly accounted for by the great quantity of wood that has been
blown down in recent years, much of which has been used for this
purpose, but more particularly by it being a fox-hunting district,
where wire-fences would be troublesome as well as dangerous, and
very few fences are met with over three feet high. Hedges have
been planted extensively at one time, principally of hawthorn, and
several good ones are seen where they have been well kept.
Hedges have been generally used as dividing fences on the farms,
and add considerably to their amenity. The customary system is
to have them trimmed every fifth year, just before breaking up the
lea-ground ; five years rotation being the rule in cropping the land.
This system of cutting hedges has the effect of damaging their
usefulness and appearance, giving them a strong growing top with
a poorly furnished bottom. They also suffer much by the sheep
when eating the turnip crop; for although it is specified in most
leases that the farmer shall net the hedges at this season, yet on
very few estates is the clause attended to. On exposed grazing
ground, where there is a scarcity or absence of belts of plantation,
these neglected and overgrown hedges form a good shelter for
stock, the only useful purpose they serve.

There is no part of Scotland better adapted to the growing of
timber, and no district more in need of the friendly shelter of
woods, especially in the northern parts of Dumfriesshire, and on
the open wind-swept hills of Galloway. It is true that a few
proprietors have done a considerable amount of planting, but
landowners in general have not yet fully realised the importance
and benefit of the extension of their woods. It is to be hoped
that the visit of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society to the
district this season will be the means of more effectually drawing
the attention of landowners to this important department of estate
management.

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Aopal Scottish Arboricultural Society.

YEAR.
1854.

1855.
1856.
USS
1858.
1859.
1860.
1861.
1862.
1863.
1864.
1865.
1866.
1867.
1868.
1869.
1870.
1871.
1872.
1873.
1874.

1875.
1876.
1877.
1878.
1879.
1880.
1881.
1882.

1883,
1884,
1885,

Patron—HER MOST GRACIOUS MAJESTY THE QUEEN,

ee ee a ae a

1.—FORMER PRESIDENTS.

JAMES Brown, Deputy-Surveyor of the Royal Forest of Dean.
Ditto, Wood Commissioner to the Earl of Seatield.
Ditto, ditto.

The Right Hon. THE EArt or Ductr.

The Right Hon. THe EARL OF STATR.

Sir Joun Hatt, Bart. of Dunglass.

His Grace THE DuKE oF ATHOLE.

Jonn J. CHALMERS of Aldbar.

The Right Hon. Tar Earn or ArRutn.

The Right Hon. T. F. KeENNEpy.

Rogert HurcH ison of Carlowrie, F.LR.S.E.

Ditto, ditto.
Ditto, ditto.
Ditto, ditto.
Ditto, ditto.
Ditto, ditto.
Ditto, ditto.
Ditto, ditto.
Hueuw CrecHorn, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E., of Stravithie.
Ditto, ditto.

JoHn Hurron Batrour, M.D., M.A., F.R.SS. L. & E., Professor
of Botany in the University of Edinburgh.

Ditto, ditto.

The Right Hon. W. P. ApAm of Blairadam, M.P.
Ditto, ditto.
Ditto, ditto.

The Most Hon. THe Marquis or Lorian, K.T.
Ditto, ditto.
Ditto, ditto.

ALEXANDER Dickson, M.D., F.R.S.E., of Hartree, Regius Professor
of Botany in the University of Edinburgh.
Hucu Ciecuorn, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E., of Stravithie,
Ditto, ditto.
Ditto, ditto,

lo

APPENDIX.

YEAR.

1886

1887.

1888
1889

. Sir Hersert Evstrace MaxweE tt, Bart., of Monreith, M.P.

Ditto, ditto.

. The Right Hon. THE Eart or Hoperoun, Hopetoun House, Linlithgow.

. His Excellency The Right Hon. Toe Earn or Hopetoun, Governor
of Victoria, Australia.

1890. IsAac BAyLEY Ba.rour, M.D., Sc.D., F.R.S., Professor of Botany in
the University of Edinburgh.
1891, Ditto, ditto.
2.—LIST OF MEMBERS.
Corrected to March 1892.
Date of
Election. HONORARY MEMBERS.
1873. Branpis, Sir Dietrich, K.C.S.I., Ph.D., z-Inspector General of
Forests in India, Bonn, Germany.
868. BULLEN, Robert, Curator of the Botanic Garden, Glasgow.
1886. CAMPBELL, Sir James, Bart., Whitemead Park, Lydney, Gloucester-
shire.
1865. CLeGHOoRN, Hugh, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Stravithie, St Andrews,
Fife (also a Life Member by composition).
1886. Hooker, Sir Josepa D., M.D., K.C.S.L, The Camp, Sunningdale,
Berks.
1864. Hurcuison, Robert, F.R.S.E., of Carlowrie, University Club, Edin-
burgh.
1886. Jack, Edward, St John, New Brunswick.

. JoHORE, The Maharajah of, Johore, Malay Peninsula.

1856. Lawson, George, LL.D., Ph.D., Secretary for Agriculture, Govern-
ment of Nova Scotia, Halifax, Nova Scotia.

1869. LorH1aAn, The Most Hon. the Marquis of, K.T., Secretary of State for
Scotland, Newbattle Abbey, Dalkeith (also a Life Member by
composition).

1886. Luxsock, Sir John, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., High Elms, Down, Kent.

1886. Micuart, General, C.S.I., Ascot.

1889. SArGEN’T, Professor C. S., Director of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard
College, Brookline, Massachusetts, U.S.A.

1889. Scuticu, Dr William, Professor of Forestry in the Engineering
College for India, Cooper’s Hill, Surrey.

1886. SourHty, Hon. Robert, Cape Town.

1881. Tempxe, Sir Richard, Bart., G.O.S.1., The Nash, Worcestershire.

1886.

Tokal, Tokio, Japan,

G3

APPENDIX.

Date of LIFE MEMBERS.
Election.
1875. AcLAND, Sir Thomas Dyke, Bart., M.P., of Killerton, Exeter.

1883.
1874.

1883.
1883.
1887.

1884.
1886.
1877.

1866.
1877.
1884.

1870.
1871.
1875.
1877.
1882.
1871.
1867.
1879.
1879.
1882.
1890.
1877.
1872.
1879.
1876.
1892.
1875.
1865.
1880.
1884.
1867.

1876.
1877.
1883.
1872.
1867.
1875.
1876.
1881.
1879.

ADAM, Sir Charles Elphinstone, Bart. of Blairadam, Kinross-shire.

Appineton, The Right Hon. Lord, Addington Manor, Winslow,
Bucks.

ALEXANDER, John, Assistant Conservator of Forests, Kandy, Ceylon,

ATHOLE, His Grace the Duke of, K.T., Blair Castle, Blair Athole.

BAILEY, Colonel F., R.E., Lecturer on Forestry, Edinburgh University,
9 Wemyss Place, Edinburgh.

BALrour oF BurteicH, The Right Hon. Lord, Kennet House, Alloa.

Batrour, Edward, of Balbirnie, Markinch, Fife.

Batrour, Isaac Bayley, Sc.D., M.D., F.L.S., Professor of Botany,
Edinburgh.

Barrig, James, Forester, Stevenstone, Torrington, North Devon.

Barry, John W., of Fyling Hall, Fylingdales, Scarborough.

Bates, Cadwallader John, of Heddon and Langley Castle, Northum-
berland.

Bayne, Lewis, Jeannie Bank, Perth.

Beit, William, of Gribdae, Kirkeudbright.

Bertram, William, Ellengowan Villa, Newington, Edinburgh.

Boutckxow, C. F. H., of Brackenhoe, Middlesboro’-on-Tees.

Bruck, Hon. Robert Preston, M.P., Broomhall, Dunfermline.

Bruce, Hon. T. C., 24 Hill Street, Berkeley Square, London, W.

Bruce, Thomas Rae, of Slogarie, New Galloway Station.

Buccievucn, His Grace the Duke of, K.T., Dalkeith Park, Dalkeith.

BucHANAN, Charles, Overseer, Penicuik House, Penicuik.

CHOWLER, Christopher, Gamekeeper, Dalkeith Park, Dalkeith.

Curisti£, John, of Cowden, Dollar.

Cuay, J. Spender, Ford Manor, Lingfield, Surrey.

CLERK, Sir George D., Bart., Penicuik House, Penicuik.

CoLtquHoun, Andrew, Forester, Rossdhu, Luss, Dumbartonshire.

Cowan, Charles W., of Logan House, Valleyfield, Penicuik.

Cowan, George, 1 Gillsland Road, Edinburgh.

Crate, Wm., M.D., C.M., F.R.S.E., 71 Bruntsfield Place, Edinburgh.

Cross, David G., Forester, Kylisk, Nenagh, Ireland.

Curr, Henry, Factor, Pitkellony House, Muthill, Perthshire.

Currik, Sir Donald, K.C.M.G., M.P., of Garth Castle, Aberfeldy.

DALGLEISH, John J., of Ardnamurchan, 8 Athole Crescent, Edin-
burgh.

DALGLEISH, Laurence, of Dalbeath, 8 Athole Crescent, Edinburgh.

Dewar, Daniel, Forester, Beaufort Castle, Beauly.

Dunpas, Charles H., of Dunira, Dalhonzie, Crieff.

Dunpas, Robert, of Arniston, Gorebridge.

Dunn, Malcolm, The Palace Gardens, Dalkeith.

Eastwoop, James, The Gardens, Bryn-y-Newadd, Bangor, North Wales.

Epwaxrps, William Peacock, S.S.C., 21 Hill Street, Edinburgh.

Extrot, Walter, Manager, Ardtornish, Morvern, Oban.

FALCONER, Dr John, St Ann’s, Lasswade.

4 APPENDIX.

Date of

Election.

1891. FarquHarson, A. J., F.H.A.S., Newtyle, Forfarshire.

1888. Fercuson, R. C. Munro, M.P., of Raith and Novar.

1869. Fisu, D. T., Hardwick House, Bury St Edmunds.

1874. FirzwitiraM, The Right Hon. the Earl, K.G., Wentworth, Rotherham,

Yorkshire.

. FLemine, J. B., ‘‘ Beaconsfield,” Kelvinside, Glasgow.

. Forses, Arthur Drummond, Millearne, Auchterarder, Perthshire.

. Forses, William, Swinton, Masham, Yorkshire.

. France, Charles 8., 11 Bridge Street, Aberdeen.

. GoucH, William, Wood Manager, Wykeham, York.

. GRAHAM, Wm., of Erins, Tarbert, Lochfyne.

. Grant, John, Overseer, Daldowie, Tollcross.

. Grant, Sir George Macpherson, Bart., M.P., Ballindalloch Castle,

Banffshire.

. Grimonpd, Alexander D., of Glenericht, Blairgowrie.

. Harg, Colonel, 32 Palmerston Place, Edinburgh.

. HERBERT, H. A., of Muckross, Killarney.

. Heywoop, Arthur, Sudbourne Hall, Wickham Market, Suffolk.

. Horr, H. W., of Luffness, Drem.

. Horne, John, Director, Forests and Gardens, Mauritius.

. HorspurGH, John, 131 Princes Street, Edinburgh.

. Huta, Louis, of Possingworth, Hawkhurst, Sussex,

. Incuis, Alex., Tyninghame, Prestonkirk.

. JENNER, Charles, Easter Duddingston Lodge, Edinburgh.

. JoNAS, Henry, Land Agent and Surveyor, 4 Whitehall, London, 8. W.
. KenneEpy, James, The Chesters, New Kilpatrick, near Glasgow.

. Lercester, The Right Hon. the Earl of, Holkham Hall, Wells,

Norfolk.

. Leste, Charles P., of Castle-Leslie, Glasslough, Ireland.

. Lesiig, The Hon. George Waldegrave, Leslie House, Leslie, Fife.

. Loney, Peter, Estate Agent, Marchmont, Duns.

. LoNSDALE, Claud, Rose Hill, Carlisle.

. Love, J. W., c/o Mrs Boyce, Byron Street, St Kilda, Victoria, South

Australia.

. Loverace, The Right Hon. the Earl of, East Horsley Towers, Woking,

Surrey.

. LumspeEn, David, of Pitcairnfield, Perth.

. LumspEN, Hugh Gordon, of Clova, Lumsden, Aberdeenshire.

. Lurrrevt, George F., of Dunster Castle, Taunton, Somersetshire.

. Macponatp, Ranald, Factor, Cluny Castle, Aberdeenshire.

. M‘Doucatt, Captain J. W., jun., of Orchill, Braco, Perthshire.

. Macpurr, Alex., of Bonhard, Perth.

. M‘Inrosu, Dr W. C., Professor of Natural History, University of St

Andrews, 2 Abbotsford Crescent, St Andrews,

2. M‘Kenzin, Alex., Superintendent of Epping Forest, The Warren,

Loughton, Essex.

39. Mackernzin, Colin J., of Portmore, Eddleston, Peebles.
72. MackrEnziz£, Donald F., Estate Office, Morton Hall, Edinburgh.

APPENDIX. 5

Date of
Election.

1880.
1879.
1879.
1857.
1880.

1871.
1880.
1881.
1882.
1889.
1881.
1856.
1887.
1878.

1855.
1876.
1866.
1890.
1883.

1872.
1854.
1867.
USM 7
1882.
1889.

1883.
1883.

1873.

1883.
1880.
1865.
1877.
1880.
1855,
18383.
1872.
1872.
1878.

1871.
1869.
1889.

MACKENzIg, Sir Kenneth, Bart., Conon House, Dingwall.

M‘LareEn, John, jun., Marionville, Sciennes Gardens, Edinburgh.

MacRrrcutisz, David, C.A., 4 Archibald Place, Edinburgh.

MactTirr, A. W., “Rothesay,” Bournemouth, Hants.

Matcoum, Lieut.-Col. E. D., R.E., 18 Queen’s Gate Place, London,
S.W.

MAxwe .t, Wellwood H., of Munches, Dalbeattie.

Mesuam, Captain, Pontryffydd, Bodvari, Rhyl.

Micuig, John, Forester, Balmoral, Ballater.

MircHeE.t, Francis, Forester, Harleston, Northamptonshire.

Morrat, James, Assistant Factor, 48 Castle Street, Edinburgh.

Naytor, Christopher John, Brynellywarch, Kerry, Montgomeryshire.

PortsmMoutH, The Right Hon. the Earl of, Eggesford, North Devon.

Proreir, Dr Alexander, Her Majesty’s Commissioner, Balmoral.

PuNCHARD, Frederick, Underley Estate Office, Kirkby Lonsdale, West-
moreland.

RAMSDEN, Sir John, Bart., 6 Upper Brook Street, London, W.

RircuH1£, William, of Middleton, Gorebridge, Edinburgh.

ROBERTSON, James, Wood Manager, Panmure, Carnoustie.

Rosrnson, William, 37 Southampton Street, Strand, London.

Routo, The Hon. Wm. Chas. Wordsworth, Master of Rollo, Duncrub
Park, Dunning, Perthshire.

Rosesery, The Right Hon. the Earl of, Dalmeny Park, Edinburgh.

RuTHERFORD, James, Agent, Kirkleatham, Redcar, Yorkshire.

Scort, Daniel, Wood Manager, Darnaway, Forres.

SmitH, Thomas Valentine, of Ardtornish, Morvern, Argyleshire.

SmyTHE, David M., yr. of Methven Castle, Perth.

SoMERVILLE, Dr William, B.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Agriculture
and Forestry, Durham College of Science, Newcastle.

Sprot, Major Alexander, of Garnkirk.

Srarrorp, The Most Hon. the Marquis of, M.P., Dunrobin Castle,
Golspie.

Srarr, The Right Hon. the Earl of, Lochinch, Castle Kennedy, Wig-
townshire.

Srormont, The Right Hon. Viscount, Scone Palace, Perth.

SUTHERLAND, Evan C., of Skibo Castle, Dornoch.

JALBERT, Peter, Forester, Glenericht, Blairgowrie.

TrERRIS, James, Factor, Dullomuir, Blairadam, Kinross-shire.

Tuomson, Alexander, Trinity Grove, Trinity Road, near Edinburgh.

THomson, John Grant, Wood Manager, Grantown, Strathspey.

Trorrer, Colonel H., of Morton Hall, Edinburgh.

Trotrer, Colonel, R.A., The Bush, Ediuburgh.

Uraqunart, B. C., of Meldrum, Aberdeenshire.

WALKER, Major I. Campbell, Conservator of Forests, Forest Office,
Madras.

Wemyss, Randolph Gordon Erskine, of Wemyss and Torrie, Fife.

Witp, Albert Edward, Conservator of Forests, Punjab, India.

Witson, David, jun., of Carbeth, Killearn.

6 APPENDIX.

ORDINARY MEMBERS.

The Names printed in italics are those of Members whose present Addresses
are unknown. <Any information regarding these Members will be gladly
received by the Secretary.

Law V. Members in arrear shall not receive the Transactions while their
Subscriptions remain unpaid. Any Member whose Annual Subscription to
the Society remains unpaid for three years shall cease to be a Member of the
Society, and no such Member shall be eligible for re-election till he shall
have paid up his arrears.

Date of
Election.

1882, AuLBotrn, Nathaniel, Tree Protective Composition Manufacturer, 50
Shore, Leith.

1881. Arruie, The Right Hon. the Earl of, Cortachy Castle, Forfarshire.

1878, AITKEN, Andrew Peebles, M.A., Se.D., Professor of Chemistry,
Veterinary College, Clyde Street, Edinburgh.

1891. ALEXANDER, James, Gardener and Forester, Revesby Abbey, Boston,
Lincolnshire.

1865. ALLAN, John, Forester, Dalmeny Park, Edinburgh.

1883. ANDERSON, David, Forester, Jardine Hall, Lockerbie.

1887. ANNAND, Adam, Forester, Brucklay Castle, Aberdeenshire.

1887. ANNAND, John F,, Assistant Forester, Brucklay Castle, Aberdeen-
shire.

1872. ANNANDALE, Robert B., Adderley Lodge, Market Drayton, Shropshire.

1883. ARGYLL, His Grace the Duke of, K.T., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S.,
Inverary Castle, Argyleshire.

1860. Austin & M‘Astan, Nurserymen, Buchanan Street, Glasgow.

1880. BALpDEN, John, Dilston, Corbridge-on-Tyne, Northumberland.
1880. BaLpEN, Robert S., Wood Manager, Castle Howard, York.
1886. BALrour, John, of Balbirnie, Markinch, Fife.

1889. Batrour, John, Gardener, Stravithie, St Andrews.

1888. Barwass, James, Ironmonger, High Street, Perth.

1867. Barris, David, Forester, Comlongan Castle, Annan.

1882, BArrig, John, Land Steward, Gateforth Hall, Selby, Yorkshire.
1889. Barron, John, Elvaston Nurseries, Borrowash, near Derby.
1874. Barron, James, Forester, Hatfield House, Herts.

1871. Baxrer, Robert, Forester, Dalkeith Park, Dalkeith.

1883. Brn, Andrew, Forester, Broomhall, Charlestown, Fife.

1866. Bett, James, The Gardens, Stratfieldsaye, Winchfield, Hants.
1890. Berripcr, W., Sandy Cross, Bromyard, Worcester.

1889. Berry, Francis, Forester, Culquoich, Inverkindie, Aberdeenshire.
1869. Bisserr, William S., Overseer, Moncriefle House, Perth.

|

APPENDIX.

Date of
Election.

1889.
1883.
1854.
1872.
1876.
1857.
1887.
1883.
1889.
1860.
1881.
1878.
1868.

1887.
1889.
1883.
18385.
1873.
1873.

1887.
1870.

1890.
1889.
1865.
1883.

1884.
1883.
1887.
1890.
1872.
1866.
1891.
1890.
1882.
1887.
1887.
1890.
1879.
1858.
1872.
1874.
1875.
1867.

Buatr, Peter, Gardener, Trentham, Stoke-on-Trent.

BLAKg, Jas., Forester, Morton Hall, Edinburgh.

Boa, Andrew, Land Steward, Dalton House, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

Boa, Andrew, jun., Sub-Agent, Great Thurlow, Newmarket, Suffolk.

Booru, John, 114 Kurfursteadain, Berlin.

Borruwick, William, Forester, Dunnichen, Forfar.

Bouucer, Professor, 18 Ladbroke Grove, London,

Boyn, John, Forester, Pollok Estate, Pollokshaws, Glasgow.

Britron, Horatio A., Timber Valuer, 6 Birch Street, Wolverhampton.

Bropik, James, Land Steward, Glasslough, Armagh, Ireland.

Broptig, Vernon Alex., Civil Service, Madras.

Brown, J. A. Harvie, of Quarter, Dunipace House, Larbert.

Brown, John E., F.L.S., Conservator of Forests, Forest Board Office,
Adelaide, South Australia.

Brown, J. R., Wentworth Nurseries, Hexham.

Browy, P. 8., Tayview, Broughty Ferry.

BRowNING, John M., The Gardens, Dupplin Castle, Perth.

Bruck, Thomas, Assistant Forester, Cross Roads, Kinnell, Friockheim.

Brypon, John, Forester, Rothes, Elgin.

BucuAn, Alexander, A.M., F.R.S.E., Secretary of the Scottish
Meteorological Society, 72 Northumberland Street, Edinburgh.

CADELL, George, 22 Great George Street, Westminster, London.

CAMERON, Alexander, Forester, Countlich Lodge, Ballinluig, Perth-
shire.

CampsELL, Alexander, of Auchindarroch, Lochgilphead.

CAMPBELL, Colin, Agent, Bretby Park, Burton-on-Trent.

CAMPBELL, James, of Tillichewan Castle, Dumbartonshire.

CAMPBELL, John Macnaught, C.E., F.L.S., Assistant Curator, City
Museum, Kelvingrove Park, Glasgow.

Curisti£, Alex. D., The Gardens, Ragley, Alcester, Warwickshire.

Curisti£, William, Nurseryman, Fochabers.

CLARK, Alexander, 226 High Street, Linlithgow.

CLARK, Charles, Forester, Cawdor Castle, Nairn.

CuArRK, David, Forester, Elie House, Elie, Fife.

CuArK, James, Forester, Balvaird Cottage, Strathmiglo, Fife.

CiarK, John, Forester, Haddo House, Aberdeen.

Cocksurn, Philip, Dalkeith.

Cours, Robt. T., Forester, Trentham, Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire,

Cook, Alfred, Forester, Empingham, Stamford.

Cook, James, Land Steward, Arniston, Gorebridge.

Cooker, R. W., of Messrs Dunning & Cooke, Newcastle.

Coupak, Robert, Forester, Ashford, Cong, County Galway.

Cowan, James, Forester, Bridgend, Islay.

Cowik, John, Assistant Forester, Mountstuart, Rothesay.

Cowper, R. W., Gortanore, Sittingbourne.

CrasBeE, David, Forester, Cortachy Castle, Kirriemuir.

CRABBE, James, Forester, Glamis Castle, Forfarshire.

8.

APPENDIX.

Date of
Election.

1876.
1887.
1868.

1891.
1884.
1869.
1874.
1865.

1857.
1884.
1868.
1889,
1891.
1884.
1887.
1882.
1867.
1889.
1862.
1866.
1875.
1889.
1873.

1885.
1887.
1873.

1880.
1872.
1891.
1869.
1884.
1890.
1878.
1891.
1884.
1883.
1889.
1878.
1884.
1857.

1878.
1874.
1885.

Crome, James, Assistant Forester, Kelly Castle, Arbirlot, Arbroath.
Cumming, Allan, Forester, Milldeans, Kennoway, Fife.
CUNNINGHAM, John, Forester, Ardross, Alness, Ross-shire.

DacuisH, John, Rothley Lake, Cambo R. So. Northumberland.

DauzreL, James, Forester, Culzean Castle, Maybole, Ayrshire.

DANIELS, Peter, Forester, Slindon Hall, Arundel, Sussex.

Davipson, George, Land Steward, Walton, Linlithgow.

Davipson, John, Agent, Greenwich Hospital Estates, Haydon Bridge,
Northumberland.

Davipson, John, Forester, Aldbar, Brechin.

Drane-Drake, Joseph Edward, Stokestown House, New Ross, Ireland.

Dodds, George, Overseer, Rotherham Woods, Rotherham.

Don, John, Seedsman, Chapel Bar, Nottingham.

Donatp, A. S., Forester, Philiphaugh, Selkirk.

Doveutry, Wm., Forester, Langholm Estate, Canonbie, Dumfriesshire.

DovucG.as, Robert, 64 Princes Street, Edinburgh.

Dovetas, Captain Palmer, of Cavers, Hawick.

Dow, Thomas, Forester, Bretby, Burton-on-Trent.

DruMmmonD, Robert, Road Surveyor, Midcalder.

DrummMonp & Sons, William, Nurserymen, Stirling.

Durr, James, Factor, Blackwood, Lesmahagow.

DuncaAN, James, Land Steward, Glack, Old Meldrum.

Duncan, J. W., Somerville Place, Broughty Ferry.

DurwakbD, Robert, Manager, Blelack, Dinnet, Aberdeenshire.

Eddington, Francis, Forester, Windlestone, Ferryhill, County Durham.
ErskIN&E, William, of Oaklands, Trinity.
Ewine, David, Forester, Strichen House, Aberdeen,

Fercusson, Sir James Ranken, Bart., Spitalhaugh, West Linton.
FINGLAND, John, Forester, Drumlanrig, Thornhill, Dumfriesshire.
Firru, W. M., Timber Merchant, 19 Montpelier, Edinburgh.
FisuEr, William, Estate Agent, Wentworth Castle, Barnsley, Yorkshire,
FLEMING, John, Albert Saw-Mills, Aberdeen.

Forses, Arthur C., Wood Manager, Bowood, Calne, Wiltshire,
Forses, Robert, Overseer, Clova, Lumsden, Aberdeenshire,
Foreman, Frederick, Nurseryman, Eskbank, Dalkeith,

Forrest, Thomas, Assistant Forester, Dalzell Home Farm, Motherwell.
Forrest, Sir William J., Bart. of Comiston, Edinburgh.

Forster, William A., Forester, Belgrave Lodge, Pulford, Wrexham.
ForsyruHek, John M., Wood Manager, Woburn, Bedfordshire,

Fouts, Thomas, Publisher, 9 South Castle Street, Edinburgh,
Fraser, P. Neill, of Rockville, Murrayfield, Edinburgh,

GALLETLY, James, Overseer, Bonhard, Perth.
GALLOWAY, George, Estate Offices, Woodhouses, Whitchurch, Salop.
Gibp, James, Assistant Forester, Kinnaird Castle, Brechin,

APPENDIX. 9

Date of
Election.

1870.
1887.
1881.
1876.
1880.
1887.

1891.

1868.
1882.
1887.
1882.
1867.
1873.
1883.
1890.

1872.
1888.

1879.
1880.
1881.
1882.

1873.
1889.
1887.
1890.
1891.
1872.
1888.
1880.
1889.
1869.
1866.
1871.
1883.
1878.
1871.
1886,
1866.
1884.
1887.
1874.
1872.
1880.

GILBERT, James, Forester, Gallovie, Kingussie.

GILBERT, W. Matthews, The Scotsman Office, Edinburgh.

GitcHRIST, William, Forester, Leuchars, Elgin.

GLASSBROOK, Geo., Bailiff, Remenham Farm, Henley-on-Thames, Bucks.

Glen, David A., Assistant Forester, Swinton, Masham, Yorks.

Gomersall, Edward, Forester, Moor Crichel, Wimborne, Dorset.

Gorrik, G. H., Estate Office, Dalkeith.

Gossip, James, of Howden & Co., The Nurseries, Inverness.

Gow, Robt., Assistant Forester, Raith, Kirkcaldy, Fifeshire.

GRANT, Alexander, Assistant Forester, Edensor, Chatsworth, Derbyshire.

Grant, Alex. M‘D., Assistant Forester, Newton, Winchburgh.

GRANT, Donald, Forester, Drumin, Ballindalloch.

Grant, James, Forester, Heath, Chesterfield.

GREEN, Arthur A., 20 Annandale Street, Edinburgh.

GreENwoop, C. H., Assistant Forester, Hamels Park, Buntingford,
Herts. ‘

GREIVE, James, Messrs Dicksons & Co.’s Nurseries, Pilrig, Edinburgh.

GRIEVE, James, Waterloo Hotel, Edinburgh.

HAppincTon, the Right Hon. the Earl of, Tyninghame, Prestonkirk.

Happon, Walter, Solicitor, Royal Bank, Hawick.

HADFIELD, Gordon, Forest Department, Madras.

Hamitton, Donald C., Forester, Bargany Mains, Girvan, Ayr-
shire.

HaAmi.ton, John B. Baillie, of Arnprior, Cambusmore, Callander.

HANkKIns, Charles, Forester, Grimsthorpe, Bourne.

HANSEN, Professor Carl, Royal Agricultural College, Copenhagen.

Harpig, James F., Forester, Donibristle, Aberdour,

Harpies, J. W., 12 Baltic Street, Leith.

HARTLAND, Richard, The Lough Nurseries, Cork,

HARWELL, John Hood, Overseer, Whitemoss, Kirknewton.

HAveELock, W. B., Forester, Duncombe Park, Helmsley, York.

Hayes, John, Overseer, Dormont, Lockerbie.

HayMAn, John, Queenshill, Ringford.

Henpverson, Arch., Forester, Clonad Cottage, Tullamore, King’s County,

HENDERSON, John, Overseer, Vogrie, Ford, Dalkeith.

HeEnpDERSON, W., The Gardens, Balbirnie, Markinch.

Henry, Kennedy, Forester, Craighall, Rattray, Blairgowrie.

HETHERTON, Walter, Forester, Merton, Beaford, Devon.

Hopson, Richard Edmund, Hollybrooke, Bray, Co. Wicklow, Ireland.

Hocartu, James, Forester, Culhorn, Stranraer.

Hoace, Andrew, Forester, Castle Fraser, Kemnay, Aberdeenshire.

Houmes, Joseph, The Gardens, Winton Castle, Pencaitland,

Home, Edward, Assistant Forester, Edington, Chirnside,

Home, George, Forester, Branxholme, Hawick.

Horrroun, His Excellency The Right Hon. the Earl of, Governor
of Victoria, Australia.

76. Hut, Frank, Forester, Lilleshall, Newport, Salop.

10

APPENDIX.

Date of
Election.

1891.
1870.

1886.

1887.
1883.
1878.
1888.

1867.
1880.
1870.
1876.
1882.
1882.
1872.
1887.
1870.
1879.
1883.
1884.
1876.

1890.
1886.
1890.

1885.
1873.
1874.
1880.
1879.
1883.

1872.
1870.
1855.
1890.

1887.
1869.
1890.
1879.
1889.
1882.
1890.
1889.
1871.

INGLIs, William, Forester, Brodick, Arran.

IRELAND & THomson, Nurserymen and Seedsmen, 81 Princes Street,
Edinburgh.

IRVINE, Daniel, Overseer, Glendevon House, Dollar.

Jack, Donald, Forester, Pellipar, Dungiven, Londonderry.

JOHNSTON, Robert, Forester, Somerley, Ringwood, Hants.
JOHNSTONE, Adam, Forester, Coollattin, Shillelagh, County Wicklow.
JONES, James, Wood Merchant, Larbert.

Kay, James, Wood Manager, Bute Estate, Rothesay.

Keay, Robert B., Findon Estates Office, Conon Bridge.

Kerr, David, Forester, Ladywell, Dunkeld.

KELMAN, John, Forester, Glenkindie, Aberdeen.

KENNEDY, John, Forester, Flakebridge, Appleby, Westmoreland.
KENNEDY, Walter, Forester, New Tarbet, Parkhill, Ross-shire.
KENNEDY, William, Overseer, Glen Carradale, Greenock.

Ker, R. D., Writer to the Signet, 50 George Street, Edinburgh.
Kipp, James B., Forester, Dunrobin Estates, Golspie.
KincatrneEy, The Hon. Lord, 6 Heriot Row, Edinburgh.
KINNEAR, Alex., Forester, Galloway House, Garlieston.

Knox, Henry, Forester, Brae Lodge, Maybole, Ayrshire.
Kyrxkg, R. V., of Penywern, Mold.

LAIDLAW, William, Forester, Rochsoles Estate, Airdrie, Lanarkshire.

Laidlaw, William, Forester, Fasque, Lettercairn.

Larrp, David Pringle, of R. B. Laird & Sons, 17 Frederick Street,
Edinburgh.

LArirp, James W., of W. P. Laird & Sinclair, 73 Nethergate, Dundee.

Lauriston, Alexander, Rufford Nursery, Ollerton, Newark.

LeicuH, William, of Woodchester Park, Stonehouse, Gloucestershire.

LEISHMAN, John, Manager, Cavers Estate, Hawick.

Lrnpsay, Robert, Curator, Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh.

Locu, Sir Henry B., K.C.B., Governor of Cape Colony, South Africa.

M ‘Cott, James M., Factor, Craignish Castle, Lochgilphead, Argyleshire.

M‘CorQuopaLe, D. A., Bank of Scotland, Carnoustie.

M‘CorquopaLg, Donald, Forester, Dunrobin Castle, Golspie.

M‘Crar, Alexander, c/o Mrs Christie, Lynedoch Road, New Scone,
Perth.

M‘Cuutocn, James, Forester, Gala House, Galashiels.

M‘Curcueron, Robert, Forester, Whittinghame, Prestonkirk.

M‘Dona.pD, James, Gardener, Foulis Castle, Ross-shire.

M‘Dovca.t, Alex., Forester, Drumbuie Lodge, Dunkeld.

M‘Dougall, Alexander, Assistant Forester, Cumbernauld Estate, Glasgow.

M‘FARLANE, John, Forester, Tarbet, Loch Lomond.

M‘Ger, John, Assistant Forester, Bute Estate, Rothesay.

M‘Grsson, Adam, Forester and Overseer, Argaty, Doune.

M‘Gratu, Patrick, Forester, Galtee Castle, Mitchelstown, Tipperary.

APPENDIX. 11

Date of

Election,

1890. M‘Grecor, A., The Schoolhouse, Penicuik.

1878. M‘Grecor, Duncan, Forester, Camperdown, Dundee.

1880. M‘Inrosu, A. G., Forester, Brocklesby Park, Ulceby, Lincolnshire.
1885. MacIwnrosu, William, Idvies, Forfar.

1882. M‘Intyre, John, Wood Merchant, Cardross, Dumbartonshire.
1884. M‘Kay, James, Forester, Breadalbane Estates, Killin.

1875. Mackay, John, Lauderdale Estate Office, Wyndhead, Lauder.

1887.
1891.
1867.
1882.
1867.
1882.
1883.
1878.
1879.
1878.
1867.
1866.
1865.

1882.
1874.

1883.
1884.
1876.
1884.
1886,
USO
1879.
1889.
1891.
1873.
1863.

1863.

1865.
1889.
1882.

1891.
1890.
1869.
1876.
1889.
1876,

Mackay, Peter, Assistant Forester, Rochsoles, Airdrie.

MAcKENpDRICK, James, Forester, Brodie Castle, Forres.

Mackenzik, Alex., Warriston Nursery, Inverleith Row, Edinburgh.

MAckKENZIE, Sir Alex. Muir, Bart. of Delvine, Dunkeld.

Mackenzik, John Ord, of Dolphinton, W.S., 9 Hill Street, Edinburgh.

Mackik, James H. J., Land Steward, Invermay, Dunning, Perthshire.

M‘KiInNon, George, The Gardens, Melville Castle, Lasswade.

Mackintosu, The, of Mackintosh, Moy Hall, Inverness.

M‘Laren, Charles, Land Steward, Cally Lodge, Dunkeld.

M‘Laren, John T., Overseer, Kennet, Alloa.

M‘LrAN, Andrew, Forester, Rutherford, Roxburgh.

M‘Lean, William, Forester, Eglinton Castle, Irvine.

M‘LELLAN, Duncan, Superintendent of Parks, 7 Kelvingrove Terrace,
Glasgow.

M‘Letian, Robt., 5 Dowan Vale Terrace, Partick.

M‘Leop, Angus A., Superintendent of City Gardens, 14 Royal Exchange,
Edinburgh.

M‘Leop, John, of Dickson & Turnbull, 26 George Street, Perth.

Marin, Adam, Assistant Forester, Cluny Castle, Aberdeen.

Martin, James, Forester, Knipton, Grantham, Lincolnshire.

Masstr, William H., of Dicksons & Co., 1 Waterloo Place, Edinburgh.

MAXWELL, Sir Herbert E., Bart. of Monreith, M.P., Wigtownshire.

MAXWELL, James, Assistant Forester, Bellstane, Drumlanrig.

MEIKLE, R. A., Ri Cruin, Lochgilphead.

MELVILLE, The Right Hon. Viscount, Melville Castle, Lasswade.

Menzies, A. M‘G., The Nurseries, Larclifield, Dumfries.

Menzies, George, Agent, Trentham, Stoke-on-Trent.

MeTHvEN, Henry, of Thomas Methven & Sons, 15 Princes Street,
Edinburgh.

Meruven, John, of Thomas Methven & Sons, Leith Walk Nurseries,
Edinburgh.

Micuie, Christopher Young, Forester, Cullen House, Banffshire.

MILLER, William, Assistant Agent, Coombe A bbey, Coventry.

Mine, Alexander, of James Dickson & Sons, 32 Hanover Street,
Edinburgh.

MiLne, R. W., Assistant Forester, Lynedoch, Perth.

MILNE, William, Foulden, Berwick-on-Tweed,

MITcHELL, James, Aldie Castle, Kinross.

MircueEt, John, Forester, Bolton Abbey, Skipton, Yorks.

MircHetL, William, Brantinghampthorpe, Brough, Hull,

MoreGan, George, Wood Merchant, Turret Bank, Crieff,

12

APPENDIN.

Date of
Election.

1890.
1866.
1890.
1876.
1883.

1885.

1889.
1887.
1869.
1871.
1878.

1874.
1888.
1883.

1876.
1888.
1886.
1870.
1873.
1877.
1884.
1879.
1882.

1890.
1883.
1887.
1890.
1888.

1887.
1867.
1872.
1870.

1858.
1875.
1871.

Murrnean, George, Factor, Haddo House, Aberdeen.

Muirueap, John, Forester, Bicton, Budleigh Salterton, Devonshire.
Munro, Donald, Forester, Cool, Ross-shire.

Munro, Hugh, Forester, Holkham Hall, Norfolk.

Murray, John, Assistant Forester, Murthly Castle, Perthshire.

Newercarne, John W., Nurseryman, Dumfries.
Nicor, W. R., Forester, Kilkerran, Maybole.
Nicoit, John, 48 Castle Street, Edinburgh.

Pacer, Andrew Duncan, Land Steward, Culzean, Maybole.
PaLMER & Son, John, Nurserymen, Annan.

. PARKER, James, Forester, Belvoir Castle, Grantham.
. Parerson, W. G., Timber Merchant, Invergordon.
. Paron, Hugh, Nurseryman, Kilmarnock.

PaTreRson, Colin M., Resident Factor, Newbattle Park, Dalkeith.

PaxToN, Thomas A., Forester, Newbattle, Dalkeith.

PeesLes, Andrew, Estate Office, Albury, Guildford, Surrey.

PENDREIGH, John, Assistant Forester, Port Bannatyne, Rothesay.

PircAITHLEY, Alexander, Forester, Sudbourne Hall, Wickham Market,
Suffolk.

Puarr, Colonel Henry, Gorddinag, Langairfechan, near Bangor.

Prater, T. Herbert, Canford Estate Office, Wimbourne, Dorset.

Preston, Wm. M., Estate Office, Barron Hill, Beaumaris,

Raz, William Alexander, Murthly Castle, Perthshire.

RALSTON, James, Forester, Castlecary, Glasgow.

RamaGk, J. L., Assistant Forester, Armsheugh, Grougar, Galston.

RATTRAY, Thos., Forester, Westonbirt House, Tetbury, Gloucestershire,

Ricuarpson, Adam, Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh.

Riper, William H., 14 Bartholomew Close, London, E.C.

Ropertson, A. B., Moncrieffe House, Bridge of Karn.

20BERTSON, Donald, Forester, Novar, Evanton, Ross-shire.

Roperrson, James, Assistant Forester, Chatsworth, Bakewell, Derby-
shire.

Rosertson, J. S., Cawdor Estate Office, Nairn.

Ropertson, William, Assistant Forester, Ringwood, Birnam.

20BERTSON, William, Assistant Forester, Scone, Perth.

Rogerrson, William, Assistant Forester, Novar, Ross-shire.

Rosson, John, Assistant Forester, Ardgowan Castle, Inverkip,
Renfrewshire.

Ross, John, Forester, Hopetoun, South Queensferry.

2uSSELL, John, Manager, Craigie House, Ayr.

Rust, Joseph, The Gardens, Evidge Castle, Tunbridge Wells, Kent.

2UTHERFORD, John, Forester, Linthaugh, Jedburgh.

SanppacH, Henry R., Hafodunos, Abergele.
Sano, Edmund, of E. Sang & Sons, Nurserymen, Kirkealdy.
Scarru, T. W., Land Agent, Raby Castle, Staindrop, Darlington,

APPENDIX. We

Date of
Election.

1870.
1883.
1881.
1890.
1883.
1890.
1870.
1891.
1887.
1882.
1889.

1869.
1868.
1873.
1871.
1883.
1886.
1870.
1883.
1885.
1870.
1882.
1875.

1876.
1876.
1889.
1876.
1872,

1869.
1887.
1882.
1889.
1891.
1869.
1871.

1883.

1888.

1870.
1879.
1872.
1889.

Scorr, Adam, Forester, Southwick Park, Fareham, Hants.

Scort, D. P., Hilltown Branch National Bank of Scotland, Dundee.

Scorr, James, Forester, Woollaton Hall, Notts.

Scort, John, Assistant Forester, Hornley, near Lancaster.

Scorr, William, Assistant Forester, Blairhill, Dollar.

ScrimcEour, John, Assistant Forester, Lynedoch, Perth.

SuHanks, John, Forester, Kildrummy Castle, Mossat, Aberdeenshire,

Suaw, James, Gardener, Belladrum, Beauly.

Srmpson, Anthony, Assistant Forester, Dunrobin Castle, Golspie.

Srycnatr, Peter, Wood Merchant, Perth.

SINFIELD, George, Assistant Forester, Witch Wood Lodge, Staple
Fitzpaine, Taunton.

Srtxron, James, Forester, Stourhead Estate, Stourton, Bath.

SLATER, Andrew, Overseer, Haystoun, Peebles.

SmirH, G. B., Wire Fence Manufacturer, 61 West Regent St., Glascow,

SmirH, James, The Gardens, Mentmore, Leighton-Buzzard, Bucks,

SmiTH, James, The Gardens, Hopetoun, South Queensferry.

Smitu, John, Surveyor, Romsey, Hampshire.

Smiru, Thomas, Nurseryman, Stranraer,

Situ, William, Chemist, Stockbridge, Edinburgh.

Sprers, David, Overseer, Mugdrum, Newburgh, Fife.

Srewart, John, Overseer, Abington, Lanarkshire.

Srewart, John, 13 Burrell Square, Crieff.

Srewart, J. M., Cherry Tree Cottage, Nusworth, Whitefield, near
Manchester.

Stewart, Robert, Forester, Stonefield, Tarbert, Lochfyne, N.B.

STrRLiNG, John, Forester, Largie Castle, Tayinloan, Kintyre.

Srortr, Robert, 92 High Street, Dalkeith.

Sruart, Charles, Forester, Glenmoriston, Inverness.

Swan, R. G., Auctioneer, Duns.

Tarr, David, Overseer, Owston Park, Doncaster, Yorkshire,
Taytor, Andrew, 11 Lutton Place, Edinburgh.

Taytor, William, Assistant Forester, Dupplin Castle, Pertlishire.
Taytor, William Fletcher, Knowefield Nurseries, Carlisle.
TENNANT, Edward, 195 W. George Street, Glasgow.

Tuomson, Lockhart, 8.8.C., 114 George Street, Edinburgh.
TomiiNson, Wilson, Forester, Clumber Park, Worksop, Notts.

Unperwoop, Henry E., Sub-Agent, Fornham, St Genevieve, Bury St
Edmunds, Suffolk.

VINCENT, Frederick D’A., 8 Ebury Street, London.

Watt, G. Young, Land Agent, Grange House, Darlington.
Watson, John, of Earnock, Hamilton.

Wart, James, J.P., of Little & Ballantyne, Nurserymen, Carlisle.
Watters, Dennis, Forester, Wester Elchies, Carron, Strathspey.

14 APPENDIX.

Date of

Election.

1887. Wauau, Thomas, R.H.S. Gardens, Cheswick, London.

1874.
1891.
1866.
1891.

1883.
1884.
1883.
1891.
1875.
1882.
1889.
1890.
1887.
1872.
1883.
1868.

1875.
1890.

Wesster, Angus D., Overseer, Holwood Park, Kent.

We su, James, of Dicksons & Co., 1 Waterloo Place, Edinburgh.

WELSH, William M., of Dicksons & Co., 1 Waterloo Place, Edinburgh.

WuittIncHAM, William, Estate Olfice, Norton Priory, near Runcorn,
Cheshire.

WuirTrTon, Peter, The Gardens, Methven Castle, Perth.

Wuirton, James, The Gardens, Glamis Castle, Glamis.

WILkik, Charles, Assistant Forester, Lennoxlove, Haddington,

WILKIE, G., Architect, Hayfield, Peebles.

WILKIE, Thos., 21 Belleville Road, Wandsworth, London,

WILLIAMSON, A., Wood Manager, Eridge Castle, Tunbridge Wells, Kent.

Wixiramson, A. T., 7 Kew Terrace, Edinburgh.

WILLIAMSON, George, Tle Links, Leven, Fife.

WILsoN, George, Forester, Penrice Castle, Swansea, Wales.

Wilson, John, Forester, Sudbourne Hall, Wickhan Market, Suffolk.

WINNING, John G., Estate Office, Branxholm, Hawick.

WYLLIE, George, Ballogie, Aboyne, Aberdeenshire.

Younc, William, Forester, Morriston Cottage, Earlston, Berwickshire.
> ’ cine, ’
YounlI£, Gcorge, Assistant Forester, Woburn, Beds.

a
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——

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GROUND PLAN OF THE FOREST ACADEMY, EBERSWALDE.

Laboratory.

Class-Room for Chemistry.

Laboratory for Research.

Weighing-Room. Geological Hand-
Collection.

Reading-Room : Work-Room.

Geological Museum.

OF THE

ROYAL
— SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. —
| VOL. XT PART IIT.
| SECRETARY AND TREASURER,
WILLIAM J. MOFFAT, :
TPELLOW OF THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY, EDINBURGH,
5
|
|
5
!
| |
: 5
| |
;
:

EDINBURGH:
PRENADED oPOR TERE SOCCER EY:

SOLD BY DOUGLAS & FOULIS, CASTLE STREET.
MDCCCXCIII.

De an . a

Aif\lLs

BY SPECIAL APPOINTMENT.

THOMAS METHVEN & SONS,

WMurserpmen and Seedsmen
TO THE QUEEN,

NVITE the attention of intending Planters to their large

Stock of Seedling and Transplanted Forest and other Trees

and Shrubs. They are this season in a healthy and vigorous
condition, and well suited for successful transplanting.

EVERGREEN AND DECIDUOUS SHRUBS.
SHRUBS FOR GAME COVERT, AND UNDERWOOD.
TREES AND SHRUBS FOR SEHA-SIDE PLANTING.
THORN AND OTHER HEDGE PLANTS.

Specimen Ornamental Trees for producing immediate
effect on Lawns and AVENUES.

RHODODENDRONS—all the Best Varieties.
FRUIT TREES of the Best Kinds.
ROSES—all sorts worthy of cultivation.

SAMPLES ON APL LICATAee

Special Prices for large Quantities.

(= 406

Seed Warehouse: 15 PRINCES STREET.

Nurseries: LEITH WALK, WARRISTON, AND FETTES.
EDINBURGH.

ADVERTISEMENTS.

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ADVERTISEMENTS.

Established 1801.

SEEDLING AND TRANSPLANTED FOREST TREES.

Ornamental Trees and Shrubs, Roses and Fruit Trees.

JAMES DICKSON & SONS,

32 HANOVER STREET and INVERLEITH ROW,
zDIN BU R.GeeeE

CATALOGUES FREE ON APPLICATION.

JAMES DICKSON & SONS received the highest awards for ‘‘ Conifers” and
**Hardy Plants” at the International Chrysanthemum Exhibition, Edinburgh,
1889 ; and again at the great Chrysanthemum Exhibition of 1890.

Grown from Seed collected in the
s North of Scotland, on high-lying
grounds, and under the exposure of

a rigorous climate.

Hardy Ornamental Conifers,
Evergreen Trees and Shrubs,
Plants for Game Coverts, Hedges, &c.

All are Fibrous-Rooted, Robust, and Grown Unsheltered.
SENT TO ALL PARTS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM.
SPECIAL OFFERS FOR LARGE QUANTITIES, and Carriage Rates Reduced,

CATALOGUES POST FREE.

BENJAMIN REID & CO,
FOREST-TREE NURSERIES, ABERDEEN.

ADVERTISEMENTS.

*““CERTIFICATE,” Highest Award at HORTICULTURAL SocIETY’s
EXHIBITION AT CARLISLE, 1880.
“SILVER MEDAL,” Highest Award at INTERNATIONAL FoRESTRY EXHIBITION,
EDINBURGH, 1884.
**GOLD MEDAL,” Highest Award at INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION
OF SCIENCE AND Art, EDINBURGH, 1886.
‘*SILVER MEDAL,” Highest Award at INTERNATIONAL ELECTRICAL
EXHIBITION, EDINBURGH, 1890.
“SILVER MEDAL,” Highest Award at INTERNATIONAL HORTICULTURAL
EXHIBITION, LoNDON, 1892.

MACKENZIE & MONCUR,

HOT-HOUSE BUILDERS,
UPPER GROVE PLACE, EDINBURGH,

ALSO

GLASGOW AND LONDON.
By Special Appointment to H.R.H. the Prince of Wales.

CONSERVATORIES, FORCING-HOUSES,
GREENHOUSES, VINERIES, Etc.,

Erected in Wood or Iron in the most substantial manner in any
part of the Kingdom, and at the Lowest Remunerative Charges.

HEATING WITH HOT-WATER, Low and High Pressure.

STEAM HEATING,

on the Return Gravity and Expansive Systems for Hothouses,
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VENTILATING APPARATUS, Atmospheric and Mechanical.

EFFICIENCY GUARANTEED,

PLANS AND ESTIMATES ON APPLICATION.

All Communications to be sent to Edinburgh Address.

Telegrams, ‘‘ Hothouse, Edinburgh.” Telephone No. 805, Edinburgh.

ADVERTISEMENTS.

FOREST TREES AND SHRUBS,
A Large Stock of Healthy, Well-grown Stuff.

FRUIT TREES,

The Finest Collection in Scotland.

GREENHOUSE and STOVE PLANTS,

IMMENSE VARIETY TO CHOOSE FROM.

R. B. LAIRD & SONS.

BHDINBURGH.

SEEDS—
FLOWER, VEGETABLE, AGRICULTURAL,

All of the finest Strains, and specially selected for
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Seed Warehouse and Office:
17 SOUTH FREDERICK STREET.

Nurseries:
PINKHILL, MEADOW PARK, and BEECHWOOD MAINS,
MURBRAYFIELD.

Nurseries connected by Telephone.

Telegraphic Address, “ Laird, Edinburgh.” Telephone No. 2033.

ADVERTISEMENTS.
Weeds on Garden Walks, Ete.
THE ‘‘PERFECT”’

WEED KILLER.

A Liquid for destroying Weeds, Moss, Lichens, etc., on
Garden Walks, Carriage Drives, Ash Tennis Courts, Railway
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It will keep them away for 12 months at least. May be applied with an ordinary
Watering-Can.
One gallon as sold makes 25 gallons for use, and is sufficient to treat
80 to 100 square yards.
Saves many times its cost in labour, and eradicates the weeds far more thoroughly
than any hand weeding.

Used at Kew Gardens, Royal Horticultural Gardens, etc.
PRICE—Gal. 2/; 5 Gals. 1/6; 10 Gals. 1/4.

Special Quotations for Larger Quantities.
Carriage paid 10 gallons and upwards. Trial Sample post free.

DISTRIBUTOR FOR
Seemeec., WEED KILLER

Holds 40 gallons. Wrought-Iron frame-work neatly ahi eh VAT SAP nents
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Sole Manufacturers—

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97 MILTON STREET, GLASGOW.

Grown from carefully selected
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In our New Grounds at

THE CASTLE NURSERIES, LIBERTON.
DICKSONS & CoO.

1 WATERLOO PLACE,
EDINBURGH.

Established over a Century.

A complete collection of the most
useful sorts, carefully grown and prepared S H R lJ BS
for transplanting

FORESTRY AND GARDENING TOOLS
of every description.

ADVERTISEMENTS.

AUSTIN & M'ASLAN

Wurserymen and Seedsmen,
GLASGOW.

ESTABLISHED 1717.

SEED WAREHOUSE, . 89 MITCHELL STREET.
334? DLORES, ; . SALKELD STREET,
NURSERIES, . } . CATHCART.

WE beg to offer a very Extensive Stock of splendidly rooted,
vigorous plants, comprising—

FOREST TREES.—Suitable for various Soils and Exposures.
ORNAMENTAL TREES.—For Parks and Lawns,
ORNAMENTAL FLOWERING and FOLIAGED SHRUBS.

—Underwood Shrubs for Game Coverts, etc.

FLOWERING PLANTS.—For Woodlands.

Catalogues Free on Application. For Large Quantities Special
Quotations and Samples will be supplied.

=

GARDEN AND AGRICULTURAL SEEDS

OF TESTED. OUALITY,
PERMANENT PASTURE GRASSES.—Suitable for heavy

clay as well as light gravelly and mossy Soils, for which we
have received many very high commendations.

LAWN and BOWLING-GREEN GRASSES.—These we be-

lieve are Unsurpassed, and produce Magnificent Swards,

TURNIPS, MANGOLDS, OARROTS, CLOVERS.—Purest

Stocks, and cannot fail to give satisfaction.

We beg to solicit the favour of a share of your Orders.

TRANSACTIONS.

CONTENTS.

The Society, as a body, is not to be considered responsible for any statements or
opinions advanced in the several papers, which must rest entirely on the authority

of the respective authors.

XX. Address delivered at the Thirty-ninth Annual Meeting, 9th
August 1892. By Isaac BAyLey Batrour, Se.D., M.D.,
F.R.S., Queen’s Botanist in Scotland, Professor of Botany
in the University of Edinburgh, and Keeper of the Royal
Botanic Garden, : ‘ : 3 : :

XXI. On the Preparation of Wood Specimens for Exhibition. By
GEORGE CADELL, Langley House, Surbiton, Surrey,

XXII. The Afforestation of Large Areas in the Highlands and Islands
of Scotland. By W. A. MAcKENzIr, Strabane, Brodick,

Isle of Arran,

XXIII. Report on the Plantations on the Estate of Raynham, Norfolk.
By ARCHIBALD Gorrig, Brookmans Park, Hatfield, Herts,

XXIV. The Island of Arran as a Field for Planting. By W. A.
MACKENZIE, Strabane, Brodick, Isle of Arran, : :

XXY. Remarks on the Planting of the Sandhills on the Sea-Coast at
Holkham, Norfolk. By ArcniBatp Gorrie, Brookmans

Park, Hatfield, Herts, .

XXVI. Our Timber Supplies from Abroad. By A. T, Winu1Amson, Kew
Terrace, Edinburgh, 5 : : - -

XXVII. Machine for Mending Broken Strands in Wire Fences. By
' AnTHONY Simpson, Forester, Dunrobin Castle, Golspie,

EXCURSION OF THE SOCIETY TO FIFESHIRE AND PERTHSHIRE.
PEOCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL ScoTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

SYLLABUS OF SUBJECTS FOR COMPETITION IN 1893,

PAGE

301

310

318

331

341

350

353

359

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

XX. Address delivered at the Thirty-ninth Annual Meeting, 9th
August 1892. By Isaac Baytey Batrour, 8c.D., M.D.,
F.R.S., Queen’s Botanist in Scotland, Professor of Botany
in the University of Edinburgh, and Keeper of the Royal
Botanic Garden.

My first duty is to thank you for the honour you have done
me in electing me again to preside over your meetings. The
position in which you place me is one of which any scientific
man might be proud, and if I do indulge such feelings, they are
not unmixed with thoughts of the inadequacy of my service and
of the forbearance with which you have been pleased to regard
my deficiencies. In response to your request that I should
during the coming year act as your President, I can only reply
by assuring you that I shall continue to promote, as far as lies
within my power, the interest of forestry, and the progress
of this Society.

In addressing to you this evening a few remarks, I must, at
the outset, congratulate the Society on its prosperity. The
secretary informs me that this is quite a record year for the
Society in the matter of new blood; no less than fifty-five new
members having been enrolled. Surely we have evidence in
this of the spread of interest in the subject of forestry throughout
the country, and that the efforts made by our Society are con-
tinuing to operate with increasing effect in stimulating attention
to the importance of our woodlands, alike from an utilitarian
and from an esthetic point of view. And if our accession of
strength has been so great, it is pleasant to have to state that

VOL. XIII. PART III, x

302 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

losses to the Society and the cause we are all engaged in carrying
on, by the death of members, are not an average, and that no
forester of outstanding ability has during the past year dis-
appeared from our midst.

In the remarks which I had the honour to address to the
Society, from this chair, on the occasion of our last annual
meeting, I briefly reviewed the position of the Society with
reference to, and the progress it had made towards the attain-
ment of aims for the promotion of scientific forestry after which
it had been so long striving, and I ventured to express the hope
that before another anniversary arrived the Society would be
able to look back on its past endeavours with that feeling
of satisfaction, which well-spent effort begets in the successful.
It is most pleasing to me to find myself able to say that the past
twelve months have been fruitful of solid achievement in the
cause of forestry in Scotland; and the fruition, if it has not
matured so rapidly as we had looked for, and if it is not so
perfect as we could picture, is yet of a kind that we may, I
think, be well content to have obtained, and I venture to hope
we may claim to have succeeded in laying a foundation of the
scientific education of foresters in this country.

It was of forestry education that I spoke in a special manner
at our annual meeting last year, and to-night I shall devote the
short time I ask you to allow me to occupy to the same subject,
in order that I may point out what has been done during the
interval in the way of furthering this vital matter.

You may recollect that I laid stress on the necessity of
distinguishing the education of those attending our University
from that of practical foresters, and I will to-night refer to those
two sides of the question of education separately, for I do not
require to remind the Society that it has interested itself alike
in both.

University Forestry Education—We met last year with a
feeling of misfortune, in that we had lost the services of Dr
Somerville, who had done such yeoman service for our cause in
Edinburgh; and it seemed, for some time after his migration to
Newcastle, that the difficulty of filling his official post amongst
us as University Lecturer on Forestry, which we all knew would
be so great, was to be even greater than we had supposed. But
Lieutenant-Colonel Bailey, R.E., whose name is well known to all
who are familiar with the aspects of Indian forestry, an officer of

ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, AUGUST 9, 1892. 303

wide experience, and whose personal qualities are no less admirable
than his interest in forestry, stepped at short notice into the vacant
lectureship and continued the work, which DrSomerville’s departure
threatened to interrupt. It will, I am sure, be the sanguine
hope of every member of the Society, that, under Lieutenant-
Colonel Bailey, the progress of University teaching will proceed
as rapidly and as effectually as it did under Dr Somerville, and
the Society will extend a most hearty and sympathetic welcome
to him.

To the work conducted by Lieutenant-Colonel Bailey the
Board of Agriculture continued the support given previously to
Dr Somerville, and until sufficient endowment is obtained for
the creation of a permanent Professorship of Forestry in the
University, it is to be hoped the Board of Agriculture will not
refuse to grant the £100 per annum by which so much has been
already done.

And this brings me to the question of the Endowment Fund for
a Chair of Forestry in the University, to the raising of which the
Society has devoted attention. As you are aware, the Highland and
Agricultural Society has interested itself in this matter, and, like
this Society, has obtained some money towards the fund. The
amount already promised and in hand from all sources is, I
understand, about a quarter of the total sum required, if the
endowment is to be such as to place the Forestry Chair on a
footing equal to that of other endowed chairs in the University
of like character. The secretary will, at a later period, give us
details of the figures. This is not altogether so satisfactory a
result as we would wish for, but I see no element therein of
discouragement. What I would say, and I believe you will all
join me in saying it, is, we must get the money to endow the
chair. For this purpose our efforts must be redoubled, and we
must, in every possible way, endeavour to bring before those to
whom good forestry is a matter of solid importance, the claims
which forestry teaching in the University has upon them. A
joint circular has been drawn up by the two Societies, this one
and the Highland and Agricultural Society, and is to be issued
at once. Let me, on behalf of this Society, ask our members to
use every diligence in bringing it before those who should be
willing and are able to subscribe to the fund.

There is one other point bearing on university education in
forestry which demands notice from me here. It is the position

304 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

of forestry side by side of others as one of education in the
University. Members may remember that the Society addressed
a communication to the Universities Commissioners on the
subject of forestry teaching, and amongst the points urged upon
their attention was the inclusion of forestry amongst subjects
qualifying for a science degree. In a certain measure this has
been favourably considered by the commissioners. In the draft
ordinance for degrees in science in agriculture, the commissioners
have placed forestry as one of the subjects of study in the cur-
riculum, optional, however, with two other subjects, engineering
and experimental physics. But this is not enough, What
we want, and must have, is that it shall be compulsory,
and I am not without hope that representations may be suc-
cessful in securing the assignment to forestry of an essential
place in the curriculum, a place which I do not think
can be rightly denied to it. However this may be, there is
ground for our expression of satisfaction, that the claims of our
subject have been so far recognised by the Universities Commis-
sioners. If their full recognition is not to be yet, time and
organisation of the teaching of the subject will certainly bring it
about.

You will gather, then, that we have made some advance
during the past year in pressing towards the development of
university teaching of forestry in Edinburgh. We have not
yet surmounted all the obstacles that stand between us and
the realisation of our ideal; let us put even more energy into our
endeavours and carry them to full success.

I turn now to the Teaching of Practical Foresters. With
regard to this the only point for dissatisfaction is the delay that
has taken place in establishing the scheme which I unfolded in
the remarks I made to the Society last year. By a notice in the
Scotsman a few days ago, all of you will have learned that the
scheme has been sanctioned, and the money required under it is
now at our disposal. We may, I think, fairly exult over this
achievement. We have now the means, in response to prolonged
efforts, of providing for the education of foresters in the science
underlying their profession, The day of carrying out the
education of practical foresters has come, and as in the past
we have shoulder to shoulder fought our battle for means of
education, and have succeeded, so now we must in like manner

ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, AUGUST 9, 1892. 305

co-operate to make the working of the scheme of education a
practical success.

You know the essence of the scheme. Whilst educating
foresters in the necessary sciences, work will be found for them
in the Botanic Garden, and I hope elsewhere about Edinburgh.
You may ask then what is to be our next step towards making _
this teaching a reality? We are all agreed, I take it, as to what
we propose to do, to educate foresters in the sciences underlying
their profession, and we have then two important points now to
determine,—(1) When is the teaching to begin, and how is it to
be conducted ? and (2) under what regulations are foresters to be
admitted to the instruction ?

I am glad of this opportunity to say something upon these
heads, in order that through this Society young foresters through-
out the country may become acquainted with our proposals :—

As to the date of beginning- and the method of the course:
I think October will be a convenient month in which to open
the course of instruction. The present and next month are
emphatically holiday months, and I should hore that by October
it would be possible to arrange all preliminary matters. I
have already been able to arrange for the teaching of several of
the subjects proposed for the curriculum, and having secured as
lecturers in several instances the assistants to the professors in
the University, I am assured that the teaching will be of a most
satisfactory kind. It will of course be our endeavour to make
the instruction of as practical a character as possible, and the
times of lecture and work will be so arranged that they will not
interfere with the usual hours of labour,

With regard to the second point :— Whatever rules are framed,
they must be of a kind that will admit the right men, and
will exclude the men who will not profit by the course. But it
is not easy at the initiation of a scheme such as this to lay down
definite rules, inasmuch as we have no means of estimating to
what extent the opportunity we offer will, in the first instance,
be taken advantage of, and it is evident that the number of men
who can be taken on the staff of the Garden must be limited.
But this is just one of these matters in which I look, and I am
sure with justification, to the co-operation of members of the
Society. This Society having given its imprimatur to the scheme,
and nurserymen of Edinburgh having signified their willingness
to aid in carrying it into effect, I have no doubt that a large

306 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

number of competent men, should they desire to pass through
the curriculum proposed, will be able to find employment in
Edinburgh enabling them to do so.

There is one condition I would mention that I believe will
commend itself to you as of necessity attaching to the scheme.
We must insist on all men coming to the course being practical
men, who have had some years’ experience. The course is
designed for them, and you will agree with me in thinking that
men who have not had some such experience could not profit by
the teaching we propose to give to the extent that those who have
had such experience would do, and this condition is an essential
one. And then whilst we are, so to speak, in the dark as to the
amount of interest the course will arouse, yet we all believe it
will attract considerable attention, and be appreciated amongst
practical foresters, and therefore we must be prepared to institute
some sort of means of selection amongst those who may apply for
admission to the course, should we find from the number of
applicants or other cause that it is necessary to do so. Beyond
this I do not see that we need go at the present in the making of
regulations.

How are we now to make known to those who are likely to
desire to attend our course the education we offer? I think the
simplest plan that could be adopted would be this,—and I propose
to adopt it,—to draw up a circular, which would be submitted to
members of the Society able and willing to advise upon it,
embodying a sketch of the course of instruction, the method in
which it is to be carried out, and the regulations under which
men may be admitted to it, along with a schedule to be filied up
by an applicant, which would be returnable, say, by the middle of
September, This circular and schedule, when adjusted, would be
issued to proprietors, foresters, and others in the country who
are interested in the subject and whom we could reach.

Upon all these points concerning the scheme [ should be glad
to have an expression of opinion, with suggestions from any
member of the Society who will be so good as to favour me with
them. During the excursion of the Society, which I hope to join,
there will be opportunity of informal conversation upon the
questions involved, and I shall be happy to discuss them with
any members who may be willing to do so.

In the way I have indicated, gentlemen, I hope that before
many weeks are passed the scheme we have devised for the

ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, AUGUST 9, 1892. 307

teaching of practical foresters may be fairly launched. Personally,
I shall do my best to make the scheme a success, and I believe it
has in it the germs of success, in which belief I am fortified by
the approval with which it has been received by the Society.
But it is well that we should bear in mind that this is only the
beginning of that portion of our ideal forestry school providing
for practical foresters. We must not expect to be able to create
all at once a perfect school for the teaching of our science. Like
the tree itself, such a school, to be sound and durable, must grow
slowly. But I would venture to hope that this beginning we’
shall shortly make is the foundation of a permanent school by
which all the aspirations of foresters, so long expressed by this
their representative Society, may be attained; for, however it
may be in other spheres of work, I think we may, looking at
our progress within the recent past, regard the flowing tide as
being with us, on which I trust we may be carried to the full
accomplishment of the aims we have set before us,

Postscriet.—The circular alluded to above was issued in the
form subjoined. It was found advisable to postpone the opening of
the Course of Lectures until after Martinmas term day.

Course of Instruction for Practical Foresters and Gardeners at the
Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh.

C1iRCULAR.

By arrangement between the Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Works and
the Board of Agriculture, a course of study in the Sciences underlying the
Practice and in the Principles of Forestry and Horticulture will be instituted
in the month of October of this year, at the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh,
for Practical Foresters and Gardeners.

The curriculum will extend over two-and-a-half years, and will include the
following subjects:—Chemistry, Physics, Meteorology, Geology, Surveying,
and Mensuration, Entomology, Botany, Forestry, and Horticulture, and these
will be taught practically as far as is possible.

The curriculum will be free of charge to those who are admitted to it.

The times of the classes will be arranged so as not to interfere with the
usual hours of labour.

No one will be admitted who has not had at least three years of practical
experience in forestry or gardening,

Applicants for admission must submit a recommendation and certificate of
character from their employer.!

1 If an applicant happens to be out of a situation, a recommendation and
certificate of character from his last employer should be submitted,

308 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

A certain number of men will be employed as members of the working
staff of the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, during the period of the
curriculum. Such men will serve under all the regulations in force in the
Garden, and will receive the current wages of their grade. Through the
co-operation of the nurserymen in Edinburgh, arrangements will be made for
the employment of others in the nurseries about Edinburgh during the period
of the curriculum.

Those who are admitted to the curriculum will be examined from time to
time upon the subjects of study, and any one who does not show satisfactory
progress may be debarred from continuing the curriculum.

Practical foresters and gardeners desirous of entering on the curriculum
are requested to fill up the form on the other side, and to return it not later
than the 5th October, along with the recommendation and certificate of
character mentioned above, addressed to the Keeper, Royal Botanic Garden,
Edinburgh.

Should it appear to be necessary or advisable, some method of selection
amongst the applicants may be adopted.

Applicants will be duly informed whether or no they have been admitted
to the curriculum. Isaac BAYLEY BALFouR,

Keeper of the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh.
15th September 1892.

SCHEDULE.

Form to be filled up by Applicants for admission to the Course of Instruction
for Practical Foresters and Gardeners ut the Royal Botanic Garden,
Edinburgh.

Name

Address

Date of Birth

Birthplace

Forester or Gardener

Name and address of present employer

Length of time in present situation

Previous situations and length of time in each

Do you desire employment in the Royal Botanic Garden, or in a Nursery
at Edinburgh, during the period of curriculum ?

Roya Boranic GARDEN,
EpinzureGu, 15th September 1892.

Sir,—I have the honour to send the annexed prospectus (with form of
application) of a Course of Instruction for Practical Foresters and Gardeners
about to be instituted in this establishment, and to ask for your co-operation
in making known the course to suitable men. I shall be glad to send
additional application forms should you require them.

I would specially invite your attention to that feature of the scheme by
which it is proposed to find employment in and about Edinburgh for young

ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, AUGUST 9, 1892. 309

men from a distance desirous of taking advantage of the instruction offered,
and in this way to enable them to support themselves during the period of
study. The wage obtainable would be 17s. per week in this establishment,
and about 2s. 6d. per day in nurseries,

The advantages of the opportunities of study afforded by the scheme are
so evident that they will probably be sufficient to induce good men to accept
employment in Edinburgh at the rates mentioned, even although some
diminution in their earnings is thereby involved. There is, however, the
possibility that a deserving man might be called upon to make a pecuniary
sacrifice in taking such employment which circumstances would not allow
him to contemplate, and he might thus be precluded from attending the
course.

To meet such cases, and to supplement the wage obtainable, it has been
suggested that the County Councils and other bodies having control of the
administration of funds which could be allocated to such a purpose might,
in different localities, see their way to making small grants, in the form of
bursaries, to aid men desirous of working through the curriculum, and that
many individual proprietors would be glad to give some additional pecuniary
help to young men from their neighbourhood who wished to reap the
benefit of the education offered.

I therefore take the opportunity, whilst bringing under your notice the
course of instruction proposed, to ask for your consideration of the sug-
gestions I have mentioned, and to solicit your aid to give practical effect
to them.—I have the honour to be, Sir, your obedient servant,

Isaac BAYLEY BALFour.

310 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

XXI. On the Preparation of Wood Specimens for Exhibition. By
GrorGe CapELL, Langley House, Surbiton, Surrey.

INTRODUCTION.

Some little time since I was asked by the manager of the
Kimberley and South African Exhibition, which is to be held
in 1892-93, to draw up for the information of his executive com-
mittee some suggestions for the effective display of their woods,
with the view of their being sent on afterwards to the World’s Fair
at Chicago. The idea of writing a short paper on the subject has
thence emanated. While I am aware that it is somewhat of a rash
adventure to put forward any suggestions, or, @ fortiori, to lay
down any rules which may come under the notice of members of
the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, who knew so well how
to set off their exhibits to the best advantage, and to arrange them
with the best taste, in 1884, yet I trust this rashness may be viewed
with indulgence. For I may be permitted to remind them that
neither in the pages of their own Z'ransactions, nor in The Timber
Trades’ Journal, the organ of the British timber trade, is there, so
far at least as I am aware, any code of directions laid down for
those who are tyros in the art. The very temerity of my attempt,
therefore, will find its best excuse in the evoking—if happily it
may evoke criticism and correction, and in the framing by some
competent authority—of whom the Society possesses within its
ranks some well-known names—of rules and regulations for general
guidance and adoption. For in these days when imperialism is so
constantly brought under our notice, when its demands and aspira-
tions have been focussed under one great centre, the Imperial
Institute, we waut to know, and we shall expect it to teach us,
what are the real resources of the empire, and whence any
deficiencies known to exist within the bounds of our own islands
may be satisfactorily and quickly supplied.

I cannot think that, so far as woods are concerned, this information
has been fairly, much less exhaustively, pushed, New woods have
certainly been taken into favour, notably the padouk wood—
Pterocarpus indicus—of the Andaman Islands, regarding which I
read in the last annual circular of a well-known firm of timber
importers as under :—

“ Padouk.—The supplies have been 1°446 loads, and a good
business has been done. The use of this wood is steadily extend-
ing. Values range from 3s, to 3s. 9d. per cubic foot.”

ON THE PREPARATION OF WOOD SPECIMENS FOR EXHIBITION. 311

I fear, however, that this is the exception rather than the general
rule, and that this wood owes the particular estimation in which it
is held to the fact that the supplies of mahogany—a wood with
which it more directly enters into competition—from Honduras,
Mexico, and Cuba have been somewhat short recently. It is
important, however, to notice this, because it is with special view
to competition, and, wherever practicable, the substitution of
British, that is Indian and Colonial, woods for those of foreign
growth, that this necessity for uniformity in display is becoming
more urgent. Even as I write the supply of English ash is scanty,
and any really satisfactory substitute for it could at once command
a market and a value.

Now the exhibition of woods and timber specimens of all. sorts
has before it two main objects—/irst, their interest for scientists ;
second, their economic value.

In the preparation of the specimens, therefore, these two objects
should never be lost sight of; and in attempting to attain and
illustrate them I would give the first place to

Tue PREPARATION OF Forest PLANS AND CHARTS,

I have elsewhere insisted upon the great usefulness of maps and
plans, especially when the woods of a country which has different
and sometimes sharply-defined zones, and correspondingly distinctive
flora, are to be exhibited. To those who witnessed the display made
by the Japanese Government at Edinburgh, or by the Government
of Norway at Amsterdam, this insistence on my part may appear
gratuitous. And I am aware that the Government of India, as
well as our foreign neighbours, have nothing to learn regarding
the usefulness of maps. Of the former, indeed, an intelligent
French critic has thus written in reviewing the list of their
exhibits :—

“ Iiterature and General Cartography.—In my opinion this is
the group which enables us to form the best judgment of the degree
of perfection to which the technical value of personal administration
has arrived. The Indian Forest Department has nothing to fear
from the results of such criticism.”

My insistence, therefore, is only advanced on the principle that
gutta cavat lapidem non wi sed sepe cadendo.1 And if my

1 A drop of water hollows out a stone not by force, but by constant
dripping.

312 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY

humble efforts can more generally impress this view, I shall gladly
underlie the charge of iteration and reiteration.

To take a country with whose flora we are all more or less
familiar, and which well illustrates my meaning, I append a rough
Forest Chart of Switzerland. Here we have certain trees occupying
with tolerable exclusiveness well-defined regions of the same
country, while that country itself divides the distinctive flora
of Northern Europe from the distinctive flora of Southern
Europe. Such a map, of course more accurately prepared, should
accompany every exhibition of wood specimens, explanatory
tables being appended to show the number of trees of each sort,
mature and maturing, which are or will become available in given
years. We have further at a glance the position of the woods with
reference to their accessibility, and the means available, whether by
road or by water, for the transport of their products to an inland or
sea-coast market. I should like to see such maps illustrating all the
portions of the British empire, and I may perhaps be permitted to
add that I should like to see such a map in an early volume of the
Society’s Zransactions, which would do this good office for Scotland,
which, so far as forestry is concerned, is facile princeps amongst
its own immediate neighbours.

PREPARATION OF Woop SPECIMENS.

In regard to the size and shape of the wood specimens, of course
tastes are various, quot homines, tot sententie. We have little bricks
of wood carefully polished, and we have the rough unhewn product
of the virgin jungle. Both have their
values, and both have certainly their
disadvantages, the latter to my mind
preponderating. Looking to the
objects I have noted above as apply-
ing generally, [ would venture to limit
the preparation of actual specimens
to two classes with regard to their
ultimate destinations, z.e., the museum
of the botanist, or the timber-yard of
the importer. Neither of these should, I think, be small.

For scientific purposes I might admit, in deference to the opinion
of others, those specimens made in book form (Fig. 1). Here the
size should be not less than 12 inches by 12 by 3 inches, the bark

Fig. 1.

ON THE PREPARATION OF WOOD SPECIMENS FOR EXHIBITION. 313

of the tree being left on the back, and one side of the specimen
should be polished and the other plain.

But for ordinary purposes I prefer something larger, even in
spite of its comparative unhandiness. The segments which I have
in my mind, but which I regret I can only imperfectly delineate,
are as shown in Fig, 2.

We
ert

Wii
ethyl =
avi

cM mt
ra

ved
pat
Ber

Here the specimens are primarily logs or trunks of trees with the
bark on, not less than 3 feet in length, and cut first across,
second transversely, and third at an oblique angle sloping from
the core outwards to the bark. The grain of the wood is thus
exposed as subjected to these several cuts; the proportion of sap-
wood to heartwood is clearly apparent-—that in some woods, for
example, the Indian ebony, Diospyros melanoxylon, being very
remarkable ; and the colour of the outer and inner wood is in
strong contrast. The bark is, except where the wood is exposed
by the above cuts, carefully preserved, while the wood itself is on
one side of the line from A to B polished, the other side being
left in its natural condition. This form of specimen has the further
advantage of evidencing the annual growth of the tree, a subject to
which I shall come later on—the concentric rings, the medullary
rays, and generally the botanical structure.

For the test purposes of the importer the logs or beams can
hardly be too large. The most reliable results will be given, ceteris

314 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

paribus, by the largest logs, and the weight, for instance, of the
cubic foot will, in some woods at any rate, be very much larger in
the case of the log than in that of scantlings. The following results,
for example, were obtained from beams of the Indian teak tree,
Tectona grandis, which were 10 feet long by 4 inches by 6 inches.

Weight per cubic foot, 45 to 50 lbs.

Value of P=600.

Modulus of elasticity = 5000.1

To illustrate what I have above said regarding the power results
obtained from scantlings, | may mention that in the professional
papers published at Roorkee, the actual weight of the teak in log
was given at 50 lbs. per cubic foot, and in scantlings at only
35 lbs.—the latter having probably lost the essential oil which
would be retained in the former.

ILLUSTRATION OF RATE oF GROWTH.

I am now brought to a consideration of the use of specimens in
ascertaining the rate of growth, which is not the least interesting
and instructive of their uses. For this purpose the kind of
specimens I have commended, varying of course in size according
to age, seems to lend itself most naturally to this part of my
subject. Here again, however, we shall require explanatory tables.
For we want to know the kind of soil in which the various
specimens have been reared—the height above the sea-level of the
forests or plantations whence they have been taken—the increment
of annual growth, in fact everything that can tell us anything of
the history and nature of the tree which is represented by its
section. This is especially useful to the planter, whether repre-
sented by an individual or by a government, who wishes to raise
trees, not merely for ornament and use, but for pecuniary profit.
I would make special reference in this regard to the specimens of
oak shown by Sir James Campbell in 1884 as the products of the

1 Pj sult of f lay
P is the result o ormula 5p:

W is the weight which causes the beam to break.

L = length of beam in feet between the supports.

3 = breadth of beam in inches,

D = thickness of beam in inches.

P being generally adopted to express the power of the beam to resist
superimposed pressure.

ON THE PREPARATION OF WOOD SPECIMENS FOR EXHIBITION, 315

Forest of Dean, varying in age from thirty to two hundred and
twenty-eight years, and to the thirty-three specimens of teak sent
. from the Government plantation at Nilambir, South India. For
these form, for foresters, exhibits second in interest to none. I
do not want to intrude upon other men’s preserves, but the official
reports of the Nilambér teak plantation are common. property,
and from them, not to be too diffuse, I extract the kernel for the
information of my readers, as under :—

I. Trees of seven years of age grown
(a) On alluvial soil showed a total height of 29 feet, and a
girth at breast high of 12 inches.
(6) On gneiss and laterite showed a total height of 30 feet,
and a mean girth of 13 inches.
II. Trees of thirty years of age grown
(a) On alluvial soil showed a total height of 85 feet, and a
girth at breast high of 35 inches.
(0) On gneiss and laterite showed a total height of 50 feet,
and a girth of 24 inches.

Here it is interesting to notice how rapidly after the seventh
year the trees planted in alluvial soil outstripped their companions
which had tapped a less congenial substrata. And it conveys a
lesson to us all, that while trees will certainly grow almost any-
where, they can only be grown to profit and advantage where the
subsoil is suited to their respective requirements.

At the risk of being tedious, but for a direct reason which will
be apparent a little further on, I append a few more figures
regarding the rate of growth of teak in the same plantation.

The periodical annual increment of growth in trees of nine years
of age was found to be 1:1 cubic feet, in trees of nineteen years
1:3 cubic feet, and in trees from nineteen to twenty-nine years
2°8 cubic feet, showing the rapid ratio of annual growth which
took place after they had attained the age of nineteen years.

NOMENCLATURE.

I come now to a subject which may be thought unnecessary. It
seems a childish matter to insist upon giving the specimens a name,
for the infant does that to its playthings or to the live pets which
surround it. And yet the most extraordinary, and, I may add, the
most fatal mistakes have arisen from incorrect nomenclature, and

316 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

the consequent impossibility of identification. I knew of a case
where a wood was highly appreciated for the natural oil it possessed,
which enabled articles made from it successfully to resist intense -
friction. A large consignment of this valuable wood was ordered
and found to be absolutely worthless, being in fact another wood
altogether. The samples of wood exhibited should bear not only
the vernacular or local, and the botanical name, but also the name
by which it is known to commerce. If it is not already known in
the commercial world, then the name of the wood which it most
resembles should be given. And in this branch of nomenclature,
to give a wood a bad name is to spoil its chance of acceptance.
I do not think, for example, that the market would jump at the
“stinkwood” of Africa, although the tree, Oreodaphne bullata, which
produces it is an excellent timber tree, and the wood is extremely
useful for railway sleepers and the like. Any new wood should be
launched under a good name, and if the stinkwood were rechristened
the African oak, a name which it could rightfully adopt, its chance
of success would at once be doubled. I have not thought it well
to insist upon the fact of the wood bearing the true botanical
name of the tree from which it is cut. For this goes without
saying, and it would be better to leave the name out, or to place
it thus,—species ?—than to give it a false name which could only
be misleading.

Fisres, Dyres, Gums, Resins, ETC.

Lastly, I come to what are called the minor forest products. It
is part of the object of an exhibition to show all the resources of
the subject which it illustrates. There are many trees, such as the
Canarium strictum, Pterocarpus marsupium, and a host of
others, of which the gums they exude form not the least important
part of their products. It cannot be said that the knowledge of
these is by any means exhaustive. The importer would hail with
delight any real substitute for gutta percha. However, a mere list
of the fibres already known to commerce, and in a greater degree a
list of those which have failed on trial to commend themselves,
would in itself gratify neither my readers nor myself. These
have formed pegs on which to hang the introduction of carding
and cleaning machines innumerable, and the recollection of their
worthlessness cannot but be painful to many who have embarked
money in the attempt to establish them.

ON THE PREPARATION OF WOOD SPECIMENS FOR EXHIBITION. 317

CONCLUSION.

I have given my readers figures for a reason which they may not,
I trust, consider presumptuous. The forester, and, I may add, the
Scottish forester, is his own best teacher, and they may like to
make experiments to determine the data I have above given in the
case of the trees growing in their own woods. For this purpose,
and to bring the matter nearer home to them, I give below very
briefly some data regarding the Pinus latifolia, one of the five
Indians pecies of Coniferze, in oxder that they may compare them
with results they themselves may obtain from their own Pinus
sylvestris, Weight per cubic foot, 27 lbs. Value of P or trans-
verse strength, 906-961.1_ I would also venture to commend to
their attention the yield tables for the Scots pine, calculated from
the detailed measurements of 351 Scots pine woods, situated in
Alsace, Baden, Bavaria, Prussia, and Saxony, and converted into
English measure by Dr Schlick, C.I.E., Ph.D. These would be
extremely interesting for the purposes of comparison with the
results obtained in their own woods; and, with a small collection of
wood specimens, each forester might have for himself a museum
not less instructive, so far as it goes, than the Imperial Institute,
which will count its treasures by thousands.

Note.—We were told that in 1881 the number of wood specimens
named, numbered, and described for India alone were 2530,
belonging to 906 species and 432 genera, and the number since

identified has doubtless largely increased the tale.

1 See ante, note to page 314,

VOL, XIII. PART III. Y

318 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY,

XXII. The Afforestation of Large Areas in the Highlands and
Islands of Scotland. By W. A. Mackenzie, Strabane,
Brodick, Isle of Arran.

The fact of raw material being the basis upon which the wealth
and prosperity of a fully peopled country depends, it behoves
the rulers and leaders of the nation to put forth every
possible effort to keep up the supply, in order that the workmen
shall be fully employed, and thus prevent the draining of money
from their own country to thatof others. In no country is this
precaution more necessary than in our own, because, notwith-
standing the opportunities we have for producing a large proportion
of such timber as we buy in other countries, we, as a nation, take
no advantage of these opportunities. The whole matter is left
to individual efforts, which, from various causes, are inadequate to
make more than a very slight impression on the wants of the
country, by supplying marketable timber, or afforesting such
portions of our waste lands as are not already so profitably
employed. If the people of this country could be brought to see
the importance of having the waste lands planted,—the importance
not only to themselves, but to future generations,—they would
make it a point of first-rate political consequence. Those who
quite understand the question, and the value such a movement
would be to the country, think it worthy of the consideration of
statesmen of the first rank; and it certainly deserves to be laid
before the people by their representatives, and made a parliamentary
feature at a general election. Out of about ten millions of acres,
more or less suitable for the profitable growth of timber, under a
million acres are so employed, leaving for such a purpose at the
disposal of Parliament, failing private enterprise, an area of about
nine millions of acres. At the age of say seventy years, the timber
on such an area would be worth to the country a clear sum of
about £240,000,000, after paying for planting, fencing, maintenance,
and interest at three per cent. on capital for thirty years, because
after that age such woods, if judiciously managed, would pay all
costs. But this is not all. Had it been so, it could not be
supposed that the general public would evince much concern with
a project which would take from fifty to seventy years to complete.
ut the general community would, in a few years, receive a very
direct benefit in the form of a more uniform and genial climate,
while the benefit commercially to the adjoining lands would double

THE AFFORESTATION OF LARGE AREAS IN THE HIGHLANDS. 319

the interest paid on cost of planting. These points are well
known to most arboriculturists, and need not receive further
attention here. At present, the great difficulty seems to be the
want of money to carry on the work by private enterprise. But
if encouraged by Government offering a subsidy of a certain sum
for every acre planted in large areas, landowners would, no doubt,
take advantage of such encouragement. And why should not
Government encourage this industry by subsidy? just as they
do steam shipping companies for carrying the mails to foreign
countries, and many other schemes of national benefit.

Another way to accomplish the end in view would be for
Government to lease, under Act of Parliament, such lands as are
not profitably occupied, leaving it in the option of the proprietor
to redeem at any future period during the lease, the subjects so
acquired, either at a valuation, or on paying the costs and interest
up to the date of redemption. This could be carried out under
the supervision of what is known as the Enclosure Commissioners,
together or in connection with a School of Forestry. The work
of supervision could be done by the commissioners at no additional
cost to the country, and some of the practical details could be
worked by, and under, the directions of the managers of the
School of Forestry.

A third way to effect the same purpose would be by the
Government taking over all waste lands and planting them,
reserving to the proprietor and his successors, power to resume the
lands, together with the crops, buildings, fences, etc., on paying
all the costs, and such interest as would be stipulated for in the
parliamentary enactment giving such powers; or by paying to
Government such a sum per annum, for a given time, as would
cover capital and interest; taking care that the land could not be
alienated from the present landlord and his successors, without
his express consent, and that of his heirs, as is now required under
the Acts of Entail.

These are the brief outlines of several methods by which the
Highlands and islands of Scotland could be clothed with growing
timber within a reasonable time.

Preparation of the Land.—The first operation is that of
enclosing. This may be done in various ways—by wire on wood
or iron posts, by walls built of such stones as may be found on
the land, or by turf fences. The latter method has the advantage
of sheltering the outer edge of the plantation for some years after

320 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

planting, and provides a nice seed-bed for broom and whin, which
may be sown on the “backing” of the mound. The cost of this
method varies with the situation, but on the average it would be
about 9d. per running yard. Owing to the liability of the ditches
to get cut up by floods, these fences should only be employed on
tolerably flat ground, or along the base or top of plantations, if
such is practicable. This kind of fencing is so valuable as a
shelter, that it would pay to cut catch drains at short intervals
to run off the water.

Next to the turf fencing in usefulness is a stone-faced dyke,
built on the same principle as the turf fence, stones being used
for the face throughout, with the exception of the cope, which
should be of turf. This fence has also an earth “ backing” with
a scarcement and ditch, and the cost would be from 7d. to 10d.
per lineal yard, according to circumstances.

The third, and most economical method in the end, is that of
wire-fencing of various kinds, the most durable being throughout
made of galvanised iron. A good fence is made with T iron
standards, with two | droppers between each pair of T standards.
The standards should be self-fixing, or fixed in a base of Portland
cement. For fixing with cement, small pits should be dug at the
proper distances apart and filled up with clean broken stones, in
which the standards are placed in position. When this is done,
very little cement will be required for concreting the mass into a
solid block. The fence should consist of five wires, the top one
being a barbed wire. The cost of this fence would vary according
to the kind of posts or standards employed. On wood posts it
would cost about 10d. per yard, and with T iron standards and
droppers, all galvanised, about ls. 3d.

It is impossible to say exactly what system of fencing should be
adopted in any particular case, for much depends on the position
of the proposed plantation.

Draining.—YVhe draining of waste lands previous to planting
is a very simple operation, and comparatively inexpensive when
properly carried out. The best system, in the absence of brooks
or runlets, is to run a large “leader” along the lowest parts of the
ground to be drained, and into this run small lateral drains, at an
angle of about 75°, being careful not to have too rapid a run to cause
“ cutting” in floods, What are known as “ well eyes” (¢.¢., where
the perennial discharge of water takes place on hill-sides) should
always be ‘‘tapped” by a drain, and thus avoid the cost of draining

THE AFFORESTATION OF LARGE AREAS IN THE HIGHLANDS. 321]

the whole “bog” formed by the spring. Land requiring to be
drained can easily be detected by its wet, spongy appearance, and
the vegetation with which it is covered. It is often found difficult
to drain shallow basins having moorland “pan” underneath. The
best and cheapest way to do this is by the use of explosives, such
as tonite, which is a cheap and safe explosive. Begin the operation
by driving a heavy crowbar right through the “ pan”—which is
usually from a few inches to 2 feet below the surface—at every 10
yards or so, and charge the holes with the explosive. If the “ pan”
be about 2 feet below the surface, a two-ounce cartridge of tonite will
be sufficient to fracture the pan for a few yards around ; but for
less than 2 feet of depth, an ounce cartridge will be found sufficient.
The cost will not exceed 20s. per acre. The advantage of draining
the “pan” by this method is that it never again unites, being so
thoroughly disintegrated by the concussion that it becomes mixed
up with the soil. The writer has seen the effect of this method on
land where it was performed sixteen years ago, and it is still quite
open and friable, with a fine crop of young timber now growing
upon it.

Clearing the Land for Planting.— This operation is often
difficult, but cheap and effectual means can be applied to most
herbage, dank grass excepted. Heath should be burned in stripes,
two or more yards wide, where it is so rank as to overtop ordinary
plants of either Scots fir or larch, leaving about a yard between
each stripe for shelter. The burning should be from bottom to top
of hills, and on level or moderately level land across the path of
prevailing winds. The burning is done best in March, during dry
weather and moderate winds. Fire the heath in stripes, and give
a stripe to two men or lads to keep under control, and to guide the
burning in any required direction. The checking of the burning
is effected by what is known as “ flogging,” and for this purpose
branches of spruce or Scots fir are used, or better, properly made
“mops.” These are made of stripes of any old woollen material
about a foot in length, tied by means of wire to hazel or ash rods,
supple enough to bend, but rigid enough not to turn in the hand.
Old sacks do very well. By this means there should be no difficulty
in keeping the burning in check. Ifa few stripes are being burned
at the same time, it is better to have a spare man or two to look
after any little spark that may be lurking in the heath ready to
devour the shelter stripes. The cost of this operation will depend
greatly on the force of the wind, and the activity of the persons in

322 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

charge, but from 1s. to 2s. 6d. per burned acre should cover the
total cost.

Another kind of brushwood difficult to deal with is whins and
sloes. Probably the most effective way of removing these is by
horse-power, and is carried out in the following manner :—A chain
is passed round each bush or clump, and is run through an “eye”
link in the same manner as is done when dragging logs of wood.
Two lads with a tractable horse would be able to clear a consider-
able portion of land in a week ; but much would, of course, depend
upon the thickness of the plants upon the ground, and no estimate
can be given. Suffice it to say that the plan is found much cheaper
and more effectual than grubbing by mattock, not costing one-
fourth the price of the latter. Grass, particularly on damp ground,
is almost an impossible obstacle to get rid of. The only effectual
way to prevent choking is turfing (7.e., paring), but such grassy
swards are seldom met with in situations forming the basis of this
subject.

Shelter.—In very exposed places this may be afforded in several
ways, either artificially or naturally. By artificial I mean raising
turf-dykes, or mous, such as those already mentioned; and by
natural is meant shelter obtained by planting hardy trees in such
positions as to break the wind. Plant either in narrow belts or in
clumps throughout the entire area—elder, plane, mountain pine,
and, especially in maritime districts, sea buckthorn; and except
near the outside of the plantation, where the shelter must remain,
in such a manner as to be removable in the course of the after-
management, so as to form roads and shooting drives. Shelter-
belts or clumps should be planted several years previous to planting
the crop, so that they may have a hold of the ground before the
young plants are put in. Artificial shelter by ridges or dykes is
liable to serious objection, from the tendency of snow to form deep
wreaths to their leeward, and thus large areas of plantation may be
crushed down, as is often seen in upland districts. If hardy
trees are planted, and whin and broom sown on the ridges, it is
surprising what shelter is obtained. Another very good natural
shelter is the “wattle” fence placed on exposed positions. These
structures are easily and cheaply made by driving a line of stakes
on the ridges, or on exposed situations, about a yard apart, taking
birch, hazel, or any kind of brushwood, and weaving it roughly
between the stakes and leaving it quite open to let the wind pass
through, for otherwise the fences would be liable to destruction

THE AFFORESTATION OF LARGE AREAS IN THE HIGHLANDS, 323

during gales. This method is only available where plenty of
underwood and scrub abound.

The Selection of the trees and the Mode of Planting are matters
for the forester on the spot to deal with effectually, as no hard
and fast rule can be laid down to suit all cases. A general rule,
however, is to select the plants of a size, age, and species to suit
the soil, herbage, and situation, Generally speaking, the smaller
the plants are, the cheaper and more successful will be the planta-
tion; and taking the Highlands broadly, two-year seedlings, one
year transplanted, are the handiest and most useful plants of most
of the pine tribe. So much depends, however, on the exposure
and soil, that where to plant, and what to plant, must be left in the
hands of the practical forester. Volumes of theory could be and
are written on this subject, but to no practical effect, even from
the pen of the most subtle writer; the practised eye and experi-
enced judgment of the forester are the only reliable medium.
Examples—and striking examples—of what the practical forester
can do, if left to his own discretion, can be seen in many parts of
the country, as in Strathconon near Strathpeffer, and on the
Lovat and Ord estates near Beauly.

As has been said above, plants should be of such species as are
suitable for the different soils, altitudes, and exposures that are to
be found in all extensive areas. While that is so, a general idea
may here be given. In planting for profit, it may be laid down as
a rule, that even in inland situations, hardwoods, such as the oak,
ash, plane, and elm, should not be planted above 800 feet altitude,
and only in situations highly suitable. This, however, does not
refer to such of these trees as may be used in forming wind-breaks
or shelter-bands for plantations of large extent. It will be found
that for planting in the Highlands the pine tribe is the most suc-
cessful, and therefore the most profitable; but it cannot be too
strongly impressed upon planters that the smallest plants of every
variety will be found to be the most profitable ; being less liable to
die during the early stages of growth, and, in after years, less likely
to be overturned by wind storms. In the lower situations, and
where rank herbage has to be contended with, transplanted plants
may be necessary, but in all situations where the herbage is of a
stunted nature, two-year seedlings of all the pine tribe will be more
successful. On the higher ranges, where steep gradients are met
with, seeding should be resorted to, and this more especially where
rocky debris prevails. In such places no preparation is necessary,

324 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

as the seed will get quickly covered by the natural process of dis-
integration.

As there are large areas in the Highlands highly suitable for the
profitable growth of exotic conifers, these trees should be largely
planted, giving Pinus monticola and other Pines light, deep,
moderately dry soils; the Silver Firs, moist soils, with clayey
subsoil ; and the Spruce Fir tribe, the cool damp soils, includ-
ing moss. But these exotics should only be planted where the
situation is naturally well sheltered. In such situations, too, in well
chosen soils, the Wellingtonia gigantea and Sequoia sempervirens
should find a place. Where the forester, from practical experience,
can satisfy himself on the points above cited, success is almost a
certainty.

Planting.—There are various methods of successful planting.
As a general rule the [Ta notch will be found suitable for two-
year seedlings, twice transplanted, placing the plant in the slit a,
which should be perpendicular to the prevailing wind. The same
notch and the L notch are suitable for one-year seedlings, twice
transplanted, and two-year seedlings, one year transplanted ; while
the ordinary Hand-iron is the proper implement to be used for all
pine seedlings, except in extremely rocky situations, in which case
the pick ought to be used. As the after success of a plantation
largely depends on the manner in which the planting operations are
carried out, the greatest care should be taken to have the roots of
the plants properly placed under the surface. Larger plants than
those above named should be pitted. This latter method is very
expensive, and the after results are not any better, but often
worse, than what are got by seedlings and small transplants,
Where afforestation can be done by cuttings of such as elder,
poplar, and willow, their propagation is so easy and certain that
the cuttings should be placed in their permanent position at once.

The cost per acre of planting depends upon size, age, and variety
of plants, together with the number of plants per acre, composition
of the land, and the rate of wages in the district, and will be noticed
further on.

While discussing the question of planting, it will not be out of
place to consider the distribution of the plants. It has been found
that the grouping system is the most natural and also the most
profitable arrangement. This is to be observed all over Scotland,
both in natural woods and in those planted by man. Whether in
natural woods it is due to the survival of the fittest I am unable to

THE AFFORESTATION OF LARGE AREAS IN THE HIGHLANDS, 325

say, but the grouping system is carried out by nature with unerring
precision. It is therefore better to copy nature, and assist her as
far as possible, and in few things is nature more grateful for assist-
ance than in the making and management of woods.

The “survival of the fittest,” or mixed system of planting, is that
most generally practised, on account of its being thought that if one
plant will not succeed another may. Under ordinary circumstances
there is a good deal to be said in favour of this plan, but it is an
expensive one, and usually gives the least margin of profit during
the earlier stages of thinning, It is perhaps here that the practical
and thoroughly experienced forester comes to the front, and plants
only what he knows will pay best.

Seeding.—There are various methods by which the seeding of
large areas may be accomplished, especially with birch, ash, beech,
plane, elm, and pine, all of which are easily raised from seed, and
more especially the birch. A cheap and very efficient plan is,
searifying the surface roughly with a log of wood, having its
surface covered with iron spikes about 3 inches in length and
1 inch square; the log being about 6 feet in length by 8 or 9
inches in diameter, and having at one end a bolt, swivel eye, and
chain for attaching a horse. This rude implement is easily dragged
through rough land, or where a thick crop of heath has been burned.
With a log of an oval shape, weighing about 2 ewts., the pulling
strain will not exceed 12 cwts. A man and horse with such an
implement should cover a very large area in a day, giving the land
a double stroke, and keeping the lines about 3 feet apart. Under
favourable circumstances about 8 acres can be accomplished, but
4 to 6 acres may be considered a fair day’s work. It is an in-
valuable implement for raising shelter-belts for plantations on large
areas of mountain, and will prepare a good bed for the seed of
birch, beech, ash, elm, and pines. The implement was suggested
by seeing the effect of dragging wood through forests for lotting
for sale, and observing the after results by natural seeding. The
cost of the implement, with chain complete, is about 25s., and any
forester could make one on being supplied with the iron spikes by
a blacksmith. The spikes should be 6 inches in length, to give
them a firm hold in the log.

Where this implement cannot be got to work on account of the
steepness of the ground, or because of boulders or rock, the mattock
will be found to be best for good results. The operation with the
mattock, however, is more expensive, as it will keep a man busy

326 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

to do three-quarters of an acre per day of ten hours, seeding as he
goes along; but the method can be made more economical by a boy
sowing the seed after every two men. Where the ground is not
covered with heath or herbage to any extent, broadcast sowing may
be resorted to with good effect, especially on the face of steep
slopes, and among disintegrating rocks. The action of natural
agencies will soon cover the most of the seeds thus sown.

Sowing may be performed from January to June, according to
the species, beginning with oak, mountain ash, ete., and ending
with Scots elm, the seeds of which should be taken fresh from the
tree about the middle of June. It requires at least ten times the
number of seeds as that of plants to stock the same area of ground.
On an average 2 lbs. of seed is sufficient for an imperial acre.
When sown broadcast, the seeds should be mixed with some
foreign substance to enable this small quantity (2 lbs.) to be
properly spread over so large an area. Any friable substance will
do for this purpose, provided the seeds are evenly mixed with it.
Pine seeds should only be sown in the drier soils, such as those
having good natural drainage, or on soils properly drained by
artificial means.

Cost of Planting.—The cost of planting will be more clearly
understood in tabular form, taking as our basis 640 acres, or one
square mile, but a larger area costs proportionately less for fencing.
On each acre the following average of plants and seed should be
used :—50 hardwoods, 1000 larch, 3000 Scots fir, 250 Norway
spruce, 100 silver fir, and seed as per table. In order to show a
v, etc., it is better that the cost

top)
of three sizes of plants should be given, as below.

comparison of the cost of plantin

TABLE I,
Four miles fencing, various, with gates, . ; 2 ; + -LBSOMO RD
Cost of draining, average, ¢ ; F 3 5 ; 25 s0in0
Cost of clearing land of rank ence: , 30 0 0
£405 0 0
30,000 Hardwoods, various, at 7s. per 1000, . £1010 0
600,000 Larch, 2 year-seedlings, at 10s. per 1000, 800 0 0
1,800,000 Scots fir, 2 year-seedlings, at 4s. ,, . 3860 0 O
150,000 Spruce, 2 year-seedlings, at 3s.6d.,, . 26 5 0
60,000 Silver fir, 2 year-seedlings, at 6s. ,, . 18 0 0
—_-—— 714 15 0

Carry forward, 7 y £19 oO

THE AFFORESTATION OF LARGE AREAS IN THE HIGHLANDS, 327

Brought forward, .

Cost of seed for 40 acres—average
Say 40 lbs. Birch, at 1s. 6d. per Ib.,
», 40 1bs. native Scots fir, at 4s. per lb.,
», 20 1bs. Elm (Scotch), at 1s. per lb.,.

», 6 busbels Sycamore, at 2s. 6d. per bushel,

Cost of labour seeding 40 acres,

Cost of labour planting 600 acres with Hand -iron,

TABLE II.

Cost of fencing, draining, etc., as in No. I.,

30,000 enor ee various, at 17s. per 1000,

600,000 Larch, 2 year, 1 year transplanted,
at 15s. per 1000, ;
1,800,000 native Scots fir, 1 year Harisplaatidl
at 8s. per 1000, . : .
150,000 Norway spruce, 2 year, 4 years
transplanted, at 15s. per 1000,
60,000 Silver fir, 9 to 12 inches, at 2
1000, .

5s. per

Cost of seed for 40 acres, as before, .
Cost of labour seeding 40 acres, as before,
Cost of planting with garden spade,

Tasie IIT.

Cost of fencing, draining, etc., as before,

30,000 Hardwoods, various, at 17s. per 1000,

600,000 Larch, 2 year, 2 years transplanted,
at 30s. per 1000,
1,800,000 native Scots fir, 2 years pace gianicw!
at 12s, per 1000,
150,000 Norway spruce, 2 years eenaolanted,
at 20s. per 1000, .
60,000 Silver fir, at 30s. per 1000,

Cost of seed, as before, .
Cost of labour seeding,
Cost of planting with garden eae

£1119 15 0

“say (0) (0)
8s 0 0
1 BOF 0
015 O

— MPA ey 0)

: . TEE 90) AG)

150 0 0O

£1294 10_0

F £405 0 0
LEAS IO) il)
450 0 0
120; {0.00
IGIPAKO. {0)
7: “OPO

———— 1383000) 10

Pe nisy 0)

12720) 70

240 0 O

* £2052 15 a0

; £405, 0 -0
25 Oy 10
900 0 0
1080 0 0O
150) “OF 30
90 0 0

— 2245 10 0

3 5 L2).L55,.0

7 3 t 2 One

270 0 0

£2945, 6 0

It will be seen from the foregoing tables that the difference
in cost between the formation of plantations by seedlings and

328 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

transplanted plants is very great, and experience has proved that the
results are anything but correspondingly good. On the contrary,
in such places as this paper refers to, it is found that the larger
the plants of the pine tribe used, the higher is the death-rate.
This is due to the greater mutilation of the roots of the larger
plants, parching of the plants by drying winds immediately after
planting, and their liability to be shaken about and loosened by
storms during the first year or two of their existence. These are
facts so well known as to hardly require mentioning here; but, at
the same time, while they are generally true, it sometimes happens
that there may be spaces in large areas where it is necessary, from
various causes, to plant larger plants than seedlings. Only where
necessity demands it, however, should the system be practised.

It will be readily understood that the cost of stocking some
kinds of land will be more than the estimates I have given, and
some will be less, according to the cost of labour and other local
circumstances. It must also be borne in mind that where such
large numbers of plants are required, the cost of purchasing these
may be reckoned as at least 10 per cent. less than the sums
stated in the tables, which have been calculated at current prices;
and in the seedling class a much greater reduction may be given
on large orders, If orders be given two years in advance, as much
as 40 per cent. of a reduction may be allowed, and this is a
point worthy of the attention of those intending to plant on a large
scale. That being so, the cost of plants under No. I. system
would be reduced by £285, under No. II. system by £553, and
No. III. by £898—a very considerable saving on initial cost, and
in every way worthy of serious consideration.

It will be seen from the list of plants I have given that no note
has been taken of exotics, but the reason for this is very obvious.
I may say, however, that if early orders are given for these, a
reduction in the price of 50 per cent. may be secured, thus lower-
ing prices to a very reasonable figure. When it is borne in mind
that about one hundred of these exotics are sufficient for an acre,
mixed with larch, Scots fir, and silver fir, as nurses, it is not, after
all, so very expensive to raise plantations of those trees in suitable
soils and situations.

Management for first twenty years.

As to the proper manage-
ment of the plantation during the period of twenty years after
planting, much depends upon circumstances. Should the work be
carried out in a general way, as indicated in the foregoing pages,

THE AFFORESTATION OF LARGE AREAS IN THE HIGHLANDS. 329

very little will require to be done to the plantation for the first
eight or ten years of its growth. The first thing necessary is to
make good all deaths from whatever cause. This is more cheaply
and effectually done two or three years after planting, because the
blanks are then better seen. The next important point is to keep
in repair fences and watercourses, artificial and natural, and this
should continue till the plantation is at least twenty-five or thirty
years old.

At eight to ten years of age those portions of the plantation that
are on the lower ground, in good soil, and otherwise under favour-
able conditions, will require some thinning, or side pruning, as the
case may be, the latter often being the more suitable. It need
hardly be stated that the age of a plantation is no guide as to the
proper time to thin, for much depends on the distance apart at
which the plants were originally set, and the variety of plants, soils,
and situations. Thinning should be done when the branches are
beginning to interlace, and to such an extent as will allow a due
amount of light and air to penetrate to all parts of the remaining
plants. The least promising plants of every variety should be
removed, even if those left should stand irregularly, for that can be
rectified later on. When the intervening spaces are again closed
up with growth, it is time to set about another thinning, and so on,
till the final thinning takes place forty years or more afterwards.
Hardwood plants are the better of being carefully trimmed during
the first twenty years, with the pruning-knife, Prune so as to
give the plants such form as may be desired.

With regard to plants that may have been raised from seed, they
will require earlier attention to thinning than the planted trees.
This is quite natural, because under ordinary circumstances, in five
or six years there will be quite a thicket of plants, on account of
the way the seed was sown. The weakest plants should be pulled
out by the hand, except in the case of birch seedlings, which should
be cut close over, and put up into small bundles of about 20 inches
in girth. These are valuable for besoms, and are much sought
after for that purpose by the cleansing committees of large towns.
On this account birch seeding is the most profitable, because, if
properly done, it will begin to pay well about its seventh year, and
will repay all costs and interest before it is twelve years old, besides
leaving a heavy crop on the ground to be dealt with after that age.
Before it is twenty years old half the crop may be removed for
making bobbins.

330 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

It is now neeessary to give some indication of the Cost of
Management of the plantation. This is difficult to do with any
degree of accuracy. If there is only one area to be managed, and
all of the same age, the expense will be greater than if there are
several areas of different ages. Taking the area of 640 acres, and
ealculating from the average of similar plantations, the whole cost of
management and maintenance may be estimated at 12s. per acre,
or in all about £360. The thinning at about twenty years of age
should pay itself, if the plantation is situated in a good locality.
This is not the case as a general rule, but what the forester and the
owner have to bear in mind, irrespective of profit from thinnings,
is to thin in such a manner as will prevent injury from suffocation,
and allow free circulation of air and light to the soil about the
roots, so as to strengthen the latter against storms, and the
possibility of the trees being upset by them. This done in proper
time, the success of the plantation is assured.

REPORT ON PLANTATIONS ON ESTATE OF RAYNHAM, NORFOLK, 3351

XXIII. Report on the Plantations on the Estate of Raynham,
Jorfolk. By ARCHIBALD GorRRIE. !

In compliance with instructions received, I inspected the various
woods and plantations on the Marquis of Townshend’s estate at
Raynham, in the autumn of 1874, and reported as follows on their
condition and future management :—

1. Brrow Wak CLump.

This is a splendid clump of fine specimens of large, healthy, and
ornamental trees. Some forty trees of various kinds, large in size
and of great value, have been marked for felling. When this has
been done, the clump will have a much finer effect from the Hall,
near which it stands.

2. Otp Nursery Woop.

This plantation is composed of a rather large proportion of
birch, and has been treated differently to the woods near the Hall,
by removing many of the birch to make room for the more profitable
trees—such as oak, ash, etc., which are very healthy and growing
well. Marked 29 oak, 10 ash, 9 Spanish chestnut, and 3 silver fir
for felling.

3. PLANTATION.

This is in a satisfactory state, and contains many fine trees of
different kinds. The rows of beech on the outside are, however,
somewhat coarse. This plantation should be laid down to pasture.
Marked 27 fine oak, 15 beech, 2 ash, 2 Spanish chestnut, and
1 sycamore.

4, SHEREFORD PLANTATION.

This wood consists of a large quantity of valuable hardwoods—
oak, Spanish chestnut, ash, beech, sycamore, etc.—besides numerous
poles of various kinds. Marked 27 ash, 16 fine oak, 9 Spanish
chestnut, 6 sycamore, 2 beech, and a large quantity of poles.

In these four plantations are found many well-grown, lofty, and
robust trees in vigorous life, and growing fast into money. The
marked trees and poles when removed will realise a large sum of

1 Presented by Mr Archibald Gorrie, Brookmans Park, Hatfield, Herts.

332 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

money, and they can be well spared, with great benefit to the
remaining trees.

5. THe Kitceen Woop.

It is proposed to clear away as much of this wood as will square
it with the west front of the Hall, as marked out by stakes on the
ground. This will be a grand improvement, as it opens up a wide
extent of splendid scenery. To obtain this result 60 oak, 5 Spanish
chestnut, 1 sycamore, and 1 old lime tree will have to be felled.
This lot, except the sycamore, should be sold to a timber merchant
as it stands, who should be bound to grub-fell all the trees. I
mention grub-felling in preference to the usual mode, as it is of
the utmost importance that the ground should be carefully stubbed
and cleared of all roots and weeds, and laid down with the best per-
manent grass seeds; and thus, in addition to greatly improving the
view, the value of the pasturage would also be considerably enhanced.

Marked about forty fine trees in this wood outside of the line
of the vista, but could not complete it owing to the abundance
and strength of the underwood. Great care is necessary here to
preserve only the best specimen trees, such as will improve the
appearance of the lawn, and the thinning ought to extend over a
period of eight or ten years, the ground to be ultimately cleared
and laid down with permanent grass seeds and thrown into the
adjoining pasture. The landscape would be much improved by
clearing away the thorn hedge on the south side of this wood.

6. Youne KitcHen Woop.

Several fine vistas from the Hall are projected through this
division, and the trees to be felled carefully selected and marked.
When opened up, the vistas will have a fine effect. There are
some very large sycamores in this quarter, which, from injudicious
pruning years ago, are unsound and fast losing value, and
accordingly they are marked for conversion into money before they
get to the price of firewood. Several of the best, however, are
still very valuable, and will bring good prices, and their places
will soon be well filled by the fine young trees that remain.

7. PLreasureE GrounD PLANTATION.

This consists of various kinds of forest trees, which, for want of
being properly and timely thinned, are very much crowded, drawn

REPORT ON PLANTATIONS ON ESTATE OF RAYNHAM, NORFOLK. 333

up, and injured. The trees for felling have been carefully marked,
so as to leave only the best specimens, and many years of careful
management will be required to bring it into a perfect and profitable
state. A large quantity of good larch, oak, ash, and sycamore, as
also lots of poles, have been marked for felling, and all, except the
oak, should be cut at once and removed before the wet weather
sets in.

A great improvement will be effected here, by straightening and
widening the present vista towards Hardlings, as marked out. When
the timber has been removed, and the ground thoroughly cleaned,
levelled, and properly laid down with fine lawn grass seeds, and
kept closely mown, a very marked improvement will be apparent.

8. PLEASURE GROUNDS—NEXT HARDLING Woop.

Oak and beech predominate in this section, and it requires to be
carefully thinned in places ; but, owing to the impenetrable growth
of underwood, the trees could not be marked.

9, PLEASURE GrounDS—NursERY TO KITCHEN GARDEN.

This plantation is very much drawn up and injured from over-
crowding, but it has been partly thinned during the past two
years. The whole has been closely inspected, and the trees marked
that should be felled this winter to liberate the fine timber trees
remaining. The youngest part of this wood has far too many laurels
in it for either cover or ornament, and it is suggested to grub up full
half of them, leaving the remainder in clumps of various sizes and
shapes. This will give better cover for game, and be much more
ornamental.

10, PLeasureE GrounpsS—FLOwER GARDEN TO LopGE Garter.

This consists of various kinds of very fine trees, but overcrowded
and drawn up, and those to be felled could not be marked owing
to the thick growth of underwood. The fine Wellingtonia by the
side of the walk would be much improved with the admission of
more air and light.

11. Bett From Hat. To STABLES.

Consists of oak, ash, elm, etc., all of which have been carefully
inspected and marked, and a good view brought in from the gate

and lawn in front of the Hall towards the lake.
VOL, XIII. PART III, Z

334 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

12. CLuMP AT BACK OF STABLES.

This has been well thinned so as to get the specimen trees to
feather low, with a view to hide the stables from the road and
other places. The fence round the clump might be removed with
advantage.

13. STABLES AND Gas-HOoUwsE.

The stable yard is very much exposed towards the church, and
to the roads to the Hall, and as the buildings are without architec-
tural pretensions, it is desirable to screen them by planting nine
or ten trees at the spots indicated by the pegs in the ground. The
young lime trees around the moat, which appear to have been
planted to hide the old houses, so beautifully mantled with ivy
and presenting an extremely picturesque appearance, should be
transplanted to more suitable places, excepting one or two next the
gas-house and four or five next the waggon lodge, as pointed out
to the forester.

14. TimpeR Yarp AND Haystacks, CARPENTER’s SHOP.

These should be removed from their present sites, as planting
them out cannot be recommended, because it would interfere very
much with a charming view of the landscape across the lake and
the beautiful scenery beyond. The building now used for a
carpenter’s shop is old and dilapidated, and from want of room and
light it is ill adapted for men to work in. It is therefore suggested
that it should be cleared away and a new one erected as near the
sawmill, and as much out of view, as possible, taking care to secure
a convenient site, with sufficient space for storing rough timber.
If this plan is adopted, the hay can be stacked on or near the site
of the present carpenter’s shop ; and then there will be no necessity
to plant trees where the stakes are put in at the back of the stables,
especially as every tree there planted would interfere very much in
course of time with the view of much interesting scenery. By the
removal of these unsightly objects the results would be in every
way most satisfactory.

15. Park, NORTH SIDE OF LAKE.

All along the north side of the lake there is a jumble of fine
young oak, elm, beech, ete., much too thick for park trees. A

REPORT ON PLANTATIONS ON ESTATE OF RAYNHAM, NORFOLK. 335

number have therefore been marked, with a view to improve both
the landscape and the pasture. When they are removed it will give
a fine effect from the West Raynham approach, more especially if
the lake is cleaned out, as I consider that no landscape view can
be reckoned complete in which water does not form a part, and
when it does exist it ought always to be made the most of.

16. Harpuine’s PASTURE.

This is also a perfect jumble of fine young park trees growing
into one another, and require to be well opened up to show the
beautiful landscape they now shut out from the West Raynham
entrance. A number of trees have been marked, and when they
are removed, it may be found necessary to take down more, to
open up the beautiful scenery.

17. TREES NEAR THE CHURCH.

Several of the trees around the church have been marked, which,
when felled, will show a great improvement. I would suggest that
the Irish yew in the churchyard be transplanted, or cut down, as it
quite obstructs a charming view from the church door.

18. Mr Savory’s Pasture.

This division is well furnished with splendid park trees, and
forms a fine feature in the landscape viewed from the opposite side
of the lake near the Hall. The horse-chestnuts, limes, elms, and
walnuts would be difficult to match anywhere else. Marked ten
trees for felling ; and great care will be necessary in marking any
more, for fear of showing the village from the Hall.

19. BELT BY SIDE oF LAKE,

This should be carefully thinned, and put into Mr Savory’s
pasture as far as the osier bed. Great care must be taken to leave
only the best of the outside trees.

20. Rounp BusH PLANTATION.

Consists of oak, ash, beech, elm, etc., very much drawn up. It
should be thinned gradually, with great care, every two or three
years, till only the best trees are left.

336 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

21. Brick-KILN PLANTATION.

This is similar to the last, and the same remarks apply. After
being properly thinned, both should be put into the adjoining
pastures.

22. Mr ButcHer’s Meapow, NEAR Hitt HovueGHron.

Marked twenty-seven good trees in this meadow. In the
corner of the meadow, next the village, are some splendid trees, in
a very healthy state.

23. GALONEL FIFTEEN-ACRE PLANTATION.

The middle of this wood consists of very fine old oak, ash, beech,
and sycamore ; and it is recommended that several of the beech be
felled, as they are interfering with the growth of the more profit-
able timber. The young part of the wood is being much injured
for want of thinning, and requires immediate attention to that
operation.

24. Woop sy LopGE Next FAKENHAM Roap.

Marked thirty trees of various kinds in this wood, leaving only
the best park trees, with the view of improving the appearance of
the place when the marked trees are removed. Other places
require more immediate attention to thinning than this, but it
should not be too long postponed, else evil will result.

25. Entrance LopGe to HALt—rFrom FAKENHAM ROAD.

The beit on the right side going to the Hall has had trees
marked at several points, to break up the monotony of the long
even line of plantation. On the left side several trees have been
marked. When these are all removed, some beautiful glimpses of
scenery will be opened to view from the drive. The unsightly and
inconvenient gate which crosses this approach, and the fence
dividing the park, are very undesirable, and should be removed.
The whole might then be pastured with sheep, if cattle are an
objection near to the mansion. The appearance of the park would
be very much improved thereby, and much convenience gained.

REPORT ON PLANTATIONS ON ESTATE OF RAYNHAM, NORFOLK. 337

26. Otp CiLump or TREES IN THE PARK.

Marked thirteen trees in this clump, which has a ripe and rather
stunted-in-growth appearance, and probably several more trees
might be taken down.

27. Rounp CLumpe 1n Mr Case’s PASTURE.

In this meadow, marked six ash and five oak trees for felling.

98. THE V PLANTATION.

This plantation is getting too much drawn up, and ought to be
thinned at once, although the small oaks will not pay for felling.
The same remarks apply to the young clump next to it, only, as
many of the Scots fir as will make gocd trees should be left, as the
extensive park is deficient of evergreen trees.

29. YounaG PLANTATION FROM SHEREFORD Woop TO
FAKENHAM Roap.

It is to be regretted that in this extensive plantation nearly all
the young trees are too much drawn up, and it is suggested that
all the parts which have been thinned during the past two or three
years should be gone over again immediately, leaving the Scots fir
where possible, and carefully thinning out the others, The
sacrifice of a little bark on the underwood is really unimportant,
conipared to the great benefit that will accrue to the growing crop
of timber, by timely and repeated thinning, and especially when
the young trees have been previously neglected.

A row of full-grown beech runs along the south side of this
plantation, beginning at the Shereford end, which might be sold,
as they are injuring the young trees, and they are not required for
the landscape, as the young plantation would immediately take
their place. There are also three rows of ash, on the park side of
the plantation, opposite the beech, of which the inside row would
be better removed, because if it remains it will ultimately injure
the live fence. A good wide drive, or ride, from one end of this
plantation to the other would be highly beneficial. It should be
run as near the middle of the wood as possible, so as to be con-
venient for getting out the timber, as well as for shooting and
other purposes.

338 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

30. CLump NEXT Mr Bate’s PASTURE.

This clump, by the side of Mr Bate’s pasture, next the Fakenham
Road, is composed of fine young trees, which are, however, far too
much drawn up. It should be thinned properly, and then put
into Mr Bate’s pasture, as, from its proximity to the road, it
cannot be of any use for cover.

31. Mitt Hitt Cover—rrom Pusiic Roap To Rose GREEN.

This large young wood is chiefly composed of oak, very much
crowded and drawn up. It should be treated in the same manner
as recommended for No, 29—the young plantation from Shereferd
Wood to the Fakenham Road. <A good drive is also very much
wanted in this plantation.

32. Mansy’s Car.

This wood consists of oak, ash, elm, beech, alder, larch, spruce,
Scots fir, and a considerable number of very fine, sound, healthy
poplars, which are growing fast. With the exception of the
poplars, the trees have been badly neglected, and in consequence
are much drawn up in many places. No time should be lost in
commencing to thin; and many of the poles, being clean and
straight, would sell well. The wood might be divided, for con-
venience in working, into four or five falls, taking one each year,
and beginning where the poles are most crowded.

33. Messrs Norton AND OVERMAN’s MEADOWS.

Examined the large poplars in these meadows, and found many
of them beginning to decay and obviously losing value, I marked
forty-three trees, some of them of a very large size. Owing to the
wet, unsound nature of the ground, which will never be drier than
at present, it would be better to get the trees removed at once,
before wet, wintry weather comes, As the forester has so much
work on his hands at present, and likely to have more, it would
be best to sell the poplars as they stand to a timber merchant, to
take them down and remove them at his own expense,

34. Mr Bearr’s PAstTure.

Marked a very large ash and a large walnut, both of which are
beginning to decay; also twenty-five other trees, which, when

REPORT ON PLANTATIONS ON ESTATE OF RAYNHAM, NORFOLK. 339

taken down, will not only improve the landscape, but be also very
beneficial to the pasturage.

35. NorMAn’s BorrouGuH.

Part of this wood, behind the keeper’s house, was thinned about
four years ago. ‘The fir division requires immediate attention, the
trees in which are of great length, and useful for building and
other purposes, and a large number might be taken out with much
benefit to the remaining crop. There are a great number of fine
young oaks, and of young firs of several kinds, which require more
light and air for their development. More attention should also
be given to the formation of better drives, as good roads through
all woods add considerably to their value. The soil being of a
peaty nature by the roadside, near the Horse Shoe Inn, it is very
suitable for growing rhododendrons, which would make excellent
cover and be very ornamental.

36. Rasy Woop.

This wood is partly old and partly young, and chiefly composed
of oak. A considerable quantity of fine timber might be taken
out of the older part, with much benefit to the remainder. The
young oaks are much drawn from crowding, and require very
careful attention. The drive in this wood should be altered to a
more convenient position,

37. AsH CAR.

Consists principally of ash, oak, alder, and fir. There is also a
number of sound poplars of a large size. This division, like nearly
all the others on the estate, requires immediate thinning. Many
of the poles are very good, and will pay well for cutting. ~-

38. RupHAM GrRaNncE—MrR Savory’s Farm.

Marked all the trees necessary to be felled around the premises,
and in the meadows. It is a great pity that these trees have
been so badly neglected. In marking them, special attention was
paid to shelter, and to the landseape effect, which will come out
well when the trees are cleared away. There will be enough of
timber here for an auction sale.

340 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

39. CoxrorD PLANTATION.

Considering the poverty of the soil, this is a very satisfactory
wood, and consists of fine old Scots fir, oak, beech, ete., and in a
few places a little thinning would be beneficial. The Scots fir is in
large fine lengths of first-rate quality, and very valuable for building
and many other purposes. As trees thrive so well on this poor
soil, it would be a great improvement, and a highly remunerative
investment, to plant extensively in this district. As there is so
much oak and other hardwood plantations on the estate already,
and no young fir woods of any extent, it would be advisable to
plant here only the fir tribe, introducing among them a fair
sprinkling of the most suitable of the newer conifers.

Judging from this fine old plantation, it is quite clear that the
profits of planting such land would be great. Pleasure alone may
satiate ; but when pleasure is combined with profit, their union
invariably affords a lasting source of gratification to the happy
possessor,

THE ISLAND OF ARRAN AS A FIELD FOR PLANTING. 341

XXIV. The Island of Arran as a Field for Planting. By
W. A. Mackenzie, Strabane, Brodick, Isle of Arran.

In Firth of Clyde, on the west coast of Scotland, lies the
Island of Arran. It is about fourteen miles west from the
Ayrshire coast, and about six miles east from Kintyre, the
southern part of Argyllshire. Its form is that of an irregular
ellipse, having its greatest length of about twenty miles from
north to south, with an average breadth of a little over ten miles.
A country in itself as regards its physical conditions, it may be
said to contain on a small scale every characteristic of the
adjoining mainland, from the bleak and sterile climate of the
Grampian range of mountains to the soft and balmy breezes of
the south of England—the high, heather-clad hills of the Scottish
Highlands, to the gently undulating plains of the south. The
great variety of its climate makes Arran an interesting field for
botanists, for here are to be found specimens of nearly all the flora
of the British Islands; and those who are lovers of botanical
research will certainly be well rewarded by a visit to this
picturesque and attractive retreat. To the arboriculturist, too,
who mourns the amount of waste land that might profitably be
clothed with timber, Arran would not be altogether devoid of
interest. In it are many acres of wild, uncultivated land that at
present yield no return, further, perhaps, than some grouse and a
few deer, which could be planted with trees that in the course of
time would well repay the cost, sufficient proof of which is seen in
the several thriving patches of wood that already adorn some of
its mountain slopes.

Before entering into the arboriculture of the island, or its
admirable adaptability as a field for planting, it will be necessary
to consider for a little its geological formation, together with its
geographical position and physical character, The physical
character is practically due to the geological structure, for it is its
geological structure that makes the physical features of the island
of so marked a character, and gives rise to its extreme diversities
of soil and climate. In the north are high and precipitous
mountains, embosomed among which are wild and romantic glens,
with beautiful streams rushing impetuously towards the sea.
Towards the south the hills are much less lofty, and spread out
below into broad undulating plains, which stretch on all sides
seaward, and are divided into fields and meadows of considerable

042 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

fertility. The variety of the geological formation produces a
corresponding diversity in the soil, and the physiological character
a marked influence on the climate. Apart from these, however,
its geographical position bears very directly on its climate, for,
situated as it is almost on the verge of the Atlantic, the island
enjoys a much greater uniformity of temperature, and a more
copious rainfall, than almost any other place in Scotland; and as
these are very important factors in the rearing of forests and the
production of timber, it follows that if the soil is suitable arbori-
culture could be very successfully practised.

Including, as it does, the granite, slate, old and new red sand-
stone, whinstone, lime, hornblend, porphyry, quartz, basalt,
claystone, pitchstone, and various sections of the Coal formation,
including shale, Arran may be said to be quite a geological
museum; but it is not needful to go minutely into the
geological details of the island. For my purpose it will be
sufficient to divide the island into two parts—a northern and a
southern, of nearly equal area. The northern portion is mainly
composed of granite, slate, and old red sandstone; while the
southern consists principally of the Carboniferous series, with
porphyry, greenstone, basalt, etc., and the disintegration of these
different rocks has given to the soil of Arran its present character.
The lapse of time has in many places covered the rock with
rich alluvial soil, in some parts attaining the depth of many feet,
and generally of sufficient depth to grow large sized forest trees.

From what is indicated above, it will be quite understood that
the variety of soil to be found in the island is very great. About
Brodick it is of a loamy nature—argillaceous in places—while
farther south it becomes of a lighter and more sandy character,
but with patches of alluvial loam interspersed throughout. The
subsoil is generally of a gravelly marl. In the southern parts of
the island the soil is of a clayey consistency, and the subsoil is
also clay mixed with gravel and sand, and very retentive of water.
The western side of the island is gravelly and moorish, but with
frequent patches of excellent alluvial soil. In the northern parts
the soil is generally of a light sandy nature.

Perhaps it might be argued that the physical features of Arran
are not such as to encourage any desire to plant timber, for its
exposure to the Atlantic gales, and the lie of its principal mountain
ranges, are not very favourable for forest culture. This difficulty,
however, is not so real as apparent, and could easily be overcome

THE ISLAND OF ARRAN AS A FIELD FOR PLANTING. 343

by careful and judicious selection, and planting of “ shelter-belts”
of those trees best suited for exposed maritime situations, and
once established, forests of finer varieties would rise up in the
shelter of those belts. Notwithstanding that some of the
mountain ranges run in a south-west and north-east direction,
many quiet and sheltered glens, lying at right angles to the
prevailing winds, might well be clad with timber; and those less
favourably situated could also be adapted to the same useful
purpose of timber production by the sheltering method above
suggested.

Including the islets of Holy Isle and Pladda, Arran has an area
of 103,950 acres. Of this, at present about 23,000 acres are under
arable and pasture lands, 2300 acres under roads, water, etc., and
about 1360 acres under wood, thus leaving over 77,000 acres
lying waste, and crying out to be dealt with in some profitable
manner. That the whole of this could be profitably planted is of
course an impossibility, but many acres which at present yield no
appreciable return could be utilised for sylviculture, and made a
profitable field for the capitalist who might feel inclined to lay out
his money in such an investment. In the northern parts of the
island there is a large area that could not possibly be made
to grow timber—a great part of the land lying upwards of 1000
feet above sea-level, and having no depth of soil. In many
places, in fact, there is nothing but bare rocks and beds of shingle.
Up to a certain altitude these places could be sown with the
seeds of trees suitable for the climate. The southern part, how-
ever, is not quite so hostile to vegetation, for the hills have a less
altitude, in few cases reaching over 1200 feet, and in several
instances clothed with grass to their very summits. Neither is
the bare rock so extensive, and in many parts natural wood has
already taken possession of the ground, But although that is
the case, the southern portion of the island is not nearly so
suitable for timber growing as the northern, for, owing to the
manner in which the ground slopes on all sides to the sea, the
exposure is so great as to make it next to impossible to grow any
kind of timber except that of the trees best suited for maritime
situations. It would be unreasonable, then, to suppose that the
whole of the 77,000 acres, or anything like that area, could be
planted, but suppose that one-fourth (a very moderate estimate)
could be utilised for forest culture, what a material increase there
would be in the comparative value of Arran. Of the 77,000

344 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

acres of waste, we may then say that one-fourth is at too high
an altitude for planting, while one-half is of such a nature,
either from exposure, or variety, or depth of soil, as would
render it also unsuitable. The remaining fourth could, I have
no hesitation in affirming, be converted from a wild waste into
flourishing forests, thereby adding beauty to the landscape, and
giving the shelter so necessary to many parts of the island.

To understand properly what the future of forestry in Arran
might be, or what Arran is as a field for sylviculture, it will be
necessary to consider its present state, and to look into the
condition and prospects of the woods now existing on the
island. Besides the 1360 acres which have been planted, and
which will be considered in detail, several tracts of natural wood
are to be found, but these are not of suflicient consequence to
demand much attention. They consist principally of birch,
with here and there some hazel, elm, oak, mountain ash, etc., in
few places reaching sufficient size to come under the category of
timber trees ; but these natural productions prove the suitability
of the soil and climate for afforestation. Of these the birch
(Letula alba) is the commonest tree. Although there is a con-
siderable quantity of natural birch, it is not now of much
commercial value in Arran.

In many places near the coast natural coppice grows
luxuriantly, and in some of the more inland parts, too, it is
found in a thriving condition. In wet parts, and on the
banks of the small rivers, the alder grows abundantly, but
attains no great size.

The ash, which grows well on the same soil, is found to be
a better paying tree, but through inattention it does not nearly
reach its full size, although in some cases very good timber is got.
For instance, one ash tree measured, and by no means the largest
met with, contained 20 cubic feet of good sound timber, Oak
does not thrive very well, taking the island as a whole, but near
Brodick some large trunks are to be found, for where sheltered
it grows very well, and at the present time is being planted in
several favourable situations. The natural oak, however, seldom
attains to such dimensions as to be of any importance, and is not
sufliciently plentiful to be of much value as coppice.

Among the other trees that grow naturally may be mentioned
the elm, beech, sycamore, mountain ash, and poplar, but the
natural specimens of these trees are comparatively diminutive, and

THE ISLAND OF ARRAN AS A FIELD FOR PLANTING. 345

hardly worthy of attention. Those trees of the same kinds which
have been planted, however, go to prove that their cultivation
would be a success if judiciously practised.

It might be interesting to mention here a few of the rarer
exotic trees and shrubs that are to be found growing and flourish-
ing on the island. Of these, perhaps the most noteworthy is the
“Blue Gum” of Tasmania, Zucalyptus globulus, several of which
are growing in favoured situations. At Lamlash are two of these
trees, one the largest on the island, growing in the grounds of
Craigard House. They are said to have been planted some
twenty years ago, and the larger is now about 30 feet in height.
This tree was unfortunately blown down during the heavy gale
last October, but by the instructions of Captain Brown it has been
raised very carefully, and may be little the worse for the mis-
fortune. Smaller specimens of the Hucalyptus are growing at
Corrie and Strabane, the Corrie ones coming next in size to those
at Lamlash. At Corrie there are also two of the Australian tree
fern, Dicksonia antiartica, with several Australian palms, and
acacias, all in a thriving condition. The fuchsia grows very
abundantly in the grounds around Brodick Castle, and is to be
met with in quantity in other parts of Arran. At Strabane
there is a small apple tree upon which mistletoe is flourishing.

From these facts, and looking to the delicate constitution of some
of the plants mentioned, it is not difficult to conclude that the
climate of Arran is a very mild one, and in every way favourable
to the growth of trees and shrubs. When these delicate plants,
natives of a warmer and more genial climate than Britain can
boast of, grow with such luxuriance in the open air, surely the
hardier timber trees, natives of this and even more ungenial
climates, could be made to grow with great profit to the owner.
In further proof of this, let us now consider in detail the present
plantations in Arran.

I. The Merkland Wood, situated immediately to the back
of Brodick Castle, is by far the largest plantation in Arran, and
covers nearly 500 acres. It was formed seventy-five years ago,
‘and all the plants were pitted. The soil is of a calcareo-argillaceous
nature. This wood contains larch, silver fir, spruce, oak, ash,
beech, and a few other kinds, but the principal trees are larch and
silver fir. The silver fir grows with remarkable vigour, and has
attained very large proportions, in some cases measuring upwards
of 100 feet in height, and 8 feet in girth at 5 feet from the ground.

346 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

A number of these large trees were blown down by recent storms,
and some of them contained over 100 cubic feet of timber. Five
trunks were measured, and they were found to contain 136, 118,
107, 100, and 94 cubic feet. Several of the standing specimens
measure over 150 cubic feet, and one of the largest, but of earlier
planting, contains 400 cubic feet. The larch also thrives remark-
ably well, and yields a fair quantity of saleable timber. Growing
upwards of 75 feet high, and measuring from 3 to 6 feet in girth
at 5 feet up, the trees contain on an average from 25 to 30 cubic
feet of timber. Besides the silver fir and larch, the Scots fir
grows well, but not to so great size. Spruce is a better grower,
and attains larger proportions, the cubic contents of many of the
trees being about 40 feet.

Deciduous trees do not grow nearly so well as the conifers,
although beech, oak, and sycamore constitute a fair proportion of
the wood.

II. The Glenrosa and Glensherrig Wood, consisting mainly of
larch and Scots fir, was planted about fifty-four years ago, and
has grown well. At the present time it has reached its maximum
value, for the larch is ripe and ought to be felled, as some of the
trees are beginning to decay. A large number of the larch trees
contain over 20 cubic feet, while some contain as much as 40 to
50 cubic feet. The Scots fir are similar to those in Merkland
Wood. This wood covers the south-eastern and north-eastern
slopes of the Glenrosa and Glensherrig Hill, and. reaches to about
800 feet above the level of the sea, at which height the trees are
growing splendidly. The soil is of a clayey nature, with a rocky
subsoil at no great depth.

III. Immediately to the west of Merkland Wood, and growing
on a similar soil resting on rock, is the Stronach Wood, consisting
of two divisions of various ages. Both divisions are growing well,
and contain quite a variety of trees—larch, silver fir, and Scots fir
being the principal crop. The younger portion is thirty-four years
of age, and contains some very promising larch ; the older portion
is ready for felling, most of the trees being ripe.

IV. In the neighbourhood of Brodick there is another section
called Strathwhillan and Corrygills Wood. Larch and Scots fir
here again constitute the bulk of the crop. It was planted thirty-
three years ago, and is growing remarkably well.

V. Glen Ashdale Wood is the only other wood in Arran of any
size. It was planted thirty-five years ago, and is growing very

THE ISLAND OF ARRAN AS A FIELD FOR PLANTING. 347

well. Larch is the principal tree, and the wood is in a very
healthy condition, there being many of the trees over 50 feet in
height. Ash grows well in the lower parts of this wood.

Besides the foregoing, there are numerous small patches of wood
at Lagg, Sannox, Machrie, Whitefarlane, and other parts of the
island, and an examination of these, together with those I have
mentioned, would fully convince the most sceptical of the adapt-
ability of the island for the growth of timber trees.

To plant to the greatest advantage, a careful choice and
arrangement of trees would have to be made, for those best suited
for one part of the island might not suit another part with a
different exposure. The most difficult part of the island to deal
with would be the southern portion, for, as I have already said,
this section is more exposed to the fierce Atlantic storms than is
the northern part. Round the shores of the south there are
arable and pasture farms, but at a short distance inland the land
is lying waste, or very nearly so, and could be easily made to
grow timber. Shelter-belts could be raised round the outside and
in exposed places, and with the protection of these many valuable
kinds of trees could be raised. These shelter-belts should consist
of the following trees and shrubs, in the order given :—1st, outside,
a belt of sea buckthorn, about 3 yards deep; 2nd, a belt of elder,
about 3 yards. Inside of these there should be a belt of sycamore
with beech still farther inland. These trees would grow in any
exposure in this arrangement, and within these the pines and
future timber trees might safely be planted. This method of
raising shelter would require to be practised all over the island,
but more particularly in the south. Many of the more sheltered
glens, however, could be planted without any preliminary treat-
ment of this kind, and would grow excellent timber. Glenrosa,
for instance, has only been partly planted, and the trees have
grown exceedingly well. There is also a large part of Glen-
sherrig still uncovered with wood, which might well be planted
without any shelter, and many other places could easily be
seeded.

Judging by the trees now growing in the island, the best kinds
to plant are larch, silver fir, Scots pine, spruce, and such decidu-
ous trees as ash, beech, sycamore, etc. A mixture of these would
generally be the best,—but in some parts the larch thrives so well
that it seeds and grows spontaneously, and as it is one of the
trees best adapted for Arran, and also one of the most profitable

348 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

of timber producing trees, it should form a large proportion of
any mixed plantation.

An average of 3500 plants is sufficient for an acre, and the
following would form a very good mixture :—

Scots fir, . " ; : ‘ «em LOD
Larch, ; : . : ; : 750
Pinaster, . : . : : : 500
Spruce, : “ . . : : 500
Silver fir, . : ; : , ‘ 250
Beech, : ; ; : ‘ : 200
Laricio, . 2 F é E : 200
Douglas fir, : : . : - 100

3500

These plants should be what is known as two-year, one year
transplanted, and would not cost more than £3, 5s. per acre.

That this mixture would be suitable for the whole island is
certainly impracticable, but for a large part it would be quite
appropriate, grouping the kinds as required.

While this table is given as a guide, it should by no means be
practised over the whole breadth of the island, where planting
can be executed with profit. Generally speaking, where the
herbage permits, nothing larger should be planted than two-year
seedlings, silver fir excepted. In the exposed situations having
light sandy soils, plant Pinus Pinaster and P. Laricio ; where the
soil is light and thin, among rock debris, in crevices, and such
places, sow such seeds as are suitable for the spot, giving of pine
seeds 2} lbs. to the acre, mixed with the seeds of the broom to
make them spread properly. Seeding is the most natural, and
under certain circumstances the least expensive method of stocking
the ground, with the best results. Next to seeding comes seedling
plants, either one or two years old, the good results from which
are assured by the woods that have been cut down during the
early part of the present century. The least profitable of all
methods is the transplanting of large plants; the future growth
and ultimate success of the trees so planted being governed by the
size and age at which they were transplanted. The less frequently
forest trees are handled, the less liable are they in after years to
fall victims to diseases of the roots, and other ills now so
prevalent.

Taking the island as a whole, a large part of it could be

THE ISLAND OF ARRAN AS A FIELD FOR PLANTING. 349

planted without any preliminary preparations except the shelter-
belts, and even in some instances they could be dispensed with.
Some parts however, otherwise suitable, might be found to be
too wet, and a certain amount of draining would be necessary:
about one quarter of the whole area available for planting would
require this kind of treatment. In addition to draining, some
fencing would be required, and the fences should either be dry
stone dykes or wire, the former being the more serviceable, as
they would form good shelter for the young plantations. The
fences surrounding the existing woods are chiefly dry stone dykes,
with, in a few instances, a wire running along the top. The
expense of the fencing, however, would not be very heavy, and
on the average the total cost of stocking an acre, including plants,
labour, etc., would not greatly exceed £5. This outlay would be
well repaid in a few years, not only by the sale of the produce,
but also by the shelter given to stock and crops, which would
materially improve both, greatly to the advantage of the agricul-
tural community, and to the amenity of the island,

VOL. XIII. PART III. PAN

350 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY,

XXV. Remarks on the Planting of the Sandhills on the Sea-Coast
at Holkham, Norfolk. By ARcHIBALD GorRIE,!

Holkham Sandhills, the property of the Right Honourable the
Earl of Leicester, K.G., were rabbit warrens until the year 1850.
They extend about 3} miles along the Norfolk coast, from 5 to 25
chains wide, bounded by the German Ocean on the north, and on
the south by rich pasture land reclaimed from the sea, dating as
far back as 1660, when the first enclosure was made. These hills
are held together by a plant called Psamma arenarius, which has
a strong creeping perennial root, with many tubers at the joints
about the size of a pea. It is planted and encouraged on the
Norfolk coast to aid in fixing the sand against the action of the
wind and tides, which it does in a remarkable manner. The
‘‘marrum,” as it is locally called, or Bent-grass, is considered of
so much importance that there are severe laws to prohibit its being
destroyed. Mats are made of it, and it is also used as thatch.

Elymus arenarius, the Sea Lyme-grass, a strong, rough, glaucous
plant, common on sandy shores, is also frequent here, and answers
the same purpose in fixing the sand as the “marrum.” In
analysing the soluble matter afforded by this grass, Sir H. Davy
found it to contain more than one-third of its weight in sugar. It
is not, however, eaten by any of our domestic animals.

About 1850 I sowed several kinds of pine seeds on the sand-
hills, putting some of the seeds in small pellets of clay and inserting
them in the sand, and in various other ways. I did this for two
or three years in succession, but it ended in failure. I then
planted a few plants of well-established Pinus austriaca, P.
Laricio, and Scots fir, and had them thoroughly protected from
rabbits, never thinking they would do much good in the pure
sand, but I was agreeably surprised at the end of the first season.
The plants all lived and made one or two inches of young wood,
and seemed healthy; the second year they did better, when I drew
the Earl of Leicester’s attention to the matter, and he was so
satisfied with the growth of the trees that were planted that he at
once set about destroying the rabbits, and planted a small portion
of the hills every year till the whole is now completed.

The east end of the hills, nearly two miles in length, which was

1 Presented by Mr Archibald Gorrie, Brookmans Park, Hatfield, Herts,

PLANTING OF SANDHILLS ON SEA-COAST AT HOLKHAM, 351

only partly planted previous to 1875, is a very thrifty young
plantation, not only being a shelter for the adjoining pasture,
but forming a grand and peculiar feature in the landscape,
and the trees doing much better than the most sanguine could
expect.

Mr Munro, the Earl of Leicester’s intelligent forester, writes to
me about this division of the hills, and says: “When he came
to Holkham in 1877, the trees in many cases were very good, but
the tops of the Pinws Laricio were very much cut with the northerly
winds and blowing sands. He at once commenced planting the
tops of the hills, principally with P. austriaca and a sprinking of
P. maritima. When these got hold and began to get up, the
Laricio, which were cut by wind, began to improve, and by 1882
a very decided improvement was visible. ‘Since then, seeing the
progress the plantations made, he went on extending them, until
the area planted is now double what it was in 1882.”

The proportions in which the plants are used are—

Pinus Laricio, 50 per cent., planted 8 yards apart.

Ma is Or K .
5 austriaca, 25 ss me 5 to 7 yards apart.
” sylvestris, 20 ” ” ” ”

» maritima, 5 ee 2 nfs ‘

Let it be distinctly understood that the plantations are ornamental,
and are not planted for profit, hence the distance between the trees,
giving plenty room for developing their laterals. The austriaca and
maritima, being on the higher and more exposed situations, and
fully exposed to every storm from the German Ocean, are planted 5 to
7 yards apart, as they cannot possibly make the same growth as the
Laricio, which are more sheltered. The Laricio are now in many
cases 30 to 35 feet high, their lateral branches covering an area equal
to a circle of 8 yards in diameter, and are full of health. The
Scots fir and austriaca are making a proportionate growth. When
at Holkham last spring, Mr Munro had just finished planting a large
area of the West Sandhills, and, notwithstanding the previous cold .
and unpropitious winter and spring, I only saw a single dead plant,
which reflects great credit on Mr Munro’s management.

Altogether this is a most interesting item in forestry, but I am
not aware of any notice of this or similar undertakings having been
mentioned in any British work on forestry. Professor Wagner,
however, writing to the Prussian Minister of Agriculture, and

352 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

recommending to him the cultivation of Lathyrus sylvestris, a
strong perennial rooted species of the Everlasting Pea tribe, for
the immense area of barren sandhills along the coast of Northern
Germany, points out that it would form a far superior means
for bringing these vast wastes under profitable and permanent
cultivation than the planting of pine and fir trees. Little faith
was, however, put in that statement, until its correctness had been
visibly proved on a large scale by Imperial Privy Councillor of
Commerce, Otto Kuchnemann, of Stettin, Pommerania, Germany,
who had for many years, and at heavy expense, endeavoured to grow
on his sandhills pine and fir trees, but had failed to succeed, the
young trees being partly smothered or uprooted by the ever-shifting
sand, and those surviving were vegetating so weakly that the
attempt was tantamount to failure. Now a flock of sheep is kept
on the Lathyrus fodder grown on the identical sandhills where six
years ago not a blade of grass could be seen.

OUR TIMBER SUPPLIES FROM ABROAD, 353

XXVI. Our Timber Supplies from Abroad. By A. T. WILLtIAMson,
Kew Terrace, Edinburgh.

This subject is of the greatest interest and importance, not only
to those immediately associated with the production and consump-
tion of timber, but to every member of the community. There is
very great difficulty in arriving at the exact value of the wood
imported into this country, but, on a fairly accurate calculation,
it may be set down at £20,000,000 annually. The returns
periodically issued by the Board of Trade afford an idea of the
number of loads, and the figures given in this paper show the vast
and far-reaching influence which timber has upon our national
industries. There is no doubt that trade in timber is largely
influenced by the condition of other trades; but, at the same time,
it has to be borne in mind that our timber supplies have a very
important influence on other trades. It is often supposed that
for many purposes wood cannot be superseded by any other
material, but this is entirely erroneous. It is in a large degree
dependent upon the facilities by which timber can be supplied
whether or not the same proportion shall be consumed. In many
branches of industry timber finds a keen competitor in iron, in
some instances in brick, and occasionally in stone. In these cases
the ultimate consideration with the consumer is the question of
cost. That the use of timber has enormously increased is clearly
seen by the figures that follow; and this expansion is largely due
to the ingenuity of those associated with timber production, in
introducing such inventions and facilities as enables it to success-
fully compete in price with other materials. The credit of
producing this result is to be shared alike by the forester, the
timber merchant, and the timber manufacturer. The timber
merchant, it may be said, is merely the distributor, and has little
influence in guiding either the production or consumption. This
may be true as regards the merchant in other commodities, but, as
will be seen in the following remarks, the merchant in timber has
had a very great influence in the development of the trade.

In the year 1890 the total imports from foreign countries and
the colonies amounted to 7,056,688 loads. This was made up of
2,278,374 loads of hewn or rough log timber, and 4,778,314 loads
of sawn and manufactured wood. These figures show the large
proportion that is brought in a prepared and partially prepared

354 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.

condition, being fully double the quantity imported in its raw
state. This is a condition to be regretted on many grounds. The
amount of money represented in the manufacturing cannot be less
than £3,000,000, a sum which one would think might easily be
conserved to our own workmen. The cost of freight for waste
and superfluous wood is saved when it is in a manufactured state,
but the superiority of our workmen, and the greater excellence of
their workmanship, should and does more than compensate for this
item. This has been proved by years of practical experience in
the large quantities of manufactured flooring and lining that is
sent to the Australian markets, not from Sweden, but from Scot-
land, the timber being first imported from Sweden into Scotland,
prepared here, and then exported again to Australia.

It may be interesting to look at the enormous development
of the import of manufactured timber in the past thirty years.
Although statistics of any value are difficult to procure, we have
been able to get a fairly approximate table for London, which
represents something like one-fifth of the whole country, and which
may therefore give a fair idea of the whole. The increase in the
total imports has been practically steady and continuous, but,
looking at the raw timber by itself, it has remained stationary, or
has had a backward tendency. For 1860, the number of loads
of hewn timber was 233,000; for 1890, the number of loads of
similar timber was 219,700. The quantity of sawn or manufactured
timber bears a very marked contrast with this. In 1860, manu-
factured timber was imported to the extent of 7,125,000 pieces,
while in 1890 they had grown to no less than 33,198,000 pieces.
This advance has been a gradual one throughout the thirty
years, each year as nearly as possible adding 10 per cent. to its
predecessor.

We have given the total imports for 1890, viz., 7,056,688 loads.
Deducting from this 507,058 loads of furniture woods from various
countries, 6,549,630 loads remain of the more common supplies.
These imports, chiefly drawn from Scandinavia, Russia, Germany,
and British North America, are made up as follows :—

Scandinavia, ; i ; 2,648,666 loads,
[Rg OA eae : ; ; aa Sy fe Ge ow
Germany, ; ; ; 287,482 ,,
British North America, . ; 1,866,671 ,,

All other countries, 4 : 733,637 ,,

OUR TIMBER SUPPLIES FROM ABROAD. 355

It is thus seen that Norway and Sweden furnish us with about
40 per cent. of our timber supplies, and the 2,643,666 loads sent
to us are made up of 673,305 loads of rough and 1,970,361 loads
of manufactured timber.

The question may naturally be put—Why is Scandinavian timber
so much favoured by us? It must be better or cheaper, but that
is only true toa limited extent. The great development of Swedish
imports is a matter of only recent years. It is impossible to make
an accurate comparison of the qualities of imported timber, treating
it nationally, because the shipments of some ports are superior to
the shipments of other ports in the same country; but, on the
whole, the balance of quality in respect of both the Scots fir and
the spruce, which form 90 per cent. of the imports, is considerably
in favour of Russia, The freight from Russian ports is also
generally from 10 per cent. to 15 per cent. lower than from the
upper ports of Sweden, whence the larger bulk is shipped. The
Swedes, however, have displayed characteristic enterprise in adapting
their conditions to meet the situation. They have greatly improved
their machinery, more carefully selected their timber, and lowered
their prices so as to secure British orders, and have thus equalised
matters with their Russian competitors. Not content, however,
with having placed themselves on an equal footing with Russia,
they have turned the scale in their favour in the eyes of the British
buyer by granting six months’ credit on all transactions, the Russians
being unable or unwilling to give more than three months. It is
in this way that the merchant has had so much influence on the
development of the trade, to which we made allusion in the early
part of this paper. These specially favourable terms induced an
accumulation of stock in our merchants’ hands, and allowed them
to place before the consumer, in the most favourable light, the
merits of Swedish supplies, and generally influenced their use.

The question arising here is, of course,—Can Sweden maintain
the annual output of such enormous quantities of timber? The
answer is generally admitted to be, on the whole, in the affirmative.
Great Britain and Ireland receive one-half of the total quantity of
wood shipped ; and, when the vast area is considered, it must be
admitted that even the figures given are only capable of clearing
out the woods of a comparatively limited area; and Scots fir and
spruce being fast-growing trees, the re-afforestation is proceeding as
quickly as the deforestation.

356 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOGIETY.

The Russian supplies come second in their amount. These are
represented by shipments chiefly from Riga, Cronstadt, and Arch-
angel. The Riga shipments are principally composed of spruce
deals and battens, while the Cronstadt and Archangel are largely
composed of Scots fir, or redwood. Swedish timber has never been
able to compete with Russian in respect of quality, and for all
high-class joiner work architects demand that Archangel or St
Petersburg redwood be used. The extent of the Russian forests
is not known; and with regard to the prospects of their supplies
being maintained, there is at present no question, nor will be for
generations to come, in the ordinary course of events. A notable
change has taken place during the past few years in connection with
Russian oak, which forms a rather important item in the exports.
Formerly Riga, on the Baltic, was the chief port of shipment,
the oak being brought from the forests some hundreds of miles
to the southward; but now the largest proportion of the oak
grown within the same regions as formerly is conveyed south-
wards, and is shipped at Fiume, in Austria. The oak shipped
at that port has acquired a high reputation for cabinet and
furniture work,

The German imports are comparatively small, and are largely
made up of pit-wood and rough timber. Germany can scarcely be
considered a great timber exporting country, being largely indebted
to Sweden for her own supplies. France sends us, particularly
to the British Channel, immense quantities of pit-wood, but her
home supplies of heavy timber are quite inadequate to meet her
wants. France imports, from Sweden and other countries, several
millions of loads to meet home wants.

The supplies of timber from British North America, chiefly
from Canada, amounting to 1,366,571 loads, although only half
of the Swedish, represents quite as much money value. The chief
item is the American pine timber, a substitute for which has not
been found in European countries. The maintenance of supplies
from this source must be adversely contrasted with Sweden.
Writers on forestry have deplored the waste in the American
forests, and it is generally admitted that it is prodigious. At the
same time, the vastness of the forest areas have maintained the
equilibrium of the trade. While most kinds of timber have
been, through competition, kept to the lowest value, pine timber
from Canada has not only maintained its price, but has actually

OUR TIMBER SUPPLIES FROM ABROAD. 357

experienced a steady rise. Consumption, or extra demand, has not
caused this, but it arises from the fact of the demolition of the
forests within reasonable distance of the seaboard. There is a
growing tendency to import manufactured Canadian pine, and
the figures of same, compared with hewn, may be quoted,—the
1,366,571 loads being made up of 180,966 loads of hewn, and
1,185,605 loads of sawn and manufactured timber. There is less
to be said against the growth of Canadian manufactured imports
than that of Sweden, as the freight saved on deals and battens
over logs is very considerable, the rate from Sweden being only
about 8s. per load, while from America it is about 24s.

The vast forests of immense trees in British Columbia have recently
been drawn upon for introduction into this country as a substitute
for yellow pine, but so far the experiment has proved unsatisfactory.
The timber can be got larger and cleaner, but it lacks that mild
nature which is characteristic of the Canadian pine. It is found
difficult to sustain a polish, and is too strong in the reed for fine
household or ship work. The supplies in British Columbia are
practically unlimited, and for rough work, in beams, etc., might
adapt itself, but the distance from our shores quite handicaps it
in competition with other woods used for similar purposes.

Pitch pine timber has taken a most important place in our
industries. The supplies available are immense, and there is every
probability that they will be maintained. The cheapness of this
wood has popularised its use, notwithstanding the fact that the
cost of freight is about 35s. per load. It is sold here at something
like 50s. per load, which, with insurance and other charges, cannot
leave more than 10s. per load at port of shipment. It is cut
down, sawn, and transported a long distance for this sum,
which gives us some indication of what could be done were our
foresters at home to exercise their ingenuity on the question of
transport from the woods,

Kauri timber from New Zealand now receives much favour.
It is, however, classed as a fancy wood, and is only utilised for
cabinet purposes, so it can scarcely be included in an article
on common timber. New Zealand is too far away to draw upon
for ordinary carpenter’s timber, which really forms 80 per cent.
of our imports.

A class of wood that is becoming popular is ‘“ Whitewood,”
called also “Canary wood” or “Butternut.” It is taking the

358 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY,

place of the long familiar yellow pine, and the price being some-
what less, it is being generally used. The beautiful clean grain,
free from knots and shakes, and the great width it is capable of
producing, have acquired it a favour in most industries. It is
imported from both Canada and the United States. The supply
of it is said to be more limited than that of the yellow pine, but
statistics of the forests and their timber are not available for any
practical purposes.

The total imports to Scotland in 1891 amounted to 878,924
loads. One-fourth of this was American timber, consisting of
yellow pine, pitch pine, hardwoods, and spruce; two-thirds Baltic
and north of Europe, Scots fir, and spruce; and the remainder
made up of sundries—teak, kauri, and other special woods.

Before concluding, it may be interesting to take notice of an
experiment being made at the present time by the Swedish
shippers. Considering their British business practically established,
the shippers conferred together and agreed to bind themselves to
place their credit on nearly the same footing as their Russian
neighbours. The effect of this action has not yet become fully
apparent, but although these terms have only been in operation
a few months, the decline of Swedish sales has been so marked
that considerations for the abolition of this rule are already exercising
them. We have referred to this part of the subject with the view
of showing how much more influence than the actual merits or
demerits in price, a hidden cause may exert on the development
of a given industry. The question is a common one,—Why will
foreigners, removed from our shores by hundreds of miles and
frequently by thousands, entrust our merchants with six months
credit, while our own foresters, agents, and landlords will not
trust them a day, although the timber is retained in their own
hands? . Forestry in this country has little interest for the
mercantile community, but the foreigner gives us a substantial
interest in the subject, and we in return reciprocate the benefit by
obtaining our supplies of timber from abroad.

MACHINE FOR MENDING BROKEN STRANDS IN WIRE FENCES. 359

XXVII. Machine for Mending Broken Strands in Wire Fences.
Invented by ANTHONY Simpson, Forester, Dunrobin Castle,
Golspie.

Where wire fences are extensively employed, a machine for
mending the broken strands is very desirable. No doubt the
“ratchet” straining-posts are now in frequent use, but they are by
no means predominant, and being a recent invention, the fences
erected before their advent require attention occasionally, if not
frequently; and often a “ratchet” straining-post may not be in
keeping with the surroundings.

I have fully tested this machine, and found it to be a marked
improvement on any others that I have either used, seen, or heard
of. By the use of it a great amount of time, labour, and expense
is saved, and I can thoroughly recommend it to all foresters and
others employed in the erection and repair of wire fences.

The merits of my invention are—

(1) It is a more expeditious way of mending broken strands in
wire fences than any method hitherto known and practised.

(2) It is so constructed that it can be applied to strain the wire
at the point where it is broken, so that it can be easily tied there
again.

(3) It can also be used at the straining-posts in the erection of
wire fences as an ordinary straining machine.

The following illustration shows the various parts of the
machine, and the method of working.

EXPLANATION.

A. Frame; with (4) headstock, and (c) bracket.
B. Screwed spindle, revolving in the headstock and bracket.
C. Travelling screwed socket.
D. Lever for working the main screw.
EE. Hinged clips, with (aa) lever screws.

In operating with the machine, run out the travelling socket to the end of
the screw ; place the ends of the broken wire in the clips and secure them tightly
by the screws aa, so that they will not slip in the straining; work the main
screw by the lever D till the ends of the wire overlap sufficiently to form a
proper knot, which is made in the usual manner; then unscrew the clips, and
the job is finished,

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Ropal Scottish Arboricultural Society.

EXCURSION

TO

PirEsHIRE AND .PERTHS@ERE

Loo 2.

ROYAL
SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY,

EXCURSION TO FIFESHIRE AND
PERTHSHIRE.

THE FirreentH ANNUAL Excursion of the Society was held
on the 10th, 11th, and 12th of August, when the estates of
Stravithie, Balbirnie, and Falkland, in Fifeshire; and Scone,
Meikleour, Murthly, Methven, The Cairnies, and Balgowan, in
Perthshire, were visited. For the occasion, the headquarters
of the Society were at the Salutation Hotel, Perth.

Easy of access by rail from all parts of the country—north
and south—it was expected that an Excursion to this district,
so full of interest to the arboriculturist, would be exceedingly
popular with the members. So it turned out to be. A better
attended Excursion has not been held in the history of the
Society. The weather on the three days left little to be desired
by those who had to pass the most of their time in the open
air, and, on the second day, éclat was given to the pro-
ceedings by the presence of a party of members of the British
Association, who, having completed the business of the meeting
at Edinburgh of the Association, made an excursion north
to see the beauties of Scone and Murthly in company with
the members of the Arboricultural Society. Among other
gentlemen taking part in the Excursion were :—Charles
Adamson, Leven; John Alexander, Kandy, Ceylon; John
Allan, Dalmeny; Professor Bayley Balfour, President of the
Society ; John Barron, Borrowash, Derby ; J. Barton, Hatfield,
Herts; R. Baxter, Dalkeith; Lewis Bayne, Scone; James
Berry, Berwick ; W. 5S. Bissett, Bridge of Earn; Andrew Boa,
Dalton, Newcastle ; A. Boa, jun., Great Thurlow, Suffolk ; John
Boyd, Pollok, Pollokshaws; Charles Buchanan, Penicuik; J.
Clark, Haddo House, Aberdeen; Dr Cleghorn, Stravithie; Philip
Cockburn, Dalkeith; James Cook, Arniston, Gorebridge; James
Crabbe, Glamis; George Croucher, Ochtertyre, Crieff; John

4

Cunningham, Ardross, Alness; James Dalziel, Maybole ; John
Davidson, Auldbar, Brechin; J. W. Deas, Edinburgh; A. S.
Donald, Philiphaugh, Selkirk; Robert Douglas, Edinburgh ;
P. Drummond, Stirling; J. W. Duncan, Broughty Ferry ;
Malcolm Dunn, Dalkeith ; William Erskine, Edinburgh; A. J.
Farquharson, Newtyle, Forfarshire ; John Fleming, Aberdeen ;
Robert Forbes, Clova, Aberdeenshire; F. Foreman, Eskbank,
Dalkeith ; James Forgan, Sunnybraes, Largo; Thomas Foulis,
Edinburgh; J. Galletly, Bonhard, Perth ; W. M. Gilbert, Edin-
burgh; William Gilchrist, Leuchars, Elgin; John Gilroy,
Berwick ; C. 8S. Goodchild, Suffolk ; John G. Gordon, Edinburgh ;
G. H. Gorrie, Dalkeith; J. A. Gossip, Inverness; James
Granger, Penicuik ; A. A. Green, Edinburgh ; Professor Green,
Cambridge ; Archibald Henderson, Tullamore, King’s County,
Ireland ; William Henderson, Balbirnie ; Daniel Irvine, Perth ;
James Jones, Larbert; James Kay, Rothesay; John Kerr,
Gorebridge; R. G. Kerr, Musselburgh; D. P. Laird, Edin-
burgh; James Laurie, Murthly; Peter M‘Farlane, Perth ;
D. M‘Gregor, Camperdown, Dundee; Major M‘Gregor, Peni-
cuik; D. F. M‘Kenzie, Morton Hall, Liberton; Rev. Mr
M‘Kerchar; A. M‘Kinnon, Scone, Perth; George M‘Kinnon,
Melville, Lasswade; J. T. M‘Laren, Alloa; Alexander M‘Rae,
Leven ; J. M‘Rorie, Cowdenbeath ; John Methven, Edinburgh ;
John Methven, Blythswood, Renfrewshire; John Michie,
Balmoral; A. Milne, Edinburgh; R. P. Milne, Berwick-on-
Tweed; William Milne, Berwick-on-Tweed ; James Mitchell,
Fossaway; James Moffat, Edinburgh; William J. Moffat,
Secretary of the Society ; G. Morgan, Crieff; Malcolm Morgan,
Crieff; J. Murdoch, Dalkeith ; Colin M. Patterson, Newbattle ;
Thomas Patterson, Eskside House, Dalkeith ; W. A. Rae, Kings-
wood, Murthly; William Rayson, Chelsea, London; James
tobertson, Panmure, Carnoustie ; William Robertson, Murthly,
Perth; James Romanes, Meadowbank, Dalkeith; James Ruther-
ford, Redcar, Yorkshire ; D. Scott, Darnaway, Forres ; Andrew
Slater, Haystoun, Peebles ; William Smith, Edinburgh ; Professor
Somerville, Newcastle ; R. Storie, Dalkeith ; James Tait, Peni-
cuik; M. Temple, Carron House, Falkirk; Hon. Waldegrave-
Leslie; James Watt, Carlisle; James Welsh, Edinburgh ;
Peter Whitton, Methven, Perth ; A. T. Williamson, Edinburgh ;
G. Williamson, Leven ; and J. J. Wilson, Penicuik.

5

FIRST DAY.

Wednesday, 10th August.

STRAVITHIE, BALBIRNIE, LESLIE, AND FALKLAND
PALACE, FIFE.

An early start had to be made this morning by the party from
Edinburgh, which left the Waverley Station at 6.35 A.M., by train
for Stravithie Station. About sixty gentlemen assembled on
the platform wearing the Scots Fir badge of the Society, and
there were several additions made to that number en route.

Leaving Edinburgh behind, the journey was through one of
the richest agricultural districts in the Lothians, and at this
season of the year the crops were at their best, giving promise
of a bountiful harvest. About ten miles from Edinburgh, the
“Q@ueen’s Ferry” was reached, and the gigantic structure of the
Forth Bridge, spanning the estuary with cyclopean strides, was
crossed at a height of nearly 200 feet. The views from the
Bridge on such a fine day, both up and down the Forth, are
probably unrivalled in railway travelling, and to arborists both
shores of the Firth presented a very interesting sight, being in
great part richly clothed with woodlands to the water’s edge.
Immediately below the Bridge on the Lothian shore lie the
woods of Dalmeny; and above the Bridge on the same side are
the wooded slopes of Hopetoun, stretching back a considerable
distance into the country.

On the opposite Fife shore above the Bridge are the well-
wooded domains of Broomhall, Torry, and Valleyfield running
far up the country; while below the Bridge, on the north side
of the Firth, are the fine picturesque woods of Donibristle and
Aberdour. Passing North Queensferry and the ancient burgh
of Inverkeithing, the line sweeps to the right through pleasant
fields and hedgerows thickly studded with trees, with the
domain of Donibristle on the right, and Fordell, Otterstone,
and Cockairne, on the left, all famed among arborists for their
fine trees, and the scene of one of the earliest excursions of the
Society. The shore of the Firth is again reached at the prettily
situated village of Aberdour, a favourite watering-place of the
Edinburgh folk, and celebrated in the ancient ballad of Sir
Patrick Spens, which tells that on returning from Norway,
where he had conveyed the Princess Margaret of Scotland to be
married to King Eric,—

** Half owre, half owre to Aberdour
It’s fifty fathoms deep ;
And there lies the good Sir Patrick Spens,
Wi’ the Scots lords at his feet.”

6

On the right, after passing the railway station, a glimpse is
had of the extensive remains of Aberdour Castle, a stronghold
and residence of the Earls of Morton since 1351, but which was
accidentally burned about 160 years ago, and has since lain in
ruins. From here the line runs close to the north shore of the
Firth of Forth, past Burntisland, Kinghorn, and Kirkealdy,
and all the way the sea views on a fine day are very beautiful.
The views inland are generally limited, but the low hillsides
are noticed to be well clothed with woods. At the foot of
a rocky height close to the left of the line about a mile beyond
Burntisland, a monument, erected a few years ago, marks the
spot where King Alexander III. was killed, on the 12th March
1286, by falling over the precipice while riding to Kinghorn
Tower in the dusk of the evening. On nearing Kirkcaldy, the
richly-wooded policies of Raith are observed on the left, with
the elegant mansion-house standing on a fine site peeping out
from among the trees. Leaving the busy manufacturing town
of Kirkcaldy, where the leading article of trade, floorcloth,
scents the air, and passing the thriving towns of Dysart and
Sinclairtown, we leave the main line at Thornton Junction,
and the journey for the rest of the way to Stravithie is along
the East of Fife Railway. About three miles from Thornton
the famed Cameron Bridge distillery is passed, standing close
to the line soon after it enters the pretty valley of the Leven,
down which the route les to the town of Leven at the mouth
of the river. Keeping the fine golfing links on the right, the
railway sweeps north and eastwards round Largo Bay, celebrated
in the fisherman’s song, The Boatie Rows—

** T cuist my line in Largo Bay,
And fishes I caught nine ;
There’s three to boil, and three to fry,
And three to bait the line.”

The village of Lower Largo, lying along the shore, was the
birthplace, in 1676, of Alexander Selkirk, the original of Defoe’s
Robinson Crusoe; and within the grounds of Largo House,
situated in a well-wooded park on the rising ground on the
left, are the remains of Largo Castle, the residence in the end
of the fifteenth century of the famed sea warrior, Sir Andrew
Wood of Largo. Nearing Elie, a favourite water-place, lying
close to the sea shore on the right, the policies of Elie House
are seen alongside of the line, and the route is through a
well-cultivated country, past the fishing village of St Monans,
with its curious ancient church, said to have been founded
about 1362 by David IL, and the thriving town of Anstruther,
the native place of Tennant the poet, and the scene of his

7

Anster Fair, in which he so graphically describes the feats
of the heroine “Maggie Lauder,” till the “East Neuk o’ Fife”
is reached at the ancient and picturesque royal burgh of Crail.
The route now bends sharp to the westward, and runs through
a highly cultivated district, past the stations of Kingsbarns and
Boarhills, on to Stravithie, which was reached about ten o’clock.
Here Dr Cleghorn was in waiting to receive the party, and
gave them a most hospitable welcome. Let us pause to say a
word about this most genial of ex-presidents of the Society,
and of his beautiful little estate.

Stravithie is situated about five miles from the venerable
city of St Andrews, and is the ancestral home of Hugh F. C.
Cleghorn, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.L.S., one of the best known
and most popular of foresters that Scotland has ever produced.
For many years at the head of forestry affairs in India, he has,
since his return home about twenty years ago, taken the keenest
interest in Scottish forestry, and promoted every movement to
advance the education and practical training of foresters. A
member of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society since 1865,
he has filled the office of President for five terms, first in 1872
and 1873, and again from 1883 to 1885, during which latter
period the Forestry Exhibition was held at Edinburgh, when
he took a prominent part in carrying out the scheme, and was
the moving spirit of its success. For these and other reasons
Scottish foresters owe a debt of gratitude to Dr Cleghorn, and
the visit of the Arboricultural Society to Stravithie may fitly
be called their pilgrimage to the forester’s Mecca. Dr Cleghorn
takes great personal interest in all the affairs of his estate, and
is his own forester in arranging and managing his plantations.
These are well placed for sheltering and ornamenting the
estate, which extends to upwards of a thousand acres, divided
into several well-cultivated farms, occupied by prosperous
tenants. In a rather high-lying and naturally bare district,
shelter was an important point in the formation of the planta-
tions, but still they have been laid out with the view of also
obtaining a fair return for the land they occupy; and Dr
Cleghorn has carried out several experiments as to the best
methods of planting, so as to combine shelter, ornament, and
profit. The oldest trees, chiefly hardwoods, are growing in the
policies around the mansion, and along the prettily wooded
glen through which flows the limpid Kenly burn.

Taking carriage at Stravithie Station, the party drove through
a bit of nice open country, with waving grain on each side of
the road, and along a shady avenue to Stravithie House, which
is perched on the side of a bosky dell, with rose-covered walls
and entourage of beautiful pines, whose colours on this sunny

8

morning told well against the foliage of the older beeches
which fill up the valley. In a marquee erected on the lawn
the company were hospitably entertained to an elegant déjeuner.
The table was resplendent with flowers, and on it were also the
fruits of the season. To the breakfast, it is needless to say, the
party, after their long railway journey, did every justice. The
doctor himself presided, and by his great kindness and cordiality
made every one feel perfectly at home.

Mr Joun METHVEN, one of the Vice-Presidents of the Society,
gave expression to the sentiments of the company in a few
well-chosen sentences. We cannot, he said, rise from the table
without thanking Dr Cleghorn for his magnificent hospitality,
of which we have been the recipients this morning. We hold
Dr Cleghorn in the highest admiration. He is the “Grand Old
Forester.” To-day he has laid one more obligation upon us all,
in addition to the many good offices he has performed for the
Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society. We know by repute
what Dr Cleghorn did for forestry in India; our own eyes
have seen what he has done for forestry in Seotland; and
we love and revere the man for his own sake, and honour and
admire him for his works. Let us thank him most heartily.

(As a souvenir of the visit, Mr Methven then handed to Dr
Cleghorn an oak walking-stick, which combined with it an
ingenious steel band-saw arrangement. The presentation was
of an impromptu kind, the patent saw-stick having only been
brought to the notice of the Society on the previous evening
by the Hon. Waldegrave-Leslie. It was on account of its
novel ingenuity, and not on account of its intrinsic value,
that a suggestion was promptly acceded to, that a specimen
should be presented to Dr Cleghorn.)

Dr CLEGHORN, in rising to reply, was received with loud
applause. At the outset he intimated letters of apology from
Professor Bayley Balfour, President of the Society ; Professor
M‘Intosh, St Andrews; Colonel Bailey, Lecturer on Forestry
in Edinburgh University ; and his nephew, Major Sprot of
the Carabineers—all of whom regretted their inability to be
present. It is six years, the doctor continued, since this visit
of the Arboricultural Society was talked of. At my time
of life that is a long period, and I was beginning to think I
was not to see the Society at Stravithie ; but now that you are
here, I rejoice greatly. I am only sorry you cannot remain
longer with me, for I understand you have to leave by train
almost immediately. But I thank you very much for coming
here. I consider it very kind of you to pay me this visit,
and once more I bid you all a cordial welcome. I thank Mr
Methven for his too kind words, and for the way you have

9

received them: I am also obliged to you for this useful present,
which I shall keep as a memento of your visit.

An adjournment was then made to the policies, and on a
sunny slope near the mansion there was planted, in com-
memoration of the visit of the Society to Stravithie, a fine
example of the Golden Retinospora, or Cypress, of Japan,
etinospora prsifera aurea, which was presented to the Society
by Mr Alexander Milne, of Messrs Dickson & Sons, Inverleith
Nurseries, Edinburgh. The sapling was well and truly planted,
each member of the Council carefully placing a good spadeful
of the rich loamy soil around its roots till the hillock was
neatly finished, and then the best wishes of the party for its
future welfare were cordially expressed.

Under the guidance of the doctor, the party then had what
was little more than a scamper through the well-kept grounds
and garden, which, as already hinted, are charmingly situated
in the dell of the Kenly burn. The grounds contain many
fine beeches, which is the tree par excellence of the East
Neuk ; and a representative collection of the newer Conifers,
most of which thrive well here when sheltered from the bitter
north-eastern blast, which, blowing in from the North Sea in
the spring months, is the greatest evil that trees have to
contend with in this district of Fife. On the sunny slopes of
the lawn and along the sheltered glen are many nice speci-
mens of Conifers, all of which have been planted since 1864,
when Dr Cleghorn succeeded to his paternal estate. Among
them are a number of specimens of Indian Conifers, raised
from seeds which Dr Cleghorn brought home from their natural
habitats in Northern India, and on the Himalaya Mountains,
in 1864 and 1870; and in about a quarter of a century they
have grown into graceful young trees. The doctor is naturally
proud of them, as they vividly recall many pleasant incidents
of Eastern life and travel, amidst which some of the best years
of his life were spent. The gracefully drooping Deodar, or
Indian Cedar, and the equally beautiful if rather tender Pinus
excelsa, are both good specimens at their age; and there are.
also nice plants of Cupressus torulosa, Abies Webbiana, A.
Pindrow, and A. Morinda—the latter, however, being very
lable to be nipped by the cold east wind in spring,—all of
which have been raised from seeds brought home by Dr
Cleghorn. Of other Conifers there are fine examples of the
Douglas fir, Menzies’ spruce, Spanish fir, Lawson’s cypress, the
Swiss stone pine, Thuja gigantea, Thujopsis borealis, Wellingtonia
gigantea, and others. A fine young specimen of the maidenhair
tree, Salisburia adiantifolia, after attaining a height of about
- 20 feet in fourteen years, succumbed to the severe frost of the

10

winter in 1880-81. An interesting plant is a young walnut
tree, planted by the Edinburgh Botanical Club to commemorate
their visit to Stravithie in 1890. The policies are well furnished
with an underwood of hollies, laurels, rhododendrons, yews, ete. ;
and most of the common forest trees, besides the beech already
noted, thrive well. Many fine trees of the Wych elm, ash, oak,
Scots fir, larch, etc., are met with in the plantations, which
extend to about seventy acres, and lie at an average of 300 feet
above sea-level, about three miles inland, and fully exposed
to the north and east. The soil is of medium quality, rather
cold and in places retentive, and rests on the Carboniferous
formation of the east of Fife.

For the measurements of the most of the fine trees in the
following table we were indebted to Dr Cleghorn. The table
gives a good idea of the growth of trees under able manage-
ment in an exposed district, by no means favourable to tree life.

TREES AT STRAVITHIE.

3 ae
Botanical Name. Age, & s a Exposure. Remarks.
MH | Gis
; ; years. feet. ft.ins.| _ 7a
Abies Douglasii, 23 40 | 3 10 | sheltered | Thrives well in shelter.
shetihe, 25.) 82/207) iy, |e) PSR eae
», pectinata, 105: | 79.9 "0 A very fine silver fir.

» LPinsapo, st 10 |\:2)0 3 Busy ay suffered from
», Webbiana, . 20 28 | 2 1 96 Beautiful thriving tree.
Araucaria imbricata, . | 22 D200 Qe x { Mug aa ped by east
Cedrus Deodura, . 20 18) 2-0 N, Grown from seed from

; Simla, 1864.
Cupressus Lawsoniana, 25 2/2 8 Ss. Growing luxuriantly.
Fagus sylvatica, 95 | 7 2) InGlen | Fine cleanstem; healthy.
” ” 65 7 8 ” » ” ”
ums ” G 62 (hes 29 ” 9 ”
Fraxinus excelsa, . 55 | 6 9 5. Thrives well.
Juglans regia, q ou slecl9 w { Planted by Edinburgh
hs go 23 Botanical Club, 1890.
Larix ewroped, 70 5) 5) Mle ta), AL00) s. Heavy crop of cones.
53 fs 50 84 15 4 s. Fine old tree.
- i : 50 96° || 5 2 S. a yy
Tibocedrus decurrens, 25 25 | 2) 10 S. Handsome tree.
Pinus Cembra, ant 22 |2 4 | sheltered | Very fine specimen.
Bes 28 Bh ail Qld { Grown from seed from
a2 , ? Hi Rag Le Roky
pela HOE m5 | 6 R entioned in Jeffrey’s
Quercus robur, 75 Jw DS) { Trees of Fife,
ae meaty. ne 92 5 6 S. In the Glen ; fine.
Thuja gigantea, 25 40 |2 6 5. Fine free-growing tree.
Ulmus montana, . dd 70 | 7 4) In Glen { Dvineee in_ the
Wellingtonia gigantea, 25 44/3 9 s. Does well in shelter.

11

BALBIRNIE.

Returning by the same route to Thornton, it was expected
that Markinch would be reached about one o’clock; but the
railway journey was tedious, and it was nearly two o'clock
before the party arrived at their destination. The neigh-
bourhood is rich in historical incidents. It comprises many
ancient seats of old Scottish families—Balfours, Beatouns (now
Bethune), Leslies, Lindsays, Melvilles, and others of renown in
Scottish annals—but few of them can be seen from the route,
and none were visited except the modern home of the Balfours
of Balbirnie, for which the party was bound.

The drive from the station through the small country town
of Markinch was about half a mile, when the extensive and
beautiful policies of Balbirnie, the seat of Mr John Balfour of
Balbirnie, were entered, through the sylvan glades of which the
company were led for the next two or three hours, to see the
principal features of interest to arborists, and to admire the
fine trees and rich sylvan landscape. The mansion is a hand-
some edifice, standing in a romantic spot, richly embosomed
among stately trees, and surrounded by beautiful gardens and
well-kept grounds of considerable extent. During the long
possession of the present highly esteemed proprietor, great
improvements have been carried out on all parts of the estate,
which is now among the best organised, as it is the largest
in acreage, in the county of Fife.

The company were most cordially received in front of the
mansion by Colonel and Mrs Balfour, Mr Edward Balfour,
younger of Balbirnie, and other members of the family, and
immediately proceeded on a tour through the grounds and
park under the guidance of Mr Edward Balfour. A large
number of very fine trees were seen. In a grand old beech
avenue one of the trees girthed 10 feet 9 inches at 5 feet up,
and had 25 feet of a clean bole, with many others closely
approaching it in size. A walk along a charming burnside,
where a dark-leaved boxwood formed a fine feature in the
underwood, was much enjoyed ; and not less enchanting was
the sight of the beautifully undulating and well-wooded park,
the trees being chiefly beeches with fine wide-spreading heads.
A grand birch, standing a little to the south of the mansion-
house, attracted much notice. At about 9 feet up it spread out
its branches like a candelabra, the arms being of great thickness,
and presented a very curious and picturesque appearance.

On returning to the pleasure- grounds, the company were
hospitably entertained to luncheon, which was served in a large

12

marquee specially erected for the occasion, on the beautiful
greensward of the lawn near the mansion. Mr Edward Balfour
presided, and, when the repast was finished,

Mr Joun Metuven asked the company to drink to the health
of Colonel Balfour, who had been so kind as to invite the
Arboricultural Society to visit his beautiful demesne, and had
so hospitably received them. Balbirnie was one of the first
places he had any distinct recollection of. When he was a boy
he had seen it frequently. He had often visited it since, and
he could truly say that Balbirnie had always been kept up as
the estate of a Scottish gentleman ought to be, and he was
certain that would be the opinion of them all after they had
seen its beauties. They most heartily congratulated Colonel
Balfour on keeping his years so well, and they would ask the
chairman to convey to his father their obligations to him for
his kindness to the Society.

Mr Epwarp BALrour, younger of Balbirnie, who was received
with loud applause, said his father, who was not able to be
present, had asked him to thank them for the honour they had
done him in coming to look at his property. Colonel Balfour
had been resident on this place for fifty-five years, and in their
walk round the estate they would see traces of his hand in
everything connected with it. They did not think of their
home here perhaps in the same way as Mr Methven had spoken
of it ; at the same time they did not consider they had anything
to be ashamed of in having Balbirnie as a show-place to-day.
He was afraid they would only see some of what he might
call the ornamental woods. The commercial timber was too
far away for them to inspect in the‘ limited time which he
understood was at their disposal. On their way to Falkland,
however, they would see a part of these woods in the distance
as they drove along the highway.

Dr SoMERVILLE proposed the health of Mr Edward Balfour,
who had so ably presided over the luncheon, and for his kind-
ness in acting as their guide over the estate.

Mr Epwarp BALFouvrR, in reply, said that he should like to
come with the Society next year, if they would honour him
with an invitation.

After luncheon, two hours were spent pleasantly and profit-
ably in inspecting the trees in the policies and pleasure-grounds.
Many splendid old beech trees were met with, as also excellent
oaks and larches, and fine specimens of other deciduous trees.
A number of the trees were measured. The largest beech was
15 feet 10 inches in girth at 5 feet up. A very fine oak was
9 feet 9 inches in circumference. A tall sycamore, with a
shapely head, was 11 feet 6 inches in girth; and another tree

13

of the same kind at the back of the gardens, girthed 13 feet at
4 feet up. A larch tree, girthing 9 feet 4 inches, was about
100 feet in height ; and a Scots fir 90 feet high girthed 9 feet.
In The Dell there was a good display of the newer conifers,
interspersed with hardwoods, and much admiration was ex-
pressed at the judicious use which had been made of the red
and white foxglove in the adornment of this lovely spot.
Among the newer Conifers here were a number of beautiful
Albert firs, one of which was 45 feet high, and girthed 3 feet
14 inch at 5 feet up. Abzes grandis and the Douglas fir were
growing freely, and promising to make very fine trees.
One of the remarkable things in The Dell is a magnificent
specimen of Rhododendron catawbiense. Rising from the
ground in a single stem, it almost immediately parts into two,
each about 2 feet 8 inches in girth. From these there has
grown out a spread of branches no less than 152 feet in cir-
cumference, with a height of 16 feet. After a pleasant ramble
through the fine old wood growing on the height to the south
of The Dell, where numerous tall and shapely trees, chiefly
beech, were noted, the ground beneath being well furnished
with thriving shrubs, principally rhododendrons, we arrived
at the gardens, near which is the pinetum, with many fine
specimens of the newer Conifers, including a fine row of
Araucaria imbricata, averaging over 30 feet in height and
4 feet in girth at 5 feet up. Among the finest of the conifers
were the following specimens, for the dimensions of which we
were indebted to Mr Henderson, the gardener at Balbirnie :—

CoNIFERS AT BALBIRNIE.

Botanical Name. Height. Girth at 5 feet up.

feet. ft. ins.

Abies Albertiana, . 3 : 43 4 0
» grandis, : : : 60 4 9
ee ManinNda, . : mail 33 3 4
», nobilis, : d ‘ie 46 6 0
», Nordmaniiana, . bai 36 3 0
» orientalis, 5 el 32 4 8
Cedrus atlantica, . ; ; 34 4 ii
a Deodara, : : 39 5 0

3, LAbant, : F ¢ 50 5 7
Cupressus Lawsoniana, . ; 28 1 6
Pinus Cembra, . ; : 36 3 9
Taxodium sempervirens, : 40 7 0

Some splendid specimens of golden hollies were also seen,
about 50 feet high, with a stem girthing 4 feet 11 inches at

14

5 feet up in one that was measured, all being well-furnished
and brightly coloured trees. A rapid run was made through
the beautiful gardens, hothouses, and conservatories, which
were all seen in perfect order. The gardens, grounds, and policies
through which we had been led, gave evidence everywhere of a
most enlightened and liberal management.

In returning towards the mansion, the company were much
interested in a small military tent erected on the ground, which
had belonged to the grandfather of the present proprietor, who
commanded the Scots Greys at Waterloo. Alongside of it was
an officer’s tent of the present day, which illustrated the advance
made in the comfortable housing of the officers of the British
army on the “tented field” since the days of Waterloo. At the
mansion the party had the privilege of inspecting the pictorial
treasures which adorn the walls of the spacious public rooms ;
and among them was a lovely full-length portrait of Mrs
Edward Balfour, which was greatly admired. They also saw
there the original charter of the lands of Balbirnie to the
present family, dating from 1234 a.D.—over six centuries ago.

A photograph was taken by Mr Philip Cockburn, the Society’s
photographer, in front of the house, of the whole of the numer-
ous company, which included Colonel and Mrs Balfour, Mr and
Mrs E. Balfour, and other members of the Balbirnie family.
Thanks were again accorded to Colonel and Mrs Balfour, and
Mr E. Balfour, for their great kindness and courtesy ‘during
the afternoon, and a hearty cheer for the family was raised
as the carriages drove off.

LESLIE.

A very courteous invitation was given to the Society by Mr
Waldegrave-Leslie to visit his estate, about two miles distant,
when leaving Balbirnie, but for want of time this could not be
accepted. The following notes, however, of Leslie will be read
with interest.

Marching with the parish of Markinch is that of Leslie, where
is located the property of the ancient family of Rothes. The
late countess (sixteenth in the succession) died rather more
than six years ago, much lamented by all ranks of society. Her
sweetness of character, generosity, and beneficence will not
readily be forgotten by those who had the privilege of her
acquaintance. The property is now in the hands of the Hon.
George Waldegrave-Leslie, LL.D., as liferenter ; and under his
management the estate bears quite a different aspect to what
it did some thirty yearsago. Nearly every farm-house, cottage,
and farm-steading has been put into thoroughly good condition,

15

and in many cases entirely rebuilt. At the new and commodi-
ous farm-steading of Cadham, tenanted by Mr David Russell,
partner in the firm of Robert Tullis & Co., papermakers (whose
extensive mills lie below in the valley of the Leven), there is an
avenue of young plane trees, planted on each side of the public
road leading to the town of Leslie. Beyond this is a lodge,
painted Indian red, made of strong planks of timber driven
vertically into the ground 9 inches apart, and sheeted up on
each side with 14 inch deals, between which flax refuse is tightly
packed. This makes a very comfortable tenement, warm in
winter, and cool in summer. A set of hand-wrought iron gates
from Falkland Palace, famous for having confined the redoubt-
able Rob Roy in one of his cattle-lifting expeditions, open on a
new road leading to Leslie House. On the east side is a thriving
plantation of Scots pine and rhododendrons, sheltering it from
the east wind. The road is over a mile in length, and for the
first half it is planted on each side with lime trees and Wey-
mouth and Scots pines alternately. The river Leven runs for
about two miles through the policies, and is seen in the bottom
of the valley, till the road enters Queen Mary’s famous beech
avenue. The trees in the avenue stood well until the destructive
“Royal Charter Gale” of 1859, when many of the noblest fell,
blown down by the violence of the storm. The gaps have been
filled up with oaks—the oak being the badge of the Leslie clan.
This avenue now forms an approach to the east front of Leslie
House, towards which a turreted bridge of substantial masonry
carries it across the Lothie Burn, at a beautiful spot, well known
in the locality as “The meeting of the waters.” Leslie House
was built by the Duke of Rothes, when Lord Chancellor of
Scotland, after the same design, quadrangle and all, as Holy-
rood House, and by the same architect, Sir John Bruce of
Kinross. In the year 1759 three sides of it were burnt to the
ground, including a gallery 17 feet longer than that of Holy-
rood, and containing the second best library in Scotland. The
remaining, or fourth side of the quadrangle now constitutes
Leslie House—and is yet far too large for the size of the
estate, two-thirds of which were sold to pay the cost of the
extravagant funeral of the Duke of Rothes. This funeral was
ordered by King Charles II., and is said to have cost over
£266,000, a sum equivalent to something like two millions
sterling. The funeral procession is said to have been 15 miles
in length. The procession walked from the palace of Holyrood
to Queensferry, and thence to Leslie Kirkyard, where His
grace’s remains now lie in the aisle of the Rothes family.

On the south side of Leslie House are a series of terrace
gardens leading down to the Leven. At the end of the upper

16

terrace is a remarkably fine beech tree, which girths nearly 17
feet. A winding road leads down to the river and up the other
side of the valley to the Duchess Gate. Looking from there to
the north, the East Lomond Hill is seen to great advantage ;
and looking round from this coign of vantage towards the
south-east, a deep gorge lies immediately below, well planted
with trees, with a glorious view of the sea some miles off, and
also the Bass Rock, North Berwick Law, and Tantallon Castle,
all of which are clearly seen on a fine day.

On Leslie green stands the parish church, said to be King
James V. “Christ’s Kirk on the Green,” also a remarkable
stone called the “Bull Stane,” so named from the fact that
bulls were chained to it, for the semi-barbarian pastime of
baiting. Two famous trees also stand on the green; one, an
oak, under which King James V. is said to have sat and dealt
out justice to his lieges; and another, the “Dieul” tree, a
sycamore, from the boughs of which culprits were hung for
crimes worthy of death.

In the gardens at Leslie House are several very fine coniferous
trees, from twenty to thirty years of age, among which is an
Abies Albertiana, supposed to be one of the finest of its kind in
Scotland.

FALKLAND.

Towards five o’clock the carriages left Balbirnie for Falkland
Palace, the seat of the Marquis of Bute. The road traversed a
pleasant and level country, a part of the “ Howe o’ Fife,” and at
about four miles from Balbirnie, the picturesque old burgh of
Falkland, in the centre of which the old. palace stands, was
reached. Here there was only time to make a limited inspection
of the rich sylvan wealth and beauties of this ancient hunting-
seat of the Scottish Court. The palace, begun, it is said, by
James III., was finished in 1537 by James V., who, after his defeat
at Solway Moss, returned here to die on the 13th December
1542. His daughter, Mary Queen of Scots—of whose birth at
Linlithgow he heard shortly before he expired, and exclaimed,
“Tt came with a lass, and it will go with a lass,” referring
to the royal titles—often resided within its stately walls. It
suffered long from decay after being deserted by royalty :—

‘¢ The fretted roof looked dark and cold,

And tottered all around ;

The carved work of ages old
Dropped wither’d on the ground ;

The casement’s antique tracery
Was eaten by the dew ;

And the night breeze, whistling mournfully,
Crept keen and coldly through.”

17

But its remains have of late been carefully preserved, and
present many features of interest to the antiquary. The
modern house, which is nearly a mile distant, was erected about
fifty years ago, from designs by the architect Burn of Edinburgh.
It is a handsome building in the Tudor style, and the grounds
and gardens around it are laid out with much taste and skill.

The old palace, which is at present being put into order by
the Marquis of Bute, was examined with much interest, both
externally and internally. It is classic ground, and many of
the events in Scottish history associated with it were anew
recounted as the party paced the ancient halls which royal feet
had trodden in days of yore, and peeped into the horrid dungeons
where, among others, David Duke of Rothesay, eldest son of
King Robert III., was starved to death by his uncle, the then
Duke of Albany. Numerous sycamores, a tree so closely
associated with the name of Mary Queen of Scots, were found
growing upon and near the historic pile. Two of these in the
garden, which were measured, were respectively 10 feet 6 inches
and 10 feet 4 inches in girth. Major Wood, the Marquis of
Bute’s factor, kindly provided tea and other refreshments for
the company, who afterwards drove through the quaint, old-
world “burgh toun,” the “ Falkland on the Grene” of the muse
of James V. :—

‘¢ Was nevir in Scotland hard nor sene
Sic dansin nor deray,

Nouthir at Falkland on the Grene,
Nor Pebillis at the Play ’—

to the modern house of Falkland. Amid a wealth of arboreal
treasures seen there, perhaps the most remarkable trees were a
group of three Deodars and a splendid specimen of the redwood
tree, Sequoia sempervirens, which was 9 feet in circumference at
5 feet up, and from 65 to 70 feet high. It was generally acknow-
ledged to be one of the best, if not the best, grown tree of this
species in the east of Scotland. Some very fine specimens of
the cut-leaved alder—a by no means common tree—were growing
in the policies ; as also fine examples of Cryptomeria japonica
and C. elegans, Abies Morinda, and the tulip tree, Liriodendron
tulipfera. The beauty of the house, the skilful manner in which
the policies are laid out, the disposition, variety, and healthy
aspect of the trees, and the scrupulously neat aspect of the
whole place, were very much admired, and it was with some
regret that the party had to hasten their departure from so
favoured a spot. Mr M. Dunn, on behalf of the Society, pro-
posed a vote of thanks to the Marquis of Bute for his courtesy
in opening the ancient palace and grounds to them, and for his
hospitality, all of which the members had greatly appreciated.

18

The following remarks on the woods and plantations on the
Falkland estate have been kindly supplied by the forester, Mr
Henry Smith :—‘ The woodlands on the Falkland estates in
Fife are chiefly situated on the northern slopes of the Lomond
hills. The plantations in the vicinity of the mansion consist of
the usual variety of hardwood trees. The most notable of these
are the beautiful avenue of aged limes and the old beeches on
the north approach. In the House Park and Mospie Den there
are numerous specimens of conifers in a vigorous condition and
growing freely. The plantations on the slopes of East Lomond
hill are chiefly larch, spruce, and Scots fir, with a mixture of
beech, ash, sycamore, oak, and elm in the lower portions.
The larch make healthy growth, although much exposed at the
highest parts at an altitude of about a thousand feet above sea-
level. These woods are very picturesque, and form a beautiful
feature in the landscape. The chief portion of the woodlands,
however, are towards the west—on the Black and Green Hills,
which are extensively planted with excellent larch, Scots fir,
and spruce, with a mixture of hardwoods in suitable places.
The larch grown in this wood with a northern aspect is of large
dimensions, very healthy and sound at the heart, and only shows
the slightest symptoms of ‘blister.’ They excel in quality any
larch grown on the low ground on heavier soil. Beyond this
plantation is the ‘Brax Wood,’ composed of Norway spruce,
which grows at an altitude of 1114 feet, and surpasses any
spruce grown elsewhere on the estate. It is perfectly sound,
and constitutes a very heavy crop.

“The common rhododendron, Rhododendron ponticum, was
introduced about forty years ago on the ‘ Black Hill, where,
like the larch, it grows vigorously on the light sandy soil, and
propagates itself freely from seed, from which a supply of nice
plants is obtained for other parts of the estate.

“ Another notable portion of the woodlands is the remains of
the royal oak forest at Drumdrill, which extends to about 40
acres. The fine oaks are growing vigorously from the stools of
the original trees at about 50 feet apart, with oak and hazel as
underwood.

“The woods on the Lomonds extend in all to about 600 acres,
and are from sixty to seventy years of age, and are all in
excellent health. A large portion of the woods on the lower
parts of the estate are a mixture of the usual forest trees. The
larch makes rapid growth, but is showing signs of decay after
twenty-five to thirty years’ growth. The chief ailments are dry
rot at the butt and blister on the bark of the stem. The Douglas
fir, Abies Douglasii, has been extensively planted for the last
twenty years on the best ground, at about 25 feet apart.

19

Nursed with the usual forest trees, it is now well established,
and remains healthy‘and vigorous, especially on virgin soil. Of
these low ground plantations there is about 500 acres, which are
carrying a healthy crop from ten to forty years of age. In
more recent years extensive plantations have been formed, and
within the last six years 300 acres have been planted with larch,
Scots fir, and spruce. Douglas fir and hardwoods have been
introduced where the soil was adapted for them. These young
woods are in the most promising condition. They are well
cared for, and protected with rabbit-proof fences. With the
exception of a few small patches, none of the woodlands on the
estate are vacant, and to these attention is now being directed,
so that there will soon be nothing left for the planter’s opera-
tions. The woods and plantations on the Falkland estate
extend to about 1500 acres in all, and comprise some of the
healthiest plantations in the county of Fife.”

Leaving Falkland, the route was across the Howe of Fife,
past Strathmiglo and the rural village of Gateside, and across
the Ochils through the richly wooded and romantic Glenfarg
into lower Strathearn. The well-known glowing description of
the scenery of the district, as seen from the Wicks of Baiglie, an
elevated spot on the north front of the Ochils, a little to the left
of where Glenfarg debouches on the strath, in Sir Walter Scott’s
Fair Maid of Perth, does no more than justice to the splendid
panorama seen from that coign of vantage, while he quotes
with appreciation the lines of the poet :—

** ¢ Behold the Tiber!’ the vain Roman cried,
Viewing the ample Tay from Baiglie’s side ;
But where’s the Scot that would the vaunt repay,
And hail the puny Tiber for the Tay ?”

A drive of a few miles through a well-cultivated and beauti-
fully wooded country, past the Bridge of Earn, and over the
shoulder of Moncreiffe Hill, brought the party in view of the
lights of the “ Fair City” of Perth, for darkness had fallen before
the party, at about ten o'clock at night, drew up at the door
of the Salutation Hotel—glad to attain its friendly shelter after
the fatigues of a long day. Here, as on two former excursions,
the headquarters of the Society were fixed.

20

SECOND DAY.
Thursday, 11th August.

SCONE PALACE, MEIKLEOUR, AND MURTHLY,
PERTHSHIRE.

Those who were astir early in the morning spent an hour or
two very pleasantly before breakfast in viewing the city of
Perth and its surroundings, rich in stirring events of history
and the romance of former days. Perth, anciently called St
Johnstoun, was the capital of Scotland till the time of James III.,
who removed the seat of government to Edinburgh in 1482. The
Fair City still takes precedence of all royal burghs, except the
capital. Among the many objects which interested the arborists
were the beautiful green expanses of the North and South
Inches, the latter having a fine avenue of old trees running
across it, along the sides of the road to Edinburgh; and the
nurseries of Messrs Dickson & Turnbull, famed for the raising
of coniferous trees and general forest plants, lying on the
opposite side of the Tay, and stretching far up the steep slopes
of the Hill of Kinnoull. Other objects worthy ofa visit are too
numerous to be detailed ; but the ancient church of St John,
said to be the oldest existing edifice in the city, and still
a grand ecclesiastical pile, capacious enough to accommodate
three congregations—of the East, West, and Middle parishes—
with over 3300 seats ; the City Hall, near the church, containing
some interesting paintings; the High Street, South Street,
Kirkgate, Skinnergate, Watergate, and Speygate, and _par-
ticularly the fine esplanade stretching from the bridge down-
wards, called Tay Street, on which stand the modern Public
Buildings for the city and county, presenting a handsome and
picturesque frontage to the river, are all within a short distance,
and should be seen by those who are making their first visit to
the ‘Fair City. Nor should the splendid view from the fine
bridge spanning the Tay be omitted by those who admire
scenery of the most varied and lovely description.

Breakfast was at 8 A.M. sharp, as the Excursion had to be on
the way for Scone Palace, the seat of the Earl of Mansfield, at
8.30. There had been a shower of rain over night, but when
the members turned out of the hotel the sun was shining
brightly, and there was every promise of another fine day.
This promise was more than realised. Driving off from the
Salutation Hotel, around which a large crowd had assembled,
we crossed the bridge and proceeded along the road to the left,
on the north side of the Tay. About a couple of miles from

21

Perth, the policies of Scone, lying on the left, were entered by
a plain wooden gate, and here the party were met and welcomed
by Mr Lewis Bayne, forester on Scone estates; and Mr Alex.
M‘Kinnon, gardener, who accompanied them over the grounds.
Pursuing our way along the drive through the richly wooded
park, its fine arboreal features were greatly admired and
specially noted by the large party, which now numbered over
one hundred. Hard by the entrance was observed a remarkably
handsome specimen of the weeping beech, which attracted
general notice from its peculiarly graceful drooping branches
and handsome proportions. Stretching away from the entrance
is a fine irregular avenue of limes, elms, and oaks, and as we
drive along we get beautiful peeps of the stately park studded
with noble trees, and of a charming stretch of country beyond.
It is still a demesne worthy of the ancient royal palace of
Scotland, upon which we now gaze with patriotic pride—its
softly toned red walls being in many places covered with ivy,
which has crept up to the battlemented parapet. Over its
towers floats the Mansfield flag. On nearing the palace, Lord
Stormont did the Society the honour to come personally to
receive them at the entrance to the private grounds, and to act as
their guide in the inspection of the beautiful pleasure-grounds,
gardens, and pinetum, rich in remarkable specimens of grand
old trees, and luxuriant examples of the newer Conifers, which
attracted the special attention of the Excursionists. Here it
had been arranged that the company was to be met by a party
of about sixty of the members of the British Association, who
were to travel specially from Edinburgh to join the Excursion
for the day, but as there were no signs of their arrival, the
Society proceeded without them to view the policies. And first
a visit was made to the splendidly kept pinetum. Many of the
visitors would liked to have spent a little more time here than
was permissible. Here all the hardy coniferous trees of the
world find themselves assembled together. What a glorious
congress they make ; and what an educative value there is in
such a pinetum as that at Scone. The lawn is like velvet ;
trees stately and rare rise in all directions, and to each apper-
tains a neat label with its name, and in many instances the
date of its planting. Nota few of the specimens are memorial
trees, planted by royal and noble hands, and as such are
proportionately valued above their neighbours. It would be out
of place to merely catalogue the rare pines which grow in this
well-tended spot. It may suffice to say that worthy of most
special mention, perhaps, are examples of Abies Albertiana, A.
Douglasii, A. grandis, A. Menzesvi, A. Nordmanniana, Welling-
tonia gigantea, Araucaria imbricata, and Pinus monticola.
20

22

We may here give the dimensions of the most notable among
the numerous grand specimens of conifers in the pinetum and
pleasure-grounds at Scone, as kindly supplied to us by the
gardener, Mr M‘Kinnon, who takes great care and pleasure in
tending them.

CoNIFERS AT SCONE PALACE.

Botanical Name. | Age. Height. (Girth at 5 ft. up.
| years. | feet. inches. feet. inches.
Abies Albertiana, . . 5 30 52 6 5 4

», cephalonica, . : : 3l 41 6 3 6
3, concolor, A ‘ : 31 41 4 4 0
» Douglasti, . : . | 64 83 0 9 7
», grandis, . . : ; 31 48 6 ALogle
;, Hookeriana, . : : 20 19 0 Hae
», Menziesti, : ; ov | 39 72 8 8 6
», nobilis, . : : ‘ 39 73 3 7 0
» Nordmanniana, : : 31 47 9 4 4
», Linsapo, : api eoo 47 0 fie
Araucaria imbricata, : Sep ipa) 40 0 4 6
Cedrus atlantica, . ‘ > Ao 53 0 4 6
;, Deodara, 5 2 ;: 37 45 6 4 6
Cupressus Lawsoniana, . : 351 30 0 3% 210
Pinus austriaca, 3 : ; 31 43 9 4 1
:, Cembra,. : : ; 39 46 0 4 6
3, deffreyt,. ; : : 31 33 0 3 7
;, monticola, j : : 39 73 0 6 0
3s ponderosa, : A ‘ 31 50 0 6 9
Tuxodium sempervirens, . . 28 42 a hig 4
Thuja gigantea, , : : 31 29 0 3 8
Thujopsis borealis, . : F 31 31 0 ane
Wellingtonia gigantea, . : 31 62 0 (| 6

Specimens of Abies ajanensis, A. Alcoquiana, A. concolor
violacea, A. pungens, A. p. glauca, and others of later introduc-
tion, have been planted in recent years. They-are fine thriving
trees, varying in height from 10 to 15 feet.

A run through the garden was much enjoyed. One of the
most beautiful things seen there was a border in front of
one of the conservatories, which was a perfect triumph of
horticultural art, being composed of Echiveras, Sedums, and
Saxifrages in bloom, with lovely golden and silvery foliaged
Cypresses, Junipers, and Retinosporas rising among them. In
the grounds near the palace is a splendid specimen of the
Douglas fir, which was planted in 1834. It is now over 80 feet
in height. Let us pause for a moment in front of this stately
tree to recite shortly the pathetic story of the gentleman
whose name it bears. It is all the more appropriate, as he
was born in the old village of Scone, which stood not far from
the spot where the tree now grows. We take the narrative

23

from Mr Hunter’s book on The Woods and Forests of Perthshire,
a work which should be in every forester’s library :—

“David Douglas was born at Scone in 1798, and was the son
of a working mason. He received his education at the parish
school of Kinnoull, after which he served his apprenticeship
in Scone Gardens. In 1818, when at Valleyfield, near Culross,
on the Firth of Forth, in the gardens of Sir Robert Preston,
he had excellent opportunities of studying the choice collection
of exotic plants which it then contained; and, through the
kindness of the head gardener, he obtained access to Sir
Robert’s large botanical library. He was afterwards employed
in the Glasgow Botanic Garden, where his botanical knowledge
gained for him the favourable notice of Sir William Hooker,
whom he accompanied in several of his excursions, including
the one through the Western Highlands to collect materials for
the Flora Scotica. He was subsequently recommended to the
Horticultural Society of London by Sir William, and was sent
several times to America to collect the indigenous plants for the
Society. His first visit to America was in 1823, in which year
he secured many valuable plants, and greatly increased the
Society’s collection of fruit trees. He returned home in the
autumn of the same year, but was sent out again in July 1824,
for the purpose of exploring the botanical riches of the country
adjoining the Columbia river and southwards to California.
When the vessel touched at Rio de Janeiro, he collected many
rare orchideous plants, shot many curious birds in his voyage
round Cape Horn, sowed a collection of garden seeds in the
island of Juan Fernandez, Robinson Crusoe’s island, and arrived
at Fort Vancouver on the Columbia on the 7th April 1825,
During this visit he sent home the first seeds of the Douglas
fir to Britain, and on returning home in the spring of 1827, he
crossed the Rocky Mountains to Hudson’s Bay, and reached
England in the autumn of that year. Through the influence
of Mr Joseph Sabine, secretary of the Horticultural Society
of London, he was introduced to the Literary and Scientific
Society of London; and he was elected, free of expense, a
member of the Linnean, Geological, and Zoological Societies,
to which he contributed some valuable papers. After remaining
for a couple of years in London, he again sailed for North-West
America to continue his favourite pursuit in the autumn of
1829. He afterwards visited the Sandwich Islands, where he
met with his death under very shocking circumstances, having
fallen into a pit made by the natives to ensnare wild animals.
He was attacked by a bull already entrapped, was dreadfully
mutilated, and eventually killed. The intelligence of his
dreadful end, which took place on the 12th July 1834, in the

24

thirty-sixth year of his age, created a profound sensation in
the country. A very neat monument to his memory has been
erected in his native village, where his talents and services
endeared him to his fellow-townsmen.”

All honour to Douglas, and other intrepid pioneers, to whose
bravery, ability, and untiring research this country at the
present moment owes many of its finest conifers.

Near Scone Palace, as is well known, still grow many ancient
trees which link the present day with the centuries when the
Stuarts reigned in Scotland. Ona sloping bank at the south-
west front of the palace is the famous sycamore, which was
planted by Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots. A large limb is
broken off, but it is still a handsome tree, with a dark um-
brageous head. It is 13 feet 4 inches at 5 feet up, and is 63 feet
high. It was noted, as a sign of decay, that several large fungi
had made their appearance at a fork in the bole about 20 feet
from the ground. Another sycamore, said to have been planted
by James VL., girthed 12 feet 9 inches ; and in the park below
is an oak which was put in the earth by the same royal hands.
It is 55 feet high, with a girth of 15 feet at the base, and 14
feet 1 inch at 3 feet from the ground, 13 feet 3 inches at 5 feet
up, and has a spread of branches of 75 feet. A magnificent
black Italian poplar, over 100 feet high, with cork-like bark,
girthed 15 feet 6 inches; and there were many other notable
trees in this locality worthy of measurement had time per-
mitted. Skirting the Coronation Mound, we pass through the
old entrance to the palace, and note on the right the ancient
cross of the village of Scone. Beyond it is a lime avenue, which
we traverse. The avenue is about ninety years of age. Forty
years ago the trees, then well grown, were successfully shifted
each 8 or 9 feet; and almost as remarkable was the feat
achieved in 1881. A violent gale of that year blew down
several of the limes, which were, however, hauled into the
perpendicular position again, and the earth beaten well about
their roots, while, to keep them up, strong ropes were attached
to the neighbouring trees. This bold experiment succeeded,
the limes took root again, and every year since they have been
covered with abundance of fresh foliage.

Leaving the policies by the gate at the end of the avenue
opening on the public road, a few neat, cosy-looking cottages,
clustered with roses and other climbing plants, are all that
now remain of the once populous village of Old Scone; the
new village of Scone lying on the higher ground about two
miles to the eastward. On the rising ground to the right, in
front of us, was seen a fine thriving oak plantation, with
a luxuriant undergrowth of rhododendrons, in which the late

25

forester on the Scone estates, the well-known Mr William
M‘Corquodale, took great interest, and pointed to it with
laudable pride on former visits of the Society, as a fine
example of successful tree culture, combined with the orna-
mental and game-protecting character of the undergrowth.

Proceeding up the New Scone road, and turning in through
a gate on the left, a long walk was taken through a fine oak
wood of 300 acres, and about eighty years of age; and also
through the extensive Muirward plantations, where thriving
trees of many kinds were seen at various stages of growth.
These fine woods afforded an opportunity to the practical
foresters for comparing the growth and thriftiness of the various
kinds of forest trees when grown under similar circumstances.
A considerable area of Scots fir which was passed, was raised,
we were informed, by Lord Stormont, from seed gathered in the
“Black Wood” of Rannoch, and was planted here in 1849. It
was thriving well, and exhibited all the characteristic features
of the Rannoch “black fir” in its native habitat. In the
Muirward plantations, Scots fir and larch were the predominant
species, but many of the newer Coniferz have been introduced,
particularly in the young plantations, and they all seem to be
thriving remarkably well, especially Abzes grandis, A. nobilis,
A. Menziesii, and the Douglas fir, the last being a favourite
tree with the late Mr M‘Corquodale, who planted it freely
on the Scone estates wherever it was likely to thrive, and, so
far as was seen, that was everywhere. A space of 13 acres
in the plantations we were passing through was planted by
him, in 1857, with a pure crop of Douglas fir, and the company
examined it with great interest as they quickly walked through
it, the trees being vigorous and well grown, and promising,
when matured, to prove a remunerative crop. Six of them
accurately measured in the autumn of 1891 by Mr Bayne, the
forester, were respectively as follows :—

Dovueuas Firs 1x MUIRWARD.

No. Height. Girth at 5 feet up.

ft. ins. ft. ings.

1 67 6 ait gy

2 58 2 4 7

3 62 4 3 11

4 70 66 4 384

5 58 10 Be oy

6 62 5 2 11}

26

In the Scone woods, and grown as ordinary plantation trees,
are many fine samples of the Douglas and other firs introduced
to Britain within the past sixty years; and in a mixed
plantation, forty-one years of age, occupying a very exposed
site in the district, the following trees occur. These measure-
ments were also taken by Mr Bayne in the autumn of 1891, and
it will be noticed how much the Menzies’ fir has outstripped all
the other trees. There is no Douglas fir in this plantation.

CoNIFERS IN SCONE Woops.

Botanical Name. Height. a a
ft. ins, ft. ins.
Abies Menziesti (1), : 60) .5 Gen
a Pe (2); 5 : 61 70 6. 8}
», Nordmanniana, . : 49 6 4 8
5, ePimsapo, =". : : 3/2780 oer
Lariz europea, . : : 5G LS Br WO
Pinus austriaca, . - : 36 610 4 0
», Cembra, . : - 39 «(0 2 4%
Shari *. - : HOMO Ba)
3). SYlvestris, « : 3 48 0 3. 8

Two of the finest of the older trees in the Scone woods are
a larch 97 feet 3 inches in height, with a girth of 8 feet 1 inch
at 5 feet up, and a Scots fir, 74 feet 3 inches high, and 7 feet
10 inches in girth at the same distance from the ground.

With Lord Stormont and Mr Dunn making the pace, the
walk through the woods, in the warmth of the day, was felt
by many of the members to be rather fatiguing; and a quarter
of an hour's rest, waiting until the last of the stragglers had
appeared, was by no means unacceptable. Lord Stormont
having been thanked for his great courtesy, the drive was
resumed through a fine country rich in woodlands, attractive
in its scenery, and waving with bounteous crops of wheat and
corn. The company had a peep, in passing, at the fine new
house of Newmiln, which is being built in this locality for
Sir John Millais, R.A., to take the place of the one that was
recently burned; and with Dunsinane Hill and Birnam Wood
in sight, there was no lack of subjects of conversation to
enliven the journey. At the village of Guildtown, a raid was
made on the supplies of the small hostelry there by the tired
and thirsty foresters, which will, no doubt, form a subject of
conversation at many a cottage fireside in the long winter
months, and pass into one of the wondrous legends of the place.

27

Continuing the charming drive, the Tay was first touched at
Taymount, the scene of the marvellous fishing exploits of the
immortal Mr Briggs, who here killed his first salmon, as duly
narrated in the veracious pages of Punch. Stobhall, which we
next pass en route, is an ancient stronghold, the seat of Lord
Willoughby de Eresby—an edifice said to have been in exist-
ence seven hundred years ago, surrounded by beautifully wooded
policies, in which grow many splendid old trees, among which are
gigantic specimens of walnut, spruce, lime, larch, Scots fir, and
others.

MEIKLEOUR.

Passing Cargill village and church, and crossing the Bridge
of Isla, the policies of Meikleour commence on the left, and the
Great Beech Hedge, for which Meikleour is famed far and wide,
is immediately in front of us. This hedge is said to have been
planted about 1746; it is about 86 feet in average height,
and one-third of a mile in length, and being kept neatly and
regularly trimmed, it has long been an object of great interest
among arborists. Mr Matheson, the gardener and forester on
the estate, who joined us here and acted as guide through the
grounds and policies, mentioned that for the last fifty years the
hedge has been regularly cut on the side next the road. On
the other side the trees are left to grow very much at will.
The hedge is pruned from a double ladder on wheels 30 feet
high, which was modelled after the machines of the same kind
used in connection with the cutting of the tall lime avenues at
Versailles. The heavier branches are cut off with a single
point saw, and the twigs, up to a length of 45 feet, with an
averuncator. To prune higher than that is a work of some
difficulty. One of the lithest of the foresters climbs as near to
the top as possible, fastening himself to the strongest branch
he can get by means of a belt round his waist, and holding on to
another branch with his left hand. In his right hand he wields
a light billhook, and by this method can prune to a height of
75 feet. Above that the necessity for pruning is not so great.

On the invitation of the Dowager Marchioness of Lansdowne,
a flying visit was paid to the policies of Meikleour. The house
occupies a charming situation on the north-east bank of the
Tay, near to where the Isla mingles its waters with that noble
river, and from it numerous delightful views can be obtained
of the surrounding country. The mansion-house is a beautiful
modern edifice designed by the late Mr Bryce, Edinburgh, in
the French style—two chief features being a grand circular
staircase and a tasteful balcony. The policies contain many

28

rich sylvan features, and the avenue in front of the mansion is
composed of lines of fine old trees, between which an arched
vista is maintained towards Dunsinane Hill, standing con-
spicuously in the distance. This Gothic arch reaches a height
of 70 to 80 feet, and is 80 yards in length. Several of the trees,
particularly the beeches, which form the avenue are of great
size, the largest of them girthing 13 feet 9 inches at 5 feet from
the ground. The preservation of this unique arboreal feature
is also maintained by means of regular pruning. In the
immediate vicinity of this elegant mansion-house are many
fine trees. Among these is a great silver fir fully 100 feet
high, with a girth of 13 feet 11 inches, and with a diameter of
branches of 60 feet, resting for the most part on the ground
around the bole. Its Abies Pinsapo like habit puzzled some of
the members. A Weymouth pine, Pinus Strobus, near it, with
eleven main stems growing straight up from a bole about a foot
from the ground, like so many Lombardy poplars, was a great
curiosity. The bole girthed 14 feet 4 inches. There were also
seen a grand scarlet oak, some fine Spanish chestnuts, and
many tall and graceful limes.

Lady Lansdowne came upon the terrace of the mansion-
house, and met several of the officials, who thanked her for her
kindness. At Meikleour the British Association party, who
were headed by Professor Bayley Balfour, the President of the
Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, caught up the arbori-
culturists. They only numbered some five-and-twenty—sixty
being expected, but the rainy morning at Edinburgh had
stopped a good many—and of that number about a third were
ladies. They had been considerably delayed in the start. for
Scone, but they saw over the park and most of the other
features around the palace. After a short walk to the top of
the slope overlooking the river, where a lovely reach of it was
seen and greatly admired, the party, thus reinforced, drove off
for Murthly, passing through the pretty rural villages of
Meikleour, Spittalfield, and Caputh. The Tay was again
crossed by the handsome new bridge of Caputh, built a few
years ago in place of an ancient ferry, which, when the river
was in flood, was often perilous to use.

MURTHLY.

On the south bank of the Tay, from Caputh Bridge to Birnam,
a distance of about four miles, lie the richly- wooded and
extensive policies of Murthly Castle, the seat of Mr W. Steuart
lothringham, in which the rest of the day was to be spent.

29

It is classic ground to the arborist, “Great Birnam Wood”
of Shakespeare’s Macbeth forming a part of the policies.
Several grand monarchs of the forest, which are supposed to
have been vigorous trees about that era, are still seen in the
district, although none of such a great age are now found
within the precincts of the ancient Birnam Wood. At the
present day Murthly is probably more famed for its exotic
trees than for those of native origin. The whole extent of the
beautiful pleasure-grounds is thickly studded with fine speci-
mens of the coniferous order of trees. Every hardy species
of exotic conifer that thrives in Britain has been more or less
numerously planted within the past half century, and most of
them are in a remarkably thriving state. The Araucaria from
Chili, Deodar from Upper India, Douglas fir from British
Columbia, and a host of other beautiful and interesting coni-
ferous trees from all parts of the temperate regions of the
earth, are growing here in the greatest luxuriance, and many
of them in numbers not found upon any other estate in the
country. Lovers of conifers, who were of the Excursion, had
therefore a great treat at Murthly, where several days, instead
of an afternoon, might be profitably spent in examining the
beautiful habits and fine proportions of the thousands of
conifers in the extensive grounds. Still, with the castles,
both old and new, the chapel, avenues, gardens, terraces, and
old trees, as well as the lovely and romantic landscape with the
broad and clear waters of the Tay in the foreground, there is
much beside the exotic conifers to attract the notice and
satisfy the taste of all visitors to this estate.

Entering the policies at the East Lodge, the party reached
Murthly at 2.15 p.m, and were most kindly welcomed by
Mr W. Steuart Fothringham, with whom were his relatives
Lord Carnegie and Mr Benson. Luncheon was served in a
large marquee, and a company of 170 sat down to this
repast.

Professor BAyLEY BALFour asked permission to make a few
remarks. They were there that day on an unique occasion.
The Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society had for years been
in the habit of holding annual excursions to different parts of
the country, but that day they had combined to form a joint
excursion with members of the British Association, which
had been holding its meetings last week in Edinburgh. He
felt in speaking just now that he spoke in a dual capacity,
in the first instance as President of the Royal Scottish Arbori-
cultural Society, and in the second place as a member of the

* British Association. This was the first time that the Royal
Scottish Arboricultural Society had visited Murthly. He need

30

hardly say that they appreciated very much the honour which
had been done them that day. He had only to ask them to
look around the tables, and see the numbers who had taken
advantage of the privilege which Mr Steuart Fothringham
had given them, to see how much that privilege had been
appreciated. In their drive through Perthshire that day they
had passed through a lovely country, and at last had reached
Murthly, which some of them had seen before. Others were
visiting it for the first time. He was quite sure that those
who had not seen it before would acknowledge, before the
day was over, that it surpassed anything that they had seen
of the kind elsewhere. This part of Scotland appeared to be
really the home of the conifer. The situation, shelter, the
moisture of the atmosphere, as well as the soil, seemed to be
particularly favourable to the growth of conifers. He did not
mean to say that deciduous trees did not also grow well here;
but he thought he was right in dwelling upon the point that
coniferous trees were the special feature of this locality. They
would not only find admirable individual trees, but specimen
conifers growing in picturesque groups in a most luxuriant
way. He believed that many of their friends from the south
of England and other places would be surprised to find the
wealth of vegetation that was exhibited upon this estate. In
proposing a vote of thanks to Mr Steuart Fothringham for his
hearty reception, he thought he might say that this was a very
important occasion, on which they could show to their English
friends what the Scottish people were doing for forestry. The
Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society had for years laboured
in the cause of forestry. The annual excursion was a very
important educative influence, and the meeting they were
having that day would not, he was sure, be the least important
of any of those which the Society had held. This educative
influence of the Society would, he hoped, go on increasing ;
and in a few years he trusted that they would perfect their
educative system to such an extent that foresters from Scot-
land would be recognised even more than they were at present
all the world over. He asked them to accord their heartiest
vote of thanks to Mr Steuart Fothringham for the very great
privilege he had given them that day of coming to view his
grounds, and in the second place for the very cordial and
hearty manner in which he had entertained them.

Mr Sreven Bourng, on behalf of the members of the British
Association, spoke of the great pleasure it had given him, in
driving through the country that day, to see the land every-
where so well utilised. Coming from the south as he did, he
was quite surprised to see the luxuriance of the crops. It spoke

31

volumes for the excellent agriculture of the country. He could
not help drawing a contrast between it and Ireland, with
which also he was well acquainted, though Ireland in many
respects was exceptionally favoured. What a pleasure it had
been, for example, to see as they drove along the road the
humblest cottage covered with flowers, whereas in Ireland it
was the rarest thing to see a flower in connection with the
houses of the peasantry. In Ireland, too, they might pass
through large tracts of country and rarely see a tree. Here
the land was clothed with woodlands, which added not only to
its value but to its picturesque aspect. It was with great
pleasure that they had come north that day to see something
of the woodlands of Perthshire, and he joined with Professor
Bayley Balfour in thanking Mr Steuart Fothringham for his
reception of them that day.

Mr Stevart FotTHrinGHAM, who was meer with much
applause, said he thanked the ladies and gentlemen assembled
round the table for the manner in which they had received
the speeches of the two gentlemen who had been good enough
to propose a vote of thanks to him. The only thing he had to
say was, that he was very glad to see them there. It was
little use having fine trees on an estate if they were not to be
used for purposes of education, and of allowing those interested
in the growing of them to see what had been done here with
them during the last half century. Many of them had been
planted there for a very long time. The days of the planting
of some of them were known and remembered. Of others they
had not the record. It would help them in their studies to see
how the trees would grow in this country. At the Conifer
Conference many people seemed quite surprised that they were
able to grow the newer conifers so well in what he believed
they called “barren and destitute” Scotland. But after they
had seen specimens of wood from Murthly and other parts
of the country, they were forced to come to the conclusion
that they could grow conifers in Scotland just as well as
they could do in England. “And now, ladies and gentle-
men,” said the young laird of Murthly in conclusion, “1
invite you to come with me through the grounds and see
for yourselves.”

Under the genial leadership of Mr Steuart Fothringham, the
rest of the afternoon was most agreeably spent in visiting this
enchanting arboreal paradise, where something of interest met
the eye at almost every step, and the eager looks and inquiring
remarks of the numerous company, plainly told how deeply
they were interested in all they saw, and how much they
admired the sylvan riches of Murthly. The gardens, lawns,

~

32

terraces, drives, avenues, and approaches to the castle at
Murthly cover an area of over 100 acres. The woods and
policies on the estate around are about 2757 acres in extent.
The walk which the members of the Society had through this
beautiful demesne could not fail to recall the days when the
newer Conifers, with which the policies and woodlands are so
profusely adorned, were first introduced into this country.
The romance of these days, including as it does stories of
adventure in almost unknown lands, and a spirit of commercial
and scientific enterprise which was creditable to all concerned,
has still to be written. It exists in fragmentary shape in many
volumes, but a work which gave a connected narrative of the
wanderings in search of trees by Douglas and Jeffrey and
other mighty travellers in the wilds of America and elsewhere,
would be greatly appreciated by arboriculturists. The laird of
Murthly of that day was Sir William Steuart, Bart., who in
earlier life was an enthusiastic traveller and naturalist. When
travelling in the backwoods of America, he made it his duty
and pleasure to collect the seeds of many coniferous trees which
were scarcely known in this country. In particular, on the
Rocky Mountains and in the North-West Provinces of America,
he secured the seeds of many rare conifers and brought them
home to Murthly, where, with other choice pines from other
countries of the world, they are now growing with a grace
and luxuriance not to be surpassed in any other part of the
country. These beautiful trees have been planted out with a
skilful hand. They form avenues and groves and tree-clad
terraces, all designed to produce the most pleasing effects ; and
the company wandering in this huge pinetum, as the policies
and woodlands may justly be called, found at every step some
fresh object of admiration and pleasure.

Let us recount a few of the wonders. Leading from the
castle to the private chapel is an Araucaria avenue about 170
yards in length. The trees in it are over 30 feet in height, and
in the healthiest condition. To the south-east of the new castle
there is a grove of about twenty Araucarias, even grander than
those in the avenue. Parallel with this avenue is the Yew
Walk, composed entirely of yew trees. Some of them are of
great age. The branches meeting overhead are so trimmed
that the avenue resembles one long Gothic archway, dimly
lighted and impressive, and with a brown carpet formed by the
fallen leaves of the yew. Adown this solemn walk the dead
bodies of the lairds of Murthly are borne when being removed
from the castle to the chapel on their way to their last
resting-place.

Near the principal entrance to the castle is the Deodar

33

Avenue, about 150 yards in length, formed of trees notable for
their beauty and uniformity. The Deodar or Sunk Terrace, a
short distance from the castle, is one of the sights of the place.
It is reached by a broad flight of steps. The terrace is about
170 yards in length, and the trees, about 35 feet high, are
thriving splendidly. Along the slopes of the terrace are a
fine collection of hybrid rhododendrons, and when they are
in bloom, their varied colours against their own dark foliage
and the lighter green of the Deodars have a most charming
appearance. There are also two grand avenues composed
entirely of Douglas firs. One is known as the Douglas
Straight Avenue, consisting entirely of examples of this tree,
averaging 80 feet in height ; and the other, by the river, known
as the Douglas Winding Terrace Avenue, about a quarter of a
mile in length, and consisting of fine well-grown trees about
forty years of age. This terrace is a most interesting sight.
The trees run from 60 to 85 feet in height, girth well, and their
graceful fan-shaped branches spread out nobly around them.
The soil on which they grow is a light sandy loam of average
quality resting on deep gravel, while in other places the
situation is rather marshy. Behind the Douglas pines one
meets at various points in these avenues groups and specimens
of other handsome trees, such as Abies Hookeriana, A. Vettchit,
A. brachyphylla, A. concolor, A. polita, and Pinus monticola.
At the north end of the Deodar Terrace is a line of most hand-
some specimens of Cupressus Lawsoniana—as fine as can be
seen anywhere in the country. Then there is what is called
the “ Low Terrace,” about a quarter of a mile in length, planted
with Douglas firs, araucarias, cypresses, cedars of Lebanon, and
Prince Albert’s fir ; and in this neighbourhood is “ The Rosary,”
surrounded by a raised bank with Lawson’s cypresses, Crypto-
meria elegans, araucarias, and hemlock spruce.

This does not by any means exhaust the arboreal treasures
of these lovely policies. A fine sight is the Dolphin Terrace,
about half a mile in length, containing magnificent specimens
of Abies Menziesit, averaging 70 feet in height, Abces nobilis—
lovely trees they are, and other stately conifers. Adjoining it
is a short avenue of purple beeches, contrasting well with the
conifers ; and the rivulets, waterfalls, and ornamental pools in
this part of the grounds greatly enhance its appearance. There
is likewise the American Garden Terrace, above half a mile
in length, consisting of Douglas firs, Wellingtonias, Abzes
Nordmanniana, A. lasiocarpa, A. nobilis, Cryptomeria japonica,
and other trees. Murthly estate can boast of possessing three
of the first Wellingtonias sent out by Veitch about 1856; and
in the neighbourhood of the American Terrace is one of these

34

interesting trees, which is now about 70 feet in height. The
Grand Avenue, broad and stately, is a quarter of a mile in
length. Leading direct to the castle, it consists of four rows
of lime trees of rare beauty and uniformity, with yews between ;
and between the central road and the trees are broad grassy
lawns. At one end is a triumphal arch, and joining it from
the east is a long avenue of Pinus Cembra and Wellingtonias,
with oaks in the background.

In the Lime Avenue, which was planted in 1711, there are
many handsome trees. The best dozen of these run from 10 feet
to 8 feet in girth, and their height is from 100 to 120 feet. On
the day that we saw them the limes were in flower, scenting
the air with their delightful fragrance.

All these grand arboreal features, and many more of which
time and space would fail to tell, were formed under the direct
supervision of the late Sir William Steuart, who also added
greatly to the grass drives which intersect every portion of this
charming property. One of these followed by the party for
some time brought Birnam Hill prominently into view; and in
the course of the walk several trees were taped or their height
specially noted. As we give a table of the large coniferous trees,
these need not be individually referred to here. Mention,
however, may be made of two Spanish chestnuts in one field,
one 70 feet high, 18 feet 74 inches in girth at 5 feet up, and
26 feet 5 inches at a foot from the ground, and the other 80 feet
high, 17 feet 14 inch in girth, and with a spread of branches
of 38 feet. A bird cherry had a girth of 11 feet 93 inches, and
a beech was 14 feet 6 inches at 5 feet up, with a spread of
branches of 65 feet. These trees were in the park, which the
party entered by a strong and serviceable flight of steps made
of Douglas fir. A cedar of Lebanon was 11 feet 8 inches in
girth and 65 feet 10 inches in height.

The present laird of Murthly is a gentleman who takes the
keenest interest in arboriculture, and the greatest of pleasure
and pride in the arboreal treasures which have fallen to his
lot to possess. At the recent Conifer Conference at Chiswick,
London, he was one of the largest exhibitors, and was awarded
a Silver Medal for the number and excellence of the specimens
of Conifers which he contributed. Although the policies do
not now present any great scope for additional planting, it is
certain that they will be maintained in their present high state
of perfection, and their beauties added to, wherever that is
possible.

The following is a list of some of the finest specimens of
Conifers at Murthly, as supplied by Mr Laurie, the gardener
on the estate :—

35

CoNIFERS AT MURTHLY.

. Diameter
; : : : Girth at
Botanical Name. Situation, Height of
i ee Branches.
| ft. ins.) ft. ins.| ft. ins.
Abies Albertiana, Low Terrace, . | 704) Daly On eOnl Ss 2ustO) |
», Douglasit, . . | Short Deodar Avenue, e206) sort soe LOAN nO
it Standishii, Near ‘‘ Horse-Shoe,” HESe ee VG* SSh) 25leeG
» grandis, Low Terrace, . 64, | 25} Aon 81 2206
» magnifica, . . | Near Old Castle, «tol epe OL Ron dele en,
», Menziesti, . . | By Carriage Drive, . oy AOU A ORION. ese ado a)
», nobilis, Dolphin Terrace, al Det Ah. Gite 24 yn 0
Ary eA ordmanniana, ” ” codices “Gaim 40, Osi Onegr
» ortentalis, . - M 2 Stoo "Osetra am Oeema()
» Pinsapo, Near Rose Cottage, . sO} 85). wsSiiipater adil yy.
a a 4 », Old Castle, 5 @ [Sar SE esse meen
Araucaria imbricata, », New Castle, on | 425 100 ae FO LO 10
5 3 », Chapel Walk, wien. Gi) 4, O90
Cedrus Deodara, . »» Old Castle, Heatley GSP.
>», Labani, Low Terrace, 65010) Sa eee
5 Bs c ealmulower Gardens, 05.0 60 sell) Wesees: Og | eee
Cryptomeria japonica, | Winding Terrace, 36" 3 | 4° 927/26 710
Cupressus Lawsoniana, | Near Sunk Terrace, . Web Oda bie abl
3 thyoides, », Deodar Avenue, Ooi. (0st OF ame
Tnbocedrus decurrens, . | Foot of Sunk Terrace, of, 83), 3G) I tb) 0
Pinus monticola, Near Rose Cottage, ; "66-0" 745 OF 10h 28
*3 a “* Horse-Shoe,”’ 67 0) | foe 265180
Taxus baccata, . | Flower Garden; 5 8 )|) a. aC iy oa a ee
Thuja gigantea, . . | Sunk Terrace, [oS (Onl does) lalbeeO
Thujopsis borealis, nf 55 : : = P00” 5 6) ele HOR On a0
Wellingtonia gigantea, | American Ter.; pltd. 1857, | 66 9/ 9 31/26 0O
Ly 39 ” ” 861, 61 0 6 6 seeeee
Fe Winding Terrace, Feu ak I fo} UH) NL)

There are numerous other specimens of most of these about
as fine as the above, growing in various parts of the grounds;
and the collection of Conifers grown at Murthly numbers in all
over seventy species, besides many varieties. The heights were
taken by a man going up the tree with a long rod, and the
measurements are all as accurate as it is possible to take
them. They constitute a useful record.

PAY MOUNT:

The return journey to Perth was made by the direct road
along the south side of the Tay; passing at about three miles
from Murthly the famed Douglas Fir plantation at Taymount,
which the party halted to inspect, through the kind permis-
sion of the Earl of Mansfield, the proprietor of the estate.
Situated a short distance off the road, it was soon reached by a
few of the most active of the party, the practical members of
which expressed their high satisfaction with what they
observed of the Douglas fir, here growing as an ordinary

36

plantation tree without any mixture of other kinds. The
trees were a full crop of straight clean boles, as shapely and
symmetrical as gun barrels, without a branch to the height of
25 to 30 feet, and with a dark green close canopy overhead, a
perfect beau-ideal of good forestry. The plantation covers
about 14 acres, and was planted in 1860. The soil appeared to
be of a moorish texture, and by no means of an inviting nature;
still the Douglas firs were thriving admirably in it, and the
remark was freely expressed that it was among the best illus-
trations of skilled practical forestry seen on any of the
excursions. A few specimens of the trees were measured by
the forester, Mr Bayne, in the autumn of 1891, the dimensions
of which were as follows :—

Dovucuias Frrs at TAYMOUNT.

No. Height. | Girth at 5 feet up. |Stem to First Branch.
ft. ins. ft. ins, ft.
le 68 0 5 84 Py
2, 695 0 Sag | 28
3. 63 «6 cae mt) 23
4, Cia 16 4 10 23
5. tir, 0) 4 wee: 35

About three miles nearer Perth, on the left of the road, there
was pointed out as we passed the site of the battle of Luncarty,
where the Scots, under Kenneth IIL. in 990 finally overthrew
the Danes, and where, for their timeous succour at the crisis of
the fight, the noble family of Hay acquired both fame and
lands. The most notable feature of Luncarty at the present
day is the extensive bleachfield, said to cover about one
hundred and fifty acres, and to be one of the largest of its kind
in the country. Perth was reached about half-past eight
o’clock—the members more than pleased with the grand day
they had enjoyed.

ANNUAL DINNER.

The annual dinner of the Society was held at nine o'clock, in
the Salutation Hotel, under the presidency of Professor Bayley
Balfour, who was supported by Alderman James Rutherford,
J.P., Redcar, Yorkshire; Mr John Alexander, Ceylon Forest
Department; Mr David P. Laird; and Mr W. J. Moffat,
secretary. Mr M. Dunn, Dalkeith, and Mr James Watt, J.P.,
Carlisle, were the croupiers.

37

The loyal toasts having been honoured,

Mr James Wart, Carlisle, proposed the toast of the British
Association, and expressed the pleasure it had given the Royal
Scottish Arboricultural Society to have been joined that day
by a section of its members.

Professor BAYLEY BALFour, in reply, said it was very good
of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society to make arrange-
ments for the members of the British Association joining their
excursion that day. He only regretted that a larger number
of the British Association did not take advantage of it.
Those who had attended, however, had enjoyed themselves
very much.

Mr DuwN gave as a toast, which was cordially received, the
health of the senior members of the Royal Scottish Arboricul-
tural Society, which was replied to by Mr Boa.

Mr Micuir, Her Majesty’s forester, Balmoral, proposed the
nursery trade, which was responded to by Mr Gossir of
Inverness.

The visitors were proposed by Mr Larrp, and replied to by
Mr Gooncuitp, Suffolk.

THIRD DAY.
Friday, 12th August.

METHVEN, LYNEDOCH, GLENALMOND,
THE CAIRNIES, KEILLOUR, AND BALGOWAN.

Owing to the number of places to be visited and the con-
sequent frequent stoppages, an early start had to be made
to-day so as to accomplish the journey in time to catch the
evening trains for the north and south at the close of the
Excursion. Throughout this day excellent weather was also
enjoyed. The sky was overcast in the morning, and, more
than once in the course of the day, it looked as if a rain-storm
were brewing; but at times the clouds cleared away, and
blinks of sunshine were not unfrequent.

Perth was left at 9 A.m., and the drive, through a prettily-
wooded country, passes Huntingtower Castle, an ancient seat
of the Gowrie family, and the scene of the “ Raid of Ruthven.”
Five miles out is Methven Castle, the seat of William Smythe,
Esq., where the first visit of the day was to be made. The
estate has been owned by the Smythe family since 1664. The

2D

38

fine baronial castle dates from 1680, with many modern additions
and conveniences. The castle stands on a site overlooking
the beautiful and well-kept grounds, as well as a wide stretch
of the open country. A large number of trees of great size
stud the grounds and policies, and many fine specimens of the
newer Conifer are interspersed among them. The famed
“ Pepperwell Oak” stands in the park in front of the castle,
and is probably the most notable tree of great age in the
parish. Many historical events took place in the troublous
times of the Middle Ages in the ancient Wood of Methven, which
was then of much greater extent than what at present exists
on the Methven estate. It is now comprised in about two
hundred acres of ancient woodlands lying along the banks
of the river Almond, and containing many fine old trees and
picturesque scenes. The party had the privilege of walking
through it on the way from Methven Castle to Lynedoch,
as will be duly narrated, and the members viewed with much
interest the ancient remains of this celebrated wood.

We entered the Methven Castle policies at the East Lodge,
near to the village of Almondbank. The drive of about a mile
and a half from the lodge to the castle, passes first through
a fine stretch of woodland in which oak predominates, skirts
the north side of the Loch of Methven, with its rustie boat-
‘ house and numerous waterfowl, and pursues its way along
high ground, from which splendid views are obtained, through
part of the old forest of Methven, with oak and birch and
hazel growing in a state of nature. Alongside of the drive
a number of the newer conifers have been planted among the
hardwoods, and are thriving admirably; as also some fine tall
larches, which were in vigorous health and perfect foliage.
About half a mile from the castle the party were met and
cordially welcomed by Colonel Smythe,! the eldest son of the
proprietor of the estate, who was accompanied by his brother,
Mr F. H. Smythe, and Mr Whitton, the gardener, who acted
as leaders over the estate. A commencement was at once
made with an inspection of the arboreal treasures of this
interesting demesne. Colonel Smythe had brought with him
a book containing most interesting details concerning a
number of the notable trees of the place, which had been
carefully kept for many years by Mr Bishop, who occupied
the position of landsteward on the property from 1794 to
1850, when he died. After that time the record, unfortunately,
was not kept up so continuously; but Colonel Smythe, who is
a member of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, has
taken the matter in hand again, and has arranged for the

1 Now the Laird of Methven,

39

continuance of these “Chronicles” of Methven. A small
clump of Spanish chestnuts was pointed out, which, it was
set forth in the chronicles by Mr Bishop, had been planted in
1832 from seed which ripened on other trees upon the estate
in 1826. This was a rare occurrence at Methven, and, so far
as is known, has not happened again, though the same trees
are yet in perfect health, and bear nuts annually. One of
the 1832 chestnuts was measured in 1880, and was 6 feet
2 inches in girth. Now it girths 6 feet 10 inches, so that in
twelve years it has added 8 inches to its circumference. Pass-
ing the north front of the castle, a number of tall and very
large trees were seen in the grounds to the westward behind
the gardens. One of a line of stately beeches girthed 12 feet
7 inches. It had a fine clean bole, and was in a very healthy
state. We next had a glance through the nicely kept gardens
and hothouses, which are in perfect harmony with the fine
old baronial castle. Beautiful shrubs, roses, and choice
herbaceous, plants occupy the borders in the charming old-
fashioned way, and give them a quaint interest which prim-
kept modern borders are generally without.

In the dell below the castle an ash tree growing by the side
of the burn was pointed out, concerning which several very
interesting particulars were recorded. When a sapling 3 feet
9 inches high, it had been picked up on the roadside by the
late Colonel Smythe, the present proprietor’s brother, and
planted in 1799. It became a great favourite, and its girth
was diligently recorded, sometimes every year, sometimes at
longer intervals, between 1811 and 1850. In 1811 we learn
that at 3 feet from the ground it was 1 foot 64 inches; and the
subsequent measurements were recorded as follows :—

Date. Girth. Date. Girth.

ft. ins. ft. ins.
18; . 5 1s 18455 . » 4 53
1818, 2 3 1847, . . a) <4" 0
1819, 2 4# 1849, . - - 4 8%
1820, 2 216 1850, 4 93
1821, Z+28 11863, . 5 STUDS 4G:
1827, ole 3 Pe 1880, . 5 : Gur6
1829, 3 44 1883, . 5 est 9
1832, a dF 11891, . - : bod
1834, 3. 10 1892, . ° im eget
1841, 4 2 |

Colonel Smythe, before his death in 1847, gave orders that
his horse should be shot and buried underneath the shade of

1At4 feet up, The other measurements presumably are‘ at 3 feet, follow-
ing the course of thé first measurement. : i :

40

the ash tree. This was actually carried out, as was poetically
set forth on a card which until recently hung around the tree,
but has now disappeared—

‘€ Donald’s dead, his troubles ended,
From future drudgery set free,
And now his body lies extended,
To nurse his master’s foundling tree.”

Of a second ash planted alongside of it in 1805, there is also
a continuous record of its growth since 1811, when it was
32 inches in girth at 3 feet up. The measurements since,
as recorded in Mr Bishop’s book, are—

Date. Girth. Date. Girth.
ft. ins. fits fins:
1821, . - c i +02 18455 - 5 Ze ab?
1827, « : : a} 5s 1863, . - 5 Bio uis
IRS VAY Ihe . : 1 7 1880, . - oy ee
1834, . “ A Tha MSO C - Tees!
1842,-. 3 ‘ 2 va 1892, e - Aas

Crossing the burn by a rustic bridge, we are close to the
largest, and possibly the oldest, tree in the place, the Pepper-
well Oak, as already stated, which stands near the bottom of
the slope below the mansion-house. The earliest authentic
account of it which Bishop says he could get was in 1722,
when David Smythe, then the laird of Methven, was confined
in the Tower of London for his political opinions. Under
these circumstances there came a man to Methven Castle, who,
thinking that the wife of the imprisoned laird might want
money, offered her for the tree 100 merks Scots, which was equal
to £5, 12s. 6d. of our present currency. This, of course, was
refused. In reference to its age, Bishop says that he attended
an old man’s funeral in 1795, who had been heard to say that
he knew a man who had repeatedly thought of cutting the
tree down while young, as a supple for his flail, so that, Bishop
remarks, “it may not perhaps be so old as it looks.” These old
men’s stories regarding trees have always had to be received
cum grano salis. Recalling the aspect of some of the Sherwood
Forest oaks, one would say that the Pepperwell Oak was of
considerable antiquity. The measurements of the tree from
1795, at 4 feet up, are exceeding instructive. Here they are,—

Date. Girth. Date. Girth.
ft. ins. ft. ins.

1/95, ve “ - 14 6 1847, . . of LS

0 f23 {i ae 2 ci, LOU: 1850, . ° ° 19° al

1830, . s ~ ti eel) 1880, . = >. sora

1842, , = See ws 1892, . = » 29,

41

In 1891 Colonel Smythe measured it, and got 19 feet 10 inches,
and on our visit, when the tape was passed round it, the bole
measured 19 feet 11 inches; but this apparently large increase
in a season may be easily accounted for otherwise than by
supposing that the tree is still adding rapidly to its girth.

Bishop writes further regarding it that, although the tree
evidently belongs to the species of British oak known to
botanists as Quercus robur pedunculata, it had in its flowers
certain characteristics of Q. 7. sessilifora, a remark which
showed that Bishop had a very observant eye. The sessilifora.
characteristics were found by the members of the Arbori-
cultural Society, just as they were by Bishop, though no
doubt existed that the Pepperwell Oak was of the pedunculata
variety. In 1836 the tree seems to have been surveyed, and it
was estimated to contain about 700 feet of timber, which, at 3s.
a foot—the price current then—was worth £105. The Pepper-
well Oak has, however, been battered by storms since that
time, and has lost three very large limbs, which has destroyed
its symmetrical appearance, though so far it has not shown
any signs of decay. Underneath it is a seat made from a slab
of beech cut from a tree which grew farther up the slope, and
which measured 4 feet 8 inches in diameter.

Among other large trees which were measured on this sunny
southern slope was a larch, which in 1882 was 12 feet 4 inches
in girth, and was now found to be 12 feet 65 inches; and a
clump of Spanish chestnuts—those from which the seed already
referred to was procured. The largest of the group was 11 feet
5 inches in circumference in 1880, 12 feet 5 inches in 1891, and
12 feet 7 inches in August 1892. A grand oak with a fine
straight bole, which was 13 feet 1 inch in 1880, gave now a
measurement of 14 feet ; and an ash, which was 13 feet 6 inches
in 1880, was now 14 feet in girth. Running aslant of the slope,
a nice avenue of Deodars was seen which had been grown from
seed sent home by Lord Elgin in 1863 or 1864, when he was
Governor-General of India. Between the castle and the gardens
are a large number of fine specimens of the newer Conifere,
among which is a fine example of Cryptomeria japonica, 5 feet
9 inches in girth at 4 feet up, and about 40 feet in height;
an Abies Hookeriana (in cone), 30 feet high; a Wellingtonia
gigantea, 61 feet in height, 8 feet 24 inches in girth at
4 feet up, 12 feet 3 inches at the base, and covered with
cones; and an Abies Albertiana, 70 feet in height, were also
inspected.

The following list of the finest specimens of conifers at
Methven Castle, and their dimensions, has been kindly furnished
by Mr Whitton, who has raised many of them from seed or

42

cuttings, and they bear good evidence of the skill and care
he has bestowed upon them :—

ConrIFERS AT METHVEN CASTLE.

Botanical Name. Age. Height. Ny ve ae

feet. ft. ins,

Abies Albertiana, F : 23 68 any
», Douglasii, . : , 3 65 6 10
ise grandis, .. : : 21 35 4 0
», Hookeriana, 3 A 34 15 p Aaetage! |
», magnifica, . : ; 15 25 22
», Morinda, . : su} 50 50 6) faa
Sel MOUULIS ea we ; ‘ 21 35 Fie
», Nordnanniana, : 22 35 Ques
5, Lattoniana, ; : 34 25 2 #2
Araucaria imbricata, . : 35 35 4 38
Jedrus atlantica, ; F 35 20 a) 0
», Deodara, . : ‘ 25 50 Pa ats)

wo wnbani, *: : : 150 (2) 90 9 10
Cryptomeria japonica, . c 30 30 5 5
Cupressus Lawsonianda, ; 35 45 Desend,
Libocedrus decurrens, . : 30 24 3
Pinus Cembra, . ; ‘ 50 35 Beet!)
» Lambertiana, . ’ 50 30 aR Be?
Thujopsis borealis, . é 33 37 38 4
Wellingtonia gigantea, ‘ 25 61 (oo

Mr and Mrs and Miss Smythe received the visitors on the
castle terrace, and Mr Smythe (who is over ninety years of
age) addressed a few cordial words of welcome to them. The
place, he said, had many historical associations connected with
it. At one time it belonged to the Royal House of Stuart. It
was there that Margaret, Queen Dowager of James IV., and
daughter of Henry VII. of England, died in 1540, and other
royal associations lingered round the castle. The estate passed
to the Lennox family, and was by them sold in the end of the
seventeenth century to one of his ancestors, and it had remained
with them ever since. He was glad to see them there, and he
trusted they had enjoyed their walk through the grounds.

Before the party passed on, cheers were given in honour of
Mr and Mrs Smythe and family.

[It may be noted here that this was the last public appear-
ance of Mr Smythe. He died full of age and honour just one
month after the Society had visited his beautiful demesne, and
the tributes of respect which were paid to him by the public
press of the country showed how his long and useful public life
had been appreciated by his fellow-countrymen. ]

Before the party left Methven they were entertained to
refreshments on the lawn in front of the castle.

43

Professor BAYLEY BALrour tendered the cordial thanks of
the company to Mr and Mrs Smythe and family for their
kindness, and expressed a hope that Colonel Smythe might
see his way to allow some of the interesting records, of which
mention has already been made, to be published.

Colonel SMyTHE, in reply, expressed the pleasure it had been
to them all to see the Arboricultural Society there that day.
He had been a member of the Society for the past ten years,
but he had never been able to attend any of the meetings.
Professor Bayley Balfour had referred to Mr Bishop’s book. If
it would be of any use to the Society, he should be glad to
put it at their service. The record had been extremely well
kept up to forty years ago, but since then there had not been
so much put in. A beginning, however, had again been made,
which he hoped would be continued.

Leaving the castle, the party walked or drove through a bit
of Methven Wood, heavily timbered with oak, larch, and beech,
to the deep and romantic valley of the Almond, to see one of the
largest beeches on the estate. The ground around it has been
cleared to give this handsome tree light and air; and a more
beautiful example of Fagus sylvatica could not be desired. It
ranks among the largest beeches in the country. It is over 100
feet in height, with a magnificent head adorned with the
richest foliage. In the Woods and Forests of Perthshire, 1883,
the girth of this grand tree is given at 14 feet 9 inches at 5 feet
up. On measuring it the arborists got a girth of 16 feet 8 inches.
It has a splendid bole of 20 feet, and divides there into five main
limbs, each of which is in itself a respectable tree. In the
immediate vicinity of the beech is a fine oak, which, however,
from want of time, was not measured. In 1883 it was 8 feet
9 inches in girth at 5 feet from the ground; and, throwing its
arms over the Almond, is a handsome sycamore, also of large
girth. The beech, it should be said, was grandly anchored in
the ground by roots which gave at the base of the tree a
measurement of nearly 24 feet; but it was observed with
regret that rabbits had eaten away a good deal of the bark
from the base. Colonel Smythe mentioned that he meant to
surround the tree immediately with a rabbit-proof net.

Methven Wood, through which we have been passing, is
redolent of traditions of both the great Scottish liberators,
Wallace and Bruce. There was a battle fought here between
Bruce and the Earl of Pembroke in 1306, which ended dis-
astrously to the Scots, who, tradition says, were encamped on
this very spot where the beech tree now stands, cooking their
supper, when Pembroke’s forces burst in upon them.

On the way up from the dell attention was called to a fine

44

oak which had been struck by lightning in a recent storm.
The lightning had loosened the bark on one side, and had left
a spiral-like gap about 2 inches in width down the injured side
of the bole.

LYNEDOCH.

Lynedoch, belonging to the Earl of Mansfield, was the next
stoppage. The drive from Methven Wood to it was through
some fine woodland scenery, on the north side of the river
Almond, which was crossed at the bridge of Dalerue. The chief
objects of attraction at Lynedoch—which formerly belonged to
General Sir Thomas Graham, of Peninsular War fame, after-
wards Lord Lynedoch—are the two famous Douglas fir trees,
of which all arborists have heard, the smaller of the two
having produced the seed from which has been raised the
many thousands of Douglas firs now growing on the Scone
estates. In the sheltered valley where the Douglas firs stand
there are many other fine specimens of forest trees, both
spruces and firs, ranging from about 10 to 14 feet in girth,
and towering to a height of over 100 feet, with long, straight,
clean boles of excellent timber. A short distance farther up
the valley, on Dronach Haugh, is the widely heard of grave of
“Bessie Bell and Mary Gray,” who having fled from Perth in
1666, to escape the plague, were in this secluded spot attacked
and carried off by the fatal disease, and lie buried where they
died, in their sylvan retreat. Their romantic story and sad fate
attracts many visitors from distant parts to this sequestered
nook in the valley, to read on their tombstone the simple
epitaph, “They lived—they loved—they died.”

To Lynedoch, and afterwards to The Cairnies, the party were
accompanied by Colonel Smythe and Mr F. H. Smythe. On
arriving at Lynedoch the party left the carriages and pro-
ceeded a short distance on foot to view the famed Douglas firs
growing ina small haugh on the banks of the river Almond.
The larger of the Douglas firs, planted in 1834, was 93 feet in
height and girthed 12 feet 1 inch at 5 feet up. When the
Society last visited Lynedoch, in 1884, the measurements
were—height, 92 feet, and girth, 10 feet 10 inches; giving
about 180 cubic feet of timber. It is a magnificent tree, and is
in the most perfect health. The other is 72 feet 2 inches in
height—its leader having been broken several times—and it
girths 11 feet 2 inches. In 1884 it girthed 9 feet 10 inches at
4 feet up, and 6 feet 10 inches at 27 feet up. It is this tree
(“Eve” it is named) which is the parent of all the younger
Douglas firs, which are so plentifully disposed on the Earl of
Mansfield’s estates, and for the sake of its cones, it is enclosed

45

within a squirrel-proof fence, while all the trees within jumping
distance around it have been cleared away. Last year some-
thing like 12,000 cones were gathered, and as many as 30,000
cones are said to have been gathered off it in a single season,
Among other big trees in this sheltered spot were two silver
firs over 100 feet in height, and girthing respectively 11 feet
11 inches, and 13 feet 8 inches. There was also a grand spruce,
Abies excelsa, towering to over 106 feet in height, with a girth
of 10 feet at 5 feet up,—the finest spruce on the estates.

These trees were surveyed with the greatest admiration. At
Lynedoch the woods have been very greatly improved since
they were purchased by the Earl of Mansfield about forty
years ago; and the members rambled through them for the
best part of an hour—the timber being everywhere of great
value.

GLENALMOND AND THE CAIRNIES.

The carriages were again mounted, and what proved to be
a long drive was undertaken to the Logiealmond district, where
several estates were down on the programme to be visited.

Pursuing an oak-shaded road for several miles up the valley,
we passed Logie House and policies, a beautiful seat of the Earl
of Mansfield, with some splendid trees—including a Weymouth
pine, Pinus Strobus, 90 feet high, and 7 feet 6 inches in girth
at 5 feet up—in the grounds around it. Onwards we sped
through the rural village of Harrietfield for a distance of about
9 miles, until we arrived at Glenalmond House, the seat of
Mrs Malcolm Patton, where a short time was devoted to
viewing the fine specimens of the newer Conifers, which thrive
particularly well in the locality. Many clumps of Douglas fir
were met with growing well in this upland region, and
admiration was also expressed at the long stretch of oak trees
planted by the late Mr M‘Corquodale, which extended for
miles on both sides of the road.

During the drive we kept in sight for a considerable time
the famous Glenalmond College, a beautiful example of Early
English Gothie architecture, which rose grandly on the other
side of the valley over a fine screen of sheltering trees.
Meeting Mr John M‘Lagan, overseer on The Cairnies estates,
who acted as our guide, a visit was paid to the Pine Haugh as
soon as we reached Glenalmond. It lies on the north bank of
the river Almond, and contains a large number of well-grown
and beautiful coniferous trees. Among the best of them was a
Pinus monticola over 70 feet in height, and 5 feet 5 inches in
girth at 5 feet up. In this haugh the late Lord-Justice Clerk
Patton laid out between two and three acres for the purpose of

46

putting the different varieties of the newer conifers to a com-
petitive trial. The trees are planted in groups, and among
others to be found here are Abies Albertiana, A. Menziesii, A.
grandis, A. Douglasii, and A. cephalonica; Pinus strobus, P.
Laricio, P. austriaca, P. Cembra, P. montana, and P. monticola.
The palm was awarded to the Menzies spruce for luxuriance
of growth and the production of the most timber; but Pinus
monticola, Abies Albertiana, A. Douglasii, and A. grandis were
also doing very well in this high locality, at the base of the
Grampians. Time, however, did not admit of a very prolonged
examination of this interesting spot, for the main body of the
excursionists had turned off for The Cairnies at Harrietfield,
and did not pursue their way so far as this up the glen.

Crossing the river Almond again at the bridge of Buchanty,
at the foot of the wildly romantic Sma’ Glen—near the top of
which, in the narrow bottom of the rocky defile, stands Ossian’s
Stone, said to mark the burial-place of the ancient Gaelic poet—
the road turns to the left towards The Cairnies estate of Colonel
T. M. Harris, and a stop was made at The Cairnies House, the
residence of Mrs Malcolm Patton. Here the late Right Hon.
George Patton, Lord-Justice Clerk, carried on extensively the
planting of the newer Conifer for many years previous to his
death in 1869, and most of them are growing with a freedom
and luxuriance seldom seen in much more favourable localities

for tree growth. This particularly applies to the species of
- conifers from the temperate regions of North-West America.
Abies Albertiana, A. concolor, A. Douglasii, A. grandis, A.
magnifica, A. Menziesii, A. nobilis, A. Pattoniana—named after
the Lord-Justice Clerk—and many others are all seen in large
numbers, and thriving remarkably well.

At The Cairnies the company were hospitably entertained
to lunch by Mrs Malcolm Patton, and afterwards spent some
time in viewing the sylvan beauties of the policies and the
estate in the neighbourhood of the mansion, with which all
were very much charmed. Just within the entrance gate
nothing could be finer than the noble avenue of the most
graceful species of coniferous trees, which led to a conifer-
encircled lawn of great beauty, the charming aspect of which
is probably unique in any part of Britain.

The Cairnies was one of the earliest homes of the newer
Conifers. The late Lord-Justice Clerk, who succeeded to the
property in 1831, spared, we are told by Mr Hunter in his
Woods and Forests of Perthshire, neither trouble nor expense
in securing specimens of the rarer varieties, with the view of
testing their adaptability to the climate of this country, both
as ornamental and as forest trees. He might well be proud

47

of them could he have but looked upon them to-day. In the
policies some of the newer conifers are growing with a beauty
and luxuriance that rivetted the attention of the visitors. It
would be difficult to say which were most praised. The Prince
Albert firs were truly splendid. The seeds of this favourite tree
were first sent home to this country by Jeffrey, during the first
year of his Oregon expedition, on which he started in 1850, and
some of the earliest seeds were sown by Mr Patton soon after
their arrival in Scotland. Several of the Albert firs at The
Cairnies are acknowledged to be among the finest in the
country, and there are many noteworthy trees of Abies
concolor, A. Douglas, A. grandis, A. nobilis, A. Menzesir, A.
Nordmanniana, A. Pinsapo; Cupressus Lawsoniana, Pinus
monticola, Thuja gigantea, Thujopsis borealis, and Wellingtonia
gigantea. The dimensions of some of the best of the conifers
are given in the following table, but there are scores of the
same trees equally large, and perhaps even larger. As Mr
M‘Lagan, to whom we were indebted for the measurements,
truly remarked, it was not an easy matter to pick out the
biggest among so many, and especially when they are.growing
so thickly crowded together as they are at The Cairnies. The
trees measured are all from thirty to thirty-five years of age.

ConrIFeRsS AT THE CAIRNIES.

Botanical Name. | Height. | Girth at 5 feet up.

feet. ft. ins.

Abies Albertiana, . : ; 63 6 9
», cephalonica, . : ; 47 5 0
PEERCOUCOLOT, 1 a : : 55 6 0
», Douglasii, . : : 61 5 4

» grandis, , ; ‘ 61 5 8
», Hookeriana, : : 25 1 6

», magnifica, . : 50 3 6

:, Menziesti, . ‘ é Me 6 8

si forinda, |. : 35 3 0

», nobilis, : : ; 65 5 9

», Nordmanniana, : 57 4 10
PN OMENLALES, ©, ; : 50 3 3
», Lattoniana, . : . 30 3 0
Seemarow, . ‘ ; Do 3 0

», Pinsapo, : : ; 26 3 2

», Webbiana, . ; 5 36 2; 8
Araucaria imbricata, . : 3 2 2
Cupressus Lawsoniana, « : 36 3 4
Pinus Cembra, . . & 45 4 0
1» monticola, . ; ‘ 70 5 3
Taxodium sempervirens, : 42 3 2
Thuja gigantea, . : 4 48 2 6
7 2

Wellingtonia gigantea, . 5 45

48

A great feature of interest was the visit which was paid
to the original tree of Abies Pattoniana, which was found
growing in the corner of the grounds near to the gardens. It
was called after Mr Patton, who was a leading member of the
Oregon Association, and the tree, needless to say, was inspected
with much interest.

Previous to leaving this charming spot, the officials of the
Society were received by Mrs Malcolm Patton, to whom Pro-
fessor Bayley Balfour tendered the thanks of the Society for
her great kindness and hospitality. They had all been
delighted with the visit which they had paid to her beautiful
and romantic grounds.

KEILLOUR AND BALGOWAN.

At this point about one half the company, who had to catch
early trains, took carriages direct to Perth. The other half
went on to visit the pinetum at Keillour and the estate of
Balgowan, belonging to Captain Black, who had in the kindest
possible manner driven over to The Cairnies to conduct the
party in person over his property.

As we drove across the purple heather-clad moor, it was
noticed that much of it had been planted in recent years with
larch, Scots fir, and spruce, freely sprinkled with Menzies and
Douglas firs, as well as others of the newer Conifers, which
were all making satisfactory progress.

A drive of about a couple of miles brought the company to
Keillour Pinetum, on the property of Captain Black of Bal-
gowan, where many fine specimens of coniferous trees of all
kinds were seen of great size, and growing with remarkable
vigour on what, within the memory of men still living, was a
cold bleak moor, not worth enclosing for the scanty pasture it
afforded.

The pinetum was originally the property of Mr Smythe of
Methven, and the trees would be planted about 1834 by the
same hand as set out many of those at Methven Castle. The
Douglas fir, Menzies spruce, Abies grandis, A. nobilis, Pinus
monticola, Araucaria imbricata, and many others are doing
well in the pinetum, which is about 6 acres in extent. It
occupies a position in the centre of a very extensive plantation
of spruce, Scots fir, and larch, all doing well, though the moor
is black and bleak, and marshy in places, with a cool tilly
bottom not generally supposed to be well adapted for growing
conifers, especially the rarer varieties. Many of them, how-
ever, are not only healthy but luxuriant. The giant of the
place was a grand Abies Menziesii over 100 feet high, and

49

girthing 14 feet 8 inches at 5 feet from the ground. It was
planted in 1834, of which mention is made by Bishop in the
Methven Castle records, and is at the present moment probably
the finest tree of the kind in the United Kingdom. It was very
much admired, clothed as it was with foliage down to the very
ground. Near it are Wellingtonias, Redwoods, Deodars, and
many other firs and pines, but none of them have attained to the
dimensions of this gigantic Menzies spruce. Among the pines,
Pinus monticola was found to be thriving particularly well, and
seems to be one of the best of the North American pines for
growing in Scotland. The Deodars and Pinus Cembra were
not happy looking, the soil being possibly too poor and cold
for their tastes.

A very curious and striking variety was seen of the Balsam
fir, Abies balsamea, from North America. It puzzled the
botanists of the company to say exactly what it was, being
so different in appearance from the typical form as to seem
another species. Professor Bayley Balfour carried off some
well-coned branches of it, and these having been forwarded
to Dr Masters of the Gardeners’ Chronicle, one of the recognised
authorities on Conifers, he pronounced it to be Abies balsamea.

Leaving the pinetum, the party drove at a rapid pace to
Captain Black’s home nurseries, near Keillour Castle, where
was growing a large and healthy stock of young trees—chiefly
the rarer conifers raised from seed gathered off the trees in the
pinetum. Again the road was taken, and driving rapidly down
country, Balgowan, the seat of Captain J. S. Black, and the
birthplace of General Lord Lynedoch, the Peninsular warrior,
was soon reached, at the bottom of the wide “braes.” In the
beautiful and well-laid-out grounds around the mansion were
seen many fine trees and handsome specimens of the newer
Coniferze, an inspection of which fitly closed what may be
called a “Conifer Excursion.” It was a misfortune that so
short a time could be spent here, where there was so much
that was worthy of careful inspection. But time was flying,
and the company, in order to see something of the policies,
had literally to gallop through them. In the grounds were
some grand ancestral trees, and many of the rarer conifers
in the most vigorous health and perfect beauty.

Among notable trees which were measured were a Cedar of
Lebanon, 12 feet 10 inches in girth; a beech, 11 feet 2 inches;
and an oak, 13 feet 9 inches,—all taken at 5 feet up. Splendid
examples also were seen of Abies Albertiana, A. Douglasii,
A. grandis, A. nobilis, A. Nordmanniana, Cupressus Lawsoniana,
Thuja gigantea, and Thujopsis borealis. The views all around
were very beautiful—the rich agricultural country, stretching

50

away from the mansion-house, looking well under the beams
of the now declining sun. Before leaving, the company
were conducted to the front of the mansion, where, on the
smoothly-shaven lawn, there was set out a sumptuous tea, over
which Mrs Black presided with charming grace. A quarter
of an hour was spent in a most agreeable way, enjoying the
hospitality of Captain and Mrs Black, and then adieu had to
be said. Professor Bayley Balfour once more gave expression
to the gratitude of the company for the kindness they had
received in Perthshire on this occasion, and to Captain and
Mrs Black tendered the most cordial thanks of the Society.
Three cheers having been given for their host and hostess, the
company took carriages and started on their way for Perth.
Driving rapidly through the village of Methven, and along the
road traversed in the morning, the party reached the railway
station just in time to catch the last trains going north and
south.

It is one of the peculiarities of the excursions of the Royal
Scottish Arboricultural Society, that the latest always seems
the best. The 1892 excursion takes its place as the best
attended the Society has ever held, and in point of interest, it
certainly holds its own with those which have preceded it.

Aopul Acottish Arboricultural Society.

PROCEEDINGS

THIRTY-NINTH ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING

So2;

doval Acottish Arboricultural Society.

Instituted 16th February 1854.

PATRON.

HER MOST GRACIOUS MAJESTY THE QUEEN.

The Thirty-Ninth Annual General Meeting of the Royal
Scottish Arboricultural Society was held in the Society’s Rooms,
5 St AnprReEw Square, EpinBurRGH, on the evening of Tuesday
the 9th day of August, 1892. The President of the Society,
Isaac Baytey Batrour, Esq., M.D., D.Sc., Professor of Botany,
Edinburgh University, in the Chair, There was a large attendance
of Members from all parts of the country.

Minutes Reap.

The Minutes of last Annual General Meeting were read and
approved of.

For the information of the Members, the Szecrerary read the
Minutes of the various Council Meetings held during the past
year,

ELecTION oF NEw Members.

The SecreTary notified the following list of Candidates for
Membership, stating at the same time that the number was the
largest submitted to the Society for Election since the year of the
Forestry Exhibition. The Candidates proposed and duly elected
were :—

Apamson, Christopher, Merchant, Leven, Fife.
Atrp, Archibald, Assistant Forester, Scone, Perth.
BAILLIZ, Thomas, Assistant Forester, Tomnacroich, Fortingall, Perth-
shire.
BALLINGAL, Neil, Sweet Bank, Markinch, Fife.
5 Barty, Rev. Dr, The Manse, Kirkeolm, Stranraer,
Bonp, Thomas, Forester, Gartshore Estate, Kilsyth, Stirlingshire,
CuapMan, Andrew, Breckonhill, Lockerbie,

10

20

30

40

55

4

Cuark, John, jun., Assistant Forester, Haddo House, Aberdeen.

CuiarkK, William, 66 Queen Street, Edinburgh.

Cowan, George, 1 Gillsland Road, Edinburgh.

Davipson, John, Forester, Dalzell Farm, Motherwell.

Davipson, William, Assistant Forester, Glamis, Forfarshire.

Dick, Robert, Assistant Forester, Wykeham Abbey, Yorkshire.

Dow, R., Forester, Douglas Castle, Douglas.

Euiot, John, Assistant Forester, Scone, Perth.

Forean, James, Sunnybraes, Largo, Fife.

ForGan, William, Assistant Forester, Lynedoch, Perth.

Fraser, George, 24 St Andrew Square, Edinburgh.

FRAsER, Simon, Forester, Boidon, Luss.

Gipson, William, Overseer, Kildonan, Barrhill, Ayrshire.

Harvie, D., Factor, Dalzell Farm, Motherwell.

Hay, John, Overseer, Birchhill Cottage, Clackmannan.

Heron, James, Gardener, Pollok House, Pollokshaws.

HoneEyMAN, Thomas, Factor, Clunes, Auchnacarry.

Kerr, John, Yorkston, Gorebridge.

Kerr, Robert G., St Clement’s Wells, Musselburgh.

M‘Dowatt, James, Gardener, Kildonan, Ayrshire.

M‘Kay, Allan, Assistant Forester, Dunrobin, Golspie.

M‘Rag, Alexander, Wemyss Saw Mills, Leven, Fife.

Macsean, Simon, Forester, Drumnaglass, by Inverness.

MacCowan, Daniel, Assistant Forester, Hornby Castle, Lancaster.

Macxkenziz, W. A., Assistant Factor, Strabane, Brodick.

MacLennan, William, Factor, Prestonhall, Dalkeith.

MAxweE LL, James, Assistant Forester, Bellstane, DrumJanrig, Dumfries-
shire.

Meruven, John, The Gardens, Blythswood, Renfrewshire.

Mine, J. K., Kevock Tower, Lasswade.

Murpocu, John, Rosemount, Dalkeith.

Murray, Alexander, Forester, Murthly, Perth.

Murray, John, Forester, Airthrey Castle, Bridge of Allan.

Pirriz, George, Wood Merchant, Dalkeith.

Porrs, G. H., Fettes Mount, Lasswade.

Prouproot, William, Forester, Raith, Kirkcaldy.

Ramsay, Walter, Assistant Forester, Pollok Estate, Pollokshaws.

Rircuie, Alexander, Assistant Forester, Lynedoch, Perth.

Scorr, David, Overseer, Duinfries House, Cumnock.

Scort, John, Forester and Bailiff, Gilling Castle Estate, Yorks.

Smiru, Charles, Gardener, Colesbourne Park, Cheltenham, Gloucestershire.

Srewart, Sir Mark J., Bart., M.P., of Southwick, Kirkeudbrightshire.

SuTHERLAND, John D., Estate Agent, Oban.

Tart, James, Builder, Penicuik.

Taytor, Alexander, Assistant Forester, Lynedoch, Perth.

TENNANT, Edward, The Glen, Innerleithen, Peeblesshire.

Wattacer, Robert, Professor of Agriculture, Edinburgh University.

Winton, Thomas, Timber Merchant, Dundee.

Youne, H, O., Milford Nurseries, Milford, Surrey.

VoTE OF SYMPATHY.

Mr M. Dunn moved that the Society send an expression of
“sympathy to the Marquis and Marchioness of Lothian in connec-
tion with the death of Lord Ancram. The Marquis, he said,
was a past president of the Society, and took a great interest in
all forestry matters. Mr R. D. Ker, W.S., seconded the motion,
which was cordially adopted.

Evection oF Orrice-BEARERS.
The following were elected for Office for year 1892-93 :—

PRESIDENT.
Isaac BAYLEY BALFour, Se. D., M.D., F.L.8., Professor of Botany, Edinburgh.

VICE-PRESIDENTS.,

Hueu Ciecuorn, M.D., LL.D., ¥.R.S.E., of Stravithie, St Andrews.
Wettwoop H. Maxwe ut of Munches, Kirkeudbrightshire.

W. M. Weusu, Nurseryman and Seedsman, 1 Waterloo Place, Edinburgh,
Rospert Linpsay, Curator, Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh,

JOHN Mrruven, Nurseryman, 15 Princes Street, Edinburgh,

COUNCIL.

Rogperr BAxtEr, Forester, Dalkeith Park, Dalkeith.

DANIEL Dewar, Forester, Beaufort, Beauly.

D. F. Mackenzie, Factor, Morton Hall, Liberton.,

D. Scorr, Wood Manager, Darnaway, Forres.

WiLi1AM SoMERVILLE, D.Cic., B.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Agriculture
and Forestry, Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

CHARLES BuCHANAN, Overseer, Penicuik House, Penicuik,

JAMES Cook, Land Steward, Arniston, Gorebridge.

Roserr Hurcurson, F.R.S.E., University Club, Edinburgh.

JAMES Kay, Forester, Bute Estate, Rothesay.

JAMES Morrart, Assistant Factor, 48 Castle Street, Edinburgh.

Lewis BAyNng&, Forester, Scone, Perthshire.

Matcoim Dunn, The Palace Gardens, Dalkeith.

D. P. Latrp, Nurseryman, Pinkhill, Murrayfield, Midlothian,

R. C. Munro-Frercuson, M.P., of Raith and Novar.

ANDREW SLATER, Overseer, Haystoun, Peebles,

SECRETARY AND TREASURER.
WisiAM J, Morrat, 5 St Andrew Square, Edinburgh.

AUDITOR.
JoHN Orp Mackenzib, W.S., of Dolphinton, 9 Hill Street, Edinburgh,

6

JUDGES,

D. Scorr, Wood Manager, Darnaway, Forres (Convener).
D. Dewar, Forester, Beaufort Castle, Beauly.

JOHN ALLAN, Forester, Dalmeny.

A. Mine (of Messrs Dickson & Sons), Edinburgh.

COMMITTEE ON TRANSACTIONS.

Dr CLEGHORN of Stravithie, St Andrews (Convener).

Professor I. BAYLEY BALFour, Edinburgh.

Matcoitm Dunn, The Palace Gardens, Dalkeith.

Rosert LinpsAy, Curator, Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh.

JOHN METHVEN (of Messrs Thomas Methven & Sons), Edinburgh.

Wma. SomERVILLE, Professor of Agriculture and Forestry, Durham
College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

PHOTOGRAPHIC ARTIST.
PHILIP CocKBURN, Dalkeith.

LOCAL SECRETARIES.
Scotland.

DANIEL DEWAR, Forester, Beaufort Castle, Beauly.

WILiiAM Dovueury, Forester, Langholm Estate, Canonbie.

JOHN FINGLAND, Forester, Drumlanrig, Thornhill, Dumfriesshire.
JAMES Kay, Forester, Bute Estate, Rothesay.

DonaLp M‘CorquopatE, Forester, Dunrobin Castle, Golspie.
WitiiAM M‘LEAN, Forester, Eglinton Castle, Irvine.

C. Y. Micuig, Forester, Cullen House, Banffshire.

JoHN Micute8, Forester, Balmoral, Ballater.

JAMES ROBERTSON, Forester, Panmure House, Carnoustie.

D. Scorr, Forester, Darnaway Castle, Forres,

England.

JAMES BARTON, Forester, Hatfield, Herts.

JAMES BarRIE, Forester, Stevenstone Estate, Torrington, Devon.

JAMES BELL, The Gardens, Stratfieldsaye, Winchfield, Hants.

ANDREW Boa, junior, Sub-Agent, Great Thurlow, Suffolk.

Rosert T, Conus, Forester, Trentham, Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire.

JoHN Davipson, Secretary, English Arboricultural Society, Haydon-
Bridge-on-Tyne.

J. M. ForsyrHe, Wood Manager, Woburn, Beds.

Frank Hutt, Forester, Lillieshall, Newport, Salop.

JAMES RuruprrorD, Agent, Kirkleatham, Redcar, Yorkshire.

D. Tarr, Estate Bailiff, Owston Park, Doncaster, Yorks,

A. D. Wepstrer, Hollydale, Keston, Kent.

Ireland.
Rosert Coupar, Forester, Ashford, Cong, County Galway.

~“I

CHAIRMAN’s ADDRESS.

The President then delivered the Annual Address,! in which he
reviewed the work done by the Society during the past year,
particularly in regard to the Endowment of the Chair of Forestry
in the University of Edinburgh. He also spoke at some length
upon the development of the scheme he promulgated at the
Annual Meeting last year, as to the establishment of a Course
of Instruction, whereby practical foresters attending the classes
would find regular employment during the curriculum, either in
the Royal Botanic Garden, or, through the courtesy of the
owners, in the nurseries in or about Edinburgh. He had great
pleasure in stating that the scheme was now an assured fact, and
looked forward with hopefulness to the commencement of its work
at the beginning of the Winter Session.

Mr Jonun MerTHVEN said,—I am sure you will all agree with me
in according to Professor Bayley Balfour a hearty vote of thanks for
his interesting address. I can, I think, assure him of the hearty
co-operation of my brethren in the nursery trade in carrying out
the admirable scheme which he has explained to us this evening.
The scheme is in my opinion well adapted to enable young
foresters to attain a knowledge of the scientific side of their
profession ; and, unless they were so equipped, they could hardly be
said to be well qualified for the responsible positions which many of
them would be called upon to fill in connection with the estates of
this country. At the present moment the trained young forester
was a very scarce article. Many of you must have noticed, during
the past two or three years, the number of advertisements which
had appeared for young foresters. One reason for that was the
depopulation of the rural districts. Instead of Edinburgh getting
men from the country, we have to send a considerable number of
men from Edinburgh to the country—men who really had little
or no training in wielding the axe and the hedge-bill. I do not
see why young gardeners should not be taught something of
forestry, and young foresters something of gardening. They are
closely related professions; and to me it is one of the recom-
mendations of Professor Balfour’s scheme, that the gardener and
the forester will be trained and taught together.

Mr Dunn, in seconding the vote of thanks, said,—That to
Professor Bayley Balfour is due the credit of being the first to

1 A verbatim report of the Address appears in the Transactions,

8

formulate a practical scheme for educating young working foresters
as well as gardeners, in the science of their profession. It has been
talked of for a long time ; now we rejoice that it is on the eve of
accomplishment. We are all pleased to hear that Mr Methven
and the other gentlemen in the nursery trade mean to give their
support to Professor Bayley Balfour to make this a really workable
and efficient scheme.

Professor BAYLEY BALFour in reply, said,—I thank you very
much for this expression of confidence. I shall ask the Society
to help me to circulate further information regarding the scheme
as soon as the details are definitely arranged. I should like
to say how pleased I am to have confirmation, of what I knew
would be the case, that the nurserymen of Edinburgh mean to
co-operate in promoting this scheme. With their co-operation, I
am sure we shall be able to carry it out to a successful issue. In
drawing up this scheme, I have taken the same view that I think
most of you take—that the education of the forester and the
gardener is fundamentally the same. They are both dealing
with the same class of objects, and the cultivation of the one is
practically, in so far as the scientific principles are concerned, the
cultivation of the other. It is only when you come to the higher
branches of culture that the two diverge. It will do both a great
amount of good to know something of the work of the other.

THe CHAIR OF FORESTRY.

Dr SomerviLLtE—At this late hour I will not detain you
by a long statement on this subject. As a matter of fact, very
little indeed is necessary. Professor Bayley Balfour has laid
before us a very complete scheme for the training of working
foresters. We can leave that scheme with confidence in his hands.
I would only impress this upon him as very desirable, that the
authorities at the Botanic Garden should avoid giving a certificate
to any man who has passed through the course, but who is not
a thoroughly practical forester. I do not know how Professor
Balfour can best keep out those men who have not a knowledge
of practical forestry, but I have no doubt he will find some safe
way to overcome this difficulty. The teaching which has already
been given has even now borne good fruit. They would have seen
with pleasure that one of the students who had taken the
University Course of Forestry Lectures—Mr A. C. Forbes—had
suddenly sprung into the very front rank, having just been

4

appointed head forester on the extensive English and Irish
estates of the Marquis of Lansdowne. I think that is an example
which may well stimulate other young men to greater efforts in
their scientific studies. In regard to the Endowment Fund for a
Chair of Forestry in the University, this Society has continued its
exertions to some purpose. It has brought the subject before the
University Commission, and the Commission has given it a very
favourable hearing. Forestry has now found a place among the
subjects of study for the Bachelor of Science degree, It is most
desirable that any one who takes the B.Sc. degree in Agriculture
should have a competent knowledge of Forestry, which is surely
a most important department of Rural Economy. I notice in a
document issued by the Commission, that there is a specific
recommendation that a Chair of Forestry should be established
in the University of Edinburgh. Now, we are to have in the
Botanic Garden the practical teaching of working foresters; but
it is also right that we should have the higher teaching in the
University of Edinburgh—teaching that will be more fitted for
proprietors, and factors, and lawyers, as also for the young men
who have passed through the course of study in the Garden, and
who may desire to go on to the University. I cannot conceive of a
better way for a proprietor to spend a little of bis money than
in setting apart for the staff on his estate one scholarship, or bursary,
which would enable a deserving young man, who had passed
through the Course at the Garden, to crown his training, as it
were, by taking a year or more at the University. In various
other ways a Chair of Forestry in the University is really a most
important thing; and the response which has been made to the
application for funds, I consider extremely satisfactory. We have
here a list of subscriptions amounting to close on £2000.
Now we are aiming at raising £5000; because, counting on the
encouragement that Government has already given us, we have
every reason to expect that when we raise £5000, Government
will add £5000 more. What we still want, therefore, is £2500
or £3000, and surely we may safely count on the patriotism of
Scotsmen to raise that sum. It has been suggested that the
list of subscriptions should appear in the public prints, accom-
panied by a statement of the objects which the Society aimed at.
I think we have cause for thankfulness that we have every prospect
of an early and satisfactory termination to our exertions.

The Hon. Mr Wauprecrave-Lesuiz thought that without much

10

difficulty they might get some of the accumulated funds of the
Highland and Agricultural Society. He thought it was quite
within the scope of that Society to make such a grant for the
endowment of the Chair of Forestry.

Professor BayLtey Batrour said he was sure they would all
be glad if they could get hold of some of the accumulated funds
Mr Leslie had mentioned; and he trusted Mr Leslie would use
his influence with the Highland Society to get it to make a
liberal grant.

THe TREASURER’S REPORT.

The TREASURER stated that there was a balance brought forward
from last account of £32, 15s. 9d., and that the income for the
year 1891, including £98, 3s. 6d. of Annual Subscriptions,
amounted to £131, 16s.

These two sums, together with an overdraft from Bank, met the
expenditure on Printing, Stationery, Prizes, Office Rent, Salary,
Postages, etc., which amounted to £187, 14s. 2d.

The nett funds of the Society amounted to £101, 2s., being the
amount at credit of deposit account with National Bank of Scotland,
after giving effect to the balance of operations on current account,
and adding the cash in hand.

The Council regretted that they had to show a deficit on the
business of the year of £55, 18s. 2d., which was, however, to be
accounted for wholly by the non-payment of Subscriptions, no less
a sum than £58, 16s. 6d. of arrears having had to be written off as
irrecoverable.

With the severe purging the roll had thus received, and the
large accession this year of new members, it was to be hoped that
no deficit would appear in future years.

Mr James Cook, Arniston, Gorebridge, moved the adoption of
the Report, which was agreed to.

Tue Prize Essays AND AWARDS.

Mr Anprew Stater, Overseer, Haystoun, Peebles, Convener
of the Judges, then read their Report on the Essays, and the
following Awards were made in accordance therewith,—the
sealed envelope accompanying the Essay being opened by the
Secretary, and the author’s name announced to the meeting.

ll

Report by the Judges on the Essays, etc., sent to the Royal Scottish
Arboricultural Society for Competition in 1892.

The Essays and Reports submitted to us for adjudication number
thirteen, and although there are none of outstanding merit, they
may, on the whole, be considered of an average character.

We would impress upon writers the necessity of basing, as far as
possible, whatever they advance on experience and reliable data, so
that the papers may be of real practical value, and a trustworthy
source for reference.

It would also be desirable, when writing these papers, that the
authors should endeavour to compress their ideas into as little space
as possible. They would thus save themselves and the editor
a considerable amount of trouble, and the judges would doubtless
read them with greater favour.

Crass I.
The first paper on the list is—
I. On the Preparation of Wood Specimens for Exhibition.

By Georce Cape, Langley House, Langley Avenue,
Surbiton, Surrey.

It is one of considerable interest and merit, and although the
author has diverged somewhat from his subject, we consider
the foreign matter he has introduced of greater value than that
on which it is supposed to treat. We recommend to the author
the Award of the No. 1 Sitver Mepat.

IT. On. the Present State and Future Prospects of Arbori-
culture in the County of Perth. By ALrxANDER
PITCAITHLEY, Forester, Sudbourne Hall, Wickham
Market, Suffolk.

Owing to the extent and varied character of the woodlands of
Perthshire, no better field could well be placed before a writer to
obtain material for forming an essay of an interesting and instructive
character. The writer has failed to take advantage of this, and we
consider that he has not done anything like justice to the subject.
We therefore recommend a No. 2 Sirver MEDAL.

III. On Burnham Beeches and fifty of the most remarkable
of its Beech Trees. By A. C. Forses, Bowood,
Calne, Wilts.

This paper is accompanied by photographs of a dozen of
the most picturesque specimens of these trees, and the. reporter

12

gives a number of measurements, and appears to deal pretty
fully with the subject. Although it is no fault of the writer of
this report, we consider that such papers are of little practical
value to the members of this Society, and that the subject of
“Old or Remarkable Trees” should be deleted from the
Syllabus. A No, 2 Sttver Mepat is recommended.

IV. On the use of Electric Power in the Forest. By
A. T. Witttamson, 7 Kew Terrace, Edinburgh.

The author deals with a power that may at some future period
be of practical use to the forester. In the meantime we con-
sider that, until its utility in the forest has been fully exemplified,
such a paper is premature, and we can only Commend it.

V. On the Island of Arran as a Field for Planting. By
W. A. Mackenzig, Strabane, Brodick.

A well-written and descriptive essay on the Arboricuitural
features of the island. It shows their present condition, and what
their future might be were the author’s suggestions carried out.
A No. 1 Sirver MepAt is recommended.

VI. On Replanting Open Spaces in Woods. By W. A.
MAcKENZzIE£, Strabane, Brodick.
So far as it goes, this is a fairly practical and useful report,
and we recommend a No. 2 SitvErR MEDAL.

VIL. On the Afforestation of Large Areas in the Highlands
and Islands of Scotland. By W. A. Mackenziz,
Strabane, Brodick.

This essay, although of a somewhat theoretical character, is of
considerable merit, and we consider the writer entitled to the
Mepat offered. (Medal presented by William M. Welsh, Esq.,
of Messrs Dicksons & Co., 1 Waterloo Place, Edinburgh. )

VIIL. On the Advantage of Forming Belts of Plantations on
Hill Pasture. By A. Simpson, Assistant Forester,
Dunrobin, Golspie.

To do justice to this subject, one requires, among other matters,
to have a thorough knowledge of soils and the habits of forest
trees, and also of those of Live Stock. We cannot help believing
that the writer is deficient in some of these, and that his figures
are to a certain extent fanciful. He has, however, dealt with the
subject in a fairly practical way, and we consider that the merits of
the essay will be met by the award of a No. 2 Sirver MEDAL.

13

TX. On our Timber Supplies from Abroad. By A. T.
Wiuiamson, 7 Kew Terrace, Edinburgh.

This subject has been treated by the writer in an interesting
and intelligent manner, and if his figures are correct, we consider
it a most useful paper. We recommend the award of a No. 1
Srttver MepDAL.

X. An Invention for drawing together Broken Wires in
Fences. By Anruony Simpson, Assistant Forester,
Dunrobin, Golspie.

The reporter claims to be the sole inventor of this instrument.
While we have no reason to doubt this statement, other machines
of a somewhat similar nature have been in use for a considerable
time. To the inventor a Bronzz MEDAL is recommended.

Crass II.

I. On the Renovation of Overgrown Shrubberies, By RosBert
W. Mitnz, Assistant Forester, Lynedoch, Perthshire.

This essay is spoilt by its inordinate length, and the indis-
criminate catalogue of plants it contains, many of which are unfit
for shrubberies in this country. The writer seems to have a good
knowledge of the names of plants, but little experience as to where
or how they should be allocated. He is deserving of encourage-
ment, but we regret that we can only recommend a Bronze MEDAL

II. On the Management of a Home Nursery. By Joun
Scrimceour, Assistant Forester, Lynedoch, Perth.

This paper, for its class, is practical and well put together, and
we recommend the award of the No. 2 Sirver MEDAL,

III. On the Formation and Management of Live Fences. By
A. Simpson, Assistant Forester, Dunrobin, Golspie.

The writer of this paper has dealt in a simple way with his
subject, and no exception can be taken to the details he gives,
provided they are adapted to local circumstances, A Bronze
MEDAL is recommended.

Epinseurau, August 5, 1892.

Mr Dunn, Dalkeith, moved a vote of thanks to the Judges,
which was heartily accorded.

14

PRESENTATIONS TO THE Society’s LIBRARY AND MuSsEuM.

l. Transactions of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society,
part 2, 1890.
Transactions of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society,
part 1, 1891.
3. Bulletin from the Department of Agriculture, Victoria,
December 1890.
4. Annual Report of the Secretary for Agriculture, Nova Scotia,
1891.
5. Annual Report of the Agricultural Research Association,
1891.
6. Transactions of the Botanical Society, Edinburgh, 1891.
7. A Collection of Wood Specimens from the Forests of Ceylon,
by Mr John Alexander, Forest Department, Ceylon.

bo

ARRANGEMENTS FOR Excursion IN 1893.

Mr Dunn, Dalkeith, said a number of places had been mentioned
to the Council for the Excursion of 1893. It had been suggested,
for example, that the Excursion should be to the New Forest,
Hants, and that Her Majesty might be asked graciously to grant
them permission to inspect Windsor Forest. That at present was
a very popular idea. It had also been mooted that they might
pay a visit to Ireland; and there were yet many parts of Scotland
to explore—in Lanarkshire, Ayrshire, Stirlingshire, Aberdeenshire,
and Strathspey. He asked a remit, as usual, to the Council to
make the arrangements. After a short discussion the suggestions
were approved, and the remit agreed to.

A hearty vote of thanks to the President for occupying the
chair brought the meeting to a close.

In Councit.

Members are invited to read short practical papers on any
subject connected with Forestry at the Annual General Meeting.
Those who intend to do so are requested to intimate, in writing,
the Title of their subject to the Secretary, on or before the 10th of
June 1893; stating the time they may require for reading the

pope.

15
The following subjects are offered for competition im L893¢—

[The Judges are empowered to fix the value of the Prizes to be
awarded according to the respective merits of the Essays.

All Essays and Reports intended for Competition must be lodged
with the Secretary not later than 10th June 1893, and all Collections
of Cones, Seeds, and Rustic Work, not less than three days before the
Annual Meeting. Hach Essay, Report, Collection, or Article must
bear a Morro, and be accompanied by a sealed envelope bearing
outside the sAME Morto, and the Class to which the Competitor
belongs, and containing inside, a CARD with the NAME and ADDRESS
of the Competitor.

Judges cannot compete during their term of office.

Successful Competitors may either have the medals or their con-
verted values, which are as follows :—Gold, £5; No. 1 Silver Medal,
£3; No. 2 Silver, £2; Bronze, 10s. |

Crass I.—For Oren ComMPETITION.

I. For an approved Report showing the Financial Results of
the Cultivation of Woods and Plantations. (/%ve Guineas offered
by the President of the Society, Isaac Bayley Balfour, M.D., D.Sc.,
Professor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh. )

It is not necessary that the names of the estates on which the woods
grow should be published, but the reporter must give the annual
value of the land previous to planting; statistics of the cost of
forming the plantations, including draining and fencing ; the expenses

of management, the income derived, and the present value of the
Woods.

II. For an approved Report detailing the methods employed
to bring about the Natural Regeneration of a Wood, and the
subsequent Treatment as regards Artificial Assistance, should
such have been rendered necessary owing to the Natural Sowing
having been irregular, insufficient, or too dense. (live Guineas
offered by Alexander Mackenzie, Esq., Superintendent, Epping
Forest, Essex.)

The author must cite some particular case, and give the results of a

systematic attempt at natural regeneration, bearing in mind the

fact that a patchy imperfect restocking cannot be regarded as
satisfactory or successful.

16

IV. For an approved Essay on Pruning of Trees, alike from a
Sylvicultural and an Arboricultural point of view ; describing in
detail the principles that should guide the practice, the methods
to be followed in the practice, the effects produced, and the
results to be aimed at. (/ive Guineas offered by the President
of the Society, Isaac Bayley Balfour, M.D., D.Sc., Professor of
Botany, Edinburgh University.)

Yote.—Both Coniferous and Dicotyledonous trees must be dealt with in
the Essay, but the pruning of fruit trees is excluded.

VY. For an approved Essay on the best methods of Pruning
Avenue and Park Trees, keeping in view the production of timber
and the landscape effect ; also on the best methods for renovating
old Park Trees. (Szlver Medal offered by Wm. M. Welsh, Esq.,
of Messrs Dicksons & Co., 1 Waterloo Place, Edinburgh.)

VI. For an approved Essay on the advantages of forming
Belts of Plantations on Hill Pasture Land. (Three Guineas or
Medal offered by John Methven, Esq., Leith Walk Nurseries,
Edinburgh.)

The author to give details of the best method of laying out the plantations,
their proper width, the best system of draining and fencing, and the
most suitable varieties of trees to be grown.

VII. For an approved Report on the Newer Conifer growing
in any County in Scotland. (A Medal.)

The Report to give the age, height, and girth of stem at 5 feet up, of the
best trees of each species; the diameter of spread of branches of
ornamental specimens ; the altitude, aspect, and exposure, and the
nature of the soil and subsoil where they grow. Details should be
given of any special merit or feature displayed in their habit and
rate of growth, and of their qualities and uses for economic or
ornamental purposes,

VIII. For an approved Essay on the Valuation of Woods
or Plantations for the purpose of Transfer. (A Medal.)
The writer to describe the method (a) of valuing matured woods,
(b) middle-aged woods, (c) park trees and others that may be,
in addition to their value as timber, considered as ornamental,
(d) young woods, and (e) coppice.

1X. For an approved Report on the Plantations of which the
competitor is Forester. Reporter to state the extent of planta-
tions, the kinds of timber grown, soil, situation, age, management,
etc. This is a standing subject. (A Medal.)

17

X. For an approved Report on the Present State and Future
Prospects of Arboriculture in the County of Fife. (A Medal.)

XI. For an approved Report on the Present State and Future
Prospects of Arboriculture in the County of Inverness, (A
Medal.)

Vote. —The Council desire it to be understood with reference to subjects
VI. and VIL., that the Counties will be changed annually,

XII. On the best Method of Procedure in growing a
continuous Crop of Timber in Woods or Plantations. (4 Medal.)

The E-say should deal with the different kinds of Woods, the ages,
and proportion per acre of the trees at different stages, and whether
these have been raised by natural or artificial means. Reference
may be made to any system practised abroid which might prove
applicable in this country.

XIII. For an approved Essay on the best method of Rearing
Plantations with the view of obtaining timber of a clean growth,
fine quality, and high commercial value. (A J/edal.)

The author must keep in mind the necessity of raising timber to success-
fully compete with the best quality of that imported from abroad.

XIV. For an approved Essay on the Recropping of Land with
trees of the same Species. (A Medal.)

Special reference must be made to the growing of Larch after Larch, and
the reporter should cite examples, describe their altitude and
exposure, as well as the character of the soil, and also the time that
elapsed after clearing before replanting took place,

XV. For an approved Essay on the best method of Afforesting
Bog Land, and the most suitable varieties of Trees with which
to plant the same. (A Medal.)

XVI. For an approved Essay on the best system of managing
Coppice. (A Medal.)

XVII. For an approved Essay on the Thinning of Woods, viz.—
Close versus Wide Thinning ; the advantage of the one over the
other as regards growth and quality of timber. (A Medal.)

XVIII. For the best Collection of the Wood Sections of British
grown Trees and Shrubs, properly mounted for the Microscopical
examination of the cells, medullary rays, etc. The Sections must
be prepared and mounted by the competitor. (A Medal.)

18

XIX. For an approved Essay on the best method of Prevent-
ing the Inroads of the Pine Saw-fly—Lophyrus pini of Curtis.
(A Medal.)

XX. For an approved Report on the most advantageous
methods, not generally practised in this country, of Transporting
Timber. (A Medal.)

The reporter specially to describe any means, other than by horse-power,
of moving felled timber from the interior of woods to their margins,
or to roads.

XXI. For an approved Essay on any Disease incidental to
Forest Trees. A standing subject. (A Medal.)

XXII. For an approved Report from personal observation on
the Management of Forests in any other country than Britain.
(A Medal.)

Special reference to be made to appliances, modes of culture, and treat-
ment nut generally practised in this country.

XXIII. For an approved Essay on the best methods of utilising
Small-wood in the manufacture of Fancy-wood articles, Turnery,
Wood Wool, ete. (A Medal.)

XXIV. For an approved Essay or Report on any other subject
connected with Arboriculture. (A Medal.)

XXV. For an instrument or method for expeditiously obtain-
ing the diameter of trees at a given height, or for any other useful
invention or marked improvement on any of the implements
used in Forestry. Models or implements to be accompanied by
a report, (A Medal.)

19

Cuass [J.—For Assistant FORESTERS ONLY.

J. For an approved Essay on the Rearing of Natural and
Artificial Undercover for Game, and the best methods of encourag-
ing and regulating their growth. (A Medal.)

II. For an approved Report, based on personal observation,
on the Management of a Home Nursery. (A Medal.)

III. For an approved Essay on the best size of Plants, and
Method of Planting, to produce the best results in different Soils
and Situations, (A Medal.)

IV. For an approved Essay on the best methods of Forming
and Maintaining Fences. (A Medal.)

The writer to give details of the rearing and management of Live and
Dead Fences, with the cost, and the comparative value of each,
taking into consideration economy, efficiency, and durability.

V. For an approved Essay on the Peeling and Harvesting
of different kinds of British Bark used in Tanning. (A Medal.)

VI. For an approved Essay on the best method of protecting
Trees from injury by Ground Game. (A Medal.)

VII. For an approved Essay on Pruning of Forest Trees.
(A Medal.)

VIII. For an approved Essay or Report on any other subject
connected with Arboriculture. (A Medal.)

IX. For the best and approved Model in Rustic, or
Ornamental Woodwork, of any subject designed and executed
by the competitor. Model not to exceed six feet in length.
(A Medal.)

The Council invite the attention of young Foresters to the fore-
going subjects, as they are desirous to encourage their efforts.
VOL, XIII, PART III. 2F

ILLUSTRATIONS FUND.

The Council beg to direct special attention to this Fund, the
object of which is to obtain contributions to defray the expense
of illustrating the Society’s 7’ransactions.

The following donations have been received from time to
time :—

Dr Cleghorn of Stravithie, 5 { ie boalOged
Do., additional, , : , 2; SOG)
Do., do. (1890), . J sone

Mr D. F. Mackenzie, Morton Hall, . ; PIM

Do., additional (1890), O10) 0

Mr Malcolm Dunn, Dalkeith, . VALS

Do., additional (1890), 1) SO
Sir Dietrich Brandis (1891), 5b

THE Society’s ALBUM.

The Council wish it to be known that the Society has an
Album for the Photographs of Members, and the Secretary will
be glad to receive contributions,

W. J. MOFFAT,
Secretary and Treasurer.

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